(The 1^, i-1. i-lill 'dinwn} JCnrtli (£;irn!in;i '^tnir (fnllcgc b45 (^<-G-^.V.\o. AP 5'/o-r4 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/ruralarchitecturOOshaw RURAL ARCHITECTURE: CONSISTING OP CLASSIC DWELLINGS, Jll0rtc, Jonic, (Eartntl)ian anir ®otl)ic, AND DETAILS CONNECTED WITH EACH OF THE ORDERS ; EMBRACING PLANS. ELEVATIONS PARALLEL AND PERSPECTIVE, SPECIFICATIONS, ESTIMATES, FRAMING, ETC. FOR PRIVATE HOUSES AND CHURCHES. DESIGNED FOR THE ilnitc^ States of America. By EDWARD SHAW, Architect. AUTHOR OF CIVIL AKCHI TE CTURE, OPERATIVE MASONRY, ETC. BOSTON: JAMES B. DOW, PUBLISHER. 1843. Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1843, BY EDWARD SHAW, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. WM. A. HALL & 00., PRINTERS, 12 WATER STREET. PREFACE. It is not the design of the author of this little Treatise, to go profoundly or minutely into the consideration of Architecture, either as a science or an art. This, to a consid- erable extent, he has done in his larger work on Civil Architecture, of which the fourth and most complete edition was published in 1834 ; and to that work he would respect- fully refer those, who wish to go into the study of the mathematics of architecture, embracing in that term the doctrine of "lights and shadows," as well as to enter upon the scientific principles and practical details of carpentry, and to make themselves acquainted witli a variety of foliage, flowers, and other ornamental parts of buildings, ancient and modern. In the present work, he supposes his reader already acquainted, at least, with the elements of mathematics, and with the practical application of them to architecture, as well as with the principles of carpentry, joinery, and masoiu'y. And the object of the author in the present work is, chiefly, to lay before the reader, and especially the prac- tical architect, a variety of plans, elevations, &c., of edifices, principally dwelling-houses, and places of public worship, with such directions as to the more usual details and decorations, as his experience, as a practical builder, for more than thirty years, has proved useful to himself, and such as he, therefore, supposes may be so to others. If they are found to be so, by his fellow-laborers, in an art to which men, in a civilized state are indebted for most of the comforts, and for aU the elegancies in their own houses, or in those which they enter for the worship of the Most High, the main object of his labors will have been attained. E. SHAW. 51056 CONTENTS. PART I. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. PART II. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. The Egyptian Style, Grecian and Roman Architecture, The Tuscan Order, The Doric Order, The Ionic Order, The Roman, or Composite Order, The Corinthian Order, Persians and Caryatides, Pilasters, .....•••• Pedestals, ....••■••••••• Pediments, ......••••••• Gothic Architectiue, .......••••• The Decorated English Style, The Perpendicular Style, Architecture of America, PART III. THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES, AND OF BUILDINGS IN GENERAL. Paso 17 18 23 24 28 33 34 37 39 40 40 42 51 55 59 Doors, ....... Windows, Chimncy-Pieces, ..... Stairs, Grecian Doric, (Plates,) Grecian Ionic, (Plates,) Grecian Corinthian, (Plates,) Gothic, (Plates,) .... Groined Ardics and Vaulting, (Plates,) Church Architecture, (Plates,) . Glossary of Architectural Terms, 66 66 67 68 70 81 87 90 93 95 99 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. PART I. HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. At a very early period, as might be expected, architecture had made some progress ; for we are informed by holy writ, that Cain " builded a city, and called the name of the city after the name of his son, Enoch." * But we are wholly in the dark as to the perfection to whicli it had attained when that awful visitation of the Almighty, the universal deluge, obliterated almost every mark of previous habitation. The next mention of it is in the account of the building of the tower of Babel, which was stopped by the confusion of tongues. This was soon surrounded by other buildings, and walls of great magnitude ; and here, therefore, may we date the origin of postdiluvian architecture. Whatever celebrity, however, the wonders of Babylon attain- ed, among the ancients, no remains of them have come down to us ; and it is the massive edifices of Egypt, built, apparently, rather for eternity than time, which now excite our admiration as the most ancient, as well as stupendous structures existing upon earth. We must not, while under this epoch, omit to notice the remains, and, alas ! the only remains, of Indian and Mexican greatness. But for the splendid ruins of Delhi and Agra, and that most * Genesis iv. 17. Library if.. C, State Collesr^ 10 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. singular specimen in the island of Elephanta, we slioukl scarcely have known of tbe existence of civilization among the ancient Hindoos; and the aborigines of Mexico were regarded as little better than savages, before the lute discoveries of Mr. Bullock. The dates of these buildings are wholly unknown ; but from the general similarity they bear to those of Egypt, it is supposed they arc of equal antiquity. It may not be improper here to ob- serve, that the latter country is commonly considered to have been peopled by a colony from India. About the same general date may also be assigned to the architecture of the Hebrews, or, as more properly characterised, the Phoenician style, the greatest monument of which was the far-famed temple of Solomon. The description of this, in the sacred text, will be found, on an accurate consideration, to bear great resemblance to that of many of the Egyptian temples. From the Egyptians, the art, such as it was, was learn- ed by the Greeks; but under the protection of that extraordinary people it reached a perfection unheard of before, and, in its peculiar style, unequalled since. The earliest edifices of Greece, however, were by no means remark- able for beauty; the temples, in the time of Homer, being little better than rude huts, sheltered, if sheltered at all, by branches of laurel and other trees. On the decline of Greece, and its conquest by the Romans, the art appears to have been transferred to the conquerors; but among that hardy and war- like race, it made little progress before the age of Augustus. Under the protection of that munificent monarch, it rapidly attained to almost as great perfection as in the favored country of the arts; and the 'eternal cily '' owes much of its present estimation to the noble structures erected by him and his successors. With Rome, however, the art decayed, and was overwhelmed in the general confusion and oblivion of learning, art, and science. The attention of the Saxons in Europe, probably about the eighth century, was excited by the remains of edifices raised by the Romans during their residence in England. These, in their newly-erected churches, they aspired to imitate, but their workmen, ignorant of the principles wliich guided the HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. U arcliitects of those splendid ruins, produced only the general outlines of their patterns; and those clumsy forms continued to be practiced, with little altera- tion, till the end of the twelfth century. But now, as the tumult excited by the invasion subsided, and the genius of the nation improved, a taste for the fine arts began to show itself, and architecture assumed a different and novel aspect. Instead of tamely treading in the steps of their predecessors, the architects of those times devised a style as scientific as it was grand, and as beautiful as new. But we must not, while eulogizing those who have adorned their own country with such admirable structures, forget the merits of their contempo- raries on the continent. Of these, it seems to be generally acknowledged, that the French preceded them in point of time, and the Germans excelled in the size of their edifices ; yet no one on comparing, with an impartial eye, the several buildings, will hesitate to allow, that in purity of style, variety of design, and delicacy of execution, the English cathedral, and other churches, are not surpassed by those of any nation in Europe ; and it is a remarkable fact, that English architects and workmen were employed in many of the finest works on the continent. We must now turn our attention to Italy. It is worthy of notice, that the Gothic style never came to so great perfection in this country as in the neighboring nations. Perhaps this was owing to the number of Roman buildings remaining amongst them, and the liberal use they made of their fragments, which is shown even in the finest specimen they possess. The Milan cathedral is probably the purest Gothic building in all Italy. But this is not built of fragments of ancient Roman buildings. It was built chiefly by Bonaparte, or under his auspices, and is of white marble. It is not, there- fore, surprising that the Italians should be the first to reject the style altogether. Indeed, there were instances, in the darkest times, of recur- rence to the purest models of antiquity,* but these met not the public taste, •It should be remembered that we here speak of Italian Gothic. 12 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. and were bom only lo die. 'It is not," observes IMr. Bromley, "the casual and solitary cflbrt of individuals in a dark age, wliicli can be considered as renovating the decayed principles of pure science. Some minds are naturally stronger and more intent on improvement than others, and where such happen, in some degree, to break througli the general obscu- rity, they only ••^how that the genuine light of refinement is not quite extinct, thougli tiie age will be little or notliing the better for those fiiint glimpses which become the portion of one or two, and neither attained nor sought by others." To return to our subject. The Church of the Apostles, at Florence, which was built by Charlemagne in A. D. 805, appears to have been the first cfTort to revive the forgotten architecture of ancient times, and possessed so nuich merit, that Bruneleschi, six hundred years afterwards, disdained not to accept it as a lesson in one of his own edifices. Two hundred years passed away, and the Church of St. Miniate, in the same illustrious city, momentarily re- called from its apparent ol)livion, this elegant style. The same period again elapsed, and the genius of Cimabue arose to di.spel the mists whic!) had so long enveloped the arts of his country. His attention, though principally devoted lo painting, was, like that of most of the great artists of iiis time, occasionally turned to the sister arts; and it was partly by his instructions that Aruolphi di Lapo became the wonder of the age. The father of this eminent architect, James, was a German by birth, but resided at Florence) where he built tlie convent of St. Francis, and received the surname of I.,apo, from the citizen.s, for his skill in architecture. The son, Arnolpho, built the catlicdral of St. Maria del Fiore, the largest church in Christendom, next to St. Peters. Althougii this was principally in the Tedeschi styk-, (tlic apjicl- lation given by the Italians to tlie debased (iothic of their country,) yet so uncommon was the skill displayed in its erection, that the dome being left unfinished by the death of the architect, a century ami a half thipsed before another could be found to raise it. This was Bruneleschi, wlu) iliotl in the HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. 13 year 1444, and may be considered as the reviver of the dassical architecture. His principal work was the Palazzo Pitti, in his native city. It might have been exjDected that Rome, which possessed so many fine specimens, would have been the first to show to the world her sense of their value by encouraging the imitation of tliem ; but it was not till the middle of the fifteenth century that Pope Nicholas V. manifested the first symptoms of reviving taste, by the encouragement of Leone Baptista Albcrti, (the earliest modern writer on architecture,) and Bernardo Rossilini. These, however, were principally employed in repairs, and the erection of fountains; and to Bramante must we concede the honor of being the first who materially adorned this city by his designs. With the then 2)ope, the memorable Julius II., he was much in favor, and it is supposed that it is in a considerable degree owning to this architect, that that munificent pontiff formed the resolu- tion of rebuilding tlie cathedral of St. Peter, in a style suited to the import- ance and magnificence of the see. In the lifetime of Bramante, however, little was done of this stupendous work ; for such was the conception of the architect's colossal imagination, that, although in its present state its section is about double that of St. Paul's, at London, it was reduced by his succes- sor, Balthazar Peruzzi, and more considerably by the next who took it in hand, Antonio de San Gallo. These architects, however, while they exerted their talents on paper, proceeded little with the work, and it was left for the sublime genius of Michael Angelo permanently to fix the design of this master- piece of art, and prince of Christian churches. The edifice, as we now see it, is principally his, except the front, which is considered inferior to the other parts. This work completed, the example thus set by its principal cities was quickly followed in all parts of Italy, which thus gave employ- ment to the talents of Pirro Sigorio, Vignola, Domenico, Fontana, Michael San Michael, Falconetti, Serlio, Barbaro, Scamozzi, and Palladio. The pure taste which characterised most of these architects, however, was not of long duration. The celebrated artist, Bernini, was one of the first 14 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. wlio violated their precepts. He was educated at Kome as an architect and sculptor, and it is related of him, that, returning to his native city late in life, with a fortune, the product of his talents, he was much struck with some of his early works of the school of Michael Angelo and Palladio. He could not but contrast their elegance with the alTected graces of the style he had given into; "but," exclaimed he, "had I continued in this manner, I should not have been what I am now." Contemporary with Bernini was Borromini, who was yet more depraved, and Avas so jealous of the former's fame, that he stabbed himself. After the.se, Italy cannot boast of any great architects. We must now return to England, as more interesting in its inhabitants, and, indeed, of more importance in our history, than France, or the other nations of Europe. From the time of Edward III., there was a visible decline in the style of English architecture, which lost itself in a profusion of ornaments ; more attention being paid to the details, than to the general form of the buildings. By the time of Henry VIII., this increased to a great extent, and the chapel erected by his father at Westminster, was one of the last buildings which showed any taste in the style. This depraved manner naturally excited disgust in the minds of those persons who had seen the purer style then prevailing in Italy, which, as might be expected, they endeavored to introduce. The nation, however, had been too long accustomed to the Gothic, readily to surrender it, and during the reigns of Elizabeth and James, the mixture of, or compromise between these styles, produced a most barbarous result. But this could not last long; the prejudices of the people, in tiu' course of time, gave way, and Italian architecture, in all its purity, was first executed in this country by Inigo Jones. This father of modern English architecture was born about 1572, and died in 1652. At the ex- pense either of the Earl of Pembroke, or the Earl of Arundel, he travelled into Italy, and from the sight of the elegant buildings in that country, both of ancient and modern erection, he imbibed a taste for architecture, which HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. 15 he put in practice, with great success, on liis return to England. His first work, in that country, was the interior of the church of St. Catherine Cree, in London, and his most considerable design, the projected palace of White- hall, the part of which that is executed, the banqueting-house, being barely one fiftieth part of that magnificent idea. After the death of Jones, no con- siderable architect appeared, till the talents of Sir Christopher Wren (before that time devoted to philosophy and general learning) were called to the aid of the languishing art. He was born in the year 1632, and died at the age of ninety-one, in 1723, after being, in his eighty-sixth year, barbarously dismissed from the office of surveyor-general, which he had held with unpar- alleled ability fifty-one years. When that temporalily disastrous, yet perma- nently useful event, the fire of London, occurred, this great man was almost solely employed in rebuilding the numerous public edifices, destroyed by the conflagration, and chiefly the cathedral of St. Paul, his execution of which arduous task, whatever be the objections raised against parts of it, by the taste of some, and the jealousy of others, remains a lasting monument of his genius in decorative, and unexampled skill in constructive architecture. Before the death of Wren, appeared Sir John Vanbrugh, who was em- ployed by the nation to erect that monument of national gratitude, Blenheim House. Both the architect, and this, his greatest work, were alternately neglected and censured, till Sir Joshua Reynolds vindicated his fame in his lectures to the royal academy. Next in order were Hawksmoor, the pupil of Wren, Lord Burlington, Kent, and Gibbs, of the last of whom, Mr. Mitford observes, that, allowing his talents to be small, how much do we owe to Lord Burlington, that by his precepts such a man was enabled to build one of the finest modern works, St. Martin's Church in the Fields. To Lord Burlington, indeed, it is probable we owe more than is generally acknowl- edged; for, besides the patronage he afforded to the artists of his time, and the assistance he gave them from his own genius, it is, perhaps, owing to his example, that a general feeling of attachment to the arts was conceived by IQ RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the young men of rank and fortune in England. Tlie Turkish government, which, in its prosperity, ruled with a rod of iron the once fertile plains of Greece, began now, in its decline, to rela.K a little of its ancient rigor, and these gentlemen were thus enabled to extend their travels (which before were bounded by the Arciiipelago) into this important country. Some of them formed, at their return, (he Dikttanti Society, for the encouragement of researches into those (to modern times) new regions. Tiiese proceedings could not but excite great interest and curiosity in the public mind, which were fully gratified, after some years, by Mr. Stuart ; who, during a long residence at Athens, made accurate drawings of most of the ancient build- ings then existing. These were published in three volumes, folio, to which a fourth was afterwards added by Mr. Revely. The effect of these importa- tions may be seen in every street in London. The revival of the neglected architecture of the middle ages, constitutes a new era in our history. Perhaps the first person who dared to recommend, by writing and example, a style so long in disrepute, was the celebrated Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford, who built the well-known villa of Strawberry Hill, to testify his fondness for it. Tliis was succeeded by Lee Priory, by Mr. Wyatt, who quickly outstripped all the professors of his day, both in this style and the Koman. His greatest work, in Gothic architec- ture, was Fonthill Abbey, the merits of which l)uilding, when we consider that the architect had no model to work from, (there being not another house of magnitude, in this style, in the whole kingdom,) are truly extraordi- nary; the purest taste reigns throughout the whole of this splendid struc- ture, and the architect has bequeathed to succeeding professors a legacy of incalculable value. Having now brought our sketch down to the present time, we shall pro- ceed to the second part of our design. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT STYLES. PART II. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. With Assyrian architecture, as was before observed, we are acquainted only by vague and uncertain report; we will, therefore, commence by the description of Did we not know it to be a fact, we have every reason to believe, that, in the early ages of the world, stability was the first consideration. That men by nature are in a state of great inequality, is a truth which no rational per- son would be inclined to controvert. Some are weak, and some strong ; and others have great powers of mind; to these, those incapable of defending themselves would naturally apply for protection against their more powerful neighbors, and hence the origin of civilized society. But it is enough for our present purpose, that, from this combination, proceeded the subject of our inquiry. Under these hands, as was before observed, massive strength would be more attended to, than form or adornment. But we do not mean to insinuate, that the buildings, now to be considered, are exactly of this class ; mighty and ponderous they are, but (excepting the pyramids, which did not admit of it) not destitute of decoration; and some may even be said to possess a degree of elegance. It may probably be expected, that in delineating the peculiarities of the architecture of Egypt, we should begin with the pyramids, as most readily presenting themselves to the generality of readers. Little description, how- 18 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. ever, will suffice, to give an idea of these stupendous inonuinents. The largest of them stands not far from the city of Cairo ; it is built on a rock ; its base is scjuaro, and its sides are equilateral triangles, excej)! that there is a platform at top of about sixteen feet square, which, comparatively, is so small, that it is said not to be discernible from below. The stones, of which it is composed, are of a prodigious size, the least of them thirty feet in length. These are disposed so as to present a series of steps on the exterior. But though we have thus thought fit to give a brief descrip- tion of these mysterious and mighty monuments, it is not the pyramids that characterize the Egyptian style of architecture. Its distinguishing marks are to be found in the numerous te.mples dispersed through the country. As we know of no proportions attended to, in the construction of these edifices, and have no means whereby to judge of their respective dates but by their richness or simplicity, (qualities which, though they may be some general guides, are not alone sufficient data from Avhich to form a chronologi- cal classification of edifices.) we can have little more to say under this head, than to refer tlic reader, who may wi.sh to make himself acquainted with tills style, to the work of Denon, where he will find accurate delineations of the principal specimens. We cannot quit the subject, however, without remarking the great variety and beauty of the capitals, in the elegant forms of some of which, borrowed from the palm-tree and the lotus, is found a far more probable origin for the Corinthian capital of the Greeks and Ro- mans, than in the pleasing, yet probably fictitious story of Vitruvius. Grecian auti Uomau ^vcl)itcctiivc. The architecture of the Romans having been almost entirely borrowed from that of their masters in art, though subjects in dominion, the Greeks, we shall, for greater clearness and brevity, consider them together. The GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 19 various parts, of which both Greek and Roman orders are composed, (the distinguishing members excepted,) being nearly the same in all of them, we shall commence by a description of these. And first, the greater members, ■which all possess in common. On referring to plate 33, fig. 3, it will be seen, that we have marked letters, answering to dotted lines, proceeding from the order to the right hand. Of these, the upper division, a is the cornice, h the frieze, and c the archi- trave ; these form the horizontal part of the order, and are called the entab- lature; d is the capital, e the shaft, and/ the base; these together form the COLUMN, or upright, supporting part. The column is usually placed on a square tile, called the plinth. These, according to the variation of their parts, form what are called the orders of Greek and Roman architecture, which will be presently the subject of our consideration. The prototype of this arrangement, is supposed by Vitruvius, and a host of followers, to be the wooden hut, of which we find the following account in Sir William Chambers : " Having marked out the space to be occupied by the hut, they fixed in the ground several upright trunks of trees, &c., to form the sides, filling the intervals between them with branches closely interwoven, and spread over with clay. The sides thus completed, four beams were laid on the upright trunks, which being well fastened together at the angles of their junction, kept the sides firm, and likewise served to support the cover- ing or roof of the building, composed of smaller trees, placed horizontally, like joist, upon which were laid several beds of reeds, leaves, and earth or clay. " By degrees, other improvements took place, and means were found to make the fabric lasting, neat, and handsome, as well as convenient. The bark and other protuberances were taken from the trees that formed the sides; these trees were raised above the dirt and humidity on stones, were covered at the top with other stones, and firmly bound round at both ends with osiers or cords, to secure them from .splitting. The spaces between 20 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. llie joists were closed up with clay or wax, and the ends of thcni either smoothed or covered with boards. The difTerent beds of materials that com- posed the covering were cut straight at the caves, and distinguished from each otiier by dilTerent projections. The I'orm of the roof, too, was altered ; for, being on account of its flatness, unfit to throw off the rains, which some- times fell in great al)undaiice, it was raised in the middle on trees, disposed like rafters, after the form of a gable roof '■ This construction, simple as it appears, probably gave birth to most of the parts that now adorn our buildings; particularly, to the orders which may be considered as the basis of the whole decorative part of architecture; for when structures of wood were set aside, and men began to erect solid, stately edifices of stone, having nothing nearer to imitate, they naturally copied the parts which necessity introduced in the primitive hut, insomuch that the upright trees, with the stones and cordage at each end of them, were the origin of columns, bases, and capitals ; the beams and joists gave rise to architraves and friezes, with their triglyplis and metopes; and the gable roof was the origin of pediments; as the beds of materials forming the covering, and the rafters supporting them, were of cornices witii their corona, their nmtules, moilillions, and their dentils'?" Such is the account, which has been transmitted to us of the origin of these orders ; and it has sulficed for, and been unhesitatingly received by all, or the greater part of our forefathers ; but the restless scepticism of modern times has not spared even this venerable and harmless notion. It is alleged, that it is very improbable that stone should have been the immediate successor of wood, as a building material ; the working of this substance of itself, being no small acquirement, and not consistent with the rudeness of the times; the employment of brick most probably intervened, and this was actually used at the tower of Babel. That the Greeks derived their knowledge of this art from ICgypt, is generally allowed; but in the large hoUowctl crown uiouUliiig.s and flat roofs of the temples of that country, little resemblance is GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 21 found to this model. Another objection to this hypothesis will be found in the description of the Doric order, where it will be better introduced and understood, than in this place. The Roman ovolo and cavetto are never found in the Grecian architec- ture, nor the Greek echinus in that of the Romans ; the rest they possess in common. The Greek mouldings are chiefly distinguished from the Roman, by being composed of ellipses, and other conic sections, while the Roman are formed of segments of circles. The Greek echinus and cyma-reversa, are also, for the most part, quirked ; that is, the contour is returned under the fillet above, as is shown in the Grecian echinus. In some early specimens of the Doric order, a straight line is used instead of the curve, for the echinus, as in the capital of the portico of Philip, in the island of Delos. When the projection of these mouldings is required to be greater or less than usual, (which is sometimes the case from peculiarity of situations.) the best method of overcoming the difficulty is, to make them of segments of ellipses, by which means it is evident any required projection may be obtain- ed, and the shadows will be such as not readily to discover the defect. In places where the composition is unusually higher or lower than the eye, it is sometimes necessary to deviate from the customary manner of executing the mouldings, to make them appear of their proper forms. It is very rarely, however, that an expedient of this kind is necessary, and it should never be resorted to ; but when it is, the forms, when closely examined, are very un- pleasing. All the mouldings, except the fillet, admit of decoration ; but, even in the most enriched profile, it is proper to leave some uncarved, to prevent confu- sion, and give a due repose to the composition. It is a fundamental rule in the sculpture of mouldings, to cut the ornaments out of the contour, beyond which nothing should project, as this would inevitably alter its figure. The fillet may be used at all heights, and in most situations. The torus only in bases. The scotia below the eye, and between the fillets attached 22 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. to the torus. Tlie echinus only above the eye, and is fit for supports. The inverted cyina is also used as a supporting member. The cyma-rccta and cavetlo are only fit for crowning mouldings, fur which their forms are peculiarly adapted, being incapable of holding water, which must necessa- rily drop from their extreme points. Having thus presented the reader with the key to our future language, we proceed to the description of the orders. The orders of architecture are strictly three, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian ; and are found in the greatest perfection in Greece. But the Romans, determined to produce novelty at the expense of excellence, formed out of tlie first of these, two new orders, one of which they denominated the Tuscan, and the other, though very dissimilar to the ancient order of that name, they likewi.se called the Doric. The Ionic they altered less, but that, likewise, was decidedly for the worse, considering the orders for the tem- ples of Minerva Polias, and Ilyssus, as the standard of Grecian art. The Corinthian, they must be allowed to have improved, but formed a variation of it, frequently seen in the Roman buildings, particularly in the triumphal arches, which has been erected by the moderns into a fifth order, under the name of Roman, or Composite. The difference between this and the Corin- thian, however, is nuich less than between the Greek and Roman Doric. Before we give the orders in detail, it w ill be necessary to observe, that colunms are tapered in their shafts; that is, the circumference of (he shaft at the capital is less than it is at the base, thus making a frustum of a cone; but in most, or all of the ancient examples, the line, instead of being perfect- ly straight, is slightly curved. Sometimes the shaft is continued from the base, cylindrically, to about a (punier or third of its height, and then diminished rectilinearly to the top. This is called oilusis; and in all the ex- amples of antiquity, is so slight as to be scarcely perceptible. Vitruvius, having obscurely hinted at the practice, several of the modern Italian artists, intending to conform to his precept, but not perceiving the result in the orig- THE TUSCAN ORDEK. 23 inals, carried it to an absurd excess, and made the thickness greater at the middle than at the foot of the shaft. ^[)t ^U0can dIDrbcr. The Tuscan order, as an antique, exists only in the works of Vitruvius ; the description in which, being very obscure, has left a wide field for the in- genuity of modern arcliitects. Among these, Palladio composed two profiles, one from the description of the ancient master, and the other according to his own idea of a simplification of the Doric. That of Vignola, however, has been most generally approved and adopted. The base of this order consists of a simple torus, with its fillet ; it is, as are in general all the Roman orders, accompanied with a plinth. The pro- portions, from Sir William Chambers, are as follows: the column, fourteen-^ modules ; the entablature, three modules, fifteen minutes. Of the former, the base occupies one module; the shaft, including the astragal, which divides it from the capital, twelve modules, and the capital, one. Of the latter, the architrave, including the fillet, thirty-one minutes and a half; the frieze, the same; and the cornice, forty-two minutes, The intercolum- niations, in all the orders except the Doric, are the same, namely : the eustyle, which is most common and beautiful, four modules, twenty minutes ; the diastyle, six modules ; and areeostyle, seven modules. The Tuscan order admits of no ornaments, nor flutes in the columns; on the contrary, rustic cinctures are sometimes represented on the shaft of its column. But this practice, though occasionally used by good architects, is seldom compatible with good taste. Tills order may be employed in most cases where strength and simplicity are required, rather than magnificence ; such as prisons, market-places, arse- nals, and the inferior parts of large buildings. 24 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. iL\)c Done (Ovbcr. This order, of wiiicli numerous ancient examples exist, will, in conse- quence, furnish us with more materials for description tlian the preceding. We will commence with the story of its origin, as given by Yitruvius. " Dorus, son of Hellcn and the nymph Orseis, reigned over Achaia and Peloponnesus. He built a temple of this order, on a spot sacred to Juno, at Argos, an ancient city. Many temples, similar to it, were afterwards raised in other parts of Achaia, though at that time its proportions were not pre- cisely establislied." This account, as well as of those of the orders which we shall pre.sently examine, is very incredible, and is now generally rejected. From theory, however, we must now proceed to fact and description, and will commence with the Doric of the Greeks, referred to by Vitruvius, who, nevertheless, confounds tliis with what was connnonly executed at Rome in his time. The most perfect example of this order is the Parthenon, or Tem- ple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at Athens, erected by Ictinus, under the ad- ministration of Pericles, who lived B. C. 450. We shall therefore now give its proportions. The column, (including the capital,) ten module.^, twenty-seven minutes and one half; the whole entablature, three modules, twenty-seven minutes and three quarters; the capital, twenty-seven minutes and three quarters; the architrave, (with its fillet,) one module, twelve minutes and three quarters; the frieze, to the square member of the corona, one module, nineteen minutes; and tlie cornice, twenty-six minutes. Diameter of the column at the top, one module, sixteen minutes. Through the politeness of the Rev. John Pierpont, I Jiave received the fol- lowing note, which may be of consequence to the reader in ascertaining the magnitude of this edifice. Boston, June 10, 1843. My dear Sir : In compliance with your request, I here send you the dimensions of the different parts of the columns of that most cvquisite of all the specimens of the Doric architecture — the Parthenon — Library W. C, State Cor h; THE DORIC ORDER. 25 from my own careful measurement, in April, 1836. I give the dimensions, not in modules and minutes, but in Englisli feet and inches. Diameter of the column at base, 6 feet, 2 inches. Width of the flutings at base, HM " " " " at the top, 9^ " Thickness of abacus, 1 " 1^^ " Projection of the abacus beyond the echinus, f " From the bottom of the abacus to the upper annulet, measured on the slope of the echinus, 1 " If " The four annulets occupy 2J " Each annulet, -f^ From bottom of the lower annulet to the bottom of the capital, that is, to the groove into the upper part of the fluting, ^I " Height of whole capital, 2 " 9^ " Horizontal distance from the lower annulet, to a perpendicular dropped from the face of abacus, 8 " Angle formed by a perpendicular, and the upward line of the echinus, considered as a right line, 37^ degrees. Angle formed by the pitch of the roof, and a horizontal line, at the eaves, 13 " This angle, according to Col. Leake, is 15 J " I have some confidence, however, in my measurement ; for I measured the angle on two different days, once mechanically, and once mathematically, by proportionate numbers. The height of the columns of the Parthenon, according to Col. Leake, is ... . 34 feet. Height of the whole temple, 65 " Length of the same, 228 " Breadth, 102 " I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOHN PIERPONT. Mr. Edward Shaw. I proceed to the order designated by this title by the Romans. Very few ancient examples of this variation exist. The most perfect is that of the Theatre of Marcellus, if, perhaps, we except that elaborate pile, 4 26 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Trajan's column, which is generally pronounced to be Tuscan. It is, there- fore, principally indebted for its existence to the modern Italian architects, who, having little of antiquity before their eyes, appear to have bestowed more attention upon this order than the others; and it must be confessed that they have made of it a very elegant design, though, as before observed, essentially different from the original and true Doric. The measures, from Sir William Chambers, are as follows: the base, thirty minutes; the shaft, thirteen modules, twenty-eight minutes; and the capital, thirty-two minutes; the architrave, thirty minutes; the frieze, to capital of triglyph, forty-two minutes; and cornice, forty-five minutes. Upper diameter of colunm, fifty minutes. In no example of antiquity is the Doric colunm provided with a base. I am inclined to think, either the architects had not yet thought of employing bases to their columns, or that they omitted them, in order to leave the pavement clear, as the architects of those times frequently placed their columns very near each other; so, had they been made with bases, the pas- sage between them would have been extremely narrow and inconvenient; however, the Romans have introduced the attic base, which is common to all of the orders except the Tuscan, though it more properly belongs to the Ionic. This base has two tori, a scotia and two fillets between them ; above the upper torus is an inverted cavetto and fillet properly belonging to the shaft of the column, as is also that under the capital; for which reason they are commonly considered as belonging to the shaft. The plinth or square member beneath the base is usually considered indispensable in Roman architecture, although Palladio has omitted it in his Corinthian order; but it is scarcely found in the Creek specimens. The intercolunniiation takes from this style, in no small degree, the imposing grandeur which is so character- istic of the (irecian style. The most striking peculiarity of the Doric order is the trigly|)li, which admits of the idea of the beams being placed trans- versely on the architrave, which more conforms to CJrecian exanqiles; hence. THE DORIC ORDER. 27 the angles are supplied with a beam forming the flanks; but this will not hold good in the Roman examples, where the beams at the angles are placed over the centre of the column, which leaves the wall destitute of a beam to support the roof. The triglyph is surmounted by the mutule, in the Greek, and, in some Roman examples, inclined, but in most modern profiles, hori- zontal ; on its soffit are represented gutt*, or drops. The spaces between the triglyphs, on the frieze, are called metopes, which, in the modern Doric, are invariably perfectly square, and generally enriched with sculptures. A part of the ornamented metopes of the Parthenon were brought to Eng- land by Lord Elgin, and now form the principal attraction in the collection which is known by his name, in the British Museum. In the modern order, these sculptures are most commonly an alternate bull's skull and patera. The extreme projection of all these ornaments should be less than that of the triglyph itself, thus keeping a due subordination between mere decora- tions and essential parts. All the Grecian Doric columns are fluted,* and, in both Greek and Roman, this is performed without fillets between, as in the other orders. The intercolumniations in this order differ from those of the others, on account of the triglyph, the metopes being required to be exactly square. They are as follows: the coupled columns, of course, must stand under ad- joining triglyphs; this makes their distance, at the foot of the shaft, twenty- one minutes. The next intercolumniation is the monotriglyph, which has one between the columns ; the distance is three modules. The diastyle, — two triglyphs, five modules and a half The arseostyle, which has three between, eight modules. This last is a size which should never be resorted to but in cases of great necessity; and, indeed, is seldom practicable. • Though some examples are so, only a little way up from the base, and, again, just at the top of the column. 28 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. TABLE OF PROPORTIONS. FROM AIKIN S ESSAY. NAMES OF EXAMPLES. Portico of the Agora, at Athens, Temple of Minerva, at Sunium, Temple of Jupiter Nemtcus, . Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, Temple of Theseus, .... Temple of Minerva, at Athens, Temple of Corinth, .... Portico of Philip, Temple of Apollo, .... Temple of Minerva, at Syracuse Temple of Juno Lucina, . . Temple of Concord, .... Pseudodipteral Temple, at Paestum Hexastyle Temple, at Pa-stum, Ilypaethral Temple, at Pnestum, Inner peristyle of ditto, . . Upper columns of ditto, ditto. Temple of Selinus, .... Temple of Jupiter, at Selinus, Temple at Egcsta, .... Theatre of Marcellus, . . . 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 47 45J 49 44i 46| 47 44 1 49i 46 45i 46 40J 43 41i 43 44 46^ 35| 44| 48 2i 54 31 24 42i 33i 4 32i 3} 24i 42 45i 27 473 8 13i 50 21f 344 7 51§ ^r.!"" Frlcrc. 40 48i 381 51i 50 43 48| 38i 49S 44J 55 46| 50 45| 39 68 46| 52 49t 30 42 48J 43i 51i 49i 43 43| 42i 4 45 46i 44| 40J 44S 52i 454 21 32 25i 25 24| 21J 26 40;J 37s 1 28 1 41 1 37i 1 17| 1 14 2 42| 1 5| 1 15 1 10| (59i \m 1 4J 1 22J 2 49 I 11 ^\)c Sonic ©rbcr. \'itruvius informs us, that, in .i general assembly of the Grecian states, thirteen colonies were sent over into Asia, by the Athenians; the expedition was led by Ion, whom the Delphic oracle, which directed the emigration, had acknowledged for the offspring of Apollo. They settled on the bor- ders of Caria, and built several cities of great fi\me, of which were Ephesus, Miletus, Samos, and Colophon, to which Smyrna was afterwards added; and, after the expulsion of the original inhabitants, these colonies were denominated Ionian, from tiie name of their chief. "In this country," continues he, " allotting different sites to sacred purposes, they erected tem- ples, the first of which was dedicated to Apollo Panionius. It resembled that which they had seen in Achaia, and from the .species having been first THE IONIC ORDER. 29 used in the cities of the Dorians, they gave it the name of Doric. As they wished to erect this temple with columns, and were not acquainted with their proportions, nor the mode in which they should be adjusted, so as to be both adapted to the reception of the superincumbent weight, and to have a beautiful effect, they measured a man's height by the length of the foot, which they found to be a sixth part thereof, and thence deduced the pro- portions of their columns. Thus the Doric order borrowed its proportion, strength, and beauty, from the human figure. On similar principles, they afterwards built the temple of Diana, but in this, from a desire of varying the proportions, they used the female figure as a standard, making the height of the column eight times its thickness, for the purpose of giving it a more lofty effect. Under this new order they placed a base as a shoe to the foot. They also added volutes to the capital, resembling the graceful curls of the hair, hanging therefrom to the right and left. On the shaft, channels were sunk, bearing a resemblance to the folds of a matronal garment. Thus were two orders' invented, one of a masculine character, without orna- ment, the other approaching the delicacy, decorations, and proportion of a female. The successors of these people improving in taste, and preferring a more slender proportion, assigned seven diameters to the height of the Doric column, and eight and a half to the Ionic. The species of which the lonians were the inventors, received the appellation of Ionic." The volute is a distinguishing feature of the Ionic. I now give the pro- portional figures from Nicholson's Architectural Dictionary, from the Erectheus at Athens. First find the lesser projection of the echinus; let drop a plumb-line 40 minutes of the order, the depth of the volute. Divide this line into 34 parts, give 20 to the upper division, take 2.4 for the radius of the eye, divide the radius into eight parts, then counting from the plumb-line at top, measuring from the centre of the eye; second, 18.3; third, 16.7; fourth, 15.3; fifth, 14; snclh, 12.8; seventh, 11.7; eighth, 10.7. Second revolution; first, 9.8; second, 9; third, 8.2; fourth, 7.5; fifth, 6.9; sixth, 6.3; seventh. 30 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 5.7; eighth, 5.2. Third revolution; first, 4.8; second, 4.4; third, 4 ; fuiirlh, 3.7; fifth, 3.4; sixth, 3.1; seventh, 2.8; eighth, 2.6; the diameter of the eye, 4.8. Another method of forming the spiral lines of a volute with a more regular curve than is practicable in the former method of forming the spiral lines, I will now describe. For the depth of the volute take 40 minutes of the order. Drop a plumb- line from the lesser projection of the echinus, taking 22.5 minutes from the echinus to the centre of the eye, leaving 17.5 minutes from the centre of the eye to the bottom of the volute ; find a right angle from the centre of the eye, take one half minute in your dividers and space of 3 on each of the angles, from the centre parallel * to each of those angles extending the four lines from the intersection, .so that the curve of the first revolution will cut each ; then extend the second audinets to the second revolution, the third to the third; take three minutes in your dividers, placing one point of the dividers at the centre and describe the eye ; six minutes being the diameter of the eye, now we form the spiral lines from each quadrant A, B, C The first extends points of the dividers from B io A ; draw the curve from A to E; then from D io C draw to E; from F to E, draw G ; from // G to first revolution. Then 11 to 2; from 3.2 to 4; from 5.4 to 6; from 9.6 to 8 — second revolution. Take the inner square and perform the third revolution in the same manner as the first and second, and for four revolutions make the sides of the squares into eight half minutes, four on each of the angles from the centre, and proceed as in the three revolutions. The most beautiful Grecian specimens of this order, are the temple on the Iiyssus,t and the temples of Neptune Erectheus, and Minerva Polias, on the • It Bhould be observed, that this operation must be repeated for every line in tlie volute, no two being struck from the same centre. f This beautiful little temple is now no longer standing. THE IONIC ORDER. 31 Acropolis at Athens ; the two latter of which are so similar that we shall not here discriminate between them. We are thus reduced to two Greek examples, and they are so exquisitely beautiful, that it is difficult to give the preference to either. We will, therefore, describe both. The temple on the Ilyssus is the plainer of the two; its volute consists of a single spiral, with a deep channel between, and is separated from the shaft by the sculptured echinus. The architrave is not broken into fasciae, as in most other specimens. The cornice consists simply of a square member, with one echinus and fillet, surmounted by the cymatium ; the bed-mouldings in the elevations are completely concealed. The base is composed of two tori, the upper of which is channelled horizontally, and surmounted by a bead, inclosing a very flat scotia, the upper fillet of which projects as far as the extremity of the torus. The fillets are semi-elliptical. The following are the measures of this order : the column, including base and capital, sixteen modules, fourteen minutes and one fifth; the base, twenty-nine minutes and four fifths ; the capital to the bottom of the volute, forty minutes ; the architrave, fifty-five minutes and two fifths; the frieze, forty-nine minutes; the cornice, thirty minutes and one fifth. Width of the capital, three modules, three minutes; upper diameter of column, fifty-one minutes; intercolumniation, from centre to centre of column, six modules, five minutes and two fifths. The order of the temple of Minerva Polias, is next to be considered. This example is much richer, yet no less elegant than the other ; the volute, instead of a single spiral, is formed by three ; the sculptured echinus be- neath is surmounted by a guilloched moulding, and separated from the shaft by a neck adorned with honey-suckles.. The base is very similar to that of the temple on the Ilyssus, except that its beauty is increased by the diminu- tion of its height, the scotia is deeper, and the upper torus is guilloched. The architrave consists of three fascia;, and the cornice is similar to that of the Ilyssus temple, except that the echinus and bed-mouldings are sculp- 32 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. tured, and the astragal of the latter is seen in the elevation beneath the corona. Tiie coliunn, iiickuliiig base and capital, is eighteen modules, seven minutes and one tenth in hciglit ; tlie base, twenty-four minutes; and the capital, forty-two; tlie architrave, forty-five minutes and one fourth; the frieze, forty-seven minutes and four fifths; and the cornice, to the fillet of the echinus, which is the greatest actual height of the entablature, the cymatiiim being a restoration, twenty minutes and two fifths. The Avidth of the capital, three modules, three minutes. Upper diameter of column, forty- nine minutes and a half. Intercolumniation, from centre to centre, nine modules. Both of these examples are destitute of insulated plinths. Having thus given our readers an idea of the finest Greek specimens of this order, we must now proceed to the Roman and Italian examples of it. It is the peculiarity of this order that its front and side faces are dissimilar. To obviate this inconvenience, the Greeks twisted the extreme volutes of a portico so as to make the two faces alike. But Scamozzi, a famous Italian architect, designed a capital in which the volutes proceeded angularly from the shaft, thus presenting the same front every way, and the capital, so executed, has been generally attributed to the supposed inventor. Sir William Chambers, however, is of opinion, tliat Michael Angelo was the author of one of this description in the Vatican at Rome. This capital is commonly known as modern Ionic, but it has not been executed on large works. The frieze of this order has been by many architects, and Palladio among the number, rounded in its architrave, as though it were pressed down and bent by the superincumbent weight; but the ill effect of this has been so generally perceived, that it is rarely to be seen in late works. The cornice is distinguished from the Greek, by its variety of mouldings, among which the most remarkable is a square member in the bed-mould- ings, cut into small divisions, somewhat resembling teeth, whence they are called dentils. In other points of variation between the Grecian and Roman architecture, there may be a difference of opinion ; but with respect THE ROMAN, OR COMrOSlTE ORDER. 33 to the Ionic capital, we conceive this to be impossible. Whoever compares the meagre, petty form of the temple of Concord with that of the Erectheion, must instantly, whatever be his former prejudices, perceive tlie amazing difference, and unhesitatingly acknowledge the vast superiority of the latter. The poverty of the solitary revolving fillet, the flat, insipid lines, and the enormous projection of the clumsy echinus, combine to render this the very worst feature in all the Italian orders. The base commonly used is the attic, though Vitruvius has appropriated one to this order resembling the Corinthian without its lower torus. The following are the measures of the order, from Sir William Chambers : the base, one module; the shaft, sixteen modules, nine minutes; and the capita], twenty-one minutes. The architrave, forty minutes and a half; the frieze, the same ; and the cornice, fifty-four minutes. Width of capital, two modules, twenty-six minutes. Upper diameter of column, fifty minutes. " As the Doric order," says Sir William Chambers, " is particularly affect- ed in churches or temples dedicated to male saints, so the Ionic is principally used in such as are consecrated to females of the matronal state." It is likewise employed in courts of justice, in libraries, colleges, seminaries, and other structures having relation to arts or letters ; in private houses, and in palaces; to adorn the women's apartments; and, says Le Clerc, in all places dedicated to peace and tranquillity. The ancients employed it in temples sacred to Juno, to Bacchus, to Diana, and other deities, whose characters held a medium between the severe and the effeminate. ^I)C Koman, or <2Ir»mposit£ ©ricr. This order, though not considered by them as a distinct one, was em- ployed by the Romans principally in triumphal arches; the column and entablature being the same as, or little different from, the Corinthian. This difference was, however, sufficient for the Italians to ground a new 5 34 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. order upon. The capital, as being composed of llie Ionic and Corinthian, they termed composUe ; and to justify the application of the name to the order in general, tliey combined in the entablature the dentils of the Ionic with the nuitules of the Doric, and enrichments of tiie Corinthian, and gave to the architrave but two fascia.', thus rendering it, in some respects, more simple, but more enriched than the latter, while the former had little but the name left in the composition. The whole order may be safely pronounced heavy, without possessing grandeur, and rich, though destitute of beauty. It has been frequently adopted, and it is to be lamented that Sir Christopher Wren has made so much use of it about St. Paul's. The base commonly appropriated to this order is extremely beautiful ; it consists of two tori, the lower of which is considerably the larger, with two scotia}, enclosing an astragal. This is called the projjer base of the order, but the attic is usually employed, being more simple, and, consequently, less expensive than the other. The measures of this order, from Sir William Chambers, are as follows : the base, thirty minutes; the shaft, sixteen modules, twenty minutes; and the capital, two modules, ten minutes; the architrave, forty-five minutes; and the cornice, two modules. ^I)c dtorintljxan ©vbcr. The story of this order, given by Vitruvius, is as follows : " The third species of columns, which is called the Corinthian, resembles, in its character, the graceful, elegant appearance of a virgin, whose limbs are of a more delicate form, and whose ornaments should be unobtrusive. The invention of the capital of this order arose from the following circumstance: A Corinthian virgin, who was of marriageable age, fell a victim to a violent disorder; after her interment, her nurse, collecting in a basket ti)ose articles to which she had shown a partiality when alive, carried thoni to her tomb, THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 35 and placed a tile on the basket, for the longer preservation of its contents. The basket was accidentally placed on the root of an acanthus plant, which, pressed by the weight, shot forth, towards spring, in stems of large foliage, and, in the course of its growth, reached the angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes at the extremities. Callimachus, who, for his great ingenuity and taste in sculpture, was called, by the Athenians, aatatEXvoq, happening to pass by the tomb, observed the basket, and the delicacy of the foliage which surrounded it. Pleased with the form and the novelty of the combi- nation, he took the hint for inventing these columns, and used them in the country about Corinth, regulating, by this model, the style and proportion of the Corinthian order." It has been before observed, in our notice of Egyptian architecture, that the capitals, to be found in the country, are much more likely to have given the hint for the Corinthian, than the circumstance here mentioned. The only pure example of this order in Greece is the monument of Lysicrates. The capital of this specimen is exquisitely beautiful, but the same praise cannot, in the opinion of the writer, be justly awarded to the entablature; the architrave is disproportionately large, and the frieze extremely small ; the bed-mouldings of the cornice, which completely overpower the corona, con- sist of large dentils, supported by the echinus, and surmounted by a cyma- recta under a cyma-reversa, which supports the corona. The base is ex- tremely beautiful, resembling that of the temple of Minerva Polias, except that an inverted echinus is substituted for the upper torus ; the base stands upon a large inverted cavetto, connected with the continued plinth by another inverted echinus. The flutes terminate upwards in the form of leaves, instead of being divided from the capital, as usual, by an astragal. The building is circulai*, and its centre is the summit of an equilateral triangle, of which the base is in a line bounded by the centres of any two of the columns ; the intercolumniation is six modules, thirteen minutes and two fifths, of which the base occupies twenty-one minutes ; and the capital. 36 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. two modules, twenty-seven minutes. The architrave, fifty-three minutes and two fifths; the frieze, forty-one minutes and two fifths; and the cornice, forty-eight minutes and four fifths. The finest Roman example of this order is that of three columns in the Campo Vaccino, at Rome, which are com- monly regarded as the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator. This exam- ple has received the commendations of all modern artists, yet has seldom been executed in its original form. This is probably owing to the excessive richness and delicacy of it, which renders its adoption very expensive ; and perhaps the modifications of it by Vignola is preferable to the original, pos- sessing a sufficient enrichment, without the excessive refinement of the other. In this order, which has been adopted ])y Sir William Chamber.s, the base is one module in height; the shaft, sixteen modules, twenty minutes; and the capital, two modules, ten minutes; thus giving ten diameters to tlie whole column. The arcliitrave and frieze are eacii one module, fifteen minutes, in height, and the cornice, two modules. The cornice is distinguished by modillions intcr2)()sing between the bed-mouldings and the corona; the latter is formed by a square member, surmounted by a cymatium supported by a small ogee; the former is composed by dentils, supported by a cyma-reversa, and covered by an ovolo. "When tlie order is enriched, which is usually the case, these mouldings, excepting the cymatium and square of the corona, are all sculptured; the column is also fluted, and the channels are sometimes filled to about a third of their height with cablings, which are cylindrical pieces let into the channels. When the column is large, and near the eye, these are recommended as strengthening them, and rendering the fillets less liable to fracture ; but when they are not approached, it is better to leave the flutes plain. Tlicy are sometimes sculptured, but tiiis should be only in liighly-enriched orders. Tlie flutes are twenty-four in number, and counnonly semicircular in their plan. TIic Corintiiian base is similar to ihat of the conq)osite order, excepting tluit astragals are employed between the scotia*, instead of one ; but the attic is usually employed for the reasons before assigned. PERSIANS AND CARYATIDES. 37 " The Corinthian order," says Sir William Chambers, " is proper for all buildings where elegance, gayety, and magnificence are required. The ancients employed it in building temples dedicated to Venus, to Flora, Proserpine, and the nymphs of fountains, because the flowers, foliage, and volutes with which it is adorned, seemed well adapted to the delicacy and elegance of such deities. Being the most splendid of all the orders, it is extremely proper for the decoration of palaces, public squares or galleries, and arcades surrounding them; for churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary, or to other virgin saints; and, on account of its rich, gay, and graceful appear- ance, it may, with propriety, be used in theatres, in ball or banqueting- rooms, and in all places consecrated to festive mirth, or convivial recreation." Persian© anb €arMatibe0. Having now described what are called the regular orders, it is neces- sary to notice, in the next place, the employment of human figures instead of columns, for the support of an entablature. We will first give, as in former cases, the account of Vitruvius. " Carya, a city of Peloponessus, took part with the Persians against the Grecian states. When the country was freed from its invaders, the Greeks turned their arms against the Caryans, and upon the capture of the city, put the males to the sword, and led the females into captivity. The architects of that time, for the purpose of perpetuating the ignominy of the people, instead of columns in the porticos of their buildings, substituted statues of these women, faithfully copying their ornaments, and the drapery with which they were attired, the mode of which they were not permitted to change." There are two great objections to the truth of this story; first, that the circumstance is not mentioned by any of the Grecian historians; and, secondly, that it is certain that animal figures were employed for this purpose, long previous to the time assigned by Vitruvius. 38 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Having thus shown our readers what is not the origin of these figures, it must next be our business to inform them what is, or rather what most probably is; and for this purpose we must trespass on the kindness of Mr. Gwilt, the only writer, Ave believe, who has given a satisfactory account of them, lie conjectures the name to have arisen from the employment of them in temples to Diana, who is supposed to have made the Lacedemonians acquainted with the story of Carya, (turned into a nut by Bacchus, who also transforiucd her sisters into stones,) and thence worshipped by them, under the name of Canjatis. Thus being first employed in temples to this goddess, they afterwards came into use in other buildings as representations of the nymphs who assisted at the mysteries of the patron goddess. They may be seen at St. Pancras Church, correctly copied from the Pandroseum, the only Greek building remaining where they are employed. The entablature of this example is extremely heavy, consisting only of an architrave and enormous cornice with dentils, which, however dispropor- tionate in its situation, is, of itself, very beautiful. There are no remains of these figures in ancient Rome. The moderns have assigned the Ionic entablature to Caryatides, and the Doric, when the figures of men are employed, which are called Persians. Caryatides are, Avhen appropriately designed, well adapted for buildings devoted to pleasure, such as theatres, ball-rooms, &c., but are decidedly improper for sacred edifices. They should not be represented much above the natural size, "lest they should appear hideous in the eyes of the fair." For male figures, on the contrary, a large size is desirable ; they are said to be proper for military buildings. The contradictions of some of the French architects on this subject are very curious. Le Clerc tells us, that it is very wrong to represent Caryatides in servile attitudes, such characters being very injurious to the sex. On the contrary, they should be considered the greatest ornaments to buildings, as their prototypes are of creation, and represented in respectful PILASTERS. 39 characters. But M. de Chambrai disagrees with his learned friend, and considers this practice as an error, observing that if the text of Vitruvius be attended to, it will be perceived that it is very improper to represent saints and angels loaded like slaves witli cornices and other heavy burdens. He likewise considers them as improper for churches, in which, as houses of God, and asylums of mercy, vengeance and slavery ouglit never to appear. M. Blondel again observes, "that though this remark be just, if the origin of these ornaments be rigorously attended to, yet to serve in the house of God, and particularly at the altar, has always appeared, in the minds of the prophets and saints, so glorious and great, that not only men, but angels ought to esteem it a happiness ; and that, consequently, it can be no indica- tion of disrespect to employ their representations in offices which they would themselves execute with pleasure." Such are the frivolous questions and debates into which blind reverence for antiquity has involved men of con- siderable talents. Leaving them, however, to such as are inclined to pay them attention, it is now requisite to describe a species of figures, which, on account of its simplicity, has sometimes been substituted for Caryatides. They are called termini, or terms, and derive their name and origin from the boundary stones of the Romans, to render which inviolate, Numa Pompilius erected the terminus into a deity, and he was first worshipped in the similitude of a stone. This was afterwards improved into a human head upon a pedestal, smaller at the botton than the top, and they are thus, with numerous variations, represented in buildings. Pilasters, when they are attached to walls, are square, projecting from one fifth to one half the breadth of the face, and when erected on the angles of buildings, show two equal faces. When attached to columns, the width should be nearly equal to the neck of the column to which it may be 40 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. attached ; in this case, the Grecians introduced small projections in the walls, with bases and capitals, termed anta;. These were sometimes erected cm the angles of porticos, and in the rear colunnis, where the walls cause the Hanks, uniting with the wall of the building, to give the front that solidity required in large works, in wliich the width requires more space than a single pilaster. Divide the face into two equal parts, and leave the space between them equal to one fourth of the anta, or pilaster; these antic were seldom accompanied with volutes, as were columns of the Ionic. Pciicstals. Columns are most frequently placed on the ground, but are sometimes raised on insulated basements, called pedestals. A pedestal is, like a column, composed of three parts ; the base, the body, or die, and the cor- nice; the decorations of which vary according to the order in which it is employed. The best method of arranging them, is that employed by Vignola, who makes them, in all the orders, one third the height of the column, thus preserving the character of the order. The die is always the same size as the plinth of the column, and the base and cornice are regulated by the delicacy of the order. Pedestals should never be employed with detaclied columns, forming porticos, but they are frequently applied to columns which divide arches, and are necessary in churches, where the pews would otherwise conceal the base, and a great part of the column. Tiie same reason will justify their use in all edifices built for the reception of crowded assemblies. JPcMmcnts. Where columns are employed to decorate the gable of a building, in which situation they usually form what is called a portico, the triangle formed by the roof projecting upwards from the entablatures is called a pediment. PEDIMENTS. 41 The entablature, in this case, is covered by two straight inclined cornices, the mouldings of which are similar to the horizontal one; the space inclosed is called the tympanum. This was the original pediment, and the only form found in Greece ; but the Romans, to vary the form, employed, in smaller works, a segment, or a circle, instead of the triangle. The former, however, is heavy, and is only used as a covering to gates, doors, windows, and such smaller architectural works, where, by reason of their diminutiveness, they may produce variety, without being disagreeable to the eye. The cyma- tium, when the horizontal cornice with a pediment, is omitted, and only used in the inclined cornice ; otherwise this moulding would occur twice together in the same profile. The mutules, dentils, and modillions in the inclined or segmental cornice, must always answer perpetidicularly to those in the horizontal one, and their sides must be perpendicular to the latter. The proportion of a pediment depends upon the length of the base line, the cornice being of the same size; and in a portico with many columns, the tympanum will not be of the same proportion to the rest of the composition, as when it is composed by a few. The method of determining the height of the pediment has lately been given in a French pamphlet, more correctly than before. It is this: first, from the summit of an equilateral triangle, the base of which is the upper fillet of the horizontal cornice, with one side of the triangle as radius, describe an arc ; with the point of intersection between this arc and the centre line of the composition as a centre, and with the depth of the horizontal cornice as a radius, describe part of a circle. A line drawn from the extreme boundary of the upper moulding of the horizontal cornice, passing as a tangent to the circle, gives the inclination of the pedi- ment. In more modern practice, the height of a pediment is more commonly ascertained by dividing the base line into three, four, or five equal parts; give one to a perpendicular raised from the centre and upper fillet of the horizontal cornice; draw a line from the extreme point of the fillet to the top of the perpendicular; draw the crown moulding and the remainder of 6 42 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the cornice below the line of inclination ; either of those angles is suflicient to be made tight by shingles or slating, and a lesser inclination will answer a good purpose, for covering with galvanized iron, tin, or copper. a3otl)ic ^rcl)itccturc. It has been before observed, that the rude buildings of the Saxons and Normans in Europe, which are evidently copied from those of the Romans, may, by gradual improvement, have given rise to Gothic architecture; and that this was the case in England, at least, there is no doubt. But there are certain peculiarities, even in these crude and imperfect attempts, though afterwards more fully developed, which require to be noticed before we proceed further; plainly indicating that the works in question were raised under the influence of a less ardent sun, and more obscure sky. In the happy climate of Greece, where little was to be feared from change of weather, the temples, the only buildings distinguished for architectural excellence, were frequently destitute of covering. Windows, in this case, being entirely superfluous, the w-alls were, in many instances, pierced only by a single door, wdiich served at once for ingress and egress to both priests and worshippers. Science here, therefore, was not needed, and, indeed, is not to be found. With the practical application of the principle of the arch, the Greeks do not appear to have been acquainted ; the large stones which, in those early ages, were to be procured in abundance, being suflH- cient to cover the columns and tiie opening of (he doors. As architecture improved, however, roofs were added to these edifices; and, to throw off the rain, they were inclined downwards from the centre to the extremities. This inclination, in a climate Avhcre so little rain or snow fell, required to be but small; but in Rome, wMiich is more northern, it was found convenient to increase it to meet the exigencies of the situation. In countries far more exposed to vicissitudes of weather than either of those, it is evident that a GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 43 very different pitch will be requisite; and this theory is verified by the build- ings of northern climates, the architects of which, though totally unac- quainted with the works of their southern predecessors, by a singular coincidence, adapted their roofs to their latitude in a regular scale of grada- tion from them. The Saxon and Norman architects, though they did not comprehend this principle in the perfection to which it was afterwards carried, were sensible of the wants of the climate, and made their roofs much higher than those of their Roman prototypes. This circumstance, presenting itself to minds so quick to perceive, and so able to adopt, any novelty which came recommended by utility and beauty, as were those of the architects of the middle ages, could not fail of meet- ing with the highest attention. It was soon seen that unbroken vertical lines and lofty buildings were necessary, to harmonize with the high pitched roof; and the pointed arch is but a natural and easy deduction from these data. But there is another and an important peculiarity in buildings, designed for northern climates, to which we must next call the attention of our readers. This ari.ses from the numerous circumstances, which, in these regions, conspire to obscure the rays of the sun. The great darkness which prevails in them, compared with Greece and Italy, evidently requires a very different arrangement in the public buildings, and this circumstance has re- ceived no small share of the attention of the architects, whose works we are considering. The variety and beauty of its windows is not the least striking peculiarity of Gothic architecture; and, indeed, they form the readiest criterion for distinguishing the several styles, as we shall see hereafter. A third essential point of distinction, between this style and all others, consists in the different purposes for which the edifices were constructed, in which it is most apparent, and the different ceremovies for which they were adapted. Although the rites of Greek and Roman Paganism were numerous and splendid, they required little aid from architecture ; the ceremonies with which they were connected, were principally performed in the open air, and 44 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. the temple was only used as a receptacle for the statue of the deity, before which sacrifices were offered, and to which prayers were preferred. But Christian worship, under papal guidance, and in a country so cold as to render shelter necessary for the performance of its ceremonies, required other arrangements in the edifices dedicated to it. For its numerous and splendid processions, was provided a long, narrow, and lofty gallery, called ihe nave; for the reception of the multitude to witness these, adjacent wings were added, called aides. A choir was added for the actual performance of the sacred rites; and numerous chapels, to commemorate the bounty of in- dividuals, were di.spersed about the edifice. All these essential appendages necessarily occupied a space of great mag- nitude, and the figure of the cross, held by the Romish Church in the most profound veneration, was pitched upon to regulate the general form of the building thus constituted. One reason for mentioning these particulars, is to show the absolute necessity, which thus arose, for a degree of science and mathematical knowledge, not dreamt of by the architects, whose works are received as the sole standards of excellence, by most of the professors of modern times. The narrow intercolumniations of the Grecian buildings would have been ill adapted for the display of feudal magnificence, and the stones within the reach of the builders, were far too small to cover even these. Thus the arch became, unavoidably, a prominent feature in the style. To give greater magnificence to the nave, it was made a story higher than the aisles. The wall of this upper story is supported by large piers, whicli divide the nave from the aisles. The upper, or ckar story, as it is called, has windows answering to those beneath. To form an interior roof- ing, which should at once Iiide the timbers above, and furnish an appropriate finish to the architrave, the same contrivance was resorted to; and from this cause have proceeded those vast monuments of daring ingenuity, which, while they excite the admiration, have baflled the rival attempts of modern architects. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 45 Having thus traced, we hope perspicuously and satisfactorily, the causes which gave rise to Gothic architecture, and led to its perfecliori, it will be proper, before discriminating between its several styles, to explain some of its leading principles, and those particulars in which it more especially differs from the better known principles of Greek and Roman architecture. Of these, the first in importance, is the pointed arch, of which there are three kinds. 1. The simple pointed arch, which is struck from two centres on the line of the impost. 2. The Tudor arch, or that which has four centres, of which two are on the line of the impost line, and the other two at any distance. 3. The ogee, which has likewise four centres, two on the impost line, and two on a line with the apex, the segments struck from which are reversed. This form is used only in tracery, or small work, except as a canopy or drip-stone, over doors and windows. The pointed arcli differs from the semi-circular, as employed by the Romans, besides its form, in having its soffit occupied by mouldings of various projections, instead of being flat, enriched with panels. The cause of this, is its great breadth, having frequently to support a wall and roof, which required the piers to be of cor- responding magnitude, to diminish the unpleasing effect of which, the architects surrounded them with slender shafts. The projections of these being carried into the arch, caused it to be of the form in question. It is scarcely necessary to add, that these piers are always undiminished. Arising from the general use of the arch is that of the buttress. In Norman work, this was avoided by the employment of walls of vast thickness, with very small windows, but when architecture began to assume a lighter character, the windows were enlarged, and the thickness of the walls diminished. To compensate for this deficiency, the buttress was employed at once to resist the pressure of the arches within, and to prevent the necessity of the walls being of an unwieldy thickness. These are often divided into stages, each being of less projection than that beneath it, finished by pinna- cles, and from the upper part of them spring insulated arches, serving as a projection for tlie clear story. 46 KURAL ARCHITECTURE. The next lliiiig to be mentioned is the steeple, with its compound parts and acconipaiiiniciits. When square-topped, it is called a tower, which is often crowned with a spire. Slender and lofty towers are turrets, and arc com- monly attached citlier to the angles of a large tower, where they frequently contain stair-cases, or to the angles of a building. They are sometimes surmounted by spires, a beautiful example of which may be seen at Peter- borough cathedral, in the turret at the north-west angle. In this exquisite and unique design, the turret is square, and decorated at the angle with boltels, which are carried up beyond it, and finished by a triangular pinnacle. The spire in the centre is octagonal, and rectangularly placed within the square, four of its sides thus forming triangles Avith the angular boltels, which, being arched over, form grounds for pinnacles of the same form, which are carried up to about half of the height of the spire itself The effect is beautiful beyond description, and merits the most attentive ex- amination. Next in importance are the lomdows of Gothic architecture ; but as these differ so widely in the several styles as to form the readiest criterion for distinguishing them, they will be more properly noticed when we speak of these styles. We shall pursue the same plan with doors and other subordi- nate parts. It may be proper, in this place, to say something of the inouldiiigs of Gothic architecture. Of these, that which bears the most resemblance to the Roman mouldings is the ogee, distinguished by the same name, or that of cyma-rcversa, in the nomenclature of the Italian school. A moulding used for the same purpose as the cyma-recta, and much resembling it, is also found, more frequently, perhaps, than any other. That which is most peculiar to the style, is the Ijoltel, or cylindrical, and nearly detaciicd mould- ing, often answered by a corresponding hollow. In the ]>late are delineated two forms of exterior drip-stones. (Plate 41, Cap figs. 4 and 7.) We shall now delineate the different styles of Gothic architecture, with GOTHIC AKCHITECTUEE. 47 the peculiarities of each ; and, in so doing, follow the arrangement and nomenclature of Mr. Rickman, the only writer who has attempted to give a clear and practical account of this beautiful, though neglected style. He distinguishes three variations, which may, without impropriety, be called the orders of Gothic architecture ; differing, however, from the Greek and Roman orders in this particular circumstance, that while those are confined to one part of a building, or, at most, affect the rest only in regard to strength or delicacy, these extend through every part of the edifice. The first style, denominated, by Mr. Rickman, " Early English," commenced with the reign of Richard I., in 1189, and was superseded by the next, in 1307, the end of the reign of Edward I. It is principally distinguished by long, narrow windows, and bold ornaments and mouldings. The window being so essen- tial a mark of the style, claims to be considered in the first place. The early English window is invariably long and narrow; its head is generally the lancet, or highly-pointed arch, but it is sometimes formed by a trefoil. In large buildings, there are generally found two or more of these combined, with their drip-stones united. Three is the usual number, but sometimes four, five, seven, and, in one instance, — the east end of Lin- coln cathedral, — eight are employed. When combined, there is usually a quatrefoil between the heads, and where there are many, the whole is some- times covered by a segmental pointed drip-stone, to which form the windows are adapted, by the centre one's being raised higher than the rest, which are gradually lowered on each side to the extremity. Sometimes, in late build- ings, two windows have a pierced quatrefoil between them, and are covered by a simple pointed arch as a drip-stone ; thus approaching so nearly the next style as not to be easily distinguished from it. This arrangement may be seen in the nave of Westminster Abbey. In large buildings, the windows are frequently decorated with slender shafts, which are usually insulated, and connected by bands with the wall. A fine example of this may be seen at the Temple Church, London, one of the purest buildings existing of this style. 48 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. The circular, rose, or catharine-wlieel window is frequently found in large buildings of this style; in which, however, it did not originate, being found in Norman edifices. It appears to have received much attention from the arcliitects of this period, being worked with great care. The doors of this style are distinguished by their deep recess; columns usually insulated in a deep hollow, and a simple pointed arch, nearly equi- lateral in the interior mouldings, but in the exterior, from the depth of the door, approaching the semicircle. They are al.so frequently ornamented by a kind of four-leaved flower placed in a hollow. In large buildings, they are often divided by one or more shafts (clustered) in the centre, with one of the circular ornaments above. To the steeples of this period were added, in many instances, spires, many of which are finely proportioned, and form a Aery characteristic and elegant finish to the buildings they accompany. They have usually ribs at the angles, which are .sometimes crocketted; and, in some instance.s, they are still further enriched with bands of quatrefoils round the spire. The tovrers are usually guarded at the angles by buttresses, but octagonal turrets are some- times met with, surmounted by pinnacles of the same plan. In small churches, the slope of the spire sometimes projects over the wall of the tower, which is finished by a cornice, and the diagonal sides of the spire, generally octagonal, are sloped down to the angles. The arches of this style are chiefly distinguished by very numerous, though, for their size, bold mouldings, with hollows of corresponding depth. The lancet arch is chiefly used, though many are found nnich more obtuse. The form of the arch, indeed, as Mr. Hickman observes, is by no means a criterion for the dimensions of the styles, each form being met with in build- ings of each style, except the four-centred. The piers are distinguished from tliose of the other styles, by being sur- rounded with bands which sometimes are confined to the shafts, and some- times are continued on the pier. The capital is usually composed by plain GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 49 bold mouldings, one of Avliich is shown in the plate 41, figs. 4, 7, where is also delineated abase of this style; figs. 6, 9. The plan of these piers is shown in figs. 2, 5, of the same plate ; the shaded part representing a section of the shaft, and the outline, a section, of the base. A beautiful variation from Salisbury cathedral is seen in fig. 8. The buttresses of this style are chiefly distinguished by their simplicity, having very few setts-off, and very rarely any ornament in their places. Frequently, indeed, as in Wells cathedral, a very early example of this style, they retain the Norman form, of very broad faces with slight pro- jections, with a shaft inserted in the angles, and are continued no higher than the cornice. The flying buttress was not used till late in this style. The ornamental parts of the style now remain to be considered, which, till near its conclusion, were but sparingly used, and those, for the most part, of a very rude description. In the west front of Wells and Peterborough cathedrals, may be seen specimens of the taste of the period in these particu- lars, which are wholly unworthy of imitation ; but in the interior of Salis- bury are many details, late in the style, which are very elegant, and will bear the most minute examination. It may be sufiicient to mention, that m all the ornamental and minute details during this period, as well as in more important parts, the boldness and contempt of refinement, which are infalli- ble marks of an early age, are very apparent; for which reason we shall defer the description of many ornamental details, which, nevertheless, were practiced, and with success, in the latter part of this period, till the next style in which they were brought to perfection. There is, however, one ornament peculiar to this style which it is necessary to notice, before w^e proceed further. It resembles a low pyramid, the sides of which are pierced in the form of curvilinear triangles, bending inwards. It is usually placed upon a hollow moulding, from which it is sometimes de- tached, except at the angles. It has, as yet, received no regular appellation, on account of its being so unlike any other object as to be described, or even delineated with difficulty, and we believe it must be seen to be accurately 50 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. comprclicnded. The only alteinpt at designation it has received is, the toothed ornament. The reason for applying such a name to it avc leave for the ingenuity of the reader to discover. Tlic Early English style of Gothic architecture may, wc think, \Yithout impropriety, be compared to the Doric order of the Greeks. Like that, it is the first attempt of a people emerging from barbarism; and, like that, it possesses all those qualities which it is natural to expect from such a slate of society. Strength and simplicity are its predominating ciiaracteristics; ornament, except the more bold and artless, is foreign to its nature, and can never be introduced with propriety. For this I'eason, it may be employed with great advantage in churches, where the saving of expense is an object ; as a finer effect may be produced by the use of this style, than of any other whatever for equal expense. Of the fitness of Gothic architecture for ecclesiastical edifices, we presume it is now needless to say much. The circumstance of its having had its origin in Christian worship, and its con- sequent adaptation to its ceremonies, i(s fitness for the climate, and its devo- tional effect upon people in general, seem to point it out as peculiarly ap- propriate for this service. In exterior effect, Gothic architecture is very defective, and never more so than in this style. We have, indeed, scarcely one front which is at all reconcilcable with good taste. That of Salisbury cathedral is generally admired, but we can see no reason for the preference. A consciousness of this defect of the style, led the architect of that of Peterborough cathedral to make use of a singular expedient. Three ponderous arches, supported by triangular piers, receive the weight of three gables, and at each lateral extremity is a square turret, containing a stair-case, and surmounted by a spire, such as has already been described. The effect of the composition is grand, but it is not worthy of imitation. A field is thus offered for the exercise of modern iinention, which, as this kind of architecture is better understood, it is hoped will not be neglected ; much has been done, but THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE. 51 something, we conceive, remains to be done, to render it a worthy and formidable competitor with the long' practiced and deeply studied architec- ture of Greece and Rome. The style next in order to the Early English is denominated, by Mr. Rickman, Decorated English, as possessing a greater degree of delicacy than the former, without the excessive detail of the style which succeeded it. It ceased to be used soon after the death of Edward III., which happened in 1307. Its prominent feature is also found in its Avindows, with which, there- fore, we shall commence our description. The windows of this style are distinguished from those of tlie last by being larger, and divided into lights by slender upright stones called muUions. Of decorated windows there are two descriptions. 1. Where the mullions branch out into geometrical figures, and are all of equal size and shape, and, 2. Where they are dispersed through the head in curves in various descrip- tions, which is called flowing tracery, and are usually in windows of more than three lights, of different size and shape, the principal mullions forming simple figures, subdivided by the inferior ones. Sometimes the principal mullions are faced by slender shafts, with bases and capitals. The first description is considered the oldest; the principal example which contains this kind of window is Exeter cathedral, where they are very large and nearly all composed of this kind of tracery. The flowing tracery, which composes the greater number of windows of this style, AviU be better under- stood by reference to the plate, than by any description we could give; a small one is delineated at plate 42, fig. 1, of which the form is copied from one at Sleaford church, Lincolnshire. A specimen of the application of the same feature to larger windows may be seen in the view, in which the small one forms part of the composition. The architraves are commonly enriched 52 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. by mouldings, which sometimes assume the form of columns, aiul the Avin- dows in composition frequently reach from pier to pier. The form of the arch is seldom more acute than that described on the equilateral triangle, and it is generally more obtuse. The richness of these windows invariably depends upon their size, tlie distance between the muUions being nearly the same in all; the largest, however, do not consist of more than nine lights. The drip-stone is, in this style, improved into an elegant canopy, the form of which is sometimes pedimental, and sometimes an ogee arch. It is decorated with crockets and a. fihial, and the space inclosed by it, and the exterior contour of the arch, is sometimes filled with tracery. The great west window of York cathedral, one of the finest in Great Britain, has a trian- gular one. The circular window was also brought to perfection in this style. A fine example in form, though not in detail, is now all that remains of the ancient palace of the Bishops of Winchester in Bankside, Southwark. This is of the geometrical description; one of the finest of flowing tracery is in the south transept of Lincoln cathedral. The doors of this style are not so distinct as the windows, from those of the former period ; double doors are not so frequent, and the shafts are not detached from the mouldings, as in the Early English. In small doors there is frequently no column, but the mouldings of the arch are carried down the sides without interruption; there is frequently no base moulding, but a plain, sloped face to receive the architrave. They arc surmounted by the same sort of canopies as the windows. The steeples of this period are distinguished from those of the last in little more than their windows, and a few uninq^ortant details. The north-west spire of Peterborough cathedral, before described, decidedly belongs to it, though the tower beneath is Early English. The tower and spire of Newark church, Lincolnshire, arc pointed out by Mr. Kickman as a pecu- liarly fine example. The groining of the ceiling will be understood by referring to plate 41, THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE. 53 where the groinings are seen springing from upper part of the caps, figs. 4 and 7. Fig. 4 is the groining of the nave of York cathedral, the purest example of equal richness. Most frequently, however, the nicely decorated ribs are omitted, and the rib from pier to pier, with the cross springers, and the longitudinal and transverse ribs only are employed. At the intersection of these, bosses, or sculptured ribs, are almost invariably placed. The aisle- roofs are very rarely enriched Avith superfluous ribs, hut those of Redcliff church, Bristol, are elegant exceptions. Of arches little can be said. Of their forms it may be sufficient to observe, that the lancet arch is rarely to be met with ; the Tudor never, but in one instance, — the nave of Westminster cathedral, — built, or rather cased, by the celebrated William of Wyckham ; and it is here necessarily adopted on account of the form of the Norman arch, it was employed to conceal. TJje mouldings are in general less numerous, and, consequently, less bold than those of the preceding style. In small works, the ogee arch is frequently found, and decorated with crockets, and a finial. One of these is shown in plate 42, fig. 2. The piers of this style are, for the most part, square in their general form, and placed diagonally; two variations of these are shown in the plate 41, figs. 6, 9. That marked 3, is from Exeter cathedral, and 6, from the nave of that of York; both are pure and beautiful examples. The shafts are sometimes filleted; that is, a square and narrow face is continued vertically along its surface, projecting slightly from it. The capitals are frequently enriched with foliage, and the bases, in many instances, consist of reversed ogees, with square faces of various projections, and sometimes other mould- ings. Decorated English buttresses are distinguished from those of the last style, which are most applicable to it, only by their greater richness, in buildings where decorations are not spared; and, consequently, in others they are perhaps the least characteristic parts of the composition. They are, however, usually finished by pinnacles, which are generally distinguished 54 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. from those of the former style. The flying buttress is almost invariably used, and also surmounted by a pinnacle, which usually corresponds with the lower one. The buttresses of the aisles of Exeter cathedral are remarkable for being detached from the wall, the only support they afford to which is by the arches which connect them with it at the top. The parapets of this style are sometimes horizontal, and sometimes em- battled, each of which is frequently pierced in the form of cinquefoil headed arches, quatrefoils, and triangles. Sunk panels are, however, more common. When plain embattled parapets are employed, the crowning mouldings are usually continued horizontally only, tlie face towards the opening being merely a vertical section. As many of the ornamental parts of Gothic architecture were brought to perfection during this period, they cannot be better introduced than in this place. Among these, the use of crockets is a prominent feature; these are small bunches of foliage running up the side of the gabkt, afterwards im- proved into the ogee canopy over doors, windows, and ornamental arches, and finished by a combination of tw^o or more, called fmial, whicli is separat- ed from the rest by a small moulding. They are also used to decorate the angles of pinnacles. The upper part of a canopy of this description is shown in plate 42, fig. 2, from which these ornaments will be better understood than from any description. Another peculiarity of Gothic architecture is the feathering of windows, screen work, ornamental arches, panels, and some- times doors. It is called trefoil, quatrefoil, or cinquefoil, according to the number of segments of circles, which are called cusp.s, of which it is com- posed. The method of drawing it may be seen from the window in the plate. A very beautiful door, thus ornamented, still exists in St. Stephen's chapel, Westminster, now the Mouse of Commons. Although the grotesque is the prevailing character of the sculpture em- ployed in the decoration of Gothic architecture, many small ornaments are found, particularly in this style, designed with taste, and executed with the THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE. 55 utmost delicacy. They are copied from the heautiful, though humhle flowers of the field, and are, in many instances, local. We have compared the former style to the Doric of the Greeks, and the present may, with less propriety, be likened to the Ionic of the same people. Boldness and simplicity characterize the first; elegance and delicacy the second. In both Greek and Gothic orders, ornament to profusion is allow- able; yet in neither does it interfere with the composition, and may be entirely omitted. From this circumstance arises a universal applicability, belonging only to the far-famed happy medium, so often talked of, so seldom attained. In grandeur of composition, simplicity of arrangement, elegance of form, and perfection of capability, this style is, therefore, unrivalled, and may be used, with advantage, for every purpose of civil architecture. It is, how- ever, peculiarly adapted for all churches whose size and situation render them of importance; and in such large buildings, where Gothic architecture may be thought desirable, as are of sufficient consequence to allow the architect to think of delicacy in the design of his details. ©l)c PcrpcnMcuIar 0ti)le. The last of the grand divisions of Gothic architecture is the Perpendicular Style, introduced as the preceding fell into di.suse, and finally overwhelmed by its own superfluity of decoration, and uncompromising minuteness. It was not wholly lost sight of before the reign of James I., but few buildings were then erected without a mixture of Italian work. The Perpendicular Style, like the others, is most readily distinguished by its windows, whence it also derives its appellation; the muUions of which, instead of being finished in flowing lines, or geometrical figures, are carried perpendicularly into the head. They are further distinguished by a transom, or cross-mullion, to break the height, under which is usually a feathered arch, and sometimes it is ornamented above by small battlements. The 56 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. architraves of windows in this style have seldom shafts or mouldings, as in the former, but are worked plain, and, frequently, with a large hollow. Although these windows do not admit of any great variety in the disposition of the tracery, they are far more numerous than those of either of the other styles; few specimens of which remain that do not bear marks in their win- dows of the rage for alterations which appears to have prevailed during this period. The doors of this style are remarkably varied from those of the preceding ones, by the arch's being finished by a horizontal moulding, which is continued down to the springing of the arch, and then shortly returned. This is called a label. The space, enclosed by it and the exterior line of the arch, is called the spandrel, which is conunonly filled with a circle enclosing a quatrefoil and other circular ornaments. The steeples of this style are, for the most part, extremely rich ; spires are seldom met with, but lanterns are frequently used. A lantern is a turret placed above a building, and pierced with windows, so as to admit light into the space below. This is sometimes placed on the top of a tower, as at Boston, and supported with flying buttresses springing from it, and some- times constitutes the tower itself, as at York, Peterborough, and Ely cathe- drals, where it is placed at the intersection of the cross, and has a very fine effect. The exterior angles are frequently concealed by octagonal turrets containing stair-cases, but are usually strengthened by buttresses, either double or diagonal. A most beautiful finish for a steeple is found in that of the Church of Newcastle upon Tyne; where a small, square tower, eacli side of which is nearly occupied by a window, surmounted by a spire, is wholly supported by arch buttresses, .springing from the pinnacle of (he great tower. This is copied by Sir Christopher Wren, in the Church of St. Dunstan's in the East; which though, in workmanship and detail, it is far inferior to the original, excels it in the proportion it bears to the rest of the composition. Groining, in perpendicular work, assumes a new and more delicate THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE. 57 character. A number of small ribs, diverging from a centre, are carried up in the form of one side of a pointed arch, and terminated equidistantly from that centre by a semicircle. As they recede from the point, they are divided by smaller ribs or mullions, and these again are subdivided, according to the size of the roof, so as to make all the panels of nearly equal size. These panels are ornamented with feathered arches, &c., in the same manner as the windows, in conformity to which the whole is designed. The intervals between these semicircles are filled with tracery of the same description. This kind of roof is called fan tracery; it is exquisitely beautiful, and almost the only kind of groining used in this style. Another description of roof must now be mentioned, of very diflferent character; this is the timber roof, of which Westminster Hall presents so magnificent an example. Here the actual timbers of the roof are so arranged as to form an architectural combi- nation of great beauty; a wooden arch springs from each side of the building, supporting a pointed central one, finished downwards with pendants. The rest of the framing is filled with pierced panelling. This kind of roof is not found in churches, but it seems well adapted for large halls for public busi- ness, or any place intended for the occasional reception of large meetings. The arch., in late perpendicular work, is generally low in proportion to its breadth, and is described from centres ; this is called the Tudor arch, from its having been principally in use under the reign of two princes of that family. Besides this distinction in the form of the arch, there is an important one in the arrangement of the mouldings, which are carried down the architrave without being broken by a capital ; and sometimes there is one shaft with the capital and the others without. The iners are remarkable for their depth in proportion to their width; frequently there is a flat face of considerable breadth in the Inside of the arch, and a shaft in front running up to support the groining. The capitals, when there are any, are generally composed with plain mouldings; but there is sometimes a four-leaved square flower placed in the hollow. 58 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Tlic buttresses and pmnaeles contain little remarkable, and are only distin- guished from those of the last style by their extraneous ornaments, if they have any ; the buttresses are sometimes panelled, and in some very late spec- imens, the pinnacles are in the form of domes, of which the contour is an ogee arch. The parapets of this style are generally embattled and pierced; they are worked with great delicacy in the form of quatrefoil circles, &c. Tlie ornament of the Perpendicular Style is well characterized by the name, many buildings being, as Mr. Rickman observes, nothing but a series of vertical panelling. "For example," says he, "King's College chapel is all panel, except the floor; for the doors and windows are nothing but pierced panels, included in the general design ; and the very roof is a series of them in diflerent shapes." Monotony is inseparable from such an arrangement; grandeur is incompatible with it, and the appearance of it is a certain prog- nostic of decline in whatever is marked by its introduction. A beautiful small ornament, peculiar to this style, is the Tudor flower, which is a series of square flowers placed diagonally, and frequently attached, connected at the bottom by semicircles; the lower interstices are filled with some smaller ornament. This is principally employed as a finish to cornices, in orna- mental work. With whatever justice the preceding styles have been compared with the Doric and Ionic orders of Grecian architecture, the comparison does not hold between the present and the Corinthian. The former is a necessary gradation in the art, and is applicable to compositions of any size. The latter is not necessary, and is unpleasing, except in small works. The change from the graceful forms of the decorated windows to inelegant, artless, straight lines; the alteration in the form of the arch, which is a deviation from one of the leading principles of Gothic architecture, and, above all, that inor- dinate passion for ornament and minutia;, which, like excessive rcfiiienient in other matters, is a certain mark of the decay of true taste; in short, almost ARCHITECTURE OF AMERICA. 69 ev'ery peculiarity in this style indicates approaching dissolution. These circum- stances, however, which render the perpendicular style so objectionable for large buildings, make it peculiarly appropriate for small and confined parts of a building, such as chapels and domestic apartments, when Gothic archi- tecture is preferred. For the latter purpose, we fear, indeed, it is ill adapted in any shape ; all its peculiarities seem to point at magnificence and imposing effect, with which magnitude is inseparably connected, as their ultimate objects and the most proper field for their display ; and with the.se qualities, it is well known domestic comfort has little in common. The confined space in which the latter can alone be enjoyed, is ill reconcileable with the interminable vistas and lofty proportions, by many considered as the perfec- tion of the former. It is, however, not only proper, but necessary, in some cases, to employ the Gothic in the decoration of apartments, and where this happens, this style ig decidedly preferable. It has been truly observed by an ingenious writer on the subject of English architecture, that it can in no case be advantageously blended with the Grecian, differing, as it does, so essentially in its component parts. The Grecian style is designated by horizontal lines, supported on columns, and by the entablature and its component parts, while the Gothic is dependent on per- pendicular lines, and arches variously decorated, for the leading feature in its composition; as may plainly appear by con.sulting the best Grecian examples, and comparing them with the Decorated English, justly bearing the appella- tion here given by that able writer on this subject, Mr. Rickman. ^rcl)ttccturc of QVmmca. The architecture of our country is at present in a very undefined, we may almost say in a chaotic state, though it has, since the commencement of the nineteenth century, undergone much improvement. It is now but about two hundred years, not so long as many of the finest specimens of European 60 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. architecture liave been standing, since a band of Pilgrims, driven by perse- cution from their native country, hmdcd upon these Avestern shores, and found a vast expanse of wilderness, stretching from one ocean to the other in breadth, and in length almost from the northern to the southern pole. Our country was then literally the new world. It was in a perfect state of nature ; and art had left scarcely a foot-print on its soil. The savage, with barely .skill enough to .shape his rude bow, to break the flint to a point for his arrow-head, and to peel the bark from the forest trees for his hut, was its only inhabitant. And tliose men, who, for freedom of opinion, had fled from civilized Europe, landed here in the commencement of a severe winter, bringing with them but few recollections which could endear them to the things they had left. The hardships and persecutions they had so long endured had chastened (heir spirits, and imbued them with a formal stiffness and austerity, which manifested itself in all their works, and in notliing more than in the simple severity of their architecture. They appear to have been desirous of entirely obliterating the memory of the magnificent churches, and pompous ceremonials, attendant on the worship of their oppressors ; and, in the meeting-house of the Puritans, we see not this division of nave, transept, and choir ; chancel and altar are lost, as well as the clus- tering columns and intersecting arche.s, which seem as if " Some fairy's hand 'Twixt poplars straight, the ozier wand, In many a prankish knot, had twined ; Then framed a spell, when the work was done, And changed the willow wreaths to stone-" Those beauties of England's Gothic churches, as well as the more chaste and simple, and yet more enduring elegance of the Grecian temples, were never copied by them. And there were other reasons why the beauties of ornamental architecture have, in our country, been so long neglected. Tiie ARCHITECTURE OF AMERICA. 61 landing of the Puritans on our shores, made an era in the annals of the world, a luminous point in the path of civilization, whence we may date the commencement of an age; and the spirit of this new age is an enterprising spirit. Men leave their homes, plunge into the dense forest, find a stream whose banks, perhaps, the foot of a white man never before trod, erect a mill whose plashing wheel and whizzing saws soon tell that the forester's axe has found work abroad ; and the mill, in turn, makes busy the echoing hammer, which now reigns throughout the village, from early morn to dewy eve; and, in a few days, we may say, a mimic city has arisen, where no dwelling but the Indian hut was ever before seen. True, it is a city of shingle palaces, erected to endure but for a generation. But the spirit of the age is locomotive. The people of this age are a transient people, flitting from place to place ; and each builds a hut for himself, not for his successors. Railways and canals are fast spanning the continent. Our sons and daughters live abroad, and look out for rapid vehicles rather than abiding dwelling-places. Nought is here heard of those immense fortunes which have been accumu- lating for centuries in one family, and which, invested in massive castles or gorgeous palaces, with park and forest, have descended, entailed, from generation to generation, and been renewed, added to, and beautified by each successive occupant. Fortunes are here, as it were, made and lost in a day ; and funds, invested in real property, though safe, are slowest in turning. Indeed, building has never been a favorite mode, with our people, for invest- ment; and domestic architecture has, therefore, suffered much. But it is already beginning to improve, as many chaste and beautiful specimens in our immediate neighborhood testify. This spirit of improvement, however, is principally manifested in the designs and materials of our public buildings; among which we have many that might challenge the admiration of the European connoisseur. We want not now for models to be found in our own country of the purest Grecian, or the more beautiful Gothic, and surely we want not for materials. Among our public buildings, the Capitol at 62 IIURAL ARCHITECTURE. Washington is deserving of notice. Simple and elegant in its interior, its exterior is beautiful and imposing. The domes over the wings rise with an elegant and gracelul curve, and may be considered almost perfect specimens of that most dillicult branch of ornamental architecture. "Were the same graceful elevation given to the centre dome, it would add much to the beauty of tlie building. In Piiiladelphia we have the United States Bank, a faultless specimen of the pure Doric ; classic, chaste, and simple in its pro- portions, it is a building of which we may well be proud. Philadelphia may also boast of her Exchange, and the Mint; both of which, built of white marble, in a style to suit the material, have a very imposing appearance. The Girard College, too, Avhen completed, will be a magnificent specimen of the Corinthian order. The Custom House, at New York, built of white marble in the Grecian style, is the finest building in the city ; and the new building for tiie University, is a beautiful specimen of the Gothic style. In Boston we have many beautiful buildings, but few of pure architecture. Trinity Church, in Summer street, is built of rough granite in the Gothic style. The front is beautiful, massive, and imposing in its appearance, but the sides belong to an age of the Gothic different from the front ; the interior excels that of any other church in our city, in beauty; the walls painted in fresco, the graceful and well-proportioned clusters of pillars, the oaken wood-work, and the ornamented chancel, give it a magnificent appearance. But the central arch of the roof is altogether out of proportion, and, if con- structed of any heavy material, could not support its own weight; it certainly adds no beauty, but rather takes from that of the other portions. The new building for the Library, and the Unitarian Church, at Cambridge, are among our best specimens of (iotliic architecture, and we can only wish the church had been built of more durable materials. We have many graceful and elegant spires, both upon our city churches and those in our vicinity. That of the Federal Street Church, which is l)uilt in the Gothic style, is a model much to be admired. Among our .specimens of ARCHITECTURE OF AMERICA. 63 Doric, worthy of mention, are the new Custom House, the United States Branch Bank, the Hospital at Rainsford Island, the Washington Bank, and Q,uincy Market, a plain but noble structure of Iiewn granite, about five hundred feet in length, constructed by, and an honor to, our city. The Stone Chapel, at the corner of School and Tremont streets, is our oldest specimen of the Ionic order. We have, also, of the same order, St. Paul's Church, the Suffolk Bank, and Tremont Theatre. The facade of the theatre is chaste and dignified, but the roof is too steep for that order. The front of Central Church, in Winter street, and the rotunda of the Merchants' Ex- change, are of the Corinthian style. We have already trespassed on the limits usually assigned to a preface, but we hope not unnecessarily so. Want of space prevents our saying as much on domestic architecture as we would wish, in this part of the volume. But that is a branch of the art which, is yet in its infancy among us, and a part upon which, if we should only write a page or two here, the little con- tained in that page or two, would only serve to show the need of more. We would only suggest, that in constructing a dwelling-house, the con- venience and comfort of the interior should ever receive more attention than the exterior elegance and symmetry ; and that the beauty of a private house consists not so much in the nearness of its resemblance to a Grecian temple, a Chinese pagoda, or a Gothic church, as in its fitness for the purpose for which it is designed. It is necessary, above all things, to remember that houses are made to live in, and the convenience of their inmates is the first thing to be considered ; after that, ornament may be added. It has been our design, in preparing this work for the press, to add the little in our power towards establishing a pure and correct taste in our domestic architecture; and if we have succeeded in that, we shall consider ourselves more than repaid, in the sense that we have done our duty in pay- ing the debt which every man owes to his profession. 64 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. PART III. THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING- HOUSES AND BUILDINGS IN GENERAL. We noAA" offer a few remark.s on Domestic Architecture. With respect to the situation of a house, where choice is allowed, it is obvious that the most desirable must be that which combines the advantages of pure air, and protection from cold winds, with a plentiful supply of water, convenient access, &.c. As these observations, however, must present them- selves to every one, we shall not here dwell upon them, but proceed to consider those essential parts of a house, rooms. And, first, their effect upon the exterior figure of a house. The form which gives the largest area with the least circumference is evidently a circle; but this figure, when divided into apartments, is very inconvenient, from the numerous acute angles and broken curves which must necessarily com2)ose them. Nearly the same objections apply to the triangle, which has the further disadvantage of occupying a smaller area with respect to its circumference than any other figure. Rectangular forms, therefore, are best adapted for houses in general ; since, within them, the divisions of apartments may be made with the greatest regularity and least waste. As rectangles are most readily divided into rectangles, this is also the figure which may be employed to the greatest advantage in the rooms themselves. As to the proportions of tliese, the length may range from one to one and a half breadth. If larger than this, the room partakes too much of the gallery form. The usual rule for the height of a room is, if it be oblong, to make it DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 65 as liigli as it is broad ; and if square, from four fifths to five sixths of the side is a good proportion. With regard to health, however, no room should be less than ten feet in height. It is obvious, that on a floor where there are many rooms, they must be of various sizes, and to regulate them all by archi- tectural rules would be productive of much inconvenience. As, therefore, the apparent height of a flat ceiled room is greater than that of a coved one of equal altitude, it is usual, in these cases, to make the larger rooms with flat ceilings, and the smaller ones with coved or domes. Apartments of state of unusual size may occupy two stories. With regard to the decoration of ceilings, a great diversity of taste exists. At one period, no ceiling w^as thought to be sufficiently ornamented unless it was covered WMth paintings, chiefly representing allegorical subjects. This taste was carried to a great excess, and was the subject of much ridicule. Of late years, ornament of any description has been thought superfluous, and the ceiling has been usually left completely bare. This is, however, giving way to the geometrical decorations prevalent during the middle and latter part of the last century, which certainly give an enriched efTect to a room, and possess this advantage over every other method of decoration, that they are capable of any degree of simplicity or richness, both in form and detail, according to the size of the apartment, or quantity of decoration in it. For rooms which are small, and the ceiling consequently near the eye, these ornaments should be delicately worked ; but iti those of larger size they re- quire to be bolder. The angles formed by the ceiling and walls are con- cealed by cornices, the enrichment of which will of course depend upon the delicacy or simplicity observed in the embellishments of the room. 66 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. I3oor0. The proportion for doors is somewhat over twice the breadth in ht-ight, as three and seven feet. Entrance doors, three, four, and seven feet. In case of larger doors, for folding or sliding in partitions, or those for public houses, they should vary according to the height of stories, ■niiere they are required not to exceed twelve feet in width. Doors for apartments should be as near the centre of partitions as con- venient. For a suite of rooms, the doors should be nearly opposite ; but in no case should they be placed near the fire-place, or so as to open opposite the bed, excepting those wjiicli connect the dressing-room "with the bed- chamber. The usual method of ornamenting doors is to fini.sh the two sides and top with architraves, or fancy pilasters — corner block at the upper angles — or an entablature, frieze, and cornice; outside ones with pilasters, or attached columns, entablature, and cornice. iDinb 0UJ5. It is obvious, that in arranging the windows of an apartment, it will first be necessary to decide on the quantity of light required to be admitted. Sir William Chambers observes, that in the course of his own practice, he has generally added the depth and height of room.s on the principal floors to- gether, and taken one eighth part thereof for tiie width of tlie window. The height of the aperture in the principal floor should not much exceed double the width. In the other stories, they are necessarily lower in propor- tion, the width containing the same. The windows in modern houses are frequently brought down to tiio floor, in imitation of tlie French; but where this is not the case, the sills should be from tv»o feet four to two feet six CHIMNEY-PIECES. 67 inches from the floor. The windows of the principal floor are generally the most enriched, and the usual manner of decorating them is by an architrave, surrounding them with a frieze and cornice, and sometimes a pediment. When they are required to be more simple, the frieze and cornice are omitted. In a front, the pediments are, for the sake of variety, often made triangular, and curved alternately, as in the banqueting-house at Whitehall. When windows are required to be very broad in proportion to their height, the Venetian window is frequently employed, which consists of three contig- uous apertures, the centre one being arched. The usual mode of executing this, is by dividing the apertures by columns, and placing corresponding ones at the extremities of the opening ; the side apertures are covered by an entabla- ture, and the centre by a semicircular architrave, of which the entablature forms the impost. In modern times, they are finished without columns and impost moulding, or arch, but have a straight cap; the centre, three lights wide, and one on each extremity. The necessary remarks on chimneys, as a part of hidlding, will be more properly introduced in another place ; we have here only to consider them as parts of a room and its decoration. With respect to the situation of chimney-pieces, we have already men- tioned that they should be sufiiciently removed from the door. Sir William Chambers further advises that they should be " so situated as to be imme- diately seen by those who enter, that they may not have the persons already in the room, who are seated generally about the fire, to search for." Whether the worthy knight had experienced personal inconvenience from a mal- disposition in this respect, we cannot tell, but do not conceive it to be an evil of the first magnitude. The standard proportion of the chimney-piece is a square ; in larger rooms 68 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. somewhat lower, and in smaller, a liltle higher; i(s size will, of course, depend on the quantity of space to be heated, but the width of the aperture should not be less than three feet, nor more than five feet six inches. When the size of the apartment is considerable, it is better to make two fire-places. In the decoration of chimney-pieces, the utmost wildness of fancy has been indulged, but it is certainly proper to regulate their ornaments by the style of the building to which they belong. Those in which the Roman style predumiuates, arc designated much in the same manner as the windows, except where magnificence is attempted, in which case caryatides, termini, •Sic, are employed. In modern taste, little is done by way of decoration; their richness consists principally of beautiful specimens of variegated marble columns or pilasters, and entablature. 0tairs. " Stair-cases," says Palladio, " will be commendable if they are clear, ample, and commodious to ascend, inviting people, as it were, to go up. They will be clear, if they have a bright and equally diflfused light; they will be sufficiently ample, if they do not seem scanty, and narrow, to the size and quality of the fabric, but they should never be less than three feet in width, that two persons may pass each other; they will be convenient in respect to the whole building, if the arches under them can be used fur domestic purposes; and, with respect to persons, if their ascent is not too sleep and difficult, to avoid which, the steps in breadth should be nearly once and a half the height of the rise." In modern dwellings the number of the steps depends on the height of the story they are intended to ascend, as galleries of less height are omitted for convenience of room and style of composition. The rise should not exceed eight inches, nor be less than six inches in height ; their top surfaces are sometimes inclined for greater case in ascending. The ancients were accustomed to make the number of steps of an odd number, STAIRS. 69 that they might arrive at the top with the same foot that tlicy began the ascent wit!i; this arose from a superstitious idea of devotion in entering their temples. Palladio directs tliat the number of steps should not exceed thirteen before arriving at a resting-place; the present number of steps in flights is between thirteen and nineteen. Stair-cases are either rectilinear or curvilinear in their forms ; the former are most usual in dwelling-houses, as being more simple, and, in general, executed with less waste of material ; but the latter, which may be either circular or elliptical, admit of greater beauty, if large, and greater con- veniency, if small. Small stair-cases of this description are generally circu- lar, and have a column, called a newel, in the middle; they are constructed with great simplicity, the newel being composed of one end of the successive steps, while the other rests in the wall. They are found in all our country churches. When ornament is studied, the steps may be made curved, which has a very pleasing effect. Modern stair-cases are finished with a newel at the foot of the first step, from si.x: to eight inches diameter, richly carved. Where ample room is allowed, it is usual to put on a curtail step and scroll- rail, supported with an iron newel, and up the rail are several iron balusters to secure the same. In large designs, however, the elliptical is generally preferred, and is capable of very grand effect, which Sir William Chambers has sufficiently shown in one of the stair-cases at Somerset Place, (that belonging to the Royal Society, and Society of Antiquaries,) which, without any superfluous decoration, is a design of uncommon magnificence, and excelled by few of the kind. The newel being of a very unpleasing form in this kind of stair- case, is an objection to its use where it is of a small size. Those stair-cases which are open in the centre, are generally lighted from the top, but where this is impracticable, the light is admitted by windows in the most advantageous position the situation will allow. 70 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. (Grecian Poric. PLATES. I have here made use of the Grecian example, given by Vitruvius, from the temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at Athens, built under the administra- tion of Pericles, the representation of which is found in Plate 1. Fig. 1. The proportional figures from the scale of the column. Divide the lower end into two equal parts; each is called a module; divide the module into thirty parts, which are called minutes as figured on the order; under the column // is the height of each member, and under the colunin /* their pro- jections from a line drawn perpendicular through the centre of this column, the entire height of the order. Fig. 2. The scale of diameter. Fig. 3. The lower part of the same. Fig. 4. The whole height of the order, the letters on the same are refer- ences to the introduction. Plate 2. Fig. 1. A section of the entablature showing the manner of finish and the form of the mouldings inside of the portico. Fig. 2. A section of the column at both ends, with twenty flutes and the manner of striking th6m; divide the circumference into twenty equal parts; trace lines to the centre; with the dividers draw a line, for the circumference of the top, intersected by tlie radius a, b ; extend the dividers from c to d, and for the circumference of the lower diameter, to g ; and from c, describe the curve for the flute c, /; and, in like manner, for the upper diameter, as shown by g, e,f. Fig. 3. Represents the planceir with the mutules, having three rows of pins, six in each row, which are said to have arisen from the idea of the ends of rafters forming the roof. GRECIAN DORIC. 71 Fig. 4. The elevation of the triglyphs containing two whole and two half channels. Fig. 5. Shows a section of the gutta?, or drops, that are formed under the triglyph, or under the fillet of the architrave. Fig. 6. The capital of column ; a, b, the annulets formed on the lower part of the ovolo. Plate 3. Fig. 1. Grecian antse; the width, when connected with columns, is governed by the diameter at the end of the column; they both being equal, the projection of each will not materially differ ; but, on the outside of build- ings, the breadth may be fifty-five minutes; on the external angles of porticos, they may be twenty-seven and a half minutes each, and leaving twenty-four minutes between the shaft; this will have a very good effect in large works. The projections from tlie wall are one fifth, and when inserted disconnected with columns, one fourth to one half may be the projections; when the com- position is purely classical, one half will be in the best taste. Fig. 2. The projection from the wall one fifth. Fig. 5. The proportion of the capital, as figured for practical use. Fig. 3. The mensuration of another cap. Fig. 4. The projection from the wall. Fig. 6. The proportion of the cap, as figured at large. Plate 4. Fig. 1. Grecian frontispiece for outside doors, caps of pilasters, from plate 3, fig. 6. Fig- 2. A vertical section showing the return of pilaster, panel, projection of imposts, doors, &c. ; b, the threshold; a, a, a, steps, &c.; j, the return of pilasters; c, the panel and recess; d, the ceiling and the recess, with moulded panel; p, the architrave and width of soffit; /, the frieze of entablature; g, the portion, backing up from stone work, shown by dotted lines ; e, the floor timber, fastened by timber-clasps. 72 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Plate 5. Fig. 1. The elevation of interior door. This style of inside doors, al- though very plain, is much admired on account of the smooth surface for paint, the durability, and the ease with which it is kept clean; thereby ren- dering it one principal reason for adopting it for common use. Drawn one inch to a foot; //, the architrave, with quatrefoil rosets let into the middle angle three eighths of an inch ; I, the style ; J, the panel ; K, the munnion ; N, N, the plinth. Fig. 2. Horizontal section; o, a, the jambs; h, h, the blocking-space; c, c, the back jamb ; d, d, furring. Fig. 3. The vertical section, full thickness ; M, the rail ; L, the panel. Plate 6. Fig. 1. A horizontal section of one of the jambs, full size ; C, C, the jamb and stop; D, D, the grounds; E, E, the lath and plastering; F, E, the archi- trave; G, the door. Plate 7. Fig. 1 is a horizontal section of a window-frame, designed for a frame house, with board and sheathed walls, the outside casing flush, the blinds shut Hush with the casing ; and, when painted a stone color, has a very pleasing effect for a Doric house, and, at a little distance, resembles stone in color, as well as in the style of finish ; A, the pulley-style; /?, rough boarding ; C, outside casing; />, stud ; E, parting-slip; 7^, parting-bead ; G, sash and blind-stop ; II, sash-bead ; I, inside casing ; J, back lining; A' furring ; L, shut- ter-stop; M, lath and plastering; JV, pilaster or architrave; O, O, shutters. Fig. 2. A section of a window designed for brick or stone wall ; a, brick wall; b, outside moulding; c, outside casings; d, pulley-style; e, parting-slip; /, parting-bead ; g, sash-bead ; h, box casing ; i, back casing ; ;, furring ; k, edge casing; /, ground; m, lath and plastering; n, architrave. Fig. 3. a, soffit-bed ; 6, top sash-rail ; c, style ; d, sash-bead ; c, outside of GRECIAN DORIC. 73 box ; /, wall moulding; g.g, meeting rails; //, bottom rail; i, i, middle rails ; j, wood sill ; A", stone sill ; C, back. Plate 8. Fig. 1. The elevation of a French window; a, a, a, a, sash-styles; b, b, top rails ; c, c, bottom rails. Fig. 2. Vertical section of one side, sills, &c. Fig. 3. A portion of the style, full thickness ; a, style ; b, brass plate, the dotted semicircle, the portion of wood hollowed out; c, the perforation through the plate to admit the pivot at the end of d; d, is a circular drop extending the entire width of the fold, each end playing in a plate each side, the pin or pivot to play loosely, as the plate d, by opening or shutting, is moved over the sill; and, as the sash closes, the plate d drops in and rests on the bottom, and cuts off the pressure of wind and water ; c, the rabbet. Plate 9. Fig. 1. A geometrical elevation of a Grecian Doric house, on a scale of fifteen feet to an inch, designed for a gentleman's residence, in our republican country. The site is on the summit of a gentle eminence, which gives to it a peculiarly picturesque view, and a free circulation of air. Fig. 2. The first floor; a, the entrance hall ; b, b, parlors, with slide-doors ; c, sitting-room ; d, china-room ; e, dining-room ; /, back stair-case ; g, principal stair-case ; If, If, chimneys ; f, I, f, I, columns of portico. It is intended to have the kitchen, pantry, store-room, «&;c., under the dining-room ; in such cases, it will be necessary to open an area on the outside, eight feet wide, the whole lengtli of the back side, with steps down at each end, and a back entrance to the same. Spedjication. The excavation should be sufficient to admit the passage of workmen both sides of the walls, and to secure an equal density of bottom, either by 10 74 EURAL ARCHITECTURE. beetling, by inverted arches, or by driving piles; in most cases, the beetling onhj will be necessary, especially in a location like this. Foundation- Walls, The first course sliould be two and a half feet broad, and one foot deep, with stones as long as convenient; the other courses, rising to within four inches of the intended grading of the ground, may be one foot ten inches in thickness, and properly leveled, the inside faced to batter one inch. Umlcrpinning. Fine hammered granite, three feet eight inches in lieight, the thickness one foot ten inches, as follows : Offset inside for floors, one and a half inch. Thickness of wall, one foot. Thickness of pilasters, six inches. Outside Avash, one and a half inch. Top of underpinning projects one inch. The wall of the building, on the area, should be fine hammered granite, one foot nine inches thick, with splays, or bevils, cut for window-shutters; this wall should be perpendicular, faced on both sides; the bank wall for the area, at least three feet thick at bottom, faced up inside to batter one inch, five feet in height, and topped with a fixed stone for iron work ; to have one flight of hammered granite steps at each end of the area ; at the upper back entrance of the house, a stone passage over the area si.x feet wide, with cast-iron fence each side, and five steps to descend to the lawn ; buttresses for front door steps, three feet six inches high, to project from underpinning five feet ten inches, being one foot eight inches thick ; five steps, six and a half feet long, eight inches rise, and one foot two inches in width of steps; project from the underpinning of end wall of liouse, eleven feet six inches ; the buttresses at the ends of portico.s, three feet two inches broad, three feet six inches high, eleven feet six inches long. Steps, thirty-six feet two inciies GRECIAN DORIC. 75 long, eight inches rise, one foot tvA^o inches tread; the floor of porticos of fine hammered granite ; if convenient, make the length and breadth in one stone, thirty-six feet two inches long, and eight feet wide; or if not, divide the length into three equal parts. The walls of principal, second, and attic stories, of fine hammered granite stone facings, from four to six inches thick, in regular courses, sixteen inches wide, of proper length ; beds and bells ham- mered; returns, quoins, and ravines, lined or backed up with bricks, making the thickness one foot; iron clamps inserted in each of the horizontal joints, once in three feet in length. For details of caps, entablature, cornice, &c., see plates for the same; gutters, sheet copper; battlements, stone. The roof is intended to be covered with galvanized iron or tin ; either will an- swer a good purpose : copper trunks on the inside of the walls ; chimneys laid up as per plan, plate 9, fig. 2; brick trimmers turned; hearths all laid; marble slabs for first and second stories; marble tiles for the attic. Chim- ney-pieces for parloi's, co.st $50 each ; for dining and sitting rooms, $40 each ; for chamber.s, $25 each. Lay up brick partition walls in the cellar. Parti- tions of entrance hall to rest on the same, piers and arches for chimneys ; lathing and plastering. Framing. First floor, plank, two by twelve inches. Ti'immers, three by twelve inch- es ; floor plank, sixteen inches from centre to centre. Second floor, two by eleven inches; the second and attic, distance as on the first floor; frame par- titions fitted for twelve inch nailings. Studs, three by four inches ; proper trusses and door-jambs ; the roof framed Avith trusses to support covering ; joists not exceeding seven feet for the bearing; the trusses to extend trans- versely across the building ; the centre ridge to rise four feet above the gut- ter at the eaves. The covering joists, or rafters, three by five inches, not to exceed two feet apart, and spiked on transversely over the trusses ; the porti- co's roof to have two sections of rafters, each joist four by five inches, two 76 RURAL ARCmTECTURE. feet apart, the roof well covered with matched boards, and fitted for the iron or tin covering. Floors. The under floors, straight edges -well nailed down, to be deepened by plastering three fourths of an inch thick, with screeds to level the same ; the screeds to be taken out, and the space filled with mortar after the first plaster is dry, to preserve the mortar from giving away ; cover the top with a thick coat of paste, and a layer of thick paper; it will, when dry, produce a hard surface ; then lay the top floors, for the best rooms, with one and a half inch clear lumber, not to exceed six inches wide, grooved and tongued, perfectly seasoned, to be keyed up and blind-nailed; the other floors laid with inch boards got to a width and thickness, properly laid level and smoothed. Furring. All of the walls, ceilings, and partitions, to be furred for one foot nailing. The furrings for the windows with shutters, in first and second story, arc to be one and three fourths inch plank; the jambs for doors and windows, to have suitable ground. The walls, plastered down to the under floors. Windows, To have box-frames double hung, for all except the French windows, first story, in the porticos ; those to swing in two parts, each one light in width ; see plate 8, figs. 1, 2, and 3 ; the thresholds rabbeted — see c, fig. 3; the width of opening, three feet six inches ; the other windows three feet four inches; twelve lights each, cherry-wood sasli ; first story, glass, twelve by twenty inches; second, twelve by sixteen; the attic, eleven by fifteen. For the first two stories, provide, hang, and fasten box-shutters and sash ; also box-shutters for the kitchen, fourfold, hung in two parts ; tlie French windows, cherry sash-frames, properly hung, with butt iiingcs; in the GRECIAN DORIC. 77 kitchen, stool casings, also stool and edge casing in the attic story ; the first and second stories to have backs, elbows, back-linings, and soffits, paneled shutters, pilasters for Avindow and doors; first story with cap, pilasters, &c. Doors. The outside ones two inches thick, three feet four inches by seven feet four inches ; inside, first story, three by seven feet ; one and three fourths inch thick. Second story, two feet ten inches by six feet ten inches, one and a half inch thick; all doors two panels. See plan of door, plate 5. Butt hinges and mortise locks for all the doors ; cut glass knobs for doors and shutters of the first and second stories ; for attic and kitchen, rose-wood knobs. The average price of Robinson's locks is $1 25. Pilasters, first story in regular proportions, support the stucco entablature ; second story, fancy pilasters and corner blocks. The attic and kitchens, plain pilasters and cor- ner blocks ; all doors to have hard wood thresholds. Stairs, To be built as per plan, in the hall one flight, circular framed carriages, curtail step and scroll, mahogany rail and balusters, noosing-step returned, framed gallery, skirtings, »Sic. ; a turned iron newel to support the rail ; / represents the common stair-case, leading from the basement floor to the attic, framed carriage and newels, the newels turned ; newels and rails of cherry wood, round pine balusters, noosing-steps returned, the steps and risers grooved to receive the plinths, proper ease ofF, «Stc. ; the stairs lighted from a sky-light through the roof; casings for rooms, where pilasters are introduced for doors and windows, should show only the plinth between ; you may have the attic base for the pilasters and subplinth; for details, pilasters and capitals, see plate 3, fig. 1 or 2. 78 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Sheathing. The kitchen and store-room, in the basement story, sheathed up with boards from five to six inches wide, four feet from the floor; sheathe also the bathing-room, ph\tc 10, fig. 2, at/; also provide and put up water-closet in the same, with such conveuieuces as are used in the first-class houses ; have bathing-tub and water-tank fitted to use warm and cold water at pleasure ; shower-bath, and proper apparatus for the same. Lathins and PUif^tcring. Lath and plaster all the walls; ceiling and partitions to be lathed and plastered with good lime and hair mortar, two coats, and finished with one coat of fine stuff. Whiten the ceiling, and prepare the walls for painting. The floors to be deepened by plastering on the under floors. Set cooking-range with cast-iron back, cast hollow for heating w'ater. See article on warming. Wurnung. This house is intended to be warmed by heated water. Pei-kins' patent is upon a principle that will bear investigation. The cooking-range in the kitchen is made with a hollow cast-iron back, to hold from four to five gallons, with copper pipes introduced, one at the bottom and one at the top of this back, extending near three feet from the boiler, one and a half to two inches cali- bre ; then lead pipe of the same size to be carried to the rooms to be warm- ed ; there lay a coil of about forty feet of pipe ; the coil may be enclosed in a chamber to imitate a piece of furniture, thence carried to all the apartments in the house, and returned to the under pipe connected with (he hollow back, having the whole tightly closed by sodcring ; then introduce an aperture at the highest point, made convenient for filling with water. When filled, close the aperture, when, by the common use of the range, a current is produced in the water within the pipe, passing from the upper pipe lieated, and returning through the lower pipe to renew the revolution. There being no escape for steam, one filling will last considerable time without renewing the water. GRECIAN DORIC. 79 Another, and, as we think, a still better method of warming hoiises, or other buildings, by means of heated water, is that of Mr. Dexter, of this city The following is a description of this method, as exemplified in the house of Mr. S. K. Williams, No. 68 Boylston street. A chamber of brickwork is built in the cellar, under tlie front entry, con- taining 360 cubic feet; under, and near the centre, is a grate similar to those used for Bryant and Herman's furnaces, over which is set a copper boiler, holding thirty-two gallons ; on one side of the boiler are fifty-four copper tubes, four inches in diameter and four feet long, set perpendicular, and resting upon a table of brickwork, three and a half feet above the bot- tom of the cellar; connected by six semi-cylindrical pipes, five feet in length, entering from the boiler, parallel to each other, and uniting with the boiler at the bottom. The upper ends of the tubes are united with each other in a transverse direction. The boiler is a cylinder, set upright above the brickwork four feet in height, and extends nearly to the height of the tubes. In the entry above is set a copper vessel with a lid to shut tight, con- taining sixteen gallons; a tube three fourths of an inch in diameter enters near the bottom, passing down through the air-chamber into the boiler, for the purpose of filling by a force pump ; a stop-cock is inserted in the vessel at top, to supply the boiler with cold water. The heated water is drawn from the same boiler for warm baths, and from this air-chamber are funnels, registers, and dampers, entering parlors, entry, &c. To communicate direct heat to the chambers, there is a wooden box ten by fourteen inches square, set perpendicular against the wall of the entry, passing up to the entry above, or communicating with the rooms by horizontal pipes and registers through the floor. At one side of the grate is a projection of brickwork, enclosing a metallic cylinder, fourteen or fifteen inches in diameter and about four and a half feet perpendicular, the top of which communicates with a register by a horizontal pipe. Near the bottom of this cylinder is a horizontal branch to admit the heated air from the large chamber to the small one. The smoke- 80 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. pipe passes from the grate into the large chamber, entering the perpendicular cylinder through the lower branch, thence through one side of the cylinder, horizontally, to the chimney-flue ; thus leaving suflicient space to admit the heat from the long chamber into the cylinder, around the smoke-pipe. To admit cold air into the chamber, a flue is provided twelve inches square, entering in a dovrnward direction under the front door steps. This flue passes horizontally under the cellar floor, rises in a perpendicular direc- tion, and enters the chamber near tlie top. The cold air finds its way through the hot air in the chamber and becomes sooner rarified than when entering near the bottom of the chamber. This experiment, by Mr. Dexter, is highly successful. It is secure against any eruption from the boiler or pipes, to the injury of the house or of its occupants. The rarified air thus obtained, produces a sensation similar to that produced by sitting in a room with the windows up, in the month of June. In effect, winter is thus changed into summer. Plate 10. Fig. 1 exhibits a perspective view of plate 0; the windows, first story in the porticos, are intended for long French style, to open down upon thresh- olds as a door. See plate 8. Fig. 2. Plan of chamber floors; a, the chamber entry ; c, c, c, c, bed- chambers; d, d, closets; h, stair-case continued; /, the bathing-room. Plate 11. Fig. 1 is a geometrical elevation of a very genteel residence, with a piazza in front, the entrance on the right hand side; this house may be built of wood, framed walls, floors and roof, the roof slated or shingled as may best suit the proprietor ; the walls boarded and sheathed. Fig. 2. The principal floor; a, the entrance hall, ten feet wide; b, b, par- lors with sliding doors; c, principal stair-case; d, china-room; g, kitchen; i, GRECIAN IONIC. 81 pantry ; j, wood-house ; h, back stairs ; c, the piazza. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. Plate 12. Fig. 1. A perspective view of plate 11, fig. 1. Fig. 2. The second floor ; a, h, d, c, /, bed-chambers ; h, dressing or bathing-room; g, the back stair-case; i, the front stair-landing; c, c, closets. The estimate for building this house, all above the cellar, is $2000 ; done in a plain manner according to the design here given. Plate 13. Fig. 1. The elevation of a cottage, Aery convenient for a small, genteel family ; drawn for French windows in the piazza ; to be built of wood, four- teen feet length of posts, ten feet first story, three feet eight inches upright walls in the attic ; attic story, eight feet in clear height. Fig. 2. The principal floor. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. Estimated cost, $1400. Plate 14. Fig. 1. A perspective view of the front, and one end of plate 13, fig. 1. Fig. 2. Second floor, dimensions of tlie rooms figured on the plan. (i^rectan JJonic. From the temple on the Ilyssus at Athens. In this example I have omitted the human figures, in the entablature, the adoption of which, by many, is con- sidered superfluous and absurd ; and have selected only those ornaments which essentially belong to the order, strictly preserving the proportions. Plate 15. Fig. 1 shows the proportions of the order in minutes, figured from the lower diameter of the column. Take two modules of thirty minutes each, or sixty minutes, for the diameter. 11 82 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 2 is the attic base, which is used in common to the orders. The column of figures under the letter // shows the height of the members, and under /*, the projections from a line drawn perpendicularly through the centre, the entire height of the order. Fig. 3. The entire height of the order as figured on the margin, with a full column. Plate 16. Fig, 1. The inverted section of the capital at one of the angles of the building. Fig. 2. The elevation of the capital. Fig. 3. One of the scrolls, on which is shown the method of drawing the same. Make the whole height forty minutes of the order ; then drop a plumb-line indefinitely from the lesser projection of the echinus. Take nine- teen and a half minutes from A to B. From B draw indefinitely the line B, c, at right angles with A, B. From B set off on B, c, three minutes to D. From D drop indefinitely the perpendicular D, E. On D, E, set off three minutes to F. From F draw indefinitely the horizontal line, F, G. On F, G, set off three minutes, to 7, making the square B, D, F, 7. By diagonal lines find the centre of this square which will be the centre of the eye. To de- scribe the curves of the volute, extend your dividers from B to A, and de- scribe the quadrant. A, c. On the point D, describe c, E. On the point F, describe E, G. On the point 7, describe G, I. Thi.s completes the first rev- olution. For the second revolution ; divide each side of the square jB, Z>, F, 7, into six equal parts, or half minutes. On each side of this square set off one half minute, and draw indefinitely the line 1,3, 2, parallel to /?, Z>, c; 3, 4, 5, parallel to Z>, F, E; 5, 0, 6, parallel to F, 7, G; and o, 1, 8, parallel to 7, B, A. Now, on point 1, describe the quadrant I, 2. On point 3, describe the quadrant 2, 4. On point 5, describe 4, 6. On point o, describe 6, 8. This completes the second revolution. For the third revolution, take another half GRECIAN IONIC. 83 minute on the square B, D, F, 7, and proceed as before. All the mouldings, of each quadrant, will of coui'se be described from the same central points. Plate 17. Fig. 1. The example from the temple of Minerva Polias, leaving the ornamented mouldings for those who prefer to make use of them in more expensive structures. The proportional measures are given on the margin in height and projections. Fig. 2. The Ionic base. Fig. 3. Elevation of the order. See figures on the mai-gin. This style of base, the attic, or the base on pilasters, plate 18, fig. 1, may be used as may be most appropriate for the structure into which they are introduced. The Ionic base may be most proper for common use. Plate 18. Fig. 1. A pilaster or anta to the Ionic column; the cap may be changed for e, plate 19. Fig. 2. The original cap figured in the columns H, P. Fig. 3. Base. See figures for proportions. Fig. 4. Dentils, as figured for cornice, plate 17. Fig. 5. Part of the elevation of cap to column, plate 17, fig. 1. Fig. 6. Method of drawing raking mouldings to coincide in B, A, c. At A, draw a right angle to Be; divide the depth of the moulding into four equal parts as 1, 2, 3, 4 ; draw parallel lines through 1, 2, 3, 4, to d, f, h. At the square, raise a perpendicular to o. From b, d,f, h, points of intersection, draw lines intersecting this, at right angles, at a, c, e, g. Now transfer b, a, to 4, 4 ; d, c, to 3, 3 ; f, e, to 2, 2 ; h, g, to 1,1. Transfer the same to c, as a, b ; c, d ; e,f; g, h. DraAV curved lines through each point of intersection, making the form of the moulding, which will conform to the same mould on the level cornice, on the flanks, when cut on the same mitre, raising the raking part to its intended angle. g4 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Mouldings. The original Grecian mouldings are best adapted for classical works, and produce, in my opinion, the best effect; invariably preserving the elliptic or conic sectional form, while the Roman are composed of parts of regular circles ; and the modern taste seems to have varied from both, inasmuch as straight lines have taken the place of circles and ellipses, as shown in plate 20, b, c; while a, d, e,/, g, preserve Grecian forms. Plate 19. Figs, a, 6, c, retain the principal curve of a Grecian cavetto, with addi- tions or combinations of other moulded forms ; this, in some cases, may be executed, and considered as an improvement. Mouldings, as here shown, may be executed in common to each of the Grecian orders, although their combi- nation differs somewhat in each of the Grecian examples ; d, is for a Grecian Doric impost or pilaster ; c, is intended for the Ionic or Corinthian, where foliage is not introduced. Plate 20. Figs, a, b, c, the Grecian quirk, ovolo and variations; d, c,f, cyma-reversa, and variations for the sake of variety ; g, cyma-recta ; h, bed-mould ; i, cyma- recta and addition of quirk and quarter round, which, in some cases, may be used with good effect, at near a level with the eye. Plate 21. Fig. 1. The elevation of a cottage, very convenient for a small genteel family; drawn for French windows in front. To be built of wood, four- teen feet length of posts, ten feet first story, three feet upright walls in the attic. Attic story, eight feet in clear height. Fig. 2. The principal floor; dimensions figured on the plan. Estimated cost, $1400. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. GEECIAN IONIC. 85 Plate 22. Fig. 1. A perspective view of the front and one end. Fig. 2. Second floor, dimensions of rooms figured on the plan. Plate 23. This villa is designed for a genteel dwelling, in a village or country town, to be erected on the summit of a gentle eminence. It is intended for comfort and convenience rarely met with in any dwelling ; as dwelling-houses depend much on their location for comfort, health, and pleasure. Fig. 1. A geometrical elevation; height of stories, — first, eleven feet, second, ten feet. Fig. 2. The first floor ; a, entrance hall ; h and c, parlors ; d, dining- room; e, sitting-room; /, back entry and stairs ; h, kitchen; i, closet; j, bath- ing-room ; g, back passage; k, wood-house. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. Plate 24. Fig. 1. Perspective view of plate 23. Fig. 2. Second floor ; dimensions of rooms figured. Plate 25. Fig. 1. Geometrical elevation with French windows and frontispiece. This house is intended for a professional gentleman. «, vestibule ; 6, dining-room; c, parlor; (Z, e, ante-rooms;/, china-closet; ^, kitchen ; /«, back entrance to stair-case. Plate 26. A perspective view of plate 25, designed for long French windows, to swing in from a threshold at the floor. Fig. 2. The second floor, with four bed-chambers ; dimensions marked on the plan. The roof on either side would be very convenient for enjoying an airing after a hot summer day. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. 86 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Plate 27. Tlie elevation of an Ionic house, having the Ionic proportions, but the Doric dressings; Egyptian style of windows. The windows and doors, sash and glass; each fold of sash to swing in, containing two widths of glass of fourteen inches each, four lengths in height, of one foot nine inches each ; the window in the frontispiece will serve well for a door, and as a window to light the vestibule. The roof to be covered with galvanized tin, with copper eave-gutters, &c. Fig. 2. a, vestibule ; d, e, ante-rooms ; b, parlor ; c, dining-room ; /, stair- case ; g, kitchen ; h, pantry. Plate 28. Fig. 1. The perspective elevation of plate 27. Fig. 2. Plan of second floor, with five sleeping-chambers, and bathing- room, with a water-closet, &c. Plate 29. Fig. 1. Elevation of a dwelling-house, two stories ; a low basement and cellar ; for the basement it should be walled up, an open area with stone steps to descend from the bank, to give a pass to this story outside the exterior walls. Fine hammered granite facings, backed up with brick ; the parti- tions, walls, and chimneys, laid of brick, and a metallic covering for the roof. Fig. 2. The principal floor ; this house is designed for two families, with front entrances right and left. See elevation. Plate 30. Fig. 1. A different front for plate 29, fig. 2. Although the style of this front, in its peculiar characteristic, is omitted, it still preserves the Ionic proportion, and is well adapted for a house planned as plate 29, fig. 2. Fig. 2. A third front elevation for the same. This elevation essentially GRECIAN CORINTHIAN. 87 differs from the other two, and approaches nearer the ancient English style. Its effect is rather picturesque than otherwise. The second floor may he arranged very similar to the principal one. The two designs on this plate are intended for an attic story. (Grecian €0rintl)ian. This order seems to have taken rise in the flourishing days of Corinth, a celebrated city of Greece. The proportions of the order resemble the grace- ful figure of a virgin, more delicate than the more mature age of the matron, which has given rise to the Ionic proportions. The composition of foliage is considered the leading character of the Corinthian capital, which is arranged in two annular rows of leaves so that each leaf in the upper row grows up between those of the lower row, in such a manner that a leaf of the upper row will stand in the middle of each face of the capital, and from each leaf of the upper row, three stalks spring with volutes, two of them meeting under the angle of the abacus, and two in the centre of the side, touching or interwoven with each other. A capital thus constructed is called Corinthian. Plate 31. This example is from the lantern of Demosthenes, otherwise called the monument of Lysicrates. With some variation in the entablature and dentils, it may be considered a beautiful specimen of the Grecian art, and may be imitated with success when elegance is required in the composition. Fig. 1 represents the entablature and cap of the column. Fig. 2, the base, dimensions of height and projections figured under /*, H, from a scale of sixty minutes for the diameter of the column at the base. Fig. 3. The full length column, entire height of the order. 88 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Plate 32. Fig. 1. A design for antae for the columns, plate 31. The face of this anta, or pilaster, is equal to the diameter of the column at the neck, and equal in width at top and bottom ; thus avoiding the difliculty of increasing the projection of the capital beyond that of the column to which it may be attached. Fig. 2. Tlic capital of column, plate 31, fig. 1. Inverted and horizontal section of tlic column and flutes at the neck. Fig. 3. The cornice, inverted. The Romans, adopting the general features of this order, introduced into it some variations from the Greek specimens. Plate 33. This example is taken from the Pantheon, at Rome; although considered somewhat plainer than that from the temple of Jupiter, it is, notwithstand- ing, beautiful and chaste ; it is considered an excellent example of the Roman style. Fig. 1. Elevation of the order; proportions figured to a scale of minutes ol the order from the diameter of the column ; //, the height; /*, the projections. Fig. 2. The elevation of the base. Fig. 3. The entire height of the order figured in modules and minutes. Plate 34. Fig. 1. Elevation of the cap. The leaves are shown in outline before cutting the raffles, stalks, veins, &c. Fig. 2. The capital of fig. 1, inverted, in which are shown the projections of the abacus, leaves, &c. Fig. 3. Elevation of one of the leaves, with tlie requisite raffles, stalks, and veins. GRECIAN CORINTHIAN. 89 Fig. 4. The side elevation of a modillion and its appropriate ornament. Fig. 5. Modillion inverted. Plate 35. Fig. 1. Corinthian frontispiece. Scale, three eighths of an inch to a foot, Fig. 2. The steps and floor for the column to rest upon. Fig. 3 shows the flank of frontispiece, or portico. Plate 36. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, are designs for stucco cornices. Fig. 5. Scale of inches which will answer for height. Fig. 1, for twenty feet; fig. 2, for sixteen feet ; fig. 3, for twelve feet; and fig. 4. for 11 feet. Fig. 6. Single architrave for the Doric order. Fig. 7. Single architrave for the Ionic order. Fig. 8. Single architrave for the Corinthian order. Fig. 9. Section of the finish of doors. See plate 6. Plate 37. Fig. 1 exhibits a perspective view of a Corinthian house. Although the modillions and other enrichments are omitted, the Corinthian proportions are preserved, which may be added where expense is not limited. Fig. 2. Geometrical elevation of the principal front. This design, carried out in full Corinthian order, will produce a very beautiful effect. It contains most of the conveniences required in a gentleman's dwelling of the first class. Plate 38. This plate exhibits the first floor. The dimensions are figured on the several apartments ; — the closets in each corner. In the back rooms, the corners will serve well for closets, dressing-rooms, &c. ; in the front ones, for water- closets, or for other conveniences, as may be required. These projections produce a very good effect in the exterior composition, and form fit recesses for the porticos. The introduction of the pier and anta, at each end of the 12 90 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. portico, prevents the naked appearance that would be produced by the insu- lated column. l*arlors sixteen by eighteen feet; sitting-room, sixteen by sixteen ; dining-room, sixteen by sixteen ; front entrance hall, fifteen feet wide ; back entrance, six feet wide ; kitchen, sixteen by sixteen ; wash-room, nine by thirteen; bathing-room, six by eight; wood-house, eight by thirty-four. Plate 39. This plate represents the framing of the first floor. Sills, eight by twelve inches ; hearth trimmers, three by twelve ; floor plank, two by twelve inch- es ; kitchen hearth trimmers, four by twelve ; one foot from centre to centre. Plate 40. This plate shows the framing of the second floor as per plan ; sixteen inches from centre to centre; girders, seven by eleven inches; hearth and stair trimmers, three by eleven ; plank, two by eleven ; the principal rooms are to have two tiers of bridging. Plate 41. Figs. 1, 4, and 7, represent columns, or piers. Fig. 1 is intended for exterior decoration; figs. 4 and 7, for interior; to support the ceiling of churches, where vaulted arches are introduced. The parts rising above the caps show the spring of the arches and their curves ; the perpendicidar lines the transverse groins, which, as they rise, and are intersected by the em- bossed ribs springing from the other piers or columns, are sometimes spread out. They are occasionally ornamented with ro.settes, or various kinds of foliage. Figs. 2, 5, and 8, are sections of piers or columns. Fig. 2 shows the posi- tion of the four small reeds introduced in the curvilinear form of the main shaft. Fig. 5 is from the nave of York cathedral, and lig. 8, from Exeter GOTHIC. 91 cathedral. These examples are beautiful. The general form of figs. 5 and 8 being square, and placed diagonal to the face and spring of the arches, and clustered with reeds, makes a good support at the base line from which the arches spring. The splay of the arches with bold mouldings has a very beautiful effect. Figs. 3, G, and 9, are intended for the bases which are represented in sections ; 2, 5, and 8 the outline curves represent the larger reeds, while the smaller ones are continued through the base to the plinth. Plate 42. Fig. 1 represents a window from Sleyford church, Lincolnshire, England, but reduced for a smaller window. The arch is formed on an equilateral triangle, and is sometimes filled with flowing tracery, and quatrefoils, and cinctures. See the figure. The deep curved hollow within the columns forms a very good drip-stone in the arch, and a deep shade on the sides ; which effect is good. Scale, three eighths of an inch to a foot ; it may be used to advantage for churches or other public buildings of this style of architecture. Fig. 2 is a window used in the centre of the front of churches when a tower is introduced in the composition. Its effect is decidedly good. The head of this window being the ogee arch, the canopy is ornamented with crockets and a finial. Plate 43. Fig. 1 is the outline drawing of a large size for fig. 2. Fig. 2. The spandrell-head window, as frequently used for small windows for Gothic dwellings. This cap forms a very good drip-stone ; the top being level, the sides drop at right angles with the top, and ends, but are sometimes continued on a level, to stop against the pilaster, or to form a connection with the adjoining windows. Fig. 3. A vertical section of fig. 2. Figs. 4 and 5 are sectional styles of sash-frames. 92 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Plate 44. Fig. 1. A design for a door with finish appropriate for the exterior. Fig. 2 is intended for the interior of a Gothic dwelling, the finish forming the architrave, to project one half the width of the face. The architrave, whose section forms one half of an octagon figure, is admired for its smooth and clean surfaces. Fig. 3. A part of the door-head of fig. 1 enlarged. Fig. 4. The raking cornice for the gables of Gothic dwellings. Plate 45. Fig. 1. Geometrical elevation of a Gothic dwelling, having two upright stories. Fig. 2. Plan of principal floor. The dimensions of rooms are figured on the plan. This house may afford conveniences over many others. The exterior, properly carried out, gives quite a picturesque appearance. Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. Estimated cost of building, $4600. Plate 4G. Fig. 1. A perspective view of plate 45, fig. 1. Fig. 2. The chamber floor, containing four bed-chambers, and a bathing- room, six by seven feet. Dimensions figured on the plan. Plate 47. Fig. 1. Geometrical elevation of a dwelling built for David Sears, Esq., in Brookline, Mass. This house was built of brick ; the cellar of stone ; slate and galvanized tin roof-covering ; copper gutters and trunks ; cooking- range in kitchen ; bathing-room, water-closet, &c., in the second story ; and a Bryant and Herman's furnace set in the cellar; also a well and cistern. Exterior walls painted and sanded ; freestone caps and sills. The cost of this building was $8000. Fig. 2. A plan of the principal floor; dimensions figured on the plan Scale, fifteen feet to an inch. GROINED ARCHES AND VAULTING. 93 Plate 48. Fig. 1. A perspective view of plate 47, fig. 1. Fig. 2. Cliamber floor, containing six bed-chambers, bathing-room, &c. Dimensions figured on the plan. ^roin£i> ^nl)C0 anb baultmg. Plate 49. Shows a method of striking the centres for semicircular and elliptical arches, with the groins or hips to coincide with each other ; also, the cover- ing of the vaulting. Operation. Fig. 1. Draw the lines O, X, intersecting at L ; draw the cord of the semi- circle, I ; find the centre line 7 ; extend this line to the intersection at L ; di- vide one half of the semicircle into seven equal parts, on each side, as fig- ured ; divide K in the same manner as I. Draw lines from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, to intersect X at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. From 1, 2, 3, &c., on X, draw lines at right angles with X, indefinitely. Transfer the distance between 1, 2, 3, «Stc., on the semicircle and its chord, to these last drawn perpendicular lines at a, h, c, &c. ; and a line passing through these several points, 1, a; 2, b; 3, c, &c., will give the curve of the hip or groin. Covering of Centres. Divide the whole length of the hip, a, 6, c, d, e,f, g, into seven equal parts ; draw the centre line, IC, ly, If, from the chord in H; take six of the seven parts of the hip ; lay off on the centre line ; divide into seven equal parts. Extend the lines of intersection from a, b, c, d, e,f, g, in K, through 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on JT; then through the cord H, intersecting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in //, at a, b, c, d, e,f, g ; trace a curve line through these intersections. This will form the curve to cut the covering of the centres. H, I, may be performed as the above K, H; — a, a, a, a, «&c., represent sections of the piers from which the arches are formed. 94 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 2. The elevation of llic piers ; a, a, a, a, b, b, the frame for front centreing ; there should be two thicknesses of stuff to break joints, and nailed together or bolted, in larger works. Tonic Details for Plates 29 and 30. Plate 50. Fig. 1. Perspective sketch of the elevation of the Ionic capital. Fig. 2. Base of the same. Fig. 3. Principal cornice for elevation. Plates 29 and 30. Fig. 4. Frieze, lillet, and architrave for the same. Fig. 5. Front elevation of truss, for Venetian window. Fig. 6. Side elevation of the same. Fig. 7. Cap of antae. Fig. 8. Architrave around the window. Fig. 9. Stone work for balcony of window. Plate 30, fig. 1. Fig. 10. Section of rail for the same. Fig. 11. Cap of pilaster to same elevation. Fig. 12. Base to the same. Fig. 13. Cornice for front parlor. Fig. 14. Cornice for back parlor. Fig. 15. Principal bed-room cornice. Fig. 16. Second, ditto. Details for Gothic House. Plate 30, fig. 2. Fig. 17. Stone cap. Fig. 18. Head of window. Fig. 19. Mullion of the same. Fig. 20. Sill of the same. Fig. 21. Elevation of chimney pot, or stone turret. Fig. 22. Plan of the same, showing iron fly, or smoke ventilator. CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 95 Fig. 23. A section of stone gutter, cornice, and portion of roof A, cornice; 2?, gutter; C, wall plate; D, rafter; E, ceiling-joist; F, brickwork; G, plaster and cornice; ff, battens and slate. Fio-. 24. Plan of stone jambs, frame and door for principal entrance. A, stone jamb; 5, door-frame; C, door; Z>, architrave. (!Il)iircl) ^rcl)itecture. In this enlightened and Christian country, where the arts and sciences are daily applied to the comfort and convenience of the whole people, this branch of architecture has hitherto been very much neglected. In regard to the elegance and costliness of its structures devoted to the worship of God, our country can bear no comparison with the civilized nations of Europe. There are many obvious reasons why this is so. — First, the superior age, wealth, and population of those countries may be urged as reasons why we cannot hope, at present, to compete with them in erecting such magnificent edifices as adorn their principal cities. Our fathers came to these shores, to escape the imposition of religious forms and doctrines which their con- sciences disapproved ; and this, no doubt, prejudiced their minds against the " pomp and pride " of prelacy, as well as of royalty ; and left as little desire to imitate the magnificent church structures, they had left behind, as to copy the political forms of their father-land. Ao-ain, the pecuniary depression under which our forefathers labored, the numberless sacrifices they made for the true dignity and honor of the religion of Christ, and their deep-seated aversion to ostentation of any kind, would alike forbid the erection of elegant structures, and account for the almost total neglect, with which this department of architecture has hitherto met, in in our country. It would be very difficult, perhaps, in the present state of things among us, to imitate the highly enriched and expensive structures which have, for so 96 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. long a time, been the pride and glory of the older world. But we cannot but indulge the hope, that, ere long, though wc may not surpass or even equal those nations, the greater part of who.se wealth and power have been in the hands of the church, in the grandeur and costliness of our religious edifices, we may yet equal them in regard to the taste and architectural simplicity of these structures; qualities more in harmony witli our republican form of government, and, as we cannot but think, with the simplicity of our faith and worship, than would be the cathedrals of York, Milan, or Rome, even if wc could reproduce them here. After consulting convenience and strength, the next thing to be attended to in a religious edifice, is the proportion and details of the building, which must all be made to harmonize with the general design ; or else the grand object — the adaptation of the structure to the purposes of public worship — is wholly lost. No one, who has within him a spirit that prompts him to worship God, can be insensible to an emotion nearly allied to that of religious reverence, when he approaches and enters a Gothic structure, built with due regard to the rules of the art. The lofty spire, pinnacles, and finials, seem as so niany fingers pointing upward to heaven, and directing his way thither. In the massive tower and battlements, the mind perceives an emblem of the stability of truth, and of the gracious promises of God, and is led to repose, confidingly in him. On entering, the mind swells with the feeling of sublimity, and seems, almost involuntarily, to rise in adoration of the Being, who is himself so great, and has given to man the power to raise a temple so fit for his worship. Though, sometimes, we must confess, where the grandeur and ornament of the structure have been carried to the extreme point, which they attained, especially in Catholic countries, in those ages when the greatest attention was given to the magnificence of ecclesiastical buildings, our mind has been irresistibly withdrawn from the object, to the place of worship; and we have been profoundly impressed with the truth of those words of the great apostle to the Gentiles, which he spoke CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 97 while standing upon Mars' Hill, in the very shadow of the most heautiful, im- posing, and architecturally perfect, of all the temples that have ever been raised by human hands for divine worship, — "God, that made the world, and all things therein, seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth, dvvelleth not in temples made with hands, neither is worshipped with men's hands as though he needed any thing, seeing he giveth to all life, and breath, and all things." Still, in the severest notions that can be entertained of the spiritu- ality of the object of our worship, or of the service that it is at once our duty and blessing to offer him, there is nothing that forbids, but, rather, much that favors, a highly cultivated taste, and the purest style of structure and orna- ment, in temples dedicated to the worship of God, — that Being who has given man a faculty to perceive and enjoy beauty and sublimity, in all their forms, and then surrounded him with such an endless variety of objects, the work of his own creative hand, by which that faculty may be exercised, culti- vated, and gratified. Having spoken thus of the importance and effect of proportion, and of the general harmony of the parts with the design or object of the building, we would only observe, in addition, that this effect is greatly aided by an appropriate material for the structure, as also by the colors that are intro- duced into its various parts, and the degree of light or shade thrown over the interior. Quincy granite is a material, which, for the exterior of a church, is admirably adapted to its main purpose. Its great solidity, and consequent durability, and the gravity of its color, especially when unhewn, render it exceedingly fit, especially for a massive religious structure. And, for the interior finish, the native black walnut of our country harmonizes equally with its main object. The walls will require paint of a lighter tint, and the ceiling should be of a light stone color. 13 98 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Plate 51. - • Fig. 1. The front elevation of a Gothic church, for a village or country town ; showing the steeple, pointed buttresses, arches and finials, witli their proper ornaments ; a basement for school-room, «S£C. Fi^ 2. The elevation of a Gothic church, with a low basement. The height of the principal story, twenty-five feet. This front has a tower and parapet; the tower with battlements and appropriate ornaments. The building, fifty-two feet by eighty, exclusive of the tower, which projects ten feet. Height of tower, seventy-five feet. Scale, twenty feet to an inch. Plate 52. Fig. 1. Side elevation of fig. 2, plate 51. Here is shown the spandrell window caps, or drips, the turrets, the Tudor flower at the eaves, the trefoils and quatrefoils. The windows to have diamond sash; the belfry with a large quatrefoil window. Fig. 2. The principal floor of elevation of fig 2, plate 51, and of figure 1, plate 52. This floor contains eighty-four pews, in which five hundred per- sons can be seated with comfort ; a, the entry ; b, b, stair-cases ; d, d, side aisles ; c, the broad aisle ; g^ the pulpit. Figs. 3 and 4, the front and back ends. Fig. 3 is the entrance to the base- ment; a, front doorway ; b, b, stair-cases; d, d, side aisles ; c, the broad aisle. Fig. 4 shows the arrangement for the back end for the Episcopal form of worship ;' a, the altar; 6, the broad aisle ; g, g, side aisles; c,/, robing-rooms ; c, the reading, and d, the sermon desk. Fig. 5 shows the elevation of pews, reading-desk, stairs and altar. Each of these designs is drawn on a scale of twenty feet to an inch. GLOSSARY ARCHITECTURAL TERMS Abacus. The upper member of the capital of a column whereon the architrave rests. Scam- mozzi uses this term for a concave moulding in the capital of the Tuscan pedestal, which, con- sidering its etymology, is an error. Abulmerit. The solid part of a pier from which an arch springs. Acanthus. A plant called in English Bear''s Breech, whose leaves are employed for decorat- ing the Corinthian and Composite capitals. The leaves of the acanthus are used on the bell of the capital, and distinguish the two rich orders from the three others. Accompaniments. Buildings or ornaments, having a necessary connection or dependence, and which servo to make a design more or less com- plete ; a characteristic peculiarity of ornaments. Accouplement. Among carpenters, a tie or brace ; sometimes the entire work when framed. Acroleria. The small pedestals placed on the extremities and ape.x of a pediment. Admeasurement. Adjustment of proportions ; technically, an estimate of the quantity of mate- rials and labor of any kind used in a building. Alcove. The original and strict meaning of this word, which is derived from the Spanish Atcoba, is that part of a bed-chamber in which the bed stands, and is separated from the other parts of the room by columns or pilasters. Amphiprosiyle. In ancient architecture, a tem- ple with columns in the rear as well as in the front. Amphitheatre. A double theatre, of an ellip- tical form on the ground plan, for the exhibition of the ancient gladiatorial fights and other shows. Ancones. The consoles or ornaments cut on the keys of arches, sometimes serving to support busts or other figures. Annulet. A small square moulding, which crowns or accompanies a larger. Also that fillet which separates the flutings of a column. It is sometimes called a list, or listella, which see. Antce. A name given to pilasters attached to a wall. Apophyge. That part of a column between the upper fillet of the base and the cylindrical part of the shaft of the column, which is usually curved into it by a cavetto. Araostyle. That style of building in which the columns are distant four, and sometimes five, diameters from each other ; but the former is the proportion to which the term is usually applied. This columnar arrangement is suited to the Tus- can order only. Arcade, A series of arches, of apertures, or recesses, a continued covered vault, or arches supported on piers or columns instead of galle- ries. In Italian towns the streets are lined with arcades like those of Covent Garden and the Royal Exchange. Arch. An artful arrangement of bricks, stones, or other materials, in a curvilinear form, which, by their mutual pressure and support, perform the office of a lintel, and carry superincumbent weights, — the whole resting at its extremities upon piers or abutments. Arch-buttress, or Flying-buttress, (in Gothic architecture,) an arch springing from a buttress or pier, and abutting against a wall. Archeion. The most retired and secret place 100 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. in Grecian temples, used as a trcasurj', wherein were deposited the richest treasures pertaining to the deity, to whom tlic temple was dedicated. Architect. One who designs and superintends the erection of buildings. Architrave. The lower of the primary divi- sions of the entablature. It is placed immediate- ly upon the abacus of the capital. Astragal. From the Greek word for a bone in the foot, to which this moulding was supposed to bear a resemblance. A small moulding, whoso profile is semi-circular, and which bears also the name of Talon, or Tondino. The astra- gal is often cut into beads and berries, and used in ornamental entablatures to separate the faces of the architrave. Attic. A term that expresses any thing invent- ed or much used in Attica, or the city of Athens. A low story erected over an order of architecture, to finish the up|)er part of the building, being chiefly used to conceal the roof, and give greater dignity to the design. Altic Base. [See Base.] Attic Order. An order of low pilasters, gener- ally placed over some other order of columns. It is improperly so called, for the arrangement can scarcely be called an order. Auriel, or Oriel, (in Gothic architecture,) a window projecting outwards for private confer- ence : whence its appellation. Balcony. A projection from the surface of a wall, supported by consoles or pillars, and sur- rounded by a balustrade. Baluster. A small pillar or pilaster, serving to support a rail. Its form is of considerable variety, in different examples. Sometimes it is round, at other times square ; it is adorned with mouldings and other decorations, according to the richness of the order it accompanies. Balustrade. A connected range of a number of balusters on balconies, terraces around altars, iVc. [See Baluster.] Band. A term used to express what is gene- rally called a Face, or Facia. It more properly means a flat low square profiled member, without respect to its place. That from which the Corin- thian or other modillions, or the deniils project, is called the modillion band, or the dentil band, as the case may be. Bandelet. A diminutive of the foregoing term, used to express any narrow flat moulding. The ta;nia on the Doric architrave is called its Bandelet. Banker. A stone bench on which masons cut and square their work. Banquet. The footway of a bridge raised above the carriageway. Barrel Drain. A drain of tlie form of a hol- low cylinder. Base. The lower part of a column, moulded or plain, on which the shaft is placed. Basement. The lower part or story of a build- ing, on which an order is placed, with a base or plinth, die and cornice. Basil. A word used by carpenters, &c., to denote the angle to which any edge tool is ground and fitted for cutting wood, &c. Basin, en Coquille, that is, shaped like a shell. Basin is likewise used for a dock. Basket. A kind of vase in the form of a basket filled with flowers or fruits, serving to ter- minate some decoration. Bassilica. A town or court hall, a cathedral, a palace, where kings administer justice. Basso-Relievo, or Bas Relief. The represen- tation of figures projecting from a back ground, without being detached from it. Though this word, in general language, implies all kinds of relievos, from that of coins, to more than one half of the thickness from the back ground. Bath. A receptacle of water appropriated for the purpose of bathing. Batten. A scantling of stuff", from two six inches broad, and from ^ to 2 inches thick, used in the boarding of floors; also upon walls, in or- der to secure the lath on which the plaster is laid. Batter. When a wall is built in a direction that is not perpendicular. Battlements. Indentations on the top of a para- pet, or wall, first used in ancient fortifications; and afterwards applied to churches and other buildings. Bay, (in Gothic architecture,) an opening be- tween piers, beams, or mullions. Bay Window. [See Auriel.] Bead and Flush >cork. A piece of panel work, with a bead run on each edge of the included panel. Bead and But work. A piece of framing in which the panels are flush, having beads stuck or run upon the two edges with the grain of the wood in their direction. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 101 Bed-Mouldings. Those mouldings in all the orders between the corona and frieze. Billel-Moidding, (in Gothic architecture,) a cylindrical moulding, discontinued and renewed at regular intervals. Bollel, (in Gothic architecture,) slender shafts, whether arranged round a pier, or attached to doors, windows, &c. The term is also used for any cylindrical moulding. Boss, (in Gothic architecture,) a sculptured protuberance at the interjunction of the ribs in a vaulted roof. Bossage. (A French term.) Any projection left rough on the face of a stone for the purpose of sculpture, which is usually the last thing finished. Boullin. A name given to the moulding, called the egg or quarter-round. Broach, (in Gothic architecture,) a spire, or polygonal pyramid, whether of stone or timber. Bracket, (in Gothic architecture,) a projection to sustain a statue, or other ornament ; and some- times supporting the ribs of a roof. Bulk. A piece of timber from 4 to 10 inches square, and is sometimes called ranging timber. Buttress, (in Gothic architecture,) a projection on the exterior of a wall, to strengthen the piers and resist the pressure of the arches within. Cabling. The filling up of the lower part of the fluting of a column, with a solid cylindrical piece. Flutings thus treated are said to be cabled. Caisson. A name given to the sunk panels of various geometrical forms, symmetrically dispos- ed in flat or vaulted ceilings, or in sofiits, gene- rally. Canopy, (in Gothic architecture,) the orna- mented dripstone of an arch. It is usually of the ogee form. Canted, (in Gothic architecture,) any part of a building having its angles cut off", is said to be canted. Capital. The head or uppermost part of a column or pilaster. Carpenter. An artificer whose business is to cut, fashion and join timbers together, and other wood for the purpose of building : the word is from the French charpentier, derived from char- pentie, which signifies timber. Carpentry, or that branch which is to claim our attention, is divided into three principal heads, viz., Constructive, Descriptive, and Mechanical ; of these, Descriptive carpentry shows the lines or methods for forming every species of work in piano, by the rules of geometry ; Constructive carpentry, the practice of reducing the wood into particular forms, and joining the forms so produc- ed, so as to make a complete whole, according to the intention of the design : and Mechanical car- pentry displays the relative strength of the tim- bers, and the strains to which they are subjected by their disposition. Carlouch. The same as modillions, except that it is exclusively used to signify those blocks or modillions at the eaves of a house. [See Mo- dillion.] Caryatides. Figures of women, which serve instead of columns to support the entablature. Casement. The same as Scotia, which see. The term is also used for a sash hung upon hinges. Cauliculus. The volute or twist under the flower in the Corinthian capital. Cavetto. A hollow moulding, whose profile is a quadrant of a circle, principally used in cor- nices. Cell. [See Naos.] Cincture. A ring, list, or fillet, at the top or bottom of a column, serving to divide the shaft of the column from its capital and base. Chamfer, (in Gothic architecture,) an arch, or jamb of a door, canted. Champ, (in Gothic architecture,) a flat surface in a wall or pier, as distinguished from a moulding, shaft, or panel. Cinque-foil, (in Gothic architecture,) an orna- mental figure with five leaves or points. Column. A member in architecture of a cylin- drical form, consisting of a base, a shaft or body, and a capital. It differs from the pilaster, which is square on the plan. Columns should always stand perpendicularly. Composite Order. One of the orders of ar- chitecture. Cope, Coping, (in Gothic architecture,) the stone covering the top of a wall or parapet. Corbel, (in Gothic architecture,) a kind of bracket. The term is generally used for a con- tinued series of brackets on the exterior of a building supporting a projecting battlement, which is called a Corbel table. Corinthian Order. One of the orders of ar- chitecture. Cornice. The projection consisting of several members which crowns or finishes an entablature, or the body or part to which it is annexed. The 102 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. cornice used on a pedestal is called the cap of the pedestal. Corona. Is that flat, square, and massy mem- ber of a cornice, more usually called the drip or larmier, whose situation is between the cymatium above, and the bed-moulding below. Its use is to carry the water, drop by drop, from the building Corridor. A gallery or open communication to the different apartments of a house. Corsa. The name given by Vitruvius to a platband or square facia, whose height is more than its projccturo. Crenelle, (in Gothic architecture,) the opening of an embattled parapet. Crest, (in Gothic architecture,) a crowning ornament of leaves running on the top of a screen, or other ornamental work. Crocket, (in Gothic architecture,) an ornament of leaves running up the sides of a gable, or ornamented canopy. Cupola. A small room either circular or poly- gonal, standing on the top of a dome. By some it is called a lantern. Cushioned. [See Frieze.] Cusp, (in Gothic architecture,) a name for the segments of circles forming the trefoil, quatre- foil, &c. Cyma, called also Cymatium, its name arising from its resemblance to a wave. A moulding which is hollow in its upper part, and swelling below. Decagon. A plain figure, having ten sides and angles. Decastylc. A building having ten columns in front. Decempeda. (Decern, ten, and pes, foot, Lat.) A rod of ten feet used by the ancients in measur- ing. It was subdivided into twelve inches in each foot, and ten digits in each inch ; like surveyors' rods used in measuring short distances, &c. Decimal Scale. Scales of this kind are used by draftsmen, to regulate the dimensions of their drawings. Decoration. Any thing that enriches or gives beauty and ornament to tlic ordcre of architecture. Demi-Metope. The half a metope, which is found at the retiring or projecting angles of a Doric frieze. Dentils. Small square blocks or projections used in the bed-mouldings of the cornices in the Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and sometimes Doric, orders. Details of an Edifice. Drawings or delinea- tions for the use of builders, otherwise called working plans. Diagonal Scale is a scale subdivided into smaller parts by secondary intersections or ob- lique lines. Diameter. The line in a circle passing from the circumference through the centre. Diamond. A sharp instrument formed of that precious stone and used for cutting glass. Diapered, (in Gothic architecture,) a panel, or other Hut surface, sculptured with flowers, is said to be diapered. Diastyle. That intercolumniation or space be- tween columns, consisting of three diameters — some say four diameters. Die, or Dye. A naked square cube. Thus the body of a pedestal, or that part between its base and cap, is called the die of the pedestal. Some call the abacus the die of the capital. Dimension. (Dimetier, Lat.) In geometry is either length, breadth, or thickness. DiminutioJi. A term expressing the gradual decrease of thickness in the upper part of a column. Dipteral. A term used by the ancients to ex- press a temple with a double range of columns in each of its flanks. Dodecagon. A regular polygon, with twelve equal sides and angles. Dodecastyle. A building having twelve col- umns in front. Dome. An arched or vaulted roof springing from a polygonal, circular or elliptic plane. Doric Order. One of the five orders of ar- chitecture. Dormant, or Dormer windoxc, (in Gothic archi- tecture,) a window set upon the slope of a roof or spire. Dooks. Flat pieces of wood of the shape and size of a brick, inserted in brick walls, sometimes called plugs or wooden bricks. Door. The gate or entrance of a house, or other building, or of an apartment in a house. Dormitory. A sleeping room. Drawing, or Withdrawins Room. A large and elegant apartment, into which the company withdraw after dinner. Dressing- Room. An apartment contiguous to the sleeping-room, for the convenience of dressing. Drip, (in Gothic architecture,) a moulding GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 103 much resembling the cymatium of Roman archi- tecture, and used for tlie same purpose as a canopy over the arch of a door or window. Drops. [See Guttre.] Echinus. The same as the ovolo or quarter- round ; but perhaps it is only called Echinus with propriety. Edging. The reducing the edges of ribs or rafters, that they may range together. Elboies of a Windoie. Tiie two paneled flanks, one under each shutter. Elevation. A geometrical projection drawn on a plane, perpendicular to the horizon. Embankments are artificial mounds of earth, stone, or other materials, made to confine rivers, canals, and reservoirs of water within their pre- scribed limits ; also for leveling up of rail- roads, &c. Embrasure, (in Gothic architecture,) the same as Crenelle, which see. Encarpus. The festoons on a frieze, consist- ing of fruits, flowers, and leaves. [See Festoon.] Entablature. The assemblage of parts sup- ported by the column. It consists of three parts, the architrave, frieze, and cornice. Entail, (in Gothic architecture,) delicate carving. Entasis. The slight curvature of the shafts of ancient Grecian columns, particularly the Doric, which is scarcely perceptible, and beauti- fully graceful. Entresol. [See Mezzanine.] Episiylum. The same as architrave, vvhich see. Eustyle. That intercolumniation, which as its name would import, the ancients considered the most elegant, namely, two diameters and a quarter of a column. Vitruvius says this manner of ar- ranging columns exceeds all others in strength, convenience, and beauty. Facade. The face or front of any considerable building to a street, court, garden, or other place. Facia. A flat member in the entablature or elsewhere, being in fact nothing more than a band or broad fillet. Fane, Phane, Vane, (in Gothic architecture,) a plate of metal usually cut into some fantastic form, and turning on a pivot to determine the course of the wind. Fastigium. [See Pediment.] Feather-edged Boards are narrow boards made thin on one edge. They are used for the facings or boarding of wooden walls. Festoon. An ornament of carved work, re- presenting a wreath or garland of flowers or leaves, or both, interwoven with each other. Fillet. The small square member, which is placed above or below the various square or curved members in an order. Finial, (in Gothic architecture,) the ornament consisting usually of four crockets, which is em- ployed to finish a pinnacle, gable, or canopy. Flank. The least side of a pavilion, by which it is joined to the main building. Flatning, in inside house painting, is the mode of finishing without leaving a gloss on the surface, which is done by adding the spirits of turpentine to unboiled linseed oil. Flight of Stairs, is a series of steps, from one landing-place to another. Floors. The bottom of rooms. Flutings. The vertical channels on the shafts of columns, which are usually rounded at the top and bottom. Flyers are steps in a series, which are parallel to each other. Folding Doors are made to meet each other from opposite jambs, on which they are hung. Foliage. An ornamental distribution of leaves or flowers on various parts of the building. Foreshorten. A term applicable to the draw- ings or designs in which, from the obliquity of the view, the object is represented as receding from the opposite side of the plane of the pro- jection. Foundation. That part of a building or wall which is below the surface of the ground. Foot. A measure of twelve inches, each inch being three barleycorns. Frame. The name given to the wood work of windows, enclosing glass, and the outward work of doors or windows, or window shutters, enclos- ing panels ; and in carpentry, to the timber work supporting floors, roofs, ceilings, or to the inter- secting pieces of timbers forming partitions. Fret. A kind of ornamental work, which is laid on a plane surface : the Greek fret is formed by a series of right angles of fillets, of various forms and figures. Frieze, or Frize. The middle member of the entablature of an order, which separates the ar- chitrave and the cornice. Frontispiece. The face or fore front of a house ; but it is a term more usually applied to its decorated entrance. 104 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Front. A name given to the principal interior facade of a building. Frustum. A piece cut off from a regular figure : the frustum of a cone is the part that re- mains when the top is cut olT by an intersection parallel to its base, as the Grecian Doric column without a base. Furrings, are flat pieces of timber, plank, or board, used by carpenters to bring dislocated work to a regular surface. Fust. The shaft of a column. [See Shaft.] Gable, (in Gothic architecture,) tlie triangu- larly-headed wall which covers the end of a roof. Gable window, (in Gothic architecture,) a win- dow in a gable. These are generally the largest windows in the composition, frequently occupying nearly the whole space of the wall. Gablet, (in Gothic architecture,) a little gable. [See Canopy.] Gage. In carpentrj', an instrument to strike a line parallel to the straight side of any board or piece of stuff. Gain. The bevelled shoulder of a binding joist. Garland, (in Gothic architecture,) an orna- mental band surrounding the top of a tower or spire. Glyphs. The vertical channels sunk in the triglyphs of the Doric frieze. Gola, or Gula. The same as Ogee, which see. Gorge. The same as Cavetto, which see. Gouge. A chisel of a semi-circular form. Granite. A genus of stone much used in building, composed chiefly of quartz, feldspar and mica, forming rough and large masses of very great hardness. Groin, (in Gothic architecture,) the diagonal line formed by the intersection of two vaults in a roof Groined Ceiling. A surface formed of three or more curved surfaces, so that every two may form a groin, all the groins terminating at one extremity in a common point. Groove or Mortise. The channel made by a joiner's plane in the edge of a moulding, style, or rail, to receive the tenon. Ground Floor. The lowest story of a building. Ground Plane. A lino forming the ground of a design or picture, which line is a tangent to the surface of the face of the globe. Ground Plot. The ground on which a build- ing is placed. Grounds. Joiners give this name to narrow strips of wood put in walls to receive the laths and plastering. Gulta or Drops. Those frustra of cones in the Doric entablature which occur in the archi- trave below the taenia under each triglyph. Gutters, are a kind of canals in the roofs of houses, to receive and carry ofl" rain water. Halving. The junction of two pieces of tim- ber, by inserting one into the other ; in some cases to be preferred to mortising. Hand-Railing. The art of forming hand-rails round circular and elliptic well-holes without the use of the cylinder Hanging-Stile, of a door. Is that to which the hinges arc fixed. Heel of a Rafter. The end or foot that rests upon the wall plate. Helical Line of a Hand-rail. The line, or spiral line, representing the form of the hand-rail before it is moulded. Helix. The curling stalk under the flower ia the Corinthian capital. [See Cauliculus.] //cm. The spiral projecting part of the Ionic capital. Hexastyle. A building having si.x columns in front. Hood-mould, (in Gothic architecture.) (See Drip.) Hook-Pins. The same as Draw bore-pins, to keep the tenons in their place, while in the pro- gress of framing : the pin has a head or notch in the outer end to draw it at pleasure. Hypcethral. Open at lop ; uncovered by a roof. Hyperthyron. The lintel of a doorway. Hypotraclielium. A term given by Viiruviua to the slenderest part of the shaft of a column where it joins the capital. It signifies the part under the neck. Inchnography. The transverse section of a building, which represents the circumference of the whole edifice; the diflerent rooms and apart- ments, with the thickness of the walls ; the dimen- sions and situation of the doors, windows, chim- neys; the projection of columns, and every thing that could be seen in such a section, if really made in a building. Impost. The layer of stone or wood that crowns a door-post or pier, and which supports the base line of an arch or arcade ; it generally projects, and is sometimes formed of an assem- blage of mouldings. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 105 Inch. The twelfth part of a foot. For the pur- pose of reckoning in decimal fractions, it is divid- ed into ten parts or integers. Inclined Plane. One of the mechanical pow- ers, used for raising ponderous bodies, in many instances of immense weight ; a declivity of a hill, &c. Insular Column., is a column standing by itself. Insulated. Detached from another building. Intaglio. Any thing with figures in relief on it. Intercolumniation. The distance between two columns. Intrados. The under curved surface or soffit of an arch. Inverted Arches. Such as have their intrados below the centre or axis. Ionic Order. One of the orders of architec- ture. Jack Plane. A plane about 18 inches long, to prepare for the trying plane. Jack Rafters. The jack timbers, which are fastened to the hip rafters and the wall plates. Jamhs. The side pieces of any opening in a wall, which bear the piece that discharges the superincumbent weight of such wall. Joinery, in building, is confined to the nicer and more ornamental parts. Jointer. A tool used for straightening and preparing stuff for joints, &c. This jointer is about two feet eight or ten inches long. Kerf. The slit or cut in a piece of timber, or in a stone, by a saw. King Post. The middle post in a section of rafters. Label, (in Gothic architecture,) a name for the drip or hood-moulding of an arch when it is re- turned square. Lacunar, or Laquear. The same as Soffit. Lantern, (in Gothic architecture,) a turret or tower placed above a building, pierced either with windows to admit light, or holes to let out steam. Larmier. Called also Corona, which see. Lath. A narrow slip of wood 1| to IJ inches wide, I to f inch thick, and four feet long, used in plastering. Leaves. Ornaments representing natural leaves. The ancients used two sorts of leaves, natural and imaginary. The natural were those of the laurel, palm, acanthus, and olive ; but they took such liberties in the form of these, that they might almost be said to be imaginary, too. 14 Level. A surface which inclines to neither side. Lining. Covering for the interior, as casing is covering the exterior surface of a building. Lintel. A piece of timber or stone placed horizontally over a door, window, or other open- ing. List or Listel. The same as fillet, or annulet. Listing. The cutting the sap-wood out from both edges of a board. Loop, (in Gothic architecture,) a small narrow window. Louvre, (in Gothic architecture.) [See Lan- tern.] Liijfer Boarding. The same as blind slats. Machicolations, (in Gothic architecture,) small openings in an embattled parapet, for the dis- charge of missile weapons upon the assailants. Frequently these openings are underneath the parapet, in which case the whole is brought for- ward and supported by corbels. Mechanical Carpentry. That branch of car- pentry which teaches the disposition of the tim- bers according to their relative strength, and the strains to which they are subjected. Mediceval Architecture. The architecture of England, France, Germany, &c., during the middle ages, including the Norman and early Gothic styles. Members. ( MemSnon, Lat.) The different parts of a building; the different parts of an entabla- ture ; the different mouldings of a cornice, &c. Metope. The square space between two tri- glyphs of the Doric order. It is sometimes left plain, at other times decorated with sculpture. Mezzanine. A low story introduced between two principal stories. Minerva Polias. A Grecian temple at Athens. Minute. The sixtieth part of the diameter of a column. It is the subdivision by which archi- tects measure the small parts of an order. Mitre. An angle of forty-five degrees, a half of a right angle. Modillio7i. An ornament in the entablature of richer orders resembling a bracket. Module. The semi-diameter of a column. This term is only properly used when speaking of the orders. As a semi-diameter it consists of only thirty minutes. [See Minute.] Mosaic. A kind of painting representing cubes of glass, &c., and is formed of different colored stones, for paving, &c. Specimens of 106 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. this kind have been found among the ruins of an- tiquity. Mouldings. Those parts of an order which are shaped into various curved or square forms. Moulh. The same as Cavctto, which see. Mulule. A projecting ornament of the Doric cornice wliich occupies the place of the modillion in imilation of the ends of rafters. Mullion, (in Gothic architecture,) the frame- work of a window. Naked. Tlie unornamented plain surface of a wall, column, or other part of a building. Naos, or Cella. The part of a temjile witliin the walls. Newel. The solid, or imaginary solid, when the stairs are open in the centre, round which the steps are turned about. Niche. A square or cylindrical cavity in a wall or other solid. Obelisk. A tall slender frustrum of a pyra- mid, usually placed on a pedestal. The differ- ence between an obelisk and a pyramid, inde- pendent of the former being only a portion of the latter is, that it always has a small base in proportion to its height. Octastyle. A building with eight columns in front. Ogee, or Ogive. The same as Cyma, which see. Order. An assemblage of parts, consisting of a base, shaA, capital, architrave, frieze and cor- nice, whose several services requiring some dis- tinction in strength, have been contrived or de- signed in five several species — Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite ; each of which has its ornaments, as well as general fabric, pro- portioned to its strength and character. Ordonnance. The arrangement of a design and the disposition of its several parts. Orle. (Ilal.) A fillet or band under the ovolo of llie capital. Palladio applies the term also to the plinth of the base of a column or pedestal. Ovolo. A moulding sometimes called a quar- ter-round, from its profile, being the quadrant of a circle. When sculptured it is called an Echi- nus, which see. Panel. A thin board having all its edges in- serted in the groove of a surrounding frame. Parapet. From the Italian Parapetto, breast- high. The defence round a terrace or roof of u building. ParaslaliC. Pilasters standing insulated. Pavilion. A turret or small building generally insulated, and comprised beneath a single roof. Pedestal. The substruction under a column or wall. A pedestal under a column consists of three parts, — the base, the die, and the cornice or cap. Pediment. The low triangular crowning or- nament of the front of a building, or of a door, window, or niche. Pend, (in Gothic architecture,) a vaulted roof without groining. Pendant, (in Gothic architecture,) a hanging ornament in highly-enriched vaulted roofs. Pinnacle, (in Gothic architecture,) a small spire. Peripteral. A term used by the ancients to express a building encompassed by columns, forming, as it were, an aisle round the building. Peristylium. In Greek and Roman houses, a court, square, or cloister. Perspective. Is the science which teaches us to dispose the lines and shades of a picture, so as to represent, on a plane, the image of objects ex- actly as they appear in nature. Piazza. A continued arch-way, or vaulting, supported by pillars or columns ; a portico. Pier. A solid between the doors or the win- dows of a building. The square or other formed mass or post to which a gate is hung. Pilaster. A square pillar engaged in a wall. Pile. A stake or beam of timbers, driven firmly into the ground. Pillar. A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and always deviating from the pro- portions of the orders ; whence the distinction between a pillar and a column. Platband. A square moulding, whose projec- tion is less than its height or breadth. Plinth. The square solid under the base of a column, pedestal, or wall. Porch. An arched vestibule at the entrance of a church, or other building. Portico. A place for walking under shelter, raised with arches in the manner of a gallery ; the portico is usually vaulted, but has sometimes a flat soflit or ceiling. This word is also used to denote the projection before a church or temple supported by columns. Post. A piece of timber set erect in the earth. Perpendicular timbers of the wooden frame of a building. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 107 Poslicum. The back door of a temple ; also the portico behind the temple. Principal Rafters. The two incHned timbers which support the roof. Profile. The contour of the different parts of an order. Projecttire. The prominence of the mould- ings, and members beyond the naked surface of a column, wall, &c. Proscenium. The front part of the stage of the ancient theatres, on which the actors performed. Prostyle. A building or temple with columns in front only. Purlins. Pieces of timber framed horizon- tally from the principal rafters to keep the com- mon rafters from sinking in the middle. Pycnoslyle. An intercolumniation equal to one diameter and a half. Pyramid. A solid with a square polygonal or Triangular base, terminating in a point at top. Quarter- Round. [See Ovolo and Echinus.] Qualrefoil, (in Gothic architecture,) an orna- ment in tracery, consisting of four segments of circles, or cusps, within a circle. Quirk Motddings. The convex part of Gre- cian mouldings, when they recede at the top, forming a reenticent angle with the surface which covers the moulding. Quoins. The external and internal angles of buildings or of their members. The corners. Radius, in geometry, is the semi-diameter of a circle, or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference ; in mechanics, the spoke of a wheel. Rails, in framing, the pieces that lie hori- zontal ; and the perpendicular pieces, are called stiles, in wainscoting, &c. Raking. A term applied to mouldings whose arrises are inclined to the horizon. Relievo, or Relief. The projecture of an architectural ornament. Resistance, in mechanics, that power which acts in opposition to another, so as to diminish or destroy its effect. Reticulated work. That in which the courses are arranged in a net-like form. The stones are square, and placed lozengewise. Return. (Fr.) The continuation of a mould- ing, projection, &c. in an opposite direction, as the flank of a portico, &c. Rib. (Sax.) An arched piece of timber sus- taining the plaster-work of a vault, &c. Ridge. The top of the roof which rises to an acute angle. Ritig. A name sometimes given to the list, cincture, or fillet. Roman Order. Another name for the Com- posite. Rose. The representation of this flower is carved in the centre of each face of the abacus in the Corinthian capital, and is called the Rose of that capital. Rustic. The courses of stone or brick, in which the work is jagged out into an irregular surface. Also, work left rough without tooling. Sagging. The bending of a body in the mid- dle by its own weight, when suspended horizon- tally by each end. Salon. An apartment for state, or for the reception of paintings, and usually running up through two stories of the house. It may be square, oblong, polygonal, or circular. Saloon. {Fr.) A lofty hall, usually vaulted at the top, with two stages of windows. Sash. The wooden frame which holds the glass in windows. Scaffold. A frame of wood fixed to walls, for masons, plasterers, &c. to stand on. Scantling. The name of a piece of timber, as of quartering for a partition, when under five inches square, or the rafter, purlin, or pole-plate of a roof. Scapus. The same as Shaft of a column, which see. Scarfing. The joining and bolting of two pieces of timber together transversely, so that the two appear but as one. Scotia. The name of a hollowed moulding, principally used between the tori of the base of columns. Severy, (in Gothic architecture,) a separate portion of a building. Shaft. That part of a column which is be- tween the base and capital. It is also called the Fust, as well as Trunk of a column. Shank. A name given to the two interstical spaces between the channels of the triglyph in the Doric frieze. Shooting. Planing the edge of a board straight, and out of winding. Shoulder. The plane, tranverse to the length of a piece of timber from which a tenon projects. Shutters. The boards or wainscoting which shut up the aperture of a window. 108 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Sill. Tlic timber or stone at the foot of a window or door, the ground timbers of a frame which support the posts. Skirtings. Tlie narrow boards which form a plinth round the margin of a floor. Socle. A square flat member, of greater breadth than height, usually the same as plinth. Sojil. The ceiling or underside of a member in an order. It means also the underside of the larmier or corona in a cornice ; also, the under- side of that part of the architrave which does not rest on the columns. [See also Lacunar.] Sommer. The lintel of a door, window, &rc. ; a beam tenoned into a girder, to support the ends of joists on both sides of it. Spandrel, (in Gothic architecture,) the trian- gular space enclosed by one side of an arch, and two lines at right angles to each other, one hori- zontal, and on a level with the apex of the arch, the other perpendicular, and a continuation of the line of the jamb. Spiral. A curve line of a circular kind, which in its progress recedes from its centre. Steps. The degrees in ascending a staircase. Slereobala, or Stylobata. The same as En- tasis. Strap. An iron plate, to secure the junction of two or more timbers, into which it is secured by bolts. Stretching Course. Bricks or stones laid in a wall with their longest dimensions in the hori- zontal line. Surbase. The mouldings immediately above the base of a room. Systyle. An intercolumniation equal to two diameters. Table, (in Gothic architecture,) any surface, or flat member. Tani. A term usually applied to the lastel above the architrave in the Doric order. Templet. A mould used by brick-layers and masons for cutting or setting the work ; a short piece of timber sometimes laid under a girder. Tenon. A piece of timber the thickness of which is divided into about three parts, the two outside parts are cut away, leaving two shoulders, the middle part projects, and being fitted to a mortise, is usually termed a tenon. Terrace Roofs. Roofs which are flat at the top. Tetraslyle. A building having four columns in front. Torus. A moulding of semi-circular profile, used in the bases of columns. Tracery, (in Gothic architecture,) a term for the intersection, in various forms, of the mullions in the head of a window or screen. Transom, (in Gothic architecture,) a cross muUion in a window. Trefoil, (in Gothic architecture,) an ornament, consisting of three cusps in a circle. Triglyph. The ornament of the frieze in the Doric order, consisting of two whole and two half channels, sunk triangularly on the plan. Trimens. Pieces of timber framed at right angles with the joints against the wall, for chim- neys, and well-holes for stairs. Trimmer. A small beam, into which are framed the ends of several joists. The two joists into which each end of the trimmer is framed are called trimming joists. Trough- Gutter. A gutter below the dripping eaves, to convey the water to the pipe by which it is discharged. Trunk. [See Shaft.] When the word is ap- plied to a pedestal it signifies the dado or die, or body of the pedestal answering to the shaft of the column. Truss. When the girders are very long, or the weight the floors are destined to support is very considerable, they are trussed. Tuscan. One of the orders of architecture. Tusk. A bevel shoulder, made above a tenon, to strengthen it. Tympanum. The space enclosed by the cor- nice of the sloping sides of a pediment, and the level fillet of the corona. Vault. An arched roof so contrived that the stones or other materials of which it is composed, support and keep each other in their places. Vestibule. An anti-hall, lobby, or porch. Vice, (in Gothic architecture,) a spiral stair- case. Volute. The scroll which is appended to the capital of the Ionic order. Wall-Plates. Pieces of timber which are so placed as to form the supports to the roof of a building. Well. The space occupied by a flight of stairs: the space left in the middle, beyond the ends of the stops, is called the well-hole. Zigzag, (in Gothic architecture,) an ornament so called from its resemblance to the letter. /'/. / U,liKJMA.^ OOJlllV :;: J' I' ^^^ -T" m f,yi rJLL. 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