®I{E §. p. ^m pbrarg ifortff Carolina Staia (SioUeae ^ 53<^^ This BOOK may be kept out TWO WEEKS ONLY, and is subject to a fine of FIVE CENTS a day thereafter. It is due on the day indicated below: 7Apr'4© 23Ap'40r 8M/40W 0c9'40W 2Je'4lr NOV - 2 1988 5Je'41W,^ ]9IVlv'42E^t 7Jijl'503 250cf 51 X 2Fet52C 22feb54j OCT 2^ «88 An Ideal Feeder's Head Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender, grand champion at the International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred and fitted by H. J. Fluck, Goodenow, 111. Sold to Iowa State College. Types and Market Classes OF Live Stock H:^W. VAUGHAN, M. Sc. in Agr. PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA Second Revision Eleventh Edition U. G. ADAMS & COMPANY COLUMBUS OHIO 1927 fttOFERTY LIBRARY N. C. State Celkge COPYRIGHT, 1915, 1919, 1927 BY H. W VAUGHAN First Edition July, 1915 Second Edition. June, 1916 'Ihird Edition. June. 1917 Fourth Edition July, 191« Fifth Edition (Revised), July 191 1» Sixth Edition, May. 1920 Seventh Edition, July, 1921 Eighth Edition October 192^ Ninth Edition (Revised), July, 192:i Tenth Edition, August, 1925 Eleventh E lition, ^ug Jst, 1 »27 '. T. HEER PRINTING CO. COLUMBUS, OHIO 1927 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION During the past eight years there has been added to the curriculum in most of our agricultural colleges a new course dealing with the tj^es of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock. More properly speaking, it has been inserted at the very beginning of the work in animal husbandry, forming, as it logically does, the founda- tion course in the study of that important branch of agriculture. This is a soundly practical study; the student is brought to a much clearer conception of values and a much better appreciation of live stock than was possible under the former system of teaching. Recognizing the need of a text on this subject which could be placed in the hands of students, the writer prepared and printed a loose-leaf edition which has been used at Ohio State University during the past three years. This met with favorable comment, and requests have been made that the material be put into book form. After careful revision and the addition of a number of illustrations, this is now attempted in the hope that students and teachers and the general reader as well may find such a book useful. The arrangement of the subject-matter corresponds to the order usually followed in teaching, but may be varied as desired, each sec- tion of the book— Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, and Horses— being complete in itself. The writer desires to express his indebtedness to numerous com- mission men, buyers for the packing houses, and others who have kindly given their assistance during his quests for information, and to numerous experiment station publications, particularly the series of excellent bulletins issued by the Illinois Station setting forth the results of their studies of the Chicago and St. Louis markets. Acknowledg- ment of valued assistance is due my present co-workers, and also Professors C. S. Plumb and F. R. Marshall at Ohio State University. Iowa State College H. W. VAUGHAN July, 1915 PREFACE TO NINTH EDITION At most agricultural colleges, the study of beef cattle begins with the fat steer at the market, both on foot and in the carcass, proceeds from that to a study of cattle in the feed-lot, and then considers the selection and operation of the breeding herd. Similar procedures are followed in studying other kinds of live stock. If the student learns his first lesson at the market, he comes to the feed-lot fortified with a knowledge of what the market wants, and he then proceeds to a study of the breeding herd knowing what both the market and the feed-lot demand from the breeder. This is the most practical method of teaching because the market should serve as a guide to the breeder and feeder; and it is best from a pedagogical standpoint because finished animals for the market are easiest to judge, are judged on practical points, the student begins his judging with the more elementary and proceeds to the more complex types, and as he progresses to each new stage he brings with him a soundly practical viewpoint gained from his previous experience. Finally, in his study of the commercial breeding herd, the produce of which goes direct to the feed-lot or market, he learns the necessity for using good purebred sires, and this leads in logical order to the study of the breeds of farm animals. He takes up the breed studies with a clear understanding that it is the function of these breeds to supply seed to improve all farm and range live stock, he has a firm belief in their power to perform this function, and he is led to compare and value the various breeds as they should be compared and valued, namely on their ability to meet practical requirements. In short, the modern plan of study, which proceeds from the market to the breeds, rather than from the breeds to the market, gives the student the right philosophy of the live-stock business, particularly the purebred live- stock business. In the first edition of this book, published in 1915, the undersigned endeavored to present clearly and concisely the things a beginner in the field of animal husbandry should know, leading up to, but not including, the study of the breeds. In the revised edition published in 1919, and in this, the second revised edition, the objective has been the same as in 1915. A number of new illustrations have been added and much of the text matter has been rewritten, but the original plan has been retained without any radical changes. The writer acknowledges his indebtedness to teachers in a number of colleges who upon request suggested many of the changes and addi- 10 Preface to Ninth Edition tions included in the present volume. He is especially indebted to members of the animal husbandry and dairy husbandry divisions of the University of Minnesota for advice and help, particularly to Professor E. F. Ferrin for assistance in revising discussions of the types of hogs. For special information and data which they have furnished upon various subjects, the writer is indebted to E. W. Sheets, acting chief of the animal husbandry division, U. S. Bureau of Animal Indus- try; C. V. Whalin, in charge, marketing live stock, meats, and wool division, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics; J. S. Montgomery, manager of the Central Cooperative Commission Association, St. Paul, Minn.; R. A. Hammond, manager, Ohio Sheep and Wool Grow- ers' Association, Columbus, Ohio; Edward N. Wentworth, director. Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago, 111.; and L. D. H. Weld, manager. Commercial Research Department, Swift and Company, Chicago, 111. Many of the illustrations which appear in the following pages have been kindly supplied by authors of experiment station and other pub- lications, teachers, breeders, breed record associations, and others. Individual mention of these is made in the list of illustrations, beginning on page 13. In this list credit is also given for illustrations which originally appeared in other publications and which are reproduced herein with the permission of the authors or publishers. St. Paul, Minnesota H. W. VAUGHAN July, 1923 CONTENTS Page General Introduction 19 PART ONE— CATTLE Chapter Introduction 27 I Beef Type 33 II The Beef Carcass 47 III Packing House By-Products from Cattle 63 IV The Value of Type in Beef Making 70 V American Cattle Markets 78 ' VI Fashions in Market Cattle 96 VII Selection of Feeder Steers 106 VIII Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 119 IX Breeding for the Market 145 X Dairy Type 163 XI The Secretion of Milk 180 XII Variations in the Usefulness of Dairy Cows 188 XIII Breeding for Milk Production 195 XIV Dual-Purpose Cattle 206 PART TWO— SHEEP . Introduction 213 XV Mutton Type 218 XVI The Mutton Carcass and the Pelt 228 XVII American Sheep Markets 239 XVIII Market Classes and Grades of Sheep 244 XIX Breeding for the Market 267 XX The Merino or Fine-Wool Type 279 XXI Wools and Wool Growing 288 PART THREE— SWINE Introduction 311 XXII The American or Lard-Type Hog 317 XXIII The Bacon-Type Hog 327 XXIV The Hog Carcass 335 XXV Hog Markets and Pork Packing— Past and Present 352 XXVI Market Classification of Swine 365 XXVII Breeding for the Market 381 PART FOUR— HORSES Introduction 399 XXVIII Brief Anatomical Study of the Horse 402 XXIX Some Important Facts Concerning the Horse 413 XXX Origin of the Types of Horses 424 11 12 Contents Chapter Page XXXI Draft Type 432 XXXII The Carriage or Heavy-Harness Horse 447 XXXIII The Roadster or Light-Harness Horse 453 XXXIV The Saddle Horse 460 XXXV The Hunter and Polo Pony 469 XXXVI Market Classes of Horses 477 XXX VII Horse Breeding 494 XXXVIIl The Mule 507 XXXIX Market Classes of Mules 516 XL Unsoundness in the Horse 523 Index 535 IIXUSTRATIONS An Ideal Feeder's Head. (From Iowa State College.) — Frontispiece Fig. Page 1. Rough, stony, or semi-arid land may be utilized as pasture. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 20 2. Points of the steer 34 3. Points of the steer 35 4. A model bullock. (From Prof. C. F. Gobble, Purdue University.) ... 37 5. The right pattern 39 6. Correct type in the fat steer. (From Iowa State College.) 40 7. A steer with excellent lines. (From Iowa State College.) 41 8. A "rare good one." (From Prof. Gordon H. True, University of California.) 43 9. Proportions of lean and fat in beef cattle. (From Influence of Nutrition Upon the Animal Form, Dean H. J. Waters, University of Missouri.) 44 10. Knocking cattle 47 11. Prime steer carcass 51 12. Beef ribs. (From Iowa State College.) 54 13. Well-marbled beef. (From Iowa State College.) 56 14. Cuts of beef indicated in the live animal. (From Iowa State College.) . 57 15. Wholesale cuts of beef 59 16. How by-products reduce dressed beef prices. (From Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, Aug. 1, 1920, Edward N. Wentworth, Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago.) 63 17. Dairy-type steer. (From Iowa State College.) 71 18. Dairy-type steer. (From Iowa State College.) 73 19. Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. (From Iowa State College.) 75 20. Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. (From Iowa State College.) 76 21. Average monthly receipts and shipments of cattle at Chicago 81 22. Union Stock Yards, Chicago. (From A. G. Leonard, President, Union Stock Yard and Transit Company.) 86 23. Ideal of early beef producers. (From Iowa State College.) 97 24. Prime baby beef. (From Iowa State College.) 99 25. Baby beeves on feed. (From Prof. A. B. Caine, Iowa State College.) . . 100 26. A g and champion fat heifer. (From Prof. Gordon H. True, Univer- sity of California.) 102 27. Fancy selected feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) ... 109 28. An average load of steers on feed. (From Iowa State College.) 113 29. Fancy feeder calves 117 30. Western range cattle 120 31. Prime beef steers 123 32. Choice beef steers 124 33. Good beef steers. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 125 34. Common beef steers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113.) 126 35. Prime butcher heifer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics.) 127 13 14 Illustrations Fig. Page 36. Good to choice butcher heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mum- ford.) 128 37. Choice butcher cow. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics.) 129 38. Good cutters. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 130 39. Medium canner cow. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics.) 131 40. Choice veal calf. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 132 41. Choice feeder steer. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 134 42. Good feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics.) 135 43. Medium feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics.) 136 44. Common feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics.) 137 45. Stockers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1218.) 138 46. Effect of supply of cattle upon live and beef prices. (From Studies in Live Stock Marketing, July, 1921, L. D. H. Weld, Swift and Com- pany, Chicago.) 142 47. Spread in price of beef steers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 143 48. Distribution of beef cattle in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 147 49. Old-time Texas long-horn. (From F. R. Marshall, Salt Lake City, Utah.) 151 50. Crossbred beef cattle. (From Iowa State College.) 152 51. Selecting a future herd header. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1135.) 155 52. Correct type in the beef bull 158 53. Correct type in the beef cow 160 54. An excellent breeding cow. (From Iowa State College.) 162 55. Points of the dairy cow 164 56. A dairy cow with utility points emphasized. (From Edw. G. Horst, Extension Service, Holstein-Friesian Association of America.) 165 57. Excellent type in the dairy cow. (From Karl B. Musser, Associate Secretary, American Guernsey Cattle Club.) 167 58. Type and production. (From R. M. Gow, Secretary, American Jersey Cattle Club.) 169 59. Excellent type in the dairy cow 171 60. A combination of beauty and utility 172 61. An inferior dairy cow. (From Iowa State College.) 175 62. Excellent type in the dairy bull. (From lowana Farms, Davenport, Iowa.) 177 63. Excellent type in the dairy bull. (From D. D. Tenney, Crystal Bay, Minn.) 178 64. Cross-section of cow's udder. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domes- tic Animals, Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 181 65. Where milk is made. (After Hough and Sedgwick.) 183 66. Circulation to and from the udder. (After Bitting of the Indiana Experiment Station.) 184 67. Distribution of dairy cattle in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 196 Illustrations 15 Fig. Page 68. What good purebred sires can do. (From Iowa Bui. 188, Profs. H. H. Kildee and A. C. McCandlish.) 200 69. The dual-purpose type. (From James J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn.) 207 70. The dual-purpose type. (From George P. Grout, Duluth, Minn.) .... 208 71. Points of the sheep 219 72. Correct type in the fat wether 220 73. Long-wool sheep. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) 222 74. An International grand champion. (From F, S. Springer, Secretary, American Southdown Breeders' Association.) 224 75. The mutton type. (From W. O. Stride, Secretary, Southdown Sheep Society of Great Britain.) 225 76. Determining age of sheep from the teeth. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1199.) 226 77. Killing sheep at Chicago 229 78. Lamb carcasses. (From 111. Bui. 147, A. C. Glover, Secretary of Ex- periment Station.) 231 79. Break-joints and round-joint , 232 80. Wholesale cuts of mutton 234 81. Average monthly receipts and shipments of sheep and lambs at Chicago 242 82. Prime native lambs. (From Iowa State College.) 245 83. Prime western lambs. (From Armour and Company, Chicago.) 247 84. Choice western lambs. (From Iowa State College.) 249 85. Good lambs. (From Prof. W. C. Coffey, University of Illinois.) 250 86. Common lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 251 87. Prime western yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) ... . 252 88. Good yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 253 89. Prime native wethers. (From Iowa State College.) 254 90. Common western wethers. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 255 91. Fancy selected feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 256 92. Good feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 257 93. Common feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) .... 258 94. Canner ewe. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics.) 262 95. Sheep and lamb receipts and fat lamb prices at Chicago 265 96. Distribution of sheep in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 270 97. Correct type in the mutton breeding ram. (From Alan Eltringham, Babraham, Cambridge, England.) 273 98. Correct type in the breeding ewe 274 99. A prize-winning flock 276 100. A flock of uniform type 277 101. Class A Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 280 102. Class B Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 281 103. Class C Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 284 104. Class B Merino ewe. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 285 105. Rambouillet ewe. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 286 16 Illustrations Fig. Page 106. Wool fiber highly magnified 288 107. Cross-section of a wool fiber. (After McMurtrie, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt., Examination of Wools and Other Animal Fibers.) 289 108. Woolen and worsted yarns. (From U. S. House of Rep. Doc. 342, Wool and Manufactures of Wool.) 291 109. Clothing and combing wools. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R. Marshall.) 293 110. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R. Marshall.) 295 111. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R. Marshall.) 296 112. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R. Marshall.) 298 113. Tender wool showing break. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R. Marshall.) 306 114. Points of the hog 319 115. Excellent type in the fat barrow. (From Prof. Arthur L. Anderson, Iowa State College.) 320 116. Berkshire barrow. (From F. S. Springer, Secretary, American Berk- shire Association.) 322 117. Duroc-Jersey barrow. (From Joe Haaga, Assistant Secretary, National Duroc-Jersey Record Association.) 323 118. Some essentials in type well illustrated. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin, University of Minnesota.) 325 119. Five Poland-China barrows. (From Prof. Arthur L. Anderson, Iowa State College.) 326 120. Fancy market bacon pig. (From Iowa State College.) 328 121. Correct bacon type. (From Iowa State College.) 329 122. Bacon type as shown in the herd boar 330 123. Bacon type as shown in the brood sow. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin, University of Minnesota.) 333 124. The hog hoist 336 125. Dressing hogs 337 126. Shipper-dressed carcasses in the cooler 338 127. Effect of underline on trimming of side 339 128. Fat and bacon carcasses compared. (From Iowa State College.) .... 341 129. Wholesale cuts of pork. (After 111. Bui. 147.) 343 130. A side of pork. (From Wis. Circ. 139, Prof. A. W. Hopkins, Editor.) . . 344 131. Weights of the finished wholesale cuts from a 250-pound hog. (From Swift and Company Year Book, 1922, L. D. H. Weld.) 346 132. Average monthly receipts and shipments of hogs at Chicago 354 133. Unloading hogs at Chicago 357 134. Prime heavy hogs. (From Iowa State College.) 366 135. Heavy butcher hogs. (From National Duroc-Jersey Record Associa- tion.) _ 367 136. Medium butcher hogs 368 137. Light butcher hogs. (From Iowa State College.) 369 138. Packing sow 370 139. Classification of market hogs according to quality and weight 374 140. Hog receipts and prices at Chicago 380 Illustrations 17 Fig. Page 141. Distribution of hogs in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 385 142. Pork production in the United States closely related to corn production 387 143. Excellent type in the herd boar. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin, University of Minnesota.) 391 144. Good type in the boar. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) .... 393 145. Good type in the brood sow. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) 396 146. Skeleton of the horse. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, after Ellenberger and Baum, Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 4:^3 147. Bones of the fore leg 404 148. Fore leg from knee to ground 415 149. Bones, tendons, and ligaments of the fore leg. (After Haubner.) .... 405 150. Bones of the hock 406 151. Man and horse compared. (From Book of the Horse, by permission of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) 407 152. Exterior of the hoof 4^8 153. Diagram showing structure of the foot 419 154. The parts of the hoof 410 155. Attachment of fore leg to body. (From Book of the Horse, by per- mission of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) 413 156. The horse in motion 415 157. Front view of fore legs 418 158. Side view of fore legs 418 159. Side view of hind legs 419 160. Rear view of hind legs 419 161. Defects in fore legs and their effects on action 420 162. Sickle hock 421 163. Points of the horse 435 164. A grand champion draft gelding 436 165. The draft type 439 166. Six high-class well-matched draft geldings. (From Ellis McFarland, Secretary, Percheron Society of America.) 441 167. Heavy drafters in harness 442 168. Before and after fattening. (From B. E. Carmichael, Ohio Experi- ment Station.) 445 169. Carriage or heavy-harness type. (From Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana State College.) 447 170. The heavy-harness type in action. (From William Little, Manager, Irvington Farm, Sewickley, Pa.) 448 171. The carriage horse in harness. (From The Spur, New York City.) .... 451 172. Sensational action. (From The Spur, New York City.) 452 173. Roadster or light-harness type. (From Hon. John R. Thompson, Libertyville, 111.) 455 174. The light-harness horse in action 457 175. Five-gaited saddle horse. (From Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky.) 460 176. The saddle horse in action. (From Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Dan- ville, Ky.) 463 177. The three-gaited saddle type 464 1 S Illustrations Fig. Page 178. A typical hunter. (From Nimrod's Condition of Hunters, by per- mission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) 470 179. The hunter in action. (From The Field, New York City.) 471 189. A hunt team and pack of fox hounds. (From Nimrod's Condition of Hunters, by permission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) 472 181. Polo pony of excellent type. (From The Spur, New York City.) ....". . 474 182. The polo pony in action. (From Harold A. Taylor, Coronado, Cal.) . . 475 183. Horse market at Union Stock Yards, Chicago 479 184. Eastern chunk. (From Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana State College.) . . 482 185. Express horse. (From Wayne Dinsmore, Secretary, Horse Associa- tion of America.) 484 186. Light artillery horse. (From Iowa State College.) 485 187. Heavy artillery horses. (From Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Command- ing Officer, Remount Service Training Camp, Camp Johnston, Jack- sonville, Fla.) 486 188. Fire horses 487 189. Runabout horse 489 190. Cavalry horse. (From Iowa State College.) 491 191. High-class pony. (From George A. Heyl, Washington, 111.) 492 192. Distribution of horses in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 495 193. Excellent type in the draft stallion 497 194. The Percheron stallion Jalap. (From Iowa State College.) 498 195. A noted sire and his get. (From William Crownover, Hudson, Iowa.) 499 196. The Belgian stallion Farceur's King. (From Prof. W. H. Peters, Uni- versity of Minnesota.) 500 197. Correct type in the draft mare. (From Iowa Department of Agricul- ture.) 502 198. Percheron brood mares in harness. (From Prof. J. L. Edmonds, University of Illinois.) 503 199. Two-year-old Percheron fillies. (From Prof. J. L. Edmonds, Univer- sity of Illinois.) 505 200. Correct type in the jack. (From L. M. Monsees, Pettis County, Mo.) 598 231. Prize-winning mules 511 212. High-class draft mules 512 203. Distribution of mules in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 514 204. Mining or pack mule. (From Iowa State College.) 517 205. Cotton or lead mule. (From Iowa State College.) 518 206. Sugar mule. (From Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Commanding Officer, Remount Service Training Camp, Camp Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla.) 519 207. Farm or wheel mule. (From Iowa State College.) 520 208. Small pair of wheel mules to army wagon. (From Capt. M. G. Thorn- burg, Commanding Officer, Remount Service Training Camp, Camp Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla 521 209. Bog spavin 524 210. Bone spavin 525 211. Curb 528 212. Ringbone and cocked ankle 531 TYPES AND MARKET CLASSES OF LIVE STOCK GENERAL INTRODUCTION / Two distinct systems of farming are practiced in the United States: (1) grain farming and (2) live-stock farming. Grain farming is the growing of crops useful for food or clothing, the income being derived from the sale of these crops. Live-stock farming is that system in which the crops are used chiefly or entirely as feed for the live stock which is produced, the income being derived from the sale of animals, milk, and wool. Live stock farming requires greater skilL — Of the two systems, live-stock farming affords much greater opportunity for the develop- ment and application of knowledge and skill. The live-stock farmer must be equally competent as a crop producer with the grain farmer, and in addition must know how to handle and feed live stock econom- ically. He must have a certain practical knowledge of animals and their requirements which comes with experience and which can be readily acquired by one who has a liking for farm animals. Ample reward for greater skilL — Dr. C. E. Thome of the Ohio Experiment Station has said, "While it is true that meat is an ex- travagantly wasteful food, viewed solely from the economic standpoint, yet it is also true that the ruling peoples of the earth are the meat eaters, and the time is probably far in the future when in this country meat v/ill be banished from the tables of any but the improvident, even though further advance in its cost should take place. The out- look, therefore, is that for a long time to come the farmer who possesses the ability to handle live stock successfully will find ample opportunity for the exercise of his talents and ample reward for the larger ability which such exercise involves." Live stock converts farm wastes into profits.4^The keeping of live stock on the farm provides a means of utilizing as feed or bedding much that would otherwise be wasted. This applies to large amounts of roughage such as straw and com stalks. Meadow aftermath and 19 "• f- State 0>"p, 20 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock rough, stony, or semi-arid land unsuited for the plow may be grazed, unmarketable soft corn may be fed, and other similar wastes may be converted into profits where live stock is kept. Live stock and soil fertility.-r^'The maintenance of soil fertility is more difficult under the grain-farming system. Although it has been experimentally demonstrated that fertility may be maintained and in- creased by the use of commerical fertilizers and green manures with- out the aid of live stock, nevertheless the keeping of live stock and the utilization of farm manure afford the easiest method of maintaining and increasing the fertility of the soil. Where farming has been prac- ticed for a long period of time, the most fertile and prosperous com- munities are those in which much live stock has been kept and the manure properly handled and applied to the soil. :ar W^' Fig. 1. — Rough, stony, or semi-arid land unsuited to the plow may be utilized as pasture. A comparison of crop yields during five years on ten beef cattle farms in ten counties in Iowa, and on ten grain farms in the same neighborhoods, showed that the cattle farms averaged 14 bushels more corn per acre, 7 bushels more oats, and 1 ton more hay. Value of farm manures. — Experiments indicate that if animals were kept in stalls or pens throughout the year and the manure care- fully saved, the approximate value of the manure produced by each horse or mule would be $27, by each head of cattle $20, by each hog $4, and by each sheep $2. The total fertilizing value of the manure produced in the United States in one year would, therefore, be $2,112,847,000. In this estimate, no account is taken of the value of the manure for improving the mechanical condition and drainage of Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 21 soils, which is fully as great as the value of the phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen contained in farm manure. Saves four-fifths of fertilizing value of crops fed. — When fed to animals, a large proportion (about 80 per cent) of the fertilizing element of the feed is recovered in the excrement. For example, if a ton of com is sold off the farm, it removes fertility to the value of $6.56; while if fed to animals, this ton of corn results in manure worth, while fresh, $5.24. If manure is properly handled and applied to the soil, little of its fertilizing value will be lost. The corresponding figures for one ton of oats are $7.43 and $5.94 respectively, for timothy $5.21 and $4.16, red clover $8.79 and $7.03, alfalfa $8.76 and $7.00, oat straw $3.30 and $2.64, corn silage $1.22 and $0.97, whole milk $1.96 and $1.52. Purchased feeds increase soil fertility. — In many instances the best method of increasing the fertility of a farm is to buy feeds which may be fed profitably to the live stock on hand, and then carefully handle and apply the manure produced. For example, a ton of cotton- seed meal or wheat bran used for feed gives manure worth, while fresh, $19.20 and $10.19 respectively. Farm animals convert crops into products of greater value.^^The live-stock farmer who- fails to conserve and utilize farm manures is surely overlooking a great source of profit. On the other hand, ani- mals should not be regarded merely as fertilizer factories. The manure produced by farm stock, while valuable, is secondary in im- portance to the value of the anim.als themselves. Farm animals are valued primarily for their meat, milk, wool, labor, fats, and hides. The stockman converts his crops into animal products of higher value to man, aiming thereby to reap a larger profit than is possible by the grain-farming system, and at the same time he increases the fertility of his land. 0. E. Baker of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics states ^ that fully 60 per cent of the crop acreage in the United States, exclu- sive of pasture, is used to produce feed for farm animals, and that fully 80 per cent of the total food and feed produced by all tame and wild vegetation in the United States is consumed by live stock. The latter statement includes cereal crops, improved and unimproved pastures in farms, woodland pastures in farms and national forests, and arid or semi-arid open range land in the West. Advantages of live-stock farming summarized: 1. Live-stock production, properly conducted, is a profitable business. lA Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 409. 22 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 2. It provides a home market and pays better than average prices for farm crops. 3. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. 4. Gives steady employm.ent throughout the year to labor on the farm and thereby helps to solve the farm labor problem. 5. Utilizes as pasture m.uch land unfit for the plow. 6. Utilizes miuch that would otherwise be waste on the farm, such as straw, corn stalks, soft corn and other unsaleable grain, meadow afterm^ath, many weeds, and garbage. 7. Affords the best m.eans of utilizing such by-products as tank- age, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, and skim milk. 8. Affords opportunity for higher development and application of skill in farming. 9. The care and handling of live stock is intensely interesting work. Numbers and values of our live stock. — The U. S. Department of Agriculture reports the numbers and values of live stock on farms in the United States on January 1, 1923, as follows: Number Horses 18,853,000 Mules 5,506,000 Milk cows 24,429,000 Other cattle 41,923,000 Sheep 37,209,000 Swine 63,424,000 Totals , 191,344,000 Total value $1,314,956,000 472,735,000 1,241,673,000 1,076,254,000 278,939,000 726,699,000 5,111,256,000 Value per head $69.75 85.86 50.83 25.67 7.50 11.46 RaEk of (he stales in value of live stock. — Following are the total values of horses, mules, cattle, hogs, and sheep on farms in each of the 48 states on January 1, 1923, as estimated by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture: 1. Iowa 2. Texas . . . . Illinois. . . Wisconsin. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 17 Millions of dollars ..431 ..288 ..276 ..237 3 4 5. Nebraska 235 6. Ohio 214 Missouri 212 Minnesota 210 Kansas 197 New York 189 Indiana 178 California 165 Pennsylvania 163 Michigan 147 15. South Dakota 144 16. Oklahoma 103 Kentucky 96 Millions of dollars 18. Tennessee 95 19. Montana 95 20, 21. 22, 23, 24 25 26 27 28 29 30, Colorado 94 North Dakota 93 Georgia 88 North Carolina 87 Virginia 77 Mississippi 74 Alabama 72 Oregon 69 Idaho 65 Arkansas 63 Wyoming 58 31. Louisiana 55 32. Arizona 54 33. South Carolina 53 34. Washington 52 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 23 Millions of dollars of dollars 35. Utah 49 42. New Jersey 27 36. West Virgin! 1 43 43. Miiae 23 37. New Mexico 43 44. MiS3acius3tts 22 38. Maryland 35 45. Connecticut 18 39. Florida 3 J 48. New Hampshire. . . . 13 40. Vermont Nevada 32 21 47. 48. Delaware 6 41. Rhode Island 4 Total .. ..5,111 Growth of American live-stock industry in 50 years. — The follow- ing census returns show the growth in numbers of our live-stock industry since 1870: N'lmbsrs {millions) of animals on farms in the United States on census dates Horses Mules Milk cows . . Other cattle . Sheep Swine 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 1870 (Jan. 1) (Apr. 15) (June 1) (June 1) (June 1) (June 1) 20 20 18 15 10 7 5 4 3 2 2 1 24 21 17 17 12 9 43 41 50 34 22 14 35 52 62 36 35 28 59 58 63 57 48 25 The United States leads all other countries in the production of live stock. Though excelled by India in total number of cattle, the United States leads all countries in beef production. We also rank first in the production of milk, butter, and cheese. We have more hogs than any other five countries for which closely approximate figures are available. ^ We rank fourth in number of sheep, being surpassed by Australia, Russia, and Argentina in the order named. We rank a close second to Russia in number of horses. We far surpass any other country in number of mules, with more than four times as many as Spain, our nearest competitor. With about 6 per cent of the world's population and 5.7 per cent of the total land area, we have 14 per cent of the world's cattle, 35 per cent of the swine, 8 per cent of the sheep, 21 per cent of the horses, and 62 per cent of the mules. ^ We produce 70 per cent of the world's corn, 25 per cent of the oats, and 13 per cent of the barley. ^ Most of these cereals is fed to live stock. We lead all countries in the pro- duction of com and oats. ^ Our tremendous advantage in corn pro- duction explains our supremacy in pork production, and also largely explains our high rank in beef production. Corn and grass are the b^sic m.eat-producing materials in America. Corn is, in fact, the principal grain feed in this country for all kinds of farm animals. 1 Swine are known to be numerous in China, but no livestock census has been taken in that country. ■■^Computed from Table 290, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yeirbook, 1921, pp. 675-680. ^O. E. Baker: A Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 408. *We also lead in wheat, cotton, and tobacco. 24 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock "Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-furnishing food for the animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on a given space and with a given expenditure of labor, so much animal food in both grain and forage. On millions of farms successful animal husbandry rests upon this imperial grain and forage plant." ^ Meat export countries. — The export trade of the meat-surplus countries amounts to less than 8 per cent of the entire production of the world. - Over 92 per cent of the world's meat production is consumed in the countries in which it is produced. The principal meat export countries are the United States, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, Uruguay, Canada, Brazil, and Denmiark, especially the first four. Argentina largely dominates the world's beef export trade. The United States contributes the great bulk of export pork products. Mutton exports originate almost entirely in New Zealand, Australia, and Argentina. Denmark and Canada export considerable high-class bacon, and Uruguay and Brazil make contributions to beef exports. Meat import countries. — Great Britain is the leading meat-im- porting country; Germany normally holds second place; and the Netherlands rank third. Other meat-importing nations are Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Cuba, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. Imports of live animals are rela- tively small and consist largely of shipments across boundaries to near-by markets. The "meat eaters." — Half of the people of the world eat little meat. Meat is consumed in greatest amounts per capita in the countries named in the two preceding paragraphs, to which may be added Greece and Portugal. The annual per capita consumption ranges from over 200 pounds in Australia and New Zealand to about 40 pounds in Portugal. ^ The United States ranks third with about 164 pounds, of which 14 pounds is lard. , Brief survey of North American live-stock industry.-i/-The fore- most live-stock producing region in the United States and in the world is the corn-belt region of the Central West, including the seven states, Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio, and parts of South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Oklahoma, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This region leads all others in beef produc- tion and pork production, holds a prominent place in dairying, has about half of the horses of the country, and produces over 70 per cent of the mules. Many cattle and sheep are brought here for feeding. The fattening of meat animals on grain rations is largely confined to ^Henry and Morrison: Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 149. 2 George K. Holmes: Meat Situation in the United States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 109, p. 97. 3U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 109, pp. 131-133. HOnKTY LIBRARY Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 25 this area. Most of the large Hve-stock markets of the United States are located within the corn belt. The western range region, including all territory west of the Mis- souri river, enjoys special advantages in extensive areas of cheap pas- ture lands, leads in mutton and wool production, produces a large quantity of beef, and supplies the corn belt with large numbers of feeder steers and feeder lambs. With the exception of the Pacific coast region, the western range states raise comparatively few dairy cattle and hogs. In the Great Lakes and Appalachian region, including New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the New England states, the breeding of dairy cattle and production of dairy products is practiced on an extensive scale. The cotton-belt region of the South, extending from central Texas to the Atlantic coast and from the corn belt to the Gulf coast, has given attention during recent years to improvement in live stock and to increased production, particularly with cattle and hogs. Texas has long been noted as the foremost beef cattle breeding ground, and ranks first among all states in numbers of beef cattle and sheep. Georgia has attained considerable prominence in the production of pork. In the cotton belt the mule is the favorite work animal, though most of the mules used in this region are produced in states north of the cotton belt. Nine southern states have more mules than horses. Canada, with about 0.5 percent of the world's population and 6.9 per cent of the land area, has 3.8 per cent of the world's horses, 2.3 per cent of the hogs, 2.1 per cent of the cattle, and 0.8 per cent of the sheep. ' Among 80 countries for which statistics are available, Canada ranks 7th in horses, 10th in hogs, 14th in cattle, and 28th in sheep. Bacon- type hogs are produced extensively. Ontario and Quebec far surpass the other Canadian provinces in numbers of swine and are also out- standing in numbers of dairy cows. Ontario is far in the lead in cattle other than dairy cows, with Quebec and Alberta second and third. Many communities in Canada, especially in Ontario, are noted for high average excellence of all kinds of farm live stock. Mexico is a country with great possibilities in live-stock produc- tion which may be realized at some future time if long-continued war- fare gives way to peace and industry. Much of the area of Mexico is elevated above the tick line and formerly many millions of cattle were produced, especially in the northern states. No recent official live-stock statistics for Mexico have been published. ^x^he stockman's success depends very largely upon the degree to which his animals meet with favor on the live-stock market. If he is ^Computed from Table 290, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 675-680. 26 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to make a financial success of his business, he must produce what the narket wants. Far too many feeders of hve stock lack acquaintance with market demands. Far too many breeders devote themselves to a breed simply because it satisfies a hobby and because the breed ap- peals to their fancy, rather than because they see in their animals any special utility. Unless a breed of beef cattle makes possible the pro- duction of better beef fcr the market; unless a breed of swine is fostered because in it is seen the possibility of improving the quality or cheapen- ing the cost of pork; unless a breed of draft horses is really useful when put to the test in the collar; then such breeds have little excuse for their existence, and those who foster them must sooner or later suffer finan- cially for their efforts. Both the breeder and the feeder must know the demands of the open market and keep them always in mind. The great live-stock breeders of the past were intensely practical; they never overlooked the market requirements of the kind of animals they bred. No animal m.et with favor in their eyes unless such favor V as earned by meat upon the back, milk in the pail, weight and quality cf wool, pounds gained for pounds of feed consum.ed, or som.e other per- formance of practical value. With them it was a question of ultimately furnishing better animals for the market or lowering the cost of produc- tion. It must be just so with the master breeders of the present and future. These pages aim to familiarize the reader with the types of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock, such knowl- edge being fundamiCntal in all live-stock work and study, and valuable not only to breeders and feeders, but to all persons who buy and use animals. PART I-CATTLE INTRODUCTION "The cow is the most essential of all man's four-footed friends. Strike beef and milk, cream and butter from the human dietary, and you have dealt a blow at civilization itself. Banish cattle from the grazing grounds of the temperate zones, and you have obliterated one of the world's chief sources of wealth. Elim- inate the herds from the pastures of both hemispheres, and you are on the road to a paralyzing lost fertility. Drive cattle from the ranges of North and South America, and you have turned back millions of semi-arid acres into a wilderness more or less abandoned of God and man." — Alvin H. Sanders in the Breed- er s Gazette. '■ The United States leads all other countries in the production of beef and dairy products. Formerly we produced a considerable sur- plus of beef, butter, and cheese which we exported to the value of many millions of dollars annually, but these exports have declined to a marked degree, and though greatly revived during the World War, they have again sharply declined. Imports of these products have in- creased. Note the following table: * Imports and exports of beef and dairy products Imports Exports Cattle — Number: . 1900 181,006 397,286 1921 329,974 145,623 Beef — Pounds: > 1900 2,500,000 857,542,000 1921 51,666,000 228,969,000 Butter — Pounds: 1880 487,120 39,236,658 1921 18,558,388 8,014,737 Cheese^Pounds: 1880 2,737,186 127,553,907 1921 26,866,000 11,772,000 ' Includes veal and edible ofTal. The decline in our beef and dairy exports is chiefly due to a popula- tion increasing at such a rapid rate that the increase in home produc- tion of food does not keep parallel with it. The United States had 7 millions of people in 1810, 17 millions in 1840, 39 millions in 1870, 76 millions in 1900, 92 millions in 1910, and 106 millions in 1920. Further- more, only 26.3 per cent of the population having census occupations iNov. 30, 1922, p. 721. ^Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks; Handbook of Dairy Statistics, 1922. 27 28 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock is agricultural, and the percentage declined from 83 per cent in 1820 to 77.5 per cent in 1840, 47 in 1870, 35 in 1900, and 33.1 in 1910. The consumers of food-stuffs in America have increased at a much more rapid rate than the producers. The producer of live stock in this coun- try is assured of ready sale for all his products at remunerative prices. lythe special advantages of cattle as compared to other kinds of live stock on the farm may be noted as follows: 1. Cattle consume larger quantities and make more efficient use of coarse and low-grade roughages produced on the farm, such as coarse hay and com stalks and the coarser pastures of ranker growth. No other farm animal will utilize so much of what otherwise would be waste on the farm. 2. Cattle can use the total production of grains and roughages on the average farm, with or without the purchase of other feeds, more efficiently than any other kind of live stock. 3. Cattle can be used profitably on low, wet land unsuited for crops or for other kinds of live stock. Cattle also approach sheep in adaptability to arid or rough land not suited to crop production. 4. Cattle on the farm greatly help to equalize the distribution of farm labor throughout the year. Excepting cows that are milked, cattle require little attention during the summer and fall pasture season when crops need attention. During winter and early spring, farmers can employ their time to advantage in caring for the breeding herd, wintering stockers, or fattening steers. 5. Cattle products are less subject to seasonal fluctuations in supply and price than those of any other kind of live stock. 6. Beef cattle require less labor for their care than do other farm animals. 7. Dairy products remove less fertility from the farm than do other major farm products. / The three types of cattle.y-Experience has shown that only a cer- tain kind or type of cow can produce a large flow of milk, and that quite a different kind or type is necessary for efficient beef production. The high-class dairy cow possesses certain well-marked characters which make her useful as a machine for producing milk, and we call this combination of characters dainj type. Likewise, the high-class beef animal has certain well-marked characters which indicate efficiency in converting feed into flesh rather than into milk, and we call this combination of characters heef type. Some breeders have endeavored to establish what is called a dual-purpose type of cattle. They believe there is need of a cow that can produce both beef and milk, and they have, therefore, tried to combine dairy type and beef type as nearly as possible. The dual-purpose cow does not give as much milk as the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 29 dairy cow, nor does she make as much beef as the beef cow. At present the demand for dual-purpose cattle is comparatively limited, but some authorities have predicted that many farms will ultimately adopt the dual-purpose type as the one most profitable. Definition of type. — A type is an ideal or standard of perfection, combining all the characters which contribute to the animal's value and efficiency for the purpose specified. Tjrpe provides the animal with the proper form and structure for the kind of work or production desired. For example, if the specified purpose is beef production, then a rec- tangular, broad-topped form and abundant muscling are among the more important characters necessary to successful production. If the specified purpose is milk production, then a wedge-shaped, angular form and a large udder are among the important essentials. In both the beef animal and the dairy animal, a straight, strong back contrib- utes to the value of the animal, though it may or may not contribute to the animal's efficiency in- production. The breeds of cattle.J^ Various breeds of cattle have been evolved to meet the demands for each of the three types of cattle. Each breed has its distinctive and special features not found in individuals of other breeds. These special characters constitute what is called the breed type. For example, there are six breeds of beef cattle all of which possess beef type, yet each breed is distinctive in certain points which make up the breed type. Years ago, various groups of men in different localities under different conditions and with different sorts of unimproved cattle took up beef production, or dairying, or a combination of the two. In this way originated the various breeds of the three types of cattle as we know them today. Competition does not narrow each type down to a single best breed, because no one breed is best under all conditions of soil, climate, and feed supply. -f^he classification of the breeds according to type, and the number of registered purebreds of each breed in the United States, as shown by the 1920 census, are as follows: 30 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Type Breed Number Shorthorn 416,995 Hereford 405,582 RppF Typp I Aberdeen-Angus 108,524 liEEF lYPE ^Polled Shorthorn 61,764 Polled Hereford {*) Galloway 7,225 All other ' 63,409 Total 1,063,499 iHolstein-Friesian 528,621 Jersey 231,834 Guernsey 79,446 Ayrshire 30,509 [Brown Swiss 8,283 All other 2 37,909 Total 916,602 [Red Polled' {*) DuAL-PuRPOSB Type ... -I Milking Shorthorn (*) 1 Devon 1,413 All breeds 1,981,514 ' Probably includes Polled Hereforda and some Red Polled. 2 Includas Dutch Belted, French Canadian, and Kerry, and may include Milking Shorthorns, Polled Jerseys, and some Red Polled. ' The 1920 census did not make a separate count of Red Polled cattle, but they are much more numer- ous than Milking Shorthorns or Devons. * Not separately reported. Definitions of Cattle Terms i/ Bull. — Breeding male, any age. Cow. — Mature ferrale. Heifer.— A female urder three years old, and usually one that has not produced offspring. Calf, — Young animal, usually under one year old. Steer. — Unsexed male, castrated when a calf. The best age to castrate calves is six to eight weeks old, although they may be castrated from a week to six months old. The longer castration is delayed the greater is the risk of loss from the operation and the greater the liability of coarseness developing in head, neck, and forequarters. Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and forequarters. Well-developed masculine character constitutes coarse- ness in a market animal. Spayed heifer. — Unsexed heifer. Spaying is performed by making an incision in front of the left hip and removing the ovaries. The scar left after the operation is about the only sure method of identifying such heifers. Free-martin. — An imperfectly-sexed heifer born twin with a bull. They are infertile. All heifers born twin with bulls are not free- martins. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 31 Polled. — Naturally hornless. The Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, and Red Polled breeds are polled and produce polled offspring. The Polled Shorthorn and Polled Hereford breeds are polled and usually produce polled offspring. The term "mulley" is sometimes applied to polled cattle, more especially to those not representative of any particular breed. Scurs. — Flat or rounded buttons of horn sometimes present on the heads of polled animals and usually attached to the skin rather than to the skull. Dehorned. — ^Made hornless by the application of caustic potash which destroys the horn-forming tissue of the young calf before the horns have appeared, or by clipping or sawing off the horns of older animals. The former method, properly practiced, is simpler, easier, safer, and gives a neater appearance. Show Yard Classification by Ages Beef cattle. — The base dates for classifying beef cattle by ages are January 1 and September 1, and the classes by ages are as follows: Junior calf class. — The animals eligible to this class are those calved on or after January 1 of the year shown. Senior calf class. — Calved between (and including) September 1 and December 31 of the preceding year. Junior yearling class. — Calved between January 1 and August 31 of the preceding year. Senior yearling class. — Calved between September 1 and December 31 of the second preceding year. Two-year-old class. — Calved between September '1 of the third preceding year and August 31 of the second preceding year. Three years old and over (aged) class. — Calved before September 1 of the third preceding year. For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of 1923, junior calves are those calved on or after January 1, 1923; senior calves, those calved between (and including) September 1 and Decem- ber 31, 1922; junior yearlings, between January 1 and August 31, 1922; senior yearlings, between September 1 and December 31, 1921; two- year-olds, between September 1, 1920, and August 31, 1921; and aged animals three years old and over are those calved before September 1, 1920. Junior champion. — Best animal under two years. Senior champion. — Best animal two years old or over. Champion. — Best animal any age. 32 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Grand champion. — Best animal .any age or breed. The term "grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions. Dairy cattle.— The classes by ages for showing dairy cattle are the same as for beef cattle, but the base dates are February 1 and August 1. At many shows a class is provided for three-year-old cows, and where this is done the aged cow class includes those four years old and over. Some of the larger shows also provide a separate class for four-year-old cows, and the aged cow class then includes those five years old and over. Dual-purpose cattle. — Red Polled and Devon cattle are classified by ages the same as beef cattle. Milking Shorthorns are usually classi- fied by ages the same as dairy cattle. CHAPTER I BEEF TYPE The following description applies particularly to the fattened steer. Special or additional features of type which should characterize the beef bull and the beef cow will receive attention in another chapter. It should be understood, however, that all good beef animals — steers, heifers, cows, and bulls — are similar in the essentials of beef type; there- fore, the description given here applies in most respects to all classes of beef animals.^, ^, .,. General appearance.V^When correct in form and fatness, the beef animal presents a massive, blocky appearance from every angle of view. As viewed from the side, the body is rectangular, very deep, and short from shoulder to hip. The body is very wide, and the legs are short and placed squarely under the body. Two dimensions of the beef animal should be great — width and depth; the third dimension, length, should be relatively small. There should be great smoothness of out- line everywhere, all the parts being uniformly developed and so blended as to form a symmetrical and balanced animal. Along the top, the ideal animal is uniformly broad, the more width the better. From a side view, the top line and underline are straight and parallel. A full- ness of outline is presented everywhere. An animal showing too much length of middle is referred to as "rangy," while animals standing high off the ground on long legs are termed "leggy." The head should be short and broad, and the neck short and thick. Such a head and neck are associated or correlated with the desired type of body. Rangy, leggy animals usually have long, narrow heads and long, thin necks. With only the heads and necks of a number of beef animals in view, the best animals may be picked out with reasonable certainty by the general proportions of the heads and necks. A straight-edge laid against the side of a beef an- imal should touch the shoulder and hindquarter and all points between them. The head should be of medium size, short, and broad, with a broad muzzle, indicating capacity for grazing and feeding. The nostrils should be large, indicating capacity for breathing and hence a good constitution. The face should be short and from a side view the line of the face should be straight or show a slight inward curve or dish from eyes to muzzle. The eyes should be wide apart, large, prominent, bright, clear, and indicative of a quiet disposition. A quiet expression 33 34 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of the eyes means a quiet, contented feeder that will transform feed into flesh ; a nervous, restless expression is evidence of an unsatisfactory- feeder that will neither consume enough feed nor store up the energy of the feed consumed, but waste it in nervousness and too much moving about. The forehead should be very wide. The jaws should be broad and well muscled. If horns are present they should not be heavy and coarse, but of medium size and of good shape and proportions, tapering evenly to their tips. The ears should be of medium size and fine tex- ture. The entire head should be clean-cut, all lines being sharply defined, giving a well-bred appearance, sometimes referred to as "character." 36— |v 1. Muzzle 11. 2. Mouth 12 3. Nostril 13 4. Face 14. 5. Eye 15 6. Forehead 16 7. Ear 17 8. Poll 18 9. Tongue root 19 10. Brisket 20 Fig. 2. — Points of the steer. Dewlap 21. Knee Neck 22. Shank Crest 23. Foot Shoulder vein 24. Fore flank 15. Point of shoulder 25. Crops Top of shoulders 26. Back Shoulder 27. Ribs Fore-rib 28. Paunch or belly 39 Elbow 29. Loin Arm 30. Hip or hook 31. Rump 32. Tail-head 33. Thigh 34. Hock 35. Tail 36. Switch 38. Cod 39. Hind flank 40. Dew claw The neck should be short, thick, and muscular. The throat should be neat and trim, while at the shoulders the neck should show depth and fullness. The line where the neck and shoulder join is called the "shoulder vein," and we like this part to be filled out plump and full. A long neck lacking in thickness is frequently found, and it is un- desirable chiefly because it is associated with a rangy type of body. When the animal is standing in natural position, with the head up, the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 35 top line of the neck should be slightly arched and the poll of the head should be slightly higher than the top of the shoulders. The shoulders should be very smooth, blending perfectly with the rest of the body. This conformation is secured when the shoulder blade lies snugly against the ribs beneath, and is covered over with a uni- formly thick layer of flesh. The top of the shoulders should not be sharp and fine, nor yet so wide that the tops of the shoulder blades are prominent and outstanding, but should be moderately wide and nicely rounded over with flesh. Rough, angular shoulders, unevenly covered, are among the most common defects of beef cattle. When the shoulders are not properly laid in, but are wide and open, the appearance of the 32. Tail-head 33. Thighs Fig. 3. — Points of the steer 34. Hocks 36. Switch 38. Cod 35. Tail 37. Twist animal is injured, the fleshing over the shoulder is not taken on properly, and, when slaughtered, the carcass lacks the smooth, tidy appearance so much desired. A prominent shoulder also causes the development behind it to appear insufficient. The brisket and chest are highly important. The former should carry forward prominent and wide, and be well fleshed, yet neat, presenting a full, well-developed, and trim appearance. The chest, which lies between the shoulders and immediately behind them, ought to be very wide and deep. Too much width and depth are never found. A full, deep chest with large heart-girth indicates a rugged sort of animal possessed of much constitutional vigor. The floor of the chest should be wide, as shown by the distance between the two fore legs, 36 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock provided width at this point is not due merely to prominent, open shoulders which set the fore legs wide apart. The fore-rib, lying just behind the shoulder, should not be flat, but should arch boldly so that no flatness or depression exists immediately behind the shoulder. Many beef animals present a hollowness or flatness of fore-rib which detracts much from the desired smoothness and evenness of conforma- tion, and reduces the chest capacity. Care should be taken to see that the animal carries down deep and full at the front flanks just behind the elbows. The butcher cares nothing for a beef animal's constitution, but every intelligent feeder places great emphasis on the depth and width of chest, which indicate to him that the steer will be a good doer in the feed-lot. Briefly summing up these points, we may say that the forequarters should be smoothly laid, smoothly and thick- ly fleshed, and very wide and deep, showing no lack of constitution anywhere. The front legs should be short and placed squarely under the animal. They should come straight down, and the toes should point straight forward. For reasons already given, the fore legs should be set well apart. The arm should be wide and muscular at its attach- ment to the shoulder. Refinement of bone and cleanness of joints are evidences of quality, whereas rough, coarse animals have heavy joints and big shank bones. The back carries great weight, and it is desirable that it be straight and strong. When some people refer to the back they include the entire top of the animal from shoulders to tail. Others mean the top from shoulders to hips. The score card restricts the meaning of this term to that portion of the top lying between the shoulders and the last rib, which is some distance in front of the hip. In this description we shall use the word in the score-card sense. The back furnishes one of the high-priced cuts of beef and always receives critical attention in judging. It is important, first of all, that the back be very wide in order that it may carry the maximum amount of meat. Beef cattle are never criticized for too much width in this part. Width is secured when the ribs arch boldly from the spinal column; if the ribs are not arched, the back must necessarily be narrow. Fully as important as the width of back is the depth of flesh which covers this part. When touched with the fingers, great depth and mellowness should be found. No mere beauty of outline or stylishness of appearance can ever make up for lack of fleshing in a beef animal. The flesh must be there. Dimplesj or ties, ^ rough spots, or uneven patches of fat detract from the value because the carcass of such an 'This refers to an adhesion of the hide to the backbone which prevents a cov- ering of fat at that point, causing a depression or dimple known as a "tie." Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 37 animal will be rough in appearance and uneven in its covering of flesh. If a wide back furnishes greater space for meat than does a narrow one, then length of back might be advised for the same reason. But a long back is not wanted because one of the outstanding features of correct beef type is compactness, by which is meant shortness from head to tail, and especially shortness from shoulders to hips. We naturally expect the back to be short, because length there is associated with the undesirable rangy type of animal too often found. The ribs should not only be well sprung, but they should also carry down with much depth to make a roomy or capacious body. A Fig. 4. — A model bullock. Black Ruler, Aberdeen-Angus senior yearling steer, grand champion at the 1920 International Live Stock Show. Bred, fed, and shown by Purdue University. Weight 1,340 pounds. Sold for $1.75 per pound. Note his rectangular and blocky form, short legs, and the wealth of flesh spread evenly over all parts. Note the good head, short neck, neat brisket, full shoulder vein, smooth shoulder, deep rib, excellent quality, and stylish appearance. wide, deep middle is essential to digestive capacity. Cattle have thirteen pairs of ribs. In beef cattle they should be placed close to- gether along the sides, and the last pair should be as close to the hips as possible. This provides a frame-work upon which the fleshing may be smoothly laid. When there is much space between the ribs, a smooth fleshing i§ not often found; the position of the ribs will be marked by ridges and there will be hollows between them. When the 38 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock distance is great between the last rib and the hip, it is impossible to get that part filled out smoothly; instead there will be a large "hunger hollow" which detracts much from the appearance. Once more, there- fore, the necessity for compactness (shortness) of middle is emphasized. The side of the animal should be smooth and even, and the side line should be straight from shoulder to hindquarter. The fleshing over the ribs should be thick and smooth, and the hind flank should be well filled with flesh so that when the hand is placed under it and lifted, it is found to be thick, full, and heavy. If the front and hind flanks carry down properly, the underline will be straight, as it ought to be. At this point it is well to state that though the middle of a beef animal should be wide and deep, a distended condition of the paunch is not desirable. When this occurs, the animal is referred to as "paunchy." The lines of the middle, both at the sides and along the belly, should be straight and trim, giving a neat, tidy appearance. Given good arch and depth of rib, a steer may be straight and trim in his middle without sacrificing proper feeding capacity, and such ani- mals suit the butcher much better than paunchy ones, because an excessive paunch means much waste when the animal is slaughtered. The loin is that portion of the top lying between the back and the hips. It has no ribs below it, but consists of large muscles, affording the very choicest cuts of the entire carcass — the porterhouse and sirloin. The loin should be very wide and very thickly fleshed to afford as high development of this part as possible. The covering of flesh should also be smooth and firm. We like the loin to be thickly padded and plumped up with muscle having the proper degree of fatness. Such a loin may be described as a "live" loin — one that exhibits resil- iency or springiness when handled. A loin that is flat and that handles soft and "dead" is deficient in lean meat and has too much fat. The loin-edge is sometimes rough and patchy, due to an uneven distribu- tion^ of the fat, whereas it should be smooth and even. The hips should be laid in snugly, and nicely covered over with flesh. The eye should not be able to locate the hip of a well-fattened animal; only when the hands are used should the point of the hip be possible of location. This helps to give the smoothness desired in both the living animal and the carcass which it ultimately yields. Wide hips cannot be covered over with flesh, and the animal has a rough and ragged appearance. The rump is the top between hips and tail-head. It should be level so as to carry out the top line straight and square to the end of the body. Some animals droop in the rump, and some rise prominently; in each case the conformation is faulty. The rump should be as long as possible and as wide as the rest of the top. This permits a maxj- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 39 mum fleshing and provides the most attractive form. The width should be carried as uniformly as possible from hips to end of rump. As the tail-head is approached, there is bound to be some rounding off, yet this does not mean that the end of the rump need be narrow or peaked. Rather it should be wide and plumped out with flesh. Beef cattle very frequently exhibit roughness about the tail-head or at the end of the rump on each side of the tail, due to the accumulation of patches or gobs of fat. Smoothness here indicates better fleshing qualities. Fig. 5. — The right pattern. Chenoweth Jock, Shorthorn senior steer calf, grand champion at the 1922 International Show. Bred, fed, and shown by W. J. and B. A. Thomas, Shelbyville, Ky. Weight 1,010 pounds. Sold for $1.25 per pound. This calf was exceptionally good in the development of the high-priced cuts and in his form and quality. Note his blocky form, straight lines, trim middle, long level rump, broad smooth tail-head, and heavy hindquarters. The thigh begins at the border of the rump and extends down the outside of the leg. It should be wide and full from every angle of view, and come down with some bulge on the outside to where the thigh naturally narrows. The fullness and thickness should carry down as close to the hock as possible. Viewed from the side, the thigh should be very wide, and when the animal is viewed from the rear there ought to be much thickness from side to side. 40 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The twist is the fleshing between the hind legs, just as the thigh includes the fleshing on the outside. It should be very deep and full, filling in the space between the legs, and carrying down as far as possible toward the hocks. The thighs and twist furnish the third most valuable cut of the carcass and are worthy of careful examination in judging. The hocks and hind legs, by their position, indicate the capacity for fleshing in the twist and also on the thigh. If the hocks are straight and properly placed, showing 'no special tendency to come together, Fig. 6. — Correct type in the fat steer. Two-year-old Aberdeen-Angus steer, Victor, grand champion at the International Show in 1911. Fed and exhibited by Iowa State College. Weight 1,610 pounds. Sold for 90 cents per pound. Note his blocky form, straight top, deep middle, and heavy hindquarters. they will be associated usually with more heavily fleshed hindquarters than otherwise. It is important, therefore, that the hocks stand squarely under the animal. The shanks should carry straight down, and, as in front, they should be short and show refinement in bone. The joints of the leg should be clean-cut. The quality of the beef animal is shown in bone, hide, hair, and head. Quality, which is synonomous with refinement, is essential be- cause it insures against coarseness of texture in all parts, especially the texture of the muscles. The head should be of medium size and should Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 41 be clean-cut, presenting a chiseled appearance. The heads of many- animals do not exhibit that "finishing touch" which characterizes the head expressive of refinement. Heavy bone, large rough joints, and heavy horns show lack of quality. One of the best indications of qual- ity is the hide, which should be found pliable, easily stretched, and only medium thick when rolled up in the hand. The hair should be soft and fine. Quality is again shown by the smoothness of the animal, both in frame and in fleshing. Coarse shoulders, rough hips, and rough, un- even flesh show lack of quality. Quality and good breeding are usually found together, and certainly the animal with quality is the most de- sirable type for the producer as well as for the consumer. Well-bred Fig. 7. — A steer with excellent lines. Two-year-old Aberdeen-Angus steer, Blackrock, grand champion at the International Show in 1905. Fed and exhibited by Iowa State College. Weight 1,650 pounds. Sold for 25 cents per pound. This steer has straight side lines and a trim middle. He is free from paunch iness. animals respond best when fed out for the market. Coarse, rough animals yield unattractive carcasses and inferior cuts of meat. Animals are sometimes found which possess too much quality. In such cases there is a delicacy of make-up; quality is purchased at the expense of constitution. Extreme quality is also purchased at the expense of size, for over-refined animals are usually undersized. The proper degree of quality represents the middle ground between two extremes, each of which is undesirable. This middle ground is difficult to define; it may be said that all the quality is wanted which may be had without sacrifice of constitution and proper size. The fleshing of beef cattle is of the highest importance. The fact that the butcher's block is the ultimate end, and beef the ultimate 42 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock product, must never be lost sight of by the breeder, feeder, or judge of beef cattle. All over the body, and more especially in the back, loin, and hindquarters, there should be found a uniformly deep covering of flesh. The flat of the hand pressed along the shoulder, back, or side should find a deep, mellow fleshing, without any patchiness or bare spots. When mature cattle are heavily fed they thicken in their flesh, and this increase in thickness is due to a mixing of fat among the muscle fibers, a storing of fat between the muscles, and a laying on of fat just beneath the skin. (See Fig. 9.) When studying the fleshing of an animal it is well to keep in mind that the fleshing is made up partly of lean meat and partly of fat. The lean meat or muscle which an animal carries is often called the "natural flesh." We want as much natural flesh as it is possible to obtain. When a steer is fat it is rather difficult to determine how much natural flesh he has. In order to estimate this it is necessary to examine the development of flesh in those parts which take on very little fat, as for example the thigh, arm, and neck. Width in the crops is another good indication of heavy muscling. The proportion of muscle in the make-up of an animal is evident at birth (see Fig. 19), and feeding will not increase it beyond a very narrow limit. Henry and Morrison of the Wisconsin Station ^ discuss this point as follows: "Since the lean-meat tissues of the body are com- posed mostly of muscular fibers, any gain in these tissues can be caused solely by an increase in the number or by the thickening of these fibers. The fibers increase in number by dividing lengthwise, which process occurs with farm animals only while young and growing. Indeed, recent investigations show that with some animals all increase in the number of muscular fibers occurs before birth, the muscles of t-he new- bom young containing as many as those of the mature animal. The fibers of the muscles can thicken to only a limited extent, and hence the muscular tissues, or lean meat, of the mature animal cannot be increased beyond a relatively narrow limit, compared with the great storage of fat which may occur." A starving animal draws upon its muscular tissue to support life, and will rapidly repair its tissues upon a return to favorable conditions, but from the standpoint of farm and feed-lot conditions this fact does not enter into consideration and therefore does not alter the statements which are here made. The only factors which the feeder has under his control are growth and fatness. If the animal is mature, feeding is almost exclusively a fattening process; if the animal is not mature, fattening is accompanied by growth in bone and muscle. Practically speaking, we can no more increase the proportionate amount of muscle ^Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 75. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 43 by feeding than we can adcl quality, or a better head, or a straighter top line. All these are breeding problems — not feeding problems. Feeding will fatten a steer, increase his weight, and improve his form and appearance, but it has little or no effect upon the proportion of natural flesh in his make-up. The degree of fatness shown by a steer is referred to as his "condition," and this feature will now be discussed. Condition. — In comparison with dairy cattle, one of the most dis- tinctive features of beef cattle is their ability to fatten easily and to deposit the fat in and around the muscles, thereby making the meat tender and juicy. As pointed out above, the feeding of beef cattle is Fig. 8. — A "rare good one." California Favorite, a Hereford-Shorthorn crossbred senior steer calf, grand champion at the 1916 International Show. Bred, fed, and exhibited by the University of California. Weight 1,130 pounds. Sold for $1.75 per pound. His form, quality, and covering of flesh were almost faultless. largely a fattening process. The practical feeder knows, however, that it is not profitable to feed an animal up to its limit of fatness, because the last gains a steer makes are most costly, and such animals do not suit the consumer of beef as well as a steer fattened in moderation. Thin cattle are characterized by a very firm fleshing, so that when the finger-tips are pressed on the back and ribs the flesh is found to be hard and unyielding. When such cattle are properly fattened a decided change takes place; the flesh now has a mellow, yet firm and springy 44 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock feel, and is no longer hard and unyielding. This firm, springy, and mellow condition indicates that the steer is properly fattened from a market standpoint. When feeding for show purposes, the fattening proceeds further, and, if continued to excess, the fleshing becomes soft and blubbery. To the fingers, such an animal seems incased in blubber, and when the animal is slaughtered this is indeed found to be true. The best way to determine the state of fatness of an animal is to use the hands in the manner mentioned above. This can be done rapidly, yet thoroughly, by a vigorous handling along the top and Fig. 9. — Proportions of lean and fat in beef cattle. Half cross-sections of body between sixth and seventh ribs, showing thickening of flesh due to deposition of fat. A represents an animal in very thin condition. The white shown in A is chiefly connective tissue. B represents an animal in all respects similar to A, except that it was full fed for four months and was in moderately fattened condition. C represents a similar animal full fed for twelve months and made excessively fat. A was 3 years old when slaughtered; B, S14 years; C, 4 years. Deposition of fat within the muscles, known as "marbling," is noticeable in B and C. Note that increase in flesh in mature cattle due to feeding is almost entirely an increase in fat, the quantity of muscle remaining nearly constant. down over the ribs and shoulders. Other means of determining the condition consist of examinations of the cod, hind flank, and tongue- root. At these points the fat tends to accumulate extensively, and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 45 they are, therefore, good indices of condition. After castration, the scrotum with its content of fat is called the "cod." Thin steers show very little fullness of cod, while fat ones have the cod completely filled with fat. Thin animals also exhibit a very light hind flank. At the beginning there may be little more than a fold of skin; when fat, this part fills out remarkably full and heavy. By placing the flat of the hand beneath it and lifting, the quantity of fat in the flank is easily determined. When a fat steer walks, there is a characteristic roll or swell to the flank as the hind leg swings forward. This is not notice- able in a thin animal. The thickness of the tongue-root may be de- termined by grasping the part with the thumb and fingers. Some individuals fatten smoothly, with no special tendency to bunch the fat in patches or rolls at certain points, while others become "roily," or "patchy," in spite of all the feeder's skill. Patches and rolls are most often found about the tail-head and end of the rump, along the ribs, and at the edge of the loin. The occurrence of these is highly undesirable; they indicate an improper distribution of fat, give the animal a rough appearance, and, when the animal is slaughter- ed, the carcass is discounted, for then the bunches of fat are very evident and the appearance is spoiled. The fatter the steer becomes, the greater is the tendency toward patchiness, yet many animals begin to exhibit this defect before they are really ripe and ready for market. Style has actual market value in a fat steer. A stylish steer is one that stands squarely on his feet, with his back level, head well up, and eyes and ears attentive to what is going on about him. This does not mean a nervous animal, but a wide-awake one, full of life, and seemingly interested in the things about him. When he walks, he does it easily and without awkwardness. Other things being equal, such a steer will attract buyers much more quickly than an animal that slouches while standing, showing a pronounced dip in the back, and having an awkward stride when in motion. These two animals may dress out equally high, and yield equally valuable carcasses; the differ- ence is that the first steer forces his good points to the attention of the buyer and shows for all he is worth, while in the case of the second steer, the buyer is left to discover the animal's good points without any assistance from the animal. Cattle with style sell more readily and at slightly higher prices than cattle without style. Size and weight vary according to age, sex, breed, and fatness. Disregarding breed differences, for this factor need not be considered here, the following figures represent fair standards of weight at differ- ent ages for well-fattened steers: 46 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Age Weight At birth 70 pounds 6 months 450 pounds 12 months 850 pounds 18 months 1,100 pounds 24 months 1,300 pounds 30 months 1,475 pounds 36 months 1,600 pounds Age from the teeth. — The ages of cattle may be determined with a fair degree of accuracy by an examination of the teeth. There are eight incisors in the lower jaw of mature cattle. There are no incisors in the upper jaw, but a tough, fibrous pad instead, amply suited to the grazing habits of cattle. The dentition at various ages is as follows: Age Incisors 12 months. All calf teeth in place. 15 months. Center permanent incisors appear. 18 months. Center permanent incisors in wear. 24 months. First intermediates up. 30 months. Six broad incisors. 36 months. Six h id incisors in wear. 39 months. Cor up. 42 months. Eig -oad incisors in wear. CHAPTER II THE BEEF CARCASS Buyers of fat cattle at the large market centers make their bids largely according to their estimates of the kind of carcasses the animals will yield. These estimates are made with considerable accuracy be- cause the buyers have made a study of carcasses and of the cuts which they yield. A similar knowledge of meats is essential to the beef pro- ducer in order that he may learn to judge and value beef cattle correctly. Slaughtering and dressing.44jpon reaching the packing house, cattle rapidly pass through the following operations of killing and iHtflB ■ ^ffii m n^H ICSMM Fig. 10. — Knocking cattle. dressing: 1 1. Driven into knocking pens, two animals to each pen, and stunned or killed by heavy blow of sledge hammer on forehead. 2. Hoisted by hind legs, bled, and head skinned and removed. 3. Lowered to floor, shanks skinned and removed at knees and hocks, and hide opened along middle of belly and removed from belly and sides. 4. Partially raised by hocks, middles opened, viscera removed, hide removed from rump and rounds, and tail skinned and removed. 5. Carcass raised from floor, hide removed entirely, and carcass split through center of backbone from tail to neck. 6. Sides of beef sus- iWentworth, Munnecke, and Brown: Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1920, pp. 74, 75. 47 48 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock pended from overhead rail, washed with warm water, wiped dry, and sent to coolers. Briefly, the above operations consist of stunning, bleeding, re- moval of hide, head, shanks, tail, and viscera, splitting, washing, drying, cooling. All internal organs are removed except the kidneys. The time required for slaughtering and dressing is about one hour. The temperature of the coolers is kept at about 34 degrees Fahrenheit and the sides of beef hang in the coolers for at least 48 hours before being quartered or otherwise cut up. Prime beef requires three to four weeks ageing in the cooler to arrive at its best condition. The oflFal.— The blood, head, shanks, tail, hide, viscera, and loose fat are collectively called the "offal" or "waste" of the steer, so called because formerly, with the exception of the hide, tallow, and tongue, the offal was thrown away. Today all of it is valuable for manufac- turing into various by-products. (See Chapter III.) The dressing percentage. -r-By comparing the weight of the chilled carcass with the live weight of the animal, the percentage of yield, or what is called the "dressing percentage," is determined. This is a very important factor in determining the market price of cattle for slaughter; the buyer always estimates the dressing percentage before bidding on a load. For example, if steer No. 1 weighing 1,200 pounds on foot yields a carcass weighing 720 pounds, the dressing percentage is 60. If steer No. 2 of the same live weight yields a carcass weighing 690 pounds, the dressing percentage is 57.5. Steer No. 1 dresses 2.5 per cent higher and yields 30 pounds more carcass beef than No. 2. If steer carcasses of this grade are selling at $20 per cwt., then 30 pounds of carcass beef is worth $6. This means that steer No. 1 is worth $6 more on foot than No. 2, a difference equal to 50 cents per cwt. In handling thousands of animals, as do the large packing firms, the dress- ing percentage is a matter of great importance. The range in the dressing percentages of cattle is from 35 to 70 per cent. Census re- turns indicate that the average dressing percentage of cattle is about 54 per cent and of calves about 62 per cent. Calves dress a higher percentage than cattle because the hide is left on the veal carcass to preserve the color and moisture of the flesh, which dries out and turns dark much more rapidly than beef when exposed to the air. Dressing percentage as a factor in cattle prices. — If steer No. 2 described above sells on foot at $11,50 per cwt., steer No. 1 should bring $12 per cwt. In this instance an increase in dressing percentage of 2.5 per cent added 50 cents per cwt. to the live value. Note that the difference between these steers in dressing percentage (2.5) multi- plied by the price of one pound of carcass beef (20 cents) gives the difference in live value per cwt. (50 cents). When, as in this instance. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 49 two animals yield carcasses of the same value per pound, then the difference in live value per cwt. will be the difference in dressing percentage multiplied by the price of one pound of carcass beef. From this we see that the price the packer can pay for cattle is limited very largely by two important factors — (1) the dressing percentage and (2) the price he can obtain for carcass beef. A third important factor affecting the market price of cattle, the value of the by-products, is discussed in the next chapter. 1 Factors determining dressing percentage.^The chief factors de- termining the dressing percentage of a steer are (1) quantity of flesh, both lean and fat, (2) paunchiness, and (3) refinement of head, bone, and hide. Well-bred steers, well fattened and with straight lines, that is, free from paunchiness, dress out 62 to 65 per cent. The highest record known to the writer, where the steer was dressed in the usual manner, is 69.9 per cent. Aged dairy cows which have outlived their usefulness as milk producers are sent to market; they are very paunchy and very thin, and dress around 45 per cent. Here a fourth factor in dressing percentage is introduced, namely weight of udder, which some- times is considerable. The cow's udder is removed in slaughtering. In determining the dressing percentage, the refinement of head, bone, and hide is of less importance as a rule than quantity of flesh or paunchiness, although in some animals the weight of hide is a con- siderable item. How the carcass is produced.-^Before discussing the qualifications of a good carcass, it will be profitable to consider briefly how an animal grows and builds up the parts of its body which eventually make up the carcass. The carcass consists of bone, muscle, connective tissue, and fat. At birth the calf weighs about 70 pounds. Its bones are soft and elastic, and its muscles are tender. It carries a certain degree of fatness, depending on how well it was nourished before it was born — in other words, on how well its mother was fed. Up to weaning time it subsists largely upon its mother's milk, which is primarily a bone and muscle builder, producing growth. When weaned, the future development of the calf depends upon (1) ancestry, (2) feed, and (3) management. If its ancestors were dairy animals, it will not produce a valuable carcass. However, we 1 Usually the returns from the sale of both carcasses and by-products enable packers to pay more for live animals than they receive from the sale of the carcasses. (See table, page 67.) If packers pay exactly as much for the live animal as they receive from the sale of the carcass, then the live value of the animal per cwt. is the dress- ing percentage multiplied by the price of one pound of carcass beef^ of the class and grade yielded by the animal. For example, if the dressing percentage is 60 and the carcass is of a class and grade selling at $20 per cwt. (20 cents per pound), the live value of the animal is $12 per cwt. Thus we see that the packer buyer must use good judg- ment not only in estimating dressing percentages, but also in estimating the grade of carcasses the animals will yield. 50 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock are dealing with beef production and will assume the calf is from a good line of beef cattle. If given plenty of feed and good care, in other words every opportunity to develop quickly, the calf rapidly increases in size and its flesh expands and thickens. It also lays on fat. It is hard to fatten young animals because they tend to utilize their feed for growth rather than fat. Growth is increase in bone and muscle. However, with heavy feeding, beef cattle of the modern, blocky type, become fat before reaching maturity, and may be sent to market under 20 months of age weighing 800 to 1,000 pounds. Such animals are called "baby beeves." Another way to handle the calf is to turn it out to pasture and perhaps help it along with a little grain if the pasture is short. In this case the object is to produce growth only, and the animal may then be finished as a two-year-old. Under this plan the animal should be roughed through the winter with care, otherwise it will receive a setback. Once the baby fleshing is lost through setbacks received during development, the steer does not make as desirable a carcass as he would otherwise. Changes in the hones. — As an animal increases in age, its bones be- come hard and flinty. The bones which bear the most strain become most flinty, these being the shank bones. In young cattle the tips of the spinous processes of the vertebrae are soft and cartilaginous. These "buttons," as they are called, are present up to the age of 18 months; thereafter they gradually ossify, and at about the fifth year the spines are hard to the tips. Similar changes take place in the cartilages on the breastbone before the third or fourth year. The breastbone, backbone, ribs, and pelvis gradually harden and whiten, especially after the age of 18 months. ^ When visiting a beef cooler, the age of the animals from which the carcasses came may be told approximately by the bones. Changes in the muscles. — With increase in age the muscles become tougher through use. The muscles which the animal uses most and which do the most work become the toughest in their make-up; these are the muscles of the neck and those used in locomotion, including the muscles of the thigh, shoulder, and arm. Storage of fat. — Wild animals store up fat in their bodies as a re- serve upon which they rely in times when food is scanty. The bear, for instance, stores much fat during summer and fall, which is resorbed and used to support life during hibernation in winter, and he comes out in the spring in very thin condition. The storing of fat is a provi- sion of nature. In the domestic animals which produce meat, man has encouraged this fat-storing tendency by methods of breeding and feed- 411. Bui. 147, p. 158. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 51 ing. That great success has been achieved along this line is shown by the highly finished cattle, sheep, and hogs coming from the hands of the best stockmen. Fat is stored over the back, loin, rump, ribs, and shoulders, forming a layer of clear fat just beneath the skin. It is also stored about the internal organs, between the muscles, and within Fig. 11. — Prime steer carcass. Champion beef carcass at the 1917 Inter- national Show, from Pandean Jr., an Aberdeen-Angus yearling steer, bred, fed, and exhibited by Iowa State College. Live weight 1,185 pounds, dressed weight 789 pounds, dressing percentage 66.58, Carcass sold for 413^ cents per pound. This carcass was practically ideal in every respect. Show carcasses of beef are dressed with the tail on. the muscles among the muscle fibers. This storing of fat among the muscle fibers gives the cuts of beef a marbled appearance, termed 52 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock "marbling." Practically no fat is deposited in the muscles which do much work, hence we find the round steak coming from the thigh to be almost completely free from fat. The muscles of the loin and back, having little work to do, take on the marbling feature quite easily if the animal is well bred and properly handled. This largely explains why the cuts from the loin and back are most tender, although in these muscles there is not the stimulus to the growth of connective tissue such as is the case in working muscles, and this is undoubtedly another reason why the loin and back yield cuts of superior terderness. As stated in the preceding chapter, the feeding of mature cattle is essentially a fattening process. This is clearly shown by results at the Missouri Station, ' where muscle fibers and fat cells extracted from steers at different periods during the fattening process were examined and measured under the microscope and it was found that while there was very little or no increase in the diameter of the muscle fibers, the fat cells increased enormously both in number and size. Thus we understand why cattle diff"er widely in the kind of car- casses they yield, depending upon their inherited tendencies and upon their feed and care. The effects of inheritance are discussed in more detail in Chapter IV. Variations in carcasses. — A study of the carcasses in any cooler brings out striking differences. Some are large, being from 1,500- to 1,600-pound animals; others are from younger beeves that weighed 800 to 1,100 pounds. Some are compact and wide, others are long and narrow. Some are well developed in the regions of high-priced cuts, while others are deficient in this respect. Some carry heavy fleshing, others are very poorly covered indeed. The layer of outside fat is very thick in some, these being highly finished cattle fed on grain. Others show practically no covering of fat. These are from grass-fed cattle — poor pasture too, for a steer puts on some fat on grass if the pasture is good. Some show a nice intermixing of fat and lean, called "marbling/' while others exhibit this feature very slightly, or none at all. The lean meat of some carcasses has a pale red color; in others it is very dark. Some carry snow-white fat, others carry fat of a yellow color. Some beef is fine grained, and some is very coarse and fibrous. Some carcasses have soft bones, somewhat cartilaginous in character; others have hard flinty bones. Size of bones varies a great deal in different carcasses. Demands of the butcher and consumer. — The questions which now come before us are: 1. What kinds of lean meat and fat does the butcher want? 2. How much lean meat does he want, and how ^H. J. Waters: Influence of Nutrition Upon the Animal Form, paper presented at Thirtieth Meeting of Society for Promotion of Agricultural Science. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53 much fat? 3. How does he want these two substances arranged with regard to each other? These questions bring up the demands of consumers of meats, for the butcher is guided by what the consumer of beef wants and will pay for. You and I are consumers of meat, and what we Hke, or dis- Hke, together with the size of our pocketbook, guides the butcher who buys our cattle. Now what do we want? We want meat that is (1) nutritious, (2) tender, (3) juicy, (4) of good flavor, (5) attractive in appearance, and (6) moderate in amount of outside fat. Provided beef is well ripened in the cooler and well cooked, there is not much variation in its nutritive or food value. The tenderness depends upon the work the muscle has done and upon the amount of marbling it carries. Meat free from fat shrivels and drys up when roasted, be- coming dry and tough. Ageing or ripening in the cooler helps to make meat tender. Juiciness results from the presence of fat and manner of cooking. The flavor depends mostly upon fatness and upon proper ripening of the carcass. The cuts of beef which are most attractive in appearance are those with bright, rich, red lean, snow-white fat, and a high degree of marbling. The consumer desires a maximum of lean meat well marbled, and a minimum of bone and outside fat in the cuts of beef. FoUpwing is a discussion of the qualifications of a high-class carcass: \/ l-^^-"] /^ ji- '-^" 1. Weight of carcass. — The heaviest carcasses seldom exceed 1,050 pounds, and the minimum is about 250 pounds. ^ No definite line as to weight can be drawn between carcasses of beef and veal, because many factors determine the character of the flesh. The greatest demand is for carcasses from 1,100- to 1,300-pound steers, and most of the cattle coming to market are of about these weights. Such carcasses yield retail cuts of a size to suit the average family. There is also a demand for heavy carcasses to supply hotels, restaurants, and dining cars, which use large cuts. 2. Shape of carcass. — The ideal carcass of beef is compact, plump, ,and has good width in proportion to length, short shanks and neck, and full rounds, loins, and ribs. Such a carcass is more thickly fleshed and is usually better finished in all cuts than one that is long, narrow, and loosely coupled. 3. Thickness of fleshing. — There is a clear distinction between thickness due to fatness and thickness due to muscular flesh. Only the knife can completely reveal the thickness of a side and the relative thickness of fat and lean ; even expert dealers are often mistaken as to the actual thickness of flesh in an uncut side. iFor many of the specifications included in this chapter the writer is indebted to Illinois Bulletin 147, Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by Louis D. Hall. 54 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 4. Thickness of outside fat. — This is referred to as the "finish." Perfect finish consists of a smooth covering of firm white fat over the entire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back, a white brittle "kidney" of medium size, and a lining of flaky fat on the inner surface of the ribs. The rounds and shanks are covered last in the process of fattening. Carcasses show variation in thickness of external fat, rang- ing all the way from zero to four inches. Beef fat is not palatable to most people. The average consumer does not want more than one- half or three-fourths of an inch of outside fat, and if the carcass weighs 500 pounds or less, about one-fourth of an inch is sufficient. It is impossible to secure proper marbling unless a certain amount of fat is put on externally at the same time, but the necessary marbling is usually secured when one-half or three-fourths of an inch of fat is laid on externally; after this point is reached, the fat is largely stored ex- FlG. 12. — Beef ribs. The rib cut on the left is too fat, the one on the right is too lean, and the cut in the center is correctly fattened. Note that the amount of lean meat is practically the same in all three. ternally, between the muscles, and about the internal organs. A cer- tain amount of outside fat is necessary in prime beef in order to insure proper ripening in the cooler, and also for proper roasting. In the- lowest grades, such as canners, outside fat is entirely lacking and such carcasses will decompose before they ripen. A carcass carrying soft, "gobby" fat sells at a discount. Grass-fed cattle often yield carcasses that are watery and flabby, with a marked lack of finish. Heifers carry a higher percentage of fat in all cuts than do steers. This is one of the principal reasons why they often sell at a discount in this country while in England they are not discriminated against because the Englishman likes fatter beef. Cattle fed to a complete finish, as are the beef cattle exhibited at the larger live-stock shows, carry a great excess of outside fat — far too Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 55 much to suit the average consumer. This excess of tallow adds practi- cally nothing to the value of the carcass as food. In a way, the fat- stock shows set a wrong example for feeders to follow. Such a finish results from a long feeding period of 8 to 10 months, and in some cases even longer. A 3 to 6 months feeding period gives a carcass which suits the consumer better, and such a plan is undoubtedly more profit- able to the feeder, because the first gains a steer makes are acquired much more cheaply than the last ones. This does not mean that the farmer should send thin cattle to market; it means there is a place to stop in the feeding of a bullock which results in greatest profit to the producer and best satisfaction to the consumer. A smooth and firmly finished steer is the sort this implies. As bearing on the matter of cost of gains, the Kansas Station ^ found the grain required for 100 pounds of gain with fattening steers for different periods to be as follows: Grain for Increase of 100 lbs. gain feed required Up to 56 days 730 pounds of grain Up to 84 days 807 pounds of grain 10 per cent Up to 112 days 840 pounds of grain 15 per cent Up to 140 days 901 pounds of grain 23 per cent Up to 168 days 927 pounds of grain 27 per cent Up to 182 days 1,000 pounds of grain 37 per cent These figures indicate the heavy cost of thoroughly fattening a steer, and the importance of selling as early as it is possible to attain the proper degree of finish. 5. Marbling. — The highest quality of beef is that which contains the largest proportion of well-marbled lean. 6. Color of lean meat. — ^The meat from grass-finished cattle is often dark in color. Grain feeding gives the best color— a bright, rich red. Dark color is due to the presence of much blood in the tissues. Exercise or excitement will bring about this condition, hence the dark- colored flesh of western range cattle, and of grass-fed cattle in general, is not due to the nature of the feed, but to the amount of exercise made necessary in ranging about at pasture. Stags and bulls kill out dark because of their restlessness, and of heifers in heat the same is true. Dark carcasses break down (decompose) quicker than light- colored ones, and consumers object to the appearance, hence butchers have two good reasons for disliking a dark-colored carcass. 7. Color of fat. — A clear white color of fat is desired. An un- attractive yellow color is rather frequently met with. Some packers believe the yellow color is due to the kind of feed upon which the animal was fattened. Cottonseed meal has been charged with this fault, but experimental work has shown that cottonseed meal does not produce iKan. Bui. 34. 56 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock yellow fat. Cattle of Jersey and Guernsey breeding usually kill very yellow. 8. Grain of meat. — When the fresh-cut surface is viewed, it should show a smooth, fine-grained appearance, and should feel "velvety" to the touch. Meat with fine grain comes from the animal with quality, that is, one with fine hide, hair, and bone. Such an animal is finely textured throughout, and if well fed, so that the baby fleshing is preserved, a carcass with fine-grained flesh will result. Some meats are very coarse indeed. 9. Size of bones. — The bones should be as small as the weight of the carcass will allow. From the producer's standpoint, however, such carcasses do not always represent greatest profits, because ex- FlG. 13. — Well-marbled beef. Rib roast showing correct proportion of fat to lean, and a high degree of marbling. tremely fine-boned cattle do not usually make the greatest gains on feed. 10. Flintiness of bones. — As already shown, flintiness of the bones is an indication of age. The most desirable carcasses are those of young animals approaching maturity, the meat from old ones being tough, dark-colored, and lacking in marbling. The bones of cows and heifers, and of dairy-bred animals, turn hard and white earlier than those of steers, indicating quicker maturity. Grading carcasses. — As to the relative importance of the above factors in grading carcass beef, it may be said that finish (by which is meant the thickness and smoothness of outside fat) is particularly Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 57 essential, with thickness of flesh, fineness of grain, color of lean and fat, fineness of bone, and shape of carcass of about equal importance. All carcasses not suitable for block beef. — Carcass beef which is thick and fat enough so that the entire side can be sold over the butcher's block in retail cuts is known as "block beef" or "side beef." Carcasses that are not thick enough in flesh to be entirely utilized by the retailer are called "cutters." The loins and ribs of cutters may be sold over the block. "Canners" are the worst carcasses to be found, from which none of the regular wholesale cuts may be sold over the block, but which must be disposed of as boneless fresh meats and cured beef products. ^ Fully 95 per cent of the beef produced in the United States is sold in the fresh state. Carcass classes and grades. — All carcasses of cattle are classified and graded as follows: Class Grades Steers Prime, choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner Cows Choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner Bulls and stags Choice, good, medium, common, bologna, canner Veal calves Choice, good, medium, common, canner The following wholesale prices ^ indicate the comparative values of those grades of the above classes which are suitable for block beef: Class J^' Weight Price Steer carcasses 350 to 700 lbs 12 to 18 cents per lb. Heifer carcasses ... .400 to 600 lbs 12 to 16 >^ cents per lb. Cow carcasses 250 to 600 lbs 9 to 13 cents per lb. Bull carcasses 400 to 600 lbs. and up 6 to 10 cents per lb. Veal carcasses 50 to 275 lbs., hides on 12 to 18 cents per lb. Sex differences. ^ — Steer carcasses are identified by the cod fat and generally by their full, fleshy rounds and loins, heavier, coarser bones, and short necks as compared with cows. They show more quality and finish than any other class, and are sold as carcass beef more extensively than any other class, except heifers. Heifer carcasses are distinguished by the udder, and usually they have smaller bones, more prominent hips, more angular rumps, less development of lean meat, and they average lighter in weight. The tendency in heifer beef is to carry the fat more extensively as kidney suet or gobby fat than do steers. They have fiatter loins, flatter plates, and longer, thinner necks than steers. Carcasses of cows have the bag trimmed off as closely as possible. The form is angular, the neck long, the bones hard and white, and the majority lack thickness of flesh. Fat cow carcasses often carry an excess of kidney fat and bunches of fat on the back and rump. The flesh is seldom as well marbled as that of heifers or steers. Cow car- 1111. Bui. 147, p. 156. ^Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1923. nil. Bui. 147. 58 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock casses require more ageing or ripening to make the meat tender. Dressed bulls are easily recognized by the heavy neck and heavy shoulders, thick rounds, dark color, coarse-grained flesh, and absence of cod fat. They have rough shape and the bones show maturity. The coarse dark flesh has no marbling as a rule, and but few bulls are suitable for dressed beef. They are used for sausage and the rounds are made into smoked beef hams. Many stags approach steers in form, quality, and finish; others resemble bulls. The wholesale cuts. V^ When the carcass has been sufficiently ripened in the cooler, it is ready for cutting up into the wholesale cuts. The full side of beef, half the carcass, has the appearance shown in the following diagram. The wholesale cuts are indicated by the dotted lines. ^nM.^^^'y^- J f ^ ■ . \ "-^"^ L T3fB5 criucK A 1 m G ^ r 1 i 1 H V --4 ■ it ~ Fig. 14. — Cuts of beef indicated in the live animal. The first step in cutting up a side of beef is to "quarter" or "rib" it, which means to separate the side into forequarter and hindquarter. Sides are usually quartered or ribbed between the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib on the hindquarter. Such a hindquarter is called a "regular hindquarter," and it contains from 47 to 49 per cent of the weight of the side, and the forequarter contains from 51 to 53 per cent, the averages being about 48 per cent hinds and 52 per cent fores. Hinds are quoted about 25 per cent higher than fores in cold months, and up to 40 per cent higher in summer. This variation is due to the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 59 large amount of boiling and stewing pieces in the fores, which meats are in greater demand in winter. ^ The hindquarter is divided into four wholesale cuts, the loin, round, flank, and kidney. The kidney is not shown in the accompany- ing diagram; it Hes under the loin. The forequarter yields five wholesale cuts, the rib, chuck, navel, brisket, and shank. The navel and brisket are usually not divided, but are sold as one cut called the "plate." The loin is separated from the round at the hip joint, which is a considerable distance back of the hip. Thus much of the rump is converted into loin when the carcass comes under the knife of the Fig. 15. — Wholesale cuts of beef. 1, Chuck; 2, shank; 3, brisket; 4, rib; 5, navel; 6, loin; 7, flank; 8, round; 3 and 5, plate; 6, 7, and 8, hindquarter. butcher. The shank is sawed off just below the shoulder joint. The plate is taken off on a line extending from about the middle of the twelfth rib through the point at which the shank is removed. The rib and chuck are separated between the fifth and sixth ribs. This gives five ribs to the chuck and seven to the rib. A 720-pound carcass will yield a 360-pound side. When the side is cut up, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, their wholesale prices per pound, and their total values are as given in the following table, the figures for weights representing averages for good steer car- casses. Prices are given for No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. 111. Bui. 147, pp. 155, 156. 60 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Weights, prices, and values of wholesale cuts of beef Wholesale Wts. in lbs. wts. in per cent Price per lb., cents Total value of cut cuts No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Round 80 65 18 35 50 90 11 11 22 18 5 10 14 25 3 3 14 35 5 26 9 13 5 10 13 30 5 20 8 11 5 10 11 13 4 10 5 7 4 10 $11.20 22.75 .90 9.10 4.50 11.70 .55 1.10 $10,.40 19.50 .90 7.00 4.00 9.90 .55 1.10 $8.80 Loin 8.45 Flank .72 Rib 3.50 Plate 2.50 Chuck 6.30 Shank .44 Kidney 1.10 Total 360 100 17.2 14.8 8.8 $61.80 $53.35 $31.81 High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for the entire No. 1 carcass is, then, 17.2 cents per pound. From the foregoing table it is seen that the loin and rib constitute 28 per cent of the carcass weight, but bring 51 per cent of the total return from the sale of the cuts from the No. 1 carcass; and that the loin, rib, and round constitute half of the carcass weight, but bring 70 per cent of the return from the sale of the wholesale cuts. The 180 pounds of loin, rib, and round have an average price of 23.9 cents per pound, while the remainder of the side, also weighing 180 pounds, brings an average of 10.4 cents. Hence the packer wants cattle as highly developed in back, loin, rump, and round as possible. Buyers of cattle for slaughter emphasize this point. They want cattle smoothly and heavily fleshed in all parts, and especially in the four parts mentioned. The selling price of a load of cattle is greatly dependent on this feature. Note that there is much less variation in price between No. 1 and No. 3 rounds than between the corresponding grades of loins or ribs. The No. 1 loin has a total value twice as great as the No. 1 round, but the No. 3 round has a greater total value than the No. 3 loin. This is due to the fact that all grades of rounds contain but little fat, whereas loins and ribs of the various grades show a vast difference in finish. In other words there is much less difference in the quality and finish of the rounds yielded by fat and thin cattle than there is in the quality and finish of the loins or ribs. Why loin, rib, and round are in greater demand. — The loin and rib bring high prices as compared to other parts of the carcass because of their superior tenderness, marbling, and palatability, combined with attractive appearance. The round brings a good price because it con- tains so much lean and so little bone and outside fat. Other parts of the carcass are as nutritious as the loin, rib, and round, but are diflicult to cook in such a way that they appeal to us as do the porterhouse, sirloin, and rib roast. But a carcass will yield only so much of these, hence the great variation in the price of the various wholesale cuts. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 61 It is perhaps well that there are cheap cuts of meat and cheap carcasses, for there is a great percentage of population not able to buy any other kind. The packer does not want all beef to be of highest quality. He must take care of the second- and third-class trade as well as the fancy trade. But the producer of market cattle must aim to produce the highest quality of product, for this work requires skill, and skill always commands a higher reward than unskilled effort. Anybody can pro- duce medium or inferior beef, and the price obtained is in proportion. Grades of beef cuts. — As previously shown, carcasses vary in respect to (1) size, (2) shape, (3) thickness of fleshing, (4) thickness of external fat, (5) marbling, (6) color of lean meat, (7) color of fat, (8) grain of meat, (9) flintiness of bones, and (10) size of bones. The butcher or packer is interested in all these things, for each is of con- siderable importance. The packer grades the wholesale cuts of beef, as they vary in these points, into No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. No. 1 cuts bring the highest price, and between No. I's and No. 3's there is a marked difference. These three grades are all used on the butcher's block. Cuts from inferior carcasses not suitable for block use, are called "strippers;" these are manufactured into boneless cuts, barreled beef, and sausage. Conclusions. — The study of the beef carcass therefore teaches: 1. That well-bred cattle yield the best carcasses and bring the highest price, 2. The market wants young, highly finished cattle. 3. Steers yield the most desirable carcasses. 4. The best results come from a method of management which offers no chance for a setback during growth and fattening. 5. The breeder and feeder of beef cattle should secure as high development of loin, back, and hindquarter as possible. 6. To bring a good price, cattle must dress high. 7. To dress high, cattle must be thickly fleshed, free from paunch- iness, and good in quality. 8. Broadly speaking, heredity regulates the lean meat, and man regulates the fat. 9. The feeding of mature cattle is almost entirely a fattening process. 10. Fatness is desirable because it adds weight, makes perfect ripening possible, gives tenderness and juiciness to the meat, and in- creases the dressing percentage. 11. Cattle may be made too fat. 12. Carcasses vary widely in weight, shape, thickness of fleshing, thickness of outside fat, marbling, color of lean, color of fat, grain of meat, and size and hardness of bones. 62 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 13. Ancestry, age, sex, feed, and care determine what sort of a carcass an animal will yield. 14. Half of the carcass meets with strong demand and sells high, while the remainder sells low. 15. There is demand for carcasses of all weights, but the strongest demand is for handy- weight carcasses from cattle weighing 1,100 to 1,300 pounds. 16. To secure the greatest returns, the feeder should send his cattle to market well done after a short feeding period, but not in an excessively fat condition resulting from long continued feeding. CHAPTER III PACKING HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS FROM CATTLE When slaughtered, the average steer yields over 40 per cent of offal. In the early days of the packing industry the only by-products of a beef animal which received attention from packers were hide, tallow, and tongue. The remainder of the offal was either thrown away or sold for almost nothing. In some instances, packers even paid for the carting away of offal. In a short time glue works, fertilizer works, soap factories, oil and tallow factories sprang up in the vicinity of the packing plants and grew to be large industries. Soon the Fig. 16. — How by-products reduce dressed beef prices. packing plants went into the soap business for themselves, then into the glue business, the fertilizer business, and so on, until today packing house by-products are numbered by the score from what was formerly mere waste. The modern packing house is living and depending for profits on what the packing industry of early times was throwing away. The utilization of by-products is one of the chief reasons why packers are able to compete so successfully with the local butchers of the country. Were it not for this conversion of waste material into saleable form, the wholesale price of beef would be considerably higher than under existing conditions. This is clearly illustrated by the ac- companying graph. C3 64 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Average yields from steers. — A Chicago packer has computed from numerous tests, the following weights and percentages of yields from a steer: Pounds Per cent of live weight Live weight 1,200 Carcass 700 58.3 Hide 75 6.2 Head, feet, knees 45 3.7 Butter-fat 80 6.6 Liver 12 1.0 Heart 3 0.25 Lungs 20 1.6 Tongue 5 0.41 Cheek meat 5 0.41 Rough tallow and entrails 84 7.0 Liquid blood 46 3.8 Paunch and contents 106 8.8 Lips and weasand meat 4 0.3 Tail, bungs, and casings 15 1.2 Total offal 500 41.27 Totals 1,200 99.57 The foregoing weights and percentages are for "green" or "warm" products at time of slaughter, no allowance being made for shrinkage in weight of carcass in cooling, shrinkage of the hide in curing, and evaporation of moisture and shrinkage in converting other parts into finished by-products. The Commercial Research Department of Swift and Company, Chicago, 111., reports^ that on the average about 55 per cent of a steer is beef, and that the average 1,000-pound steer yields about 550 pounds of beef and about 150 pounds of finished by- products. The remaining 300 pounds is accounted for in evaporation, shrinkage, and waste in manufacturing the green by-products into finished by-products. Comparative value of carcass and by-products. — Edward N. Went- worth of Armour's Livestock Bureau states ^ that for the quarter year ending June 28, 1920, Armour and Company killed 201,213 cattle, omitting calves, at its plants in Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Omaha, Fort Worth, Sioux City, St. Joseph, St. Paul, and Denver. From these animals the average value of the carcass was $90.60 per head, hide $14.23, and all other by-products $7.73. Expressed in per- centages, the carcass represented 80.5 per cent of the total value, the hide 12.6 per cent, and all other by-products 6.9 per cent. Nearly 43 1 Studies in Live Stock Marketing, The Effects of Beef and By-Product Values Upon Cattle Prices, Swift and Company, Chicago, Sept., 1921. 2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 65 per cent of the value of "all other by-products," or $3.32, was in the oleo fats. ^ That these ratios are not constant is shown by figures published by Swift and Company comparing values in May, 1921, with those of May, 1920. The 1920 values substantiate those of Armour and Com- pany given above. The 1921 values, however, show a decrease of 25 per cent in carcass value, and a decrease of 71 per cent in value of by- products, so that the carcass then represented 91 per cent of the total value, and the by-products, including the hide, only 9 per cent. The table presented on page 67 shows that the percentage of total returns derived from by-products by Swift and Company was 23 per cent in 1915, but only 10 per cent in 1921. Values of cattle hides. j/As shown in the preceding discussion, the most valuable of all the by-products of the beef animal is the hide. Cattle hides increased in value enormously from 1913 to 1919 inclusive, due in large part to the unprecedented demand for leather during the World War. This is shown in the following table of prices from the Chicago Daily Hide and Tallow Bulletin: ^ Average yearly prices of steer and heavy cow hides Packer hides Country hides Year Heavy native steers Heavy native cows Heavy steers Heavy cows 1905 $14.36 15.66 24.03 26.43 32.37 29.88 39.76 31.73 14.21 $13.18 13.78 23.54 24.97 31.69 27.41 37.72 31.51 12.64 $12.42 12.15 19.52 20.99 25.65 23.44 31.98 23.89 9.40 $11.90 1910. 11.20 1915 18.96 1916 20.22 1917 23.25 1918 21.12 1919 29.97 1920 21.11 1921 8.09 There are two great classes of cattle hides, packer hides and coun- try hides. Packer hides are much more valuable and command higher prices because they are uniform in shape, cure, and handling, much freer from cuts and gashes, and are readily available in large numbers of the various classes and grades. The fats.-^Next in value to the hide stand the fats derived from the abdominal region. Cattle fats bear the general name of "tallow." ^Wentworth reports that 701,983 veal calves slaughtered during 1919 returned $23.01 per carcass and $1.31 for the by-products per calf. The carcass represented 94.6 per cent of the total value, and the by-products 5.4 per cent. The low per- centage value of the by-products of veal calves is largely due to the fact that the skin is sold on the carcass. ^As quoted by Wentworth, Munnecke, and Brown: Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1922, p. 80. 66 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Out of the finer and better of these fats, called "butter fats," is made oleomargarine or butterine. This food product appeared in 1866 and has since come into extensive use. The butter fats average in weight from 60 to 75 pounds to the animal, but a large percentage of this weight is lost in processing. One Chicago plant has a capacity of 15 tons of oleomargarine in a day, and in a year has put out between 8 and 9 million pounds. Inedible tallow fat is manufactured into soaps, glycerine, leather dressing, lubricants, illuminating oil, candles, and other products. Other by-products.-r-Lean meat trimmings are made into sausage. Hair is used in plastering, manufacture of brushes and felt, and for other purposes. The horns and hoofs, at one time considered a rubbish nuisance, are now very valuable for the manufacture of combs, knife, cane, and umbrella handles, and many other articles. Dried blood is made into blood meal. Fibrous matter and scraps, after all the grease has been extracted, are ground to meat meal tankage, widely used as a hog feed. From all bone and cartilage the basic substance is ex- tracted from which glue is made. Fully 18 per cent of dry bones is glue, the rest is ground to fertilizer. One Chicago packing plant turns out 8 million pounds of glue annually. From the intestines come drum snares, sausage casings, brewer's hose, and snuff packages, while the bladder yields packages for putty, snuff, and lard. From the glands come various pharmaceutical preparations, such as extract of thyroid, pituitary liquid, pineal substance, pancreatin, adrenahn, pepsin, rennet, etc. The tail furnishes hair for mattresses and up- holstering, and the bone and meat are used for making ox-tail soup. Shank and thigh bones are cut into buttons, knife and tooth-brush handles, and other articles. The tongue, head and cheek meat, tripe, brains, heart, liver, and sweet-breads are sold for food. Tripe is pickled stomachs. Sweet-breads are the thymus and pancreatic glands. The contents of the stomach are burned under packing house boilers and the ashes are used for fertilizer. Every part of the live animal is utilized. Many of the finished by-products are manufactured by the packers, and other by-products are sold partly processed to other firms for final processing into finished products. The price of live cattle depends upon the price the packer can get for beef and by-products after taking into account his expenses of operation. In the following table it will be noted that the packer paid more for the live animal than he received from the sale of the beef during the years 1915 to 1920 inclusive. But in 1921 and 1922 marked decrease in value of by-products, accompanied by increase in freight rates, made it impossible for the packer to pay as much for the live animal as he received for the beef. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 67 Averages of Swift and Company's cattle, beef, and by-products operations, for fiscal years 1915-1922, ending November 5^ Cost of Total Fiscal live Beef By-product expenses Profit years animal proceeds returns including and loss freight 1915 $72.49 $63.28 $18.58 $ 7.73 $1.64 1916 73.68 63.98 19.08 7.73 1.65 1917 84.45 68.97 24.09 7.32 1.29 1918 92.70 81.45 22.06 9.79 1.02 1919 102.82 88.21 25.59 11.68 .70 loss 1920 93.85 86.31 21.17 13.69 .06 loss 1921 67.53 75.32 8.51 15.17 1.13 1922 64.72 67.25 13.45 13.46 2.52 Note that high freight rates affect the beef producer in two ways. They not only increase the cost of marketing cattle, but they also lessen the price the packer can pay for cattle after they reach the market. The packer ships carlots of dressed beef and other products from his plants to his branch houses located in all parts of the country. High freight rates on dressed beef shipments operate to increase the cost of beef to the consumer and to decrease the price paid the producer for the live animals. Higher costs to the consumer tend to lessen beef consumption. Thus, when freight rates are high, the producer is con- fronted by higher marketing expenses, a lower price, and a lessened demand. Freight rates are controlled by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The packer is protected against high rates to a con- siderable degree because his freight bill is passed along to producers and consumers. The consumer has no recourse except to eat less beef, and the producer has no recourse except to discontinue beef production if it proves unprofitable. Do packers control prices?— In the foregoing paragraph the writer does not intend to intimate that the packer can at will mark down the price of cattle and mark up the price of beef. There is competition among packers and there is competition between packers and local butchers who do their own slaughtering. Even assuming, as has been charged, that some of the large packing companies are combined to control prices, there is a narrow limit beyond which they cannot go without injury to themselves. If they fix the price of dressed beef too high they greatly lessen beef consumption. If they fix the price of live cattle too low they greatly lessen production. In either case they lessen the volume of their business, and volume of business is the most important factor in the welfare of the large packing companies. Packers are equipped with immense plants and employ large numbers of people. In order to make a profit they must keep the wheels turning; they must have a constant and adequate supply of live animals and a constant outlet for beef. Fully 95 per cent of the beef produced 1 Swift and Company Year BcJbk, 1923, p. 16. 68 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock in the United States is sold in the fresh state. Fresh beef is a perish- able product which must be kept moving out in a continuous stream from the packing plant. If the packer paid the producer enough to insure a supply of animals and then attempted to charge so high a price for meats as to insure a huge profit despite restricted volume of business, then many local butchers would stop buying packers' meats and would do their own slaughtering, and farmers' cooperative packing plants and other smaller packers would at once take advantage of the opportunity to capture the trade by pricing their beef below the high prices demanded by the large companies. Suppose that packers should enter into a combination with pro- ducers, agreeing to charge higher prices for beef and pay higher prices for cattle. If this were attempted the market soon would be flooded with cattle far beyond the capacity of the packing plants or the con- suming public, and it would be impossible to maintain the higher price for either beef or live cattle. Through very high efficiency in packing methods and business administration, and small profits on sales, certain packing companies were enabled to underbid their competitors and build up large plants and a large volume of business. Efficiency and narrow margins are today just as essential in retaining this large volume of business as they were in developing it. By ingenuity and enterprise the huge packing business of this country has been developed through continual improvement in methods of slaughtering, handling, and distributing meats and in methods of utilizing animal by-products, until the market for our surplus meat production has been made world-wide and a constant, open, cash market for live animals has been made possible. From the live-stock producer's viewpoint it is best that we have in this country a large, highly efficient, reasonably profitable, and stable packing industry. If packing companies were continually going into the hands of receivers because of bad management or for other reasons, it would not be beneficial to either producers or consumers. Large packers are continually in competition with small packers, and all packers are continually in competition with retailers who do their own slaughtering. If any combination of packing companies fixes the prices of live animals, they have done a mighty poor job of it in those years in which cattle producers have made large profits. Summary. — It would seem that the packer is now doing his share in supplying the people with good meat at a fair price. There can be no further expansion in the line of getting more product out of the animal, the limit in that direction having been reached. Further im- provement in the quality and cheapening of the price of beef rests Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 69 largely with the grower or producer of live stock. Much may be done on the production side of the business to bring about these results. More feed must be grown per acre, feeding must be done more econom- ically, and better animals must be bred and fed for the market in order that greater returns may be secured for the feed consumed. The scrub animal must be eliminated through increase in numbers and extension of territory of the improved breeds of cattle. Thus more good pure- bred sires will be made available for grading up the common cattle of the country, and meats of better quality will be produced at lower cost. CHAPTER IV THE VALUE OF TYPE IN BEEF MAKING In order to determine just what advantages are possessed by the beef-type steer as compared with the dairy-tjrpe steer, some experi- ments have been carried out which have resulted in interesting findings. It has long been known that beef steers suit feeders and butchers better than steers of dairy breeding. It has been claimed that beef steers gain faster in proportion to feed consumed, that they fatten more readily, dress out higher, yield a more valuable carcass, and hence bring a higher price on the market. Experimental results have upheld some of these views and disproved others. \^ In 1903, the Iowa Experiment Station ^ conducted a series of ex- periments dealing with the comparative merits of the two types for beef production. The object was to provide answers to the following questions: 1. Which type of steer makes the greater gains from pounds of feed consumed? 2. In the gains made, what differences exist between the two types as to distribution of such gains over the body? 3. Which type of steer yields the greater profit to the feeder? 4, Which type shows the greater amount of offal? 5. Which type carries the higher percentage of tallow? 6. Which tjT^e carries the higher percentage of valuable cuts? 7. In considering the various commercial cuts from the two types, what differences are to be found as regards weight, thickness, covering of fat, marbling, color, and fine- ness of grain? 8. Is the low price paid for dairy-type steers due to prejudice, or to an actual inferiority in the value of the carcasses? Four beef-type steers and four dairy-type steers were put on feed January 1, 1903, and fed one year. The steers were on dry feed during the entire time, so that the exact amount of feed consumed by each lot might be known. Of the four beef steers, two were high-grade Herefords, and two, purebred Angus. The four dairy steers consisted of two Jerseys and two Holsteins. The ages at the beginning of the test were approximately as follows: Average of Herefords, 16 months; of Angus, 18 months; of Holsteins, 24 months; and of Jerseys, 18 months. The feeds given were mixed hay, sorghum (during July and August), corn meal, bran, oil meal, and gluten feed. The conditions were alike for all the animals, and the feed was the same, but each animal was given all he would clean up regularly. At the end of the ilowa Bui. 20. 70 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 71 feeding test the cattle were bought in separate lots by the head buyer of a packing company of Des Moines, Iowa. The prices given were the market prices for such steers, December 28, 1903. Following is a summary of the first part of the investigation: Beef Dairy steers steers Average weight at beginning, lbs 685 574 Average gain per steer, lbs 606 598 Average value of feed consumed per steer $47.27 $45.18 Average cost of one pound of gain 7.81c 7.63c Percentage of dressed weight in slaugter test 61.7 57.15 Selling value, average price per pound 4.888c 3.752c The dairy-type steers made their gains at a trifle less cost per pound than did the beef steers, indicating that their digestive and Fig. 17. — Dairy-type steer. Jersey steer in the Iowa experiment at end of feeding period. Note the slack crops and fore-rib, paunchiness, and lack of muscling in this steer. assimilative functions were slightly more vigorous in this instance. The gains made by the dairy steers were not distributed on the body; in such a way as to command the highest prices. The beef-type steers made a large proportion of their gains on the back, loin, and hind- quarters, while the dairy-type steers showed but little increase in thick- ness on these parts. The beef-type steers were far more profitable to the feeder, for although both lots made approximately the same total gains, and al- though the average of the four dairy-type steers compared with the average of the four beef-type steers shows that the former made his 72 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 600 pounds of gain cheaper by $1.70 than did the latter, nevertheless this 600 pounds gain of the beef steer brought $7.18 more on the market. When $1.70 is deducted from $7.18 there is left $5.48 profit in favor of the beef animals, or a total of nearly $22 for the four head. Nor does this represent all the financial advantage of the beef-type steer, for the value of the initial weight (685 lbs. ) of the beef steer was increased to a greater degree by feeding than was the value of the initial weight of the dairy-type steer. The report of the experiment furnishes no initial valuations, hence a complete accounting in this regard cannot be made. Following are the weights of the cuts from the carcasses, expressed in percentages of the total carcass weight ; also the wholesale and re- tail prices of these cuts: Weights in Wholesale price Retail price percentages per pound per pound Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Ribs 9.27 8.80 12.25 10.25 17.6 16. Chuck 25.97 26.78 5.5 5.1 10. 10. Brisket 5.92 5.72 4. 4. 6. 6. Plate 3.85 3.48 4. 4. 6. 6. Navel 3.00 2.72 4. 4. Shank meat 53 .66 5. 5. Shank beef 2.60 3.04 2.5 2.5 Loin 17.55 17.09 14.9 12.5 Round 17.74 18.88 7. 7. Rump 5.19 4.78 7. 7. Flank steak 66 .58 10. 10. Flank beef 2.16 1.67 5. 5. Cod fat 1.98 1.56 3.5 3.5 Suet 3.48 4.18 3.5 3.5 NOTE: S, sirloin; P, porterhouse. It will be observed that the carcasses were cut up into a greater number of parts than result from the regular method of cutting ex- plained in the previous chapter, but the differences in the cuts are not great enough to prevent a full understanding of the above table. On the basis of the above figures we are able to determine the relative profits of the beef- and dairy-type steers to the wholesaler or packer. This is shown as follows: Beef steers Dairy steers Cost of 4 live steers $242.52 $170.64 Cost of killing at $1.50 per head 6.00 6.00 6. 6. 6. 6. 3. 2.8 'S.17.6 16. tP.23.1 21. 12. 12. 10. 10. 12.5 12.5 6. 6. 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 Cost of carcasses and offal $248.52 $176.64 Received from sale of hides, tallow, and tongue 36.13 30.27 Cost of dressed beef $212.39 $146.37 Cost of dressed beef per lb 0715 .0583 Actual wholesale returns when beef was sold 232.61 179.83 Margin between cost and selling price of dressed beef 20.22 33.46 The last item in the above table is interesting. It shows that there was $20.22 margin for the beef- type steers and $33.46 for the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 73 dairy-type steers, or a difference of $13.24 in favor of the dairy-type cattle. If this difference in margins were appHed to the live-weight price of the dairy-type steers, their price per cwt. would have been 28 cents higher; in other words the dairy-type steers would have brought 4 cents per pound, instead of 3>^ cents. At a meat demonstration in January, 1904, conducted by Mr. John Gosling, some further important differences were brought out between the cuts from the dairy- and beef-type carcasses. Mr. Gosling is recognized as one of the leading authorities on meats in this country. In grading the carcasses, he placed three of the beef-tj^De carcasses as Fig. 18. — Dairy-type steer. Holstein steer in the Iowa experiment. His flat ribs, ridgy back, and angular appearance are characteristic of steers of dairy breeding. No. 1, and the other as No. 2. Two of the dairy-type carcasses were graded No. 2, and the other two as No. 3. The color of the flesh was fairly good in all eight of the carcasses, although in the Jersey car- casses it was somewhat dark. The external color (or color of the fat) was good in all except one, a Jersey, which killed very yellow. The other Jersey killed very white, although, as a rule, carcasses of Jerseys or grade Jerseys are very yellow. The spines in the backbone of the dairy-type carcasses were hard, indicating the early maturity of the dairy type. They were much more cartilaginous in the beef-type car- casses, although the ages were nearly the same. The fore-ribs from the dairy-type steers were light and lacking in marbling. The Holstein ribs lacked depth, and were very irregular and rough. The dairy-type steers carried more kidney fat or suet; this is a cheap product which 74 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock increases the dressing percentage, but reduces the value of the carcass when excessive. The answers to the questions asked at the beginning of the experi- ment are, therefore, as follows: 1. The gains from pounds of feed consumed are practically the same for both the beef and dairy types. 2. The beef -type steer uses his gains to slight advantage as compared with the dairy-type, placing a slightly greater percentage of his gains in the valuable cuts. 3. The beef-tj^De steer yields the greater profit to the feeder. 4. The dairy-type steer shows the greater amount of offal. 5. The dairy-type steer carries the higher percentage of tallow. 6. As regards the percentage of valuable cuts, there is very little dif- ference; if any, it is in favor of the beef-type steer. 7. The beef-type steer yields cuts that are heavier, thicker, usually covered with whiter fat, nicer in marbling, and a little better in color of muscle. There is no apparent difference in fineness of grain. 8. The low price paid for dairy steers may be due partially to prejudice, and to the greater ex- pense of carrying and selling the low-grade carcasses, but it is chiefly due to an actual inferiority in the carcasses. They are unsatisfactory to the consumer, because they do not furnish thick and well-marbled cuts; they are unsatisfactory to the butcher, because they furnish low- grade carcasses which are difficult to dispose of; and they are decidedly unsatisfactory to the feeder, because they yield him little or no profit, and both breeder and feeder waste their time in producing such a type of steer for beef purposes. In an earlier experiment at the Iowa Station, James Wilson and C. F. Curtiss found the quantity of fat about the internal organs of fat steers of the various breeds to be as follows: Breed Average dressed Loose Per cent of weight tallow loose tallow to beef Shorthorn 1,092 145 13.3 Hereford 1,022 129 12.6 Red Polled 990 125 12.6 Galloway 1,088 147 13.5 Angus 1,137 157 13.8 Devon 815 123 15.0 Swiss 1,017 119 11.7 Holstein 862 155 17.9 Jersey 880 166 18.8 This table gives further evidence of the tendency of the dairy breeds to deposit proportionately more fat about the intestines, paunch, kidneys, and caul. Experiments at the Kansas Station substantiate the results of the Iowa investigations. Why the dairy steer lacks thick flesh. — The experimental results set forth above emphasize the lack of thickness in the cuts from the dairy steer. In other words, the dairy steer is decidedly lacking in Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 75 muscular development. Mr. John Gosling has continually emphasized this point in his annual meat demonstrations at the Iowa State College. He has conclusively shown that there is a very marked difference in the amount of muscle or lean meat present at birth in calves of dairy ancestry as contrasted with those of good beef breeding, and he has also shown that from a practical standpoint, at least, feeding does not increase the relative proportion of muscle in the make-up of an animal. His demonstration in January, 1918, included a beef calf and a dairy Fig. 19. — Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. These calves were slaughtered when less than a week old. Neither carcass showed any degree of fat. Note the muscling in round, rump, loin, rib, shoulder, arm, and neck of the beef calf on the left as compared to the dairy calf on the right. calf, less than a week old, which were not selected for veals, but were used to demonstrate the vast difference in the natural flesh or muscle present at birth in these two types of cattle. The accompanying illustrations show the difference. There was no visible fat on either of them, but the beef calf was thick, plump, and rounding, with muscles like the breast of a quail, while the dairy calf was flat and thin in all parts. The beef calf was thick in neck and arm, broad of back and 76 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock loin, full in rump, bulging in thighs, and carried his beef to the hocks. The dairy calf was scrawny in his neck, ridgy along the spine, narrow and shabby over the rump, and light and tapering in his rounds. The evidence is unquestionable. Fat can be put on by feeding, but the muscle comes only by inheritance. The dairy calf is "born wrong" from a beef standpoint, and no known method of feeding and manage- ment can correct its deficiency. Henry and Morrison of the Wisconsin Station discuss the com- parative merits of beef- type and dairy-type steers as follows: ^ Fig. 20.— Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. Back view of carcasses shown in Fig. 19. Beef calf on left, dairy calf on right. Note the rounds, rumps, loins, backs, shoulders, and necks. The marked difference in muscling inherited by these two calves is plainly evident. "Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated percent- agely lies that indefinable something described by the word 'quality' which enters into all objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch of well-fed beef-bred steers with one representing the dairy breeds with- out being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales The matter at issue may be illustrated by a condition in the fruit iFeeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 443. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 77 world: No orchardist will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily grows faster than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood and fruit on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seedlings, nor that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more juice or human food than the same measure of common seedling apples. Fruit growers do rightfully assert, however, that the market wants Baldwin apples and will pay more for them than for common seedling fruit, and that from this judgment of the market, be it reasonable or un- reasonable, there is no appeal. Beef cattle have been bred for meat production — it would be passing strange if they did not excel for that purpose." CHAPTER V AMERICAN CATTLE MARKETS Producers of beef cattle use various methods of marketing their stock, depending largely on their location and the number of animals to be sold. The principal methods are as follows: ^^X 1. Cattle may be sold to the local stock buyer or drover for ship- ment to central markets. 2. They may be shipped to a central market through a coopera- tive shipping association and sold at the market by a commission firm which acts as the association's agent. 3. They may be shipped direct by the producer to the central market and sold by a commission firm which acts as his agent. 4. They may be sold to local butchers or cattle feeders. 5. They may be sold to a packer buyer in the country or shipped direct to the packing house. 6. They may be slaughtered on the farm and the meat consumed on the farm or sold locally. In addition to these there are special methods of marketing such as (a) auction sales, (b) selling on the range direct to buyers from a distance, and (c) selling on mail orders. Over half of the cattle marketed in the United States pass through the central markets. In 1917, 76 per cent were marketed in this manner, following which there was a steady decline to 67 per cent in 1921. 1 / The large cattle markets'/of the United States are located in the central part of the country. With the West and Central West on the one hand as the great breeding and feeding ground, and with the East on the other as the chief region of consumption, it is logical that the large markets have a central location. The estimated center of beef production in the United States is in central Kansas, and the center of beef consumption is in western Ohio, over 700 miles eastward. Be- tween these two is the center of beef slaughter in western Illinois. ^ Following are the 15 largest cattle markets and their receipts of cattle, including calves, for three years: ^ 1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 278. 2Ibid, p. 315. 3 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. 78 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock , 79 Receipts of cattle, including calves, at large central markets, 1920-1922 Market 1922 1921 1920 1. Chicago 3,934,498 3,539,538 3,849,495 2. Kansas City 2,983,094 2,469,442 2,500,166 3. Omaha 1,744,251 1,434,576 1,602,799 4. St. Louis 1,400,333 1,077,260 1,253,550 5. St. Paul 1,386,932 984,826 1,373,114 6. Fort Worth 1,084,201 983,802 1,134,323 7. Pittsburgh 866,764 745,100 732,770 8. Sioux City 746,983 620,373 751,658 9. Buffalo 637,349 609,063 676,676 10. St. Joseph 654,552 558,040 642,899 11. Denver 656,245 481,502 616,565 12. Indianapolis 508,814 483,097 597,097 13. Milwaukee 504,324 438,720 443,947 14. Cincinnati 445,554 453,974 441,044 15. Oklahoma City 382,341 315,113 399,706 Totals 17,936,235 15,194,426 17,015,809 The U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics reports that 23,217,038 cattle and calves were received at 68 stock yards in 1922. The 15 markets listed above received 77 per cent of this total. There are no large cattle markets in other countries which compare with the larger markets in the United States. South American markets may in time approach our own in size. American packers are now operating plants in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. Pack- ing plants are one of the most essential factors in the creation of large central markets. The Chicago market, the largest cattle market in the world, received 3,163,009 cattle and 771,489 calves in 1922. Cattle weighing 300 pounds or less are classed as calves. The total value of cattle received at Chicago in 1922, excluding calves, was $248,595,111. Their average value per head was $78.60. Their average weight was 996 pounds. Their average price per cwt. was $7.90. The number of cattle received at Chicago direct from western ranges in 1922 was 265,700. Chicago does not receive as many of these as do some of the markets located farther west. Western range cattle direct from the West are marketed at Chicago from July to December inclusive, and they usually constitute about 10 per cent of all cattle received during the year. The total value of the calves received was $10,551,660; their average value was $13.65; their average weight was 141 pounds; and their average price per cwt. was $9.70. Sources of receipts. — The corn-growing area of the Mississippi and Missouri valleys affords the best facilities for the production of meat animals, and this area is tapped at many points by lines of railway centering in Chicago. The corn-fed cattle of Iowa, Nebraska, Mis- souri, Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and the grass-fed cattle of Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas, and Texas, have easy access to 80 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Chicago. Steers are sold in Chicago that were born in Texas, matured in Montana, and finished in an Iowa feed-lot. Sheep often experience similar wanderings before reaching market, but hogs usually come direct from the farm on which they were farrowed. Average carloads.-'-Reports of stock yards and railroads show that the average number of meat animals to the carload is for cattle about 25, hogs in single-deck cars about 75, and sheep about 120 per deck. These figures represent mere averages. The number of animals per car varies greatly depending on the age and size of the animals. For example, a stock car 36 feet long will hold 55 calves weighing 400 pounds each, 35 yearlings weighing 700 pounds, 25 cattle averaging 1,000 pounds, 21 cattle weighing 1,200 pounds, or 19 cattle weighing 1,400 pounds each. Shrinkage of beef cattle in transit.-r-In an investigation made in 1913 by W. F. Ward of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, ^ cattle in transit less than 24 hours shrank from 2.05 to 3. 91 per cent. Those in transit from 24 to 36 hours shrank from 3.46 to 6.37 per cent. Those in transit from 36 to 72 hours shrank 3.88 to 5.40 per cent. Those in transit over 72 hours shrank from 3.96 to 7.00 per cent. These figures are based on weight at origin and "filled" weight at market. The fill.^Commission men who sell live stock on the large markets are always careful that the cattle consigned to them get plenty of hay and water before they are offered for sale. This is called the "fill," and it is important because it has a quieting effect on the cattle, corrects the gaunt appearance caused by shipping, and adds weight to the animal. The buyer estimates the fill in various ways, particularly by the degree of paunchiness. Hence the fill does not constitute a fourth factor of the dressing percentage, but is included under paunchiness. On hot days when cattle take a heavy fill of water, buyers stay off the market as long as possible. Monthly weights of Chicago cattle. — The writer tabulated the average monthly weights of cattle at Chicago for ten years, 1913 to 1922 inclusive, and then determined the monthly averages for the entire ten-year period. The average weight for April at 1,002 pounds was highest, and the average October weight at 959 pounds was lowest. The general average for the ten years was 981 pounds. Following are the ten-year averages for all months: ^ ^U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25, pp. 73, 74. ^Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 81 Average monthly of cattle at Chicago for ten years Weight Month Pounds January 977 February 986 March 979 April 1,002 May 994 June 1,000 »T .u Weight Month Pounds July 980 August 987 September 965 October (959) November 968 December 971 Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of cattle at Chicago. — Fig. 21 shows the average monthly receipts of cattle, excluding calves, at Chicago for ten years. Largest receipts occur in September, October, November, December, and January, especially in October and Novem- ber. Large receipts at this season are due to the heavy run of grass- IHI QicQQo 5lQU(]Wer m^ oKipped ^or 5lau(|hter ^^ Onipped jor reeaina Fig. 21. — Average monthly receipts and shipments of cattle, excluding calves, at Chicago in thousands for ten years, 1909-1913 and 1917-1921. The years 1914- 1916 were omitted because of embargoes on shipments during much of that period. The total length of each bar represents average monthly receipts. The divisions of the bar represent the average number of Chicago cattle sold monthly for local slaugh- ter, shipment to other points for slaughter, and shipment to the country for feeding (or breeding) purposes. fed cattle in the fall. (During the ten years included in this study, largest receipts occurred in October five times, in November twice, in December once, and in January twice.) About 40 per cent of the year's total receipts arrive during the last four months of the year, and about 50 per cent in these months and January. ^ From February to ^The same is true of average monthly receipts at 67 stock yards in the United States.— U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 286. 82 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock July inclusive, monthly receipts are smaller and quite uniform. (These months included all of the low points during the ten years.) Over 50 per cent more cattle are received at Chicago in October than in April, but monthly receipts of cattle are less variable than those of sheep or hogs, as may be noted by comparing Fig. 21 with Fig. 81 and Fig. 132. As shown in the chart, about 64 per cent of the cattle received at Chicago are slaughtered there, 23.5 per cent are shipped to other points for slaughter, and 12.5 per cent are returned to the country for feeding. ^ In September, October, November, and December, the movement of feeders is at its height. During these four months 17 per cent of the cattle received at Chicago are sold for feeding purposes, and these con- stitute over 50 per cent of the total number of feeder cattle shipped from Chicago during the year. The feeder outlet helps to maintain prices for all cattle during the season of large receipts. Most feeders are fattened and returned to market before June 1, thus helping to maintain supplies during the season of light receipts. Movements of live stock are largely controlled by such factors as the limits of the grazing season, the maturity of crops for feeding, distribution of labor, etc., and it is not advisable that monthly ship- ments of cattle to market shall be equalized, yet it is at the same time true that a more even distribution is, within limits, desirable to both producer and consumer. Early cattle markets.-^A century ago cattle markets were small and largely local in character. The "West" at that time was com- prised of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. There were no railroads, no live-stock cars, no refrigerator cars, no steamships, and no large live- stock markets. Every large town had its own stock yards or cattle market to which cattle were driven from the surrounding country and sold to butchers. In time, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore became rather large markets, and in some instances cattle were driven long distances to supply them. Early methods of transportation .r — This was before the days of railroads, and even after the railroads came, very few live animals were carried until about 1860. Prior to 1850, it was the general practice to drive live stock to market on foot. At that time, in many parts of the country, pasturage was free along the routes, and the animals were driven by easy stages, reaching market without very much deprecia- tion. George Renick, of Ohio, was perhaps the first man to find an outlet for cattle fattened in what was then "The West." In 1805, against the advice of his neighbors, he successfully drove 68 head of lAt 67 markets about 20 per cent of all cattle and calves are sold for feeding. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 286. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 83 cattle to Baltimore and disposed of them at a profit. ^ This gave a great impetus to the western cattle business of that time and afforded a means of marketing corn. Droves of 150 to 500 cattle, mostly four- or five-year-old steers, were fattened on corn and driven overland in spring and summer. From 1840 to 1850 Ohio and Kentucky supplied most of the corn-fed cattle on eastern markets. ^ One route from Kentucky to New York City covered about 800 miles and required over ten weeks to complete it. Drives to the eastern seaboard were made from as far west as Iowa, and even Texas cattle passed eastward in this manner. Sheep were driven across country also, notably from Vermont to Virginia. Large numbers of hogs were driven to market, but they were a more active type than the modern fat hog. By 1860, few hogs were driven any considerable distance. ' Today we do not even drive hogs from the farm to the shipping point, but haul them in wagons. The advent of transportation by rail * marked a decided turning point in the live-stock industry and the live-stock markets. Western cattle were then sold on eastern markets throughout the year. Pro- ducers of grass-fattened cattle in the East could not compete with them, and Ohio feeding also declined in competition with the cheaper grass cattle of Illinois. By 1860 the railroads extended west of the Mis- sissippi, and central Illinois and eastern Iowa became a great cattle feeding district. Then came the development of the range cattle industry of the Great Plains from 1870 to 1885, reaching its maximum development between 1890 and 1900. Development of large markets. — As long as markets were simply the scene of barter in live animals for local use, no large markets were developed. About 1820 pork packing was begun, and this furnished the first impetus to the creation of large markets of more than mere local importance. Pork could be pickled, salted, and smoked, and the fat rendered into lard, and the products thus produced could be shipped to distant points. As these products met with good demand, pork packing was the natural beginning of a vast meat-manufacturing busi- ness, tending to centralize the hog markets, and much increase them in size. So far as cattle were concerned, however, the development was not parallel. Outside of an article known as "barreled beef," which was put down in salt, packers had found no method of handling beef as they did hogs. Not until the era of the refrigerator car, beginning in 1875, were cattle of much interest to packers. lAlvin H. Sanders: Shorthorn Cattle, 1900, p. 192. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 233. 3 Frank Andrews: Cost and Methods of Transporting Meat Animals, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1908, p. 228. *V. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 234-238. 84 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and not until that time did the large cattle markets reach a maximum development. The cattle markets of the United States migrated from east to west, following closely upon the development of the country. It was at one time believed that Albany was to be the final gateway for western cattle. Next Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Cincinnati were in turn regarded as the future great market of the country; but eventually it became evident that Chicago, by virtue of location and railroad facilities, was to become and remain the largest cattle market in America. This fact was clearly established by 1870. With the development of the corn belt and western range cattle industry, markets established at various points on the Great Lakes and along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers became the most im- portant. This is a natural result of the fact that the states west of the Mississippi produce about 80 per cent of our beef cattle, 50 per cent of our hogs, and 75 per cent of our sheep, while the states east of the Mississippi consume about 68 per cent of our total meat produc- tion. Most of the principal slaughtering points and principal markets are near the areas of large production because dressed meat may be shipped more economically than live animals, due to lower freight costs and elimination of deaths, injuries, bruises, and shrinkage in transit. ^ Chicago's early cattle trade. — The history of Chicago as a cattle market extends back many years to the time when a few hundred animals were driven in to supply the garrison at old Fort Dearborn. It was not until the advent of railroads, however, that Chicago took prominence as a live-stock center. When railroad communication with the Atlantic seaboard was established and lines were built from Lake Michigan toward the Mississippi, a revolution was brought about. Half a dozen stock yards were located in various parts of the city, and when these became glutted, the cattle were grazed on the surrounding prairie until a price could be realized. Mess pork and barreled beef were staple articles known to the trade under the appetizing names of "sow belly" and "salt horse." Dressed beef was then unknown to commerce, artificial refrigeration was not even speculated upon, the refrigerator car existed merely as an idea, if at all, and the canning of meats had not been attempted. Armour was not a prominent name at that time. Swift had not yet discovered Chicago, and nearly every concern then engaged in the manufacture of meats has since gone out of business. Founding of the Union Stock Yards.+^Prior to 1865, Chicago had several stock yards of minor importance and located in different sec- 1 Studies in Live-Stock Marketing, The Geography of Meat Production and Consumption, Commercial Research Dept., Swift and Conipany, Chicago, Jan., 1922. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 85 tions of the city. The first was the old Bull's Head Stock Yards, opened in 1848. In 1865, John B. Sherman organized the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company, which purchased 320 acres at 39th and Halsted streets and opened the present Union Stock Yards, thus laying the basis for a greater live-stock trade at Chicago. In 1876 the market could accommodate at one time 20,000 cattle, 100,000 hogs, 15,000 sheep, and 1,000 horses— in all, 136,000 animals. The Kansas City Stock Yards was opened in 1871, the National Stock Yards, located in Illinois, but known as the St. Louis market, was opened in 1872, and the Omaha Stock Yards was established in 1884. ^ The Union Stock Yards today.— The Union Stock Yard and Transit Company receives, unloads, counts, yards, feeds, waters, weighs, and delivers or reships live stock, but neither buys, sells, nor slaughters animals. It is a great transportation and marketing cor- poration, which connects all of the 26 railway systems entering Chicago with the Union Stock Yards, and provides unloading platforms, chutes, pens, buildings, and all necessary facilities for doing an immense daily business in handling live animals, but takes no part in the transaction of the market. Stock yard companies derive their revenue from pen rentals, charges for feed, and rental of office space. The Chicago yards now occupy an area of 500 acres, 450 of which are paved. Separate accommodations are provided for each kind of stock; sheep and hogs are kept in sheds of two or more stories each, and cattle occupy open pens holding from one to several carloads. These yards would hold at one time 75,000 cattle, 125,000 sheep, 300,000 hogs, and 6,000 horses and mules. Since 1900, a yearly aver- age of more than 15 million animals have found a cash market at Chicago. Since 1865, over 128 million cattle, 12 million calves, 360 million hogs, 150 million sheep, and 3 million horses and mules have been handled, making a grand total of over 656 million animals, the value of which was nearly 15 billion dollars. The business sometimes amounts to $5,000,000 in a day, and averages well over $1,500,000 for every business day of the year. Not infrequently 2,000 carloads of stock are received on Monday or Wednesday, the largest market days. Prices established on this leading market form the basis of values for live stock at other markets and throughout the country. Essential factors in a large market.— Arthur C. Davenport, manager of the Chicago Daily Drovers Journal, states ^ that the more essential interests which promote and make possible the development of large live-stock markets are transportation companies, stock yards 1 Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market— How It Functions, 1922, p. 16. «Ibid, p. 19. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 87 corporations, commission houses, packing companies, local butchers, order buyers, export buyers, speculators or scalpers, traders or dealers in feeders, banking houses and loan companies, and daily market news- papers. Order buyers buy fat stock for packers and butchers located at a distance from the market. Export buyers make purchases for shipment to foreign countries. Speculators and traders buy all kinds of stock that offers a chance for resale at a profit. They frequently buy mixed loads, sort them, and resell to various classes of buyers. Traders are speculators who deal largely in feeder cattle, sheep, and pigs. Commission firms rent blocks of pens from the stock yards com- pany and sell the live stock consigned to them. They also buy feeders and fat stock on orders. The commission company remits to the con- signor the amount received for animals sold, less charges for freight, yardage, feed, commission, insurance, and any other marketing ex- penses. As success in the commission business rests upon soundness of judgment, honesty, and skill, very few consignors undertake to do their own selling, but do it more profitably through the medium of the commission man. The live-stock exchange is the organization of the commission firms operating on the market. It fixes commission charges, adjusts disputes, enforces rules to prevent fraud, and handles claims for loss and damage of live stock. The live-stock exchanges at various markets are in turn members of the National Live-Stock Exchange. Specula- tors and traders are not eligible to membership in the live-stock ex- change. They have a similar organization of their own known as the "traders' live-stock exchange," and there is also a National Traders' Live-Stock Exchange. How cattle are sold. — ^When cattle are yarded in the pens of the commission company and have been fed and watered, they are offered for sale by a representative of the commission company. Packer buyers, order buyers, export buyers, local butchers, or speculators may buy them. All sales of cattle, sheep, and hogs are made at private treaty. The salesman names his price, the buyer offers his bid, and the salesman accepts or rejects it. All live stock except milkers and springers, horses, and mules are priced and sold by the hundredweight, and the nickel is the smallest denomination in which prices are quoted. As soon as a sale is made the cattle are driven to the scales and weighed by the stock yards company. On the scales ticket are recorded the weight, number of animals, and price per cwt., and the names of the consignor, commission firm, and buyer. All sales are for spot cash, and most of the live stock is sold on the day of arrival. Charges for yardage, feed, and commission. — Yardage at Chicago costs 30 cents per head for cattle and 20 cents for calves. Hay costs 88 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock $30 to $40 per ton. The commission charges for selling cattle at Chicago are as follows: Cattle in car lots, 90 cents per head; mini- mum per car $18, maximum $24. Calves in car lots 40 cents per head ; single-deck cars, minimum $18, maximum $24; double-deck cars, mini- mum $26, maximum $30. Less than 15 cattle in one car, $1.25 per head. Less than 28 calves in one car, 60 cents per head. Government supervision.— On August 15, 1921, Congress passed the Packers and Stock Yards Act v^hich gives the Secretary of Agricul- ture supervision of packers and all others engaged in business at public stock yards. In his annual report for 1921 ^ Secretary Henry C. Wallace states that by this act "the packers are prohibited from any unfair, unjustly discriminatory, or deceptive practices or devices," and "commission merchants, persons furnishing stock yards services, and dealers at yards are required to establish, observe, and enforce just, rea- sonable, and nondiscriminatory rates." Fines are provided as penal- ties. Packers and others may appeal to the courts in case of dispute. The rulings of the Secretary are not final unless upheld by the courts. Cooperation in live-stock marketing. — During recent years the cooperative movement in the production and marketing of agricultural products has made great strides in the United States. In the live- stock industry this movement has taken the form of cooperative shipping associations, commission companies, v^^ool pools, bull associa- tions, cow-testing associations, consignment sales of purebred live stock, and breeders' associations for collective advertising, selling, etc. Pro- ducers have also cooperated to establish and operate creameries, pack- ing plants, and other manufactures of live-stock products. The cooperative live-stock shipping association is an organization of producers tributary to a local shipping point. The association ap- points a manager who loads and ships carload lots of stock made up by members, receives reports and proceeds of sales, and apportions the proceeds to members. For his services the manager receives a com- mission on each carload. Each member's animals are marked to dis- tinguish them and when sold at the market they are weighed separately, and, if necessary, are also sold separately. If the carload is uniform, separate selling may not be required. This system gives the small producer with a few animals the opportunity to sell his stock on the central market. Without it the small producer must sell his stock locally, either to the local stock buyer, local butcher, or near-by feeder. Shipping associations often buy feed cooperatively, and sometimes buy live stock cooperatively. As early as 1908 a cooperative shipping association was organized at Litchfield, Minn., and during the 14 years ending in 1921 this ^U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 33, 34. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 89 association shipped a total of 2,057 cars of stock to the St. Paul market. The gross receipts were $3,702,266. Detailed figures for the last five years of this period show that the members received 96.12 per cent of the market price of their stock. However, Litchfield is only 80 miles from the St. Paul stock yards, so that freight and switching charges constitute less than 40 per cent of all marketing expenses. ^ Over 600 of these associations are now more or less active in Minnesota. It is reported that approximately one-fourth of Iowa's shipments were marketed cooperatively in 1920, and that during the same year Wis- consin had about 500 cooperative shipping associations which handled about 65 per cent of the live stock marketed by that state. ^ Johnson County.. Mo., has nine live-stock shipping associations, eight of which shipped a total of 501 cars of stock during 1922. The movement has also spread to other states. Cooperative live-stock commission companies are a more recent development. The cooperative commission company is owned and controlled by the cooperative shipping associations and individual pro- ducers tributary to the market at which it is located. The company has a salaried manager who employs assistants, salesmen, and clerks and conducts the business along the same lines as the privately ovmed commission company. Some cooperative companies charge the same commission rates as the private companies, and some charge lower rates. In either case the profits over and above dividends on capital stock and requirements of the sinking fund are prorated to members according to the number of cars consigned by each of them. This saving in commission expenses is the principal purpose of the coopera- tive commission company. Cooperative companies are now operat- ing at ten of the largest markets, and others are in process of organization. The first one was established at Omaha about five years ago. The one at St, Joseph declared a patronage dividend or refund of over $9 per car on 4,818 carloads handled in 1921. The one at St. Louis declared a patronage dividend or refund of $6 per car on 6,650 carloads sold in 1922. The largest and perhaps the most successful is the Central Cooperative Commission Association at the St. Paul market which sold 15,570 cars of stock in 1922 (its second year) for a total of $21,756,000. Its operating expenses amounted to $8.27 per car. It charged $2 less commission per car than the private companies at St. Paul and declared a patronage refund to its members of about $6 per car of cattle and about $4 per single-deck car of hogs and sheep. With efficient management the success of the cooperative live-stock commission company seems assured. HJ. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 29, 1923. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 279. 90 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock From farm to market.^— Briefly, the steps by which cattle usually pass from the farm and feedlot to the central market, and through the market and to their final destination, are as follows: 1. Driven from farm to shipping point. 2. Loaded on car. 3. Station agent makes out way bill indicating to what market shipped and to whom consigned. 4. Car delivered by railroad to terminal railroad at destination. 5. Terminal railroad spots car at market's unloading chutes. 6. Stock yards company immediately unloads, counts, records, and delivers the cattle to commission company at its pens, and feeds and waters the stock in accordance with instructions from commission company. 7. Commission company sells to packer buyer, order buyer, speculator, trader, export buyer, or local butcher. 8. Stock yards company then weighs, counts, records, and de- livers or reships the animals to their final destination. 9. Commission company immediately remits proceeds of sale to owner, less cost of freight, yardage, feed, commission, and other charges. 10. Commission company pays for freight, yardage, feed, and other marketing charges, having retained from proceeds of sale an amount sufficient to cover these items and its commission. Development of the packing industry. — The term "packer" origi- nated in the early days of the meat business in this country, when the packing or putting down of cured meats, especially pork products, was the principal business of all large wholesale butchers. The first regular packer in the West was Elisha Mills, an easterner who began at Cincinnati in 1818.^ As previously mentioned, hogs benefitted from the packing opera- tions of early days to a greater degree than cattle. Packers could not handle beef on a large scale until the invention of artificial refrigeration and the substitution of the tin can for the oak barrel. Arthur Libby introduced canned corn beef in 1874, which was followed by many other palatable canned preparations. James Macdonald, of Aberdeen, Scotland, a noted agricultural writer who visited the Chicago stock yards in 1877, states ^ that about 250,000 cattle were slaughtered at Chicago in 1876, and that more than three-fourths of these were handled by two firms, the Wilson Packing Company and Libby, Mc- Neill and Libby. He further states that about half of the beef was 1 Rudolf A. Clemen, Economics Dept., Northwestern University: Development of American Meat Packing, National Provisioner, Feb. 12, 1921, p. 18. »Food From the Far West, Edinburgh, 1878, p. 187. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 91 canned and the remainder put down in barrels and tierces. "Large as these beef-packing establishments are," writes Macdonald, "the pork packeries throw them far into the shade." He reports ten times as many hogs slaughtered at Chicago in 1876 as cattle. The history of the meat business is closely interwoven with the history of the live-stock markets, the two enterprises being mutually dependent upon each other. The Chicago market benefitted not only from its location and shipping facilities, but to a great extent also be- cause of the large packing interests which centered there. That part of the yards where the group of packing plants is located is called "Packingtown." Some fifteen or more companies operate the numerous plants in Packingtown and immediate vicinity. The numbers of cattle and calves slaughtered by leading Chicago packers in 1921 and 1922 were as follows: ^ Chicago slaughter of cattle and calves by leading packers Company r;,tiip Calves 1922 1921 1922 1921 353,770 374,450 340,839 280,742 154,557 61,841 23,505 286,280 313,672 255,302 205,042 122,703 62,041 31,040 170,334 108,533 130,457 69,870 186,572 140,534 116,593 68,782 Hammond Company Libby McNeill and Libby Anglo-American Company Totals 1,580,704 1,27f>,080 479,194 512,481 The refrigerator car. — There have been three eras in the evolution of the American meat industry: (1) The era of pickled meats, such as hams, pork products generally, and salted beef; (2) the era of artifi- cial refrigeration and the refrigerator car; (3) the era of complete utilization of by-products. The supremacy during the first era was first at Cincinnati, but it shifted to Chicago in the early sixties. In the early days, packing houses were operated only during the winter months, and no meats were packed in summer until large chill rooms were made possible through successful artificial refrigeration. In 1875, Philip D. Armour erected in Chicago the first really large-scale chill room in the world, although small ice boxes had previously been used by others. As early as 1868 a refrigerator car had been invented, but it was not until 1869 that the first through-line railroad was opened between Chicago and New York so that cars of western meat could be shipped through to eastern markets without unloading en route. In 1869 the first consignment of dressed beef was shipped from Chicago to Boston, 1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. 92 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock but the attempt was not successful. In 1875, G. F. Swift, who had come to Chicago that year, and who founded Swift and Company, fitted up a car and shipped it east successfully. Thereupon, this branch of the packing business was entered into rapidly, thus eliminat- ing freight charges on the 40 to 44 per cent waste of the live animal, the shrink on cattle during the long haul, the expense of feeding and watering en route, and the loss of those which died in transit. Pioneer exports of beef. — Still greater savings have been effected by changes in the export trade. John J. Bate, of New York, was the first to undertake shipments of dressed carcasses to Europe. On February 11, 1875, he made a small shipment to Liverpool which arrived in good condition. This was followed, on June 6, by a larger shipment, and on August 10, a still larger consignment to Liverpool was made, all arriving in good condition. In October, 1875, Timothy C. Eastman began his first shipments of fresh beef from America to England; Mr. Eastman is generally regarded as the pioneer in this enterprise. He built up a very large business which continued many years. Others entered into the industry, and shipments were made from New York, Philadelphia, and Portland, Me. The business in- creased rapidly, meats being successfully shipped from Chicago to England. A saving of more than one-half in shipping expenses is effected by exporting dressed beef rather than its equivalent in live animals. From Argentina to England, over two-thirds of the live- weight expenses are saved by sending dressed beef. ^ Branch houses and car routes. — Another important factor in the growth of the American packing industry has been the establishment of wholesale or branch houses with refrigerators in all leading centers of meat consumption. Swift and Company has about 400 branch houses, most of which are in eastern cities and towns. Through daily reports from its branch houses the packing company gets its best information concerning the consumer market, and from this informa- tion the buying policy is determined. Hundreds of smaller towns are supplied by special refrigerator cars, known as "route cars," which make regular trips and deliver meats ordered by local dealers. This method of distribution has been used by Swift and Company since 1890. In 1921 Swift operated 500 car routes radiating from its 17 plants in the United States, and sup- plying nearly 10,000 towns. ^ The modern packing company. — No better illustration of the growth of the packing industry can be had than that afforded by the rise and present proportions of one of the large packing companies at lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1908, p. 244. 2Swift and Company Year Book, 1922, pp. 36-42. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 93 Chicago. In 1885, this concern was capitalized at $300,000, in 1886 at $3,000,000, in 1896 at $15,000,000, later at $35,000,000, in 1906 at $50,000,000, and in 1922 it was $150,000,000. It has packing plants in several American cities and also in South America and Australia, but the figures here presented apply only to its business in the United States. It has over 400 branch houses in the principal cities and towns of the United States, and owns and operates 7,000 refrigerator cars. Its output of meat of all kinds in one year was almost 3 billion pounds. Its sales in 1922 totaled over $650,000,000. It paid $317,000,000 to live-stock producers. Its profit on meat sales is only about 2 per cent, but the capital is turned over several times during the year. It paid its 45,000 stockholders a 6 per cent dividend amounting to $9,000,000. In 1922 its Chicago plant converted into dressed meat 375,000 cattle, 109,000 calves, 868,000 sheep, and 733,000 hogs. According to the 1920 census, 1,305 packing establishments in the United States paid out in 1919 for raw materials, chiefly live stock, $3,774,901,000, and their manufactured products had a total value of $4,246,290,000. Federal inspection of animals and meats is rigid and includes all animals at central markets and all carcasses and packing-house prod- ucts intended as food. This safeguards the public health and has been an important factor in gaining admission for our meats into foreign countries. Dr. George Ditewig of the Meat Inspection Divi- sion, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, describes the federal inspection as follows:' "Federal meat inspection is conducted under the provisions of the act of Congress of June 30, 1906, commonly designated the Meat Inspection Act, the purpose of which is to prevent the use, in interstate or foreign commerce, of meat and meat food products which are unfit for human food. In brief, this law authorizes the Secretary of Agricul- ture, at his discretion, to make, through inspectors, an ante-mortem examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats to be slaughtered and the meat and meat food products of which are to be used in interstate or foreign commerce; it also directs the Secretary to make, through inspectors, a post-mortem examination and inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof, and an examination and inspection of all meat food products, of all such animals prepared for human con- sumption at any slaughtering, meat canning, salting, packing, render- ing, or similar establishment for transportation as articles of interstate or foreign commerce. If, on such post-mortem inspection, the articles are found to be wholesome, within the meaning of the law, it is the duty of department inspectors to mark them 'Inspected and passed,' U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1915, p. 273. 94 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and if not, to mark them 'Inspected and condemned.' Condemned articles are required to be destroyed for food purposes in the presence of an inspector." In 1921, the federal inspection conducted at 892 packing plants and other similar establishments throughout the country resulted in the condemnation at slaughter of 2.73 per cent of cattle, .26 per cent of calves, 1.63 per cent of hogs, .10 per cent of sheep, and .16 per cent of goats. The average of all animals was 1.38 per cent. * Meat con- demned after slaughter, including all meat and meat food products, prepared and processed, amounted to .20 per cent. Nothing has done more to instil confidence in packers' meats than has the rigid govern- mental inspection. Packers' losses are frequently heavy on account of this inspection, mainly owing to tuberculosis. Crippled animals may go into the food supply. Diseased animals, diseased meats, and dead animals are consigned to the rendering tank, the products of which are grease, glue, and fertilizer. Government inspection at the markets is also conducted along other lines to prevent the spread of disease among animals. Arthur C. Davenport states ^ that all animals shipped from public rrarkets, unless for immediate slaughter or steers for feeding, are subject to inspection and treatment. Cattle over six months old going to the country for breeding purposes must be tuberculin tested. Indiana and Wisconsin require that all feeding cattle except steers must be branded with an "F" to insure that they will not be retained for breeding. Cattle or sheep having scabies, or cattle infested with the fever tick, are dipped before shipment. All hogs shipped out must be vaccinated for cholera and dipped or sprayed in a standard disinfectant under government supervision. Practically all public yards maintain quaran- tine divisions for yarding diseased animals. Davenport states that 430,100 cattle from tick-infested territory in the southern states were handled at Kansas City in 1909, but due to successful efforts to extermi- nate this pest, which causes Texas fever in cattle, only 15,356 southern quarantines were handled at Kansas City in 1921. Brand inspection. — At markets where western cattle appear in numbers, western cattle growers' associations and the state of Montana maintain brand inspectors who examine all brands and cut out and sell separately all cattle not the property of the shipper. The proceeds of such sales are returned to the rightful owners. This prevents the rustling of cattle on the range and their sale at large markets, and recovers stray cattle overlooked by shippers. W. F. Wilcox, of Mont- lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 735, 736. 2The American Live Stock Market— How It Functions, 1922, pp. 157-159. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 95 rose County, Colo., states ^ that over 85,000 brands are on record in Montana alone, and that Colorado and New Mexico each have recorded over 40,000, Wyoming over 21,000, Arizona 20,000, California 15,000, North Dakota 10,000, South Dakota 12,000, and Oregon 8,500. In Texas brands are recorded by the counties. Many of the recorded brands are no longer in use, but the figures indicate that a brand inspector must have a good memory, even though he examine the ship- ments from only one state. Brands and Branding in the West, Breeder's Gazette, Apr. 7, 1921, pp. 639-641. -^ns' ^ CHAPTER VI FASHIONS IN MARKET CATTLE England and America, and other countries inhabited by Enghsh- speaking people, lead in meat consumption, especially in beef consump- tion. "The roast beef of old England" is well known as characteristic of the Englishman's culinary tastes, but Youatt records that in the time of Henry VIII the English people were "strangers to beef and mutton." The consumption of beef was confined principally to the summer months, and it sold at a very low price, so that there was no encouragement toward the production of beef cattle or beef. Instead, cattle were valued for milking purposes and most of all for field labor, and not until they had served a number of years as draft animals were they fattened for the butcher. Six-year-old oxen were sold from the plow to be fattened and then brought $50 to $75. There is record of an ox that was worked until fifteen years old and then fattened fairly well. Those most certainly were not days when men talked of baby beef. Size, usefulness for field labor, and for dairy purposes were the qualities chiefly sought. Prior to the close of the eighteenth century, there was little exer- cise of care in the breeding of cattle, and feeding was an unknown art. But conditions gradually became better; England became more pros- perous and wealthy, and there arose a demand for more and better beef, for which higher prices were paid. This impetus gave rise to the formation of the breeds of beef cattle, all of which originated in England and Scotland, unless we consider the Polled Shorthorn and Polled Hereford real American breed creations, which, of course, they are not, being the result of slight modifications of English breeds. Size and type of early beef cattle. — When beef production was begun in earnest, more attention was given to size and quantity than to quality. Judging from the records of weights of early cattle, and from drawings made at that time, cattle were ponderous, roup-l". slow- maturing beasts, and very patchy with great lumps ' "'^^vvKi'f^. The ideals of those days were exemplified by such fan* o animals as the Durham Ox, weighing 3,024 pounds at five years of age, and The White Heifer That Traveled, weighing 2,300 pounds.^ These were early Shorthorns. Among early Hereford cattle, a bull. The General, weighed 3,640 pounds at six years. Another bull, Wellington, weighed lAlvin H. Sanders: Shorthorn Cattle, 1900, pp. 39, 42. 9fi Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 97 2,912 pounds, had a girth of 11 feet, 3 inches, and measured 11 feet, 4 inches, from muzzle to tail-head. Another Hereford bull, Hamlet, weighed 2,800 pounds, and a steer reached 2,912 pounds. At the first Smithfield Fat Stock Show held in London in 1799, a Hereford bullock described as 8 feet, 11 inches, in length, 6 feet, 7 inches, in height, and 10 feet, 4 inches, in girth, won first prize and sold for $500. Another ox at the same show measured 7 feet in height, and 12 feet, 4 inches, in girth. ^ Continued demand for heavy weights. — In England and America the attainment of large weights continued to be the aim of beef pro- ducers until rather recent times. Early maturity was not given much Fig. 23.— Ideal of early beef producers. The noted "White Heifer That Travelled," a Shorthorn, calved about 1806, bred and fed by Robert Colling, of Barmpton, near Darlington, in the county of Durham, England. A free-martin heifer, a non-breeder, fed to a weight of 2,300 pounds, completely finished, and publicly exhibited through the principal agricultural counties of England to advertise the beef-making qualities of the Shorthorn breed, particularly the herds of Charles and Robert Colling, first noted improvers of the breed. From an engraving made when she w^o seven years old. The artist has undoubtedly refined the head, horns, and bone to a considerable degree, yet the picture typifies in the size, massiveness, extreme fatness, and small bone of this animal the ideal of early beef producers. attention. It was simply a matter of making each animal as large as possible before consigning it to the butcher. Cattle were grown and fattened cheaply in those days, and the advantages of young, quick- maturing, highly-finished cattle were not so marked, nor was a good price offered for any except matured beeves. Stockmen at Albany, Macdonald and Sinclair: History of Hereford Cattle, London, 1907. 98 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock N. Y., offered $1,000 to anyone who would deliver a bullock weighing 4,000 pounds. Prior to 1856, two Illinois cattlemen fed one hundred head of high-grade Shorthorn steers and marketed them at an average weight of 1,965 pounds. About the same time, another feeder collected a lot of one hundred grade steers and fed them to the enormous average of 2,377 pounds. ^ These feats are said to have widely advertised the Shorthorn as a beef-making breed, the paramount consideration of cattle feeders at that time being the attainment of great weight and immense bulk. The turn toward baby beef.^-Fat-stock shows are, in most respects, criterions of market demands in cattle. The champions of early days were big, matured steers. In 1891, the Chicago Fat Stock Show elimi- nated classes for three-year-old steers; that date marked the turning point toward what has since become known as "baby beef." In 1918 the International Live Stock Exposition at Chicago abolished the class for two-year-old steers. The tendency is more and more toward the finishing of younger, quicker-maturing animals. The changes that are being wrought are not plainly evident unless comparisons are made extending over a period of years, or unless the operations of some of the more progressive beef producers have been followed during recent times. Present demand is for early maturity. — Breeders and feeders now put much stress on quickness of maturity. This they have secured by selecting short-legged, blocky, compact animals, which fatten and ma- ture at a much younger age than the more rangy type popular in the early days. Some sacrifice has been made of size and weight in order to produce a type that will make beef quickly, yet the better breeders are careful to maintain a proper degree of size along with the low-set, blocky type of body. The change has been vastly beneficial to the breeder, feeder, butcher, and consumer. Consumers' demands have changed. — The steaks and roasts of a half century ago were of large size and were frequently so fat as to be wasteful. Very fat beef is rich and juicy and may be favored if the price is not high. In early times beef was relatively cheaper than it is today, families were larger, and the average citizen did more muscular work and more outdoor work, so that large, highly finished cuts of beef were popular. Today the price of beef is higher, families are smaller, and more people are engaged in sedentary and indoor occupations, so that cuts of beef of medium size and moderate finish best suit the needs of the average consumer. Under present conditions most consumers do not relish fat meat. Meat dealers designate very fat carcasses and cuts of beef as "wasteful." Retail dealers will not buy them except at 1 Shorthorn Cattle, pp. 335, 336. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 99 a discount because of the heavy trimming necessary in selHng such beef to the consumer trade. Changes in demands of consumers have been a prominent factor in the swing away from old-fashioned heavy bullocks to modern baby beeves. /6aby beeves are choice and prime fat cattle, between 12 and 18 months of age, weighing 800 to 1,000 pounds. Yearlings make 25 to 50 per cent more meat for the grain consumed than the same animals would make if kept until two or three years of age. The small, com- pact carcasses cut up with less waste, and furnish thick, light steaks such as are most in demand, because they are cheaper and of a size Fig. 24. — Prime baby beef. Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender, grand champion at the International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred and fed by H. J. Fluck, Goodenow, 111. Shown by F. A. Nave, Attica, Ind. adapted for domestic use. Such cattle will not dress out quite as high as older cattle, but the difference in percentage yield of carcass is due to a greater amount of tallow in the older animal, which materially lessens the older animal's superiority in this regard. The production of baby beef necessitates starting the fattening process at birth and carrying it on simultaneously with growth; the animal receives full feed from start to finish. As stated by the Breeder's Gazette: "The making of baby beef is a continuous performance which shows 365 days in the ordinary year and 366 days in the leap year. It is readily 100 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock observable that there is no such thing as 'warming up' or 'short feeding' calves intended for the buyers of prime baby beef. Cattle may be 16 to 18 months of age and afterward warmed up a bit, but they will not class as baby beef and they will not bring the prices of that article." Good breeding essential.^Baby beef can only be produced from well-bred calves, as only well-bred ones mature early enough to meet the market requirements for this kind of cattle. Such calves are hard to buy and the producer of baby beef cannot feel assured of obtaining them season after season by purchase, but is practically compelled to breed them for his own use. As breeding and feeding are rather dis- tinct lines of enterprise, and as few feeders care to maintain a breeding Fig. 25. — Baby beeves on feed. Grade Hereford calves in the feed-lot of E. M. Cassady and Sons, Whiting, Iowa. herd, or have facilities for doing so, baby beef production is much less followed than would be the case if good calves were readily available. Furthermore, it has been shown that only those feeders skilled in the art of finishing cattle, and fully equipped to give the animals every chance, can successfully produce baby beef. Increased production of baby beeves. — As long as thin two- and three-year-old steers may be purchased for feeding, there will be no marked increases in baby-beef production. The time is now at hand, however, when a large percentage of beef cattle must not only be fed on the farms of theMississippi and Missouri valleys, but bred there Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 101 also. As it is no longer profitable for the farmer to first grow a steer and then fatten him, the growing and fattening processes must be com- bined, and the cattle sent to market under 24 months of age; in other words, beef production must be placed very largely on a baby-beef basis. Clay, Robinson and Company, of Chicago, in a communication to the writer, had the following to say concerning baby-beef produc- tion: "There has been marked increase in the production of this class of cattle for the reason that the public demands them. For years the tendency has been toward the maturing of cattle at a younger and younger age. It was not so many years ago when an animal was not considered ready for the market under four years old, but evolution in beef production started, and the most desirable beeves in the market today are prime, fat yearlings." Baby beeves make economical gains. — As showing the possibilities for profit in the production of baby beeves, the Kansas Experiment Station ^ fed 130 grade Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus calves that had just been weaned, and during seven months' feeding secured an average monthly gain of 56 pounds per head. The average weight at the beginning was 408 pounds; when sent to market seven months later, the average weight was 800 pounds, and the age was a little over one year. All except 32 head were heifers. The remarkable feature of this demonstration was the small amount of feed consumed. It re- quired only 503 pounds of grain and 509 pounds of hay to make 100 pounds gain in weight. The best record was made by 10 skim-milk calves that were fed alfalfa hay and corn. They consumed only 439 pounds of grain and 436 pounds of hay for every 100 pounds of gain. When older cattle are fed, it usually requires about twice these amounts of grain and roughage to secure 100 pounds of gain. E. M. Cassady and Sons, of Whiting, Iowa, made a test of the cost and rate of gains made by Hereford steers started on feed as calves and yearlings. These steers were of the same breeding, having been bred on the Cassady farm from the same sire and dams. The calves weighed 475 pounds when put on feed, and were charged at $6.00 per cwt.; the yearlings weighed 775 pounds, and were charged at $5.70 per cwt. Although the calves were fed for a longer period than the year- lings, the average cost of 100 pounds of gain was $10.80 for the calves, as compared with $15.65 for the yearlings. The calves made a profit of $20 per head, and the yearlings made a profit of $14. In three years work, including three trials, the Indiana Experi- ment Station found that when feed prices were such that it cost $7.74 to produce 100 pounds of gain on baby beeves, it cost $9.09 to make the same gain on yearlings, and $9.37 on two-year-olds. Kan. Bui. 113. 102 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock Steer and Heifer Beef The heading of this chapter, "Fashions in Market Cattle," impHes that the demands of the cattle market are subject to change. The truth of this has been shown by the preceding discussion of the trend away from the old-time, heavy, matured beeves, and toward the finish- ing of younger cattle. The word, "fashions," also implies that the market indulges in some practices that are not entirely utilitarian and practical, but are more or less fanciful and whimsical. That this is true will be shown by a consideration of the cattle market's discrimina- tion against fat heifers as compared with fat steers. When the heifer Fig. 26. — A grand champion fat heifer. Lula Mayflower, a Shorthorn-Angus crossbred senior yearling heifer, grand champion over all fat steers and heifers at the 1921 International Show. Bred, fed, and exhibited by the University of California. Weight 1,244 pounds. Sold for $1.10 per pound. This is the only heifer that has won this honor at the 21 International Shows held to date. is well fed, she is consigned to a lower class than a steer of the same breeding, same fatness, same quality, same age and form. In some countries, heifers outsell steers for beef purposes. In this country there is discrimination in price against heifers on the market, and for that reason heifers are rarely as well fed as steers. Steers and heifers compared in tests. — In September, 1892, Wilson and Curtiss of the Iowa Experiment Station ^ purchased five ilowa Bui. 24. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 103 steers and ten heifers and began an experiment to determine whether a discrimination against fat heifers is justifiable. All of these cattle were yearling grade Shorthorns, all sired by the same bull. Five of the heifers were spayed soon after purchase, and all fifteen head were roughed until January 4, 1893, when they were grain-fed for eleven months, and then shipped to Chicago. There they were sold on the open market to Swift and Company, who made slaughter and block tests of the animals. The results of the experiment are condensed into the following table: Steers and heifers compared in gains, yields, and profits Weights, costs, gains, prices, yields, profits Original weight, September 12, lbs Cost, per lb., cents Total cost Cost of pasture and fodder prior to January 4 . . . . Weight, January 4, lbs Average gaift on feed per animal per day, lbs . . . Total gain Average cost feed per lb. gain, cents Total cost feed Shrink in shipping, lbs Selling weight, lbs Selling price per lb., cents Selling price, total Freight, yardage, and commission Profit Beef (warm weight), lbs Dressing percentage Total tallow, lbs 10 loins, per cent of carcass 10 loins, price per lb., cents 10 ribs, per cent of carcass 10 ribs, price per lb., cents 10 rounds, per cent of carcass 10 rounds, price per lb., cents Margin between live cost and sales of meat and by-products, not including expense of killing and handling 5 Steers 4,005. 3.5 $140.18 20.00 4,093. 2.44 4,032. 5.02 $202.47 215. 7,910. 5.75 $454.82 24.71 67.46 5 Open heifers 3,455. 2. $69.10 20.00 3,592. 1.99 3,288. 6.04 $198.70 290. 6,590. 4.75 $313.02 24.71 .51 5 Spayed heifers 3,998. 2. $79.96 20.00 3,994. 2.07 3,416. 5.86 $200.32 280. 7,130. 4.75 $338.67 24.71 13.68 4,997. 63.2 969.5 4,110. 62.4 648.75 4,475. 62.8 701.5 16.7 15. 10.1 15. 24.1 17.6 13.5 10.8 13.5 21.5 5.75 17.7 13.5 10.9 13.5 21.7 5.65 $20.45 $58.12 $64.84 The returns made by the heifers to Swift and Company would have justified a purchase price of $5.37 per cwt. for the spayed heifers and $5.32 for the open heifers, instead of $4.75 for each, and still have left the same margin of profit as in the steers. It is clear, then, that the difference in the live-weight value of the steers and heifers was only about 40 cents per cwt., instead of $1.00 a cwt. made by the buyers. Expert opinions secured from Chicago packers as to why the heifer carcasses sold at less price per pound than the steer carcasses were to 104 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the effect that heifers make more fat where the steers make lean meat. There is said to be more lean meat in a steer loin and a larger tender- loin. Otherwise, the carcasses were said to be of equal value. In 1894, the Iowa Station ' conducted a second experiment with steers and spayed and open heifers. The same plan was followed as in the first experiment and the results were practically the same, thus verifying the results of the first test. Why England prefers heifer beef.-i^It is a well-known fact that Englishmen make no discriminations against heifer beef, indeed they pay more for it than for steer beef. Wilson and Curtiss corresponded with several Englishmen concerning this matter, and the substance of the replies was that heifers yield meat of finer grain and better quality, are as good cutters, and yield little rough meat. Rib and loin cuts from spayed heifer carcasses were valued two cents per pound higher than the same cuts from steer carcasses equally well fattened. Plate cuts from heifers were valued one cent higher. Heifer beef was said to be better marbled, more pleasing in appearance, more juicy, and more palatable. Evidently English and American standards for meats vary some- what, and public preference has been cultivated along different lines in the two countries. So far as our American markets are concerned, it seems that the difference in prices paid for fat steers and heifers may not be justified by any real difference in the cuts of meat, yet the condition must be accepted nevertheless, and producers must shape their operations accordingly. There is, however, one logical objection to heifers; it is that they are frequently pregnant, which lowers the dressing percentage and may affect the value of the carcass. At the present time the discrimination against heifers amounts to 50 or 75 cents per cwt. for open heifers, and about 25 cents per cwt. in the case of spayed heifers. There is not as much discrimination in price against fat young heifers as against fat heifers of older age. The question of spaying.-r-As the experiment discussed above dealt with spayed and open heifers, a word may be said here about the com- parative merits of the two from the standpoint of the feeder. As a rule, open heifers make greater gains because of the setback caused by the operation of spaying. Once recovered from the operation, the spayed heifers gain faster, but do not reach as large weights as open heifers. The recurrence of heat in open heifers and their restlessness at that time retards the gains made, as compared with spayed heifers recovered from the operation. Spayed heifers are said to yield beef of slightly higher quality. Spaying entails a certain expense and there is danger of mortality. The general practice is not to spay when it is Iowa Bui. 33. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 105 possible to separate the heifers and feed them in a lot by themselves. When it is desired to feed heifers along with steers, it is desirable that they be spayed, otherwise the recurrence of heat causes considerable commotion among the cattle, decreasing the gains made and increasing the cost. CHAPTER VII SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS Beef producers may be divided into two groups — (1) men who grow beef, and (2) cattle feeders. In the first group are those who maintain breeding herds for the production of steers for the market. This group includes the western cattle man on the range and also the farmer who keeps a small herd of beef cows. The beef grower has a year-round job. Furthermore, he usually follows the business steadily for a period of years. The very nature of the business demands that it be established on a permanent basis. It cannot be followed one year, given up the next year, and begun again the next, with any fair expectation of profits. The second group includes those who follow the practice of buying thin cattle to be fattened. This is simply a finishing process, and is more speculative in character than that of growing beef. It may be followed intermittently, although most suc- cessful feeders are in the business regularly each year. Furthermore, in the corn-belt states, where grain feeding is practiced, it is usually limited to a few months of the year and usually to those months when other farm work is slack. When and where feeders are bought.^^In an investigation of methods of marketing live stock and meats, made by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture ^ in 1915, reports were received from 2,072 special live-stock and price reporters of the Bureau of Crop Estimates which indicated that 74 per cent of stockers and feeders are bought in the fall, 19 per cent in the spring, 3 per cent in the summer, and 4 per cent in the winter. It was also indicated that 55 per cent of stocker and feeder cattle purchased are bought in the district In which they are fed or grazed, 27 per cent at the centralized markets, and 18 per cent in the country, other than locally. Western range chief source of supply.— As shown in the preceding chapter, the corn-belt beef-grower finds baby-beef production profit- able. On his high-priced land he cannot afford to raise steers to two years old or older and then fatten them. The corn-belt cattle feeder, however, is not bound by the same rules. He usually buys western steers raised on cheaper lands, and as long as thin two- and three-year- old steers may be bought at prices low enough to make them profitable, the feeder will continue to make use of them as well as of calves and yearlings. lU. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113, p. 17. 106 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 107 Movement of stockers and feeders. — The U. S. Department of Agriculture has reported the movement of stocker and feeder cattle and calves for the five months, August 1 to December 31, from 43 markets into the corn-belt states, and from 67 markets into all states. These were compiled from the records of the Bureau of Animal Industry- shipping permits, and are as follows: Movement of stockers and feeders from central markets Into corn-belt states from 43 markets Into all states from 67 markets Year Number Year Number 1919 1920 1921 1922 1,813,000 1,358,000 1,415,000 2,226,000 1919 1920 1921 1922 3,040,000 2,215,000 2,113,000 2,976,000 Principal feeder markets. — The following table compiled from re- ports of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics gives the loca- tion and rank of the principal stocker and feeder markets and the numbers shipped during three years: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Shipments of stocker and feeder cattle and calves from leading inarkets Markets 1922 Kansas City 1,151,256 Omaha 621,124 Chicago 408,868 Denver 413,138 St. Paul 438,933 Sioux City 334,719 St. Louis 274,710 Fort Worth 225,130 Wichita 202,447 St. Joseph 176,041 1921 1920 787,904 778,214 442,884 450,647 332,477 417,483 273,708 407,026 270,284 315,977 239,863 238,271 185,057 167,797 172,153 278,048 131,703 103,751 102,690 102.964 Totals 4,246,366 2,938,723 3,260,178 Most of these markets lie on the margin between the western range and the corn belt. They handled 86 per cent of the total number of stockers and feeders shipped from 68 markets in 1922. The four Missouri river markets, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Omaha, and Sioux City, handled over 45 per cent of the stock and feeding cattle shipped from 68 markets in 1922. In 1921, 12 markets handled 84.6 per cent of the total from 67 markets, and from these 12 markets over two- thirds of the shipments went to 5 corn-belt states, Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, Kansas, and Missouri. ^ Lancaster, Pa., is the leading eastern feeder cattle market. Sorting feeder cattle. — Dealers or traders at large market centers buy carloads of mixed cattle suitable for stockers and feeders and drive them to their pens in the feeder division of the yards and sort lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 284, 285, 287. 108 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock them according to breed, color, size, and type. They are then sold to cattle feeders or to commission companies who are buying on orders. Seasonal variations in demands and prices. — As shown in Fig. 21, page 81, the feeder movement at Chicago is at its height from Sep- tember 1 to December 31, when the heavy run of western cattle comes to market. October is the month of largest feeder shipments. During 20 years at Chicago, October was the high month 15 times, September 3 times, and November 2 times. In April, May, June, and July the feeder movement is relatively small. Monthly and yearly average prices for stocker and feeder cattle and calves at Chicago for ten years are given in the accompanying table, 1 the highest monthly average of each year being given in bold- face type and the lowest monthly average in parenthesis. Monthly and yearly average prices for stockers and feeders at Ch icagof or ten years Ten-year Month 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 11913 1912 1911 1910 average ($5.90) $7.20 $9.95 $10.85 ($8.80) ($7.50) ($6.15) ($4.90) $5.15 $4.65 $7.10 6.65 6.80 9.20 11.50 9.00 7.75 7.10 5.20 5.10 4.85 7.30 March 6.85 8.10 10.00 12.00 10.25 8.60 7.45 5.60 5.25 5.50 7.95 April May 7.35 7.40 (-) 12.65 10.50 8.75 7.50 6.15 5.10 5.60 8.10' . 7.35 7.35 10.00 12.40 10.75 8.90 7.40 6.25 4.95 5.50 8.10 June 6.90 6.10 9.40 11.15 10.90 8.50 7.15 5.85 4.50 4.85 7.55 July 6.20 6.10 8.80 10.15 10.25 7.90 7.25 5.40 (4.35) (4.45) 7.10 . 6.65 5.90 8.30 10.75 10.85 8.35 7.30 5.70 4.45 4.50 7.30 September. . . . 6.75 5.50 8.85 9.90 10.90 8.50 7.35 5.65 4.55 4.50 7.25 October 6.70 5.65 8.85 10.15 10.25 8.40 6.95 5.60 4.40 4.70 7.15 6.30 (5.45) 8.10 9.75 10.00 8.75 6.75 5.85 4.50 4.60 7.00 December .... 6.30 5.75 (7.10) (9.15) 10.25 8.50 6.65 5.50 4.60 4.70 (6.85) Yearly average . 6.65 6.45 8.95 10.85 10.25 8.40 7.05 5.70 4.75 4.85 7.40 'Records for 1914, 1915, and 1916 omitted because quarantine of yards prevented sale of feeder cattle from November 1, 1914, to February 15, 1916. 2 Comparatively few sold, due to rail strike. ' In striking this average an estimated price of $10.00 was allowed for April, 1920. It will be noted that the time of highest and lowest prices varies greatly in different years, but that in all years, except one, highest prices were paid in the spring months, March, April, and May. Lowest prices were most often paid in January, but in every year the prices in January were higher than in December of the preceding year. This fact is reflected in the column of figures at the right, giving the ten-year averages of monthly prices. This column shows that the prices of feeder cattle are usually lowest in December and highest in April and May. Following the December low spot there is a steady increase in price until April. Following the high prices of the spring months there is a fairly regular decline in price throughout the remainder of the year. April and May prices averaged $1.25 higher than December prices during the ten years. These facts should be taken into consideration in determining a general buying policy. It may be best to buy cattle for summer ^ Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 109 grazing in the fall, carrying them through the winter on cheap feeds. Cattle feeders in Missouri who practice grain feeding on pasture usually buy their cattle in the fall, and winter them preparatory to finishing them during the following summer. Sources of profit in cattle feeding.-^Profits in cattle feeding come from skill in feeding and management, and also from intelligent buying and selling. There is practiced what is known as "speculative cattle feeding" in which feeders emphasize the buying and selling more than they do the actual feeding of the animals, the object bein^g to buy on a low market and sell when the market is high. Omitting this specula- tive feature from consideration, it may be said that the sources of profit in feeding a steer are (1) the increase in weight of the animal, and (2) Fig. 27. — Fancy selected feeders. These are very good in form, quality, breeding, uniformity, and other essential points, except that dehorning would have made them more desirable for feeding. the increase in the value of the animal's initial weight. ' For example, if we buy a thin steer at 8 cents per pound, and fatten him during four or six months feeding, we increase not only his weight, but also his value per pound. If the initial weight was 1,000 pounds, and the final weight was 1,325 pounds, he should sell at 10 cents per pound without any rise of the cattle market during the feeding period. Then the net income to the feeder would be as follows: iFor the purposes of this discussion, the value of the pork produced by hogs following cattle in the feed-lot and the value of the manure are omitted from con- sideration. 110 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 325 pounds at 10c $32.50 1,000 pounds at 2c 20.00 Net income $52.50 The margin in cattle feeding. — The difference between the cost price and selling price per pound is spoken of as the "margin." The steer feeder counts on a margin of at least 2 cents per pound, and when cattle and feed-stuffs are very high in price a greater margin is nec- essary. As shown by the above calculation, heavy cattle may be handled on narrower margins than light ones, for if the initial weight of the steer had been 600 pounds instead of 1,000 pounds, other factors remaining the same, then the net income would have been less by $8. As a matter of fact, however, the younger steer would probably make his 325 pounds of gain somewhat cheaper than the older steer, thus compensating, in part at least, the advantage of the older animal. Selection of Feeder Steers ^ Success in fattening cattle requires a thorough knowledge of two classes of cattle — fat steers of the better grades, and stockers and feeders, — the beginning and the end of the feeding process. The cattle feeder must be an expert judge of a thin animal, as well as a good judge of the finished product. "Well bought is half sold." Failure to select the right kind of steers for feeding is alone sufficient to cause failure in the business. The cattle feeder must have a good knowledge of the values of the various grades of feeders, and must use judgment as to whether or not to buy, and if he buys it is again a matter of judgment as to which grade of feeders may be purchased, fed, and sold with the greatest profit. The actual buying, however, is usually put in the hands of a commission firm; such firms also freely and intelligently advise the purchaser concerning the matters here dis- cussed. The points which determine the value of feeder steers are age and weight, form, quality, constitution and thrift, natural fleshing, condi- tion, breeding, disposition, style, and uniformity. Each of these is briefly discussed. 1. Age and weight. — Calves and yearlings require a longer feeding period, as a rule, than two- or three-year-old steers. This is due tc> the fact that young animals grow while they fatten, and hence "utten more slowly than older animals. Most cattle feeders prefer two- and three-year-old steers for feeding purposes, and this is especially true where a "short feed" of from 60 to 90 days is given. For the "long feed" of 120 to 180 days or more, calves and yearlings may be satisfac- tory if carefully selected and properly handled. Some feeders prefer the older steers even for the longer feed. The common practice is to Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 111 buy feeders that weigh from 800 to 1,000 pounds, or even heavier. Such steers are 18 months old, or over. A thrifty steer, well developed for his age, is usually more profitable than a stunted animal. A considerable amount of experimental work has been done to determine the relative advantages in feeding calves, yearlings, and two-year-olds at the Kansas, South Dakota, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana experiment stations. These experiments have been based entirely upon the finishing period or, in other words, have been planned from the standpoint of the cattle feeder rather than the grower, and the results indicate that under present conditions it is more profitable to feed two-year-old cattle than calves. This conclusion is based upon the difficulty of securing calves of the type, breeding, and quality necessary for fattening at an early age, the greater margin between buying and selling prices, the shorter feeding period, more rapid gains, greater production of pork from hogs following the cattle, smaller pro- portion of grain to roughage, and broader demand for finished heavy steers. In three different trials at the Indiana Experiment Station^ the calves required 90 days and the yearlings 20 days longer feeding period than the two-year-olds to make them prime. The average daily gain of the calves was .61 pound per head less than that of the two-year-olds and .34 pound less than that of the yearlings. The following conclu- sions were drawn from the Indiana experiments: 1. The initial cost per cwt. of calves is greater than that of older cattle. 2. The length of time necessary for finishing steers decreases with increased age of the cattle. 3. The rate of gain and the cost of gain increases with the in- creased age of the cattle. 4. The proportion of roughage to concentrates consumed in- creases with the increased age of the cattle. 5. The amount of gain necessary in finishing cattle of equal condi- tion decreases as their age increases. 6. The difference in total quantity of feed necessary for finishing cattle of different ages and fed to the same marketable finish is negligi- ble. 7. The calves made an average profit of $4.25 per head, the yearlings $6.43, and the two-year-olds $7.95. 8. The increase in live weight necessary to make calves prime was 103 per cent; yearlings, 54 per cent; and two-year-olds 43.6 per cent of their initial weights at the beginning of the feeding period. Ind. Bui. 146. 112 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 9. The difference in cost of one hundred pounds of gain between calves and yearhngs was $1.35 in favor of the calves; between yearlings and two-year-olds, 28 cents in favor of the yearlings. 10. The experienced farmer who feeds cattle should handle older cattle in preference to calves, while the farmer who produces and finishes his own cattle may find calves profitable. The Missouri Experiment Station ^ drew the following conclusions from feeding 300 cattle of various ages on heavy grain rations in con- nection with bluegrass pasture: 1. Two-year-old cattle make larger average daily gains than year- lings. 2. Two-year-old cattle consumed from 13 to 22 per cent more grain per day per head than did yearlings. 3. Two-year-old cattle consumed more grain per day per thous- and pounds live weight than yearlings. 4. Yearlings require less grain for each pound of gain than do two- or three-year-old cattle. Other things being equal, the younger the animal, the less grain is required to make a pound of gain. The condition of the animal at the beginning of the feeding period is an important factor, and may to a large extent counteract the influence of age in determining cheaper gains. 5. In these investigations, the fattening of two- and three-year- old cattle has been generally more profitable than fattening yearlings. The chief reasons are: (a) The margin between the buying and selling price is less in the case of yearlings. The older cattle fatten in a shorter period. (b ) It is not generally advisable to try to finish the cheaper grades of yearlings. In our investigations, the quality of the yearlings has generally been higher than that of the older cattle. In spite of this fact, the financial results have seemed to favor the feeding of older cattle. When all evidence as to the comparative merits of calves, year- lings, and older cattle for feeding purposes is summed up, the out- standing points are as follows: 1. Young animals, which are fattened as they grow, make cheaper gains than older animals. This is the chief advantage of the young animal. 2. The older animals enjoy a wider margin between cost price and selling price per pound, they fatten in less time, and the cost of feed per head is practically the same as for the younger animals. These are the chief advantages of the older animal. In the investigations which have been made by our state experi- ment stations, the advantages of the older animal outweighed the ad- iMo. Bui. 90. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 113 vantage of the younger animal, making the two-year-olds more profit- able than the yearlings or calves. Furthermore, a table of costs and prices does not fully emphasize the marked ability of the older animal to consume roughage during the fattening period. Where considerable quantities of silage, hay, or other roughage must be utilized, and this is very frequently the case, older steers are desirable. Nevertheless, in some instances and in certain years, the younger animals may be preferable. For example, with higher cost of older steers, and lower price of feeds, calves may be purchased and fed at a greater profit. Another point which is frequently of practical importance is the fact that the initial cost of calves per head is much less than that of older cattle. Three or four calves may be bought for the price of one two- year-old steer, and the feed-lot may be filled at a much smaller outlay Mm ^'^^BlK^^^^K.-' -L -^^ Fig. 28. — An average load of steers on feed. of capital. For this reason, some farmers must feed calves if they are to feed at all. 2. The form should be as nearly identical as possible with the description given for the fat steer. Allowances must, of course, be made for the absence of fat in the thin animal, for we cannot expect a thin steer to appear extremely blocky and low set. Yet even in thin condition the steer should be low set, deep, broad, compact, and balanced ; such conformation insures feeding capacity and early matur- ity. Broad, level tops make possible a maximum development of high priced cuts, and are indicative of superior form in the feeder. High- grade feeders have a straight top line and straight underline, the two being nearly parallel. For best results, a large feeding capacity is of very great importance. The muzzle should be broad, the barrel wide and deep, and the flanks well let down. An excessive paunch is 114 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock undesirable, as it rarely disappears during fattening and shipping and will lessen the price paid for the finished steer on the market. Some degree of paunchiness may be termed a good fault in a feeder, but the best feeders have much depth and fullness of middle without being objectionably paunchy. The feeder should have as much smoothness as is consistent with thinness. Too great prominence of shoulders, hips, and tail-head should be avoided. There should be nothing in his form that will prevent a high degree of smoothness being secured when he is fattened. It should be remembered that the proportions of the head and neck correspond with the type of body, and in making selections of young thin cattle these are dependable indicators of the turn the form will take during development and finishing. The head demands far more attention in the feeder than in the finished steer. We look for what is termed the "feeder's head," that is, a head of much width between the eyes, short and clean-cut from eyes to muzzle, very broad at the muzzle, but not coarse, large of nostril, and strongly muscled and well developed in cheeks and jaws. The eye should be large, prominent, bright, clear, and placid. Polled or dehorned cattle are preferred by feeders, although this feature does not affect the grading of the animal on the market. More hornless cattle can be put in the feed-lot or car, and they make more rapid gains on feed because of less commotion and less difficulty in getting up to the feed-racks. Timid animals are much more likely to get their share of the feed if all the cattle are polled or dehorned. Hornless cattle shrink less in shipment, the carcasses show fewer bruises, and the hides are more valuable. Gashes and punctures in hides caused by goring are not uncommon. Being in greater demand, hornless cattle sell at slightly higher prices. Dehorning gives cattle a setback, causes wildness for a time, and is not advisable if cattle are to be put on feed immediately, except in the case of calves or yearlings that are to be given a long feed. ^ 1 Light and Rothwell of the Canadian Department of Agriculture reported in 1922 (Pamphlet 15, New Series, Dehorn Your Commercial Cattle) that 35 steers dehorned after purchase made an average gain of 31 pounds per head during the first month, while 17 steers hornless at time of purchase made an average gain of 51.9 pounds. For the entire feeding period the average gain was 231 pounds for the horn- less steers and 186.3 pounds for those dehorned after purchase. The pamphlet quotes one of the largest commission firms in the United States as follows: "The absence of horns on a bunch of steers usually adds 15 to 25 cents per cwt. to their value. All buyers prefer dehorned steers, even for local slaughter, as the carcasses are likely to be free from bruises and injuries; but the most important fact is that many eastern shippers refuse to bid on horned cattle on account of the practical certainty that some of them will be injured in transit. In the case of a bunch of steers that except for their horns would just suit the eastern shipper, the difference may amount to as much as 25 to 50 cents per cwt." A commission firm in western Canada is quoted as stating that they have handled carloads of steers and heifers so badly hooked that they sold at a discount of from $1 to ^2 per cwt. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 115 3. Quality. — The indications of quality in beef cattle have been discussed. Quality and good breeding are usually found in company, and good breeding surely "tells" in the feed-lot. Quality also insures smoothness and a higher dressing percentage, points of much impor- tance in the eyes of the buyer of fat cattle. Coarse, staggy heads and necks indicate late castration. Stags sell at a discount on the fat steer market. 4. Constitution and thrift. — ^A wide, deep chest, full heart-girth, and deep, broad body are evidences of a strong constitution. Avoid that steer which has quality carried to the point of delicacy, as only vigorous, rugged cattle make big gains on feed. When choosing be- tween two steers, one of which is too refined in head, hide, and bone, and the other a trifle too rugged, or what might be termed slightly on the coarse order, it will usually be wisest to select the more rugged steer; he will usually consume more feed, gain more consistently, and make his gains at less cost than will the over-refined animal. A thrifty, healthy steer makes known the fact in a bright, clear eye, sleek coat of hair, and a loose, sappy hide. He is wide awake and gives evidence that he "feels good." Avoid the steer with the small, dull eye; tight hide; dry, staring coat; hanging head; and lifeless gait. Red blood and good health indicate ability to assimilate feed and make gains. 5. Natural fleshing. — This refers to lean meat or muscle. As previously pointed out, feeding does not add muscle to an animal; the muscle must be born on the steer. The cattle feeder's job is to fatten beef, and he must buy the beef or muscle when he buys his steers. Look for muscular necks, backs, loins, and rounds. Such steers bring the best prices when properly fattened. 6. Condition counts in judging feeders. The more fat a feeder steer carries, the quicker and cheaper he may be finished. Type and price being equal, fleshy feeders are more desirable than thin ones. Furthermore, if the steer is too thin he cannot class as a feeder, but instead is classed as a stocker. Stockers are thin enough to make gains in condition on grass or roughage. Feeders carry more flesh and are ready for the feed-lot. Experienced cattle men buy as much condition as possible when they buy their feeders. 7. Breeding. — Steers of good beef breeding are much preferred over those which have more or less of a scrub or dairy ancestry. We look for evidences of beef breeding in the form, quality, fleshing, and color of the animals. The beef-bred animal is more rectangular in build, more compact and blocky, and lower set than the dairy-bred steer. The steer of beef breeding is plumper and thicker in his muscles throughout. The dairy-bred steer stands high off the ground, has a 116 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock long, narrow head, cuts up in the flank, is spht up in the twist, "cat hammed," and rough in conformation over the hips and rump. His bone is usually too fine, and his hide too thin and "papery" in texture. Coarse, rough steers, with coarse, plain heads, show lack of good ancestry. The wide, short, clean-cut head, with broad muzzle, good eye, and marked indications of what is often termed "character," may be accepted as one of the very best evidences not only of beef breeding, but of good beef breeding. The more one deals with feeder cattle the more one learns to study heads and to place reliance on what the head indicates as to form, quality, feeding capacity, constitution, thrift, breeding, and disposition. The colors of the beef breeds are certainly preferred in feeder steers, but many scrub animals masquerade under these colors. Red, roan, or black are frequently found in animals carrying a very small percent- age of Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, or Galloway blood. The same is true of the polled head of the Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Polled Shorthorn, and Polled Hereford. Well-bred beef steers carry the colors of the beef breeds, but these colors do not always cover well- bred beef steers. Color alone is not a safe guide to good breeding. Color gives unmistakable evidence, however, if it is the fawn or spotted white and fawn of the Jersey and Guernsey, or the black and white markings of the Holstein. In such cases, color furnishes all the evi- dence we need as to the breeding of the animal. As to which of the beef breeds should be given preference when selecting feeders, that is almost entirely a matter of personal fancy. They are all good, and there is no best. There are differences to be sure, but none great enough to claim attention here. 8. Disposition. — >Nervous, restless cattle are profit-losers on feed. In many instances, with proper handling, such steers quiet down a great deal as the feeding period progresses, but in many other instances this is not true. The eye and the carriage of the head, ears, and tail are indications of the disposition. A high-headed, wild-eyed steer, with ears in motion to catch the slightest sound, stampedes on the least provocation. The poll of the head should be carried only slightly higher than the line of the back, and the eyes should be placid in ex- pression, indicating a quiet, contented feeder that will make gains in proportion to the feed he consumes, instead of wasting his energy in nervousness and frightened antics. 9. Style. — A low-backed, awkward, slouching kind of a steer may feed as well and yield as good a carcass as a wide-awake, straight- lined steer that stands squarely on his legs, but other things being equal the latter steer looks much better and attracts more favorable attention on the market than the former. A steer of good style shows Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 117 for all he is worth. The other kind fail to make a good impression at first sight, and on a crowded market this may mean much. 10. Uniformity in size and color adds much to the attractiveness of a load of cattle, and in buying feeders this point is worthy of atten- tion. They look better in the feed-lot, and an even load of steers attracts more attention on the market than does a mixture of all sizes, colors, and sorts. Other factors. — In addition to the foregoing, other points may well be considered in selecting feeders. Avoid cattle that have cuts, sores, or lumps on them anywhere, especially those showing lumpy jaw. Avoid blind steers, lame ones, and those with crooked legs. Big, sprawling brands affect the value of the hide. When determining upon the price, remember to consider the amount of fill the cattle will carry Fig. 29. — Fancy feeder calves. to the scales. In buying at the large markets, avoid "stale" cattle, which means those that have been on the market several days and are too well filled. Watch the droppings for evidence of grain feeding, and give preference to grass-fed cattle as they are usually more thrifty and respond better to grain feeding. A steer that has had grain to put him in feeder condition may be looked on with suspicion. He may be a hard feeder and poor doer. Go to the market and accompany the commission man when he buys your feeders. You will learn much from your visit to the market and the commission man will be aided by knowing exactly the kind of cattle you want. Advantages of cattle feeding.^— The reasons for fattening a steer are many and important, even though feeding does not increase the proportion of lean meat or muscle. They are as follows: 118 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 1. Feeding increases the value of the steer. (a) Adds weight to the animal. (b) Improves the form and appearance. (c) Increases the dressing percentage. (d) Covers the carcass with fat so that it may be held in the cooler long enough to ripen. (e) The marbling expands the lean meat, making the steer thicker in all his cuts. (f) Makes the beef more tender and juicy. (g) Fat beef cooks much better than lean beef. (h) Fat meat is more nutritious than lean meat. 2. Utilizes as feed much that would otherwise be waste on the farm. 3. Gives employment to labor when other farm work is slack. 4. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. 5. Cattle feeding, properly managed, is a profitable enterprise. CHAPTER VIII MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF CATTLE [^ Six well-defined classes of cattle are recognized at the large live- stock markets. Each class is divided into several grades. The six general classes and their requirements are briefly as follows: 1. Beef steers— including all steers suitable for block beef. 2. Butcher stock — including all heifers, cows, bulls, and stags suitable for block beef. 3. Cutters and canners — including mostly thin cows and bulls, but also inferior steers, heifers, stags, and calves not suitable for feeding and too inferior to yield a carcass suitable for block use. 4. Veal calves — including all grades of veal calves. 5. Stockers and feeders — including thin calves, yearlings, two- year-olds, and older cattle. It includes steers,, heifers, cows, and bulls. 6. Milkers and springers. — These are cattle of dairy breeding which are usually more valuable for milking purposes than for beef. They are sorted out and sold for dairy purposes. The grades. — The cattle in each class are graded according to their relative value. The grades are (1) prime, or fancy selected, (2) choice, (3) good, (4) medium, and (5) common. The term "fair" means the same as "medium" and is frequently substituted for it. "Inferior" or "poor" are sometimes substituted for "common." In some classes there is no grade better than choice, and in other classes there are no grades better than good. As the term "prime" indicates a high degree of condition or finish, the best grade of feeder steers and feeder calves is termed "fancy selected-" Definitions of class and grade.-v-As shown above, cattle are classed according to the use for which they are adapted and sold. The cattle in each class are graded according to the degree with which they meet the requirements of the class. Briefly, then, cattle are classed accord- ing to use and graded according to value. A market class may be defined as a group or division including all animals on the market adapted and sold for a certain commercial use. A grade may be defined as a division of a market class including all animals of about the same value per cwt. The principal factors determining the use and value of market cattle are form, quality, condition, weight, age, and sex. Distinction between type and market class.— A type represents an ideal which the breeder or feeder is endeavoring to produce. Types 119 120 Types and Market. Classes of Live Stock represent only the most highly desirable or profitable sorts of animals, while there are market classes for all sorts of animals — profitable and unprofitable from the producer's standpoint. The less profitable market classes are filled incidentally, not through any design of the breeder. Some market classes are composed of animals that have already served one or more purposes; having outlived their usefulness they are discarded and sent to market. The market is accommodating; it provides a place for all sorts of odds and ends, and hunts up a use for them. Thus some market classes persist which at first thought have no excuse for being. Everything classifies somewhere. at Ch d on grass. In the background appears a scales-house where cattle are weighed to the buyer when sold. General market terms.V— Before describing the market classes and grades, some of the general descriptive terms used in the cattle market need explanation. As applied to market cattle these general terms have no direct bearing on the market classification, but they serve to indicate, in a more or less general manner, where the cattle were raised and how they were fed. Inasmuch as the cattle of many sections of the country possess certain rather well-marked characteristics, these general descriptive terms are significant and are useful in describing the character of market off"erings. Native and western cattle. — Native cattle are those originating on the farms of the Central West, East, and South. Western cattle are Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 121 branded cattle from Texas and the West. Natives and westerns have practically the same uses and both are found in all market classes, except that western cattle supply no milkers and springers, and com- paratively few veal calves. Western cattle are much more uniform than natives, being largely of beef breeding, mostly Hereford. An infusion of Shorthorn breeding is noticeable in many of the cattle from the Dakotas, Wyoming, Color- ado, and Utah. Western cattle are frequently distinguished by the name of the state from which they come to market, as "Texans," "Montanas," "Wyomings," etc. Natives include all types, breeds, and kinds of cattle, of beef, dairy, and nondescript breeding. The term "southerns" is applied to natives produced in the southern states, particularly to cattle from sections in the Middle South where the breeding is inferior. As a rule, branded cattle sell at a discount because of the damage to the hide. In cases of brands on the body, the damage to the hide is estimated anywhere from 5 to 15 cents per cwt., according to size and location, and in extreme cases where there is a big, sprawling side brand, covering a large part of the surface, the discount will be very much higher, as it practically spoils half the hide. Grassers and fed cattle. — "Grassers" are cattle direct from pas- tures without grain feeding. "Corn feds" are cattle from corn-belt feed-lots. "Fed westerns" are western cattle that have been finished on a ration of corn or other concentrates, usually in the corn belt. "Grass westerns" are cattle direct from western ranges. Many grass cattle sell as stockers and feeders, and after being fattened in the feed- lot they return to market as fed cattle. Grass cattle are subject to greater shrinkage in shipping than are fed cattle. "Short feds" are moderately fat cattle marketed after a 60- to 90-day feeding period. Cattle coming from a very short feed are often described as "warmed up;" they show some effects of grain feeding, but are considerably lacking in finish. Grass cattle, both westerns and natives, are most numerous on the market during September, October, and November. The closing of the pasture season and the approach of winter bring the heavy runs which feature the fall months. The movement of cattle from Texas and the Southwest usually begins in May and continues into October, and other western cattle direct from range pastures make a heavy run from August 1 to December 1. Fed cattle are most numerous during the late winter and spring months. Thin grass cattle are taken out for feeding in the fall and early winter after the corn crop is harvested, and most of these are finished and returned to market during the winter and spring before 122 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock crops need attention. From June 1 to December 1, fed cattle are less numerous on the markets: Market Classes and Grades of Cattle and Calves Following is the complete outline of the market classes and grades of cattle and calves. Classes Grades BEEF STEERS: Heavy weight, 1,300 lbs. up 1 Medium weight, 1,100-1,300 lbs [Prime, choice, good, medium, common Light weight, 1,100 lbs. down J BUTCHER STOCK: Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common Cows Choice, good, medium, common Bulls Choice, good, medium, common Stags Choice, good, medium, common CUTTERS AND CANNERS: Bologna bulls Good, medium, common Cutters Good, medium, common Canners Good, medium, common VEAL CALVES: Light weight, 110 lbs. down 1 KuVSetht^&'-leiYbs; :.::;::: |c»oice, .ood. medium, common Heavy weight, 260 lbs. up J STOCKERS AND FEEDERS: fl,000 lbs. up ] Steers -1750-1,000 lbs. [ Fancy selected, choice, good, medium, [750 lbs. down J common Calves Fancy selected, choice, good, medium, common Heifers Choice, good, medium, common Cows Choice, good, medium, common Bulls Choice, good, medium, common MILKERS AND SPRINGERS Beef Steers The beef steer class includes both fed steers and grass steers, but the proportion of fed cattle is much higher than in any other class. Most beef steers show the effects of good feeding, and all beef steers are suitable for block-beef use. Beef steers are the most important and highest priced class of killing cattle on the market. They sell to local packers for immediate slaughter, or to order buyers who ship them for slaughter to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cleveland, and many other cities. They dress from 55 to 67 per cent and their carcasses supply the highest class of trade, including hotels, restaurants, clubs, and the best retail trade. The grades of beef steers are prime, choice, good, medium, and common. Form, quality, and condition are the chief factors determin- ing the grade and price. Three divisions may be made in the beef steer class according to weight — heavy, medium, and light. These are important because at Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 123 times higher prices are paid for one weight than another. At times choice medium-weights sell higher than choice heavy-weights, and vice versa. Light weights are frequently referred to as "yearlings." Baby beeves are included here, together with all other steers weighing less than 1,100 pounds and carrying sufficient finish for block-beef pur- poses. At times choice and prime light-weight steers bring the highest prices, the prices paid for the different weights varying in relation to supply and demand. Heavy steers, weighing 1,300 pounds and up, supply heavy car- casses weighing about 750 pounds and up. These are used by hotels, restaurants, and clubs in large cities. James Brown, in charge of cattle buying for Armour and Company, states ^ that the demand for Fig. 31. — Prime beef steers. heavy finished cattle takes only about 15 per cent of the receipts. He states that the demand for such cattle is steady and that the supply is frequently limited from August 1 to February 1, excepting cattle finished for fat-stock shows and for the Christmas trade. At such times steers weighing 1,400 pounds or over often bring $1 to $2 more than smaller steers of the same grade. Late March and April may bring too many heavy steers, and a few too many can readily glut the market, resulting in a lower price for heavy weights than for the lighter beeves. The divisions of the beef steer class according to weight (and corresponding divisions in other classes) have been commonly referred Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, 1920, p. 124 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to by writers as "sub-classes," and that term was used in the earlier editions of this book. Arthur C. Davenport, manager of the Chicago Daily Drovers Journal, in a recent book entitled "The American Live- stock Market — How It Functions," makes the very good criticism that "no buyer or seller on any of the markets ever uses the expression 'sub-classes' nor would he have the slightest idea what was meant, nor is it ever used in market newspaper reports." The divisions of the beef steer class according to weight are in reality sub-classes, but there are good reasons why this term should not be used, and with the exception of this paragraph and the accompanying foot-note, the term has been omitted from the present edition of this book. ^ Fig. 32.— Choice beef steers. Prime steers.-vThis is the most select grade of the beef steer class. Buyers for eastern markets take most of this grade, and packers take the rest. Prime steers arepractically above criticism in form, quality, ^In a communication to the writer, Mr. Davenport states that the divisions of various market classes which are often termed "sub-classes" are in fact and in reality just that, but he adds that if he were teaching a class of students he would not attempt to give a name to the sub-classes, except to state that they are divisions of a class. He further states: "There are many things in the system of classifying and grading live stock that are not exactly logical and are quite different from what any well-posted individual might outline if called upon to outline a system from the foundation up. Of course this is due to the fact that the system in vogue has grown up through long years of practice and for that very reason it is a most difficult thing to effect any change in the system. I have watched with a great deal of interest the efforts of the Bureau of Markets and have cooperated with them to bring about some very much needed changes along the line of uniformity but, as Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 125 and fatness. They show a high development of flesh in loin, back, thighs, twist, and rump, are very broad and deep, and are free from paunchiness. The head is medium-sized and clean-cut. The bone is clean and fine, the skin pliable and medium thick, and the outlines are smooth and well rounded. The flesh is abundant in all parts, and is firm, yet mellow and springy to the touch. There are no rolls or patches of fat, but a smooth, even, deep, firm fleshing everywhere. Very few steers come to market which grade as prime. On the Chicago market at the conclusion of the International Live Stock Exposition, which is held at the Union Stock Yards in December, most of the fat steers are sold, and these are usually prime, but it requires much searching to locate cattle of this grade at other periods of the year. Fig. '.j'-j. -Good beef steers. Choice steers.-^If a steer is not quite right in quality or condition, but still possesses to a marked degree the characteristics most sought by packers and shippers, he is called a choice steer. someone remarked recently, 'It may take a generation or two before it can be put over.' " It may be argued that if "sub-class" is a term entirely correct so far as meaning is concerned in its application to class divisions, then it may be best to promote rather than to discourage its use, in the expectation that it may eventually come into use on the markets. After consideration of this point, the writer decided that Daven- port's viewpoint is the better one. He states that students who have studied market classifications, coming to the yards, talk about sub-classes, and stock-yards men immediately size them up as having theoretical knowledge only. If the term "sub- class" can be omitted from outlines and descriptions of market classifications without seriously affecting their clearness, it is best to do so. That idea has been followed in the present edition of this book. 126 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Good steers. — Good beef steers may be of very good quality, but noticeably lacking in condition or finish; they may be finished or in prime condition, yet lacking in quality; or they may be noticeably deficient in both quality and condition, but still good enough to be above the average grade of beef steers received at the markets. By far the largest number of steers belonging to the good grade may be said to be a little on the coarse order; they are fat and of good weight, but rather plain. Medium steers. — These are of about average quality and condi- tion, lacking to a marked degree the finish and quality demanded in a prime steer. They are generally too paunchy and too lacking in condi- FlG. 34. — Common beef steers. tion and quality to dress a high percentage of beef or show a good proportion of fat. Many grassers and warmed-up steers grade here, and also dairy-type steers carrying a fair amount of finish. The beef from such steers is not good enough to meet the demands of dealers in beef of the best quality, nor is the proportion of the high-priced cuts large. Steers of good form and quality but very deficient in condition may grade as medium beef steers, or they may sell as feeders, depending on the season and on the supply and demand. Common steers. — This is the lowest grade of beef steers coming to the market. They are very much lacking in form, quality, and condi- tion. This grade includes those steers which are too thin to sell among the higher grades of beef steers, and too coarse and rough to be sold Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 127 as stockers and feeders. The best that can be said of them is that they carry enough condition to escape classing as cutters. Many are of dairy type and breeding. Heifers.^ — Two to four heifers mixed in with a load of beef steers may be passed without any cut in price if they are similar to the steers in all respects except sex. This is more often true of mixed loads of light-weight steers and heifers than of heavy weights. With greater weight and maturity, differences due to sex become more noticeable. Butcher Stock Butcher stock includes lieifers, cows, bulls, and stags sold for i--'->>~ Fig, 40.— Choice veal calf. the dew claws harden at 2 or 3 weeks of age, that calves under 3 weeks old are subject to condemnation, and that few carcasses weighing less than 50 pounds are passed by government meat inspectors. Calves under 3 weeks old are termed "deacons" or "bob veal." A strictly fat calf of 150 pounds is the sort that tops the market. Calves are dressed with the skin on, and a well-fattened calf dresses from 65 to 70 per cent. The best veal is produced by milk feeding and good management. Calves which have had little milk, much exercise and exposure, and a long shipment to market bring a low price. Veal calves range in weight from 80 to 450 pounds and in age from 3 to 20 weeks or over. They are divided by weight into light weights. 111. Bui. 147, p. 212. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 133 handy weights, medium weights, and heavy weights. Light-weight calves under 110 pounds are most numerous in April and May, and as the season progresses the calves received at the markets gradually be- come heavier. Handy weights, ranging from 110 to 190 pounds, are preferred, the best carrying high finish and weighing from 140 to 160 pounds. Medium weights from 190 to 260 pounds are preferred to light weights. Heavy weights over 260 pounds bring the lowest prices. The grades of veal calves are choice, good, medium, and common, chiefly according to condition, weight, and age. Following are the general requirements of the various grades: Grade Condition Weight Age Choice well fatted 120-160 lbs 4- 8 weeks Good fat 110-200 lbs 4-10 weeks Medium medium fat 100-240 lbs 3-12 weeks Common thin 80-450 lbs wide range As shown above, the choice grade includes only handy-weight calves in high condition. The good grade includes handy weights and the best and lightest medium weights. The medium grade includes all except heavy weights. The common grade includes all weights. Lack of either high condition or desired weight consigns the calf to the lower grades. The largest run of veal calves occurs in the late spring, reaching its peak in May. The veal calves annually slaughtered in the United States are about one-half as many as the cattle slaughtered for beef, but their total dressed weight is only about one-tenth of the dressed weight of the cattle. A much larger percentage of veal calves than of cattle is slaughtered on farms and in small establishments not under federal inspection. Stockers and Feeders Stockers and feeders include calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and older cattle. This class includes steers, heifers, cows, and bulls. There is no sharp line of distinction between stockers and feeders; the same kind of cattle may sell on the same day for both stock and feeding purposes. In a general way, however, the difference between a stocker and a feeder is that the stocker is usually a younger, lighter, thinner, and lower priced animal, commonly used for wintering on corn stalks and other roughage, or for spring, summer, and fall grazing, with little or no grain. After stockers have acquired more condition and weight in this manner, they may be returned to market as grass cattle or they may be kept and fattened on a grain ration before returning them. In the latter case they first become feeders and finally fat cattle before they are again sold. 134 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock A feeder is usually a steer, older, heavier, and carrying more flesh than the stocker, and is suitable for placing in the feed-lot immediately for fattening on a grain ration. However, a large number of calves sell as feeders, including mixed lots of steer and heifer calves. These constitute the only important exception to the above general state- ments. Stocker and feeder calves commonly weigh from 350 to 450 pounds. Popular weights for stocker cattle range from 450 to 700 pounds, and the most popular range in weight of feeder steers is 800 to 1,000 pounds. Feeders of these weights are usually long yearlings or two-year-olds. At times fleshy feeders weighing 1,100 to 1,200 pounds are in strong demand for a short feed. Fig. 41. — Choice feeder steer. Feeder steers. — On the market the term "stocker" or "feeder" used without a qualifying word is always understood to mean a steer. The grades of feeder steers are fancy selected, choice, good, medium, and common. Fancy selected feeders. — Very few of the fancy grade reach the market, as breeders fortunate enough to own thin steers of such quality usually hold them until finished as prime steers, or sell them direct to cattle feeders at good strong prices. Fancy selected feeders must be uniform in size, type, and color, and show unmistakable signs of good breeding. (See Fig, 27, page 109.) They are practically above criti- cism, possessing in a high degree the form, quality, constitution, and fleshing of an ideal feeder as described in Chapter VII. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 135 Choice feeders. — Steers of this grade will, under proper manage- ment, develop into choice and prime beef steers. They possess the ability to make economical gains in flesh. Choice feeders compared to fancy selected feeders are somewhat deficient in some one point, such as form, quality, or uniformity, or they are slightly deficient in several points. They must show evidence of good breeding, and every- thing considered they are excellent cattle for feeding purposes. Most of the best feeder steers on the market grade as "choice" rather than as "fancy selected." Good feeders. — These possess in less degree the qualities which characterize choice and fancy selected feeders. They are not so thrifty, have not as good conformations, and carry a smaller percentage of Fig. 42. — Good feeder steer. good breeding. They are easily criticized, for they are too long of leg, too narrow across the back, and either too fine or too heavy in bone. Good feeders will finish into good beef steers, or perhaps may make the choice grade. Medium feeders. — These are very much lacking in form, quality, and constitution, and very seldom grade higher than medium when fattened. Many of them are off-colored and spotted, indicating dairy or inferior breeding. Common feeders. — These are common in quality, conformation, and condition. Dairy-type steers classify here. Yearling stockers. — Many thin, light-weight yearling steers are available as stockers and are quoted in market reports as "yearling stockers." They are such cattle as will, after a summer on grass, or 136 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock a good wintering, be suitable for grain feeding. The grades are fancy- selected, choice, good, medium, and common. These grades are very- similar to the grades of feeders which have been described. Stocker and feeder calves. — During the fall months many western calves, both steers and heifers, are sold at weaning time for stocking and feeding purposes. With increased attention to baby beef produc- tion, the well-bred feeder calf has become popular. Uniformity and good breeding are especially important in calves intended for the feed- lot. Lack of uniformity among young animals becomes magnified as they develop, and baby beef production demands good breeding as a guarantee of early maturity, or finish at a young age. Most calves started on feed in the fall and early winter are finished for the June Fig. 43. — Medium feeder steer. market following the spring run of heavy beef steers. Some are con- tinued on feed through the summer and marketed in September. The grades of stocker and feeder calves are fancy selected, choice, good, medium, and common. Only the better grades are commonly sold as feeders, the lower grades being used as stockers. Steer calves are preferred, especially for feeding. The grade depends on the form, quality, constitution, breeding, and uniformity, corresponding to like grades of feeder steers. Many choice and fancy western calves are now sold direct from the range to corn-belt feeders. Auction sales at western points and in the corn belt, and sales on mail order and at private treaty on the range now take a large number of the best calves, such as the S. M. S. brand and Highland Hereford Association, both of Texas, and others of similar quality. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 137 Stock heifers. — Yearling and older heifers are taken out for stocking and for breeding purposes. Those taken from the markets for use in breeding herds must pass the tuberculin test. Some are sold for grain feeding. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common. These are similar to the corresponding grades of feeder steers. Stock cows. — The foregoing remarks relative to stock heifers apply also to stock cows, except that cows are seldom taken out for grain feeding. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common. Feeder bulls. — These are young bulls of beef type. They are usually stagged (castrated) and are frequently mixed in with loads of steers when fat. Many of them pass as steers when returned to market ; others plainly show coarseness of head, neck, and forequarters due to Fig, 44. — Common feeder steer. late castration and are sold as stags. The supply and demand are limited. The grades of feeder bulls are choice, good, medium, and common. Milkers and Springers \ These are cows and heifers of dairy type and breeding which are sorted out of the run of cattle at the market and sold to dairymen. They are sold by the head, whereas all other classes of cattle are sold by the hundredweight. The only difference between a milker and a springer is that the former is in milk while the latter is heavy in calf and will freshen soon. The springer gives evidence in her type, color, and mammary development that she will be a useful milk cow after calving. 138 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The value of this class of cattle depends partly on their age, and this is determined from the teeth. How are cattle classed and graded? — Persons who are not familiar with the large markets sometimes ask by what method the thousands of cattle arriving daily at the yards are divided into the various classes and grades. To reply that cattle are classified according to the use made of them, while true, is not a satisfactory answer, for another question then arises as to who or what decides how they shall be used. It may be said that the class and grade of any particular animal or carload of animals on the market will be finally determined by the competition on that day's market and by the price paid; in other 5 "».-.- ^A Fig. 45.— Stockers. words, supply and demand largely determine the limits of each class. For example, certain steers received at the market are of a type and carry a degree of fleshing which place them at about the dividing line between stockers and feeders on the one hand and beef steers on the other. The class these steers will make will depend on who will bid the highest for them. If there is a big run of feeders that day and not many beef steers, the fat cattle buyers will probably bid higher for them than anyone else, and so they go as beef steers. If the fat steer market is dull and the feeder market active, they will in all probability be sold as feeders. There is the same indefinite line of division between the poorest grade of butcher cows and the best grade of cutters. The former shade off by degrees into the latter. Cows may sell one day as butcher Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 139 cows that would sell the next day as cutters, depending on the fluctua- tions in supply and demand. It is again impossible to fix absolutely the line of division between cutters and canners. One merges with the other. Likewise stockers and feeders cannot be sharply separated. Butcher bulls and bologna bulls furnish still another example. It is possible than an animal might be almost equally eligible to three classes. For instance, a heifer of a certain tj^e and degree of flesh might at some seasons of the year, class among the poorest butcher heifers, the best cutters, or as a stock heifer, with the chances of each about even on an average market. Such a case is not decided until the animal is sold. If a buyer of butcher stuff bids the most, she will be used that way. If the cutter buyer for the packer gets her, she is a cutter. If she is bought by a commission firm for a farmer, she is a stock heifer. She will sell to the highest bidder on that day's market. Thus we see that there is considerable overlapping of classes, and that some cattle cannot be definitely classified until they enter into competition on the market and are sold. The market classes and grades of live stock are not official or standardized as are the classes and grades of grain. Grain is commonly bought on grade without inspection by the buyer, but the grading of live stock has not been perfected to this extent. Live stock is bought and sold at the markets in the presence of the buyer and seller, or their agents. So many factors determine the value of an animal and these factors vary so widely that an exact, standardized classing and grading of live stock does not seem possible. Nevertheless, the classifi- cations of live stock which have grown up with the markets serve a useful purpose. They enable buyer, seller, and market reporter to describe particular lots of animals in few words and with considerable accuracy. They are valuable in quoting prices and in reporting the market. Furthermore, a knowledge of the classes and grades enables the live-stock producer to interpret market reports and to gain a fairly accurate knowledge of market values and their fluctuations from day to day. Lack of uniformity in classing and grading. — The men engaged in buying and selling on any market diff'er somewhat in their opinions as to the exact requirements of the various classes, and they differ to a considerable degree concerning the requirements of the various grades in each class. They usually agree very closely on the price, yet one prominent buyer may call a certain fat steer a typical "choice" steer, and another equally well-qualified buyer may call him a typical "good" steer. This difference of opinion is largely explained by the fact that they are accustomed to express values in terms of dollars and cents rather than in the grade names used in reporting the markets in the 140 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock newspapers. There is no close agreement on the exact application of these terms. Even the reporters for the papers are not themselves agreed on the application of many terms they use. Between one market and another there are still other differences in the application of terms. The best beef steers of a certain market will be quoted as prime steers in the daily reports of that market as given in the newspapers, yet these same steers on some other large market where a better class of cattle is regularly received would never be called better than choice steers. Admittedly there is opportunity for, and need of, greater uniformity in the use and meaning of market terms, yet the market classifications as they now exist at various markets, with all their inaccuracies and lack of uniformity, serve a valuable purpose. They furnish at least some sort of a "handle" to the market. Without them it would be next to impossible to report the markets to country stock buyers, stockmen, and farmers. Cattle Prices at Chicago Chicago prices during 1922. — As indicating the comparative market values of the various market classes, the following prices from the Chicago market covering the year 1922 may be noted i^ Class Range in price Average prict Beef steers $5.00-14.00 $9.00 Butcher cows and heifers 3.00-12.00 5.70 Bulls, all classes 2.50- 8.50 Bologna bulls 3.25- 5.35 4.45 Cutter and canner cows 1.00- 4.50 3.15 Veal calves 2.50-14.00 9.70 Stockers and feeders 3.50- 8.50 6.65 Grass western steers, all classes 3.00-10.25 6.60 Grass western cows and heifers, all classes 2.00- 8.25 .... Market values of the various classes. — In determining the com- parative market values of the various market classes, averages for one year are not sufficient as a basis for comparison. The following table ^ gives the yearly average prices at Chicago for the several market classes from 1913 to 1922, and also the averages for the entire ten-year period : Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 141 Average pricei for cattle and calves at Chicago for ten years Beef Steers West'n Range li 11 II S > 1 •a Year g § u o 1 3| CO i- 1 •a 1^ 1 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 $8.00 8.10 7.70 8.45 10.50 13.25 13.40 11.55 7.20 8.00 $8.10 8.30 8.05 8.85 11.50 14.40 14.50 12.50 7.65 8.40 $8.30 8.70 8.55 9.40 12.30 15.00 15.80 13.85 8.20 9.00 $8.65 8.95 8.75 10.25 13.05 15.90 16.90 14.80 8.60 9.50 $8.85 9.75 9.25 10.75 13.75 16.50 17.60 15.80 8.90 10.00 $8.25 8.65 8.40 9.50 11.60 14.65 15.50 13.30 8.20 9.00 $7.40 7.65 7.75 8.40 10.60 14.40 11.25 8.80 6.15 6.60 $6.05 6.40 6.00 6.25 9.00 10.15 $6.10 6.55 6.10 6.75 8.25 9.50 10.00 8.55 5.40 5.70 $4.25 4.60 4.25 4.80 6.25 7.25 6.45 5.05 2.90 3.15 $10.10 9.90 10.15 10.85 13.75 15.75 17.05 14.90 9.80 9.70 $7.05 7.35 (M 7.20 8.40 10.25 10.85 8.95 6.45 6.65 lO-yr. ave. 9.60 10.25 10.90 11.55 12.10 10.70 8.90 7.30 4.90 12.20 8.05 • No outlet, due to outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and quarantine of the yards. From the standpoint of averages, it will be observed that the price of a beef steer bears a constant relation to his weight, the heavier the steer, the higher the price per cwt. This is due to the fact that as a steer becomes older he fattens more easily; and in dealing with groups of very large numbers of beef steers of different weights, all factors determining value are equalized except the factor of fatness. Between the average prices of 900-pound and 1,125-pound beef steers there is a difference of 65 cents per cwt.; between 1,125-pound and 1,275-pound steers the difference is also 65 cents; between 1,275 and 1,425 pounds it is again 65 cents; and between 1,425 and 1,600 pounds it is 55 cents. The sum of all these differences is $2.50, which is the difference between the average prices of the lightest and heaviest groups of beef steers. All beef steers together sell $3.40 higher than butcher cows and heifers. Between stockers and feeders and beef steers there exists a margin of $2.65 based on the Chicago figures. Butcher stock sells $2.40 higher than cutters and canners. Veal calves bring the highest price of any class, exceeding the price of beef steers by $1.50. Highest and lowest monthly prices. — It is true of Chicago and of the other large markets that beef steers are usually highest in price in late August or early September. They are usually lowest about the last of January or first of February. Highest prices for stockers and feeders are made in April and May, which mark the opening of the pasture season. Lowest prices occur in November and December, December being the lowest. Butcher cows an d heifers sell highest in May, and lowest in November and December. 142 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Cutter and canner prices exhibit no marked high and low spots, and the high points in prices are the most irregular in occurrence of any class of cattle. Largest receipts of veal calves arrive in April and May. Highest prices are made in SeptemB^r and lowest prices in April. One reason for the low price in April is that a large majority of spring calves are too small to yield high-class veal. Fewest light-weight calves are received in September and October. Two kinds of fluctuations are evident in live-stock prices. One may be termed the "general trend." This affects prices over a con- siderable period of time and is usually associated with changes in prices Seasonal Influence on Receipts and Prices of Cattle and Beef Monthly 1917-1920 ^ 1 1 1 1 ' ^ 42 00 MOO 18 00 ItOO 10 00 e.oo AGO 200 1800 laoo eoo *oo aoo 1 - izoo woo leoo IfcOO 12 00 1000 J BOO boo ^ \ BEEr /■ \, 1 /s y s / s 1 s 1 ^ s / ■^ / r s -s /■ -\ V ' ^ / - ^ _v ! - ' • " N .. - 1 \ , ^ ' 1 •". ^ ..L, ,' S .• CATTLE - ... T - ' - - ^:i PRICES I Swift * Com po n f Aver« go Priczs AM Ovar - 200 ~^ ! IBOO eo« - zoo s z ! / s ^ s / s 1 \ / s / s 1 1 1 , / \ .> ' \ 1 1 f^ \ ^ S / \ ^ V \ ^ ^ ~ " V — -' s ^ -./ RtCEIPTS AT SEVEN PRINCIPAL MABKETJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M M 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 M 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 M 1 II III 1 1 1917 1 I9I8 1 1919 1 --I920 Note the th8 To compnro Beef Prices. «» leariy <>s possible, wi^h the Prices o< Live Cflttle. from y.h.ch th« 6eef otme, Prices of Dressed Beef ore given for first week of month »howr> the l.lv« Prices src g,ver^ for Fig. 46. — Effect of the supply of cattle upon live prices and beef prices, as shown by receipts at seven leading markets, prices paid for cattle by Swift and Company on its entire cattle purchases in the United States, and prices received by Swift and Company for dressed beef. Note that prices for both cattle and beef are highest in seasons of lightest receipts, and lowest when there is the largest supply. of other commodities. The other consists of daily, weekly, monthly, and seasonal fluctuations, due largely to variations in supply and not associated with changes in prices of other commodities. These two classes of fluctuations are both well illustrated in the following table ^ giving the monthly and yearly average prices of beef steers at Chicago for ten years. The general trend of prices is shown by the yearly averages at the bottom of the table. The monthly or seasonal fluctua- 1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 143 tions are shown by the ten-year averages of monthly prices in the last column at the right: Monthly and yearly average prices for beef steers at Chicago for ten years Month 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 Ten-year average ($7.05) $8.70 $13.95 $15.80 $12.10 ($10.15) ($8.35) $8.05 $8.45 ($7.80) $10.05 7.45 8.20 13.05 15.95 (12.00) 10.50 (8.35) (7.50) (8.30) 8.25 (9.95) March 8.00 9.05 13.10 16.05 12.60 11.25 8.75 7.65 8.35 8.30 10.30 ^.v-::::: 7.95 8.15 12.30 15.85 14.70 11.75 9.10 7.70 8.50 8.15 10.40 . 8.30 8.25 12.25 15.00 15.40 11.90 9.50 8.35 8.40 8.00 10.55 8.95 8.00 14.95 (13.55) 15.85 12.15 9.85 8.80 8.60 8.15 10.90 July 9.50 8.10 15.00 15.60 16.05 12.35 9.25 9.20 8.80 8.25 11.20 August 9.65 8.50 14.85 16.45 15.75 12.70 9.45 9.05 9.10 8.30 11.40 10.20 8.00 15.05 15.50 16.00 13.10 9.40 8.95 9.35 8.50 11.40 October 10.65 8.10 14.20 16.15 14.80 11.70 9.75 8.80 9.05 8.40 11.15 November .... 9.85 7.40 12.00 15.10 15.05 11.10 10.15 8.70 8.60 8.25 10.60 December 9.20 (7.00) (10.10) 14.35 14.90 11.40 10.00 8.35 8.35 8.20 10.20 Yearly averaEe 9.00 8.20 13.30 15.50 14.65 11.60 9.50 8.40 8.65 8.25 10.70 The table shows that yearly average prices for beef steers steadily and rapidly increased from 1915 to 1919, and then declined to the amount of $7.30 during 1920 and 1921. This was due to inflation of prices during the World War and to severe depression or reaction immediately following the war. PRICE OF STEERS BY GRA WEEKLY AVERAGE DES AT CHICAGO 5. 1921 DOLLARS j^M pg-g ^AR APR MAY JUNE J PER 100 LBS JLY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC " IZ -<^ - --(- ,4~S - - l\\ /&^ '°"\m/;j^>^ ^^ ?^\ .f'^''^'-. r ,•^•^'^!4'^.."^fiJ^.^lH^ s>._ n :: 4'V-- '■■Mium rr k ,■■■■■ -J-s^ e 1 J _1 IF:: .i. Hi TY-.I--I.---' ■■•" ' i ± I Fig. 47. — Spread in price of beef steers. Highest monthly prices are printed in bold-face type. These are scattered widely, though they occur most frequently in July, August, and September. The last column at the right shows that these three months average highest for the ten years, with August and September highest of all. 144 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Lowest monthly prices are enclosed in parenthesis. In all but one year these occurred in December, January, and February, and the column at the right shows that these three months average lowest, with February lowest of all. There is a steady rise in price from February to August, followed by a rapid decline from September to December. Between February and August the difference in price is $L45. The spread in price of beef steers. — As a general rule, the price of any particular class or grade of cattle is highest when the supply is lowest, and vice versa. In the spring a large number of good, choice, and prime steers are received from corn-belt feed-lots, and the movement of grass-fattened steers is at low ebb. This tends to lower the price of the better grades of beef steers and to increase the price of the medium and common grades, so that there is relatively little spread (difference) in the price of all beef steers during spring months. ^ In the fall, conditions are reversed and the spread in price is very much greater. In 1921 choice and prime steers sold higher in fall than in spring, while medium and common steers sold considerably lower in fall than in spring. The weekly price averages showed a spring spread of a little less than $2, and a fall spread of about $6, or three times as much. The general trend of the market during that year was down- ward. These facts are illustrated in Fig. 47. 1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 305. CHAPTER IX BREEDING FOR THE MARKET The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture show the rank of the leading cattle countries and the total number of cattle (beef and dairy cattle) in each: Number of cattle in leading countries Country Year Total cattle 1. India 1920 132,537,000 2. United States. . . . 1923 66,352,000 3. Russia 1921 38,132,000 4. Brazil 1918 37,500,000 > 5. Argentina 1920 27,721,000 6. Germany 1921 16,840,000 7. Siberia 1915 14,772,000 8. Australia 1920 13,373,000 9. France 1920 12,782,000 10. Great Britain. . . .1921 11,893,000 11. Canada 1921 10,206,000 12. Poland 1921 7,861,000 13. Uruguay 1916 7,803,000 World total 492,072,000 = » Unofficial. «U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 435,000 designated as "cattle and buffaloes.' The United States has about one-seventh of the world's cattle. The 1920 census reported 35 million beef cattle and 32 million dairy cattle in the United States. On January 1, 1923, the number of milk cows on farms in the United States, as estimated by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, was 24,429,000 and the remaining 41,923,000 were reported as "other cattle." The average value of milk cows was estimated to be $50.83 and of "other cattle," $25.67. Cattle other than milk cows are principally beef cattle. Cattle and population. — The population of the United States has shown a steady and regular increase since 1850, and the increase in number of cattle kept pace with it until about 1895. Since that time the number of both beef and dairy cattle has remained fairly constant, while population has continued to increase steadily. Therefore the number of cattle to each inhabitant has declined somewhat since 1895. However, the use of better and better animals for breeding purposes has improved the usefulness of all of our farm animals; hence decline in number of cattle per capita has been partially met by improvement in quality. The accompanying table ^ shows the annual slaughter and con- iJohn Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report. 145 146 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock sumption of beef and veal. The annual slaughter is representative of annual production. Beef production shows a slight decrease and veal production shows a considerable increase from 1907 to 1922 inclusive. Failure of our beef production to keep pace with our growing popula- tion is reflected in the annual per capita consumption of beef which declined from 79.7 pounds in 1907 to 61.4 pounds in 1922. Veal con- sumption per capita shows a slight increase. It will be noted that we exported considerable beef during the World War. Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed beef and veal in the United States Total slaughter Gain or loss through exports and imports Consumption Calendar year Total Per capita Beef Veal Beef Veal Beef Veal Beef Veal 1907 1910 Million pounds 7,319 6,733 5,913 5,639 5,816 6,118 6,686 7,320 6,283 6,463 6,194 6,747 Million pounds 626 687 488 433 428 536 662 765 804 838 748 793 Million pounds -352 -110 - 11 + 165 -257 -256 -334 -581 -229 -105 -^22 - 5 Million pounds + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 5 +8 +4 + 5 Million pounds 6,967 6,623 5,902 5,804 5,559 5,862 6,352 6,753 ' 6,090' 6,514 > 6,230' 6,711' Million pounds 626 687 488 438 429 537 663 766 809 846 752 798 Pounds 79.7 71.8 60.8 59.3 56.0 58.2 62.2 65.2 58.0 61.2 57.8 61.4 Pounds 7.1 7.4 1913 5.0 1914 4.4 1915 4.3 1916 5.3 1917. . 6.5 1918 7.4 1919 7.7 1920 7.9 1921 7.0 1922 7.3 1 Includes differences between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year. The distribution of beef cattle in the United States is shown by the numbers of cattle other than milk cows in the leading states and the numbers of such cattle in the various geographical divisions: ^ Leading states in numbers of "other cattle" on farms, January 1, 1923 state Number 1. Texas 5,041,000 2. Iowa 3,479,000 3. Nebraska 2,700,000 4. Kansas 2,487,000 5. Missouri 2,003,000 Average value State Number Average value $18.60 35.20 31.80 27.20 28.70 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Illinois South Dakota California. . . . Oklahoma.. . . Colorado .1,561,000 1,521,000 .1,435,000 .1,364,000 .1,361,000 $34.00 29.40 34.70 16.80 25.40 Distribution of "other cattle" on farms by geographical divisions, January 1, 1923 Division Number North Atlantic 1,222,000 South Atlantic 2,872,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 4,699,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 14,293,000 South Central 9,851,000 Far Western 8,986,000 Total United States 1 Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. .41,923,000 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 147 Beef cattle breeding in the United States centers largely in two regions: (1) the western portion of the corn belt, and (2) the great plains region of Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado. The last census showed that in 1920 Texas had more than two and one-half times as many beef cows and heifers of breeding age as her nearest competitor, Iowa. Texas had over 17 per cent of all the beef cows and heifers of breeding age in the United States. Texas and the Southwest annually send large numbers of calves and young cattle to the corn belt and to the northern range states for stocking and feeding purposes. The movement of cattle from the Southwest is northerly and easterly. Other western states contribute to the annual crop, and the central Fig. 48.— Distribution of beef cattle in the United States. states produce many of their own beef cattle, but the Southwest is the great supply source of calves and young stock to be grown and finished in other regions. As stated by James E. Poole, market editor of the Breeder's Gazette, "Texas and other sections of the great southwestern breeding ground have replenished northern pastures year after year from a seemingly inexhaustible supply. Owing to its climatic and physical character, it is probable that for all time to come this western breeding ground will continue to replenish the feed-lots and pastures of the Mississippi and Missouri basins." Texas and the southern range are best adapted to economical calf production, the northern range to maturing and grass fattening, and the corn belt to grain finishing. 148 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The accompanying table ^ presents some interesting figures based on the last census covering the 14 states which had the most beef cows and heifers of breeding age on January 1, 1920. Seven of these states are western and seven are central. Note the right-hand column of figures giving the ratio between beef calves and beef cows in these states on January 1. Note especially the marked difference between the ratios for Texas and Iowa, the two leading states in beef cattle breeding. Number of beef calves compared to number of beef cows and heifers, January 1, 1920 (Census figures) Number of beef Number of Number cf cows and heifers beef calves calves per hundred State two years old January 1 cows and h< ifers and over Janusry 1 1. Texas* 2,181,359 903,084 41 2. Iowa 848,914 844,656 100 3. Nebraska 828,853 682,265 82 4. Kansas 672,023 542,216 81 5. New Mexico* 664,329 249,545 38 6. South Dakota 573,589 467,986 82 7. Missouri 533,675 445,199 83 8. Colorado 529,186 325,033 61 9. Okl ihoma 490,689 309,025 63 10. California 441,059 242,315 55 11. Arizona* 429,480 153,137 36 12. Montana** 384,148 275,564 72 13. Illinois 361,909 340,425 94 14. Wyoming** 299,126 206,741 69 *T iree southern range 3,275,168 1,305,766 40 **Ta^o northern range 683,274 482,305 71 Seven western states 4,928,687 2,355,419 48 Seven centr il states 4,309,652 3,631,772 84 Total 9,238,339 5,987,191 65 Total United States 12,624,996 8,607,938 68 This table indicates that Texas sells a large number of calves prior to January 1, and that Iowa buys a considerable number of calves. However, due allowance should be made for the fact that under range conditions fewer calves are dropped per 100 cows, and losses of calves from disease, exposure, predatory animals, poison, and other causes are greater than in the central states, but these factors cannot cover the wide differences which occur in the ratios between calves and cows in many of the 14 states. ^ At the bottom of the table appears a com- 1 Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 248, 250. 2 Figures covering the average calf crops and average losses of calves up to 12 months of age in various states are given by B irnes and Jardine in U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 110, p. 27, and by Cotton and Ward in U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. Ill, pp. 41, 51. Applying these figures, and assuming that the number of breeding females was the same in 1919 as in 1920, then the number of January calves produced per 100 breed- ing females in Iowa was 86, Nebraska 78, Kansas 81, New Mexico 59, South Dakota 85, Missouri 89, Colorado 64, California 69, Arizona 52, Montana 71, Illinois 88, and Wyoming 69. Similar figures are not available for Texas and Oklahoma. Assuming Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 149 parison of the northern range with the southern range, of the central states with the western states, and of the 14 leading states with the total for the United States. The latter indicates that the 14 states supplied over 275,000 calves to other states in 1919. This assumes that conditions are equally favorable to calf production in the 14 states and in the country as a whole. Conditions suitable to beef cattle breeding.^^"The importance of beef cattle in the agriculture of this country rests chiefly upon their ability to convert coarse forage, corn, grass, and other products of the land, either unfit or not wanted for human consumption, into a valuable and much desired food.''^ The raising of beef cattle is extensively practiced on cheap, unimproved lands, especially on the cheap grazing areas of the West. Improved, high-priced lands in the farming areas, particularly in the corn belt, produce feed much more abundantly than the cheap grazing areas, including large quantities of roughage such as corn stalks, hay, and straw, and the larger part of this roughage must be fed to cattle if it is to be used at all. A considerable number of eastern, southern, and corn-belt farms include more or less rough land which may be used to best advantage as pasture for a beef breeding herd. Thus breeding herds of beef cattle are maintained not only in the Southwest and West, but also in the Central West, and in the East and South. Steer calves produced in the West are frequently kept there until they are three or four years old to mature them so that they will fatten on grass, because young, growing animals do not fatten on grass alone. On the other hand, steer calves produced in the corn belt must be developed and finished quickly. On high-priced land they cannot be developed profitably by the slower method of the West. In other words, most corn-belt beef calves must be marketed as baby beeves. Selection of beef cattle for breeding purposes. — When breeding for beef, the producer must use good cattle of the beef type. Attention that conditions are as favorable for production of calves in Texas as in New Mexico (they are probably more favorable), then Texas sold 18 calves per 100 cows, New Mexico 21, South Dakota 3, Missouri 6, Colorado 3, California 14, and Arizona 16; while Iowa purchased 14 calves per 100 cows, Nebraska 4, Montana 1, and Illinois 6. This would mean the sale of about 400,000 calves by Texas, the purchase of about 120,000 calves by Iowa, and sales or purchases by the other states in proportion to the figures given. The writer does not believe the above figures relative to corn- belt calf crops to be accurate as applied to some of the corn-belt states, being too high when applied to the state as a whole, but in a broad, general way they indicate the allowances which should be made for differences in numbers of calves dropped and for losses in western as compared to central states. If the corn-belt figures are high, the movement of western calves into corn-belt states was larger than the above 1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 227. 150 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock must be given to the selection of both the cows and the bulls, and an effort must be made to breed for market what the market wants and will pay for in amount sufficient to return a profit. In some years, feeders of cattle find it more profitable to buy a rather low grade of cattle for feeding purposes, although as a general rule, it pays best to feed high-class cattle that will sell at the top of the market, or near the top, when finished. Breeders of cattle are confronted with no such problem as to what to aim for in breeding; they should always try to breed the best. Breeding herds are not so easily or quickly changed to suit fluctuations in market demands as are cattle in the feeder's hands; hence, breeders abide by the general rule that greatest returns come from the production of the highest grade of cattle, and on high- priced land especially, these are the only cattle which can be bred at a profit. When the object of the breeder is to produce calves to be fed for the market, the cows in the herd are purebred only in rare instances. The 1920 census reported that about 3 per cent of the beef cattle of the United States are purebred and registered (recorded in the herd books of the breed record associations). ^ Purebred cattle are not so numerous as to permit their widespread use, and it is impracticable to advise that purebred cows shall constitute the common herds of the country, nor would it be possible to bring about that condition for many years to come. By all means, however, the cows in such herds should be high grades of some one of the beef breeds. Ancestry and its importance.^-Cattle may be classified into the following groups, according to their ancestry: (1) Purebreds, (2) cross- breds, (3) high grades, (4) grades, and (5) scrubs. A purebred animal is a member of a breed, and is registered or eligible to registry in the herd book of that breed. Second, the pure- bred animal usually possesses a distinctive and useful type. Third, it is descended from a long line of ancestors specially selected by the men who founded and developed that breed, these ancestors being of the same type as itself, which fact explains why the animal may be termed a "purebred." Fourth, being backed up by an ancestry of useful animals like itself, it has the power to reproduce this useful type in its offspring, this power or ability being called "prepotency." As it is a rule of breeding that whatever characters an animal inherits from 1 The percentage of beef cattle which are purebred and registered varies widely in different states. According to the 1920 census, the ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred beef cattle, and the percentage of beef cattle registered in each are: Iowa 5, Texas 1.9, Missouri 4.9, Kansas 3.9, Nebraska 3, Illinois 5.7, South Dakota 3.2, Minnesota 6, Oklahoma 3.1, and Indiana 4.9. States having the highest percentages are: Massachusetts 11.7, New Hampshire 10.4, Vermont 8.5, Wisconsin 7.9, and Maine 7.5. The lowest in percentages are: Florida 0.27, Louisiana 0.63, Arizona 0.74, Delaware 0.9, and Georgia 0.9. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 151 its ancestors will be transmitted to its offspring, we at once realize the purebred's power for good when used as a breeder. The terms "full blood" and "thoroughbred" are often erroneously used in place of the word "purebred." A crossbred animal is one whose sire and dam were both purebred, but belonged to different breeds. A cross between a Shorthorn bull and a Hereford cow, for example, produces a crossbred calf. A scrub animal is one that bears no evidence of good breeding — one without any purebred ancestors, or, at most, very few and very distant ones. Its ancestors were a miscellaneous lot, of all shapes. Fig. 49. — Old-time Texas long-horn, formerljr a prominent feature on the American cattle markets. Early range cattle were of this type. They had very long horns, long legs, thin flesh, and narrow bodies. Through the continued use of purebred bulls this early type has practically disappeared. sizes, colors, and sorts, few if any of which were useful animals. Hence, scrub animals are usually of indeterminate type and little value. Calves sired by scrub bulls and out of scrub dams will be as worthless as their ancestry. A grade animal is one produced by mating a scrub female with a purebred male. If this grade animal is a female and is in turn mated with a purebred male of the same type (and preferably of the same breed) as its own purebred parent, the result will still be a grade. Grade animals possess from 50 to 75 per cent of pure breeding. 152 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock A high-grade animal is one produced from a scrub foundation by three or more successive crosses of purebred sires of the same type and preferably of the same breed. High grades possess 87.5 per cent or more of pure breeding. High-grade beef cows and heifers approach purebred beef cows and heifers in their ability to produce high-class beef calves when mated to good purebred beef bulls. Such matings insure not only high-class calves but calves of uniform tj^De and uni- form ability which contrast sharply with the variegated assortment of calves produced by scrub herds. As stated by Wentworth, Munnecke, and Brown, ^ "The success of growing cattle for the market depends in a large degree on the kind of calves that are produced. Unless the right foundations in blood and type are laid, no amount of feeding by the professional feeder or skill in killing and cutting by the packer can make up for the original Fig. 50. — Crossbred beef cattle. These are representatives of the noted "blue grays" so popular in the British markets. They were sired by a Shorthorn bull and their dams were Galloway cows. deficiency. Unless proper mating is made at the start, choice to prime steers are rarely, if ever, produced." Utility value of purebred live stock. — The U. S. Department of Agriculture tabulated reports received in 1921 from 525 farmers and stockmen who had used purebred sires exclusively for a number of years. These men owned about 25,000 head of breeding stock, exclu- sive of poultry. All their sires had been purebred for an average of nine years. About 30 per cent of the female stock was purebred, the re- mainder being grade, crossbred, and nondescript. Thirty-six states were represented. Averages of the replies indicate that purebred animals are over one-third more efficient than common stock for utility purposes. The averages for each kind of farm live stock were as follows: ^ 1 Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1920, p. 22. 2D. S. Burch: Utility Value of Purebred Live Stock, U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 235, p. 5. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 153 Superiority, based on utility alone, of purebred over common live stock Class Superior earning power Per cent Dairy cattle 47.8 Swine 38.3 Sheep 37.8 Horses 37.2 Beef cattle 36.8 Goats 36.8 All classes (weighted average) 40.4 When the reports were summarized the superiority of purebreds was, in the opinion of their owners, based on the following points: Points in which purebred animals surpass common stock Per cent of total comment Better conformation and quality 14.6 Better selling price of animals 12.8 Increased production 12.1 Stock more saleable 11.9 More product for the feed 9.2 Owners' interest and pride (results in better care and greater returns) 9.2 Uniformity (factor in making sales) 8.9 Early maturity 7.8 Ease of fattening and finishing 5.7 Better prices for products 3.0 Increased vigor 2.7 Docility and ease of handling 2.1 100.0 The grading process enables the producer of beef calves to develop a breeding herd of high grades that closely approach or equal purebred beef cattle in their utility value. Beginning with a herd of scrub cows, successive crosses of purebred beef bulls will result in the following percentages of pure and scrub breeding in each generation of descend- ants: Results obtained by continued grading Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of pure breeding Crosses of purebred sires pure breeding scrub breeding added by each cross One cross 50 50 50 Two crosses 75 25 25 Three crosses 87.5 12.5 12.5 Four crosses 93.75 6.25 6.25 Five crosses 96.875 3.125 3.125 Six crosses 98.4375 1.5625 1.5625 It will be noted that the first cross gives the resulting calf crop a 50 per cent infusion of pure breeding, whereas the sixth cross gives the resulting calf crop less than 2 per cent more pure breeding than their dams. The first cross usually brings much greater improvement into the herd than any subsequent cross. It is much easier to improve a scrub herd than a good herd. After a time the herd becomes so 154 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock nearly purebred that further improvement by grading is no longer possible. When that stage is reached the breeder may secure further improvement only as the breeder of purebred cattle secures it, namely, by careful selection. This requires not only ability to judge beef cattle, but it requires also careful study of the herd in order that the best producers may be selected or retained, and the inferior and less useful ones eliminated. It is more difficult to maintain a high average of type and production in a herd than it is to develop a good herd from a scrub herd by grading. Community and cooperative breeding. — Organization of the stock- men and farmers of a community to use the same breed and to exchange sires makes possible to owners of small herds a succession of good sires at moderate cost. Small breeders may cooperate in buying bulls, and by exchange of bulls may retain the most successful sires in service in the community. Ordinarily a bull cannot be kept in a small herd more than two or three years because his daughters are used in the herd. Communities which have a large number of good herds of the same breed attract buyers who desire a few high-class purebreds or a carload of high grades. In some instances sales are made over a wide territory. Cooperation along these lines within a community is highly desirable in many ways, but unfortunately it is the exception in this country rather than the rule. ^- The bull is at least half of the herd.V^Herd bulls should be selected with great care. It is often said that "the bull is half the herd," and someone has added the equally true statement that "an inferior bull is all of the herd." The U. S. Department of Agriculture estimates that there are nearly 250,000 farms producing beef cattle which use grade and scrub bulls. ' In breeding all kinds of farm live stock we expect the offspring to be better than the dam, and we rely upon the sire to bring about this improvement. In breeding beef cattle for the market, it is well to have good cows, but it is an absolute essential to have a good bull. We pin our hopes on him. He must be a good individual, he must be purebred, and he should come from a good line of ancestry. These three points are guarantees as to his breeding ability. One of the most notable examples of the value of purebred bulls as herd improvers is that afforded by the history of cattle breeding on western ranges. Beginning with the old Texas long-horn stock which formed the foundation of range herds, successive crosses of purebred sires brought remarkable improvement in the beef-making qualities of western cattle. (See Fig. 49 and compare with Fig. 30 in preceding chapter.) lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 240. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 155 The higher-priced bull is often the cheaper. — As to what price the breeder is justified in paying for a bull, that will vary depending upon the conditions. Some very satisfactory bulls have been bought at very moderate prices. If a full quota of cows is at hand for breeding, not less than $150 should be invested in a bull, and more often it will be advisable to pay $200, $250, or more, rather than $150. A small increase in the value per head of one season's crop of calves by the use of the higher-priced bull, as compared with the cheap one, will return the difference in the price of the two animals. Furthermore, when the heifers by the higher-priced sire are used in the breeding herd, Fig. 51. — Selecting a future herd header. Unly good purebred bulls should be used in any herd. These buyers are indicating the calf that is superior in masculinity, constitution, fleshing, head, bone, spring of rib, and strength of top. improvement thereafter will be more marked and the desired standard of excellence will be attained in shorter time. The following table ^ gives the averages by states of answers made by western stockmen in 1915 to the questions indicated by the headings of the various columns in the table. This table furnishes ample proof of the fact that the average value of the live stock of a community is 1 Barnes and Jardine: Live Stock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 110, p. 27. 156 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock in direct proportion to the value of the sires used, no higher than its source." "A stream can rise Value of beef cattle as related to value of their sires State Average number of bulls per 100 cows Average value of bulls Average number of calves per 100 cows Average weight of steers sold from range or pasture Long 2-year- old Long 3-year- old Arizona 6.00 3.73 4.16 4.00 3.44 4.00 5.00 4.04 4.00 3.72 5.52 $82.00 94.75 131.90 100.00 138.00 93.00 83.00 113.35 93.00 124.15 160.50 57.00 73.55 69.30 75.00 75.80 70.00 66.00 75.74 69.00 79.48 73.20 774.0 968.2 883.0 1,000.0 991.0 940.0 725.0 975.7 900.0 1,032.0 937.0 935 California .... 1 141 6 Colorado . . 1 084 5 Idaho 1 200 Montana 1 211 Nevada 1,140.0 934.0 New Mexico Oregon 1,186.0 Utah 1,085.0 Washington 1,225.0 Wyoming 1,155.0 Arizona and New Mexico use the most bulls and the cheapest bulls. These states are credited with the fewest calves and the steers produced are markedly inferior in weight at two and three years of age. Such factors as climate, feed supply, and method of manage- ment affect the character and value of cattle produced on the range, yet the predominating factor, as shown by the above table, is that of good breeding. The importance of good breeding is again shown by the fact that in Arizona and New Mexico the more progressive stock- men have spent large sums in purchasing good bulls and this has re- sulted in a decided improvement in the grade of stock on the public ranges in those states within the last few years. On the other hand, many of the smaller men either turn out scrubs or have no bulls at all, and this results in low avejT^ges. Three prime essentials.w^In selecting beef animals for breeding purposes, the breeder should emphasize those points which are im- portant to the feeder and butcher, but must keep in mind his own interests as well. The features which are of particular interest to the breeder are: (1) the possession of a good constitution, (2) thick natural flesh, and (3) early maturity. The first of these is also of much importance to the feeder, the second interests all parties con- cerned with beef cattle, and the third interests both the breeder and feeder. Constitution is of the greatest importance, for it guarantees thrift and vigorous reproduction. It is the cornerstone of the success- ful herd. By thick natural flesh is meant a full muscular development such as will expand into a maximum fleshing when the animal is fattened. Quick maturity makes possible a finish at an early age, and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 157 this prime essential in present-day beef production is characteristic of cattle that have the blocky, compact, low-set type. Weight requirements. — When cattle intended for breeders are in high condition, the standards for weights at various ages are as follows: Age Weight of bull Weight of cow Pounds Pounds 6 months 600 500 12 months 1,075 750 18 months 1,275 975 24 months 1,500 1,150 30 months 1,800 1,350 36 months 1,975 1,475 42 months 2,100 1,550 Breeding cattle should not be kept in high condition, but that is the only satisfactory basis for fixing weight standards. In applying these standards due allowance should be made for lack of fat, depend- ing upon the condition of the animal, 'the above figures are for pure- bred bulls and high-grade cows such as should be used in market beef breeding herds. The weights given for bulls thus represent higher standards than those for the cows. The difference in the matured weights of the two sexes as given above, while largely due to sex, is due in part to higher average merit in the bulls than in the cows. The beef bull. — In general appearance the beef bull is nearly identical with the steer, being wide, deep, compact, straight lined, and low set. When in use as breeders, bulls are seldom kept in high condi- tion, hence in studying the form certain allowances should be made for lack of fatness, as this has much to do with the appearance of blockiness and massiveness presented by the animal. The bull should have plenty of size and we should not demand the same degree of refinement in bone that is desired in the steer, yet quality should be easily apparent. ^ The hide should roll up mellow and loose in the hand, showing medium thickness, and the hair should be soft and fine. Even when in medium-fat condition, the fleshing should be abundant and smooth. The head should be clean-cut, wide, and short, though larger than the steer's, with heavier horns, and a more burly appear- ance generally. The eye shows more animation or spirit, and a more resolute expression. Such a head is indicative of masculinity which is insisted upon by all breeders, it being an evidence of potency or breed- ing capacity. The bull at maturity should show a powerfully muscled neck with a pronounced arch or crest, this also indicating masculinity. The crest should come forward close to the head, and the neck should be short. Masculinity is again shown in the shoulders by a heavier, iThe range cattle breeder places particular emphasis on heavy bone. The conditions under which range cattle are produced make the maintenance of size and vigor in range cattle a problem, and this the western breeder attempts to solve in part by the constant use of heavy-boned bulls. 158 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock more massive development than is found in the steer, yet this does not excuse a rough, prominent shoulder such as would be objectionable in the offspring when they are fed for market. The entire front of the bull is well developed and massive, a condi- tion which is inherited by domesticated bulls from their wild ancestors. In the wild state, a bull became the head of the herd only by right of conquest, and his burly head, heavy horns, muscular neck, and massive front were needed to defeat his male rivals, and to protect the herd from its enemies after he had gained leadership. It was a survival of the fittest, which is nature's method of improving the wild animals. Fig. 52. — Correct type in the beef bull. Erwin C, champion Aberdeen- Angus bull at the 1913 International. Owned by W. A. McHenry, Denison, Iowa. Under domestication, the masculine characters have not the same values as in the wild state, yet they are none the less valuable, because they indicate a rugged, vigorous, and potent animal — qualities highly prized by any breeder. A wide, deep chest and full middle insure a good constitution. The middle is identical in form with the middle of the steer, but more emphasis is placed upon straightness and strength of back. The hips should be smooth, and the hindquarters should be long, level, wide, and heavily fleshed. Great variation will be found in the manner in which bulls walk, some doing it awkwardly and clumsily, with the back humped to a Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 159 marked degree, and with the legs sprawhng; others are active in th'eir movements, keeping their legs under them, and carrying themselves with little apparent effort, the latter of course being much preferred. Style has market value in a bull as in a steer, and between an animal that stands and walks properly, and one that slouches, other things being equal, the former will sell much more readily if they are priced the same, and his calves will more quickly attract buyers when they reach the market. Before purchasing a bull, the cows in the herd should be carefully studied and their weaknesses noted, so that a bull may be selected that is strong in the points where the cows show weakness. A beef bull, well developed at a year old, may serve a few cows, but should as a rule be eighteen months old. An ordinarily vigorous mature bull will get 100 calves a year if the cows come to him at proper intervals, but when they are nearly all bred in the spring and in the fall probably 60 is about the usual limit. The beef breeding cow or heifer. — Cows reach maturity quicker than bulls, but do not attain as much size or weight. They show more refinement at all points than do males, but in form and fleshing are nearly identical with all good beef animals regardless of sex. In selecting cows, emphasis is placed upon constitution, thick natural flesh, quick maturity, and feminine character. The head shows marked refinement, and there is a calm expression of the eye, showing a much milder disposition than the bull. As compared with steers, the horns are less developed, and the neck is not so thick and perhaps not quite so short. The shoulders are well laid in and smooth, and throughout the forequarters there is an absence of the great strength and massiveness found in the bull. The refinement of the cow's head, neck, and shoulders is an evidence of femininity, which, like masculinity in the male, is evidence of breeding capacity. "Motherly" looking cows, not too compact in form, are wanted. A coarse, "steery" headed female is seldom a successful breeder. Although she may produce a calf each year, her stock is not likely to possess the high qualities that one expects. A straight, strong back and wide, deep middle are as desirable in the cow as in the bull or steer, indeed even more so, as a capacious middle provides ample room for carrying the calf. Cows should be a Httle longer in the middle, a little less compact in other words, than steers and bulls. The hips are notably different, showing more width and prominence, and this feature is often so pronounced as to cause criticism. While a wider hip is accepted in cows than in other beef animals, nevertheless care should be taken to guard against undue prominence. Cows are also usually shorter and rougher in the rump 160 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock than bulls, but the rump should be as long, level, wide, and smoothly fleshed as possible. So far as condition is concerned, it must be remembered that the breeding cow is more valuable on account of the progeny she produces than on account of her own excellence as an animal suitable for slaugh- ter, hence we do not fault her if she lacks in fatness, provided her constitution, form, and quality are good. However, the beef cow must possess the ability to fatten readily, for "like produces like," and if the cow will not take on flesh readily, then we cannot expect her calves to be profitable in the feed-lot. It is on this account that beef breeding Fig. 53. — Correct type in the beef cow. Fair Start 2d, a noted Shorthorn show cow owned by George J. Sayer, McHenry, 111. bulls and cows are shown in heavy flesh in the show ring, thus indicat- ing their capacity as beef producers. Beef cows are sometimes made so fat for showing that their usefulness as breeders is injured by a heavy deposit of fat about the generative organs. The practice has, therefore, been severely criticized, yet the danger is not great if the feeding is carefully managed, and the advantages so far outweigh the disadvantages that the showing of breeding animals in high condition seems destined to continue. In the show ring, little or no attention is paid to the udder of the beef cow, but the man who breeds beef cattle cannot ignore the cow's Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 161 milk-producing qualities. The udder should be of good size and shape, with well-placed teats, and the cow should be able to furnish ample milk for her calf during at least the first six months of lactation. E. S. Bayard, a breeder of beef cattle and editor of the National Stockman and Farmer, has the following to say regarding the selection of beef cows and the importance of good milking qualities:^ 'Good-sized, roomy, robust cows; with breadth but not coarseness; big of barrel, loose of hide, short of leg, neat of head, mild of manner, placid of countenance, with a decidedly feminine expression, are the kind. Cows that are good milkers, as a rule, are good and regular breeders — they do not get too fat to breed. Their calves are started well, are kept going, and develop rapidly, for there is no feed for a calf or any other animal that will take the place of mother's milk. The cows which milk most and lose flesh most rapidly when suckling calves are the quickest-fleshing cows. They milk down rapidly and they recover flesh quickly when relieved of the strain of milk production. This characteristic of quick fleshing usually accompanies good milking, but not persistent milking of course. Beef-bred cows are not, as a rule, all-the-year milkers, nor is it desirable that they should be. Milk enough is vital to success, and breeders of beef cattle cannot afford to neglect it any more than they can afford to make it a leading object of their breeding. So get lady cows, feminine type, with good udders, and they can be found in all the beef breeds. Let the steery cow alone as you would the bull that lacks masculinity.' The cows which raise good calves should be retained in the herd as long as they are useful, and those which fail to produce good offspring should be sent to the butcher no matter how attractive they may be individually. The attractive fat cow that gives no milk and raises a small, scrawny calf is not worthy of a place in the herd, whereas some of the good mothers may nurse down pretty thin and look rather unattractive after they have suckled their calves for a time. When a cattle breeder designates his plainest-looking cows as the best producers in his herd he is often fully justified in doing so. Save those that are best by test, and replace the unprofitable cows with the best of the crop of heifers. In many instances, heifers are bred at 15 to 18 months old, but it is better practice to begin breeding them at about 21 months so that they drop their first calves at about 30 months. The period of gesta- tion often varies from 274 to 287 days, and the average is about 280 days. Value of records. — The feeder ought to weigh his cattle regularly, and keep careful and complete records of the weights and of all items 1 Beef Production, Penn. Dept. Agr. Bui. 235, pp. 35, 36. 162 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of expense incurred in finishing and marketing, so that he may know whether his cattle return him a profit or were fed at a loss. In either case, the records are available for study, and when the next lot is fed, comparisons may be made and benefits derived from past experiences. This is all the more important in the case of feeders who breed their own calves, for then such records are doubly valuable as they greatly assist in determining the producing qualities of the animals in the breeding herd. If the breeder has a chance to see the carcasses yielded by cattle of his own breeding, he should avail himself of it and talk with some well-qualified butcher regarding their merits and faults. By such progressive methods will the breeder forge ahead and obtain the maximum profit and satisfaction from his business. Fig. 54. — An excellent breeding cow. Blackbird Perfection 2d, Aberdeen- Angus cow owned by Iowa State College. Beefy throughout, yet not milkless. She has good udder development and can raise her calf. In conclusion, there is good opportunity for profit in beef produc- tion, and the soil needs the fertility which comes from the keeping of live stock. The factors necessary to insure success in beef production are (1) good pastures, (2) better care of pastures, (3) utilization of corn stalks through the use of a silo, (4) the growing and feeding of alfalfa, (5) keeping the best heifer calves for breeding purposes, (6) buying only good, purebred, beef bulls to mate with them, and (7) staying by beef production year in and year out, making it a permanent part of farming operations. CHAPTER X DAIRY TYPE Dairy animals that are correct in type present a marked contrast to beef animals. The body and back are longer and much narrower, the thighs are thin, the neck longer and more slender, and in all parts the animal is lean and angular, whereas the beef animal is thick-fleshed and smooth. The lean, angular appearance is highly desirable, but an emaciated condition is sharply discriminated against because it indicates a lack of health and vigor. Both males and females are rather sharp at the withers, deep ribbed, medium in length of leg, and well divided between the hind legs. There should be no bulge to the thigh, and no tendency toward the development of what is called the "twist" in beef cattle. There is a limit to an animal's feeding and digestive capacity, hence one animal cannot produce both beef and milk in maximum quantities. Breeders of dairy cattle want the dairy cow to do one thing only; they discriminate against beefiness just as sharply as they favor evidences of large milking capacity. The Dairy Cow Dairy cows may be judged by two distinct methods. One method consists of keeping records of the cow's production, including the dura- tion of the lactation periods, the pounds of milk given at each milking, and the results of the Babcock tests for butter-fat. Records may also be kept of the quantities of feed consumed and the cost of the feed- stuflfs used, so that at the end of each year an accounting may be made with each cow, and her profitableness or unprofitableness accurately determined. This method gets right at the cow's producing capacity and removes all doubt concerning her right to a place in a producing herd. It is also much used in estimating a cow's value for breeding purposes. This method may be called judging by performance. The other method of judging dairy cows consists of a detailed study of the animal, and an examination for certain characteristics which are evidences of milk-producing capacity. If the fifty highest- producing dairy cows in the United States were assembled so that comparisons might easily be made, considerable variation would be found among them in form, quality, udder, and other points. Yet through all these cows would run certain well-defined characteristics which dairymen have come to know are associated with heavy produc- tion. These characteristics may be causes of the heavy yield, or merely incidental correlates, but in either case they are evidences of 164 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock productive capacity, and are valuable aids in judging dairy cows. Many dairymen keep no records of the production in their herds, and rely solely upon an examination of the individuality when additional cows are purchased. There are other men who ridicule the idea of judging a cow by any other means than records of her performance; they will tell you of cows which score high but are poor yielders, and of other cows which score low but are big producers. However, such instances are exceptional and should not dislodge one's faith in the value of studying the individuality of dairy cows. No doubt it is wrong to rely solely upon either method of judging, for the two methods may be combined to the advantage of each, and in this way the best estimate of the value of a dairy cow is made. 24 Fig. 55. — Points of the dairy cow. 1. Muzzle 9. Neck 17. Ribs 25. Thigh 2. Face 10. Throat 18. Back 26. Hind leg 3. Eye 11. Dewlap 19. Loin 27. Udder 4. Forehead 12. Brisket 20. Barrel 28. Teats 5. Ear 13. Shoulder 21. Hip or hook 29. Milk-vein 6. Poll 14. Withers 22. Rump 30. Milk-well 7. Cheek 15. Fore leg 23. Pin bones 31. Navel 8. Jaw 16. Fore-rib 24. Tail The form of the high-class dairy cow is that of a triple- wedge. One wedge is apparent from a side view; the cow is much deeper behind than in front, so that if the top line and underline were continued on forward they would meet at a point not far in front of the animal. The second wedge is formed by a widening from breast to hindquarters, so that the side lines rapidly converge if they are carried out in front of the cow. These two wedges are sometimes secured, in part at least, by a lack of width and depth in the chest, whereas they should result Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 165 solely because of much width and depth of barrel, thus giving the needed digestive capacity. Therefore the wedge form characteristic of the dairy cow is not valuable in itself, and the mere fact that a cow has it is not sufficient. The examination should go deeper; the wedges should be analyzed and their causes determined. The third wedge is formed by the shoulders and withers; the withers constitute the point of the wedge, and the shoulders widen out below to provide the nec- essary chest capacity. This wedge insures against coarseness at the withers and heavy fleshing on the shoulders. The general form of the cow is very angular throughout, due to a well-developed frame and the presence of but little flesh to give smoothness to the parts. Some Fig. 56. — A dairy cow with utility points, emphasized. Holstein-Friesian cow, Minerva Beets, five times champion of her breed at the National Dairy Show. Owned by R. E. Haeger, Algonquin, 111. Correct form, excellent quality, a high degree of dairy temperament, and great femininity are all plainly evident in this picture. Note especially the feminine head, faultless neck, straight strong top, deep barrel, well- balanced udder, and good teats. allowance, however, must be made for sex and age; we naturally expect more fleshing in the bull than in the cow in milk, and the same is true of young heifers before their first calving, and also of dry cows. Some dairymen make an effort to fatten dry cows, for the added body-fat is resorbed and converted into butter-fat when the cow again comes in milk, thus temporarily raising the percentage of butter-fat above the normal. These features, however, do not excuse any persistent beefy tendency in dairy animals, it being distinctly objectionable. 166 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The head of the dairy cow should be lean, and have a broad muzzle, large nostrils, and a dished face. Compared with the head of the beef animal, there is less width and more length, the proportions of the head being medium long and medium broad. The eyes should be prominent, bright, calm, and wide apart, and the forehead should be fairly wide. The jaws should be strong, and the cheeks well muscled. The ears should be fine in texture, and of medium size. The horns should be fine and have a curve that adds to, rather than detracts from, the appearance. In Guernsey cattle, a yellowish secretion of the skin inside of the ear, and a waxy color of the horn are regarded as evidence that the butter will have a rich, golden color. The head should have a distinctly feminine expression, and in all its features should be clean- cut and sharply defined. Such a head has a chiseled appearance indicative of quality and good breeding. The neck should be long and fine. The upper edge has a slight concave curve, and the lower border has a thin fold or edge of skin, called the "dewlap," extending upwards from the brisket. If the neck is short and thick, or has much depth, so as to make it appear heavy, there is a lack of true dairy type. The throat should be neat and trim, rather than full. Naturally we do not want the neck and shoulders to blend smoothly as in beef cattle, for this results from heavy fleshing. The brisket of the dairy cow is much narrower and sharper than in beef cattle, and does not carry forward so prominently, the difference being mainly due to the heavy fleshing of the beef animal. The shoulders should be light, that is, free from coarseness and heavy fleshing, and the tops of the shoulder blades and the spines of the vertebrae should form rather sharp and refined withers. The shoulders will not appear smooth, but they should not be rough and coarse. A rather open, loosely connected shoulder is associated with the open-jointed conformation desired in the dairy animal, and is a feature found in many of the record-holding cows. The front legs should be of medium length, should come down straight, and the toes should point straight ahead. The pasterns should be strong. There should be no coarseness of shanks or joints. Very often the knees come quite close together, the legs being crooked, and the toes turning out, but this is a faulty conforniation and is often associated with a narrow chest and lack of constitution. The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from width. However, the fore-rib should have at least a medium degree of arch; breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle place much emphasis upon a pro- nounced arch of rib. The fore-rib should carry down deep to give plenty of room for the heart and lungs. Beef cattle should fill up full and smooth with flesh behind the shoulder, but dairy cattle typically Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 167 show some slight depression just behind the shoulder, although the heart-girth must be very large to insure a strong constitution. The distance between the front legs is a fairly accurate measure of the width of the chest floor, which should not be cramped, but ample, with the front flanks well filled out. In making a large flow of milk, the heart has to pump great quantities of blood which the lungs must purify, thus demanding that the dairy cow have a large chest capacity and an excellent constitution. The back should be straight and strong, and have moderate width, and a fair degree of length. Dairy cattle seem put together somewhat Fig. 57. — Excellent type in Iul uau ^ ^uw. Guernsey cow, Langwater Dairy- maid, first prize winner as a four- year-old at the National Dairy Show. Owned by C. L. A. Whitney, Albany, N. Y. Note the breedy head and neck, straight top line, shapely udder, and the quality, femininity, and dairy temperament shown in this cow. She has an official yearly record of 16,949.2 pounds of milk and 812.66 pounds of butter-fat. loosely; it is not desired that they should be closely coupled or short in the back. A sway-back is sometimes said to indicate true dairy type, but there is no good argument in support of this view; it is logical that cows with big middles should have straight, strong tops. Some dairymen also desire that the backbone shall stand up prominently along the back, loin, and rump, and terminate in a long tail. The argument is that a well-developed backbone encloses a large spinal 168 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock cord, and as a large nerve branches off at the last dorsal vertebrae and goes to the udder to control operations there, a large spinal column is accepted as evidence of proper development of the nervous system, which, in turn, is supposed to signify increased efficiency on the part of the cow as a milk machine. Whether the size of the brain, spinal cord, and branching nerves, rather than their quality and texture, determines the efficiency of the nervous system may be questioned, and as for the course of reasoning showing the relation between length of tail and quantity of milk yield, the reader may take it for what he deems it worth and form his own conclusions. In any event, there are many other ways of estimating a cow's value, the reliability of which are better substantiated. However, a prominent backbone is valuable as an evidence of true dairy temperament, or freedom from beefiness. The loin should be rather long, should carry up level and strong, and show a fair degree of width. The barrel ought to be very deep and wide, and this is secured when the ribs are very long and reasonably well arched. There will be no such degree of rotundity as is found in beef cattle; there should be a well-developed paunch with capacity for a large amount of feed. A flat-sided conformation means a restricted capacity. The ribs do not lie close together along the side as in beef cattle, and there is more space between the last rib and the hip. Of all the points discussed thus far, two are of vast importance; these are constitution and digestive capacity. The dairy cow is a milk machine and should be studied and operated as such. It is thus much easier, when judging, to put emphasis where it belongs and so arrive more quickly at the true worth of the animal. Milk is manu- factured in the udder from nutriment derived from the feed, and if the cow has the true dairy temperament and does not tend to take on flesh, the quantity of her milk yield will be in direct relation to the quantity and quality of the feed consumed. A large milk flow there- fore necessitates full development of the organs of digestion, respira- tion, and circulation, the external evidences of which are a large heart- girth, a large barrel-girth, and a rather lengthy middle. The hips are very prominent, and should be as wide as possible. Narrowness across the hips is often associated with a lack of width in barrel, and when the hips and rump are narrow, the hind legs are usually too close together, leaving little space for the udder. The rump should be wide and level to insure against difficulty in calving, and should not rise strongly at the tail-head, as that conforma- tion usually goes with the sway-back. A level rump is usually asso- ciated with a level udder. Length of rump is also very desirable; it Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 169 gives symmetry to the form, and provides room for a long udder- attachment below. A narrow, peaked rump is liable to cause trouble at calving time, and, as pointed out, it brings the hind legs too close together. At the end of the rump on either side of the tail are the pin-bones. They should be wide apart, for reasons similar to those just mentioned. From the point of the hip to the end of the rump there should be a well-marked hollow, insuring against beefiness of rump. The tail performs a part in milk production by protecting from the annoyance of flies. The fleshy part of the tail should extend to the point of the hock and the brush should be heavy and long. The Fig. 58. — Type and production. Jersey cow, Fauvic Star, owned by A. V. Barnes, New Canaan, Conn. Note the beautiful head, excellent lines, capacious middle, large udder, feminine character, and marked degree of quality. She holds the highest Jersey record in milk production, with 20,616 pounds of milk and 1,005.90 pounds of butter-fat in an official yearly test. root of the tail should be carried on a line with the rump, showing no undue prominence or roughness. The thighs should be muscular, but not fleshy. From a rear view they should be fine and there should be no fleshing between the legs to take up the space that should be filled by the udder. It is desirable that the thighs be long, and that the conformation inside the thigh be incurving. Much variation in rumps and thighs will be found in dairy animals, ranging from decided beefiness to the trim, clean-cut conforma- tion shown by the best dairy cows. 170 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The hind legs should be placed well apart, and they should come down straight. If the toes point outward and the hocks come close together, the conformation is weak and there is not sufficient room for the udder. The udder of the dairy cow comes in for special attention, ranking in importance with the chest and barrel, the three being fundamental in the make-up of a successful dairy cow. The udder's size, texture, shape, and teats should be carefully studied. Size of udder. — The udder should be large, carrying well forward along the belly, and extending far backward and high up between the hind legs. When a side view of the cow is taken as she stands in natural position, the udder should carry out far in front of the hind legs, and the swell of the rear quarters of the udder should be plainly evident back of the leg. The udder should also be wide in its attach- ment to the body throughout, and there should be much fullness of udder from side to side, with good width also across the floor (lower surface) of the udder. A measurement of nearly six feet around the udder has been reported, just two inches less than the cow's heart- girth. The udders of heifers are often deceptive, having much greater capacity than the exterior indicates. This is because the udder is held snugly against the abdominal wall; but with increase in age and yield of milk, the added weight produces some relaxation of the supporting tissues, and the udder becomes more pendulous and prominent. Texture of udder. — Two sorts of tissue mainly compose the udder — glandular tissue and connective tissue. The former is the seat of secretory activity, and the latter serves the purpose of a framework or support. More or less fatty tissue is also present. Naturally, it is very important that there be a large proportion of glandular tissue and a relatively small amount of connective tissue. This is determined by examining the udder with the hands for mellowness, which indicates that the udder is largely glandular; or still better by having the cow milked, when the udder should show much decrease in size, and the skin covering it should shrivel. When the udder is composed largely of connective tissue, if feels firm and is referred to as "meaty," and when it is milked out, the yield of milk is small and the udder shows little or no decrease in size. Unfortunately, meaty udders usually excel in shape and appearance, while the most glandular ones have not suflScient connective tissue to properly support them, the heavy weight causing them to hang down rather loosely to form what is called a "pendant" udder. Many large producers have such udders, whereas it is a fact that the type of udder that wins in the show ring is often lacking in milk capacity. The skin and hair covering the udder should Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 171 be very soft and fine. Texture of udder is one of the most important considerations in judging dairy cows. Shape of udder. — All sorts of sizes, textures, and shapes are presented. The most desirable shape is an evenly balanced udder, with all four quarters fully developed, and having a flat floor, instead of being cut up between the halves and quarters. There is a natural tendency for the rear quarters to develop much more than the front quarters, the latter often terminating abruptly, but the most desirable shape is one extending well forward to make what is termed a balanced udder. Udders which carry neither forward nor backward, but are small and tapering from base to teats, without any fullness, are termed Fig. 59. — Excellent type in the dairy cow. Ayrshire cow, Kilnford Bell 3d, twice champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by Adam Seitz, Waukesha, Wis. Note the beautiful head of this cow, and her large, shapely udder. Her con- formation indicates strength and vigor without coarseness. "funnel-shaped" udders. Undoubtedly there is considerable correla- tion between shape of rump and shape of udder. A long rump goes with a long udder, a wide rump with a wide udder, and a level rump is associated with a level udder in contrast to the tipped-up form of udder so often associated with a drooping rump. Shape and balance of udder are important, but subsidiary to size and texture. The teats and their placement. — The teats should be cylindrical, perpendicular, hang on the same level, and be placed at least six inches apart each way, so as to be easily grasped in the hand. They should be three or four inches long and of a size to make milking easy, but not 172 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock too large, for udders with very large teats are usually cut up between the halves and quarters, and this occurs at the expense of glandular tissue. When dairy cows are judged, a small amount of milk is drawn from each teat to make certain that the teat is unobstructed and free from defects not evident to the eye. Leaky teats are due to weakness of the muscles of the teat, this being an undesirable trait rather com- monly met with, especially in heavy milkers just before milking time. Some udders have not only four large teats, but also one or more small or rudimentary ones. A small amount of milk may sometimes be drawn from them, as they usually spring from rudimentary glands. It is preferred that the udder have four full-sized teats, and four only. I'luiiimj Fig. 60. — A combination of beauty and utility. Jersey cow, Bosnian's Anna, champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by C. I. Hudson, East Norwich, L. I., N. Y. Her chiseled, feminine head, straight top line, deep rib, nicely balanced udder, and large veins are all noteworthy. She is especially strong in temperament and quality. Note also the correlation between levelness of rump and levelness of udder. In conclusion it may be said that the udder, first of all, should be large; second, it should be mellow and glandular; third, it should be well-balanced and of good shape; fourth, the teats should be of medium size and placed well apart. The milk-veins are large veins passing forward from the udder along the belly just beneath the skin, and disappearing through open- ings in the body-wall known as milk-wells. The position of the milk- wells varies; some are near the fore flanks, and some midway between Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 173 the udder and the front legs. As will be explained more fully later, nutriment derived from the feed is carried to the udder by the blood and is there utilized in the manufacture of milk. After the udder has absorbed those elements necessary in making milk, the blood returns to the heart through the milk-veins. It is evident that the size and development of these veins is a good index to the cow's milking capac- ity, hence they are highly useful in judging dairy cows. The milk- veins of young heifers are small in diameter and are straight. As the heifer develops and her milk flow increases, the veins show increase in diameter, sometimes to an inch or more, they often become crooked or tortuous, and may extend forward toward the fore flanks. The degree of tortuousness varies according to the vein's diameter, small veins being nearly straight and large ones very crooked indeed. There will be at least two milk-veins, one on each side of the belly, and some- times there will be three, the third one having a position on the middle of the abdomen between the two side veins. They sometimes show more or less branching, each branch passing forward and disappearing through its own milk-well. Although diameter of veins is probably most important, length and extension of veins are also regarded as important, indicating an increased venous development and capacity for a larger flow of blood, due to the added number of milk-wells which make easy the work of handling a large circulation. Nearly all phe- nomenal producers have veins not only of large diameter and decided tortuousness, but also of many branches and forward extensions. Small veins, called udder veins, occur on some udders, their presence being further evidence of a well-developed mammary circulation. The milk -wells vary in size to correspond with the veins, and are taken into account in judging. They should be large and easily indented when the finger is applied to them. The escutcheon or "milk mirror" is that portion of the udder and thighs that is covered with hairs turning up and out, instead of down, as on the rest of the body. A Frenchman, Francois Guenon, beginning in 1814 as a boy of fourteen years, worked out in great detail what is known as the Guenon or escutcheon theory. He classified cows and bulls into ten orders and each of these again into four grades, depending on the size and shape of the escutcheon. To each of these orders and grades he ascribed certain values. He also attached certain values to the location of the tufts, ovals, or swirls in the hair on the thighs, making seven additional classes of these. Guenon claimed to be able to tell accurately the producing ability of the cow, and it is said that in tests before various agricultural societies in France he was very successful in proving his theory. The escutcheon theory was formerly highly credited by many dairymen, and in rather recent years at least 174 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock one agricultural college published a score card for dairy cows that gave about 50 points out of 100 to the escutcheon. Modern tests have found this theory to be altogether lacking in accuracy. At the present time most score cards used by colleges allow only one or two points to the escutcheon. Some have omitted it from consideration altogether, and this seems entirely justifiable, as the escutcheon theory may be rightly regarded as a quack theory. The quality of dairy cows is shown in the hide, hair, ear, horn, head, and bone, the same as in beef cattle. The dairy cow has a thinner skin than the beef cow, and it should also possess a maximum of mellowness and oiliness. An oily hide is something of an evidence of milk rich in fat; and an abundant yellowish secretion about the udder, inside the thighs, around the eyes, inside the ears, at the root of the tail, and below any spots of light-colored hair indicates a rich butter color. Opinions differ on the question of quality in dairy cattle. Some breeders aim at a very rugged type having great constitution, medium size of bone, and a medium thick hide. This type is exempli- fied by many Holstein-Friesians and by the St. Lambert family of Jerseys. Other breeders desire extreme quality, and this may result in some delicacy of constitution. Perhaps this type is best illustrated by what is known as the "island type" of Jersey, which is the type developed in the native home of the breed on the island of Jersey, and also fostered by many breeders of Jersey cattle in the United States. The average dairyman will be wise to follow a course midway between the two extremes, insisting upon constitution first and then upon as much quality as may be had without delicacy. The temperament is of much importance. Temperaments are of two kinds — sanguine and lymphatic. The sanguine temperament is characterized by a strong, frequent pulse, firm flesh, and active move- ments. The lymphatic temperament is featured by a rather sluggish circulation, fleshiness, thicker skin and coarser hair, slow movements, and quietness. The sanguine temperament is possessed in marked degree by the best dairy cattle, while beef cattle have the lymphatic temperament. The best evidence of true dairy temperament is a lean, angular appearance in all parts of the animal. A dairy bull, a young heifer, or a dry cow may show some degree of fleshiness without being seriously faulted for it, but a cow well advanced in a lactation period should be free from beefiness, even when fed to the limit of her capacity. This is a good indication that she is an economical milk producer. The disposition varies greatly in different individuals. An irrita- ble, kicking, fence-jumping cow is not expected to make much of a record as a milk and butter-fat producer. She uses too much of her energy in performance that has no market value; the making of milk Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 175 is a secondary matter with her. Such cows consume Httle feed and exhibit a fastidious appetite; in short, they are not useful cattle, there being too much waste of energy in nervousness and bad temper. In contrast to such cows is the cow that never moves faster than a walk and is gentle and easy to handle. She spends lots of time chewing her cud and is always busy making milk. She is a useful, profitable cow, provided she has the conformation which enables her to work success- fully. The irritable cow has an uneasy and wild expression of the eye, and carries her head high. She is usually switching her tail whether it is fly-time or not. Proper disposition is indicated by a calm eye, and by carriage of the poll of the head on about the same level as the Fig. 61. — An inferior dairy cow. Note the staggy head, coarse neck, uneven top line, small barrel, coarse sloping rump, beefy thighs, and small funnel-shaped udder. Her wedge from the side view points the wrong way. withers. If the head is carried high it indicates nervousness, while a head carried low indicates quietness carried to the extreme of sluggish- ness. The size of dairy cows varies between wide limits. The holders of the highest records in milk and butter-fat production are large cows, which is a condition naturally to be expected, but does not signify that small cows are necessarily less profitable. The dairyman cares not so much that his cows are large and hence large yielders, as that the yield be made economically; he studies the production in relation 176 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to the feed consumed. Small cows not only yield less, but eat less, and may be as profitable as large cows. The latter have an advantage in that they can profitably consume proportionately more roughage, and fewer of them need be kept to produce a given quantity of milk, requiring fewer stalls and slightly less labor. On the other hand, if the calves can be sold at a profit, the herd of smaller cows will realize more income from this source. The Dairy Bull The features of dairy type as they apply to the dairy cow having been fully discussed, and the fundamental points of dairy type having been set forth in that connection, the requirements for the bull may be presented more quickly. In form the bull should be rather long and moderately wide, with a deep rib, moderate length of leg, and rather angular body. His build should insure an excellent constitution, barrel capacity, strength of back, style, and vigor, with no indications of coarseness or beefiness. The head should be decidedly masculine in its proportions and expression, and have a wide muzzle, large nostrils, large, bright eyes with a courageous expression, and clean- cut features. In all breeds except the Ayrshire, the masculine head will have short, stubby horns. The neck should be strong and the crest heavily developed. The brisket shows more width, depth, and prominence than in the cow, in keeping with a masculine development of the forequarters. The shoulders are deeper and more heavily developed, but should not be beefy. The withers show more width than in the cow, yet tend to be fine and free from flesh. The front legs should be straight, of moder- ate length, and have fair width between. The chest should be moder- ately wide and very deep. The back should be moderately wide, fairly long, and carried up straight and strong. The top line of the dairy bull usually rises higher over the withers and neck than over the back and loin, and the first impression may be that the animal is sway- backed, but upon further study the observer often finds he has been misled by the rise over the withers and crest. No marked covering of flesh should be found on the back, and the backbone should be plainly evident. The loin should be long, level, and medium wide. The barrel should be deep and well developed, but need not show as much capacity as demanded in the cow. The hips are only moderately wide, the points being much less prominent than in the cow. The rump should be long, level, and medium wide. The thighs may be slightly heavier than in the cow, but any considerable degree of thickness is sharply criticized. Some dairy bulls almost rival beef bulls in the amount of Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 177 fleshing shown in the hindquarters, and such animals are distinctly not of true dairy type in conformation and temperament. A dairy bull should carry no more fleshing than is permissible in a dry cow or in a heifer before her first calving. The bull should be well divided between the hind legs, and should have rather flat, trim thighs. The hind legs should be placed rather well apart, and should be straight and of medium length. In common with the males of nearly all species of animals classed as mammals, the dairy bull has miniature teats called rudimentaries. These are located in front and on each side of the scrotum, there being Fig. 62. — Excellent type'in the dairy bull. Holstein-Friesian bull, Oak DeKol Ollie Homestead, twice champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by lowana Farms, Davenport, Iowa. Note especially his strong conformation, good head, well defined withers, level loin and rump, long quarters, great depth of rib, and strong constitution. He is a very large, rugged bull with symmetry, quality, style, mas- culinity, strength, and vigor. two on a side. They vary in length from mere buttons to an inch or more. Some persons attach much significance to the rudimentaries, believing that their position and size indicate the shape and capacity of udder which will be shown by the bull's daughters. It is not es- tablished that the rudimentaries really have such a significance, and many persons give them no attention in judging. Dairy bulls also have small veins on the belly corresponding to the large milk-veins of the dairy cow. 178 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The quality of the bull is very important; it should be easily ap- parent in a loose, mellow hide, and a reasonable degree of quality is also wanted in head and bone. Coarseness is an evidence of lack of good breeding. In disposition, dairy bulls are much less quiet and trustworthy than beef bulls, often being ill-natured and sometimes unruly. This does not subject them to criticism unless they become dangerous and difficult to handle, but is accepted as an evidence of masculinity. The individuality of the dairy bull is certainly somewhat signifi- cant of his value, but it reveals less of the animal's ability to perform his function than does the cow's individuality when it is studied in Fig. 63. — Excellent type in the dairy bull. Guernsey bull, Ladysmith's Cherub, three times champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by D. D. Tenney, Crystal Bay, Minn. Note his masculine head and neck, great length, good depth, strong top, and long level rump, and his style, quality, character, and vigor. relation to function. The bull is only valuable as a progenitor of heifer calves that will develop into heavy milkers. What points, therefore, in the individuality of the bull are evidence that he will sire high- producing cows? It may as well be stated first as last that it is im- possible to determine in any accurate manner from the bull's individ- uality what his breeding qualities, as they relate to milk flow, will be. There are far more reliable sources from which to form such an estimate and these will be discussed later. Nevertheless, it is important that Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 179 the dairy bull show a rugged constitution, ample digestive capacity, strength of conformation, and absence of beefiness, these being essen- tial points desired in his female offspring. If he is faulty in any of these respects, we may reasonably suppose that his daughters will be similarly deficient. He should be masculine in order to insure potency. Having all these points of individuality, it is still a question as to what sort of performance may be expected from his daughters. CHAPTER XI THE SECRETION OF MILK Milk is secreted by the mammary glands or udder of the female after the birth of young, the secretion continuing until the young are mature enough to live on ordinary food. All animals which have mammary glands are classed as mammals, and this group of animals presents wide variations in the number, position, capacity, shape, and prominence of the glands. The mammary glands are present in the male in rudimentary condition, although, in abnormal cases, milk is secreted by males. Milk is easily digested and very nutritious, and no food for the young animal is equal to its mother's milk. The highest development of the udder is found in the dairy cow, the extreme development having been largely secured by careful breeding; the lacta- tion period has become prolonged, and the daily yield and quality of milk have been much improved. Cows have been known to secrete over 150 pounds of milk in a day, their own weight in less than two weeks, and over 15 tons in a year. Exterior of the cow's udder. — The cow's udder consists of four mammary glands, usually referred to as the "quarters," and sometimes there are one to four rudimentaries, all arranged in pairs on opposite sides of the median line of the body. The udder begins a few inches behind the umbilicus and continues backward and upward between the legs. The right and left sides are divided on the exterior by a well- defined line or groove, but the line of separation between the front and rear quarters is not so pronounced. The appearance of size depends partly upon the strength and shape of the abdominal wall ; if the wall is weak, the udder is forced downward and backward and there is a seeming increase in size. This sometimes accounts for the apparently sudden development of a large udder after the second or third calving. The skin covering the udder is very thin and elastic, and the hair is finer, softer, and shorter than on other parts of the animal. The skin covering the teats bears little or no hair, and is often of a darker color than upon other parts. Structure of the cow's udder. — When dissected, the right and left halves of the udder are found to be enveloped in strong, fibrous capsules. The fibers of the two capsules intermingle somewhat, and are prolonged upward to the median line of the body to form a ligamentous support and partition, the two halves thus being made distinct. The quarters on each side are not so distinctly separated, there being no such well- 180 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 181 developed partition as between the halves, nor can the line of separation be seen unless the tissues are stained. Dr. A. W. Bitting of the Indiana Experiment Station injected different colored liquids through the teats and found that the liquids did not leave the quarter, his investigation showing that a rather distinct transverse partition exists. It follows that milk drawn from any teat must be produced in its quarter, al- though there is slight communication between the smaller ducts in the upper parts of the two quarters on a side. Between the quarters of the same half, the capsule sends off a rather incomplete transverse partition common to both, and there are numerous other reflections Fig. 64. — Cross-section of cow's udder, a, Body of gland; b, milk cistern; c, cavity of teat; d, duct of teat; e, inter-mammary groove; f, septum between glands; g, supramammary fat. of the capsule inward from all sides to serve as a supporting framework for the gland tissue and to form the milk cisterns and ducts. Structure of the teat. — The tissues of the capsule are prolonged downward, becoming greatly thickened, to form the walls of the teats. The teat is cylindrical or conical in shape, variable in length and diameter, and placed at the lowest portion of the gland. Its shape and size are independent of the size of the gland. It is very elastic and is covered with a tough, close-fitting, thin skin. Through its center runs 182 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock a duct called the "teat-canal," having a capacity, when distended, of from 1 to 11 2 ounces in moderate-sized teats. There are both circular and longitudinal muscle fibers, and at the lower end the circular fibers form an involuntary sphincter muscle, the function of which is to keep the teat-canal closed under ordinary pressure. At the upper end of the teat is another involuntary sphincter muscle, but it does not com- pletely close the canal, and sometimes a third is found farther above. The sphincters are sometimes so relaxed that very slight pressure is sufficient to open them, and the cow leaks her milk; of other cows the reverse is true, making them hard milkers. The milk -cistern, ducts, and alveoli. — Above the teat is a reservoir, called the "milk-cistern," seldom holding more than half a pint. This cistern is divided into pockets of various sizes into which the large milk-ducts empty. At the point of entrance of these ducts are sphincter muscles, and while they cannot entirely close the openings, they may very nearly do so, and in this way the cow is enabled to "hold up her milk." These large ducts ramify to all parts of the gland and anasto- mose (intercommunicate) freely; and at the intersections are still other voluntary sphincter muscles. A strong effort on the part of the cow is required to close the larger ducts in the lower part of the udder, but a slight effort will close the smaller canals further up in the glands. Cows differ greatly in their control over these muscles and in their disposition to exert it. The most common causes of holding up milk are fright, the presence of strangers in the stable, lack of familiarity with surroundings, irregularity in the time or manner of feeding or milking, and sexual heat. With some cows it becomes a habit, much injuring the usefulness and milking capacity of the animal. The large ducts subdivide into smaller ducts, and these again into smaller ones, until they terminate in groups of small sac-like bodies known as the "ultimate follicles," "acini," or "alveoli." The teat-canal, milk-cis- tern, and ducts are lined with columnar epithelium. The alveolus (plural, alveoli) is the sacculated distention found in groups of three to five on the end of the minute milk-ducts. It is the essential part of the gland. It is lined by a single layer of epithelial cells which are especially concerned in milk production. The alveolus is only 1-30 of an inch in diameter, and its cavity is from 1-250 to 1-100 of an inch in length and from 1-1,300 to 1-800 of an inch in diameter. New ducts and alveoli may be formed up to about the fifth or sixth year, thereby increasing the producing capacity of the cow. The entire gland may be compared to a large bunch of grapes; the main duct of the gland branches very much as the stem of the bunch of grapes branches; and just as the branches and sub-branches of the stem lead to the grapes, so the branches of the duct lead to the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 183 alveoli of the gland. If we pack the bunch of grapes in a small basket of sawdust, so that the sawdust fills up loosely the spaces between the individual grapes and the branches of the stem, we may develop our comparison further; the sawdust stands for the connective tissue in which the ducts and alveoli are embedded, and the basket stands for the capsule. The arterial circulation. — The mammary glands are abundantly supplied with blood. The blood leaves the heart through the posterior aorta, common iliacs, and external iliac, which carry backward to the region of the hips. The external iliac there divides into two arteries, one of which, the prepubic, divides into the two pudic arteries, the external one of which passes down the thigh and gives off a branch, known as the mammary artery, which enters the top of the udder from Fig. 65. — Where milk is made. Group of alveoli, a, Duct; b, capillary net- work; c, alveoli; d, epithelial cells; e, fibrous tissue. the rear. The mammary artery has four large branches, one for each quarter of the udder, and there is also a small branch for each rudi- mentary gland. The large branches subdivide within the gland tissue. The venous circulation is more complex than the arterial. The blood is collected from the capillaries by from 14 to 17 large veins which empty into the mammary vein running parallel with the mam- mary artery at the top of the udder. The mammary vein is divided into two parts which encircle the top of the udder and connect in front and behind like a rope tied around it. From this circuit of veins the blood returns to the heart by two routes. One route leads out to the rear of the udder, then up to the region of the hips, and thence to the vena cava and the heart, the veins along the route being parallel to 184 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the arteries through which the blood came, and being similarly named. The other route is already familiar, leading out in front of the udder through the large subcutaneous abdominal veins (milk- veins) which pass through the chest wall and become a part of the internal thoracic vein, reaching the heart by way of the anterior vena cava. The direc- tion of the blood in the encircling veins at the top of the udder is de- termined by the valves in the vessels. The larger volume of blood passes through the milk-veins, thus bringing them into great promi- nence. During pregnancy, the pressure of the uterus tends to interfere with the circulation through the posterior vessels, and this tends to further increase the size of the milk-veins. Inasmuch as the blood may return to the heart posteriorly, it is possible that a high producer Fig. 66. — Circulation to and from the udder. The broken lines represent the arteries which carry blood containing the nutritive material to the udder where it is manufactured into milk. The heavy black lines represent the veins which carry the blood back to the heart. Note that there is but one route from the heart to the udder, whereas there are two routes from the udder to the heart. M. V., milk-vein; M. W., milk-well. may have small milk-veins, but this is not likely to occur. Cows with large milk-veins are large producers, and cows with small milk-veins may be large producers. Nature and composition of milk. — Cow's milk is an opaque, yellow- ish-white fluid devoid of odor except for a short time after its extraction. When fresh, it is slightly sweet and has a slightly alkaline reaction. Under the microscope, milk is found to be a fine emulsion of fat, a quart of milk being estimated to contain 2,000,000,000,000 fat globules, and the cow that gives two gallons of milk per day must therefore secrete at the rate of over 175,000,000 fat globules per second. The Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 185 composition of milk varies a great deal; there are differences between breeds, differences between individuals, and differences in the milk from the same cow at different times. As lactation advances, the daily milk yield decreases, but the percentage of fat constantly increases as does the percentage of all solids. The specific gravity of average milk is 1.032 and its composition is as follows: (Water 87 per cent if Ash .7 per cent [Solids not I Casein 2.7 per cent fat 9.1 per cent 1 Albumin .7 per cent Solids 13 per cent ] [Sugar 5.0 per cent [Fat 3.9 per cent The results of various American experiments indicate that the average composition of the milk of the various breeds is as follows: Breeds Solids Fat Per cent Per cent Jersey 14.70 5.35 Guernsey 14.71 5.16 Shorthorn 13.38 4.05 Ayrshire 12.61 3.66 Holstein-Friesian 11.85 3.42 The quantity of milk given by the different breeds is almost in- versely proportional to the fat content, so that the total quantity of solids and fat is nearly the same for all dairy breeds. The highest average percentage of fat in a regular milking that has been reported is 10.7, and the cow did not give milk of this richness regularly. In a few cases, tests showing 9 per cent have been made and it is only rarely that a cow averages 7 per cent. Secretion of milk. — The udder is a true organ of secretion. Milk is not merely strained from the blood, but contains substances not found in the blood, these being formed in the gland itself. Surrounding the alveoli are capillaries, and through the walls of the capillaries the fluids of the blood pass freely into the cavity of the alveoli by osmosis. At the same time, the epithelial cells lining the alveoli are the seat of secretory activities which produce some of the most important con- stituents of the milk. Thus milk is formed partly from the osmosis of blood serum and white blood corpuscles directly into the cavity of the alveolus, and partly by a chemical elaboration by the epithelial cells. The water from the blood serum passes out of the alveolus, carrying with it some of the mineral constituents of the blood in solution, and a part of the albumin of the blood serum. During its passage from the capillaries to the cavity of the alveolus, by far the larger part of the albumin of the blood is changed by the epithelial cells to the casein of milk. These cells also secrete globules of fat, having an average diameter of about 0.0001 of an inch. Small amounts of fat may also 186 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock be carried over directly by the blood and appear in the milk without change. Only minute quantities of sugar are found in the blood, hence milk-sugar is no doubt also elaborated by the secretory cells of the udder. Milk secretion is not perfectly understood in all its details. In some of its phases, milk secretion is undoubtedly a continuous process, but the agitation of the udder at milking time seems to be very essential in completing the process of milk manufacture. Between milkings, the udder is engaged in certain important preliminary steps which make possible the rapid culmination of the act of secretion when the stimulus afforded by agitation is given. (The theory that milk secre- tion is largely the result of cell growth, division, and degeneration, is no longer held by leading physiologists.) If an udder is cut open just before milking time, it is found that the milk-cisterns and ducts are distended with milk containing a very low per cent of butter-fat. The quantity of this milk is only a small part of the total yield which the cow would give at a milking. Agita- tion of the udder is necessary to complete the process of secretion. Observation of a calf, lamb, or kitten when nursing shows that con- siderable agitation is a prominent feature of nature's method of milking. Under this stim.ulus the water of the blood rushes through the walls of the alveoli and carries the butter-fat, which has been manufactured by the epithelial cells, down into the milk-ducts and cisterns, and finally through the teats. Other products of secretion, namely casein and lactose (milk-sugar), are brought down also. The last milk drawn from the udder is the richest in fat; in one experiment, four successive samples taken during the course of milking tested 0.76, 2.60, 5.35, and 9.80 per cent of fat respectively. ^ A similar test conducted in 1921 by 15 members of the McGregor (Iowa) Cow Testing Association is reported ^ to have given an average of 1.79 per cent of butter-fat in the fore milk and 9.6 per cent in the strippings. These were averages for the cows on the 15 farms. On one farm the strippings tested 14.5 per cent and on another farm 12.8 per cent. Experiments made at the Wisconsin Experiment Station in manipulating the udders of cows, after the regular milkings, resulted in bringing down considerable milk very rich in butter-fat. It was estimated that if the udders of the million cows in Wisconsin at that time were manipulated after the customary operation of milking, and if butter-fat is worth only 20 cents per pound, the value of the extra product would amount to $6 per head annually, or $6,000,000 for all the cows in the state. iJohn W. Decker: Elements of Dairying, p. 38. ^Chicago Daily Drovers Journal, Aug. 1, 1921. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 187 Colostrum. — Because of more or less incompleteness of the various processes of secretion at the start of the lactation period, the first milk differs in composition from that afterwards secreted, and is called colostrum. It is thick and viscous, contains less water than normal milk, five times as much albumin, twice as much ash, slightly more fat, and about one-half the usual percentage of sugar. It has a laxative effect on the calf, useful in properly starting the work of digestion. In about one week following birth, the yield of milk usually increases and becomes normal in composition. Stimuli to secretion. — The cow has no control over the secretion of milk, it being involuntary. During the latter part of pregnancy, the embryo calf makes very rapid growth, and the blood supply to the placenta is much increased. At that time the cow does not ordinarily secrete milk, her excess of energy being given to the growth of the embryo. When the calf is born, the demand through the placenta ceases, and the large volume of blood is turned toward the udder. A short time previous to calving, the udder of the cow shows considerable increase in size, and by the time the calf is born the mammary glands are fulfilling their function nearly to the maximum capacity. In young heifers that have never had a calf, the udder contains a watery, saline fluid. Regular attempts at milking, or manipulation of the udder with the hands, or allowing a calf to suck, may stimulate the secretion of considerable normal milk in such young heifers. The same methods have been known to cause the secretion of a milk-like fluid by the rudimentary glands of males. Thorough milking furnishes a stimulus that causes prolongation of the lactation period, while incom- plete removal of milk tends to check the secretion and shorten the milking period, and it may also cause serious inflammation. Frequent milkings tend to increase the flow of milk, but there is no special ad- vantage in milking more often than twice a day unless the cow is a high producer and the udder becomes very much distended between milkings, as such distention acts as a check to further secretion. Reg- ularity in milking is essential to best results, both in the amount secreted per day and in the length of the lactation period. CHAPTER XII VARIATIONS IN THE USEFULNESS OF DAIRY COWS Census reports and government estimates indicate that the average cow kept for milk production in the United States produces about 4,000 pounds of milk per year. If this milk tests 4 per cent fat, the average dairy cow produces about 160 pounds of butter-fat annually. Assuming that average butter contains 85 per cent of butter-fat, the average American dairy cow may be credited with about 188 pounds of butter per year. The United States holds seventh place among 15 prominent coun- tries in the average yield of milk per dairy cow, being excelled by the Netherlands with 7,585 pounds yearly per cow, Switzerland 6,950 pounds, Great Britain 5,934 pounds, Denmark 5,666 pounds, Germany 4,350 pounds, and Canada 3,779 pounds. Our own average per cow is reported at 3,716 pounds in 1917 and 3,627 pounds in 1920. ^ Extremely wide variations occur in the production and profit re- turned by dairy cows. Relation of production to net income. — J. C. McDowell of the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture tabulated 5,587 yearly records of cows owned by members of cow-testing associations in various parts of the country. These records covered a period of four years. He states ^ that as the average butter-fat production per cow increased from 150 to 200 pounds, the income per cow over cost of feed advanced from $21 to $34. Thus a gain of 50 pounds, or SSVs per cent, in production gave an increase of 62 per cent in income over feed cost. He states that when the production of 150 pounds was doubled, income over feed cost was tripled; and when production was tripled, income over feed cost was multiplied five times. The following table summarizes the results of his study: Relation of butter-fat production to income over cost of feed. Average results, from 5,587 records of iO cow-testing associations Average Average Average annual income Average annual income production of over cost production of over cost butter-fat of feed butter-fat of feed 100 pounds $ 5.00 350 pounds $74.00 150 pounds 21.00 400 pounds 87.00 200 pounds 34.00 450 pounds 100.00 250 pounds 50.00 500 pounds 118.00 300 pounds 63.00 ^T. R. Pirtle: A Handbook of Dairy Statistics, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1922. -Butterfat and Income, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917, pp. 357, 358. 188 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 189 McDowell points out that if no expenses except cost of feed are considered, 1 cow that produced 450 pounds of butter-fat a year would have returned as much net income as 20 cows with an average produc- tion of 100 pounds, and had all expenses been considered, the results would have been even more striking. He found that the cost of roughage was about the same for all groups, regardless of production. The cost of grain was considerably higher for the more productive cows, but it was much lower per pound of butter-fat produced. The in- creased income from the higher producers should be credited in part to better feeding, but it was evidently more largely due to better cows. Mention is made of one herd of 91 cows that in one year produced a total income of $58 over cost of feed, or 6U cents per cow. One reason- ably good cow can easily surpass the record of this entire herd, and how much easier it is to feed 1 cow than 91, and how much easier and cheaper it is to handle and milk 1 cow than 91! And it so happened that another member of the same testing association owned 16 cows that averaged 306 pounds of butter-fat and $75 over cost of feed. Tests of purebred dairy cows were conducted at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901 and at the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904. In a six-months test at Buffalo, the least profit- able cow gave an average return over feed cost of 6.4 cents daily, and the most profitable cow returned 33 cents over feed cost daily, or 5 times as much. At St. Louis in a 120-day test the least profitable cow returned 1.6 cents over feed cost daily, and the most profitable cow returned 42.1 cents, or 25 times as much. High producers consume much more feed than low producers, but they produce much more milk and butter-fat per pound of feed. This is shown by the following table ^ which covers careful, complete yearly records for five years on four farms located in Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina: Relation of yield and feed cost, per cow, to feed cost per 1 00 pounds of milk produced Number of cows Feed cost Pounds of milk annual yield Pounds Per cow yearly Per 100 pounds milk 3,000 and under 16 33 78 111 109 60 36 2,349 3,648 4,596 5,450 6,445 7,514 9,049 $43.93 49.47 55.00 59.91 62.85 70.38 80.45 $1.87 3,001 to 4,000 1.36 4,001 to 5,000 1.20 5,001 to 6,000 1.10 6,001 to 7,000 .98 7,001 to 8,000 .94 8,001 and over .89 ij. S. Gates: Some Outstanding Factors in Profitable Farming, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1915, p. 117. 190 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Note that the feed bill was about twice as high for the best cows as for the poorest ones. But the best cows produced nearly four times as much milk as the poorest cows, and their feed bill per 100 pounds of milk was less than half that of the poorest group. High-producing animals consume much more feed than low producers, hut it pays to feed them with a liberal hand. Records of the champions in production. — The highest records in milk and butter-fat production are useful in showing the possibilities in the breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle. Sometimes these records are made regardless of economy in production, no expense being spared to give the cow every opportunity to make a high record ; sometimes they have been secured at the expense of the cow's future usefulness, her constitution being undermined and her digestion per- manently deranged by the forcing methods that are practiced. The value of such records is sometimes over-estimated, but they clearly indicate that the average dairy cow of the United States with her annual production of about 4,000 pounds of milk and about 160 pounds of butter-fat has plenty of room for improvement. Following are the highest records made in official yearly tests of the various dairy breeds in the United States: Holstein-Friesians Year Cow state Production 1922 1920 May Walker OUie Homestead Minnesota Segis Pietertje Prospect Washington 1,218.58 lbs. fat 37,381.4 lbs. milk Jerseys 1923 1922 Darling's Jolly Lassie Fauvic's Star Oregon Connecticut Guernseys 1,141.28 lbs. fat 20,616.0 lbs. milk 1920 1915 Countess Prue Murne Cowan Massachusetts Ohio Ayrshires 1,103.28 lbs. fat 24,008.0 lbs. milk 1915 1915 Lily of Willowmoor Garclaugh May Mischief Washington Pennsylvania Brown Swiss 955.56 lbs. fat 25,329.0 lbs. milk 1922 1922 Hawthorn Dairy Maid Hawthorn Dairy Maid Illinois Illinois 927.23 lbs. fat 22,622.6 lbs. milk An Ayrshire cow, Crocus, is reported to have given over 45 tons of milk during her 17 years of life. Another Ayrshire cow, Annie Bert, is reported to have given over 45 tons of milk during twelve lactation periods. She also had a record of nearly 2 tons of butter. The Uni- versity of Missouri had a Jersey cow, Hope of Ramapo, that in 17 years produced 78,585 pounds of milk, 4,147 pounds of butter, and 15 calves, thus bringing $1,341.72 into the treasury. The noted Jersey cow, Jacoba Irene, in 37 months produced 42,373 pounds of milk and 2,331 pounds of butter-fat. Another noted Jersey, Sophie 19th of Hood Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 191 Farm, in 6 years produced 75,920 pounds of milk and 4,353 pounds of fat, and in 10 years her production of butter-fat totaled 6,958 pounds. Lily of Willowmoor, an Ayrshire owned in the state of Washington, produced 84,991 pounds of milk and 3,362 pounds of fat in 5 years. The Holstein cow Tilly Alcartra, owned in California, produced in 6 years a total of 156,776 pounds of milk and 4,910 pounds of fat, and in 8 years her total butter-fat production amounted to 6,250 pounds. Vive La France, a Jersey owned in Oregon, recently completed her sixth official test with 14,441 pounds of milk and 917 pounds of fat. Her six yearly records total 78,461 pounds of milk and 5,332 pounds of fat, the highest record to date in butter-fat production during 6 consecutive lactation periods. Cause of wide variation in production — C. H. Eckles, formerly of the Missouri Station, ^ determined why dairy cows vary so widely in production and profit. Two cows in the station herd showing striking difference in ability were selected for the investigation. They were registered Jerseys, sired by the same bull, from dams distantly related, and they had been raised under practically the same conditions. The following table gives the facts regarding these two cows during the first two milking periods prior to the investigation: Name Pedro's Ramaposa Pedro's Elf Date of birth Sept. 4, 1902 May 11, 1903 Age at first calving 29 mo. 18 mo. Pounds milk, first lactation period 4,552 878 Pounds fat, first lactation period 238.8 44.1 Number of days in milk 337 131 Pounds milk, second lactation period 7,174 3,189 Pounds fat, second lactation period 377 114.8 Number of days in milk 365 232 During these two lactation periods, Pedro's Ramaposa produced 2.8 pounds of milk and 3.9 pounds of fat for each pound produced by Pedro's Elf. While the second milking period was in progress, an investigation was planned to determine the cause of this difference in efficiency as dairy cows. The cows were therefore bred so that the calves might be born as near the same time as possible; Pedro's Elf calved October 4, 1907, and Pedro's Ramaposa calved October 7. Complete records were kept of the amount and composition of the feeds consumed. Each cow was fed a ration of the same composition at all times, but the amount was varied to suit the individual. As there was a possibility of the inferior cow using part of her feed for depositing fat on her body — a characteristic of inferior dairy cows- each cow was fed such an amount as would keep her at a uniform body weight. Thus the feed consumed could be studied in relation to dairy qualities only. They were fed all they would consume, unless they be- iMo. Res. Bui. 2. 192 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock gan to lay on flesh and gain in weight. The refused feed was collected, analyzed, and deducted from the records. Complete records were kept of the milk produced and of its composition. The same man always milked both cows. In order to eliminate another disturbing factor from such an experiment, the cows were kept farrow; had they carried calves, it would have been impossible to have accurately measured the feed requirements for milk production. A digestion trial was con- ducted when the cows were at their maximum production to ascertain whether any difference existed in the efficiency of digestion. At the end of the milking period the cows were kept farrow and the same ration was fed as during the milking period ; this was continued for 90 days, the feeding being so regulated in quantity as to maintain the cows at a uniform body weight. In this way the requirement for maintenance was determined for each cow. A maintenance ration is one that will maintain a resting animal at a uniform body weight; such a ration keeps up the body heat, makes repairs in the tissues, and furnishes energy for the working of the heart, lungs, digestive and other organs, and for slight movements of the body. If the dairy cow is pregnant, she requires enough feed above maintenance to furnish nourishment for the foetus. Still more feed in excess of maintenance is necessary if she is giving milk as well as carrying a calf. Cows vary somewhat in their maintenance requirements, hence two cows con- suming the same amounts of feed may have different proportions of their feed available for milk production. For instance, a restless cow has a greater maintenance requirement than a quiet one; when standing up, more feed is required for maintenance than when lying down. Many other factors affect the requirement for maintenance. It is therefore apparent that an investigation into the cause of difference s in the economy of production is not complete unless the requirement for maintenance is determined. This the Missouri Station did by finding how much feed was necessary to maintain each cow at a con- stant body weight while dry and farrow. Other experiments have shown that a well-fed dairy cow uses about 43 per cent of her feed for maintenance, 30 per cent in the work of converting feed into milk, and about 20 per cent finally appears as milk. These percentages vary, depending on the nature of the feed and the individual, but a good dairy cow is more efficient as a machine than either the horse or the steam engine. In the Missouri experiment it was found that the higher-pro- ducing cow required slightly more feed for maintenance; hence, the wide variation in production could not be accounted for by a superiority of the high-producing cow in regard to maintenance. During the year of the investigation, Pedro's Ramaposa produced 8,522 pounds of milk and 469.9 pounds of fat. Pedro's Elf produced Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 193 3,188 pounds of milk and 169.3 pounds of fat. The former produced 2.67 pounds of milk and 2.77 pounds of fat for each pound produced by the latter. The digestion trial showed practically identical results, the co-efficient of digestion being 64.39 per cent for the best cow and 64.99 for the poorest cow. Pedro's Ramaposa consumed 1.75 pounds of feed for each pound used by the other cow, and the real cause of the difference in production was found to be the amount of feed con- sumed above maintenance. The maintenance requirement being prac- tically the same, Ramaposa had 65 per cent of the total feed consumed available for milk production, and Elf had only 44.2 per cent thus available. It was observed that Ramaposa, when producing the maximum milk yield, was practically to the limit of her capacity for handling feed. Her maximum capacity for feed seemed to coincide closely with the amount necessary to maintain her at uniform weight. Elf con- sumed all her feed, and would have taken slightly more had it been offered, although she never showed lack of feed. Ramaposa had much the stronger appetite; she ate rapidly, swallowed the grain with much less chewing, and always showed by her impatience to get her feed a much keener appetite than did the latter. Both cows remained in excellent physical condition throughout the investigation. After deducting the maintenance requirement, one cow produced milk as economically as the other. The ratio between the feed avail- able for milk production and the milk produced was practically the sam.e for each cow. The experiment showed that cows vary but little in the maintenance requirement, or in their ability to digest feed. A superior dairy cow is one with a large capacity for feed above mainte- nance, and one that is not disposed to take on fat, but uses the feed above maintenance for milk production. This once more emphasizes the im- portance of a large, well-developed barrel and its significance in judging dairy cows, provided the cow also has a high degree of dairy tempera- ment as shown by her lean appearance when heavily fed while in milk. EflFect of feed on quantity and composition of milk. — The general statement may be made that the quantity of milk is dependent upon the amount of feed and upon the inherent milk-giving qualities of the cow. Feed has an effect on the quantity of the milk yield, in that an underfed cow cannot produce to the limit of her ability. As shown in the Missouri experiment, however, heavy feeding does not increase the cow's ability, it merely makes possible a production that is up to the limit of her natural, inherited ability. The composition of the milk cannot be permanently changed by any known method of feeding; the composition is regulated by the udder of the cow, each cow having her own characteristic quality of milk. By fattening dry cows, the fat 194 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock content of the milk is temporarily raised when the cows freshen. It is known that cows fed cottonseed meal yield butter that is hard and tallowy, with a high melting point, while linseed meal produces a soft butter with a low melting point. In spite of these and other minor exceptions, it may be said that improvement in the composition of milk is a breeding, rather than a feeding, problem. The feeder can only supply feed in such amount as will permit the cow to give a maxi- mum flow of milk. But as we have seen, two cows may produce far different quantities of milk when given the best of care, so that increase in the quantity of milk is also a problem for the breeder. Cows are born with certain inherent abilities; feeding can assist these inherent abilities to reveal themselves, but cannot permanently alter them. Great cows are born great. Their greatness will not be realized, how- ever, unless they are given good care and plenty of the right kind of feed to use in manufacturing milk. No matter how large and efficient a factory may be, it cannot turn out much product unless it has avail- able an abundant supply of the raw material, but an abundant supply of raw material will not raise the output of a poorly equipped or ineffi- cient p'ant above a certain low maximum. It is far more correct to say that a well-fed dairy cow eats because she gives milk, than it is to say that she gives milk because she eats. CHAPTER XIII BREEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION There were 24,429,000 milk cows on farms in the United States on January 1, 1923, according to the estimate of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and they were valued at $50.83 per head. If put in single file, allowing ten feet of space for each animal, they would make a line over 46,000 miles long, or would form a procession 18 abreast from New York to San Francisco. The distribution of dairy cattle in the United States is shown by the numbers of milk cows in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions: Leading states in numbers of milk cows on farms, January 1 , 1 923 Average State Number value 1. Wisconsin 2,195,000 $57.00 2. New York 1,678,000 63.00 3. Minnesota 1,641,000 47.00 4. Iowa 1,160,000 58.00 5. Illinois 1,148,000 56.00 State Number Average value 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Pennsylvania . Ohio Texas Michigan .... Missouri ..1,071,000 ..1,069,000 . .1,052,000 . . 977,000 . . 777,000 $60.00 56.00 36.00 70.00 45.00 Distribution of-^milk cows on farms by geographical divisions, January 1 , 1 923 Divi.'sion Number North Atlantic 4,026,000 South Atlantic 2,045,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 6,131,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 5,817,000 South Central 4,432,000 Far Western 1,978,00« Total, United States 24,429,000 Dairy cattle are densely distributed in the northern third of the eastern half of the United States, forming a well-marked belt from the eastern boundary of the Dakotas to the Atlantic, and including the northern and eastern margins of the corn belt. The concentration of dairy cattle in this region is due chiefly to the number of large cities located within it and to the large percentage of total population which it includes. Production and consumption of dairy products. — The United States is the largest producer of milk, butter, and cheese in the world, but does not rank high in average per capita consumption. Sweden consumes about 600 pounds of whole milk per capita, Denmark 590 pounds, Switzerland 580 pounds, United States 370 pounds. Great Britain 190 pounds, and Italy 36 pounds. In butter consumption Canada leads with 27.7 pounds per capita, and the United States with 195 196 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 15.5 pounds is fifth. The United States ranks only tenth in per capita consumption of cheese with an annual consumption of 4.2 pounds, while Switzerland leads with 26.4 pounds. ^ Conditions suitable to dairy farming. — Dairying is especially adapted to regions where the land is improved and productive of good crops of grain and roughage, and where the labor necessary for the continuous care of dairy cows is available. Dairy cows require more labor than any other class of farm animals. Feed and labor are both large items of expense in dairying, and the demand for them is constant, whereas in the production of meat animals the demands for feed and labor are to a greater degree seasonal. Economy requires that as Fig. 67. — Distribution of dairy cattle in the United States. much of the feed as possible shall be produced on the farm. The dairy cow is well adapted to high-priced lands and to diversified and inten- sive farming in which the farmer strives to produce the largest possible return from a limited or relatively small acreage. Dairy farming rightly practiced under favorable conditions is very profitable. Dairying for the production of butter and cheese is successfully practiced in regions far remote from markets and consuming centers, but the production of market milk necessitates ready access to markets. Success in breeding dairy cattle. — No greater strides have been made in animal breeding during recent years than have been made by many breeders of purebred dairy cattle. These breeders keep accurate IT. R. Pirtle: A Handbook of Dairy Statistics, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1922. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 197 records of the amount of milk and butter-fat produced by each cow. Such records not only reveal the producing ability of each cow, but they also enable the breeder to determine which bulls sire the best daughters and which cows produce the best daughters. The calves produced by the best sires and dams are retained for use in improving the herd. The calves sold from the herd are priced largely according to the records of their dams and grandams, and according to the known or proven ability of their sires and grandsires. Marked improvement in purebred dairy cattle has resulted from keeping accurate records of production. Many dairymen owning grade herds and engaged in the production of market milk and butter-fat have observed the benefits derived from keeping records and have adopted the methods of progressive breeders of purebred dairy cattle as the means of improving their own herds. Success in dairying requires (1) the use of good, purebred dairy bulls and (2) the keeping of accurate records of the milk and butter-fat produced and of the feed consumed by each cow in the herd. Dairymen who are members of cow-testing associations have these records kept for them at small expense, and the cooperative bull association enables even the smallest dairyman to breed his cows to good, purebred sires. A cow-testing association is a farmers' organization which employs a tester who visits each farm once a month, weighs, samples, and tests the milk of each cow, and weighs jier feed. He then computes the monthly milk and butter-fat production and cost of feed for each cow in the herd. Monthly records computed in this way have been found to be very closely accurate. Such records are valuable not only for weeding out unprofitable cows, but they establish beyond all doubt the value of the herd sires by disclosing the ability of the daughters in comparison to the ability of their dams. The first cow-testing association in the United States was the Newaygo County (Michigan) Association, organized in 1905. On July 1, 1922, there were 513 such associations active in 38 states, and including a total of 12,508 herds and 216,875 cows. Wisconsin was far in the lead with 127 associa- tions, including 3,517 herds and 61,489 cows. ^ A cooperative bull association is an organization of farmers for the joint ownership, use, and exchange of good purebred bulls. Such organizations accomplish two important purposes: 1. Good pure- bred bulls are made readily available to the small dairyman at small cost. 2. The good purebred dairy sire is kept in service in the com- munity and is used to his full capacity. Too frequently good bulls are sent to the butcher because they cannot be used more than two HI. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Dairy Div., Directory of Cow-Testing Associations in the United States, Active July 1, 1922. 198 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock or three years in small herds without mating them with their daughters, but a bull association puts a stop to this practice. The cooperative bull association usually has its membership divided into three or more blocks, each block being supplied with one bull which is kept two years and then shifted to another block. The bulls are owned by the associa- tion as a whole. The purchase price and cost of maintenance are distributed according to the number of cows owned by each member. By combining the cow-testing association and the bull association, members of the latter may not only own good bulls, but they may de- termine the actual ability of these bulls and may keep a high-class sire in use to his full capacity as long as he is serviceable. The first cooperative bull association was organized by the Michi- gan Agricultural College in 1908. On July 1, 1922, there were 190 active associations in 36 states, with a total membership of 6,102, owning 857 purebred bulls. The 6,102 members owned 40,669 cows, 7,123 of which were purebred. There was an average of 6.7 cows per member, 7 members per bull, and 32 members per association. ^ These averages show that it is the small dairyman who benefits most from such an organization. As one writer states, ^ "Fifty dollars may buy a scrub bull, but if five farmers will join an association and pay $50 each, they may own a $250 bull." Pennsylvania with 27 associations and 527 members had the most bull associations in 1922, and South Carolina with 23 associations and 930 members had the largest membership. When questioned regarding the value of cooperative bull associations, 150 farmers in Maryland, Michigan, and Minnesota estimated that the use of the association bulls increased the value of the offspring from the first cross from 30 to 80 per cent, with an average of 65 per cent. ^ Results obtained in grading. — There is great need for the improve- ment of the average dairy cow of the country. The small number of purebred dairy cows makes it inadvisable to recommend that this im- provement shall be accomplished by replacing the average cow with a purebred cow, and that all milk and butter-fat shall be produced by purebred cattle. ^ However, this ideal is easily possible of close ap- lU. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Dairy Div., Directory of Cooperative Bull Associations in the United States, Active July 1, 1922. 2J. C. McDowell: Butter-fat and Income, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917, p. 360. 3 J. G. Winkjer: Cooperative Bull Associations, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 993, p. 6. 4 About 3 per cent of the dairy cattle of the United States are purebred and registered. The ten leading states in numbers of registered dairy cattle as shown by the 1920 census, in order of rank, were New York, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Vermont, Texas, and Indiana. New York with over 150,000 head had one-sixth of the registered dairy cattle of the country, and Wis- consin with 115,000 had one-eighth. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 199 proximation by using purebred dairy bulls to grade up the ordinary dairy cows of the country. There is no good argument in behalf of keeping any except a purebred dairy bull at the head of any dairy herd. No progressive dairyman will take chances in raising a heifer calf for milk purposes whose sire is either a beef bull or a mongrel. The necessity for using purebred sires to breed to common cows and the financial advantage of such a policy was pointed out in Chapter IX, in which the breeding of beef cattle for the market was discussed. The arguments there presented apply with equal force to the breeding of dairy cattle. Tests which strikingly illustrate the effect of a purebred sire in improving a herd of scrub dairy cows have been conducted at the Iowa Station^ by Kildee and McCandlish. The scrub cows were mated with good purebred Holstein, Guernsey, and Jersey bulls, and the daughters were in turn mated with similar bulls. The results presented in the following table show the average yearly production of the original scrub cows and the greatly increased ability of their daughters and granddaughters. All were fed and cared for alike, and no animals were weeded out during the experiment, so that the improvement secured can be credited only to the use of good purebred sires: Average production by scrub cows and by their daughters and granddaughters sired by purebred dairy bulls Scrub dams .... Daughters Granddaughters Milk Pounds 3,660 5,999 8,402 Fat Pounds 172 261 358 Increase over original scrub cows Milk Per cent Fat Per cent 64 130 52 109 The half-blood daughters, carrying 50 per cent of improved breed- ing, showed an increase of 52 per cent in butter-fat production as com- pared to their scrub dams. The granddaughters, carrying 75 per cent of improved breeding, showed an increase of 109 per cent in butter-fat production as compared to their scrub grandams. In other words, the production of this herd was doubled in two generations through the use of good dairy sires. J. C. McDowell of the Dairy Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, states: ^ "A scrub cow is almost worthless because she yields no profit. A scrub bull is worse than worthless because he quickly drags the remainder of the herd down to his low level. In a year a scrub cow produced 146.8 pounds of butter-fat. Her daughter, iJowa Buls. 165, 188. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 410. 200 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Scrub cow No. 56. Av- erage yearly production 3,874.6 pounds of milk and 192.62 pounds of fat. Half-bloc d Holstein No. 77, cut of Scrub No. 56. Average yearly production 6,955.5 pounds of milk and 266.25 pounds of fat. 0r^w^-^, Three-quarter- blood Holstein No. 233, out of half-blood Hol.stein No. 77. Average yearly production 12,804.2 pounds of milk and 482.54 pounds of fat. Fig. 68. — What good purebred sires can do. Improved production in two generations through the use of purebred Holstein sires. From the Iowa experiment. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 201 sired by a scrub bull, produced 126.3 pounds of butter-fat, and the granddaughter, sired by the same scrub, produced 99.7 pounds of butter-fat. California Gretel, a Toggenburg goat, produced almost as much." By going to the same breed each time a sire is selected, the dairy- man soon acquires a herd of very high-grade cows, having only a very small percentage of scrub ancestry. Good grade dairy cows often rival their purebred cousins in production, and many have sold at prices considerably above $200. By using purebred sires, and by weeding out the poor producers and retaining the high-producing cows and their heifer calves, an inferior herd may be revolutionized and made to yield a profit. In this way the dairyman is enabled to raise his standards higher and higher, each year eliminating from his herd those cows which fail to reach the mark. Eventually a herd is built up in which every cow returns a large profit on the feed and care invested in her during the year. Good breeding, feeding, and management. — The following records made by the herd of Peder Pedersen and Son in the Benson Cow- Testing Association, Cedar Falls, Iowa, in three consecutive years show what may be accomplished by the use of good sires, the keeping of records, weeding out the poor cows, and by proper feeding and management: Average Net income Year Average milk per cow butter-fat per cow over per cow, lbs. cost of feed 1911 5,665 pounds 207.7 $22.12 Largest net income cow in herd 54.22 1912 7,060 pounds 251.9 53.96 Largest net income cow in herd 106.30 1913 9,697.47 pounds 341.98 75.00 Two largest net income cows, each 144.00 This herd was made up of grades and a few purebred Holsteins, and the number of cows remained about the same during the three years reported. At the end of the first year it was found that 40 per cent of the cows were unprofitable. They were sent to the butcher, and their places in the herd were taken by two-year-old heifers sired by a purebred sire out of common cows. At the end of the second year, 30 per cent of the cows were "weeded out" and their places taken by two-year-old grade heifers, one purebred cow, and one purebred two-year-old heifer. The end of the third year's work showed that the average milk production had been increased over 71 per cent, the butter-fat 60 per cent, and the average net profit per cow increased from $22.12 to $75.00, or 239 per cent. Selection of the dairy bull. — If twenty dairy bulls are brought before a judge recognized as competent, and he is asked to pick out the 202 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bull that will sire the highest-producing cows, he will be unable to do so with any degree of certainty by studying their individualities. He may easily eliminate some of them because of lack of constitution, weak masculinity, or because they show a decided tendency towards fleshiness. Having such faults, he is reasonably certain that they will not prove sure breeders, or that their heifer calves will not develop into high producers. Having eliminated certain ones, there will probably be several bulls remaining that have no serious faults in conformation, and among these it is mere guesswork to attempt to select the most successful sire. The beef bull carries his evidence of merit upon his back, but the true value of the dairy bull can be judged only by the kind of cows in his ancestry, the kind of cows he sires, or by both. The judging of dairy bulls in the show ring is much less conducive to good results in the improvement of cattle than is the judging of beef bulls. As a general rule, when valuing a purebred animal, more emphasis should be placed upon individuality than upon pedigree; but the dairy bull is an exception. On a basis of 100 points given to the bull's selec- tion, it is conservative to state that 40 points should be allotted to his individuality, and 60 points to the records of performance in his pedi- gree. All purebred dairy bulls have pedigrees, but in many cases no records were kept of the production of their female ancestors; in such cases the pedigree has no special significance, and little importance can be attached to it. When records of performance of the ancestors are available, the bull is said to have a "pedigree with performance," and to such a pedigree much attention should be given when selecting a bull. If the bull is matured and has been long enough in service so that he has heifers in milk, they furnish the best evidence of the bull's value as a breeder. In this connection, however, the dams of the heifers must be studied, as the seeming success of the bull may be very largely due to the excellence of the cows with which he is mated. If the dams are inferior and the heifers are good, all the more credit is due the sire. A Wisconsin farmer who was about to sell his purebred Guernsey bull to the butcher discovered just in time that the bull was a superior sire. When the records were completed, his daughters had produced an average of 7,886 pounds of milk and 397 pounds of butter-fat, as compared to 5,968 pounds of milk and 292 pounds of butter-fat for their dams. Another Wisconsin farmer did sell his registered Holstein bull to the butcher because he could not use him further without inbreeding, only to discover his mistake later when 11 of the daughters freshened at the ages of 2 and 3 years and made yearly records averag- ing 15,047 pounds of milk and 571 pounds of butter-fat. Commenting Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 203 on this loss of a valuable sire, J. C. McDowell points out^ that a cow- testing association tests the dams and daughters, and the cooperative bull association makes it possible to keep a bull until his daughters are tested. As he states, "These associations would have saved that bull." The pedigree with performance. — Most of the trade in purebred dairy bulls is in bull calves, for only rarely will a successful bull, as shown by actual trial, be offered for sale. The best indication of the future breeding value of a dairy bull calf is furnished by the milk and butter-fat records of his dam. If any of her female offspring have records of production, these also furnish valuable evidence. Next, the records of the cows sired by his sire should be studied, if such records are available. After that, the performance of the paternal and ma- ternal grandams should be noted, together with the performance of their female offspring. The grandsires' lists of performers should be studied also, and, if possible, similar studies should be made of the great- grandams and great-grandsires. The fundamental principle under- lying breeding is that "like begets hke," and if the bull has a high- producing ancestry, high-producing sisters, and the other female mem- bers of his family are high producers, we are reasonably certain that he has inherited true dairy qualities of a high order which he will trans- mit to his offspring. As a fine example of a pedigree with performance, the pedigree of the Guernsey bull, May King of Ingleside 12558, is herewith presented. Such a bull commands too high a price to permit using him on grade cows, and the average dairyman seeking a sire cannot expect to obtain a bull with a pedigree equal to this one, although he may be able to secure a son or grandson of such a bull at the price he can afford to pay. This son or grandson preferably should be from a tested dam with a butter-fat record of not less than 400 pounds, and she should be descended from high-producing ancestors. A New England dairyman writing to the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry ^ regarding his experience with a cheap, untried, purebred sire, stated that he had purchased a bull of creditable breeding on the sire's side, but out of a dam that was "just a purebred cow," with no produc- tion records. He writes, "I had a herd of grades, 30 in number, that milked from 5,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk a year and which had taken a lot of time and money to get together. I raised 22 heifers from this bull before the first one freshened. Not one of them gave 25 pounds of milk a day with the first calf. I stopped using the bull and kept lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 410. 2D. S. Burch: Utility Value of Purebred Live Stock, U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 235, pp. 10, 11. 204 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the best females to freshen a second time. There was not much im- provement. The bull and every one of his heifers were sold for what I could get, which was not much. By that time a number of my cows were getting old. It was a case of buy more cows to keep my herd in good numbers as well as milk. With four years lost, and I don't know how much money, I learned not to buy an animal because it is regis- tered, but to buy an individual whose ancestors have made good, with no weak points in his breeding, and then pay the price. It's the cheapest by far in the end." Imp. King of the Ma; Sire of: Langwater Dorothy Langwater Hope Langwater Rosie. Langwater Princess . Lang. May Queen. . Langwater Daisy . Lang. May Rose . . . . Langwater Felois Langwater Milkmaid. Sister Sue of Lang Hayes Queen May Also sire of seven A, 9001. A. B .72. M.Ik Butter- fat 16099.70 781,65 15078.80 773.59 15083.00 724.23 . 12280.50 651 19 11275.70 592.84 10710.30 B57.55 . 9212.50 530.06 . 9445.90 529.81 . 9550.20 510.05 .10290.70 469.60 7904.30 406.94 R sons. Dolly Bloom of Langwater 15452, A. R. 674. Record: 12024.50 lbs. milk; 632.34 lbs. butter-fat. Dam of: Lang. Dolly Bloom. . 13250.80 714.60 Abo dam of one A. R. son Imp. Ma; Rose King 8336. A. R. 41. Sire of: Milk '^'J'^f" Rosa Rubra 14329.15 788.89 Florham Daisy 14876.60 747.08 May Rose Queen 12548.30 667.19 Comefy Rose . 12861.15 641.79 Queen of the Roses 12223.25 604.94 Florham Pride 10860.60 591.85 Anton's May Rose... 10778.70 591.55 Southern Rose 12774.10 583.00 May Rose of Kent . . 10779.65 556.56 Rutila's Mav Rose 9701.10 556.40 Queen of May Rose. 11448.90 539.03 Pride of Place . 10035.50 531.26 And seven other A. R. daughters. Also sire of nine A. R. sons. Imp. Itcben Daisy 3d 15630, A. R. 100. Record: 13636 80 lbs. milk; 714.10 lbs. butter-fat. Sold for $4,000. Dam of: Florham Daisy.. 14876.60 748.08 Langwater Dairymaid 13747.50 670.12 Also dam of one A. R. son. Dolly Bloom of Lang . . 12024.50 632.34 Nelly Jay 9576.10 477.27 Carrie Bell 7605.00 373.38 Also sire of three A. R. sons. Dolly Bloom 12770, A. R. 40. Record: 17297.51 lbs. milk; 836.21 lbs. butter-fat. Dam of: Dolly Dimple 18808.50 876.34 Dolly Bloom of Lang 12024.50 632.34 Itchen Jewel 1112 E. G. H. B. 3d prize, Bath and West, England, 1899. 2d prize, Royal Counties, 1899. Butter- Milk fat Also dam of t A. R. Claremonl May Rose 8648 E. G. H. & 2d prize over Island, 1895. 1st prize over Island. 1896-7-8. 1st prize in England, 1897. 1st prize at nearly all^English shows of 1890-91-92. 1st and Championship, 1902. 1st at London Dairy Show, 1901. Dam of Imp. May Rose 4th— 442 lbs. butter-fat. May Day 1132 E. G. H. B. 1st prize Royal Counties Show, 1898. 1st Bath and West, 1899. Sire of Suzerain, 3d prize Bath and West, 1900. H. C. Royal Counties, 1900. C. Royal, 1900; 2d East Kent, 1901. Grandsire of Melanie of Goodnestone 3d-7415.60 lbs. milk; 387.76 lbs. butter-fat. Daisy Gem 3341 E. G. H. B. John R. Gentry 4655. Half brother to GlenVvood Boy of Haddon, A. R. 8, sire of Jedetta of Pinehurst— 15109.10 lbs. milk; 778.80 lbs. butter-fat. Also sire of 25 other A. R. daughters, and 14 A. R. sons. Dosia 2d 10072. Divan 5846, A. R. 98. Sire of: Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21 Dolly Dillon 11867.30 532.21 Belle Wilson ! 8434.40 423.55 Also sire of two A. R. sons. Questa 11385. Dam of: Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21 Dolly Bloom's sister Ray 7887.20 390.96 Also dam of two A. R. sons. Select individuals first, then examine pedigrees. — There is danger of over-emphasizing the importance of pedigrees when breeding any kind of live stock, and this is especially true if records of tests are included in the pedigrees. Some breeders have selected and mated their animals solely upon the basis of records, without any considera- tion of individuality. Animal breeding is not successfully supervised when the owner decides upon matings from pedigrees spread out be- fore him in his office or by the parlor lamp. If this is done, and individ- uality is neglected, defects of conformation may gain a foothold in his Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 205 herd and eventually defeat his plans. For instance, two animals may- be selected for mating because of the excellence of their breeding; in other words, the mating looks good on paper; but weakness of constitu- tion may be common to both of them, and if so, it is probable that their offspring will exhibit this defect in greater degree, so as to prevent the fulfillment of the offspring's inherited tendency to high production. Enough attempts at selecting and mating animals purely on the basis of records have met with failure to show that such procedure is very liable to wreck the herd. The breeder must refuse to be carried away by performance to the extent of buying merely a pedigree. Choose several good individuals, and then let the pedigrees be the basis for the final choice. A meritorious individual should accompany the meritorious pedigree. Advantages of dairy farming: 1. The dairy cow is well adapted to diversified and intensive farming where the farmer strives to produce the greatest possible in- come from a small acreage. Striking examples of this fact are found in Holland, Denmark, and the island of Jersey. 2. If the manure is properly conserved and used, dairy farming increases soil fertility. A ton of butter removes only 64 cents' worth of plant food from the farm, while a ton of corn removes $6.56 worth of plant food. By feeding the crops and purchased supplementary feeds to dairy cows, the land may be made more productive. 3. The dairy cow is a continuous source of revenue. The cream or milk checks come in at frequent and regular intervals. 4. Skim milk is a most excellent feed for hogs and poultry. 5. Good grade and purebred dairy cows meet with ready sale. It is also true that the dairy cow yields about six times as much edible solids in her milk for every 100 pounds of digestible nutrients consumed as the beef steer or mutton sheep in its carcass. On this basis of comparison the dairy cow is shown to be a more economical producer of human food than is the steer, sheep, or pig. CHAPTER XIV DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE Dual-purpose cattle are all-purpose or general-purpose cattle. They occupy a position midway between the beef and the dairy types, the aim being to combine the good points of both beef and dairy cattle as nearly as possible. The dual-purpose cow, however, does not give as much milk as the dairy cow, nor does she make as much beef as the beef cow. At present the demand for dual-purpose cattle is compara- tively limited, although it has been predicted that many farms will eventually adopt the dual-purpose type as the one most profitable. It is also believed that those who maintain beef breeding herds will in the future pay more attention to the milking qualities of their cows. Perhaps no subject relating to cattle has aroused so much discus- sion as has the type, economic importance, and probable future of the dual-purpose cow. It has been argued that the day of general-purpose animals is past. It is said that this is a day of specialization in all things, and that better results and more profit are obtained from animals which do one thing and do it well, than are obtained from animals which do two or three things in a mediocre way. While it is true that the tendency in the live-stock world is more and more toward highly specialized types of animals, it is also true that there are good arguments in favor of a dual-purpose type of cattle. Of these argu- ments, the best one is that there is need of a farmer's cow; that is, a cow for the farmer who is neither a beef producer nor a dairyman, but who wants to produce enough meat and milk for his own use. Such a man wants a cow that gives a good flow of milk, and yet one that has a strong enough beef tendency to produce a calf that will feed out well and make a good carcass; in other words, this man wants a dual- purpose cow. There can be no doubting this argument and it was this demand which made the old-time Shorthorn the popular cow with farmers 50 or 60 years ago. Another argument frequently advanced in behalf of dual-purpose cattle is that beef production on high-priced land must, in the future, come from a dual-purpose type of cattle. On western ranches where land is cheap, a calf is all the return a cow need give in order to make her profitable, but the corn-belt farmer on $100 and $200 land cannot conduct a business on the same basis as the western ranchman. It is argued that a farmer on high-priced land cannot afford to keep a cow that produces calves suitable for feeding into beef unless she pays for 206 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 207 her board, in part at least, with a fair amount of butter-fat. It is argued that he can no more afford this than he can afford to keep mutton sheep which produce lambs, but no wool. The advocates of the dual-purpose cow claim that she will be the salvation of future beef production. However this may be, changes will come gradually and it seems probable that the beef-type animal is destined to continue popular for some years to come. The methods of management where dual-purpose herds are kept vary considerably. Sometimes the production of beef is given most attention and the milking qualities of the cows are esteemed only as a source of feed for the calves. At the other extreme are herds managed Fig. 69. — The dual-purpose type. Milking Shorthorn cow, Pansy 2d, first prize winner at Carlisle, England. Imported and owned by James J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn. as dairy herds, the beefiness of the cows making possible a good income from choice veal calves reared on skim milk and supplemental feeds. Neither of these plans represents true dual-purpose management. The dual-purpose cow is at her best when the plan calls for the sale of milk or butter-fat and the rearing of calves to be fed and marketed as fat steers and heifers, or sold into other hands for feeding. All of the cows may be milked, the butter-fat sold, and the skim milk fed to the calves; or half of the cows may be milked and the rest allowed to raise the calves. 208 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock It is considerable trouble to rear calves on skim milk, but it is being done with good results on many farms. The skim milk should be supplemented by oats, bran, corn meal, hay, and good pasture until weaning time, and the calf should be wintered on grain, silage, and hay. When weaned and placed on regular rations, skim-milk calves usually advance rapidly and often overtake calves reared on whole milk to such an extent that they cannot be distinguished from the latter. Dual-purpose type. — Descriptions of the beef and dairy types having been given in detail, dual-purpose type may be described in few words by comparisons. The true dual-purpose type of animal is distinguished from the beef animal by certain well-marked differences in form and appearance. The dual-purpose animal is not so wide as the beef animal, nor so smooth, and the fleshing is not so thick. The neck is longer, the withers are not so wide and rounding, the middle is less blocky and compact, and the legs are longer. The udder receives considerable attention and should be large, of good texture, and of good shape. The dual-purpose cow should bear indications of credit- able performance at the pail. Compared with the dairy type, the dual-purpose animal shows more squareness and fullness of forequarters, more width and compact- ness of body, more fleshing and smoothness. The spring of rib is more pronounced, the back is wider, the withers are thicker, the shoulder is heavier fleshed and smoother, and the thigh and twist are much more heavily fleshed. Dual-purpose cows that give a generous milk flow will carry less flesh during the milking period, but when dry they take on flesh readily. Their calves have a reasonably good fleshing when fed for market, especially if sired by a beef-type bull. When dual-purpose cattle are brought into the ring at fairs and expositions, it is readily observable that marked variations in type exist, ranging from near the dairy type to the lower limits of beef type. What is regarded as a typical dual-purpose animal by one man will not always suit another, but will be criticised as leaning too much toward the beef type or the dairy type. Some men accept a beef cow with a larger udder than usual as a typical dual-purpose animal; others have in mind a dairy cow showing more beefiness than common. In the show rings of this country much dissatisfaction has arisen over the judging of dual-purpose cattle; some judges have apparently awarded the prizes upon the beef qualities of the animals shown, while other judges have leaned almost as much the other way. A judge at one show will select certain animals as prize winners, and at another show, with the same cattle on exhibition, an almost complete reversal will be made in the awards — hence the dissatisfaction. As time goes on, breeders are getting closer together in their ideals of a dual-purpose animal, Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 209 although there can never be the uniformity of ideals which prevails among breeders of either beef or dairy cattle. This is true because beef and dairy types represent extremes, while the dual-purpose type is an avOrage of these two, or represents the middle ground. Profits from dual-purpose cattle.^In an investigation into the methods and cost of growing beef cattle in the corn-belt states in 1914 and 1915, the U. S. Department of Agriculture obtained 596 records from farms in Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. ^ Farms where cows were kept for distinctly dairy purposes or where the herds were maintained only for the production and sale of purebred animals for breeding purposes were omitted. Records were procured on 14,634 cows and 621 bulls, Fig. 70.— The dual-purpose type. Red Polled bull, Teddy's Best, 32 times a champion and a very noted sire. Owned by Jean Du Luth Farms, Duluth, Minn. and on 12,591 calves produced from them, of which 2,023 were fattened for baby beef. Six distinct practices in beef production were noted, as follows: Beef. — Farms where all the cows are kept strictly for beef (not including farms producing baby beef). Baby beef. — Farms maintaining breeding herds for the production of high-grade calves which are fattened on the same farm and sold at from 12 to 18 months of age as baby beef. Dual-purpose. — Farms on which all of the cows are milked, and either cream or butter-fat sold, the calves being weaned at birth and raised on skim milk. 1 Cotton, Cooper, Ward, and Ray: Methods and Cost of Growing Beef Cattle in the Corn Belt States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 111. 210 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Mixed. — Farms on which the best cows are milked, their calves being weaned at birth and fed skim milk. Calves from the other cows are allowed to run with their dams as in the beef group. Partially milked.— Farms on which the calves are not wea^.ed, but on which a part of the milk is drawn from the cow, the calf taking the remainder. Double nursing. — Farms where some of the cows are milked and their calves given to other cows, the latter raising two calves each. The cost of calves at weaning time, the cost of raising yearlings, and the profit or loss on the yearlings was determined for each of the six groups. The accompanying table, showing the various factors that make up the cost of producing a yearling and summarizing the results of the investigation, indicates the economy of dual-purpose herds as beef producers. However, as this table is studied, it is well for the reader to keep in mind the fact that no profits were allowed for the dairying practiced by the owners of the dual-purpose, mixed, partially- Calves from dual-purpose and beef herds compared in eosls and profits Item Beef » Dual- purpose Mixed Partially milked Double nursing Number of farms 230 31.50 63.83 120.81 35.12 4.79 30.33 42.27 84.9 20.9 35.47 2.26 .01 .00 66 34.56 69.50 158.80 36.77 5.39 31.38 53.26 90.7 25.3 34.50 2.29 .00 .00 110 12.75 60.01 84.02 55.14 49.07 6.07 37.51 83.9 10.7 7.34 4.02 9.35 2.56 102 23.47 65.02 123.33 43.95 24.72 19.23 46.79 87.5 18.5 22.29 2.91 4.48 1.11 65 14.29 60.04 79.45 42.75 21.43 21.32 34.14 90.1 12.6 23.71 3.35 .02 .00 22 17.32 Average value of bulls. . ^6 03 Cost of maintaining the breeding herd: Gross cost of maintaining a cow Credits for milk and manure 46.50 33 26 13.24 40.53 Calf crop: Percentage of cows raising calves to wean- Number of calves per bull 15 Cost of raising a calf to weaning time: Bull charce 3 02 Feed.... ^........ ...... :::::::;::: Labor .26 Total cost at weaning time (6 to 8 37.74 36.79 23.27 30.79 27.08 Cost of raising a yearling: 190 24.43 38.20 12.32 4.62 55.14 1.60 53.54 13 475-500 53.16 37.70 67 30.20 37.01 35.02 6.02 78.05 7.53 70.52 15 834 70.52 71.30 99 10.57 23.64 9.93 4.92 38.49 1.89 36.60 13 350-400 36.80 31.17 96 18.46 30.61 12.01 4.72 47.34 1.48 45.86 13 45.97 33.85 57 11.16 26.39 12.21 4.66 43.26 1.54 41.72 13 (') 41.06 35.51 22 Average number of calves per farm 14.23 17.82 10.24 ' Other charges 3 86 31.92 Credits for manure and pork 1.67 Net cost 30 25 13 Average weight, pounds (3) Net cost, May 1, revised due to some calves 30.25 Inventorial or farm value. May 1 33.73 Loss . . 15.46 5.63 12.12 5.65 Gain .78 1 3.48 » Includes labor, equipment, interest, risk, taxes, insurance, and veterinary expense. " Not given, but intermediate between beef and dual-purpose groups. » Not given, but nearly as much as in the beef group. Figures in bold type call attention to the fact that the baby beeves were carried along to an age sufficient to finish tbem for market; these figures cover a longer period than in the case of the other calves. Types and Market Classes op Live Stock 211 milked, and double-nursing herds; instead, the returns, including profits, from the sale of milk have been used to lower the cost of the calf. Results based on such a method of cost accounting are some- what misleading. Dairying was conducted at cost, the profits being credited to beef production. The greatest item of expense in raising a calf to weaning time, except in the dual-purpose group, was the cow charge, or net cost of keeping a cow a year. The net cost of maintaining a cow varied greatly, depending largely upon the sale of milk products from cows that were milked. It was therefore lowest in the dual-purpose group. The cost of the calf at weaning time was lowest in the double- nursing group. While the cow charge was lowest in the dual-purpose group, the addition of the cost of feed and labor for the skim-milk calves made the cost of the calf somewhat greater than in the double- nursing group. The cost of the calf at one year was lowest in the double-nursing group. The calves in the dual-purpose group, although poorest in merit and value, ranked third in profit. The calves in the double-nursing group were relatively of good quality and showed the greatest profit. The data obtained indicate that the keeping of cattle for beef purposes alone is adapted to the more extensive types of farming, while the keeping of cattle primarily for beef purposes, but where an income is also obtained from milk products, is better adapted to the more intensive types of farming. The averages would seem to indicate that profits from raising calves on corn-belt farms are very small. However, these facts must be taken into consideration: 1. Good returns were obtained for a large quantity of roughage which, had it not been utilized by live stock, would have been waste. 2. A home market was provided for saleable crops. 3. On many farms a large acreage suitable to pasture only was utilized. 4. Profitable employment was provided for a season of the year when labor otherwise might have been idle. 5. A return was obtained for capital invested in equipment which, in many instances, had it not been utilized by live stock, would have returned nothing. 6. When the farmer merely breaks even he has at least made 6 per cent on the money invested in the cattle business. PART II-SHEEP INTRODUCTION The United States ranks as one of the principal mutton-producing and wool-growing countries of the world. The sheep industry in America dates back to early times. It has experienced more ups and downs, due to changing conditions and varying prices than has the cattle industry or the hog industry. At the present time the sheep business is in a transitional stage. The number and size of flocks in most of the western range states continue to decline. In the farming states increased interest in sheep and increased production are now noticeable. Lamb and wool production is a profitable business at the present time and promises to continue so, not only under range condi- tions but also in intensive farming. Feed and labor requirements. — F. R. Marshall, formerly in charge of sheep investigations, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, has pointed out that sheep are markedly different from other farm animals in their requirements for feed and labor: ^ Lamb and wool production require a smaller use of grain feeds than is required with other kinds of live-stock farming. A majority of lambs are marketed at weaning time and without having had any feed other than the milk of their dams and a slight amount of grazing. The lamb carcass requires less fat to render it suitable for the table than is necessary in any other class of meat. This fact adapts sheep raising to sections that are not adapted to the production of grains but can furnish good pasturage and forage crops. Lambs born late in the season, lambs raised by ewes which are not good milkers, and lambs raised under conditions which do not produce a good milk flow in the ewes go into the hands of feeders and consume considerable grain, but their finish is largely produced from hay and other roughages of comparatively lower value. Breeding ewes require little grain, and good fleeces are produced without the use of concentrated feeds. Sheep have been advocated on the ground that no labor or atten- tion is needed. It has been said that they are farm scavengers, that they will clear the farm of weeds. It is true that sheep will eat most weeds, and that farms which have a flock of sheep usually give evidence of that fact in cleaner fence rows and corners and a tidier appearance generally. It is also true that sheep raising requires comparatively 1 Sheep and Intensive Farming, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917, pp. 311-320. 213 214 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock little labor. The labor cost per dollar's worth of wool or lambs is lower than in any other farm-animal product. It should be emphat- ically stated, however, that sheep will not do well unless they are given constant attention and the care necessary to maintain thrift, yet the amount of work required is by no means heavy except at lambing and shearing time. One competent man can care for from 300 to 500 ewes during winter. Sheep raising, properly managed, is profitable on the corn-belt farm, while the New England states, and large areas of cut-over timber lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are suitable for sheep as soon as provision is made for the production of winter feed. Many millions of acres in this country not now in farms and which are largely unfit for the plow and not suitable for grazing by other animals, will eventually return a revenue in lambs and wool. The sheep's ability to prosper on grass and roughage, with little grain, gives it first call under these conditions. The advantages of sheep, as compared to other live stock on the farm, have been most ably presented by the late John A. Craig. ^ He calls attention to the following: 1. Compared with cattle, sheep produce more liberally in propor- tion to what they consume. They consume more feed in proportion to their weight, and a larger proportion of what is eaten goes into in- crease. However, sheep are not so well fitted as cattle to utilize large quantities of coarse roughage. 2. The form in which sheep manure is dropped and the way it is tramped into the soil insure a smaller waste than is possible under any other system of stock farming. The sheep's habit of lying upon the highest spot of the field or pasture leaves the larger part of the droppings at the place where they are most needed. 3. Sheep farming utilizes what would be otherwise waste4and.^ 4. They convert into mutton and wool much material that can- not be utilized by other animals. This is particularly true of grain lost in stubble. Volunteer growth or aftermath too scanty for other stock is just suited to the grazing habits of sheep. 5. Sheep are the best weed destroyers. Of the numerous plants regarded as weeds, cattle and horses eat about 50 per cent, while sheep eat over 90 per cent of them. 6. The income from wool and that from the lambs and mutton come in different parts of the year, and it seldom happens that both products sell at bottom prices the same year. 7. The wool clip is easily stored with practically no waste or deterioration if it is desirable to hold for a higher price. ^ Sheep Farming in North America, pp. 3-8. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 215 8. The returns come quickly. Lambs may be marketed eight months after the ewes are bred. 1 0-lf * 9. The ewe's fleece usually pays for her keep. This puts the fat lamb on the market at low cost of production. 10. With good management, the increase in the flock may be safely counted at one hundred per cent. Fine, medium, and long-wool classes of sheep. — Sheep breeders in the various countries have developed two distinct kinds of sheep — mutton sheep and wool sheep, the latter being commonly called fine- wool sheep. Mutton sheep naturally divide into two classes known as (1) long- or coarse- wool sheep, and (2) medium- or middle- wool sheep. Fine- wool sheep bear wool that is IJ/^ to 4 inches long after twelve months' growth, medium-wool fleeces vary in length of fiber from 2 to 5 inches, and the long-wool fiber measures 5 to 12 inches. The fiber of the fine- wool fleece is very fine in diameter and has a large number of waves or crimps to the inch, usually from 16 to 22. The long-wool fiber is coarse and lashy, being rather straight and hairy in appearance. The fiber of the medium-wool fleece occupies a position between the fine- and long-wool fibers, but with fewer crimps per inch than the fiber of fine- wool sheep. The three classes are separated by other marked differences besides length and fineness of wool. Fine- wool sheep are usually of small or medium size, and have a rather narrow form, long neck, uneven top line, white face, more or less wrinkled skin, a compact fleece often dark on the exterior, poor mutton qualities, and active dispositions. Med- ium-wool sheep are medium to large in size, have a wide, compact, blocky, meat-producing form, straight top line, usually have brown faces, a smooth skin, a compact fleece that is light colored on the exterior, thick flesh, excellent mutton qualities, and active dispositions. Long-wool sheep are large, with blocky bodies, straight lines, rather upstanding, white face, smooth skin, shaggy light-colored fleeces hang- ing in long locks or curls, thick but somewhat coarse flesh, lay on much fat, and are more sluggish and indolent in their habits. Types, classes, and breeds of sheep. — Although variations in fleece, size, form, and other points permit the division of all sheep into three groups, there are at basis only two types of sheep — mutton type, and fine-wool type. The former includes both the long- and medium- wool groups. Following is the classification of the breeds according to type, together with the number of registered purebreds of each breed in the United States on January 1, 1920, as reported by the 1920 census: 216 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Type Class fLong wool UTTON Type Medium wool Fine-Wool Type . . \ Fine wool . Breed Number rCotswold 1 f 3 ) I Lincoln 13,903 I Leicester 767 [Romney Marsh ( ^ ) Shropshire 124,454 Hampshire Down 51 ,813 Oxford Down 16,601 Dorset Horn 8,458 Southdown. 8,451 Cheviot Wrlfk' 3,000 Suffolk 805 Tunis (3) Corriedale ( » ) Rambouillet 106,849 Delaine Merino \ rg ^on American Merino / oy,yju All other = 68,483 Total 463,504 ' Though not separately reported by the 1920 census, Cotswolds are the most numerous breed of long-wool sheep in the United States. 2 Includes Cotswolds, Romney Marsh, Tunis, Corriedale, and other breeds. ' Not separately reported. All of these breeds except the Merinos, the Corriedale, and the Tunis, originated in Great Britain. The American Merino and Delaine Merino were developed in the United States, the Rambouillet in France, the Corriedale in New Zealand, and the Tunis in the province of Tunis in northern Africa. The mutton-type sheep is chiefly valued on account of its ability to make good mutton economically, although the wool-producing ability of the mutton-type sheep constitutes an important part of its value to the farmer. Some of the best mutton-producing breeds have failed to gain much popularity mainly because of their deficiency as wool producers. It is not expected that one type of sheep will excel in both mutton and wool production, any more than one type of cattle is expected to excel in both beef and milk production, yet it is important that the mutton-tj^De sheep grow a fleece of good density, length, weight, and quality. The fine-wool type is mainly a wool proposition. The American Merino is of no more value for mutton than are dairy cattle for beef. The Delaine Merino and Rambouillet have better mutton qualities, though not equaling the mutton breeds in this respect, and this largely explains their greater popularity as compared to the American Merino. Combined wool-and-mutton type most popular. — The American farmer, and likewise the rangeman, has declared that the most profit- able sheep to grow in this country is, as a rule, a combined wool-and- mutton type. Among the mutton breeds, and also among the fine- wool breeds, those which yield the most and best of both mutton and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 217 wool rank highest in popularity, while those breeds which are more highly speciaHzed so as to be superior in one line of production and very inferior in the other are not so popular. The popularity of a breed depends also upon other factors such as constitutional vigor, prolificacy, quietness of disposition, feeding qualities, grazing qualities, ease of shearing, and early maturity, but first and fundamentally the breed must produce both a good carcass and a good fleece if it is to be popular with the farmer. Every breed has its place, however, and to eliminate all except two or three breeds from American farms and ranches would be poor policy. Some of the less popular breeds are highly valued for producing rams to use in cross-breeding or grading-up to produce the desired type. Other less popular breeds have special features which give them the preference under certain special condi- tions of climate, food supply, or method of management. Definitions of Sheep Terms Ram or buck. — Breeding male, any age. Ewe. — The female, any age. Lamb. — Any sheep under twelve months of age. Wether. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young lamb. The best age to castrate lambs is from 7 to 10 days old at the same time they are docked. Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and forequarters. This constitutes coarseness in a market animal. Shearling. — A yearling. Two-tooth.~A yearling. Two-shear. — A two-year-old. Four-tooth. — A two-year-old. Show Yard Classification by Ages The base date for classifying sheep by ages is September 1, and the classes by ages are as follows: Lamb class. — Animals are eligible to this class that were dropped on or after September 1 of the preceding year. Yearling class. — Dropped between (and including) September 1 of the second preceding year and August 31 of the preceding year. Two years old and over (aged) class. — Dropped before September 1 of the second preceding year. Champion. — Best animal any age. Grand champion. — Best animal any age or breed. For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of 1923, lambs are those animals dropped on or after September 1, 1922; yearlings, between September 1, 1921, and August 31, 1922; and aged animals two years old and over are those dropped prior to September 1, 1921. CHAPTER XV MUTTON TYPE Although the breeds of sheep classed as mutton breeds may be grouped into two distinct classes — long-wooled and middle-wooled — and although the breeds within each class differ considerably in color markings, fleece, and appearance, nevertheless all of them belong to the mutton type. The following description applies particularly to sheep or lambs fattened for the market. The general appearance of the mutton-type sheep is almost identical with the beef type of cattle. The mutton sheep should be markedly short legged, broad, deep, and symmetrical. The top line and underline should be straight and parallel, and the top should be broad and level from end to end. The side lines should be straight, and the middle wide and deep, yet neat and trim. Leggy and rangy conformations are as objectionable in mutton sheep as in beef cattle. There should be pronounced blockiness of conformation, combined with neatness, fullness, and great smoothness of outline. The head should be short and broad, the mouth of ample width, the nostrils large, the face short, the eyes prominent and clear, the fore- head broad, and the ears rather fine, short, neatly attached, and well carried. The mutton type does not have horns as a rule, the Dorset breed being the only exception. The head should have a clean-cut appearance, indicative of quality and good breeding. The neck should be short and plump, arched, trim at the throat, and should join the shoulders full and smooth. The shoulders should be compact, smooth, and nicely covered over with flesh, making the forequarters very even and smooth. The tops of the shoulders should come fairly well together and be rounded over with flesh. The breast ought to be prominent, broad, and filled out plump with flesh. A wide breast is an evidence of strong constitution, and plumpness of this part is one of the indications of proper finish and fatness in the market sheep. The chest should be very wide and deep, and have a full heart- girth. There should be considerable distance between the front legs, and also between the shoulders, and no depression of the side should exist just back of the shoulder. The front flanks should carry down deep and be well filled out. 218 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 219 The front legs should be short and straight, the shanks fine, and the joints not too large. The knees show some tendency to come to- gether, but this should not be marked. Attention should be given to the pasterns which should carry up strong, and to the feet which should be well developed, strong, and point directly forward. The back furnishes one of the valuable cuts of the carcass. It should be very wide, short, and straight, and should be thickly, firmly, and evenly fleshed. When the hand is pressed down upon the back it should exhibit no dip or weakness, but carry up level and strong. In thin sheep the backbone is marked by a sharp ridge; in well-fattened animals the back is smooth, the backbone being covered; while in very fat animals the flesh may be thickened on either side of the middle line 2.4 Mouth Nostril Face Eye Forehead Ear Neck Fig. 71.— Points of the sheep. 8. Shoulder 9. Breast 0. Fore leg 1. Fore flank 2. Top of shoulders 3. Back Loin Hip Rump Thigh Hind leg Pastern 26 14. Ribs 18 and 24. Leg of mutton 21. Dew claw 22. Foot 23. Dock 24. Twist 25. Hind flank Belly to such an extent that a groove is found down the middle of the back instead of a ridge. The ribs must have a strong arch to give width to the back, and they should carry down deep to afford a large chest and good feeding capacity. They should be placed close together along the side, the last pair coming close to the hips. The covering of flesh on the ribs should be thick, even, and firm. The side should be straight and even, the belly should be straight and trim, and the hind flanks should be well let down. 220 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The loin yields the highest priced cut of the carcass. Like the back, it should be very wide, straight, strong, and covered evenly with thick, firm flesh. The backbone should be covered. Sheep may be well covered over the back and poorly covered over the loin, therefore careful handling all along the top is necessary in order to judge of the fleshing. The hips should not be prominent; they should be well laid in and smoothly covered over with flesh. The rump ought to be long, level, and wide, the top line carrying out straight to the end of the body. One of the most common faults of mutton sheep is a poorly shaped hindquarter, the rump frequently Fig. 72.^Correct type in the fat wether. Grade Shropshire yearling wether, grand champion at the 1913 International. Bred, fitted, and shown by J. and D. J. Campbell, Woodville, Ont., Can. Neat in form, excellent in quality, and thickly and firmly fleshed. His fatness, trim middle, and good quality insure a high dressing percentage. This sheep belongs to the medium-wool class. rounding off or drooping on top, and the sides cutting in to give a peaked conformation. Squareness and fullness should characterize the hindquarter. The covering of flesh should be abundant, yet smooth and free from softness or bunches of gobby fat. The thighs and twist, often called the "leg of mutton," should be broad and plump as viewed from the rear, and the fleshing should carry well down toward the hocks, as in beef cattle. The leg of mutton, loin, and back constitute the valuable parts of the carcass, and they must carry a high degree of fleshing. Wide variations in the develop- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 221 ment of thigh and twist will be found, although a maximum develop- ment is always demanded. The hocks and hind legs should be strong and placed well apart. When the hocks are close together, the thigh and twist usually lack a full development. Crooked, weak hocks, either badly sickled or bowed, are rather common and are very undesirable. The legs should be short and straight, and show refinement of bone and joints. The hind pasterns are also given attention in judging, for it is by no means un- common to find them broken down and weak so as to impair the use- fulness of the animal to a marked degree. They should carry up strong, so as to bring the weight full on the toes. The skin should be of a bright pink color and free from dark- colored spots. The pink color is an indication of health and thrift, while a white or bluish color shows an unthrifty condition. Some breeds excel in this respect, and others characteristically show a rather dark color due to the presence of pigment in the skin, in which case the dark color is not necessarily an evidence of unthriftiness. The dark-faced breeds often have a pigmented skin over the body, and with this fault is often associated the fault of having black fibers in the fleece. The quality of the mutton-type sheep is shown by the fineness of the head and bone, fineness of the wool, and fineness and softness of the hair on the face and legs. Quality is also shown by the smoothness of the animal, both in frame and in fleshing. Coarse shoulders, an angular build, and uneven flesh show lack of quality in a mutton sheep. These are important features in either breeding or fat sheep. Quality and good breeding are usually associated. Well-bred animals respond best when fed and fattened for the market. The butcher likes quality because it insures high quality of meat, and indicates little waste when the sheep is killed and dressed. A sheep of good quality yields an attractive carcass with smooth, even outlines. The condition, or fatness, of a sheep may be determined by an examination of six points, these being the spinal covering, the neck, the breast, the fore flank, the dock, and the purse. ^ The first of these is by far the most important, as it insures a good finish where it is most valuable, namely in the high-priced cuts. The covering over the back and loin should be such that the top is smooth and the backbone not easily felt. The neck and breast of a well-finished sheep are plump, the fore flank is well filled, the dock is found thick when grasped in the fingers, and the purse is well filled with fat. Sheep that have been over-fed often have bunches of soft fat at the end of the rump, and a blubbery mass of fat at the fore flank. Sheep that have much loose iThe purse is the scrotum of the wether and its content of fat, the same as the cod of the steer. 222 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock fat at the fore flank are referred to as "slipped," it being commonly, but erroneously, supposed that this condition is due to a very heavy formation of fat along the back which becomes excessive and slips down the ribs to the fore flank. The butcher sharply discriminates against such an excessively fat condition, and the breeder has found that slipped ewes are frequently barren. The market wants a thick, firm covering. Softness indicates a "wasty" carcass. Lambs very seldom become too fat, but yearlings and older sheep may be easily fed until they become soft and overdone. biu. 1 3. — Long-wool sheep. Lincoln ram, champion at the Iowa State Fair, owned by A. W. Arnold, Galesville, Wis. The style which some mutton sheep possess has an importance similar to style in beef cattle. Furthermore, feeders testify that the lamb or wether with stylish appearance and sprightly gait is usually vigorous and a good feeder, style being to some extent an evidence of constitutional vigor and thrift. The fleece of the mutton-type sheep is of secondary importance, yet constitutes an important item of value. The value of the fleece depends upon its length, weight, quality, and uniformity. Weight of fleece depends upon covering, density, length of staple, and the amount Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 223 of oil, or grease, called "yolk." The quality of fleece refers in a strict sense only to fineness of fiber, but in a general way may also include softness, soundness, luster, color, cleanness, purity, and freeness. The covering of wool has reference to the completeness of covering over all parts of the body. Some animals are very devoid of wool on the belly and around the flanks. The breeds differ widely in the extent to which the poll, ears, face, and legs are covered with wool, such features forming a prominent part of some breed types. The tend- ency in recent years, especially with some breeds, has been to secure a more complete covering of wool, and thus produce a fleece of some- what more weight. In all breeds, the under parts of the body, includ- ing the scrotum of the ram, should be well wooled. A dense fleece is one that is compact, or has a large number of fibers growing on a square inch of skin. As much density is desired as is possible to attain. The length of fiber varies greatly among the mutton breeds, so that it is diflficult to fix requirements for length of fleece for the mutton type in general. However, a length of less than 3 inches for a year's growth should subject a mutton-type animal to criticism, and if it is less than ^Yi inches the wool sells at a lower price per pound on the wool market, as it is then not adapted to the manufacture of worsted cloth. As a rule, the longest fleeces are the coarsest and most lacking in density; maximums of fineness, length, and density cannot be se- cured in one fleece. The medium-wool breeds vary in length of staple from 2 to 5 inches, while the long-wool breeds vary from 5 to 12 inches. The yolk is a variable feature and a highly important one. It is an oily substance secreted by glands in the skin, and passes out over the fibers, giving them an oily coating that is valuable because it makes the wool soft, protects and preserves the fibers, and, by causing the fibers to lie even and regular, insures against matting, or "cotting," of the fleece. A plentiful supply of yolk also tends to prevent the en- trance of dust, chaff, and other foreign material into the fleece. Inci- dentally, the yolk adds weight to the wool, although an excessive amount of oil that merely adds weight to the fleece is not desirable. The yolk should be in a fluid condition and should be uniformly dis- tributed throughout the fleece from skin to tip of fiber. It should not be so abundant as to collect in drops in the fieece, nor should any flakes of dried yolk be in evidence. The yolk is frequently referred to as the "grease" or "oil." The fineness of fiber, from the earliest days of wool growing, has been esteemed one of the most important requirements of wool. It varies a great deal among the breeds of mutton sheep, and also among 224 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the individuals within a breed. It is not expected that the mutton tjrpe will produce a fiber with the high degree of fineness shown by the Merinos, yet as much fineness is wanted as may be had without sacrifice of weight or quantity of fleece. The crimp, or waved condition, of wool furnishes an easy and accurate measure of fineness. All wool is more or less crimped, and it is a fact that the finest wools are finely crimped, that is, have a large number of crimps per inch, while the coarsest wools are almost devoid of crimp, being lashy or broadly waved. The crimp of the medium-wool fleece should be fine, pronounced, and uniform from skin to tip of fiber. A single fleece yields several sorts Fig. 74. — An International grand champion. Southdown wether bred, fed, and exhibited by Robert McEwen, London, Ont., Can., grand champion at the 1922 International. This wether was remarkably good in firmness, evenness, and thick- ness of flesh, being a great "handler." The photograph shows him to be very good also in form and quality. of wool, differing considerably in fineness. The finest wool grows on the belly, shoulders, and back; that next in fineness, on the neck, breast, and along the sides, while the coarsest wool is found on the thighs and lower parts of the legs. Wool that has softness, yet is firm and elastic, is far more valuable than that which is dry, stiff, and harsh. On the other hand, mushy wool having a soft, lifeless feel with no recoil when handled is very often lacking in strength. Softness depends upon fineness of fiber and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 225 amount of yolk. Ill health, exposure to rough weather, or lack of feed results in loss of softness. The soundness of wool refers to its freedom from weak spots. Sickness, a sudden shock from a blizzard, lack of feed, a rapid change from green to dry feed, or the reverse, and over-feeding often cause the secretion of wool to be lessened for a time, thus producing tender wool. Under the microscope the fibers are found to be narrow in those parts produced under adverse conditions. Yarn made from such wool will be lacking in strength. Sickness will often cause a distinct break in the fiber throughout the fleece. (See Fig. 113.) Wool is said to have luster when the fibers glisten as though thinly varnished. This feature is especially prized in long-wooled sheep. A luster wool takes a dye more readily than does a dull, or lusterless, Fig. 75. — The mutton type. Note the wide breasts, short legs, short necks, and nicely proportioned heads of these Southdown yearling ewes. wool. Furthermore, the luster is plainly apparent in the finished cloth, improving its appearance. The color of the wool fiber should be a clear white. The occurrence of brown or black fibers mixed in the fleece subjects the animal to much criticism. Such wools cannot be used in the manufacture of white goods or those of light shades. Unless the fiber has perfect whiteness, a rich, brilliant dye cannot be secured by the manufacturer. As regards cleanness, all sorts and conditions of fleeces are found, ranging from those above criticism, to those that are a mass of burs, sand, bits of straw, manure, and other rubbish — the whole fleece being matted together and constituting a product of no commercial value. Cleanness depends mostly upon the conditions under which the sheep 226 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock are kept, although some fleeces, on account of their oihness and density, tend to keep free from foreign material, while others, on account of their open, dry, fluffy character, offer no resistance to the entrance of foreign matter. By purity of fleece is meant its freedom from hair, called "kemp," and from dead fibers. With unfavorable conditions of keep and in- ferior breeding there is often a reversion of the fleece to the covering worn by early sheep; that is, hair begins to appear in place of wool. Dead fibers and kemp do not absorb dyes, hence they injure the cloths into which they find their way. Fig. 76. — Determining the age of sheep from the teeth. Upper left, lamb; all the teeth being temporary or milk teeth. Lower left, yearling; center pair of tem- porary incisors replaced by larger permanent incisors. Upper right, two-year-old: two pairs of permanent incisors. Lower right, four-year-old; four pairs of permanent incisors. The lamb and yearling were photographed directly from in front. The two-year-old and four-year-old were photographed to show the side of the mouth. The photographs were not made to the same scale. The fleece is said to have freeness when the locks and fibers are not entangled, but part off readily from one another. When the fibers are tangled, or matted together, the fleece is said to be "cotted." A fleece with uniformity is one^ having sameness in character throughout. Although there is a natural tendency for the wool on different parts to vary in density, length, and fineness, the aim of the breeder is to produce a fleece as nearly uniform throughout as possible. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 227 Age from the teeth. — The teeth are a fairly reliable indication of the age of a sheep. The lamb has eight temporary incisors, or milk teeth, in the lower jaw. There are no incisors in the upper jaw. At 14 months of age, the middle pair of milk teeth is supplanted by a pair of larger, permanent incisors. At 2 years, the second pair of permanent incisors appears; at 3 years, there are three pairs; and at 4 years, all eight permanent incisors are in place. At five years, the teeth show more width between, and at six, the corner teeth may be broken out or the mouth may show signs of wear. Broken-mouthed sheep have their usefulness much impaired, and should not be kept unless for special reasons. (See Fig. 76.) CHAPTER XVI THE MUTTON CARCASS AND THE PELT Mutton and lamb supply a wealthier class of consumers than beef, pork, or veal. Lamb is ordinarily considered something of a delicacy, while beef and pork are looked upon as staple articles of food. The proper handling of mutton and lamb necessitates more careful and quick slaughtering than is required in the case of beef or pork, and good refrigeration facilities are also very essential. The public taste for mutton and lamb was not created until the development of the re- frigerator car nor until the erection of large-scale chill rooms was made possible by artificial refrigeration. The year 1875 marked the advent of these great aids to the packing business. Mutton differs from pork and beef in that it is almost entirely a fresh meat product and does not lend itself to salting, pickling, smoking, or drying as do pork and beef. Hence mutton became a world commodity only after the development of artificial refrigeration and refrigerated transportation. Still another reason for the comparatively recent demand for mutton and lamb is found in the fact that, up to 1870, the great majority of all sheep in America were either purebred or grade Merinos. Good mutton be- came plentiful only after the use of mutton rams became general on farms and ranges. Lamb is usually superior to mature mutton in flavor and general palatability, and the demand for lamb far exceeds the demand for mutton; the wholesale trade consists of two or three times as much lamb as mutton. Slaughtering. — Sheep purchased by packers are driven to the packing plant and allowed to rest a few hours, because animals killed while in an excited condition or immediately after exercise do not bleed out thoroughly. They are then driven into a small shackling pen, and a shackle is placed around the hind leg. Two at a time, the sheep are raised by a large revolving wheel to a point overhead where the shackle automatically unhooks from the wheel and starts down a gently in- clined rail. The animal moves to the "sticker,'" who quickly dispatches the sheep by a single thrust of a double-edged knife. Briefly, the operations consist of bleeding, and removal of pelt, feet, head, wind- pipe, gullet, and all internal organs except the kidneys. After passing through many hands, the carcass reaches the cooler, the dressing re- quiring about half an hour. Method of dressing. — Prior to the World War, a number of styles of dressing sheep and lambs were used, but during the period of the 228 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 229 war, as a conservation measure, the U. S. Food Administration in- structed all packers that sheep and lambs must be dressed by the plain or round method, and without caul or pluck. This method of dressing, which is the most economical, has been continued since the war to the present time, and there is no indication that the other styles of dressing will be practiced in the future. Plain or round-dressed sheep and lambs have the pelt, head, and feet removed, and the fore legs are folded at the knees. They are opened from the cod or bag to the breast, and are split through the breastbone. A spread stick is placed in the breast to hold it open and properly shape the carcass. Formerly, in dressing the lowest grades of mutton and most lambs, the caul (a fatty membrane investing the internal organs) was wrapped about the legs and laid over the inside of the carcass, thus improving Fig. 77. — Killing sheep at Chicago. the appearance, preventing drying out, and, in some cases, furnishing the fat necessary for proper cooking of the meat. The caul contains considerable fat, and as it was usually discarded by the retailers of mutton and lamb, the Food Administration rightly designated this style of dressing as wasteful and caused it to be discontinued. Cauls are now sent to the rendering tank for the extraction of fats and oils. The pluck consists of the heart, lungs, liver, windpipe, a portion of the diaphragm, or "skirt," and more or less adhering fat. Formerly, most lambs were sold "pluck in," and sheep were usually sold "pluck out." The pluck is now used principally in the manufacture of different kinds of sausage. The ofifal. — In the plain or round-dressed style of dressing, the sheep loses the following parts in the order named: blood, pelt, feet, 230 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock head, and viscera. The pelt is the skin with the wool on, and it is a valuable by-product. The dressing percentage. — -From what has been said of slaughter- ing and dressing, it is apparent that in order to dress a high percentage of carcass, sheep must be (1) heavily fleshed, fatness being especially important, though the amount of lean meat or muscle is also an im- portant factor; (2) neat in form, or free from paunchiness; and (3) light in pelt. The dressing percentage of sheep is not so important as that of cattle, because the offal has a higher value than the offal from cattle, on account of the high value of the pelt. If a sheep is fat in condition, and neat and trim in form, it will tend to dress high, but the fleece should be as heavy as is consistent with the production of mutton of high quality. As a general rule, the choicest sheep and lambs, from a carcass standpoint, do not wear heavy fleeces, although a heavy fleece in itself is valuable, as will be shown later, and between two sheep otherwise equal, the one with the heavier fleece will bring the higher price on the market, even though its heavier pelt lessens its dressing percentage to some extent. Sheep and lambs range in dressing percentage from 40 to 65 per cent, but ordinarily dress from 45 to 55 per cent. Mutton carcasses usually weigh from 45 to 85 pounds, while most lamb carcasses weigh from 35 to 50 pounds. Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the carcass depends chiefly upon (1) form, (2) covering, (3) quality, (4) weight, and (5) maturity. Each of these factors is briefly discussed. ' 1. .Form. — The essential points of desired shape are good width in proportion to length, compactness, and smooth, even outlines. This implies a thick loin; broad back; well-fleshed ribs; a full, thick middle from shoulder to leg; plump, thick legs filled down well; and smoothly covered shoulders. The most common faults of form are long, slender legs, narrow backs, lack of development over ribs and loin, and too much paunch, or belly. Long necks in ewes, and heavy "bucky" necks, shoulders, and briskets in wethers are objectionable. 2. Covering.^ — It is essential that the carcass be smoothly and evenly covered with fat, because of its influence on the appearance of the dressed sheep, the quality of meat, and the shrinkage both in storage and in cooking. Only in the most highly finished sheep are the legs and shanks completely covered. The kidney fat should be well de- veloped, but not excessive. A light kidney usually indicates lack of finish, while a very heavy one is evidence of overdone condition or uneven distribution of fat. The purse, udder, rump, flanks, and brisket are other points at which the amount of fat is plainly apparent, ^For these discussions the writer is indebted to Illinois Bulletin 147, Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by Louis D. Hall. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 231 but it should not be excessive on any of these parts. The lowest grades have practically no outside fat, the amount of covering varying more or less directly with the grades of mutton from common to choice. The external and kidney fat should be firm, brittle, and white. As with beef, the English consumer desires fatter mutton than would suit the American trade. 3. Quality. — The term "quality" is here used somewhat broadly, to include not only refinement of bone and fineness of texture of flesh, but also color of lean and fat. The flesh should be firm and fine Fig. 78. — Lamb carcasses. Beginning at the left, the grades represented are choice, good, medium, and common. grained, without the stringy, coarse texture of aged or inferior mutton. The color of flesh varies from light pink in lambs to dull red in mature mutton, and is less variable than in beef. The fat should be clear and white. General quality is more important in mutton and lamb than in other branches of the meat trade, on account of the custom of using the carcasses for display purposes in retail markets. 4. Weight. — ^This is of more importance in grading mutton than in grading beef, as it is often a strong indication as to whether a carcass is a lamb, yearling, or mature sheep. The extreme ranges in weights 232 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of carcasses are, lambs, 15 to 50 pounds; yearlings, 40 to 60 pounds; wethers, 40 to 120 pounds; bucks, 45 to 200 pounds; ewes, 50 to 200 pounds. The most desired weights for a lamb carcass are 40 to 45 pounds; for mutton carcasses, 50 to 65-pound weights are most desired. As with beef, heavy carcasses are demanded by hotels, restaurants, and dining cars. 5. Maturity. — As has been mentioned, the demand for Iamb far exceeds the demand for mutton, and the price of lamb is considerably higher. The packers' interpretation of the word "lamb" is broader than the ordinary understanding of the term, for both lambs and year- lings yield a "lamb" carcass. Mutton carcasses are those of wethers two years old or over, ewes, bucks, and stags. The maturity of the carcass may be easily determined with a fair degree of accuracy from the bones; in lambs the brisket is soft and red, and the ribs and shank Fig. 79. — Break-joints and round-joint. In dressing mature sheep, the feet are taken off at the ankle, leaving a round-joint on the end of the shank bone. Im- mediately above the ankle in immature stock is a temporary joint, called the break- joint, at which the feet are removed. Thus the head of the shank bone as well as the foot is removed, leaving the saw-toothed break-joint on the end of the shank bone. As the animal matures, the break-joint ossifies or knits. Pincers are some- times used to crush off those which are partly ossified. This leaves an imperfect break-joint. The shank bones of mature sheep will not break. At the left above is a true break-joint, at the right a round-joint, and in the center a crushed break- joint from a nearly mature sheep. bones are colored by blood vessels; in mature sheep the bones are white and hard. However, the hreak-joint furnishes the best means of dis- tinguishing lambs and yearlings from mature sheep. The break-joint or lamb-joint is a temporary cartilage which forms in the head of the shank (shin bone) immediately above the ankle. In dressing lambs, yearling wethers, and some yearling ewes, the foot can be broken off at this cartilage, giving the end of the shank a saw-tooth shape. In lambs the broken surface is smooth and moist, and in yearlings it is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 233 more porous and dry. The shanks of mature sheep will not "break," because the cartilage is knit or ossified, and the foot is taken off at the ankle instead, making a "round-joint." Shanks of female or ewe sheep outside the lamb class are, as a rule, too mature to break. Conse- quently, 80 to 90 per cent of "yearling lamb" carcasses are wethers, the remainder being ewes and a small proportion of bucks and stags. Yearlings substitute for genuine lamb, and we see that they may easily do this because they possess the break-joint. (See Fig. 79.) Goat carcasses. — Dressed goats are occasionally sold in connec- tion with mutton and lambs, and are frequently substituted for them, especially in the retail markets. They are similar to the lowest grades of western sheep in form, quality, and finish. Long shanks, coarse, dark flesh, long necks, and thin caul, however, render them quite easily distinguished from sheep carcasses. Carcass classes and grades. — Carcasses of sheep and lambs are classified and graded as follows: Class Grade LAMB fLambs Prime, choice, good, medium, common \Yearlings Prime, choice, good, medium, common fWethers Prime, choice, good, medium, common MUTTON -jEwes Choice, good, medium, common, canners [Bucks Good, medium, common The following wholesale prices ^ indicate the comparative values of the above classes: Class and grade Weight Price per pound Special Selected Lambs 35 to 45 lbs .- 25 cents Good Lambs 35 to 45 lbs 23 cents Medium Lambs 35 to 45 lbs 22 cents Common Lambs 25 lbs 18 centj Yearling Lambs 40 to 45 lbs 16 cents Wether Sheep 45 to 55 lbs 14 centj Ewe Sheep 45 to 60 lbs 12 cents Common Sheep 10 cents Diflferences due to age and sex. — Carcasses of lambs and yearlings differ from other carcasses in that they show the break-joint on th{ fore leg. Yearling carcasses differ from lamb carcasses in showing more maturity and usually more weight. Lamb carcasses show lighter- colored and finer-grained flesh, redder and softer bones, and a smoothei and moister break-joint than yearlings. Carcasses of wethers, ewes and bucks are similar in showing the round-joint on the fore leg, bul wether carcasses may be distinguished by the cod fat, ewes by theii udders, and bucks by their coarse, heavy necks and shoulders. Th( wether carcass is more compact and thicker fleshed than the ewe car cass. Ewes are more angular and have longer necks, smaller bone, and ^Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1923. 234 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock less thickness of flesh. The buck carcass is coarse and dark colored in its flesh, and has a thick, oily "fell" (the white membrane covering the carcass) . Many stags and some bucks closely resemble wethers and are commonly sold as such. The wholesale cuts. — -The following diagram represents a side view of a carcass of lamb or mutton, the dotted lines indicating the division into wholesale cuts. Fig. 80. — Wholesale cuts of mutton. 1, Chuck; 2, short rack; 3, breast; 4, loin; 5, leg; 1 and 3, stew; 1, 2, and 3, rack; 4 and 5, saddle. The chuck may be divided into neck, shoulder, and shanks. The leg and loin together are called the saddle, and the combined short rack, chuck, and breast are called the rack. The saddle and rack are almost equal in weight. One rib is left on the loin. The short rack includes from 9 to 11 pairs of ribs, depending on how the carcass is divided between short rack and chuck. The chuck and breast are usually sold together as one cut, called the "stew." In average 45-pound carcasses of lamb and mutton, round dressed, and pluck out, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, their wholesale prices per pound, and total values are as given in the following table: Weights, prices, and values of wholesale cuts of mutton and lamb Wholesale cuts Weights in pounds Weights in per cent Price per pound Total value of cut Lamb Mutton Lamb Mutton Leg 13.7 9.6 6.4 15.3 30.5 21.3 14.2 34.0 27 29 30 8 17 19 20 6 $3.70 2.78 1.92 1.22 $2.33 1.82 Short rack (10 ribs) Stew 1.38 .92 Saddle 23.3 21.7 51.8 48.2 27.6 14 17.8 10.6 6.48 3.14 4.15 Rack 2.30 Totals 45.0 100.0 21.4 14.3 9.62 6.45 High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for the entire lamb carcass is 21.4 cents per pound, while the mutton carcass averages 14.3 cents per pound. As in the beef carcass, the back, loin, and hind- quarter yield high-priced cuts, while the forequarters and belly, con- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 235 stituting the chuck and breast cuts are low in price because they lack thickness, the quantity of flesh elements being relatively small. The leg and loin of the lamb include 52 per cent of the carcass weight and 67 per cent of the total value; and the leg, loin, and short rack include 66 per cent of the weight and 87 per cent of the value. Packing House By-Products from Sheep A greater proportion of the sheep's value to the packer lies in its by-products than is true of the steer or the hog. Edward N. Went- worth of Armour's Livestock Bureau states^ that from November 1, 1918, to November 1, 1919, Armour and Company killed 2,326,277 sheep and lambs at its various plants in the United States, and that the return from these averaged $12.02 per head. Of this amount, $8.34 was received for the carcass, and the remaining $3.68 represented the value of the by-products. Of the latter amount, $2.95 was derived from the pelt, and the remaining 73 cents was derived from all other by-products. Expressed in percentages, the carcass represented 69.4 per cent of the total value, the pelt 24.5 per cent, and all other by- products 6.1 per cent. It should be noted that nearly one-fourth of the total value was represented by the pelt. The value of the pelt. — Information has been given out from var- ious sources that buyers of sheep for the packers prefer animals wearing light pelts. It has been said that the slaughtering departments of packing houses without exception dispose of sheep pelts at a fixed price per pelt, consigning them to the wool-pullery department of their own plant, or to some independent pullery. Buyers have been reported to prefer light- wooled lots in order to obtain high dressing percentages; it has been said that buyers have no particular interest in the welfare of their own pulleries, or in other firms that buy the pelts for pulling. Farmers have been advised that the highest market price is obtained for sheep and lambs that are light in pelt and which consequently dress high. Can it be possible that the packer, with all his genius for the utilization of by-products, is overlooking such an important item as wool? If the shank bones of cattle may be profitably converted into buttons and other articles, is it not inconsistent and unbusinesslike to discount well-wooled lots of sheep? With wool worth 25 to 50 cents per pound, is it not strange that the buyer should refuse to bid higher on a well-wooled band of sheep than upon a lot with light fleeces, other things being equal, especially as the fleece is obtained at the live- weight price of the animal, namely 10 to 20 cents per pound? In hand- 1 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920. 236 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ling thousands of sheep, the wool reaches a considerable valuation. If light pelts are wanted, why do shorn sheep sell at a discount? Such questions as these led the writer to make an investigation which included interviews with the principal buyers at Chicago, and an inspection of a modern wool-pulling establishment owned by one of the packing firms. It was found that a few buyers do give prefer- ence to light-pelted lots, but that class of buyers is decidedly in the minority. Swift, Armour, Wilson, and New York butchers have for some time realized the added value of a heavy fleece, and this has enabled them, in many instances, to outbid competing firms who con- sider only the dressing percentage as an index of the value of sheep for slaughter. The fact that New York butchers have been able to dispose of pelts profitably very largely explains their survival in the face of keen competition with packers. The slaughtering departments of those packing houses equipped with wool puUeries are credited each day with the value of the pelts sent from the killing floor. The value per pelt varies, depending upon (1) size of pelt, (2) weight of fleece, (3) quality of fleece, (4) cleanness of fleece, (5) amount of grease, (6) color of wool, and (7) thickness of skin. On this basis the value per pelt at the present time (March, 1923) ranges as low as 50 cents for lambs, and as high as $5 and over for sheep pelts in full fleece, depending mostly upon age, breeding, and season of the year. The average price of Chicago pelts is now about $3.50 per pelt. The value of the pelt plays an important part in de- termining the value of a sheep to the packer. Packing houses and other wholesale butchers not equipped with wool pulleries have two methods of disposing of the pelts; they may either contract them in advance at a fixed price per pelt, or they may allow them to accumulate and then solicit bids. In the latter case, the bidders make an examination and the pelts sell on their merits. In the former case, the packer or butcher has no incentive to pay a premium for well-wooled sheep, but, on the contrary, it is to his advan- tage to select those with light pelts. One prominent sheep buyer on the Chicago market designated the contract plan as "slipshod," and he stated that "eventually it must cease as competition becomes more keen." He also said, "I instruct my men to consider wool as well as meat, and when they make bids, you may be sure they have estimated the value of the pelt as well as the carcass." Pelts are most valuable in the spring just before shearing time. Shorn sheep sell at a discount because the wool cannot be pulled at a profit until it has a growth of three-quarters of an inch or more. When the staple measures less than this, the pelts are tanned with the wool on, and the price received is small compared with pelts which can be Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 237 pulled. The time of shearing marks the close of winter and the opening of pasturage, hence shorn sheep are often gaunt, and this is another reason for the lower price. Pulled wool has the same uses as ordinary clipped wool. The weight of wool from an average pelt is 4 to 5 pounds. This seems a low figure, but the pelts are scrubbed before pulling, which takes out nearly all the dirt and grease, and causes a decided loss in weight. After the wool is pulled, the skins are prepared for the tannery. Untanned sheep and lamb skins have a wide range of value, with an average at the present time of $5.75 per dozen for lamb skins and $8.00 for sheep skins. The value depends upon the size, quality, and thick- ness. The Merino yields a thin, porous skin which makes a leather that scuffs easily and wears out very quickly. These bring the lowest price. The best-wearing and highest-priced sheep leather is made from skins of the long-wooled breeds. Sheep leather is used for making cheap shoes, shoe linings, gloves, bags, book bindings, cheap saddles, suit cases, sweat bands for hats, and many other articles. Chamois skins are now made entirely of sheep skins. Goat skins are much in demand for furniture leather and are more valuable than sheep skins. They average a little larger in size than sheep skins and wear much better. Other by-products of sheep. — The by-products from the slaughter of sheep may be classed as edible and inedible. The edible by-products include the tongue, which is used for cooking or sausage; the pluck, which is usually ground up and used in different kinds of sausage; and the paunch, about one-half of the paunches being used for tripe, made by boiling and pickling the paunches. The bones, stomach, and any trimmings are tanked, thus extracting fats and oils, and the residue is treated to make glue. The final residue is made into tankage and fertilizer. The blood, dried and ground, makes blood meal and fertilizer. Hard bones yield bone charcoal for bleaching purposes, black pigment for paint, shoeblacking, etc., bone dust for fertilizer, vitrified bone for making glass, cement for billiard balls, and knife handles, combs, buttons, and other articles. The intestines, windpipe, and bladder are cleaned and made into sausage casings. Musical strings, clock cord, and surgical ligature for sewing up wounds, as well as casings for little sausages, are made exclusively from the intestines of sheep. A class of oleo oil is made from the better grade of mutton tallow, and enters into the composition of oleomargarine. Inedible greases are used in soaps. Some valuable chemicals used in medicine are obtained as by-products from sheep. Among these are thyroidin, used as a cure for cretinism, and suprarenalin, a powerful astringent used in cases of severe bleeding. More than 130,000 sheep are required to make a pound of suprarenalin. 238 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Conclusions The following conclusions may be drawn from a study of sheep and lamb slaughter, carcasses, and by-products: 1. In order to dress a high percentage of carcass, sheep and lambs must be heavily fleshed, free from paunchiness, and light in pelt. 2. The pelt, especially the wool, is a valuable by-product. 3. The total by-products of sheep are relatively more valuable than those of cattle or hogs. 4. The dressing percentage of sheep, though an important factor in determining the price of the live animal, is of less importance than the dressing percentage of cattle. 5. The most profitable market lamb is fat, free from paunchiness, and carries a fairly heavy fleece of good, clean wool. 6. The same blocky form desired in the live animal is also desired in the carcass. 7. Mutton and lamb are sold as fresh meat products almost exclusively. 8. Lamb is usually superior to mutton in color, grain, tenderness, and flavor. 9. The most desired lamb carcasses fall within a narrow range of weight, 40 to 45 pounds. 10. The packer classes all carcasses which show the break-joint as "lamb" carcasses. Such carcasses are yielded by genuine lambs, by most yearling wethers, and by some yearling ewes. 11. Genuine lamb carcasses bring a higher price than yearling lamb carcasses, and the latter outsell mutton carcasses. 12. Wethers of all ages usually yield better carcasses than ewes of the same age because of greater thickness of cuts and greater com- pactness. Wethers are superior to bucks in quality, finish, and per- centage of high-priced cuts. More of the buck's weight is in the neck, shoulders, and brisket. 13. The back, loin, and hindquarter yield the high-priced cuts of mutton and lamb — the short rack, loin, and leg. CHAPTER XVII AMERICAN SHEEP MARKETS Sheep are marketed by the same methods and are shipped and sold at the central markets in the same manner as cattle, as described in Chapter V. A larger proportion of sheep pass through the central markets and relatively smaller numbers are slaughtered at local points and on farms and ranges than is true of cattle or hogs. The 14 largest sheep markets and their receipts for three years are as follows: ^ Markets 1922 1921 1920 1. Chicago 3,873,947 4,734,408 4,005,237 2. Omaha 2,532,787 2,752,962 2,890,748 3. Denver 1,866,784 1,467,911 2,078,688 4. Kansas City 1,574,217 1,780,298 1,687,017 5. Buffalo 1,190,564 1,380,052 1,051,869 6. Pittsburgh 1,204,217 1,196,975 922,157 7. St. Joseph 729,784 930,911 842,639 8. Ogden 704,419 575,462 602,718 9. St. Louis 627,880 635,827 604,769 10. St. Paul 498,891 632,865 728,957 11. Salt Lake City 459,453 368,261 481,300 12. Cleveland 360,432 369,755 419,744 13. Fort Worth 324,870 357,094 393,929 14. Baltimore 306,336 466,204 366,981 Totals 16,254,581 17,648,985 17,076,753 The U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics reports that 22,364,475 sheep and lambs were received in 1922 at 68 stock yards in 34 states. The 14 markets listed above received 73 per cent of this total. The Chicago sheep market is easily the largest in the world. The total value of sheep and lambs received there during 1922 was $37,346,422. Their average value per head was $9.65. Their average live weight was 78 pounds. Their average price per cwt. was $12.35. At Chicago during 1922, Swift and Company slaughtered 867,769 sheep. Armour and Company 714,152, Morris and Company 472,470, and Wilson and Company 435,962. These four companies slaughtered 96 per cent of all sheep killed by Chicago packers in 1922. The commission charge for selling straight carloads of sheep or goats at Chicago is 20 cents per head, with a maximum of $14 on single- deck cars and a maximum of $20 on double-deck cars. On less than 40 head of sheep or goats shipped in one car, the commission is 30 1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. 239 240 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock cents per head. The charge for yardage is 7 cents per head. Hay costs from $1.50 to $2.00 per cwt., corn $1.25 per bushel, and oats $1.00 per bushel. Monthly weights of Chicago sheep. — The writer tabulated the average monthly weights of sheep and lambs at Chicago for ten years, 1913 to 1922 inclusive, and then determined the monthly averages for the entire ten-year period. The average weight for March at 84.1 pounds was highest, and the average for June at 73.3 pounds was lowest. The October average at 73.6 pounds was nearly as low as June. Spring lambs evidently account for the June low average, and the fall run of western lambs accounts for the low average in October. The between weights are higher. The general average for the ten years was 77.9 pounds. March weights were highest in 7 of the 10 years, April in 2, and January in 1. Lowest monthly weights occured in October 4 times, June 3 times, and in July, September, and November each 1 time. Following are the ten-year averages i^ Monthly average weights of sheep and lambs at Chicago for ten years Weight Weight Month Pounds Month Pounds January 81.5 July 73.6 February 83.0 August 76.9 March 84.1 September 74.1 Aoril 83.9 October 73.6 May 80.7 November 76.6 June (73.3) December 80.1 Shrinkage in shipping. — Henry and Morrison report the following figures relative to shrinkage of sheep and lambs in transit: ^ Range lambs shipped 1,440 miles shrank from 4.6 to 8.7 per cent and averaged 7.6 per cent. Native lambs shipped 135 to 149 miles shrank 1.3 to 6.8 per cent. Lambs under 100 pounds in transit 4 days shrink 7 to 8 pounds. Yearling wethers weighing about 120 pounds and in transit 4 days shrink about 10 pounds. Aged wethers and ewes in transit 4 days shrink about 12 pounds. Two-year-old wethers shipped 1,440 miles shrank 5.1 to 8.6 per cent and averaged 6.8 per cent. These figures are based on "filled" weight at the market. The fill. — Upon their arrival in the pens at the market, sheep are fed hay and grain and are watered. This constitutes the "fill," and it is important because it has a quieting effect, improves the appear- ance, and increases the weight of the animals. 1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. 2Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 519. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 241 Sorting and selling. — Mixed loads of sheep and lambs containing both killers and feeders may be sorted by the commission man prior to selling them, or he may sell them to a packer buyer or order buyer with the privilege of sorting or cutting out an agreed percentage or number of them. The remaining animals may then be sold to a feeder buyer. Mixed loads composed mostly of feeders may be sold to a trader who buys them all. He then sorts them and sells the fat end as killers and the thin end as feeders. Commission men also sell some loads straight without sorting to packers, order buyers, and feeder buyers, but a large proportion of receipts require preliminary sorting or sale to traders in order to realize the best price for them. Commission men and buyers must handle all sheep, except shorn sheep, in order to determine their condition, smoothness, density of wool, and market value. It is impossible to buy and sell sheep on the basis of their general appearance as cattle and hogs are bought and sold at the markets. Different market men use different methods of handling. One man may feel of the loin, another the back and ribs, and another the dock. Sometimes both back and dock are handled. The most common practice is to grasp the back and ribs with thumb and fingers spread out to full width. In sorting, the thin sheep or the fat sheep are marked on the backs with chalk. Then the load is driven in single file through a narrow chute at the end of which is a small gate controlling the entrance to two pens. The sheep marked with chalk are admitted to one pen and those unmarked pass into the other. Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of sheep at Chicago. — Fig. 81 shows the average monthly receipts of sheep and lambs at Chicago for ten years. Largest receipts occur in the fall months, September, October, and November, when heavy shipments arrive from western ranges. The total number received during these three months almost equals total receipts for the first half of the year. A rapid rise begins in June and reaches a climax in October, followed by a rapid decline until February, and a continued but slow decline from February to May inclusive. In 9 of the 10 years, lowest monthly receipts occurred from February to May inclusive. May is the month of smallest average receipts. October brings the largest receipts. This was true in 8 of the 10 years, with September highest in the other two. October receipts average 2.4 times larger than May receipts. Between May and October and October and May, monthly receipts follow an even curve, upward in the first period and then downward. Seasonal variations in receipts of sheep are much more marked than those of cattle, and are somewhat greater than those of hogs. As shown in the chart, 75 per cent of the sheep annually received at Chicago are slaughtered there. The number shipped monthly to 242 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock other points for slaughter is quite variable, but for the year includes only 6 per cent of total receipts. The number shipped for feeding varies widely in different seasons and averages 18.6 per cent for the year. ^ During the first six months of the year less than 7 per cent of receipts are sold as feeders. During 8 of the 10 years included in this study, smallest feeder shipments occurred in April and May. In the other 2 years smallest shipments occurred in January and June respectively. During 8 of the 10 years studied, largest feeder ship- ments were made in October, and during the other 2 years largest ship- ments were made in September. The ten-year averages show that during the last six months of the year a little over 26 per cent of re- IChicavs his old sheep to die away naturally, or go where they may^hat is, if he cannot dispose of them, even for a mere trifle, before they reach the ripe old age of eight or nine years." 267 268 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The number of sheep on farms in the United States on census dates grew from 19 million in 1840, to 23 in 1860, 35 in 1880, 36 in 1890, and 62 in 1900, and then declined to 52 in 1910, and to 35 in 1920. The census date was June 1 until 1910, when it was changed to April 15. It was changed to January 1 in 1920. The number of sheep on farms in the United States on January 1 of the various years, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, was 41 milHon in 1880, 44 in 1890, 42 in 1900, 57 in 1910, and 39 in 1920. There has been a steady increase since 1860 in the proportionate number of mutton sheep. This has been mostly due to the increased demand for meat, and partly to the demand for wools other than the Merino, that is, the combing wools. The flocks of mutton sheep in- creased in all parts of the country, though Merino improvement was still the predominating feature in sheep husbandry in Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, and the great flocks of the ranges became Merino grades of a high order of merit. In recent years many Merino flocks in the eastern part of the country have been made over into mutton flocks by several succeeding crosses of mutton blood, while on the western ranges increasing numbers of mutton rams have been used for crossing on range flocks to produce a more practical wool-and-mutton type. East of the Missouri river the majority of sheep are of the mutton type, while on western ranges Merino blood predominates. The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture show the leading sheep countries and the number of sheep in each : Numbers of sheep in leading countries Country Year Number of sheep 1. Australia 1920 77,900,000 2. Russia 1921 47,157,000 i 3. Argentina 1920 45,767,000 4. United States. . . .1923 37,209,000 5. Siberia 1915 34,468,000 6. India 1920 30,172,000 7. South Africa 1920 29,305,000 8. Great Britain. . . .1921 24,273,000 9. New Zealand. . . .1921 23,285,000 10. Spain 1921 20,522,000 11. Italy 1918 11,754,000 12. Uruguay 1916 11,473,000 World total 465,895,000 * 'Includes goats. >U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 51 million designated as sheep and goats. Mutton production and consumption in the United States is shown in the following table > giving the slaughter, imports, exports, and con- sumption of mutton (including lamb): Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 269 Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed mutton in the United States Calendar year Total slaughter Imports Exports Consumption Total Per capita 1907 Million pounds 559 600 612 473 489 602 538 601 534 Million pounds Million pounds I 7 3 2 4 5 8 2 Million pounds 558 598 619 476 4831 607' 537 1 6731 5451 Pounds 6 4 1910 6 5 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 14 6 1 7 62 18 11 6.2 4.7 4.7 5.8 5.0 6.2 5.0 'Includes differences between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year. During 1920, New Zealand frozen lamb carcasses were imported in large numbers amounting to over one-ninth of the total domestic production of both mutton and lamb. British markets which normally absorb the New Zealand product were overstocked following the World War, and the meat found an outlet in this country. Our production and consumption of mutton is markedly less than that of pork or beef, and slightly less than that of veal. The distribution of sheep in the United States is shown by the numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions: Leading states in numbers of sheep on farm^, January 1 , 1923 - State Number 1. Texas 2,862,000 2. Idaho 2,642,000 3. Colorado 2,444,000 4. California 2,402,000 5. Wyoming 2,396,000 value $5.20 6. 8.30 7. 7.60 8. 8.10 9. 9.00 10. state Number value Utah 2,340,000 $8.90 Montana 2,315,000 8.70 Ohio 2,094,000 7.10 New Mexico . . .2,062,000 6.40 Oregon 1,953,000 6.40 The estimated average value of all sheep and lambs in the United States on January 1, 1923, was $7.50. Distribution of sheep on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923 ^ Division Number North Atlantic 1,200,000 South Atlantic 1,168,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 4,770,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 4,324,000 South Central 4,399,000 Far Western 21,348,000 Total United States 37,209,000 The foregoing figures show that the far western division, which includes the range states, has more sheep than all other divisions com- ^John Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report. 2 Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 270 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bined. In addition to the large numbers west of the Missouri river, sheep are densely distributed in central and southeastern Ohio, south- western Pennsylvania, and southern Michigan, and are rather densely distributed also in northern Kentucky, southern Iowa, and northern Missouri. Ohio and adjoining territory constitute the most important sheep raising section east of the Missouri river. Centers of production. — The fact that the larger proportion of our sheep are in the West is reflected in the location of the center of sheep production in the United States. According to the 1920 census, the center of sheep production is in the southwest corner of Nebraska. The beef cattle center is in central Kansas, the dairy cattle center is in western Illinois, and the hog center is in northeastern Missouri. Fig. 96. — Distribution of sheep in the United States. The dense spots shown in the West are due in part to the date of enumeration, January 1, when many sheep were being fed in the irrigated districts, and in part to the enumeration of sheep in that county in which the owner resides, even though the sheep may be in a far distant region. These centers are determined by drawing a line east and west on the map so as to equally divide the total number of sheep or other live stock in the United States. Then a line is drawn north and south, again equally dividing the total number of animals. The intersection of the two lines is called the center of production. The center may or may not fall in a region where a large number of such animals are raised. Conditions suitable to sheep breeding. — Sheep are rather similar to cattle in their adaptability to range conditions and to improved and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 271 cultivated farming sections where there is considerable pasture together with grain and roughage for fattening purposes and for wintering breeding flocks. Mutton and wool production necessitates less grain feeding than beef production, though grain often may be used to ad- vantage, and in some cases grain must be used in order to finish late lambs and those not well nourished by their dams. Many such lambs are brought from the West for fattening in the central states. Sheep differ from cattle in that they are better suited to arid lands and are less suited to wet lands than are cattle. Sheep are best adapted of all domestic animals to very rough lands. Sheep are especially suited with the shorter, sweeter grass of higher altitudes, whereas cattle can best utilize lowland pastures of coarser and ranker growth. That sheep have an important place on high-priced land and in intensive farming is shown by numerous instances in this country, and also by the large numbers of sheep profitably kept under such conditions in Great Britain. Whether on western ranges or on higher-priced lands in the Central West, East, and South, the combined wool-and-mutton type of sheep, yielding annually a good crop of lambs and a good crop of wool, is most profitable. The western sheep owner places more em- phasis on the wool, and the sheep owner east of the Missouri river favors the type in which meat production is more marked than wool production, though in both East and West, neither wool nor mutton may be ignored. Only purebred sires should be used on any flock, and the same breed should be patronized each time a ram is purchased; in other words, breeding for the market should not result in a mixture of breeds, but the owner should breed in line, grading up his flock by consecutive crosses of the same breed. Thus will the good features of that breed be so strongly stamped upon the flock as to give it a high average of individual merit and great uniformity. ^ The number of registered purebred sheep in the United States on January 1, 1920, as reported by the census, was 463,504, or 1.3 per cent of all the sheep in the country. ^ Source of improvement. — A certain few men have collected the very choicest purebred and registered sheep that may be had, almost regardless of price, and have established purebred flocks of the highest excellence. The owner of such a flock makes it his business to supply breeding rams and some breeding ewes to breeders of purebred sheep ^For definitions of purebred and grade, and for discussions of the importance of good ancestry, the utility value of purebred live stock, and the grading process, see Chapter IX. 2The ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred sheep were Idaho 47,107, Ohio 39,444, Oregon 38,738, Utah 30,013, California 28,831, Montana 24,208, Michigan 21,342, Iowa 19,522, New York 18,338, and Texas 17,119. 272 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of less prominence than himself. Year after year he slowly improves his flock by careful selection and mating, and he is thus enabled to send out better rams each year to head the flocks of less prominent breeders. In turn, these less prominent flocks supply better breeding animals to more numerous and still less noted breeders, and so the scheme works out, improvement slowly, but surely, flowing downward and outward from a few flocks to the many. There is a third class of breeders who are producing directly for the market. The produce of their flocks goes to market as fat lambs or is sold into other hands for feeding prepara- tory to slaughter. We may, therefore, classify all flocks of sheep as follows: 1. A few purebred flocks solely for improvement. 2. Numerous purebred flocks primarily for propagation and sec- ondarily for improvement. 3. Many grade flocks solely for mutton and wool production. The breeders of the third class secure their rams from the second- class flocks, and their ewes are generally grades. The mutton breeding ram. — The selection of the breeding ram should be most carefully made as he affords the chief opportunity for improvement in the flock. For this reason it is wise to invest several times the average value of the ewes in the purchase of a ram to mate with them. However, it is not so much a matter of securing a ram at a particular price as it is of selecting a sire of merit that is strong in the points wherein the ewe flock is weak, and whose off spring will possess a higher standard of merit than their dams. It is a breeding-up pro- cess, and this fact justifies more careful selection and greater expendi- ture of money in each succeeding purchase of a ram. It is always a matter of locating the sort of ram desired, and the price demanded for him should not stand in the way of a purchase unless it is really exorbi- tant. The breeding ram of mutton type must be, first of all, a good mutton animal, including as high development of the form, quality, and fleshing as may be secured. He must, in addition, have a strong, robust constitution as evidenced by a wide, deep chest and middle and good feeding qualities. The story is told of an English shepherd who visited a certain flock to purchase a yearling ram. After much delibera- tion, he found himself unable to decide among several of the offerings, all of which suited him. Suddenly his serious expression changed to one of renewed interest, and turning to the owner he said, "Feed 'em." Grain was placed in a trough in full view of the rams, at sight of which one pricked up his ears and marched quickly to the trough, the others following more leisurely. "That's him," said the buyer, pointing to the ram in front, for in common with all experienced feeders he recog- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 273 nized the significance of good feeding qualities. A strong appetite is evidence of constitution, thrift, lustiness, and health, and indicates a disposition to develop quickly and make economical gains. The ram should exhibit strong sexual characters, these being a strong head with distinctly masculine features and expression, a well- developed crest or scrag similar to the crest of the beef bull, a sufficiency of bone, and general ruggedness of build throughout. Style in the ram, including an active gait and bold presence, is an evidence of masculinity and breeding usefulness. Particular attention should be given to the shape, position, and strength of feet, pasterns, and legs. These points should receive attention in any sheep, but in the breeding w ^f^l.'^^.^ Fig. 97. — Correct type in the mutton breeding ram. Southdown ram, Babra- ham Bumper, champion at the English Royal Show. Bred and owned by C. Adeane, Babraham Hall, Cambridge, England. Note the masculine head and neck, blocky body, heavy leg of mutton, and good bone of this ram. ram their importance is magnified. The feet should be well formed, the pasterns strong, the bone ample, and the legs straight. Weakness in the hind legs is of more consequence than weakness in front, as it is more likely to affect the usefulness of the ram as a breeder. The hocks should not be bent so as to give the hind leg a sickled appearance as viewed from the side; and when viewed from the rear, the hind legs should not be bowed outward, but placed straight and square beneath the quarters. Weak or broken-down hind pasterns are particularly objectionable in a breeding ram. 274 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The ram's fleece should be heavy and of good quahty according to his breed, special attention being given to the wool in case the ewe flock averages below desired standards for fleece. So far as the fatness of the ram is concerned, greater satisfaction will ordinarily result from the purchase of a ram in medium condition, or what shepherds call a "field ram," than one that has been much pampered in preparation for sale or show. The latter may present a more attractive form and appearance at the time of purchase, but must be let down in flesh before he can be used for breeding purposes, and it is often true that with loss of fat there are revealed some rather dis- FiG. 98. — Correct type in the breeding ewe. Champion Hampshire ewe at the International Show, owned by A. W. Arnold, Galesville, Wis. This ewe has strength and vigor, combined with femininity 'and quality, and her roomy middle and dense fleece are valuable attributes in the breeding ewe. appointing points in form. This more often happens when the buyer is a novice and the ram has had the additional advantage of the correct- ing power of shears in expert hands. In any case, the purchase price of a fitted ram must include the cost of fitting, which may be a con- siderable amount. It is, of course, a fact that the very choicest rams are highly fitted before being offered for sale, as no flock owner expects to realize full value for an exceptional ram unless he is presented in finished and fitted form; however, this applies to the best offerings and is somewhat outside of the matter under consideration. When rams Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 275 are purchased to head ordinary flocks the produce of which are sent to market, it will usually be best to pay up to the limit of price for a field ram that suits, rather than invest the same amount in a fitted sheep. In farm flocks one ram may be used for every 35 to 50 ewes. On the range it is customary to use one ram for every 35 to 40 ewes, A ram lamb should not be used for heavy service. The period of gesta- tion for ewes is somewhat variable but is usually 146 days. Although ewe lambs are sometimes bred in the fall so that they will lamb the next spring at a little over a year old, the usual plan is to allow the ewe lambs to grow and develop into their yearling form, breeding them in the fall to drop their first lambs the following spring at two years old. The breeding of ewe lambs is not ordinarily considered good practice. The mutton breeding ewe. — Assuming that there is an established ewe flock to which additions are made from the best ewe lambs of each year, the problem of the breeder is to weed out the less desirable ewes and send them to the butcher. Herein lies a second advantage from the use of good males, for if the sire proves a successful breeder, the owner is furnished with excellent material with which to replenish his ewe flock, thus permitting closer culling of the aged ewes than would be possible had an inferior ram been used. Hence the use of a good ram not only results in direct improvement in the first crop of lambs, but there is the added advantage of the improvement which is realized when the best ewe lambs reach breeding age. It is easiest to cull the flock a short time after shearing, allowing a few days to elapse in order that the ewes may recover from the shabby appearance and somewhat disorganized state common to many of them immediately after being shorn. Aged ewes and broken-mouthed ewes should have been weeded out the previous fall, the cost of wintering them being a needless expense inasmuch as they are difficult to winter without becoming very low in flesh. The wintered ewes may then be sorted two or three weeks after shearing; faulty forms and lack of size are easily detected at that time. It is an easy matter to part with ewes that are aged, broken in mouth, ruptured, crippled, or defective in udder, but it sometimes requires strong determination to give up ewes that are sound, but nevertheless unworthy because of faults in form, quality, size, or fleece. This is especially true when close culling will not leave as large a flock as it is desired to carry, but in the long run it will be best to err on the side of too close culling rather than to carry certain individuals that do not measure up to desired standards. Form, size, quality, constitution, muscling, and smoothness of outline should receive much consideration, the requirements for which have been set forth in preceding chapters. One word more, however, may 276 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock well be added on heads and necks. The following by John Wrightson of the Royal College of Science, London, England, is much to the point:' "Nothing looks better than good heads, and, strange as it may seem, a sheep's head, which is only worth 9d. (18 cents) at the butcher's is worth a lot of money when carried on a good ram or ewe. A muscular neck indicates strength of constitution and good muscular development, and I have never known a sheep breeder who did not strongly object to a shabby neck. Mr. Ellman, the father of the Southdown breed, insisted on the importance of this point. Mr. James Rawlence, of Bulbridge, one of the oldest of our noted breeders, would not keep a weak-necked ewe, and no man who values his flock would buy a ram with this fault. The neck ought to be muscular, arched, tapering, and neat." Fig. 99. — A prize-winning flock. First prize Shropshire flock at the Inter- national, owned by A. Broughton and Sons, Albany, Wis. Uniformity in shape, size, color markings, and general appearance is a valuable attribute in any flock. When the produce is intended for the open market, this insures a uniform lot of lambs for feeding, and it adds much to the attractiveness of the finished lot when presented to the buyer. The breeder who aims to supply the open market must emphasize the matter of wool when building up a breeding flock. Although meat production is the principal object in view, the clip of wool from such a flock ought to be an important source of revenue. Furthermore, the ewe with the heavy fleece is better protected from the weather, remains more healthy for that reason, and the density of her fleece keeps it freer from dirt, manure, chaff, and other foreign matter. Moisture is ^Sheep, Breeds and Management, London, 1908, p. 126. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 277 better excluded and the yolk thus becomes abundant, protecting the fibers and preventing a cotted fleece. Her offspring, being heavily wooled, is less subject to chills and colds which hinder rapid growth and development. And lastly, the heavy fleece finds an appreciation on the live-stock market. All along the line, therefore, from breeding flock to packing house, the fleece with density, length of staple, and quality meets with approval and increases the value of the animal it covers. It is evident that it takes years to build up a flock of much uniform merit and value. It is not a difficult matter to stock a farm with sheep, but whether or not the undertaking will be successful depends very largely upon the wisdom displayed in the culling of ewes, selection of Fig. 100. — A flock of uniform type. rams, and general management of the flock. In no other kind of live stock does the individuality of the man in charge display itself so strongly as with sheep. Sheep respond quickly to good care, and deteriorate rapidly when neglected. Although some essential points in flock management have neces- sarily been touched upon in discussing the elements that constitute a good breeding ram and breeding ewe, nevertheless a detailed discussion of sheep management cannot be presented here, as it would require much space and is outside the range of the general subject in hand. However, such important subjects as winter management and feeding of ewes, feeding as a factor in getting ewes in lamb, dipping, manage- 278 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ment at lambing time, feeding and management of ewes and lambs, docking and castrating, the feeding of lambs, shearing, control of internal parasites, the sheep-killing dog, crops to grow for sheep — these and many other subjects relating to sheep feeding and manage- ment should be carefully studied by anyone who contemplates entering the sheep business. CHAPTER XX THE MERINO OR FINE-WOOL TYPE All sheep are wool bearing, but the Merino excels in weight and fineness of fleece. The Merino is the foundation of American sheep husbandry. It is the most important sheep in America today, though less so than formerly. By far the greater number of grade flocks, especially in one section centering in Ohio, and another comprising the territory west of the Missouri river, are of fine- wool origin. Of the B7,209,000 sheep in the United States, 21,348,000 are in the western division, and these are largely of Merino breeding. Many western sheep are brought into the corn belt for fattening. The Merino is native to Spain, and from the Spanish Merino have come all present breeds of Merino sheep. This stock existed in Spain prior to the Christian era, but in all its history in Spain there is prac- tically no record of attempts at improvement. In the eighteenth cen- tury, Spanish Merinos were taken to Saxony, France, United States, South Africa, Australia, and other countries in which distinct types and breeds have been developed by selection from the old Spanish stock. Over 20,000 Merino sheep were imported into the United States prior to 1811, and these formed the foundation of the breed known as the American Merino. Beginning in 1840, importations of the French Merino or Rambouillet were made to America, and this breed is now bred extensively to supply rams for western flocks. The American Merino is the outcome of efforts to develop a sheep with a fleece of the greatest possible value. Some breeders carried their eff'orts so far as to ignore the meat-producing qualities of the animals they bred, centering practically all their attention on the fleece. At best, the improvement of any kind of live stock is a difficult and slow undertaking. When improvement is sought in one or a few respects, the desired results are secured more readily and in greater perfection than when an attempt is made to improve the animal in a rather large number of ways. It is still more difficult to improve a breed of live stock along two or more opposing or antagonistic lines, such as beef and milk, mutton and wool, strength and speed, or size and quality. It was for this reason that many breeders of Merino sheep in America willingly sacrificed the meat-producing qualities of their flocks in order that the production of wool might be made as large as possible. These breeders developed what was formerly known as the Vermont Merino, 279 280 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock a type that contrasts with mutton type as strongly as dairy cattle contrast with beef cattle. Other breeders of fine-wool sheep did not entirely ignore the mutton qualities of their animals, but placed some emphasis upon a good conformation and a reasonable degree of fleshing; at the same time they gave most attention to the weight and quality of fleece. Eff"orts of this kind in America resulted in the creation of what is known as the Delaine type of the American Merino; in France similar efforts resulted in the breed known as the French Merino or Rambouillet. Thus a type was established having better mutton qualities, a smoother Fig. 101. — Class A Merino ram. skin, a fleece of greater length and uniformity, and a type that is shorn much more easily because of its freedom from wrinkles. Broadly speaking, however, the differences mentioned in the ideals of breeders of fine-wool sheep have not resulted in enough variation in type to prevent a satisfactory study of fine-wool sheep as a single group or type. The general appearance of the fine-wool sheep is very distinctive. In a general way, the conformation resembles that of the dairy cow. There is the same narrowness of forequarters and moderate width of back and body, the same muscular rather than fleshy covering, and the same tendency to be somewhat rangy of body and long of leg. As Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 281 compared with the mutton type, there is proportionately more length and narrowness of head, more length and thinness of neck, less arch of rib, and less development of thigh and twist. These differences are marked, so that shorn of their fleeces, the two types of sheep present striking differences in form. When viewed in the wool, further varia- tions are manifest. The fleece of the fine- wool sheep is more compact and is often very dark in color, the latter being due to the very heavy secretion of yolk which catches dust and dirt and produces a black gum on the exterior of the fleece. The mutton-type sheep has a smooth skin, but the fine-wool type has a loose skin lying more or less in folds or wrinkles. Sometimes there are only a few folds about the breast and lower border of the neck, while the middle and hindquarters are smooth; but some fine- wool sheep present a very wrinkled appearance over the entire body. The head should be rather short, medium wide, and well defined or clean-cut in its features. The muzzle should be broad and the nostrils should be large. Rams should have a Roman nose with more width than ewes. The eyes of both sexes should.be rather wide apart, large, and clear, and have a quiet expression. The forehead should be somewhat prominent and have a fair degree of width. The ears should be fine, short, covered with silky hair, and actively carried. The horns of the ram should be placed rather well apart so as to give width and strength to the top of the head. At maturity the horns attain a strong development. They have a corkscrew shape, turning backward from the base, then downward, around forward, and up, making about one and one-half turns. The ewes are hornless. Wool covers the poll, forehead, upper part of the face, and cheeks, while the ears and lower part of the face are covered with white hair, which should be very soft and fine. The skin about the nose is often wrinkled. The head of the ram should be very masculine as shown by heavy horns, wide poll, Roman profile, and heavy nose, all parts being well developed or mas- sive and the expression resolute. The ewe should have a refined head and a feminine expression. The neck should be moderately short and rather muscular. The neck and shoulders do not blend smoothly as in the mutton type, although extreme angularity or roughness is undesirable. Males should show a heavily muscled neck; a pronounced crest or scrag just behind the poll indicates a strongly sexed animal. The shoulders should be well laid in, and should be muscular. The depth of fleshing is not great enough to give that smoothness of form which characterizes a good mutton-type animal. The tops of the shoulders are often sharp and high, especially in those individuals showing the more extreme development of the type; but a neat, rather 282 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock rounded conformation with a fair degree of smoothness is more to be desired, especially in rams. The breast should be deep and have moderate width. The absence of heavy fleshing makes impossible the development of any marked degree of plumpness or width, yet a very narrow or peaked breast indicates a cramped chest cavity and lack of strong constitution. The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from width. Extreme narrowness is a serious fault; the fore-rib should arch suffi- ciently and carry down far enough to provide a roomy chest. The fore flank should be reasonably well filled out. Every type of animal ^^^■1 ^p ^#\j[ BBB^^H mktm i^wBl' Mm^pHaiSS ^^^^WP'y\V'4'^jBl^^^^B H^^v^''' Wm '^^9H| Fig. 102.— Class B Merino ram. needs a robust constitution, one of the best evidences of which is a large heart-girth, proper allowance being made, when judging, for the thickness of fleshing which covers the forequarters. The front legs are often very crooked at the knees, too close to- gether, and too long. They should be reasonably straight, moderately wide apart, and fairly short. The feet are often poorly formed and rather weak, whereas they should be well developed and strong. The shanks should be reasonably fine and rather short, and the pasterns should be free from weakness. The back and loin vary somewhat according to the ideals of breeders. In the very wrinkly Merinos in which the mutton qualities Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 283 are ignored, the top is noticeably long and narrow, and this may be carried to an undesirable extreme. In the Delaine Merino and Ram- bouillet, the back is proportionately shorter and wider. In any case the top should be straight from shoulders to hips, showing a fair degree of width of back and a rather wide, strongly muscled loin. The ribs should be fairly well arched and should show good length in order to provide proper feeding, breeding, and chest capacity. The middle is not very compact, but is moderately long. The hips are somewhat prominent on account of their width and the lack of deep fleshing throughout, but ragged hips are undesirable. Much smoothness cannot be expected in a Merino, yet a rather neat, tidy conformation is demanded. The rump is often peaked and drooping, but the best form em- bodies a rump that is long, level, and medium wide. The thighs and twist vary with respect to the class of fine-wool sheep under consideration. Generally speaking, the thigh should be medium thick, and the muscling between the legs should be sufficient to afford at least a moderate development of the twist. The hind legs should be straight, medium long, reasonably fine, strong in pastern, and placed somewhat apart. A large percentage of Merino sheep have crooked hind legs, the hocks being close together and the feet too wide apart, or the hocks much bent so as to place the hind feet too far under the body, instead of carrying straight downward from hock to ground. The feet should be well formed and strong. The skin should have a bright pink color, indicating health. Fine- wool sheep usually show an excellent color of skin superior to the mutton type. As already mentioned, the skin is more or less folded or wrinkled. The Merino has not only a thinner skin than the mutton breeds, but is more richly furnished with oil glands and secretes a great deal more yolk. Fineness of skin and fineness of wool are correlated characters. The quality of fine-wool sheep is evidenced by fineness of fleece, fineness of bone, fineness of hair on face and ears, and by a medium- sized, clean-cut head with fine ears. The style of the fine- wool type is usually rather marked. Merinos have good carriage of head and ear and are quick and active in their movements, walking rapidly and covering ground with more ease and speed than the mutton-type sheep. Their greater activity partly ex- plains their popularity on western ranges where Merino blood forms the basis of most flocks. The fleece of the Merino has a very high degree of fineness, varjnng, however, in different flocks and in different individuals. The skin has many more fibers to the square inch than any of the mutton breeds; 284 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock in other words, the fleece is ordinarily very compact and dense. Den- sity and fineness are outstanding features in a good fine-wool fleece, the crimp being very fine and regular from skin to tip of fiber. The very finest woolen fabrics are made from this wool. A third striking feature of the Merino fleece as compared with mutton sheep is the large amount of oil or yolk it contains. This gives a generous coating to each fiber so as to preserve its soundness and pliancy. Merino wool commonly undergoes a shrinkage of 65 per cent in scouring, and this figure is not infrequently exceeded. When the secretion of yolk is very excessive, the fleece is made subject to criticism and the wool buyer makes allowance for the extra weight in the price he offers. Fig. 103. — Class C Merino ram. The wool should cover the head in the fashion already described, only the nose and ears being bare. The fleece should cover all of the body and extend down the legs to the feet. The belly and under parts vary a great deal in the covering of wool. It is important that the belly be well wooled, and that the natural bareness occurring at the armpits be as limited in area as possible. The scrotum of the ram should be covered with wool. The wool on the under parts of the animal should be as nearly like the rest of the fleece in density and length as possible. The length of fiber in a year's growth of fleece should he 2)4 inches or over. A good Merino flock should average 11 to 15 pounds of wool. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 285 Classification of fine-wool sheep. — Breeders of fine-wool sheep and the larger sheep shows group or classify American Merinos into three classes or sub-types, known respectively as A, B, and C. As already pointed out, breeders of Merinos have differed in their ideals for a number of years, and this has resulted in three fairly well-defined classes. The classification is based chiefly on the character of the fleece, the number and position of the folds or wi'inkles, the size and weight of the animal, and the development of mutton qualities. Class A. — These are the smallest and most wrinkly of the three classes, and have the finest, densest, and heaviest fleeces, the shortest liiiiiH &^ Fig. 104. — Class B Merino ewe. wool, the most yolk, the poorest mutton qualities, and the poorest form. Rams weigh about 140 pounds, fleece off; and ewes about 100 pounds. There are heavy folds all over the sheep, except over the back. A good ram should shear close to 30 pounds, and a ewe about 20 pounds. These weights for fleeces represent high standards. The length of fiber is from 1}^ to 23/^ inches. The wool shrinks about 70 per cent on the average when scoured. The form of the A Merino is most narrow, rangy, leggy, and irregular in lines of the three classes, and mutton qualities are practically wanting. It is entirely a wool proposition, with weight of fleece esteemed above everything else. The 286 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock wrinkly skin results in considerable variation between the wool on top of the wrinkles and that between. The wool on the tops of the wrinkles, being opened out and more exposed, is much less oily, considerably coarser, and slightly shorter. Class B. — This class is wrinkled on the neck, breast, flanks, and about the dock. It has better mutton qualities and better form than A. Rams weigh 150 to 175 pounds; ewes, 100 to 115 pounds, fleece off. Strictly good rams of this class should shear 25 pounds, and ewes 15 pounds. The fiber measures from 23/2 to 3 inches, and the wool Fig. 105. — Rambouillet ewe. shrinks about 65 per cent. It sells at a somewhat higher price per pound than the wool of A. Class C. — This is also called the Delaine class. These sheep are free from folds, unless to a slight extent on the neck and breast. The head, legs, and body are not so well wooled as A and B. It is the largest of the three classes, has the best form, being more blocky and low set, and has the best mutton qualities. It is a creditable meat producer, but not equal to the mutton breeds. The ram should weigh about 175 pounds, and the ewe about 125 pounds, fleece off. Rams should shear 18 pounds, ewes 11 pounds. The fleece has less crimp Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 287 and fineness and less density than the fleece of A or B, but is longer, measuring from 3 to 4 inches. The wool shrinks about 60 per cent, and sells at a somewhat higher price per pound than B. The Rambouillet breed, developed in France, excels all other Merinos in size, constitution, and mutton qualities. The ram should weigh 185 pounds or over, and the ewe 155 pounds or over. Some of them are very large, rams weighing up to 300 pounds and over, and ewes up to 250 pounds. They have strong frames, heavier bone than the American Merinos, considerable length of leg, and the top line is usually straighter than the American Merino. The head has a bold appearance, is carried higher, and has a more complete covering of wool. The Rambouillet has a smooth body with only a few large folds over the breast, and possibly a few light folds at the flanks and dock. Rams should shear from 15 to 20 pounds, and ewes 10 to 12 pounds. These figures are surpassed by the very best of the breed. The weight of fleece averages less than that of the American Merino, rrainly because of less oil or yolk. The length of fiber should be from 23/2 to 3 inches, although much of it falls short of this length. The wool has great fineness, but not quite equal to that of the American Merino. CHAPTER XXI WOOLS AND WOOL GROWING No animal has a covering entirely of wool; even sheep have hair upon the face and lower parts of the legs. Wool ranks next to cotton as a source of textile fabrics, the temperate regions universally using woolen products. The per capita consumption of wool has increased very greatly. It was about 3 pounds in early times in the United States when all spinning and weaving was done in the home; in 1850 it was 4 pounds; it is now about 63^ pounds. No other people use as much wool as do Americans, nor as much cotton. The world's clip of wool averages about 2 pounds for each person. As a rule, sheep are shorn only once a year. The coming of mild weather in the spring marks the time of shearing. Both hand and machine shearing are practiced, preferably the latter. As the wool is sheared off it is usually kept in one piece so far as possible, and as soon Fig. 106. — Wool fiber highly magnified. This drawing shows the scaly surface of the wool fiber; the tips of the overlapping scales project outward and point toward the tip of the fiber. as the fleece is removed it is spread out, with the flesh or cut side down, any loose pieces are thrown into the center, and the fleece is then rolled up with the flesh side out and is tied with twine. Prior to shipment the fleeces are packed in large sacks, in which condition they arrive at the various wool markets of the country. Growth and structure. — Wool is modified hair. The term hair is ordinarily used to designate a smooth, straight fiber or filament like horse hair. Wool differs from hair in being more or less crimped and in having a much more serrated or ridged surface. The surface of the fiber is composed of a single layer of irregular, overlapping scales, apparent only under the microscope, forming the wool cuticle, there being from 1,200 to 3,000 exposed points of these scales to an inch. The scales open or point toward the tip of the fiber, like shingles put on the wrong way. Beneath the covering of scales is the cortex or body of the fiber, made up of greatly elongated cells united into bundles, 288 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 28d and in the center of the fiber there is sometimes a cavity or canal which may contain granules of pigment. Hair and wool are very similar in growth and structure, but wool is crimped, has more scales, the points of the scales are more open or projecting, and the entire fiber is more soft and flexible than hair. These small differences give to wool its special commercial values. Hair will not retain the twisted state given to it in spinning, but the crimp of wool causes the fibers to become entangled, and the minute scales hook together and hold the fibers in position when wool is spun into yarn. Thus wool has a thread-forming quality which hair has not, preventing slipping and separation of the fibers in the yarn. The Fig. 107. — Cross-section of a wool fiber, a, Central canal, which is not present in most wools; b, cortex or body of fiber, composed of long, spindle-shaped cells which here appear oval because they are cut transversely; c, wool cuticle, composed of scales. entanglement and locking of the fibers is referred to as the "felting quality" of wool. In Merino wool, the scales or projections are very distinct and sharply pointed. In the medium- wool breeds, the scales are less dis- tinct and sharp, and in the long-wool breeds, they are rounded off and indistinct. In Merino wool, about 2,400 of these scale-ends are found to the inch; in the Southdown there are 2,000 to 2,080; and in the Leicester, 1,850 to 1,860. Merino wool is superior in felting quality, the others standing in a relation proportional to the figures given. Fineness of fiber. — Dr. William McMurtrie, who conducted exten- sive investigations of wools for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, > ^U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt., Examination of Wools and Other Animal Fibers. 290 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock found the average diameter of the Merino fiber to be 1 /1, 194 of an inch, while the Southdown had an average diameter of 1 /865, the Hampshire Down 1/769, the Lincoln 1/685, the Leicester 1/654, the Cotswold 1 /605, and the Oxford Down 1 /581. In 1860, American Merino fibers with a diameter of 1 /1, 572, and American Saxon Merino fibers measur- ing 1/1,875 of an inch in diameter were exhibited in London, showing the extreme fineness which may be secured in wools. Secretion and composition of yolk. — Opening into each wool follicle are a couple of sebaceous or oil glands, furnishing a profuse secretion of an oily or fatty material, called the yolk, which is thrown out at the same time the fiber is formed. This secretion consists largely of a soapy matter having a potassium base, together with an animal oil which gives to the yolk its peculiar odor. Yolk, then, is not strictly a grease or oil, but is a soap with an excess of oil. This explains why it dissolves freely in warm water and may be washed almost entirely out of the fleece, and why it cleanses and whitens the hands as soap does. The quantity and fluidity of the yolk vary greatly, being greater when the sheep are healthy and well fed, and varying also according to the breed. The yolk maintains the softness and pliancy of the fibers, and protects the scaly surface from injury such as might result from friction of the fibers against one another during the movements of the animal. It also helps to keep the fleece clean and free from a cotted or matted condition. The wool manufacturer removes the grease from wool by the scouring process. This is the first step in wool manufacture. Woolens and worsteds. — When scoured wool is combed, that is, drawn through metal teeth, the fibers are made to lie parallel to each other and foreign matter and short fibers are combed out. This waste is called the "noils," and the remaining long fibers are called the "top." Wool used for combing under the Bradford or English system of manu- facture must be strong and at least 23/^ inches long in order to give the yam sufficient strength. Such wool is called combing wool. The yam made from combed wool (top) is called worsted, and the cloths made of it are known as worsteds. Wools which are short and much crimped and serratured are called clothing or carding wools. They have a high felting quality. In preparation for spinning they are put through carding machines which jumble the fibers together in any and every direction, forming a mixed mass from which the yarn is eventually drawn. The cloths made from such yarn are known as woolens. The difference between woolens and worsteds is largely due to the way the yarn for each is spun. In worsted yarn the fibers are arranged as parallel as possible by the combing process; in woolen yam they Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 291 are crossed in every direction so as to assist the felting or milling of the cloth. Yarn for woolen cloth is very slightly twisted, so as to leave the fibers as free as possible for the felting process; worsted yarn, on the contrary, is hard spun and made into a much stronger thread. By the process of manufacture, woolens are felted so as to leave little or no appearance of the thread, while in worsteds the threads are plainly evident. Woolens usually have a fuzzy, downy surface, while worsteds have a smooth, hard finish. Worsteds hold their shape better than woolens. Worsted cloths have a more clearly defined pattern and more firmly woven appearance than woolens. Woolen cloths are softer and the various colors are not so distinct in the cloth. ^ The principal worsted cloth is Serge, while woolens include several leading varieties such as Tweeds, Cheviots, and Broadcloths. The manufacture of woolen underwear is also essentially a woolen process. Shoddy, obtained by tearing up woolen rags by machinery, now enters into the composition of all except the very finest woolen yarns. Fig. 108. — Woolen and worsted yarns. In the woolen yarn (upper) the short wool fibers are crossed in every direction, while in the worsted yarn (lower) the fibers are longer and are laid parallel to each other. but cannot be used in the manufacture of worsted yarn under the Bradford or English system. However, a varying proportion of cotton threads are often woven into worsted cloth. Worsteds may be dyed in the top, the yarn, or the cloth. Woolens may be dyed in the wool, the yam, or the cloth. Pounds of wool per pound of cloth. — For woolen goods, from 3 to 4.64 pounds of grease wool, with an average of 3.73 pounds, are re- quired to make 1 pound of cloth. The average amount of scoured wool required is 1.37 pounds. For worsted cloths, from 2.56 pounds to 4.55 pounds of grease wool are required, with an average of 3.66 pounds. The average amount of scoured wool for 1 pound of worsted cloth is 1.55 pounds. ^ 1 Men's suits are usually made from worsted cloth, except that the under part of the collar is lined with woolen cloth. This is mentioned so that the reader, at least the male reader, may readily find samples of the two classes of fabrics in order to note the distinctions mentioned above. 2F. R. Marshall and L. L. Heller: The Woolgrower and the Wool Trade, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, p. 24. 292 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Classification of wools. — Wools may be classified according to their origin and also according to their value and adaptability for differ- ent uses. The classifications in common use in this country are as follows: Clipped wools and pulled wools. — The first distinction made in wools is to divide them into fleece or clipped wools and pulled wools. The former are the ordinary clipped wools coming to market in separate fleeces. These are the more valuable and constitute by far the greater portion of the wool of commerce. Pulled wools are those derived from the pelts of slaughtered sheep in the manner described later on. They are marketed in 500-pound bales. Pulled wools constitute about one- seventh of all the wool produced in the United States. Domestic, territory, and carpet wools. — Domestic wools are wools coming from the small farm flocks east of the Missouri river. For the most part, the sheep are of mutton type and breeding. As compared to territory wools, these wools are usually clean and bright, due to the better protection and care given the sheep. Territory wools are those produced west of the Missouri river, and they derive their name from the fact that this section was formerly made up of Territories in distinc- tion to the States of the central and eastern sections. Territory wools are produced by the large flocks of range sheep which contain much fine-wool breeding, though the use of medium- and long-wool mutton rams is increasing. They shrink from 63 to 70 per cent on the average when scoured, and sometimes over 80 per cent, due to the presence in fleeces of sand, dirt, and considerable yolk. Carpet wools are inferior and low-priced wools containing much kemp or dead fibers, and are used in the manufacture of carpets and coarse blankets. Very little carpet wool is produced in this country. Domestic wools may be subdivided into two groups or sub-classes, known as "bright" and "semi-bright," depending on the whiteness and luster of the fiber. Bright wool is produced by Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Semi-bright wool comes from the Dakotas, western Kansas, and Nebraska. They are midway between the bright and the territory in condition, having more sand and dirt than the bright but not as much as the territory. The best bright wools are those known as "Ohio" wools, produced not only in Ohio but also in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. More than half of the flocks of this region are of Merino breeding. Ohio wool is famous for strength, cleanliness, and general quality, and commands a premium on the market. The states which produce territory wool are Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Washington, These are mainly Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 293 range states. vSand storms deposit much sand and dirt in the fleeces. When the range is bare of snow in winter the wool often shrinks 5 per cent more than when the ground has been covered. Because of the varying shrinkage of territory wools, they are sold on the market upon a clean or scoured basis. The clips of California, Oregon, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico are no longer classed as territory wools due to the fact that they have rather distinct characteristics. In Texas, shearing is often practiced twice a year, in which case the wool comes to market untied. In California, the northern counties shear once a vear, but the middle Fig. 109. — Clothing and combing wools. and southern counties often shear twice a year, the wool shrinks more than that of the northern counties, and it comes to market untied. Oregon produces some excellent wool, though somewhat high in shrink- age. This state also produces what are known as "valley wools," largely from long-wool sheep. New Mexico and Arizona wools are very uneven in character and often kempy, due to lack of care of the sheep and inferior breeding. They come to market untied and are poorly put up. Washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. — Formerly the practice of washing sheep just prior to shearing was extensively followed in the eastern states. This gave rise to the terms of washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. Unmerchantable wool is not unsaleable wool, but that 294 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock which has been poorly washed. Fleeces may be unmerchantable for other reasons. The practice of washing is almost a thing of the past, and the use of these terms does not necessarily imply that the washing operation has actually taken place, but sometimes refers solely to shrinkage. Washed wools are lighter in color and condition, shrinking 3 or 4 per cent less than unmerchantable, and the latter shrinks about 3 or 4 per cent less than the unwashed. Market classes and grades of wool. — Most American-grown wool is sacked just as the fleeces come from the sheep and sold at home to dealers. Before offering the wool to the manufacturer the dealer opens the sacks and makes up from his various purchases a number of piles, each containing only fleeces of similar character and value. This is called grading, and it is performed without untying the fleeces. The first division which the market makes in wools is to divide them into the Domestic and Territory classes. The advantages of domestic over territory wool have been mentioned. Each of these is again divided into the Combing and Clothing classes. Combing wool is usually worth about 10 per cent more than the short or clothing wool, and the aim of the wool-grower is to produce combing wool. Each class is divided into grades, and in grading fleeces the main factor is fineness of fiber, although other factors such as length, shrinkage, and general character are considered. The various grades are adapted to the manufacture of different kinds of fabrics. Thus the wool dealer is enabled to supply the manufacturer not merely a certain general class such as combing wool or clothing wool, but a particular kind or grade of fleeces within that class specially adapted to his mill. The complete classification may be represented in outline as follows: Delaine Combing wools Fine 1 Medium/ Half-blood Three-eighths-blood Quarter-blood Low quarter-blood Braid Combing wools Fine staple "I Fine medium staple] Half-blood staple Three-eighths-blood staple Quarter-blood staple Low quarter-blood staple Coarse, common, low, or braid DOMESTIC WOOLS Clothing wools often one grade XX and X, washed or fine unwashed Half-blood clothing Three-eighths-blood clothing Quarter-blood clothing TERRITORY WOOLS Clothing wools Fine clothing 1 Fine medium [-usually one grade clothing j Half-blood clothing Three-eighths-blood clothing Quarter-blood clothing, or short quarter-blood often one grade usually one grade Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 295 long without stretching, while clothing wools are all under that length. It will be noticed that much the same names are given to the grades within each class. The term "staple" as applied to territory wools means the same as the term "combing wool." If a Merino sheep east of the Missouri river grows a fleece that measures at least 2^/^ inches long without stretching, it grades as Delaine on the wool market. The same sheep west of the river grows Fig. 110. — Grades of combing wool. Fine combing at left and half-blood combing at right. a fleece that grades as Fine Staple or Fine Medium Staple. The Fine Staple or Fine Medium Staple fleece has a greater shrinkage than the Delaine fleece. This is the main distinction between the two. When scoured, the wools have much the same value. The eastern wool may be somewhat stronger, but in a general way the wool is the same in both fleeces. If a Merino sheep in the East grows a fleece less than 23^ inches long, it grades as XX or X, or as Fine Unwashed. Market usage has 296 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock decreed that XX and X as grade names shall be used only in referring to washed clothing wools. XX is a somewhat finer wool than X. Fine Unwashed corresponds to XX and X, but shrinks more in scour- ing. The same sheep in the West grows a fleece that grades as Fine Clothing or Fine Medium Clothing. Fine Clothing corresponds to XX, and Fine Medium Clothing corresponds to X, except that the territory wool shrinks more than the domestic. Fig. 111. — Grades of combing wool, quarter-blood combing at right. Three-eighths-blood combing at left and ^ ^ Similar comparisons might be made for the half-blood grade, the three-eighths-blood grade, etc. If we substitute the general term "Fine" for all the grades thus far discussed, we may say that each class of wool has the following grades: 1. Fine 2. Half-blood 3. Three-eighths-blood 4. Quarter-blood 5. Low quarter-blood 6. Low, coarse, common, or braid. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 297 In the early days of the American wool trade, the half-blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood grades referred supposedly to wools from sheep of half, three-eighths, and quarter Merino blood, but they have no such significance now. Wools grading as high as half- blood can come from sheep having no trace of Merino blood. On the other hand, quarter-blood would rarely come from a sheep containing any Merino blood. Low quarter-blood is a grade lower than quarter- blood, and braid is the lowest grade of all. It usually refers to luster wool such as might come from a Lincoln or a Cotswold sheep. The grading of wool in the wool houses is done by expert graders who know wools so well that at a glance they can determine the grade to which the wool belongs and the kind of material into which the wool will be made. Many of these wool graders may never have seen a sheep in fleece, neither do they know the breeds of sheep and the characteristic fleeces. Hence, the wool grade does not depend upon the breed of sheep, and the wool from different individuals of the same flock and breed may be graded diff"erently. Wool, then, is graded on the market according to its merit, regardless of the breeding of the sheep which grew it, although some of the names of the various grades may seem to indicate the breeding of the sheep. Half-blood wool approaches fineness, but is not so finely crimped as the fine grade. It is also somewhat longer in its class, and usually shrinks less in its class. Three-eighths-blood has a tendency toward the coarser wool. It is less crimped than half-blood and less elastic. It also shrinks less when scoured because it is less oily as a rule. Quarter-blood represents the next step down the scale in fineness and crimp, with still less shrinkage. It is longer than three-eighths-blood. Practically all three-eighths-blood and quarter-blood wools are of combing length. Braid wool varies from 4}/^ inches up to 12 or 13 inches in length. Its name comes from the fact that it is particularly suitable for the manufacture of braids. It is generally used, however, in fabrics requiring long and coarse fibers. For bunting or flags there is no other wool its equal. Because of its length and coarseness it does not appear as one of the grades of clothing wool. The foregoing statements regarding the comparative lengths and shrinkages of the various grades of wool may be illustrated by the following table ' giving the most acceptable length and the estimated average shrinkage of each grade of Montana combing wools: 1 Compiled from National Wool Warehouse and Storage Company's Bulletin, Dec, 1915. Fig. 112. — Grades of combing wool. Low quarter-blood combing at right and braid wool at left. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 299 Acceptable length Grade for an average Shrinkage — grade — inches per cent Fine and Fine medium 2 H 64-65 Half-blood 23^ 61-62 Three-eighths-blood 3}4 55-57 Quarter-blood 4 51-53 Braid 4^-13 46-48 Classes and grades of wool from various breeds of sheep. — The following list ^ shows in a general way how wool from the various breeds would be likely to grade. This table is presented because it will be of interest and because it will assist the reader who knows the fleeces characteristic of some or all of the breeds of sheep, but does not know the characteristics of the classes and grades of wool, to gain a clearer understanding of the latter. Breed Class and grade of wool produced Merino (eastern states) Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed. Merino (range states) Fine and fine medium staple or clothing. Rambouillet Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and a small amount of half-blood. Southdown Half and three-eighths-blood (chiefly three- eighths combing or clothing, chiefly clothing.) Shropshire Mainly three-eighths-blood, combing or clothing. Some quarter-blood. Hampshire Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or clothing. Dorset Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or clothing. Suffolk Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing. Cheviot Quarter-blood combing. Oxford Quarter and low quarter-blood combing. Corriedale Three-eighths-blood combing. Cotswold ] Lincoln [Low quarter-blood combing or braid. Leicester J Government standards. — In an attempt to secure greater uniform- ity in the classing and grading of wools, and, if possible, standardize them, the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics in 1920 formulated "Tentative Wool Grades." During the past two years these grades have been tested in actual practice and the Bureau is now taking steps to have them declared official. The classification tentatively adopted is very similar to the commercial classification which has been described. It includes the clothing and combing classes, and also an intermediate class known as "French or baby combing." These are shorter wools than strictly combing wools, but may be manufactured into a cheaper class of worsted goods by means of the French combing process. The respective lengths assigned to the three classes are as follows: »U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, p. 21. 300 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock French or Strictly Grade Clothing baby combing combing Fine Under 1 J^ inches 1^ to 2 inches Over 2 inches 1-2 Blood Under 1 j| inches 1 3^ to 2 J< inches Over 2^ inches 3-8 Blood Under 1 H inches 1 J^ to 2 J-^ inches Over 2H inches 1-4 Blood Under IM inches 13/2 to 2^ inches Over 23^ inches Low 1-4 Blood Under 2 inches 2 to 3 inches Over 3 inches The complete classification is as follows: Grade and class Grade and class Fine clothing 1-4 blood clothing Fine French combing 1-4 blood baby combing Fine strictly combing 1-4 blood strictly combing 1-2 blood clothing Low 1-4 blood clothing 1-2 blood French combing Low 1-4 blood baby combing 1-2 blood strictly combing Low 1-4 blood strictly combing 3-8 blood clothing Common 3-8 blood baby combing Braid 3-8 blood strictly combing In addition to the foregoing, separate classes are provided for fleeces which contain much foreign material, are off-colored, or other- wise defective. These classes are as follows: Burry, seedy, chaffy, cotted, dead, merrin, damaged, black or colored, pieces, tags, kempy, tied with sisal. Burry, seedy, and chaffy contain foreign material; cotted wools are matted ; dead and merrin are from dead sheep or wools which lack spring and life. The other terms are self-explanatory. Sorting wool. — The wool manufacturer buys from the wool dealer the grade of wool which he desires and thus secures fleeces which have a certain average degree of fineness. However, each fleece varies more or less in fineness. Wool from the lower thighs, called the "britch," is usually the coarsest part of the fleece. The shoulder wool is best in strength, quality, and length; the sides are next best, and quality decreases passing backward to the britch. Wool from the back is likely to contain hayseed and chaff. The belly wool is finer than any, but is short, frowzy, not so strong, and lacks character. A "frowzy" wool is one that appears lifeless, and is badly mussed, the fibers and locks lying topsy turvy. The wool from the head is short, coarse, and in dark-faced breeds is likely to contain black fibers. A fleece may be three-eighths-blood or half-blood on the shoulder, while the britch would be quarter-blood. For these reasons, the wool manufacturer usually sorts the wool which he buys. Sorting produces "regular sorts" and "off sorts." The former include the regular classes and grades of wool, and the latter include stained and gray, shorts, fribs, clips, etc. The stained and gray sort is not usually made unless white goods are to be manufactured. Shorts consist of short wool such as grows about the face, or it may be due to double cutting in shearing. Fribs are short, sweaty, and dungy locks. Clips are locks so incrusted with Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 301 foreign material that they cannot be scoured clean, but must be clipped off. Other off sorts are often made from wools of various sections. Some of these are tags, paint locks, and seedy. Tags are large dung locks which are badly stained and have a very high shrinkage. Paint locks require clipping off the painted ends of the locks. Seedy wool contains weed seeds, soft burs, etc. It must often be carbonized before using, as explained in a later paragraph. Wool pulling. — Wool pulleries may be divided into two groups — those owned by packers and forming a part of the by-products division of packing plants, and those owned and operated independent of pack- ing establishments. The wool pullery of a packing plant receives pelts daily, direct from the killing floor. They are at once placed in vats of cold water, which takes out all of the animal heat and removes some of the dirt and blood. The soaking continues from 12 to 24 hours. Packing plants not equipped with pulleries salt their pelts, and when a quantity has accumulated send them to a pullery. Salted pelts are soaked 36 hours, as it requires considerable time to dissolve the salt out of the hide. When removed from the vats, the pelts are given mechanical treatment in a scrubbing machine which washes them in a spray of water, completing the removal of dirt, and leaving the fleece in an attractive, white condition. The wet pelts are then put in a centrifugal wringer which throws out the water to such an extent that the fleece is made very nearly dry. The pelts are next taken to a room where they are spread, fleece downward, upon wire screens and painted on the inner surface with a thick liquid bearing the trade name of "Depilatory," consisting of a mixture of sodium sulphide and slaked lime. Within 2 to 4 hours after this treatment the wool fibers become loosened and easily part from the hide, coming out by the roots when pulled. Before pulling, however, the pelts are taken to large rooms where they are spread out on the floor, fleece upwards, being grouped or classified according to the nature of the fleece. The pelts are then taken up and the wool pulled by hand. Coincident with the pulling the operator sorts the wool. Furthermore, the pullery keeps each month's product by itself, thus multiplying the assortments by twelve, and resulting flnally in over two hundred kinds of pulled wool, each having a distinct trade name. Wool pulleries report a strong demand from wool manufacturers for black wool which is used to produce various shades of natural gray by mixing it with white wool. Black wool thus sells at a premium, for the supply is small. Pelts that vary in color through various shades of gray and brown are not in the class of black pelts because the varying color makes them an unknown quantity in color mixing where definite 302 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock results are wanted. Very few black fleeces are uniformly black. They often contain white, gray, and brown fibers mixed with the black. This explains why the so-called black fleece sells at a discount, while the locks of black wool collected by the wool pullery bring a premium. The growth of wool must be at least three-fourths of an inch before it may be profitably pulled. Some pelts are not pulled, no matter how long the fleece may be, because the wool is not saleable, or not valuable enough to pay for pulling. Scouring. — Scouring is the first process in wool manufacturing. The purpose of the scouring process is the removal of dirt and grease from the wool. It does not remove paint, burs, seeds, chaff, nor twine. Paint is clipped from the wool before scouring. If the grease wool comes to the scouring plant in bales, it is first put through a shredding machine which loosens it. This machine is equipped with a blower for the removal of dust, and a screen for the removal of heavy dirt. Scour- ing is accomplished by passing the wool through a series of four bowls or vats, each containing a different liquor. These liquors are com- posed as follows: Bowl No. 1 — Mild alkaline solution, preferably potassium; temperature 130 degrees Fahrenheit. Bowl No. 2 — Same alkaline solution as first bowl, plus soap: should be a potash soap; temperature 120 degrees. Bowl No. 3 — Soap solution only; temperature 110 degrees. Bowl No. 4 — Luke warm water. Nearly all the yolk or grease is removed from the wool in the first bowl. This is done by the saponification of the oil, the soap readily dissolving in the warm liquid. The action of the soap in the second and third bowls is to whiten the wool and give it "life" which it loses in bowl No. 1. After rinsing in the fourth bowl, the wool is passed through a dryer. During treatment in the bowls, automatic rakes keep the wool moving slowly, for if it is moved rapidly through the liquids it forms a ropy mass. The yolk forms an emulsion in the bowls and may be recovered by chemical processes. It is known as "lanolin," and is much used in salves and ointments. Clipped wools shrink as much as 65 per cent or more in scouring, while pulled wools shrink about 30 per cent on the average and often shrink only 10 per cent. The difference is due to the very thorough washing given to pelts before pulling. Carbonization. — Burs and much other vegetable matter cannot be taken from wool in scouring. In the combing process, by which worsteds are made, this vegetable matter is combed out with the noils (short fibers not suitable for worsted yarn). It can be eliminated from the noils or from clothing wools intended for carding or woolen Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 303 purposes only by carbonization. This consists in immersing the wool in a dilute sulphuric acid or aluminum chloride solution, and then dry- ing it at about 200 degrees F. This chars the burs and vegetable matter which are then removed by crushing and dusting with little or no change in the wool fiber. The process costs from 13^2 to 3 cents a pound and results in an average loss of about 10 per cent in weight. Thus we see why the manufacturer and the wool dealer have a right to object to burry wool, and why they offer a much lower price for it than for clean wool. Wool clip of world. ^ — Australia and New Zealand combined pro- duce about 30 per cent of the world's wool clip, the United States 10 per cent, Argentina 9 per cent, Russian Empire 8 per cent, Spain 6 per cent, the Union of South Africa 6 per cent, the United Kingdom 4 per cent, Turkey in Asia 3 per cent, and all other countries 24 per cent. American wools and wool growing. — American sheep are said to have no superior in constitutional vigor and strength of wool fiber. The average weight of fleece of American sheep has shown much im- provement. In 1840 it was only 1.9 pounds; in 1850 it was 2.4 pounds; in 1860 it was 2.7 pounds; in 1870 it was 3.5 pounds; in 1880 it was 4.4 pounds; in 1890 it was 4.8 pounds; in 1900 it was 6 pounds; in 1910 it was 6.7 pounds; in 1920 it was 7.3 pounds. The annual wool clip since 1840 is shown by the following figures: Annual wool clip of the United States Year Sheared wool 1840 35,802,114 pounds 1850 52,516,959 pounds 1860 60,264,913 pounds 1870 162,000,000 pounds 1880 232,500,000 pounds 1890 276,000,000 pounds 1900 288,636,621 pounds 1910 336,896,9( 3 pounds 1920 235,005,000 pounds 1922 219,095,000 pounds According to the estimates of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, 2 the leading states in 1922 in the production of fleece wool, scoured basis, were as follows: 1 National Association of Wool Manufacturers: Annual Wool Review for 1922, p. 255. 2As given in Annual Wool Review for 1922, p. 175. 304 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Production of fleece wool in leading states in 1922 Average Wool Per cent Scoured Number of weight product, of wool State fleeces per fleece raw shrinkage Pounds ^ Pounds Pounds 1. Wyoming 2,812,000 8.0 22,500,000 65 7,875,000 2. Texas 2,681,000 7.2 19,300,000 65 6,755,000 3. Ohio 1,837,000 7.4 13,596,000 53 6,390,000 4. Montana 1,927,000 8.0 15,416,000 61 6,012,000 5. Idaho 1,923,000 7.8 15,000,000 60 6,000,000 6. Utah 2,160,000 7.4 15,984,000 63 5,914,000 7. California 1,950,000 6.9 13,455,000 64 4,844,000 8. Oregon 1,732,000 7.5 12,992,000 65 4,547,000 9. Michigan 1,078,000 7.3 7,868,000 50 3,934,000 10. New Mexico 1,600,000 6.0 9,600,000 65 3,360,000 United States 30,947,000 7.1 219,095,000 59 89,829,000 Pulled wool 42,000,000 30 29,400,000 Total United States 261,095,000 119,229,000 Total World 2,704,047,7891 » Based on latest available figures compiled by National Association of Wool Manufacturers and published in Annual Wool Review for 1922, p. 255. This table brings out some important distinctions in wools. The figures for shrink are interesting; the western states exceed the eastern states by 7 to 15 per cent, due mostly to the greater percentage of Merino blood in range flocks and hence a more greasy wool with a greater shrink. Western wools also contain more sand and dirt. The introduction of mutton sheep into the corn belt has decreased the average weight of fleece, but has improved the shrinkage. The entire clip of the United States in 1922 was estimated to shrink 59 per cent. Wool buyers fix the price on a scoured basis, this being the fairest method of dealing and also the fairest basis on which to compare pro- duction by states. Wyoming produced the most fleeces in 1922, and Delaware the fewest. Wyoming, Montana, and Nebraska had the highest average weight of fleece, which was 8 pounds, and Georgia was lowest with 2.9 pounds. Virginia, with 38 per cent, had the lowest shrinkage, and Washington, with 67 per cent, had the highest shrinkage. Imports and exports of wool. — During the year 1920 the United States imported 254,905,000 pounds of wool valued at $124,399,000. The average value per pound was 48.8 cents. We export less than a million pounds of our wool annually. American wool growers produce slightly less than one-half of the wool used by American wool manufac- turers. Australia is the largest exporter of wool, the flgure for the year 1919 being 680,769,000 pounds; Argentina ranked second with 339,208,000 pounds; New Zealand was third with 274,247,000 pounds; South Africa was fourth with 202,039,000 pounds; and Uruguay was fifth with 141,330,000 pounds. These five countries furnish over 85 per cent of the exports of the world. The principal importing and wool-manufacturing countries are France, Great Britain, United States, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 305 Belgium, and Germany. These five countries annually consume over 85 per cent of the total imports of the world. Principal American wool markets. — The principal wool markets in the United States are Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and New York. During the past few years Boston has handled nearly 75 per cent of the total wool crop of this country, and nearly 60 per cent of the foreign wool shipped into this country. Factors that determine the value of wool. — The value of wool depends upon certain well-established factors, many of which have been indicated and discussed in the foregoing paragraphs on wools and wool manufacture. Following is a list of these factors:^ 1. Shrinkage. — American wools may shrink from 25 to 80 per cent. The loss in scouring is a complete loss to the manufacturer. Grease wools are valued on a scoured basis. Sand, dust, dirt, burs, and seeds lower the yield and affect the value of the clean wool. The following table shows the important part that shrinkage plays in fixing prices. At the top are various prices per pound of clean or scoured wool. In the column to the left are various percentages of shrinkage. By the use of this table we find, for example, that if clean wool is worth $1.00 per pound and the shrinkage is 65 per cent, the wool is worth 35 cents in the grease, whereas, if the shrinkage is 60 per cent, the grease wool is worth 40 cents. Relative prices of scoured and raw wool at varying percentages of s hrink age Price of clean or scoured wool (cents) Shrinkage 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 per cent cts. cte. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. 25 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 83 90 98 105 113 30 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 35 20 26 33 39 46 52 59 65 72 78 85 91 98 40 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 45 17 22 28 33 39 44 50 55 61 66 72 77 83 50 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 55 14 18 23 27 32 36 41 45 50 54 59 63 68 60 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 65 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 39 42 46 49 53 70 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 75 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 28 30 33 35 38 80 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 2. Class and grade of the wool. — Ordinarily combing wools are worth about 10 per cent more than the short or clothing wools. 3. Character in wool. — ^This refers to the color or whiteness of the fiber, the soundness, luster, evenness of distribution of yolk, and the degree of crimp which gives elasticity to the fiber. A fine Merino U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. 306 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock fiber may be easily stretched by hand 30 per cent beyond its crimped length, and by gradual pressure on a machine fully that much more. A white fiber may be used in the manufacture of white cloth, or may be dyed any desired color. Black, brown, or gray wool can be used only in dark-colored fabrics, and furthermore it is difficult to stain these wools exactly the same shade as white wool. Kemp, which are hair-like fibers, found mostly on the thighs of coarse-wooled sheep, will absorb little dye, if any at all, and fleeces containing kemp are dis- criminated against as lacking in character. In kemp the outer scales lie so closely against the body of the fiber that the dye cannot penetrate. The body of the fiber alone absorbs the dye. Fig. 113. — Tender wool showing break. 4. Strength of fiber. — Tender spots and breaks affect the value of the wool, may change its class or grade, and lessen the strength of the yarn. 5. Use of paint for branding sheep. — This lowers the value of the fleece, necessitates an extra sort at the mill, and requires that the painted ends be clipped off the fibers before scouring. 6. Tags. — These are worth about one-third as much as good wool. At time of shearing they should be sacked separately. They are objectionable in the fleece because they shrink much more in scouring than the rest of the fleece, and are liable to stain the surrounding wool, especially when wet. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 307 7. Wet wool. — In wet wool the fibers may be weakened, and there is danger of spontaneous combustion. It may also cause staining, especially when tags are present. 8. Burs. — As has been pointed out, burs cause much trouble and extra expense in manufacture, and hence lower the value of the fleece considerably. 9. Improper tying. — The fleece should be tied so that no locks or pieces fall out. These are difficult to sort and buyers object to them when present in large quantities. The use of sisal or binder twine is seriously objected to by dealers and manufacturers because the fibers of the twine shred off and become mixed with the wool and blemish the fabrics made from it. A small, light twine of twisted paper, espec- ially intended for the use of wool growers, is now on the market and should be used exclusively. 10. Buck fleeces. — These contain more grease than other fleeces and hence shrink more in scouring. They should be kept separate. 11. Black wool. — A black fleece packed with white ones is almost certain to contaminate the latter due to some of the black fibers be- coming mixed in the white. Black wool should be packed separately. Black fieeces sell at a discount because they are usually not an even black, but contain white, gray, and brown fibers, often more of these than of black. 12. Cotted or matted fleeces. — It is necessary to run these through an opener, which is not done with ordinary wool. 13. Hand and machine shearing. — Machine shearing results in a heavier fleece, longer fibers, and freedom from second cuts. Machine shearing may even result in changing the class from clothing to comb- ing. 14. Packing wool. — Lamb, ewe, and wether fleeces should be packed in separate bags if possible. Lamb's wool is usually more valuable because of lighter shrinkage. Sewing bags with sisal or other unsuitable twine creates a bad impression. The bag should be sewed securely with a stout, hard-finished twine so as not to burst open. Marketing wool properly. — Poor methods of sheep husbandry annually result in the loss of many thousands of dollars to wool growers. Neglect of flocks in winter, filthy conditions of keep, carelessness in handling, weedy pastures, the use of oil paint or tar to mark sheep, failure to separate the tags when the sheep are shorn, and improper tying of fleeces are factors which greatly lessen the returns to wool producers. The loss is large because of the presence in fleeces of seeds, burs, dust, chaff, sand, manure, and other foreign material, and be- cause unnecessary quantities of unreasonably large twine are used, or because a kind of twine is used that injures the cloth made from the 308 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock wool. Sometimes there is enough twine around one fleece to tie a half-dozen or more fleeces. Even baling wire has been used in some instances. The Animal Husbandry Division of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry ^ suggests the following rules as of fundamental importance in the improvement of American wools: 1. Adhere to a settled policy of breeding the type of sheep suit- able to the locality. 2. Sack lambs', ewes', wethers', and all buck or very oily fleeces separately. 3. Shear all black sheep at one time, preferably last, and put the wool in separate sacks. 4. Remove and sack separately all tags, and then allow no tag discount upon the clip as a whole. 5. Have slatted floors in the holding pens. 6. Use a smooth, light, and hard glazed (preferably paper) twine. 7. Securely knot the string on each fleece. 8. Turn sacks wrong side out and shake well before filling. 9. Keep wool dry at all times. 10. Make the brands on the sheep as small as possible and avoid tar brands. 11. Know the grade and value of your wool and price it ac- cordingly. 12. Do not sweat sheep excessively before shearing. 13. Keep the floor sweepings out of the wool. 14. Do not sell the wool before it is grown. 15. When all these rules are followed place your personal brand or your name upon the bags or bales. Wool is purchased from the producer by different methods depend- ing upon the size of the clip. Domestic wools are often sold to local wool buyers who take the whole clip of the neighborhood regardless of quality or cleanliness. Sometimes the country storekeeper buys wool and resells to the traveling buyer. Cooperative wool-selling agencies have been formed in certain localities, and the advantages of these organizations are discussed in the next paragraph. Territory wools are sold mostly to buyers representing eastern wool dealers. In a few cases they are sold to buyers representing manufacturers. The west- ern wool grower may also consign his clip to a commission house to be stored and sold for a certain commission charge. Cooperative marketing and selling. — During the last few years the cooperative marketing and selling of wools has been practiced on a U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 309 very extensive scale in the United States, and with highly successful results. Under this plan wool growers pool their wool, shipping it to a central point where it is graded and then sold direct to wool manufac- turers. Thus the grower receives a price in keeping with the actual merit of his product. Not only that, but he receives the highest return for his wool which it is possible to obtain. Cooperative selling is especially advantageous to producers of small lots of wool. Formerly the only method of disposing of such wool was to sell it to local buyers. The local buyer usually offered about the same price for all fleeces, good, bad, and indifferent, and there was little or no incentive to pro- duce good, clean fleeces, in fact there was, under that plan, something of an incentive to be careless in growing and preparing wool for market. Many growers permitted fleeces to become burry and dirty, and fre- quently an excessive amount of heavy twine was used in tying. Under the cooperative plan there is every incentive to grow good fleeces and to market them in clean condition. The producer of good wool is gi'eatly benefitted by the new method of selling. State wool pools or pools covering a wide territory are now made regularly by wool growers in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne- sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Missouri, Kansas, Texas, Utah, Oregon, and other states. The cooperative plan seems to have first attracted wide attention in the East in 1915 when Otsego County, N. Y., pooled 20,000 pounds of wool and sold it at an advance of 4}^ cents per pound over prices offered by local dealers. Later a number of larger pools were organized in the farming states with very successful results. The West also has found cooperative selling to be highly advantageous. It is reported ^ that in Fremont County, Idaho, wool has been sold cooperatively for over 15 years. The Jericho association at Fountain Green, Utah, has handled from 800,000 to 900,000 pounds of wool annually for five or six years. In 1921, its first season, the Pacific Cooperative Wool Growers of western Oregon sold 1,500,000 pounds of wool at a cost of 23^^ cents per pound for assembling, weighing, classifying, grading, and operating. This association controls the wool of about 250,000 sheep. The membership numbers 2,100 and is in- creasing. The wool is shipped to the warehouse in Portland where it is graded by United States licensed graders in accordance with the federal tentative wool standards. It was found advantageous to scour 84,000 pounds of wool in 1921. The association is able to borrow money on its warehouse receipts and to make advances to members up to 60 or 70 per cent of the value of their wool in storage. Through the sending of grade reports to members, the growers are learning lU. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 15, 1923, p. 6. 310 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock about grades of wool, and the manager reports improvement in the wool received and in the manner in which it is tied. R. A. Hammond, manager, states' that the Ohio Sheep and Wool Growers' Association handled a total of 15 million pounds of wool during the four years from 1919 to 1922 inclusive. Practically all of this was consigned by Ohio growers, though during 1921 and 1922 about 1,500,000 pounds were received from Indiana. In 1922 the Association marketed a total of about 2,750,000 pounds, said to be the largest proportion of the clip marketed cooperatively in any state. In 1922 the consignors received an average of 5 cents per pound more for their wool than prevailing local prices. Storage and grading facili- ties are provided in a large warehouse at Columbus, Ohio, and sales are made directly to manufacturing mills, each grower receiving the actual price for his wools, minus a handling charge amounting to 2^ cents per pound. The wool marketed by the Association in 1922 graded higher than that marketed in 1921. This is the natural result of a correct system of marketing whereby each grower is paid according to the merit of his product. The old system penalized quality, put a premium on mediocrity, and a bigger premium on inferiority, and under that system no improvement in quality of product could be expected. Cooperative wool pools ofier strong encouragement to improve the quality and value of wool. In addition to this they secure for the grower the best possible return for the grade of wool produced. Mohair. — This is the product of the Angora goat. The fiber is coarse, very long, exceedingly lustrous, and has very little crimp. It is used in the manufacture of braids, felts, linings, and plushes. It is also used extensively as a substitute for human hair in switches and wigs. Texas, Oregon, New Mexico, California, and Arizona are the principal producers of mohair grown in the United States. The National Association of Wool Manufacturers estimates that the pro- duction of mohair in the United States amounted to 7,750,000 pounds in 1922, having doubled since 1910. We imported 4,246,484 pounds of mohair in 1922, of which 1,636,145 pounds came from British South Africa and 702,091 pounds from Turkey in Europe. 1 Information to the writer. PART III-SWINE INTRODUCTION The hog is universally known as the "mortgage lifter." No other animal has contributed more toward the success of farming in the United States. This country leads the world in hog breeding and pork production. The money-making ability of the hog is based on the following advantages of the hog and of hog raising: 1. Hogs are the most efficient converters of grain and certain other feeds into meat. They make larger gains in weight in proportion to feed consumed than other farm animals. 2. They are most prolific, commonly farrowing from 6 to 10 pigs, and will raise two litters per year. 3. Returns come quickly. The pigs may be marketed within ten months after the sows are bred. The sow may be bred when eight months old, farrowing her first litter at twelve months of age. 4. Of all meat-producing farm animals, the pig is best adapted to diversified and intensified farming where a large income is desired from a small acreage. 5. The hog has a higher dressing percentage than any other animal, and a larger proportion of the live weight is edible than of any other animal. 6. Pork is the most nutritious meat and has better curing and keeping qualities than any other meat. 7. No other animal equals the hog in its fat-storing ability, and hog fat is the most valuable fat produced by domestic animals. 8. Hogs are the most efficient farm animals in converting certain wastes and by-products into profits. This statement applies to grain wasted by fattening cattle, ^ utilization of garbage, and utilization of dairy by-products such as skim milk. In some wooded sections of the countrj% pigs convert acorns, other mast, and roots into saleable form. 9. Hog raising requires a smaller investment in animals and equipment and yields quicker and relatively larger results than any other branch of animal husbandry. ^W. W. Smith of Purdue University states that for every bushel of ear or shelled corn fed to steers, the hogs following the cattle produce an average of from one to two pounds of pork; and that when the grain is crushed or ground before feeding to cattle, from a quarter to a half pound of pork is produced. With hogs selling at 10 cents per pound, a saving of 2}^ to 20 cents per bushel of corn fed to the cattle is eflfected by the hogs. — Pork Production, p. 4. 311 312 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Economy of the pig as a meat producer. — W. W. Smith of Purdue University states ^ that the cost of the pig at birth is much less than that of the calf or lamb, and that the cost of subsequent gains is lower. He states that to produce 100 pounds of gain during the market-finish- ing period, 1,000-pound steers require an average of 800 pounds of grain and 475 pounds of legume hay; 65-pound lambs require 400 pounds of grain and 500 pounds of legume hay; and 200-pound pigs require 450 pounds of grain and no hay. He mentions also that the brood sow brings a relatively better price when sent to market after her days of usefulness in the herd are over than does the cow or the ewe. When to the above facts it is added that during ten years at the Chicago market ^ all hogs marketed there brought an average price of $9.65 per cwt., all beef steers $8.85, all butcher cows and heifers $6.35, all fat lambs $9.60, all yearling wethers $7.90, and all older sheep $6.70, it might be assumed that hogs are easily the most profitable of all meat-producing animals. This may be true. But the above figures do not include heavy losses of pigs which occur annually, especially between farrowing time and weaning time. A much larger percentage of the pigs born annually fail to reach the market than is true of calves or lambs. The initial (birth) cost of every dead pig must be added to the initial cost of his surviving litter mates, and the feed he consumed and the labor he required must be added to the cost of feeding them in order to determine the cost of producing pork. Furthermore, the ability of steers and lambs to produce fairly good carcasses on grass and roughage alone, and the absolute failure of the pig under the same conditions should be kept in mind. Economy of the pig as a producer of human food. — The pig ranks very high among all farm animals in ability to manufacture a large amount of human food from a given quantity of feed. Dr. W. H. Jordan of the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station has compiled the following table ^ showing how the farm animals compare in the economy with which they convert their feed into edible solids. "Edible solids" means marketable product minus all water, bone, and gristle. Note the high rank of the pig: I Pork Production, p. 7. 2 Compiled from the Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures covering the years 1909 to 1918 inclusive. 3 The Feeding of Animals, p. 423. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 313 Human food produced by farm animals from 100 pounds of digestible matter consumed Marketable Edible Animal product solids Pounds Pounds Cow (milk) 139.0 18.0 Pig (dressed) 25.0 15.6 Cow (cheese) 14.8 9.4 Calf (dressed) 36.5 8.1 Cow (butter) 6.4 5.4 Poultry (eggs) 19.6 5.1 Poultry (dressed) 15.6 4.2 Lamb (dressed) 9.6 3.2 Steer (dressed) 8.3 2.8 Sheep (dressed) 7.0 2.6 It should be noted, however, that the table does not take into consideration the relative cost or value of the feedstuffs consumed by the different animals. Failure to do so is especially detrimental to the sheep, steer, and lamb. Nor does the table include the labor cost of producing the various products. Neither does it include in the case of the dairy cow the feed and labor required to grow the cow or heifer to milking age. Nor does it consider the relative food values of the edible solids produced by the various animals. If these factors were included, the pig would certainly approach the milk cow even more closely in economy of production, and might equal or surpass her. We should remember that any fair comparison must include all costs and all factors in any way concerned in economy of production. Unfor- tunately for the pig this would include the losses caused by disease, exposure, injuries, and other causes. The writer desires to emphasize the fact that too much importance should not be attached to comparisons similar to the one made in the above table. Such comparisons are valuable only in that they make us think and impress us with the special attributes of different animals. Each kind of live stock has its proper place and each is most economical and profitable under the right set of conditions. For most economical utilization and conversion of pastures and farm crops, all kinds of farm animals are essential. And as one man remarked, "We cannot live by milk, or pork, or eggs, or beef alone; and the cow doesn't lay eggs, and the steer doesn't give milk, and the lamb can't grow, pork, and the chicken is no good for beef; so why argue about it? To which his friend replied that he 'guessed that was so.' Writers on live-stock subjects often make comparisons to emphasize particular points. Readers sometimes make the mistake of attaching an importance to such comparisons, or of drawing a conclusion from them, that is not justified or was not intended by the writers. Types of hogs.— Swine are useful as a source of meat and lard. Some swine produce meat only, and some produce lard as well as meat. Differences in the demands of consumers of pork, together with differ- 314 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ences in the kinds of feed available for pork production, have resulted in the establishment of two distinct types of swine, lard type and bacon type. The lard hog is an American production found chiefly in the corn- belt states where corn is the principal feed for all farm animals. Corn is a great fattening feed, and when fed to hogs it is converted into fat from which lard is made. Breeders have therefore developed a type of hog specially adapted to converting feed, principally corn, into fat, and at the same time growing a carcass highly valued for the various cuts of meat which it yields. The bacon hog is also found in America, principally in Canada, however, which is outside the corn belt. In Canada the feeds available for pork production are peas, barley, wheat, oats, rye, skim milk, and roots. As compared with corn, these feeds are not so fattening; they are muscle builders, and hogs produced with such feeds take on rela- tively little fat and are not useful as a source of lard. Canadians have made no effort to compete with the hogs of the corn belt; instead they produce a hog suitable for the English and Canadian trade — a hog whose carcass yields the largest proportion of high-grade bacon. From what has been said it may appear that there is no real hereditary difference in the form, structure, and ability of the two types of hogs, but that the differences between them are solely the result of differences in the feeds upon which they are produced. This is largely true, yet it is a fact that when pigs of the bacon type are brought into the corn belt and fed on fat-producing feeds, they never entirely lose the bacon type; and when the lard hog is taken into a bacon-producing section and fed on muscle-building feeds, there is the same degree of change, but the lard hog does not lose his identity under such a system of feeding. Therefore we must conclude that there is something besides the difference in the feeds which accounts for the two distinct types; in other words, there is an hereditary difference between the two kinds of swine. Careful selection and breeding and the establishment of definite types of animals suitable to special purposes cannot accomplish the desired ends unaided. The feeding and care must receive as much attention as the breeding. No matter how well bred an animal may be, and no matter how great may be its tendency to conform to a given type, it must enjoy a favorable environment before its inherited good qualities can fully assert themselves and thereby enable the animal to fulfill its mission. The breeds of hogs, their classification according to type, and the number of registered purebreds of each breed in the United States as shown by the 1920 census, are as follows: Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 315 Type Breed Number fDuroc-Jersey 819,117 I Poland-China 726 504 Lard Type <[ Chester White 191,207 J Hampshire 106',978 Berkshire 86,676 [Spotted Poland-China 47 J03 Bacon Type /Yorkshire 6,353 liAcON lYPE JTamworth 5!639 All other 59,723 » Total 2,049,900 > Includes Mule-Foot, Cheshire, Essex, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Large Black, Red Berkshire and other minor breeds. ' The Berkshire and Hampshire do not possess true fat or lard type, but have something of a bacon tendency. This is especially true of the Berkshire as bred in Canada. Definitions of Hog Terms Boar. — Breeding male, any age. Sow. — The female, any age. Gilt. — A young sow, usually under twelve months and before she has farrowed a litter. Barrow. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young pig. The best age to castrate pigs is from 6 to 8 weeks old, before weaning. Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and forequarters. This constitutes coarseness in a market animal. Shote. — A young hog weighing from 100 to 150 pounds. Show Yard Classification by Ages The base dates for classifying hogs by ages are March 1 and Sep- tember 1, and the classes by ages are as follows: Junior pig cZass.^Animals are eligible to this class that were far- rowed on or after March 1 of the year shown. Senior pig class. — Farrowed on or after September 1 of the preced- ing year and before March 1 of the year shown. Junior yearling class. —Farrowed on or after March 1 and before September 1 of the preceding year. Senior yearling class. —Farrowed on or after September 1 of the second preceding year and before March 1 of the preceding year. Two years old and over (aged) class. — Farrowed before September 1 of the second preceding year. For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of 1923, junior pigs are those farrowed on or after March 1, 1923; senior pigs, September 1, 1922-February 28, 1923; junior yearlings, March 1- 316 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock August 31, 1922; senior yearlings, September 1, 1921-February 28, 1922; aged animals, before September 1, 1921. Junior champion. —Be^t animal under one year. Senior champion. — Best animal one year old or over. Champion.—Best animal any age. Grand champion.— Best animal any age or breed. The term "grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions. CHAPTER XXII THE AMERICAN OR LARD-TYPE HOG The United States has created comparatively few of the breeds now found within her borders. By the time this country reached that stage in her live-stock development when improvement in domestic animals became imperative, European nations had met and solved a similar problem by the creation of numerous useful breeds. It was but natural, therefore, that many of these foreign breeds were imported to this country, and it was fortunate indeed that most of them proved fully capable of fulfilling the requirements of our stock growers. We were thus afforded an easy short cut across what would have been a long, laborious period in the development of our live-stock industry. We borrowed whenever such procedure was practicable, and the fact that we have never found it really necessary to create a breed of draft or carriage horses, beef, dairy, or dual-purpose cattle, mutton sheep, or bacon hogs shows how great is our indebtedness to the breeders of Europe. Our needs were not entirely met, however, for we have created a breed of trotting horses, a breed of saddle horses, a breed of jacks, a breed of fine-wool sheep, and a number of breeds of lard-type swine. We have also found it necessary to modify slightly some of the breeds we have adopted, and to our credit it may be said that we have made certain changes in some of these adopted breeds which, as viewed from the standpoint of American conditions and requirements, represent decided improvements. The Polled Shorthorn, the Polled Hereford, the "American type" Hereford, and the "American type" Berkshire are examples of such modifications. The extended patronage which we have given to foreign stock and the lack of necessity for developing breeds of our own, while highly advantageous, has tended to dim our own glory as a live-stock breeding nation. If, because of this fact, our live-stock industry needs a re- deeming feature, it is furnished by the creation of a distinctly American type of hog, which includes several breeds. European breeds of swine proved so fully incompetent to make pork under American conditions that our breeders found it necessary to create distinctly new breeds of a new type, and this work has been so well done as to give us a clear title to the distinction of leading the world in swine breeding and in pork production. 317 318 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Our conditions demand a type of swine which can consume a ration composed largely of com and utilize it to advantage in the pro- duction of meat and lard. This type of hog is known as the American or lard-type hog, and it has played no small part in the rapid develop- ment of American agriculture and in the prosperity of our farmers. "King Com and the American Hog" have constituted an invincible combination, creating a channel of disposal or market for com, and supplying the people of this and other countries with highly palatable and nutritious meat at a moderate price. Present-day swine breeders and pork producers are not unani- mous in their opinions conceming what is the most profitable type of lard hog to produce for the market. The writer has interviewed a large number of pork producers, breeders of purebred hogs, and college and experiment station workers relative to this matter, and the con- census of opinion seems to be as follows: 1. A very compact, wide, low-set pig matures earliest and fattens most easily, but does not make th6 most rapid or economical gains and cannot be profitably carried beyond a certain rather low limit of weight. Sows of this type are not prolific. 2. An extremely long, narrow, and leggy pig grows rapidly and attains large size, but is likely to be lacking in capacity of middle and feeding qualities and is often difficult to fatten at market weights (200 to 275 pounds). Sows of this type are prolific. 3. The most profitable market pig is intermediate in type be- tween the two types mentioned above. 4. The most profitable market pig is the product of a large sire and dam and has inherited the ability to grow rapidly and to make large daily gains on feed. 5. He must have considerable length of body. 6. He must have at least medium length of leg. 7. He must have at least medium size of bone. 8. He must have a good constitution and good feeding qualities as shown by depth and fullness of chest and middle. 9. He must be smooth, and free from coarseness in head and bone. 10. He must be active, and strong in feet, pasterns, and legs. 11. He must be strong in back and loin, showing a nicely arched top line. 12. He must be neat in jowl, firm in fieshing, and free from flabbiness along the belly and in the lower part of the ham. 13. When fattened for the market he should be fairly wide throughout, indicating a good finish, but a very wide type is not desir- able for two reasons: (a) Too frequently it is associated with a short, low-set, chunky, slow-growing type, (b) It indicates an excessively Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 319 fat condition not favored by the packer, and final gains that are not ordinarily economical or profitable to the producer. The following description applies particularly to the fat barrow raised and fattened for the market. The type desired in lard hogs for breeding purposes is described in Chapter XXVII. The general appearance of the lard-type hog fattened for the market embodies a long, deep, and reasonably wide conformation, to- gether with great smoothness. The legs should be of medium length, so as to give a rather upstanding, but not leggy, appearance. He should be tall as measured from his back to the ground, rather upstand- ing as measured from his belly to the ground, yet deep from back to Fig. 114.- —Points of the hog. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Snout Eye Ear Cheek Jowl Poll 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Neck Shoulder Fore leg Pastern Toes Dew claw 13. Back 14. Loin 15. Side 16. Belly 17. Fore flank 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Hind flank Rump Ham Hind leg Tail underline. The top line should be arched, showing an even curvature, from shoulders to tail, insuring against weakness of back and loin. The highest point in the top line should be midway between shoulders and hips, whereas frequently the highest point is over the hips. In the latter case the rump is usually steep and drooping and the hind legs do not come down straight but are placed too far under the body. The hips should have about the same height as the tops of the shoulders, and the rump should round off rather gradually. The underline should be straight, trim, and level, insuring against paunchiness and against 320 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock flabbiness in fleshing along the belly. The flanks should be well let down. The hog should be uniform in his width and uniform in his depth, showing no tendency to taper in width and to be heavy in shoulders and light in hams. When a view is taken directly down upon the top of the hog he should show good width and marked uniformity of width throughout. His top from shoulders to tail should be nicely rounded over from side to side without any tendency to be ridgy or peaked. His sides should be well filled out so that they are even with the shoulders and hams, indicating good condition and insuring smoothness and evenness in form. He should be very smooth in both form and fleshing, and should Fig. 115. — Excellent type in the fat barrow. Champion Poland-China barrow and reserve grand champion at the 1922 International. Bred, fed, and exhibited by Iowa State College. Lame at time photograph was taken, but he shows excellent form, condition, and smoothness, good quality, and exceptionally good top line, side, ham, and pasterns. He stands at the right end of the line in Fig. 119. show refinement of head, ear, coat, and skin. He should have bone of medium size, free from any roughness and coarseness and also free from over-refinement and weakness. His legs should be straight and he should be active and should show good style. The lard hog is milder and more quiet in disposition than the bacon hog, but a sluggish, inactive hog is objectionable. Lard hogs should be fairly active. This makes them better grazers, insures exercise, and helps to develop heart and lung capacity and strength of feet and legs. Too frequently Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 321 the fat, finished pig is short winded and is weak in underpinning, so that it becomes a difficult matter and perhaps impossible to get him safely to market. The head is of medium size, medium length, broad between the eyes, and short of snout. A narrow head and finely pointed snout are indications of a poor feeder. The shape and length of head vary ac- cording to the breed, but in none of the lard breeds is much length or narrowness desirable. The eyes should be as large, prominent, and clear as possible, a small, sunken eye obscured by rolls of fat around the socket being objectionable. The carriage of the ear varies accord- ing to the breed, being erect in some and drooping or broken in others. In all the breeds, however, a fine and medium-sized ear, neatly attached to the head, is desired. The jowl should be neat and trim. It should not be loose and flabby, because this indicates an excessively fat condi- tion, lack of firmness in covering, and lack of intermixture of fat and lean in the carcass. Trim, firm jowls from light-weight hogs may be made into bacon squares. The cheeks and jowls should be free from wrinkles or seams. The poll of the head should be broad and carry forward prominently. The neck should be of medium length, slightly arched, and medium broad on top. A neck that is narrow or peaked on top is not often associated with a body of the desired conformation, and it also denotes lack of condition. The shoulders are very frequently too open and prominent, so that as one looks down at the top of the hog the shoulders are found to be much the widest part of the animal. They should be well laid in, very smooth, and have no greater width than the rest of the body, such a hog being much more desirable from a market and carcass point of view. The tops of the shoulders should not stand open and apart, but should be laid together and thickly fleshed so as to present a fairly wide and very smooth surface in harmony with the rest of the top. The front legs should be of medium length, this being a somewhat variable feature depending on the breed, and they should also be straight. It is especially important that the pasterns shall be short, upright, and very strong, and that the feet shall be strong also. These points should be particularly emphasized, for it is a fact that weak, broken-down pasterns and weak, spreading toes are among the most common and most serious faults to be found in swine of the lard type. Weak legs may be due to a natural or inherited weakness, or to im- proper feeding during the growing period. If growing pigs are fed on com exclusively, they are liable to develop weakness of the legs, be- cause corn does not carry sufficient bone- and muscle-building con- stituents to satisfy the demands of the animal during the growing 322 Types and Market Classes of Ln^ Stock period. The bone of the market hog should be medium in size, free from coarseness, and amply sufficient to carry the weight of the hog and to provide strength of feet, pasterns, and legs. The chest is an evidence of the constitutional vigor possessed by the animal. It should be deep and wide, and should be well filled out behind the shoulders and elbows, affording a large heart-girth. The underline should not cut up between the fore legs, but carry straight forward so as to give as much depth through the chest as through the middle of the body. The back and loin of the lard hog are very important parts. They should be rather long and of good but not excessive width, and, as the Fig. 116. — Berkshire barrow, grand champion at the 1921 International. Fitted and shown by the University of Minnesota. Especially good in depth of body, finish, smoothness, and quality. animal is viewed from the side, they should be arched. The top of the hog should be thickly fleshed and smooth. There should be no marked rounding off from the middle line, but instead a slight arch over the top from side to side and good width of top due to well-sprung ribs and thick but not excessive fleshing. A "ridgy" back is an evi- dence of lack of fleshing, and a narrow, "sunfish" conformation is very faulty for the same reason and also because such animals are often deficient in constitution and feeding qualities. A dip in the back, or sway-back conformation, greatly detracts from the appearance of the animal and may indicate weakness of muscling; hence the cuts from the back and loin may be lacking in lean meat. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 323 The sides of the hog should be long from shoulder to ham and should carry down straight and deep from back and loin to belly and flanks. Very short hogs raised and fed for market are open to objec- tion because such a type does not grow rapidly. On the other hand, extreme length is often secured at the expense of constitution and feeding qualities. Extremes are to be avoided. When fattened for the market, the sides should be thickly and smoothly fleshed so that every point along the side fills out to meet the same straight line from shoulder to ham. Wrinkles in the skin along the side are objectionable because they injure the smoothness of appearance which is so desirable, and if the wrinkles are very deep and are permanent, that is, do not Pi I mm Bill, r m » i'l I^^K^m ^^ -*M^^ ^^M- ^^ „ . ^ Fig. 117. — Duroc-Jersey barrow, grand champion at the 1922 International. Bred, fed, and shown by the Oklahoma Agricultural College. Note his good form, excellent finish, smoothness, and quality. disappear when the hog changes position, they are called "creases" or "seams" and are highly undesirable. Creases most often occur just behind the shoulder, but they may occur all along the side. They involve not only the skin but also the flesh underlying the skin, so that when the fingers are inserted into them they are found to be deep and pronounced. They indicate lack of quality and lack of evenness in fleshing, and are especially objectionable because they remain in the side meat after it has been pressed and cured by the packer, thereby injuring the appearance of such cuts and affecting their selling price. 324 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The belly should be straight, not paunchy, insuring a good dressing percentage when the hog is killed. The belly should be trim, not flabby, and should be wide rather than narrow or V-shaped. The rump should be long and as wide as the rest of the top, and it should carry out from hips to end of body with a slight curve down- ward to coincide with the arch of the entire top from head to tail. Very often the rump will be found very steep or drooping, the hips being carried too high and the tail set very low. Accompanying this kind of a rump, and to a certain extent causing it, is a faulty position of the hind legs, the feet being set too far under the body. This con- stitutes a weak conformation of the hindquarter, and gives the animal an ungainly appearance. The rump should not taper in width from hips to end of body, but be uniform in width throughout. The hams really include the rump as well as the thighs and twist. They should be large and well developed, being deep and of good width, with the thickness and fullness carried well down toward the hocks. They should be reasonably firm in flesh and should be neat in form. Flabby and baggy hams are undesirable because they carry too much outside fat and require too much trimming off before they can be sold. Some hams lose 15 per cent in trimming at the packing house. The hind legs should be of medium length and should carry down straight and vertical from the hocks to the ground. The pasterns should be short, upright, and very strong, the feet well formed, and the toes strong. The bone of the market hog should be of medium size and free from coarseness. The hair should be straight rather than curly, and should be fine. A harsh, bristly coat is an evidence of coarseness. A curly coat is objectionable because curly hair is usually coarser than straight hair, and curly-coated hogs do not shed their coats properly, which injures the appearance. A swirl or rose in the hair on the back or rump detracts from the appearance, and is objectionable for that reason. The hair should be abundant, straight, and fine, and should lie close to the skin. Such a coat affords the most protection and adds to the attractiveness of appearance. The quality of the lard-type hog is determined by the refinement of the head, hair, and bone, smoothness of finish, and freedom from wrinkles and creases. The hog with quality has a clean-cut, well- bred appearance that pleases not only the producer and hog fancier, but also the butcher, because such a hog yields a neat, tidy carcass that attracts buyers, and the cuts of meat show a refined texture that is not to be found in the cuts from a coarse, rough hog. The proper finish of a lard-type hog is secured by a fairly high degree of fattening. When handled along the top, below the shoulders, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 325 and at the lower border of the hams, the fleshing should be firm instead of soft as is often the case, especially in some breeds. Some hogs be- come lumpy in their covering of fat, which is objectionable. When the fattening has proceeded far enough to round out the lines of the animal and give him a smooth, springy, mellow covering of flesh, he is in the right condition to meet with most favor from the butcher, and, as a rule, this degree of finish is most profitable to the producer. The temperament of the lard-type hog is quite different from that of the bacon hog, being less active and more inclined to quietness, lying down, and the taking on of fat. Ideas as to what is most desirable m^- -'*J*"'P"WF-. «"' y^s.nf T^gjKlWlB^ 1 f ■ r*C '.I '«! Fig. 118. — Some essentials in type well illustrated. Duroc-Jersey barrow shown by the University of Minnesota, second in class to the grand champion at the 1922 International. Remarkably good in top line, bone, pasterns, feet, head, neck, shoulders, and smoothness. Lacking somewhat in depth of body and condition because he could not be given a full feed without making him too heavy for showing under the 1922 International classification. in the temperament of this type of swine are tending somewhat away from the one formerly in favor, namely, that a hog should eat and lie down, and that a minimum of exercise is conducive to greatest economy in pork production. Most producers believe that better results are secured if the hog is disposed by temperament to take considerable exercise, especially during the growing period ; they are selecting more active hogs for breeding, and are managing their young stock in such a way as to induce them to take a large amount of exercise. This 326 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock results in growthy pigs of robust constitution and lessens the danger of disease. Exercise also develops the muscles and strengthens the pasterns and legs. Notwithstanding this present-day tendency to select a more active hog than in the past, there must always be con- siderable difference between the lard type and bacon type in this respect, the former being more quiet, slower in movements, and having greater natural aptitude to fatten. The weight for age is an important consideration because it is a measure of the profit-making ability of the hog. Pigs weighing over 150 pounds, fattened for the market, should have at least one pound of weight for every day of their age. On this basis, a pig six months old should weigh not less than 180 pounds. It is not unreasonable to Fig. 119. — Five Poland-China barrows, first in get-of-sire class and including the grand champion pen of three barrows at the 1922 International. Bred, fed, and exhibited by Iowa State College. fix the standard of weight for lard hogs six months old at 200 pounds; nine months, 300 pounds; twelve months, 400 pounds. Hogs are matured at about thirty months of age. Mature boars in good condi- tion should weigh 800 pounds or over; sows, 600 pounds or over. The average weight of hogs received at the large markets at the present time is about 225 pounds. Hog growers are agreed that weights from 200 to 275 pounds for market hogs are usually most profitable. CHAPTER XXIII THE BACON-TYPE HOG The bacon hog presents some very marked differences when com- pared with the lard hog in form, fleshing, and temperament. These differences are very necessary because the bacon hog yields a product that is quite different from that of the fat or lard hog. The foremost countries in bacon production are England, Denmark, and Canada, the first mentioned consuming the surplus production of the other two. It is a superior product to that with which the American public is supplied, being the finest that is produced. American bacon is the belly meat of the lighter and thinner hogs of the lard type, but English bacon is supplied by a hog the entire side of which is suitable for bacon. Denmark and Canada ship bacon to England in the form of what is called the "Wiltshire side." A Wiltshire side represents half the car- cass of the hog, minus the head and legs. The neck, shoulder, back, loin, side, belly, and ham are included, and all of these parts are retailed as bacon except the ham and shoulder. The best bacon contains a relatively large amount of lean meat and small amount of fat. The price charged for bacon at wholesale or retail is very largely regulated by these features, a cheap slab of bacon always being characterized by greater thickness, little lean, and much fat. The production of high-quality bacon therefore necessitates a different kind of hog than the lard hog, a hog disposed to be muscular and active, but not a hog that fattens readily. The production of the best bacon also necessitates feeding this hog on such feeds as will furnish nitrogenous or muscle-building materials in abundance, the carbona- ceous or fat-forming elements of the ration being supplied in much less amount than would be advisable if lard hogs were being fed. This fact explains why but few bacon hogs are found in the corn belt, and also why the United States is able to "produce the lard hog at lower cost than he can be produced elsewhere. Whereas corn plays a large part in the production of lard-type swine for the market, the bacon hog is fed on such feeds as peas, barley, oats, and skim milk or buttermilk, which are much better suited to bacon production than is com, be- cause they contain a larger percentage of protein. Weights desired in bacon hogs. — It is important that the producer of bacon hogs turn them off to market at that period in their develop- ment when the character of the flesh will be nearest the bacon ideal. To be more explicit, if the hog is marketed too young its flesh will be 327 328 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock watery and flabby, whereas further feeding and more age result in a more desirable carcass. Young pigs have a very strong tendency to utilize their feed for growth, and as they become older and are more matured they fatten much more readily. It is for this reason that the best bacon comes from hogs within certain limits of weight. Bacon pigs vary in the weight at which they acquire the proper degree of finish depending upon how they are fed and also upon the breed and the individual. When various breeds are fed alike, or individuals of the same breed are fed alike, some reach the proper finish earlier than others. George B. Roth well states^ that some strains of Berkshires are finished at 170 pounds, others at 200; and that some Yorkshires Fig. 120. — Fancy market bacon pig. finish best at 210 to 220 pounds and over. Experience has shown that a weight of 160 pounds is the minimum weight at which to market a bacon hog and that the upper limit is 220 pounds. These figures represent the extremes; the best bacon carcasses are from hogs that weighed 185 to 200 pounds. This does not mean that the bacon hog reaches maturity at a weight of 200 or 220 pounds, or that it is desirable that he should do so. The matured weight for boars in good flesh should be not less than 700 pounds, and for sows not less than 500 pounds. When the carcass of a bacon hog is split down the back, the layer of fat along the spine and back should be not less than 1 inch or more ^Dominion Experimental Farms, Seasonable Hints, No. 24, Nov., 1922, p. 34. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 329 than 13^ inches in thickness, and it should be as uniform in thickness as possible from one end to the other. The production of the best Wiltshire sides is possible only from hogs that are long from shoulder to ham, light and smooth in the shoulder, neck, and jowl, and very- straight and trim along the belly. When thinking of a bacon hog we usually have in mind such a hog as the market wants, in other words, a hog suitable for slaughtering and cutting up into Wiltshire sides. Also, from what has been said of the importance of certain weight requirements, it is at once apparent that boars and breeding sows are not desired by the packer. If, how- ever, their form, quality, and temperament are such as will cause them to transmit to their pigs the characteristics which are necessary in Fig. 121. — Correct bacon type. order that these pigs may be fed out successfully for the bacon market, then the boar and sow are said to possess bacon type. In judging breeding stock, certain allowances must therefore be made and certain points must be emphasized which do not concern us in judging bacon hogs for slaughter. The same general principles and the same general type apply in both cases, but the judge must emphasize certain points that are peculiar and essential in each. The form of the bacon hog is quite different from that of the lard hog. There is much less thickness and depth of body, greater length of leg, a lighter shoulder, neck, and jowl, and greater length from snout to tail, especially from shoulder to ham. From the snout to the rear border of the shoulder the hog should be comparatively short, this being the low-priced end of the carcass. There is considerable differ- 330 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ence between the retail prices received for the front and hind ends of the Wiltshire side. Length of side from shoulder to ham and length of ham from front to rear are of very great importance, but it is a mistake to make everything else secondary in importance to length; length should not be carried to the greatest possible extreme. The hog should have enough depth and width of body to give him a strong constitution in a well-developed chest and middle. This applies both to the market hog and the breeding animal. There should be as much depth of body in front as behind, and as much width at one point as another — in other words, the hog should be symmetrical or balanced in his conformation. Great smoothness from one end to the other is a prim^e essential, and smoothness must be secured without the assist- ii . ■.../.-.- -^ ... Fig. 122. — Bacon type as shown in the herd boar. This Yorkshire boar shows the desired form, smoothness, and quality. Note the clean-cut, trim appearance, light jowl, long smooth side, deep flanks, tapering ham, and large smooth bone. ance of much fat, such as greatly assists in giving smoothness to the lard hog. Proper quality in a market bacon hog is very important because a rough or coarse appearance detracts much from the price, and be- cause it is desired that the flesh be fine in texture. In both market hogs and breeding stock, a fine, smooth coat of hair denotes quality. Well-developed wrinkles or seams in the skin indicate coarse-grained flesh, and injure the appearance of the finished product. The snout, face, jowl, and ear should show refinement, yet not to an extreme that indicates lack of vigor and feeding qualities. The bone should be flinty and smooth, rather than coarse and rough. Coarse bone is verj' Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 331 objectionable because it indicates hard feeding qualities and slow maturity. The butcher prefers a fine-boned hog, but the breeder wants the boar to stand on heavy, clean bone covered with skin that shows no coarseness. The brood sow should have finer bone than the boar, but it should be in every way proportionate to her weight, plus the added weight resulting from pregnancy. Proper condition for a market bacon hog is a feature requiring considerable practice in judging. There is danger of too high a degree of fatness, even though the live weight be within the limits that have been mentioned. People who live in the corn belt experience some difficulty in accepting a properly finished market bacon hog as such when first taking up a study of this type. To them the hog looks considerably underdone. The indications of the proper degree of fat- ness are difficult to describe. The hog has a well-fed, thrifty appear- ance, but not a finished look comparable to that of the properly finished lard hog. The flesh is firm and the hog is reasonably well filled out. Soft flesh at the lower part of the hams, at the lower border of the shoulder, or on the jowl, is undesirable because it indicates an over-fat condition and an uneven distribution of the fat. Smoothness and firm- ness of fleshing are decidedly essential. As indicating the importance of proper feeding and the proper finish, George B. Rothwell states ^ that the feeding of the market bacon hog is almost, if not equally, as important as the breeding. He par- ticularly cautions against overfeeding and recommends that young pigs be kept hungry and that exercise, green feed, and feeds that produce bone and muscle be provided up to four months of age. He states that middlings, shorts, oats, barley, and skim or buttermilk make a desirable ration at this stage, and that com and barley must be used sparingly, though they may be used more heavily during the last 6 or 8 weeks. He concludes by saying, "Once more and lastly — avoid over- feeding." The style of the bacon hog should be marked. He should be very active, thus indicating a full muscular development. He should walk without apparent effort. A writhing movement when walking is taken as an indication of weakness in muscling along the back and loin. The head varies in shape a great deal, depending to a large extent upon the breed, but there is also much variation between individuals belonging to the same breed. Length of snout varies with the breed. A long snout is very often associated with a narrow chest, and a very short snout often goes with a heavy jowl and neck. The face should be broad, and the poll should be broad also and come well forward, these being indications of constitutional vigor and feeding qualities. Dominion Experimental Farms, Seasonable Hints, No. 24, Nov., 1922, p. 34. 332 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Large, prominent, bright eyes indicate health and constitution. A heavy, fat jowl denotes too strong a fattening tendency for a bacon animal. Good width across the jowl is desirable, but it should be very trim and neat. Size and carriage of the ear vary according to the breed. A large ear does not indicate lack of quality provided it is fine or thin. Thick, coarse ears denote a thick, coarse skin, which, in turn, denotes coarse-grained flesh. The neck, while not a valuable part of the carcass, is important as indicating constitution and feeding qualities. A long, thin neck is an indication of deficient constitution and low feeding qualities; while a short, thick neck, with a crest of fat on top will result in a side of bacon that is too heavy at the fore end, which is the cheap end of the side. Moderate length and width of neck are wanted. It is to be expected that mature boars will have heavier necks than sows or barrows. The shoulders should be light and set in the body smoothly. They should be deep from top to bottom, but not wide from front to rear, and as one looks down on the top of the hog, they should show no greater fullness than the back and loin. Shoulders that have more width from side to side than the rest of the hog are objectionable, but nevertheless should be given preference over a narrow chest in a breed- ing animal. The chest should be deep, fairly wide, and free from any depression immediately behind the shoulders, and the breast should carry well down between the fore legs and have good width, thus insuring a large chest capacity. The front legs should be rather long, but not extremely so, straight, strong, with upright pasterns, and carrying the weight full on the toes. A back of moderate width, slightly arched from front to rear, and rounded over the top from side to side, represents correct development in this valuable part of the carcass. A sagging back or a decidedly arched back is an evidence of weak muscling and consequently of a lack of lean meat along the top where the highest-priced bacon is found. The top of the hog should show a slight arch from head to tail, the highest point being over the loin. A wide, flat back denotes a high degree of fatness which is not wanted in the carcass of a bacon hog. A very narrow back is an indication of a lack of lean meat. The loin furnishes the most valuable part of the side of bacon and therefore should be strongly developed. It should have the same width and form as the back. From shoulder to hindquarter the top of the hog should exhibit a uniform width, uniform arch, and uniform fleshing. A side that is flat, straight, and deep, with a great deal of length, and carrying a firm, smooth covering of flesh is demanded. The Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 333 packer likes as long a side as can be had, but the breeder must avoid extreme length because such hogs incline to be narrow and shallow bodied. They lack constitution and feeding qualities to such an extent that they do not make economical gains on feed. The side of the bacon hog constitutes the most important consideration in judging either breeding or market animals. Score cards for bacon hogs allow more points to the side than to any other part of the animal. When the hog is standing, a straight-edge laid against his side, either vertically or horizontally, should touch every point beneath it. There should be no signs of seams or wrinkles, but a smooth development everywhere. The side should also be firm in fleshing, without any softness just behind the shoulder or elsewhere. Fig. 123. — Bacon type us shown in tlie brood sow. The prize-winning York- shire sow, Deer Creek Rena 6th, owned by B. F. Davidson, Menlo, Iowa. Note the arch of top, length of side, smoothness of flesh, lightness of jowl, and good udder development. The flank is important because a high flank injures the appear- ance of the carcass, necessitates more trimming in order to give even- ness to the lower border of the side of bacon, and also is an indication that the belly meat is too thin. When the flank is carried down well, the flesh is usually carried well down on the ham, the belly is thick and meaty, and the development of the side is made more uniform in depth and thickness. The belly should be straight, trim, firm, thick, and free from flabbi- ness. This part yields good bacon, but it is not so high priced as that from the loin and back. The rump should not be broad and flat, which indicates too much fat, but should have the same width as the back and loin, and should 334 Types and Market Glasses of Live Stock be rounding from side to side across the top, the same as the back and loin. It should be long also, and should round slightly toward the tail, but should not be drooping with the tail set low. A heavy, bulging ham is not an indication of correct bacon type. Such hams must have a great deal of fat trimmed off them in preparing the side of bacon for the market. The ham of the bacon hog should taper toward the hock and should be smooth and firm, especially at the lower part where flabbiness is likely to occur. The flesh should carry well around the bone, inside as well as outside, and should not taper off too suddenly below, but let down well toward the hocks. The ham of the bacon hog is often called the "gammon." The hind legs should be straight and strong, the pasterns upright, and the weight carried full on the toes. CHAPTER XXIV THE HOG CARCASS A comparative study of the importance of the various kinds of meat in American, EngHsh, French, and German dietaries discloses the fact that civiHzation is greatly dependent upon the hog and its products. The following table gives the annual per capita consumption of the various kinds of meat in the four countries mentioned, and shows the large contribution of the hog to the meat supply: Per capita consumption of meat in four countries Kind of meat United States (1922) United Kingdom (average 1906-1908) Germany « (1913) France • (1904) Beef Pounds 61.4 7.3 5.0 90.1 Pounds 56.00 4.00 26.00 33.00 Pounds 31.35 7.25 1.90 71.30 Pounds 37.00 Veal 8.00 Mutton and lamb 9.00 Pork, including lard 26.00 Total 163.8 119.no 111.80 80.00 ' In addition to the above, the consumption of horse flesh amounted to about 1 pound per capita in France, and in Germany 1.9 pounds of goat, horse, and dog meat was consumed per capita. The British are well known to be partial to beef in their meat dietary, and the Germans to pork, and this is amply substantiated by the table; nevertheless it is seen that the people of the United States consume more beef than the British and more pork than the Germans. The British, however, consume more mutton per capita than any other nationality, and the French come first with veal. The figures show that the consumption of pork, as compared with the consumption of beef, is greater than might be supposed. Americans and Germans con- sume more pork than beef, but the table shows a different proportion for the English and French. These variations may be due to differ- ences in the way appetites have been cultivated in the various countries, or to differences in the quantities of pork produced and the cost of it. In the total slaughter (federally inspected and all other slaughter) of beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork in the United States, excluding lard, beef and veal constituted 43.7 per cent of the total weight in 1922, mutton and lamb only 3.1 per cent, and pork 53.2 per cent. ^ ^Computed from Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report, by John Roberts. 335 336 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The type of hogs found in the several countries varies considerably. In the United States the fat or lard type is produced almost exclusively, this being particularly true of the corn belt. The stock yards of this country receive practically no bacon hogs; the St. Paul market is some- thing of an exception, although the number received there is compara- tively small. For this reason we shall give more attention to the fat carcass than to the bacon carcass. Slaughtering and dressing. — When the hog enters the packing house, and this applies to both the lard hog and the bacon hog, he is driven into a small pen adjacent to a large, slowly revolving wheel, called the "hog hoist," pictured in this chapter. A chain is fastened about a hind leg and hooked into a link on the wheel. The hog is raised as the wheel turns, until he reaches an overhead inclined rail Fig. 124.— The hog hoist. from which he is suspended and along which he passes to the "sticker." After bleeding, the hog is dropped into a scalding vat in which the water is kept at a temperature of 142 to 144 degrees F. This loosens the hair and scurf. He is then hooked onto a chain which carries him through a scraping machine, after which he is again suspended from an overhead rail and any spots of hair missed by the machine are scraped by hand and the hair inside the ears and about the face is singed off with a gas torch. These operations and the subsequent ones necessary to complete the dressing process are briefly as follows: (1) Hoisting, (2) bleeding, (3) scalding, (4) scraping, (5) singeing, (6) removal of head, (7) disemboweling, (8) splitting, (9) removal of leaf fat and kidneys, (10) facing hams, ^ and (11) cooling. The carcass remains in ^This consists of smoothing and shaping the ham by trimming off excessive or uneven fat surrounding the split surface or face of the ham. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 337 the cooler at a temperature of 34 degrees F. for 48 hours before it is taken to the cutting room for division into the wholesale cuts. Nearly all carcasses are cut, and most of the cuts are cured by pickling and smoking before the meat is sold to the retailer. The method outlined above is known as the "packer" style of dressing. The legs, feet, and jowl are left as part of the carcass. An exception is made in the case of pigs and some light hogs intended for the fresh pork trade, these being "shipper" dressed, which means that the head is left on, the leaf fat and kidneys in, the hams not faced, and the backbone not split. Some variation also occurs in the manner of splitting the carcass. All dressed hogs are cut open along the under- line and through the aitch bone and brisket, but the best heavy car- casses, called "loin carcasses," are split through the center of the back- FlG. 125. — Dressing hogs. bone, while the inferior heavy carcasses, called "packing carcasses," are sometimes split on one side of the backbone. Bacon carcasses are usually cut with a knife on each side of the backbone and then split on one side and the backbone taken out, making sides suitable for the English bacon cuts. The ofifal and the dressing percentage. — The parts which the hog loses in dressing are the blood, hair, head, viscera, leaf fat, kidneys, and ham facings. Hogs having a live weight above 150 pounds and dressed packer style may range in dressing percentage from 65 to 80 per cent. Pigs weighing 30 pounds may dress as low as 60 per cent. Hogs dressed shipper style have a dressing percentage about 8 per cent higher than those dressed packer style, the difference being due to the head, leaf fat, kidneys, and ham facings, which are not removed in the shipper 338 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock style of dressing. Heavy hogs dressed shipper style easily dress 83 to 85 per cent. Some hogs in the carcass contests at the International Live Stock Show have dressed as high as 89, 89.3, and 89.6, but these were hogs of show-yard quality weighing 417, 429, and 520 pounds respectively. They had been without feed or water for more than 24 hours prior to killing, and were dressed shipper style. The chief factors determining the dressing percentage of a hog are fatness and paunchi- ness, of which the former is by far the more important. Dressing per- centage is an important factor determining the price of market hogs, though less important than with cattle and sheep because market hogs are more uniform in dressing percentage than market cattle or market sheep. Market hogs of the same weight show much less variation in dressing percentage than do cattle or sheep of a given weight. Fig. 126. — Shipper-dressed carcasses in the cooler. Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the lard-hog car- cass depends upon shape, finish, quality, and weight. The require- ments in these respects are as follows: 1. Shape. — The most desired carcass is straight and even in its lines, wide in proportion to its length, well developed in the back, loin, sides, and hams, well developed but free from heaviness or coarseness in shoulders and neck, and smooth throughout. A neat, trim carcass is wanted that is free from prominence on the underline. Hence, barrows are always preferred to sows because sows carry more cheap belly meat, this being especially true of sows that have had several litters of pigs. Such sows are called "seedy," and they bring a lower Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 339 price than neat, trim animals that are smooth on the belly. The accompanying drawings show the importance of the underline in de- termining the value of the side cut from a hog. The trimming from a seedy sow goes to the rendering tank and is made into a cheap grade of lard. Side from low-flanked hog Side from high-flanked hog Side from seedy sow Fig. 127. — Effect of underline on trimming of side. T, trimming. 2. Finish. — The degree of fatness or finish is shown by the depth of fat along the back, by the quantity of leaf fat, by a plump, full appearance throughout, and by good width of back and side in propor- tion to length of body. The leaf is the internal fat, including the kidney fat, lying under the ribs and extending to the "skirt" or diaphragm. Packers like hogs well fattened because this means a higher yield of lard and a higher dressing percentage. As a rule, the heavier the hog the more fat he carries, because the nearer an animal approaches maturity the more easily it takes on fat. That the hog is by nature disposed to take on more fat than any of the other domestic animals is shown by the following table of analyses made at the Rothamsted (England) Experiment Station. ' After fast- ing from 18 to 24 hours the animals were killed and the entire bodies analysed. Composition of the entire bodies of meat-producing animals Animal Age Live weight Protein Fat Mineral matter (ash) Total dry sub- stance Water Contents of stom- ach and intestines —moist Fat pig Lbs. 185 127 1,416 84 258 Per cent 10.9 12.2 14.5 12.3 15.2 Per cent 42.2 35.6 30.1 28.5 14.8 Per cent 1.65 2.81 3.92 2.94 3.80 Per cent 54.7 50.6 48.5 43.7 33.8 Per cent 41.3 43.4 45.5 47.8 63.0 Per cent 3.97 Fat sheep 15 mo. 4 yrs. 6 mo. 8-9wks. 6.02 Fat ox 5.98 Fat lamb 8.54 Fat calf 3.17 These figures show why the corn crop has formed a closer alliance with hogs than with any other of our domestic animals. The hog is naturally disposed to take on a very high degree of fatness, and hog fat is more valuable than the fat of cattle or sheep. Packers desire a thick covering of outside fat on the carcass of a lard hog, the thickness varying according to the weight of the carcass. Wentworth and 'Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng., 1898. 340 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Gentry of Armour and Company state ^ that butcher hogs, which are "most sought by the packers at all seasons of the year," should not be "overfinished and extremely lardy, neither should they be so unfinished as to lack the substance, quality, and flavor of cuts the consumer re- quires." 3. Quality. — The carcass is said to have quality when it is smooth in shape, firm and smooth in flesh, fine and smooth in skin, fine in head and shanks, fine in texture of flesh, bright in color of lean, and white in color of fat. Creases in the skin, bruises, staggy necks and shoulders, and seedy bellies all indicate coarseness. Barrows and smooth, clear sows yield carcasses of the best quality. Wentworth and Gentry indicate the importance of good finish and quality in the hog carcass in the following comparison: ^ "The corn- fed hog, hung in the cooler to chill and harden for 48 hours, will come out firm, while the grass-fed hog may be as soft and flabby as when it went in. The corn-fed hog cuts easily and there is a layer of pure white fat on the back. The loin cuts out shapely, and the flesh is pink and fine grained. The ham has the proper depth of fat and the belly has the right thickness and is properly streaked with lean to produce a high-grade bacon. On the other hand, the carcass of the grass hog fails to harden, no matter how long it is chilled; there is a tough rind over the loin and a sheet of gristly fat. The fat is yellowish and the flesh is stringy. The belly makes a coarse, inferior bacon and the cuts shrink away and present a dried -up appearance when smoked. Furthermore, because of the softness of the carcass, it is difficult to produce the standard cuts, and such cuts as are produced must be sold at a low price or be used for sausage or rendering." Soft pork. — Corn, barley, rye, and wheat produce firm pork be- cause the fat has a high melting point. Peanuts, mast, and sometimes soybeans are known to produce soft, oily fat having a low melting point, and hogs fed on these feeds yield soft pork. For this reason hogs from the southern states are often discriminated against in price, sometimes to the extent of 2 to 4 cents per pound live weight. Soft hogs yield inferior lard, usually have a lower dressing percentage, and the percentage of condemned livers, kidneys, hearts, and casings is reported to be greater. ^ Varying degrees of softness are found. The U. S. Department of Agriculture conducted extensive tests involving 800 hogs and found that the loss in weight from the cooler to the end of the curing and retaining period was over 2 per cent greater in soft pork than in firm pork. Soft carcasses yield cuts of poor shape and 1 Progressive Hog Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1922, p. 74. 2Ibid, p. 70. 'Ibid, p. 48. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 341 the skin shrivels and presents a poor appearance. Hogs that are un- thrifty, unhealthy, aged, very immature, or kept under adverse condi- tions also produce pork that is more or less lacking in firmness. 4. Weight. — Packers find uses for carcasses of all weights ranging from 20 to 400 pounds and over, but Wentworth and Gentry state ^ that hogs with a live weight of 190 to 250 pounds yield cuts of the most desired size and weight. All carcasses should be heavy in proportion to their size to insure a high finish and cuts of the best shape. Fig. 128. — Fat and Ij.-ion cin-ises compared. Note the difference in size, and especially the difference in fatness, between the fat carcass on the left and the bacon carcass on the right. Classification of Carcasses The classification and grading of hog carcasses is based on the uses to which they are adapted, or in other words, it is based on the products into which they can be converted. The generally recognized classes and grades and their respective weights are as follows: ^ 1 Progressive Hog Raising, p. 70. *Louis D. Hall: Market Classes and Grades of Meat, 111. Bui. 147, pp. 252-288. 342 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Carcass weight Smooth Heavy, or Heavj' Loin Carcasses 240 — 400 lb Butcher, or Light Loin Carcasses 160 — 240 lb fHeavy 240—400 lb • Medium 200—240 lb Light 100—200 lb Choice 120—160 lb •Good 110— 170 1b Common 90—110 lb Shippers 100—200 lb Pigs , 20—100 lb Packing Hog Carcasses. Bacon Carcasses Smooth heavy, or heavy loin carcasses constitute a very small part of the general supply. They are from prime heavy hogs of good quality, either barrows or good clear (not seedy) sows. They have over 4 inches of fat on the back. They yield heavy loins, hams, shoulders, fat backs, and dry-salt bellies, though at times they are cut into the same products as heavy packing hogs. Butcher or light loin carcasses yield the best loins. A large pro- portion of the fresh pork sold in retail markets is pork loins, which are cut into chops and roasts. Only the best carcasses weighing 160 to 240 pounds from barrows and smooth clear sows classify here. The covering of fat on the back should be from 2 to 4 inches in thickness. The carcass is cut into the regular American or lard-hog cuts. (See Fig. 129.) The bellies are sweet pickled and the lighter and leaner ones are smoked and sold as breakfast-bacon bellies. Packing hog carcasses constitute about one-half of the hog car- casses in Chicago packing houses. These are inferior carcasses of all weights ranging from 100 pounds upwards. They are coarse, rough, and unevenly finished. They are not well adapted for fresh pork products or smoked meats, and the sides are therefore principally packed as mess pork, barreled pork, and dry-salt meats. In times of scarcity, however, the sides are cut into loins, fat backs, and bellies, the same as butcher hogs. This is more often true of the light and medium-weight packing carcasses than of the heavy ones. The hams are sweet pickled and the shoulders made into picnics and Boston butts. Bacon carcasses are the lighter, thinner carcasses suitable for sugar-cured breakfast-bacon bellies and English cuts, so called because they are suitable for the English trade. The principal English cuts are Wiltshire sides, Cumberland sides, and long-cut hams. The Wilt- shire side comprises the entire side (half the hog), minus the head, shanks, shoulder blade, and hip bone. The belly is trimmed smooth and even. These sides average 40 to 70 pounds and are selected espec- ially for thickness of lean meat and a light, even covering of fat from 1 to 2y2 inches thick, not exceeding 13/^ inches in the best grade. They are made exclusively from choice, lean bacon hogs. Fig. 129 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 343 shows a bacon side and indicates its division into the long-cut ham and the long-cut middle or Cumberland. Shippers are similar to butcher hog carcasses in shape and quality, but are lighter in weight and generally not so highly finished. They are used for the fresh retail trade, and they must be fancy in quality. They are extensively sold as whole carcasses and are shipped in carlots to eastern points, the greatest demand being in the winter months. Pigs are carcasses of light, young hogs that are comparatively lean and weighing from 20 to 100 pounds. They are dressed and sold like Fig. 129. — Wholesale cuts of pork. English cuts.^A, Long-cut ham; B, long side or middle. American cuts. — 1, Ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, picnic butt; 5, Boston butt: 6, jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2 and 8, back; 2, 3, and 8, side; 4 and 7, picnic shoulder; 5 and 9, shoulder butt; 8 and 9, long fat back; 4, 5, 7, and 9, rough shoulder. shippers. Roasting pigs are dressed suckling pigs which are fat and smooth. They are sold like winter lambs direct to hotels and restau- rants. The most desired weight is 15 to 20 pounds, but pigs weighing 30 pounds are used. Wholesale cuts from the lard hog.— After the carcass has been thoroughly chilled it is cut up into shoulders, hams, fat backs, loins. 344 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock spare ribs, and belly. These wholesale cuts are shown in the drawings which accompany this chapter. (See Fig. 129.) The part labeled "fat back" is a clear layer of outside fat contain- ing no lean meat. Studies of the carcasses of cattle and sheep disclose the fact that it is easily possible to feed a steer or a wether too long, and thus make the animal too fat to suit the consumer. One-half to three-fourths of an inch of outside fat is all that is wanted on the car- casses of cattle, and for mutton and lamb the desired thickness is proportionate to the requirements for cattle. With fat hogs we find an entirely different state of affairs, for the packer wants a thick layer of fat over the top of the hog. This heavy layer of fat constitutes a separate cut known as the fat back, which may be rendered into lard, or dry salted and sold as a dry-salt cut. When manufactured into lard Fig. 133. — A side of pork. Sawing through ribs preliminary to cutting into loin, fat back, spare ribs, and belly. The thick layer of clear fat covering the loin is the fat back. The belly is streaked with lean. The spare ribs are trimmed from the belly. The front or shoulder end of the side was toward the camera. they render 85 to 88 per cent. About one-half of them are sold as a dry-salt cut for which a demand exists in the South and in Europe. Lard is more valuable than tallow, hence the difference in the packer's attitude toward high finish in the lard hog as compared with a similar degree of fatness in cattle or sheep. The belly contains streaks of lean and is suitable for a "breakfast bacon belly" if the cut is from a light-weight hog. If the hog is heavy, the belly cut is dry salted or pickled and is known as a "dry-salt belly" or as a "sweet-pickle belly," and these sell at lower prices. Mr. L. D. H. Weld, of the Commercial Research Department of Swift and Company, Chicago, has supplied the writer with the follow- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 345 ing table showing the relative weights and values of the green (fresh or uncured) cuts from a 250-pound hog. The prices are those pre- vailing in March, 1923. Green (fresh) cuts from a hog having a live weight of 250 pounds Market price Per cent of of green cuts Value per Wholesale cuts live weight per pound cwt. of Cents live hog Regular hams 13.75 15 $2.06 Skinned shoulders 10.00 10 1.00 Jowl 3.00 8H .26 Bellies (square cut and seedless) 12.50 13 1.62 Fat backs 10.00 9 .90 Spare ribs 1.00 73^ .07 Loins 10.00 13 1.30 Miscellaneous i 3.00 5 .15 Leaf fat (unrendered) 3.00 lOM -32 Cutting fat (unrendered) » 6.00 7 .42 Heads 4.50 3?^ .16 Total 76.75 8.26 1 Includes feet, neck bones, tail, and a small amount of lean trimmings. 2 Includes small fat trimmings from hams, fat backs, bellies, and other cuts. It is rendered into lard. High-priced and low-priced cuts. — There is less variation in the prices of the wholesale cuts of pork than is true of beef, mutton, or lamb. The loin, rib, and round of the beef carcass constitute 50 per cent of the carcass weight and 70 per cent of the total value. The ham, loin, and belly of the 250-pound lard hog constitute 47 per cent of the carcass weight and 60 per cent of the total value. All of the larger cuts — hams, shoulders, bellies, fat backs, and loins — sell readily at good prices, whereas it is difficult to dispose of some of the cheaper cuts from cattle and sheep. A study of the swine carcass emphasizes the importance of good development in all parts of the hog, though more especially in the back, loin, sides, and hams. Weights of finished products. — The table and chart, shown on next page, from Swift and Company's 1922 Year Book, shows the weights of the finished products from a 250-pound hog. Cured pork products. — Only about 1 or 2 per cent of the hogs slaughtered by the large packing houses are sold as whole carcasses. About three-fourths of the wholesale trade in pork consists of various cured meats and fresh cuts, the remainder consisting principally of lard and a small percentage of sausage and canned meats. Only about 20 per cent of the domestic trade and 5 per cent of the export trade in pork products, other than lard, consists of fresh meat. ^ The various curing processes perfected by American packers enable them to store a large amount of pork during the winter season of heavy receipts for disposal in seasons of light receipts. Some of the time in storage is consumed in curing. Pickling requires from 30 to 100 days, and the ilii. Bui. 147. 346 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock subsequent smoking requires from 2 to 8 days. ^ In this respect pork has a decided advantage over beef and mutton which are sold almost entirely in the fresh state, and the hog market is stabilized to some extent as a result of it. The only pork cuts sold extensively as fresh cuts are loins, tender- loins, and spare ribs. Some hams and shoulders are also sold in the fresh state. Following are brief discussions of the various curing pro- cesses: 2 Mess pork, which is made from packing hog carcasses, is a simple method of packing cheap pork and was much used in the early days of Pork Products from a 250-PouniJ Hog— Finished Weights Ceat Pourul. Hams, Smoked 1)00 )2S0 Bellies or Bacon 1175 29)7 Loins, Fresh 9 50 2)75 Fat Backs, Salted 9.50 2)75 Lard, Rendered 9.00 22 5IJ Picnics, Smoked Shoulder SOO 12.50 Boston Butts, Fresh 42S 10.6) Clear Plates, Salted 2 75 687 Lean Trimmings, Sausage 225 5.6) Jowl Butts, Salted 2. 25 S.(2 Spare Ribs, Fresh 1 25 313 (1) MiscM Edible Items ).00 7.50 (2^ Edible By-Products 225 5 62 (3) Xon-Edible By-Products 3 75 938 Shrinkage 20.50 51 2S Total Live Weight 100% 250 lbs. ' 1 ) Includin?; feet, neck bones. tails, brains, c heek and he.id meat, ears, lips, and snouts. 2j Including: plucks, gullet meat, weasand meal, giblet meat, tongues, kidneys, and stomach linings. (3( Including; casings, blood, hair, grease, and tankage. Note — .Although this method of cutting is typical, proportions vary with trade requirements. Fig. 131. ^Weights of the finished wholesale cuts from a 250-pound hog. the packing industry. It is prepared by cutting the side into strips about six inches wide and packing in salt brine (to which is added 12 ounces of saltpetre per barrel) in tight barrels (18x29 inches) at 200 pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel or 355 pounds gross. It is shipped principally to the southern states, northern lumber camps, and South America. Barreled or plain-pickled pork is similar to mess pork except that more salt is used and no saltpetre is added. It consists of mess, fat back, and belly pork. Dry-salt meats, the other common product of packing carcasses, are heavy sides, bellies, shoulders, fat backs, and jowls cured in dry 1 Progressive Hog Raising, p. 84. 2111. Bui. 147. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 347 salt, pumped (injected) with brine, and shipped in coarse salt. They are usually shipped loose, but sometimes are put up in boxes containing 25 to 500 pounds. Sweet-pickled meats are cured in sweet brine containing syrup and saltpetre. The bulk of sweet pickled and other sugar-cured meats are smoked after curing. Smoked meats are cured in sweet pickle or in dry salt and sugar, and are then smoked after curing. Hams and picnic shoulders from all classes of hogs are generally sweet pickled and smoked. Bacon meats and bacon bellies are either dry salted or sweet pickled prior to smoking. The best of these are breakfast bacon bellies which are dry cured and smoked lightly. English meats are principally cuts from bacon hogs and are dry- cured in English salt and saltpetre and then packed in borax or salt for export, chiefly to Great Britain. The principal cuts handled in this way are long bacon sides, long-cut hams, clear ^ backs and bellies, and square shoulders. After shipment abroad they are generally dried or smoked lightly before they are sold at retail. Boiled meats are rolled boneless cuts, including hams, picnic shoulders, and loins, cured in sweet pickle, cooked in water, and lightly smoked. They are made principally from heavy hogs. The United States Census of 1920 reported the total value of the products of slaughtering and meat packing in the United States to be $4,283,416,521. The following list of these products is of interest as indicating the importance of pork and the relative value of cured pork and cured beef: Value of meats and meat products produced in United States in 1919 Per cent of Product Value total value Fresh meat: Beef $846,794,386 19.8 Veal 83,912,942 2.0 Mutton and lamb 120,338.355 2.8 Pork 532,669,835 12.4 Cured meat: Beef 28,359,892 .7 Pork 1,217,589,927 28.4 Canned goods 96,904,341 2.3 Sausage 173,587,401 4.0 Lard 415,817,212 9.7 Lard compounds and substitutes. 123,724,098 2.9 Oleooil 31,212,708 .7 Other oils 9,153,123 .2 Tallow and oleo stock 36,276,065 .8 Stearin 8,999,349 .2 Oleomargarine 36,777,815 .9 All other products 521 ,299,072 12.2 Total 4,283,416,521 100.0 I Backbone and ribs removed. 348 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The Grades of Lard ' From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made into lard in large packing houses, the proportion varying with the relative price of lard and grade of hogs. Lard is sold under six different names representing differences in whiteness, grain, flavor, and keeping quali- ties. Lard is made from leaf fat, fat backs, and fat trimmings from ham, shoulder, belly, jowl, and head. The highest grade of lard is Kettle Rendered Leaf Lard, made from leaf fat. It is very white in color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades of lard. Then there is Kettle Rendered Lard made mostly from fat backs, with perhaps a small addition of leaf fat. Fat trimmings are also used at times. It ranks second only to the preceding grade. Neutral Lard is made from leaf or back fat at a lower temperature than is required in the manufac- ture of kettle rendered leaf lard. No. 1 Neutral Lard is made from leaf fat only. It is tasteless, free of acids and impurities, smooth grained, and remains unchanged in odor and color. No. 2 Neutral Lard is made from back fat. It is not as white in color nor as fine in grain as No. 1 and sells at a lower price. Ninety per cent or more of the lard made at Chicago is known as Prime Steam Lard. It is made from fat trimmings and internal fats. It is darker colored and coarser grained than other grades and is the form in which hog fat can be most economically stored and shipped. It is refined before using. Then there is Refined Lard made from prime steam lard by a bleaching and stirring process. Also there is Compound Lard or Lard Compound, which is a mixture of lard, stearin or other animal fat, and vegetable oil, usually cottonseed oil. By-Products of the Hog A larger percentage of the hog is edible than of any other meat animal. This statement includes both the carcass and the edible by- products. The hog also has a higher dressing percentage than any other meat animal, and the percentage weight of the offal (edible and inedible) is correspondingly less. The value of the offal from hog slaughter, including lard, is much less in proportion to the live value of the animal than it is with cattle or sheep. Edward N. Wentworth, director of Armour's Livestock Bureau, states 2 that the edible by-products of the hog, excluding lard, average about 2.25 per cent of the live weight, that the inedible by-products average about 3.75 per cent, and that shrinkage in slaughtering and 1111. Bui. 147. 2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 349 processing averages about 20 per cent. ^ He states that heavy hogs shrink about 19 per cent and Hght hogs about 22.5 per cent in slaughter- ing and processing. The average value of inedible by-products derived from 6,673,657 hogs slaughtered at Armour's plants from November 1, 1918, to November 1, 1919, was only 14 cents per head, whereas the value of the carcass and edible by-products, including lard, amounted to an average of $43.41 per head. Mr. Wentworth has supplied the writer with the following list of the by-products of hog slaughter and their values on April 9, 1923. The values represent averages of all hogs killed that day by Armour and Company. Their average live weight was about 240 to 245 pounds, their average price was about $8 per cwt., and their average live value per head was about $19.20: Values of offal (by-products) from average of all hogs slaughtered by Armour and Com- pany, Chicago, on April 9, 1923 Edible by-products Total Inedible by-products Total value value Leaf lard $.5569 Ear drumsi $.0053 Livers 0274 B. W. grease ' 0763 Hearts 0074 Nasal tips ' 0015 Kidneys 0095 Grindings 0022 Giblet meat • 0093 Viscera (condemned) 0115 Tongues 0834 Heads (condemned) 0006 Cheek meat 0291 Pressed tankage i No value Jaw meat 0036 Dry blood i No value Brains 0090 Hair and bristle 0225 Prime steam lard 4756 Casings 0300 Total inedible 1199 Total edible 1.2412 Total by-products 1.3611 ' Giblet meat is lean trimmings from the skirtings (diaphragm), gullet, etc. "B. W." is the first grade of brown grease. Ear drums are sent to the glue works. Nasal tips are rendered for "A White" grease. Pressed tankage and dry blood had no value on this date because they cost as much to produce as could be realized for them on the market. As shown above, the total value of all by-products was $1.36. This is only 7.09 per cent of the cost of the live hog. The value of the lard amounted to $1.03, or over 75 per cent of the value of all by-prod- ucts. All by-products other than lard had a value of only 33 cents. Among the edible by-products of the hog are pepsin, derived from hog stomachs; livers, used in the manufacture of liver sausage; and neutral, a specially prepared lard, largely used as an ingredient of oleomargarine. Lard proper is not commonly considered a by-product; it is one of the primary products of hog slaughter. Nearly 15 per cent of the live weight goes into lard. Part of this lard is further processed into lard oil and lard stearin. Lard oil is used for illuminating pur- poses and as a lubricant. Stearin enters into the manufacture of chew- ing gum and soft candies. ^This includes contents of stomach and intestines, loss of weight by evapora- tion of moisture, and waste in manufacturing. 350 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Brains are packed in cans, frozen, and offered for sale. Tongues are canned or pickled. Hearts go into sausage. Tails, snouts, and ears are rich in gelatin or glue. Kidneys are canned or frozen. Milts or spleens are used as a feed for growing fishes at fish hatcheries. The intestines are cleaned, processed, and made into chitterlings, a food product to be fried like oysters. Stomachs are used as sausage con- tainers. Something like 7 per cent of the weight of the hog is repre- sented in inedible by-products in the raw state which are manufactured into glue, soap, glycerin, blood meal, tankage, curled hair, and fertilizer material. Even the rinds from skinned hams and bacons, as well as the back skin of the hog, are utilized for leather. Nothing is wasted. Conclusions The following conclusions may be drawn from the study of the hog carcass, its various products, and the by-products of the hog: 1. In order to bring the highest market price, lard hogs must be fat, smooth, free from paunchiness, and straight and trim in the under- line. 2. The lard hog should be well developed in all parts, though more especially in the back, loin, sides, and hams. 3. Barrows and young, smooth sows yield the best carcasses. Carcasses of boars and stags are coarse throughout and are especially heavy and coarse in neck and shoulders. Sows with seedy bellies are discriminated against. 4. Hogs with a live weight of 190 to 250 pounds yield cuts of the most desired size and weight, but weights up to 300 pounds are in good demand. 5. Any kind of a hog finds a buyer on the market, but the price paid depends upon the kind of carcass the hog will yield. The by- products of the hog are of little value and are a very minor factor in live prices. 6. The curing and storing of large quantities of pork by packers makes pork products readily available in seasons when the supply of live hogs is limited, thus tending to increase the total yearly consump- tion of pork and to widen the market for live hogs. 7. Curing and storing enable packers to more readily absorb large runs of hogs and tend to sustain live prices in seasons of large receipts. 8. The development of the packing industry has made an outlet for the plainer sorts of hogs which otherwise would be a drug upon the market. 9. No other kind of meat comes so nearly being manufactured by packers as does pork. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 351 10. No other animal equals the lard hog in its fat-storing ability. 11. The production of lard hogs furnishes a logical channel of disposal for corn, because corn is a fattening feed and lard brings a higher price than tallow. 12. Indian corn and the American packing industry have com- bined to develop the American hog industry into a business of mam- moth proportions. Corn, properly supplemented, makes pork econom- ically, and pork finds ready sale because packers have discovered many ways of placing pork on the market in attractive and highly palatable form combined with most excellent keeping qualities. CHAPTER XXV HOG MARKETS AND PORK PACKING— PAST AND PRESENT Hogs are marketed by the same methods and are shipped to the central markets and sold in the same manner as cattle, as described in Chapter V. In addition it may be mentioned that local auction sales in some of the western states serve as a means of marketing a consider- able number of hogs. ^ Throughout the country there is more selling of hogs at country points direct to packers than of cattle or sheep. James E. Poole, market editor of the Breeder's Gazette, states ^ that country buying by packers is increasing rapidly and that during 1922 one of the large packers was credited with having purchased about two million hogs in Iowa alone. He states that practically every packer of importance is now buying hogs at country points, and that the chief reason advanced in support of the practice is that it is economical because it eliminates market expense. He also quotes an official of a large packing company as stating that competition compelled that company to go to the country in order to get its share of the crop. The proportion of hogs slaughtered on farms far exceeds that of cattle or sheep. The large markets. — Most of the large hog markets of the United States are located in the corn belt. The 13 largest markets and their receipts in three years, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, are as follows: Receipts of hogs at leading markets in three years Market 1922 1921 1920 1. Chicago 8,156,472 8,147,646 7,526,120 2. St. Louis 3,605,520 3,330,051 3,398,940 3. Indianapolis 2,266,551 2,694,705 2,896,894 4. Omaha 2,839,382 2,665,276 2,708,482 5. Pittsburgh 2,690,137 2,277,499 2,439,067 6. Kansas City 2,654,959 2,204,556 2,466,419 7. St. Paul 2,522,972 2,209,518 2,246,948 8. St. Joseph 2,060,680 1,785,239 1,913,755 9. Sioux City 1,855,829 1,738,584 2,172,637 10. Buffalo 1,474,520 1,602,875 1,493,981 11. Cincinnati 1,347,129 1,434,842 1,477,979 12. Baltimore 1,342,595 1,238,454 1,153,578 13. Cleveland 1,092,287 960,044 1,011,657 Totals 33,909,033 32,289,289 32,906,457 ^The California Farm Bureau Marketing Association sold 2,175 carloads of hogs at auction during the four years ending October 1, 1922. These were sold at 69 sales in 7 counties. — U. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 2, 1923. 2Breeder's Gazette, Jan. 25, 1923. 352 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 35S Sixty-eight markets received 44,067,489 hogs in 1922. The 13 markets Hsted in the foregoing table received 77 per cent of this total. The Chicago market. ^ — As shown by the above figures, Chicago is in a class by itself as a hog market. It receives more than twice as many hogs as St. Louis, its nearest rival. The total value of the hogs received at Chicago in 1922 was $182,598,270. Their average value per head was $22.40. Their average live weight was 239 pounds. Their average price per cwt. was $9.20. Of the 8,156,472 hogs received at the Chicago yards during 1922, 6,304,466 were slaughtered by Chicago packers, 1,848,946 were shipped out alive to other points for slaughter, and 3,060 were shipped out for feeding. In addition to the hogs included in the above figures, small packing firms at Chicago, located outside the yards, received direct and slaughtered 405,829 hogs in 1922. The growth of the Chicago market is shown by the following list of receipts and shipments of hogs at that point during the years men- tioned: 2 Movement of hogs at Chicago Year Receipts Shipments Year Receipts Shipments 1858 540,486 392,864 961,746 1,693,158 3,912,110 192,013 227,164 482,875 924,453 1,582,643 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 7,059,555 7,663,829 8,109,064 5,586,858 7,526,120 1,394,990 1860 1,985,700 1,452,183 1,202.390 1,656,528 1866 1870 1875 It is interesting to note that the advent of the refrigerator car, about 1875, had a marked effect on the proportionate number of hogs shipped. The largest number of hogs received at Chicago in a year was in 1916, when 9,188,224 head were received at the yards proper. If receipts by outside packing firms are included, the figure is raised to 9,528,267. The highest record for a month is credited to January, 1916, when 1,227,508 hogs were received at the yards and enough by outside packers to make the total 1,286,616. The record week was that ending January 8, 1916, when 334,279 were received at the yards, and 356,362 in all. On November 29, 1918, the largest day's receipts were recorded, the figures being 96,964 and 101,601 respectively. The number of hogs marketed annually varies greatly. This fluctuation is caused partly by losses from disease, and partly by the fact that if an unexpected or temporary demand springs up, and higher prices rule, great numbers of hogs of inferior size and weight are rushed to market. 1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. ^Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, p. 208; Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. 354 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Charges for commission, yardage, and feed. — At Chicago the charge for the yardage of hogs is 11 cents per head. Commission charges for selHng hogs are as follows: Hogs in car lots, 30 cents per head; single-deck cars, minimum $13, maximum $16; double-deck cars, minimum $20, maximum $27; less than 25 hogs in one car, 50 cents per head. Public inspection of hogs costs 25 cents per car, no fee being charged on cars containing less than 25 head. Corn costs $1.25 per bushel. Shrinkage of hogs in transit. — Hogs usually shrink from 2.5 to 4 per cent in shipment to market. ^ These percentages express the difference between home weights and selling weights. The latter in- clude the "fill." Hogs shrink less than cattle or sheep in shipment. Olauqht qhier Johipped jor olQUtjkter foOu 700 800 900 Fig. 132. — Average monthly receipts and shipments of hogs at Chicago in thousands for ten years, 1909-1913 and 1917-1921. The years 1914-1916 were omitted because of embargoes on shipments during much of that period. The total length of each bar represents average monthly receipts. The divisions of the bar represent the average number of Chicago hogs sold monthly for local slaughter and for shipment to other points for slaughter. The average number shipped monthly for feeding " " " "-' ' ' ■'- •"-'- -'---•^ too small to be shown in this chart. The fill. — Upon arrival in the pens at the market, hogs are given shelled corn and water. This constitutes the "fill." It has a quieting effect, improves the appearance of the animals, and increases the weight. A test at the Kansas City market is reported ^ in which 44 iWent.worth and Gentry: Progressive Hog Raising, 1922, p. 79. ^Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market — How It Func- tions, p. 47. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 355 cars of hogs made gains ranging from 290 to 1,380 pounds per car and averaging 6.23 pounds per head on the usual fill of corn and water. This was the increase in weight as shown by weighing the hogs on their arrival at the yards and again after feeding and watering. Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of hogs at Chicago. — Fig. 132 shows the average monthly receipts of hogs at Chicago for ten years. Largest receipts occur in November, December, January, and February, especially in December and January. Smallest receipts occur in August and September. Over twice as many hogs are re- ceived in January as in September. A marked rise in receipts begins in October and continues into February, followed by a decline during late February, March, and April. A smaller rise occurs in May and June, followed by a progressive decline during July, August, and Sep- tember. The number of hogs marketed monthly varies much more widely than that of cattle, and almost as much as that of sheep. The large winter receipts are due to the marketing of the pig crop of the previous spring. The smaller bulge in May and June results from the marketing of considerable numbers of hogs that were farrowed in the previous fall, of which a much smaller number are raised than of spring pigs. The chart shows that most of the hogs received in each month at Chicago are slaughtered there. A yearly average of 20 per cent are shipped to other points for slaughter. Less than one-fourth of 1 per cent are shipped for feeding, too few to represent graphically in the chart. (Compare this chart with similar charts on pages 81 and 242.) Weights of hogs at seven markets. — There is considerable differ- ence in the yearly average weights of the hogs received at various markets. Omaha and Sioux City receive heavier hogs than Chicago, while those received at St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Paul average lighter: 1 Yearly average weights of hags at seven markets for eight years 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915 Eight-year average Omaha 256 257 246 245 249 238 221 251 Sioux City 259 252 246 251 248 225 231 246 St. Joseph 235 235 235 227 230 228 219 228 Chicago 239 234 235 233 234 213 210 219 St. Paul 221 212 218 222 206 184 191 213 Kansas City 196 211 200 191 201 192 193 200 St. Louis 181 185 183 181 182 177 185 187 245 245 230 227 208 198 183 General average 227 227 223 221 221 208 207 221 219 The yearly average weight of market hogs varies in response to the relative price of hogs and corn. When hogs are relatively scarce 1 Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. 356 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and high in price, and corn is plentiful and cheap, hog growers feed more heavily during the fattening period, feed for a longer period, and send their hogs to market at a greater age and weight and carrying a higher finish than usual. As a rule, heavy yearly average weights indicate the years in which pork production was most profitable, and vice versa. Chicago monthly average weights. — Following are the monthly and yearly average weights of hogs received at Chicago for ten years. The highest monthly average of each year is printed in bold type and the lowest monthly average is enclosed in parenthesis. At the right of the table are the monthly averages and the general average for the entire ten-year period r^ Monthly and yearly average we ights / hogs at Chicago for ten years Month 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 Ten-year average January f229) 229 229 228 (216) (199) 195 223 (216) 226 219.0 February 232 230 231 232 231 204 204 224 224 230 224.2 March 240 238 237 230 238 209 214 231 233 240 231.0 April 242 237 243 230 242 213 219 233 233 242 233.4 May 241 238 239 232 238 217 220 233 236 242 233.6 June 241 238 236 233 235 225 226 231 237 244 234.6 July 246 240 242 242 243 232 231 238 244 243 240.1 August 255 251 250 251 243 233 232 246 248 233 244.2 September .... 250 250 248 254 247 231 223 235 242 222 240.2 October 241 235 236 237 233 212 210 204 229 209 224.6 November .... 232 (223) (224) 226 226 209 195 fl87) 218 (207) (214.7) December .... 233 225 228 (224) 223 211 (193) 190 226 213 216.6 Yearly average 239 234 235 233 234 213 210 219 231 228 227.6 In seven of the ten years and in the ten-year averages, August weights are heaviest. November weights average lightest. In four years the lightest averages occured in January, but in each instance these were heavier than those of the preceding November. December averages were lightest in two years. The light November average is due to the fact that spring pigs then first appear in relatively large numbers. Heavy weights in July, August, and September are due to the holding back of young hogs in the country until the corn crop is matured and used for fattening. Relatively few hogs are received during August and September but the receipts include a larger propor- tion of aged hogs than in other months, the result of marketing brood sows that were culled and fed after spring litters were weaned. The ten-year averages show that the average weight of market hogs rises from November to April, but remains almost constant during April, May, and June. Fall-farrowed pigs arrive during May and June in ^Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 357 sufficient numbers to prevent an appreciable rise in weight during those months. Docking or shrinking weights. — At central markets stags are docked 70 pounds, and pregnant sows 40 pounds each. The excuse for this practice is the greater amount of waste in killing and dressing such hogs, but boars are not docked. Formerly stags were docked 80 pounds. On some markets small pregnant sows are docked less than 40 pounds. Small stags should be docked less than 70 pounds, but are not. The decision as to what hogs are stags and what sows are pregnant rests with inspectors employed jointly by commission men and packers who inspect the hogs as they are driven from the scales. All dockage is deducted from the gross weight of the drove, which is the basis of payment for the hogs. Fig. 133. — Unloading hogs at Chicago. This system has been in use at Chicago since 1884, and is the result of joint agreement between hog buyers and commission firms. * In case either party is dissatisfied with the amount of dockage, he may appeal to the chief inspector or shrinker whose decision is usually accepted as final. If it is not accepted, a committee composed of one buyer, one salesman, and a third party selected by them, renders a decision that is final. P. H. Hamilton, of Woodbury County, Iowa, states ^ that hog dockage was probably the principal reason for the organization of live- stock exchanges at the markets, and that there have possibly been more wordy battles and more fistic encounters over the dockage of iThe American Live Stock Market — How It Functions, p. 54. 2Breeder's Gazette, Jan. 27, 1921, p. 155. 358 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock hogs than over any other one thing in the hog trade. He states that the amount of trimming necessary to remove the gristle (shields) on the shoulders and belly (sides) of the stag explains the dockage of stags. He mentions that alfalfa, grass, and soft corn will make even barrows look like "pigg3^" sows. He also states, "There has been many an instance recorded at the Sioux City market where the buyer has got the committee on hog dockage together, and lo and behold, when he returned he found that the sows in dispute had farrowed their pigs." The Pork- Packing Industry During the first half of the nineteenth century, Cincinnati was the leading pork-packing center of this continent, and this position was maintained until 1863, at which time Chicago took the lead. One by one, other western cities have crowded ahead of Cincinnati until now her rank is eleventh in the list of American hog-packing centers. That Cincinnati's supremacy was not a permanent one was due to the fact that until the West was settled, live-stock conditions were very un- stable, and the logical packing center in 1850 was found to be too far to the east of the center of hog production as it existed twenty years later. With the settling of the corn belt and the rapid extension of the hog's domain to the westward, Chicago was enabled, by virtue of her location and direct railway connections with the heart of the corn belt, to gain and hold supremacy as a pork-packing center. The evolu- tion of the gigantic pork-packing business of the United States may be told in brief by first reviewing the growth and development of the busi- ness at Cincinnati, and then following it to Chicago at the close of the Civil War. Early packing at Cincinnati. ^ — In 1833 Cincinnati packed 85,000 hogs. Five years later the number packed in the year had risen to 182,000 head. In 1843 no less than 250,000 hogs were consumed by the numerous packing establishments then doing a thriving business at Cincinnati, and the town was dubbed "Porkopolis," which name was formerly in general use, but is now nearly obsolete. Cincinnati slaughtered 360,000 hogs for packing purposes in 1853, and in 1863 the highest mark was reached, the number that year being 608,457. The demands of the army were largely accountable for the large number packed during the last mentioned year. The average price of hogs at Cincinnati was $5.75 in 1855, $6.21 in 1860, and $3.28 in 1862, but the Civil War caused a rise to $14.62 in 1865, followed by a decline to $11.97 in 1866 and to $6.95 in 1867. Present-day pork producers who iH. D. Emery: Hogs and Pork Packing in the West, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863; Charles Cist: The Hog and Its Products, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 359 experienced a similar slump in prices during 1920 and 1921 following the World War can testify that history repeats itself. In early times Cincinnati was especially favored as a pork-packing center because of its shipping facilities, large quantities of cured pork being shipped to southern points in flat boats via the Ohio and Mis- sissippi rivers. The South took most of the product, though New England and eastern points took a considerable share. Lard was exported to the West Indies, England, and France. Cincinnati was also favored in that prior to the Civil War it was the center of the finest hog-raising region in the world, including the states of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. It was in this favorable environment and under the stimulus afforded by a large, near-by market that the Poland- China breed originated during the period mentioned. Although Chicago took the lead in the number of hogs packed following the war, Cincinnati continued to hold first place for a considerable time so far as the quality of hogs packed was concerned. In 1866 there were 15 slaughter houses at Cincinnati, some of which employed as many as 100 hands. One concern slaughtered 60,000 hogs during that year. Measured by the standards of the time, these Cincinnati packing es- tablishments were considered to be gigantic in proportions. In 1866 Cincinnati produced 180,000 barrels of pork, 25,000,000 pounds of bacon, and 16,500,000 pounds of lard. Development of packing at Chicago.^ — The earliest packing or slaughtering done in Chicago was in 1827; in that year Archibald Clyboum erected a slaughter house for the special purpose of supplying the garrison at Fort Dearborn. The trade was mostly local until 1833, when immigration set westward quite strongly, creating a larger de- mand. During 1835, Mr. Clyboum packed about 3,000 hogs, besides considerable beef, for which a ready market was at hand. This stock had to be picked up at long distances from Chicago and driven on foot to the city. Other men soon engaged in the business which took on larger proportions, the surplus product finding a market in the East. The slaughter houses were mostly located on the south branch of the Chicago river, and into it the offal and filth were drained, which in later years became a nuisance and was prohibited by the city. In 1863 there were 58 different establishments in Chicago doing a general pack- ing business. During the winter of 1853-'54, Chicago packed 52,849 hogs, and in 1860-'61 the number packed was 231,335. During the winter packing season of 1863-'64, the rank of the largest packing centers and the number of hogs packed by each vvas as follows: (1) Chicago, 904,159; (2) Cincinnati, 400,000; (3) St. Louis, 200,000; (4) Louisville, 103,996. lU. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, pp. 207-209. 360 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock By-products from early hog packing. — The Report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1866 contains an account of early hog- packing operations which is of interest for comparison with modern methods of utilizing all of the by-products of the hog. The following, written by Charles Cist, of Cincinnati, appeared in the report for that year: "I have referred to the remarkable fact, that there was a period in the West when corn would not, in some sections, command six cents per bushel, and in others was of so little value as to be substituted for wood as fuel. Not less extraordinary is the fact, within the knowledge of hundreds now in Cincinnati, that in the early ages of pork packing, say in 1828, there was so little demand for any portion of the hog, other than hams, shoulders, sides, and lard, that the heads, spare ribs, neck pieces, backbone, etc., were regularly thrown into the Ohio river to get rid of them !" The same writer also says : "The slaughterers formerly received the gut fat for the whole of the labor of dressing, wagoning the hogs more than a mile to the pork houses free of expense to the owners. Every year, however, adds to the value of fat, heart, liver, etc., for food and the hoofs, hair, and other parts for manufacturing purposes. Six years since, from 10 to 25 cents per hog was paid as a bonus for the privilege of killing. This was later raised to 75 cents and even to $1.00." In 1863, hog-packing products consisted of bristles, lard, mess pork, hams, shoulders, bacon, and lard oil used for making candles. The beginning of the immense packing-house by-products industry of modern times was described by an early writer as follows:^ "Since the Chicago river has ceased to be the sewer for all the offal from the slaughter and packing houses, the owners have been obliged to cart it off to the commons and open fields beyond the city limits at a very- heavy expense to them. An enterprising firm has, however, contracted with all the principal firms the present season to carry it all away by the owners paying half the expenses. Instead, however, of carrying it off and throwing it away, they have commenced preparing it for fertilizers. They have provided centrifugal machines, into which they place the refuse from the lard and grease tanks, and throw out all the water, leaving only the solid parts, and that in a pulpy or pulverized condition. In this way they will prepare about 3,000 tons the present season, all of which will be shipped east for the manufacture of com- mercial manures. Another concern is gathering all the bones it can pick up, from which are manufactured large quantities of animal char- coal, and such as are not suitable for that purpose are ground up and iH. D. Emery: Hogs and Pork Packing in the West, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt.,1863,p. 215. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 361 sent east, they having shipped the past season over 300 tons of ground bones alone." Present leading hog-packing centers.— The rank of the leading hog-packing centers is shown in the following table compiled from the reports of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics: Number of hogs packed at leading points for three years Market 1922 1921 1920 1. Chicago 6,322,682 5,977,213 5,869,592 2. Omaha 2,226,391 1,970,545 1,998,376 3. Kansas City 2,052,229 1,712,843 1,838 080 4. St. Paul 2,038,522 1,667,763 1,904 869 5. St. Joseph 1,706,288 1,516,877 1,584 112 6. Indianapolis 1,527,566 1,376,543 1359 477 7. St. Louis 1,228,784 1,288,730 1,678,'226 8. Sioux City 1,193,624 1,047,431 1,295,790 9. Baltimore 1,019,499 1,013,051 873,663 10. New York 1,091,099 902,370 755 243 11. Cincinnati 669,283 897,763 788 696 12. Cleveland 749,648 688,246 609 602 13. Buffalo 662,822 669,760 630,864 14. Jersey City 458,430 509,185 629 382 15. Pittsburgh 506,866 504,792 412,911 Totals 23,458,733 21,743,112 22,228,883 A total of 28,736,660 hogs were slaughtered at 68 points in 1922. The 15 points listed above slaughtered 82 per cent of this total, Chicago packing at present time.— The number of hogs packed at Chicago by the leading hog-packing firms in 1920, 1921, and 1922, and the total number packed at Chicago in each of these years were as follows:^ Hogs packed by Chicago companies for three years Company 1922 1921 1920 Armour & Co 644,000 810,300 810,200 Swift & Co 732,800 736,100 811,300 Western Packing Co 684,300 697,400 520,500 Morris & Co 711,500 583,200 516,100 Wilson & Co 627,500 565,300 570,300 Hammond Co 365,800 392,500 409,500 Anglo-American Co 361,000 348,000 391,100 Boyd, Lunham & Co 326,800 353,300 362,400 Independent Packing Co 346,600 281,300 252,000 Roberts &Oake 302,900 267,200 241,400 Brennan Packing Co 306,000 194,700 201,500 Miller & Hart 249,800 233,100 173,300 Wm. Davies Co 158,000 143,200 223,100 'All others 903,295 710,096 695,058 Totals 6,710,295 6,316,296 6,177,758 > Includes hogs packed outside the Union Stock Yards. Growth of American pork packing. — The pork-packing year ends March 1, and is divided into two seasons — the summer season of eight months, from March 1 to November 1, and the winter season of four months, from November 1 to March 1. This system came into use 'Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922, p. 6. 362 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock before the days of artificial refrigeration, and although such a designa- tion is no longer necessary it is still adhered to by statisticians. Before 1873 summer packing was not practiced, but it began in September of that year when it is said to have reached the number of 505,500. ^ Edward N. Wentworth of Armour and Company has shown that the ratio between winter and summer packing in the West was 194 to 100 in 1878-79 and 1879-'80; that about 1890 winter and summer slaughter were equalized; and that since 1890 summer slaughter has increased to a marked degree. In 1920-'21 and 1921-'22 the ratio (winter to summer) was 66 to 100. ^ The growth of pork packing in the United States and Canada since 1880 is shown by the following figures giving the total number of hogs packed for the twelve months ending March 1 : ' Yearly hog packing in the United States and Canada Number hogs Number hoga Year packed in packed in United States Canada 1879-'80 14,829,000 195,379 1884-'85 14,727,000 210,148 1889-'90 18,906,000 238,709 1894-'95 21,620,000 510,650 1899-'00 28,172,000 1,491,000 1904-'05 29,691,000 1,650,000 1909-'10 29,923,000 1,250,000 1914-'15. 34,245,000 2,598,000 1919-'20 33,172,438 2,180,400 1921-'22 30,076,901 1 ,549,674 Exports of pork products. — From 1907 to 1921 inclusive, we ex- ported 9.8 per cent of our total pork production and 32 per cent of our total lard production. * Pork and pork products comprised 85 per cent of the total quantity of our exports of meat and meat products in 1920, and 87 per cent in 1921. ^ The United States was the leading meat- exporting country during the three pre-war years 1911 to 1913, and we also held first rank, and by a large margin, in each of the years from 1915 to 1920 inclusive. ^ In 1920 we contributed over 46 per cent of the meat and meat products exported by all countries. ^ Our natural advantages for hog raising and our vast production of pork in excess of our own needs give us our supremacy in the meat export trade. The development of our export trade in pork since 1790 is shown by the following figures: ^ • lU. S. Bur. Anim. Indus. Bui. 47, p. 256. 2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago, Jan. 1, 1923. 3 Compiled from Price Current-Grain Reporter Year Books. 4 Wentworth and Gentry: Progressive Hog Raising, p. 56. 6U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 683. «U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks— 1920, pp. 719, 720; 1921, p. 682. 7U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 682. * George M. Rommel: The Hog Industry, U. S. Bur. Anim. Indus. Bui. 47, pp. 263-265; figures since 1900 from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 363 Exports of hogs; bacon, hams, and shoulders; pork; and lard from the United States Live hogs Bacon, hams, Pork Lard Fiscal Thousand and shoulders Thousand Million year head Million pounds barrels pounds 1790 5 ( M 24 ( 1 ) 1800 14 1 55 2 1820 4 1 44 3 1840 5 2 66 7 1860 48 26 205 40 Million pounck 1880 83 760 96 375 1900 51 709 168 662 1910 4 299 45 363 1915 8 550 54 476 Calendar year 1919 25 1,787 67 761 1920 55 822 79 612 1 254,000 pounds bacon, hams, and shoulders; 356,000 pounds lard. Following are the quantities and values of pork and pork products exported from the United States during the calendar year 1922: ^ Pork exports of the United States for the calendar year 1922 Pork products Pounds Value Bacon 341,838,745 $51,989,095 Hams and shoulders 289,613,175 57,070,244 Pork, canned 2,563,298 824,832 Pork, fresh 26,974,147 4,308,006 Pork, pickled 38,628,919 4,648,175 Lard 766,950,103 91,484,669 Lard compounds 16,286,169 1,952,187 9,704,432 2,806,048 casings 24,355,037 5,646,842 Totals 1,516,914,025 220,730,098 The destination of our principal pork exports and the total pur- chases of these by the various countries are shown below: ^ Destination of principal pork products exported from the United States in 1920 Bacon Million pounds Hams and shoulders Million pounds Pickled MUUon pounds Lard Million pounds Total Country MUlion pounds Per cent 1. United Kingdom .... 2. Germany 345 76 62 21 25 35 12 19 17 ' 25 116 ■ Ve 26 7 6 3 ' 11 "5' ■i5' ■i9' 129 128 91 66 49 55 13 23 5 17 36 590 204 153 108 100 97 46 45 22 17 91 40 14 3. Netherlands 4. Cuba 10 7 7 6. Belgium 7 7. Canada 3 8. Italy 3 9. Sweden 2 10. Mexico 1 Other countries 6 Totals 637 185 39 612 1,473 100 lU. S. Dept. Comm. Rpt., Dec, 1922, Pt. I, pp, 4-8. * Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 758, 759. 364 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The United Kingdom purchased 54 per cent of our bacon exports in 1920, 63 per cent of the hams and shoulders, and 21 per cent of the lard. Germany bought 21 per cent of our lard exports and 12 per cent of our bacon exports. Canada bought 40 per cent of our exports of pickled pork. Other countries which use considerable quantities of our pork prod- ucts are British Guiana, Denmark, Ecuador, Haiti, Newfoundland and Labrador, Norway, Peru, and Switzerland. A complete list in- cludes others as well. Some countries buy only casings for sausage making, but many countries pay tribute to the American hog in one form or another. CHAPTER XXVI MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF HOGS The hog markets and the newspapers reporting the markets recognize certain rather well-defined market classes of hogs. The classification of a hog or of a carload of hogs depends upon the use to which it is best adapted; and the use to which it is best adapted is determined by its weight, form, quality, condition, and sex. The market classes of hogs and their respective weights are as follows: Classes Weights PRIME HEAVY HOGS 300-400 pounds and up BUTCHER HOGS: Heavy butchers 250-300 pounds Medium butchers 220-250 pounds Light butchers 190-220 pounds PACKING HOGS: Heavy packing 300-500 pounds and up Medium packing 250-300 pounds Light packing 190-250 pounds Heavy mixed packing 300 pounds up Light mixed packing 300 pounds down LIGHT HOGS: Bacon hogs 160-200 pounds Yorkers 150-190 pounds Light lights 130-150 pounds Light mixed 200 pounds down PIGS 50-130 pounds FEEDER PIGS 50-150 pounds ROUGHS STAGS BOARS MISCELLANEOUS: Roasting pigs 15-30 pounds Governments Cripples Dead hogs The weight limits of the various classes are flexible and are varied somewhat at different markets depending upon the weights of the hogs received. The weight limits are also varied to some degree on all markets depending upon supply and demand and upon the weights of the hogs marketed in different seasons and in different years. The weights given above are fairly representative of average market condi- tions. The grades. — The hogs within a market class may be graded according to their relative value per cwt. The grades are (1) prime, 366 366 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock (2) choice, (3) good, (4) medium, and (5) common. Not all of these grades may be found in some of the classes. For example, light hogs and pigs would not grade higher than choice, and packing hogs would not grade higher than good. As will be shown later, there is very little spread in price within each market class of hogs; in fact there is so little spread in price that there is no necessity for grading market hogs. For that reason no mention is made of the grades except in this paragraph. Grades are of very little or no practical importance in the hog market. ^ Prime Heavy Hogs These are heavy, finished hogs of good quality, usually barrows, which weigh over 300 pounds. In the early days of the packing Fig. 134. -Trime heavy hogs. industry a premium was paid for hogs of this class because they were in special demand for the manufacture of clear ^ and mess pork. Later, when the trade in fresh pork and bacon was developed and when smaller hams and shoulders came into demand, prime heavy hogs no longer commanded a premium. For a number of years past they have sold at lower prices than butcher and light hogs. Very few are received at the markets because they sell at lower prices than younger and lighter- weight hogs, cost more to produce per cwt., and are consequently less profitable to the producer. They yield a heavy loin carcass (described in Chapter XXIV) and such carcasses are frequently made into the same products as packing hog carcasses. Prime heavy hogs sell at about the same price as the best packing hogs of the same weight. iFor definitions of class and grade, see page 119. 2 Cured sides from which the ribs were removed. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 367 Their dressing percentage ^ averages 82 to 84 when dressed shipper style, and 74 to 76 dressed packer style. ^ Butcher Hogs This is one of the most numerous classes of hogs on the markets of the United States and is the class which ordinarily returns the greatest profit to the corn-belt pork producer. Butcher hogs are the best lard-type hogs on the market weighing from 190 to 300 pounds. They must be good in form, quality, and condition, as previously described in Chapter XXII. It is especially important that they be symmetrical and smooth in form, free from paunchiness, free from coarseness, and thick, firm, and smooth in their covering of flesh. Fig. 135. — Heavy butcher hogs. They are principally barrows, though a number of good, young, clear (not seedy) sows are included. Sows are less numerous than barrows in this class because good young sows are usually kept on the farm for breeding purposes, and old sows and inferior young sows cannot class as butcher hogs. Butcher hogs yield light loin carcasses and shipper carcasses. The loins of butcher hogs are of the best size and quality for the fresh meat trade, the hams and shoulders are of the best size, shape, and quality for the trade in smoked meats, the yield of lard is high and of first-class quality, and the bellies of light butcher hogs are usually suitable for bacon. Shipper-dressed butcher hogs usually yield ^The dressing percentages given in this chapter are those obtained by W. W. Smith of Purdue University from Wilson and Company of Chicago and published in Pork Production, pp. 371-374. 2 These two styles of dressing are described in Chapter XXIV. 368 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 77 to 82 per cent of carcass to live weight, and when packer dressed 69 to 74 per cent, varying according to form and finish. Butcher hogs are divided into heavy weights, medium weights, and Hght weights. These divisions include hogs that are essentially alike except as to age and weight. The older and heavier butcher hogs also average somewhat higher in condition and average about 2 per cent higher in dressing yield than the medium weights, and the latter average about 1 per cent higher than light butcher hogs. Packing Hogs Packing hogs are inferior hogs weighing from 190 pounds up. Most of them are sows which have been used as breeders, but the class also includes coarse, unfinished barrows and the best stags. Sows Fig. 136. — Medium-weight butcher hogs. which show indications of pregnancy sell with a dockage of 40 pounds. Roughs, coarse stags, and boars are not included in the packing class, but sell separately and at lower prices. The best packing hogs yield loins which are used in the fresh meat trade, but the sides (including the loins) of most packing hogs are used for mess pork, barreled pork, and dry-salt meats, and the hams and shoulders are sweet pickled and may be smoked, but are not of the best quality and are not sold under the best packer brands. The best use of packing hogs requires the manufacture of a larger proportion of salted and pickled products than is true of any other class of hogs. This class is therefore of particular interest to packers who supply the trade in the cheaper kinds of cured meats, and the name "packing hogs" is therefore given to this class. They dress from 77 to 83 per cent shipper style, and 69 to 75 per cent packer style. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 369 Packing hogs are divided according to weight into heavy weights, medium weights, and hght weights. In addition to these, many loads of hogs are received at the markets which contain a mixture of various classes of hogs, including a considerable percentage of packing hogs. Such loads are called "mixed packers." These make up a large share of total receipts of hogs at all of the large market centers. Such loads are usually received from country hog buyers and local shipping as- sociations, and their mixed character is due to the fact that the load is composed of small lots of hogs from a number of farms. Mixed loads may include nearly all classes. There may be some butcher hogs and some good light hogs in the load, but the proportion of old sows, stags, etc, is usually sufficient to give a rather high average weight and a very uneven and mixed appearance. Mixed loads may sell to the packer without sorting, in which case the sorting is done after slaughter- ing and dressing, but it is principally mixed packirg hogs that furnish a field for operation to the specfulator. He buys several carloads, sorts them into the various classes, and resells them to various classes of buyers. Loads of mixed hogs averaging above 300 pounds are classed as heavy mixed packing, and those averaging below 300 pounds are classed as light mixed packing. Mixed loads of about the same average weights may differ considerably in price because of the difference in the number of good hogs included in each load, and for this reason some market reports do not quote prices on mixed loads. Light Hogs This class includes all hogs weighing from 130 to 190 pounds, except roughs, stags, and boars, and in addition it includes hogs of bacon type weighing up to 200 pounds. Light hogs constitute a general class which embraces the bacon, yorker, light light, and light mixed classes. Although very similar in weight, these classes differ consider- ably in form, quality, and condition and the carcasses are adapted to different uses. 370 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Bacon hogs. — The kind of a hog that is an ideal market bacon hog was described in Chapter XXIII. Such a hog is usually of Yorkshire or Tamworth breeding, and very few of these are produced in the United States. With the exception of a few received at the St. Paul market, the stock yards of this country receive practically no hogs of true bacon type. Nevertheless many light hogs of lard-type breeding are received which show a tendency toward the bacon type; they are of stretchy form, fairly long, deep, and smooth in their sides, good in quality, and, as compared to butcher hogs, they carry only moderate finish. They are sorted out of the general run of light hogs, are sold as bacon hogs, and are used for the production of breakfast-bacon bellies and English meats. ^ Bacon hogs are sometimes referred to in • j 1 . ■•'■ ' si ■1 J^^^HH '"■:■■■ '^ w 1 b ^^^T- ■ ■ "^^5><;^..^ ..1^ ^^^^m^^^^^k. ij0^ Fig. 138.— Packing sow. market reports as "singeing hogs," so called because in dressing the hair is sometimes removed by singeing instead of scraping. Bacon hogs dress from 76 to 77 per cent shipper style and 68 to 69 per cent packer style. Yorkers are the result of a sort of light hog receipts and include all hogs weighing 150 to 190 pounds which are of good quality and reasonably good finish, exclusive of bacon hogs. Yorkers receive their name from the fact that they are commonly shipped to New York and other eastern markets where they are in extensive demand for fresh meat purposes and for the production of "home packed" meats. ^ If 1 English meats are described in Chapter XXIV, 2111. Bui. 147, p. 261. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 371 carried to greater weights and higher finish they would class as butcher hogs. They are too fat, too short of body, or are otherwise not adapted for bacon use, and do not have the size, weight, and finish required of butcher hogs. They dress from 75 to 76 per cent shipper style, and 67 to 68 per cent packer style. In recent years the demand for yorkers has increased to a marked degree and the class is now one of consider- able importance. Light lights are of lighter weights than any of the preceding classes, ranging from 130 to 150 pounds. They are called "light lights" be- cause they are the lightest class of light hogs. The St. Paul market and some other markets call them "light yorkers," and do not include light lights in their market classification. They are also sometimes referred to as "heavy pigs." They are used principally for the fresh meat trade. They dress 74 to 75 per cent shipper style, and 66 to 67 per cent packer style. Light mixed are mixed loads of light hogs ranging from 200 pounds downward. They often include a varying number of pigs. Many such loads sell to packers without sorting, and other loads containing a considerable number of bacon hogs, yorkers, and feeder pigs may be sold to speculators who sort and resell. It should be understood that there are hogs (other than roughs and boars) of yorker and bacon weights which for one reason or another cannot be classed as yorkers or bacon hogs. Such light hogs are coarse, poor in condition, and decidedly on the plain and common order. No special class is provided for them. They comprise a varying proportion of mixed loads of pack- ing and light hogs sold to packer buyers, and their carcasses are classed as packing carcasses, though hogs of these weights are not classed as packing hogs on the live-stock markets. ^ Pigs Pigs, as they are considered on the market, range in weight from 50 to 130 pounds. All pigs within these limits bought for slaughter classify here. They are used principally to supply the demand from the cheaper restaurants and lunch counters, and are in greatest demand in winter, being hard to preserve fresh in summer and too young to cure. They ordinarily dress 68 to 74 per cent shipper style. Feeder Pigs Prior to 1914 federal regulations prevented the shipment of hogs from public stock yards for any purpose except immediate slaughter, ^ 'As stated in Chapter XXIV, light packing carcasses range downward in weight to 100 pounds. ^Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market — How It Func- tions, p. 81. 372 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock but the prevention of hog cholera by the use of the serum treatment has made possible an extensive trade in feeder pigs during recent years. At most market centers there are dealers or traders who buy, vaccinate, and sell feeder pigs. Federal regulations require inspection, vaccina- tion, and either spraying or dipping in disinfectant prior to shipment from the yards. The principal markets for feeder pigs are Kansas City, St. Paul, St. Louis, and Fort Worth. The following table ^ gives the shipments from the ten leading feeder pig markets and the total shipments from 68 markets during seven years: Shipments of feeder pigs (in thousands) from leading markets in seven years Market 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 .1917 1916 1. Kansas City 162 94 200 244 175 18 22 2. St. Paul 109 104 161 103 173 232 23 3. St. Louis 63 44 47 98 77 12 13 4. Fort Worth 34 53 24 55 5. Denver 26 22 30 32 17 22 9 6. Wichita 20 13 23 20 87 44 6 7. Indianapolis 17 21 17 41 45 35 (None) 8. Sioux City 9 19 28 33 41 109 8 9. Oklahoma City 8 13 21 43 68 70 18 10. St. Joseph 11 9 23 27 34 33 11 Sixty-eight markets.. .. 593 499 728 902 989 788 194 Chicago, with 3,060 feeder pigs shipped, ranked 25th as a feeder pig market in 1922. Omaha with 5,597 ranked 17th. Feeder pigs weigh from 50 to 150 pounds, with weights from 90 to 120 pounds most desired, and must be in thrifty, growing condition, but not fat. They should show quality and evidence of good breeding, and should be as uniform as possible in size and appearance. Roughs In this class we find hogs of all sizes that are very coarse, rough, and lacking in condition. They are sometimes called "throw outs." The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper class of trade for both packing and fresh meat purposes. They are frequently quoted in market reports as "rough packing hogs." Stags Stags are hogs that at one time were boars beyond the pig stage and were castrated. They sell with a dockage of 70 pounds. If they are of good quality and condition and do not show too much stagginess, they are included in the various classes of packing hogs. When they are too coarse and staggy in appearance they are sold separately and at lower prices. 1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922; U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 715, 727. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 373 Boars Boars are always sold in a class by themselves and bring a much lower price than the best hogs on the market at the same time. They sell without dockage but at a lower price than stags. The pork is used to supply the cheaper class of trade and also for making sausage. Boars are not usually marketed until their days of breeding service are over and they are old and coarse. Many of them are condemned by government inspectors because of sexual odor. They then bring only fertilizer price. It is usually more profitable to castrate boars, feed them for a time, and send them to m^arket as stags rather than as boars. Miscellaneous Roasting pigs are suckling pigs that weigh from 15 to 30 pounds. They come to market in small numbers and only during holiday seasons. They are taken direct from their dams, dressed with head and feet on, and served like spring chickens or turkeys. The price varies greatly. Governments. — Before hogs are allowed to pass over the scales to be weighed out to the packer, speculator, shipper, or anyone else who may choose to buy them, they must first pass the scrutiny of a govern- ment inspector. All hogs not considered healthy in every respect are tagged by this inspector and retained for further examination. Preg- nant sows which appear to be within a few days of farrowing, hogs with bunches, abscesses, etc., also hogs with cuts on the hams and shoulders are retained. These are called "governments." They are usually bought by a local dealer and taken to one of the smaller packing houses where they are slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. If found to be affected so as to make the flesh unfit for human food, they are condemned and tanked. The tank is a large steam-tight receptacle, like a steam boiler, in which the carcass is converted into grease and fertilizer. Cripples are hogs that are not able to walk and must be hauled to the packing plant in "cripple carts." ^ Weakness of pasterns, feet, and legs is a common fault in lard hogs, especially in those heavily fattened on corn not properly supplemented with feeds containing the proteins, minerals, and vitamines needed to balance the ration. Lack of exercise is another cause. Overcrowding of cars and loading and unloading too hurriedly often cause crippling. On the market there are far more cripples among hogs than among any other kind of stock. Crippled hogs sell for fully a dollar less per cwt. than they would have otherwise brought. Dead hogs are hogs that died in transit due to overheat, rough handling, over-feeding in hot weather before shipping, and other 1 These are two-wheeled, low-hung carts pulled by one horse. 374 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock causes. They are used in the manufacture of grease, soap, and fer- tilizer. If they weigh 100 pounds or over, they bring the fertilizer price. If they weigh less, they are held in payment of the cost of handling and the shipper gets no return. Actual count of dead stock removed from cars at Chicago, as made by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry for a period of two years, showed the number to be 1 out of 2,500 cattle, 1 out of 164 calves, 1 out of 526 sheep, and 1 out of 244 hogs. ^ Summary. — The accompanying chart indicates the relationship of the various market classes of hogs as based on the factors of weight and quality. Beginning at 50 pounds, the minimum weight for pigs, Weight! Hogs of good quality Hogs of inferior quality or mixed Prime heavy hogs Heavy packing Heavy mixed packing CO § pq m 00 03 +-= CO CO fi QO o « Heavy butchers Medium packing Light mixed packing Medium butchers Light packing Light butchers Bacon hogs t mixed Yorkers Ligh Feeder pigs Light light Pigs 250 220 200 l^'O 160 150 50 Fig. 139. — Classification of market hogs according to quality and weight. there is a continuous succession of classes to which good hogs are eligible, ranging upward to the heaviest weights. Hogs of these classes may be received and sold in straight carloads, they may be sorted out of mixed loads purchased by traders, or they may be included in the mixed loads sold to local packers. Straight or sorted loads of good hogs are most frequently sold for shipment to other points for slaughter or for feeding. Hogs sold to order buyers for shipment to other points for slaughter are referred to in some market reports as "shippers," but this is an indefinite term, as the hogs in demand for shipping may be of several market classes. lU. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113, p. 35. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 375 Inferior hogs include packing hogs, Hght hogs, roughs, stags, and boars. There is little incentive to make sorts of inferior hogs. What sorting of them is done is usually incidental to the sorting out of good hogs (the inferior ones remaining), or results from throwing out a few inferior hogs present in otherwise good loads. They are not so fre- quently shipped as are good hogs; they sell largely to local packer buyers. Hog Prices at Chicago Chicago prices during 1922. — The following prices are available showing the range in price and average price of hogs of different weights at Chicago in 1922:1 Average Class Range in price [irice Packing and butcher hogs, 255-400 lbs $5.25-11.20 $9.05 Mixed hogs, 195-255 lbs 5.90-11.45 9.30 Light mixed hogs, 135-195 lbs 6.75-11.50 9.60 All classes except pigs 9.20 Pigs 9.15 Chicago and Kansas City prices in 1921. — Following is a more detailed list of prices at Chicago and Kansas City during 1921: ^ Chicago Kansas City Class yearly yearly average average Heavy-weight hogs, 251 lbs. up $8.54 $8.08 Medium-weight hogs, 201-250 lbs 8.84 8.35 Light-weight hogs, 151-200 lbs 8.99 8.37 Light-light hogs, 130-150 lbs 8.92 8.31 Smooth packing sows, 250 lbs. up 7.74 7.09 Rough packing sows, 200 lbs. up 7.28 6.52 Pigs, 130 lbs. down 8.68 Feeder pigs, 130 lbs. down 8.26 Bulk of sales 8.54 8.35 Top price for the year 11.85 11.30 Market values of the various classes. — No detailed records are kept of the average prices made by the various market classes of hogs on the Chicago market. The following table gives the yearly average weights and yearly average prices of hogs marketed at Chicago from 1913 to 1922, and also the averages for the entire ten-year period : ^ 1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 724, 725. 3 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. 376 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Average weights and prices for hogs at Chicago for ten years Year Averape weight Pounds Packing and butcher hogs 255-400 lbs. Mixed hogs 195-255 lbs. Light mixed hogs 135-195 lbs. All classes except pigs Pigs 1913 1914 1915 1916 228 231 219 210 213 234 233 235 234 239 $8.20 8.20 7.00 9.65 15.20 17.50 17.70 13.85 8.35 9.05 $8.50 8.30 7.20 9.60 15.10 17.40 17.80 14.20 8.70 9.30 $8.45 8.35 7.20 9.45 14.90 17.60 18.00 14.50 8.95 9.60 $8.35 8.30 7.10 9.60 15.10 17.45 17.85 14.15 8.65 9.20 $7.35 7.60 6.60 8.35 1917 14.40 1918 15.75 1919 16.00 1920 13.10 1921 8.70 1922 9.15 Ten-year average 228 11.45 11.60 11.70 11.60 10.70 The spread ^ in the price of hogs is usually narrowest in December, January, and May. It is usually widest in August, September, and October. The following figures are averages of ten years at the Chicago market: ^ Average monthly spread in monthly extreme range of prices for mixed packing, medium, and butcher hogs, 195-255 lbs., at Chicago for ten years Monthly Monthly Month Monthly receipts Month Monthly receipts spread Thousands spread Thousands 957 779 January ($1.69) 957 July February 1.85 779 August. . . . March 2.16 665 September. April 1.85 548 October . . . May (1.68) 618 November. June 1.83 627 December. Monthly spread $2.57 3.88 3.35 3.58 2.18 (1.70) 551 479 429 577 736 919 These ten-year averages show twice as much spread in August, September, and October as in December, January, and May. It may be noted also that in a general way the spread narrows in months of large receipts, and vice versa. Beginning in May, the spread in price widens steadily to its greatest width in August, continues wide during September and October, and then narrows from October to January. It widens again, but to a lesser degree, from January to March, and narrows from March to May. These variations in spread are explained by the fact that good hogs are most numerous on the market in the months when the spring pig crop and fall pig crop are marketed in largest numbers. The spring crop makes its heaviest run in December and January. The fall crop makes its heaviest run in May and June. During these months the price of good hogs is depressed by large supplies. In August, September, and October, good young hogs are held in the iThe spread is the difference in price. For example, if hog prices in a certain day, week, or month range from $9 to $10, the spread is $1. 2 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures covering the years 1912 to 1914, and 1916 to 1922, inclusive. Types and Market Classes of Live vStock 377 country for fattening on the year's crop of corn. Good hogs are scarce on the market at that time and the price of good hogs rises so as to produce a wider spread. Furthermore, receipts in these months include a great many inferior hogs, the result of marketing culled brood sows and other inferior stock. Therefore in these months good hogs are scarce and higher in price, and inferior hogs are relatively plentiful and lower in price, and the spread in price of all hogs becomes the widest of the year. Spread in price of hogs and other live stock compared. — The spread in price in the hog market is very much less than that in the cattle or sheep market. The spread in price within each market class of hogs is also relatively small. These facts are well illustrated in the follow- ing Chicago prices reported in two issues of fhe Breeder's Gazette: ^ Top price and spread in price of live stock sold for slaughter at Chicago Market class Aug. 28, 29, 30, 1922 Dec. 18, 19. 1922 Top Spread Top Spread Hogs: Bulk of sales $9.65 9.65 9.00 9.75 8.50 7.40 7.25 8.50 6.00 $3.15 2.80 .75 .25 1.15 .65 .50 1.00 .75 $8.20 8.20 8.15 8.25 8.10 7.85 7.50 8.25 6.75 $.30 Light and medium butcher .05 Heavy butcher .05 Choice light bacon .05 Good to choice mixed .30 Heavy mixed packing .25 Rough heavy packing .20 Good to choice pigs .25 Stags .75 All of the above 9.75 9.75 4.65 3.40 8.25 8.25 2.25 .95 Cattle: 10.95 9.50 8.00 6.60 4.35 3.75 12.00 5.95 5.00 4.00 2.10 .60 1.00 7.75 13.00 9.50 7.75 6.35 4.40 4.00 10.00 7.25 Butcher heifers Butcher cows 5.00 3.50 Butcher bulls 2.00 Bologna bulls .90 Cutter and canner cows 1.50 Veal calves 5.00 All of the above . . 12.00 10.95 9.25 6.95 13.00 13.00 10.50 All except cutters, canners, bulls, and calves 8.75 Sheep: Lambs 13.00 11.25 9.25 7.50 4.50 2.75 2.75 5.50 15.35 12.75 9.50 7.50 6,85 Yearlings 4.00 Wethers 3.00 Ewes 5.00 All of the above 13.00 13.00 11.00 6.50 15.35 15.35 1^85 All except ewes 8.85 1 Issues of Aug. 31 and Dec. 21, 1922. 378 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The above prices for cattle and sheep show vastly more spread than those for hogs. The value of market cattle and sheep is deter- mined very largely by their condition and quality, together with their weight, but the value of a market hog is determined very largely by his weight alone. The condition and quality of hogs vary considerably and affect the price, but do not affect the price to a great degree. There are several reasons for the small spread in price of hogs. 1. Packers have discovered and developed methods of curing cuts from the poorer hogs which enable them to put this meat on the market in attractive and appetizing form. This has increased the price of the plainer classes of hogs. 2. Hogs do not vary as much in dressing percentage as cattle and sheep. 3. All hogs are strictly meat animals, whereas the cattle market receives a considerable number of dairy animals, and the sheep market receives a large number of Merinos. 4. Age does not make pork as tough as beef and mutton. Juiciness and color are less variable in pork than in other meats. The December prices given above indicate no necessity for grading the various market classes of hogs. The August prices indicate that some grading at that season may be advantageous. That there is at most only a very brief period in the year when the grading of hogs may be desirable is shown by the following figures showing the spread in price of the bulk of hogs sold at Chicago, and in all butcher hogs, as com- pared to the three top grades of beef steers: ^ Spread in price of live stock sold for slaughter at Chicago First part of week of — November 3, 1921 $0.50 December 1, 1921 January 12, 1922 February 16, 1922 March 2, 1922 April 20, 1922 May 25, 1922 June 22, 1922 July 20, 1922 August 3, 1922 August 17, 1922 August 31, 1922 September 14, 1922 September 28, 1922 October 12, 1922 November 9, 1922 December 7, 1922 January 4, 1923 March 1, 1923 » Heavy butchers, 75 cents; light and medium butchers, $1.05. ' Heavy butchers, 75 cents; light and medium butchers, 80 cents. ' Heavy butchers, 50 cents; light and medium butchers, 55 cents 1 Compiled from Breeder's Gazette's market reports. All butcher Bulk of hogs — heavy Good to ho{rs sold medium, and light prime steers $0.50 $0.20 $4.90 .25 .25 5.00 .60 .65 2.75 .35 .40 1.50 .35 .35 1.75 .75 .65 1.65 .45 .30 1.00 1.05 .50 1.35 2.05 .85 1.55 2.60 .85 1.65 2.65 1.651 1.85 3.15 1.40 » 1.95 2.40 1.30 » 2.60 2.75 .80 2.25 1.50 .35 4.05 .50 .45 4.50 .25 .10 4.65 .15 .20 4.00 .55 .40 2.00 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 379 Monthly variations in hog prices. — The accompanying table' shows that yearly average prices for hogs at Chicago steadily and rapidly increased from 1915 to 1918 and 1919, and then declined to the amount of $9.20 during 1920 and 1921. This was due to inflation of prices during the World War and to severe depression or reaction following the war. Highest monthly prices are printed in bold-face type. These are scattered widely, though most of them occur in the three months from July to September inclusive. These are also months of low receipts. The last column at the right shows that the prices during these three months average highest for the ten years. Monthly and yearly average prices for hogs at Chicago for ten years Month 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915 1914 1913 Ten-year average January ($7.90) $9.40 $15.00 $17.60 ($16.30) ($10.90) ($7.20) $6.90 $8.30 ($7.45) $10.70 February 9.85 9.35 14.55 17.65 16.65 12.45 8.20 6.80 8.60 8.15 11.25 March 10.45 9.90 14.95 19.10 17.10 14.80 9.65 6.75 8.70 8.90 12.05 April May 10.35 8.50 14.90 20.40 17.45 15.75 9.75 7.30 8.65 9.05 12.20 10.50 8.35 14.30 20.60 17.45 15.90 9.85 7.60 8.45 8.55 12.15 June 10.40 8.20 14.70 20.40 16.60 15.50 9.70 7.60 8.20 8.65 12.00 July 9.80 9.75 14.85 21.85 17.75 15.20 9.80 7.25 8.70 9.05 12.40 August 8-55_-a45 14.75 20.00 19.00 16.90 10.30 10.70 6.90 7.25 9.00 8.85 8.35- 8.30 12.30 September 8.70 'TTbu- 15.90" " 17.45 19.65 18.20 October 8.85 7.70 14.05 14.35 17.70 17.15 9.80 7.90 7.65 8.20 11.35 8.10 7.05 12.20 14.20 17.70 17.40 9.60 6.65 7.50 7.75 10.80 December 8.20 (7.00) (9.55) (13.60) 17.55 16.85 9.95 (6.40) (7.10) 7.70 (10.40) Yearly 9.20 8.65 14.15 17.85 17.45 15.10 9.60 7.10 8.30 8.35 11.60 average Lowest monthly prices are enclosed in parenthesis. Five of these occur in December and five in January, the months of largest receipts. The ten-year averages show a continued rise from December to April, a very gradual decline during May and June, then a rise to the high point in July, followed by a steady decline from July to December. Between the July and December average prices for the ten years the difference is $2.00. Greater uniformity would occur in the highs of the various years had it not been for the fact that the very marked rise in price from 1915 to 1919 largely superceded the seasonal variations in establishing prices within these years. The same statement applies to the drop in price during 1920 and 1921. ^ That there are nevertheless marked seasonal variations in hog prices is shown by the monthly averages for the entire ten years. These monthly averages are illustrated and ex- plained in Fig. 140. Hog prices as related to supply. — That the price of hogs varies directly in relation to supply is shown in the accompanying chart 'Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. *A steadily rising market would leave a trail of January lows and December highs, and vice versa. 380 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock illustrating the comparison between monthly average prices and aver- age receipts at Chicago for ten years, 1913 to 1922 inclusive. The chart strikingly illustrates the fact that supply and demand rule prices. Demand for hogs for slaughter is fairly constant, hence supply very largely determines prices. The chart explains why prices are highest in the period from July to September, and lowest in December and January. Increased receipts in May and June when fall pigs arrive in numbers also has its effect in lowered prices. The chart does not take into account the monthly variations in average weight of hogs. If this were done the correlation between supply and price doubtless would be even more marked. It should be noted that when the monthly receipts are decreased, one-half the price is not doubled, hence the correlation is not perfect. RECEIPTS Fig. 140. — Hog receipts and prices at Chicago. This chart shows average monthly receipts of hogs in thousands and monthly average prices of hogs for ten years, 1913 to 1922. Prices are represented by black bars. Receipts are represented by white bars, but each white bar is prolonged in black to make all of equal length, the longer the black coloring the smaller the average monthly receipts. This brings out in striking manner the correlation between hog receipts and hog prices. This is partly explained by the fact that much pork is cured and is stored in seasons of large receipts for consumption in seasons of small receipts. But it is more largely due to the fact that pork is in competi- tion with other meats and all meats are in competition with other kinds of food. If the available supply of all human food were decreased one- half, no doubt the price would more than double. CHAPTER XXVII BREEDING FOR THE MARKET Hog raising has always been a profitable and favorite department of farming in the United States, In Colonial times pork production was a very simple matter. Hogs were allowed to run wild in the woods where they fed upon roots and natural grasses and fattened upon acorns and beech and hickory nuts, called "mast." The only expense to the farmer was the winter feeding of those too young for market and of those reserved for breeding purposes. Inasmuch as Indian corn was the feed used and as this cereal would not repay the expense of transportation to market until the introduction of railways, it cost very little to produce pork. Even after the organization of the national government and the settling of the Middle West it was the general impression among farmers that it cost nothing for a man to make his own pork, and for a long time large numbers of dressed hogs were sold in that section of the country at prices ranging from 75 cents to $1 per cwt. and were considered sufficiently remunerative at these figures. ^ As greater areas came under cultivation and the natural forests became more restricted, it was found more profitable and convenient to feed hogs on corn than to turn them out into the woods, as they grew faster and took on more fat. It was at this stage in the develop- ment of the American swine industry that pork packing was com- menced, and this gave a pronounced impetus to hog production. This was before the days of railroads, and hogs were taken overland in droves to the nearest packing point. Later, when the railroads came, a great saving was effected by eliminating losses due to the giving out of hogs on the route, and pork packing and hog raising received an impulse that has greatly helped to make pork one of the most impor- tant staples of the country. Development of lard-type hogs. — The early settlers of the United States brought hogs with them from Europe, and importations of many varieties and breeds of hogs occurred later. Various crosses of these early stocks were made, and from various combinations of bloodlines various American breeds of hogs originated and were later improved by selection. Conditions in this country demand a type of swine that fattens readily and can utilize a large share of the corn crop in the pro- duction of pork and lard, and all of the breeds of hogs developed in the 1 Charles Cist: The Hog and Its Products, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866, p. 382. 381 382 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock United States are of this type and some of the breeds which we have im- ported have been remodeled so as to more closely conform to this type. In early times in the United States there was a large demand for cured meats. In mining camps, lumber camps, and frontier sections, and on sea-going ships, mess pork was in great demand because it could be easily kept in storage for long periods. It could be transported long distances overland in wagons, or overseas in sailing vessels, or on inland waterways in flat boats, without deterioration. In those days only cured meats were in demand in commerce because there were no refrigeration facilities and transportation was slow. Except in winter there were no refrigeration facilities for slaughtering or for storage. The best mess pork is the fattest pork, because it requires less salt to cure it and it absorbs less salt and is more palatable than lean salt pork. Furthermore, fat meat contains more energy than lean meat and is therefore more economical and valuable, particularly for laborers at hard work in cold weather. The foreign demand for cheap meats also afforded a large outlet for fat pork made from low-priced corn. This trade was a considerable factor in the early development of our hog and corn industries, and our export trade still affords a market for a considerable percentage of our pork and lard and thereby for a considerable share of our corn crop. Thus we see that there was need of a particular type of hog adapted to our special requirements, and that there was a vast and increasing field for this new type as the country was settled and as the corn belt was developed. Since an early day there has been every incentive to pay particular attention to pork production and to hog breeding in this country. For many years past the improvement of our American breeds and of our imported breeds, and the maintenance of purebred herds for the purpose of supplying boars and sows for use in farm herds, has commanded the best efforts of a large number of our stockmen. The number of hogs on farms in the United States on census dates grew from 26 million in 1840, to 34 million in 1860, 48 in 1880, 57 in 1890, and 63 in 1900, and then declined to 58 in 1910 and 59 in 1920. The census date was June 1 until 1910, when it was changed to April 15. It was changed to January 1 in 1920. The number of hogs on farms in the United States on January 1 of the various years, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, was 34 million in 1880, 52 in 1890, 37 in 1900, 48 in 1910, and 72 in 1920. ^ These estimates recently have been revised, using census data as a basis. The revised estimates are 51 million in 1880, 59 in 1890, 54 in 1900, 57 in 1910, and 59 in 1920. ^ lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 753. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1922, p. 192. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 383 The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture show the rank of the leading pork-producing countries and the number of hogs in each: Number of hogs in leading countries Country Year Number of hogs 1. United States 1923 63,424,000 2. Brazil 1916 17,329,000 3. Germany 1921 15,876,000 4. Russia 1921 13,501,000 5. Spain 1921 5,152,000 6. Poland 1921 5,101,000 7. France 1920 4,584,000 8. Canada 1921 3,905,000 9. Great Britain 1921 3,639,000 10. Hungary 1920 3,320,000 11. Argentina 1920 3,199,000 12. Philippines 1919 3,130,000 13. Siberia 1915 2,962,000 14. Rumania 1920 2,514,000 15. Italy 1918 2,339,000 World total 169,167,000 ' lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. The United States has over 3.5 times as many hogs as Brazil, second in tlie above list. Three states, Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri, have more hogs than Brazil. The United States has more than any other five of the above countries combined, and the number of hogs in Iowa is exceeded by only three of these countries other than the United States. However, China is one of the leading pork-producing coun- tries, but no live-stock census has been taken for that country. ^ Pork production and consumption in the United States is reported in the following table ^ giving the annual slaughter, imports, exports, and consumption of pork and lard : Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed pork and lard ir United States the Total slaughter Exports less imports Consumption Calendar year Total Per capita Pork Lard Pork Lard Pork Lard Pork Lard 1907 Million pounds 7,491 5,881 8,050 8,634 6,901 8,854 8,933 8,193 8,475 9,162 Million pounds 1,683 1,344 1,840 1,973 1,577 2,015 2,089 2,022 2,095 2,330 Million pounds 1,014 313 881 1,001 921 1,698 1,858 907 741 703 Million pounds 589 379 489 457 384 555 785 636 893 789 Million pounds 6,477 5,568 7,169 7,633 5,980 6,997' 7,200 1 7,3501 7,8571 8,306 1 Million pounds 1,094 965 1,351 1,516 1,193 1,4101 1,3461 1,3901 1,2141 1,5411 Pounds 74.1 60.3 72.2 75.7 58.5 67.6 68.6 69.0 72.9 76.0 Pounds 12.5 1910 10.5 1915 13.6 1916 15.1 1917 11.7 1918 13.6 1919 12.8 1920 13 1 1921 11.3 1922 14.1 • Includes difference between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year. lAn estimate of 76,819,000 hogs for China in 1914 is published in the U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 676. 2John Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report. 384 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock From 1918 to 1921 inclusive we exported 16.5 per cent of our total production of dressed pork, lard, and edible offal, and during these years our total production of pork was 32 per cent greater than that of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb combined, including edible offal. ^ Our per capita consumption of dressed pork, exclusive of lard, was greater in 1921 and 1922 than that of all other meats combined. This is shown by the following table: ^ Annual per capita consumption of dressed meat and lard in the United States Product 1922 1921 1920 Beef, lbs Veal, lbs Mutton and Iamb, lbs Pork (excl. lard) lbs .... 61.4 .... 7.3 .... 5.0 .... 76.0 57.8 7.0 6.2 72.9 143.9 11.3 155.2 61.2 7.9 5.1 69.0 Total meat, lbs Lard, lbs Total meat and lard, lbs ... . ....149.7 .... 14.1 .. ..163.8 143.2 13.1 156.3 The distribution of hogs in the United States is shown by the numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: Leading states in numbers of hogs on farms, January 1, 1923 state Number Average value state Number Average value 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Iowa Illinois Missouri . . . . Nebraska. . . Indiana . . . 9,615,000 . . . 4,693,000 . . . 4,306,000 . . . 4,232,000 . . . 4,102,000 $12.80 12.50 9.83 12.00 11.90 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Ohio Kansas Minnesota . . . Texas South Dakota . 3,091,000 . 2,776,000 . 2,610,000 . 2,326,000 . 2,238,000 $12.10 11.00 13.20 8.80 13.50 The estimated average value of all hogs in the United States on January 1, 1923, was $11.46. Half of the hogs in the United States are produced in the seven corn-belt states, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio. Distribution of hogs on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923 Division Number North Atlantic Division 2,205,000 South Atlantic Division ' 6,480,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 14,746,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 26,300,000 South Central Division 11,050,000 Far Western Division 2,643,000 Total 63,424,000 As hogs are now distributed throughout the geographic divisions, the North Central States, extending from Ohio to the western line of lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 683. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 385 Kansas, have 65 per cent of the national total; the Southern States, from the Atlantic Ocean to the western line of Texas, have 28 per cent of the total; and the remaining 7 per cent are in the East and in the Far Western States. Conditions suitable to pork production. — As stated by Henry and Morrison ^ of the University of Wisconsin, "The horse, ox, and sheep are normally herbivorous, living on the finer and more delicate portions of plants and their seeds, while the omnivorous pig feeds not only on the tender leaves, stems, roots, and seeds, but on animal matter as well. Because of the limited capacity of the stomach and the nature of its digestive apparatus the pig requires food that is more concen- trated and digestible and less woody than that of the other farm animals." Fig. 141. — Distribution of hogs in the United States. Economical pork production requires the use of a large proportion of grain or other concentrated feeds. Beef and mutton can be pro- duced successfully without grain feeding, but pork production requires grain feeding to a very large degree. Beef cattle and sheep are well adapted to range conditions in the semi-arid regions of the West, but the hog has no place whatever under these conditions. Hogs can profitably utilize very limited amounts of legume hay and they can use certain pastures to advantage as supplements to their grain ration, but weanling pigs kept on the best of pastures without any other feed make very slight gains or do not gain at all. The hog is, then, adapted 1 Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 587. 386 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to improved lands and to regions where a plentiful supply of grain for feeding is produced. Hogs are especially suited to the com belt because corn is the most economical grain feed available for pork production. Gains produced on corn are usually cheaper than those produced on other cereals, and pork made from corn is firm and of good quality. Hogs are also well adapted to other regions of the United States where barley, kafir, milo, soybeans, cowpeas, field peas, peanuts, skim milk, and buttermilk are available for feeding. Pork is profitably produced in the South from corn, peanuts, grain sorghums, and pasture crops, and it is also pro- duced very economically and profitably in dairy districts where dairy by-products are available for feeding in combination with grain. The farmer in the corn belt or elsewhere who combines dairying and hog raising increases the income from his dairy cattle because dairy by- products are most valuable when used as feed for hogs or poultry, and he increases his profits in pork production because of a larger number of pigs saved and raised per litter and because of rapidity and economy of gains. Many farms in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa, and other states have found the dairy cow and the pig to be a most desirable combination for efficiency in the profitable conversion of field crops into animal products. Hogs and beef cattle constitute another ex- cellent combination for the utilization without waste of all grains, roughages, and pastures produced in a general system of farming. Corn and hogs. — The uses of corn harvested for grain in the United States, based on estimates by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, are as follows:^ Per cent Fed to hogs on farms 40.0 Fed to horses and mules on farms 20.0 Fed to cattle 15.0 Used as human food 10.0 Fed to stock not on farms 5.5 Fed to poultry on farms 4.0 Fed to sheep on farms 1.0 Export and other uses 4.5 Total 100.0 Eighty-five per cent of corn is fed to live stock, and hogs consume twice as much corn as any other class of farm animals. Hogs are more closely allied with corn, and less allied with other crops used as feed (including pastures), than is true of other farm live stock. Dairy cattle approach hogs in this regard, followed by horses, beef cattle, and sheep in the order named. The writer determined the average rank of the various states in corn production for the nine-year period from 1 Leigh ty, Warburton, Stine, and Baker: The Corn Crop, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 165. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 387 1907 to 1915 inclusive. Similar average rankings in each kind of live stock were determined for each state, based on the number of animals in each state on January 1, from 1908 to 1916 inclusive. For example, Kansas' average rank in com during this period was 8th; in hogs, 8th; in dairy cattle, 11th; in horses, 4th; in beef cattle, 4th; and in sheep, 30th. Thus, Kansas' rank in hogs did not vary from her rank in corn; in dairy cattle she varied 3 points from corn; in horses, 4 points; in beef cattle, 4 points; and in sheep, 22 points. If the number of points be- tween hogs and corn in each state are added together, we find that hogs varied 196 points from com in the 48 states; dairy cattle varied Fig. 142. — Pork production in the United States is closely related to corn pro- duction. These graphs show the average rank of the various states in corn produc- tion from 1907 to 1915, and in numbers of hogs and sheep on January 1, from 1908 to 1916 inclusive. Hogs are closely related to corn, followed by dairy cattle, horses, beef cattle, and sheep in the order named. Sheep raising has practically no depend- ence on corn production. 233 points from com; horses, 401 points; beef cattle, 489 points; and sheep, 788 points. The average rank of the states in com, hogs, and sheep for the nine years is herewith presented graphically. It will be noticed that in only four states do sheep rank closer to com than do hogs. These are New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin. In 388 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Rhode Island and North Dakota sheep and hogs vary an equal number of points from the rank in corn. In each of the remaining 42 states, hogs rank closer to corn than do sheep. Notice how closely corn and hogs are associated in the first eight states. There seems to be no correlation between sheep and corn. Changes in size and weight of market hogs. — By 1850 American swine growers had developed a very large, lengthy, broad backed, deep middled, and rather coarse type of hog that grew to large size and was marketed at very heavy weights. Early pork packers paid a premium for very heavy weights. Weights in market hogs ranging from 350 to 500 pounds were fairly common, and some weighed over 700 pounds. Writing in 1866, Charles Cist, of Cincinnati, stated : ' "The differ- ent classes of cured pork, packed in barrels, are made of the different sizes and conditions of hogs, the finest and fattest making clear and mess pork, while the residue is put up into prime pork and bacon. The inspection laws require that clear pork shall be put up of the sides with the ribs out. It takes the largest class of hogs to receive this brand." In 1864 H. D. Emery, of Chicago, stated ^ that "the price for dressed hogs divides at 200 pounds, the lowest price being for light ones." He also states, "The earliest purchases made for packing in 1832 to 1834 varied from $2 to $3 per hundred net. To show the weight of hogs in early days, contracts were sometimes made between packers and drovers for a lot of hogs, for which a given price was to be paid, the hogs to average 150 pounds; for all that they averaged over that 1 cent per pound was to be added, and all that they fell short 1 cent per pound was to be deducted. This was an incentive to produce heavy hogs, the contracts being made early in the season." In 1842 a writer ^ described the hogs of the Miami valley near Cincinnati (foundation stock of the Poland-China breed) as follows: "But the stock to which the people here have paid the greatest atten- tion, and which is their largest and most staple production, is swine. The immense crops of corn enable them to keep vast herds of these animals, and one will find from 50 to 300 head of the various sizes, from pigs up to immense fatting porkers, on nearly every farm that he may happen to pass." The same writer reports that he had re- peatedly seen hogs in that region that would weigh from 800 to 1,000 pounds. Clark Petit's History of Jersey Reds (ancestors of the modern Duroc-Jersey) states that among New Jersey breeders there "had long lU. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866, p. 386. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, pp. 210, 211. 'American Agriculturist, Nov., 1842, p. 234. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 389 existed a great spirit of rivalry as to who should annually win the honor of raising the best lot of hogs, making the greatest average weight at different ages, for which Philadelphia butchers always paid an ad- vanced price." Following are some of the dressed weights reported: Average dressed weight Pounds 30 hogs, 22 months old 686 18 hogs, 22 months old 734 23 hogs, 20 months old 639.5 34 hogs, 17 months old 565 51 hogs, 17 months old 520 17 hogs 862 20 hogs 882 25 pigs, 8 months old 413 16 pigs, 7 months old 278 20 pigs, 6M months old 280 Other early writers reported equally heavy weights for Jersey Red hogs and early Poland-Chinas. ^ The following weights of hogs packed in the West during the winter packing season, and of hogs marketed annually at Chicago, show the changes that have occurred during the last half century: Average live weight of hogs and yield of lard in the West for the winter packing ending March 1 ^ Weight Lard Weight Lard Year Pounds Per cent Year Pounds Per cent 1873 290.53 13.80 1908 . . . . 221.04 14.44 1878 282.55 13.66 1913 . . . . 223.50 13.07 1883 267.02 13.27 1918 .... 220.60 9.41 1888 242.30 12.82 1919.... .. .. 214.08 13.87 1893 227.73 13.90 1920 . . . . 226.57 13.79 1898 235.35 14.76 1921 .... 229.02 13.65 1903 224.05 14.42 Average live weight 1922 of hogs at Chicago* . . . . 228.47 15.75 January Yearly January Yearly Year average average Year average average 1876 281 250 1905 .... 213 222 1880 265 246 1910 .... 210 235 1885 258 239 1915 .... 223 219 1890 241 234 1920 .... 229 235 1895 223 230 1922 . . . . 229 239 1900 229 233 Note that January weights exceeded yearly average weights at Chicago until 1890, and that subsequently January averages were lower than yearly averages. Development of an unprofitable type. — During the late seventies and early eighties fresh pork and bacon began rapidly to replace the 1 American Duroc-Jersey Record, Vol. 4, pp. 15, 16. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866, pp. 384, 385; Standard Poland-China Record, Vol. 1, 1887, pp. 22, 23. 3 Compiled from Price Current — Grain Reporter Year Books. * Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922. 390 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock heavy salt meats which had been in greater demand, and packers gave preference to handy-weight hogs weighing from 225 to 275 pounds. As a result of this, hog breeders turned their attention to the develop- ment of quality and early maturity, sacrificing size to obtain them. They developed a very wide, thick, compact, short legged, close- to- the-ground type of hog, having great refinement of bone, head, ear, hair, and fleshing, and great smoothness. An extreme type was developed, in fact the swing from size and coarseness to high quality and compactness was carried so far that during the nineties farmers made strong objections to the small, chunky type developed by many breeders of purebred hogs. The sows were not prolific and the pigs lacked ability to grow rapidly, to make large daily gains, and to attain market weights in quick time. The modern type. — The reaction from the small type following the year 1905 became so marked that very rough, coarse hogs, and hogs of very inferior form, found favor with breeders and farmers merely because they had large size. A little later, smoothness and good form were added without loss of size. It was found that in order to grow to large size a hog need not be rough and coarse in quality, nor awkward and slouching in form. But there are three things which are essential to the development of size in hogs and essential to the most rapid growth. These are length of body, length of leg, and large but not coarse bone. The long and rather narrow bodied, leggy, weanling pig with ample bone is the one that grows rapidly, keeps on growing for a long period, and makes a big hog. Such a pig requires also a fourth essential to make him the most profitable sort of a market pig— namely, depth and capacity of chest and middle to insure constitutional vigor, good feeding qualities, and the desired finish at market weights. In earlier times when corn was cheap, hogs were given a complete finish before they were marketed. When the change to the handy- weight market hog occurred, corn was still relatively cheap and a high finish was given, producing very broad-backed hogs. In some recent years higher prices for com and lower prices for lard have operated to lessen to some extent the amount of finish which is most desirable from the producer's standpoint. The modem corn-belt hog, though still a lard hog, is not quite so thick and broad as his predecessor. It seems logical to suppose that the lard hog of the future will be required to make his gains more largely in growth, on cheap forages, and less in fat on heavy grain feeding than was true of the lard hog of the past. But as long as the United States shall continue to grow a vast yield of com far in excess of its requirement for human food, it is also reason- able to suppose that corn will continue to be used very extensively in Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 391 hog feeding, and that our hogs will go to market carrying considerable finish and that they will continue to be valued for the production of both meat and lard, though varying in the percentage yield of lard depending on the supply and price of com and the price of hogs. Some questions and answers. — The question is very frequently asked why very large breeding animals are demanded by breeders of purebred hogs inasmuch as the annual crop of farm pigs is sent to market weighing around 225 to 250 pounds. This question may be answered by the following brief statements, many of which summarize facts presented in preceding chapters: 1. In farm herds which produce market hogs there is a tendency toward loss of size, due to feeding com too exclusively and also due in Fig. 143. — Excellent type in the herd boar. Duroc-Jersey boar, Great Orion Sensation, champion at the National Swine Show in 1919 and 1921. Owned by Ed. M. Kern, Stanton, Neb. A very large, heavy-boned, masculine type of boar with great length and smoothness. some cases to lack of proper care and management. Corn is not a good feed to produce bone, muscle, and growth, in fact it is a very poor feed for these purposes. Pigs fed too exclusively on corn, without the addition of feeds rich in protein and minerals, do not grow as large as they would otherwise. They also lack in size and strength of bone. The breeder of purebred hogs is therefore justified in selecting for very large size, length of body, and heavy bone in order that he may supply the farmer with boars and sows that will assist in maintaining good (but not necessarily extreme) size, stretch, and bone in farm herds. 392 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock As shown in the following paragraphs, good size in farm herds is essen- tial to the production of the most profitable market hogs. 2. The cheapest gains are made during the growing period. This is shown by the following compilation presented by Henry and Morri- son ^ which summarizes over 500 American feeding trials with more than 2,200 hogs: Pounds feed for Weight of hogs 100 pounds gain 100-150 pounds 437 pounds 150-200 pounds 482 pounds 200-250 pounds 498 pounds 250-300 pounds 511 pounds 300-350 pounds 535 pounds 3. It is true of all kinds of farm animals that the larger the breeding stock the longer the growing period of the offspring will be, and the more rapid will be the rate of increase in size during a given period. The pig from large parents makes more growth daily and monthly and continues to grow for more months than does the pig from smaller stock. 4. The growthy type of pig is therefore "younger" at six months of age than the smaller-tjrpe pig. This is true because at six months the former has more days of growth ahead of him. As a rule the growthy pig is also younger than the smaller type at the same weight. 5. For these reasons the growthy pig makes his gains at some- what lower cost because the cheapest gains are made when animals are youngest. 6. If the breeding stock is of large size, the pigs will be growthy, will gain rapidly, and will attain market weights in shortest time. 7. Pigs marketed somewhat in advance of other pigs of the same age usually bring a better price than those marketed later at times of largest receipts. 8. The shorter the feeding period the less the risk and the less the labor cost of producing pork. The man who raises pigs of growthy type has them off to market while his neighbor who raises smaller hogs is still feeding them and still running the risk of loss from disease and other causes. 9. If the market slumps when hogs of the larger type are ready for market, they may be held on feed and will continue to make more efficient use of feed and larger gains than hogs of smaller type. This is sometimes a distinct advantage. Another question is frequently raised, namely, why should a rather upstanding, rangy type of barrow be preferred when the low-set, com- pact type is demanded in the steer and wether? The answer is that 1 Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 569. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 393 hogs fatten more readily and to a greater degree than cattle or sheep . It is necessary to foster a blocky type in the latter animals because^ as a rule, a good finish at the desired age cannot be attained without it. This is especially true of market lambs and baby beeves. The rather upstanding, rangy pig, of growthy type, if possessed of good feeding qualities and if properly fed, can be given a good finish at any weight above 150 pounds. It is acknowledged that an upstanding form and ranginess in the pig do not alone insure efficiency as a pork producer. He must have other essential points in type as well. Never- theless, there is no inconsistency in demanding blockiness in beef cattle and sheep, and ranginess and a rather upstanding form in hogs. Fig. 1 14, G(Hi(l type ill tln' l.oar. Chester Wliito Lour <'liaiiipiMn at the Iowa State Fair, owned by A. B. Somerville, Monroe, Iowa. Now comes a third question. Is it not true that the packer pre- fers a hog of great smoothness and great refinement of bone? Yes, this is true, as shown by the study of the hog carcass. Packers do prefer a high-quality hog. But they offer such a slight premium for this kind of a hog as compared to a rangy pig with medium or large bone that there is no incentive to produce the packer's type. The advantage of large, stretchy breeding stock in prolificacy and of their pigs in economy of gains more than counterbalances the very slight premium paid for market-topping hogs. The modem barrow of stretchy, growthy type has no difficulty in gaining admission to the butcher hog class where he competes with the packer-type hog, and we have seen in the preceding chapter that in 394 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock November, December, January, and February when the spring pig crop is marketed, and again in May and June when most fall pigs are marketed, there is very little spread in the price of butcher hogs of all weights. Usually at these seasons the entire spread in price of all butcher hogs of the same weight is only 10 to 25 cents per cwt. The • market-topping load with its fancy quality often sells only 5 or 10 cents higher than the bulk of hogs sold that day. The value of the market hog is determined to a much greater degree by his weight alone, with much less regard to both quality and finish than is true of cattle or sheep, and that is why the most profitable type of lard hog is essentially that type in which the sows are most prolific and in which the pigs make their gains most economically. Type in hogs is almost entirely a matter of meeting producers' requirements, whereas type in cattle and sheep must give much more consideration to factors which the packer desires and for which he pays a premium large enough to insure their incorpora- tion in the type aimed at by cattle and sheep producers. Lard-hog type does include, however, many points desired by the packer which are incorporated without in any way lessening economy of production. These are smoothness, freedom from coarseness, sym- metry, and good condition. All these points desired by packers may be included and are in fact demanded in the modem type of lard hog without lessening his efficiency in economy of production. As indicating that the importance of size in hogs is now generally recognized, it may be stated that all of the breeds classed as lard hogs in the United States have been modified in recent years so as to con- form more closely to the so-called "big type." Charles D. Kirkpatrick of Keokuk County, Iowa, states ^ that he raises about 400 hogs for market annually, and he compares his results with big-type hogs in recent years with his earlier experiences with the smaller and finer type then in vogue. He concludes an excellent article as follows: "The big type has proved fully as important on the sow side of the herd as in the feeding pen. The farrowing troubles of the old-fash- ioned, thick-built sows caused a deal of disagreeable work, and fre- quently were the cause of heavy losses. At present there is neither a pair of forceps nor a snare in my hog-house equipment; I haven't helped a sow deliver a pig this season, and I haven't had a veterinarian on the place since a year ago last spring. So far this year the average litter saved to weaning time is nearly seven. "Length of legs and stretch of body, of course, can be perverted into a gun barrel type of hog. A weasel is not my ideal of conforma- tion for a herd boar. But for my part I have no quarrel with the Breeder's Gazette, Dec. 14, 1922, p. 835. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 395 daylight under the show champions because they can get their poster- ity over the scales to a speedy and profitable sale of pork." Selection of breeding stock. — The points which should receive particular attention in selecting hogs for breeding purposes are (1) size, (2) feeding capacity, (3) constitution and vigor, (4) early matur- ity, (5) strength of back, legs, pasterns, and feet, (6) quality, (7) breeding qualities, (8) uniformity of type, and (9) ancestry. 1. The most profitable hog is one that inherits ability to grow to large size, but which will fatten if desired long before the limit of growth is reached. It is desirable, therefore, to set the standard for matured weight as high as is consistent with proper form, early maturity, and quality. For boars in high condition, the standard may be set at 800 pounds or over without necessarily sacrificing other desirable qualities. Sows in high condition should weigh not less than 600 pounds. By proper selection and by improved methods of feeding and management, these weights may be equalled or surpassed. It is not desirable to keep breeding stock in high condition, but the term "breeding condi- tion" has such a variable meaning that it cannot be used satisfactorily as a basis for weights. In breeding condition, boars and sows may weigh considerably less than 800 pounds and 600 pounds respectively, but they should have enough size of frame and capacity for taking on flesh to enable them to reach these weights if they were fed to high condition. 2. Feeding capacity is indicated by length, depth, width, and fullness of middle. Some degree of paunchiness may be accepted as evidence of feeding capacity. A wide head, prominent poll, well- developed jaw, a mild eye, and a short neck are further indications of a good feeder. 3. Constitution and vigor are indicated by width and depth of chest, a large heart-girth, good spring of rib, large feeding capacity, and a strong appetite. A general appearance of strength and rugged- ness without coarseness, an active walk, a bright, open eye, a healthy skin, and abundant, glossy hair are other evidences of constitution, thrift, and vigor. 4. An early maturing hog is one that makes a fast growth, yet can be fattened off at market weight. Such hogs are ready for market in quickest time and at lowest cost. This quality is possessed in greatest degree by hogs descended from breeding stock of large size and ample bone that are long bodied, deep of middle, reasonably wide, full made, and well developed in all parts, combining size, stretch, vigor, and good feeding qualities, without coarseness. 5. A low back is a bad fault in a breeding animal. It is a weak- ness which is as likely to be transmitted to offspring as any other 396 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock good or bad quality. The boar should stand on large, strong bone, this being one evidence of masculinity, but extremely large, rough bone, covered with a thick, puffy skin is undesirable, indicating coarseness. The breeding sow should show greater refinement of bone than the boar, yet it should be amply sufficient to sustain not only her weight but also the added weight imposed by pregnancy and large litters. Fine shank bones are not objectionable because they are liable to be fractured by the weight of the sow, but because fine bone is associated with small, weak tendons and ligaments which permit the pastern to drop down and the toes to spread apart, thus making the legs weak and greatly lessening the usefulness of the animal. Proper feed during the growing period and sufficient exercise are other factors which have Fig. 145. — Good type in the brood sow. Hampshire sow, Gloria 2d, champion at the Iowa State Fair. Owned by Russell Yates, Palo, Iowa. Note her length, depth of chest and middle, smoothness, quality, and feminine character. much to do with the strength of feet and legs. Sickled hind legs, bowed-out hocks, inbent knees, and other deformities should be avoid- ed, particularly in selecting a boar. 6. A reasonable degree of quality, as indicated by smoothness of form and flesh and by trimness of appearance, is something of an evidence of good breeding and must be shown in breeding stock if it is to be shown in their pigs on the market. The butcher desires a very high degree of quality and refinement in head, ear, hide, hair, bone, and fleshing, but does not pay enough premium for it to justify the producer in emphasizing quality too strongly. The breeder should Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 397 select for as much quality in breeding stock as may be had without sacrifice of proper size, constitution, and size of bone. The skin over the shoulders of mature boars is thicker and heavier than on sows or barrows. This character, called the "shields," was a highly useful feature in the wild boar as a protection in fighting. The wild boar has transmitted this character in greater or less degree to his domesticated descendants. In some instances the thickening and hardening of the skin is so great as to produce pronounced callouses, and these are objectionable. A smooth shoulder is desired in the boar as well as in the sow and barrow. 7. Great variation in prolificacy exists between individual sows of the same breed. There are also some rather marked differences be- tween breeds. The number of pigs per litter varies from 1 to 16 or more, but with good management is usually from 6 to 10 and under ordinary farm conditions averages about 7 or 8. It is well to remember, however, that it is the number of pigs raised, rather than the number farrowed, which is most important. Sows that are irregular breeders, difficult to get in pig, not prolific, poor sucklers, or that lie on their pigs should be sent to market. Short-middled sows of the chunky type are usually lacking in prolificacy and milking qualities. Size, stretch, roominess, and a mild disposition are essential to good brood sows. Their udders should include 12 or more well-developed glands and teats. Masculine, vigorous boars are quick and sure breeders. Mother- ly or matronly-looking sows are the most satisfactory breeders and best mothers. 8. The breeding herd should be kept as uniform in size, form, color, and other points as possible in order that the pigs may acquire a finish at about the same time and present a uniform and attractive appearance in the feed-lot and on the market. 9. A good ancestry back of a young boar or sow is the best possible guarantee that it will develop into a useful breeding animal. Between two hogs equal in individuality, one the best pig from a poor litter and a poor ancestry, and the other the worst pig from a good litter and a good ancestry, there is almost certain to be a marked ad- vantage in favor of the latter as a breeder. Particularly in selecting boars is it important to buy from a good herd, and to select pigs from a large litter, a good litter, a good sire, and a good dam. In other words an effort should be made to obtain prolific stock of good type and with an inheritance that insures ability to breed on. In breeding for the market, the sows should be purebreds or high grades. ' None iPor definitions of purebred and grade and for discussions of the importance of good ancestry, the utility value of purebred live stock, and the grading process, see Chapter IX. 398 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock other than a good purebred boar should be used on any herd. In hogs, as in other stock, the sire is at least half of the herd. The 1920 census reported that 3.4 per cent of the hogs in the United States on January 1, 1920, Were registered purebreds. ^ The sow may be bred when 8 months old, farrowing her first litter when 12 months old. If well fed and cared for, she will raise two litters per year, though many breeders believe that better results are obtained if the sow raises one litter per year, or at most three litters in two years. The average duration of pregnancy in swine is 114 days. Boars 8 to 10 months old may be used on a few sows if they are well developed for their age and well fed. A mature boar will breed one sow a day, or from 30 to 40 sows during the breeding season. With no other kind of live stock is there practiced so much mixing of breeds and cross breeding as in the breeding of hogs for the market. It is very commonly believed that by crossing a boar of one breed upon sows of another breed, more vigorous and growthy offspring will result. While there is no serious criticism to be made against such a method so far as the first cross is concerned, it invariably happens that if this policy is followed up and further crossing and mixing is resorted to, a variety of shapes and colors is presented that is most unattrac- tive as compared with a bunch of hogs possessing good uniformity. In the majority of cases it will be most profitable to pick out one of the standard breeds of hogs and stick to that breed year after year. If this is done there need be no lack of vigor in the offspring if the parent stock is selected with due care as to constitution and vigor. 1 Nearly 60 per cent of these were in the corn belt. The ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred hogs, in order of rank, were Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ohio, South Dakota, Texas, and Kansas. PART IV-HORSES INTRODUCTION "From remotest ages he has come with man, side by side, in the glory and achievements of the white race. In all the dar- ings and doings of the Saxon, wherever countries were to be conquered, battles fought, and the banner of Britain carried round the world, wherever has been a footprint, there also was the hoof-beat." — John Trotwood Moore in The Gift of the Grass. For centuries the horse has been a faithful servant of man in the capacity of a burden bearer. As compared with other domesticated animals, the horse is peculiar in his relation to man, for he is valuable on account of his ability to do work and not because he furnishes a tangible product useful as food or otherwise. It is his athletic ability which makes the horse useful. None other of our domestic animals occupies as important a place in the economy of things as does the horse; if all the horses were sudden- ly taken from the nations of the world, agriculture, business, and com- merce would be seriously impaired and we would soon be in a state of famine. Consider the vast number of horses in use on farms, on city streets, on country roads, in armies, and for numerous pleasure pur- poses, such as riding, driving, racing in harness and under saddle, hunting, and polo. We could give up any of the other domesticated animals with much less serious results, and this in spite of the advent and improvement of the automobile, motor truck, and tractor, and their wide use at the present time. The horse may be said to be a locomotive which consumes hay and grain instead of coal. He is self-feeding, self-controlling, and self- reproducing, and is at the same time a very efficient motor. Farmers who use horses may be compared to the engineer who operates a motor. Farmers who breed horses may be compared to the manufacturer of motors. No man can manufacture or operate a motor with real success unless he understands its construction, the importance of its various parts, their strength or weakness, and their relation to one another. No man can learn the construction of a motor by studying its exterior only; he must take it apart and study the various parts, and then put them together again. Then he must put it in motion and study the action of the various levers, pulleys, and springs, in order that he may know the location of weaknesses and at what points 399 400 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the most wear comes. Knowing these things, he can manufacture a motor of high efficiency, or, operating one, he can obtain from it the greatest amount of work with least danger of injuring the machine. Hence we see how important is a knowledge of the anatomy of the horse as a basis for the study of types of horses and the requirements and capabilities of each type. It is not possible to develop a good judge of any kind of live stock by teaching simply what to look for in an animal. A mere description of parts or points is not sufficient. The student wants to know why certain things are desirable in an animal, and why certain other things are undesirable. He must know the "why" of each point if he is to value each point properly and put emphasis where it belongs. This is especially true in learning to judge horses. No matter how care- fully the points to be looked for in feet and legs are described, the student cannot recognize the importance of these parts and know what constitutes a first-class foot and leg, unless he has a fairly good idea of their anatomy and physiology. In the pages which follow, the writer has, therefore, given considerable attention to some of the essen- tial features of horse anatomy before entering upon a description of the various types and market classes of horses. Definitions of Horse Terms Stallion. — Breeding male. Mare. — The female. Colt. — A young stallion. Filly. — A young mare. Foal. — Colt or filly under one year old. Weanling. — A weaned foal. Gelding. — Unsexed male, castrated under two years old. The best age to castrate colts is at one year old after they have been on pasture a few weeks but before fly-time. In the corn belt the best time to castrate is the latter part of May. Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head and neck. This constitutes coarseness in a horse for harness or saddle use. Yeld mare. — A mare that has not raised a foal during the season; a dry mare. Show Yard Classification by Ages The base date for classifying horses by ages is January 1, and the classes by ages are as follows: The foal class includes only those that were foaled on or after January 1 of the year shown. All foals become yearlings on January 1 of the year following the date foaled. One year later they become two-year-olds, the next year three-year-olds, and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 401 the next year they enter the four years old and over (aged) class. Some of the larger shows provide separate classes for four-year-olds, and when this is done the aged class is for animals five years old and over. Junior champion. — Best animal under three years. Senior champion. — Best animal three years old or over. Champion. — Best animal any age. Grand champion. — Best animal any age or breed. The term "grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions. CHAPTER XXVIII BRIEF ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE HORSE In all animal life the cell is the structural and functional unit. A tissue is a collection of similarly differentiated cells. A number of tissues grouped together form an organ. The body is an aggregation of organs. The systems of organs are seven in number. They are (1) skeletal, (2) muscular, (3) digestive, (4) respiratory, (5) genito- urinary, (6) nervous, and (7) integumentary. Skeletal system. — The skeletal system is important as it largely determines the conformation of the horse. The divisions of the skeleton are (1) head, (2) neck, (3) trunk, and (4) legs. The head consists of numerous bones, mostly fiat, united by sutures which gradu- ally undergo obliteration with age. The lower jaws are strong and in each jaw there are six molar teeth (24 in all). Twelve of these are temporary — three in each jaw. There are also six incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaws, all of which are temporary and are entirely replaced by the time the animal is 43^ years old. The vertebral column is a chain of 54 to 56 irregular bones (verte- brae) extending from skull to end of tail. There are seven cervical (neck) vertebrae, 18 dorsal (back), 6 lumbar (loin), 5 sacral (croup), and 18 or 20 caudal (tail) vertebrae. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th dorsal vertebrae have the highest spines which form the withers. (See Fig. 146.) There are 18 pairs of ribs, 8 of which are true and 10 false. The 8 true pairs join the 8 segments of the sternum or breast bone. The 7th or 8th ribs are longest. There is no collar bone (clavicle) as in man, and the fore legs are not attached to the trunk but are connected by intervening muscles. The hind legs are united to the trunk by the pelvic girdle which is composed of three segments on each side. Muscular system. — The horse comprises a large number of sys- tems of levers represented in the bones and joints, each supplied with a system of muscles which furnish the power. Muscles exert a force in only one way, and that by shortening, giving a pull. For this reason muscles are arranged in pairs, as illustrated by the biceps and triceps which move the forearm in man. The flexor muscles are al- ways inside the joint and the extensors outside. The theory has been advanced that the shortening of muscles is due to a change in the form of the muscular cell from an elongated form to one nearly round when stimulated by nerve action. Muscles act through very short distances 402 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 403 and upon the short end of levers composing the animal frame. Acting in this way, speed and distance are gained with a corresponding reduc- tion in the magnitude of the force. Because muscles are able to act only through very short distances, it is necessary for them to act upon the short end of the levers in order that sufficiently rapid movement may be gained. The muscular system obtains its maximum development in the horse, and upon the excellence of this, beauty of conformation largely depends. Especially is this latter true of the neck and hindquarters. There are no muscles below the knees and hocks — only their tendinous prolongations. The first muscle under the skin almost covers the Fig. 146. — Skeleton of the horse. This illustration shows the location of the bones and the degree to which the skeleton and the muscle influence the form. entire body and is the one that enables the animal to shake flies or any irritating foreign substance off its skin. Digestive system.— The tongue is small as compared with that of the ox. The capacity of the stomach is small, holding between 3 and 4 gallons, while the stomach of the ox holds 30 to 40 gallons. But the small size of the organ is compensated for by the large size and capacity of the intestines which hold twice that of the ox. The large intestine has a capacity of about 20 gallons, and the small one 12 gallons. The liver is large, as are also the kidneys. Respiratory system. — The respiratory organs are well developed, and comprise the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchial 404 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock tubes, and lungs. The heart is large and four chambered, and the blood vessels are large and have strong, thick walls. Thus is the horse well fitted for his athletic life. Nervous system. — The nervous system of the horse is well develop- ed and comprises the brain, spinal cord, and branching nerves. The horse differs from a mere machine in that he is largely capable of guid- ing his own movements without aid from his driver. Training ac- complishes much in this regard, but the less a horse is possessed of intelligence and nervous control, the less he is automatic as a motor, and the more he becomes dependent upon his driver. Integumentary system. — The hair or coat is shed in the spring and autumn, except that of the mane and tail which is permanent. There are both sweat glands and sebaceous glands in the skin, but the former are practically absent from the limbs. \- \ Fig. 147. — Bones of the fore leg. 1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius and ulna; 4, seven or eight carpal bones; 5, cannon bone and two splint bones; 6, two sesamoid bones; 7, large pastern bone; 8, small pastern bone; 9, navicular bone; 10, coffin bone. Anatomy of the Fore Leg From the top downward, the bones of the fore leg are as indicated in the accompanying diagram. The fore leg is composed of a scapula (or shoulder blade) which is articulated to the humerus (or arm) by a ball-and-socket joint, and the arm in turn articulates with the radius by a hinge joint. The lower end of the radius rests upon the upper row of the carpal bones of which there are 7 or 8 in the horse, corre- sponding to the wrist in man. Below the carpus (knee) is the large metacarpal (or cannon) bone, and articulated with the back of it are two slender rods of bones — the small metacarpal (or splint) bones. The lower end of the large cannon bone forms a hinge with the first Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 405 phalanx (or large pastern bone), which is followed by the second phalanx (or small pastern bone), and then the third phalanx (or coffin bone), the last named and half of the small pastern bone being enclosed within the hoof. In addition to these, at the articulation between the cannon and the large pastern bone are two small bones, known as the "sesamoids," while at the back of the coffin joint there is a small bow- shaped bone, known as the "navicular," which is frequently the seat of disease. The bones are held together by ligaments. Tendons are similar in character to ligaments, but differ in that they join muscle to bone. The scapula, humerus, and radius and ulna are enclosed in heavy muscles which move them. There are no muscles about the knee and i; ' ll ii / /■ ■i / 1 a 1 1 — ~I-M -B e nil -/'A/ c L ^^cc^ %v^^ SM\, /^^.'^ \ Fig. 148. — ^Fore leg from knee to ground, showing the bones, ligaments, and tendons. 1, Suspensory ligament; 2, inferior sesamoid ligaments; 3, branch of suspensory ligament; 4, flexor tendon of foot; 5, flexor tendon of pastern; 6, extensor tendon; 7, splint bone; 8, can- non bone; 9, sesamoid bones; 10, large pastern bone; 11, small pastern bone; 12, coffin bone; 13, navicular bone. Fig. 149. — Bones, tendons, and liga- ments of the fore leg. 1, Splint bone; 2, cannon bone; 3, suspensory ligament; 4, flexor tendon of foot; 5, flexor tendon of pastern. the parts below. Instead, long tendons pass down from the muscles above, thus connecting the power with the levers of the lower part of the leg. Some very important ligaments hold the bones below the knee in proper relation to one another. These ligaments are very strong elastic cords. The lower leg moves when the muscles exert a pull on their tendons, which are likewise strong and elastic. The tendons and ligaments of the fore leg are shown in the accompanying drawings. The long ligament from fetlock to knee is the suspensory ligament. It supports the fetlock. 406 Types and Market Classes of Ln^E Stock Anatomy of the Hind Leg The hind leg consists of the femur (or thigh bone) which is the largest in the body and articulates below with the tibia and also with the patella (or knee cap). The hock is composed of six bones which may be divided into two sets, each having a purpose of its own. One group of four small bones (tarsals), arranged in two rows and resting on the head of the cannon, are united together and to adjacent bones by short, powerful ligaments, and so close is the union that the move- ment of one bone upon another is reduced to a simple gliding action of very limited degree. Though slight, this movement is of much im- portance in breaking the jar communicated to this joint when the horse is in action. Above the small tarsal bones are two larger bones, the astragalus and calcaneus, as shown in Fig. 150. Fig. 150. — Bones of the hock. A, Tibia; B, calcaneus; C, astragalus; D, tarsals; E, cannon bone; F, splint bone. To the calcaneus is attached the strong tendon known as the "tendon of Achilles." By means of it the muscles above exert a power- ful pull upon the hock joint, producing extension of the joint. This is the principal means of the horse's propulsion. The knob-like end of the calcaneus (to which the tendon attaches) forms the point of the hock. In some instances the pull upon the hock has been great enough to produce a fracture of this bone. Sometimes a diseased condition is brought about by the ossifica- tion into one mass of some or all of the bones of the hock. Thia is called a "bone spavin" and is a serious unsoundness because it destroys the important gliding action of the tarsals, stiffens the joint, and often causes lameness. The parts below the hock are similar in structure to those below the knee. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 407 The skeletons of man and horse compared show striking similarity, and at some points rather marked variation and difference in propor- tionment of parts. The horse's knee corresponds to man's wrist. The bones below the horse's knee correspond to those beyond man's wrist. Following is a comparison of the bones and parts of the fore and hind legs of the horse with the arm and leg of man: Fore Leg of Horse Arm of Man Parts Bones Parts Bones Shoulder Scapula Shoulder Scapula and clavicle Arm Humerus Arm Humerus Forearm Radius and ulna Forearm Radius and ulna Knee 7 or 8 carpals Wrist 7 carpals Cannon 3 metacarpals Palm 5 metacarpals [Thumb— 2 bones Pastern and foot 1st, 2nd, and 3rd phalanges Fingers ]Other fingers— 3 1, bones Hoof Finger nails Hind Leg of Horse Leg of Man Parts Bones Parts Bones Croup Ilium, ischium, and pubis Pelvis Ilium, ischium, and pubis Thigh Femur Thigh Femur Stifle Patella Knee Patella Gaskin Tibia and fibula Calf Tibia and fibula Hock 6 tarsals Ankle 8 tarsals Cannon 3 metatarsals Instep 5 metatarsals Pastern and foot 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Toes /Great toe— 2 bones phalanges \Other toes— 3 bones Hoof Toe nails The accompanjnng drawing makes clear the comparison between the hind leg of the horse and the foot of man. Fig. 151. — Bones of the human foot and hind leg of horse compared. A, Tibia; B, astragalus; C, calcaneus; D and E, small tarsals; F and G, metatarsals; 1, 2, and 3, first, second, and third phalanges. 408 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Anatomy of the Foot^ The foot is not a mere block of horn, but is a composite structure made up of particular parts, each with a certain work to perform. There is an old saying, very full of truth, "No foot, no horse." A knowledge of the structure of the foot is very essential in learning to judge horses. The exterior of the foot may be divided into five parts, each in- cluding one-fifth of the circumference. These are the toe, laterals, and quarters. The bones of the foot and pastern are four in number, three of which — the long pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone — placed end to end form a continuous straight column passing downward and for- ward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular bone, lies crosswise in the foot behind the cofRn joint, enlarging the joint surface. (See Fig. 153.) Tendons and ligaments. — The extensor tendon of the toe passes down the front of the pastern and attaches to the top and front of the Fig. 152.— Exterior of the hoof, showing division into toe, laterals, and quarters. coffin bone. The outer "branch of the suspensory ligament attaches to the tendon a short distance above this point. The flexor tendon of the foot passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone. The bones of the foot are held together by powerful short ligaments. The elastic tissues of the foot include the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes they may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and unyielding and are called side- bones. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, iThe writer is indebted to the revised edition of Diseases of the Horse, (U. S. Dept. Agr.) for many of the statements included in the discussion of this subiect, particularly to the chapter on Shoeing, by Dr. John W. Adams, University of Penn- sylvania. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 409 fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral cartilages, forming the fleshy heels, and serving as a buffer to disperse shocks. It extends forward underneath the navicular bone and flexor tendon, and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. The pododerm or hoof-producing membrane is merely a continua- tion of the derm, or true skin. It covers the foot inside the hoof, just as a sock covers the human foot inside the shoe. It differs from the ordinary external or "hair" skin in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and unite it firmly to the foot. The hoof and how it grows. — The horny shell, called the hoof, which covers and protects the foot, is made up of three parts, (1) the wall and bars, (2) the sole, and (3) the frog. Each part of the hoof Fig. 153. — Diagram showing structure of foot. 1, Coffin bone; 2, small pas- tern bone; 3, large pastern bone; 4, navicular bone; 5, lateral cartilage; 6, extensor tendon; 7, flexor tendon of foot; 8, flexor tendon of pastern; 9, branches of suspensory ligament; 10, wall; 11, sole; 12, frog; 13, indicates location of plantar cushion between the lateral cartilages; 14, perioplic ring; 15, coronary cushion. is grown by some particular part or parts of the pododerm. In general it may be said that the horn of the hoof is made up of tubules or shafts of horn which grow from papillae the same as does hair. These tubules are cemented together by non-tubular matter corresponding to dandruff exfoliated by the skin. In fact, so pronounced is the similarity in growth of horn and hair that coarse hair, especially on the legs and coronet, is associated with horn of coarse texture. There- fore the more coarse and brittle the hair about the coronet, the more porous, brittle, and weak will be the formation of the horny hoof. ^ The wall horn consists of three layers known as (1) the outer or perioplic layer, (2) the middle or coronary layer, and (3) the inner or ij. H. S. Johnstone: The Horse Book, p. 24. 410 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock laminous layer. The perioplic layer is very thin. It is varnish-like in appearance and forms the surface or crust of the wall. Its function is to preserve the moisture of the foot and to absorb moisture. A horse working in sand or dust usually has this outer layer worn away. The coronary layer forms the real basis of the wall. At the heels it is deflected forward to form the bars of the hoof. The angle between the wall and bar is thickened and is called the buttress. The function of the bars is to react against contraction of the heels. The inner or laminous layer of the wall horn is not tubular. It is termed "laminous" because it has the appearance of the leaves of a book. There are 500 to 600 of these laminae which extend from the top of the hoof to the sole. It is less thick than the coronary layer, but, like it, is deflected forward at the heels to help form the bars. Fig. 154.— The parts of the hoof. 1, Wall; 2, sole; 3, branch of the sole; 4, bar; 5, buttress; 6, frog; 7, cleft of the frog; 8, bulbs of the heels. Growth of the wall. — At the lower end of the pastern, running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other heel, is a narrow ridge of pododerm, i^ to >^ of an inch wide, called the perioplic ring. (See Fig. 153.) It consists of papillae, which are microscopic nobs or nodules, and from each papilla a shaft of horn grows downward, forming the periople of the wall. Like the periople, the coronary layer grows downward from a band of pododerm at the top of the hoof. This band is called the coronary cushion, and it lies just below and parallel to the perioplic ring. (See Fig. 153.) At the heels it is deflected forward where it produces the horn of the bars. The laminous horn is produced by that part of the pododerm known as the fleshy laminae; these laminae extend up and down be- tween the coronary cushion and the sole. The fleshy laminae of the pododerm and the laminous layer of the wall horn dovetail together, thus holding the hoof securely to the foot. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 411 The sole horn is circular in shape except that it is notched at the rear where it receives the bars and horny frog. It is naturally concave below and is bounded at its edge by the wall and bars. It is very brittle, non-elastic, and easily penetrated. The sole horn is produced by the fleshy sole, which is that portion of the pododerm covering the entire under surface of the foot excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny frog does not come in contact with the sole horn except at its apex. It is tough, elastic, and rather soft horn. The upper part of the horny frog has an elevation or ridge and on the bottom there is a corresponding notch or groove. The horny frog grows from the fleshy frog, which is that part of the pododerm just above the horny frog. The preceding discussion of the parts of the hoof and pododerm may be summarized as follows: IPerioplic layer, produced by perioplic ring. Coronary layer, produced by coronary cushion. Laminous layer, produced by fleshy laminae. 2. Sole, produced by fleshy sole. 3. Frog, produced by fleshy frog. All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm. Abundant and regular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing the over-growth of the hoof and regulating the bearing surface — all these, by increasing the volume and improving the quality of blood flowing into the podo- derm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality. Lack of exer- cise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. The average rate of growth of the hoof is about one-third of an inch a month. Irregular growth often occurs. This is almost always due to an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof, — that is, an unbalanced foot. An authority on this subject says: ^ "If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbal- anced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper direction, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, splay-footed, pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses." Characteristics of a healthy foot.— ^A healthy foot is equally warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands. The coronet ^ is soft and elastic at all points and does not project beyond the surface of the wall. The wall is straight from coronet to ground. ^Dr. John W. Adams, University of Pennsylvania: Shoeing, U. S. Dept. Ag^r., Bur. Anim. Indus., Special Rpt., Diseases of the Horse, Revised, p. 558. 2 The coronet or "hoof head" is the lower end of the pastern immediately above the hoof. 412 Types and Market Classes of Liv6 Stock so that a straight-edge laid against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the horn tubules will touch at every point. The wall should be covered with the outer varnish-like layer of horn and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows "ring forma- tion," but the rings should not be strongly marked and should always run parallel to the coronet. Strongly marked rings are evidence of a weak hoof, and when limited to a part of the wall are evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole should be well hollowed out, the frog well developed, the cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from buttress toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses them- selves so far apart as not to press against the frog. The lateral -car- tilages should yield readily to finger pressure. Some horsemen object to a white hoof, believing it to be less durable, but a white hoof is as good as a dark-colored one. Horn of good quality is fine grained and tough, while poor horn is coarse grained and either too mellow and friable or hard and brittle. CHAPTER XXIX SOME IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE HORSE Base of support. — The horse's legs are his base of support, just as the table legs support the table. The longer the legs, the less stable the base of support. The smaller the base of support, the less stable it will be. The less stable the base of support, the greater the speed of the horse; while the greater the stability, the greater the power for draft. Any object will be most stable when the center of its weight is directly over the center of its base of support. In horses the center i/ertebrdl sp'me long postern short poitern Fig. 155. — Attachment of fore leg to body. Cross-section through chest show- ing the bones of the fore leg and the muscular attachment of leg to body. of weight is far forward, lying immediately behind the shoulders. Thus the fore legs support much more of the weight of the horse than do the hind legs, in fact it is the function of the forequarters to support, and of the hindquarters to propel. This is the more clearly shown when we examine the anatomy of the horse, for we find that the hind legs are attached to the trunk by the strong ball-and-socket joint, while the fore legs are not directly attached to the trunk but are con- nected by intervening muscles which form a sort of sling which sus- pends the body between the two fore legs. The muscle attaching the fore limb to the trunk is the serratus magnus, an enormous triangular muscle which originates on the upper part of the internal surface of 413 414 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the shoulder blade, spreads out like a fan on the sides of the chest and neck, and ends on the cervical vertebrae and first 8 or 9 ribs. Fig. 155 shows a front view of the muscular attachment of the scapula to the neck and trunk. When the horse is standing, the base of support is represented by a rectangle the corners of which are the horse's feet. In the walk, the base of support is triangular, for then only three feet touch the ground. In the trot or pace, only two feet touch the ground, and the base of support will be represented by a line. In the run or gallop, the base of support is a point. Thus as speed increases there is a corresponding decrease in stability. The horse in motion. — We have seen that the horse is rather un- stable because the center of weight lies almost over the fore legs. Hence the fore legs answer the purpose simply of a support to the horse's weight when he is in motion. If we could replace the fore legs with a wheel, we would have an equally efl^cient motor. When a man walks, he leans forward in order to throw the center of his weight ahead of his base of support. This causes him to begin to fall forward, and indeed he would fall if he did not advance his foot and so bring his base of support once more under, or nearly under, the center of weight. Walking is simply a succession of interrupted falls. The same is true of the horse. In walking he pushes backward against the ground with his hind feet and causes his center of weight to tip forward. The result is that he begins to fall, and if he did not advance a fore foot he would land on his head. By stepping forward he again assumes his equilibrium and immediately tips his weight forward again by propelling with his hind legs. Walking is simply the repetition of this performance over and over again. In the trot and the gallop or run, there is the same backward thrust with the hind feet and the same recovery with the fore feet, but the thrust is much greater, the stride is longer, and the shock and effort in the recovery are increased in proportion. In 1897, Tod Sloan, a famous American jockey, went to England to ride. He practiced the same seat which all American jockeys use and with which all Americans are familiar. Its peculiar feature is that the jockey sits as far forward on the horse as possible. When Sloan appeared on English race courses he was severely ridiculed, for at that time English jockeys were not familiar with our methods and it was thought Sloan was trying to attract attention to himself by adopting a ridiculous position on his horse. Race-going people laughed at him until it was noticed that he was enjoying unusual success at winning races. Sloan rode 20 winners during his first season in England, 43 the next, and in 1899 he was first past the post with no fewer than 108 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 415 horses. In the same year, two other Americans, the brothers Lester and Johnny Reiff, also had 82 victories to their credit. The methods of these American jockeys were soon copied by most of the EngHsh riders, but the Americans continued to pile up a remarkable record of successes, culminating in three successive Derby triumphs — Lester Reiff's in 1901, Martin's in 1902, and Maher's in 1903. During eight years ending in 1905, the eight or nine American jockeys who appeared in England for one or more seasons divided among them, in retainers, winning fees, and etceteras, fully a million dollars. Their work made a new chapter in English turf history. No sooner had Sloan shown ability to win consistently than people began trying to find out the secret of his success. They could see that he carried himself as far forward on his horse as possible, and so these questions arose: Does a man seated near the neck of a horse enable Fig. 156. — The horse in motion. A, Center of weight; AB, line of thrust; ABC, angle of thrust; Y, center of weight when rider is over neck of horse; X, center of weight when rider sits near the tail. the animal to travel faster than one seated near the tail? If so, why? As for the first question, Sloan gave it a practical answer by his con- sistent winnings. The second question was also finally answered. A horse to move forward at all must thrust at the earth, and the chief force of this thrust comes from his hind legs. If the center of weight of horse and rider is just over, or close to, the thrusting power, naturally it diminishes the efficiency for speed, for instead of thrusting the horse forward, a large portion of the muscular energy is wasted in lifting the weight of the jockey at every stride. The accompanjdng drawing and the words which follow will make this clear. The farther forward the center of weight is, the longer is the line from hind foot to center of weight, called the line of thrust, and the 416 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock more nearly will this line approach the horizontal. As a horse has to raise himself vertically with each bound, it is naturally a matter of very great importance whether he has to lift a dead weight or a weight which throws forward. A jockey on the horse's neck adds to the for- ward weight, and this moves the center of weight still farther forward and places still more weight on the fore legs and equally less on the hind legs. The longer the angle of thrust, the easier and therefore the faster the horse will go, for his power will then be utilized almost exclusively in a horizontal thrust resulting in speed, and little of his energy will be consumed in simply raising weight to let it fall again. It is the same as a man pushing a wheelbarrow; if the load is near the handles it must be raised at each step, while if the load is over or near the wheel the man does not expend so much energy in a lift at each step, but can use all his force at pushing straight ahead. Where the wear comes. — From what has been said concerning the function of the fore legs in supporting most of the horse's weight, we can readily understand that the horse is more apt to tire, exhaust, and ruin his fore legs than his hind ones. It is common to see men driving their horses at speed when going down hill, thinking that the horse is doing little or nothing because the vehicle follows without having to be pulled. This is a decided error, for in going down hill still more weight is thrown on the fore legs, and if the animal is made to descend at speed he hammers his fore legs severely, and often stumbles and falls. Because of the hammering to which the fore legs and feet of the horse are subjected, and because of the great strain coming upon the hock joint due to its prominent part in propulsion, the feet and legs constitute a most vital part in every type of horse, and special attention should be given to front feet, front pasterns, the hocks, and the set or position of the hind legs when judging. Phases of the stride. — Dr. Carl W. Gay, of Ohio State University, describes five distinct phases of the horse's stride, as follows:^ 1. A preliminary, during which the leg is undergoing flexion before the foot has left the ground. 2. The breaking over, in which the foot is raised heel first and is rocked up and over at the toe. 3. Flight, during which the foot describes the more or less regular arc of a circle. 4. Contact, as the foot again meets the ground. 5. Recovery, as the weight falls on the foot preparatory to another stride. Hoof mechanism. — When the foot makes contact with the ground, expansion occurs, especially at the heels. When the foot is raised there is contraction. The plantar cushion, being soft, transmits force or motion in all directions more or less equally (as a liquid). It can- not move downward to any great degree, hence it spreads or diffuses •Productive Horse Husbandry, p. 5. Types A^fD Market Classes of Li\'e Stock 417 laterally, and so the heels expand. When the horse places his foot on the ground there occurs: (1) Contraction of the hoof at the toe- wall coronet; (2) sinking of the sole, especially at its branches; (3) expan- sion of the heels; (4) sinking of the bulbs of the heels. These four movements constitute what is known as the "hoof mechanism." The health of the foot is dependent on the normal and free hoof mechanism, and it should not be hindered by improper shoeing or other causes. Hoof mechanism breaks concussion and assists circulation. Concus- sion is shock and counter-shock. These shocks must be diffused, and this is cared for laterally in the foot by its changes in form. Photographs of race horses in action show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground before the other parts of the foot. This utilizes the elastic structures of the heels to the utmost, produces a maximum of hoof mechanism, and absorbs the violent shock to the greatest degree possible. Absorption of concussion. — Every step at the walk or trot results in concussion between the ground and the front foot of the horse. Were it not for certain arrangements for the absorption of this shock or jar, the horse would soon be made worthless. Hoof mechanism is, as we have seen, one of the means of scattering the shock, acting in much the same way as a pneumatic tire on a vehicle. Another safe- guard is found in a sloping pastern, which acts in much the same manner as the spring under a carriage. Then there is the angle be- tween humerus and forearm, and also between scapula and humerus, which also act as springs. A sloping shoulder is useful in the same way. If you have ever ridden in a farm wagon over a rough road, stand- ing on your heels, you can appreciate the tremendous wear which comes on the legs of a horse with poor feet, straight pasterns, and straight shoulders. Then if you shifted your weight to your toes and bent your knees slightly, you found that your teeth stopped chattering and your hat remained on your head. In other words, your change in posi- tion changed the column of bones supporting your weight from a straight, vertical column to a broken one with angles which acted as springs and absorbed the jar. It is just so with a horse having good feet and nicely sloping shoulders and pasterns. Defective conformations of the legs and efifects on action. — A line around the hoof on the ground gives the area of the base of support of that leg. If the center of the base of support of the leg is not directly under the center of the weight falling on that leg, the side of the foot nearest the point directly under the center of weight will be compelled to do more than its share of the work. Therefore the leg of the horse should be so set that the center of the base of support comes directly under the center of the weight it bears. The fore legs should be so 418 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock placed under the body that, when viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder will divide the leg and foot into lateral halves. When viewed from the side, a perpendicular line dropped from the middle of the forearm where it joins the body should divide the leg from body to fetlock into lateral halves and strike the ground just back of the heel. Fig. 157. — Front view of fore legs. A vertical line downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot. A, Ideal position; B, toes out; C, bow legged; D, narrow chested and toes out; E, stands close; F, knock kneed; G, pigeon toed. When the horse assumes his natural position, the hind legs should be so placed that, when viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; and when viewed from the side, this line should touch the rear edge of the cannon from hock point to fetlock and meet the ground some little distance back of the heel. Fig. 158.— Side view of fore legs. A vertical line downward from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and fetlock joints and meet the ground back of the heel. A, Ideal position; B, camped under; C, camped out; D, knee sprung; E, calf kneed. The direction and slope of the axis of pastern and foot are very important. When the leg is viewed from the front or side, the axis of the pastern and the axis of the foot should be identical. As viewed from the front, the toe should point directly forward. This insures an even distribution of weight to both sides of the foot and also trueness Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 419 of action. As viewed from the side, the axis of the front pastern and foot should meet the ground at an angle of about 45 degrees. This angle affords the best combination of strength and springiness. When moving toward or from you, the feet of the horse should appear to have only one motion, which should be vertically up and down. This is very essential in every type of horse. Height of action Fig. 159. — Side view of hind legs. A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock should touch the rear edge of the cannon from hock to fetlock and meet the ground some little distance behind the heel. A, Ideal position; B, stands under; C, camped out; D, hind leg too straight. in any type should be great enough to clear the ground by a reasonable distance, so as to prevent stumbling and insure length of stride. The carriage horse is required to go higher than this for reasons which will be explained in connection with the description of that type. The essentials of good action are (1) straight-line action, (2) long stride, and (3) foot should be picked up with snap. Defects in conformation Fig. 160. — Rear view of hind legs. A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. A, Ideal position; B, stands wide; C, bow legged; D, stands close; E, cow hocked. and placing of feet and legs result in defects in action. Only when the legs are correctly proportioned and properly placed can good action result. Correctness of action depends also upon temperament, strength of muscling, height over withers as compared with height over hips, and general symmetry and proportionment of parts. The most com- 420 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock mon defects in the shape and position of the legs are shown in the ac- companying drawings. A horse that is "base wide" or "toe wide" in front, swings the leg inward when in action. A "base narrow" or "toe narrow" conforma- tion results in the horse swinging his feet outward, or "paddling" as it is called. (See accompanying drawings.) Horses that naturally stand wide at the hocks will travel the same way (wide), which is very undesirable. When the hind legs are bowed outward, the hocks spread still farther outward when the stress comes upon them in action, and usually the foot leaves the ground with a twisting motion which wears out shoes and is otherwise undesirable. Any deviation from trueness in the flight of the foot wastes energy, detracts from the appearance of the horse in action, and the horse may strike himself, called inter- fering, which often causes blemishes, lameness, and stumbling. i-l Fig. 161. — Defects in fore legs and their effects on action. Viewed from the side, a nicely sloping foot and pastern leave the ground easily and describe the arc of a circle at every step. Straight or stubby pasterns and feet result in a short, stubby way of going that is stilted and non-elastic. A too-sloping pastern and foot are not nicely carried, but are brought out straight to a point in front and then slapped upon the ground. (See accompanying drawings.) Other defects of action will be discussed in connection with the various types of horses. Bent or sickle hocks. — This defect is often difficult for beginners to detect. It is often possible to pose a horse so as to hide this fault unless one knows exactly how to detect it under all conditions. When a horse with a sickle hock stands in a natural position, the defect is easily seen. A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock may then touch the point of the hock, but below that point the cannon slopes forward instead of following the vertical line, and the hind foot is placed too far forward. (See B in Fig. 162, and note that this is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 421 not the same defect as B in Fig. 159.) Some horses are very slightly sickled and some are very crooked indeed. Such a conformation is decidedly objectionable because bent hocks are not as stout as straight hocks at a hard pull or at work of any kind, and furthermore the crooked shape of the hock and leg brings an added strain on the hock joint. The sickle hock often develops a curb, and is also subject to other unsoundnesses. In showing horses, it is common to stretch them out on their legs to a slight extent, so as to raise the head and neck, level up the croup, and increase the slope of the front pasterns. A horse in such a posi- tion is more apt to hold it than a horse standing naturally, and for all these reasons it is practiced by horsemen. It also has the advantage of covering up defects in the set of the legs, particularly a sickle hock. If a horse with sickle hocks is stretched or "camped out" a bit, his Fig. 162. — Sickle hock. A, Hind leg of a horse of correct conformation; B and C, two positions of the hind leg of a horse with a sickle hock; B, in a position easily exposing the defect; C, in a position in which the defect is not so apparent. hind cannons become vertical, and the novice is likely to overlook the fact that the line of his cannons, even though it is vertical, points back of his buttock, often to a considerable degree. (See C in accompany- ing drawings, and note that this is not the same as C in Fig. 159.) It is only by noting carefully the direction of the lines indicated in the accompanying drawings that one can detect this fault. Determination of age from the teeth. — The age of the horse is easily determined up to and including the fifth year by an examination of the incisor teeth, of which there are three pairs in the upper jaw and three pairs in the lower. All of these incisors are temporary or milk teeth up to two years of age. At birth none of the temporary teeth have cut the gums, but at one year they have all appeared and the middle and intermediate pairs are in wear, but the corner pairs 422 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock are not fully in wear. At two years, all of the temporary teeth are in wear, kt 2}^ to 3 years, the middle pair above and below are shed, and are replaced by permanent incisors. These are broader, heavier teeth, and have a rather rough or corrugated surface, whereas the sur- face of the milk teeth is smooth. At 53^ /o ^ years, the intermediate pair of permanent incisors appears in each jaw. At -4H ^o 5 years, the comer pair of milk teeth above and below are displaced by permanents, and the horse may be said to have reached maturity. After five years the age is not so easily determined, nor are the indications so accurate. We rely mostly upon changes in appearance shown by the wearing surfaces of the teeth to tell us the age beyond five years. The wearing surface of new permanent teeth has a long, narrow cup or depression running across it transversely. The rims of these cups disappear through wear, leaving two distinct rings of enamel, one around the margin of the tooth, and the other around the cup. With wear, the cup becomes smaller, more oval or rounding in shape, and more shallow, until it is finally worn almost completely away. Continued wear exposes the tip of the pulp canal or cavity in the center of the tooth, and the exposed tip of this canal appears be- tween what is left of the cup and the front of the tooth. The exposed pulp cavity is called the "dental star." At six years, the middle pair in the lower jaw are usually worn level and the wearing surface tends to become oval in form. The central ring of enamel is plainly evident, but is smaller than at five years, indicating considerable wear. The lower corner teeth, which at five years showed little or no wear, now usually show wear, the edge surrounding the cup being much less sharp and shell-like. The canine teeth, which first appeared at four years are now completely out. At seven years, the lower intermediates are also levelled on the wearing surface and the ring of central enamel becomes wider from before back- ward, and shorter from side to side. A hook or "swallow tail" is often present on the upper corner teeth because they are broader than the lower corners and do not wear down evenly. At eight years, all the lower teeth are levelled and the dental star appears upon the center and intermediate pairs, showing between the front border of the tooth and the front border of the central enamel. At nine years, the hook or swallow tail on the upper corners has often disappeared. The lower centers are round; their central enamel has a triangular form; and their dental star is narrower and more dis- tinct. The center pair of the upper jaw are usually levelled. At ten years, the changes previously mentioned become more marked, and the upper intermediates are usually levelled. At eleven years, the central enamel of the upper corner teeth becomes elliptical and tends Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 423 to disappear. The lower teeth now show much wear, the central enamel forms a small ring only, very close to the back border of the tooth, while the dental star becomes narrower and also approaches the back border. At twelve years, all of the lower teeth are round, and sometimes the central enamel has disappeared, in which case the wear- ing surfaces show only a small yellowish spot which is the dental star. At fifteen years, the swallow tail, which reappeared at ten years, is still in evidence, the teeth tend strongly toward a triangular shape on the wearing surface, and other indications of age become marked. At twenty-one years, the swallow tail is gone again, and all indications of wear are very marked. After ten or eleven years and on up to thirty or more, only general indications serve as a guide to the age. The horseman knows that the teeth change from oval to three-sided with age, and that they project or slant forward more and more each year. In very old horses these features are very marked. In determining the age, a regular procedure should be followed. First open the lips and determine whether the teeth are temporary or permanent. Unless they are all permanent it is usually unnecessary to open the mouth. If they are all permanent, the wearing surfaces of the lower incisors should be carefully examined first, and then the wearing surfaces of the upper incisors. Also note the profile or slant of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the hook or swallow tail on the upper comer teeth. Mere description here will not enable the student to become adept at determining age. Actual practice and the study of many mouths are necessary in order to master this subject. Determination of the height of horses. — The height of a horse is determined by measuring the vertical distance from the highest part of his withers to the ground. The unit in which the height of horses is expressed is the hand. A hand is four inches. A horse measuring 60 inches high is thus said to be 15 hands high; a horse measuring 63 inches is said to be "fifteen, three," meaning 15 hands, 3 inches, written 15-3; and one measuring 65 inches is 16-1 hands high. The dividing line in height between horses and ponies cannot be definitely fixed, but is about 14 hands. Ponies vary in height from 14 hands down to 8 hands or even less, while horses vary from 14 hands up to 18 hands and over. With practice the height of horses may be estimated very closely without the aid of a measuring standard. A person who knows the exact height from the ground to the level of his eyes, and also the exact height from the ground to his chin, can step up to the shoulder of a horse, locate the highest bony part of the withers, and estimate the height very quickly and ,with a high degree of accuracy. CHAPTER XXX ORIGIN OF THE TYPES OF HORSES Several wild species of horses existed in Europe and Asia from very remote times, but it was in Asia Minor and Egypt that the horse was first domesticated and made to serve man. He was taken thence to Greece, Rome, and Arabia; thence to more remote parts of Europe and Asia, particularly to Spain, France, and England; and thence to America and Australia. For a long time the horses used by the early European tribes and nations were small, semi-wild animals, and no effort was made to im- prove them by breeding. They were used principally in warfare, harnessed to chariots. However, there were horses of black color and much greater size and weight native to the t-egion in western Europe now called Flanders, and these were taken south and east, just as the horses of Asia Minor and Egypt were taken north and west. The infusion of the blood of this large Flemish horse increased the size of European horses and made them suitable for riding and other purposes. The development and progress of the horse was parallel with the development of civilization and a prominent factor in it. The horse was first used for military purposes; next, in ceremonies, both religious and civil; third, in the agricultural and commercial pursuits of nations; fourth, in connection with the pastimes and sports of nations. First saddle horse. — The Arabian horse was the first breed of live stock developed by man. This horse is a saddle type and was de- veloped for use in warfare. The exact origin is unknown, but it seems to have descended directly from the wild Libyan horse native to north- ern Africa — most excellent of all known wild varieties of the horse. The Arabian has for centuries possessed such exquisite quality, refine- ment, intelligence, spirit, docility, and beauty as to make him universal- ly admired and famous. He was taken to England at the close of the seventeenth century and was used in founding the English Thorough- bred and also the Norfolk Trotter which later became the Hackney. In Russia he helped produce the Orloff Trotter, and the Percheron breed of France is also thought to owe some of its excellence to Arab blood in its foundation. Inasmuch as the Yorkshire Coach Horse, Cleveland Bay, American Trotting Horse, American Saddle Horse, and the Morgan are all sprung largely from the Thoroughbred, every breed of light horses carries the blood of the Arab in greater or less degree. 424 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 425 Turk, Barb, and Spanish horses.— The Turk, or Turkish horse, found in portions of European Turkey, but principally in Asia Minor, was of considerable importance in the seventeenth century, but it has deteriorated very much since then. The Barb is a native of the Barbary States, whence its name. It was found in its greatest perfec- tion among the Moors, who introduced the Barb blood into Spain during their rule in that country, and so improved the Spanish horse that for several centuries it occupied the first place throughout Europe. Spanish horses of this stock brought to America by the Spaniards were progenitors of the wild horses once common to Mexico and California. Origin of the running horse. — One of the first types of horses de- veloped in England was the running horse, the sport of racing having been fostered there from an early date. Long before an Arabian, Barb, or Turk stallion set foot on English soil, a strain of running horses of considerable excellence had been developed, hence the Oriental stallions which were later imported cannot be given more than half the credit for founding the running horse or Thoroughbred. The Thoroughbred owes his origin jointly to the native running mares of England and to the Arabian, Barb, and Turk stallions imported at the close of the seventeenth century. The Great Horse or War Horse. — The first tj^De of English horse was the "Great Horse" or "War Horse" used during the Crusades and up to about the year 1600 to carry the warriors clad in their suits of heavy armor. A knight in heavy armor, together with the armor for his horse, weighed about 400 pounds, hence the necessity for a big, strong horse. The native English horse was small, and in order to increase the size and strength, Flemish stallions were imported from Normandy, and for nearly 500 years English breeders centered their attention on the matter of size. With the appearance of gunpowder and firearms in warfare, armor was made useless and the heavy war horse gave way to much lighter animals with more speed. Origin of draft type. — When displaced in warfare, the ponderous war horse did not become extinct, but was put to work at tilling the soil. Prior to this, field labor had been performed solely by oxen, and the ox continued in use as a draft animal even after horses were in- troduced for farm work. The war horse thus became an agricultural horse and in time was utilized as the foundation of the British draft breeds — the Shire and Clydesdale. The Percheron breed was built up from the heavy diligence (stage-coach) horses used in France in the early days when roads were deep in mud. The railroad later displaced the diligence horse and he found a place on the farm. When a demand arose from cities for a horse suited to moving heavy freight through the streets, these agricultural horses in England, Scotland, France, and 426 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Belgium were bred larger, heavier, and better to meet the new demand, and thus originated the draft breeds as we know them today — Shire, Clydesdale, Percheron, and Belgian. This occurred in the first part of the nineteenth century. The hunter. — Fox hunting in England dates back to early times, and there has long existed a demand for a type of horse specially adapted to this sport. Strange to say, no breed of hunters has ever been developed, the demand being supplied by Thoroughbreds and grade Thoroughbreds of hunter type. The carriage horse. — The modem type of carriage horse originated less than 50 years ago. Prior to this, there was a succession of types dating from the time the most primitive carriages came into use cen- turies ago. The primitive carriage horse was a semi-wild pony, and he was harnessed to a couple of long poles, fixed at one end to the pony's neck, the other end dragging on the ground beneath the load. Next in the evolution of the modem carriage came the sledge, and later came a sledge mounted on rollers. In time the rollers were im- proved to the present form of an axle and wheels. All this was before the Christian era. Centuries more elapsed before anything deserving the name of carriage was built. Carriages were first used by the nobility of England about the beginning of the thirteenth century, but the roads were so bad and the vehicles so heavy that they were of little service until the end of the sixteenth century. It was not until more recent times that driving became a real pleasure, for carriage springs were not invented until about 1665 and in their first form appear to have been cmde and ineffi- cient. Toward the middle of the eighteenth century, great and rapid improvement was begun in highways, vehicles, and horses, so that the rate of travel was increased from 4 or 5 to 12 miles per hour. Then came the railway, displacing the road coach and consigning the carriage horse to the realm of pastime and pleasure exclusively. The first English carriage horse was the old black cart horse, or "shire horse" as he was called, heavy, ungainly, with a big head and shaggy fetlocks. He was descended from the old-time war horse, and hence was of Flemish blood. They were so slow that the footmen could easily go ahead when necessary and engage lodging at the next inn. As highways were improved and carriages made lighter, the cart horse was crossed with the Thoroughbred in order to secure lighter and faster animals for carriage use. Thus originated the Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse, two breeds of heavy carriage horses. The carriage horse as we know him today is comparatively a new type in both Europe and America. He is a medium-sized animal with outstanding beauty and attractiveness in both form and action. The Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 427 demand for such a horse did not arise until city streets were improved and carriages made elegant and comfortable, so that driving became a pleasure rather than a painful necessity. From what was called the Norfolk Trotter, which was a fast-trotting, plain, serviceable, moder- ate-sized horse formerly used by English farmers as a road horse (and used by them under saddle), there was developed in England the Hackney, which is today the foremost breed of carriage horses. The Norfolk Trotter originated at about the same time as the Thorough- bred, being the result of crossing Arabian and other Oriental sires on mares showing aptitude for the trotting gait, just as the Thoroughbred resulted from the crossing of these same sires on native running mares of proven ability on the turf. The polo pony. — The game of polo was introduced into England in 1874, and to America two years later. This sport calls for an active, rugged pony of about 14-2 hands, and those which best serve the pur- pose are small-sized or dwarf Thoroughbred horses. The horse in America. — From an equine standpoint, history re- peats itself to a considerable degree in America and also records the creation of at least two new and distinct types of horses. There were no horses on this continent at the time of its discovery, hence American horse history dates from 1492. The first horses were brought to this continent by Cortes and Ferdinand De Soto. Cortes used but few horses in his conquest of Mexico, some of which undoubtedly became the progenitors of the wild horse of the western plains. Similarly, horses abandoned by De Soto near the Texas border no doubt survived and were the principal foundation of the American wild horse. In colonial times, the most common type of horse was a small saddle horse measuring not more than 14 hands. These were the descendants of the small, unimproved European horses brought over by the first settlers and were of no particular breed or breeding. This little colonial saddle horse was indispensable as a utility animal, being practically the sole means of transportation in those early times. He was likewise a source of amusement and recreation, being used in running matches of short distances. For this latter purpose, however, the little saddler soon gave way to the English Thoroughbred imported quite extensively by the early settlers of the Carolinas and Virginia. Field labor was performed by oxen, except in Pennsylvania and New York where Flemish horses had been introduced from Holland. This Flemish horse was, as we have already seen, a large and rather ungainly animal, and when the colonies expanded westward, this horse was used to haul freight over the mountains from eastern ports to Pittsburgh and Wheeling. It required 12,000 wagons annually, each pulled by four or six horses, driven tandem, to carry on the vast freight- 428 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ing business which developed, and the freight bill amounted to $1,500,000 in a year. The wagons were called Conestoga wagons, and the horses were given the same name. ^ With the coming of the rail- road and the river boat, the Conestoga horses and wagons were quickly displaced and no further efforts were made to breed heavy horses in America until about 1870. The blood of the Conestoga was absorbed into the common stock of the country and the type became extinct. Thus we see that Colonial horse stocks were of three types only: (1) the little saddle horse, (2) the Thoroughbred, and (3) the Conestoga. Origin of the roadster type. — With the opening of roadways, vehicles were quickly brought into use, so quickly indeed that the so- called roads over which they were driven were little more than clear- ings through the woods with here and there a "corduroy" of logs to make passable som.e marshy spot. The roads were first improved in the more thickly settled parts of the country, and it was thus about Philadelphia that the roadster type of horse was originated at the beginning of the nineteenth century in response to the demand for a horse suitable for road driving and harness racing. The Am^erican Standardbred or roadster was derived from four sources: (1) the English Thoroughbred, (2) the Norfolk Trotter, (3) the Arab and Barb, and (4) certain pacers of mixed breeding. By selecting and breeding for speed at the trotting and pacing gaits, the Standardbred breed has been developed and today may be called a true breed, al- though the individuals composing it show considerable divergence in type. In Vermont the Morgan horse was developed. The Morgans descended from one horse, Justin Morgan, whose sire was a Thorough- bred, but whose dam was of unknown breeding. While often regarded as a breed, they really constitute a family of the Standardbred. American Saddle Horse. — At the time roads were being improved in the East, Kentucky and the West were still a country of bridle paths only. The blue-grass region of Kentucky is splendidly adapted to the production of light horses, and it was principally in that state and Missouri that the American Saddle Horse breed originated and de- veloped. Kentucky was settled in 1775, and as early as 1802 it was said that "almost all of the inhabitants employ themselves in training and ameliorating the breed of horses." The American Saddle Horse originated from crosses of the Thoroughbred upon pacers of mixed breeding which had been brought from Canada. Considerable Morgan blood entered into the making of the breed also. Starting with these materials, a type of saddle horse possessing great intelligence and ^The name "Conestoga" is said to be derived from a small river in Lancaster County, Pa., to which the Indians had given that name. — John Strohm: The Conestoga Horse, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, p. 175. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 429 beauty was established. These horses are taught five or more distinct gaits, and as a result of years of selection and breeding, there is today a natural inclination on the part of the American Saddle Horse to show these gaits, which include not only the walk, trot, and canter, but also the rack, running walk, fox trot, and slow pace. The general -purpose horse. — When the railway displaced the Conestoga horse, many farmers attempted to produce what was styled "the horse of all work." By this was meant a general-purpose horse useful to wagon, plow, or under saddle. The early agricultural papers were full of advice to farmers that such a type be bred, and fair associa- tions encouraged the movement by offering prizes for this class of horses. From 1840 to 1850 the "horse of all work" was the horse of the day. About 1850, the first draft stallions were imported from Europe, but they were not brought over with the idea of producing draft horses in this country, but to breed to the small native mares, with which this country was well supplied, in order to produce a general- purpose horse. Prior to this there were some attempts to produce such a horse by crossing the Thoroughbred and the Conestoga, but the progeny possessed most of the defects of both parents and were utterly unsuited for farm use or anything else. By 1870, breeders had come to realize that there is more profit in producing specialized types of horses useful for special purposes, rather than a single general-purpose type not capable of doing anything well. Thus, although articles still appear occasionally in farm papers advising the production of a general- purpose horse, and although some county fair associations persist in offering prizes for this ancient type, the general-purpose horse died a natural death a half-century ago. Let him rest in peace. The draft type in America.— About 1870, there arose a strong demand from cities for a heavy horse, and since that date large numbers of Percheron, Belgian, Shire, and Clydesdale stallions and mares have been imported to America for the purpose of breeding heavy horses fitted for the work of moving heavy loads over city streets — in other words, draft horses. America developed no draft breed of her own. After the Conestoga disappeared we had no heavy horses to use as a foundation for such a breed, and when the demand arose in this country several European countries had draft breeds ready formed which we borrowed from them. The carriage horse in America. — In America, as in England, the modem carriage horse is a recent addition to our types of horses. The more wealthy families among the early settlers of the Carolinas and Virginia kept coaches for use on state and social occasions, but the so- called roads were so miserable that driving was in no wise a pleasure. Most of the carriages in use in the early days were stage coaches which 430 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock did the work now done by railways. In 1812, the fare from Philadel- phia to Pittsburgh over the national turnpike, 297 miles, was $20 by coach, and it required six days to cover the distance. Crosses of the Flemish horse of New York and Pennsylvania with the little saddle horse gave the well-knit, sizeable horses required on these early coaches. With the growth of towns and cities, carriages became common, but the horses used would not today be classed as carriage horses although they were of a serviceable kind. Driving for pleasure and pastime, which in later years became so popular with city people, did not begin until after the Civil War, in fact it was not until 1880 that the modern type of carriage horse came into use. From that date forward, there was a large and increasing demand for smoothly-turned, high-stepping, well-mannered horses, weighing from 1,000 to 1,200' pounds. The animals which supplied this demand were for the most part recruited from the ranks of the Standardbred and American Saddle Horse, al- though our very choicest carriage animals have been English Hack- neys. Since 1900 the automobile has displaced a great many carriage horses, especially those of mediocre quality, but there still exists a demand for animals of show-yard quality for which good prices are paid. Efifects of mechanical inventions on horse types. — The invention of firearms resulted in a change in the type of the cavalry horse from the old-time heavy war horse to a lighter animal with more speed. The displaced type did not become extinct, but was put to use in the fields. The invention of the railway and steamboat and the building of canals restricted the horse's field of usefulness by displacing the stage coaches and the Conestoga horses and wagons. The Conestoga type then became extinct, being mingled and absorbed into the common stock of the country. In France the diligence horse was gradually developed into the Percheron breed. The application of electric power to street railways in 1888 closed a channel of disposal for thousands of cheap horses such as were used on the old-time horse cars, and the perfection of the bicycle and the fad for cycling which followed led many to believe a horseless age was at hand. But the street-car horse was not a profitable animal to produce, and many who took up the bicycle never owned a horse anyway. Horses came into greater de- mand and brought higher prices than ever before. Next came the automobile, the motor truck, and the tractor and again a horseless age was predicted. It is a fact that the motor is the strongest mechanical competitor the horse has had to meet, and while it is impossible at this time to say with exactness what the effects will be on horse production, enough time has elapsed to show that the horse yet has an important place on city streets and on roadways, as well as on the farm. The automobile, motor truck, and tractor are Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 431 not only doing the work that is also done by horses, but they are doing work which the horse cannot do. In other words, the motor has to a large extent created its own necessity. There is, on the other hand, a vast amount of horse work of various kinds which cannot be done by motors. The horse and the motor each occupy fields of their own, the margins of which overlap to some extent, and here competition be- tween the horse and motor is keen. The carriage horse and roadster have felt this competition most. Many large business firms have sold their draft horses and installed motor trucks, only to discover that the short haul may be made more economically with horses, and they have therefore reinstated horse equipment along with their motor trucks. Farmers have found that tractor manufacturers are over-enthusiastic regarding the tractor's ability to displace the horse upon the farm. The horse's place in the realm of sport is undisturbed by the automobile. Saddle horses, in- cluding the hunter and polo pony, are in good demand, and racing in harness and under saddle continues to prosper throughout the countrj\ Classification of the breeds. — The breeds of horses may be classi- fied according to type as follows, mention being made of the place of origin and of the number of registered purebred animals of each breed in the United States on January 1, 1920, as reported by the census: Type Breed Place of origin Number fPercheron France 70,613 JBelgian Belgium 10,838 J Shire England 5,617 • • • IClydesdale Scotland 4,248 Suffolk England (M [French Draft ^ France 2,964 (Hackney England 564 Cleveland Bay England ( ' ) Yorkshire Coach England ( M French Coach France ( M German Coach Germany 697 fStandardbred United States 4,021 Roadster Type { Morgan United States ( « ) [Orloff Trotter Russia ( M f American Saddle Horse United States 1,459 Saddle Type {Thoroughbred England 3,801 [Arabian Arabia ( * ) [Shetland Shetland Islands ( M Ponies ]Welsh Wales (M [Hackney England . (» ) All other 15,718 Draft Type. Total 120,540 1 In the United SUtes the term "French Draft" includes all animals registered in the National Register of French Draft Horses. All breeds of French draft horses are eligible to registry in this stud book. These are the Percheron, Boulonnais, Nivernais, Ardennais, and Bretonnais. However, the Per- cherons have their own stud book, the Percheron Stud Book of America, and nearly all registered pixre- bred Percherons in this country are recorded in it. Horses registered in the Percheron book are Percherons; those registered in the other stud book are French Draft. ' Not separately reported. CHAPTER XXXI DRAFT TYPE The first question which presents itself is — What is a draft horse? A draft horse is a horse adapted to the work of pulHng heavy loads at a walk. The conditions of street traffic in large cities demand the hauling of the largest possible loads. Distances are great and delays waste much time. At street crossings, bridges, and at railway cross- ings, minutes are lost that in a day count up to hours. At sidings and warehouses, it is a lucky chance if a team can get up to its door or car without waiting for one or more wagons to be loaded or unloaded ahead of it. There is thus a natural tendency for teamsters to haul big loads in order to move the freight, and this makes big horses necessary. Furthermore, big wagons, big loads, and big horses enable merchants to move the goods with less equipment and fewer drivers, and lessen expenditures for shoeing, feed, stabling, harness, and repairs. There is thus a tendency toward big horses and big loads in all cases where quick delivery is not imperative, and where loading and unloading are done at one or a few points. The heavy loading of wagons has gone so far that many cities have placed restrictions upon the size of loads, in order to protect draft animals from abuse. In Chicago, the maximum load for a single horse or mule is 3,500 pounds, and when two or more horses are hitched together, the maximum is 4,000 pounds per animal. We must bear in mind that the drafter is not only adapted to pulling heavy loads at a slow gait, but that this work is done on hard pavements in the city. The draft horse not only does the hardest kind of work required of horses, but he works under conditions which put his feet and legs to a severe test. The drafter may be said to be the real business horse, whereas the carriage horse, roadster, and saddle horse are largely used for pleasure purposes. In order to do the work required of him, the draft horse must possess the following qualifications: (1) Weight, (2) strength, (3) true, snappy action, (4) endurance and durability, (5) feeding capacity, and (6) good disposition. 1. Weight is decidedly essential. The heavier the horse, the more adhesion he has to the ground. When a horse is working in har- ness, the traces tend to lift the fore feet off the ground, and for this reason a heavy horse is able to use his weight to good advantage. In stage-coach days it was a common trick for the driver to throw a bag 432 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 433 of meal across a horse's back, or get upon a horse himself, in case the coach got into a place where a hard pull was necessary. By so doing, his team was often able to start the load without other assistance. The added weight produced more adhesion between the feet and the ground, thus enabling the animal to exert all his strength at a pull, instead of uselessly "scratching gravel" when trying to start. Standing on a hard surface, a man of 200 pounds weight can easily outpull a man of 150 pounds in a tug-of-war. If the 150-pound man take another man upon his shoulders and back, however, he can defeat his opponent who outweighs him by 50 pounds. The man on the shoulders of the 150-pound contestant adds nothing to the muscular power at that end of the rope, but rather lessens it; but the added weight and the increase in adhesion permit the full strength of muscles to be more nearly exerted, and the 200-pound man is readily defeated. The horse moves a load by (1) simply leaning against the collar, and (2) by muscular strength. Thus weight has a second advantage in that it takes the place of some of the muscular energy, for the weight of a heavy horse more nearly offsets the weight of the load than does the weight of a smaller horse, and every extra pound thrown against the collar means a corresponding reduction in muscular force required in moving the load. Then, too, as a rule, the larger the horse, the stronger he will be. To sum up, weight in the draft horse has three values: (1) It gives the feet more adhesion with the pavement or ground, so that the muscular power may be applied to the collar, (2) by offsetting some of the weight of the load, it lessens the amount of muscular exertion re- quired, and (8) as a rule, the heavier the horse, the stronger he will be. Some horses make up for a lack of weight by their superior ambition and courage. 2. Strength is a matter of muscling. Draft horses must be very muscular throughout, especially in the hindquarters. When judging drafters, fat should not be mistaken for muscle. 3. Action that is straight and true insures conservation of energy and sure-footedness. The action should also be snappy; this enables the animal to get over the ground rapidly, and shows a willing disposi- tion. Action is also valuable as an index to the way the horse is put together; true action can result only from proper placing of the feet and legs, in fact, from a proper proportionment of all parts, and their proper relation to one another. Correct action, showing trueness, snap, and length of stride, results from a rather rare combination of proper structure, muscling, and temperament. Therefore good action is not only valuable in itself, but is good evidence of merit in the entire make-up of the horse. 434 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 4. Endurance means the ability to do the day's work without fagging. Durability means the ability to work day after day without breaking down under the strain. Endurance is concerned mostly with wind, muscling, and feeding capacity, while durability depends mostly upon the feet and legs. Some first-hand horses last but six months, or even less, on city streets. Others last as long as fifteen years, and, in some cases, even longer. If a draft horse goes to pieces quickly when put to work, he is a considerable loss to the owner. Feet and legs are the parts most liable to prove defective. Lack of wind is a common fault. The horse with a short rib seldom stands up to hard labor very long. Buyers refuse to invest much money in horses that are shallow bodied and cut up high in the flank, such animals being poor feeders. 5. Feeding capacity. — The horse is comparable to a locomotive. He consumes hay and grain for fuel. Other things being equal, the greater the amount of fuel consumed, the greater the work that can be done. The drafter should be a good feeder. 6. Disposition. — To be of greatest usefulness a draft horse must be a prompt, willing worker that will be pleasant to handle, active, and quick to respond to commands, yet quiet and docile. DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE General appearance. — The form of the draft horse is broad, deep, massive, compact, rather low set, symmetrical, and stylish. He should have a short back and a long underline. He must weigh not less than 1,600 pounds, and ton horses are the sort to keep in mind as draft horses. Weights over a ton are not uncommon. It has been esti- mated, on the basis of weights and prices for horses at the large markets, that every 100 pounds above 1,500 adds $25 to the horse's value. As to height, drafters usually stand from 16 to 17 hands. The height over the hips should be no greater than at the withers, as this detracts from the symmetrical appearance, throws more weight upon the f orequarters, and makes the action stilted and heavy. Although the short-legged horse is more powerful, the horse with slightly more length of leg will take a longer stride, and may therefore be more useful. Some buyers also prefer a certain degree of height in the drafter because they use wagons with a high top or cover, and a short-legged horse would not be in harmony with such vehicles. At this point it may be mentioned that a great many firms desire horses which are not only able to do their work successfully, but which also have considerable style and beauty that will attract attention on the streets and help to advertise the firm and its business. To this end, a great deal of money is in- vested in vehicles nicely designed and ornamented, which are horsed Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 435 with animals that add to, rather than detract from, the appearance of the turnout. Buyers keep the vehicle in mind when buying horses. Quality and substance, as shown in head, hair, hoofs, bone, and joints, should be preeminent. Substance refers particularly to the size of the bone as shown in cannons and joints, while quality refers to the fineness of texture of all parts. Quality associated with substance insures good wearing qualities. Quality is shown in bone that is hard and smooth, joints that are well defined or clean, and cannons and pasterns that are entirely free from meatiness. As previously ex- plained, it is objectionable for a horse to be meaty in his knees or hocks or in the parts below them. The term "clean," as applied to the Fig. 163. — Points of the horse. 1. Muzzle 12. Crest 22. Fetlock joint 32. Croup 2. Nostril 13. Withers 23. Pastern 33. Tail 3. Face 14. Shoulder 24. Coronet 34. Thigh 4. Eye 15. Point of shoulder 25. Foot 35. Point of buttock 5. Forehead 16. Breast 26. Ribs 36. Quarters 6. Ear 17. Arm 27. Belly 37. Stifle 7. Poll 18. Elbow 28. Flank 38. Gaskin 8. Cheek 19. Forearm 29. Back 39. Hock 9. Jaw 20. Knee 30. Coupling 40. Chestnut 10. Throttle 21. Cannon 31. Hip 41. Sheath 11. Neck hocks, knees, cannons, ankles, and pasterns, means that these parts are entirely free from meatiness, swelling, or other unnatural develop- ment, so that the natural structure is sharply and clearly defined. 436 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Clean legs are one of the best and most important evidences of good quality. The cannons of some draft breeds have more or less long hair, called "feather." If it is fine and "pily," rather than coarse and curly, it indicates quality, for fine hair seldom covers rough, coarse bone. The entire coat, including mane and tail, also indicates quality if the hair is soft and fine. The horse with quality will have a head of medium size, a neat ear, a trim muzzle, and a chiseled appearance about the face and jaws. He also has hoofs of fine texture which will wear well, and his joints are less subject to bony diseases. Fig. 164. — A grand champion draft gelding. Master, an imported Clydesdale gelding, grand champion at the 1922 International Show. Exhibited by the National Biscuit Company of New York. Note the style and quality of this gelding, the correctly placed clean legs, sloping pasterns, and well-balanced conformation. The size of the head should be proportionate to the size of the horse. A pony head is not the right sort for a draft horse, and a barrel head indicates coarseness and lack of good breeding. Every line and feature should be distinct; there should be a chiseled appearance that indicates character, quality, and good breeding. Great width between the eyes and a broad, full forehead show intelligence. The eyes should be large, bright, clear, and very prominent, to insure good vision, for Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 437 the horse should be able to see where he is stepping. The nose and muzzle should be broad, indicating a good feeder. The nostrils should be large (but not permanently distended), to provide easy breathing. Trim lips that are thin show quality and refinement. Strong cheeks, and jaws that are wide across underneath, provide good grinding ability for proper mastication of feed. The ears should be of fine texture and medium size, and should be set well up toward the poll and carried alert. Ears set down on the side of the head and carried in a lopping fashion decidedly injure the appearance. The expression of the eye and the carriage of the ear are good evidences of the temperament and disposition.' The head should be of medium length, and, as viewed in profile, the face line should be rather straight. A Roman face line indicates a strong, determined will, and is not desirable. The neck of the draft horse should be at least medium long, and should be very muscular, with some degree of crest or arch to the top. The crest should be pronounced in the stallion, but not so excessive as to break over to one side. At the junction with the body, the neck should be very deep, but at the throttle it should be very trim and rather cut up underneath, with no fullness or thickness there to bring pressure on the windpipe. The head and neck should be carried well up, to insure good vision, lighten the forehand, and improve the appearance. The shoulders should be very deep, muscular, and have much slope. An upright shoulder results in transmission of shock, and also in shortness of stride. A sloping, muscular shoulder that is laid in snugly is conducive to good action. Frequently, the shoulders are too open and prominent, so that the horse does not stand over his legs as he should. Such horses do not take a straight stride, but swing their legs outward when in action. The tops of the shoulder blades should come well together so that the withers may be well defined, though muscular and not as sharp as in the lighter kinds of horses. The breast ^should be wide and very muscular. The chest should be full, wide, and deep, to provide room for heart and lungs. The horse is an athlete, and large lungs and good heart action are very essential. A contracted heart-girth shows lack of con- stitution. There is no such thing as too much heart-girth or chest capacity. The arm should be very muscular, and should be thrown forward to give slope to the shoulder. The forearm should be powerfully muscled, so that as viewed from the side it appears very broad next to the body, tapering to the knee. No muscles are present below the knees and hocks, hence the action is dependent upon the muscles above these joints. 438 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The knee must be broad from every point of view, and must be deep from top to bottom. This provides a large joint, indicating strength. The knee must also be straight, so as to set the leg straight below the body. There must be no meatiness about the knee or any of the joints or parts below, for, as has been stated, all muscles end above the knee and are attached to the parts below by tendons. Meati- ness about the knee interferes with the working of the tendons, and lessens the free and easy flexion of the joints. Hence the knee should be clean, flat across the front, and well defined. This is essential. The cannons should be short and clean, with the tendons large and set well back from the bone. As viewed from the side, there should be good width, and the cannon should be flat instead of round. As one passes the hand along the cannon bone, it should feel smooth, hard, and dense. The skin and hair covering it should be fine. Be- tween the bone and the tendons there should be well-marked depres- sions or grooves. Meatiness about the cannons is as objectionable as it is about the joints, and for similar reasons. The cannons furnish one of the best means of determining quality. Clean, flat, smooth cannons have bone that is composed of fine cells, and that is flinty in character. Coarse, rough bone is made up of large cells, and is porous and spongy. Too much refinement of bone is often found in the draft horse. On the other hand, large bone is frequently found which is very lacking in quality. There should be a combination of substance with quality. It is possible to make up in quality a certain lack of substance, but not the contrary. The fetlock joint should be wide from front to back, clean, and well defined. The pasterns should be oblique to relieve concussion, and should show reasonable length. A slope of about 45 degrees is desired. More slope than this tends toward weakness. The pasterns should show plenty of substance, yet be clean, and should spread out or expand at the lower end into wide, round, open hoof-heads or coronets. Feet. — The old saying, "No foot, no horse," is full of truth. A draft horse of excellence in all respects except feet is as worthless as a fine building on a flimsy foundation. When it is considered to what great stress the foot of the draft horse is subjected, the wonder is that feet last as long as they do on hard pavements. Driven against cobble- stones and brick by the great weight of the body above, the fore feet undergo repeated shocks which soon batter to pieces feet that are defec- tive. The foot should be large, to afford a large bearing surface. When viewed from front or side, the axis of the foot should coincide with the axis of the pastern. The hoof should appear dense, waxy, and smooth, indicating toughness and durability. The form of the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 439 hoof should be round. Inasmuch as the wall of the hoof grows out from the coronet or hoof-head, the size and shape of the foot will depend largely upon the size and shape of the hoof-head, which should there- fore be large and round. A foot that is large on the ground and cramped and small at the hoof-head has too much flare of the wall to provide strength, and is not a good foot. The sole should be concave, as this means strength. Flatness of sole is a common fault among draft horses. The bars should be strong to insure agamst contraction of the heels, and the frog should be large and elastic. The heels should Fig. 165. — The draft type. Big Jim, four times grand champion draft gelding at the International. J. H. S. Johnstone, of the Live Stock World, wrote the follow- ing regarding Big Jim when announcing his death in 1910: "There never was a prouder stepper in harness, and there never was a big one that held himself together and went at his work in a more sprightly manner. His size was immense — 2,385 pounds — and not one of his competitors ever approached him in that regard. Per- sonally I do not expect to see his like again." be very wide and fairly high, and the fore feet should be symmetrically made and uniform in size and shape. The position of the feet and legs should be as described in Chapter XXIX. The ribs should be well sprung and deep, giving a wide, deep body. Such a conformation provides a strong middle-piece, gives the neces- sary weight to the animal, and indicates good digestive capacity, as 440 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock well as ample room for heart and lungs. The distance from the last rib to the hip should be short, and the flank should be deep. Horsemen speak of a deep, full flank as a "good bread basket," and in certain sections of the country where a business is made of feeding drafters for market, care is taken to select animals for feeding that have deep, full middles, for the other kind are poor feeders and cannot easily be made fat. The horse that is cut up high in the flank is said to be "wasp waisted," "tucked up," or "washy." When put to work, such horses show lack of endurance or stamina, for they do not consume enough feed to replace the energy expended in doing hard labor; hence they become very thin in flesh, and are unable to do hard work for many days in succession. The middle of the draft horse in good flesh should be very large, and as round as a dollar. The back forms the connection between the power, which is in the hindquarters, and the point of application of this power, which is the shoulder. A short, rather straight, broad back that is heavily muscled affords the strongest conformation. A short, wide back is not only more rigid than a long, narrow one, but also brings the power closer to the collar; it is therefore much desired because of its mechanical advantage over the long, rangy conformation. The loin is usually called the "coupling." It lies just in front of the hips, and includes those vertebrae which have no ribs below them. The loin, lika the back, should be short, broad, and heavily muscled. Beginning with the hips and continuing throughout the hind- quarters, we are dealing with the location of those muscles which fur- nish power for draft, hence we want an appearance of great massive- ness everywhere. It used to be thought that the draft horse did his work simply by falling against the collar, thus bringing his weight to bear, and consequently that his forequarters ought to be as heavy as possible; it was no harm if his shoulders were straight, and as for his hindquarters, it did not matter much what they were. But this idea has been exploded and it is now known that he pulls by muscle more than by weight, and much more by the muscles of his hindquarters than by those of his forequarters. So we want the hips of the drafter to be wide and heavily muscled, yet smooth. A very broad and long croup gives the greatest area for the laying on of muscle. It should also be fairly level from hips to setting on of tail. A steep croup not only detracts from the appearance, but is also usually associated with shortness of croup, weakness of coupling, and crooked hind legs. The croup should be covered with heavy, massive muscles. The tail should be attached high, and should be full haired and well carried. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 441 The thighs should be very wide and should bulge with muscle, and the quarters should be very deep and heavy. The stifle should like- wise be heavily muscled, and there should be great width through the hindquarters from stifle to stifle. Viewed from the side, the thigh should be very wide from stifle to end of body. The gaskins, like the forearms, should be very wide and bulging with muscle. Hocks. — Suppose we have a pair of ton horses hitched to a big load. When the word is given to start, the horses extend and lower their heads, lean against the collar, crouch down behind by bringing their hind feet forward and flexing their hocks, and then the pull of Fig. 166. — Six high-class well-matched dralt geldings owned by Chestnut Farms, Walkersville, Md. , the powerful muscles of the hindquarters extends the hock joint and straightens the hind leg, thus bringing great pressure against the collar, and the load moves. The point to be remembered is that an enor- mous strain comes upon the hock, and if there is any weakness in that joint it is certain to cause trouble. The hock must be large, clean, wide both ways, and deep, and the point of the hock should be promi- nent. It should be straight from top to bottom. Hocks that are badly sickled, bowed outward, or cow hocked are not stout enough to match the strength of the muscles above. They thus limit the power of the horse and are likely to become unsound. Fleshiness and puff's are distinctly objectionable. Thick, meaty hocks are too common in 442 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock draft horses. A clean appearance, so that every angle and Hne of the joint is apparent, is very much desired. The requirements for hind cannons, pasterns, and feet are almost identical with those in front. However, the hind cannons are always longer and usually broader than the front ones. Also, the hind pas- terns are seldom so sloping, and the hind feet are not quite so large or round. There is less concussion behind than in front, but the stress is much greater at the pull, hence it is proper that hind pasterns and feet be a little more erect, in order to provide the necessary strength of conformation. From what has been said above, the value of a properly set hind leg, as viewed from behind, is emphasized. If the horse is "bow legged," his legs will prove weak when the strain is put upon them. Fig. 167. — ^Heavy drafters in harness. This is the noted team of grays which was invincible at the leading shows a few years ago. They were shown both in the United States and Great Britain. Big Jim was the near wheeler in this team. Owned by Armour and Company of Chicago. Walking on a crooked hind leg is comparable to driving a bent nail. The force of the hammer bends the nail instead of driving it into the wood, and a crooked hind leg bows outward instead of remaining rigid and transmitting full force against the collar. Now that the details of the drafter's conformation have been de- scribed, a word may be added regarding symmetry or proportionment of parts. The fact is that some horses are good in their various parts, yet fail to present a good appearance. What they lack is symmetry. The head may be good, and the neck may be good also, but the two may be joined at an angle which injures the appearance. The neck may not rise from the shoulders as it should. The feet may be good, but may be too small to be in proportion to the size and weight of the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 443 animal. The top line from head to tail may be an irregular line full of angles, whereas it should be gracefully curved. The hips may be wide, which is desirable, yet they should not be wide out of all propor- tion to the rest of the body, so as to be ragged and prominent. Seem- ingly small factors such as these may or may not affect the horse's usefulness for work, but frequently they constitute the difference be- tween a plain animal and one of show-yard character, between which there is a great difference in price. One horse looks as though he were made up of a lot of different-sized parts which do not fit well together, while the other seems cast from a carefully prepared mould. Standing in natural position, the symmetrical horse carries his head and neck well up, so that the face line, shoulder, and pastern all slope at nearly the same angle; the croup is fairly level from hips to tail, the tail is set high, and all parts of his conformation are so proportioned as to give him a well-balanced appearance. The action of the draft horse should be true, snappy, and bold. As you see him going or coming, the movement of the legs should be straight in the line of motion, the feet being carried true, with no paddling or irregularity of gait. Walking away from you, he should move with enough snap to give you the flash of his shoe at every step. As you view him in action from the side, he should show length of stride and enough height of action to clear the ground safely at each step. High knee action is not essential; in fact, carriage horse action in a draft horse means useless expenditure of energy. However, there should be a strong, free movement of knees and hocks, without dragging or stiffness. The walk is the real gait of the draft horse, and an active, snappy, springy walk, with trueness and length of stride, is the prime essential so far as action is concerned. However, the trot often magni- fies defects in gait so that they are more easily seen, and in show and sale rings drafters are shown at both gaits. The stride in the trot should be long, true, springy, steady, businesslike, and moderately high. Horsemen like a bold way of going that indicates willingness and courage in the horse. In action, the hocks should pass close together, so close in fact that they nearly brush each other. Some horses go so wide behind that a wheelbarrow could be put between the hind legs and scarcely touch them. Any tendency to spraddle behind is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, defect which the drafter can exhibit, so far as action is concerned. ■ The study of action is one requiring close attention. The observer must take into consideration every movement of the horse. Attention must be given not only to the movement of the feet and legs, but also to the carriage of the head and neck and the entire body. The head 444 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock should be carried well up, giving a stylish appearance and a good out- look, and the top of the horse should be carried level and true, with- out any rolling or wobbling motion from side to side, and without any indication of lameness. The front and hindquarters should act in unison, and the legs should be kept well under the body as the horse travels, showing no tendency to drag the hind legs, and especially the hocks, out behind the body. When kept up underneath as they should be, and when all the motions of the horse are in unison, we say that he moves in a collected manner. As before stated, perfection in action can result only when there is a combination of proper conformation and strength, and a willing disposition. Common defects in the action of draft horses are: (1) going wide at the hocks, (2) swinging the fore legs outward, called "paddling," (3) swinging in, (4) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called "interfering," (5) twisting striding leg around in front of support- ing leg, called "winding," "plaiting," or "rope walking," (6) short, stubby stride, (7) low, skimming action, called "daisy cutting," (8) unsteadiness of gait, (9) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called "forging," (10) excessive lateral shoulder motion, called "rolling," (11) lack of energy or snap, and (12) lameness. On the matter of type.— To present the best appearance, the drafter should not be over-drafty in type; that is, shortness of leg and compactness and width of body should not be carried to the extreme. A certain degree of length of leg, length of neck, and length of under- line is necessary, not only for the sake of looks, but also because it actually makes the horse more useful. He takes a longer step, and will do more work in a day than the extremely pudgy type of horse. On the other hand, we certainly do not want a horse that is all length and style. We must aim at the middle ground, selecting for as much style as may be had without sacrifice of any of those qualities which make the draft horse useful for his work. Finish. — The term "finish" refers to fatness and to the condition of the coat. The horse market discriminates in price to a considerable degree between the fat drafter and the thin one, and it is surprising what an improvement is made in some horses by the addition of fat. Fatness adds to the weight, improves the form and spirit, and provides the necessary reserve store of energy to carry the horse through the first few weeks in the city during adjustment to city sights, sounds, loads, pavements, stables, and other new conditions. Although fat is important in the horse for sale or show, the judge must learn to distinguish between fat and muscle, and must not be deceived as to size of middle, spring or rib, or length of back and croup. The coat should be well groomed, so as to give the animal a sleek appearance. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 445 Color. — It is commonly said that a good horse cannot have a bad color. By this is meant that color is disregarded if the horse suits otherwise. Some colors, however, are very generally disliked, and still other colors are not liked by some persons. For instance, duns, flea- >= '-:^ Fig. 168. — Before and after fattening. A gelding fattened by B. E. Car- michael of the Ohio Experiment Station. Fattening shortened the hi ck. fil'ed out the coupling, smoothed the hips, lengthened and levelled the croup, rounded out the middle, gave crest to the neck, transformed his angular lines into pleasing curves, and changed his worried expression of eye and ear to one of contentment, alertness, and spirit. The feet and legs, however, are not improved during the fattening period. It might be assumed from these pictures that fat will transform the head, neck, and entire top of a horse from inferior to excellent. However, when fat this gelding does not have the big middle which a fat horse should have, neither does he show just the right lines and proportions. It is difficult to recognize the merits of a thin animal, and it is almost as difficult to see the faults of a fat one. The above pictures strikingly illustrate these facts. 446 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bitten grays, white horses, very light grays, and spotted horses are universally discounted, either because they are hard to groom, hard to match, or because the color is unsightly. Dark colors, such as dark or steel gray, dark dappled gray, dark bay, dark brown, dark chestnut, dark roan, and black, are given preference. Dark dappled grays are well liked by buyers, and some firms will accept no other color because the flash gray color attracts attention to their turnouts. It is not uncommon for business houses to adopt some color as a sort of trade- mark, on account of the advertising value. However, color is of less importance in draft horses than in any other type. This is true be- cause the drafter is a business horse, whereas other types are valued mostly for pleasure purposes. Weight for age. — Draft horses that are properly fed and cared for usually reach at least 50 per cent of their matured weight at 12 months of age; 75 per cent at 24 months; 85 per cent at 36 months; 95 per cent at 48 months; and 100 per cent at 60 months. On this basis the horse that is to weigh a ton at maturity should weigh not less than 1,000 pounds at 12 months, 1,500 pounds at 24 months, 1,700 pounds at 36 months, 1,900 pounds at 48 months, and 2,000 pounds at 60 months. These are general averages. Variations will occur depending on feed, care, breed, sex, and individual. Belgians and Percherons mature somewhat earlier than Shires and Clydesdales. Mares and geldings mature quicker than stallions, but do not as a rule make as heavy weights at maturity. Some highly-fed colts and fillies make the weights mentioned at 12 and 24 months and then stop growing so soon that they fall considerably below a ton at maturity. This is especially true of yearlings and two-year-olds that have a compact, low-set form and finished appearance like a mature horse, instead of the growthy, rugged appearance characteristic of youngsters that ultimately reach real draft horse size and weight. CHAPTER XXXII THE CARRIAGE OR HEAVY-HARNESS HORSE The carriage horse is also called the "heavy-harness" horse be- cause he wears heavy leather in contrast to the harness worn by the roadster. The modern carriage horse is almost exclusively a pleasure horse. He is put before various kinds of pleasure vehicles ranging from the light runabout to the heavy coach, and it is therefore apparent that there should be a wide range in the size and weight of carriage 7Mr^ Fig. ibJ. Cciir.agu ui iitci.j^-iiaii.to^ ^.» pt- liucvuty ii.a.r, i^Liccu ul' Dia- monds, imported and owned by the Truman Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111. horses in order to meet the widely varying demands of the various vehicles and uses to which this horse is put. In other respects, all carriage horses are very nearly alike. The value of the carriage horse is determined by (1) beauty of conformation, (2) action, (3) manners, (4) temperament, (5) color, and (6) endurance and durability. 1. Beauty of conformation. — The conformation of the carriage horse must show beauty, style, symmetry, and finish. Being a pleas- 447 448 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ure horse, it is the abihty not only to do certain work which determines value, but to do this work gracefully, and to present, while standing or in action, a picture of pleasing appearance. 2. Action. — Here again, beauty is the thing sought at the expense of other qualities. The carriage horse must not only go level, true, and collected, but he must go very high — the higher the better. With Fig. 170. — The heavy-harness type in action. Hackney pony, Irvington Model, bred and owned by W. D. Henry, Sewickley, Pa. this end in view, he is bred, fed, shod, trained, bitted, and driven with a view to securing as much height of action as possible — not because it makes him more useful for his work, but because it makes him more pleasing to look upon. 3. Manners. — If the horse fails to respond to commands, pos- sesses a strong will that rebels at these commands, or fails to act quickly, his lack of manners may result disastrously to the occupants Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 449 of the carriage. Bad behavior while standing or in action also lessens the attractiveness of appearance. He must be so thoroughly trained and familiar with the commands of his driver that the execution of whatever is asked will be done involuntarily, unhesitatingly, and in- stantly. Every command of word, whip, or rein must be received intelligently, and intelligently acted upon by the horse. 4. Temperament. — The sanguine or nervous temperament is the one desired in carriage horses, for without it we cannot expect that degree of action which is required, nor that quickness of response to commands which is essential. 5. Color. — The dark solid colors are preferred, as being in proper accord with the elegant vehicles drawn by this horse. White ankles are often favored, because a horse so marked has his action emphasized and easily seen. Grays, roans, and light colors usually are heavily discounted or even rejected, and in horses for ladies' use even the white markings are discriminated against. True elegance and good taste are wanted, and this excludes colors that are flashy and calculated to attract undue attention. 6. Endurance and durability. — The carriage horse is required to make only short trips at moderate speed. Endurance is not so essen- tial, therefore, as in other tj^Des. However, durability, which means wearing quality, is of great importance. Extrem.ely high action makes necessary the best of feet and legs. Durability is almost entirely de- pendent upon the amount and quality of bone, and the structure and texture of feet. DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE General appearance. — Compactness and fullness of form are re- quired in order that the horse may fill his harness properly and be in proper keeping with the vehicles before which he is put. He must possess great smoothness of conformation, with all his lines curving rather than angular. He must appear snugly put together. Medium length of leg is required to give proper action and lend him style and symmetry. The height ranges from 14 to 16-1 hands, and the weight from 900 to 1,300 pounds. The greatest demand is for horses standing from 15 to 16 hands. Quality is indicated in bone, joints, hoofs, hair, head, and smoothness of form. As the subject of quality has been fully discussed in connection with draft horse type, lengthy description is unnecessary here. Quality is valuable in the carriage horse because it assures durability, and because refinement and smoothness add beauty to the horse. The head should be refined and well proportioned with every fea- ture sharply defined. The forehead should be broad, and the eyes 450 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock should be large and prominent. Strong jaws and a wide muzzle are desired, yet the muzzle must be trim, the lips thin, and the entire head free from any appearance of coarseness. The nostrils should be large. The ears should be fine, placed close together near the poll, and carried alert. The attachment with the neck must be clean and graceful. The appearance of the head should indicate intelligence, alertness, and quality. Length of neck is very essential. It should be gracefully arched and bear considerable muscle, — enough muscle to lend fullness and strength, but not so much as to give an appearance of heaviness or coarseness. The upper border of the neck should be fine along its entire length. The neck should blend nicely with the shoulders. Without a high-class front, the horse cannot qualify as a heavy-harness horse of superior type. Long, snugly laid shoulders that have a decided slope and are well muscled are wanted. The withers should be well set up and should show refinement. The chest should be moderately wide and very deep. The breast should be carried out prominently and be rather muscular. The middle of the horse should be round, full made, short on top, and long below. This calls for long, well-arched ribs and good depth of flank. The back, and especially the loin, should be thickly muscled and short, giving strength and a smooth, finished appearance. Depth of flank is essential to a good appearance and good feeding qualities. The hips should be smooth. Prominent hips detract from the smoothness of form which is so much desired. A long, level, fairly broad, well-muscled, and smoothly turned croup is the most attractive and the best indication of strength. The tail should be attached high and carried out from the quarters. Carriage horses usually have the tail docked and set. Full, muscular development of thighs, quarters, and gaskins gives the desired fullness of form and necessary strength. Legs.— Superior quality of bone, associated with substance, should be evident in the cannons. The arm should be very muscular. The forearm should be muscular and long. The knee must be wide both ways, deep, and clearly defined. The hocks should be wide, deep, straight, and clean. The cannons, both front and rear, as viewed from the side, should be broad and flat, with the grooves between the cannon bone and tendons easily seen and felt. Straight, strong fetlock joints are essential. The front pasterns should slope at an angle of about 45 degrees, and be long enough to give elasticity of stride, yet show suflicient substance to insure strength. Proper position of the legs is of greater importance in this type than in draft horses. So much of the value of the horse depends upon action, and so much of action Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 451 depends upon proper position of the legs and feet, that great attention should be given to this point. The legs must come straight down and the toes point straight forward to insure true action. Feet. — The size of the foot should be proportionate to the size of the horse. Roundness and size of hoof-head, width at the heels, and height at both heel and toe are important. The discussion regarding the sole, bars, frog, denseness of horn, etc., as given in connection with draft horse type, applies here with equal force. Action. — The requirements of action in the carriage horse are: (1) trueness, (2) height, (3) length of stride, (4) collection, (5) elastic- ity, (6) boldness and power, (7) gracefulness of movement, and (8) moderate speed. The walk must be snappy, quick, and businesslike Fig. 171. — The carriage horse in harness. Compare this picture with Fig. 174 and note the difference in height of action, type of vehicle, and weight of harness. This is the noted Hackney mare Bountiful, owned by Judge W. H. Moore of Chicago. to a marked degree. But it is at the trot that action is wholly revealed. The flight of each foot must be straight and true. The fore foot should be carried forward and high up, as if following the rim of a rolling wheel, and the stride should be long. The foot meets the ground easily and without apparent jar, in fact the step appears elastic, and the meeting with the ground seems to send the foot on again as though it were made of rubber. Every movement must show grace and style, and the whole attitude of the horse should be one of combined courage and power. 452 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Proper folding of the knee meets only half of the requirement. Associated with this, there should be a decided flexing of the hock. The hind foot will leave the ground with snap and free movement of pastern, and the hock will be carried, not backward, but upward to- ward the dock, to accomplish which the hock must be flexed very decidedly. Action is so valuable in the heavy-harness horse that breeders and dealers often resort to artificial means to secure it in horses which are deficient in their movement. Heavy shoes produce height of action. The toe is allowed to grow out long which also adds weight to the foot and requires more effort on the part of the horse in breaking over as ^ >w Fig. 172. — Sensational action. Little Ruby, a champion Hackney pony stallion owned in England. he takes a stride, so that when he does break over the extra force tends to carry the foot higher and farther away. No matter how natural it may be for a horse to go high, he still requires proper shoeing, bitting, training, and driving, in order that his inherent ability may be de- veloped. Even after the horse is "made," as the saying goes, if he is placed in the hands of an inexperienced reinsman, unskilled in driving heavy-harness horses, the result will be a failure. The trained carriage horse responds superbly under the guidance of the master reinsman. Given proper aids from word, whip, and rein, the horse in- stinctively responds with the best performance of which he is capable. CHAPTER XXXIII THE ROADSTER OR LIGHT-HARNESS HORSE The roadster or light-harness horse is distinctly an American type, or strictly speaking, it is a breed — the American Trotter or Standard- bred. The light-harness horse is a pleasure horse exclusively; his domain includes the regular race tracks, where he is used for profes- sional racing, and also the city speedways and snowpaths and country roadways, where amateur racing and road driving are indulged in by men who admire the trotting horse and seek recreation in the open air. Roadsters or "gentlemen's drivers" also form classes at our horse shows. This type is styled "light-harness type" because, on both road and track, the horse works in light-weight harness that is quite in contrast to the heavy leather worn by the heavy-harness horse. The harness is light because the vehicles to which this horse is put are very light in weight. In professional racing the bike sulky is used, which weighs from 27 to 35 pounds; in matinee racing the vehicle used is a light speed wagon having four wheels but of the same general construction as the sulky, and weighing only 65 to 68 pounds. On the road the hitch is to a light wagon weighing about 175 pounds, which may have a top much like the common piano-box buggy. For snow racing a specially constructed speed sleigh is used, weighing a little less than 100 pounds. The value of the light-harness horse is based upon (1) speed, (2) stamina or endurance, (3) durability, (4) temperament, and (5) beauty of conformation. 1. Speed. — Whether in use on or off the track, the light-harness horse is prized very largely for his speed. For racing purposes he is required to show 2 :30 speed at the trot, or 2 :25 at the pace, before he is considered a light-harness horse in the true sense of the word, and for road use he should be able to do at least ten miles within an hour. The ability to "get there" is the thing for which this horse is bred and trained. The world's trotting record is now 1:56^ (which means 1 minute and 56 ^^ seconds for the mile) and is held by Peter Manning, a gelding. The world's pacing record is 1:553^, held by the stallion Dan Patch. The fastest trotting and pacing records and the years when they were established are as follows:^ iThe Horse Review, Dec. 13, 1922, p. 1214. 453 454 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Fastest trotting and pacing records Trotting records Pacing records 1 mile Peter Manning (1922). .. 1:56 s^ Dan Patch (1905) 1:55^ 2 miles The Harvester (1910) . . . 4:15^ Dan Patch (1903) 4:17 3 miles Nightingale (1893) 6:55M Elastic Pointer (1909) 7:31^ 4 miles Senator L. (1894) 10:12 Joe Jefferson (1891) 10:10 Smiles Zambra (1902) 12:24 Lady St. Clair (1874) 12:54^ 10 miles Pascal (1893) 26:15 Stallion Lee Axworthy (1916). . . . 1:58^ Dan Patch (1905) 1:55 Ji „ XT jj /1Qoo^ 1.KC1/ /Miss Harris M. (1917) 1:58J4 Mare Nedda (1922) 1:58K (Margaret Dillon (1922). . . . 1:58^ Gelding Peter Manning (1922). . . 1:56% Frank Bogash Jr. (1914). . . 1:59 J^ Yearling Airdale (1912) 2:15% Frank Perry (1911) 2:15 2-year-old. . .The Real Lady (1916). . . 2:04% Direct the Work (1917). . . . 2:06H 3-year-old . . . Sister Bertha (1920) 2:02% Anna Bradford (1914) 2:00% 4-year-old. . . Arion Guy (1921) 1:59^ William (1914) 2:00 5-year-old. . .Peter Manning (1921). . . 1:57% William (1915) 1:58^ Under saddle.Country Jay (1909) 2:08% George Gano (1915) 2:10% Team Uhlan and Lewis Forrest Minor Heir and George (1912) 2:03% Gano (1912) 2:02 2. Stamina or endurance.— Most racing, both amateur and pro- fessional, is at mile heats over half-mile or mile tracks. Some races are two in three, and some three in five, heats. Not until some horse has succeeded in winning the necessary two or three heats is the race decided. For this reason, some races extend into very gruelling con- tests. Some horses show a wonderful burst of speed for a quarter of a mile or so, and then quit. These horses are said to "lack bottom," by which is meant a lack of stamina or endurance. Stamina means ability to go a mile at speed, and to repeat the mile, two, three, or more times, with intermissions of not less than 25 minutes. To accomplish this requires heart and lungs of the first order, together with a well- developed muscular system. On the speedway and snowpath there is a great deal of brush racing, that is, racing over short distances of vary- ing lengths, depending on the wishes of the drivers and the ease or difficulty in passing opponents. This is usually not so severe as a regular racing program, provided the horse has been properly condi- tioned and trained. 3. Durability. — It is readily apparent that the work required of the light-harness horse is of such a nature as demands the best of feet and legs. This t3T)e of horse has a decided advantage over the carriage horse and drafter, in that he works on a much more yielding footing, yet the high rate of speed puts his feet and legs to a very severe test, and many horses with speed and stamina have their usefulness and value greatly lessened because of failure to keep sound when called upon to go through a strenuous racing campaign or do a large amount of work on the road. 4. The temperament must be decidedly sanguine, which gives courage, willingness, and promptness, with no sluggishness. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 455 5. Beauty of conformation is a comparatively small factor in determining the value of light-harness horses for racing purposes. Some breeders have placed considerable emphasis on the matter of looks and attractiveness, but in general it may be said that beauty in the light-harness horse, while appreciated whenever it occurs, has not been fully emphasized by breeders, because they have been catering to the demand of the race track, and that demand is for speed above everything else. In selecting roadsters strictly for road driving, how- ever, speed is not so important as endurance and the ability to make a Fig. 173.— Roadster or light-harness type. AzoflF, 2, 2:14^; son of Peter the Great 2:07i^ and Dolly Worthy 2:27\i, by Axworthy 2:15^. Owned by John R. Thompson, Libertyyille, 111. Azoflf is the sire of the present world's champion trotter, Peter Manning 1:56 ?4. long drive in creditable time, and for this work a horse of attractive, finished appearance is highly desirable. A big, strong, well-made horse, with quality, a well-carried head and tail, light mouth, good manners, excellent feet and legs, and a long stride, is the sort best suited for road driving. In order to win prizes in the larger horse shows, attractive form and action, style, and beauty, combined with speed, are highly essential, and a height above 15-2 is preferred. But for 456 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock racing purposes the almost exclusive requirements are speed, stamina, and durability. DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE General appearance. — There is considerable variation in the size and general appearance of the light-harness horse. The demand for speed has been so great that breeders have been obliged to center their attention upon this one factor almost to the exclusion of other desirable features, including uniformity of type. However, in breeding for speed alone, certain other characters are bound to be impressed also. Speed in the light-harness horse is associated or correlated with refinement, endurance, and courage. Size, symmetry, and beauty are not corre- lated with speed except in the most general way. The light-harness horse varies in weight from 800 to 1,250 pounds, and in height from 14-2 to 16-1. Weights from 950 to 1,150 pounds and heights from 15 to 16 hands are most common. This type is rather upstanding, leggy, long, deep, narrow, and angular. Quality is shown by clean, smooth, dense bone; sharply defined tendons and joints; a chiseled, blooded- looking head; fine skin and hair; fine-haired mane and tail; and hoofs of smooth, dense horn. The head should be refined and well proportioned, with a straight face line, a fine muzzle, large nostrils, and thin, trim lips. The eyes should be large, prominent, clear, and bright. The forehead should be high, broad, and full. The ears should be fine, pointed, set close, and carried alert. A long, lean neck, with a fine throttle, is desired. Ewe necks are common. A straight neck, or one with slight arch, is preferable. Long, smooth, sloping shoulders, fitted close to the ribs, and high, refined withers are essential. The middle of the light-harness horse is characterized by a deep rib without much arch. The chest gets its capacity from depth, rather than from width. A straight, medium-short, well-muscled back and loin are essential. The underline is long, and the flanks should be well let down. The hips should be of medium width. This type does not present as smooth a hip as the carriage horse. A little prominence of hip is not very objectionable, but if this is so pronounced as to give a rough appearance it is undesirable. A long, level, muscular croup of medium width is best suited to this type. Defective croups are common. The tail should be attached high and well carried. Long, muscular thighs give speed. Well-muscled quarters are necessary for strength. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 457 Legs. — Length of leg is necessary for speed, yet there should be proper proportion between length of leg and size of horse. A shallow body set up high on very long legs is not a good type. The arm should be muscular, and carried well forward, while the forearm should be long and muscular, with a nice tapering to the knee. This provides room for the long muscles associated with speed. The knees must be clean, bony, straight, broad, deep, and strongly supported. The cannons should be broad, with large, clean tendons set well back from the bone. Straight, wide fetlock joints and strong, sloping pasterns of good length are very necessary. The fore leg must be straight, and the toe should point directly forward, to insure trueness of action. A long, muscular gaskin is an important requirement. This brings Fig. 174. ^The light-harness horse in action. The Harvester 2:01, former champion trotting stallion, driven by Ed Geers. Owned by C. K. G. Billings of New York. the hocks far below the point of the buttock, which is essential in securing speed. Clean hocks that are wide, deep, straight, with promi- nent point, and well supported below are very necessary. The hind legs must be set straight, with the toes pointing straight ahead. Sickle-shaped hind legs are rather too common. Feet. — The best of feet are necessary. Although this type is usually afforded an easy footing, nevertheless the tremendous concus- sion puts the feet to severe strain when the horse travels at speed. At high speed, a stride of 19 or 20 feet is attained. Imagine the force of the concussion when a 1,000-pound horse strides 20 feet in less than half a second, as is the case when the horse is trotting at a two-minute 458 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock gait. The feet should be well-developed, uniform in size, point straight forward, and slope at the same angle as the pastern. The horn of the hoof should be dense and smooth, the sole should be concave, the bars strong, the frog large and elastic, and the heel wide and open. Gait. — Both pacers and trotters are found among light-harness horses. These gaits differ from each other in that the pace is a lateral motion in which the fore and hind leg of the same side act together, while the trotter moves diagonally. A change of a few ounces in the weight of a shoe often transforms the gait. Many horses hold records at both gaits. The pacing gait is about two seconds faster for the mile than the trot, but it is not so popular with horsemen as the trotting gait, especially for road driving. With the pace there is often asso- ciated a decided rolling of the body, which is disliked, the pull on the vehicle is jerky, and the pacer does not work well in the mud or where the going is heavy. The natural pacer also frequently possesses a steep croup, short underline, and sickle-shaped hind leg. Action. — The walk should be true, quick, elastic, and regular. The trot, in order to be fast without undue tiring of the horse, must be straight and true, with regular, even, long stride. Height of action is of little importance; in fact, the less knee and hock action the better. It is only important that the foot clear the ground, accompanied by enough action of knee and hock to secure length of stride. There should be no hitching or unsteadiness of gait, and no great tendency to break when going at speed. The action should be what is sometimes termed "frictionless," giving one the impression of a perfect mechanism that can travel at greatest speed with no waste of energy. It is appar- ent that much of the success of the light-harness horse depends upon good action, and good action, in turn, is dependent largely upon proper position of the legs. Defects in conformation result in knee knocking, speedy cutting, over-reaching, and other faults of action. ^ Common defects in the action of light-harness horses are (1) swinging the fore feet inward, instead of carrying them straight away, (2) a stride in which extension is more marked than flexion, and in which the heel of the foot strikes the ground first, called "pointing," (3) pause in flight of foot before foot reaches ground, called "dwelling," (4) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called "forging," (5) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called "interfering," (6) hitting front of hind foot, above or at line of hair, against toe or fore foot as it breaks over, called "scalping," (7) the trotter at speed often goes rather wide behind, and he sometimes strikes his hind leg, above the scalping mark, against the outside of the I Faulty shoeing also frequently causes faulty action. Correct shoeing fre- quently overcomes or minimizes natural faults in action. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 459 breaking over fore foot, called "speedy cutting," and (8) "cross firing," a fault in pacers corresponding to forging in trotters. The condition of the light-harness horse is in marked contrast to the types previously described. When in desirable racing condition there seems to be a total absence of fat from the muscles. A clean-cut, sinewy appearance indicates proper racing trim. For hard use on the road a fat horse is almost equally objectionable. The fat horse is soft, sweats easily, and tires quickly. However, proper condition is not secured by giving short rations. The roadster should be well fed, and kept in proper condition by plenty of exercise. Color. — A study of the American Trotting Register, which is the stud book in which Standardbred horses are recorded, indicates that the colors per thousand horses are as follows: 605 bays, 140 chestnuts, 130 browns, 85 blacks, 25 grays, 13 roans, and 2 duns. The first four colors — bay, chestnut, brown, and black — are liked best. Grays, roans, and duns are not so popular. CHAPTER XXXIV THE SADDLE HORSE Any horse used for riding might be called a "saddle horse." But there is a certain type of horse best suited to carrying a man in safety and comfort, and this is the type to bear in mind when thinking of saddle horses. The horse of all pioneer peoples is the saddler. In new countries, before the opening of roads, the saddle horse is of greatest Fk;. 17.1. J'UL-i^Miifd saddle horse. The noted prize-winning sUillion, Ken- tucky's Choice, owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. usefulness. When the country becomes settled and roadways are opened and improved, other types of horses quickly appear, and there is less and less real necessity for the saddle horse; but the saddler never disappears from any community because he is highly prized as a horse for pleasure and recreation. When roads were being opened in the states along the eastern seaboard and the roadster began to gain popularity, Kentucky, Mis- souri, and the West were yet a country of bridle paths, and there the saddle horse was held in high esteem. In 1818 a traveller through the 460 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 461 Kentucky blue-grass region reported that "the horse, 'noble and gener- ous' is the favorite animal of the Kentuckian, by whom he is pampered with unceasing attention. Every person of wealth has from ten to thirty, of good size and condition, upon which he lavishes his corn with a wasteful profusion." Besides Kentucky and Missouri, the states of Virginia and Tennessee have been intimately connected with saddle horse development in America. These four states produce many excellent saddle animals annually. Today, saddle horses are used in a business way by the cavalry of the United States Army and National Guard, by the mounted police of the larger cities, by cattle drovers in rural districts, by cattle buyers and salesmen at the large live-stock markets, by ranchers in the West, and by overseers and managers of large plantations and farms in the South, East, and Central West. However, the high prices for saddle horses are paid by people to whom the saddler is a pleasure horse. In city parks and on country roads are to be seen many excellent saddle horses used strictly for pleasure and recreation. All good saddle horses possess a general type which we may call "saddle type," but the uses made of saddle horses are so varied that several varieties or sub-types of the saddle horse exist, each possessing a distinct type of its own. The most important of these sub-types are (1) the five-gaited saddler, (2) the three-gaited horse, (3) the hunter, and (4) the polo pony. All of these are pleasure horses. The running horse or race horse, the cavalry horse, and the western cow pony are other sub-types adapted to certain special uses, but the following dis- cussion is confined to the four first mentioned. A brief description of the cavalry horse will be found in the chapter dealing with market classes of horses. The Five-Gaited Saddle Horse The five-gaited saddle horse is also known as the American Saddle Horse, this being the name of the breed which supplies practically all horses of the gaited class. To classify as a five-gaited horse, the saddler must have at least five gaits, four of which must be the walk, trot, canter, and rack. In addition to i'.iese four, the horse must have one or more of three slow gaits — the running walk, fox trot, and slow pace. The gaited saddler is the horse that has made Kentucky and Missouri famous. There ho is looked upon with great admiration, and bred and trained with great care. General appearance. — The gaited horse wears a natural mane and tail, in contrast to the other types of saddle horses. The breeders of this type lay stress upon loftiness of carriage, airiness of movement, refinement, intelligence, docility with high spirit and courage, — withal. 462 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock great beauty in every detail of conformation, without any sacrifice of those qualities which insure durability and creditable performance of the work demanded of a saddle horse. A leading Kentucky breeder presents the points of the typical five-gaited saddle horse in the follow- ing brief paragraph : ^ "The typical saddle horse does not differ materially from other light horses in conformation. The characteristics peculiar to the type are a long, clean neck, sloping pasterns and shoulders, withers moder- ately high and narrow, a short and compactly coupled back, smoothly turned quarters, and a well-set, high-carried tail. In action there should be promptness, ease, and precision in going from gait to gait, and abs6lute straightness and evenness in each. The rack should be smooth, swift, and without side motion of the body or legs, the trot should be fast and without offensive flashiness, the canter should be slow with no increasing speed, the flat-footed walk should be springy and reasonably fast, while the running walk, or fox trot, should be easy and comfortable and equal to about five miles an hour." Gaits. — In a wild state the natural gaits of the horse were four in number — the walk, trot, pace, and gallop or run. Under domestica- tion these gaits have been variously modified and additions made for saddle purposes. These additions and modifications are largely the result of the selection for breeding purposes of those animals most readily acquiring the desired gaits when trained to them. The gaits desired in the five-gaited type of saddle horse are as follows: Walk. — The flat-footed walk should be springy, regular, and reasonably fast. Trot.— This is a diagonal gait, the off fore foot and near hind foot striking the ground together, the body being then propelled forward from this support and sustained by the near fore foot and off hind foot. It is a "two-beat" gait. The trot should be fast, with only moderate height of action, extreme knee action being undesirable. Many other- wise excellent saddle horses cannot trot well, "pointing" and coming down on their heels, instead of exhibiting a well-balanced trot. The canter is a restrained gallop. It is slower than the gallop and easier to ride. With proper training, the horse easily acquires this gait. It should be slow, with no increasing speed. The canter is not considered perfect until the horse can perform it at a rate no faster than a fast walk. To "canter all day in the shade of an apple tree" is a saying sometimes used to describe the canter of a highly trained saddler that can canter very slowly and in a small circle. A well- trained horse will change lead in the canter, and start with either foot leading, at the will of the rider. »Bit and Spur, Sept., 1912, p. 22. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 463 The rack is a four-beat gait, each foot meeting the ground singly, all the intervals being equal. Hence it is sometimes called "single foot." This gait may be distinguished by the ear alone, because the foot-falls are rapid enough to produce a characteristic clatter. The rack is taught by urging the horse with the whip or spurs and restrain- ing by the curb. This breaks up the movement of a slow gait, and the restraint is sufficient to prevent a free trot or canter, so that the horse flies into a rapid four-beat gait. The rack is easy for the rider, hard for the horse. It is showy, and some horses can perform it at great Fig. 176. — The saddle horse in action. Edna May, undefeated five-gaited mare, ridden by Mat S. Cohen, Lexington, Ky. Owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. This picture shows correct degree of knee and hock action and proper carriage of head and tail. speed. This gait has been officially named the "rack" by the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, hence the name "single foot" should not be used. It should be smooth, swift, and without side motion of the body or legs. The slow pace, sometimes called the "stepping pace," is the true pace so modified that the impact on the ground of the two feet on a side is broken, the hind foot touching first, thus avoiding the rolling motion of the true pace. The slow pace is a comfortable and attrac- 464 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock tive gait. Many trainers do not favor it, for the liorse easily falls into the habit of taking the true pace which is not a desirable saddle gait because it is rough and uncomfortable. The true pace is the worst gait a saddle horse can possess; the rider cannot rise to it and save himself as in a trot. The fox trot is a slow, short-striding trot. It is not so popular as the running walk. It is a broken-time gait and difficult to describe. Some riders, when asked to exhibit the fox trot, simply restrain their h'lr, ]: . The three-gaited saddle type. Connoisseur, an excellent type of walk, trot, canter horse, owned by William Ritter, Columbus, Ohio. horses to as slow a trot as possible, seeking to pass that off as a fox trot, but the true fox trot is not accompanied by restraint. The running walk is a slow gait, as are also the slow pace and fox trot. The running walk is faster than a flat-foot walk and is taught by gently urging the horse out of the ordinary walk, but restraining him from a trot or rack. It is intermediate between the walk and rack. The movement of the legs is more rapid than in a walk, but in about the same rhythm. The true running walk is usually characterized by a bobbing or nodding of the head, and, in some instances, by a flopping Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 465 of the ears, in unison with the foot-falls. It is an all-day gait, easy and comfortable to both horse and rider, and equal to six miles an hour or more. It is, however, not as showy or attractive as the other gaits. The Three-Gaited Saddle Horse This type is also styled the "walk, trot, canter horse," and the "park hack." This is the horse which conforms to English fashions, whereas the five-gaited saddler is exclusively an American type. General appearance.— The walk, trot, canter horse usually has his mane pulled and his tail docked and set, in accordance with English fashion, whereas the five-gaited horse wears a full mane and tail. Otherwise the two types have much the same general appearance. Most three-gaited saddlers are American Saddle Horses which, for one reason or another, are marketed as three-gaited horses. There are also quite a number of walk, trot horses which are of Thoroughbred breeding, and some have a strong infusion of Standardbred breeding. In such cases, the head and tail are not carried so high, and there is not the evidence of style in form and action which characterizes the horse that is of American Saddle Horse breeding. Gaits. — This horse must show three gaits, and three only: the walk, trot, and canter. It is as objectionable for a three-gaited horse to show more than the gaits mentioned as for the five-gaited horse to know less than five gaits. While many people have adopted the walk, trot, canter horse in preference to the five-gaited type because they accept English horse fashions as law, there is still another reason why the American type with its five or more gaits is not favored by all riders. The reason is that there is no advantage in having a horse with all the gaits unless the rider is skillful enough to keep them distinct. If the rider is less instructed than the horse, a sad confusion of paces is apt to result. A well-mouthed, well-suppled horse with a good trot and a good canter is more useful to the ordinary rider than is one of the highly accom- plished gaited saddlers; hence the popularity of the three-gaited horse, especially in the larger cities. Saddle horse breeders recognize this state of affairs and annually send to market a large number of three- gaited animals, as well as large numbers of five-gaited horses. Outside of the matter of gaits, the requirements for the five-gaited and three-gaited types are so nearly identical that one discussion will suffice for both. REQUIREMENTS OF THE SADDLE HORSE The essential points to be looked for in a saddle horse are (1) beauty of conformation, (2) sure-footedness, (3) comfortable seat, (4) 466 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock best of manners, (5) knowledge of the gaits, (6) endurance and dura- bility, and (7) dark solid color. 1. Beauty of conformation. — Attractiveness of form and action is almost, if not quite, as valuable in the saddle horse as in the carriage horse. People who ride for pleasure take as much pride in the owner- ship of an attractive animal as do the owners of carriage horses. 2. Sure-footedness. — Saddle action must, first of all, be safe and sure. A horse inclined to stumble is dangerous and cannot be highly- valued for saddle purposes. 3. Comfortable seat. — Though a horse be sure-footed, he will not be of much use or value for saddle work unless he gives his rider a pleasant ride. Rough-gaited horses are not useful saddle horses. 4. Manners. — The intimate relation between horse and rider calls for the very best of manners. Conduct that would be tolerated from a horse in harness may be very disagreeable if the horse is under saddle. The very nature of the use to which the saddler is put makes manners one of the prime essentials. 5. Knowledge of gaits. — To a considerable extent the value of the saddle animal is measured by his knowledge of the gaits. As this is largely a matter of training, it is placed fifth in the list of require- ments. There must be no mixing of gaits; each gait must be distinct, and the horse should change gaits promptly and easily at the signal from the rider. 6. Endurance and durability. — This implies a good middle and enough substance combined with quality of bone and joints to insure good wearing qualities. 7. Color. — Dark colors are much preferred, including bay, brown, chestnut, and black. Flashy colors such as dapple gray, roan, dun, cream, white, and parti-color are too conspicuous for ordinary saddle use. DESCRIPTION OF SADDLE TYPE Size and weight. — These are quite variable depending on the character of the work and the weight of the rider. The height is usually from 15-1 to 15-3 hands, and the weight from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds. For the purpose of comparison the heights and weights of the various sub-types of saddle horses are here given: Type Height Weight Five gaited 15 —16 900—1,200 Three gaited 14-3—16 900—1,200 Hunter 15-2—16-1 1,000—1,250 Cavalry 15 —16 950—1,200 Polo pony 14 —14-2 850—1,000 Conformation. — The saddle horse is considered by many people to be the most stylish, beautiful, and finished of all horses. The princi- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 467 pal requirements in conformation are (1) a long, refined neck, (2) nicely sloping pasterns and shoulders, and (3) moderately high and refined withers. The lines of the head should be cameo-like in sharp- ness and clean-cutness. An ideal saddler will naturally have a head showing an unusually kind disposition and high intelligence, for the intimate relation between horse and rider demands the best of manners in the horse and thinking ability on both sides. The head should be set at the right angle on a very long, refined, nicely arched neck. Un- less there is lots of horse in front of the saddle, the appearance is spoiled, and a horse with a short, straight, heavy neck is not easily controlled. There should be easy flexion of jaw and neck, and this is possible only with a long, refined neck, properly arched. However, a "weedy" neck, that is, one lacking in muscular development, is not wanted. Much attention must be given to the slope of pastern and shoulder, for straight pasterns and shoulders are more objectionable in the saddle horse than in any other type because they are almost certain to make the horse a hard rider. Height and refinement of withers are necessary for a similar reason. Horses that are low in the forehand are not comfortable to ride. Furthermore, the saddle cannot be made secure on round, flat withers, this being particularly true of the side saddle. The extension of the shoulder into the back and shortness and strength of coupling are very important. A straight or reached back does not aff'ord an easy ride; there should be a certain degree of springiness, without any weakness or sway-backed conformation. The saddle horse is somewhat upstanding, and the head and tail should be smartly carried. Refinement and finish. — The saddle horse should possess a high degree of quality, and lots of smoothness from end to end. There should be greater refinement of head, ear, and bone than in the heavy- harness type of horse. The shoulders should be well laid in, and the hindquarters smoothly turned. The smoothness of the typical saddler is in marked contrast to the angular appearance of the roadster. Rotundity of body is a highly desirable feature. Levelness of croup is more important in the saddle horse than in any other typ^', if a horse has a steep croup, the defect is magnified a great deal when the saddle is placed upon his back, and he presents a plain appearance. Action. — The action should be energetic, elastic, of moderate height, and especially there should be trueness of motion in all gaits. Gracefulness and ease of action are very desirable. A springy step resulting from sloping pasterns and shoulders is more essential in the saddle horse than in any other type. A straight-shouldered and -pas- terned horse gives one a ride like a carriage without springs. Collected action, by which is meant harmony or unison of movement between 468 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock fore and hind legs, is necessary for gracefulness and comfort. It also means that the legs will be kept at all times under the weight, thus permitting of quick turns or any other evolutions desired. Collected action is largely a result of properly training the horse, and skill on the part of the rider. By pressure of the leg, or use of the whip or spur, the horse is kept alert, with his hind legs well under him, while the hands bring sufficient pressure on the mouth to restrain the movement slightly, arch the neck, and secure a slight yielding of the jaw. If the action is not collected, the horse moves awkwardly and executes sudden commands in a clumsy fashion. Temperament and disposition. — The temperament should be san- guine, as in all other light horses. The disposition should be kind, willing, honest, and courageous. There should be docility with high spirit and animation. CHAPTER XXXV THE HUNTER AND POLO PONY The hunter and polo pony differ rather markedly from the two types of saddle horses described in the preceding chapter, largely be- cause they are required to do work of a highly specialized nature in which performance is of greater importance and beauty less valued than with the gaited horse and park hack. Hence, the hunter and polo pony are given separate consideration in order that their peculiari- ties of type and requirements may be better emphasized. The Hunter The hunter is the type used in following the hounds in fox hunting. He must be up to carrying his rider at good speed over long distances across country, jumping fences and ditches when called upon to do so. Like the park hack, this is an English type. The American demand for this horse is limited, but the supply is more limited, and some high prices have been paid for hunters in this country. From the nature of the work, the hunter must be a horse of more size, ruggedness, and constitution than the other types of saddle horses. He must be a stayer at hard work, a jumper, and a horse of courage and decent manners. His bone must be of good size and of the right quality, and there must be an evidence of strength throughout his conformation. Otherwise he cannot long withstand the hardships of the hunting field. Height and weight. — With reference to height, much will depend upon circumstances. Weight-carrying hunters are always more diffi- cult to procure, and command higher prices. Short, light-weight men prefer 15-2 hands to 15-3, but where fences are high, tall horses are necessary. Some hunters are nearly 17 hands. Hunters are classed as light, middle, and heavy weight according to their size and weight. Most of the hunting horses in use range in height from 15-2 to 16-1 hands, and in weight from 1,000 to 1,250 pounds. The general appearance of the hunter should be that of a thin- skinned, big-boned, small-headed, fine-shouldered, deep-chested, clean- legged animal, with a neatly turned, compact body, and having a facial expression of great keenness, docility, and quick perception. The head should be refined; the forehead straight; the eyes large and prominent; the ears erect and thin; and the skin covering the head 469 470 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and face should also be thin, rendering the various prominences upon the skull easily apparent. The high-class hunter should have a mild, keen, and extremely intelligent expression. The neck must be long, narrow towards the poll, and the head should be carried obliquely, a lofty carriage being undesirable in the hunter. As the shoulders are approached, the neck should increase in width, be of moderate thickness, and clean along its upper border, with a closely-cropped mane. Many hunters are very weedy in the neck, and if this is the case, the horse is unable to recover himself in the Fig. 178. — A typical hunter. Surprise, a winner at the Royal Hunter Show and many other shows in England. Owned by Sir Merrick Burrells. event of a fall, as the muscles of the neck materially assist in raising the forepart of the body in its attempt to regain balance. The upper border of the neck should pass into high withers, and most of the best hunters are high in this region. When judging hunters, attention must be fixed upon the shoulders, not only while the horse is at rest, but also when jumping, as good shoulder action is one of the most important points in a hunter. In action it must be free and full, yet fine, because if the shoulders are logged up with muscles (heavy shoulders), the free action is interfered with when jumping. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 471 The chest must be deep; in fact, it is self evident that a hunter should be "well-hearted" in order to provide plenty of space for the free play of heart and lungs under extreme exertion. Width of chest is not required and often means bulky shoulders. A slightly flat side is desirable, though the ribs must not be short, otherwise the horse becomes "tucked up" or "washy" in appearance. The back and loin should be of medium length, and the latter must be broad and clothed with powerful muscles, passing into neatly Fig. 179. — The hunter in action. Edward B. McLean's Alarms jumping at the National Capitol Horse Show, Washington, D. C, ridden by Louis Leith. turned quarters — the so-called "goose rump" being of objectionable conformation. The arms should be strong and powerful; the forearms of good breadth above and ending below in broad-jointed, clean knees. A stiff knee is certainly detrimental, as is also low daisy-cutting action, as such horses cannot freely flex and extend their joints during the leap. The thighs and gaskins must be neatly turned, and clothed with powerful muscles. Particular attention must be paid to the hocks and 472 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to hock action; the hock joints must be broad, deep from front to back, clean in outhne, and covered with thin skin. The cannons, fetlocks, pasterns, and feet demand special examina- tion. The so-called "clean" legs are indispensable, and every horse- man knows the meaning of this term. Associated with cleanness must be considerable substance. The fetlocks must be capable of full flexion. The ideal pastern is one with a moderate degree of slope, broad in front, deep from front to back, and well rounded at the sides. It should be covered with thin skin. Pasterns that are too long, too oblique, or light in the bone, are of bad conformation; and short, up- right pasterns are extremely objectionable for very evident reasons. Fig. 180. — A hunt team and pack of fox hounds. The feet must be concave on their lower surface, proportionate in size, of good shape, well open at the heels, neither contracted nor cracked. Color. — In selecting a hunter, color seldom plays any part, and in the hunting field are horses of almost every color. Bay, brown, light or dark chestnut, and gray are the principal colors, more especially bay and brown, with either white or black points. Disposition is of great importance in order to insure the safety of other horses, the hounds, and the rider. Some hunters are tremendous pullers, in fact, defy all attempts to hold them. There is great differ- ence in temperament and disposition; one hunter will rush at his fences in a reckless and headstrong way, and another will even walk to his Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 473 jump and clear it in a businesslike manner. It is because so many- Thoroughbreds have bad dispositions, that horses having a small amount of draft blood are often more desirable as hunters than are those of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Production of hunters. — There is no breed of hunters. They are largely of Thoroughbred breeding, about seven parts Thoroughbred and one part cold (draft) blood being a generally accepted formula in breeding hunters. This proportion is secured by mating a three- quarter-blood mare with a Thoroughbred stallion of correct type to get hunters. The infusion of cold blood gives greater size and rugged- ness and a better disposition, but is said to lessen to some extent the staying qualities and gameness of the animal. Some most excellent hunters have come of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Ireland has long enjoyed a wide reputation for the rearing and sale of the best hunting horses, the name "Irish hunter" carrying the idea of super- excellence in this type of horse. The Polo Pony Modern polo is largely a rich man's game. It is played with four mounted men on a side, the object being to drive a wooden ball be- tween goal posts at the ends of a field 300 yards long and 120 to 150 yards wide. Each player carries a long-handled mallet of regulation design. It is a very fast game for both ponies and men, requiring quickness and precision. History of polo. — Polo existed in Persia and Turkey before the tenth century. Thence it spread to Central Asia, Thibet, and Central India, being found at Calcutta in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is said to have also existed in Japan a thousand years ago. English officers returning from India in 1874 started polo at the Hurlingham Club, Fulham, England. Hurlingham has since been recognized as the great center of the sport, and the rules it has laid down have been accepted as authority in every country except America, where a few changes in these rules have been made. The game was introduced into this country in 1876. When first introduced, the ponies used were 13-2 hands high, but larger and faster ponies were found more advantageous. The present rules limit the height of ponies to 14-2 hands or under, but this rule is not strictly enforced; the modern game is played at such high speed that only big 14-3 to 15-hand Thoroughbred or three-quarter-blood ponies are con- sidered good enough for important matches. The range in weight is from 850 to 1,000 pounds. Demand for good ponies. — There was a time when western cow ponies made acceptable mounts for the game, and a small percentage 474 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of these developed into really good polo ponies. In almost every case, however, the best modern ponies were sired by Thoroughbred stallions. English ponies used for polo have always carried more or less Thor- oughbred inheritance; they are bred in the purple, trained two years, and carefully stabled and fed. In 1909 the American team which went to Hurlingham to compete for the world's championship was enabled to win largely because of the excellence of their ponies. These ponies were English-bred, and were reported to have cost high prices ranging up to J$5,000. In championship contests, four to six ponies are used by each player and some players maintain a big string of ponies from which to make selections for games. '^*^. Fig. 181. — Polo pony of excellent type. Owned by L. Waterbury and ridden by him when a member of the American team which won the International Cup from England. What constitutes a good polo pony? — The polo pony must combine speed with weight-carrying ability. He must be wiry, agile, and under proper training must acquire ability to quickly start, stop, and wheel. He must have a light mouth. He must be intelligent and learn to like the game and follow the ball. The disposition must be such as insures a level head, doggedness, docility, courage, and quickness. A pony that pulls hard or becomes wild in a fast scrimmage, or swerves off the ball, is useless in first-class polo. The game calls for lots of endurance and wearing quality, hence the conformation of middle, hindquarters, feet, and legs largely deter- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 475 mines a pony's adaptability for the game. The object of breeders is to produce a pony 14-2 hands high, able to carry from 168 to 200 pounds for ten minutes in a fast game. The polo pony should be built like a weight-carrying hunter. His head should be well set on, wide between the jaws, with plenty of room at the throttle. He should have a big, clear, sound, prominent eye; small, pricked ears, indicative of alertness; a well-formed, well-arched, and muscular neck; a fine, sloping shoulder; not too fine at the withers, and his breast should be ample and in proportion to the remainder of the forequarters. His forearms should be big and powerful, the knees wide, particularly good under the knee, with a short cannon. The fetlocks should be large and clean, the pasterns well supplied with bone, Fig. 182. — The polo pony in action. and of proper slope and strength. The foot should be of good size, smooth, nicely shaped, the heels open, and the frog well developed and elastic. He should be deep from withers to sternum, and fairly wide through the chest; he should be short in the back, well coupled, ribbed close up to the hip, with plenty of muscle behind the saddle. His thighs and quarters should be big and powerful, and the gaskin should bulge with muscle also. The hock should be broad and flat, with the natural prominences clean-cut and well developed. The tendon of Achilles should be well defined and powerful. There should be great bone below the hock, and in other respects the hind leg should be similar to the fore one. 476 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Production of polo ponies.— At present the only method of pro- ducing ponies such as the modern game demands is the mating of polo pony mares with a Thoroughbred stallion of approved type. How- ever, a very large percentage of get is over height and only a small percentage of foals that are of proper size have the conformation and disposition to become polo ponies. The breeding of this pony is a proposition only for the specialist who makes a special study of the requirements of players and of methods of production. CHAPTER XXXVI MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES The present rank and importance of the leading horse markets is shown by the following figures giving the receipts of horses and mules for three years, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics: Receipts of horses and mules at leading markets in three years Market 1922 1921 1920 Total 1. St. Louis 95,048 67,756 143,425 306,229 2. Kansas City 38,310 30,453 71,797 140,560 3. Chicago 31,689 33,723 43,020 108,432 4. Fort Worth 28,610 13,086 45,362 87,058 5. Memphis 46,249 14,770 8,006 69,025 6. Buffalo 21,159 23,687 22,526 67,372 7. St. Joseph 15,961 11,580 29,768 57,309 8. Wichita 17,936 10,885 24,714 53,535 9. Pittsburgh 14,131 10,742 20,472 45,345 10. Denver 13,485 9,639 17,591 40,715 11. San Antonio 9,212 6,314 24,573 40,099 12. Richmond 13,161 10,266 16,167 39,594 13. Sioux City 7,954 7,262 23,238 38,454 14. Atlanta 7,955 3,119 25,931 37,005 15. Omaha 8,871 6,779 18,751 34,401 16. Montgomery 14,133 4,002 11,969 30,104 Totals 383,864 264,063 547,310 1,195,237 Methods and cost of marketing. — G. E. Wentworth, superintend- ent of the horse market at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, states: ^ "Carloads of horses for sale on the Chicago market receive the best handling when consigned to reliable commission men. They can be sold privately or at auction. The usual custom is for the shipper to accompany his horses, arriving at the market on Friday or Saturday, selling as many at retail as he can on Saturday and Sunday morning up until 10 o'clock, which is when the Chicago market closes on Sunday, putting the rest of his horses into the auction on Monday or Tuesday. The shipper gets his position in the auction according to the order in which the horses are removed from the cars. "The feed rates on the Chicago market are at present $1.25 for the first day and $1 for each succeeding day per horse. The commis- sion for selling is $3 a horse. Nearly all the shippers find it advanta- geous to employ a "swipe" to put their horses in condition. They all braid and sack their horses' tails before going into the auction, as it makes them look more attractive. Some horses are sold shod and some 1 Breeder's Gazette, Feb. 22, 1923, p. 258. 477 478 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock unshod. The shoeing rates in Chicago are $1 per shoe, at present. Exclusive of the freight, shippers tell me that their expenses can be figured to average at least $8 a horse in Chicago." Auction rules. ' — At the large horse markets, horses are sold at auction under certain rules which are well known and understood by all horsemen who buy or sell at these markets. As the horse comes into the auction ring, a clerk on the auctioneer's stand displays a pla- card on which appears in large letters the rule under which the animal will be sold, such as "Sound," "Serviceably sound," "At the halter," etc. The rule under which the horse is sold is a guarantee made by the seller to the buyer. The buyer has until noon of the following day to refuse the horse, if upon examination and trial he finds that the animal is not as represented. The definitions of the principal rules which govern the sale of horses are given below. Exceptions to these rules may be announced from the auction stand, pointing out the defects, in which case they are recorded and go with the horse. 1. Sound. — Perfectly sound in every way. 2. Serviceably sound. — Virtually a sound animal, barring slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness in any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or streak in the eye which does not affect the sight will be considered serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way. 3. Wind and work. — The only guarantee this carries with it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker. 4. Work only. — He must be a good worker, but everything else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work, 5. Legs go. — Everything that is on the animal's legs goes with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not be lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound in every other respect. 6. At the halter. — Sold just as he stands without any recommenda- tions. He may be lame, vicious, balky, a kicker, or anything else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title only is guaranteed. Market requirements. — The factors that determine how well horses sell upon the market are soundness, conformation, quality, con- dition, action, age, color, training, and style. These, together with some minor considerations, are discussed below. Soundness. — The market demands that a horse be serviceably sound, by which is meant one that is as good as a sound horse so far as service is concerned. He may have slight blemishes, but nothing 1 Illinois Bulletin 122, Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C. Obrecht, has been used as the basis for much of this chapter and Chapter XXXIX. The student will find it well worth while to refer to this bulletin, especially for the excellent illustrations which it contains. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 479 that is likely to cause lameness or soreness. He must be good in wind and eyes, but may have small splints and puffs, and a little rounding on the curb joint. Broken wind; thick wind ; sidebones; unsound hocks such as curbs, spavins, and thoroughpins; large splints; and buck knees are discriminated against. Conformation. — If a horse is to do hard work, with a minimum of wear, and give the longest possible period of service, he must possess a conformation indicative of strength, endurance, and longevity, the indications of which are good feet, a good constitution, good feeding qualities, good bone, and symmetry of conformation. Conformation has been discussed fully in connection with the various types described in preceding chapters, and no further discussion is necessary here. Fig. 183. — Horse market at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago. Uindmg and trying-out horses immediately after purchase. If the horse is found to be not as represented at time of sale, the buyer has the privilege of returning him to the seller. Quality in a horse is of great importance, as has already been emphasized. A horse lacking in quality is a comparatively cheap animal. Condition. — To be appreciated on the market, a horse must be fat and possess a good coat of hair, which gives him a sleek appearance. Condition is most important in draft, chunk, and wagon horses. When a green horse goes to the city, he loses weight during the first few weeks until he becomes used to the new conditions, and it is a decided advan- tage if he enters city work carrying a high finish. When a horse is fed to a high state of fatness it invariably improves his spirit and style, as well as his form and weight. In some individuals, fat covers many faults. The man who sends his horse to market in finished form is offering the animal in most attractive condition. Condition is a very important item of value on the horse market. 480 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Action has been fully discussed in preceding chapters. We have seen that the requirements vary according to the type of horse, and that action is always a very important item of value, in some instances being as important a factor as any in determining the value of the horse. Age. — Horses sell best from five to eight years old. Heavy horses, such as drafters and chunks, sell best from five to seven years old, but a well-matured four-year-old in good condition will find ready sale. Carriage, saddle, and road horses sell better with a little more age, because they do not mature so early and their education is not com- pleted as soon as that of heavy horses. They are most desired from five to eight years old. Color. — As a rule, the color of horses is of secondary importance, provided they possess individual excellence. Previous discussions of the various types have shown that color is of more importance in pleasure horses than in those used for business and utility purposes. Training and disposition. — Every class calls for a horse of good disposition and well educated for his work. Mere "greenness" in a drafter, however, does not affect the price much if he is free from vice and bad habits, but carriage and saddle horses must be thoroughly schooled in order to realize good values. Sex is not of great importance in the market. However, geldings sell better than mares for city use, as there is some liability of mares being in foal, and if not, the recurrence of heat is objectionable. For farm use and southern trade, mares are preferred, because farmers buy horses with the expectation of breeding them. The breed to which a horse belongs has but little or no influence upon his market value as long as he has individual excellence. Style and freshness.— If able to shape themselves well in harness, very plain horses often make a stylish showing, and this increases their value materially. They should be spirited and energetic, which gener- ally comes from being well fed. They should be well groomed, the hair being short and sleek, lying close to the body, and possessing a luster which indicates health. Clipping of the foretop and legs should not be practiced in the case of heavy horses, as it is an indication of staleness or second-hand horses. The presence of the foretop and feather leaves no doubt as to freshness from the country. The feet should be in good condition and of a good length hoof, which is neces- sary to hold a shoe. Breeders make no real effort to supply some of the market classes of horses, either because the demand is very limited or the price too small. Such classes are supplied by careless breeding, by the mixing of types, and by the misfits which result even when the breeding of horses is conducted as carefully as possible. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 48i The classification outlined below includes not only those classes of horses which are regular commodities on the large horse markets, but also other classes which are only to be had from certain dealers and breeders who cater to an exclusive trade not represented at the large markets: General class DRAFT HORSES. CHUNKS Height Hands Weight Pounds Class f Heavy Draft 16 to 17-2 1,750 to 2,200 JLight Draft 15-3 to 16-2 1,600 to 1,750 [Loggers 16-1 to 17-2 1,700 to 2,200 WAGON HORSES carriage HORSES. ROAD HORSES SADDLE HORSES. 1,300 to 1,550 1,200 to 1,400 800 to 1,250 1,350 to 1,500 1,100 to 1,400 1,150 to 1,300 1,400 to 1,700 1,200 to 1,700 1,100 to 1,250 900 to 1,150 1,000 to 1,150 1,050 to 1,200 900 to 1,050 900 to 1,150 900 to 1,200 900 to 1,200 1,000 to 1,250 950 to 1,200 850 to 1,000 Eastern Chunks 15 to 16 Farm Chunks 15 to 15-3 Southern Chunks 15 to 15-3 Expressers 15-3 to 16-2 Delivery Wagon 15 to 16 Light Artillery 15-2 to 16 Heavv Artillery 16 to 17 Fire Horses 15 to 17-2 fCoach Horses 15-1 to 16-1 I Cobs. 14-1 to 15-1 I Park Horses 15 to 15-3 [Cab Horses 15-2 to 16-1 /Runabout 14-3 to 15-2 \Roadsters 15 to 16 f Five-Gaited Saddler. ... 15 to 16 iThree-Gaited Saddler. . .14-3 to 16 ■j Hunters 15-2 to 16-1 Cavalry Horses 15 to 16 [Polo Ponies 14 to 14-2 f Feeders 1 Range Horses Ponies Plugs Weeds Draft Horses A full description of draft type has already been presented, so that it is only necessary to mention here the chief distinctions between the three market classes. Heavy Draft, Light Draft, and Loggers. Heavy drafters are the heavier weights of the draft class; they stand from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 1,750 to 2,200 pounds. The light drafter is similar in type to the heavy drafter, but is smaller; they stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands, and weigh from 1,600 to 1,750 pounds. While 15-3 hands is accepted as the minimum height for light drafters, it should be understood that a 15-3-hand horse is less desirable than a taller horse, and he borders closely on the class known as eastern chunks. Loggers are horses of draft t3T)e that are bought for use in the lumbering woods. This trade demands comparatively cheap horses, MISCELLANEOUS. 482 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock yet wants them big and strong. Because of the prices paid, the trade is usually compelled to take the plainer, rougher horses of the heavy draft class, and some are slightly blemished or unsound, such as "off in the wind," small sidebones, curbs, wire marks, etc. Loggers should stand from 16-1 to 17-2 hands, and weigh from 1,700 to 2,200 pounds. Chunks The term "chunk" is significant of the conformation of most of the horses in this group. Chunks are of three classes. Eastern, Farm, and Southern. Eastern chunks. — At one time this class was known as Boston chunks, but as the trade has widened to other cities they are known Fig. 184. — Eastern chunk. by the general name of eastern chunks. They are most generally used in pairs or three abreast to do the same work as draft horses; but may be used in pairs, in a four-in-hand, or in a six-in-hand team. The eastern chunk may be briefly and accurately described as a horse of draft horse type in all respects except size and weight. He is, then, a little drafter. He is usually a little more low set and compact than the true drafter. He stands from 15 to 16 hands high, usually not over 15-3, and weighs from 1,300 to 1,550 pounds, depending upon size and condition. Being required to do his work mostly at the walk, his action should be similar to that of the draft horse. Farm chunks. — Horses of this class may be found on the market at all seasons of the year, but during the spring months they form an Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 483 important feature of the trade. They are bought to be used on the farm, and are in most urgent need during the season when crops are being planted. They are usually of mixed breeding, draft blood pre- dominating, and are commonly known among farmers as "general-pur- pose" animals. Mares are more generally taken than geldings. For this class, low-set, compact horses are wanted, not so heavy as the eastern chunks. Farm chunks are usually lighter in bone, and often slightly blemished or unsound. In general, the typical farm chunk should be a moderate-sized, all-round good individual, standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. Being lighter horses than the eastern chunks, they should be a little quicker and more active. The varied use to which horses are put on farms requires ability to trot readily if necessary. However, since the walk is their most important gait, they should be good walkers and do it with ease and rapidity. Southern chunks. — In some markets these are termed "southern horses," or "southerns." They are small horses that are taken by dealers to large southern cities and sold to southern planters for tilling their lands and for driving and riding. The southern farmer does not cultivate deeply, and the soils are light, consequently he does not re- quire very large horses. However, each year the trend of the market is for larger horses for this trade. Southern chunks are small horses standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 800 to 1,250 pounds. They are rather fine of bone, possessing an abundance of quality, and are more rangy in conformation than any of the other chunks, having more of the light horse blood. Many of them are similar to the cheaper horses used on the light delivery wagons of cities. They should have good action. The southern chunk is comparatively a cheap horse. Wagon Horses These are horses useful for quick delivery. The demand is from cities and towns. They must be closely coupled, compactly built, with plenty of constitution and stamina. They must be good actors, have a good, clean set of legs, with plenty of bone and quality, and a good foot that will stand the wear of paved streets. The classes are Express Horses, Delivery Wagon Horses, Light Artillery Horses, Heavy Artillery Horses, and Fire Horses. Their breeding is a mixture of draft and light bloods. They are neither light nor heavy horses, but may be termed middle-weights. Express horses are used by express companies to collect and deliver goods to and from railroad stations. Different companies use horses of slightly different size and weight. For instance, if the busi- 484 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ness of a company is centrally located in a city, and depots are not far apart, they use larger horses and load heavier; if the business is done in the outlying parts of a city, and the depots are a considerable distance apart, lighter horses with more action are wanted. They are used singly or in pairs, and the size of the horse will depend on the weight of the wagon. The lightest ones are called "money horses," as they are hitched to the lightest wagons to deliver valuables, this kind of work demanding quick service. The typical expresser is rather upstanding, deep bodied, and closely coupled, with good bone and an abundance of quality, energy, and spirit. He should stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands high, and weigh from 1,350 to 1,500 pounds in good flesh; the average express horse is Fig. 185. — Express horse. This horse was purchased by the American Rail- way Express Company as a six-year-old in 1909. When photographed in March, 1922, he had been in steady service on city streets for 13 years, weighed 1,525 pounds, and stood 16 hands high. 16 to 16-1 hands high, and weighs around 1,400 pounds in working condition. His head should be neat, his neck of good length, and his crest well developed. His shoulder should be obliquely set, coupled with a short, well muscled back and a strong loin. His croup should be broad, rounding, and well muscled, his quarters deep, and thighs broad. He should not be goose rumped, nor cut up in the flank. His underpinning should be of the very best, his cannons broad and clean, and his hoofs of a dense, tough horn. The express horse is required to do his work both at the walk and trot, the latter being the principal gait. He should be quick and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 485 active, and should keep his feet well under him and throw enough weight into the collar to move a heavy load at the walk, or a lighter load at the trot. As in the previous classes, he should be a straight- line mover, with possibly a little more knee and hock action. Delivery wagon horses are not as large as expressers, and not as high-grade animals; most mercantile firms are not such liberal buyers as the express companies, and consequently they get a cheaper grade of horses. However, this is not always true, as some of the large department stores, whose deliveries serve as an advertisement, will pay more for the very best than express companies, thus getting very choice animals. The conformation requirements are practically the same as for express horses, except they are not quite so large, standing from 15 Fig. 186. — Light artillery horse. to 16 hands, and weighing from 1,100 to 1,400 pounds. The action requirements are the same as for express horses, though some are not as good actors. The demand for delivery wagon horses comes from all kinds of retail and wholesale mercantile houses, such as meat shops, milk houses, grocery houses, dry goods firms, and hardware merchants, for use on light wagons for parcel delivery. Some of the coarser, rougher ones are used on the huckster wagons, junk wagons, sand wagons, and by contractors for cellar excavating, street cleaning, rail- road grading, or almost any kind of rough, heavy work. Light artillery horses conform rather closely to the better grades of delivery wagon horses of the same weight. The following specifica- tions, prepared under the direction of the Quartermaster General of the U. S, War Department, clearly set forth the requirements. 486 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock "The artillery horse for light and horse batteries must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; of a kind disposition, well broken to harness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth and gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits; and otherwise to conform to the following description: A gelding of specified color (no white or gray horses will be accepted), and in good condition, from 5 to 8 years old at time of purchase; height from 15-2 to 16 hands; weight from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds, depending on height. Horses otherwise satisfactory which fall short of, or exceed, these limits of weight by not more than 50 pounds, due to temporary conditions, may be accepted. B i^^?<*ii M^~ «^^^^ ijyEjj^K 1 f Fig. 187. — Heavy artillery horses. "The artillery horse for light and horse batteries is required for quick draft purposes, and should be heavy enough to move the carriage ordinarily by weight thrown into the collar rather than by muscular exertion. Long-legged, loose-jointed, long-bodied, narrow-chested, coarse, and cold-blooded horses, as well as those which are restive, vicious, or too free in harness, will be rejected." Heavy artillery horses.— The U. S. Army specifications for artillery horses for siege batteries are as follows: "A gelding conforming to the above specifications for horses for light and horse batteries, except that the animal should be from 16 to 17 hands high, and weigh from 1,400 to 1,700 pounds, depending on Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 487 height. A smart, active, draft horse, with plenty of bone and sub- stance, and enough quality to insure staying power in fairly fast work, is required for this service." The work of the heavy artillery horse is much heavier and slower than that of the light artillery horse, and the type demanded in the horse is quite different. Here it is a question of power rather than of speed, and the heavy artillery horse is in fact a light draft horse, though some fall somewhat short of the weight desired in light drafters. Heavy artillery horses might properly be classed with draft or chunk horses, but for convenience are included in the same general class as the light artillery horses. The demand for artillery horses is rather spasmodic, at some times being much greater than at others. Contracts are given to the lowest responsible bidder to supply them in large numbers at a specified time. Fig. 188.— Fire horses. Because of the rigid examination and requirements of official inspectors, some men have lost money in filling contracts. ^ The fire horse is more rangy in conformation than the expresser, he being required to throw weight into the collar and often to take long runs. The requirements are very rigid, as will be seen by the specifications set forth by Peter F. Quinn, former superintendent of horses of the Chicago Fire Department: "The work required of a horse best suited to fire department services necessitates almost human intelligence. Such a horse must not only be well bred, sound in every particular, quick to observe, prompt and willing to respond to every call, but as well, ambitious to 'During the World War, or from 1914 to 1918 inclusive, the United States exported 1,054,000 horses, valued at $219,459,000, and 357,255 mules, valued at $70,926,000. 488 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock discharge his numerous and unusual duties under constantly differing surroundings. In selecting, the first requisites are tractability, good feet and legs, with bone and hoof of the best texture, a short, strong back, and well-proportioned fore and hindquarters, well covered with firm, elastic muscles. For heavy engine companies and heavy hook- and-ladder trucks, a gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condi- tion, from 5 to 7 years old, standing 16 to 17-2 hands, and weighing from 1,500 to 1,700 pounds should be selected. Hose-carriage horses, same age; weight from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds; height, 15 to 16-2 hands." The demand for fire horses is very limited, coming from fire com- panies of cities. There are usually enough horses in the general supply to meet the demand. Carriage Horses The chapter dealing with carriage horse type presents a detailed description of the general class known as carriage horses, and while this general class is subdivided into four classes known as Coach, Cob, Park, and Cab Horses, nevertheless the differences between them relate mostly to size and weight, and much the same conformation, style, and action is desired in each of them. Coach horses may be described as carriage horses of large size. They should stand from 15-1 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,100 to 1,250 pounds. The weight is not so important as the size. The essential thing is to get a horse that looks right before the large, heavy vehicle to which he is hitched, such as the park drag, body break, road coach, and brougham. A hearse requires black horses from 15-3 to 16-1 hands high, weighing, 1,200 to 1,250, and without white mark- ings. White horses are also used to some extent by undertakers. Cobs differ from coach horses in size and in the use to which they are put. They are driven singly, in pairs, or tandem. Cobs stand from 14-1 to 15-1 hands high, and weigh from 900 to 1,150 pounds. The strongest demand comes for horses 14-3 to 15 hands high, and weighing from 1,000 to 1,100 pounds. Being essentially a lady's horse, solid colors are wanted, without flash markings. They are usually hitched to a light brougham or phaeton. The park horse, sometimes called the gig horse, is a carriage horse of medium size, and he is a higher-priced horse than either the coach or cob horse. He has the same conformation and action as they, and there may be no difference in size and weight, but his conformation is more perfect, his action higher and more sensational, and his style and elegance more outstanding. Park horses are hitched to a cart or gig, or may be driven tandem to the latter vehicle. They are also driven in pairs before mail phaetons and victorias. The limits for height and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 489 weight are 15 to 15-3 hands and from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds, the most desirable height being 15-1 to 15-2 hands, and the weight from 1,000 to 1,100 pounds. The cab horse is a comparatively cheap horse, and the require- ments are not so rigid as for coach, cob, or park horses. They are used on cabs, coupes, hansoms, and other vehicles for public service in cities. They are much the same type as the coach horse, in fact many of them are the discarded and lower grades of the coach class. Cab horses stand from 15-2 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,050 to 1,200 pounds. The demand comes from livery and transfer com- panies. Fig. 189.— Runabout horse. Road Horses This class includes Runabout Horses and Roadsters. Runabout horses occupy an intermediate place between typical roadsters and carriage horses, but on account of their action, conformation, and the use to which they are put, they may be more properly classed as road horses. The runabout horse is a rather short-legged horse, standing from 14-3 to 15-2 hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1,050 pounds. His head should be neat, ear fine, eye large and mild, neck of good length and trim at the throttle. The neck should be of medium weight, not quite so heavy as that of the coach horse, and not so light and thin as that of the roadster. The shoulder should be obliquely set, the withers high and thin, the back short, well muscled, and closely coupled 490 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to the hips by a short, broad loin. The barrel should be deep and round, the ribs well sprung, and the chest deep; the croup should be long and the hips nicely rounded. The legs should be well placed and heavily muscled, the bone broad and clean, and the pasterns of good length and obliquely set, joined to well-shaped feet. The runabout horse is not quite so stockily built as the cob, being not so heavy in neck and crest, not so full made and rotund in body, and not so heavy in quarters. The action is more moderate than that of a cob; he does not need to be as high an actor, but should have more speed. The action should be bold, frictionless, and straight, such as is conducive to speed and beauty of form. The demand for runabout horses is for single drivers. They are used in cities and elsewhere on runabouts and driving wagons. They are of more or less mixed breeding, Standardbred breeding predominat- ing. Roadsters. — The chapter dealing with light-harness or roadster type sets forth the requirements for roadsters in form, action, and speed, and discusses the uses to which they are put. No further discussion is needed here. Saddle Horses The saddle horse group includes the five classes known as Five- Gaited Saddlers, Three-Gaited Saddlers, Hunters, Cavalry Horses, and Polo Ponies. All of these except the cavalry horse have received full consideration under the subject of types of horses in preceding chapters. Cavalry horses. — The Quartermaster General of the War Depart- ment has sent out the following specifications as the requirements for an American cavalry horse: "Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection and any animal that does not meet with the requirements should be rejected. No white or gray horses will be accepted. The mature horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a kind disposition; well broken to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits; and otherwise to conform to the following description: A gelding of specified color, in good condition, from 5 to 8 years old at time of purchase; weighing from 950 to 1,200 pounds, depending on height, which should be from 15 to 16 hands." Cavalry remounts for the U. S. War Department are purchased as needed through contract orders, the contract being let to the lowest responsible bidder. In filling orders, dealers are often obliged to edu- cate many of the recruits to the saddle, in order to meet the specific requirements. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 491 Miscellaneous Horses Feeders are horses thin in flesh which are purchased to be put in condition and resold. They may belong to any of the above classes, but the practice is more generally applied to draft horses, chunks, and wagon horses. The old adage, "a little fat covers a multitude of defects," is still true; the value of flesh when put on thin horses can hardly be appreciated, unless one has seen them fleshed and placed again on the market. Range horses. — During certain seasons of the year, there may be found on the mafket horses bred and reared on the range, commonly known as "range horses." They are divided into two general classes, light and heavy^ according to the predominance of light or draft horse Fig. 190.— Cavalry horse. blood. For the sale ring, each of these classes is divided into carlots as follows: "colts," meaning weanlings; "ones," the yearlings; "twos," the two-year-olds; "dry stuff," the three-year-olds and over, those not suckling foals; and "mares and colts," the brood mares with foals at foot. In the auction ring, the price is stated per head and the buyer takes the entire lot. Most of the range horses find their way to the country, where they are usually broken; when educated, they may be returned to the market and may fill the demand for some of the com- mercial classes. Ponies of various grades and breeding are frequently found on the market, and are usually bought for the use of children and ladies. The characteristics distinguishing ponies from horses are not easily de- scribed. The principal distinguishing feature is that of height, a pony 492 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock being 14 hands or under. But there are dwarf horses that do not have pony blood or characteristics that come within these limits. Other pony characteristics are a deep body with rounding barrel, heavily muscled thighs and quarters, croup not drooping, and width well carried out, all of which the small horse does not usually possess. The neck is often short and heavy, though this is not a desirable quality. Ponies are essentially children's horses, and they must be kind and gentle in disposition, with as much spirit as is compatible for their use. There are no special requirements for weight, the limits being quite wide. They should be straight-line movers, and the more knee and hock action they possess, the higher prices they will bring, other things being equal. The Indian pony, or "cayuse ' as he is sometimes called, Fig. 191. — High-class pony. King Larigo, champion Shetland pony stallion at a large number of the leading shows in recent years. Owned by George A. Heyl, Washington, 111. is larger; he is a descendant of the native range stock, and is classed on the market as a range pony. Plugs are worn-out, decrepit horses with but little value. This class is too well known to need description. Weeds are leggy and ill-proportioned horses lacking in the essen- tial qualities, such as constitution and substance. They have little value for service of any kind. Prices for Horses at Chicago Prices of the various classes compared. — Prices during 1922 aver- aged as follows upon the Chicago market, figures for preceding years being given for comparison : ^ 'Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 493 Class 1922 1921 1920 1915 1913 Draft horses $175 $185 $200 $203 $213 Farm chunks 90 90 100 88 98 Express horses 150 160 170 175 185 Delivery wagon horses 135 140 155 175 175 Carriage horses (pairs) ( M ( ' ) (' ) 473 493 Drivers (M 135 145 164 174 Saddle horses, medium quality 135 145 165 175 184 Saddle horses, good to choice 275 280 290 290 295 ' No report. The above is a rather incomplete report, but it is all that is avail- able. The total value of all horses received at Chicago in 1922 was $4,753,350, and their average value was $150. The average was $185 in 1917, $180 in 1916, $180 in 1915, $183 in 1914, $188 in 1913, and $179 in 1912. In connection with these figures it should be remem- bered that many of the best loads of horses from the corn belt are taken directly to the eastern cities for sale, being gathered by country buyers who consign them to eastern dealers. CHAPTER XXXVII HORSE BREEDING The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture show the rank of the leading countries in numbers of horses: Numbers of horses in leading countries Country Year Total horses 1. Russia 1921 23,670,000 2. United States 1923 20,559,000 » 3. Siberia 1913 11,959,000 4. Argentina 1920 9,293,000 5. Brazil 1916 6,065,000 6. Canada 1921 3,814,000 7. Germany 1921 3,683,000 8. Poland 1921 3,187,000 9. France 1920 2,542,000 10. Australia 1920 2,414,000 11. India 1920 1,976,000 12. Great Britain 1921 1,903,000 World total 100,524,000 ^ 1 Includes the estimated number on farms on January 1, 1923, and 1,706,000 not on farms as re- ported by the 1920 census. 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 3,825,000 designated as "horses, mules, and asses," or "mules and asses," or "horses and mules." The distribution of horses in the United States is shown by the numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: Leading states in numbers of horses on farms, January 1, 1923 Average Average State Number value State Number value 1. Iowa 1,305,000 $79.00 6. Minnesota 887,000 $77.00 2. Illinois 1,183,000 70.00 7. Missouri 870,000 52.00 3. Kansas 1,019,000 45.00 8. North Dakota 797,000 56.00 4. Texas 971,000 53.00 9. Ohio 771,000 93.00 5. Nebraska 901,000 58.00 10. South Dakota 760,000 52.00 The estimated average value of all horses in the United States on January 1, 1923, was $69.75. Distribution of horses on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923 Division Number North Atlantic Division 1,389,000 South Atlantic Division 966,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 3,887,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 6,539,000 South Central Division 3,127,000 Far Western Division 2,945,000 Total 18,853,000 494 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 495 The number of horses "not on farms" in the United States declined from 3,183,000 on April 15, 1910, to 1,706,000 on January 1, 1920, as reported by the census. Average life of work horse.— The Horse Association of America ^ estimates as a result of its investigations that horses and mules on farms, going into service as three-year-olds, have an average period of service of 12 years. Horses and mules not on farms (horses used in cities and towns, and by lumber men, mine owners, contractors, etc.), going into service as six-year-olds, are estimated to remain in service for an average of 9 years. For all horses and mules that reach working age, the average duration of life is therefore 15 years. The Association also reports that the death rate in young stock "between the time they )^ HORSES h ~»-_ NU MBER JAN 1 1920 £»CM DOT REPBFSENTS iOOOMEAO ^ m N ^ r^ Sr^^l WL v% L r^^ r r--* j4 tf / ••■^ i J ni" * " ^Xf^^'T^ 1 ^^•^-w^ \ ^v^'v . / .^ f fr V \ "^^ -' p H oT"^ ^ M V Fig. 192. — Distribution of horses two years old or over in the United States. are 6 to 8 months old and the time they are 36 months old, is about 5 per cent per year, or a loss of one colt out of each twenty, in their yearling and two-year-old seasons respectively." According to these figures, one-twelfth of working animals on farms and one-ninth of working animals not on farms must be replaced annually in order to maintain the total number of work animals in use. Replacement must come from the annual crop of foals. A num- ber of foals are lost before 6 or 8 months of age, and 10 per cent of the remainder die before reaching three years of age. The foal crop of a given year less 10 per cent gives the probable number available at three years of age to replace losses among work animals. Applying this 1 Leaflet 57, Horse Association of America, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, IH. 496 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock method to the 1920 census figures we find a probable loss of 1,911,727 work animals by death in that year, and a probable replacement from the foals of 1919 of only 1,428,764 head, leaving a deficit of 482,963 head. Horse production on the small farm. — The advantages of intensive farming have been widely discussed for a number of years. Intensive farming is farming on a small scale, but doing it perfectly, hence realizing the largest possible return on a moderate investment. Horse production on a small scale, as discussed here, is similar to intensive farming. It means the ownership of one or two pairs of high-class brood mares, preferably purebreds, which are used to do part or all of the farm work, and which are given the very best care and attention. They are bred only to high-class stallions of the same breed as them- selves, and during pregnancy they are well cared for, well fed, and not overworked. The foals are given the best of care and are carefully trained, being halter broken as early as possible and made gentle by proper handling. They are kept growing after they are weaned, and in due time are carefully and thoroughly educated in harness or under saddle, as the case may be. This is intensive horse production. Intensive horse raising therefore means keeping a few extra-good brood mares, and each year producing a few extra-good foals which may be grown out by the breeder or sold as weanlings or yearlings to be developed by someone else. The first costs under this plan are not necessarily less than where a large number of the average kind of brood mares are kept. Good brood mares cost considerable, but they are the only kind on which large profits may be made. If this plan seems impracticable because purebred mares are expensive, why not reach the same end by buying a weanling or yearling filly of the desired breed, growing out this filly to breeding age, and retaining her best filly fcals for breeding purposes? In this way, given a few years' time, it is easily possible to get on an intensive footing with as many mares as are required. We have had enough of the average kind of horse production in this country; in fact, far too much of it. It has been demonstrated beyond all doubt that it pays much better to keep a few extra-good brood mares and raise carefully a few good foals, than it does to keep a lot of cheap mares and produce a lot of cheap horses, without feed enough to give any of them a fair chance. The writer once visited a farm where he was shown a sixteen-year- old grade draft mare of good type and individuality. On the same farm were five good mares, all out of the aged mare mentioned. Other of her numerous offspring had been sold at good prices. The mare had made the farmer money and was still making it, for at the time of this Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 497 visit she had a fine filly foal by her side. But the owner was not satisfied. "Think how much more money I would have made," said he, "if I had begun with a registered purebred mare. If the old mare had been purebred and registered, the value of every one of her foals would have been easily doubled, and it wouldn't have cost a cent more to raise them." The lesson to the young breeder is clear,^start right, even if it means starting slowly by buying one young registered filly, and from her building up a breeding stud of fine mares. The farms of the Middle West and East are well adapted to the intensive plan of horse production, because most of the farms are not Fig. 193.— Excellent type in the draft stallion. Fyvie Baiui., ^i^unpion Clydesdale stallion at the International, owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes- barre. Pa. Note his masculinity, quality, style, correct position of legs, nice pas- terns, and good feet. large, and usually the teaming is done by the owner himself, or by one or two hands who are always under close observation. On big farms, with incompetent and everchanging help, if valuable brood mares are kept, they are liable to be injured if used to do the farm work. The plan should call for working the brood mares, but not working them as hard as geldings or mules. Let them earn their board, and board them well. They may be worked well up to foaling time if care is taken not to back them to a heavy load, or put them to a hard strain. 498 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Mares have been hurriedly unhitched and unharnessed while cultivat- ing corn or doing some other moderate work, and have foaled thrifty, well-developed foals, the equal of any. But such mares have been well fed and cared for during pregnancy, and they should be given as long a vacation on pasture after foaling as the farm work will permit. The most profitable horse breeding in France, Belgium, England, Scotland, and America is done on the intensive plan, on farms of moder- ate or small size, by farmers who are good practical horsemen with a Fig. 194. — The Percheron stallion Jalap, owned by Iowa State College. He has a superb head, neck, and shoulder, an evenly moulded top, faultless coupling, well-placed legs, and large clean bone and joints. A very masculine type with style and quality; a highly successful sire. taste for doing things well. There is ample room in the United States for much more horse raising on this plan, and we have always had too many inferior mares, too many cheap stallions, and too many cheap horses hunting buyers. Choosing a type to breed. — What type of horse shall the farmer breed? The answer depends upon how much capital is available to Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 499 put into the business, upon the personal qualifications of the breeder, and also upon his personal preference as to type. To some extent, the choice will depend upon the location of the farm, and upon the crops that can be grown. It will ordinarily require more capital to engage in the breeding of light horses than in the breeding of draft horses. Light horses especially require more expensive equipment to accomplish the training and finishing without which they sell at com- paratively moderate prices. Because of temperament and disposition, some men are more successful with one type of horse than another. The man who intends to engage in the breeding of horses should ask himself the following questions regarding any or all types he may have under consideration: 1. Am I familiar enough with the type and the methods of its production to know what I am striving to produce and how to produce it? 2. Provided I can produce the type successfully, Fig. 195. — A noted sire and his get. Undefeated Belgian stallion, Farceur, and eight of his get, all winners. This group includes a number of first prize winners and champions at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, International, and Iowa State Fair. All owned by William Crownover, Hudson, Iowa. Farceur was sold in 1917 to C. G. Good, Ogden, Iowa. how can I dispose of my animals, and what are the chances of realizing full value for my stock? 3. Are my buildings, fences, land, and crops adapted to the production of horses, and if not, can I remedy the short- comings? Advantage of draft type. — In the majority of cases, the best type for the farmer to produce is the draft horse. It has many advantages. The brood mares are much better suited to do the work of the farm than are any of the light horse types. Practically no special training is needed to make the drafter ready for market, and he is marketable at a younger age than is ordinarily true of the types of light horses. If he is kept free from wire cuts and other blemishes, and is fat and 500 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock well groomed when offered for sale, he should realize full value. The carriage horse or saddler, on the other hand, requires months of hand- ling in order to give him a good mouth and develop his action or gaits, as the case may be. Furthermore, a wire cut or other blemish is much more serious with these types than with the drafter. They require more care and attention from birth to selling time, and require a greater age to finish them for market. It is also true that there are fewer misfits in breeding draft horses than with any other type of horse, in other words, results are more certain and sure. The production of draft horses fits into general farminsr better than the production of Fig. 196.— The Belgian stallion Farceur's King, a three-year-old son of Farceur owned by the University of Minnesota. Junior and reserve champion at the Iowa State Fair and International Belgian Show in 1922. Note the draftiness, quality, and style of this colt, his good head and neck, round middle, well-set legs, large clean bone and joints, and good feet. any of the light horse types. For these various reasons, the draft horse is of greatest interest to most farmers, and is most frequently selected by farmers who take up horse breeding. Light types require greater skill. — Let it be understood, however, that the foregoing arguments are not intended to discourage the breed- ing of types other than the drafter. The point is that carriage, saddle, and roadster horses are more difficult to produce than drafters, and but few persons, comparatively, are qualified to breed them success- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 501 fully. The production of light horses requires a higher order of skill both in breeding and salesmanship than does the production of the draft horse, and when this is supplied, light horse breeding is a profit- able enterprise. Hence the selection of the type to breed should be governed largely by the ability of the man who is to supervise the breed- ing, provided, of course, he is to work under conditions not unfavorable to the type he is best qualified to produce. Perhaps in no other field have so many breeders found themselves mistaken regarding their abilities as in the breeding of the trotting horse. This type appeals strongly to the majority of Americans, and many farmers and others have believed that they knew a safe and sure system of breeding for speed. Even in the best of hands, the breeding of trotters is very doubtful as to results, and only a small percentage of the foals ever attain anything noteworthy on the turf. Speed is an elusive quality dependent on such a rare combination of good qualities in the animal as to make results in breeding very uncertain, and it should be understood that only a few men possess the special qualifica- tions necessary to success in breeding this type of horse, and that only the wealthy, who are willing to accept the pleasure and fascination of the undertaking as partial remuneration for the capital invested, can ordinarily afford to take up this difficult art. A few men of moderate means have made a success with trotters by selling yearlmgs as "pros- pects," to be developed in the hands of someone else, but even this method is uncertain as to results financially. Pony breeding offers a good field for profit to those who are in a position to reach the trade for Shetland, Welsh, or Hackney ponies. The breeding of polo ponies, however, is as yet a very uncertain under- taking comparable to breeding trotters. Selecting a breed. — After the type of horse has been chosen, it is next in order to decide what breed of that type shall be selected. The choice of a breed is not so serious or important a matter as the selec- tion of a type or the selection of the individuals which are to compose the stud. It will depend largely upon the personal fancy of the breeder, although in some types of horses in certain localities, one breed may be so much liked or another breed so much disliked as to make it advisable for the new breeder to conform to the choice of the community, if it is possible to do so. He can then profit from the experience and advice of his neighbors, he will benefit from a greater number of local sales of his stock, and there will be more stallions to select among when mating his mares. Communities noted for the production of many good horses of a certain type or breed attract buyers from a distance. Selecting the individuals. — We now come to the matter of select- ing the individuals which are to compose the stud. First of all, they 502 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock must be sound; and this is a matter to which many farmers pay too Httle attention. Buyers offer the best prices for sound stock, and the farmer has too frequently sold his young mares that were sound, and has retained those with sidebones, ringbones, spavins, curbs, etc., for breeding purposes. This is radically wrong and a very short-sighted practice. Soundness is of very vital importance in every type of horse, and especially in animals used for breeding purposes. The individuals should also be true representatives of the tj^e to which they belong. Whether or not the brood mares should be purebred depends on the Fig. 197. — Correct type in the draft mare. Coldham Surprise, champion Shire mare at the International, owned by George M. McCray, Fithian, 111. Note her roomy middle, faultless top line, symmetrical form, abundant muscling, and large bone. She has size, ruggedness, and strength combined with quality and feminine character. amount of capital available and on the type of horse selected. If possible, it is preferable that they be purebred, registered mares. How- ever, some very profitable work in producing drafters for the market has been done with good grade draft mares. In such cases, these mares have shown excellent draft type, even though they were not eligible to registry. Registered purebred draft mares cost considerably more to buy, but have the very great advantage of having their foals Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 503 eligible to registry, and hence of greater market value. In breeding carriage, saddle, and roadster horses, it is essential in most cases that purebred mares be used. Well-developed feminine character and a good disposition are fun- damental qualities in a brood mare, as such mares are usually more regular breeders, better mothers, and more easily handled and worked than are mares of masculine appearance or mean, vicious, or highly nervous disposition. The brood mare should have a long underline, and a deep, full-made, roomy middle. Well-developed draft fillies may be bred when two years old; others should not be bred until three years old. The duration of Fig. 198.- rercheruM bruud la-.r^c .;. harness aL tiie Ur.ivLrsity uf Illinois. Prof. J. L. Edmonds states that they are "good, medium-sized mares, 11 and 12 years old, good workers, and good producers." Tractors cannot compete with these. pregnancy in mares is quite variable, but averages about 340 days. A two-year-old stallion may breed 8 or 10 mares in the season, a three- year-old from 25 to 30, and a four-year-old from 40 to 50. The breed- ing season lasts from 100 to 115 days, and it is important not to use the stallion too heavily at any time. A two-year-old may safely be allowed to cover one mare every five days; a three-year-old, three a week; a four-year-old, three every two days; and a mature horse should be limited usually to two covers daily, and perhaps occasionally he may make three. 504 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock A sound, purebred stallion that is true to type and a good in- dividual in every way is the only kind worthy of patronage. If there is no such horse in the community, it will pay to ship the mares a long distance to reach such a one. If possible, it is always best to patronize a stallion that has proved himself a sure breeder and a getter of good foals. There would not be the great number of unsound, mongrel, and inferior stallions standing for public service if there did not exist a demand for them on the part of mare owners. There can be only one explanation so far as the owner of the mare is concerned, and that is the saving in the amount of the service fee; but no more short-sighted practice can be followed, it having been demonstrated in almost every community that the added value of the foal from a high-class stallion, as compared with the foal by a cheap horse, repays the extra service fee many times over. It costs little more to raise a good foal than an inferior one, and the foal by the cheap stallion is not ordinarily a profit- maker. So many breeders have shown a lack of judgment in this matter, and horse stocks have deteriorated to such an extent in some states on account of the large number of mares bred to cheap horses, that stallion laws have been enacted which debar unsound stallions from public service, and require that placards be posted on the stable door telling whether the stallion is a purebred, crossbred, grade, or mongrel. Every state needs a law of this kind, modified to suit its needs. ^ Results of careless breeding. — Another evil in need of remedy is the too common practice of mixing the types of horses. Heavy mares are mated with trotting stallions in order to produce an animal for road use, or with no particular idea in the mind of the mare owner except to "get a colt." Light-weight, light-boned mares, without any semblance of draft qualities, are mated with draft stallions in the hope of getting a draft foal, or again simply to "get a colt." The results of such breeding are to be seen on every hand in the country, and a visit to any large horse market reveals the fact that a large percentage of the animals offered for sale are of no particular type or market class, because they have a variegated ancestry, the result of indiscriminate crossing of heavy and light horses. One is at a loss sometimes to know by what method some market offerings were produced. The iThe 1920 census reported that only 0.6 per cent of the total number of horses on farms on January 1, 1920, were registered purebreds. This included 94,280 registered purebred draft horses, 10,542 registered purebred light horses, and 16,718 other registered purebred horses, including ponies. The ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred draft horses were: Iowa 13,676, Illinois 13,128, Kansas 7,391, Ohio 6,471, North Dakota 5,299, Nebraska 5,098, South Dakota 4,959, Indiana 4,491, Minnesota 4,093, and Montana 3,307. The five leading states in numbers of registered purebred light horses were: Kentucky 1,967, Illinois 990, Virginia 687, Missouri 532, and Kansas 477. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 505 result is a lot of cheap horses adapted to no particular work, which net the producer a loss in most cases and seldom yield a profit. Breeders must learn to stick to type. The experiences of all successful horse breeders teach no other lesson more forcibly than this. Pedigree not always an indication of merit. — In the minds of many people, the words "purebred," "registered," and "imported" have a charm much greater than they deserve. Far too often, glaring Fig. 199. — ^Two-year-old Percheron fillies owned by the University of Illinois. faults of individuality or even serious unsoundness are passed with light criticism because the animal in question is eligible to one or more of these fascinating names. After all, one must conclude that there is something in a name. It is a fact that some purebred horses are practically worthless for breeding purposes. If an animal is purebred and registered, its value is very greatly increased, provided it is a good individual of useful type; but if the animal is decidedly faulty in con- 506 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock formation, or has serious unsoundness, its pedigree and registration number are of small account, and the animal is of little or no value for breeding purposes. Feed and care. — Every successful breeder is a good feeder and caretaker, for no matter how excellent the ancestry of a foal may be, its inherited good qualities cannot reveal themselves unless the foal is provided with good quarters and plenty of the right feed with which to build up and grow. Feed and care are fully as important as parent- age in producing good horses. Summary. — In conclusion, therefore, follow the intensive rather than the extensive plan of horse production; select the type to breed after careful study of the situation; select sound individuals possessing a high degree of individual excellence; breed to a strictly high-class, purebred stallion, regardless of the amount of his service fee; if there is no such stallion in the immediate neighborhood, ship the mares whatever distance is necessary to reach a high-class horse; patronize a tried and proven sire if possible; stick to a definite line of breeding— do not mix the types indiscriminately; raise a class of foals that merit plenty of good feed and care, and supply the same; be conservative in your judgment and appreciative of the fact that the breeding of horses is an enterprise which repays careful study of all departments of the business. CHAPTER XXXVITI THE MULE The various breeds of the ass belong to one species known as Equus asinus. The various breeds of the horse belong to a distinct species known as Equus cahallus. The male ass is called a "jack," and the female a "jennet." The cross of a jack on a mare produces a hybrid known as a "mule." The cross of a stallion on a jennet pro- duces a hybrid known as a "hinny." Although it is often stated that the hinny and mule differ in appearance, the hinny tending to be more like a horse and the mule tending more toward the type of a jack, there is no difference in type and appearance between them. Very few hinnies are produced, as jennets are in such demand for producing jacks that they are seldom bred to stallions. Mules and hinnies do not breed, being infertile. As the saying goes, "the mule has no pride of ancestry, and no hope of posterity." The ass has no foretop and he has a rat-like tail, flat thighs, rather flat sides, and a long middle. He lacks the full, rounding, short middle, and full thighs of the horse. He has a longer back and loin and shorter croup than the horse, and the croup is often drooping. Many are sickled in hocks and cow hocked. Light quarters and gaskins and rough hips are common. ^ The feet are smaller and narrower than those of the horse. Breeds of jacks. — A number of breeds have been imported to the United States, including the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, Andalusian, Majorcan, and Italian. American breeders have made various crosses of these breeds and have developed by selection the so-called American Jack, which may be considered a distinct breed. Importations of foreign breeds are no longer made. American breeders have selected for size, weight, bone, style, action, constitution, and finish. The present standard calls for 15.2 hands or over for jacks and 15 hands or over for jennets. Prices up to $5,000 have been paid by American breeders for American-bred jacks. There is a strong demand for high-class jacks for both jack production and mule production. Best type of jack. — The best jack for mule breeding is one having as much size, weight, and substance as possible, without coarseness. He should stand 16 hands or over. Very few jacks exceed 16-1 hands 1 Anderson and Hooper: American Jack Stock and Mule Production, Ky. Bui. 212. 507 508 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and 1,150 pounds. He should be lengthy and wide in form, with a straight, strong top, deep flanks, a well-shaped head, large and well- set ears, straight clean legs showing plenty of bone, large clean joints, feet of good size, shape, and texture, and a rather fine, glossy coat of hair. He should be active and show considerable style and spirit. The best color is black with light nose and belly, as a jack of this color will get the best-colored mules out of mares of all colors. Some jacks are mouse colored, and some have a mixture of chestnut and white hairs, producing a red-gray or red color. Gray is fairly common but disliked because gray jacks sire many gray mules, and gray mules become white with age and are then hard to sell. Fig. 200. — Correct type in the jack. Limestone Monarch, a noted prize- winning jack bred and owned by L. M. Monsees, Pettis County, Mo. Height 15-3 hands, weight 1,212 pounds. Best mares for mule breeding. — Mares standing 15-3 to 16-1 hands, and showing some evidence of draft blood, yet having good finish and quality, produce the best mules. These mares weigh from 1,350 to 1,500 pounds. The mare should have a roomy middle and she should also have large, wide, and good feet. Hooper and Anderson of the Kentucky Experiment Station ^ state: "It is generally recognized that in the cross of the ass and the 'Ky. Bui. 176, p. 394. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 509 mare the coarser qualities of the ass are dominant over the finer quali- ties of the mare; that is, the distinctive features of the ass are to be found in the mule. These appear in the head, ears, mane, legs, tail, and feet. The mares in most cases are able to modify these distinctive characteristics but not to suppress them. For example, the foot of the ass is contracted, and needs to be widened in the mule. * * * The body of the jack has a tendency to narrowness and angularity. The big, round, smooth brood mares will add as their complement, size and smoothness to the mule." The mule. — Big, heavy mules bring the highest price if they show smoothness and good quality. The very best stand 16-3 to 17-2 hands and weigh 1,600 to 1,700 pounds. Few reach 1,800 pounds. Mules do not weigh as heavy for their height as horses. Mules are judged by practically the same standards as horses. The mule and horse compared.^Mules are more sure-footed than horses, pick their way more carefully, and look out for themselves better than a horse. Mules are more intelligent than horses, and are more apt to learn to refuse or avoid hard or unpleasant work. When a mule gets tangled up in wire or into some other predicament, he usually stands quietly until released, whereas a horse often becomes excited and struggles even though he lacerates his legs and body and punishes himself very severely. Working in shallow passageways in mines, the small mules used in such work are said to lower their heads when their ears touch the top of the tunnel, while ponies under similar conditions throw their heads upward and may injure themselves. Mules usually accept their lot and plod along at their work without wasting energy in fretting or nervousness, while worry rather than work often keeps a horse thin. Mules are less sensitive than horses; they accept more abuse and rough handling, and get along better under an incompetent driver. Mules stand hot weather better than horses. Mules are less subject to digestive troubles and founder. A mule will not gorge himself as a horse often does if he gets into the feed bin or has access to too much feed. The mule's foot has a very thick, strong wall and sole which enables the foot to endure the shock and concussion on hard pavements particularly well. Mules are less subject to foot troubles which cause lameness, and their feet are less affected by con- tinuous shoeing. Mules are usually stabled more cheaply than horses. They are often kept in sheds or pens in which a number are turned loose together. Aged and second-hand mules sell better than aged and second-hand horses. Mules require less veterinary attention and are less often incapacitated for work than horses. Mules once worked together as a team are harder to separate than horses. This may be an advantage, or it may in some cases prove a detriment. Mules are 510 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock more uniform in form and color than horses, and are easier to match into teams. Anderson and Hooper state: ^ "The mule holds his place and is gradually extending his influence as a work animal because he can do more work, on less feed, and keep in better condition, with less care, than any breed of horses. He stands the heat well in the South, resists the flies as the horse cannot, and fits in with the farm labor of that section much better than any horse." Sir John Moore, Director of the British Army Veterinary Services in France, states 2 that 80,524 mules were purchased by the British government during the South African War, and he estimates that over 250,000 were purchased for the World War, including over 90,000 used in France alone. He further states: "As a rider, a mule is of little value; a supreme will and an iron mouth, as a rule, prove the drawback. * * * Their endurance, their comparative freedom from sickness, their pluck and stout-heartedness when properly treated, their ability to perform work in adverse circumstances and when short commons are necessitated, are their usual attributes; and their employment in war is a great economic factor." He states that the well-fed mule thrives on work and quickly gets fat when idle. He states also that in the Somme operations in 1916, there were 16,074 debility (poor condition) cases sent to the veterinary hospitals, of which only 404 were mules. The percentage of inefficiency was 4.42 for horses and 0.61 for mules, or seven times as many horses as mules in comparison to numbers in service. In winter they gave far less trouble than horses from skin disease, and there were practically no cases of respiratory disease among the mules. An editorial writer in the Chicago Evening Post ^ states that though tanks, tractors, airplanes, etc., have displaced time-honored material of warfare, "the army mule stands fast in his tracks." He says, "The mule will go on serving until the end of time and will con- tinue to do little more than to flick an ear when in its awful hollow there sounds the equally awful language of teamster tradition. The American army has sworn at the American mule for much more than a century of time, but it swears by him as often as it swears at him." Again he says, "The mule is the only muzzle-loader likely to survive the mutations of time." On the other hand, the mule has some shortcomings as compared to the horse. He has not the weight for the heaviest draft work. Because of the small size of his foot he is more apt to slip on pavements iKy. Bui. 212, p. 287. 2N. S. Mayo, Cook Co., 111., in the Breeder's Gazette, Nov. 23, 1922. 3 Quoted in the Breeder's Gazette, Apr. 5, 1923, p. 472. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 511 at a hard pull. Furthermore, the mule's habit of pushing directly for- ward against the collar, instead of crouching and lifting like a draft horse at a hard pull, also results in slipping on pavements. Mules do not work well in soft ground. The small foot of the mule does not bear him up, and he is usually much more timid under these conditions than is the horse. Mules will avoid a muddy spot or puddle of water if they can. The wilfulness and trickiness of many mules and their lack of spirit makes it less of a pleasure to drive the average mule than the average horse. The mule has a harder mouth. Too often it takes a gag bit to hold him and a black-snake whip to make him go. Mules Fig. 2')1. — Prize-winning mules. Champion pair of mules at the Iowa State Fair, owned by F. L. Hutson and Son, State Center, Iowa. These mules were six years old and weighed 1,600 and 1,620 pounds. The off mule (on the left of the picture) was the champion single mule of the show. are not adapted to use in the artillery, as they are gun-shy, usually lack speed, and do not respond to commands quick enough. They are not so dependable as horses in an emergency. George E. Wentworth, superintendent of the Chicago Union Stock Yards Horse Market, in an interesting article ^ entitled "Why Use Adulterated Horses?" discusses the place of the mule in warfare as follows: "They say the mule can stand more heat, but cavalry 'The Horseman and Spirit of the Times, Aug. 4, 1914. 512 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock regiments in South America, South Africa, Arabia, India, China, or Morocco are not mounted upon the sure-footed, swift, enduring, and patient mule. The Cossacks did not pursue Napoleon from Moscow on the backs of mules, nor did the men of Marion and Sumpter, Stuart or Sheridan win their victories astride the progeny of a jack. The Crusaders panoplied in full armor, fought Saladin and his Emirs over the dry and arid dusty deserts of Palestine mounted upon Norman and Arabian horses. Armies trust live weight to horses, dead weight to mules." Fig. 202. — High-class draft mules at the Uiiii)ii Stock Yards, Chicago. As mules do not breed, there is no opportunity for profit to the farmer from this source. The mule's inability to breed is something of an advantage in the city and in the army, as there is always the danger of a mare being in foal when she is purchased, and if she is it causes trouble and annoyance in a city stable or in the army; she must either be sold or kept idle for a time. From all standpoints, however, the mule's failure to breed is a detriment as compared to the horse. The distribution of mules in the United States is shown by the numbers on farms in the ten leading states and in the different geo- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 513 graphical divisions on January 1, 1923, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: Leading states in numbers of mules on farms, January 1, 1923 Average Average State Number value State Number value 1. Texas 863,000 $80 6. Arkansas 335,000 $73 2. Georgia 390,000 105 7. Alabama 311,000 99 3. Missouri 373,000 63 8. Kansas 307,000 58 4. Tennessee 343,000 84 9. Mississippi 302,000 93 5. Oklahoma 337,000 58 10. Kentucky 287,000 76 Distribution of mules on farms by geographical divisions, January 1, 1923 Division' Number North Atlantic Division 77,000 South Atlantic Division 1,047,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 313,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 927,000 South Central Division 2,954,000 Far Western Division 188,000 Total, United States 5,506,000 The South Atlantic and South Central states, extending from the western border of Texas to the Atlantic coast, have over 70 per cent of all the mules in the United States. No mules were reported on farms on January 1, 1923, in Maine. New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut. The 1920 census found only 2,367 mules two years old or over in these six states, including those in use on farms and in cities and villages. More mules than horses were reported in 1923 in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Georgia has four times as many mules as horses. The average value of mules on farms in the United States in 1923 is reported at $85.86, and the average valuation of horses on farms is reported at $69.75. In only two states are horses reported at a higher average value than mules. These are Utah and Wisconsin. The average value of mules varies widely in different states, due principally to differences in the average age of the animals. Low average values are usually due to proportionately large numbers of mule colts and yearlings. Countries having the largest numbers of mules are United States 5,506,000, Spain 1,295,000, Argentina 611,000, Italy 497,000, Colombia 203,000, France 181,000, Mexico 133,000, and South Africa 95,000. > Spain and Peru have more mules than horses. Production of mules in the United States.— 0. E. Baker of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics states that two-thirds of I lie 'U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 675-680. 514 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock mules produced in the United States are raised in the western and southern sections of the corn belt, and that the center of mule produc- tion is about 300 miles south of the center of horse production. He also states that whereas the number of horses over one year of age on farms in the United States increased only 6 per cent from 1910 to 1920, the number of mules increased 33 per cent, and this rate of increase was almost as great in the North as in the South. ^ It may be added that while horses "not on farms" in the United States declined 46 per cent from 1910 to 1920, mules "not on farms" increased 28 per cent. Assuming that the average life of mules is about 15 years, there will be a loss each year of 1 out of every 13 mules two years old or over. Replacements are made from the mule foals raised each year. States ^ ?I MULES & cons ANO >t«RLlNCS INCLUDING MULES IN CITIES »ND NUMBER JAN. t. 1920 VIILAGESI EACH DOT REPRESENTS ~~y^ '^%^ l\ 7j \6S s \ kI ^'A'"'' \ W^^ X^-^My-v, M y^ Fig. 203.— Distribution of mules two years old or over in the United States. which have 1 mule foal on January 1 to every 13 mules two years old or over (a ratio of 1:13) probably produce sufficient foals to maintain their present number of mules. ^ States which produce less than this proportion of mule foals must buy from other states in order to replace losses among working mules. States which produce more than this proportion will have a surplus for sale. Note the ratios in the follow- ing table of leading mule-using states, based on census returns: lA Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 471,473. 2Xhe census of 1920 reports a ratio of 1:12 for the country as a whole, and this provides an increase in the number of mules in the United States. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 515 Mules two years old and over on farms in leading slates, January 1, 1920 Ratio (Number of State Twos and over Foals twos and over to one foal) 1. Texas 774,517 35,299 22.1 2. Georgia 399,801 2,141 186.7 3. Arkansas 292,658 14,625 20.0 4. Mississippi 288,971 10,052 28.9 5. Tennessee 287,939 33,217 8.7' 6. Alabama 285,838 4,533 63.1 7. Oklahoma 265,133 35,299 7.6' 8. Missouri 255,455 68,457 3.7 ' 9. North Carolina 246,212 3,435 71.7 10. Kentucky 245,717 23,450 10.7 » 11. South Carolina 215,712 1,040 207.4 12. Louisiana 172,347 3,272 52.7 > Mule-surplus states. In comparison with the above, note the ratios in the leading mule- producing states: Mule foals on farms in leading slates, January 1, 1920 Ratio (Number of State Foals Twos and over twos and over to one foal) 1. Missouri 68,457 255,455 3.7 ' 2. Kansas 45,036 157,402 3.5' 3. Oklahoma 35,354 265,133 7.6' 4. Texas 35,299 774,517 22.1 5. Tennessee 33,217 287,939 8.7 ' 6. Illinois 29,224 113,271 3.9' 7. Kentucky 23,450 245,717 10.7 ' 8. Iowa 16,819 51,205 3.0' 9. Nebraska 15,782 69,643 4.4 ' 10. Arkansas 14,625 292,658 20.0 11. Indiana 14,509 72,162 5.0' United States 389,279 4,651,694 12.0 ' Nfule-surplus states. CHAPTER XXXIX MARKET CLASSES OF MULES The mule market is of more recent origin than the horse market, but has developed into a large business. Whereas horses are usually sold at auction, mules are usually sold at private sale, being sold singly, in pairs, or in any number to suit the needs of the buyer. When large numbers are wanted of a uniform height and weight, they are most often sold at a fixed price per head and the salesman gives a guarantee as to age, soundness, and other requirements. When an order is placed for mules of different sizes or for different market classes, they will ordinarily be figured individually, or in pairs. Market requirements. — The market requirements for mules are similar to those for horses. They should be sound, of a desirable age and color, well fleshed, and sleek in coat; and should possess abundant quality and a strong conformation. They should also have good action. These requirements are discussed in detail below. Soundness. — Mules should be serviceably sound. Blemishes are objectionable, though not in the same degree as with horses. They should be sound in eyes and wind, and should be good workers. The most common and serious unsoundnesses are large spavins, puffs, side- bones, defective eyes, and unsound wind. Age. — The most desired age is from four to eight years; however, there are exceptions in some classes, as noted below. Condition. — The appearance is greatly improved if mules are marketed carrying flesh enough to round out their middles. Sleek, glossy coats of hair are often estimated to be worth ten dollars. The flesh should be smooth, not lumpy or roily. The value of flesh on mules is about equal to that on draft horses — which is twenty-five cents per pound with a good grade of horses. Quality. — Refinement of head, hair, bone, joints, and hoofs is an evidence of good bone and wearing qualities. Conformation. — All mules should have a large chest, long shoulder, deep barrel, straight short back with as much spring of rib as possible, a broad loin, and a long level croup. The underline should be com- paratively straight, the rear flank well let down, and the thighs and quarters heavily muscled. The legs should evidence both substance and quality, the feet should be large, wide at the heel, and sound, and the hoofs should be smooth. The form, muscling, and set of legs should be approximately the same as in horses. The head of the mule 516 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 517 is a good index of his disposition and temperament; it should be of good size, yet clean-cut as an evidence of quality. The forehead should be broad and flat, and the nose slightly Roman, which indicates stamina and strength. If the head is as described, the animal is usually considered to be a more reliable and agreeable worker than one not possessing these characteristics. The ears should be long, thin, taper- ing, and carried erect; the neck should be long, with moderate crest, and should join the shoulder smoothly. The mane should be roached, and the tail clipped in the regular manner with not too short a bush. Color. — All mules of solid color, except white and dun, are in good Fig. 204.— Mining or pack mule. demand, though color is not an important factor. Dapple grays are popular in the draft class, but as a general rule, bays, browns, blacks, and chestnuts are most desirable, while flea-bitten grays are discrimi- nated against. Action counts for very little in market mules. They should show- vigor and energy in their movements and be straight-line movers. They should not be lame or crampy, nor defective in action because of badly set legs. The market classification of mules is based on the uses to which they are put, but in order for a class to exist there must be a demand 518 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock for considerable numbers of a definite type. In the St. Louis market, which is the largest mule market in the world, there are six market classes which are as follows: Height Class Hands MINING MULES 12 to 16 COTTON MULES 13-2 to 15-2 SUGAR MULES 16 to 17 FARM MULES 15-2 to 16 DRAFT MULES 16 to 17-2 [Wheel mules 15-3 to 16-1 ARMY MULES j Lead mules 15 to 15-3 [Pack and riding mules. . . .14-2 to 15-2 Mining mules are purchased for use in mines, principally to haul cars of ore or coal to the hoisting shafts. They are rugged, deep Weight Pounds 600 to 1,350 750 to 1,100 1,150 to 1,300 900 to 1,250 1,200 to 1,600 1,150 to 1,300 1,000 to 1,150 950 to 1.200 Fig. 205. — Cotton or lead mule. bodied, short legged, compactly built, and have heavy bone and large feet. They stand from 12 to 16 hands high, and weigh from 600 to 1,350 pounds. Those used down in mines are termed "pit mules," and the height of these is limited by the depth of the vein worked. Small pit mules are produced from pony dams. Ages from 5 to 8 years are most preferred, but a well-developed four- year-old, or a well- preserved ten-year-old, is often accepted. Geldings are much pre- ferred to mare mules for this trade because they are usually more gentle than mare mules. Mine mules must be gentle and not ticklish about the ears and feet. Bad wire marks on the feet are severely discrimi- nated against, as they are likely to become sore from contact with sulphur and other chemicals in the mine. The demand for miners is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 519 strong and constant throughout the year, and comes from all sections where mines are operated. Cotton mules are very similar to mining mules in size, but are lighter boned and not so compactly built. They should have small, neat heads, and possess much quality and finish. Their feet are smaller and bodies proportionately lighter. Cotton mules stand from 13-2 to 15-2 hands high, and weigh from 750 to 1,100 pounds. They are most desired from 3 to 7 years old, but may find ready sale up to 12 years of age. Mare mules sell better than geldings in this class. The trade begins about the first of September and continues good throughout the fall and winter months, then gradually decreases until after the cotton crop is planted, or about April. From this time until the follow- b'u:. LMKi. — Sugar mule. ing fall, the demand is light. Cotton mules are used by cotton growers to plant, cultivate, and harvest the cotton crop, but a great many such mules are also taken to cities for use on delivery wagons and for other purposes. Sugar mules are mules especially adapted for use on the sugar farms of Georgia, Louisiana, and other southern states. Sugar mules are taller, larger, more breedy looking, better finished, and have heavier bone than cotton mules. The feet should be large in propor- tion to the bone. They stand from 16 to 17 hands high, and weigh from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds. Mare mules from 3 to 6 years old are most desired for this trade. As sugar mules are larger and possess more quality and finish than cotton mules, they sell for a little more 520 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock money. The trade begins in August, and usually ends in February. They are in greatest demand in September, October, and November. Farm mules are those purchased for use on farms in the central states. They are less uniform in type than the other classes, as farmers like to buy animals that show promise of further development. Farm mules are usually from 15-2 to 16 hands high, and from 3 to 6 years old, four-year-olds being preferred. They are often plain looking and thin in flesh, though possessing good constitution, bone, and feet, and showing indications of a good outcome when well fed and cared for. Many of them are worked for a time, then fattened and returned to the market. When resold they may be taken as miners, sugar mules, or cotton mules. The strongest demand for farm mules occurs during the late winter and spring months. Fig. 207. — Farm or wheel mule. Draft mules are large, heavy-boned, heavy-set mules, with plenty of quality. They are purchased to do heavy teaming work. Many are used by contractors doing railroad grading, and consequently they are often spoken of as railroad mules. They are especially demanded for heavy teaming work in cities in warm climates, where they are pre- ferred to horses because they are said to be hardier, able to stand the hot sun better, and not subject to as many ills. Draft mules stand from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds and upwards. They should combine weight and strength. They should be large, rugged, heavily boned, and strongly muscled. The feet should be large, the back short and strong, the middle deep and closely coupled, the croup fairly level, and the thighs and quarters massive. They are Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 521 most desired from 5 to 8 years old, and little preference is shown regarding sex. The demand is strong and quite constant the year round. (See Fig. 202.) Army mules. — The demand for mules in the army is very limited and the class is not important except in time of war. In the recent World War, the American mule played a very important part, and large numbers were purchased at the various markets. Three classes are required, these being wheel mules and lead mules used in four-in- hand teams on army wagons for transport work, and pack and riding mules. Wheel mules. — Government specifications call for mules that are "sound, well bred, and of a superior class; of a kind disposition, free from vicious habits, gentle, and well broken to harness, with free and springy action at the walk and trot; and otherwise to conform to the Fig. 208. — Small pair of wheel mules to army wagon following description: A mare or gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition, from 3 to 8 years old. Three-year-old mules will be purchased only when exceptionally fine individuals." Wheel mules stand 15-3 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds. Lead mules are of the same general description as the wheelers, but are smaller animals. They should stand 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weigh from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds. Pack and riding mules stand from 14-2 to 15-2 hands, and weigh from 950 to 1,200 pounds. They must be of stocky build, with a stout neck, short, strong back, good coupling, large deep barrel, and good feet and legs, with ample bone. The pack mules must be particularly deep in the middle and strong backed, as they carry a long pack saddle which fits well down on the sides of the mule, and they carry from 300 to 350 pounds. Pack mules are used for transport work in very rough 522 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock or wooded country where wagons cannot be used. The demand for these mules is limited. Plugs are worn out, cheap mules that have but little value. They are usually unsound in one or more respects, very plain and rough in form, and many are of advanced age. Export mules. — The export trade in mules has increased during recent years. Large shipments have been made to South Africa, Philippine Islands, and Cuba. The size and type of these mules varies, depending on the use to which they are put and the country to which they are sent. Some are used for army service, some for agricultural purposes, some for heavy teaming, and some in mines. Hence the term "export mule" is a trade name which is not restricted to any particular kind of mules. CHAPTER XL UNSOUNDNESS IN THE HORSE Soundness is a very vital factor in determining the value of a horse, and a knowledge of unsoundness is very essential to success in breeding. Brief description of the most common unsoundnesses has been deferred until the close of the discussion of horses in order that the student may learn to fix his attention, first of all, on type. The matter of soundness, while important, is often overemphasized by beginners. Presented here at the close, such information should serve as an important supplement to preceding discussions of the types and market classes of horses and mules. If a horse is unsound, his unsoundness may be accounted for in one or more ways: (1) he may have had a natural weakness in con- formation or structure which predisposed him to the unsoundness; (2) he may have been strong in conformation, but forced to do extreme labor which was beyond the power of the animal machine to endure; (3) the unsoundness may be the result of a bruise, blow, cut, or other injury; (4) unsoundness may result following a diseased condition of some part of the body and (5) lack of proper care, as, for example, failure to keep the feet in proper balance so as to distribute the weight and wear equally over the various parts of the foot and- leg, may bring on unsoundness. In the horse for work, it matters little which of the above explanations applies; he is unsound, and the horse market fixes his value according to the nature of the unsoundness, without regard to the reason why the horse has it. In the horse intended for breeding purposes only, unsoundness should not be considered a serious detri- ment unless it is explained by the first of the possibilities listed above, For example, it is wiser to breed to a horse having a naturally strong hock which, because of accident or extreme work, has developed a bone spavin, than it is to breed to a sound horse having a weakly formed hock which is free from bone spavin only because it has never been put to the test of even moderate work. It is often difficult, how- ever, to determine with accuracy the reason for an unsoundness, and in all such doubtful cases the unsoundness should be looked upon with suspicion and the horse rejected for breeding purposes. Certain unsoundnesses are ordinarily referred to as "hereditary," on account of their marked tendency to reappear in succeeding genera- tions. More correctly, however, it is some weakness of conformation that is transmitted which predisposes the members of the family to 623 524 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock one or more unsoundnesses. Considerable difference of opinion exists among well-informed persons as to the hereditary transmission of some unsoundnesses. A number of minor troubles which are not unsoundnesses are here given brief mention, because of the frequency with which they are met and to satisfy curiosity regarding them. Treatment is briefly men- tioned in some cases for a similar reason. Many minor troubles are important because they blemish a horse. A blemish merely detracts from the appearance of an animal, whereas an unsoundness interferes with his working capacity. Many unsoundnesses are blemishes as well. A study of the ills to which the horse is heir shows that his eyes, legs, and wind are the seats of unsoundness. Blindness. — Any defect of sight is a serious defect in a horse, and eye trouble always furnishes grounds for rejecting horses for unsound- ness. Inspecting a horse for blindness requires expert knowledge of Fig. 209. — Bog spavin. A, Bog spavin; B, sound hock. the diseases of the eye, and, although the average horseman can in many cases discover defective eyes, no horse is safely passed as sound in eyes except by a well-qualified veterinarian. Severe weeping, par- tially closed eyelids, sunken eyes, inability to bear strong light, a cloudy appearance of the cornea, unnatural or dull color, failure of the iris to contract to a considerable degree when brought from darkness to light, too active play of the ears, failure to blink when an object is passed close to the eye— these and many other conditions give evidence of defective vision. (See also cataract and periodic ophthalmia.) Blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock, and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the vein passing over that region. It occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and is sometimes confused with the latter. It constitutes a blemish rather than an unsoundness. Bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined swelling in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears to reappear on the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 525 outside and just behind the hock. It is caused by a weakness in the synovia] sacs of the joint, accompanied by a hyper-secretion of synovial fluid or joint oil. Bog spavins are more often blemishes, rather than unsoundnesses. They are classed as the latter only when they are well developed or cause lameness. Slight cases are described as merely "a little full in the hocks." Treatment consists of rest, blistering, cauterization, and the use of pressure pads and peculiar bandages. Bone spavin is a bony growth of variable size in the hock, which may or may not make itself visible on the exterior. It most often occurs at the inner and lower border of the hock, but may arise on the upper part, or on the outside of the hock. In some cases, no outward signs of spavin are perceptible; these are called "occult" spavins. Care should be taken not to mistake a prominent development of the inner and lower border of the hock, natural in some animals, for a spavin. Hocks that are narrow or tied in below are subject to bone spavin, as are also those of coarse structure. Fig. 210. — Bone spavin. A, Bone spavin; B, sound hock. Bone spavins affect one or more of the six bones of the hock. The spavin usually represents an effort on the part of nature to repair the joint. Spavins are caused by sprains, by violent efforts in jump- ing, galloping, trotting, or pulling, by slipping or sliding, and other similar causes. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is one of the most serious unsoundnesses of horses; it causes lameness and stiffens the joint. As with sidebones and ringbones, the size of the spavin is not a safe index of its seriousness. An excellent test for spavin lameness consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two minutes, holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. Then start the animal off in a trot, when the lameness will be greatly intensified if it is caused by spavin. Treatment consists of complete rest for a month or more, blistering, the use of proper medicaments, firing, and special operations on the joint. Firing produces a small scar, and when this is present the spavin is called a "jack." 526 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Broken wind or heaves is denoted by a characteristic hollow cough, short, and something like a grunt, which once heard is easily recognized a second time. Inspiration is performed normally, but expiration is abnormal, being double, or what is commonly called the "double lift." The first portion of the expiration expels the air as normally, and the second apparently squeezes the remainder of the air from the lungs in a gradual manner, seemingly with more or less voluntary exertion. When such an animal is put to work, there is also a wheezing noise with the breathing. From a commercial standpoint, a broken-winded horse has practically no value, yet he may continue to work fairly well. The cough is sometimes disguised by unprincipled persons through the administration of such substances as shot and grease; but this is only temporary. The abnormal breathing cannot be concealed. In some cases of broken wind, the air vesicles of the lungs have been found, after death, ruptured; the right side of the heart enlarged, and the walls of the stomach dilated, though this is not always true. A predisposi- tion to this disease may be inherited. In doubtful cases of broken wind, give the animal all the water he will drink and then ride or drive him uphill. This will bring out the symptoms if the disease is present. There is great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause of heaves. It is usually associated with disorder of digestion, or to an error in choice of feed. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky feed, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low altitude are predisposed. Capped elbow is commonly termed "shoe boil," and consists of a bruise at the point of the elbow, generally caused by the heel of the shoe when the horse is lying down, and sometimes from other causes. The continued irritation leads to the production of a tumor at the point of the elbow. The skin may be broken, and slight suppuration very often occurs. The cause must be removed, and the animal pro- vided with a leather or rubber ring around the fetlock while in the stall. The remainder of the treatment is surgical. Capped elbow may cause severe lameness, but it is usually a blemish only. Capped hock is quite common and may or may not constitute un- soundness. It is the result of a bruise, either continuous or inter- mittent, and may appear suddenly or gradually. Such bruises may be received in shipping by train or boat, or by the habit some animals have of kicking against the sides of the stall, or at fences, or even in harness. The skin, bursa, or the bone may be involved in capped hock. Usually it is the skin, which becomes very much thickened over the point of the hock. It is in every case a blemish. Treatment con- sists of hot and cold applications and blistering. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 527 Cataract. — When the lens of the eye becomes so cloudy or opaque as to present a white or grayish color, the eye is said to be affected with cataract, which is a practically incurable form of blindness. A blow over the eye and other causes bring it on. It is rather common, par- ticularly in aged horses. Chronic cough.— A permanent cough accompanying broken wind, glanders, and other diseases constitutes an unsoundness. Cocked ankles or knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the position of the bones is changed, the pastern becom- ing more nearly perpendicular. While it is not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. Young foals are frequently subject to this condition, and in the great majority of such cases the trouble disappears in a few weeks without treatment. Horses with erect pasterns often knuckle as they grow old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of hard work, particularly in hilly districts, are exciting causes of this trouble. It is also caused by improper shoeing, in which the toe is made too long and the heel too low, thus producing inflammation and retraction of the tendons. Lastly, it is caused by disease of the suspensory ligament or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fet- lock joint. It is one of the worst faults a horse can possess, and it greatly affects the value and the price. Treatment varies depending on the cause of the trouble. Relief may be secured by so shoeing as to shorten the toe and elevate the heels, thus relieving the tendons. In extreme cases, the tendons may be operated on to secure relief. Firing and blistering effect a cure in some instances. (See Fig. 212.) Contracted feet.— Contraction of the feet is not a diseased condi- tion in itself, but is a symptom of such and leads to trouble. Contrac- tion is due to a removal of the full functions of the foot, such as is the case in lameness, removal of frog pressure, defective shoeing, etc. Contraction occurs more especially at the heels, and more frequently in the fore feet than in the hind ones. Veterinarians look upon this condition as constituting unsoundness. Treatment is not of much avail, but going barefoot or wearing a special shoe to spread the heels will help to alleviate the condition. Corns. — A corn is a bruise to the fleshy sole, and is manifested by a reddish discoloration of the horny sole beneath the bruise. It usually occurs upon the inner quarter of the fore foot. A corn very often causes severe lameness, and is a cause of unsoundness. The treatment consists in paring, special shoeing, poulticing, keeping the part thor- oughly clean, and a few weeks' rest. Cracked heels. — This condition is denoted by an inflamed state of the skin, which becomes broken, and, if severe, may cause lameness. 528 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock They are frequent in the horse, especially following a frost, the mois- ture from the thaw favoring this. It is similar to chapped hands, and fissuring is favored by the movements in the hollow of the heels. Treatment consists of the application of a soothing liniment applied daily with tow and bandage. Curb is an unnatural prominence of variable size, located on the posterior border of the hock, four or five inches below the point of the hock. It is easily detected by viewing the joint in profile. It is caused by a sprain of the tendon which passes over that part, or of the strong ligament located there. Hocks that are sickled, coarse, and thick in appearance, or that are too narrow from front to back at their base, most often develop curbs. Violent efforts in heavy pulling, high jump- ing, or slipping are often the direct cause of curb. Curbs do not often cause lameness, or, if they do, it is usually during the formative stage. Legally it is an unsoundness, although it is not much of a detriment, especially in horses for slow work. Curbs are much less serious than bone spavins, ringbones, sidebones, cocked ankles, and stringhalt. A I IB Fig. 211.— Curb. A, Sound hock; B, curb. Treatment in the early stages consists of cold applications to relieve the acute inflammation. When the first stage has passed, blistering, frictions with ointments, and firing are often used with good success. Fistula is an ulcerous lesion found at the withers. Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by the harness or saddle. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles. The horse becomes incapacitated for work for a considerable period. Most cases are curable. The treat- ment is largely surgical; the animal should be placed in the care of a competent veterinarian as soon as the condition is discovered. After the fistula is healed, a scar usually remains in the region of the withers. A horse that has had fistula is liable to subsequent attacks of the same trouble. Founder or laminitis is a simple inflammation of the fleshy laminae within the hoof. Being exceedingly vascular, the laminae are subject to congestion, and, being enclosed within the hoof, there is very little room for the relief of the congestion. The animal suffers most agoniz- ing pain. Concussion is one of the most common causes. Another is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 529 over-feeding on grain, causing indigestion, irritation of the alimentary tract, and inflammation of the fleshy laminae through sympathy. Other causes are unusual excitement, bad shoeing, over-exertion, ex- haustion, rapid changes of temperature, or any other agencies of an over-supply of blood to the fleshy laminae, resulting in congestion and inflammation. But it is the after-effects which are of most interest to us here. The disease sometimes becomes chronic, and this seriously affects the secretion of the horn. The toe of the hoof turns up, the heels become longer than natural, while the hoof near the coronet is circled with ridges like those of a ram's horn. These ridges are wide apart at the heel, and close together in front, and are due to periods of interference with the growth of horn simultaneous with the inflam- mation of the fleshy laminae. Because of the high heel and turned-up toe, the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. Usually, accompanying these defects, the sole is found to be thin, convex, and weak, and will stand but little wear. Because of the convexity, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight, and such animals are generally incurable cripples. Grease is not an unsoundness, but is such a troublesome and common complaint that brief mention is here given. It is a skin dis- ease appearing nearly always in the hind cannons. Draft horses are more subject to it than light horses. Some individuals are predisposed to it — those with coarse skin and coarse feather. Other horses have it as a form of parasitic mange, denoted by a greasy condition of the skin, congestion of the skin, erect hair, and offensive odor due to dis- charge from the sores. There is a constant itching and the horse rubs the part, producing thickening and wrinkling of the skin. Treatment varies. Half an ounce of Fowler's solution of arsenic night and morn- ing in the feed, burning with hot iron, applying hot linseed poultices, dressing with lead lotion, giving a mild physic, decreasing amount of feed allowance — all these furnish good methods of treatment. Hip down is a fracture of the point of the hip, often caused by the animal striking the part against the door post of the stable. It causes a flatness and sometimes the broken piece of bone may be felt. It is best detected by standing squarely behind the animal and viewing it across the hips. It constitutes a blemish. Navicular disease is a chronic inflammation involving the navicular bone, the navicular bursa, and the flexor tendon of the foot. It is brought on by repeated bruising. Light horses are affected much oftener than heavy horses. The hind feet are seldom affected. It is practically never found in mules. One-third of the weight falling on the leg is sustained by the little bow-shaped navicular bone, and the bone in turn is supported by the flexor tendon of the foot, (See Fig, 153,) Such defects as an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, and 530 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock contracted feet predispose the horse to navicular disease. In this way the disease may be hereditary, as these predisposing causes may be transmitted to offspring. High knee action, fast work, and hard pave- ments also endanger a horse from this disease. Dry stables, heavy pulling, and bad shoeing also tend toward the development of this trouble. In the early stages of navicular disease, the animal at rest points the affected foot forward and rests it on the toe, with the fet- lock and knee flexed. In the lameness which develops, the affected leg takes a short stride, and the toe strikes the ground first. The disease is progressive and incurable, rendering the animal practically valueless, but not entirely useless on soft ground. To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed, an operation in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. Navicular disease is one of the most serious un- soundnesses. Periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness is a disease affecting the eyes of horses, probably caused by a germ. It is quite commonly called "moonblindness," because it was thought at one time that the moon had some influence on the cause of the disease. There is un- doubtedly an hereditary predisposition to the disease, but there are few cases to indicate that the disease itself is transmitted from parent to offspring, but rather the foal is born with a weakness of the eyes, transmitted by the stallion or dam. Other predisposing factors are low, swampy pastures, poorly ventilated or insufficiently lighted stables, over-feeding, etc. The disease comes on with an inflammation usually of one eye. The transparent portion of the eyeball becomes bluish or white in color, most noticeable in the lower part. The eye is kept half closed on account of pain produced by light. Often this is associated by a swell- ing of the eyelids and reddening of the membrane lining them, with a discharge of tears over the face. There is no indication of an injury or more severe inflammation at one point than at another. In one to two weeks these symptoms disappear and the eye may be practically normal to all general appearances for a period of usually one to three months, when another attack occurs more severe than the first. After a few attacks have come and gone, the eye has a bluish appearance, looks cloudy instead of clear, the eyeball is shrunken, retracted in the orbit, and the lens develops a cataract. After having destroyed one eye, the disease frequently affects the other, and the history of the first is repeated. Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll of the head, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. It is caused by blows, bruises, and chafing by the halter or bridle. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53 1 Ringbone is a bony growth at the coronet or on the pastern, in either the front or hind legs. It is called "ringbone" because it often grows around the coronet so as to form a ring, although in a large number of cases the growth takes the form of a lump on the pastern, rather than that of a ring at the hoof-head. This disease may result from severe work in early life, from bruises, blows, or sprains, or from improper shoeing. Ringbone often follows an abscess of the coronet, or a deep-punctured wound. It is also classed as an hereditary un- soundness, horses with short, upright pasterns being predisposed. Ringbones often cause lameness which may disappear with exercise, returning again when the animal is cooled. They may or may not stiffen the joint. The size of the ringbone is not so important as its position. If it is located so as to interfere with the movement of the tendons behind or in front of the foot, it is a very serious trouble. Prevention of ringbones consists in keeping foals well nourished, and keeping the hoofs in balance. Curative measures consist of so shoe- ing as to straighten the axis of the foot and pastern as viewed from A B C Fig. 212. — Ringbone and cocked ankle. A, Sound; B, ringbone; C, cocked ankle. the side; blistering, followed by a few weeks of rest; and point firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. When these measures do not relieve lameness, the only recourse is nerving. Roaring or thick wind. — Horses that make a loud, unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers, excepting those which manifest this trouble because of a severe sore throat. Any obstruction of the free passage of air in some part of the respira- tory tract may cause roaring; occasional causes are nasal polypi, thick- ening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc. However, chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx, thus permitting the cartilage and vocal cord to lean into the tube of the larynx. The noise is made during inspiration, and in far-advanced cases may be produced also during expiration. A horse is tested for roaring by putting him to severe exertion, as the sound is usually made only when at work. Roaring is a serious unsoundness because it incapacitates an animal for severe work, and it is a serious blemish because the noise is un- 532 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock pleasant. It is classed as an hereditary disease. Treatment varies depending on the exact cause, and includes a course of iodide of potas- sium in the early stages of the disease, or, in advanced cases, operating on the larynx. Grunting. — When a pass is made at a horse with a stick, or he is otherwise startled, and he grunts, he should be further tested for roar- ing. It is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, although grunters are not always roarers. Such animals should be given a severe test of wind. Pleurisy and rheumatism will cause grunting, which ceases when the animal recovers from the disease. Whistling. — This is only a variation of the sound emitted by a roarer. It may be temporary, due to a severe sore throat. Sand crack is a splitting of the wall of the hoof, beginning at the coronet, and commonly at the inner or outer quarter in the fore feet or at the toe in hind ones. It is due to imperfection in the growth of horn. It may cause lameness through sensitive parts being nipped by the crack. It constitutes unsoundness. The treatment is rest and cutting a notch transversely below the crack. If there is lameness the crack may be clasped. The shoe may be seated out below the crack, relieving pressure. Sidebones are formed by the ossification of the lateral cartilages of the foot, so that they become hard and unjnelding, instead of soft and elastic. (See Fig. 153.) This disease is most common in heavy horses. They are found more often in the front feet than in the hind ones, and the outer cartilage is more often affected than the inner one. In the hind feet they are of little importance, since they cause no lame- ness. In the front feet they may or may not cause lameness, usually the latter; however, they always lessen the natural expansion of the heels and often result in shortening of the stride. When lameness is present, the horse comes out of the stable stiff and sore, but with exercise the gait shows improvement. Sidebones are caused by sprains, bruises, blows, and other injuries; and by high-heeled shoes, high calks, and short, upright pasterns. The size and prominence of a sidebone is not an index to the damage it may produce. Treatment is not of much account. It consists in using cold-water bandages, then blister- ing or firing. Neurotomy (nerving) is often practiced to relieve lame- ness. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is a serious form of unsoundness, but is not so serious as bone spavin, ringbone, roaring, or blindness. Splints are variable-sized bony enlargements on the cannon bone, usually on the inside of the upper two-thirds of the front cannons. The button-like enlargements at the lower end of the splint bones should not be mistaken for splints. Splints occasionally cause lameness; if so, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 533 they constitute an unsoundness. They are more detrimental in horses used for fast work than in heavy horses used for slow work. In the great majority of cases, splints are only minor blemishes. Many horses have them. Splints often appear in young horses and may be absorbed shortly afterwards without treatment. The chief cause of splint is concussion. Other causes are sprains and injuries or blows on the cannon bone. No treatment should be given, as they but rarely cause trouble. Blistering and firing are sometimes practiced. Sprung knees or buck knees. — This defective conformation may be congenital or the result of heavy labor at too early an age, there being retraction of the flexor tendons of the parts below the knee. While not an unsoundness, it detracts from the usefulness and value, especially in saddle horses. Horses with badly sprung knees may fall even when standing at rest and unmolested. (See D in Fig. 158.) Stringhalt. — This disease comes under the general heading, chorea, or St. Vitus dance. It is manifested by a sudden, involuntary jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking or trotting. It may be very slight in some horses, but increases with age. In some the affected leg is caught up very violently and high, and then lowered equally sudden and forcible. It is more often associated with a nervous disposition than with a sluggish one. It is an incurable disease and very considerably lessens the price. It is best detected by causing the animal to back, or turning him around in his tracks first one way and then the other. Swollen legs. — A swollen leg usually indicates disease, the causes being many. It is also not uncommon in old horses, or those having a sluggish circulation. It is not an unsoundness, but detracts from the appearance and is highly undesirable. Treatment consists in giving laxatives, saltpeter, and moderate exercise. Thoroughpin is similar to bog spavin; it is a swelling occurring at the back and on top of the hock in that part known as the "hollows." It is due to weakness of the capsular ligament and to hyper-secretion of synovial fluid. It is round and smooth, and most apparent when viewed from behind. The swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the hamstring. When pressed on one side, further distention occurs on the opposite side. It seldom causes lameness. Treatment is the same as for bog spavin. Thoroughpin is not a serious ailment, being usually only an eyesore, although many horsemen con- sider it an unsoundness. Thrush is a disease of the cleft of the frog which may cause lame- ness. It is usually the result of negligence, the result of uncleanliness. The cleft of the frog becomes suppurating and moist, and there is a very rank odor. Treatment consists in washing, disinfecting, drying, 534 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock dusting with a little calomel, and packing. This must be repeated daily until the part becomes normal. Windgall or road pufif. — Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs at the fetlocks become distended by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut or walnut. They are sometimes found in young horses, but are most common in horses used for hard labor, especially on pavements. They may be accompanied by lameness, but if not, they are classed merely as blemishes. As a rule, no treatment is necessary in young horses. Older animals may be treated by resting, cold-water douches and bandages, and blistering. Library N. O, State College INDEX Action, effects of conformation on, 417-20 essentials of, 419 (For action of various types see chapters on draft, carriage, road, and saddle horses.) Age as factor in value of horse, 480 differences in carcasses of sheep, 233 in selecting feeder steers, 110-3 from teeth, cattle, 46 horses, 421-3 sheep, 227 of veal calves, 132-3 Ages, classification by, for showing cattle, 31-2 hogs, 315-6 horses, 400-1 sheep, 217 Alveoli of udder, 182-3 American horses, origin of, 427-31 Jack, 507 Merino, 279-87 Saddle Horse, origin of, 428-9 type of, 461-5 Standardbred, origin of, 428 type of, 453-9 -type hog, description of, 317-26 Anatomy of horse, 402-12 Arabian horse, origin of, 424 Armour, Philip D., erection of first chill room by, 91 Army mules, 521 Artillery horses, 485-7 Ass, 507 Auction rules for selling horses, 478 sales of feeder calves, 136 market hogs, 352 Automobile, effect on horse industry 430-1 Baby beef, 98-101 on the market, 123 production, 149 Bacon hog carcass, 342-3 hogs, 370 feeding, 331 -producing countries, 327 production, feeds used in, 327, 331 -type hog, description of, 327-34 Barb horse, origin of, 425 Barreled pork, 346 Barrow, definition of, 315 Barrows, why preferred to sows for slaughter, 338-9 Base of support of horse, 413-4 Bate, John J., early beef exports by, 92 Beef, ageing or ripening, 53 baby, see Baby beef, block or side, 57 breeds, 30 interna] fat of, 74 bull, age to begin using, 159 importance of a good, 154-6 number of cows bred to a, 159 price to pay for, 1 55 type desired in, 154-9 carcass, 47-62 classes and grades of, 57-8 conclusions from study of, 61-2 cutters and canners, 57 differences due to sex, 58 for side or block use, 57 grading, 56-8 heifer vs. steer, 54, 58 shape of, 53 thickness of fat on, 54-5 flesh in, 53-5 variations in, 52-6 weights of, .53 cattle, average value in U. S., 145 breeding, conditions suitable to, 149 in U. S., 14V-9 center of production in U. S., 270 distribution in U. S., 146-9 in leading states, 146 Beef cattle, continutd methods of marketing, 78 number in U. S., 145 percentage of purebred and registered in U. S., 150 prices, high and low months, 143-4 see Cattle. selection for breeding purposes, 149 shrinkage in transit, 80 consumers' demands have changed, 98-9 consumption, center of, in U. S., 78 in U. S., total and per capita, 146 various countries, 335 per capita in U. S. for three years, 384 corned, introduction of, 90 cow, type desired in, 159-62 cured, value of, produced in U. S., 347 cuts, grades of, 61 prices of, 60 weights of, 60 why some are high priced, 60-1 cutting, 58-9 demands of butcher, 52-6 consumer, 52-3 dried, source of, 130 exports and imports, 146 pioneer, 92 fresh and cured, value of, in U. S., 347 grain of, 56 heifers, age to breed, 161 see Heifer, how quality may be improved, 68-9 imports and exports, 27 -making, value of type in, 70-7 marbling, 51-2, 55 percentage sold fresh, 67-8 production, center, 78 factors for success in, 162 in corn belt, 149 U. S., as measured by annual slaughter, 145-6 West, method of, 149 see Calves, Carcass, Cattle, and Feedpra. sire, see Beef bull, slaughter, center of, 78 percent of total, 335 see Slaughter, steer, see Steer, type, definition of, 28 description of, 33-46 value of, produced in U. S., 347 wholesale cuts of, 58-60 Blindness, 524 Block beef, 57 Blood meal, source of, 237 spavin, 524 supply to udder, 183-4 Boar, age to begin using, 398 definition of, 315 number of sows bred to a, 398 type desired in, 395-8 Boars and stags, why carcasses are inferior, 350 on the market, 373 Bob veal, 132 Bog spavin, 524-5 Bologna bulls, 130 Bone spavin, 525 Bones, flintiness of, in beef carcass, 56 of cattle, changes due to age, 50 size of, in beef carcass, 56 Branch houses of packing companies, 92 Brand inspection at markets, 94-5 Branding cattle at markets, 94-5 Brands lessen value of cattle hides, 121 Break-joint, 232-3 Breed a factor in selecting feeder steers, 116 of horses, selecting a, 501 type, definition of, 29 535 536 Index Breeding beef cattle, conditions suitable to, 149 in U. S., 147-9 bucks, on market, 261 community, 154 cooperative, 154 ewes, on market, 259-61 for milk production, 195-205 the market, cattle, 145-62 hogs, 381-98 horses, 494-506 sheep, 267-78 good, essential in baby beef production, 100 importance of, 150-3 sheep class, 259-61 conditions suitable to, 270-1 Breeds of beef cattle, internal fat of, 74 cattle, 29-30 numbers in U. S., 30 dairy cows, differences in milk of, 185 hogs, 314-5 numbers in U. S., 314-5 horses, 431 numbers in U. S., 431 origin of, 424-31 jacks, 507 sheep, 215-6 classes and grades of wo'il of, 299 numbers in U. S., 216 Broken wind, 526 Brood mares, selection of, 503 working, 497-8 Buck, definition of, 217 knees, 533 Bucks and stags, 254 breeding, on the market, 261 Bull, age to begin using, 159 association, the, 197-8 definition of, 30 see Beef bull and Dairy bull. Bulls and stags, on the market, 129 bologna, 130 butcher, 129 feeder, 137 Bull's Head Stock Yards, Chicago, 85 Butcher bulls, 129 cattle, 127-9 cows, 128-9 heifers, 127-8 hogs, 367-8 spread in price of, 377-8 Butter consumption in various countries, 195 6 imports and exports, 27 Buyers at live-stock markets, 87 By-products from slaughtering — cattle, 63-9 hogs, 348-50 in early times, 360-1 sheep, 235-7 Cab horses, 489 Calf and cattle slaughter compared with other slaughter, 335 crops of various states, 148-9 definition of, 30 Calves, charges for selling at Chicago, 88 losses of, 148-9 manner of dressing, 48 number, value, and weight at Chicago, 79 prices of, at Chicago, 140-1 see Cattle and Veal calves, stocker and feeder, 136 yearlings, and older cattle, for feeding, 110-3 Canada, live-stock industry of, 25 number of hogs packed annually, 362 Canner carcasses, 57 cattle, 131 sheep, 262 Canter described, 462 Capped elbow, 526 hock, 526 Car routes of packing companies, 92 Carcass, bacon hog, 342-3 beef, 47-62 see Beef carcass. Carcass, eonlinued classes and grades, beef and veal, 57-8 hog, 341-3 sheep and lamb, 233 goat, 233 hag, 335-51 see Hog carcass, sheep or lamb, 228-38 see Mutton carcass, weights, beef, 53 hog, 341, 342 lamb, 230, 233 sheep, 230, 233 veal, 58 Carding wools, 290 Carloads, number of animals per car, 80 Carpet wool, 292 Carriage, evolution of, 426 horse class, 488-9 in America, 429-30 origin and development of, 426-7 type, description of, 447-52 Casings for sausage, 237 Castration, best age for calves, 30 colts, 400 lambs, 217 pigs, 315 of lambs, importance of, 251-3 Cataract, 527 Cattle, advantages of, on farm, 28 and calf slaughter compared with other slaughter, 335 average value in U. S., 145 beef, see Beef cattle, breeding in West, status in various states 155-6 by-products, 63-9 effect on live prices, 66-7 value of, 64-6 centers of production in U. S., 270 Chicago, percentage slaughtered, 81-2 commission charges for selling at Chicago, 88 dairy, see Dairy cattle, dressing percentage of, 48-9 dual-purpose, see Dual-purpose, early, 96-7 fashions in, 96-105 feeder, see Feeder cattle and Feeder steers, feeding, advantages of, 117-8 margin in, 110 source of profit in, 109-10 fill at market, 80 general market terms applied to, 120-2 grassers and fed, 121-2 hides, prices, 65 value affected by branding, 121 value of, 64-5 imports and exports, 27 market classes of, 119-44 receipts, 79 marketing by seasons, 81-2 markets, American, 78-95 see Markets, native and western, 120-1 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 145-7 weight at Chicago, 79 numbers in leading countries, 145 U. S., 145-7 offal, 48 percentage passing through central mar- kets, 78 prices, see Prices, quarantine of, at markets, 94 seasonal variations in marketing, at Chi- cago, 81-2 see Beef cattle. Bull, Calves, Cow, Dairy cattle, and Steer, shipments by rail, early, 83 early methods, 82-3 shrinkage in transit, 80 slaughter, see Slaughter and Slaughtering, terms, definition of, 30-1 ticks and Texas fever, 94 types of, 28-9 Index 537 Cattle, continued weights of, see Weight and Weights. Caul of sheep, 229 Cavalry horses, 490 Center of beef consumption, 78 slaughter, 78 Centers of production of live stock in U. S., 270 Cheese consumption in various countries, 196 imports and exports, 27 Chicago, Bull's Head Stock Yards, 85 cattle market, 79-82 slaughter, 91 sources of receipts, 79-80 charges for corn, 240, 354 hay, 87-8, 240 oats, 240 public inspection of hogs, 354 selling cattle and calves, 87-8 hogs, 354 horses' 477-8 sheep and goats, 239-40 yardage, cattle, 87 hogs, 354 sheep and goats, 240 development of meat packing at, 359 early cattle trade, 84 hog market, 353-7 growth of, 353 -packing firms, 361 slaughter, 361 and shipments compared, 354-5 packing plants, owners of, 91 percentages of feeder cattle, 81-2 prices, see Prices. receipts and sale by seasons, cattle, 81-2 hogs, 355 sheep, 241-3 effect on prices, hogs, 379-80 lambs, 265-6 of hogs monthly, 355 record receipts of hogs, 353 sale of feeder cattle by seasons, 106 sheep by seasons, 242 see Market, Markets, and Union Stock Yards, sheep market, 239-43 slaughter, 239, 241-2 weights, monthly averages, cattle, 80-1 hogs, 356-7 sheep, 240 Chitterlings, 350 Chunk horses, 482-3 Cincinnati, early hog packing at, 358-9, 360 prices for hogs in early times, 358 shipments of cured pork, 359 Class, market, definition of, 119 Classes and grades of carcasses, beef and veal, 57-8 hogs, 341-3 mutton and lamb, 233 see Market classes and grades, of Merinos, 285-7 sheep, 215-6 Classification by ages for showing, cattle, 31-2 hogs, 315-6 horses, 400-1 sheep, 217 of fine-wool sheep, 285-7 see Market classes, types and breeds, cattle, 30 hogs, 315 horses, 431 sheep, 216 wools, 292-300 Clothing and combing wools, 290, 294-5 Coach horses, 488 Cob horses, 488 Cocked ankles, 527 Colostrum, 187 Colt, definition of, 400 Combing and clothing wools, 290, 294-5 Commission charges, Chicago, for selling — cattle and calves, 88 hogs, 354 sheep and goats, 239-40 Commission firms, 87, 89 Community and cooperative breeding, 154 Conestoga horses, 427-8 Contracted feet, 527 Cooperation in live-stock marketing, 88-9 Cooperative breeding, 154 bull associations, 197-8 commission companies, 89 marketing of wool, 308-10 shipping associations, 88-9 Corn and hogs, 351, 355-6, 381 2, 386-8, 390-1, closely related, 386-8 as a feed for farm animals, 23-4 beef, 90 -belt live-stock industry, 24-5 charges for, at Chicago market, 354 uses of, 386-8 Corns, 527 Cotton-belt live-stock industry, 25 Cotton mules, 519 Cough, chronic, 527 Country hides, cattle, 65 Cow, definition of, 30 -testing associations, 197 study of records of, 188-90 Cows, fat, on the market, 128-9 seasons of heavy slaughter, 129 see Beef cows and Dairy cows, stock, 137 Cracked heels, 527-8 Cripple carts, 373 Crippled hogs, 373 Crops, percentages fed to farm animals, 21 Crossbred, definition of, 151 Cumberland side, 342-3 Curb, 528 Cured pork, advantages to hog producer, 345, 350 demand for, in early times, 382 early shipments of, 359 products, 345-7 value of, produced in U. S. 347 Cuts of beef, 58-60 mutton and lamb, 234-5 pork, 343-5 Cutter carcasses, 57 Cutters, 130-1 Cutters and canners, 130-1 Dairy breeds, 30 differences in milk of, 185 bull, importance of a good, 201-4 selection of a, 201-5 should be a good individual, 204-5 from tested ancestry, 201-5 type desired in, 176-9 cattle breeding, 195-205 center of production in U. S., 270 cow, type desired in, 163-76 cows, average yield of milk in seven coun- tries, 188 cost of feed as related to production and income, 189-90 long-distance records made by, 190-1 methods of judging, 163-4 notable tests of, 189, 190-1 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 195 records made by breed champions in U. S., 190-1 relation of production to net income, 188-9 scrubs, records of production, 199-201 testing, value of, 196-7 value of records in breeding, 196-7 variations in usefulness of, 188-94 farming, advantages of, 205 conditions suitable to, 196 steers for beef, 70-7 why lacking thick flesh, 74-7 temperament, 174 type, definition of, 28 description of, 163-79 Deacons, 132 Dead animals, numbers removed from carsat Chicago, 374 hogs, 373-4 sheep, 262 538 Index Dehorned cattle, advantages for feeding, 114 definition of, 31 Delivery wagon horses, 485 Depilatory, 301 Dew claws of calves, age when hardened, 132 Dipping live stock at markets, 94 Docking lambs, best age for, 217 or shrinking weights of hogs at markets, 357-8 Draft horse in America, 429 mare, selection of, 503 mules, 520-1 stallion, selection of, 504 type, advantages of, to farmer, 499-500 description of, 432-46 origin of, 625-6 weight for age, 446 Dressing calves, 48 percentage, average of — calves, 48 cattle. 48 hogs, 337-8 sheep and lambs. 230 of calves, 48, 132 cattle, 47-9, 122, 127, 130 hogs, 337-8 sheep, 230 see Slaughter and Slaughtering. Dry-salt meats, 346-7 Dual-purpose breeds, 30 cattle, profits from, 209-11 utility of, 206-8 type, definition of, 28 description of, 208-9 Dyeing woolen goods, 291 Early maturity, demand for, in cattle, 98 Eastern chunks, 482 Eastman, Timothy C, early beef exports by, 92 Eckles, C. H., investigation of variation in milk production, 191-3 English meats, 347 Escutcheon of dairy cattle, 173 Ewe, definition of, 217 mutton breeding, type desired in, 275-7 Ewes, age to breed, 275 ages most desired for breeding, 259-60 fat, 254 feeder, 259 number to breed to one ram, 275 Export buyers, 87 mules, 522 Exports and imports, beef and veal, 146 beef, 27, 92 cattle, 27 dairy products, 27 mutton, 269 pork and lard, 383-4 products, 362-4 principal meat-export countries, 24 wools, 304-5 Express horses, 483-5 Farm animals as producers of human food, 312-3 functions of, 21 numbers and values in U. S., 22-3 see Live stock. Farm chunks, 482-3 crops, percentages fed to live stock, 21 mules, 520 Farming, live-stock, advantages of, 21-2 vs. grain, 19-20 Fashions in market cattle, 96-105 Fat, color of, in beef, 55-6 cows on the market, 128-9 effects of, in appearance of horse, 444 heifers on the market, 127-8 internal, in steers of different breeds, 74 steer class, 122-7 storage by hogs and other animals, 339 in bodies of cattle, 50-2 thickness of, in beef carcass, 54-5 Fatness, effect of feed on, in steers, 42-4 Fats of cattle, 65-6 Fed cattle, 121-2 when marketed in large numbers, 121-2 lambs, 247-8 Fed, eontinu*d western cattle, 121 Federal inspection for disease, 93-4 regulations for shipping hogs from markets, 371-2 Feed, charges for, at Chicago, 87-8 costs for horses at Chicago, 477 effect on composition of milk, 193-4 required for gains in hogs, 392 steers, 55 Feeder, bulls, 137 calves, 136 cattle, age as a factor in selecting, 110-3 classes and grades of, 133-7 demands and prices by seasons, 108 how they differ from stockers, 133-4 markets, where located, 107 movement and prices, 106-8 numbers shipped from leading markets, 107 percentages at Chicago, 81-2 sale of, by seasons, 106 sorting of, 107-8 where bought, 106-7 ewes, 259 horses, 491 lambs, weights of, 256-7 pig markets, 371-2 pigs, 371-2 sheep and lambs, 255-9 markets in U. S.. 243 percentage of total at Chicago, 242 sale by seasons, 242, 255 steers, 134-5 selection of, 106-18 wethers, 259 Feeding cattle, see Cattle feeding. Feeds, fertilizing value of, 21 Feet, contracted, 527 Fill at markets, cattle, 80 hogs, 354-5 sheep, 240 Filly, definition of, 400 Fine-wool sheep, breeds of, 216 type, description of, 279-87 Fire horses, 487-8 Fistula, 528 Five-gaited saddle horse, 461-5 Fleece of fine-wool sheep, 283-7 mutton sheep, 222-6 see Wool, tying, 307 Fleeces, buck, 307 cotted or matted, 307 grading, 294-300 of breeding ewes, 261 feeder lambs, 258 Flesh, effect of feed on, in hogs, 327-8, 331 steers, 42-4 thickness of, in beef carcass, 53-5 why dairy steer lacks, 74-7 Fleshing, natural, in feeder steers, 115 Foal, definition of, 400 Foot of horse, anatomy of, 408-11 characteristics of a healthy, 411-2 Founder, 528-9 Fox trot described, 464 Free-martin, definition of, 702 Freight rates, effect on cattle and beef industry, 67 Gains by hogs of different weights, 392 steers for different periods, 55 Gaits of horse described, 458, 462-5 Gammon, 334 Gelding, definition of, 400 General-purpose horse, 429 Gestation period of cattle, 161 horses, 503 sheep, 275 swine, 398 Gilt, definition of, 315 Goat carcasses, 233 skins, value of, 237 Goats and kids — charges for selling at Chicago, 239-40 Index 539 Goats, continued market classes of, 263 number slaughtered under federal inspec- tion, 263 on the market, 263 where raised in U. S., 263 Government supervision of packers and stock yards, 88 Governments, 373 Grade animal, definition of, 151 dairy cows compared with scrub dams, 1 19 201 Grades of beef cuts, 61 see Market grades. Grading carcasses, beef, 56-8 hop, 341-3 mutton and lamb, 233 dairy cattle, 198-201 process in breeding for market, 153-4 see Market classes. Grass cattle, 121-2 when marketed in large numbers, 121 Grease, 529 Great Horse, origin of, 425 Guenon, Francois, escutcheon theory of, 173 Hackney, origin of, 427 Hams, long-cut, 342-3 Hand, definition of, 423 Hay, charges for, at Chicago market, 87-8 Heaves, 526 Heavy-harness type — description of, 447-52 see Carriage horse. Heifer beef compared with steer beef, 102-5 carcasses preferred in England, 54 definition of, 30 spayed, definition of, 30 spaying, reasons for, 104-5 Heifers, beef, age to breed, 161 butcher, 127-8 fat, on the market, 127-8 seasons of heavy slaughter, 128 stock, 137 Hides, cattle, prices of, 65 value affected by branding, 121 values of, 64-5 see Pelt and Skins. High-grade animal, definition of, 152 Hinny, 507 Hock, anatomy of, 406 Hocks, bent or sickle, 420-1 Hog by-products, 348-50 in early times, 360-1 carcass and by-products, conclusions froni study of, 350-1 classes and grades of, 341-3 discussion of, 335-51 proportion made into lard, 348 wholesale cuts of, 343-5 economy of, as meat producer, 312 fattening ability of, 339 markets, and pork packing, 352-64 -packing centers, leading, 361 firms at Chicago, 361 past and present, 352-64 prices as related to supply, 379-80 at Chicago, 375-80 monthly variations in, 379-80 -producing states, 384-5 product importing countries, 363-4 products, exports of, 362-4 raising combined with beef production, 'i <' dairying, 386 conditions suitable for, 385-6 countries of world, leading, 383 see Hogs, Pigs, Pork, and Swine, slaughter, annual in U. S., 383 compared with other slaughter, 335 on farms, 352 Hogs, an unprofitable type of, 389-90 and corn, 351, 355 6, 381-2, 386-8, 390 1, 391 closely related, 386-8 dairy cows compared, 312-3 Hogs, continutd average live weights of those packed in West in winter, 389 annually at Chicago, 389 bacon, see Bacon hog. big type, advantages of, 394-5 boars, see Boars, breeding for the market, 381-98 breeds of, 314-5 center of production in U. S., 270 changes in size for market, 388-9 type of, in U. S. 388-90 charges for selling at Chicago, 354 yardage at Chicago, 354 docking or shrinking weights at markets, 357-8 dressing percentage of, 337-8 fattening qualities compared to othf r anim .Is 392-3 feed for 100 lbs. gain, 392 fill at markets 354-5 grades of, 365-6 why unnecessary, 366, 378 increase in numbers in U. S., 382 lard-type, see Lard, losses of, 312-3 market classes and grades of, 3f 5-75 modern type of, in U. S., 390-1 monthly marketing at Chicago, 355 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 384-5 numbers packed at Chicago, 361 Cincinnati and Chicago in early times, 359 yearly in U. S. and Canada. 362 offal of, 337 packer's typo of, 393-4 producer's type of, 390-8 public inspection of, at markets, charge for, 354 purebred and registered, numbers in U. S., 314-5 percentage in U. S., 398 see Boar, Hog, Pig, PorK, Sow, and Swine, selection for breeding purposes, 391-8 sell largely by weight, 393-4 shrinkage in transit, 354 ■size in. factors essential to, 390 slauKhtering and dressing, 336-7 sorting at markets, 374-5 spread in price of, 376-8 types of, 313-4 weights in early times, 388-9 January at Chicago, 389 monthly and yearly at Chicago, 356-7 most desired by packers, 341 yearly averages at seven markets, 355-6 Hoof, and how it grows, 409-11 mechanism, 416-7 Horse, age from teeth, 421-3 anatomy of, 402-12 importance of knowledge of, 399-400 and mule compared, 509-12 appearance changed by fattening, 444 base of support of, 413-4 breeding, 494-506 carriage, see Carriage horse, conformation concerned in action, 417-20 digestive system of, 403 draft, see Draft horse, effects of mechanical inventions on, 430 -1 foot of, anatomy of, 408-11 fore leg, anatomy of, 404-5 attachment of, 413-4 height of, determination of, 423 hind leg, anatomy of, 406 attachment of, 413-4 hock, anatomy of, 406 hunter, see Hunter horse, important facts concerning the, 413-23 in America. 427-31 540 Index Horse, coniinued market auction rules, 478 requirements, 478-80 markets, receipts, 477 muscular system of, 402-3 nervous system of, 404 prices at Chicago, 492-3 respiratory system of, 403-4 roadster, see Road and Roadster, saddle, see Saddle horse, see Mare and Stallion, skeleton of, 402 compared with man, 407 stride of, phases of, 416 terms, definitions of, 400 utility of, 399 where wear comes in, 416 work, average life of, 495-6 Horses, breeds of, 431 losses of, 495-6 market classes of, 477-93 methods and cost of marketing, 477-8 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 494-5 numbers in leading countries, 494 purebred and registered, numbers in U. S., 431 percentage in U.S., 504 types and breeds of, 431 Hot-house lambs, 261-2 Hunter horse, description of, 469-73 origin of, 426 production of, 473 Imports, beef, 27 cattle, 27 dairy products, 27 mutton, 268-9 New Zealand lamb carcasses, 269 of American pork products into leading countries, 363-4 principal meat-import countries, 24 wools, 304-5 Inspection, federal, for disease, 93-4 of hogs at markets, charge for, 354 Interfering, 420 Jack, best type of, 507-8 Jacks, breeds of, 507 prices paid for, 507 Jennet, the, 507 Jersey Reds, weights of, 388-9 Kansas City Stock Yards, date opened, 85 Kemp, 226, 306 Knuckling, 527 Lamb, cuts of, 234-5 V definition of, 217 feeding in the West, 248 prices as related to supply, 265-6 highest and lowest months at Chi- cago, 264-6 recent demand for, 228 see Mutton and Sheep. Lambs, castration of, importance of, 251-3 fat, 247-51 feeder, 256-9 weights of, 256-7 hot-house, 261-2 market classes and grades of, 244-66 movement to market from different regions, 248 spring, 248 throw-out, 262 weight desired at markets, 249-50 wethers and bucks compared in gains, 251 why some sell at a loss, 251-3 I aminitis, 528-9 I ard consumption in U. S., 383, 384 grades of, 348 hog carcass, 335-51 production annually in U. S., 383 -type hog, description of, 317-26 development of, in U. S., 381-2 most profitable described, 318-9 Lard, continued value of, produced in U. S., 347 Lateral cartilages, 408 Lead mules, 521 Lean meat, color of, in beef, 55 Legs of horse, anatomy of, 404-5 attachment of, 413-4 defects in conformation, 417-21 swollen, 533 I-ibby, .\rthur, introduction of canned products by, 90 Light-harness type, description of, 453-9 Light hog class, 369-71 light hogs, 371 mixed hogs, 371 Live stock as producers of human food, 312-3 centers of production in U. S., 270 exchange, 87 farming, advantages of, 21-2 industry, growth in U. S., 23 survey of, in North America 24-5 marketing, see Marketing, markets, see Market and Markets, numbers and values on farms in U. S., 22-3 on farms, functions of, 21 percentages of world totals in U. S., 23 rank of states in value of, 22-3 shipping associations, 88-9 vs. grain farming, 19-20 comparison of crop yields, 20 Loggers, 481-2 Manure, value of, 20-1 Marbhng in beef, 51-2, 55 Mare, age to breed, 503 best type of, for horse breeding, 503 mule breeding, 508-9 definition of, 400 working the brood, 497-8 yeld, definition of, 400 Margin in cattle feeding, 110 Market cattle, how classed and graded, 138 class and type, distinctions between, 119- 20 definition of, 119 classes and grades of cattle, 119-44 hogs, 365-75 horses, 477-93 mules, 516-22 sheep, 244-66 wool, 294-300 government stand- ards, 299-300 average prices of, cattle, 140-3 hogs, 375-6 horses, 492-3 sheep, 263-6 of goats, 263 live stock, not official or standard- ized, 139 mules, 516-22 demands, importance of, to breeder and feeder, 25-6 essential factors in a large, 85-7 grade, definition of, 119 grades of cattle, 119 hogs, 365-6 why unnecessary, 366, 378 sheep, 244 wool, 294-300 see Grades and Grading, prices, see prices, receipts, cattle, 79 effects on prices, hogs, 379-80 lambs, 265-6 hogs, 352-3 horses, 477 sheep, 239 requirements for horses, 478-80 mules, 516-7 terms applied to cattle, 120-2 sheep, 244-6 Index 541 Marketing, cooperation in, 88-9 lambs, seasons for different regions, 248 live stock, steps in, 90 methods of, beef cattle, 78 hogs, 352 horses, 477-8 sheep, 239 seasonal variations in, cattle, 81-2 hogs, 355 sheep, 241-3 wool cooperatively, 308-10 properly, 307-8 Markets, American cattle, 78-95 early, 82 hog, past and present, 352 -64 horse, 477 sheep, 239-43 buyers at, 87 cattle, location of, 78, 83-4 size of, in South America, 79 development of large, 83-4 feeder cattle, 107 where located, 107 pig. 371-2 sheep, 243 location of, 83-4 Mast, 381 Meat consumption in various countries, 24, 335 per capita in U. S. for three years, 384 -export countries, 24 fat, contains more energy than lean, 382 -import countries, 24 industry, three eras in, 91-2 packing, development at Chicago, 359 production in U. S., total values, 347 Meats, boiled, 347 dry-salt, 346-7 English, 347 smoked, 347 sweet-pickled, 347 Merino type, description of, 279 -87 Merinos, classes of, 285-7 importance of, in U. S., 279 Mess pork, 346, 382 Mexico, live-stock industry of, 25 Milk cistern, 182 consumption in various countries, 195 cows, see Dairy cows. ducts, 182-3 effect of feed on, 193-4 mirror, 173 nature and composition of, 184-5 production, breeding for, 195-205 cause of variation in, 191-3 of average dairy cow, 188 secretion, 180-7 stimuli to, 187 veins, 172-3 wells, 173 Milkers and springers, 137 Mills, Elisha, first packer in West, 90 Mining mules, 518-9 Mohair, 310 Moonblindness, 530 Morgan horse, origin of, 428 Mule, 507-15 and horse compared, 509-12 Mules, market classes of, 516-22 requirements for, 516-7 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 512-5 numbers in leading countries, 513 production of, in U. S., 513-5 Muscle, effect of feed on, in steers, 42-3 Muscles, changes in cattle due to age, 50 Mutton and lamb carcass, 228-38 consumption in various coun- tries, 335 per capita in U. S., 384 slaughter, per cent of total, 335 value of, produced in U. S., 347 wholesale cuts of, 234-5 breeding ewe, type desired in, 275-7 ram, type desired in, 272-5 carcass and pelt, 228-38 Mutton carcass, continued classes and grades of, 233 conclusions from study of, 238 differences due to sex, 233-4 qualifications of a good, 230-3 weights of, 230, 233 wholesale prices of, 233 consumption in U. S., total and per capita, 268-9 cuts ot 234-5 exports, 268-9 imports, 268-9 production in U. S. as measured by slaugh- ter, 268-9 sheep, breeds of, 216 class, 247-54 increase in numbers in U. S., 268 type, description of, 218-27 National Live-Stock Exchange, 87 Stock Yards, date opened, 85 Traders' Live-Stock Exchange, 87 Native cattle, 120-1 lambs, often undocked and uncastrated 244, 251-3 sheep, characteristics of, 244-6 Navicular disease, 529-30 New Zealand lamb carcasses in U. S., 269 Noils, 290 Norfolk trotter, origin of, 427 Offal of cattle, 48 hogs, 337 sheep, 229-30 Ohio Sheep and Wool Growers' Association, 310 Oleo fats, value of, 65-6 oil, source of, 237 value of, produced in U. S., 347 Oleomargarine, manufacture of, 65-6 value of, produced in U. S., 347 Omaha Stock Yards, date opened, 85 Order buyers, 87 Pace, slow, described, 463-4 Pacing gait described, 458 records, 454 Pack and riding mules, 521-2 Packer hides, cattle, 65 the first, in West, 90 Packers' branch houses, 92 car routes, 92 Packers, country hog buying by, 352 do they control prices, 67-8 early, demand for heavy hcgs, 388-9 government supervision of. 88 Packing, eariy, at Cincinnati, 358-9, 360 hogs, 368-9 -house by-products, see By-products, industry, American, total value of prod- ucts in one year, 93 an aid to cattle producer, 68 competition in, 67-8 development of, 90-2 narrow margins of profits, 68 three eras in evolution of, 91-2 plant, the modern, 92-3 plants, owners of, at Chicago, 91 pork, past and present, 352-64 Packingtown, 91 Paddling, 420 Park horses, 488-9 Pasterns, slope of, effect on action, 120 Pedigree, dangers of, 204-5 important in swine breeding, 397-8 value of, in selecting dairy bull, 203-5 with performance, 203-5 Pelt of sheep, value and use of, 235-7 Periodic ophthalmia, 530 Pickled pork, 346, 347 Pig and dairy cow compared, 312-3 economy of, as meat producer, 312 Pigs, fall-farrowed, when marketed, 356-7 feeding, 371-2 losses of, 312-3 on the market, 371 roasting, 373 542 Index Pigs, continued see Hogs, Pork, and Swine, spring-farrowed, when marketed, 356 Pluck, 229, 237 Plug horses, 492 mules, 522 Pododerm, 409 Poland-Chinas, weights of early, 388-9 Poll evil, 530 Polled cattle, advantages for feeding, 114 definition of, 31 Polo, history of, 473 pony, description of, 473-6 origin of, 427 production of, 476 Ponies, 491-2 Pony breeding, 501 Population and cattle in U. S., 145 agricultural, 27-8 of U. S., 27-8 Pork, annual exports less imports, 383-4 barreled or pickled, 346 consumption in U. S., 383, 384 various countries, 335 cured, see Cured pork, cuts of, 343-5 dry-salt, 346-7 English, 347 exports of, 362-4 factors in cost of production, 312-3 foreign demand for, 382 fresh and cured, value of, in U. S., 347 -importing countries, 363-4 mess, 346, 382 -packing centers, leading, 361 development at Chicago, 359 early, at Cincinnati, 358-9, 360 growth in U. S., 361-2 number of hogs yearly in U. S. and Canada, 362 past and present, 352-64 seasons and year, 361-2 winter and summer seasons com- pared, 361-2 production, conditions suitable for, 385-5 in U. S., annually, 383 products, cured, 345-7 exports of, 362-4 sold fresh, 345 value of, 347 slaughter in U. S. annually, 383 per cent of total, 335 smoked, 347 soft, 340-1 sweet-pickled, 347 value of, produced in U. S., 347 wholesale cuts of, 343-5 trade in, 345-6 Pregnancy, duration of, in cows, 161 ewes, 275 mares, 503 sows, 398 Prepotency, definition of, 150 Prices at Chicago — as related to supply, hogs, 379-80 lambs, 265-6 market classes of cattle, 140-4 hogs, 375-80 horses, 492-3 sheep, 263-6 monthly and yearly averages — beef steers, 142-4 hogs, 379-80 lambs, 263-6 stocker and feeder cattle, 1 < !) spread in, cattle, 377-8 hogs, 376-8 sheep, 377-8 Prices at Cincinnati, hogs in early times, 358 for live stock, two kinds of fluctuations, 142 Prime heavy hogs, 366-7 Prolificacy in swine, 397 Purebred, definition of, 150-1 live stock, points of superiority, 153 utility value of, 152-3 see Registered purebred live stock. Quarantine divisions at markets, 94 Rack described, 463 Railroads, early shipments of cattle by, 83 Ram, age to begin using, 275 definition of, 217 mutton breeding, type desired in, 272-5 number of ewes to breed to, 275 Rambouillet, 287 Range, see Western range. Records, fastest trotting and pacing, 454 highest, by dairy cows in U. S., 190-1 value in breeding dairy cattle, 196-7 202-5 for beef, 162 Refrigeration, artificial, 91-2 Refrigerator car, 91-2 effect on number of live hcgs shipped from Chicago, 353 Registered purebred live-stock — number in U. S., cattle, 30 hogs, 314-5 horses, 431 sheep, 216 percentage in U. S., cattle, 150, 198 hogs, 398 horses, 504 sheep, 271 Renick, George, cattle feeding operations of, 82-3 Ringbone, 531 Road horse class, 489-90 puff, 534 Roadster type, description of, 453-9 origin of, 428 Roaring, 531-2 Roasting pigs, 373 Roughs, 372 Route cars of packing companies, 92 Rudimentaries of bull, 177 Runabout horses, 489-90 Running horse, origin of, 425 walk described, 464-5 Saddle Horse, American, origin of, 428-9 class, 490 first, origin of, 424 type, description of, 460-8 Sand crack, 532 Sausage casings, 237 value produced in U. S., 347 Scouring wool, 302 Scrub animal, definition of, 151 dairy cows, records of production, 199-201 Scurs, definition, 31 Secretion of milk, 180-7 Sex differences in beef carcasses, 58 hog carcasses, 338-9, 350, 358 sheep carcasses, 233-4 Shearing sheep, 288 hand vs. machine, 307 Shearling, definition of, 217 Sheep, adaptability of, 270-1 and lambs, marketing by seasons, 241-3 number slaughtered under fed- eral inspection in U. S., 263 at Chicago, number, value, and weight, 239-40 branding with paint, 306 breeding, conditions suitable to, 270-1 for market, 267-78 breeds, 215-6 wool of, classified, 299 by-products from slaughtering, 235-7 carcass, 228-38 see Mutton carcass, caul, 229 center of production in U. S., 270 classes of, 215 charges for selling at Chicago, 239-40 dressing, method of, 228-9 percentage of, 230 feed and labor requirements, 213-4 feeder markets, 243 sale by seasons at Chicago, 242 fill at markets, 240 industry in U. S. in early times. 267 Index 511} Sheep, continued market classes and grrades, 244-66 markets and their receipts, 239^3 most profitable kind to grow, 216-7 must be handled at markets, 241 native and western, 244-6 number, value, and distribution in U. S., 269-70 numbers in leading countries, 268 oflfal, 229-30 pelt, value of, 235-7 prices at Chicago, 263-6 purebred and reg:istered, percentage in U. S., 271 raising, advantages of, 214-5 present status of, 213 see Ewe, Lamb, Mutton, and Ram. shearing, 288 shrinkage in shipping, 240 slaughter compared with other slaughter, 335 see Slaughter and Slaughtering, sorting and selling at Markets, 241 source of improvement in, 271-2 spread in price of, 377-8 terms, definition of, 217 types of, 215-7 weights, monthly averages at Chicago, 240 Shoddy, 291 Shoeing, cost at Chicago, 478 Short-feds, 121 Shote, definition of, 315 Show-yard classification by ages, cattle, 31-2 hogs, 315-6 horses, 400-1 sheep, 217 Shrinkage in slaughtering and proces.sing, hogs, 348-9 transit, beef cattle, 80 hogs, 354 sheep, 240 of wools, 297-9 Sickle hocks, 420-1 Sidebone, 532 Skins of goats, value of, 237 sheep, value of, 237 Slaughter at Chicago, number of calves, 91 cattle, 91 hogs, 361 sheep, 239 in U. S. annually, beef, 145-6 hogs, 383 mutton, 268-9 pork compared with other meats, 335 veal, 145-6 see Dressing. Slaughtering and dressing cattle, 47-8 hogs, 336-7 sheep, 228-30 bofirs on farms, 352 see Dressing. Sloan, Tod, his method of riding, 414-5 Smoked meats, 347 Soil fertility, maintenance of, 20 Sorting at markets, feeder cattle, 107-8 hogs, 374-5 sheep, 241 wool, 300-1 Soundness as a factor in value of horse, 478-9 in breeding ewes, 261 Southern chunks, 483 Southerns, 121 Sow, age to begin breeding, 398 type desired in, 395-8 Sows, big type, ease of farrowing, 394 pregnant, dockage at markets, 357-8 seedy, 338-9 Spanish horse, origin of, 425 Merino, 279 Spavins, 525 Spayed heifer, definition of, 30 Spaying heifers, reasons for, 104-5 Speculators, 87 Splint, 532-3 Spraying hogs at markets, 94 Spread in price of beef steers, 144 Spread in price of, continued cattle, 377 8 hogs, 376-8 sheep, 377-8 Spring lambs, 248 Springer cows and heifers, 137 Sprung knees, 533 St. Louis Stock Yards, date opened, 85 Steg, definitions of, 30, 217, 315, 400 Stags, 129, 254, 372 dockage in weight on hog market, 357-8 Stallion, age to begin using, 503 definition of, 400 type desired in, 504 Standardbred horse, origin of, 428 type of, 453-9 Stearin, 349 value of, produced in U. S., 347 Steer and heifer beef compared, 102-5 beef type vs. dairy type, 70-7 class on market, 122-7 definition of, 30 Steers, beef, prices monthly and yearly at Chicago 142-4 spread in, 144 changes in, due to feeding, 42-4 good to prime, spread in prices, 378 see Cattle and Feeder, weights at various ages, 45-6 Stepping pace described, 463-4 Stock cows, 137 heifers, 137 yard companies, revenue of, 85 company, functions of, 85 yards, government supervision of, 88 Stocker and feeder calves, 136 cattle, classes and grades, 133-7 sale by seasons, 106 where bought, 106-7 how differs from feeder, 133-4 see Feeder. Stockers, yearling, 135-6 Stomach worm of sheep, 245-6 Stringhalt, 533 Sub-class, 123-4 Sugar mules, 519-20 Suprarenalin, 237 Sweet-pickled meats, 347 Sweetbreads, 66 Swift and Company, branch houses and car routes, 92 G. F., first refrigerator car shipment by, 92 Swine, advantages of raising, 311 breeds of, 314-5 see Hog, Pig, and Pork, types of, 313-4 Swollen legs, 533 Tallow, 65-6 and oleo oil, value produced in U. S., 347 Tankage, meat meal, manufacture of, 66 Teats of dairy cow, 171-2 structure of, 181-2 Teeth as indication of age of cattle, 46 horses, 421-3 sheep, 227 Temperament, dairy, 174 Tests of dairy cows at expositions, 189 Texas and western range cattle, 120-1 cattle, movement into other states, 147-9 Thick wind, 531-2 Thoroughbred, origin of, 425 Thoroughpin, 533 Three-gaited saddle horse, 465 Throw-out lambs, 262 Thrush. 533-4 Thyroidin, 237 Tick-infested cattle at markets, 94 Top, 290 Tractor, effect on horse industry, 430-1 Traders, 87 Traders' Live-Stock Exchange, 87 Transportation, early methods of, 82-3 Tripe, 66, 237 Trotting gait described, 458 horse, origin of, 428 544 Index Trotting, continued records, 453-4 Tuberculin test of cattle at markets, 94 Turk horse, origin of, 425 Two-shear, definition of, 217 Two-tooth, definition of, 217 Type and market class, distinctions between, 119-20 definition of, 29 in hogs, changes in, 388-90 of horse to breed, choice of a, 498-9 value of, in beef making, 70-7 Types of cattle, 28-9 horses, 431 effects of mechanical inventions on, 430-1 origin of, 424-31 sheep, 215-7 swine, 313-4 Udder of cow, blood supply of, 183-4 structure of, 180-2 dairy cow, 170-2 Union Stock Yards, Chicago — description of, 85 founding of, 84-5 methods and cost of market- ing horses at, 477-8 see Chicago. sources of receipts, 79-80 Unsoundness in the horse, 523-34 Vaccination of hogs at markets, 94 Variations in usefulness of dairy cows, 188-94 Veal calves, 132-3 when marketed in large numbers, 133 consumption in U. S., 146, 384 various countries, 335 exports and imports, 146 production, annual, in U. S., 145-6 see Calves. value of, produced in U. S., 347 Wagon horses, 483-8 Walk, running, described, 464-5 trot, canter horse, 465 War horse, origin of, 425 Warmed-up cattle, 121 Weanling, definition of, 400 Weeds, 492 Weight desired in market bacon hogs, 327-8 dressed, average of lambs, 230 sheep, 230 for age, beef bulls and cows, 157 draft horses, 446 lard hogs, 326 steers, 45-6 hogs sell largely according to, 393-4 importance of, in draft horses, 432-3 of draft horses, 446 hogs, most profitable, 326 veal calves, 132-3 Weights of beef cattle in early times, 96-7 cattle monthly at Chicago, 80-1 stockers and feeders, 134 hog carcasses, 341 hogs in early times, 388-9 January at Chicago, 3S9 market classes, 365 mature bacon type, 328 lard type, 326 monthly and yearly averages at Chicago, 356-7 packed in winter in West, 389 yearly at Chicago, 389 seven markets, 355-6 horses, 481 lambs, fat, 249-50 feeders, 256-7 pork products, 345, 346 sheep monthly at Chicago, 240 Western range cattle, 120-1 breeding in various states 155-6 movement into corn belt, 147-9 Western range, continued receipts at Chicago, 79 live-stock industry, 25 horses, 491 sheep, characteristics of, 244-6 prices at Chicago, 263-4 Wether, definition of, 217 Wethers, fat, 254 feeders, 259 Wheel mules, 521 Whistling, 532 Wholesale cuts of beef, 58-60 mutton and lamb, 234-5 pork, 343-5 Wiltshire side, 342 Windgall, 534 Wool, black, 307 burs in, 307 carbonization of, 302-3 clip of world, 303 consumption per capita, 288 cooperative marketing of, 308-10 cotted or matted, 307 dyeing, 291 factors determining value of, 305-8 felting quality of, 289 fiber, strength of, 306 structure of, 288-9 fineness of, 289-90 frowzy, 300 grading, 294-300 imports and exports, 304-5 market classes and grades, 294-300 marketing properly, 307-8 markets in America, 305 Ohio Sheep and Wool Growers' Associa- tion, 310 packing, 307 painted, 306 pooling by growers, 308-10 pounds per pound of cloth, 291 prices of scoured and raw, 305-6 -producing sta- e; 303-4 production in U. S., 303-4 pulling, 301-2 scouring, 302 see Fleece and ' /^ ols. shearing, hand ^ - machine, 307 shrinkage, 304, ' .-6 of va .s grades, 297-9 sorting, 300-1 tags, 306 wet, 307 Woolens and worsteds, 290-1 Wools, American, how to improve, 307-8 and wool growing, 288-310 bright and semi-bright, 292 carding, 290 carpet, 292 classifications of, 292-300 clipped and pulled, 292 clothing, 290 combing, 290 and clothing, values of, 294 domestic and territory, 292-3 government standards, 299-300 Ohio, 292 see Fleece and Wool. washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed, 293-4 Worms, stomach, of sheep, 245-6 Worsteds and woolens, 290-1 Yardage charges at Chicago — cattle and calves, 87-8 hogs, 354 sheep and goats, 240 Yearling sheep, fat, 253-4 feeders, 259 stockers, 135 Yeld mare, definition of, 400 Yolk, 223 secretion and composition, 290 Yorkers, 370-1 nOfEKTY tmiART