SUjp i. 1. Bill ffitbrarH North (Carolina ^tate Hmnpraiti| §: ;forest resources LiBRAHY S00429573 U Pr3 FOREST RESOURCL LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. U. S. DEPARTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF FORESTRY- PULLETIN No. 33. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. THE WESTERN HEMLOCK EDWARD T. ALLP:N. FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY. NRRC WASHINGTON: SD397 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE W^5 1902 19 0-2. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. Forester, Gifford Pinchot, Assistant Forester, Overton W. Price. Assistant Forester, George B. Sudworth. Chief Clerk, Otto J. J. Luebkert. Su])enntendent of Tree Planting, William L. Hall, olltp i. B. Mill ICtfararg North (Uaroltna ^tatp llmtipratti| | ^0 1 1 NRRC SD397 kkk 1902 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER N. C. STATE UNIVERSITY Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr.culture. Frontispiece. Typical Fokest Mixture in Washington. Species, from left TO RIGHT: Red Fir, Spruce, Hemlock, Cedar, Red Fir. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF FORESTRY-BULLETIN No. 33. GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. THE WESTERN HEMLOCK, EDWARD T. ALLEN, FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY. WASHINGTON. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 2. LlTri'R OP TRAXSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Forestry, m/^/mn/ton, D. C. March 8, 1902. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled "The Western Hemlock," prepared by Edward T. Allen, field assistant in the Bureau of Forestry, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 33 of this Bureau. Very respectfully, Gifford Pinghot, F'ore! Boring beetles 18 Black check 19 Immunity from white ants (termites) 20 Parasites 20 The wood T 21 Durability 22 Defects 22 Uses 23 Manufacturing problems 24 Present market standing 24 Accessibility 26 Lumbering 28 Volume and yield, first-growth Hemlock 30 Logged-off lands 36 Volume and yield, second-growth Hemlock 40 Utilization of second-growth stands 44 Hemlock left after lumbering 46 Bark '. 48 Volume and yield 50 Harvestmg 52 Extract 53 A list of the trees of Oregon and Washington 54 5 ILLUSTRATIONS, PLATES. Page. Typical forest mixture in Washington Frontispiece. Plate I. Figs. 1 and 2.— Pure stand of Western Hemlock, Cascade foothills, Washington 10 II. Typical mixture of Red Fir and Hemlock, Black Hills, Washington. 10 III. Fig. 1. — Semi-Alpine forest of Noble Fir, Red Fir, and Western Hemlock, Mount Rainier Forest Reserve. Fig. 2. — Western White Pine, Cascade Mountains, Washington 10 IV. Fig. 1. — Young Hemlock growing on Red Fir stump. Fig. 2. — Hemlock, second g'rowth, 12 to 14 years old, on logged-off land, near Hoquiam, AVash 14 V. Fig. 1. — Hemlock seedlings growing on rotten wood. Fig. 2. — Hem- lock, second growth, 15 years old, on logged-off land, near Hoquiam, Wash 14 VI. Fig. 1. — "Conky" living Hemlock, showing fruiting organs. Fig. 2.— Distortion of trunk and branches of Hemlock caused by Arceuthobium occidentale 16 VII. Fig. 1. — "Black check" in Hemlock lumber, caused by insect injury when tree was small. Fig. 2. — Hemlock near Hoquiam, Wash., killed by Buprestid larvae 16 VIII. Fig. 1. — Fasciation of Hemlock branch, caused by Arceuthobium occidentale. Fig. 2. — Hemlock stump cut high to avoid ground- rot - 20 IX. Fig. 1. — Second-growth Red Fir, 70 years old; Dryad, Wash. Fig. 2.— Mature Red Fir, 380 years old; young Hemlock beneath; Black Hills, Washington 30 X. Fig. 1. — Logged-off land, Buckley, Wash.; Hemlock and diseased Fir left standing. Fig. 2. — Hemlock left after logging, Enumclaw, Wash., showing stumps of Red Fir 38 XI. Pure second-growth Hemlock, 55 years old. South Bend, Wash 40 XII. Figs. 1 and 2. — Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains, Washington, showing thick, rough bark of mountain form 52 TEXT FIGURES. Fig. 1.— Diagram showing height growth of mature Red Fir and of Hemlock growing beneath it, calculated on a basis of age 12 2. — Diagram showing diameter growth of mature, Red Fir and of Hem- lock, calculated on a basis of age 13 3. — Diagram showing growth in height of second-growth Hemlock and Fir, on a basis of diameter breasthigh 40 4. — Diagram showing growth in diameter of second-growth Red Fir and Hemlock in pure stands and of Hemlock in mixture with Red Fir. . 41 5. — Diagram showing yield per acre in board feet on a basis of age of pure even-aged Hemlock with and without deduction for cull 43 7 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. INTRODUCTION. The stimulus apparent in the lumber industry of the Northwest within the last few years, with the recent immense inyestments in standing- timber in that region and the realization that its supply is limited, has created an interest in the long-despised Western Hemlock. This species forms 13 per cent of the forests of Washington and is abundant in many parts of Oregon. Apparent inability to utilize it is one of the most serious factors in the local lumber problem. Were it practicable for the Hemlock to stand unharmed until it became established in the market there would be less cause for immediate concern. But, seldom growing in pure stands, the Hemlock in mix- ture with the Red Fir, Spruce, and Cedar now being logged is left standing by the lumberman to be destoyed by fire, wind, or insects, a complete loss to the owner and to the communit^^ This waste is in line with the history of lumbering in the North- eastern and Lake States, but with more serious result and with less justification. The Eastern Hemlock is an inferior wood, and therefore was left uncut until more yaluable species became scarce. The disad- yantage of the Western Hemlock has been not its quality, but its confusion with the Eastern species. It has been condemned without trial except by a few, who, realizing the difficulty of conyincing the market, haye manufactured under the names of Fir, Spruce, or Alaska Pine as much Hemlock as they dared without fear of detection. The importance of bringing Hemlock into the market on a large scale is now being realized and its surreptitious use is somewhat greater than it was formerly. There is still, howeyer, a total lack of organ- ized effort, and practically nothing is done to acquaint the consumer with its merits. DISTRIBUTION. The Western Hemlock extends from Alaska southward to Marin County, Cal., to the coast region in California and southern Oregon in the southern, and east to Montana in the northern, portion of the belt. The first printed mention of the species occurs in an account of the voj-age of Admiral Vancouyer, a British nayigator, who yisited Puget Sound in May, 1792. In July of the following 3'ear Alexander Mac- 10 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. kenzie. tlio tirst Avhitc man to cross the North American continent, saw the Hemlock in latitude 52° on the coast of what is now British Columbia. The lirst description of the tree was published in 1814 in the journal of the Lew'is and Clarke Expedition, which passed the win- ter of 1805 near the mouth of the Columbia River. These explorers spoke of it as a tree ''four to six feet in diameter, straight, round, and reofularly tapering.'' The distrilnition of the species indicates clearl}' its chief require- ments to be a cool and moist climate. Western Washington and Oregon, where it reaches its best development, are divided into three longitudinal l)elts, each with distinct characteristics of soil and climate. The western strip, between the Pacdtic Ocean and the Coast Range (which becomes the Olympic Mountains in the north), has a fertile, usuaUy cla3^ey soil and an annual rainfall of from 70 to 100 inches. This strip contains a large proportion of Hemlock, in mixture with Spruce, Cedar, and Red Fir. (See Frontispiece.) Between the Coast Range and the foot of the Cascades lies a belt which, protected from the moist sea winds, is comparative!}" dry. In Washington the soil is glacial drift, consisting chiefly of gravels; in Oregon it forms the rich agricultural lands along the AVillamette and other rivers. In this belt there is little Hemlock, the growth being nearly pure Red Fir, with Cedar on the low ground, and some Pine. On ascending the west slopes of the Cascades the change is again distinctly marked. The soil is of either volcanic or sedimentary origin, and the increasing altitude causes con- densation of the moisture which escapes the Coast Range and is carried eastward over the central valley. Here the Hemlock again appears and, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,500 feet, reaches its best develop- ment, and is most free from insect attacks and from disease. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. Hemlock rarely occurs in pure stands of great extent, al^^hough Clallam (bounty, Wash., contains large forests of Hemlock, and there are tracts in Jefl'erson and King counties in which the percentage of other species is small. (PI. I.) It commonly occurs in a mixture in which Red Fir is apt to be the prevailing species. (PL II.) Along the coast it is associated with Spruce and Cedar, and in northern Cali- fornia with Redwood. Occurring up to an altitude of near!}' 5,000 feet, it is almost alwa3"s one of the many species which form the widely varying mixture on the west slope of the Cascades. With Red Fir, Spruce, Cedar, and White Fir, it constitutes the forest now being lumbered in the foothills; higher, its associates are White Pine (PL III, fig. 2), No])le Fir, Amabilis Fir (PL III, tig. 1), and, near its upper limit, Alaska Cedar and the Alpine Hemlock. Toward the west slope of the Rockies, the eastern limit of its range, it becomes more distinctly a mounrain tree and grows in what has been called the White Pine 3ul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultun Fig. 1. Pure Stand of Western Hemlock, Cascade Foothills, Washington. Altitude, 1,300 Feet. Fig 2.— Pure Stand of Western Hemlock, Cascade Foothills. Washington. Altitude, 1,300 Feet. j|, 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Typical Mixture of Red Fir and Hemlock, Black Hills, Washington. Bureau of Forest^. U. S. Dept. of Agricultu Plate III. FiQ. 1. -Semi-Alpine Forest of Noble Fir, Red Fir, and Western Hemlock, Mount Rainier Forest Reserve. Altitude, 2,400 Feet. Fig. 2. -Western White Pine, Cascade Mountains, Washington. Altitude, 2.50D Feet. HABIT. 11 zone. Other trees in this zone are Tamarack, Engehnann Spruce, Lodgepole Pine, and Cedar. Throughout the range of the Western Hemlock broadleaf trees are so few that they are of no consequence as factors in the mixture. Where the climate is too dry to be generally favorable, Hemlock takes refuge on north slopes and in shaded valle^^s, where it can hold its own against Fir mainly because, since lire is infrequent, the latter finds an unsuitable seed bed and insufficient light in such localities. A list of the trees of Oregon and Washington contains a few which seldom or never occur in mixture with Hemlock, but it is given for reference on page 54. UNDERGROWTH. Since Hemlock rarelj^ forms a pure stand it has no characteristic undergrowth of its own. Vine Maple is common and Oregon Grape, ferns, and mosses constitute the smaller growth. In low, wet situa- tions Devil's Club and Salmonberry are often abundant. No shrul) is more characteristic of the pure fir forest than Salal, which prefers a dry soil and is therefore not much in evidence in the moist localities where Hemlock is at its best. Where it occurs forest reproduction is poor, for Salal covers the ground with a dense thicket 2 or 3 feet high. The leaves are thick and oily and encourage rather than prevent fire. A list of some of the more important shrubs which occur in the forests of Washington and Oregon, will be found on page 55. HABIT. The Western Hemlock has been found with a diameter of S and a height of 250 feet, and these dimensions ma}^ occasionalh" be surpassed. As a rule mature trees are from 3 to 5 feet in diameter at breastheight. The trunk is exceedingly cylindrical, although often with a sudden, irregular buttressing near the base, due to the germination of the seed on a log or stump. The branches are small and pendulous, form- ing a narrow spire-shaped crown which offers little resistance to the wind and serves somewhat to offset the insecurity of a shallow root system. Near the top of the tree and where exposed to the light the foliage is exceedingly dense and tufted, appearing almost fascicled, a provision which secures a very large leaf surface. Overtopped trees are able to form spreading crowns, and thus to accomplish the same result. The Hemlock clears itself of branches somewhat slowly. TOLERANCE. Western Hemlock will germinate and grow under dense shade. This characteristic, called tolerance, is one of the most important factors in determining the composition of the forest. Red Fir requires abundant light in youth, and hence seedlings of this species do not 12 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. conio up beneath a heavy .stand of mature timl^er. Hemlock and Cedar thrive under cover and, where climate and soil are favorable, occur in stands containing- trees differing- widely in age, since 3'oung trees are continually growing up to replace those which die and are blown down. In a forest of Red Fir, however, the trees are practi- callj' of the same age and no reproduction takes place until a large proportion of them are removed and light is freely admitted to the ground. This is usualh^ accomplished by lire. Where, as is frequent, the forest consists of an upper story of large Fir and a lower stovy of Hemlock of varying age, it often occurs that Ic'J J 40 /6J AGL-YLAR3 Fig. 1.— Diagram showing lieight growth of mature Red Fir and of Hemlock growing beneath it, calculated on a basis of age. as the Fir dies the Hemlock gradually takes its place. Where Fir is killed out by conk or ground- rot, the process is often rapid; and exami- nation shows that the small areas stocked with a pure growth of young Hemlock, so often seen in the midst of a Fir forest, were often caused by this means. It is proba})le that disease in the old Red Fir forests is largely responsible for the present distribution of Hemlock in W^ashington and Oregon. (JKOWTH UNDER COVER, No tree grows as rapidly in the shade as it does in the light, and Hemlock which has come in under Fir shows a close and often very HABIT. 13 irregular grain. The rate of growth often quickens as the tree pushes up toward the light, ?nd the grain becomes coarser and the wood lighter. Red Fir, on the other hand, or Hemlock which has enjoyed light in 3^outh, shows a rapid growth near the heart and a slow growth near the bark, when age has diminished the rate. A peculiar silvicultural problem is presented by the constant!}^ diminishing density of the Red Fir overwood. Nearly all Red Fir forests start on burns or open land and are very dense for the first lif ty or one hundred 3'ears. The young Hemlock which starts beneath the Fir during this period gets little light and grows slowly. Later, as fm •i^-^^lttinn-j|H;iHH^^tfHtl !lljUl ili l!^|^^ n ai^/ 1 .'^'^- v.^-. Fig. 2.— Diagraiu showing diumt-ler growth of mature Red Fir and ol' Htmlock, calculated ou a basis of age. the Firs begin to crowd each other out, more light is admitted and the lower storj^ of Hemlock grows more rapidly. Hence, the older the overwood the faster grow the Hemlock seedlings which come in beneath it. The culmination of height growth as the Hemlock approaches maturity therefore differs greatl}^ from that under the usual forest conditions where the supply of light remains constant. Instead of falling off normally, as the trees approach maturity' the growth of the Hemlock forming the lower story is constantly stimulated by the diminishing density of the upper stor}- of Red Fir. (Figs. 1, 2.) 14 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK DEMANDS UPOX SOIL AND MOISTURE. The Hemlock ranges from mucky swamps to rocky hillsides. It requires, however, a heavy rainfall and is seldom found where the pre- cipitation averages less than 40 inches annually, reaching- best devel- opment where it is above 70 inches. The finest Hemlock in Washing- ton grows at an altitude of 2,000 to 8,500 feet on the western foothills of Mount Rainier, where the annual precipitation is seldom less than 80 inches and snow lies half the year. EEPKODUCTION. A prolific seeder and not fastidious as to seedbed, Hemlock repro- duces freeh' under a wide range of conditions. In the drier inland regions, or where the soil has been severely burned, it does not rival Red Fir, but on the coast it far excels it. AMiile Fir prefers a bare mineral soil. Hemlock reproduces better on a humus of leaves or rotten wood. (Pis. IV, V.) Stumps and fallen logs form a favorite seed- bed, and large trees are often seen standing on leg-like roots, which, starting from the log or stump, have extended downward to the ground, finally to be left unsupported by the decay of their host. (PI. IV, fig. 1.) Hemlock is thus enabled often to seed up ground where there is sufficient light for the germination of Fir. Insects, wind, or a ground fire ma}^ cause a tangle of fallen timber, later covering the ground with rotten wood. A few fires may start under such condi- tions, but Hemlock is likel}^ to get the masteiy. Near South Bend, Wash., is an illustration of this on a large scale. About sixty years ago the standing timber on a tract covering nearly a township was destroyed. No sign of fire is visible. Appearances indicate that this destruction was wrought l)y the measuring worm, which has since attacked large areas of Hemlock along the coast, notably near Grays Harbor and in Oregon. The original stand was chiefiy Hemlock and Spruce; now, almost rotten, it covers the ground 1 to 2 feet deep. A few seed trees survive the catastrophe and record its date clearly by two or three very close rings, .showing slow recovery from the injury, followed by greatly accelerated growth due to the increased light. Although there was an abundant supply of Red Fir seed, none germinated, and 90 per cent of the young growth now standing is Hemlock, with an occasional Spruce or Cedar. The Hemlock is of veiy rapid growth, averaging over 100 feet high and 13 inches in diameter at 55 years of age. Hemlock bears seed almost eveiy year. The age at which seed bear- ing begins varies with the amount of light in which the tree has grown. Trees coming up in burns may ])ear when 25 or 30 years old, but those which have grown in the woods do not bear until much later. The seeds, like those of most conifers, are winged and may be carried great distances by the wind. 33, Burrjau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricuitu Fig 1. —Young Hemlock growing on Red Fir Stump Fig. 2. -Hemlock, Second Growth, 12 to 14 Years Old, on Logged- OFF Land, near Hoquiam, Wash. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agncul1ur< Fig. 1. -Hemlock Seedlings growing on Rotten Wood. Fig. 2.— Hemlock, Second Guowth, 15 Years Old, un Luguld-off Land, near HoQuiAM, Wash. ENEMIES. 15 ENEMIES. FUNGI (conk and GROUND-ROT). Few Western trees maintain so continual a warfare to preserve exist- ence as does the Hemlock. Its shallow root S3^stem is exposed to ground fires and also renders the tree unable to withstand heavy winds. The l)ark is thin, afi'ording little protection against fire or other injury. The tree is liable in old age to attack by several fungi, notably conk {TiUi/ietes pini and Eclunodontlum tinctorkmi) and ground-rot {Poly- poms schweinitzii). The latter is the more prevalent, and makes long- butting necessary in many localities. Little can be done as yet to prevent these timber diseases, but a better undei-standing of them may impress upon the lumberman the advisability of utilizing infected timber before it is ruined. Both conk and ground-rot are active, independent enemies of trees, and not, as is often believed, merely followers of disease due to unfavorable conditions. The "conk" or bracket seen on affected trees is the fruiting organ. On its under side are innumerable minute spores or seeds. (PI. VI, fig. 1.) These float through the air and lodge upon other trees. Conk spores never enter through the bark, but usually through the scars of broken branches. Once the spore is established, root-like fibers grow inward, destroying the structure of the wood. When suf- ficient nourishment has been extracted a small conk is produced, which grows b}" annual layers on its under side, and in turn liberates millions of spores. Conk spreads rapidly, especialh" where the trees are badly scarred. Storms aid the disease by breaking man}^ branches. Trees which have grown in an open stand in youth are apt to become conkj' because the branches are large, and, when the}' finally die off', they leave wounds which often do not heal over thoroughly. Damp climates and soils are favorable to the growth of conk. In ground-rot the fruiting organs are on or near the roots. Hence the spread to other trees is usually brought about either by direct infection of interlacing roots or by the carrying of spores in the fur of burrowing animals. Hence ground-rot is apt to spread more slowly than conk and to be confined to spots in the forest. On the other hand, since the tender growing ends of roots ma}' be infected without first being scarred, the existence of one diseased tree is almost certain to affect a group. Conk and ground-rot in Red Fir, Hemlock, and Spruce are caused by the same fungi and may be communicated from one species to another. It is evident, therefore, that the immediate cutting of diseased trees is advisable, not only to save as much timber as possible, but in order to prevent the infection of others. The merchantable stand of many tracts of Red Fir in Washington has been reduced one-third by conk in ten years. It would often be better policy to incur considerable 16 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. expense in lumbering- oonky trees ininiediately than to cut onh' ths sound timber near at hand. The occurrence of fungous diseases is quite variable, but probably 20 or 2.5 per cent of all Hemlock under 8 feet in diameter is affected. Above that diameter the percentag^e is larger — possibly 50 per cent. Red Fir suffers much less, except in central and southern Oregon, where from 80 to -iO per cent is diseased. These estimates do not mean that so large a portion of the standing timber is actually lost, for often part of a diseased tree can be used, especially in the case of ground-rot, when long-butting constitutes the only loss. (PI. VIII, fig. 2.) INSECTS. Dr. A. D. Hopkins, of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, who has charge of the investigation of forest insects, has kindly furnished the following information relating to the insects of the Western Hemlock, mainly (juoted from data published by him: Very little is known of the insect enemies of the Western Hemlock, or of methods of preventing losses from their ravages. During my investigation in the Northwest in the spring of 1899, under authorization from the honorable Secretary of Agricul- ture and instructions from Dr. L. O. Howard, some observations were made which convinced me that the Western Hemlock has some very destructive insect enemies. In my preliminary report on the "Insect Enemies of Forests in the Northwest," Bulletin 21, N. S., U. S. Department of Agriculture, the following references are made to some of the insects observed: On page 8, to an undescribed bark-beetle {Hi/lesinus sp. ), which was found at New- poit, Oreg., to be quite common in recently felled Hendock. On page 9, to a trouble which had caused the death of a large number of Noble Fir and Hemlock in the Cascade Forest Reserve near Berry, Oreg. While I was not able to secure specimens of the insects which doubtless caused the death of these trees owing to the fact that the trees had been dead too long, I concluded from the char- acter of their work on the outer sapwood that it must be a Buprestid, possibly belonging to the genus Melanophila. Many of the wounds made by the insect had healed over before the trees died, thus presenting conclusive evidence that they were attacked while living and probably while in a healthy condition. In the vicinity of St. Helen, Oreg., investigations were made of a serious trouble affecting the Hemlock and Red Fir, which proved to be similar to, if not identical with, that affecting the Hemlock and Noble Fir in the Cascade Reserve. The work of appar- ently the same Buprestid larvje was found in healthy, dead, and dying trees, and I was fortunate in securing a few larv;c; also some nice specimens of healed-over gal- leries. The latter presented conclusive evidence that the attack had been made on healthy growing trees. It seems that the trees succumV) only after several years of successive attack by this insect. The extensive cutting of timber for fuel carried on here does not seem to answer the usual purpose of attracting the insects away from the living trees; therefore this is a problem of considerable interest, and, under more favorable conditions for study, should receive attention in order to determine some methods of preventing the ravages, which may prove to be even more extensive than at present. Jul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Fig. 1.— "Conky" living Hemlock, showing Fruiting Organs. Fig. 2. -Distortion of Trunk and Branches of Hemlock, caused by Arceuthobium occidentale. 3ul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agricuitu Fig. I.—'- Black Check" in Hemlock Lumber, caused by Insect Injury when Tree was small. Fig. 2.— Hemlock, near Hoquiam. Wash., killed by Buprestid Larv/e. ENEMIES. 17 In the vicinity of Ahlers (now Push), Oreg., 1 found a vast amount of dead Spruce and Hemlock. The trees had been dead eight or nine years, and hence it was not possible to personally investigate the cause of the trouble. I was particularly fortu- nate, however, in obtaining from the postmaster, Mr. Herman Ahlers, a most inter- esting account of the beginning and ending of the trouble as observed by him at the time. (Page 10.) The work of this insect has not, I believe, been previously recorded. Mr. Ahlers says: "The worms commenced to attract a little attention here in 1889. A few moths were seen in the fall of the same year. In July, 1890, the worms appeared in great numbers, the first on the Hemlock, feeding on the base of the leaves and cutting them off. When standing beneath the trees the droppings from the insects and the falling leaves sounded like rain. When all of the leaves were eaten from the trees the worms would let themselves down by means of webs, and if they were not full grown would feed on the leaves of all kinds of shrubs and trees, except the Douglas Spruce and Cedar. The worms were observed during July and August and disappeared in the latter month, probably going into the ground to pupate. In October the moths began to come out. They were grayish white with dark markings on the wings. The wings spread about li inches. The moths would appear on the wing about 3 o'clock in the afternoon in enormous swarms around the tops of the trees, resembling a white cloud. They continued to fly for about three weeks, at the end of Avhich time the ground was covered with the dead insects, and the small streams were filled with them, in some places forming dams. The next year, 1891, they attacked the Sitka Spruce and defoliated the trees, which died the following fall or winter. * * * When the worms were coming down from the trees the webs made the trees look as if they were covered with a grayish veil. The worms were about Ij inches long, the sides grayish green, with darker gray zigzag markings on the back. When traveling they measured their way. This trouble extended over parts of Clatsop and Tillamook counties, killing all the Hemlock and Sitka Spruce in a belt between elevations of about 450 and 1,200 feet above tide. The Douglas Spruce and Ked Cedar were not injured." (Page 18. ) At the time of my visit much of the area covered by dead timber had been fre- quently burned over by forest fires, so that in some places nearly all of the dead tim- ber had disappeared, but in other places, where the conditions had not been so favorable for the spread of the fire, the dead, barkless trunks of the trees were still standing, the tops broken and the branches fallen, the scene presenting at once a most impressive example of the destructive powers of an insect enemy of forests and of subsequent devastation by forest fires. While the caterpillars, which were primarily to blame for this destruction, have not attracted attention in recent years, they will doubtless make their appearance again in destructive numbers and attack the remaining timber, which is becoming each year more accessible to lumbering operations, and hence rapidly increasing in value. On page 17 further reference is made to the Buprestid enemy of the Hemlock, Red Fir, and Xoble Fir: "The evidence found in living, dying, and dead Xoble Fir and Hemlock in the Cascade Forest Reserve at Berry, Oreg., and in Hemlock and Red Fir along the Columbia River in the vicinity of St. Helen, indicated that much loss of valuable timber had been due to the work of Buprestid larvte in the living bark of these trees. The conditions at the time were not favorable for a study of this class of enemies or for a special investigation of the damage which seemed to be due to their attacks. It is, however, a subject of special importance, which will demand con- siderable attention in the future. Specimens of larvae collected frorii the bark of living trees were provisionally identified by Mr. Schwarz as belonging to the genus 22020— No. 33—02 2 18 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Melanophila, prol)al)ly M. nly at gi-eat alti- tudes and is not \'et available for lumber. In strength, ease of working, and fi'e(,'dom fiom waip and siiake, Western Hemlock diflers greatly from the Eastern sjjecies, whose deficiencies in these respects are its chief drawbacks. Western Hem- lock can not be classed in strength with Oak, lied Fir, or Longleaf Pine, nor is it suitable for heavy construction, especially where exposed to the weather; but it possesses all the strength requisite for ordinary building material. It is largely used in Washington for mill frames. When green, Hemlock contains much water and is very heav^y; when dry it is but little heavier than Spruce, in some localities no heavier. 22 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. The following table gives the weights of thoroughly kiln-dried Hem- lock and that of four well-known woods, per cubic foot: Table 1. — Weight per cubic foot of Hemlock- and other in/l-knovn woods. Pounds. Western Hemlock 26. 95 Eastern Hemlock 26. 42 "White Pine 24. 02 Sitka Spruce 26. 72 Red Fir 32. 14 The weight given for "Western Hemlock is the average of 1,500 feet B. M. taken from different Cascade camps at different times, and was obtained by a member of the Bureau of Forestr}-. The weights of the other species are quoted from the Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. IX. The weight of Hemlock varies g'reatly with localit}'' •and rate of growth, and in the tree itself. DURABILITY. The dura])ility of this timber is still largelj^ a matter of conjecture. There are no recorded experiments, and it has until recently been but little used. It is probable, however, that its durability has been greatly underrated. Although not a hardwood, it has given satisfac- tory service in floors for several years. It is the general experience that Hemlock skids, dams, and bridges in the woods are short lived, but this may be in part because the wood is used unbarked and never becomes dry. Green Hemlock is exceedingly sappy, heavy, and liable to attack by fungi and insects. It is not adapted for use partly in the ground. While the popular prejudice has prevented its extended use for piles, a few instances go to prove that Hemlock piles last almost if not quite as long as those of Fir. In salt water both stand until destroyed by teredoes or limnoria; in fresh water Hemlock lasts about ten years. Hemlock is, however, softer than Fir and more apt to be crushed in driving, and is less able to withstand a great strain success- inWy. In ease of working it is between Fir and Spruce, taking a smoother surface and cutting more easily than the former. It is readily turned, and the straight, even grain renders it free from brashiness or tendency to chip. There is very little contrast between the hard and the soft grain, and this feature, with the absence of pitch, makes it susceptible of a beautiful finish. DEFECTS. The chief of these are "black streaks" or checks, black knots, and the red heart already described. The latter is serious when the infected wood is used for pulp, on account of the color of the product; as lumber, it is undesirable for ornamental work and prevents substi- THE WOOD. 23 tution for Spruce. It i.^, however, easily detected and the lotjs may be scaled down accordingly. The black knots, due to a fung-ous dis- ease occurring- where shade-killed branches have improperly healed, almost wholly ruin the lumber in which they occur. They are, how- ever, confined mostly to trees near the coast. The black streaks, which have resulted in bewilderment and consternation on the part of those who have tried to manufacture finer articles of Hemlock, is a widespread and serious evil for which no remedy is as yet apparent. They are from three-quarters of an inch to 3 inches long, seldom over five-eighths wide, and very thin. (PI. VII, fig. 1.) The streaks lie with the g-rain and become very conspicuous if the log is bastard sawn. In boards cut across the grain they are less conspicuous, but kiln drying is apt to open them clear through the board and to render the latter useless where tightness is required. This is one of the chief objections to the use of Hemlock for wooden ware, for which it is otherwise excellent. This defect, varying- greatly in degree, is widespread throughout Washington and Oregon and necessitates care in the selec- tion of Hemlock from certain localities. It is less prevalent upon the higher slopes of' the Cascades, while toward the upper limit of the tree the defect does not occur. Besides the three defects mentioned above. Hemlock lumber fre- quently shows the perforations of boring beetles. This is, however, usually the result of careless handling of the logs and is too local in distribution to be quoted as an objection to Hemlock lumber generally. Hemlock is best adapted for uses which require ease of working, a handsome finish, and lightness combined with considerable strength. It has been found suitable for flooring, joists and scantling, laths, siding, ceiling, box shooks, turned stock, newel and pan&l work, woodenware, and paper pulp. It is, however, for finishing- and box manufacture that it is most certain of appreciation when it becomes better known. Taking a high polish, free from pitch, and, when properly sawed, showing a beautiful grain, it is an excellent wood for wainscot, panels, and newels. It is harder and less easily dented than Redwood or Cedar, and has a uniformly firm grain which on drying does not show the minute corrugations characteristic of Bed Fir and other trees having a marked difi'erence between summer and fall wood. The St. Paul and Tacoma Lumber Company, of Tacoma, has an oflice finished in Hemlock which attracts much admiration, and builders of many stores and residences on Grays Harbor have selected it as the most ornamental of Western woods for inside finishing. Of greater economic importance, however, is the use of Hemlock as a substitute for Spruce and White Pine in the manufacture of boxes. The scarcity of timber suitable for this purpose is a cause of much 24 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. concern even in the West. The United States Geological Survey esti- mates the quantit}' of standing Spruce in Washington at less than 6^ billion feot. Oregon contains much less. Spruce is in demand for pulp as well as for l)OX material and Avoodenware stock, and the avail- able supply is going rapidly. Spruce logs are the dearest in the market, and Spruce is not easv to get at any price. Hemlock is not used for pulp in Washington. Probal)ly half the quantity now sawed in that State goes into "Spruce" boxes, for the manufacture of which it is admirably adapted in color, w^eight, and tastelcssness. The objections are that very thin stock is more apt than Spruce to split and that on account of "black knots" only clear lum- ber can be used. The latter objection is contined mainly to timber from near the coast. With the failing supply of Spruce the necessity for the general use of Hemlock becomes urgent, but so far few manufacturers have had courage to use it under its own name, and its substitution for Spruce can be carried on only to a limited extent. Were 'it well understood that Hemlock boxes are practically as light and tasteless as those of Spruce, a market for Hemlock would be opened immediately. An evidence of the adaptation of Hemlock for food packages is the fact that early settlers in Washington invariably used it for hewn tubs in which to pack their winter butter. After considerable experiment a large paper mill at Lowell, Wash., has decided unfavorably against Hemlock. On the other hand, it is largeh' used in Oregon, where it is pronounced better than the East- ern species. Since it is impossible altogether to avoid red-hearted or "black" logs, the color is the chief objection and makes the use of ground Hemlock pulp impracticable for the manufacture of better grades of paper, although soda and sulphite processes bleach the wood sufficiently unless it is unusually bad. The Oregon mills buy only upland logs. Those from the coast are apt to be faster grown, of coarser liber, darker, and more frequently ati'ected by black knots. Several camps in Oregon put in large quantities of Hemlock for pulp alone and receive on an average $4.50 per thousand. The bark is fre- quently given away on condition that it be removed from the log. It brings |10 to $12 a ctn-d at the tannery. MANUFACTUBING PROBLEMS. PRESENT MARKET STANDING. E^xcept to a limit(>d extent for pulp. Western Hemlock is at present absolutely without standing in the market. A few million feet are cut annualh^ but are manufactured and sold under the name of Spruce or Fir. It is a breach of confidence for the logger to disclose the name of a customer to whom he sells Hemlock. It is never quoted in local trade journals. Notwithstandmg these facts, mill men almost uni- MANUFACTUKING PROBLEMS. 25 versalh' admit that they con.sider it an excellent timber and deplore the conditions which prohibit its use. There are three main reasons for this state of afiairs: (1) The prejudice of the consumer, who condemns Hemlock without trial because of its name. (2) Hitherto Fir and Spruce have been so cheap that there has l)een no necessit}^ for using Hemlock. (3) Hemlock is heavy when green and apt to give trou])le in driving and in ponds. To overcome the prejudice against the name will be diihcult, for to introduce an unknown timber to the market usualh'^ requires years. The practice of selling Hemlock as Fir when manufactured into floor- ing, siding, and dimension stufi', and as Spruce in the form of box- shooks and woodenware, has grave drawbacks. If detected, as he frequently must be, the mill man must either lose a customer or bring satisfactor}^ proof of the excellence of the Hemlock. If he is able to accomplish the latter, he might as well have done so originalh' and the problem would thus have been solved. A mill which makes the substi- tution also furnishes a weapon of revenge to rivals and to employees with a grievance. It works a hardship to timber owners ; for, with no recognized price for the timber, they are at the mercy of the mills. Some individuals have decided that, as the name is the drawback, it should be changed; and an attempt has been made to introduce Hem- lock as Alaska Pine. This has been successful to some extent, and if it had been attempted earlier might have solved the problem. The second reason no longer exists. The standing timljer of the Northwest is going into the hands of large holders, either mill compa- nies or speculative svndicates, and the day of the small logger, who moved from claim to claim, taking only the best timber, will soon be over. Under the old system, when the logger bought the stumpage, he found it most profitable to take only the best Fir and leave a fair merchantable grade uncut. An apparentl}" unlimited supply enabled him to contimie this wasteful system. Under such conditions it was not surprising that Hemlock was neglected. As a rule, it furnishes less clear lumber than Fir, and when only the best of the latter species was taken at a cost to the mill but little more than that of logging it, the utilization of Hemlock was out of the question. It was never cruised, and was left as entirel}^ unconsidered in the buying and selling of timber land as though it did not exist. Now, however, it is becom- ing more and more the rule for timber to be cut by its owner, or, if not, to be sold by the acre, and it is to the interest of the logger to cut all he can from the land. In the case of Fir, lower stumps and shorter tops are put on the landing which would not have been looked at ten or even five years ago. The owner also realizes that a log of Hemlock used is a Fir log saved, and the only question is how to dispose of it. 26 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. The third objection will ))e discussed under the head of kimbering. There is little doubt that if Hemlock logs brought $6 a thousand, even the heavy butts would tind their way to market. ACCESSIBILITY. A restricted home demand and remoteness from other markets are the chief difficulties before the lumber manufacturer in Oregon and Washington. Although timber is cheap, labor is high, and to sell his lumber he must place the price so little above the cost of logging and manufacture that the business is one of uncertainty and slender profit. The result is that although lumbering is carried on upon an immense scale, the State is being denuded of its timber with little profit beyond the employment of the men engaged in producing the lumber. The owner gets little for his timber, and the mill man receives an income trilling when compared wnth his investment and risk. The reason for this is the cost of transportation. The manufacturer is obliged to depend upon the foreign cargo trade, the Eastern market accessible by rail, and locally upon Alaska and California. The latter is the dumping ground for side and common lumber which can not be profitably shipped a long distance. The cargo trade is peculiar in that the market is fairly steady and no great energy in pushing the product is required, but it is governed very largely bj^ ocean freight rates. If grain be moving the lumber shipper will find it impossible to charter a vessel. Owners dislike to load lumber, both because it is sup- posed to be bad for the ship and because it often takes her to a port which furnishes no return cargo. If, on the other hand, the prospect for grain on the Pacific coast is bad, ships do not come there at all unless under charters which fully recompense them. The effect is that when rates are favorable the mills accept all the orders they can secure, make charters regardless of possible forfeit through delay, and run day and night, piling up iumiense amounts of nearly unsalable lumlier. When matters turn the other way, the mills may run for months at a loss or with little profit so far as the cargo trade is concerned. The following freight rates on lumber from the northern Pacific coast ports to foreign ports, for September, 1899, and September, 1900, are quoted from the San Francisco Commercial News: Table 2. — Freight rates on lumber from northern Pacific coast ports to foreign 2)orts. RATE PER 1,000 FEET, SEPTEMBER, 1899. From Puget Sound to — Sydney, New South Wales $n. 25 to $n. 75 Melbourne or Adelaide 13. 12 to 13. 13 Port Pirie, Australia 12. .50 to 12.81 Freeman tie, West Australia 15. 93 to 16. 25 Geraldton, West Aust-ralia 16. 25 to 16. 56 MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS. 27 From Puget Sound to — West coast South America: Pisaqua range $12. 81 to $13. 12 Callao range 13. 12 to 13. 43 Buenos Ayres 13. 75 to 15.00 Shanghai 13. 43 to 13. 75 Kiaochow 13. 75 to 14. 06 Japan 12. 50 to 12.81 South Africa 15. 62 to 16. 25 United Kingdom 17. 50 to 18.12 Vladivostok 12. 50 to 12. 81 RATE PER 1,000 FEET, SEPTEMBER, 1900. From northern Pacific coast ports to— Sydney, New South Wales $13. 12 Melbourne or Adelaide 15. 00 Port Pirie, Australia $14. 37 to 15. 00 Freemantle, West Australia 17. 50 Geraldton, West Australia 17. 81 West coast South America: Pisaqua range 15. 62 to 15. 93 Callao direct 15. 31 Buenos Ayres 17. 50 to 17. 81 Shanghai 16. 25 Kiaochow 17. 50 Nagasaki, Japan 15. 00 South Africa 18. 12 to 18. 75 United Kingdom 21. 25 Vladivostok 16. 25 Rail trade with the East is affected by a more fluctuating- market and }\y vig-orous competition, but is also regulated almost wholh' by the cost of transportation. Except for the business in spars and heavy timbers, which are obtainable only on the Pacific coast, the eastern limit of trade 'is that point to which Oregon and Washington lumber can be delivered more cheaply than Southern or Northern Pine. The rate on Fir lumber from Puget Sound and Oregon at present is- Table 3.— Railroad rates on Fir lumber from Puget Sound and Oregon, per 100 pounds. Helena $0. 35 St. Paul 40 Chicago 50 St. Louis 52i Pittsburg $0. 65 New York 73 Boston 75 Lumber other than Fir is, as a rule, 10 cents less per hundred pounds. This at present applies only to Spruce and Cedar, since these are the only other kinds which are shipped. With the cost of logs at about ^0 and of manufacturing at $;8.50 per 1,000 feet B. M. these freight rates allow of little shipping of timber from Avest of the Rockies, although there is a prospect that satisfactory rates will soon be granted to Missouri River points. The bulk of the ^5 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. lumber shipped to these points is for building purposes, for which Western Hemlock is thoroughly satisfiictory. Since dry Hemlock (rough) weighs but 2,240 pounds per 1,000 feet B. M., and Fir weighs 3,00<) pounds, the theoretical saving in freight on kiln-dried grades would be nearly one-fourth. The arbitrary weights accepted by the railway companies for the various grades of Fir might conflict some- what with this comparison, but the advantage for long hauls in a decrease in weight of 20 per cent remains indisputable. The ditfer- ence in the weight of air-dried stock of these two kinds may be less, since Hemlock is slow to dry and heavv when green, but with proper care it would still be considerable. Generally speaking. Hemlock lum- ber will probably be sold in the Missouri region from $2 to ^3 cheaper per 1,000 feet B. M. than Fir on account of saving in freight alone. LUMBERING. With a few exceptions, it is only as skid timber that Hemlock enters the logger's calculations. These exceptions are where mills log their own lands, where small orders for box lumber or pulpwood are received, or where the Hemlock is unusually good. In all cases it is put in as a side product with a much larger quantity of Fir, for no logging is done in approximately pure Hemlock stands. So far as Hemlock logs can be quoted at all, they bring about $1:.50 per 1,000 feet B. M. for the largest and clearest, no others being handled. Fir of the same quality is worth $6 to ^8. Most frequently the Hemlock logs are not classed as Hemlock, but are put in with the Fir and scaled at the option of the buyer as first or second grade Fir. A few camps put in from four to five logs a day, cutting only those they are sure will he accepted at the price of first-grade Fir. To sum up, the demand is so small and uncertain that the logger handles Hem- lock only in a desultor}^ and uns3'stematic vfay. As a rule, there is little profit in logging on Puget Sound for less than §5 a thousand, and it actually costs many Red Fir camps $5.50 to deliver their logs at the mill. On Grays Harbor and the Columbia River the cost is a little lower. It is idle to attempt to state definitely the cost or profit of lumbering, since it varies from a net gain of $1 a thousand to losses resulting in bankruptcy; but the following table gives a rough average of the cost of lumbering 1,000 feet at Puget Sound camps: Table 4. — Average cost of lumbering per 1,000 feet at Puget t'^ovnd camps. Stumpage SI . 00 Labor 2. 50 Engines, line, and road 1. 00 Haul to mill 1/00 Total 5. 50 Average i)rice of logs §6. 00 Cost 5.50 Profit 50 LUMBERINO. 29 There i.s apt to be considerable variation in the items of expense. Timber lying on streams may bring- $1.50 stumpage; that accessible only b}^ rail is cheaper, but the cost of transportation often reaches $1.50. Estimates for the cost of engines, line, and road var}^ from 50 cents to $1 per 1,000 feet B. M., but probably the latter figure is more nearly correct. The scarcity of accessible timber makes private log- ging roads necessary in most instances, and these cost from $5,000 to $10,000 a mile. The expense for railroad per 1,000 feet B. M. depends upon the amount of timber rendered available and is exceedingly vari- able. The length of the haul and the character of the ground make a considerable variation in the outla}' for wire rope. The following table, based upon an actual paj^ roll, shows the cost of operations in a camp which ships logs ]\v rail and water to a distant mill: Table o.— Cost per thousand feet. Labor getting logs tcj car S2. 50 Shipping to boom 1 . 30 Booming and rafting 08 Scaling , 035 Returning boomsticky 07 Mill (lis!Count 11 Wear on outfit 50 Total 4. 595 This is exclusive of stumpage, which in this instance was 50 cents per 1,000 feet B. M., the timber having been purchased several years ago. The same timber is now worth about $1. It would thus appear that with Hemlock logs at $4.50, or even $5, there is little profit in logging them. It is to be rememliered, how- ever, that a portion of the expense of lumbering, such as the cost of a railroad, is necessary in order to lumber the Fir, and thus can not be charged altogether against the Hemlock; and when, as is often the case, no account was taken of Hemlock when the timber was pur- chased, the cost of stumpage is also eliminated. The difliculty of driving butt logs, because of their weight, deters many lumbermen from handling Hemlock. This difliculty varies greatly, and in many localities is of no importance. Hemlock near the coast is heavier when green than the Hemlock of the uplands, and, since river driving is also commoner there, gives the most trouble. Were the demand regular and extensive, however, means of avoiding this difficulty would doubtless be devised. A market for Hemlock bark would probably make it profitable to peel the logs in summer, and they would then dry out sufliciently to be driven successfully. There would then, however, be the danger from the l)oring-beetles, which have already been mentioned. 30 THE WESTEKN HEMLOCK. Hemlock, unless cut with the Fir, i.s usually lost. Fire is practically certain to run through the slashings. The thin bark of the Hemlock makes a severe tire fatal, and where a tree is only slightly scarred the boring-beetle is almost sure to attack it. With its shallow root system the Hemlock is also liable to be blown down when left unprotected, and even the drying of the soil, due to increased light, often proves fatal. It is not uncommon for 5,000 to 25,000 feet of Hemlock per acre to be left standing on land from which the Fir has been removed. Allow- ing a stumpage value of onh" 25 cents per thousand feet, this represents a loss of $1.25 to f$0.25 an acre. Or, putting it differently, if Hemlock gains a place in the market, it will raise the value of such timber from $1.25 to $6.25 an acre. In the case of pure, or nearly pure. Hemlock, a greater increase in value would be necessary to bring about the same result, for there would be no logging of Fir to lower the cost of logging the Hemlock. (PI. IX.) VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK. Scribner's scale has been used in all volume and yield tables in this report. The universal custom of scaling at the small end of the log has been followed, although the scale was originally intended to be applied at the middle, where it is far more accurate. The prevailing practice undervalues large logs, and it is probabh' for this reason that the mills secured its adoption; but a return to the correct method here would result only in confusion. The data for Table H, which gives the contents of standing trees in board feet, were obtained by two methods, one based on the actual logging practice and one on the possible merchanta))le contents of the trees. The former included the scaling of several hundred trees as the}" lay in the slashings, cut into logs but not j^arded out. The logs were scaled just as would be done b}^ the camp or mill scaler, except that the total contents of each tree were kept separate. In this way the average contents of trees of different diameters and height were found. The average diameter limit in the tops to which the Hemlock was cut was 20.5 inches. In this way from 10 to 30 feet of merchant- able, and sometimes clear, lumber is usually left, which will undoubt- edly be used when Hemlock is better appreciated. The same trees were therefore also scaled to a point 16 inches in diameter inside the bark, unless the crown extended below thi.s point, when the merchant- able length was considered to end at the first large green branch. Table 6 gives the result of both methods. 33, Bureau of Forestty, U. S. Dept. of Agncultur. Fig. 1.— Second-growth Red Fir, 70 Years Old, Dryad, Wash. i^'TPl £•<"/ "' vHB^ *• p -nH^ H^F ^ '^ l^-'f^ ^r Mm /V |^^- ij^^ W' TWt M i>^^ H^^rSrt^ ^Ejf ^ 1 ■Hpi"y i»'**""'^J H^^^^^ l^^^&i^^l :Ji^BSi Fig. 2. -Mature Red Fir, 380 Years Old; Young Hemlock beneath, Black Hills, Washington. VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK. 31 Table 6. — Merchantable length and content^;. Diameter breast- high. Average total height. Merchantable length. Contents. In prac- tice. Cutting to 16 inches. In prac- tice. Cutting to 16 inches. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Boardfeet. Boardfeet. 20 135 24 240 21 22 23 140 144 148 34 43 52 350 465 580 37 5.50 24 152 44 60 680 700 25 156 51 68 800 825 26 159 58 74 920 955 27 162 63 80 1,040 1,090 28 166 68 84 1,150 1,230 29 168 71 87 1,260 1,365 30 171 73 89 1,360 1,490 31 174 74 91 1,450 1,605 32 176 74 92 1,540 1,715 33 178 75 93 1,630 1,820 34 181 75 93 1,710 1,925 35 183 75 94 1,780 2,030 36 185 76 95 1,850 2,135 37 187 77 96 1,920 2,245 38 189 79 97 2,000 2,360 39 191 81 98 2,080 2,480 40 193 83 101 2,176 2,605 41 194 86 103 2,280 2,735 42 196 89 106 2,400 2,870 43 198 90 109 2,550 3,010 44 199 91 112 2,730 3,160 45 200 92 115 2,940 3,320 46 202 93 119 3,175 3,490 47 203 94 123 3,430 3, 670 48 205 95 126 3,680 3,870 49 206 96 131 3,920 4,090 50 208 97 135 4,155 4,310 In this table small trees appear to scale much too high in proportion to the larger ones. This is because only unusually tall and good trees of the smaller diameters are taken at all, and their average is relatively high, while above 30 inches practically all sound trees are cut. To the logger who profits onl}^ on the number of feet he sells, Table 6 shows that his possible gain in feet, board measure, by cutting higher into the tops is small, even assuming he has a market for tim- ber of the quality he would obtain thereby. A mill cutting its own timber would gain much more, for the inconsistency of the log scale is such that the table does not show the actual difference in the amount of wood saved by cutting to 10 inches. For example, a log 40 feet long and 16 inches in diameter at the small end, scaled by the Scribner Rule, contains 396 board feet. If 10 feet are cut off the small end of the log, allowing 2 inches taper for this distance, the log will be 30 feet by 18 inches, and will scale 400 board feet, an apparent gain of 4 feet by throwing away a log 10 feet by 16 inches. In sawing long 32 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. logs this discrepancy is iu part justified by the loss in slabs, but there is no question but that on the whole a mill would gain more by cutting to a 16-inch limit than is shown by Table 6. The average difference in the merchantable length between cutting to 16 inches in the top and cutting as it is now done is shown to be from 15 to 20 feet. The following table gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the total height, length of crown, and merchantable length of Hemlock grown under cover and standing free: Tablk ■Tdtal l(i'i(/lit, lengtJt of crown, and merchantable length. Diameter breast high. Total height. 13.5.0 140.0 144.0 148.0 152.0 1.56.0 159.0 162.5 166.0 168. 5 171.5 174.0 176.5 178.5 181.0 183.0 185.0 187.0 189.0 191.0 193.0 194. 5 196.0 198.0 199.0 Length of crown. 79.0 80.0 Sl.O 82.0 83.0 84.0 85.0 86.0 86.5 91.0 91.5 92.0 92. 5 93.0 93.5 94.0 94.5 9.5.0 Mer- chant- able length cut. Standing free. Total height. Feet. 59.0 67.0 75.0 83.0 90.0 97.0 104.0 110.0 116.0 121.0 126.0 131.0 135. 140.0 144.0 148. 152.0 156.0 159.0 163.0 166.0 169.0 171.0 174.0 176.0 178. 181.0 184. 186.0 188.0 190.0 191.5 194.0 196.0 198.0 200.0 202.0 Feet. 21.0 24.0 29.0 34.0 43.5 48.0 52.0 '55.5 58.0 60.5 63.0 64.5 66.5 68.0 69.0 70.5 72.0 73.0 74.0 75.0 76.0 76.5 77.0 77.5 78.0 79.5 80.0 80.5 81.0 81.0 81.5 82.0 82.5 83.0 83. Mer- chant- able length cut. VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK. 33 The following' table gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the percentage of the total volume of wood and ])ark of Hemlock, exclud- ing branches, which is merchantable under present logging methods: Table 8. — Utilization under present logging methods. Diameter breast high, Inches. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Mer- chant- ible con- tents. Per cent. 45 49 53 55 58 Diameter breast high. Mer- chant- able con- tents. Per cent. 65 65 65.5 Diameter breast high. Incites. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Mer- chant- ible con- tents. • cent. 73 The following table gives for Hemlock, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the length of that part of the stem, including the stump, which will yield clear lumber, according to market specifications: Table No. 9 — Diameter and length of stem yielding clear lumber. Diameter breast- high. Yielding clear lumber. Diameter Yielding breast- clear high. lumber. Diameter breast- high. Yielding clear lumber. Inches. Feet. Iriches. Feet. Inches. Peel. 20 27 27 46 ! 31 56 21 31 28 48 ! 35 56 22 34 29 50 1 36 57 23 37 30 51 37 58 24 40 31 52 38 59 25 42 32 53 39 60 26 44 33 54 40 61 Since the utilization of Hemlock where it occurs in mixture with Fir is of chief importance at present, no consideration is given here to the utilization of pure stands of mature Hemlock. The stand is given for localities where logging is most active and represents differ- ent types of the mixtures of Fir and Hemlock which form the larger part of the commercial forests of the Pacific Northwest. The percent- age of Hemlock in the merchantable stand varies from 28 per cent at Orting to 59 per cent at Buckley. With Wilkcson these localities may be taken as a fair index to the stand of Hemlock on the w^estern foot- hills of the Cascades, where the altitude is from 800 to 1,500 feet and the annual rainfall about 50 to 60 inches. The other places near which measurements of the stand were made were Hoquiani and Elma in Chehalis County, near the coa.st: Little Rock in Thurston County, and 22020— No. 33—02 3 34 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Matlock in Mason County. It will be noticed that the percentage of Hemlock is highest on the coast and on the foothills, which is in pro- portion to the increase in rainfall. The data for estimating the stand given in the following tables were obtained by the strip valuation survey method, which is in general use by the Bureau of Forestry. Strips 1 chain {66 feet) wide and 10 chains long to the acre were run in several directions through the forest to be estimated, and all trees on these strips were counted and meas- ured at breastheight ])y calipers, or with a measuring tape, a separate talh' being kept for each acre. At Orting, for example, the camps of the St. Paul and Tacoma Lumber Company were taken as headquarters, and the valuation survey parties folloAved compass courses radiating from the camps as a center, like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Since eight of these strips make a mile, the 325 acres measured at Orting aggre- gate a strip over 40 miles long and 66 feet wide. The contents of the trees in these strips were computed from the volume tables, constructed from the actual scale of felled trees. By this system the stand on large areas can be determined with great accuracy and at small expense. All trees 20 inches and over in diameter breasthigh were scaled, which in most instances probably gives a trifle higher total stand than would actuall}' be cut at present, since trees less than 2 feet are now seldom taken. No attempt Avas made to flgure locally the cull due to unsoundness, for it is so A^ariable that only confusion would result. All living trees 20 inches and over in diameter were scaled, whether defective or not, and a cull of 20 per cent was deducted for crooked, scrubby, or otherwise poor trees. The number of acres actually measured in each locality is given at the head of each table. It should be borne in mind that these were carefully distributed over a large area and so far as the number and size of the trees are concerned represent the stand with very fair accu- racy. The actual merchantable yield in board feet is necessarily dependent upon the standard in cutting. The yield of bark is com- puted for merchantable Hemlock only and assumes that the trees will be peeled to a point 17 inches in diameter in the tops. Table 10. — Stand and yield per acre In typical localities. WILKESON (•100-YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 35 acres.] Number of trees— Average diameter breasthigh of trees— Maxi- mum di- ameter breast- high. Yield of trees 20 inches and over Specie.*;. 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. 20 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. •20 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. 6 to 19 inches in diameter breasthigh. ' breasthigh. Lumber. Bark. Hemlocli 80.3 11.6 6.0 18. 85 11.54 5.74 Inchrs. 30.0 66.0 .52. Inclits. 9.5 12.0 13.3 Inches. 64 118 127 Bd.ft. 20,508 71,065 9. 533 Cords. 4.53 Red Fir Total 97.9 36. 13 4.5.0 " 127 101.106 4. 53 VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK. 35 Table 10. — Stand and yield per acre in typical localities — Continued. BUCKLEY (410-YEAR-OLD STAND). [Average of 131 acres.] Niimhpr of trees— Average diameter isumber of trees- I ^reasthigh of trees- 6 inches 20 inches | 20 inches and over | and over | and over in diameteriin diameterin diameter breasthigh. breasthigh.ibreasthigh. 6 to 19 inches in diameter breasthigh, Maxi- mum di- ameter breast- high. Y'ield of trees 20 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. Lumber. Bark. Hemlock . . Red Fir Others Total 84.34 10.87 6.12 Inches. 20.48 33.5 10.32 67.0 3.7 46.9 Inches. 10.3 6.7 11.5 Inches. 86 116 102 100.82 34.5 47.4 10.3 Sd./t. 27, 361 67, 180 5, 254 ,795 Cords. 6.46 ORTING (250-YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 325 acres.] ELMA (280- YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 87 acres.] MATLOCK (260-YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 297 acres.] LITTLE ROCK (390-YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 61 acres.] Hemlock 43.78 29.35 19.89 10.86 24.08 11.48 27.8 40.0 .37.0 10.1 14.4 11.8 92 116 228 9,800 48,080 9,809 2 06 Red Fir Others Total 93.0 46.4 37.0 10.9 228 67, 689 •' 06 Hemlock 6L7 1.5.3 .8 6.6 7.32 14. .54 .54 4.15 28.1 46.0 .55. 1 38.0 10.3 14.1 12.4 13.4 .50 114 114 108 6,798 43,490 2, 732 6,972 1 64 Red Fir Spruce Cedar 84.4 26. 55 40.0 12.6 '" 59,992 1-64 Hemlock ....i 47.73 10.09 29. 31 30.7 40.0 47.3 11.1 16.2 11.3 56 11,485 .58,525 1,960 2.53 Others ■-' '■' 132 Total . . . . ' 87. 88 ! 40.78 38.2 12. 2 132 j 71,970 2.53 Hemlock Red Fir 46.2 23. ,S 10.1 14.41 23. 85 4.34 29.4 41.0 3.5.0 U.2 1.5.1 •56 106 54 14,986 ,50, 480 .5,902 3.31 Total 80. 1 42. 6 30.2 13.1 106 71,368 3.31 HOQUIAM (400-YEAR-OLD STAND.) [Average of 89 acres.] Hemlock 50.2 9.83 l.ls 1.5 10.09 9.77 1.01 1.37 34.3 11.2 65. 5 13. 1 63.0 ! 11.4 56.5 13.3 120 112 114 13, 972 59, 160 6, 194 .5,370 3.42 RedFir Spruce Cedar 62.7 22.24 50.7 1 12.3 120 84,696 3.12 36 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. For fairer comparison the merchantable stand of Red Fir given in the tables was computed according- to the average diameter limit to which the Red Fir is cut throughout the State, and not, unless through coin- cidence, according to local practice. Except in the case of pile or spar camps and of a few small concerns supplying tie mills, there is no great variation in the diameter limit to which Red Fir is cut on the stump, l^sualh' a forest stand in Avhich most of the trees are not over 3 feet in diameter is not considered merchantable at all. A common standard considers no tree merchantable which will not cut two 24-foot logs, each of which will square 16 inches. The distance into the top to which the tree is utilized varies greatly, however. Since the cost of logging, or of transportation, the qualit}' of timber, or the demand for logs of certain lengths, may influence the amount taken out of a tree of a given diameter, it follows that each camp has its own standard, and this standard may fluctuate. The following table shows the diameter inside the bark in the top to which Red Fir was being cut in several of the largest camps in Wash- ington at the time they were visited by the agents of the Bureau of Forestry : Table 11. — Diameter limit in tops. Buckley Orting Matlock Elma Little Rock Hoquiam Average 17.5 25.7 26.8 27.4 33.3 It is evident, from the above table, that volume tables made at Ort- ing and Hoquiam would produce widely different results if applied to the same stand. LOGGED-OFF LANDS. Hitherto the problem of dealing with loggcd-oft' land has been given uniform treatment by Western lumbermen. It has been the custom to sell the land which had value for agriculture for what it would bring, especially for grazing, and to abandon the rest. Large tracts of logged-off" land have been sold for 40 cents an acre. Occasionally an owner pays taxes on such property, but he is the exception, and often has some peculiar motive for doing so, such as a desire to show a large acreage. Very few expect to log a second time. Excessive taxation in the United States is one of the greatest obstacles to conservative forest management by private owners. In western LOGGED-OFF LANDS. 37 Washington, cut-over lands, valuable for the production of timber alone, are assessed at a value of from $1 to $5 an acre, at a combined countj^ and State rate of from 15 to 30 mills on the dollar. Assessors may attempt to make a more reasonable adjustment, but are often pre- vented from doing so by the demand of the State for a revenue from these lands far out of proportion to that required from other property. The State takes no account of the annual decrease of standing timber from cutting, and continues to levy the same tax, although it must be borne b}^ less valuable land each year. In Chehalis County alone 10,000 acres are annually cut over, yet the tax rate is unchanged. An attempt was made to get logged-off lands placed in a separate lightly taxed class, and to have the burden divided among other classes of property, but it failed. Calculating logged-off land as worth $1 an acre, with the assess- ment at $3 an acre, and the rate at 2 cents, the cost of holding a quarter section of such land for fifty 3^ ears would be $1,742, or $10.90 an acre. It is thus evident that the conmiunity offers little encourage- ment to the timber grower. Under such conditions few men will hold logged-off land. The effect of the system is to defeat its own end. The property reverts to the State for delinquent taxes and, still con- sidered worthless and wholly unprotected, it is burned and reburned until it becomes a desert. The gain to the communit}' would be much greater were the land assessed at 50 cents an acre and the tax collected. Statements furnished by the assessors of several timbered counties in Washington show the amount of cut-over land which has been abandoned to be as follows: Table 12. — Amount of logged-off I'lnds ahandoncd. Assessed value of standing timber per acre. value of logged-off land per acre. I Combined State, county and special tax rate I per acre. land aban- doned. Chehalis Clallam: Hemlock other species. Clarke Jefferson King Pacific Pierce Skagit Whatcom J)oUars. S.OO- 9.00 0. 00-10. 00 3. OO-IO. 00 3.00-10.00 2. 50- 5. 00 4. 00- 6. 00 3.00-10.00 4.00-10.00 IMkw. 2.00 1.00 2. .50- 5. 00 1.00 2.50 1.25 2. 00- 2. 25 (^) 2. 00-10. 00 MilU. 28 20 22-30 20-30 18 16 " None nominally abandoned. Much delinquent. t" None. « None at present. Indications that large amount will be abandoned. * Information wanting. e Verv little. 38 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. The laws of Washiiit^ton prohibit the sale of ai^v State lands for less than $10 an acre; therefore the large and increasino- area of abandoned lands, except the small portion which may become valuable for farm- ing, must continue to be State property until it can find a purchaser at $10 who is willing to take up the tax burden which could not be borne even when the land was offered for $1. This area must therefore remaiTi absoluteh' unproductive, nontaxpa\'ing, and, on account of fire, a menace to adjacent standing timber. So deplorable a state of affairs entails far more than financial loss to the State jind its inhabitants. It is generally admitted that the exhaus- tion of the mature timber of the United States is a matter of but one or two generations, and that thereafter second growth must be used to supply the natural needs. It is the Pacific coast region, with its warm climate and heavy rainfall, which promises the most certain and rapid return of logged-off' land to forest, and to this region the country will naturall}' turn for nuich of its timber supply in the future. With the exception of the Government forest reserves, no provision is being made to meet this demand, and for this condition of affairs unwise taxation is largeh' responsible. Over the larger part of western Oregon and Washington, Red Fir is the tree which takes possession of burned-over land, and, if undis- turbed, it does so almost immediately. It is at present the most val- uable timber tree of the region, and its readiness to reforest denuded land seems exceedingly fortunate. There are, however, certain regions in which there is practically no reproduction of Fir, and here the market future of Hemlock will fix the profit of growing a second crop. This is largeh' the case along the coast. The present practice is to cut all good Fir and Spruce and to leave the Hemlock and only such Fir as is conky or otherwise unsound and hence unable to play an important part in reseeding the lumbered area. (PI. X, fig. 1.) There is, of course, the adjacent untouched forest, which, under some conditions, would, by the aid of the wind, seed up openings as fast as they might be made by ordinary lumbering; but here the Fir bears irregularly and scantily, and little seed is produced. On the other hand, the Hemlock, which is left untouched in the slashings and forms a large part of the neighboring forest, bears abundantly ever}- year. Furthermore, the slashing ma}' escape fire, in which case Fir seed finds an unsuitable seed bed and is shaded too much by uncut Hemlock and underbrush. The final result under such conditions is a dense stand of Hendock, often some Spruce, but only occasionally a Red Fir. (PI. X, fig. 2.) It is not impossible that this result might often be somewhat modified by judicious burning. While many loggers prefer, if possible, to avoid tire altogether, there are two arguments for a contrary course — safety in the future and a l)etter chance for reproduction of Fir. There remains little doubt that fire after logging great!}' assists this 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agnculturi Fig. 1 .— Logged-off Land, Buckley, Wash. Hemlock and Diseased Fir left standing. Fig. 2. -Hemlock left after Logging, Enumclaw, Wash., showing Stumps of Red Fir. LOGGED-OFF LANDS. 39 species to reproduce successful!}-. If lire is to run, it is usually safer to burn at that time in the spring- when the slashing- is inflammable but the surrounding woods are still too wet to be in danger than to allow a large area to remain unburiied until the dr}' season, when fire is sure to be destructive. In the coast region, owing to the frequent rains, the liurni ng of the slashings as a precautionary measure is not so necessary as it is inland. Therefore, before adopting it in order to facilitate the reseeding of Fir, it should be ascertained whether it would not be more protitable to give up Fir altogether and make che most of the Hemlock. To decide this question a careful stud}- of conditions on the ground is necessary. The amount and condition of young Hemlock must be excellent in order to make it worth preserving should there be a chance of obtain- ing Fir by its removal. (PI. X, tig. 2.) A few half-grown trees are of little value, for without shade they will not clear themselves of branches. (PI. X, Hg. 1.) An undergrowth of suppressed, misshapen Hemlocks a few feet high, such as is often seen in dense timber, is not apt to make a healthy growth. In fact, the sudden advent of light often destroys Hemlock which has grown in the shade. Where such conditions prevail, and if the Fir in the vicinity can be counted on to reproduce itself upon the logged-off area, it is unprolitable to adopt a method favorable only to Hemlock, It should be remembered, however, that, where the ground is cov- ered by a foot or more of rotten wood and humus, fire may kill the young Hemlock and still not expose the soil sufhciently to encourage germination of Fir. Even slightly injured Hemlock is worthless, for it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. Blazes, fire scorch, and scars from rigging, in fact, anything which deadens a small portion of the bark, encourages their entrance. Other insects and parasites should also be remembered. In a region where such enemies of Hem- lock as black streak, borers, and Arceuthobium are prevalent, it would be wise to destroy a fair growth of Hemlock for the sake of a much younger stand of the more hardy Fir. To sum up, where Fir is a poor seeder and where it is desirable to prevent fire entirely from the first, there is little use in trying to get anything but Hemlock for a second crop, and in such a case there is nothing to do except to protect the slashing from fire. Where the Fir left standing is vigorous enough to .seed freely and a fairly clean burn can be secured, it would often seem the best policy to fire the slashing in the spring. It is the purpose of this report, however, to deal not with Red Fir problems, but with those of regions in which reproduc- tion of Red Fir is impracticable. Assuming, then, that from observa- tion the owner of. timber land is satisfied that the second growth will be chiefly of Hemlock, he will naturally wish to know how long it will be before it will produce merchantable timber, what its value will be, and how much it will have cost him. In order to answer these ques- 40 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. tions as anthoritativoh^ as possible, a study of second-growth Hemlock was made, the results of which are given in the following chapter. VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GROWTH HEMLOCK. The stud}' of second-growth Hemlock has so far l^een confined to the coast region. The results obtained can also be applied with fair accuracy to second growth upon the western slope of the Cascades, Avhere the rainfall is nearly as heav}' as it is near the Pacific. The most important localities selected as representative of coast conditions were near South Bend and Willapa, in Pacific County, Wash. The former 20 30 90 100 110 120 ) 60 60 70 i AGE -YEARS. Fig. 3.— Diagram showing growth In height of second-growth Hemlock and Fir, on a basis of diameter breasthigh. contains a large tract of pure Hemlock, almost uniformly 55 5^ears old (PL XI), which formed the basis for the study of pure stands. Near Willapa were found, in addition to a pure stand of Hemlock, a typical mixture of Fir and Hemlock about 75 years old, which illustrated the behavior of the species when growing in mixture. A mixed stand 120 years old was found at Stella, Cowlitz Count}^, on the Columbia, and studies of similar stands were made elsewhere throughout the State. Although it is not difficult to find sufficient stands of second growth to show what may be expected upon logged-off lands, there is no log- ging in these stands. In order, therefore, to compute 3'ield tables, it 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Pure Second-gruwth Hlmldck, b5 Ylars Old. bnuTH Bend, W/ VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GEOWTH HEMLOCK. 41 was necessary to create an arbitrary standard of merchantable size. It was assumed that in fifty years, the probable shortest time in which land now bare can be log-ged again with profit, timber will have gained in value sufliciently to warrant the cutting of any tree which will yield a log 20 feet long and 12 inches at the small end. A few of the trees 13 inches in diameter breasthigh will contain such a log, but it was thought safer to take 14 inches as the limit. In the subsequent dis- cussion of second growth, therefore, all trees 14 inches and over are considered merchantable, and it is assiimed that all timber between the stump and a point 12 inches in diameter inside the bark will be utilized. 60 70 YEARS . Fig. 4.— Diagram showing growth in diameter of second-growth Red Fir and Hemlock in pure stands and of Hemlock in mixture with Red Fir. Such material as piling or trap poles will be produced in less than fifty years, but earlier than this the trees will not clear themselves sufficiently to make merchantable sawlogs, even if a few reach the requisite size. The growth of pure and mixed even-aged forests is very different. In the former. Hemlock grows rapidlv, with a normal relation between diameter and height growth. The stand is exceedingl}' dense at first, and remains so longer than does a Red Fir forest on account of the greater tolerance of the Hemlock. The growth in height and diameter is also slower than that of Red Fir. Where, however, 42 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Hemlock comes in with Fir on denuded land, it i.s after the first few years influenced b}- its more rapidly growing rival. The Fir soon overtops it by a few feet, but the ability of Hemlock to live under such conditions prevents it from being shaded out. The result is that the height growth of Hemlock in mixture with Fir is as rapid as that of a pure stand, and that the suppression is shown b}' a falling ofl" in its diameter growth. Figs. 3 and 4 show graphically the growth of Hemlock and Fir and the growth of the same species, lioth when in mixture and when in pure stands. These curves represent conditions near the coast, and are somewhat higher than would be an average for the State. The following two tables give, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the total height, length of crown, and merchantable length of second- growth Hemlock in mixture with Fir and in a pure stand: Table 13. — ^^xed stands, Hemlock and Red Fir, 75 years old, Willajxr. Diameter ibreaathigh. Total height. Length of crown. Merchant- able length. Inches. ne. Fed. Feet. 1^ 121 53.0 21 15 127 57.0 27 16 132 60.0 34 17 136 62.0 42 18 139 63.0 51 19 1-12 64.0 58 20 144 65.0 64 21 145 65.5 69 22 145 66.0 73 23 145 66.0 77 24 145 66.0 80 25 145 66.0 83 Table 14. — Pwre stand of Hemlock, 55 years old, South Bend. Diameter breasthigh. Total height. Length of crown. Merchant- able length. Indies. Feet. Feet. Feet. 14 107 50 24 15 109 52 29 16 HI 53 35 17 113 54 42 18 115 55 48 19 116 56 53 20 117 56 56 21 118 57 59 22 119 57 62 23 120 58 64 24 120 58 66 25 120 58 66 VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GEOWTH HEMLOCK. 43 The character of three typical second-growth stands in Washington is shown in Table 15, which is the result of surveys and measurements sim- ilar to those made in mature timber and previously described. It will be noted that in Willapa, where the mixture of Hemlock is most uniform, the stand is unusually heav}' for its age. This is in part due to the fertility of the soil and a very heavy annual rainfall, but probabl}^ also to the composition of the mixture, for a tract of given size can sup- port a heavier forest of mixed Fir and Hemlock than of either species alone. It is evident that, since the future yield of a second crop is influenced b}^ the mixture of species, knowledge of the rate of growth 80,000 70,000 '50 60 70 60 30 lOO 110 120 /JO 140 150 AGL— YEARS Fig. 5.— Dingram showing yield per acre in board feet on a basis of age of pure even-aged Hemloelc, with and without deduction for cull. will not suflice to foretell it unless the composition of the mixture is known. It is useless, therefore, to make hard and fast tables of future yield for indiscriminate application to the varying growths which "may occur after logging. For a pure stand the problem is umch simpler. Fig. 5 represents graphically the stand which may be expected from pure even-aged Hemlock near the coast of Washing- ton. It includes second growth only and not those trees which may escape the first cutting. The upper curve shows the yield without allowance for cull; the lower curve, the yield after 20 per cent for dead, diseased, scrubliy, or otherwise unmerchantable trees has been deducted. 44 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Table 15. — Stdud and yield per acre in fi/pical localities. STELLA (120-YEAR OLD STAND). [Average of 155 acres.] Kumber of trees— Average diameter of trees- Yield of trees 14 Species. 6 inches and over in diame- ter breast- high. 14 inches and over in diame- ter breast- high. 14 inches and over in diame- ter breast- high. 6 to 13 inches in diameter breast- high. in diameter breasthigh. Lumber. Bark. Hemlock 10.8 47.1 .7 3.28 44.36 .28 Indies. Inches. 20.9 8.0 28.6 10.9 2L1 9.0 Board feet. 1,592 57,312 146 Cords. 0.29 Red Fir Cedar Total 58.6 47.92 28.3 ' 8.9 59,050 .25 WlLLAPA (90-YEAR OLD .STAND). [Average of 65 acres.] Hemlock. Red Fir . . Spruce . . . Cedar 42.4 54.6 13.5 13.9 45.1 7. 7 8, 146 10. 6 39, 344 8. 2 6, 430 8. 8 140 54, 060 SOUTH BEND (55- YEAR OLD STAND). [Average of 131 acres.] Hemlock Spruce and Cedar I 14. 2 55.2 7.2 19.5 21.7 8.4 8.8 16, 190 2,075 4.2 Total 140.5 62.4 20.6 8.6 18,265 3.6 UTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS. Assuming- that in the future there will be a considerable area of second-gTowth Hemlock, the question arises, at what age can it be most prolitabW logged and how shall the forest be perpetuated? This can be discussed only in a general way, for it depends greatly upon the development of Hemlock as a commercial timber and upon the uses to which it is put. The tables in this report show that small sticks, such as are suitable for trap poles, may be cut in forty years, and that in fifty years logs will be produced which would be considered of fair size in the East to-day. In this time, however, according to tig. 5, there will be only a little over 2,000 feet to the acre, which even, allow- ing a stumpage of $1 per 1,000 feet, is an insignificant amount. Con- sidering it as a lifty-year investment, there will have been a mean annual production of about 40 board feet an acre. At the end of sixty years the stand will be 22,000 feet, or a mean yield of 366 feet. The annual increment increases to 471 feet for a seventy-j^ear period and reaches 500 feet at eighty years. At eighty-live it is but a few feet LTTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS. 45 more, and from then on it decreases steadily in rate of production. It appears, therefore, that the greatest production of wood can be secured by cutting second-growth Hemlock when it is about 80 years old. However, there are other points which weigh in the consideration of the cutting age. If it is intended to keep the land perpetually in forest, provision must be made for a third crop, and it will not do to cut at a time when natural reproduction is doubtful. Early in the life of an average second-growth Hemlock stand there are many small trees which graduall}' become shaded out and killed by their more vigorous neighbors. If no cutting is done before the end of eighty years, most of these will have died and rotted, and if everything down to 1-1 inches is cut there will be few trees left to form part of a third crop. If the cut is made at sixt^" years, there will be a good nucleus left for a third crop, but the cut will be small and the timber inferior. The most profitable plan seems to be to wait a few years longer and to trust to natural seeding if a third crop is desired. At first, because of the dense shade, there is little or no reproduction beneath second-growth Hemlock. However, after about sixty years or more, according to the density, the Hemlock bears seed and the gradual thinning out of the stand admits sufficient light for the germination and growth of seedlings. If the forest is cut when 80 j^ears old, many of the seed- lings will live, and with those which spring up in the slashing will form sufficient basis for another stand. There will also be man}^ fair- sized trees left standing, some of which, at least, will not be thrown b}' wind. So far as can be judged at present, the cutting age or rotation of largest yield need not be abandoned in order to insure reproduction. The rotation of greatest financial profit still remains to be reckoned, for this is not necessaril}" identical with that of the greatest wood pro- duction. It is determined by the period at which the value of the crop represents the highest interest on the capital invested. Owing to the uncertainty of taxation and of the future value of Hemlock stumpage the calculation can only be tentative. The actual sale value of denuded land in the coast counties of Wash- ington can safely be placed at not over $1 an acre, or |160 for a quar- ter section. The land will probably be assessed at about $3 an acre and taxed at 2 cents on the dollar, which is 6 cents an acre, or $9.60 for the quarter section. Were an owner to sell his land for $160 as soon as it was logged, and deposit the money in a savings bank at 3 per cent compound interest, adding annually the sum which he would pa}' for taxes had he held the land, the total amount to his credit at any given period would represent the cost of holding the land for a second crop during the same time. The calculation of this amount and its comparison with the value of the land and crop is found in Table 16. It illustrates 46 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Strikingly tlie possible loss or protit in holding logged-off land, assuming, of course, that the premises of taxation and stumpage are correct. The table shows that 70 years is the most profitable age at which to cut if stumpage is figured at either 75 cents or $1. At 50 cents the whole transaction is a losing one. and the longer the rotation the ofreater the loss. Table 1H. — Fiintiwial n i/t of cnttiug one quarter seclio)i of Hemlock after 60, 70, (tnd 80 years. Time between cuts, or rotation, years. Value of land and crop at end of rotation. Proceeds of 89.60 de- posited an- nually, at 3 per cent compound interest. Gain by holding land. Loss by holding land, stumpage Stumpage. Stumpage. $1.00. I S0.75. $0.50. 81.00. $0.75. 60 70 80 83,792 S2,884 5, 440 4, 120 6, 560 4, 960 81,976 2,800 3,360 82,451.40 3,304.53 4,681.80 $1,340.60 2,135.47 1,878.20 $432.60 815.47 278. 20 8475.40 504. 53 1,321.80 The largest profit shown above, that of a seventy -year rotation with a selling price of $1 stumpage, represents about 4. 5 per cent compound interest upon the investment. It should be clearly understood that these statements of profit are purely tentative, based upon tax rates and stumpage values which can not be foretold at present. They are believed to be conservative. The individual can, if he desires, make similar calculations upon such premises as seem in his judgment more probably correct. From the foregoing pages it may be seen that the largest sustained yield is secured by cutting every eighty 3^ears, but that the interest on the invested capital which the crop represents is apparentl}' highest at the end of sevent}^ years. There still remains to be reckoned the bearing of age on the quality of the timber. This and many other questions concerning the future of second growth depend much upon circumstances impossible to foresee. It appears now that it will be about seventy-five years before the second crop can be logged to the best advantage. This does not mean that a considerable amount may not be cut earlier. And even if a long rotation is decided upon, earlier thinning would be beneficial if it could ])e made profitable. The dif- ficulty lies in cutting small quantities and in disposing of small mate- rial which, at present at least, has no place in the market except possibly as trap poles. HEMLOCK LEFT AFTER LUMBERING. In the calculation of returns from second-growth Hemlock no account has been taken of small trees left standing after the logging of the old stand. If the slashing is burned these will be destroyed; if not, there w:?i be left for a future crop a number which depends upon the character of the virgin forest and upon the intensity and UTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS. 47 destructivenesH of the lumbering-. This number varies so greatly that it is futile to attempt a general estimate of it. It may, however readily be ascertained on the ground, and the forester, by finding the rate of growth of the trees under the new conditions, can predict either how long it will be before a given amount can again be logged or how much can be cut after a given time. Large tracts now being logged near Buckley, Elma, and Hoquiam were selected as examples. It was assumed that all trees above 20 inches were cut for logs and everything between 16 and 20 inches went into skids. The number of trees between 4 and 16 inches which would be left on an acre, if care was taken to destro}'- as few as possible, was estimated, and these were allowed a conservative diameter growth of an inch in five years for the next fift}' years. Their contents in board measure (cutting to 14 inches) at the end of twenty-five and fifty years were then computed, and 25 per cent was deducted for trees which might die, blow down, or prove worthless for lumber. The results are here shown: Table 17. — Yield per acre from Hemlock left in lumbering. Loijality. Number of trees between 4 and 16 inches left on acre. Yield per acre at the end of- Twenty- flve years. Fifty years. Buckley 80 52 36 Board feet. 3,285 1,640 1,745 Board Jeet. 14,190 8,320 6,875 Elma 56 2,223 9,762 Hoquiam shows less than the normal number of trees for that part of the State, because of an insect attack several years ago, which destroyed many young trees. The figures for Buckley are included to produce a fairer average, although, us a matter of fact, this is a region in which Fir reproduction is feasible, and the burning of slashings is probably better policy than the protection of small Hemlock. Since a few seedlings and a few vigorous trees w^hich were less than 4 inches in diameter at the time of logging will become merchantable in fifty years, the yield will be somewhat more than the 9,762 feet indicated above. The addition on this account wdll probably bring the total to about 11,000 feet an acre, or 1,760,000 to the quarter section. At $1 a thousand this will be equivalent to a simple interest of 8.9 per cent on an investment of $1 an acre for the land and 6 cents an acre annual tax for fifty years. The above calculations indicate a larger yield after fifty years than does fig. 5 for seedling second growth alone. Furthermore, the existence 48 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. of a few small trees does not preclude the development of a seedling stand also; therefore, the true second crop will consist of both and be greater than either alone. It will not be equivalent to a combination of both, for the ground and light demanded by the trees which are left standing will be denied to the seedlings. The exact manner in which this rivalry will be adjusted depends upon the number of trees left standing, the condition of the ground for germination of seeds, and numerous other factors which require a study of each case before even an approximate estimate is possible. On the other hand, there is no doulst that if a fair stand of Hendock remains on cut-over land the jdeld given by fig. 5 will be increased by from 8,000 to 12,000 feet at the end of tift}^ years and by an indefinite amount after that time. This is assuming a nearly pure Hemlock reproduction. No attempt will be made to discuss Red Fir seedling growth under such conditions, for it is not apt to appear to any important degree unless there has been fire enough to destroy any small Hemlock which survives logging. If it is desired to utilize small Hemlock in a future cutting, care should be taken not to injure it unnecessarily during logging. Prom- ising trees need not be cut for skids where poor ones will suffice, and it should be borne in mind that scars caused by rigging, especialh' in setting strap leads, are almost certain to ruin young trees. Many trees ordinarily destroyed might be preserved at no additional expense by careful swamping, yarding, and falling. BABE. Although thinner than that of the Eastern species, the bark of the Western Hemlock is exceedingly rich in tannic acid. This has long been known to the trade, and several experiments have been made with a view to the establishment of extract works in the Northwest. A plant was actually started near South Bend, Wash., in 1893, but, owing to insufficient capital, to the general financial depression of the period, and, it is said, to the opposition of Eastern bark interests, it was soon shut down. The promoters claim, however, to have demonstrated the feasibility of a similar enterprise under more favorable conditions. In Oregon, where Hemlock is logged for paper pulp, the bark is util- ized by local tanneries and brings from $8 to $1 2 a cord. The claim is made that it produces a lighter leather than Eastern ])ark. So little use is made of the bark that it is difficult, in comparing it with that of the Eastern Hemlock, to determine to what degree its thinness is compensated for by its superior quality. The bark of the Eastern tree averages about 10 per cent tannin. The few available analyses of Washington Hendock bark vary with locality and through absence of system in selecting samples, but unite in allowing a))out 16 per cent. Samples collected in Washington by the Division of Forestry BARK. 49 were .submitted to the Division of Chemistry of the Department of Aj^riculture and the following- results were obtained: Table 18.— Analyses of bark of Western Hemlock from Washington. Moisture Total solids Soluble solids Reds Nontannins Available tannins Woody fiber by difference No. 21272. Little Rock, Thurston County. Per cent. 9.87 14.32 13.78 .54 4.01 9.77 75.79 No. 21273. Ashford, Pierce County. No. 21274. Enumclaw, King County. Per cent. Per cent. 10.55 10.01 24.03 22.16 22.59 20. 58 1.44 1.58 6.59 .5.72 16.00 14.86 65.42 67.83 In his report upon these analyses Dr. Wiley, Chemist of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, says: Nos. 21273 and 21274 are especially remarkable on account of being so rich in tannin. These barks are all of superior quality, especially the two just mentioned. These two samples probabl}^ represent fairly the bark of the west- ern slope of the Cascades, Enumclaw being about 1,000 feet and Ash- ford 2,000 feet above sea level. The Little Rock sample is apparently inferior, but can scarcely be regarded as representative, since it was taken from a fallen tree which had been exposed to heavy rains for several weeks. It is not improbable that a fresh sample would have compared favorably with the other two specimens. In Hide and Leather, of June 24, 1893, appear the results of tests made b}^ H. G. Tabor, manager of the American Extract Works, of Port Allegheny, Pa., which are as follows: Table 19. — Comparative analyses of Hemlock hark from Washiugton, Pennsylvania, and Quebec. Washing- ton. Pennsyl- vania. Quebec. Per cent. 17.04 6.40 1.56 75 00 Per cent. 13.28 7.52 3.48 75 72 Per cent. 10.16 4.56 1.92 83.36 Reds Wood fibers Another analysis richer in tannin than either of the preceding was furnished by Professor Fiebing, of Milwaukee, to persons who con- templated starting an extract factory near the coast in southwestern W^ashington. He found the percentage of tannin in the two samples sent him to be 17.8 and 20.1, respectively. Allowing 2,240 pounds to 22020— No. 33—02 4 50 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. the cord, and assuming an average percentage of 10 for Eastern and 16 for Western bark, the quantity of tannin in each would be as follows: Table 20. — Yield of tannin per cord of Western and Eastern hark. Pounds. Washington bark 358. 4 Eastern bark 224. Difference 134. 4 VOLUME AND YIELD. Although the cord is used as a standard of measure for bark, it is usually sold b}' weight, in order to avoid variation due to loose piling. Throughout the East 2,240 pounds are usually called a cord, although in some places 2,000 pounds are accepted. It was impossible to secure any^deld tables based on actual practice in the regions covered b}- this report; therefore the thickness of bark at various heights was meas- ured on all trees scaled, and the amount in cubic feet produced by the average tree of given diameter, and also by the acre, was computed. These figures were then converted into long and short cords on a basis of 66.6 cubic feet to 2,000 pounds and 77 cubic feet to 2,240 pounds. This was done separately for mature and second-growth timber, assum- ing that in the latter only the merchantable log length would be peeled, and that in the former all bark would be taken from the stump to a point where the tree is 12 inches in diameter. The following table gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the volume of bark and the number of trees required to make a cord of 2,000 pounds and of 2,240 pounds. Table 21. — Volume of hark per tree and trees per cord. Diameter breast- high. Cord of 2,000 pounds. Cord of 2,240 pounds. Bark per tree. Number of trees per cord. Bark per tree. Number of trees per cord. Inches. Cords. Cords. 13 0.03 38.5 0.02 45.4 14 .03 33.3 .03 40.0 15 .04 26.4 .03 31.2 16 .05 21.8 .04 25.0 17 .06 17.0 .05 20.0 18 .07 14.1 .06 16.3 19 .09 11.8 .07 13.5 20 .10 9.8 .09 11.3 21 .12 8.3 .10 9.7 22 .14 7.1 .12 8.3 23 .16 6.2 .14 7.2 24 .18 5.5 .16 6.3 25 .21 4.8 .18 5.6 26 .23 4.3 .20 5.0 27 .26 3.9 .22 4.5 28 .29 3.5 .25 4.0 29 .32 3.2 .27 3.C BARK. 51 Table 21. — Volume of bark per tree and trees per cord — Continued. Diameter breast- high. Inches. 30 31 32 33 34 35 Cord of 2,000 pounds. Bark per tree. .76 .80 .84 .88 .92 .97 1.01 1.05 1.10 Number of trees per 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 .9 Cord of 2,240 pounds Bark per Cords. 0.30 3.3 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 Where bark is peeled from trees cut for lumber it is frequently the custom to reckon the yield by the amount produced to the thou- sand feet of logs, board measure. In the East half a cord to the thousand is considered a fair average, and is equivalent to about 112 pounds of tannic acid. On the Pacific coast the thinness of the bark and less economical logging practices unite to reduce this proportion, and a quarter of a cord to the thousand is all that can be relied on, but this will average 90 pounds of tannin. The yield per acre is necessa- rily exceedingly variable. For example. Table 11 represents regions where Hemlock forms a given per cent of the total stand of mature timber. Table 10 is for second growth. No figures were obtained for pure, mature Hemlock. The examples given compare favorably with the yield of pure Hemlock land in the East, where the best seldom exceeds 20 cords an acre and the average is a))out 5. Good authorities place the average crop for Pennsylvania at 7j cords, for New York 4, and for Maine only 3 cords per acre. Taking a pure 55-year-old stand at South Bend, Wash., as a basis, together with cruisings and meas- urements in other young timber, it has been possible to figure with approximate accuracy the yield which may be expected from an aver- age well-stocked acre of pure young Hemlock at a given age. The results are shown in Table 22. Only trees 14 inches and over in diameter breasthigh have been considered, and these peeled to a point 12 inches in diameter in the tops. 52 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. Table 22. — Yield of bark per acre froai pure seamd-ijroivtJi Hemlock. Age of stand. 50 years. 60 years. 70 years. 80 years. 90 years. 100 years. 110 years. 120 years. Allowing 2,000 pounds to 1 cord: . . . Allowing 2,240 pounds to 1 cord Cords. 2.5 .2 Cards. 6.8 5.9 Cords. 9.2 7.9 Cords. 10.1 9.1 Cords. 11.5 9.9 Cords. 12.1 10.4 Cords. 12.3 10.8 Cords. 12.9 11.1 Toward the upper limit of the Hemlock, seldom below 2,400 feet above sea level, its bark often strikingly differs from that of the tree at lower elevations. It is exceedingly thick, often 2 inches, and is deeply furrowed. (See PI. XII.) No volume or yield tables were made for this upland form, but it is probable that trees would contain twice as much bark as those of corresponding size at lower elevations. HARVESTING. In the East, where the methods of harvesting bark have developed into an established process, the usual peeling season extends from May to August, although the bark peels easiest from the first of June to the middle of July. Where bark alone is the object, a peeling crew consists of three men — faller, fitter, and spudder; but where the cut- ting is primarily for lumber, the first might be considered one of the logging crew. The fitter trims off branches, rings the bark at inter- vals of tt feet, and slits each section lengthwise. The spudder peels the bark with a flattened bar and spreads it on the ground with the flesh, or inner side, up. After it has cured in the sun for five to ten days it is carefully piled, exterior side uppermost, to complete the sea- soning process, which, unless the season is wet or the bark is piled in a shady place, requires but two or three months. It is highly desirable to remove the bark from the woods as soon as it is seasoned, for if left until winter it becomes covered with snow and ice, loses a consid- erable part of its tanning property, and curls badly; but in regions where roads are bad in summer it is often left to he taken out on sleds after snowfall. It is evident that the wet climate of Oregon and Washington will prove somewhat detrimental to the economic handling of ])ark. Unfortunately, the heaviest rain occurs in the Hemlock regions. The thinness of the bark, the greater care required to cure properl}", and the higher price of lal^or will tend to make the cost of production per cord greater than it is in the East. On the other hand, Hemlock stumpage is low, the bark is richer, and, since the roads are best in the fall, there need be no diflicultv in getting it out when it is in the best condition. ul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. Dept of Agricultun mmim. Fig. 1.— Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains, Washington. Alti- tude, 2,500 Feet, showing Thick, Rough Bark of Mountain Form. Fig. 2.— Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains. Washington. Alti- tude, 3,000 Feet, showing Thick, Rough Bark of Mountain Form. BARK. 53 On its arrival at the works the bark usualh^ contains from 8 to 12 per cent of water. Fresh bark does not yield the acid readil3\ Hence when possible it is stored until fully cured, usuall}^ between one and two years. It is highly important to keep it well protected from rain, for it leaches easilj^ and is soon ruined. For the same reason, bai'k from logs which have been towed or driven is of little value. Salt water ruins it entirely. If well cared for, nearly all the tannin in the bark is available. A cord of Eastern bark yields from 400 to 430 pounds of extract, which is sufficient to tan from 200 to 225 pounds of sole leather, or a trifle more of upper leather. At present the available supplj^ of hides in the Pacific Northwest is insufficient to support a tanning industry of any great proportions. It is probable that before there is a home market for any considerable quantity of bark it will be required to suppl}- tanneries in the East, where complaint is alread}' made of an inadequate suppl3\ If this proves true, the product must be shipped in a condensed form and considerable capital will be required to develop the industry. The process of making the extract is as follows: The bark is ground and placed in wooden vats, where it is steeped until the acids are removed. The resulting liquor is then evaporated in a vacuum at a tem- perature of about 180° F. until it is reduced to a heavy, dark colored fluid weighing about 10 pounds to the gallon and containing nearly all the tanning properties of the bark. Assuming the unsteeped bark to have 10 per cent of tannic acid, 100 pounds of it would produce about 40 gallons of 20° liquor, which, upon anal3"sis, would show about 2^. per cent of tannin. The extract is usually shipped in 5<)0-pound barrels and brings about 2i cents a pound. While the production of ground tan bark for local use is a simple process, the successful manufacture of extract requires even more expensive machinery than the manufacture of lumber. In the East, where machinery is cheaper than on the Pacific coast, a 10-barrel plant costs from $15,000 to $20,000. The leach house is much like that of a tannery, but an evaporating plant is also required in which all vats and pipes must be copper or brass lined, and this part of the establishment represents a large proportion of the entire expense. It is also customary' to conduct a barrel factorj^ in connection with the plant. From these considerations, it is apparent that extract works will be built only where there is certainty of a sustained bark supply and that, owing to the cost of transportation, Hemlock will probably be more valuable where it occurs in sufficient quantity to support a factory than in regions where the bark must l)e sent a distance to market. 54 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK. A LIST OF THE TBEES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON, WITH SOME IMPORTANT SHRUBS. Common name. Scientific name. Sugar Pine Western White Pine W'hite-bark Pine Bull or Yellow Pine Jeffrey Pine Scrub Pine Lodgepole Pine Knobcone Pine Tamarack or Larch Sitka or Tideland Spruce Engelmann Spruce Brewer Spruce Western Hemlock Black or Alpine Hemlock Red or Douglas Fir White or Balsam Fir White Fir Shasta Fir Alpine Fir Amabilis Firor, erroneously, "Larch' Noble Fir or, erroneously, "Larch," . Red Cedar or Giant Arborvitse Alaska Cedar Port Orford Cedar Incense Cedar ' Redwood Juniper Yew Willow Aspen Cottonwood Balm of Gilead . Paper Birch — Western Birch Red Alder Mountain Alder White Alder Western W'hite or Prairie Oak. Canyon Live Oak California Black Oak Tanbark Oak Wild Crabapple Black Haw Wild Cherry Wild Plum Bigleaved Maple Vine Maple Dwarf or Mountain Maple Dogwood Madrone Oregon Ash , California Laurel Pinus lavibertiana Dougl Pinus monticola Dougl Pinm aVbicaulis Engelm , Pinus ponderosa Laws Pinus jeffreyi ' ' Oreg. Com. ' ' . , Pinus contorta Loud , Pinus murrayana "Oreg. Com." Pinus attenuata Lemmon Larix occidentalis Nutt Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Trautv.