m}t i. 1. ItU ajthrarij 
 
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 DESK. 
 
THE FORESTEE. 
 
EDINBURGH : BAII.A.XTYNE AND HUGHES. 
 
THE FORESTER 
 
 PLAIN AND PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE 
 
 PLANTING, REARING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT 
 
 OF FOREST TREES 
 
 BY JAMES JlilAYN, 
 
 FORESTER, AR.NISTO.y. 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, 
 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON. 
 
 M.DCCC.XLVII. 
 
ROBERT DUNDAS, ESQ. OF ARNISTON. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 Permit me to dedicate the following little 
 Book to you, as an humble evidence of my respect 
 and esteem. 
 
 I have the honour to be, Sir, 
 
 Your most obedient Servant, 
 
 JAMES BROWN. 
 
CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Value of Land under a Crop of Wood. — Laying out of 
 Ground for New Plantations. — Fencing and Inclosing 
 of Groimd for Young Trees. — Preparing of Ground for 
 Young Trees. — Draining of Ground for Young Trees. — 
 Laying out of Roads in New Plantations, ... 1 
 
 CHAPTER II, 
 
 Season of the Year best adapted for Planting Operations. — 
 Distribution of Young Trees, so as to suit the diiferent 
 Soils and Situations in a New Plantation, and Habits and 
 Peculiarities of the various Species. — Different Methods 
 of planting Young Trees, as practised by Foresters. — 
 How to choose yoimg Forest Trees, when buying them 
 from Public Nm-series. — ^Utihty of Proprietors having 
 their own Home Nm'series, 40 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Manner of proceeding with Planting Operations. — Ex- 
 penses of laying down Land under New Plantations. — 
 The Keeping of Trees in a Young Plantation clear from 
 Grass and Weeds. — The Nature and Necessity of thin- 
 ning Plantations. — The Nature and Practice of pruning 
 Plantations, 82 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 , CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 System of thinning and rearing up of Fir Plantations. — 
 System of thinning and rearing up of Mixed Hard-Wood 
 Plantations. — Rearing uj) and thinning of Oak Planta- 
 tions, 129 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Management of Oak Coppice- Wood. — Cause of Disease 
 among Larch Fir Plantations. — How to find the A'^alue of 
 young Plantations and of full-grown Timber Trees. — A 
 few practical Remarks relative to the Maimer in which 
 Wood ought to be prepared for Public Sale, . . . 181 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Having, for the period of fifteen years, had my 
 attention ahnost entirely devoted to the rear- 
 ing up and cutting down of forest trees, I have 
 during that time seen much to convince me that 
 arboriculture is not in that advanced state among 
 us which its real importance demands. 
 
 The present improved condition of agriculture is 
 the natural result of the great attention paid to that 
 science by the landed proprietors and farmers of 
 Great Britain during the past twenty years ; while, 
 upon the other hand, the proper management of 
 plantations has been almost entirely neglected, and 
 this mainly because landed proprietors have not 
 had their attention and interest directed towards 
 the subject. 
 
 Many of our home woods are rapidly dying 
 out, as if by consumption ; yet the cause does not 
 appear to be known among those who have the 
 management of them : and, seeing this state of 
 things, it appears to me very evident, that until 
 
VUl PREFACE. 
 
 noblemen and gentlemen shall become as truly prac- 
 tical foresters, as tliey now are practical farmers, 
 we cannot reasonably expect to see our home plan- 
 tations exhibit the extent and healthy develop- 
 ment which it is most desirable should characterise 
 them. I am anxious that the spirit of improve- 
 ment should be aroused among our landed proprie- 
 tors, relative to arboriculture : and at the same 
 time I am of opinion that it is necessary, in order 
 to the gaining of tliis end, that all proprietors 
 should be made acquainted with practical forestry, 
 and that upon the most improved principles. It is 
 with the hope of promoting such knowledge that 
 I am induced to publish the present work : and 
 I have been further encouraged in compiling it 
 by the fact that many extensive landed proprietors 
 in Scotland have invited me to visit their ])lan- 
 tations, and report upon them for their future 
 guidance ; and by my having constantly found the 
 gentlemen who have thus honoured me with their 
 patronage as a forester, most anxious to be made 
 accjuainted with the practical details of arboricul- 
 ture. I am therefore led to hope that this Httle 
 treatise may be both acceptable and of service to 
 
 them. 
 
 JAMES BROWN. 
 
 Abniston, November 1847. 
 
THE FORESTER. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 VALUE OF LAND UNDER A CROP OF WOOD. LAYING OUT OF GROUND 
 
 FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. FENCING AND INCLOSING OF GROUND 
 
 FOR YOUNG TREES. PREPARING OF GROUND FOR YOUNG TREES 
 
 DRAINING OF GROUND FOR YOUNG TREES. LAYING OUT OF 
 
 ROADS IN NEW PLANTATIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. — VALUE OF LAND UNDER A CROP OF 
 WOOD. 
 
 The value of land, as generally found under a crop 
 of wood, varies according to the nature of the land 
 planted, and, at the same time, according as the 
 locahty may or may not be conveniently situated as 
 regards a ready market for the sale of timber. A 
 plantation of trees, of whatever species it may be 
 composed, is always of more value to the grower 
 when in the neighbourhood of a thriving sea-port, 
 than the same plantation would be in a far inland 
 district. The reason of this is obvious ; for in the 
 neighbourhood of a ready market for timber, the 
 
2 VALUE OF LAND 
 
 distance for cartage is not necessarily much calcu- 
 lated upon by the purchaser, consequently he is 
 enabled to give a fair price to the seller. For 
 example: — were I to purchase good ash timber 
 from a proprietor whose plantations were within 
 two miles of a sliipping port, I would be enabled, 
 upon consideration of the short distance, to give 
 him 2s. 3d. per cubic foot : in this case I would 
 calculate upon selling the same wood at 2s. 6d. 
 per foot, allowing the 3d. which I would receive 
 extra, for the expenses of cartage and my own 
 profit. Again, were I to buy the same quahty 
 of ash timber from a proprietor whose plantations 
 were thirty miles from a shipping port, I could 
 not give in this instance more than Is. 6d. per 
 cubic foot ; because I would have to calculate, that 
 although I got 2s. 6d. for this wood, it would take 
 Is. per foot to cover my expenses of conveying the 
 timber to market, and at the same time to have a 
 little profit for my own trouble. And thus it is in 
 all cases, that for every mile of distance from the 
 market, the purchaser of wood is obliged to give 
 less to the seller ; and this because he has to meet 
 the extra expenses incurred in each mile of cartage, 
 previous to getting it brought to market. 
 
 However, I may here state, as a general rule, 
 which 1 have verified from my own experience, 
 both in the lowlands and highlands of Scotland, 
 that land, under wood, will at the end of sixty 
 
UNDER A CEOP OF WOOD. 3 
 
 years, under good management, pay the proprietor 
 nearly three times the sum of money that he would 
 have received from any other crop upon the same 
 piece of ground. 
 
 This assertion, I am aware, will be considered 
 extravagant by many proprietors ; but to those 
 who may consider what I have here said as be- 
 yond the truth, I beg to say that although it may 
 be in reality beyond what they have themselves 
 experienced as to profits from their plantations, 
 yet I must say, that where good management has 
 been introduced, what I have said will be found a 
 practical truth ; and in order to illustrate the point, 
 I shall here give two examples, derived from my 
 own experience in the felhng of wood upon gentle- 
 men's estates, both in the highlands and lowlands 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Upon the estate of Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, 
 where the plantations are, for the most, of larch, 
 Scots, and spruce fir, I have thinned them at all 
 stages, from that of sixteen years old up to that 
 of sixty, when they were cut down as ripe ; and, 
 having taken a valuation of the trees as taken from 
 an acre of plantation ground, at all the different 
 stages when thinning was required among the differ- 
 ent plantations between sixteen and sixty years, I 
 make the value of an acre of land, as found under 
 mixed fir-wood, in the district of country mentioned, 
 L.190. The annual rent of the land upon which 
 
4 VALUE OF LAND 
 
 those plantations grow was reckoned at 10s. an 
 acre, as compared with land of the same description 
 held by farmers in the neighbourhood ; and had 
 tliis land been occupied by a farmer, the proprietor 
 would have received only L.30 for an acre during 
 sixty years ; but as occupied by plantations, we see 
 that he received by the end of sixty years, when 
 the crop of wood was cleared off, no less than L.3, 3s. 
 for each year of the period the land was under a 
 crop of wood ; and upon deducting original outlay, 
 in the form of fencing and planting, as well as 
 labour in keeping good the plantation and in cutting 
 doAvn the trees for sale, and also compound interest 
 upon the original outlay and rent progressively, 
 during the periods no return was received, it will 
 be found that such land occupied by wood will pay 
 three times the amount of money, at the end of 
 sixty years, that it could do under the hands of a 
 farmer. 
 
 Again, upon the estate of Arniston, in Mid- 
 Lotliian, where the plantations are hard wood of 
 general sorts, with a mixture of firs to act as 
 nurses, I have calculated upon the same principle 
 as that above mentioned, and find the medium value 
 of an acre of land as under wood upon this estate 
 to be, at the end of seventy years, L.570. 
 
 The land in the same neighbourhood lets at 30s. 
 for farm cropping. Now, dividing this L.570 by 
 seventy, the number of years the ground lay under 
 
UNDER A CROP OF WOOD. 5 
 
 wood, we have, instead of 30s., L.7, 8s. as the rent 
 of the same land nnder a crop of wood ; and even 
 after deducting all necessary expenses, as well as 
 compound interest progressively, the proprietor has 
 about three times the income from his land as under 
 wood, that he would receive from the same had it 
 been in the hands of a farmer. 
 
 These examples I consider quite sufficient for the 
 present purpose. And further upon the same point, 
 I beg to say, that it is not alone the simple value 
 of the timber that makes plantations of so impor- 
 tant a nature upon a gentlemen's property. There 
 is the shelter that they afford to all agricultural 
 purposes : for where no plantations are, there is 
 invariably an inferior crop of grain upon the fields, 
 as well as an ill-fed live stock, which should all be 
 taken into account; and in doing so, I am of opinion 
 that upon any landed property, well managed plan- 
 tations are incalculably of more value than land 
 three times their extent in the hands of a farmer, but 
 without trees to give shelter ; and it is well known 
 by every proprietor of land, that he receives by 
 far the highest rent for those parts of his lands 
 which are most sheltered by his best plantations ; 
 and further, of whatever value land may be in the 
 hands of a farmer, without plantations to give 
 shelter to the same, it is of very much greater 
 value when properly sheltered by them. 
 
6 LAYING OUT OF GROUND 
 
 SECTION II. LAYING OUT OF GROUND FOR NEW 
 
 PLANTATIONS. 
 
 It is admitted by every person of a refined taste, 
 that no object is so ornamental upon a gentleman's 
 estate as an extensive healthy plantation, situated 
 upon a well chosen spot, and having a well defined 
 tastefully bending outline ; and this being a point 
 of the first importance in arboricultural architec- 
 ture it ought to be well considered by all who would 
 wish to excel in the profession. I am aware that 
 many think, and indeed say, that forest trees will 
 grow as well in an untastefully defined plantation, 
 as they will do in one laid out upon the first prin- 
 ciples of refined taste, provided that the soil be good 
 enough, — which is a false estimate of what good taste 
 is capable of doing : and in order to contradict this 
 erroneous opinion, I do assert, that a young planta- 
 tion laid out according to scientific principles, com- 
 bmed with good taste, will succeed much better 
 than one laid out in a careless manner, as will be 
 shown by and by, under the present head. 
 
 As the future welfare of a plantation is consider- 
 ably affected by the manner in which it is laid out, 
 no man ought to attempt the laying out of ground 
 for one, who is not naturally possessed of good 
 taste for that sort of landscape scenery which is 
 based upon the laws of nature, which will enable 
 him to lay out the proposed plantation in such a 
 
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 7 
 
 manner as to give the greatest possible effect in 
 ornamenting the neighbouring country. It is also 
 necessary that the person who would lay out ground 
 for a new plantation, should be possessed of a know- 
 ledge of the nature of the growth of each sort of 
 tree when planted upon any given soil or situation ; 
 which knowledge will enable him to judge rightly 
 as to the effects that certain trees will have when 
 planted in any given spot ; and he will also be en- 
 abled from such knowledge to say truly, whether or 
 not trees will grow well in the situation chosen for 
 a new plantation. And it is further necessary that 
 the party, in the laying out of a new plantation, 
 should be acquainted with, or at least have in view, 
 any local pecuharities of the district, relative to 
 cold and destructive winds from certain points. 
 From such knowledge he will be able to lay out 
 the proposed plantation in such a manner, that it 
 shall have the greatest possible effect in giving 
 shelter to the surrounding fields, which is the 
 principal end a proprietor aims at in having woods 
 upon his estate. 
 
 The larger that any piece of plantation is, the 
 sooner will the trees therein come to useful size, 
 and answer the desired end ; and the smaller it is, 
 the more likely are the hopes of the planter to be 
 disappointed. And the reason of this is obvious : — • 
 for the young trees growing in an extensive plan- 
 tation, as soon as they rise a little above the surface 
 
8 LAYING OUT OF GROUND 
 
 of the grass or heath, begin to shelter one another ; 
 whereas, if the plantation be narrow, the young 
 trees can hardly be said ever to come the length 
 of sheltering one another — for every breeze of 
 wind blowing through the whole breadth, acts 
 upon every single tree almost as powerfully as if 
 each tree stood singly and alone. Therefore, it is 
 most profitable for proprietors always to plant in 
 large masses. 
 
 Trees planted in a mass of one hundred acres 
 extent, will be more healthy, and come sooner to 
 profitable size, both as affording timber and shelter, 
 than they would if planted in a mass of ten acres. 
 From this it follows, that if a proprietor wishes to 
 plant one hundred acres upon his estate, he will 
 raise more healthy timber by planting in one mass, 
 than he would do by planting the same extent in 
 four masses of twenty-five acres each. 
 
 No young plantation, upon an exposed situation, 
 should be less than one hundred yards broad at 
 any given point ; and, where the soil is of a hght, 
 thin, mossy nature, and not apt to raise trees to 
 good size, one hundred yards may even be too little 
 for breadth. If there be much mossy ground upon 
 the site intended for a new plantation, or if there 
 be much of it consisting of poor, thin, gravelly 
 heights, as is often the case in unimproved districts, 
 a narrow or small plantation will not succeed 
 profitably. A small plantation may succeed upon 
 
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 9 
 
 a good loamy soil in a sheltered situation ; but 
 upon a bad soil, and an exposed situation, I would 
 advise not to plant at all, unless it be done in large 
 masses. 
 
 Almost every gentleman's estate lies in a manner 
 peculiar to itself ; the wind that might prove hurt- 
 ful to one estate, might not do so to another march- 
 ing with it : therefore it is, that the particular winds 
 which prove most hurtful to an estate, should always 
 be taken into consideration in the laying out of a 
 plantation upon it. 
 
 I have already said above, that the welfare of a 
 young plantation depends in a great measure upon 
 the manner in which it is laid out. I also said, that 
 a plantation laid out according to scientific rules, 
 combined with good taste, will succeed much better 
 than one laid out in a careless unscientific manner. 
 The following are the rules by which I generally 
 guide myself in the laying out of a new planta- 
 tion : — 
 
 First.- — In laying out its boundary line, avoid 
 all straight hnes upon the exposed sides, and, if 
 possible, make no straight lines at all upon any 
 side. They are disagreeable to the eye of taste, 
 and are without meaning when applied to natural 
 objects : in nature there are no straight hnes, and 
 that for a wise end, for they are without strength 
 to resist outward pressure. 
 
 Second. — The greatest extent of a new planta- 
 
10 LAYING OUT OF GROUND 
 
 tion should be laid off against the prevailing wind 
 of the district, and at the same time, the greatest 
 extent should be kept along the highest part of 
 the ground to be planted. 
 
 Third. — The best possible form of boundary line 
 which can be thrown out against the wind, upon 
 tlie most exposed side of a plantation, is the convex. 
 Such a form of boundary line weakens the strength 
 of the wind when it hits upon it : the strength of 
 the storm is, as it were, divided, when it hits upon 
 the projecting bend of a well defined convex. 
 
 Fourth. — Upon the most sheltered sides of a 
 plantation, the boundary hue may be made to bend 
 one way or another, as good taste may direct ; but 
 in all cases, making a concave bend only Avhere 
 there is a good breadth of planting immediately 
 behind it. 
 
 Fifth. — The highest parts in a neighbourhood 
 ought to be chosen for the site of a plantation. By 
 choosing such a situation, the greatest possible 
 shelter is likely to be attained for the neighbouring 
 fields ; and, at the same time, a plantation situated 
 upon a height always forms a prominent and a 
 pleasing object to the proprietor. A bare height 
 always carries along with it the idea of barrenness, 
 but when planted with trees, it forms one of the 
 most pleasing objects in the landscape of a gentle- 
 man's estate. 
 
 Sixth. — In the laying out of a new plantation, 
 
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 11 
 
 intended for the protection of live stock, there 
 ought to be several rather deep sinuosities upon 
 the most sheltered sides. These sinuosities ought 
 to be upon a bold wide scale, so as not to cause 
 any weak point to project from the body of the 
 plantation; for, if this be the case, such weak points 
 would not thrive, and consequently always have a 
 mean appearance. 
 
 Seventh. — If in the general arrangement of the 
 boundary line, it should be found necessary to 
 make a bend having its concavity to the storm side, 
 care should be taken to construct such a bend in a 
 hollow part of the ground, or, at least, as low as 
 possible, and it should be backed by a good breadth 
 of planting behind. 
 
 In the laying out of a new plantation, there is 
 much room for the display of good taste. Every 
 person is pleased with the effect of well arranged 
 figures upon grass in a flower garden ; and the 
 several plantations upon a gentleman's estate ought, 
 in like manner, to be well laid out figures upon a 
 large scale. Many have told me, when speaking 
 upon this point, that it is superfluous to lay out a 
 piece of plantation with as much view to taste as is 
 necessary in garden and pleasure-ground scenery; 
 but I have always maintained, that taste is as neces- 
 sary in the one case as in the other, and that any 
 proprietor has a right to tasteful arrangements, 
 and is pleased therewith when surveying liis farms, 
 
12 LAYING OUT OF GROUND 
 
 as much as with the other, when surveying his 
 pleasure grounds. If, in the general arrangement 
 of a young plantation, a display of taste were to be 
 injurious to the welfare of the same, then I would 
 say, let taste have nothing to do in the matter; 
 but the truth is quite the reverse of this. All true 
 taste is based upon the works of nature : therefore, 
 when we make the bondings and turnings of the 
 boundary line of a plantation in conformity with the 
 securing natural strength to resist the storm, we at 
 the same time give the most pleasing effect to the 
 mind of the person who looks upon it. 
 
 The bendings m the outline of a plantation 
 should always be made to follow the natural rising 
 and falling of the ground ; that is, where any late- 
 ral heights may project from the main body of the 
 ground laid out for a plantation, make the fence 
 line take a bold convex turn in the same direction, 
 and that just so far as may be considered neces- 
 sary for the extent in view ; and where a hollow 
 of the ground occurs, make a fence line take a 
 bold concave turn there, coming up again in the 
 form of the convex where the ground begins to 
 rise. In the laying out of a new plantation, if it 
 is at all to be seen from the windows of the pro- 
 prietor's mansion, or from any part of his pleasure 
 grounds, great care should be taken to make it 
 have the most pleasing effect when viewed from 
 such points ; for if it should be badly laid off it will 
 
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 13 
 
 prove a continual eye-sore, and if well laid off it 
 will prove a constant source of pleasure. 
 
 The method of laying out plantations in the 
 form of strips, so often to be met with in Scotland, 
 gives a poor and mean appearance to a gentleman's 
 estate, particularly when found about the home 
 grounds. The form in which they have generally 
 been made is in straight lines, from twenty to 
 thirty yards broad. In such narrow belts of wood 
 the trees are very seldom found in good health; 
 and, upon a little consideration of the matter, this is 
 not to be wondered at — because, from the narrow- 
 ness of such strips, the proprietors were always 
 afraid to thin them, wishing to keep them in a 
 thick state, in order to give as much shelter as 
 possible, and the natural consequence is, from 
 being left too thick, the one tree soon kills the 
 other. And even where such strips have been 
 well managed, it cannot be expected that they 
 could produce either good healthy timber or make 
 a good shelter ; for, being so narrow, the trees 
 never come to shelter one another. But it is a 
 happy circumstance in the history of arboricul- 
 ture, that few such strips are now planted : gentle- 
 men are now beginning to see the impropriety 
 of such a method of raising plantations ; and now, 
 almost in all cases of good management, we see the 
 old-fashioned narrow strip giving place to the well 
 defined, extensive plantation, which is, indeed, the 
 
14 FENCING AND 
 
 only profitable way of rearing trees for any useful 
 purpose. 
 
 SECTION III. FENCING AND INCLOSING OF GROUND 
 
 FOR YOUNG TREES. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that every piece of 
 ground laid out for a plantation should be fenced 
 in some way or other, previous to its being planted. 
 A fence not only prevents the inroads of sheep and 
 cattle, but it at the same time tends very much 
 to shelter the young trees, and to bring them on 
 rapidly. It is, indeed, surprising to observe the 
 difference that a very low fence makes upon the 
 growth of young trees, as compared with those 
 which are not protected by one. Any proprietor, 
 or forester, upon looking through his several plan- 
 tations, will observe that, in all young plantations, 
 the most rapid growing, and at the same time the 
 most healthy trees in it, arc to be found immedi- 
 ately behind the outer fence ; and, upon the other 
 hand, in all older plantations, the best grown, and 
 at the same time the most healthy trees, are to be 
 found in the centre of the same, or, at least, a con- 
 siderable distance back from the fence. Now, it 
 may be asked, what is the reason that the best 
 wood is found in the inner parts of old plan- 
 tations, while the most rapid growing trees are 
 to be found, when young, behind the boundary 
 
INCLOSING OF GROUND. 15 
 
 fence ? The reason, as proved from experience, is 
 this : — 
 
 During the first eight or ten years of the age of 
 any young plantation, the boundary fence is the 
 only shelter that the young trees have ; and it is 
 evident, that those trees which grow immediately 
 beliind the fence will receive most of the benefit of 
 its shelter ; consequently, from the circumstance of 
 their receiving more shelter than their neighbours 
 further ofi", they must grow more rapidly, until 
 such time as their tops begin to rise above the level 
 of the fence, when they are considerably checked 
 by the cold winds. At this stage, they begin to 
 grow thick and bushy, rather than advance in 
 height, and, immediately upon their becoming so, 
 they begin to shelter all their neighbours inside, 
 which, again, begin to have double the advantage 
 of their neighbours outside ; for the trees upon the 
 outside had shelter only so long as they were below 
 the level of the top of the fence, whereas those in- 
 side have now a shelter which every year increases 
 upon them for their advantage, in height as well as 
 in tliickness. All this comes in to prove that a 
 fence is a great mean of furthering the healthy de- 
 velopment of a young plantation, independent of its 
 protecting from the inroads of cattle at the same 
 time. I always calculate, that a plantation with a 
 good fence is ten years in advance of one without 
 such protection. 
 
16 FENCING AND 
 
 Many different methods of fencing have been 
 adopted for the inclosing of young plantations 
 upon gentlemen's estates, and, no doubt, different 
 methods will still continue to be adopted, according 
 to the different sorts of materials to be had in 
 abundance in the neighbourhood of the plantation 
 to be constructed. 
 
 Under the present head, it will be enough for 
 me to enumerate the principal sorts of fences, as in 
 common use in Scotland ; and, giving an idea of the 
 cost of raising these in each case, I shall leave it 
 to the discretion of the parties planting to judge 
 for themselves which sort of fence they may adopt, 
 which, of course, must be in most cases determined 
 according to the kind of material most conveniently 
 to be had. 
 
 The first is the thorn hedge, wliich is a fence 
 well known throughout all Britain. This sort of 
 fence is very much improved by having one-third 
 of beech plants mixed among the thorns in planting, 
 particularly upon high situations with a light soil. 
 There the thorns are apt to die early, but when 
 mixed with beech plants, which thrive well in a 
 light soil, the fence is much improved, both in 
 health and appearance. 
 
 The hedge is a fence well adapted for all situa^ 
 tions where a neat, cultivated, and clothed appear- 
 ance is the object, but is not to be recommended 
 for a soil of a mossy or sandy nature upon a high 
 
INCLOSING OF GROUND. 17 
 
 exposure. In such a situation, and under such cir- 
 cumstances, it will not live long ; but upon a clay 
 soil, or loam, it will survive well, and have a very 
 ornamental appearance. 
 
 The cost of planting a thorn hedge, including 
 a ditch four feet wide by two deep, where the 
 ground is of a wet nature, including plants from a 
 nurseryman, will average about one shilling and 
 eightpence per rood of six yards ; and where the 
 ground is dry and does not require a ditch, the 
 same work may probably be got done for one shil- 
 ling per rood. 
 
 Second. — The most extensively used fence, in 
 the high inland districts of Scotland, is the Dry- 
 stone Dyke. From the nature of the country in 
 those high districts, stones are plentiful, and, of 
 course, easily attainable, from which circumstance 
 it is a fence much in use for all purposes. Stone 
 dykes have the effect of affording considerable shel- 
 ter to young plantations as soon as they are put 
 up for that purpose ; as also giving shelter to cattle 
 in the adjoining fields, which, of course, is not the 
 case with a young hedge fence. The dry-stone 
 dyke used to be built entirely without the addition 
 of any lime or mortar to bind it, and consequently it 
 was always apt to be broken down by cattle, or any 
 other strong pressure coming in contact with it; but 
 witliin ten years past, a great improvement has 
 been effected in the building of them, by having 
 
18 FENCING AND 
 
 the top, or cope stones, all put on and bedded in 
 lime, which keeps the dyke altogether in a more 
 firm and compact state than that built upon the 
 old principle. 
 
 The dry-stone dykes are generally built, includ- 
 ing the cope, about five feet high, thirty inches 
 broad at bottom, and tapering regularly upon each 
 side to about twelve inches thick at top of buikhng, 
 which is four feet high. They receive the addition 
 of fully another foot in height by having the cope 
 and cobble placed on the top of the regularly built 
 part. 
 
 The price of erecting a stone dyke depends 
 entirely upon the conveniency of getting stones for 
 the purpose. If stones are to be carted far for 
 the line of fence, the expense becomes considerable ; 
 but the stones being laid down, it is generally got 
 done for 2s. 6d. per rood of six yards, including the 
 cope and cobble well put on with lime. This is the 
 price generally paid in Mid-Lothian, but in many 
 other districts, where lime is more expensive, 3s. 
 per rood may not be an over-estimate. The stone 
 dykes make a very desirable fence upon high dis- 
 tricts, where, upon account of their immediate 
 height, they at once give shelter to young trees 
 in a new plantation, but they are certainly not 
 to be recommended as an ornamental fence ; 
 therefore, they should be excluded from any 
 gentleman's home grounds, for in such a situa- 
 
INCLOSING OF GROUND. 19 
 
 tion they always give a stranger a mean idea of 
 the place. 
 
 Third. — In many high-lying parts of Scotland, 
 where stones are not easily got at, and where, upon 
 account of the nature of the soil, it would not be 
 advisable to plant hedges, a very neat and good 
 fence is often put up for the purpose of inclosing 
 young plantations, termed the Turf Dyke. I have 
 seen these turf dykes answer the purpose extremely 
 well, both in the lowlands and highlands of Scot- 
 land. In building tliem, the turfs are cut from the 
 surface soil, upon each side of the hne of fence, 
 which turfs are generally cut about five inches 
 thick, or less, according as the surface will or will 
 not admit of that thickness. The turfs being cut, 
 they are built the one above the other to the de- 
 sired height, which is generally about thirty inches, 
 and all firmly packed together. 
 
 The turf dyke is generally made about thirty 
 inches broad at the bottom, and tapering regularly 
 upon each side to fourteen inches at top. The 
 body of the dyke is built with the turfs grass side 
 under, but the top turf has the grass side upper- 
 most. 
 
 In order to prevent sheep or cattle of any de- 
 scription from getting over the turf dyke into the 
 young plantations, which they are meant to pro- 
 tect, one or two bars of paling are generally put 
 along the top, which are nailed to stobs, driven 
 
20 FENCING AND 
 
 into the dyke, so deep as to go through the dyke 
 into the sohd ground under it. This makes a very- 
 good fence where stone dykes are not easily attain- 
 able, from the want of materials, and can be put up, 
 including paling and stobs, and men's time putting 
 in the same, for fourpence per yard. 
 
 Fourth. — The common wooden paling — that is, 
 the fence consisting of wood stobs driA-en into the 
 ground at regular distances, with bars of wood, 
 sawn for the purpose, nailed horizontally upon 
 them — is very much used as a fence for all pur- 
 poses, and is so well known throughout Britain as 
 to need no explanation from me here. However, I 
 may say, that, owing to the open nature of such a 
 fence, it is not at aU adapted for the protecting of 
 young plantations upon high grounds, and ought to 
 be used only in rather sheltered situations, for the 
 subdividing of fields, and protecting young hedges. 
 The cost of erecting a wooden pahng, with three 
 horizontal bars, is about sixpence per yard, includ- 
 ing workmanship and nails. 
 
 Fifth. — The wire fence, upon wooden posts, has 
 often been recommended as a substitute for other 
 materials where those are scarce ; but I can by no 
 means agree with those who recommend wire fences 
 for young plantations, upon a high and exposed situ- 
 ation. The wire fence is most admirably adapted, 
 by its invisibility, for all purposes upon a gen- 
 tleman's home domains ; but as a fence where 
 
INCLOSING OF GROUND. 21 
 
 shelter is an object, it is by no means to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 I am not aware that any practical planter has as 
 yet come forAvard, presuming to recommend the 
 wire fence for his purposes upon high grounds. The 
 wire merchant, who has the material for sale, is the 
 only person who has yet ventured to recommend 
 wire fences for all purposes; but I here beg to 
 state, that proprietors in general will do well to be 
 cautious as to how far they introduce wire fences 
 upon high and exposed parts of their estates. No 
 fence is more ornamental for a gentleman's home 
 grounds ; but at the same time it must be remem- 
 bered that no fence gives less shelter. The price 
 of erecting wire fences upon wooden posts, for the 
 purpose of protecting from sheep and cattle, is 
 about Is. 6d, per yard. 
 
 The above are the kinds of fences most generally 
 in use for the protection of young plantations. 
 The proprietor who plants extensively must judge 
 for himself how far he is with propriety to adopt 
 one fence in preference to another — and that, of 
 course, must always be decided by the nature of the 
 soil and situation, and the convenience as regards 
 materials : observing in all cases to erect a fence that 
 will combine shelter with durabihty upon high and 
 exposed situations ; and where the situation is low 
 and naturally sheltered, the taste may more reason- 
 ably be consulted. In all cases of fencing for the 
 
22 PREPARING OF GROUND 
 
 protection of young plantations, the work should 
 be particularly Avell executed ; for if it be badly 
 done, and a part of the fence be broken down 
 by any slight accident, cattle may get in, and do 
 more damage in one night than could be well re- 
 covered in the course of some years. This I have 
 experienced so frequently, that I here beg to advise 
 all proprietors to be most strict in the executing of 
 such a piece of work, where, in fact, the wealth of 
 their estates is at stake. If the fencing should be 
 set by contract, as is often the case, the contractor 
 should be bound to keep his work good for three 
 years after it is finished ; under this engagement, 
 he will, for his own sake, be anxious to do his work 
 well. 
 
 SECTION IV. PREPARING OF GROUND FOR YOUNG 
 
 TREES. 
 
 Some practical foresters have maintained that all 
 ground, previous to its being planted with young 
 forest trees, ought to undergo a course of prepa- 
 ration by trenching or ploughing, and by having 
 lime or manure in some way or other applied to 
 the land. Such a course of preparation as either of 
 the above may be very proper in some cases, but is 
 by no means always either necessary or profitable 
 in the end. As I have very often been questioned 
 by proprietors relative to the utility of trenching, 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. 23 
 
 ploughing, or manuring of land previous to its 
 being put under a crop of young forest trees, I 
 shall here state very briefly my mind upon the 
 matter. 
 
 First, then, trenching has frequently been recom- 
 mended as a proper preparation of the soil for the 
 reception of young forest trees. The expenses 
 necessary to be incurred in the act of trenching 
 ground for forest trees is the most prominent point 
 that occurs to the mind ; and, indeed, it is a very 
 formidable point to get over. It is evident that, 
 however much good might arise to trees from the 
 trenching of the ground upon which they might 
 be planted, it coidd not in practice be carried to 
 any useful or great extent. In ordinary cases, 
 land cannot be got trenched under eight pounds an 
 acre ; and where trees have been formerly, and huge 
 roots have to be taken out of the ground, even 
 fifteen pounds would not be too much for the trench- 
 ing of an acre in such a condition. Therefore, in 
 general practice, it is entirely out of the question. 
 
 The trenching of ground, as a preparation for 
 young trees, may be very proper, and even neces- 
 sary, upon a small scale — near or about a pro- 
 prietor's policy grounds in a sheltered situation — 
 particularly where large trees may have been 
 newly taken down, and where it is desirable to 
 have old roots taken out previous to replanting ; 
 but it is only in such a case that trencliing, in my 
 
24 PREPARING OF GROUND 
 
 opinion, ought to be recommended in the cultivation 
 of forest trees, and even then only if the subsoil be 
 naturally good. There is no advantage gained by 
 trenching ground for forest trees which is not 
 decidedly better attained by a well conducted sys- 
 tem of drainage. 
 
 Many practical foresters have argued, that all 
 land newly cleared of a crop of old wood should be 
 trenched, and the old roots taken out previous to 
 being replanted with another crop of forest trees ; 
 and T do confess, that at the first glance, such a 
 proposition appears feasible. Those who argue for 
 this pitch of refinement in the cultivation of forest 
 trees, wish to cultivate them much in the same 
 manner as we at present cultivate corn; but such 
 a system of forestry is, in my opmion, altogether 
 superfluous, and nature points out the same thing 
 to us if we will but observe her manner of proceed- 
 ing in this Avork. 
 
 In all parts of the world corn can be had good 
 only by carefully cultivating it — at least I am not 
 aware that corn of any sort can be found in a state 
 of nature nearly so good as it is found under the 
 hands of the husbandman ; which points out to us, 
 from nature herself, that in order to have corn good 
 and in sufficient abundance to answer our wants, we 
 must cultivate it, and that carefully; and, accord- 
 ingly, we in this case proceed in the manner pointed 
 out to us by nature. Upon the other hand, I beg 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. 25 
 
 to ask those who contend for the trencliing and 
 taking out of all old roots of trees from any piece 
 of ground previous to having it replanted with other 
 trees, where do we find the best crop of timber 
 trees — in the natural forest or in the cultivated 
 one ? We have only to compare our home planta- 
 tions with the natural forests of America or Nor- 
 way, and we at once find an answer for ourselves. 
 It is a fact well ascertained, that the natural forests 
 upon the continents of Europe and America have, 
 for ages past, produced in succession many crops of 
 heavy timber, and yet we know well that there was 
 no trenching of ground there. Let us cultivate as 
 we will, by trenching or otherwise, we have not yet 
 produced trees in our home woods equal to those 
 in a state of nature ; and the simple reason is, that in 
 the growing of trees in our artificial forests, we are 
 continually aiming too much at what we term cul- 
 tivation. We are always anxious to improve upon 
 nature. This may, indeed, do in many things; but 
 unless we shall follow the direct path which nature 
 points out to us for the growing of forest trees, we 
 most assuredly never will succeed. 
 
 In the natural forest we never find two successive 
 crops of the same species of tree upon the same 
 soil ; by attending to which principle in nature 
 relative to forest trees, a great part of our success 
 in cultivating them in our home woods depends. 
 All that nature requires of us, in order to produce 
 
26 PREPARING OF GROUND 
 
 a second crop of wood upon the same piece of 
 ground, is to change the crop — for this is always 
 done when nature is left to herself. Therefore, in 
 conclusion, upon the head of trenching, I have to 
 say, that it must be, and has indeed been found to 
 be, an unnecessary operation. I could, from my 
 own experience, point out many instances where it 
 has done more harm than good to young trees ; 
 therefore it is that I cannot approve of it. All 
 that is necessary, in order to grow trees upon any 
 soil, is to dram ; and if a crop of wood have been 
 upon the same soil formerly, and is but newly 
 cleared off, change the species of tree for a crop, 
 and success will be the ultimate result. 
 
 Second. — The ploughing of land has been much 
 recommended as a preparation of the ground for 
 young forest trees. In my opinion, where the soil 
 is naturally good, there is no necessity for the 
 ploughing of it previous to its being planted ; but 
 where the upper stratum of soil is naturally poor 
 and thin, with moorbond-pan under, a deep 
 ploughing is absolutely necessary in order to 
 break the pan and mix a portion of the subsoil 
 with the upper. The fact is, that a soil of the 
 nature of moorbond-pan is naturally unfit for the 
 growing of forest trees ; but wliere the proprietor 
 of such a soil, in the general arrangement of liis 
 improvements upon his estate, may wish to plant 
 such a piece of ground with forest trees, the trench- 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. 27 
 
 plough must first be used, in order to open up tlie 
 soil and break the pan. I am not aware that 
 ploughing is advantageous to the growth of forest 
 trees in any other case. I am aware that fir-trees, 
 planted and growing upon land which has been 
 frequently ploughed previousl^^ seldom live long, 
 or attain to any considerable size free from disease, 
 which at once points out that nature wishes no 
 interference of such a kind. Generally speaking, 
 trees for a few years grow faster upon ploughed 
 land than upon the natural undisturbed soil, but do 
 not live nearly so long ; therefore I again beg to 
 recommend that all artificial cultivation of the soil 
 ought to be avoided when healthy timber is an 
 object. 
 
 Third. — Liming, and otherwise manuring of 
 the soil for young trees, has been recommended 
 by some, and disapproved of by others : in my 
 opinion, and I speak from experience, all artificial 
 excitement of a young tree by the application of 
 manure is ultimately injurious to it. I have seen 
 small plantations grown upon the system of trench- 
 ing, liming, and otherwise manuring ; and in such 
 cases I have generally had occasion to observe, 
 that the trees grew rapidly for a few years at 
 first, but, as soon as the exciting influence of the 
 manure had begun to fail, the trees fell into a 
 bad state of health, and seldom attained that con- 
 firmed state of maturity which is the case when 
 
28 DRAINING OF GROUND 
 
 nature has her own way. However, I cannot say 
 as to what state of perfection trees might grow 
 were manure added to their roots at stated inter- 
 vals ; nor do I think it necessary that we should 
 know the results of such a system of training, be- 
 cause it could be of no real use to grow trees upon 
 such an expensive system. 
 
 SECTION V. — DRAINING OF GROUND FOR YOUNG 
 TREES. 
 
 There is no preparation of the soil so advanta- 
 geous to the welfare of young forest trees as that of 
 draining. Draining not only dries the soil from all 
 superfluous moisture, but it also cleanses it of many 
 bad ingredients which might otherwise prove inju- 
 rious to the health of trees, and prevent their full 
 development. To the want of draining may be 
 attributed the greater part of cases of unhealthi- 
 ness m plantations for forty years past. The disease 
 in the larch, which has been so prevalent in Scot- 
 land for some years past, may be almost entirely 
 attributed to the neglect of this precaution, as shall 
 be particularly explained when I come to treat upon 
 that subject in this treatise. I have, within these 
 last ten years, seen very many plantations in Scot- 
 land fast going back from the want of draining ; 
 and having been often called upon to give my opi- 
 nion relative to the unhealthy state of such planta- 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. 29 
 
 tions, I have, in almost all cases, found damp to be 
 the principal cause, and therefore recommended an 
 efficient course of open draining as the only means 
 by which they could be reeovered ; and wherever 
 my plan for the recovery of the health of such 
 plantations has been put into operation, a recovery 
 has been the result, excepting in some cases where 
 the trees were too old and stunted to indulge any 
 hope of their recovery. Since I came to be forester 
 at Ai-niston, I have, by draining alone, brought 
 several young plantations into health, which, before 
 that operation was done, were fast going back ; and 
 from experience I find, that if the constitution of 
 trees under twenty years old be not too much in- 
 jured by the effects of dampness, they will show 
 signs of recovery the second year after the ground 
 is drained about them, — that is to say, as soon as 
 the young roots begin to draw nourishment from 
 the dry and improved soil. 
 
 Draining is quite as necessary for the profit- 
 able rearing of young trees, as it is found advanta- 
 geous in the profitable growing of corn, wliich we 
 now see so much improved every where by that 
 most excellent art. Such as our corn fields were 
 fifty years ago, such are the most of our plantations 
 of the present day. 
 
 Twenty years ago, it was considered a piece of 
 superfluous work to drain land where young trees 
 were to be put in ; therefore it is not to be won- 
 
30 DRAINING OF GROUND 
 
 dered at that we have at the present time so many 
 unhealthy young plantations. During my appren- 
 ticesliip I have planted young trees in ground 
 where, when I made a pit for a young tree, 
 I had to plant it immediately, for fear of the 
 pit filHng with water ; and yet the person who 
 had the management did not appear to tliink 
 that draining was necessary. And such was 
 the case with foresters generally at that time. 
 However, the foresters of that period are not to be 
 blamed for not draining their ground previous to 
 its being planted, any more than farmers were to 
 blame for the same neglect before they became 
 aware of the advantages of draining. But the 
 case is altogether different now. Every farmer 
 and forester is now aware of the advantages of 
 draining land, whether it may be for the growing 
 of corn or of trees ; and yet we have often occasion 
 to see this knowledge taken no advantage of, both 
 among farmers and foresters. 
 
 Any farmer who now sows his fields without first 
 draining them, is, by his more intelhgent neigh- 
 bours, considered unworthy of holding his land ; so, 
 in hke manner, the forester who would attempt 
 planting a piece of ground naturally wet, and not 
 first have it thoroughly drained, would certainly 
 be unworthy of holding a situation as forester in 
 any gentleman's establishment. 
 
 The land intended for a new plantation being all 
 
FOR YOUNG TKEES. 31 
 
 well fenced, the next important step to be taken, in 
 order to fit it for the reception of young trees, is 
 the draining it, which draining must be executed 
 in such a manner as to free the land from all super- 
 flous moisture, and to keep it in a free open healthy 
 state. I may here remark, that all drains made in 
 plantations among trees, whether these may be old 
 or young, ought to be left open. To cover drains, 
 where the roots of trees have access to them, is the 
 most effectual way of ultimately rendering them 
 useless. They might, indeed, answer the purpose 
 for a very few years ; but as soon as the roots of the 
 tree began to spread themselves firmly into the 
 soil, they would collect about the drains more than 
 any other part, and the consequence would be, that 
 in a very short time covered drains would be en- 
 tirely choked up with the roots, and rendered 
 useless. 
 
 It is seldom found necessary to drain every part 
 of the ground that may be laid out for a new plan- 
 tation. There are, it is most reasonable to suppose, 
 many spots quite dry enough for the rearing of 
 healthy timber trees, in almost every district of 
 any considerable extent — which spots the experi- 
 enced eye can at once detect by the general ap- 
 pearance of the plants growing upon the surface ; 
 but for the guidance of those who may not have 
 had experience enough for this purpose, it may be 
 necessary here to lay down something like a rule, by 
 
32 DRAINING OF GROUND 
 
 which they may distinguish land in want of draining 
 from land not requiring it. Attend, then, to the 
 following liints : — At certain distances throughout 
 the whole of the intended plantation, say at twenty 
 yards, cast pits rather more than twelve inches 
 deep ; and if, in those pits, water should appear to 
 gather within ten hours after being made, the land 
 there is unfit for the growing of healthy trees with- 
 out being drained ; and where no water appears in 
 the pits, the land there may be reckoned dry, and 
 may be safely planted with forest trees without 
 being drained. 
 
 The distance at which drains should be put on 
 the ground, depends entirely upon the nature of 
 the soil to be dried : that is, if the soil be a stiff 
 clay, or a retentive moss, the drains may require 
 to be laid on as close as fifteen feet apart; and 
 if, upon the contrary, the soil to be dried be of 
 an open "sand or gravel, through which the water 
 can pass freely, thirty feet distant may not be too 
 far separate. In all cases where I drain for the 
 j)lanting of forest trees, of whatever nature the soil 
 may be, I never put on drains closer than fifteen 
 feet, nor wider than forty, if the soil require drain- 
 ing at all. If the soil for a plantation of trees be 
 drained more frequently than at fifteen feet, the 
 trees are very apt to be blown up by the roots 
 when they come to be heavy topped, particularly 
 if the drains are not kept in a clean state ; and if 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. '33 
 
 land requires draining at all for the growing of 
 trees, it is my opinion that forty feet should be the 
 greatest distance, for beyond that distance between 
 di'ains, land cannot be said to be drained efficiently. 
 
 The depth and general size of the drains must in 
 a great measure be regulated by the nature of the 
 soil to be dried. In a heavy clay soil, I have found 
 that wood drains should be at least twenty inches 
 deep, and upon a light friable soil, fourteen inches 
 may be quite deep enough ; and according as the 
 soil may be inclined to be light or heavy, any in- 
 termediate depth between the two extremes above 
 specified may be fixed upon — always observing, that 
 the more the soil is inchned to clay, the deeper the 
 drains should be made. 
 
 The breadth of all such drains, at the surface ot 
 the ground, must of course vary according to the 
 depth required. The rule which I have laid down 
 for my own practice as regards this is, to make all 
 open forest drains one-third wider at the top than 
 the depth intended : that is, if the depth of a drain 
 be fixed upon as fifteen inches, the breadth of the 
 opening at top will require to be twenty inches, 
 and so on with any other depth. The breadth of 
 all forest drains at bottom ought to be suflScient to 
 allow a common spade free room to pass along for 
 the purpose of cleaning. 
 
 The cost of making such drains as have been 
 above specified, must always be regulated by the 
 
34 DRAINING OF GROUND 
 
 nature of the soil, and the price of labour in the 
 neighbourhood where the work is to be done. In 
 Mid-Lotliian, I have got drains fourteen inches deep, 
 and requiring to be picked in the under-half, done 
 for one farthing per yard ; and drains twenty inches 
 deep, requiring extra picking, for two farthings 
 per yard. A particular point to attend to in the 
 draining of moor or waste land, for the planting 
 of young forest trees, is the manner of laying on 
 the drains upon the ground ; they must be laid on 
 in that position which is found to be the best adapted 
 for drawing off and intercepting the superfluous 
 water in its natural descent. I have seen several 
 plantations of late, and those of considerable extent, 
 drained in a very inefiicient manner, the drains not 
 having been properly laid down upon the ground. 
 To those who may be unacquainted Avith the art of 
 making open drains upon moor or waste land, the 
 following liints may be useful : — Upon level ground 
 — that is to say, upon ground not having any 
 perceptible fall for a considerable distance, great 
 caution must be used, in order to produce artificially 
 a fall or descent for the water that may collect in 
 drains made upon such a level. The manner of going 
 to "work in such a case is as follows : — look for the 
 lowest part of the ground, which, if it cannot be 
 detected by the eye, may be determined by the 
 spirit-level, which every drainer ought to possess ; 
 and having found the lowest part of the ground 
 
FOR YOUNG TREES. 35 
 
 requiring drainage, ascertain by the spirit-level how 
 deep a main drain can be made there, in order to 
 have, at the same time, a proper descent to carry 
 off the water from it ; having fixed this point, cut a 
 main drain along the lowest part of the ground, at 
 least three feet deep, and endeavour to give it as 
 good a descent as possible. The main drain being 
 made, say three feet and a half deep, and five feet 
 wide at the top, lay off your smaller or common 
 drains at proper distances, and at right angles to 
 the main drain ; and in making the common drains, 
 say that you wish to have them twenty inches deep, 
 make them of that depth at the top, or the end 
 farthest from the main drain, and proportionally 
 deeper, as you approach it; and when you finish 
 the small drains into the main one, you can have at 
 least one foot and half of descent between the two 
 ends of your drains, which is quite enough for a 
 drain of any ordinary length. If this main drain 
 have to receive water from a considerable number 
 of small ones, as will be the case if it is of any con- 
 siderable length, and if it have to receive water from 
 drains laid oif upon each side of it, great care must 
 be taken to make it large enough. In many cases 
 it may be found necessary to make a main drain 
 even larger than the dimensions 1 have specified 
 above ; but this must in all cases be regulated ac- 
 cording to the number of drains that may have to 
 be emptied into it, and much also depends upon the 
 
36 DRAINING OF GROUND, ETC. 
 
 length of the small drains themselves — for if these 
 are of great length, and put in pretty close upon 
 the ground, they will, during a flood, pour a great 
 quantity of water into the main drain : but to avoid 
 the consequences of too much water falhng into any 
 main drain, it is a better plan not to allow any 
 small drain to run above one hundred yards without 
 falling into a main, or at least a sub-main one, which 
 again empties itself into a main drain. 
 
 In putting open drains upon land having a na- 
 tural declivity, they should be run nearly at right 
 angles with the descent of the ground ; but at the 
 same time, care must be taken to make every drain 
 with a slight fall downwards ; for if they have not 
 at least one foot in a hundred of descent, they will 
 be apt to become choked up with mud and other 
 vegetable matter, which is sure to accumulate, if 
 not carried away by a brisk run of the water in the 
 drains. All drains made upon what is generally 
 termed a dead-level, soon become useless; there- 
 fore, the great point to attend to for the keeping of 
 drains in a clear state is, to give them a good brisk 
 run for the water, as it issues from the sides. How- 
 ever, caution is necessary lest this should be over- 
 done ; for if the ground be sandy or gravelly, a 
 rapid descent would prove dangerous by under- 
 mining the sides of the drains : consequently, it 
 should always be observed, that where the soil is 
 light and sandy, just so much descent should be given 
 
LAYING OUT ROADS, ETC. 37 
 
 to the drains as will carry the water briskly along, 
 and prevent stagnation ; and where the soil is stiff, a 
 quicker descent may be given, if thought necessary. 
 All main drains should be made in the lowest 
 parts of the ground to be dried, and they should in- 
 crease in size, according to the quantity of water they 
 may have to contain. All sub-main drains should 
 be made in a position between the main drains and 
 the smaller ones ; and as they are intended to collect 
 the water from the smaller drains, and convey it to 
 the main ones, they should be of a convenient size 
 between the two. All open drains in a wood ought 
 to be examined and cleaned once in two years; 
 for if they are not attended to in this manner, they 
 are apt to choke by vegetable matter lodging in 
 them. 
 
 SECTION VI. — LAYING OUT ROADS IN NEW 
 PLANTATIONS. 
 
 In all plantations of any considerable extent, it is 
 absolutely necessary to have vacant tracts left 
 through them unplanted, in the form of roads ; and 
 in laying these off in a new plantation, care should 
 be taken to see that no part of the wood should be 
 above one hundred and fifty yards distant from 
 some one of such roads. The necessity of this pre- 
 caution will appear evident, when it is taken into 
 consideration that the trees, when grown to any 
 
38 LAYING OUT ROADS 
 
 considerable size, will have all to be carried from 
 the interior to some one of such roads, in order to 
 have them taken away in carts ; and when the trees 
 become large, and require to be carried a consider- 
 able distance, much valuable labour must be wasted 
 before they can be laid down cart-free by the men. 
 
 The roads in a plantation need not be made more 
 than fifteen feet wide. In all cases, however, they 
 ought to be so broad as to allow two carts to pass 
 one another with freedom, Avhen laden with wood. 
 
 When the roads are marked oif, which of course 
 ought to be done previous to the ground being 
 planted, they ought to be divided from the rest of the 
 ground by a drain of sixteen inches deep, running 
 along each side of them, throughout their whole ex- 
 tent, whether the ground may be wet or not. The 
 drains are meant not only to keep those roads in a 
 dry, firm state, but to give them an appearance dis- 
 tinct from the rest of the plantation ; and being thus 
 drained on each side, they are not apt to be cut or 
 damaged, by a cart or any other wheeled carriage 
 passing along them ; and when thus kept dry, they 
 form a fine ornamental green ride, for the pro- 
 prietor and his friends at all times, as well as 
 answer the purposes of accommodation in wood 
 operations. 
 
 If there be any particularly romantic-looking spot 
 within the bounds of the plantation, the road should 
 be made to take a turn in that direction ; or if there 
 
IN NEW PLANTATIONS. 39 
 
 be any particular height from which a distinct view 
 of the surrounding country may be had, make a road 
 to pass by it, with a narrow foot-path leading to 
 such a height. In short, in making roads through a 
 plantation, as well as in making walks through plea- 
 sure grounds, good taste and ornament should be 
 kept in view ; and it is as easy to do any piece of 
 work well, as otherwise. 
 
40 SEASON BEST ADAPTED 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SEASON OF THE YEAR BEST ADAPTED FOR PLANTIN« OPERATIONS. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TREES, SO AS TO SUIT THE DIFFERENT 
 
 SOILS AND SITUATIONS IN A NEW PLANTATION, AND HABITS AND 
 
 PECULIARITIES OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES. DIFFERENT METHODS 
 
 OF PLANTING YOUNG TREES, AS PRACTISED BY FORESTERS. HOW 
 
 TO CHOOSE YOUNG FOREST TREES, WHEN BUYING THEM FROM 
 
 PUBLIC NURSERIES. UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAVING THEIR 
 
 OWN HOME NURSERIES. 
 
 SECTION I. SEASON OF THE YEAR BEST ADAPTED 
 
 FOR PLANTING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Many practical planters have laid down that the 
 months of March and April are the only proper 
 months or season of the year adapted for planting 
 operations. For my own part, I have planted ex- 
 tensively at all times between the months of No- 
 vember and April, both included, while the weather 
 was fresh, and have had equal success from planting 
 in all the different months. I may, however, 
 say, that I always prefer the months of November 
 and December for the planting of hard wood, and 
 those of February, March, and April, for the 
 planting of the fir and pine tribes. If the ground 
 intended to be planted be naturally dry, I put in 
 both hard wood and firs in the months of November 
 and December ; but if the ground be naturally wet, 
 
FOR PLANTING OPERATIONS. 41 
 
 and the drains only recently made, I delay planting 
 such ground till the spring months. 
 
 Where planting operations are not carried on 
 extensively, it may be an easy matter to delay till 
 a certain time in the year, as the private opinion of 
 the party intrusted with the work may suggest to 
 him ; but where three or four hundred acres are 
 intended to be laid down in wood, in one season, it 
 is always found necessary to take advantage of the 
 whole season, from November till April, whenever 
 the weather will permit, in order to have the work 
 all done before the growth of the plants begins, 
 which is generally about the middle of April. Those 
 who advocate planting in the spring months only, 
 say, where planting operations are to be executed 
 upon an extensive scale, " put on the greater num- 
 ber of men, and have the work done in the shorter 
 time ; " but I beg to say here, that those who advise 
 to put on a great number of men, in order to have 
 the planting of a piece of ground quickly accom- 
 plished, are not worthy of the name of practical 
 foresters ; and cannot have had much experience in 
 the results of such operations, as performed at dif- 
 ferent times, and under different circumstances. 
 
 Every experienced planter who has had occasion 
 to employ a considerable number of men, in order 
 to get through his work as fast as possible, is aware 
 of the difficulty there is in getting a large number 
 of labourers from any neighbourhood properly qua- 
 
42 SEASON BEST ADAPTED 
 
 lified to conduct the operation well, and as it ought 
 to be done. Common country labourers are seldom 
 acquainted with planting operations, and require at 
 least a few weeks' practice before they can be safely 
 trusted ; therefore it is, that when a number of in- 
 experienced men are brought together to plant, the 
 work is always badly done ; and, consequently, is 
 seldom attended with success in the end. In planting 
 extensively, my method has always been, to prolong 
 the season of operations, and with a few experienced 
 men to do the work in a proper manner ; and by 
 so doing, I have generally been very successful. 
 
 In reading the above assertion, many may bo 
 inchned to say, that if the weather were to prove 
 unfavourable, it would be impossible to get through 
 an extensive piece of planting with a few men in 
 one season ; and, at first sight, there appears, in- 
 deed, some reason in tliis objection : but I answer, 
 that very much depends upon the proper manage- 
 ment of [the work in hand. In planting exten- 
 sively, with a few good hands, I do not generally 
 begin at one end or side of the plantation, and make 
 good all the ground as the work proceeds, as is the 
 custom with many planters who employ a great 
 number of men at once. In almost every piece of 
 ground laid out for an extensive new plantation, 
 there is generally a variety of soils and situations 
 in it, and of this variety of soils and situations I 
 always take the advantage, thus : — when the wea- 
 
FOR PLANTING OPERATIONS. 43 
 
 ther is fine and fresh, I set the men to plant upon 
 the most exposed sides or parts of the ground, and 
 also to plant any piece naturally wet; and when 
 the weather is cold or wet, I set them to plant upon 
 the most sheltered parts, or where the ground is 
 naturally dry ; and in the case of frost coming upon 
 them, I always reserve the making of pits for hard 
 wood, which can be done during frost, and is still 
 carrying on the work, and at the same time keeping 
 the workmen in employment. In short, by con- 
 ducting planting operations in the manner above 
 referred to, ten good experienced men will do far 
 more work in four months, than twenty inexpe- 
 rienced ones in two months ; and, what is of more 
 importance, the work by the few hands will be much 
 better done, and prove far more satisfactory in the 
 end. Not long ago, I had an interview with an old 
 forester of fifty years' extensive and successful prac- 
 tice, who, upon conversing with me upon the point 
 now under consideration, told me, that his rules for 
 planting, for the last twenty years, had been, to 
 plant dry ground in autumn, either with hard wood 
 or firs, and to plant ground naturally wet in spring. 
 Also to plant dry ground in wet weather, and ground 
 naturally damp in dry weather ; to the advantages 
 of which method I can myself bear testimony from 
 my own experience, and any planter who will go to 
 work upon these principles, will find the happy 
 results arising therefrom. 
 
44 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 SECTION II. DISTRIBUTION OF THE YOUNG TREES, 
 
 SO AS TO SUIT THE DIFFERENT SOILS AND SITUA- 
 TIONS IN A NEW PLANTATION. HABITS AND PECU- 
 LIARITIES OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES. 
 
 Next to the draining of the soil, nothing is of more 
 importance, in order to insure the future welfare of 
 any young plantation, than the proper adaptation 
 of the different sorts of trees to the various soils 
 and situations therein. This is a point in arbori- 
 culture which has all along been too little attended 
 to by planters in general; and the not attending 
 to this point, is in a great measure the reason 
 that we at the present day see very many of 
 our home plantations, in Scotland, mere eye-sores 
 rather than ornaments. I have often regretted 
 very much to see larch and Scots firs of thirty 
 years' standing in an unhealthy and dying state, 
 where if beech, or any other of the native sorts of 
 hard-wood trees, had been planted, they would un- 
 doubtedly have proved both useful and ornamental ; 
 and again, as often have I seen stunted-looking hard- 
 wood trees striving for existence, where if firs or 
 pines had been planted instead, all would have been 
 well ; which at once shows the low state of arboricul- 
 tural knowledge among us. Upon a little reflection, 
 it must appear evident to every inquiring man inter- 
 ested in the welfare of our home plantations, that a 
 forester, in order to be one profitably, must be per- 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 45 
 
 fectly acquainted with the natural habits, constitu- 
 tion, and pecuharities of every tree that he attempts 
 to cultivate ; for if he is not so, the ultimate result 
 of liis work must in a great measure be left 
 to chance. I by no means wish to say any thing 
 lightly of the quahfications of foresters; but, at 
 the same time, I feel in duty bound to say the 
 truth, and that is, that taking foresters as a body of 
 men, there is extremely little of useful practical 
 information among them ; and in order to prove the 
 truth of this assertion, I may say, that foresters 
 in general are not so able to cultivate the trees 
 which grow under their notice, upon natural prin- 
 ciples, as we find gardeners do the plants under 
 their notice. And, admitting this, what is the reason 
 of such a deficiency in their professional character ? 
 So far as I have been able to trace the cause of this 
 defect among my brethren, I am led to think, that 
 it is the want of having proper sources of infor- 
 mation upon their business. Gardeners have been 
 assisted by the advice of many able and scientific 
 men, who have written much for their instruction ; 
 while the forester has had very little indeed written 
 for his information. It has often been observed, 
 that gardeners make better farmers and foresters 
 than any other class of men; and it is the truth; 
 but the reason is, that they have, or rather are 
 obhged to have, a closer acquaintance with the 
 nature of plants than any other class of men. A 
 
46 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 gardener cultivates several thousand of distinct 
 species of plants ; and yet he is generally able to 
 adapt each species to that sort of soil which is found 
 to be best suited to its nature. The gardener, in cul- 
 tivating a heath, for instance, gives it a hght, sharp, 
 mossy soil and a cool dry situation ; and he does so 
 because he knows that the heath, in its native coun- 
 try, is an inhabitant of a light dry soil, and liilly or 
 mountainous situation ; and so on with every other 
 plant he cultivates. Now, the principal thing to be 
 observed here is, that the gardener who cultivates 
 his plants with the most success is he who can by 
 his art give his plants most nearly that soil and situ- 
 ation which is found to be their condition in a state 
 of nature ; which is just the point that the forester 
 ought to attend to also. 
 
 Foresters, knowing that trees in the natural forest 
 develope themselves to the greatest magnitude there, 
 ought to make themselves aware of the particular 
 circumstances which induce or assist that full de- 
 velopment ; and upon knowing the peculiar circum- 
 stances attending the full development of each 
 species in the natural state, they ought to make their 
 practice agree therewith ; which is the only way 
 that any man can arrive at perfection as a forester. 
 
 I shall here give a short statement of the natural 
 peculiarities of the principal sorts of trees grown in 
 our home woods ; and also point out the particular 
 circumstances which are favourable to the healthy 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 47 
 
 growth of each species. Such a statement will, I am 
 persuaded, prove useful to proprietors, and also to 
 foresters who may not have had long experience ; 
 at least, it appears very evident to me, that such 
 knowledge is necessary to both proi3rietors and 
 foresters, and if acted upon, would be the means of 
 removing that very bad practice among arboricul- 
 turists, of planting all sorts of trees promiscuously 
 in any soil or situation. 
 
 The Elm Tree {Ulmus campestris) is a native 
 of Britain, and is found growing naturally, or in a 
 wild state, in many parts of England. It is con- 
 sidered one of the finest and tallest of our European 
 timber trees for park scenery, and lives to a con- 
 siderable age. There are many elms in England 
 and Scotland which exceed two hundred years of 
 age; however, it appears to me, that the most 
 profitable age of the elm, as a timber tree, is 
 between sixty and seventy years — the wood of the 
 tree is then in its best condition, and after that age 
 it will not increase materially in the bulk of its 
 available timber. 
 
 The quality of the wood of the elm depends 
 entirely upon the nature of the soil and situation 
 upon which it is grown. When grown in a low, 
 sheltered situation, and upon a heavy soil, the elm 
 attains its greatest bulk of timber ; but then the 
 wood of trees grown in such a condition is gene- 
 rally brittle, and is soon affected by rot; in fact, 
 
48 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 very few trees grown in such a condition are found 
 sound in the heart if they have attained any con- 
 siderable size. Where the elm is found growing 
 in a low, sheltered situation, and upon a light soil, 
 the tree grows very rapidly, and attains its greatest 
 perfection as a tall spreading ornamental tree ; but 
 under such conditions the tree seldom lives long, 
 and generally is found to die suddenly when rapidly 
 grown. Another peculiar cu^cumstance attending 
 elm trees grown in a sheltered place and upon a 
 light soil is, that they are generally found what is 
 termed " shaken ;" that is, the heart wood of the 
 tree is all split into longitudinal pieces, conse- 
 quently the wood of such trees is of little value. 
 
 Upon a high and exposed situation, the elm 
 succeeds best upon a light dry soil ; but if the soil 
 be stiff it will not succeed in developing any thing 
 like valuable timber. In situations twelve hundred 
 feet above the level of the sea, I have seen good 
 valuable elm trees growing upon a hght and rather 
 sandy soil ; but at the same height, when the soil 
 was inchned to clay, I have always seen the elm 
 assume a low spreading habit, and very apt to be- 
 come knotty and of little value as regards its timber. 
 
 The circumstances which are most favourable to 
 the healthy growth of the elm are, a dry loamy soil, 
 rather deficient in vegetable matter, which would 
 produce too keen an excitement to the growth 
 of the tree, a free exposure to the open air, and 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 49 
 
 the situation upon a slope rather than upon a 
 level 
 
 In the forest the elm tree requires considerable 
 space in order to develope itself properly ; the 
 natural habit of the tree is to spread out its 
 branches horizontally, and if much confined by its 
 neighbours, it becomes drawn up and weakly, and 
 does not grow well to timber. 
 
 The Beech Tree {Fagus sylvatka) is a native 
 of Britain, and is found growing naturally in almost 
 all old plantations. It is a very ornamental tree 
 upon a lawn or park, and often attains even greater 
 dimensions than the elm, and lives to about the 
 same age. The beech is not considered a valuable 
 timber tree, although it bears a strong massive 
 appearance ; the wood is very brittle and short- 
 grained, and not well adapted for purposes where 
 strength and durabihty are required. It is a tree 
 which, from its accommodating habits, is well fitted 
 for growing in a forest among others; but, upon 
 account of the httle value now set upon its wood, 
 it is not extensively introduced among other more 
 valuable trees in modern plantations. However, few 
 trees suffer less from bad management than the 
 beech; although it may have been overburdened 
 and crushed down among other trees, yet, when it is 
 once relieved, it will shoot up again, and in a few 
 years make good its position among its neigh- 
 bours. Upon poor, thin, sandy soils, and even 
 
 D 
 
50 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 in a high and exposed situation, no hard-wood 
 tree is more worthy of a place. I have seen the 
 heech grow well upon a soil and situation where 
 almost no other tree could have existed, not even 
 the Scots fir. In a high-lying dry situation, with 
 a free circulation of air, the beech lives to its 
 greatest attainable age ; and in a low situation, 
 with a rather humid atmosphere, the tree reaches 
 its greatest size ; but in such a state it generally 
 dies quickly after attaining full size. 
 
 The circumstances wliich appear most favourable 
 to the healthy development of the beech are a dry 
 and rather light soil, with a considerable proportion 
 of lime or chalk. 
 
 I have often had occasion to remark healthy beech 
 plantations in all sorts of soils, from a stiif clay to a 
 light sand ; and, in my opinion, this accommodating 
 nature of the tree is the reason why we so often 
 see at the present day so many old beech trees 
 about the seats of proprietors in Scotland. 
 
 The Ash Tree {Fraxinus excelsior) is a native 
 of Britain, and a well-known tree. It is considered 
 one of the most useful of all our hard-wood trees 
 for general country purposes, and is much sought 
 after by carpenters and coach-builders. A peculiar 
 characteristic of this tree is, that the quality of the 
 wood is always the better from being rapidly grown, 
 the opposite of which is the case with most other 
 trees. On very poor soils, where the ash grows 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 51 
 
 slowly, the wood is brittle, and soon affected by 
 the rot ; but where the growth has been vigorous, 
 the timber is very tough, elastic, and durable. 
 The ash never attains such thickness as some of 
 the other forest trees. Upon the estate of Arnis- 
 ton, in Mid-Lothian, there are ash trees fifteen and 
 sixteen feet in circumference ; but trees of such 
 large dimensions are not numerous, neither is it 
 necessary that the ash should attain such a large 
 growth, considering that smaller trees always yield 
 much better timber. From its upright habit, the 
 ash forms one of the best trees for a forest ; in fact, 
 many other trees are improved by growing along 
 with it, particularly the larch, which is almost always 
 found healthy when growing among ash trees. 
 
 The circumstances which are found favourable to 
 the healthy development of the ash are — as regards 
 soil, a good strong loam, rather rich than other- 
 wise, and rather moist than dry; that is, the ash 
 does not disagree with a little moisture, provided 
 that this moisture have free and ready access away 
 from the roots, and is not liable to remain in the 
 least degree stagnated. The ash is often found of 
 large dimensions growing upon bare rocks ; in such 
 cases, the roots of the tree get into the seams of the 
 rock, and are watered by the moisture which de- 
 scends between the strata. The ash is fonder of 
 shelter than either of the other two trees I have 
 already described ; therefore, to grow it well, it is 
 
52 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 an advantage to plant it in a hollow or glen, or in 
 the interior of a large plantation. 
 
 The Great Maple, or Sycamore, {Acer pseudo- 
 platanus.) is supposed by some to be a native of 
 Britain, and by others of the continent of Europe. 
 This tree is more generally known by the common 
 name of the plane tree, which is the platanus of 
 botanists, and is originally from the Levant. The 
 sycamore grows to a large size, and hves to a 
 great age. There are many sycamores in Scotland, 
 at the present time, which I lip.ve myself mea- 
 sured, and found nearly twenty feet in circum- 
 ference and sixty feet high. It is not a tree that 
 carries height along with its girth, when compared 
 with many other forest trees; but it is, notwith- 
 standing, a magnificent tree, and few, if any other, 
 can vie with it upon the lawn or park. It is a 
 fast-growing tree, well adapted for almost every 
 situation, and well worthy of a place in every 
 forest where the soil is not damp nor mossy, nor 
 the situation too much exposed ; it being a rapid- 
 growing tree, it requires room to develope itself 
 properly. The timber is reckoned of equal value 
 with that of the elm when of good size. 
 
 The circumstances which are found most favour- 
 able for the healthy development of the sycamore 
 are — soil, dry, sandy loam, with a free exposed 
 situation — as in the open parks about gentlemen's 
 home grounds : however, this tree may be profit- 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 53 
 
 ably planted in almost every situation where the 
 beech will thrive, but it will not succeed in a damp 
 or mossy soil. 
 
 The various species of Poplar {Populus nigra 
 and P. alba) are trees well worthy of a place in 
 every forest where the ground is suitable to them ; 
 that is to say, where the ground is heavy and rather 
 damp, and in a sheltered situation ; but they will 
 not succeed if planted upon a high-lying dry site. 
 
 The poplars are all quick-growing trees ; and 
 although the wood is soft, it is a good deal sought 
 after. I have known poplars of thirty-five years of 
 age sold for five pounds each. The circumstances 
 which are most favourable to the healthy and full 
 development of the poplar are — a rather damp, 
 heavy soil, with a sheltered situation. 
 
 The Willows {Salix alba, Huntingdon willow, 
 and Bedford willow) are all good timber trees, and 
 are equally deserving of a place in the forest as 
 the poplars above mentioned are. 
 
 The wood of the willow tree is tougher, and sells 
 at a higher price, than that of the poplar. The 
 circumstances favourable to the growth of the 
 willow tree are the same as those already stated 
 for the poplar. 
 
 The Birch Tree {Betida alba) is a native of 
 Britain, and found in great abundance in many 
 high-lying dry situations. It is found very useful 
 for the planting up of any poor, thin, stony parts, 
 
54 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 ivhere nothing else would make a valuable cover. 
 It will even thrive in a soil rather damp ; but it is 
 observed that the largest and healthiest trees of 
 the species are always found upon a dry soil, 
 which circumstance at once points out that a dry 
 situation is most favourable to their healthy de- 
 velopment. The wood of the birch is not reckoned 
 a valuable timber ; it is principally sought after by 
 gunpowder manufacturers, who buy it after it is 
 stripped of the bark. 
 
 The Alder Tree {Alnus gliitinosa) is, like the 
 birch, a well-known tree in Scotland, and very 
 common in its natural or wild state in many parts 
 of the Highlands. It is a tree particularly well 
 adapted for a damp piece of ground upon a high 
 situation, where notliing else more valuable could 
 with advantage be put in. The alder, like the 
 birch, is not considered a tree of much value, and 
 should always be dispensed with where any tree of 
 greater worth would grow. I have found it ex- 
 tremely useful when I have planted extensive plan- 
 tations upon high moor grounds ; in such situations, 
 there are often damp mossy spots included within 
 the bounds, on which it will succeed well after the- 
 ground has been partially drained. 
 
 In travclUng through the Highlands of Scotland, 
 we often meet with large tracts of natural birch and 
 alder ; and upon examining the position of those two 
 different trees, as found in their native glens, it is 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 55 
 
 at once observed that the birch chooses the high 
 and dry spots, wliile the alder is seen luxuriating 
 in the swampy, low-lying grounds, and tliis at 
 once points out the circumstances favourable to the 
 growth of each. The alder, after being stripped 
 of its bark, is used for making charcoal. 
 
 The Oak Tree {Quercus rohur) is the most 
 valuable of all our timber trees. The oak is well 
 known to be a long-lived tree, and its wood to be 
 of great durability. There is one point relative 
 to the oak which may not be so well known, and 
 which I tliink it proper to refer to here ; and that 
 is, that there are two species of oak generally found 
 growing in our forests — the one the true British oak, 
 and the other a species evidently introduced from 
 the Continent at a very early period, and which is 
 of a very inferior quahty as compared with our 
 true British oak. The Quercus rohur, or true Bri- 
 tish oak, has the acorn-stalks long, and its leaves 
 short, firm, and set-looking ; whereas the one intro- 
 duced, and of inferior value — Quercus sessiliflora — 
 has the acorn-stalks short, and the leaves long. 
 The acorns of the former grow singly, those of the 
 latter in clusters. 
 
 The forests upon the continent of Europe consist 
 chiefly of the Quercus sessiliflora, and it is well 
 known that the timber from those forests is worth- 
 less ; and it is to be regretted that such worthless 
 oak is becoming abundant in Britain. I am informed 
 
56 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 that the greater part of the New Forest in Eng- 
 land is composed of the Qiierciis sessiliflora. It is 
 certainly worthy of the attention of Government to 
 have properly experienced men appointed, in order 
 to point out and collect the seed of the Quercus 
 robur, and have it decidedly introduced instead of 
 the other bad sort which, it is evident, is gaining 
 ground in our forests every year. 
 
 Even every landed proprietor in Britain, who 
 has occasion to plant oaks, should be particular in 
 having his plants reared from acorns of the true 
 species, either by raising them upon his own 
 grounds, or giving a good price to a respectable 
 nurseryman in whom he can place confidence. By 
 such careful means of going to work, the true 
 species could very soon be introduced into every 
 part of the country. It is often remarked that 
 "the oak used to be a wood almost indestructible 
 by time when put into the building of a house ; and 
 now, oak is no better than almost any other Avood, 
 whatever purpose it may be used for." There is 
 no doubt that this assertion is to a great extent 
 well founded ; as we see, on the one hand, from 
 many instances of old oak beams still remaining in 
 several old buildings in the country, and on the 
 other, from the short period that the greater part 
 of the oak now used is known to keep in a sound 
 state when used for any purpose whatever; and 
 the superiority of the old oak beams is to be 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 57 
 
 traced to the fact, that at the time of their being 
 used, there was scarcely any other sort of oak in 
 the country but the rohur, or true sort, of which 
 sort the old beams consist. 
 
 Few trees are more hardy than the oak ; it ac- 
 commodates itself to almost any soil or situation : 
 but, notwithstanding this vigour and hardihood of 
 nature, it will not develope itself to perfection 
 unless it have a good dry loamy soil, with some 
 shelter. The largest oaks that I have ever seen 
 grew upon a dry sandy loam, with a free exposure 
 to air ; however, although the oak may attain its 
 greatest dimensions under such circumstances as 
 these, we find it growing to the size of useful timber 
 wherever it has the advantage of a soil with a dry 
 bottom, and not too much exposed to storm — as for 
 instance upon the top of a bare hill. The oak will 
 not thrive nor hve long in a deep mossy soil. 
 
 The Horse Chestnut {^sculus hippocastanum) 
 is a native of Asia, and upon account of the soft- 
 ness of its wood, is not much esteemed as a forest 
 tree ; it is, properly speaking, an ornamental lawn 
 tree, and should not, in my opinion, be planted in a 
 forest as a timber tree in this country. It requires 
 shelter and a good rich soil, under which conditions 
 it is an extremely rapid-growing and very orna- 
 mental tree. 
 
 The Sweet Chestnut {Castanea vesca) is a 
 native of Britain, and grows to very large dimen- 
 
58 DISTKIBUTION OF 
 
 sions, but is not now much esteemed as a forest 
 tree — the oak, being more valuable and hardy, is 
 in all cases preferred. The wood is seldom sound 
 when the tree has arrived at full maturity ; how- 
 ever, it makes a very fine ornamental tree upon a 
 lawn or park, and it requires a good strong soil and 
 considerable shelter, in order to make it develope 
 itself properly. 
 
 The Lime Tree is properly an ornamental lawn 
 tree, and very seldom introduced into the forest. 
 The wood is valuable when of a large size, but as it 
 requires a sheltered situation and a pretty strong 
 soil to make it grow large and valuable, it cannot 
 with propriety be recommended for the forest. 
 
 The Scots Fir {Pinus silvestris) is a native of 
 Scotland, and is a well-known tree throughout the 
 whole of the north of Europe. It is found growing 
 naturally in many parts of Scotland, particularly 
 in the native forests of Invercauld and Rothiemur- 
 chus, where there are by far the finest specimens 
 of this tree to be found in Britain. The Scots fir, 
 in favourable situations, attains a very large size, 
 frequently eighty feet high, and three and four 
 feet in diameter. Next to the larch, it is the most 
 valuable of what is generally termed the fir tribe. 
 The timber of the Scots fir is much influenced by 
 the soil and situation upon which it is grown ; that 
 produced upon the cold high districts of the north 
 of Scotland, is found superior to any imported from 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 59 
 
 any other part of Europe; while that which has 
 been planted and reared in the Lowlands is not 
 nearly so good. Even within the Lowlands them- 
 selves, the quality of the Scots fir is very much 
 influenced by the particular situation upon which 
 it is grown ; and as an instance of this, I may 
 here mention that upon the estate of Arniston, the 
 Scots fir growing upon the high and exposed parts 
 of the estate is of excellent durable quality, while 
 that growing in sheltered parts of the home plan- 
 tations is extremely worthless and soft ; and this 
 same observation relative to the quality of the 
 Scots fir, as affected by situation upon the estate 
 of Arniston, is equally apphcable to every other 
 estate in the Lowlands ; the best timber always 
 being obtained from trees growing upon a thin soil 
 and a high exposed situation. 
 
 There are two varieties of the Scots fir, the Pinus 
 silvestris, and the variety montana, which is the true 
 Highland or Bonnet fir. The late Mr Don of For- 
 far says, "that the montana, or true pine, is dis- 
 tinguished by the disposition of its branches, which 
 are remarkable for their horizontal direction, and 
 for a tendency to bend downwards close to the 
 trunk. The leaves are broader and shorter than 
 in the common kind, and are distinguished at a dis- 
 tance by their much hghter and more beautiful glau- 
 cous appearance. The bark of the trunk is smoother 
 than in the common kind ; the cones are thicker. 
 
60 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 and not so mucli pointed. The plant is also more 
 hardy, grows more freely in almost any soil, and 
 quickly arrives at a considerable size." Of the 
 truth of this assertion of Mr Don's, I am perfectly 
 satisfied, although many botanists will not allow 
 that these two species are really distinct ; they say 
 that soil and situation have the effect of changing, 
 in a great measure, the external appearance of 
 this tree; but those who so assert cannot have 
 had much experience of them. I have myself 
 seen, and that very often, the two distinct species 
 growing in the same plantation, and close to 
 one another ; now, were it the case that soil and 
 situation changed the external appearance of the 
 trees, why were they found to have different ex- 
 ternal appearances when growing upon the same 
 soil and site ? 
 
 There is another feature which is very remark- 
 able in the true pine as compared with the common 
 one, which is this. The boll of the true pine, or 
 Bonnet fir, when standing singly in a park, rises to 
 a considerable height before it sends off any hori- 
 zontal branches ; the branches, as it were, form a 
 bonnet on the top of a pole, whence the origin of the 
 name of bonnet fir ; whereas the boll of the common 
 sort, if left to grow singly upon a park or lawn, 
 sends out branches almost from the very ground. 
 
 The Scots fir, in its natural state, is found clus- 
 tering together in one mass, seldom associating with 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 61 
 
 any other sort of tree ; indeed, this is the case with 
 all the pine tribe — each species being generally- 
 found congregated by itself. With reference to the 
 common Scots fir, the best timber trees for general 
 purposes are raised where they are standing 
 pretty close in one mass ; but the most picturesque 
 form of this tree is found when standing singly, and 
 has room to spread out its branches. When grown 
 in one mass close together, the trees are found clean 
 stemmed, and drawn up to a great height ; conse- 
 quently, such trees are available for many purposes, 
 whereas, when standing singly, the tree is generally 
 found short-stemmed, thick, and branchy. 
 
 No tree, a native of Britain, can with more safety 
 be planted out into any soil and situation, provided 
 only that soil be a dry one. I have seen a crop of 
 good Scots fir timber taken off almost every sort of 
 soil, of an earthy or stony nature, but upon a mossy 
 soil I have never seen good Scots fir timber grow. 
 
 The Norway Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa) is a 
 native of the north of Germany and Russia, and 
 is a beautiful and stately tree. It is now widely 
 dispersed throughout Britain, particularly in the 
 Lowlands of Scotland. It is a hardy tree, and, 
 when planted in a favourable situation, soon grows 
 to useful size. It is not so valuable in its timber as 
 the Scots fir ; but from its rapid growth, and from 
 its tendency to grow in a rather damp situation, 
 where the Scots fir would not succeed so well, it is 
 
62 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 often preferred. It is the tallest of all the Euro- 
 pean firs, and forms mdeed a majestic object when 
 grown detached. In the home woods upon the 
 estate of Arniston, many of the spruce firs rise to 
 the height of eighty and ninety feet, with a dia- 
 meter of two feet and a half. It is not so hardy as 
 the Scots fir, if planted upon a high situation ; in 
 fact, upon a dry soil and a high situation, it does 
 not attain to large size, and is soon aifected by 
 heart-rot. The circumstances which appear most 
 favourable to the healthy and full development of 
 the spruce fir are, a good strong loamy soil, and 
 rather a low-lying sheltered situation. The spruce 
 fir thrives in a soil rather inclined to damp than 
 otherwise. 
 
 The Silver Fir (Picea pectinata) is another 
 excellent timber tree for the forest, and is not cul- 
 tivated to the extent in our plantations which its 
 value demands. In every respect, the observations 
 made relative to the spruce fir are applicable to the 
 silver fir, only, I may add, that the silver fir is even 
 a more hardy tree than the spruce. 
 
 The Larch {Larix Europcea) is one of the 
 most valuable of the pine tribe. It is a native of 
 the mountainous districts of Germany, and is found 
 to endure the climate of Scotland equally as well as 
 the Scots fir, but is more particular with regard to 
 the circumstances which favour its healthy growth 
 than that tree. As an instance of the success of jthe 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 63 
 
 cultivation of the larch in Scotland, I may refer to 
 the plantations of the Duke of Athol in Perthshire. 
 There, some of the larch trees were to be seen one 
 hundred feet high. Upon the estate of Arniston, 
 there are several larches above eighty feet high ; 
 and one, in particular, is yet growing, which con- 
 tains above one hundred and fifty cubic feet of 
 timber, and is apparently quite sound. 
 
 There are two varieties of the larch generally 
 cultivated in Scotland, the white and the red. The 
 white is the variety which attains the greatest 
 dimensions of timber, and is the sort most gene- 
 rally cultivated, although they are both often seen 
 growing together in the same ])lantation, and that 
 by mere accident. It is said, that upon the Athol 
 estates the red larch does not contain above one- 
 third the cubic contents of timber which the white 
 larch of the same age does ; and this is observable 
 in every plantation where the two varieties are 
 found growing together. 
 
 No timber tree at present cultivated in our woods, 
 begins to repay the expense of culture nearly so 
 soon as the larch does. It is a rapid-growing tree, 
 and is well adapted for almost every country pur- 
 pose. It generally sells at nearly double the price 
 per cubic foot that Scots fir brings, and, besides the 
 price of the wood, the bark is available for tanning 
 purposes. For some years past, the larch has been 
 subject to disease in our plantations in Scotland, 
 
64 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 wliicli circumstance has caused considerable sensa- 
 tion among planters in general ; relative to which I 
 intend to speak hereafter, as may be seen in its 
 proper place in this book. (See Cause of Disease 
 in Larch Fir Plantations.) 
 
 The circumstances wliich are found favourable to 
 the healthy development of the larch are, — as to 
 soil, it is not particular, but the roots must have a 
 constant supply of water, in order to keep the earth 
 in wliich they grow in a pure state, as is the case 
 upon all rugged mountain slopes, where there is a 
 continual descent of water from the higher ground 
 to the lower. 
 
 Having now briefly stated the peculiarities of 
 each sort of forest tree which is generally culti- 
 vated in our plantations, for the sake of timber, &c., 
 I may add further, that all deciduous hard-wood 
 trees, to grow them properly, require more shelter 
 than the firs or pines do ; consequently, in all cases 
 of planting a piece of ground upon a gentleman's 
 estate, the hard wood ought to be planted upon the 
 most sheltered parts, always keeping the firs and 
 pines upon the liigh and exposed districts. And this 
 is only imitating the proceedings of nature in the 
 same operation; for, in the natural disposition of 
 trees over the surface of the earth, the firs and 
 pines inhabit those cold high-lying districts where 
 the soil is thin, and the oak, ash, elm, &c., inhabit 
 the more temperate regions nearer the equator. 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 65 
 
 The hard-wood trees, to grow them well, require a 
 heavier and a richer soil than the firs do ; which 
 suggests to us, that in laying out a new plantation, 
 the hard wood should be planted in the heaviest 
 and richest parts of the soil contained in it. 
 
 The planter being possessed of a knowledge of 
 the soil and situation adapted to the healthy growth 
 of each species of forest tree, his duty is, in the plant- 
 ing of a piece of ground with forest trees, to plant 
 those sorts which, from his knowledge, he has rea- 
 son to expect will succeed upon it. With this view 
 he may proceed thus : — Let him examine the nature 
 of the soil throughout the whole extent of the ground 
 designed for planting, and, having done so, consider 
 what sort of tree will succeed best, for a permanent 
 crop, upon each different soil and situation that 
 may be contained within the bounds of the in- 
 tended plantation ; and, having determined this 
 point, proceed to have pits made for all hard-wood 
 trees intended to be put in — say at eight feet dis- 
 tance from each other. WTierever the soil is found 
 of a loamy nature, and the situation is not too high, 
 plant oak, ash, elm, or plane-tree, at the distances 
 specified ; but in all cases giving the preference, in 
 number and extent, to that species which is sup- 
 posed to be most likely to succeed best upon the 
 soil; and observing, in all cases where it is in- 
 tended that one sort of hard wood alone shall be 
 the ultimate crop, to plant no other kind of hard 
 
66 DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 wood among them ; that is, if you wish to have any- 
 particular part of a plantation to be entirely an oak 
 forest ultimately, plant those in pits at eight feet 
 distance, and make up to the requisite thickness 
 with firs, generally Scots and larch, which are only 
 intended to act as nurses to the hard wood, and to 
 be cut down by degrees, in order to give the latter 
 room as they rise up and fill the ground. Where it 
 is intended to have a mixed hard-wood plantation, 
 distribute the different sorts in accordance with 
 taste, and make up to the desired distance, which 
 is generally about forty inches, with firs. 
 
 Having planted all the better parts of a planta- 
 tion with hard Avood, as above mentioned, if there 
 be any thin heathy parts, which would not raise 
 such wood to advantage, occupy such parts en- 
 tirely with firs ; and in doing so observe that, if it 
 be considered that larch trees would grow to any- 
 useful size, but not so as to be relied upon for a 
 permanent crop upon the ground, then plant Scots 
 firs, say at seven feet apart, for a permanent stand- 
 ing crop, and nlake up to the desired thickness of 
 about three feet, with larches, which can be thin- 
 ned out as the Scots firs require to have room — and 
 in this manner the larch thinnings will come to pay 
 well; for, if the entire crop had been Scots firs, 
 little or no value could have been got from them by 
 the first thinning — the larch being always valuable 
 when young, while the Scots fir is not. 
 
YOUNG TREES, ETC. 67 
 
 If, in planting a new plantation, there are found 
 spots of ground lying very high, with an ex- 
 tremely thin, poor, sandy soil, upon which it would 
 be doubtful if even Scots firs would ..*ittain useful 
 size, or live long as a permanent standing crop, 
 plant upon such spots, one half Scots firs, and the 
 other half birches and beech, of each an equal num- 
 ber per acre. By so doing, if the Scots firs happen 
 not to succeed, as is very likely upon a high-lying 
 sandy soil, then the birches and beeches are sure to 
 keep the ground; and, although they may prob- 
 ably never come to be a valuable crop of timber, still 
 it is desirable to have a cover, though but for the 
 sake of shelter, upon such portions of the land. 
 
 If, on the other hand, there are any low-lying, 
 damp, swampy parts in it, make up such parts with 
 alder, birch, and spruce firs; and give the j^refer- 
 ence in number to that sort wliich may be consi- 
 dered most likely to succeed best as a permanent 
 crop; and, when they come the length of thinning, 
 it can then be judged which sort will stand, and 
 wliich should be taken away. 
 
 If there be any rugged precipices or steep glens 
 within the bounds of a new plantation, plant larches 
 and oaks, in equal proportions ; and, if it is consi- 
 dered necessary for the sake of shelter, plant a few 
 Scots firs upon prominent points ; and in any hollow 
 parts of such grounds, put in poplars or willow- 
 trees, or, if not too damp, spruce firs. 
 
68 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TREES. 
 
 If tlie situation to be planted be near the sea, no 
 plant, in the form of a forest tree, will succeed so 
 well, as a nurse for others, as the Pinaster, or 
 cluster pine». Upon situations near the sea-coast, it 
 is often difficult to get trees of any description to 
 succeed to any considerable extent, even so as to 
 make a moderate shelter ; and it is in such situa- 
 tions that the pinaster is found useful. 
 
 Upon the estate of Dunskey, the seat of Colonel 
 Hunter Blair, in Wigtonshire, it was found im- 
 possible to grow almost any thing like trees, until 
 the pinaster was planted upon the heights along the 
 sea-shore; and now, since those have risen up, — 
 and they grow very rapidly, — the different sorts of 
 common hard-wood trees are thriving well behind 
 them. In such a situation, they do not, of course, 
 rise up so as to make valuable timber themselves, 
 yet, as they grow very bushy, they form an excel- 
 lent shelter for trees inland, and by the shelter 
 attained from them, the more valuable trees behind 
 succeed, which is the end in view in planting them. 
 
 SECTION III. DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING 
 
 YOUNG TREES, AS GENERALLY PRACTISED BY 
 FORESTERS. 
 
 In the planting of forest trees, two different 
 methods are in practice among foresters : the first 
 is the method of planting mpits; and the second. 
 
METHOD OF PLANTING. 69 
 
 the method of planting in notches, either with the 
 common spade, or the planting mattock. The me- 
 thod of planting in pits should be employed for all 
 hard-wood trees, for two years' transplanted larches 
 and Scots firs, and for three years' transplanted 
 spruce firs. These pits are made with the common 
 spade, at the regular distance of from four to ten 
 feet, as the case may be ; that is, if the whole of 
 the plantation intended to be done, is to be planted 
 with hard wood and two years' transplanted firs, 
 then the whole ground will require to be pitted to 
 the distance required, but observing to make the 
 pits for the hard wood larger than those intended 
 for the firs ; and in order to do the work properly, 
 make all the pits for the hard wood first, say six- 
 teen inches on the side of the square, and fourteen 
 inches deep, and having the pits for the hard wood 
 made at the distances, say of ten feet from pit to 
 pit, make those for the firs nine inches on the side 
 of the square, and ten inches deep, and just as 
 close one to another as may be considered suffi- 
 cient for the nature of ground, say three-and-a-half 
 feet over all. If after having the pits made for 
 hard wood upon a piece of ground, it may be found 
 advisable to plant up with one year's transplanted 
 firs, then no more pits will require to be made 
 there, for it is not necessary to be at the expense 
 of making pits for any firs which are under two 
 years transplanted. 
 
70 j\[ETHODS OF PLANTING 
 
 In tlic making of such pits as are above do- 
 scribed, I generally let the work by contract, and I 
 cause the contractor to cut off the upper turf as 
 thinly as possible, and lay it on one side of the 
 intended pit ; and in taking out the soil, in the act 
 of making the pit, I cause him to lay it upon the 
 opposite side, which comes to be of great advantage 
 in the act of planting: and where the soil is hard in 
 the pit, the pick must be used to open it up to the 
 desired depth. I have generally got pits made for 
 hard wood, to the dimensions already named, for 
 Is. 6d. per hundred, and those for fii-s, for Is. per 
 hundred ; but if the pits have to be made among 
 old roots, where large trees have formerly been, 
 6d. more per hundred in each case may be con- 
 sidered a fair price. 
 
 In the case of planting up a piece of ground 
 among old roots, the remains of former trees, the 
 pits should be made at least two months pre- 
 vious to commencing to plant in them ; by having 
 the soil in the pits a few weeks exposed to the 
 influence of the atmosphere, it becomes much 
 more healthy and congenial to the roots of young 
 plants. 
 
 The manner of planting the young trees in those 
 pits must be regulated according to the nature of 
 the situation of the ground to be planted : that is, 
 if the situation be a low sheltered one, I plant 
 a tree in the centre of each pit, and, cutting the 
 
AS GENERALLY PRACTISED. 71 
 
 turf which comes off the surface of the pit exactly 
 into two halfs with the spade, I make them fit 
 closely upon the young tree, with the grass side 
 uppermost ; but if the situation to be planted by 
 the method of pitting be an exposed one, then I 
 plant a tree in one of the corners of each pit, and 
 by so doing it is kept firm in its place by having 
 a rest against the firm sides of the pit : and here 
 let me observe, that this method should always 
 be practised when the trees are apt to be blown 
 about by winds and storms. In planting trees 
 in such pits, great care is necessary to see that 
 they be made perfectly firm in the new soil of 
 the pit. But in making the trees firm in the pits, 
 no tramping or beating with the feet should be 
 allowed, until the whole of the earth be put in; 
 for if the planter begin to beat the earth upon the 
 roots of the young tree, while they are only half 
 covered with soil, he is sure to do them injury; and, 
 knowing the evil of this from experience, I never 
 allow a man to beat the earth about the roots of a 
 young tree, until he has it all into the pit, when a 
 good firm tramping with the feet is necessary, in 
 order to keep the plant properly in its place until 
 its roots take hold of the soil. After the earth has 
 been all put into the pit and made firm, the turf 
 should be put over the whole as closely as possible, 
 and made firm in order to keep out the drought. 
 A few weeks ag-o I had a conversation with an 
 
72 METHOD OF PLANTING 
 
 extensive proprietor of land in the north of Scot- 
 land, who, while speaking to me relative to the 
 different methods of planting trees, said that he 
 was of opinion, that the plan of making pits for 
 young trees was altogether superfluous, and ought 
 not to be practised; because upon his estate he 
 had hitherto planted by the same method, and 
 found that the pits when made were only recep- 
 tacles for holding water. Now, as it is possible 
 that many other proprietors may hold the same 
 opinion, I here beg to make a few observations 
 relative to the good arising to young trees when 
 planted in pits. 
 
 If the roots of a young hard-wood tree, or a two 
 years' transplanted fir, are put into the ground, 
 merely by a simple opening with the spade, they 
 they are so soft and tender, that they are unable 
 to push their way through the solid earth in search 
 of food, and the natural consequence is, that if the 
 tree does not altogether die, it grows weakly, and 
 is long in attaining the character of a healthy tree. 
 If the soil be of a damp open nature, the tree may 
 succeed well after the roots become strong enough to 
 push their way ; but if the soil be naturally poor, and 
 of a binding quality, the probability is that the 
 trees planted in it without pits will die altogether. 
 
 As to the pits made for the reception of young 
 trees becoming a receptacle for water, that can only 
 be the case under bad management ; for where 
 
AS GENERALLY PRACTISED. 73 
 
 the ground has been drained for young trees, the 
 water will not stand in the pits ; and where the 
 ground has not been drained in the manner already 
 inculcated, it is not in a fit state for planting trees 
 in ; therefore, I repeat again, that it is only under 
 bad management that pits made for young trees 
 can retain water. Where trees are planted in pits 
 made upon land in a dry state, their young and 
 tender roots have at once free access into the open 
 soil ; consequently, the trees soon establish them- 
 selves in their new site ; and, generally speaking, 
 I have found that trees planted in pits, after the 
 manner I have recommended, are ten years in 
 advance of those planted otherwise. 
 
 I may here observe, that it is only necessary to 
 plant in pits those trees which are of pretty large 
 size, such as two years transplanted, and upwards ; 
 but trees under that ao;e and size, having smaller 
 roots, require to be planted only in the natural 
 surface soil, which is generally free and open to 
 the roots of all small plants. 
 
 The method of planting termed notching, or slit- 
 ting, is done with the common spade or planting- 
 mattock, and is so well understood by all plan- 
 ters, that it would be superfluous to enlarge upon 
 it here. It is the practice most commonly in use 
 for the planting of all small trees, such as two 
 years' seedlings, or one year's transplanted firs. 
 The great point to attend to in this system of 
 
74 HOW TO CHOOSE YOUNG TREES 
 
 planting, is to see that the cut or notch be proper- 
 ly closed about the young plant after it is inserted, 
 which should be done by the planter using the 
 heel of his shoe in beating the cut all quite close 
 again. The system of notching in trees by the 
 planting mattock, is done upon the same principle 
 as that by the spade, and is generally practised 
 upon a thin hard surface, where the spade could 
 not be used conveniently. 
 
 SECTION IV. HOW TO CHOOSE YOUNG FOREST TREES 
 
 WHEN BUYING THEM FROM PUBLIC NURSERIES. 
 
 Every proprietor who has occasion to plant 
 forest trees to any considerable extent, will find 
 it necessary to supply himself from some respect- 
 able nurseryman ; and in doing so, it is absolutely 
 necessary that healthy trees should be selected ; 
 and also those of such a nature as may be suited 
 to the situation where they are intended to be 
 planted for good and all. 
 
 The proprietor who intends to plant, should 
 either himself visit, or cause his forester to visit, 
 during the summer previous to the planting season, 
 any nursery from which he intends to purchase 
 his supply of young forest trees, and see that the 
 stock of young trees in it are in a clean healthy 
 state, and free from all scale, bug, or any other 
 vermin generally infesting young trees. 
 
FROM PUBLIC NURSERIES. ib 
 
 Such a visit in the summer season may by many 
 be considered an unnecessary piece of work, but 
 every experienced planter can attest to the pro- 
 priety of it. I have known an instance of diseased 
 trees from a nursery being the cause of propa- 
 gating the same disease through several planta- 
 tions m the neighbourhood ; but in asserting this, 
 I do not mean to say that any respectable nursery- 
 man would be guilty of sending diseased trees 
 to any of his customers; but I do mean to say, 
 that every planter or forester should, previous 
 to making a purchase, go and visit the nursery 
 grounds, and judge for himself, as to whether he 
 shall buy them or not ; and the proper time for such 
 a visit is during the month of July, when the trees 
 are in full leaf and in a vigorous state of growth. 
 
 In that month, all young trees should have the 
 bark upon the main stem and branches clean and 
 free from any appearance of scale or bug; and 
 when a little of the surface skin is removed by the 
 nail of the thumb, the bark under should be of a 
 pure healthy transparent green colour, and not 
 pierced by any small holes ; the surface bark of 
 a young tree in perfect health should be easily 
 removed from the inner bark. There should be 
 no appearance of small holes in the leaves at 
 tliis season of the year; neither should they have 
 the appearance of having been bitten short by any 
 insect. 
 
76 HOW TO CHOOSE YOUNG TREES 
 
 Having visited the public nursery grounds in the 
 month of July, and found the general health of 
 the young trees quite satisfactory, it will again 
 be necessary for the intending planter to visit the 
 same grounds about the first week of November, 
 in order to make a purchase of such trees as he 
 may require for the season. In making purchase, 
 it is absolutely necessary to bear in mind the 
 nature of the ground and situation to be planted. 
 If the ground to be planted be a thin soil upon a 
 high situation, then choose trees from the nursery 
 that have stood rather widely in the rows, and have 
 had free air and room, and are rather of a low set, 
 bushy character, and altogether presenting a hardy 
 appearance — plants of such a character will suffer 
 very little indeed from being removed to a high 
 climate ; and for a high situation, always choose 
 one year's transplanted firs, and hard wood not 
 exceeding two feet in height ; if plants of an oppo- 
 site character be chosen for a high situation — that 
 is, tall, slender plants, wliich have made long shoots 
 of young wood the previous summer — they will be 
 sure to suffer, and it is more than probable that 
 more than one half of them may die. 
 
 If the situation to be planted be a low sheltered 
 one, with a good soil, then choose tall well-grown 
 plants for it; for in such situations there is gene- 
 rally a luxuriant growth of the natural grasses, and 
 unless the young trees be pretty tall, they would 
 
FROM PUBLIC NURSERIES. 77 
 
 be altogether choked by such a mass of herbage 
 surrounding them. Above all, it is necessary to be 
 most particular in seeing that the young trees 
 chosen be well rooted; that is, having plenty of 
 small fibrous roots, which are the mouths by wliich 
 the plant derives its nourishment from the earth. 
 In a rather light soil, not too highly manured, the 
 roots of young trees are generally good ; but if the 
 young trees have grown in a stiff heavy soil, there 
 is a risk of their being badly rooted ; that is to 
 say, they will most likely have few small fibres, and 
 young trees with few fibres never succeed well when 
 replanted — and more especially the Pine tribe. 
 Much of the success in the growing of trees in the 
 forest, depends upon a good healthy choice from 
 the nursery ; therefore this point should always be 
 carefully attended to by every intelligent planter. 
 
 No proprietor should grudge to give a fair price 
 to a respectable nurseryman, in order to have his 
 orders punctually attended to : the gentleman who 
 offers a fair price is always sure to have a good 
 article sent him ; when a proprietor offers a low 
 price to any nurseryman for his trees, the nursery- 
 man is not enabled to bestow that labour upon the 
 lifting of the young trees which is necessary to 
 secure the safety of the roots. Trees of the pine 
 tribe, if they are lifted out of the earth carelessly, 
 generally lose one half of their roots, and in such 
 a case the trees cannot grow; therefore, every 
 
/8 UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAVING 
 
 planter ought to see that the trees he uses arc 
 carefully lifted from the nursery ground. 
 
 SECTION V, UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAVING 
 
 THEIR OWN HOME NURSERIES. 
 
 That every extensive proprietor of land, who has 
 occasion to plant young forest trees to any consider- 
 able extent, should have a piece of ground adapted 
 for the raising of a few young trees, is quite con- 
 sistent with good management in forest operations. 
 I do not here mean to advise, that every gentleman 
 should be his own nurseryman ; for the raising of 
 forest trees to such an extent would be altogether 
 out of the question, and such a state of forest 
 operations would come to be found bad manage- 
 ment. No gentleman's forester, however well qua- 
 lified he might be, can possibly have sufficient 
 time and opportunity to attend to the minute 
 operations of raising young trees from the seed, 
 from cuttings, layers, &c.; but I do assert, that 
 a piece of ground kept as a reserve nursery, 
 is absolutely necessary in order to good manage- 
 ment. 
 
 In order to point out the utility of gentlemen 
 having their own home nurseries, and in order to 
 point out to what extent it is advisable for them to 
 cultivate their own young trees, previous to planting 
 them out into the forest, I shall here detail my 
 
THEIR OWN HOME NURSERIES. 79 
 
 manner of proceeding at Arniston with regard to 
 this operation. 
 
 At Arniston, we have about two acres occupied as 
 nursery ground. In it I raise all our own oaks from 
 the acorn ; and as I am in the habit of getting a 
 regular supply of acorns, I have ready for trans- 
 planting out into the forest grounds about twenty 
 thousand every year successively ; and having this 
 piece of ground occupied as a nursery, I am enabled 
 to raise the oaks in it to a pretty large size pre- 
 vious to planting them out, which is of great ad- 
 vantage to us, as we have very many hares and 
 rabbits to contend with ; and besides, being tall, 
 they are not apt to be choked by long grass and 
 weeds overtopping them. To get such large plants 
 as I am in the habit of using for our home woods, 
 from the common nurseries, would be quite imprac- 
 ticable to any considerable extent. I do not raise 
 all our oaks to a large size previous to planting 
 them out, but only a part, so far as is required for 
 our home woods. This spring (1847) I have planted 
 out in the home plantations six thousand oaks from 
 three to five feet high, with strong fibrous roots ; 
 and, in order to have them strong bushy plants, I 
 give them abundance of room plant from plant in 
 the rows, which is never the case with plants got 
 from the common nurseries. In our nursery ground, 
 I also raise yearly three or four thousand larches 
 to a pretty large size, as also a number of all the 
 
80 UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAVING 
 
 common sorts of trees generally planted in tlie 
 forest, which, when I have them grown to the 
 desired strength, I plant out into the forest ground 
 to fill up any vacancies which may have occurred 
 among the young plantations ; and even in some 
 instances, where a small plantation may be required 
 to have an immediate effect, I have planted up with 
 such large trees entirely. 
 
 IS'ow, from what I have said above, my meaning 
 will appear evident in advising proprietors to have 
 tlieir own home nurseries ; and that is, that they 
 may have a command of good specimens of all the 
 general varieties of trees to plant out at any time 
 into any parts of their plantations where they may 
 be required. No proprietor's estabhshment can be 
 said to be complete, as relates to forests, without 
 such accommodation. Without a reserve nursery, 
 no forester can have young trees at command in 
 order to meet the demands of his employer as oc- 
 casion may sometimes require. Without a reserve 
 nursery, no gentleman can reasonably expect to 
 have forest operations conducted properly. It 
 would be folly to send forty or fifty miles to a 
 nurseryman for a few good trees to answer some 
 particular purpose, when the same could be got 
 more conveniently and more safely from the home 
 nursery; and even after sending for such trees, 
 they might not be such as were expected. Diffi- 
 culties of this kind I have myself experienced in 
 
THEIR OWN HOME NURSERIES. 81 
 
 certain situations ; but where I have had the accom- 
 modation of a home nursery, I have been able at 
 all times fully to meet the demands of my em- 
 ployer, and that also at a very moderate expense ; 
 therefore it is, that having experienced the dis- 
 appointments attendant upon the want of a reserve 
 nursery, I would here urge every proprietor to 
 adopt the system of having a small one, merely 
 with the view of raising a few particularly good 
 trees, for a particular purpose, and the extent of 
 ground to be occupied as such must be regulated 
 according' to the probable demand ; that is, if the 
 forest grounds be extensive, two, or perhaps three 
 acres may not be too much, and if the forest 
 grounds be not extensive, half an acre may be quite 
 enough. In making such a nursery, never let it 
 be in a sheltered or low-lying part, for there the 
 young trees would be drawn up and weakly ; neither 
 make it upon a stiff clay soil, for in such a soil young 
 trees never make good roots — but let the situation 
 be rather an exposed one, with a light friable soil ; 
 there the young trees will become bushy and hardy, 
 and also throw out numerous fibrous roots, which is 
 always favourable to the healthy growth of young 
 forest trees which have to be transplanted. 
 
82 MANNER OF PROCEEDING 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MANNER OF PROCEEDING WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. EXPENSES 
 
 OF LAYING DOWN LAND UNDER NEW PLANTATIONS. ^THE KEEP- 
 ING OF TREES IN A YOUNG PLANTATION CLEAR FROM GRASS AND 
 WEEDS. THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF THINNING PLANTA- 
 TIONS. THE NATURE AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING PLANTATIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. MANNER OF PROCEEDING WITH 
 
 PLANTING OPERATIONS. 
 
 In all planting of young forest trees, the super- 
 intendent of such operations should be a man who 
 has had considerable practical experience in that 
 hue of work. No man should undertake, or be 
 allowed to undertake, the management of planting 
 operations, who has not had at least ten years' 
 experience in his profession ; unless he has had 
 such experience, and that rather upon an extensive 
 scale, he will not be able to judge for himself in any 
 extraordinary contingency. A man who is allowed 
 to undertake planting operations Avithout proper 
 practical experience, is generally put off his way by 
 every change of the weather, and then knows not 
 how to proceed ; in such extremities he seeks the 
 advice of others, who, very likely, are as ignorant 
 in the matter as he is himself: consequently, the 
 
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 83 
 
 mind of an inexperienced man is liable to give in to 
 wrong advice, and then the whole work goes wrong; 
 time is lost, the work is badly done, and, in the end, 
 failure is the sure result. This state of things, I am 
 aware, often happens in planting operations ; there- 
 fore, for the guidance of those who may not have 
 experience enough, I shall here lay down, in a gen- 
 eral manner, the way of proceeding with planting 
 operations as they ought to be done. 
 
 The land having been all well drained, when it 
 is intended to plant young forest trees, and the 
 drains having been allowed to act upon the ground 
 for at least one month previous to commencing to 
 plant, and also the greater part of the pits made for 
 any hard wood that may be to plant, — the next 
 important point that the planter has to attend to is 
 the bringing forAvard the young trees from the 
 nursery. The superintendent of the planting ope- 
 rations, previous to the arrival of the trees upon 
 the ground, must walk carefully over the whole of 
 the land to be planted, and note down in his 
 memorandum book the number of the different 
 sorts of trees that will be required for the plant- 
 ing of each division, as it naturally divides itself 
 according to soil and situation ; and having noted 
 this in his book as correctly as he possibly can, he 
 will, upon the arrival of the cart with the young 
 trees, cause to be sheughed* in a careful manner, in 
 
 * Laid in quantities in furrows, to prevent their withering. 
 
84 MANNER OF PROCEEDING 
 
 each district, tlie number and kinds of trees re- 
 quired for it. 
 
 The number and kinds of trees having been 
 laid down in their respective pkaces, the superin- 
 tendent of operations will next bring forward the 
 number of men that may be thought requisite 
 for the work to be done ; and each man or planter 
 ought to provide himself with a boy for the pur- 
 pose of handing the young trees, and each boy 
 should be provided with an apron for hokhng his 
 trees when taken out of the ground, as well as to 
 keep their roots safe against any cutting winds 
 that may prevail. These matters being all pro- 
 perly arranged, the superintendent will, when his 
 men are all collecting in the morning, strive to be 
 the first man upon the ground, and arrange in his 
 own mind quietly as to what sort of a day it is 
 likely to be ; and if it have the appearance of 
 being a fine one, put the men to plant upon the 
 most exposed parts of the ground, and if otherwise, 
 upon the most sheltered parts. Although the day 
 should prove wet, if the men have all collected, and 
 are willing to work, let them do so, but only as long 
 as the ground is not saturated witli rain, which can at 
 once be known when the young trees will not firm 
 in tlie ground ; as soon as the superintendent sees 
 that the men cannot, with the usual beating, firm 
 the trees in the ground, let him give orders to 
 drop work at once : to persevere in such a state of 
 
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 85 
 
 things is the worst of management. However, upon 
 dry ground, this will seldom occur. If the day 
 should prove frosty, let the men he set to make pits 
 in a dry part of the ground — an operation which 
 should always be left for days of this nature ; hut 
 the superintendent should be most careful never to 
 allow a tree to be planted in such pits till the frost 
 has been properly thawed out of the earth ; to 
 plant a young tree among frozen earth will kill it 
 as certainly as if it had been put into boiling water : 
 therefore the* planter should always be extremely 
 careful to avoid this. 
 
 In planting a piece of ground, if there be hard 
 wood to put into it, those should be all planted 
 first ; that is to say, previous to planting firs among 
 them. In order to save time, I very often cause a 
 few men to go on fiUing up the pits that have been 
 made with hard wood, in the proportions that may 
 be thought necessary as to the number of each 
 sort ; and immediately behind these I cause perhaps 
 twice the number of men employed in planting the 
 hard wood to follow them with the firs, filhng up the 
 ground to the requisite closeness as they proceed. 
 
 The superintendent must go backward and for- 
 ward among the planters, minutely examining 
 their work ; in short, he must examine almost each 
 tree as it is put into the ground, whether it may 
 be done by the pitting or notching system, and see 
 that it is properly planted and made firm in the 
 
SG MANNER OF PROCEEDING. 
 
 ground ; and when the least fault is observable, it 
 ought to be checked at once, and the fault laid to 
 the person who did it. Every cut made with the 
 spade in the act of planting a tree should be firmly 
 closed, in order to prevent the drought from taking 
 effect upon the roots. 
 
 The principal use of the boys in the operation of 
 planting is to put the plant into the pit, and to hold 
 it there until the men have it properly fixed in its 
 place ; the boy should never be trusted with making- 
 firm the plants, as is too often done by care- 
 less planters, but the man should be made respon- 
 sible for the good planting of the trees. In planting 
 by the notching system, the boy puts the roots of 
 the young tree into the cut as it is opened by the 
 man with his spade ; and in this case also the man 
 must attend to make the trees firm in their place. 
 Many planters throw down a tree to each pit, and 
 that for a considerable distance in advance of the 
 men at work, which is decidedly a bad way of going 
 to work, for by this method the roots of the young 
 trees are often exposed for half an hour and more 
 to the open air, which is always against their wel- 
 fare ; whereas, when boys are employed for the 
 purpose, they keep the roots of the plants sheltered 
 in their aprons from the drying winds, and, at the 
 same time, the man has always more opportunity 
 for the handling of his spade properly than if he 
 had to stoop down and lift a tree each time he came 
 
EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN GROUND. 87 
 
 to a new pit, which he must do where no boys are 
 employed. 
 
 SECTION II. EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN GROUND 
 
 UNDER PLANTATIONS. 
 
 In calculating the expenses hkely to be incurred 
 in the laying down of a piece of land under a crop 
 of young forest trees, the proprietor has to con- 
 sider, first, the nature of the figure in which he 
 may intend to lay out his plantation. Upon the 
 form or figure of a plantation much of the expense 
 of fencing it depends ; and as this item forms a 
 very considerable proportion of the entire cost, it 
 will be proper here to show the circumstances 
 which, when attended to, lessen this expense. 
 
 When a proprietor intends to plant a piece of 
 land upon liis estate, say to the extent of fifty 
 acres, he cannot exactly calculate the sum that 
 would be required for the fencing of it until he 
 has laid out the line of plantation, and actually 
 measured the same — unless, indeed, he shall fix 
 upon a regular-sided figure ; and in order to illus- 
 trate the truth of this, I shall here give an example : 
 — To lay out a plantation of fifty acres in extent, in 
 the form of strips of four chains, or 88 yards 
 broad, the proprietor would require to erect 5676 
 lineal yards of fence to inclose it ; and supposing 
 the fence used in the inclosing of this plantation 
 
88 EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN 
 
 in the form of strips to be stone dyke costing Is. 
 per yard, then the whole expenses of fencing, in 
 this instance, would amount to L.283, 16s., equal 
 to L.5, 13s. 6d. per imperial acre upon the land 
 inclosed. 
 
 Again, supposing that instead of laying out the 
 fifty acres in the form of strips, the proprietor 
 wished to lay out the same quantity of land in the 
 form of a regular square ; then the side of a square 
 that would contain fifty acres will be 490 yards ; 
 consequently, the four sides added together will 
 amount to 1960 lineal yards, which would be the 
 extent of fencing required, instead of 5676, which 
 was required in the last instance, although the same 
 quantity of ground is inclosed in both cases. And 
 taking again the 1960 yards to be stone dyke at 
 Is. per yard, the whole expense of fencing the 
 square of fifty acres would be only L.98, equal to 
 L.l, 18s. 6d. upon each acre of the land inclosed. 
 Now this at once points out to proprietors of land 
 the great utility of planting all plantations in a 
 sohd compact form in order to prevent a large 
 original outlay ; by the cheaper method a much 
 more valuable plantation is raised, independent of 
 any other consideration. 
 
 The above examples point out the impossibility 
 of giving any thing like a just rule whereby the 
 expenses of fencing ground for a new plantation 
 can be ascertained, which in ,all cases must bo 
 
GROUND UNDER PLANTATIONS. 89 
 
 influenced by the form in which the ground is laid 
 out : however, in calculating the probable expenses 
 necessary to be incurred in the laying out of plan- 
 tations per acre, I shall give two examples, as 
 under : — 
 
 For home ground with hard wood, inclosed by stone wall five 
 feet high, with mortared cope. 
 
 To medium expenses of fencing, per acre, 
 
 with stone wall, 76 yards at Is. . . L.3 16 
 To 100 roods of open drains, at Ikl. per 
 
 rood, . . . . . 12 6 
 
 To 500 pits for hard wood, at Is. 6d. per 
 
 100, 
 
 To 500 hard-wood trees, at 20s. per 1000, 
 
 To 3500 firs, at 6s. per 1000, 
 
 To five days of a man planting an acre, at 
 
 7 
 10 
 ,1 1 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 L.6 17 
 
 
 
 For moor ground, with firs only, inclosed by turf dyke, and 
 paling on top. 
 
 To mecUiun expenses of fencing per acre, 
 with turf dyke and paling, 76 yards at 4d. 
 To 100 roods of drains, at l^d. . 
 To 4000 firs, at 5s. per 1000, 
 To four days of a man planting, at 2s. 
 
 The first example contains the highest cost per 
 acre that ever I found necessary for planting of 
 hard-wood plantations, — and the second contains 
 the lowest that ever I could get the work done 
 
 L.l 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 L.3 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
90 KEEPING YOUNG TREES 
 
 properly for. I am aware that many planters say 
 that they can do the work more cheaply — but this 
 of course must depend upon the average amount of 
 wages as given to labourers in the district ; what I 
 have stated above is taken from notes of expense 
 actually incurred by myself; and, of course, I can 
 speak with certainty upon the subject only so far 
 as my own experience goes. 
 
 SECTION III. THE KEEPING OF TREES IN A YOUNG 
 
 PLANTATION CLEAR FROM GRASS AND WEEDS. 
 
 Any piece of ground having been planted with 
 young forest trees, in order to keep them in a 
 healthy growing state, it is necessary to have them 
 kept clear of all long grass, as well as any other 
 weeds that might have a tendency to injure them, 
 by over-topping and crushing them down. Upon 
 this head, the forester should keep a sharp look- 
 out during the summer season, particularly the first 
 one after the young trees have been planted ; and 
 wherever it is observed that the grass or any other 
 weeds are likely to become strong, and to fall 
 down upon the young trees, a careful man, with 
 a few women and boys under his superintendence, 
 should be sent over the different young plantations, 
 who, with common shearing sickles, should be made 
 to switch away all grass, &c., from every young 
 tree that may require this to be done. 
 
CLEAR FROM GRASS AND WEEDS. 91 
 
 This work must be carefully done, particularly 
 where boys or other young people are employed, 
 as they are very apt to cut off the tops of many of 
 the young trees if they are not strictly looked 
 after; therefore, the man who is put over them 
 should not work alongside with them, but go im- 
 mediately behind them, and closely inspect all 
 that they have done as the work proceeds, observ- 
 ing that they do not pass over any young trees 
 requiring to be cleared, as well as seeing that those 
 cleared be done in a proper manner. This opera- 
 tion ought to be performed twice during the sum- 
 mer season, viz. — between the middle and end of 
 the month of June, and a second time in the month 
 of August; and where the trees are growing among 
 vegetation of a rank description, the same work 
 may require to be repeated for three or four 
 years successively, or at least until such time as 
 the young trees rise above the rank growth of the 
 weeds in the summer season. 
 
 Young trees, besides being apt to be injured by 
 grass and other common weeds, are often still more 
 seriously hurt by whins and broom growing among 
 them. It very often happens, that young trees 
 are planted where whins and broom have been cut 
 down, and not grubbed out by the roots; in which 
 case, the whins in particular are sure to push out 
 a stronger and more vigorous growth than ever 
 the following year. Whenever this may have been 
 
02 KEEPING YOUNG TREES 
 
 the case, the planter ought to haA^e particular atten- 
 tion paid to such parts, and see that the young 
 growths of the whins as they rise up do not hurt 
 the young trees. And for the purpose of clearing 
 away the young shoots of the whins, a strong 
 sickle will be found to answer the purpose well ; 
 and in the doing of the work, they ought to be 
 shorn clean by the surface of the ground, where- 
 ever they are found among the young trees, 
 Avhether they may be injuring them in the mean 
 time or not : for though the Avhins may not hurt the 
 young trees in many places in a young plantation 
 for the first year of their growth, they will deci- 
 dedly do so the second year, when it will be much 
 more difficult to get the better of them. Therefore 
 it is always necessary to cut such rubbish during 
 the first year of their growth, when in a soft state ; 
 besides, if they are allowed to stand undisturbed 
 upon the ground for a whole year, they give shel- 
 ter to rabbits, hares, and other vermin, w^liich are 
 always a most dangerous stock in young planta- 
 tions. 
 
 Where whins have been, even although they 
 may have been grubbed by the roots previous to 
 the ground being planted with trees, it is, I am 
 aware, a most difficult matter to take them out 
 so clean as to prevent any roots that may be left 
 in the ground sending up shoots of considerable 
 strength the first summer after ; consequently, it 
 
CLEAR FROM GRASS AND WEEDS. 93 
 
 is necessary to attend in a particular manner to 
 those young plantations Avhere whins have existed 
 previous to the young trees being planted. I have 
 frequently seen large tracts of young plantations 
 entirely ruined from not having been cleared from 
 rubbish in due time; and in such a case, v^here 
 this necessary clearing of the young trees has 
 been neglected, a replanting of the ground must 
 take place before any thing good can be expected. 
 This of course is the cause of a great outlay of 
 money, all which might have been saved had due 
 attention been paid at first. 
 
 The necessary expense of doing this sort of 
 work is but trifling. Upon the estate of Arniston, 
 we employ a man with six young people, from the 
 beginning of June to the end of August, constantly 
 clearing among the young plantations; and I find 
 that where no wliins are, the expenses of keeping 
 clear a young plantation, for the first four years, 
 costs about 16s. per acre ; and where there are 
 whins to contend with, the operation costs about 
 25s. per acre, until the trees rise above them. 
 
 SECTION IV. THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF 
 
 THINNING PLANTATIONS. 
 
 Thinning is one of the most indispensable ope- 
 rations in arboriculture. The right understantling 
 of the nature and design of thinning plantations 
 
94 THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF 
 
 forms one of the most important points to be aimed 
 at by every practical forester. 
 
 The object which ought to be aimed at by the 
 forester in the act of thinning, is the regulating of 
 the trees in a pUintation to such a distance one 
 from another, and that in such a manner as is, 
 from well observed facts, known to be favourable 
 to the health of each tree individually, as well as to 
 the general welfare of the whole as a plantation. 
 
 In order to grow any plant to that size which 
 the species to which it belongs is known to attain 
 under favourable circumstances, it is necessary that 
 it have space of ground and air for the spread of 
 its roots and branches, proportionate to its size at 
 any given stage of its growth; and upon this the 
 whole nature and intention of tliinning plantations 
 rest. 
 
 It is, in my opinion, much to be regretted that 
 there does not exist, both among proprietors and 
 foresters, a sounder knowledge relative to the 
 nature and intention of thinning plantations than 
 there is. I have frequently seen plantations upon 
 a high situation going back, from having been in- 
 judiciously thinned ; and in a low situation, I have 
 as often seen them going back from not having 
 been thinned at all : where the blame rested I know 
 not, neither is it my business to inquire into that, 
 but this I must say, that in all such cases there is 
 evidently bad management. 
 
THINNING PLANTATIONS. 95 
 
 There are, indeed, few proprietors' estates in 
 Scotland upon which there is not considerable 
 room for improvements, as regards the thinning 
 of their plantations. There is a decided loss of 
 timber, as well as shelter, whenever plantations are 
 made too thin; and there is also equally as de- 
 cided a loss where they are not sufficiently thinned. 
 Wlierever plantations have remained long in a 
 close state, and are thinned suddenly and severely, 
 which I term injudicious thinning, they are at 
 once cooled ; and that I reckon equal to being 
 removed a few degrees of latitude farther north, 
 or to a situation a few hundred feet higher 
 than the original; and the natural consequence 
 is, that the greater part of the trees which have 
 undergone such treatment, become what is gene- 
 rally termed hide-hound — the bark contracts, and 
 prevents the free flow of the sap, consequently it 
 stagnates and breaks out into sores; the trees fail 
 to make wood ; and, in fact, the whole plantation 
 falls into a state of consumption and declines gra- 
 dually. I have frequently been called upon to exa- 
 mine and give my advice relative to what ought to 
 be done with plantations in such a state as that 
 described above ; and wherever I have found plan- 
 tations above tliirty years old to be in the state 
 described, and to have stood in the same state for 
 four or five years, without showing much signs of any 
 improvement, I have always in such cases recom- 
 
96 THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF 
 
 mended to cut down at once, drain, and replant the 
 ground. However, I may here mention, that if the 
 situation be a rather sheltered one, and the soil dry, 
 a recovery of an over-thinned plantation will often 
 take place, although the trees, after having been 
 checked, will never attain that size they would have 
 done had they been otherwise treated ; but where 
 the situation is exposed, and the natural soil cold 
 and damp, recovery is out of the question. 
 
 Upon the other hand, where plantations are 
 not enough thinned, the trees become drawn up 
 weakly, and seldom attain the size of useful tim- 
 ber before maturity comes upon them. And where 
 any plantation has stood long in a state without 
 being thinned, particularly a fir plantation, it is, 
 I may say, impossible to recover it ; for if even a 
 very few trees be thinned out, a number of others, 
 from the Avant of their shelter, are sure to die, 
 wliich ultimately causes blanks to occur here and 
 there, and the wind getting play in such blanks, 
 great havoc is often done among the trees during 
 a storm. As an instance of this, I may here men- 
 tion, that upon the estate of Arniston, a fir planta- 
 tion of above thirty years' standing, and to the 
 extent of nearly forty acres, had been allowed to 
 grow on in its natural state from the time that 
 it was planted up to the period stated, when an 
 attempt was made to take a few trees out of it, 
 by way of thinning it gradually ; and this having 
 
THINNING PLANTATIONS. 97 
 
 been done, many more were blown down the very 
 first storm that occurred, and an opening having 
 been made by the wind, the whole plantation in a 
 short time became a complete wreck, so much so, 
 that when I came to the place, I had the whole 
 cleared off and replanted. 
 
 From what has here been stated, it will appear 
 evident that there is a great loss sustained by every 
 proprietor who allows his plantations to be mis- 
 manao;ed, either from not thinning them, or from 
 over-thinning them ; and the result may be reckoned 
 the same in both cases. 
 
 Upon many estates, I have often regretted to see 
 plantations of considerable extent, and of perhaps 
 forty years' standing, with the firs all overtopping 
 and crushing down the hard-wood trees. From the 
 appearance of such plantations, it was evident 
 to me, that they never had been thinned : the 
 hard-wood trees were miserable-looking things, and 
 not more than ten or twelve feet high, striving for 
 existence ; while the firs, which, of course, grew 
 more rapidly, were more than thirty feet high, 
 and of a broad spreading habit, from having been 
 widely planted among the hard wood : and in this 
 state many plantations have been allowed to grow 
 up, under the false impression that the firs were of 
 more value than the hard wood for the sake of 
 shelter. 
 
 ^ow, I beg to ask if any circumstance could be a 
 
 G 
 
98 THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF 
 
 more convincing proof of tlie want of sound know- 
 ledge relative to thinning ? If the hard-wood trees 
 had been relieved in due time, would they not at 
 forty years' standing have been valuable, both as 
 timber and as affording shelter? Could not the 
 firs have been all taken out for estate purposes, and 
 been of value to the proprietor, while at the same 
 time they left a more valuable crop of hard wood 
 on the ground? But as the case was, the hard-wood 
 plants were useless, and past recovery ; and upon 
 the ground where a valuable crop of hard wood 
 might have been, there existed only a few firs of 
 little permanent value, either for shelter or as timber. 
 The distance at which trees in a plantation ought 
 to stand one from another, must in all cases be 
 determined by the nature of the soil and situa- 
 tion upon which the trees grow, and also upon the 
 ultimate object the proprietor may have in view 
 as regards any particular plantation ; but as a 
 sort of guiding rule for thinning, I may here 
 state, that if in any particular plantation it should 
 be intended to rear up trees for park or lawn 
 scenery, then, in such a case, the distance between 
 each individual tree ought to be at least equal 
 to the height of the same ; and this rule ought to 
 be kept in view at all stages of the growth of the 
 trees, in order that they may have free room and 
 air to form spreading tops as well as massive 
 trunks, which is the true and natural form of 
 
THINNING PLANTATIONS. 99 
 
 every tree, and which constitutes the great beauty 
 of lawn trees. 
 
 If it should be intended to rear up a plantation 
 of hard-wood trees principally for the sake of value 
 in timber, and of giving shelter at the same time, 
 then, in such a case, the distance between each in- 
 dividual tree ought to be equal to about one half 
 the height of the same ; and this ought to be kept 
 in view at all stages of the growth of the trees, in 
 order that they may not have so much free air and 
 room as to allow of the spread of their branches 
 horizontally, nor yet to be so much confined as to 
 be drawn up weakly from the want of air. If it 
 should be intended to rear up a plantation of firs 
 or pines, for the sake of shelter and timber, then, 
 in such a case, the distance between each tree ought 
 to be a httle more than the third of the height, 
 which is the distance found most favourable to the 
 useful development of the fir and pine tribes, as 
 timber trees. 
 
 In order to give a clear and practical description 
 of the manner of proceeding with thinning opera- 
 tions in the forest, it will be necessary to treat of 
 them under three distinct heads ; and which I shall 
 do in the proper place — (see under the heads. System 
 of thinning mixed har^d-wood, fir, and oak planta- 
 tions) ; but it may be necessary here to observe, 
 that all plantations, ere they require to be thinned, 
 must have grown for at least eight years, and even 
 
100 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 this period may in the most of instances be far too 
 early ; in fact, no particular period can be specified 
 as to the length of time that a plantation should 
 stand, previous to commencing to thin it ; for in 
 this case, much depends upon the nature of the soil 
 and situation, upon whether or not a plantation may 
 have been well laid out, and upon the state of the 
 ground, as being dry or damp. These things con- 
 sidered, it will appear evident, that no particular 
 time can be stated as to when a plantation should 
 be thinned for the first time ; but that this must 
 be judged entirely by the state of the trees, whe- 
 ther they may have grown rapidly or not. I have 
 myself found it necessary to thin a young planta- 
 tion of seven years' standing, at which age the trees 
 were twelve feet high ; but upon the other hand, I 
 have much oftener seen plantations of fifteen years' 
 standing, scarcely the length of requiring to be 
 thinned : therefore, observation upon the spot is 
 the only sure way of determining this point. 
 
 SECTION V. THE NATURE AND PRACTICE OF 
 
 PRUNING TREES. 
 
 For three or lour years past, many conflicting 
 opinions relative to the pruning of forest trees 
 have been issued in some of the periodicals of the 
 day ; which opinions, I believe, have had more a 
 tendency to darken the point referred to, than to 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 101 
 
 throw light on it. Many have recommended prun- 
 ing as an operation eminently fovourable to the 
 health of forest trees ; many more doubt this ; and 
 as many more affirm that pruning ought not to be 
 practised at all : and each, as he advocates his own 
 peculiar system of management as regards this, 
 gives an instance of some plantation he has had 
 under his care, as undeniably illustrating the ad- 
 vantages of the system he recommends. Now, all 
 the diversity of opinion arises from the want of a 
 properly extended knowledge upon the subject in 
 question. A man of extensive experience comes to 
 find, that no particular rule can be laid down to 
 answer the pruning of trees in all cases — he finds out 
 that pruning in some cases is proper, and in others 
 improper ; but the inexperienced man, who wishes 
 to be instructed in the art of pruning, when he sees 
 one man strongly recommend pruning in all cases, 
 and another as strongly urge its not being practised 
 in any, is brought to a stand. He becomes bewil- 
 dered, and knows not how to proceed; he is not 
 able in his own mind, from deficiency of experience, 
 to reason whether in his own case he should prune 
 or not. Now, the only way reasonably to confirm 
 the mind upon this important point is, not to lay 
 any particular stress upon any particular example 
 that may be given ; but to examine the true nature 
 of the art of pruning, and the tendency it has to 
 improve or retard the healthy development of trees 
 
102 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 ill various situations ; in short, in order to a right 
 understanding of the nature of pruning, as apphed 
 to forest trees, attention must be paid to its effects 
 upon trees under every variety of circumstances. 
 I consider it proper, that every proprietor of plan- 
 tations should be able to judge for himself in the 
 matter of pruning, and to detect proper from im- 
 proper pruning ; and to this end, I shall enter 
 minutely into detail under this head, and give a 
 distinct statement of my reasons for pruning in 
 one case and not in another. But before entering 
 into detail regarding the practical operation, it will, 
 I think, be proper first to examine the effects that 
 the amputation of a branch from a tree has upon 
 its constitution ; and such previous knowledge will 
 prepare the mind for a better understanding of 
 the true nature of pruning, as it is generally prac- 
 tised among foresters. 
 
 A tree, through the agency of its roots, draws 
 liquid nourishment from the earth in which they are 
 placed, mostly in a state of solution in water ; which 
 liquid nourishment, or what is generally termed the 
 sap of the tree, ascends the trunk through the lon- 
 gitudinal vessels, or pores of the wood ; from which 
 again, each branch or limb of the tree is supplied 
 in succession. The body or trunk of a tree forms 
 one bundle of longitudinal tubes, through which the 
 sap ascends from the roots to the branches ; and 
 from this bundle, each separate branch is supphed 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 103 
 
 by its own separate line of tubes ; or, which is the 
 same thing, each particular root of a tree has to 
 dpw nourishment from the soil to supply its own 
 particular branch ; and the communication between 
 those two points is maintained by a particular set 
 of vessels in the trunk of the tree. The watery 
 part of the sap, when it ascends into the leaves, is 
 for the most part given off by them in the form of 
 perspiration, and the sap which remains at this 
 point undergoes a change previous to its descent in 
 the form of proper woody matter, which change is 
 effected by the leaves inhaling carbonic acid and 
 other gases, which enter into the composition of 
 the returning sap ; and in this manner there is a 
 continual circulation of the sap in the tree — the 
 roots drawing in and supplying the whole with 
 moisture ; wliich, when it is raised to the leaves, un- 
 dergoes a chemical change, and is returned in the 
 form of proper woody matter. And now the prac- 
 tical deduction to be drawn from this is, that every 
 branch growing out of the main body of a tree, is 
 by nature meant to act as a laboratory, in which 
 woody matter is prepared and returned for the joint 
 supply of itself and the body of the tree ; and from 
 this we are bound to conclude, that when we cut 
 a branch from a tree, we take away from it the 
 means of supplying it with a certain proportion of 
 woody matter for its enlargement ; and this is, in- 
 deed, the case with pruning in all cases of the opera- 
 
104 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 tions. But under good management in pruning, this 
 depriving of a tree of its due means of nourishment 
 is only of a temporary nature ; and in one or two 
 years after the operation has been done, and when 
 the tree operated upon has had its growth pro- 
 perly directed, the increase of timber is at once 
 remarkable, as compared with others of the like 
 nature and age which had not been pruned, 
 or with others Avhich had been unscientifically 
 managed. 
 
 When a large branch is cut off immediately from 
 the body or trunk of a large tree, the usual sap 
 which supplied it in its ascent from the roots, will 
 be stopped short, and for a time will ooze out at the 
 cut part ; but shortly, the sap as it rises in those 
 vessels of the trunk which formerly supplied the 
 branch taken off, becomes stagnated, and causes rot 
 in that part, which can never be the case while the 
 branch remains to draw up and prepare the sap in 
 its leaves ; and this is the case in all instances of 
 large branches, as they are cut from large trees. 
 But in the case of a branch being thus cut from a 
 young sapling in a rapidly growing state, the tree 
 is not injured, but improved ; the sap of the plant 
 being in such a vigorous state, that rot cannot take 
 place. Now, the practical deduction to be drawn 
 from this is, that the amputation of a large branch 
 immediately from the body of a large tree, instead 
 of being favourable to its health and value as timber. 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 105 
 
 has quite the contrary effect. I say immediately 
 from the body of a tree, because the cutting off of 
 a part of a branch is by no means injurious to the 
 health of a tree ; but upon the contrary, when part 
 of a large branch is cut off, the flow of sap to that 
 part is checked, and the body or trunk of the tree 
 is in proportion enlarged. 
 
 During my practice as a forester, I have had 
 extensive opportunity of observing the nature and 
 quality of full-grown timber, as it has been effected 
 by different kinds of management in the way of 
 pruning. Having seen much timber of all ages cut 
 up for different purposes at saw-mills, I have had 
 occasion invariably to observe a practical truth, 
 that wherever branches of above four inches in 
 diameter at their base had been cut from the trunk 
 of the tree, the wood for a considerable way under 
 that part which had been so pruned was worthless 
 and of a black colour ; and where much cutting of 
 large branches had taken place in one individual 
 tree, I have always found such a tree to be scarcely 
 fit for any valuable purpose whatever, when it came 
 to be cut up ; and where the pruning had been done 
 a considerable number of years before the tree was 
 cut down for use, the wounds upon the surface were 
 not easily observable, and in fact, such trees often 
 appear sound to outward appearance; but when the 
 bark is removed, the pruned part is at once observ- 
 able, and the vessels leading from it, down to the 
 
106 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 roots, are generally found soft and of a black 
 colour. 
 
 Upon the other hand, I have always had occa- 
 sion to observe, as a practical truth, that in the 
 cutting up of trees which had not had their large 
 branches cut off close by the trunk, the timber was 
 of good quality, and sound throughout, excepting 
 where extreme old age had caused natural decay ; 
 and of the truth of this I am perfectly convinced. 
 Therefore, I hereby beg to advise every proprie- 
 tor of plantations, never, as he values their health 
 as timber, to cut clean from the boll of a tree a 
 branch which is more than four inches in diameter 
 at its base. 
 
 Having now pointed out the effects that the 
 amputation of a branch from the trunk of a tree 
 has upon its constitution, I next proceed to detail 
 the method which ought to be practised with prun- 
 ing operations in all cases ; and in order to a right 
 imderstanding of this most important point in ar- 
 boriculture, I shall bring under consideration the 
 pruning of trees, from the time that they are 
 planted out from the nursery, to that of their full 
 growth in the forest, under every variety of circum- 
 stances, as I have had occasion to observe them. 
 
 Many foresters are in the habit of closely prun- 
 ing all young hard-wood trees, particularly elms 
 and oaks, when they are newly taken from the 
 nursery grounds, and preparatory to planting them 
 
OF PRUNING TEEES. 107 
 
 out into the forest ; which system of close pruning 
 is most injurious to the health of all young trees 
 when newly lifted from the ground. The system 
 of pruning which is generally practised by foresters 
 in this case is, to cut off clean to the main stem, 
 all strong branches, and only leave a few small 
 twigs near the top of the plant, with the view of 
 drawing up the sap. The natural consequences of 
 such a cutting off of all the stronger branches from 
 a young tree are, that, when the sap ascends in the 
 plant in the spring, it is arrested at the wound 
 where the first or lowest branch was taken off, and 
 escapes from the cut part by evaporation; and 
 the sap being thus arrested, there is a natural 
 effort made by' the plant to produce young shoots 
 and leaves at this point, in order to convert the 
 sap into proper woody matter; consequently, we 
 ahnost always find a few young shoots made the 
 first season immediately under the part where the 
 lower strong branch was taken from the plant, and 
 all the rest of the young tree above this growth of 
 young shoots dies — the sap not rising to carry on 
 life above the part where the new shoots spring out ; 
 and, even if the sap should not be all arrested at 
 the point referred to, the part above it remains in 
 a sickly and unhealthy state ; while the young 
 shoots produced lower down draw all the nourish- 
 ment to themselves, and ultimately form a distort- 
 ed unshapely plant, unless it be carefully attended 
 
108 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 to, by giving some one of the slioots the prefer- 
 ence, and, cutting away all the rest, allow it to be- 
 come the top. 
 
 The proper manner of proceeding with the prun- 
 ing of forest trees, as they are newly lifted from the 
 nursery, and preparatory to planting them out into 
 the forest grounds, is to shorten all the stronger 
 branches that have the appearance of gaining 
 strength upon the top or leading shoot of the 
 young tree ; and tliis shortening of the larger 
 branches ought to be done in such a manner, as to 
 leave only about one third of their whole length 
 remaining, with, if possible, a few small twigs upon 
 it, in order the more readily to elaborate the sap 
 as it rises in the spring ; and in this state the young- 
 trees may be planted Avith the greatest assurance 
 of success. The great advantage of this method of 
 pruning young trees is, that when the sap rises in 
 them, the first summer after planting, there being 
 a regular supply of small proportionable branches 
 along the main stem, leaves are formed, and sap is 
 drawn up regularly to every part of the tree; 
 consequently, the tree maintains an equal vigour 
 throughout. Were all the branches left upon the 
 young trees, the roots, from the effects of removal, 
 would not be able to maintain the whole with due 
 nourishment ; and the consequence would very likely 
 be, that the plants would die down to the ground- 
 level, from wliich part of the trees numerous young 
 
OF PRUXOG TREES. 109 
 
 shoots would issue, much in the same manner as 
 they do from the cut part of those trees which have 
 been over-pruned. 
 
 It is now a well-ascertained truth among all prac- 
 tical foresters, that when a young tree is in a 
 vigorous state of growth, and the wood full of sap, 
 previous to its having made any hard wood, any 
 branch may be taken off without doing the least 
 injury to it ; therefore, it is just at this stage of 
 the existence of a tree, that it can with certainty 
 be made to do well or otherwise, according as it 
 may be attended to, to give the top the lead in 
 the growth, to check the stronger branches, and to 
 give the tree that shape it may be intended it should 
 have when it attains full age. 
 
 When young hard-wood trees have been pruned 
 in the manner above recommended, and after they 
 have been planted and grown in their perma- 
 nent situation for the space of five or six years, 
 they will by that time have got themselves pro- 
 perly established in the ground ; which circum- 
 stance is known by their putting forth consider- 
 able shoots of young wood. At this stage of their 
 growth, it will be necessary to go over them all 
 with the pruning-knife, and cut close to the main 
 stem or trunk all the parts of the branches that 
 were formerly shortened, and, at the same time, 
 to take off clean with the knife all other branches 
 that may have gained strength, or may have the 
 
110 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 appearance of gaining strength, upon the top or 
 main shoot ; but it should be particularly observed, 
 that this pruning ought never to be allowed to be 
 done until the young trees have decidedly estab- 
 lished themselves in the ground, and are in a 
 vigorous healthy state of growth ; for, if it be 
 done while the trees are in a sickly state, no advan- 
 tage will be gained, but, upon the contrary, much 
 injury will be done. 
 
 I have now given a statement of the manner of 
 proceeding with pruning operations, in the case of 
 young trees about to be planted out into the forest ; 
 and also the treatment they ought to receive after 
 being five or six years established in the ground. 
 There may, however, be, — and, indeed, too often 
 are, — cases where hard-wood trees, while young, 
 have been entirely neglected; and, seeing this, it 
 will be proper to consider the treatment that such 
 ought to receive. I shall first suppose that we have 
 to do with a plantation of young hard-wood trees, 
 which had received no pruning at all previous to 
 being planted; and we shall further suppose, that 
 the trees are oaks, and of five or six years' standing 
 in the forest grounds. Upon examining the state 
 of young hard-wood trees of the description above 
 mentioned, it will be observed, that the greater part 
 of them have died down to the part resting upon 
 the surface of the ground, and that from this part 
 a number of branches have issued, each contending 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. Ill 
 
 for the lead in the growth. In such a case as this, 
 no time should he lost in giving the strongest and 
 most healthy shoot the preference, and cutting 
 away all the rest, as well as the dead part of the 
 tree, nearly by the ground, or at least down to the 
 part from where the young shoots issue ; prune up 
 the shoot intended to be left for the future tree, 
 by taking off all the stronger branches clean to the 
 boll or stem ; and in this manner go over each and 
 every young tree in the plantation, always choos- 
 ing the most healthy shoot for the future tree, and 
 one which appears to have naturally a good balance 
 of branches, with the leader or top shoot strong in 
 proportion to the rest of the branches. We shall 
 again suppose a plantation of oaks, of the same age 
 as the one above alluded to, but the trees in which, 
 instead of having been planted without any pruning, 
 have been pruned too severely when lifted from 
 the nursery ground, and previous to being planted. 
 The treatment in this case must in every respect 
 be the same as in the former ; that is, all the dead 
 wood should be cut away immediately above the 
 point from which the young shoots issue ; and the 
 strongest and most healthy shoot being fixed upon 
 for the future tree, it must be properly pruned 
 up, by taking off all the stronger branches, and 
 cutting cleanly away the rest of the inferior shoots, 
 which formerly contended with it. But, in a case 
 of this nature, where the trees had been over- 
 
112 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 pruned previous to their being planted, there is 
 often more difficulty in making choice of a good 
 young shoot, than where no pruning had taken 
 place at all. And this arises from the young .shoots 
 springing from the main stem in a horizontal man- 
 ner, and that, too, very often a considerable way 
 up the stem. In a case of this nature, where a 
 proper leading shoot, rising perpendicularly, cannot 
 be got, the only wa}^ and the method I always fol- 
 low myself, is to cut the main stem by the surface of 
 the ground, and allow a set of new shoots to rise up. 
 The chance generally is, that, Avhen the tree is thus 
 cut down, all the new shoots will rise in an upright 
 position, and a choice can be afterwards made ; but 
 wherever a proper leading shoot can be had, let it 
 be chosen, although it come away rather far up 
 upon the stem. If it rise perpendicularly, and the 
 plant be in a vigorous healthy state of growth, it 
 will succeed well. This sort of work should be 
 done in the spring months, so that the growth may 
 set in immediately after the operation is per- 
 formed. 
 
 It very often happens that a forester, upon 
 entering a new situation, finds that the several 
 plantations which are put under his management 
 have been hitherto much neglected ; he finds that, 
 in many cases, pruning is absolutely necessary, 
 but he is at a stand to know how to proceed. If 
 he be a man who has not had much experience, 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 113 
 
 lie is very apt to go wrong in a case of impor- 
 tance. He looks upon the trees before him, and 
 he is, no doubt, aware that pruning is necessary 
 to their health ; but, in consequence of some 
 particular circumstance connected with the trees 
 with which he has to deal, he finds much difficulty 
 in making up his mind as to the manner in which 
 he ought to proceed. If he should be a man who 
 has had extensive practice, he will look back upon 
 his former experience, and consider where and 
 when he had to deal with a case resembling the 
 one that may be before him : if he has, he will 
 review the manner in which he went to work in 
 it ; and, at the same time, he will consider the con- 
 sequences that attended such operations, whether 
 these were beneficial or not; and, in all cases, he 
 will endeavour to govern his conduct in pruning 
 operations by the result of his past experience 
 Whatever method of operations he has known to 
 succeed well, he will put again in practice, according 
 as the nature of the case may require ; and what- 
 ever method he has found to have been followed 
 by injurious effects, he will avoid putting again into 
 practice except in particular cases, where he is aware 
 it would answer the end desired. 
 
 With regard to the pruning of forest trees 
 generally, all would be simple and well, provided 
 a distinct practical rule were attended to, both by 
 proprietors and foresters, for the rearing up of 
 
 H 
 
114 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 plantations at every stage of their growth ; but in 
 practice, the case is almost always the contrary. 
 No distinct practical rules being adhered to among 
 foresters as a body, one goes to work in one way, 
 and another in a contrary way, in the same piece 
 of work, and in the manner of doing the work all 
 depends upon the practical experience of the man. 
 A man of sound practical experience finds out for 
 himself what ought to be done, and guides himself 
 in the execution of his work accordingly; but the 
 man of small experience, unless he has some definite 
 rule laid down to guide him, will go to work merely 
 under the direction of his own judgment, whether 
 that may be right or wrong ; and if his master, the 
 proprietor, has not himself a knowledge of how the 
 work ought to be done, matters will often go very far 
 wrong indeed, even so much so, that often the greater 
 part of the plantations upon an estate, if not ruined, 
 are made of very little value indeed. We will very 
 frequently see plantations upon an estate over- 
 pruned, while those upon a neighbouring one are 
 not pruned at all, which at once points out the bad 
 management that exists relative to forest operations 
 in general. 
 
 In one place where I acted as assistant forester, 
 I had a most convincing proof of the want of a 
 practical rule among foresters as a body, rela- 
 tive to pruning, and which told me at once that 
 they have hitherto acted in such matters more 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 115 
 
 according to their own private judgment than 
 upon any well-founded scientific rules. When I 
 
 went to B as under forester, I found the 
 
 head forester an old man, who had reared up 
 most of the plantations upon the estate ; and the 
 situation being in a high exposed part of the coun- 
 try, he had never either pruned or thinned much ; 
 in fact, in the most of cases, pruning had never 
 been practised at all, from the idea that the baring 
 of the trees of their branches would diminish the 
 shelter that the trees were meant to produce. Many 
 of the plantations consisted principally of a mixture 
 of ash, elm, and plane-trees ; and from tlie circum- 
 stance of the firs having been cut out pretty early, 
 the trees were low-set, and spreacUng in the habit of 
 their branches, never having been much drawn up, 
 and were about thirty years old. Shortly after I 
 went to this place, the old forester died, and a young 
 man was appointed in his place. The proprietor 
 wishing to have his plantations improved, and 
 having no knowledge of how the work ought to be 
 done himself, he of course left the whole manage- 
 ment of his plantations to his forester. The new 
 forester set about the pruning and thinning of 
 some of the plantations at once, and a number of 
 men were set to accomplish this : I was appointed 
 one of the pruners, and my orders from the forester 
 were, to prune all the trees left standing upon the 
 ground, and to give every tree a clear stem to 
 
116 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 one half its entire height. The trees being gene- 
 rally from twenty-five to thirty feet high, we gave 
 each tree a clear stem of from twelve to fifteen 
 feet from the ground ; and in doing this, we had . 
 often to cut olf large branches from tlie boll as 
 thick as itself, which gave the trees completely the 
 appearance of having been manufactured artificially ; 
 and, having been very thickly set with branches 
 all along the trunks, when they were pruned, 
 the entire trunk was a surface of wounds. With 
 regard to the tops of tlie trees, our orders were not 
 to do any thing, excepting where two or more tops 
 appeared to strive for the preference, in which case 
 we left only one, cutting away the others. Having 
 left that place shortly after this operation of prun- 
 ing had taken place, in five years after I went to 
 visit it, and that in order to draw for my own private 
 instruction a lesson of experience, by observing the 
 effect of the former severe pruning upon the trees; 
 and the consequence was exactly that which I an- 
 ticipated in the doing of the work. Upon looking 
 over those plantations, the ruin of which I had 
 myself assisted in bringing about, I felt sorrow to 
 think that gentlemen should be imposed upon by 
 ignorant men. All along the bolls of the trees and 
 about the wounds which had been made in the cut- 
 ting off of the large branches, young shoots had 
 sprung out; the trees were generally now hide- 
 bound, from having been suddenly exposed, and the 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 117 
 
 atmosphere cooled about them — the trunks had 
 scarcely increased any thing in girth since they 
 were pruned, and the top branches had made little 
 or no wood. The trees, generally speaking, were 
 ruined in their health, and all hope of their re- 
 covery was gone : and from this example I had in- 
 deed a lesson of experience for my future guidance, 
 and my reason for stating the circumstance here is, 
 that it may be a lesson to others also. The question 
 now comes to be, whose mismanagement had been 
 the cause of ruin in the case alluded to ? Whether 
 was the blame attributable to the old forester who 
 neglected to prune and train up the trees as he 
 ought to have done, or to the young man who 
 succeeded him and pruned the trees without due 
 consideration and experience ? In my opinion they 
 were both to blame; for, had the old forester pruned 
 and thinned in due time, all would have been well 
 in the end ; and had the young forester been more 
 cautious, and pruned and thinned gradually, all 
 might have been well also. The practical truth 
 that I wish to enforce from this instance of mis- 
 management is, that in every forester great caution, 
 combined with practical experience and reflection, 
 necessary before he commences to thin or prune 
 any plantation. A gardener or farmer, from the 
 temporary nature of the crops which they raise, 
 although they mismanage any of their crops, all 
 can be redeemed in the course of another year; 
 
118 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 but in the case of mismanagement in a forester, the 
 work of past years is lost, and thirty or forty years, 
 with a considerable outlay of extra money, may pos- 
 sibly not bo sufficient to redeem what is put wrong. 
 
 Having given the above example of mismanage- 
 ment, in order to point out the necessity of using 
 caution in entering upon pruning operations, I shall 
 now proceed to give a few examples of the manner 
 in which I have gone to work in similar cases of 
 neglected plantations ; and I am convinced that, 
 wherever plantations have been neglected as to 
 pruning, if they are under thirty years old, they 
 may, if dealt with as I shall here point out, be 
 recovered, so far as to make profitable timber trees, 
 although probably not to that extent of value that 
 might have been expected had the same trees been 
 properly pruned and trained up in their young 
 state. 
 
 When I came to act as forester upon the estate 
 of Arniston, I found that many of the hard-wood 
 plantations under thirty years old had never been 
 pruned at all, and that there was great need for 
 means being used as quickly as possible, to put 
 such into proper state. In setting about this part 
 of our forest operations, I determined to begin with 
 the younger part of the woods, as being most likely 
 to recover quickly, and to be of the most value 
 ultimately if taken in due time, and to go on with 
 the pruning of the older districts of plantations 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 119 
 
 as I could find convenient opportunity. Having 
 laid down this principle, as a rule of procedure, 
 I commenced first upon a plantation of oaks, 
 about twelve years of age — which plantation, I 
 saw, had never, up to the period I commenced upon 
 it, been either thinned or pruned. The first thing 
 I did, when about to commence pruning in this 
 piece of plantation, was to go carefully over the 
 whole, and examine most minutely its state ; ob- 
 serving, in a particular manner, whether or not the 
 situatioji was exposed; and being convinced, from 
 the general bearing of other plantations in the 
 neighbourhood, that the situation was rather shel- 
 tered than otherwise, I determined upon thinning- 
 out the firs pretty freely from among the young 
 oaks: having done so, and had the firs all cleared off 
 wliich were cut, I found that the young oaks had 
 been a good deal crushed down by the firs, which 
 had grown very freely as compared with the oaks; 
 and in consequence of having been thus crushed 
 down, many of the latter had grown strongly to side 
 branches, and not to height ; but wherever the oaks 
 had had free top room, Avith firs rather close upon 
 their sides, they were tall plants and generally well 
 shaped. The average height of the oaks was from 
 five to eight feet ; the bark of the trees was clean 
 and fleshy, and generally speaking they were in 
 good health. In the pruning of those trees, I 
 first had all the small branches not exceeding 
 
120 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 two-thirds of an inch in diameter at their base, 
 cut from the trunks, and close to the bark, to the 
 height of about one-third the height of the tree 
 in each case ; next, all branches which grew upon 
 the same part, with a diameter at base exceeding 
 the last mentioned, I cut off to within about four 
 inches of the stem or trunk from which they pro- 
 ceeded, leaving the stems in the mean time ; and all 
 large top branches, which appeared to be gaining 
 strength upon the leading top shoot, I shortened down 
 to nearly one-half of their whole length : but in all 
 cases where two top shoots appeared, I cut one of 
 them closely away, always leaving the one which 
 appeared to be the most healthy and strong, and 
 which at the same time appeared to come most 
 directly from the centre of the system of the tree. 
 
 But I must observe here, that in the pruning of 
 a young hard-wood plantation, all the trees do not 
 require to be pruned to the same extent — in many 
 instances it will be found that pruning is not 
 necessary at all ; and so it was in the case of the 
 plantation I am referring to. Wherever a hard- 
 wood tree is drawn up rather closely among 
 iirs, with sufficient head-room, it seldom produces 
 many side branches, but will grow upwards to the 
 light ; therefore, in all cases of pruning, where the 
 side branches upon a young tree are few, let such 
 remain, and merely shorten them down where they 
 are long and slender. Pruning is an unnatural 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 121 
 
 operation, and ought always to be avoided unless 
 absolutely necessary ; that is, it ought to be avoided 
 wherever the tree does not produce unnaturally 
 strong side branches, excepting in so far as to clear 
 from branches one-third of the height of the tree 
 from the ground, in order to form a trunk ; and 
 even upon this part, where the branches are large, 
 they ought to be taken off gradually, as already 
 noticed. Having gone through this plantation, 
 and pruned the trees therein in the manner above 
 described, I allowed it to remain so for the space 
 of two years ; when I again went through it a 
 second time, and pruned in the following manner 
 all the oaks that stood in need of it. 
 
 Having taken out a few more of the firs, which I 
 observed were rather encroaching upon the young 
 liard wood, and having examined the general state 
 of the same, I found that they had thriven remark- 
 ably well during the two years since I pruned 
 them. I now found, that from being relieved of a 
 superfluous and unnatural weight of side branches, 
 they were growing tall, and in a generally healthy 
 and rapid-growing state ; therefore, seeing this, I 
 cut close to the main stem or part which formed the 
 trunk, all those stumps which I formerly shortened 
 to four inches, and in regvdating the tops of the 
 young trees, I merely shortened such shoots as 
 had the appearance of ultimately gaining strength 
 upon the main top shoot. With regard to my rea- 
 
122 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 son for not having cut aAvay tlie strong shoots or 
 brandies from the main stem when I first pruned 
 those trees, I have to observe, that had I cut them 
 away at the first course of pruning clean to the 
 bark of the trunk, the consequence would have been 
 that the sap of the young trees in its ascent would 
 have been arrested at the cut parts, young sapling 
 shoots would have been formed upon the stem 
 immediately under the cuts, and the general 
 health of the trees would have been injured from 
 the sap not rising unchecked to the top shoots : 
 these evils were avoided simply by cutting off a 
 large portion of each large branch, and leaving a 
 small portion of each upon the stem, in order to 
 continue the I'egular floAv of the sap to that part, 
 and which, from being partially weakened in the 
 branches, was proportionately forced to flow up- 
 wards to the supply of the top parts of the trees ; 
 after this had taken place, the stumps were cut 
 away without doing any injury to the trees. By 
 this method of pruning off parts of large branches 
 from a tree, I have often brought unhealthy trees 
 to a state of sound health ; and as soon as I observ- 
 ed that such trees had regained their health, which 
 is at once observable by their making vigorous 
 shoots of young wood in the top branches, I imme- 
 diately cut away the parts of the branches that 
 were left, when the wounds were soon made up by 
 the extra supply of proper woody matter, which 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 123 
 
 increased with the health of the trees ; but this cure 
 is only apphcable to trees in a young state. I have 
 succeeded in effecting it upon trees under twenty 
 years old. 
 
 After pruning the oak plantation in the way 
 just detailed, I next set to the pruning of another 
 oak plantation of about twenty years' standing. 
 This other plantation of oaks was situated in a 
 rather sheltered part of the estate ; and from hav- 
 ing been nursed by Scots firs, many of which were 
 growing when I commenced pruning operations 
 there, the oak trees were very much drawn up. I 
 observed that the oaks had never been either thin- 
 ned or pruned, and consequently were growing 
 within four feet of one another — that being the 
 distance at which they had been originally plant- 
 ed. As the situation was a sheltered one, I tliin- 
 ned out a few of the Scots firs, and also a few of 
 the oaks, previous to commencing to prune ; and 
 when I had those removed, and the trees standing 
 more upon their own weight, 1 saw that they were, 
 from the effects of having been drawn up, very 
 slender, and not able to stand much exposure or 
 much cutting in the way of pruning, although they 
 were from eight to fifteen feet in height ; and see- 
 ing them in this delicate state, I only shortened a 
 few of the stronger side branches below, and at the 
 same time shortened a few top branches upon each 
 tree as I found it necessary, in order that they 
 
124 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 might be properly balanced, and that the wind 
 might not have much power upon them. In this 
 state I left them for two years, when I again 
 examined the trees, and finding that they had 
 improved in a remarkable manner, I again set to 
 work and gave them a final pruning. 1 have sel- 
 dom found any plantation make such an improve- 
 ment as this one did during the two years that I 
 allowed it to recover itself before giving it a final 
 course of pruning : this was owing to the gradual 
 manner in which I thinned out a few trees, and 
 cut off a part of the branches as a preparation for 
 pruning. This is what every forester ought par- 
 ticularly to attend to ; for, had I foolishly and 
 thoughtlessly commenced to prune severely at first, 
 it was quite possible that every tree in the planta- 
 tion might have been thrown into an unhealthy 
 state, — which, indeed, I have more than once seen 
 done ;— but by having gone cautiously to work, 
 I had the satisfaction, at the end of two years from 
 the time that I first examined those trees, to find 
 them not only stift", healthy, tall trees, but in a most 
 vigorous state of growth also ; and, finding them in 
 such a state, I pruned them upon the same prin- 
 ciple as stated m the former case — that is, I pruned 
 off all the branches to one-third the height of the 
 tree in each case, in order to form a clean trunk ; 
 and above this, among the top branches, I merely 
 shortened such as had the appearance of gaining 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 125 
 
 strength upon the top. And wherever two dis- 
 tinct tops occurred in one individual tree, I cut off 
 one, always leaving the one which appeared the 
 most strong and healthy, and which issued most 
 directly from the centre of the system of the tree, 
 although in many cases it did not take an upright 
 direction ; for let it be observed, that an oak tree is 
 the more valuable for having a bend in its form, 
 such trees being useful in ship-building. 
 
 In a similar manner I have pruned plantations 
 of tliirty years' standing ; but in the case of prun- 
 ing at such an advanced age, no branch should be 
 cut from the trunk that exceeds three inches in 
 diameter, if it is intended that the timber should 
 be of value when of full age ; and even where such 
 branches are to be taken off, they should be short- 
 ened in one year and cut clean off the year fol- 
 lowing, by wliich precaution the vessels which 
 convey the sap to the branch receive a gradual 
 check, and are to a considerable extent deadened 
 before the complete amputation takes place, and 
 consequently the body of the tree is not injured by 
 such gradual treatment. And again, this is in a 
 great measure influenced by the nature of the situ- 
 ation upon wliich the trees may be growing. If 
 trees growing upon a high and exposed situation 
 are not properly pruned when they are young, 
 they will not admit of much pruning when above 
 fifteen years old ; in such a situation the sap of the 
 
126 THE NATURE AND PRACTICE 
 
 trees always flows slowly as compared with others 
 in a sheltered spot, and seeing this, pruning ought 
 to be avoided in such a situation when the trees are 
 about ten years old. Trees growing in a sheltered 
 situation are generally in a vigorous state of growth 
 under thirty years of age ; consequently, under skil- 
 ful management, pruning may be advantageous to 
 trees in such a situation at any time under that 
 age ; but in all cases pruning should be avoided as 
 much as possible as the trees advance above ten 
 years of age. I have seen foresters practise the 
 pruning of fir-trees ; such a practice is, however, 
 the worst imaginable. ,The value of a fir-tree is 
 greatly deteriorated by its being pruned ; where the 
 branch was cut off, the tree generally loses much 
 of its sap, and is very apt to fall into bad health ; 
 and wdien such a tree is cut for timber, the pruned 
 knots always fall out of the wood, causing holes, 
 and consequently rendering such timber almost of 
 no value. 
 
 In all cases pruning operations are seldom found 
 necessary to any considerable extent, where the 
 plantations are attended to in the way of pro- 
 perly thinning them. When hard-wood trees are 
 grown pretty close to one another, and particularly 
 with a proportion of firs to nurse and draw them 
 up rather tall than otherwise, we always find the 
 most perfect and sound timber trees ; therefore it 
 is from this circumstance that many foresters have 
 
OF PRUNING TREES. 127 
 
 maintained that pruning should not be practised 
 at all, and such a state of management is unques- 
 tionably the best. But how can this be maintained 
 in all cases ? I have known many plantations 
 wherein firs and hard wood were planted originally, 
 but in consequence of the firs having died out, the 
 hard-wood trees were left alone upon the ground at 
 a pretty wide distance from one another, and in this 
 case they spread themselves widely to branches ; 
 consequently, in order to check such a tendency, 
 pruning was absolutely necessary, and this I have 
 frequently done myself, and found its effect most 
 beneficial. Hence many foresters, from having 
 only such sort of plantations to deal with, and not 
 having experienced the effects of a more healthy 
 state of things, have recommended pruning as 
 necessary in all cases. And this brings me to say in 
 conclusion upon this head, that a forester, in order 
 to be so profitably, should be able to judge for him- 
 self how far pruning is advisable in one case and 
 not so in another ; he must take into consideration 
 the situation the trees are growing upon — and if it 
 be a high one he should prune very little indeed, and 
 if a low situation he may use the knife more freely. 
 If the plantation to be pruned has been attended 
 to formerly, there will be very httle difficulty in 
 putting it into proper order; but if it has been 
 neglected, great caution must be exercised in order 
 not to expose the trees suddenly by taking off too 
 
128 THE THINNING OF 
 
 many branches at once. If the plantation be a 
 young one, the trees may be made to improve al- 
 though they may have been previously neglected ; 
 but if an old one, the chances of improvement by 
 pruning are small. 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 129 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SVSTEM OF THINNING AND REAKING UP OF FIR PLANTATIONS SYS- 
 TEM OF THINNING AND REARING UP OF MIXED HARD-WOOD 
 PLANTATIONS REARING UP AND THINNING OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. SYSTEM OF THINNING AND REARING UP 
 
 OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 
 
 In order to point out properly the manner of 
 proceeding with the thinning of fir plantations, it 
 will be neccsary to give a detailed account of how 
 the work should be done at the different stages of 
 the age of any plantation ; and, as I have already 
 stated that no particular age of a young plan- 
 tation can be given as that at which thinning ope- 
 rations ought to commence upon it, the observation 
 of the operator must always be his guide in such a 
 case. Every man who has given his attention to 
 the rearing of forests must have observed, that on 
 some particular soils and situations a young plan- 
 tation may be in a fit state for thinning at eight 
 years of age, while another, composed of the same 
 sorts of trees, and planted at the same time, may 
 not be ready for this operation at twice that age — 
 
130 THE REARING OF 
 
 all depending upon the elevation of the sitnation, 
 and the nature of the subsoil, whether that may be 
 open or retentive, dry or damp. Therefore it is, 
 that observation upon the spot is the only decisive 
 way of ascertaining when a plantation is in want of 
 being thinned. 
 
 For the guidance of those who may not have had 
 much experience in the thinning of plantations, I 
 shall here lay down a few hints of practical utility, 
 from which, I am certain, a cautious, intelligent 
 man may be enabled to lay the foundation of 
 future experience in this art. In examining the 
 state of a young fir plantation with the view of 
 ascertaining if it be in a condition so far advanced 
 as to admit of being thinned, it will be necessary 
 first to walk very carefully through its whole ex- 
 tent, and mark well the bearing that the young 
 trees have one upon another. If the points of 
 the branches of the young trees be merely touch- 
 ing, or slightly interfering with one another, thin- 
 ning would be premature, and ought to be put off 
 for a year or two longer ; but if, upon examina- 
 tion, the lower side branches of the trees have the 
 appearance of having been considerably stunted in 
 their growth, and are actually becoming deadened 
 in the extremities from the want of freedom and 
 air, and if the higher side branches of one tree are 
 spreading widely, and actually encroaching about 
 half their length upon those of another, it is high 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 131 
 
 time that thinning should be commenced. If 
 the lower branches of the young trees have a 
 brown and deadened appearance, and the upper are 
 spreading so widely that in many instances the 
 points of the strongest of them touch the bolls of 
 others, thinning has been delayed too long, and from 
 the trees being heavy topped, and light in the 
 lower parts, many of them would be apt to be 
 blown down if thinned suddenly ; therefore, thin- 
 ning should never be delayed so long as to alloAv 
 the last-mentioned feature to manifest itself upon 
 the trees. 
 
 Having, in the manner stated, gone through the 
 young plantation, and determined as to whether it 
 ought to be thinned or not, and supposing that it 
 has been found necessary to thin, it will be neces- 
 sary, previous to commencing operations, to exa- 
 mine which sort of tree has thriven best upon 
 the ground, and has the appearance of becom- 
 ing the most valuable for a permanent crop of 
 timber ; that is to say, if the ground has been 
 originally planted with a mixture of Scots, larch, 
 and spruce firs, examine each district of the plan- 
 tation as it may naturally divide itself into height 
 or hollow, sloping banks or level ground, and ascer- 
 tain which variety appears most healthy, and is 
 most hkely to come to perfect maturity as a timber 
 tree in each separate district. In each district 
 spare that species which, from general appearance, 
 
132 THE HEARING OF 
 
 is most likely to succeed well ; and, when tliinning, 
 remove those sorts which have not the appearance 
 of becoming good timber upon the soil. 
 
 In commencing to thin any plantation, it is also 
 necessary to have in view its situation. The ope- 
 rator should keep in view that, if the situation be 
 a high one, he must thin sparingly at first, for 
 fear of checking the growth of the trees. At 
 the same time attention ought to be paid to ascer- 
 taining what winds prove most violent and de- 
 structive in the neighbourhood of the plantation ; 
 and having ascertained the quarter from which 
 the most injurious winds come, it is wisdom to thin 
 most cautiously upon that side, and thin more 
 severely in the interior of the plantation. But if 
 the plantation be sheltered, either naturally or 
 artificially, by older plantations upon other heights, 
 then less caution is necessary, and the trees may 
 at once be allowed more freedom in order to 
 develope themselves quickly and perfectly. The 
 operator having fully informed himself upon each 
 of the points above stated, he will next proceed to 
 have those trees marked which it is considered 
 should be taken out. 
 
 In the act of thinning, particular attention should 
 be paid to leaVing, in all cases, the healthiest trees 
 upon the ground, and to cutting out those that are 
 most weakly, as the nature of the thinning may 
 require 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 133 
 
 In thinning a plantation, many foresters think 
 that the principal object to be aimed at, is that of 
 giving the whole a regular systematic appearance, 
 by leaving the trees as nearly as possible at a 
 given distance one from another, without taking 
 into consideration the ultimate welfare of the plan- 
 tation. Such a method of conducting thinning ope- 
 rations may, indeed, have the effect of pleasing the 
 eye and taste of the inexperienced for a time ; but 
 the effect of such a system is certainly ruinous to 
 the proprietor in the end, and is never practised 
 by the forester of extensive experience — but only 
 by the inexperienced, who think that if they can 
 but please the taste of their employer at the time, 
 all will be well. If the trees in a young plantation 
 arc all erjually healthy, then it is but proper to 
 thin them out to a regular distance from one 
 another ; but where many of the trees appear of 
 an unhealthy cast, — which is frequently the case 
 in a high situation, — the healthy trees should be 
 preserved without respect to a nice regularity in 
 appearance. Wherever two trees may be found 
 growing together, the one having a healthy and 
 the other an unhealthy appearance, and according 
 to regularity in the act of thinning the unhealthy 
 tree may be found to occupy a proper place and 
 the healthy one an improper, yet, for the sake 
 of the future welfare of the plantation, no hesi- 
 tation ou2ht to be entertained as to which should 
 
134 THE REARING OF 
 
 be cut down, but in all such cases at once cut out 
 the sickly and leave the healthy. 
 
 In the thinning of young fir plantations for the 
 first time, it may be asked at what distance the 
 trees should be left the one from the other? In 
 answer to this, I have to say, that no certain dis- 
 tance can be specified : and the reason is, that the 
 young trees do not all grow alike in the same 
 plantation, neither to height nor to breadth of 
 branches; consequently, they do not all occupy the 
 same space upon the ground. In the first thinning 
 of any plantation of considerable extent, It will 
 often be found prudent and necessary to pass over 
 some parts altogether, without taking out almost 
 one single tree, and this will happen upon a part of 
 the ground which is of a poor thin nature ; and 
 again, wherever the ground is of a stronger nature, 
 with a little shelter from the higher grounds, it 
 may be found necessary to take out nearly one 
 third of the trees in order to give proper air and 
 room : and all this must be regulated by obser- 
 vation more than by any rule that could be given. 
 However, as to rule in this case, I may say thus 
 far, that my method of procedure generally is, to 
 leave the trees, as nearly as possible, yree^ro^n one 
 another after the thinning has been performed : 
 that is, when a plantation of young trees has been 
 newly thinned, the extreme points of the branches 
 of one tree should do no more than touch those of 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 135 
 
 its nearest neighbour ; and in all cases where fir 
 trees are raised for timber, as well as for shelter, 
 they should be kept rather closely together than 
 otherwise. And upon observation, the most advan- 
 tageous distance will be found, as I have formerly 
 mentioned, to be about one third of the height of 
 the trees generally. When firs are kept growing 
 at a distance less .than one third of their height, 
 they become tall, slender, and weakly ; and if grown 
 at a distance from one another greater than that 
 mentioned, they become branchy and do not increase 
 proportionately in height, and the timber is generally 
 coarse. No pruning of fir trees should be allowed ; 
 pruning invariably injures the quahty of the wood 
 of fir trees, and besides, the health of fir trees is 
 much injured by pruning. If the trees are kept as 
 nearly as possible at the distance specified above, 
 they naturally prune themselves as they advance in 
 height ; for as soon as the lower branches of the 
 fir and pine tribe become confined, and a want of 
 free air ensues in the body of the plantation, they 
 gradually die and fall off without in the least in- 
 juring the quality of the timber. In the act of 
 thinning, great care should be had to see that no 
 large open space be left among the trees, which in 
 any direction would in length measure more than 
 the height of one of the trees growing by it ; and 
 this can be easily avoided by proper attention in 
 the disposal of the trees upon the ground, not to 
 
136 THE REARING OF 
 
 heave them running in rows, but in such an alter- 
 nate manner that, which way soever the eve can look 
 from any given point, there may be always a tree to 
 intercept the view within a short distance : and tliis, 
 indeed, is a point of the utmost importance in the art 
 of thinning plantations, and can only be attained by 
 careful observation and experience. If open spaces 
 be left for any considerable distance, the wind gets 
 play among the trees, and has a tendency to cause 
 havoc among them, particularly after being newly 
 thinned, and more so if the plantation has been 
 formerly neglected. As soon as the young trees 
 which Avere marked to come out have been cut 
 down, they should be carried out entire to one of 
 the nearest roads in the plantation, and pruned of 
 their branches there. This is not, indeed, always 
 done ; but still it ought to be the method of going 
 to work among young trees, the health of which 
 requires, for its maintenance, free circulation of 
 pure air among them. I have often had occasion 
 to remark that plantations in a young state are 
 much benefited by having a dry wholesome air cir- 
 culating through them ; and being aware of this 
 fact, it must appear evident, that if the prunings of 
 the felled trees be allowed to he upon the ground 
 when they are cut, the gases arising from their 
 natural decomposition must prove injurious to the 
 health of the standing trees. And this, I have had 
 occasion to observe, is particularly the case when 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 137 
 
 plantations are composed entirely of one tribe or 
 family of trees ; that is, if a plantation be composed 
 entirely of the different sorts of firs, the gases 
 arising from the decomposition of their own kind is 
 injurious to their health, whereas the gases arising 
 from the decomposition of firs are favourable to 
 the health of hard-wood trees. And again, the 
 gases arising from the natural decomposition of 
 hard-wood trees are injurious to the living plant in 
 the neighbourhood, but the same gases prove bene- 
 ficial to the health of fir trees. The reason of this I 
 do not pretend to explain, as a question of chemis- 
 try is involved in the answer ; still, from my own 
 observation, I am satisfied of the truth of what I 
 here assert, although I do not remember of ever 
 having heard that any other forester had ob- 
 served this phenomenon : and it is to be regretted 
 that, generally speaking, foresters are not allowed 
 time and expenses to keep young plantations in 
 the clean healthy state which their ultimate value 
 demands. I have observed, in several places of 
 note in Scotland, where men of first-rate abilities 
 acted as foresters, that the plantations under their 
 charge, although generally well conducted in other 
 points, were, notwithstanding, always in a confused 
 state from the prunings of all felled trees lying 
 upon the ground ; and upon inquiry into the reason 
 of such a state of things, I have always learned 
 that, the operation of keeping plantations clean 
 
138 THE REARIKG O^ 
 
 being an expensive one, tliey were not allowed 
 strength of men sufficient to keep all right. And 
 I beg here to remark, that proprietors of planta- 
 tions often lose much valuable timber by this state 
 of things being allowed to go on in their planta- 
 tions : it does, no doubt, demand a few more pounds 
 of outla}^ at the time, but ultimately that would be 
 paid to their successors ten times over, from the 
 effects of a superior system of management. 
 
 Supposing that a plantation of young fir trees 
 had been thinned in the manner as above recom- 
 mended, when about twelve years old, the trees 
 would then, probably, be from eight to twelve feet 
 liigh, according to soil and situation ; and sup- 
 posing that the same plantation was then in a fair 
 state of health, and to have continued so for 
 another period, say of eight years from the time 
 that it was first thinned, it would, at the end of 
 this second period, be about twenty years old, with 
 the trees from twelve to twenty feet high, and 
 they would, in all probability, be ready at tliis 
 age for another thinning. In the thinning of the 
 same plantation for a second time, the same prac- 
 tical points relative to the work must in all cases 
 be attended to as have already been recommended 
 for the first thinning : consequently these need 
 not be repeated here again. But there are one or 
 two points Avhich must be observed by the ope- 
 rator in the thinning of plantations at or above 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 139 
 
 twenty years old ; and these are, first, to see that 
 the standing trees are not injured by the falhng 
 of those that are cut down. I have seen much 
 damage done to the trees in a young plantation, 
 where the falling down of the cut trees was allowed 
 to take place in a careless and thoughtless manner ; 
 therefore it is that I here beg to recommend to all 
 operators, in the act of cutting down any tree of 
 considerable size and height, to be most careful in 
 the operation. When a fir tree happens to lose its 
 top by a felled neighbour coming in contact with 
 it, such a tree seldom or never increases any more 
 in height, and very frequently dies. The operator, 
 in the act of cutting down any tree of such weight 
 of branches as may be considered dangerous to let 
 fall against any of its neighbours, should, if he has 
 not a sufficient opening for its safe fall, provide 
 himself with a pruning chisel, having a shaft pro- 
 portioned to the height of the tree, and also a mell ; 
 and with these he should lop off all the heavy 
 branches from the tree to be felled, previous to its 
 being cut; and when it is thus made bare of all 
 its branches, any ordinary-sized tree may be at the 
 command of a man's strength, in so far as he may 
 be enabled to push it down to one side or another 
 as he may see fit to suit an opening among the 
 standing trees. I beg to observe here, that the 
 lopping off the branches from a tree of any con- 
 siderable size, is an operation requiring considerable 
 
140 THE REARING OF 
 
 time, consequently it need not be adopted except- 
 ing in extreme cases, where there is evidently danger 
 to the young and growing trees. 
 
 In most cases an expert woodsman can, from ob- 
 servation and practice, make a tree fall very nearly 
 to any given point he may choose as an opening of 
 the safest description. The method practised by 
 expert woodsmen in this sort of work is, to observe, 
 first, toward which side the tree he may be about 
 to cut has naturally its centre of gravity. Having 
 ascertained this point, he proceeds to judge if the 
 tree will or can be made to fall into a proper 
 opening among the growing trees ; and being 
 from observation well assured as to the side 
 to which the tree can be made to fall with 
 the most safety, he commences to cut first upon 
 the side to which he wishes it to fall : after 
 cutting the tree rather more than half through 
 upon that side, so as to throw the centre of 
 gravity in the desired direction, he next applies 
 his axe to the opposite side. As he gradually 
 weakens the perpendicular attitude of the tree, he 
 observes now and then if the centre of gravity in 
 the tottering tree is likely to take an unexpected 
 turn upon him, and if so, he checks the same by 
 cutting oppositely ; and by these means alone I have 
 had men who could lay down trees upon the 
 ground to almost any given point. But, notwith- 
 standing all this, I have frequently had to do with 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 141 
 
 instances in the thinning of plantations where the 
 coming down of a heavy-topped fir tree Avoiikl have 
 done much damage ; and in such cases, when I ap- 
 phed the chisel in the manner as above stated, the 
 work was safely accomplished. 
 
 At the age proper for the second thinning of 
 any fir plantation, it should never be too severely 
 thmned ; because, at such an age, say at about 
 twenty years old, the trees are generally in their 
 most healthy and rapid state of growth ; and if 
 they should happen to be checked at such a stage, 
 the ultimate value of the whole plantation might 
 be materially impaired, and it is even possible that 
 the whole might be ruined ; therefore it is re- 
 quisite, in all cases, to thin with experience and 
 caution. 
 
 It is in all cases better to thin frequently, and 
 take out a few trees at a time from any given 
 plantation, than to thin at distant periods, and then 
 to do so severely. Many foresters recommend to 
 thin plantations at regular intervals of ten years. 
 To such a method of procedure I cannot agree, 
 because it is evident that no specified time can 
 be given as an interval between thinnings: planta- 
 tions do not grow with equal vigour every year — in 
 some years trees will make strong healthy shoots 
 of young wood, and in others much less. Trees 
 grow more rapidly in a warm season than in a cold 
 one, and, as has been already stated, they are 
 
142 THE REARING OF 
 
 very much affected by variety of soil and situation ; 
 and being aware of these circumstances, it is folly 
 to say that a plantation of trees can be thinned 
 advantageously at any definite period. After any 
 young plantation has been thinned for the first 
 time, it is advantageous to its welfare to go over 
 it and take out a few trees in the way of thinning, 
 at intervals of four or five years — in all cases judg- 
 ing upon this point according to the appearance 
 of the trees, whether they may have grown rapidly 
 or not since they were last thinned ; and at such 
 thinnings I would advise every proprietor merely 
 to take out such trees as are really doing injury to 
 others. By this method, which I always practise 
 myself, plantations never experience any sensible 
 check, and consequently they are kept in a con- 
 stant quick-growing state ; whereas, by the method 
 of thinning at regular intervals of ten years, the 
 trees in a plantation are by that time generally 
 hurt to a very great extent from the effects of con- 
 finement ; and as soon as they are thinned, in such 
 a manner as to relieve each tree for another period 
 of ten years, the whole plantation must be very 
 much cooled down in temperature and shelter from 
 what it was before the operation was performed, 
 and the natural consequence is, that the trees thus 
 receive a severe check, which in too many cases 
 they never recover. A plantation thinned at inter- 
 vals of about five years, will yield one third more 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 143 
 
 timber at the end of sixty years, than one of the 
 same extent thinned at intervals of ten years. 
 
 Every fir plantation, whether that may be com- 
 posed of larch, Scots, or spruce, ought to be gradu- 
 ally thinned as the trees advance in height and 
 breadth, until they be about forty years of age, after 
 which period no fir plantation which has been pro- 
 perly managed, should be at all disturbed by the 
 operation of thinning. At forty years of age, the 
 trees in a fir plantation should stand at such a dis- 
 tance one from another, as may be considered sutfi- 
 cient to bring them to confirmed maturity upon the 
 soil upon which they are growing ; and this distance 
 of the trees one from another should, as I have for- 
 merly stated, be about one third of their height ; 
 and, indeed, this ought to be as nearly as possible 
 the rule for distance among fir plantations at all 
 stages of their growth, commencing our calculation 
 with the time the trees receive their first course of 
 thinning. 
 
 In many high-lying districts, the trees in a fir 
 plantation may, at forty years of age, be about 
 thirty feet high ; therefore, the distance of such 
 trees at that age, should be as nearly as possible ten 
 feet : and, again, in a more sheltered situation, with 
 a dry and favourable subsoil, they may, at forty 
 years of age, be about sixty feet high; and in such 
 a case, the distance of the trees one from another 
 may be about twenty feet. 
 
144 THE REARING OF 
 
 At sixty years of age, the wood of the pine and 
 fir tribes is generally considered to be in its most 
 valuable and solid state as timber ; it is then heavier, 
 and more full of resinous matter than at any other 
 stage of its existence ; consequently, at that age, if 
 the object be a crop of valuable timber, the tree 
 should be cut down, and disposed of as may seem 
 best. But if the proprietor have in view the giv- 
 ing of shelter to his lands, which is generally one 
 end aimed at by improving proprietors, the plan- 
 tation may be allowed to stand for other twenty 
 years, after which period the trees will begin to 
 become lighter in their wood, and many will then 
 be showing marks of natural decay, and the whole 
 plantation will of course be generally speaking of 
 less value than it was at sixty years' standing. 
 However, this is not always the case ; for very much 
 depends upon the nature of the soil and situation 
 upon which the crop of wood may be growing, 
 as to whether that may be high or low lying, dry 
 or damp. In a high situation, with a good dry 
 bottom, I have seen excellent fir trees at one hun- 
 dred years old ; while, upon the other hand, I have 
 seen firs beginning to show symptoms of rapid 
 decay at fifty years of age, and in many cases 
 even at a much earlier age, which was in a low 
 and rather moist situation, and without a free cir- 
 culation of air. 
 
 It very frequently happens that fir plantations 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 145 
 
 have to be dealt with which have been much ne- 
 glected ; and although they in many instances be 
 past any good hopes of recovery, and might in so 
 far as regards the value of their timber be very 
 properly cut down, yet, it is very often the wish of 
 the proprietor to have old fir plantations preserved, 
 and not altogether cut down, particularly if such a 
 plantation should happen to be placed upon a part 
 of his estate where, from its evergreen appearance, 
 it proves ornamental from a certain point of view, 
 as well as a shelter to the neighbourhood around 
 it. In such a case, profit and ornament should be 
 combined. It would not be profitable for the pro- 
 prietor of an old neglected fir plantation to leave 
 the ground entirely occupied by a few trees only 
 in a fail' state of health, with many others dead 
 and dying ; therefore, the profitable way of going 
 to work in such a case would be to plant anew with 
 other trees all vacant parts, and, for the sake of 
 ornament and shelter, all good old trees could be 
 left for a time. 
 
 I have frequently been called upon by proprie- 
 tors to give my opinion relative to the state of fir 
 plantations upon their estates, which had grown 
 up under utter neglect ; and requested to say 
 Avhether I thought that such a plantation would 
 recover by any means I could suggest. AYhere 
 I have found such plantations young — say, at or 
 under thirty years of age — and spoiled merely from 
 
 K 
 
146 THE HEARING OF 
 
 the want of having heen thinned in proper time, I 
 have very often seen them recovered by a very 
 cautious and gradual course of thinning, and that 
 especially where the trees grew upon a dry bottom ; 
 but wherever I have found thinning neglected upon 
 a damp soil, I at once pronounced that there was 
 no hope of recovery for the trees. In many such 
 cases I have seen a gradual course of thinning with 
 draining tried for the purpose of recovery, but all 
 to no purpose. If ever the pine or fir tribe have 
 been much affected by dampness in the soil, the 
 sooner that the trees are cut down the better ; 
 after which, draining and replanting can be got 
 done in a proper manner. 
 
 Where the trees in a neglected fir plantation 
 may happen to be old — say, at or above sixty 
 years — and where, in such a case, it is the wish 
 of the proprietor to extend the existence of his 
 plantation as long as possible for the sake of shel- 
 ter and general ornament, it is a very good method 
 to cut out gradually all the trees which have the 
 appearance of decay, and to leave the best trees 
 standing at wide chstances, and as nearly regular 
 as possible. Say that good trees are left at seventy 
 feet distance one from another, from a distant view 
 the plantation would seem good ; and then the 
 open spaces between the old trees could be re- 
 planted with a crop of hard-wood trees, which, 
 from being sheltered by the old firs, would grow 
 
FIR PLANTATIONS. 147 
 
 very rapidly ; and in the conrse of ten or fifteen 
 years from the time of this replanting, and when 
 the hard-wood may be expected to be pretty strong, 
 the firs might with propriety be dispensed with 
 altogether, or at least, a few of the best trees 
 might be left, according as the taste of the pro- 
 prietor might suggest. 
 
 SECTION II. SYSTEM OF THINNING AND REARING 
 
 UP OF MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 
 
 The rearing up of hard-wood plantations to 
 any thing approaching natural perfection, requires 
 much more attention and practical knowledge from 
 the manager than that of fir woods does. 
 
 In a fir plantation, the trees are alike of an 
 upright habit of growth, from Avhich circumstance 
 they are very easily regulated and kept in proper 
 place and order ; but in a plantation consisting 
 of many different kinds of hard-wood, all grow- 
 ing in a mixed state — some, as the elm, inclining 
 to grow much to horizontal branches, and others, 
 as the ash, tending to an upright growth — much 
 attention is necessary for the first twenty-five 
 years, in order to keep the rambhng sorts within 
 due bounds, and from over-topping and injur- 
 ing their neighbom^s which may be less hardy in 
 their young state. And as it is in the young state 
 that hard-wood plantations may be made to do 
 
148 THE REARING OF 
 
 well or otherwise, according as tliej may be atten- 
 ilecl to, to train them up as children in the way 
 they should go, it is a matter of the first im- 
 portance in good forestry, that the manager be 
 well acquainted with the circumstances which re- 
 tard the progress of young trees, as well as those 
 which are known to be favourable to their healthy 
 development. Being myself well aware from past 
 experience of the extensive damage which is done 
 to young hard-wood plantations in consequence of 
 their being neglected in their young state, I shall 
 here lay down at some length the method which 
 ought to be pursued in order to have healthy and 
 valuable hard-wood trees — dwelHng more particu- 
 larly upon the system which ought to be adopted 
 in rearing till the trees attain twenty-five years of 
 age ; after which time, if they have been properly 
 attended to, little care is required as regards trees 
 individually, except to give them room as they 
 advance in size. 
 
 Suppose that a tract of ground has been planted 
 with a mixture of young hard-wood trees at ten 
 feet distance from each other, and that the ground 
 between them has been planted with firs for the 
 sake of giving shelter, in such a manner as to 
 make the plants over the whole ground stand 
 at about three and a half feet distance. If the 
 ground thus planted have been properly drained 
 previous to the trees being planted, and the situa- 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 149 
 
 tion is one of a moderate exposure, such a plantation 
 will, at ten or twelve years' standing, very probably 
 be in a state requiring to be thinned for the first time. 
 In examining the state of such a young hard-wood 
 plantation, with the view of ascertaining whether it 
 may be proper to thin or not, go carefully through 
 among the trees, and mark particularly the state of 
 the hard-wood plants, observing if the branches of 
 the firs are not encroaching too far upon them, 
 either so as to overtop them or to confine them too 
 much upon any side. My method of proceeding in 
 the management of young hard-wood plantations at 
 the stage above stated is as follows : — 
 
 About two years before I consider it necessary to 
 begin thinning out any of the firs, I go over all the 
 hard-wood plants, and prune from them all strong 
 branches that may have the appearance of gaining 
 strength upon the top shoots, as also cutting away 
 with a hedge-knife any of the fir branches that may 
 be encroaching upon the hard-wood trees. This 
 being done, the hard-wood trees, having the advan- 
 tage of shelter all about them after being pruned, 
 make strong and vigorous shoots during the two 
 succeeding years. By that time they are in a 
 confirmed healthy growing state, and have com- 
 pletely recovered from the effects of any pruning 
 that they may have received : consequently they are 
 then in a fit state for being exposed to more free 
 air, as is always the case after being thinned for the 
 
150 THE REARING OF 
 
 first time ; and in fact, if young hard-wood trees be 
 properly attended to in pruning them in this man- 
 ner, and at this stage of their growth, they seldom 
 or ever require much pruning afterwards. The 
 great error which generally prevails among foresters 
 at the present time, in the management of young 
 hard-wood plantations at the stage above mentioned, 
 is, that they both thin and prune at the same time. 
 Now, no system of management can be more in- 
 jurious to the health of any plantation than this ; 
 for, when a few branches are lopped off a young tree, 
 it will often die when exposed suddenly to a tempe- 
 rature below that which it formerly used to exist in ; 
 and this invariably ensues when pruning and thin- 
 ning are executed at the same time. But if, when 
 a young tree is pruned, the temperature be increased 
 rather than otherwise, the tree is immediately im- 
 proved by the operation, and decidedly attains amore 
 vigorous constitution than it formerly possessed ; 
 and this again is exactly the case when pruning 
 is done in the early part of spring, and a consider- 
 able time previous to thinning : this at once point- 
 ing out the evil of both pruning and thinning at the 
 same time, and the great propriety of pruning trees 
 a considerable time before exposing them suddenly 
 by thinning. 
 
 Having pruned the young hard-wood trees in a 
 plantation, as has been stated above, and having 
 allowed them to remain among the firs undisturbed 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS, 151 
 
 for two years after, and finding them at the end 
 of that period in a healthy and vigorous growing 
 state, I next thin away all firs that are pressing 
 too much upon the hard-wood, without, in the first 
 place, having any respect to the thinning of the 
 firs among themselves ; for the hard-wood trees 
 being of the first importance, the firs are in this in- 
 stance only a secondary object. But as soon as I 
 have the hard-wood plants all properly relieved, I 
 next thin out a few of the firs also ; and in doing so, 
 I aim at keeping them close rather than thin, and that 
 with the view of giving as much shelter to the hard- 
 wood plants as is properly consistent with the health of 
 the whole. But, to be more particular upon this point. 
 It shows a great want of judgment in the manager 
 of plantations wherever firs are severely thinned 
 from among young hard-wood trees, particularly 
 in that earlier part of their existence relative to 
 which we are now speaking. The firs were planted 
 among the hard-wood with the view of giving them 
 shelter in order to nurse them up quickly : now, if 
 they be removed away many at one time, the hard- 
 wood plants will, no doubt, sufi^er much from the 
 check : if they be once checked by a severe thinning, 
 the trees never will afterwards attain that state of 
 health they would have had, had they been other- 
 wise dealt with ; and of course, in such a case, the 
 future value of the whole as a plantation will be 
 much lessened. Therefore, in all cases of thinning 
 
152 THE REARING OF 
 
 away firs from hard-wood for the first time, great 
 caution is necessary not to overdo this point, more 
 particularly if the situation be much exposed. An- 
 other advantage gained by keeping young hard- 
 Avood trees rather close among firs is, that from 
 being confined rather than exposed, the plants are 
 more drawn up to height of boll than to breadth of 
 branches ; and from the circumstance of the side 
 branches being confined, and not allowed to expand 
 upon account of the firs, they do not grow rapidly, 
 and of course the top soon gets the lead in the 
 growth, and in a great measure does away with the 
 necessity of pruning — which is, properly speaking, 
 an unnatural operation, and ought to be avoided as 
 much as possible. When once the top of any tree has 
 fairly got the lead of all the branches, it will keep it 
 ever after, unless any unforeseen accident should 
 befall it. When young trees have too much free air 
 and room to spread out their side branches in a 
 plantation, there must be much waste of ground; and 
 in order to check such a free growth of side branches 
 where such is actually the case, pruning must be 
 adopted, in order that one tree may not injure 
 another. But under good management this is 
 seldom found to be the case; where young planta- 
 tions have been neglected, the case is altered, and 
 a system of pruning must be adopted. 
 
 The firs growing in a plantation among hard- 
 wood trees, which arc intended for the ultimate 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 153 
 
 crop upon the ground, should be gradually thinned 
 out as the hard-wood trees advance ; and not so 
 much attention should be paid to the thinning of 
 the firs among themselves, as to see that they do 
 not encroach too much upon the hard-wood trees ; 
 as soon as they do so, attention should be directed 
 to having such cut down immediately. 
 
 As I have already said, when referring to the 
 thinning of fir plantations, — many foresters are in 
 the habit of thinning at stated intervals of from five 
 to ten years ; — but I again, in this place, beg to 
 caution all who wish to produce healthy hard-wood 
 plantations, against such a dangerous system of 
 forest management. Because, if a young plan- 
 tation, whether of hard-wood or firs, after re- 
 ceiving its first course of thinning, be allowed to 
 grow on undisturbed for a period of say eight 
 years, the trees in it must be in a very confused 
 and confined state, and certainly too much drawn 
 up ; and when such a plantation is thinned, in order 
 to give each tree relief, many must be taken down. 
 AVhen this is done, the whole plantation is sud- 
 denly cooled ; and if the ground be of a damp or 
 cold nature, many of the trees are blown down, and 
 such a plantation very often is ever after left a 
 mere wreck. 
 
 The great art of thinning and rearing up of hard- 
 wood plantations is, to go carefully and regularly 
 through them every third or fourth year at farthest, 
 
154 THE KEARING OF 
 
 and never to cut away many trees at one time, but 
 merely such as are actually doing injury to others 
 of more value than themselves. By this method of 
 procedure, the plantations so dealt with never re- 
 ceive any sensible check, and are kept in a con- 
 stantly healthy growing state, and always produce 
 much more timber at the end of any given period of 
 years, than plantations managed upon an opposite 
 principle. 
 
 When a young hard-wood plantation has arrived 
 at the age of twenty-five or thirty years, it is very 
 probable that the firs may be dispensed with alto- 
 gether, in order to give the hard-wood all justice for 
 the expansion of their trunks ; but if the situation 
 happen to be an exposed one, it will be a point of 
 wisdom to have a considerable portion of the firs left 
 standing upon the most exposed side or sides of the 
 plantation — they are more hardy than the hard- 
 wood sorts, and, when growing upon the outside of a 
 wood, they form a protection to more valuable trees 
 in the interior. 
 
 I have already stated elsewhere, that hard-wood 
 trees, when growing in a forest, should stand at a 
 distance corresponding to about one half the height 
 of the trees respectively ; but, properly speaking, 
 there can be no specific rule laid down for guidance 
 upon this point, for much depends upon the nature 
 of the soil. In a strong loamy soil well adapted to 
 the rearing of forest trees, I have seen excellent 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 155 
 
 timber growing eighty feet high and not more than 
 twenty feet tree from tree ; while upon the other 
 hand, in a Hght poor thin soil, I have seen trees 
 not thirty feet high, scarcely able to maintain exis- 
 tence although they were standing twenty feet one 
 from another. But upon a moderate calculation, 
 and upon a soil of moderate capabilities, one half 
 the height of the trees may be reckoned as a fair 
 distance at which one tree should stand from 
 another, at all stages of their growth, after they 
 have received their first course of thinning. 
 
 I here beg to caution all who have not had 
 thorough practical experience of their own, not to 
 be guided by any universal rule of distance which 
 one tree should stand from another, in the act of 
 thinning. The great point to attend to is, to keep 
 the trees, at all stages of their growth, after the 
 first thinning has taken place, merely free one 
 from another, in the top branches — not to allow the 
 trees to grow so closely together as to be drawn 
 up weakly in the boll, nor to be allowed so much 
 room in the forest as to spread out their branches 
 horizontally, and take up too much space in the 
 plantation. 
 
 If the plantation have thriven well, it is hkely 
 that, at thirty years of age, a few of the hard-wood 
 trees may require to be taken out, in order to re- 
 lieve others of more value, and which may have 
 grown more rapidly ; and in the same manner, a 
 
156 THE REARING OF 
 
 few should be taken out now and then, without 
 much respect to stated intervals, wherever they 
 may have the appearance of being too close one 
 upon another. And this should be gradually done 
 till the plantation is about forty-five years old, 
 when it should have a final thinning, making every 
 individual tree stand as nearly as possible free of 
 its neighbour ; and in this state, the trees may be 
 allowed to stand until they attain perfect maturity, 
 which, with the generality of trees, is about sixty- 
 five years old, when they may be either cut down 
 or allowed to stand, according as the taste or in- 
 clination of the proprietor may suggest ; but where 
 valuable timber is the object of the proprietor, the 
 trees should be used as such when between sixty 
 and seventy years old. 
 
 In all cases, during the progress of rearing up 
 hard-wood for timber in a forest, where pruning 
 may be found necessary, let that be done one or tAVo 
 years previous to commencing any thinning opera- 
 tions. The reason for this advice I have explained 
 already ; and were this point properly attended to, 
 we would soon see a great improvement in the 
 quality of our timber trees. 
 
 There is also the case of neglected hard-wood 
 plantations to be taken into consideration ; and, in- 
 deed, cases of this nature too often come under the 
 observation of the forester who may have extensive 
 practice. In many cases I have had to deal with 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 157 
 
 plantations consisting of hard-wood and firs, mixed 
 and growing together in the proportions formerly 
 mentioned, which had never been thinned up to the 
 time that I examined them — and they were then 
 tliirty years old. The hard-wood plants were then 
 about ten feet high, and from two to three inches in 
 diameter ; and the firs, which had grown rapidly, 
 were large, massy trees, fully thirty feet high. Upon 
 consideration, I concluded that no remedy could be 
 used in order to recover the hard-wood plants, seeing 
 they had been so much stunted and crushed down. 
 There was, indeed, one way in which the hard-wood 
 trees might have been made to grow to advantage, 
 but it must have been at the expense of the firs ; but 
 as they were good trees, tlie operation would have 
 been a decided loss to the proprietor. The only way 
 to have saved them would have been, to have cut 
 them all down to the ground, and to have made them 
 all spring from the root afresh ; but in order to 
 have given them a proper recovery, one half of the 
 firs must have been sacrificed. In several instances 
 where I have had to deal with plantations consisting 
 entirely of hard-wood plants, so old, and so much 
 drawn up together from the want of thinning, that 
 they had actually become mere poles of thirty feet 
 high, and not more than four inches diameter, I 
 have cut the whole plantation over to the surface of 
 the ground, because thinning was out of the ques- 
 tion ; and in such cases, I have had an excellent 
 
158 THE REAKING OF 
 
 plantation of young trees from the old stocks, and 
 which, in ten years after, formed a tirst-rato plan- 
 tation of trees, having been all thinned out to regular 
 distances in due time, and not allowed to rise too 
 thickly again. 
 
 In all cases of neglected hard-wood plantations, 
 where it may considered advisable to cut down the 
 trees, in order to cause them to send up fresh young 
 shoots to form trees, care should be taken to see 
 that the ground be made perfectly dry, by a 
 proper course of draining ; for if this point be 
 not attended to, disappointment may possibly be 
 the result. 
 
 Wherever hard-wood plantations are found to be 
 in a bad state, from having been neglected for a 
 period at or beyond thirty years, there is little hope 
 of their recovery by any course of thinning, how- 
 ever cautiously it may be gone about, unless the 
 trees evidently show symptoms of a sound constitu- 
 tion, which may be the case where the soil is good 
 and dry. Therefore, in all such cases, unless symp- 
 toms of health be remarked in the trees, the proper 
 and only way is to cut all down and plant anew ; 
 and if the situation be one exposed to the view of 
 the mansion-house, or pleasure grounds, where a 
 complete clearing away of the mismanaged planta- 
 tion would cause a bad effect, a few of the best and 
 healthiest trees might with propriety be allowed 
 to stand for a time, in order to give effect to the 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD PLANTATIONS. 159 
 
 landscape, until such time as the young trees had 
 attained a considerable size. 
 
 AVhat I have said above, relative to the rearing 
 up of hard-wood plantations, is only applicable to 
 such when grown for the sake of their timber ; but 
 upon proprietors' estates, hard-wood plantations 
 are more generally raised with the view of being 
 ornamental upon the lawns and home parks, than 
 simply for the sake of the value of their timber. 
 
 Every proprietor who lays out new grounds in 
 the neighbourhood of his mansion-house, if no plan- 
 tations exist upon those grounds at the time, will, 
 in accordance with good taste, and with the view of 
 affording shelter, plant extensively upon them. And 
 every proprietor of sound natural taste will, in a case 
 of this nature, plant the chfferent sorts of hard-wood, 
 with the view of their becoming ultimately liis per- 
 manent standing trees, and make up with firs, simply 
 with the view of acting as nurses, until such time as 
 the hard-wood sorts may arrive at a size sufficient 
 to insure their welfare, independent of the firs ; and 
 not plant firs in a body by themselves, in any plan- 
 tation near the mansion, or in the grounds imme- 
 diately in view, for these always give a place a 
 mean and highland appearance. 
 
 I am aware that many proprietors in Scotland, 
 whose seats are upon high-lying and rather moor- 
 land districts in the country, are of the opinion 
 that hard-wood trees will not grow with them to 
 
160 THE REARING OF 
 
 a size worth cultivating with the view of becoming 
 ornamental lawn-trees. Upon this point, my expe- 
 rience points to quite a different conclusion. In 
 all high-lying situations in Scotland, where the 
 Scots and spruce firs are found to succeed well — the 
 former on the heights and the latter in the hollows 
 — the beech, elm, and ash will thrive well also, and 
 become trees of no mean magnitude. This I have 
 observed through Aberdeenshire, and other northern 
 parts in Scotland, as also on the highest-lying dis- 
 tricts in the south of Scotland ; therefore no pro- 
 prietor in Scotland, if he can produce upon his 
 estate Scots firs of good size, should hesitate to 
 plant the sorts of hard-wood trees above named. All 
 that he has to do, in order to insure success, is to 
 plant firs as nurses, along with the hard- wood, and 
 remove them by degrees as the others advance. 
 
 It is allowed by all people possessed of good 
 natural taste, that firs, when planted in a mass, and 
 forming a plantation near to a gentleman's mansion, 
 without a proper body of hard-wood trees, give that 
 place a cold, heavy, alpine appearance, although it 
 may be situated in the most fertile part of the 
 country. And it is my opinion, that every proprietor 
 of land shoyld endeavour, as much as possible, to 
 cultivate all the different sorts of hard-wood within 
 the range of his home parks, which will give his 
 grounds a fertile and cultivated aspect, although 
 the situation he may occupy be naturally one of an 
 
MIXED HARD-WOOD TLANTATIONS. 161 
 
 opposite character. All fir plantations should be 
 kept out upon the poor high grounds ,of an estate ; 
 and by the arrangement of having the hard-wood 
 trees in the centre of the property, and the firs 
 upon the outer grounds, the whole will have a most 
 natural and imposing efi'ect. 
 
 Wherever a young plantation is made of hard- 
 wood and firs, with the view of their ultimately be- 
 coming ornamental lawn trees, they should, in every 
 respect, be treated in the same manner as already 
 advised for forest hard-wood trees, until they arrive 
 at the period when they require to be thinned for 
 the first time. The hard-wood which are intended 
 for lawn trees should also be brought into shape 
 by receiving a judicious pruning previous to be- 
 ing thinned for the first time, as has been advised 
 elsewhere ; and when the hard-wood trees which 
 are intended for lawn standards are thinned, they 
 should have, at all stages, much room and space to 
 spread out their branches and develope themselves 
 according to their nature, which is the state in 
 which trees always appear to best advantage. And 
 in order to allow the young hard-wood trees to 
 attain their natural shape as much as possible, the 
 firs which may be planted about them, with the 
 view of giving shelter for a time, should be kept 
 well off them, and never allowed even to touch 
 theu' branches, but placed so as merely to stand 
 by thcii- sides, and give the benefit of their shelter. 
 
 L 
 
162 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 As soon as they approach each other too closely, 
 the firs should at once be sacrificed. At the same 
 time, however, attention must be paid to see that 
 this be done gradually ; perhaps looking over and 
 taking out a few firs every year, as occasion may 
 require, and as the hard-wood trees advance. 
 
 The great art in rearing up hard- wood trees for 
 lawn scenery, is, first, not to prune off any branch 
 after the trees are fairly established in the ground, 
 and about eight or ten feet high. Second, the firs, 
 which act as nurses, should never be allowed to 
 spread themselves upon the branches of the hard- 
 wood, but should merely stand by, for the salce of 
 shelter. Third, observe what sorts of hard-wood 
 trees appear to thrive best upon the ground, and 
 encourage those most which appear to do best; and, 
 at the same time, wherever any particular sort of 
 hard-wood does not appear to do well upon the soil, 
 leave firs in their place. A few good specimens of 
 firs look well among hard-wood. Fourth, when the 
 hard-wood trees have advanced so far as to require 
 all the firs to be removed to give them room, and 
 when they begin even to encroach too much upon 
 each other, cut out several of themselves also, and 
 continue to do so until the trees have attained the 
 age of forty years, after which period it will not 
 be found necessary to thin much, if they have been 
 well attended to formerly. Fifth, in the act of thin- 
 ning out trees intended for park and lawn scenery, 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 163 
 
 care should be had to see that picturesque openings 
 be made here and there, of distant views from the 
 mansion; such as a particular plantation upon a 
 height, a romantic view of an old ruin, or a sheet of 
 water in a neighbouring hollow ; — all of which are 
 beautiful objects in landscape scenery, and should 
 never be hidden from the mansion and grounds of 
 the proprietor ; for, however beautiful trees may- 
 be in themselves upon a lawn, they form but a dull 
 and monotonous scene, if well-chosen openings be 
 not left among them, through which other inte- 
 resting objects may be seen. 
 
 SECTION III. REARING UP AND THINNING OF OAK 
 
 PLANTATIONS. 
 
 The oak being the most valuable of all the tim- 
 ber-trees grown in Great Britain, it is generally 
 cultivated with more care and attention than any 
 one else; therefore, I consider it necessary and 
 proper to treat of the manner of rearing it under a 
 distinct head. 
 
 Three different systems of rearing young oaks 
 are practised among foresters of the present day ; 
 each of which is advocated and upheld by a con- 
 siderable number of practical men, who put each 
 his own system into operation, according as his own 
 views of the matter direct him, without paying due 
 consideration to place and circumstances. 
 
164 KEARING UP AKD THINNING 
 
 The three different systems are these : — First, 
 that of sowing the Acorns or seed at once upon 
 the ground where it is intended the trees are to 
 grow up and become timber : second, that of trans- 
 planting the trees from the nurseries in the usual 
 way, and, in one year after being planted, when 
 their roots are established in the ground, cutting 
 each tree over by the surface of the earth, and 
 allowing the stump so cut to stand for two or 
 three years, when a number of young shoots are 
 produced immediately from the earth, strong 
 enough to allow a choice to be made of one to 
 stand for a permanent tree, when all the others are 
 destroyed : and, third, the system of planting the 
 young trees in pits, as is usually done, and allow- 
 ing them to come away in their own natural way. 
 Each of these systems has its peculiar advantages 
 and disadvantages ; and, in order to point out these 
 clearly, and in such a manner as to render the 
 statement of them practically useful to the forester 
 who wishes information, it will be necessary to 
 make a few observations upon each of the systems 
 referred to. 
 
 With regard to the first, — namely, the system of 
 sowing the acorns, or seed of the oak, at once upon 
 the ground where it is intended the trees are to 
 grow up and become timber, — this is, undeniably, 
 acting according to the laws of nature, to which 
 we ought always to attend in the rearing of forest 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS, 165 
 
 trees to any thing like perfection. Those who advo- 
 cate the general introduction of this system say, that 
 the best specimens of oak trees to be found in Bri- 
 tain are those sown by the hand of nature. But this 
 assertion seems to be far from fully authenticated ; 
 for, of the many famous oaks mentioned in the his- 
 tory of our country as having existed until lately, it 
 is uncertain whether they might have been remains 
 of an old natural forest, or whether they may 
 have been planted artificially by the hands of man. 
 The managers of the Government forests in Eng- 
 land have adopted this method for the rearing of 
 their oak for the supply of the navy ; and I under- 
 stand that the trees so raised are doing well, and 
 likely to become trees of the first magnitude : but 
 still, I am not aware that they are succeeding bet- 
 ter than transplanted trees would have done, had 
 they been planted instead of the acorns at the same 
 time. I have sown acorns in the forest grounds, 
 with the view of ascertaining if plants raised in 
 such a manner did grow much more rapidly than 
 those brought from the nurseries and transplanted 
 in the usual manner ; and from what experience 1 
 have gathered upon this point,' — which, be it under- 
 stood, has been but upon a small scale (upon five or 
 six acres of ground), where they were merely inter- 
 mixed among transplanted trees, and the experiment 
 was made simply with the view of satisfying myself 
 as to the utility of the system, — I am convinced that 
 
166 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 the trees raised from the acorn sown in the forest 
 ground, grows, for the first few years, more rapidly 
 than the others, and is brought into the proper form 
 of a tree with very httle artificial aid as regards 
 pruning ; but I have found also, that where much 
 game exists, as is almost always the case upon gen- 
 tlemen's estates, it is almost an impossibility to get 
 the young tender shoots of the plants, as they rise 
 above the ground, kept from being eaten down by 
 hares and rabbits. About four years ago, I was very 
 much inclined to commence the sowing of acorns in 
 all our plantations where oaks were required to be 
 raised upon the estate of Arniston; being convinced, 
 from a former trial, in another situation where I 
 was, in which I was very successful, that they, when 
 got up without any damage befalling them, formed 
 the handsomest and fastest growing specimens, I 
 was the more bent upon making another trial upon 
 an extensive scale. Having communicated the 
 scheme which I then had in view to an old forester 
 of forty years' experience, asking liis opinion pre- 
 vious to making the attempt, he advised me strongly 
 not to sow acorns immediately in forest ground, with 
 the view of raising trees in any new situation, until 
 I had proved the utility of the system, by sow- 
 ing first upon a small scale. Acting upon his ad- 
 vice, for he was a man of the soundest judgment in 
 all forest matters, I sowed acorns in pits dug by the 
 spade for the purpose, and had the pits, in the act 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 167 
 
 of making them, well cleaned from all root-weeds, 
 so as to give them every chance of success ; and the 
 soil being a fine dry sandy loam, I calculated upon 
 success. I soAved the seed in the month of Febru- 
 ary, and, upon looking over the ground in a week 
 or two afterwards, 1 was mortified to find that rab- 
 bits had visited the fresh earth of the pits before me, 
 and had fully one-half of them burrowed through ; 
 upon looking for the acorns, I found the shells 
 indeed, but the mice had eaten the kernels ; and 
 upon examining the state of the pits generally, 
 in which the acorns had been sown, I found that 
 very few of them had escaped the ravages of ver- 
 min of some sort or other — I even caught pheasants 
 in the very act of scraping up and helping them- 
 selves to an acorn. Upon seeing all this, I was 
 indeed thankful to my old friend, the forester, for 
 his cautious advice, and was also happy that I did 
 not sow extensively upon ground which was so much 
 overrun with game and other vermin. As I had 
 sown only about an acre of ground in the manner 
 above stated, I could indeed easily have prevented 
 the ravages of the larger animals, but against 
 those of the mice there was no possible resource. 
 Therefore, this being only a trial upon a small 
 scale, I determined to give nature her own way in 
 the whole business, and consequently did not go 
 back to inspect the state of the pits in which the 
 acorns were sown till about the middle of May, 
 
1G8 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 when I found great difficulty in tracing out the 
 exact spots where they had t)een sown — the grass 
 and weeds which were natural to the soil had 
 grown rapidly, and almost hidden the red earth. 
 I immediately had the weeds, &c., all cut away from 
 about the pits, and at the same time had the surface 
 of the pits weeded by the hand ; but there was no 
 appearance of any oaks as yet in them. About the 
 middle of June I again had the surface of the pits 
 weeded, when I observed about twenty young oak 
 plants rising upon a whole acre of ground; and 
 before the autumn, there were none left excepting 
 two, which I protected, which are indeed doing well 
 now, but not a great deal better than others which 
 were transplanted about the same time, in the usual 
 manner, from the nurseries. 
 
 Besides what I have detailed relative to my 
 attempt to rear oaks from the acorn in the natural 
 forest ground, I have also since then sown in many 
 places of our woods without digging the ground 
 at all, merely paring away the turf from the sur- 
 face of the ground shghtly, and then putting 
 in the acorns with a common garden dibble ; 
 and I did this with the view of disturbing the 
 natural soil as little as possible, thinking that 
 the rabbits and mice would not be tempted to 
 burrow in the soil when they found it firm. The 
 ultimate issue, however, was the same ; for what 
 plants were allowed to come above ground, and 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 169 
 
 had escaped the ravages of the mice and pheas- 
 ants, were greedily sought after and devoured by 
 the hares and rabbits when they came into leaf. 
 Therefore, in the mean time, and until I have fur- 
 ther experience upon this point, I am induced to 
 think, that the system of rearing oaks at once 
 from the acorn in the forest ground is not at all 
 adapted to the present state of forest lands. I 
 confess that I am convinced of the propriety of 
 raising trees in the forest at once from the seed, 
 in order to have the best specimens of timber 
 trees ; but it is very hkely that a period of fifty 
 years must elapse before our forest grounds are 
 put into a proper and fit state for raising trees 
 to advantage by such a system. Were it prac- 
 ticable to have all our forest ground ploughed 
 and cleaned in the same manner as in agricultural 
 operations, I would at once say, that all forest 
 trees ought to be raised from the seed at once 
 sown in the ground they are intended to occupy ; 
 but until then, the system is quite impracticable. 
 
 1 conclude my observations upon this head by re- 
 marking, that the advantages of the system in ques- 
 tion are, that the trees so raised never receive any 
 check in their growth, as must be the case with all 
 transplanted trees ; they grow much quicker, and 
 come sooner to the size of trees, than those raised 
 by transplanting ; they grow taller in habit from 
 not having their tap roots cut, and are seldom 
 
170 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 found to require much pruning, as is the case 
 with the others. 
 
 The disadvantages of the system in question are, 
 that the seed when sown in a detached form in 
 pits in the common forest ground, is extremely 
 liable to be destroyed by vermin before it A^ege- 
 tates ; while, after the plants appear aboA^e ground, 
 they are in equal danger from hares and rabbits 
 eating them over. They are also liable to be 
 destroyed from the eifects of rank-growing grass 
 and other weeds choking them while in their 
 young and tender state ; and in order to avoid 
 this, much expense is incurred in keeping the 
 plants clean. Trenching the ground for the recep- 
 tion of the seed, would be the proper plan; but 
 the expense of such an operation to any extent 
 is out of the question. 
 
 I now proceed to the second system of rearing 
 the oak when young — viz. that of transplanting 
 the young trees from the nursery into the forest 
 ground, and in one year after, when their roots 
 are fairly established, cutting them over by the 
 surface of the earth ; and when a number of young 
 shoots are produced from the stumps, choosing 
 the strongest and healthiest for a permanent tree 
 in each plant. 
 
 This system is very much practised by fores- 
 ters who have to raise hard-wood plantations in 
 high-lying districts of Scotland, where it is Avell 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 171 
 
 known that young hard-wood plants are apt to 
 suffer a severe check when newly lifted from 
 a sheltered nursery, owing to the cold, cutting 
 winds which prevail in such quarters. Indeed, 
 in all cases, young hard-wood trees which may 
 have been reared in some of the public nurse- 
 ries near large towns, when they are removed to 
 and planted in a high moorland county, seldom 
 do much good for three or four years after their 
 removal. The whole part of the plant situated 
 above the grass or foggage of the ground, becomes 
 stunted, and gradually dies down to within two 
 or three inches of the surface, which part remains 
 fresh, because sheltered by the foggage from the 
 winds ; and, indeed, if the plants are left to them- 
 selves in such a situation, they, about the third 
 year after being planted, and after the roots have 
 properly established themselves, send up a number 
 of young shoots from the live part about the 
 surface of the ground, which young shoots ulti- 
 mately become trees of inferior magnitude ; but 
 if those young shoots be thinned out to one indi- 
 vidual, a tree of the usual magnitude will be the 
 result. JSTow, this system of cutting over is only 
 assisting nature ; and if, instead of allowing the 
 young trees to lie dormant for three years, as is 
 the case when left to nature, the forester cuts each 
 tree over by the surface one year after they are 
 planted, he places himself, by his art, two years 
 
172 K EARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 in ach^ance of nature as left to herself; for as 
 soon as the trees are cut over, they each send 
 up from three to six vigorous young shoots, which, 
 when they are of sufficient age, can be removed, 
 with the exception of one, which is left as a per- 
 manent standing tree. I have, by adopting this 
 method, had strong, vigorous young shoots of two 
 feet high the second year after planting ; and 
 where I have not had them cut over, four or 
 five years elapsed before I had shoots of the same 
 strength. 
 
 I was acquainted with a forester who had the 
 management of extensive plantations in Aberdeen- 
 shire, who, upon receiving his young hard-wood 
 plants from the nurseries, of whatever species they 
 were, cut each down to within three inches of 
 the roots, and planted them in this state in the 
 pits which were prepared for them in the forest. 
 His reason for doing so was, that he asserted 
 he gained young shoots a year sooner than if 
 he had allowed the plants to remain for one 
 year in the ground previous to being cut over, 
 as is the usual way. But upon examining the 
 state of his young hard-wood plants, which had 
 been planted one year before I visited him, and 
 inspected his system of going to work, I found 
 that all his young trees which had been so cut 
 previous to planting them produced but very 
 weak shoots the first season, and, as I appro- 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 173 
 
 hended, they in fact made no vigorous growths 
 till the second year. In this case, therefore, 
 something was lost instead of gained ; for until 
 the roots of the young plants are fairly estab- 
 lished, very little young wood can be produced. 
 The plants require the first year in order to 
 establish their roots, and if they are forced to 
 make wood during the first year, — as is the 
 case when they are cut over at once, — the wood 
 seldom or never ripens, but is weak, and apt 
 to be nipped by the first frost of winter ; but 
 when the plants are allowed to have their own 
 natural way for the first season after being 
 planted, and when the stem is allowed to remain, 
 and push out a ffew leaves in order to elaborate 
 any sap drawn up by the roots, these roots be- 
 come during this period properly and firmly set- 
 tled in the earth, and are rendered strong and 
 vigorous for being called into action the year 
 following. Hence it is, that young trees cut 
 down the year after being planted, always make 
 more vigorous and stronger shoots in that one 
 season, than trees of the same character cut down 
 when planted, and having two years' growth upon 
 them. 
 
 In conclusion, this system ought always to 
 be practised with oak, or indeed with any 
 other hard-wood plants, when planted out in a 
 high district, and after beins: removed from a 
 
174 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 sheltered nursery ; but in no other ease is it 
 necessary. 
 
 The third system of rearing the oak when in 
 its young state, as formerly mentioned, is that of 
 planting the young trees in pits, as is usually done, 
 and afterwards allowing each to come away in its 
 own natural way. 
 
 This is the system practised in all moderately 
 sheltered districts, for the planting of oaks as well 
 as all other sorts of young trees, and need not be 
 enlarged upon here. I may mention, however, 
 that in all moderately sheltered districts, young 
 trees of any sort receive very little check from 
 being transplanted, if they are not above four feet 
 high, and if the soil is one adapted for the growth 
 of the trees planted, and the work carefully and 
 properly done ; but if the soil be not of first-rate 
 quality, and the situation one much exposed, the 
 trees always receive a violent check, and, con- 
 sequently, the bark upon the young trees becomes 
 hide-bound, and will not carry on its natural 
 functions; but the roots being as healthy as for- 
 merly, they, when the old tops are gone, send 
 up young shoots to supply the place of the for- 
 mer, which, as they grow up, become habituated 
 to the climate and situation, and consequently form 
 trees adapted to it. Therefore the planter, when 
 he meditates to bring up a plantation of young- 
 oaks, or other hard-wood, must judge for himself 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 175 
 
 as to wliich of the two last-mentioned systems he 
 should adopt; and that, of course, must be regu- 
 lated by his grounds being exposed or sheltered. 
 
 Suppose that a tract of ground has been planted 
 with oak at seven feet apart, and the intermedi- 
 ate spaces made up with firs, to such a closeness as 
 to leave the whole plants over the ground at three 
 and a half feet distance from each other ; and sup- 
 pose that the oaks in such a plantation have been 
 planted and managed in one or other of the two 
 last-mentioned ways, as may be found most suit- 
 able in the case of the situation planted — the oak 
 trees will, when the plantation is about eight 
 years old, require to be carefully looked over, 
 and pruned in all cases where found necessary, 
 but not severely : for the oak, at no stage of its 
 growth, agrees with much pruning ; the wood is 
 of a hard cross nature, and any severe wound 
 made by the knife is not easily healed, even 
 although the plant be young ; therefore, pruning 
 should be sparingly practised upon them. All 
 that is necessary in the case of pruning the oak 
 trees at the stage above mentioned, is to prune 
 away one top in all cases where two exist, or 
 where more than two tops appear upon one indi- 
 vidual tree, to choose the best, and prune away 
 all the others; to lop off a part of any strong 
 branch that may have the appearance of gaining an 
 undue strength upon the regular proportions of the 
 
176 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 tree ; and to clear away any small spray shoots 
 from the lower part, so as to form a clear stem 
 or boll. If this ' pruning be properly done when 
 the trees are about eight or ten years old, when the 
 wood is in its softest stage, no damage will be done ; 
 and if the work be properly done at this stage, little 
 or no pruning will ever be afterwards required. 
 
 The oak not being a rapid-growing tree at any 
 stage of its growth, as compared with many other 
 sorts of hard-wood trees, the young plants will not, 
 at eight or ten years' standing in a plantation, have 
 attained a large size, probably not above five or six 
 feet liigh; but if the firs which were planted among 
 them for the purpose of giving shelter have thriven 
 well, the oaks will be deriving benefit from their 
 shelter, and progressing rapidly. In fact, young 
 oaks never do come away well until such time as 
 the firs rise up around, and aftord them shelter ; 
 and more especially if the situation in which they 
 are planted be an exposed one, or the soil naturally 
 of a cold bottom. As an instance of the great 
 advantage gained by planting firs among young 
 oaks, in order to shelter them in their young and 
 tender state, and to bring them away as rapidly as 
 possible, I may mention a case which I witnessed 
 myself in one situation where I acted as assistant 
 forester. There we had about twenty acres of 
 rather stifiish clay ground converted into a plan- 
 tation, and it was situated upon what was con- 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 177 
 
 sidered rather a level and sheltered part of the 
 country, although there was no other plantation 
 near it. The ground was fenced by a young hedge 
 all round, protected by a three-barred paling ; and 
 as the proprietor wished the plantation to be one 
 of oak, without any admixture of other trees, 
 the ground was planted entirely with oak plants 
 in the usual way, and at three feet apart, but 
 without any firs whatever to act as nurses. The 
 oaks thus planted remained in a dormant state for 
 three years after they were planted, not only 
 making no young shoots whatever, but, upon the 
 contrary, fully one-third of the plants died out. 
 Upon seeing this state of things with regard to tliis 
 plantation, the forester thought that the whole 
 would turn out a failure upon his hand, set us to 
 work, and had fifteen hundred Scots fir plants 
 planted to the acre of the ground, mixing them 
 regularly among the oaks. In two years after this 
 planting of the Scots firs, or five years from the 
 time that the oaks were planted, the former began 
 to make considerable shoots, so much so as to give 
 a little shelter over the surface of the ground : 
 the oaks now began to throw up healthy shoots 
 from the tops of their roots, or rather at that part 
 where the roots are thrown out from the stem : 
 and in many instances, where it was thought that 
 the young plants were dead, they sent up excellent 
 young shoots as soon as shelter was produced. 
 
 M 
 
178 REARING UP AND THINNING 
 
 In fact, after this period, the whole plantation 
 throve remarkably well, and the oaks kept pace 
 with the firs during all the time that they stood 
 among them ; but in a few years they were mostly 
 cut down again in order to give the oaks room as 
 they advanced. 
 
 Now, from this example, I would draw the atten- 
 tion of the planter to the great necessity, in all 
 cases, of planting firs among oaks in order to nurse 
 them up while in their young and tender state, 
 and having the firs thinned out by degrees as the 
 oaks advance in strength. 
 
 Having pruned the young trees in the plantation 
 of oaks in the manner formerly referred to, and that 
 two years previous to requiring any thinning of the 
 firs from among them, the next step in the rearing of 
 such a plantation is to thin away any firs as soon as 
 they encroach upon the oak plants ; and this thinning 
 of the firs, in the rearing up of oak plantations, must 
 at all times be more severe than when thinning 
 away firs from among the common kinds of hard- 
 wood. And, indeed, this particular forms the only 
 difference worth mentioning between the cultiva- 
 tion of the oak and the cultivation of hard-wood in 
 general ; that is, the oak-trees, after they are once 
 properly established in the ground, and brought 
 into proper shape by a judicious pruning, must, 
 through the whole course of their culture after- 
 wards, have more room and air than any other 
 
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 179 
 
 species of hard-wood trees. The reason of this 
 difference as regards the cultivation of the oak is 
 this: — The oak is a valuable tree both upon ac- 
 count of its wood and bark: the wood is more 
 valuable when grown of proportionable diameter 
 than when of great length, and it is also of more 
 durable quality when freely exposed to the air than 
 when drawn up weakly and to a great height; 
 thence arises the necessity of giving the trees free 
 circulation of air in order to have valuable wood. 
 The oak is also valuable upon account of its bark, as 
 I have already mentioned ; now, in order to produce 
 bark, a tree must have extent of wood, whether 
 that be in the form of trunk or branches. I have 
 seen an acre of oak trees, one hundred years old, 
 cut down and sold for the sake of both wood and 
 bark, which had been cultivated upon the principle 
 of drawing up the trees tall and without branches ; 
 and according to my note-book, which contains an 
 account of the transaction of the sale, that acre of 
 ground, which contained two hundred trees, sold for 
 L.360. On the other hand, upon a neighbouring 
 estate, I attended a sale of oak trees only ninety 
 years old, and which had been cultivated upon the 
 principle of giving free air and room to the trees as 
 they advanced ; and upon one acre of ground, which 
 contained a part of those trees sold, I counted 
 one hundred and four trees, which trees brought 
 altogether L.868, making the oak trees which were 
 
180 THE MANAGEMENT OF 
 
 cultivated upon the principle which I have recom- 
 mended — namely, that of giving free air and room 
 — nearly three times the value of those which were 
 drawn up weakly. When oak trees have free room 
 for expanding themselves, the lower branches form 
 into bends for ship-building, which is a valuable 
 object; the trees also, being more branchy in 
 themselves, produce a greater surface for the pro- 
 duction of bark, and the bark itself, having free air, 
 becomes thick and heavy upon the tree. Indeed, 
 perhaps, it is not generally known that oak bark, 
 produced upon trees having free air about them, 
 weighs almost double that of an equal surface 
 taken from a tree confined and not having air ; 
 and at the same time, bark of such weight is always 
 more valuable, because containing a greater pro- 
 portion of tanning matter. 
 
 What I have here said relative to the cultivation 
 of the oak, I regard as sufficient to convince any 
 proprietor of the necessity of keeping his oak forests 
 thinner of trees than any other of his woods : and 
 need only add, in conclusion, that in every other re- 
 spect oak plantations are to be managed upon the 
 same prmciples as other hard-wood ones. Oak trees 
 are never reckoned of full age till they have attained 
 from eighty to one hundred years ; therefore, after 
 a plantation of oaks has received its final thinning, 
 it should be allowed to stand until that age before 
 cutting down. 
 
OAK COPPICE-WOOD. 181 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE-WOOD. CAUSE OF DISEASE 
 
 AMONG LARCH FIR PLANTATIONS. HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 YOUNG PLANTATIONS AND OF FULL-GROWN TIMBER TREES. A 
 
 FEW PRACTICAL REMARKS RELATIVE TO THE MANNER IN AVHICH 
 WOOD OUGHT TO BE PREPARED FOR PUBLIC SALE. 
 
 SECTION I. THE MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE. 
 
 Plantations of the description termed oak cop- 
 pice, are now so common in Scotland, that there 
 are few landed estates of any considerable extent 
 upon which there is not less or more of them. In 
 the West Highland counties there are many ex- 
 tensive plantations of oak coppice ; and within the 
 last thirty years many fine old oak forests have 
 been cut down in the midland counties which also 
 are, for the greater part, now converted into plan- 
 tations of tliis description — the same being trained 
 up from the young shoots which have arisen from 
 the stocks of the old trees which were cut down. 
 And seeing that this description of wood crop is 
 upon the increase upon the estates of landed pro- 
 prietors, I consider that it may not be out of the 
 way for me here briefly to detail the best modes 
 
182 THE ma]S'age:ment of 
 
 of management of the same, more particularly 
 with the Yiew of pointing out the most profitable 
 manner of going to work in the converting of old 
 oak forest ground into healthy young coppice- 
 wood. 
 
 When a plantation of old oak-trees is cut down, 
 and when it is the intention of the proprietor to 
 convert it into an oak coppice-wood, for the 
 l^urpose of raising a crop of oak bark upon the 
 ground, after the old wood has been disposed 
 of, the Avork must be proceeded with in the fol- 
 lowing manner : — First, the whole of the wood of 
 the old original trees, when cut down, should be 
 removed immediately, as also all the bark taken 
 from them — and this, in order that no damage 
 may be done to the young shoots as they arise 
 from the newly-cut stocks ; for, if the wood be 
 allowed to lie long upon the ground after it is 
 cut, the young shoots will have grown to a con- 
 siderable height, and they, being extremely tender, 
 will be easily broken in the act of removing the 
 wood at a late period. Therefore, in order to pre- 
 vent this state of things taking place, if the wood 
 have been sold to any neutral person, say about 
 the 1st of May, he should be bound by the articles 
 of sale to have the whole of both wood and bark 
 removed by the 1st of July at the latest ; and if 
 this be not done, much loss will no doubt be sus- 
 tained in the after crop of the coppice-wood, seeing 
 
OAK COPPICE-WOOD. 183 
 
 that it is impossible to remove heavy timber from 
 the ground without rolhng it over the suckers in 
 their tender state. 
 
 This part of the work is always best done by the 
 proprietor's own servants, and under the superin- 
 tendence of an experienced forester ; because in such 
 a case, the people who cut the wood are paid by the 
 proprietor, and being so, will look more to the in- 
 terest of the work, or at least will attend more to 
 the orders given them, than strangers from a dis- 
 tance would do, Avhose only interest is that of get- 
 ting the wood cut down at as little expense as pos- 
 sible, without any regard to the future value of the 
 plantation. It is also necessary to notice here, that 
 in cutting down any large oak tree, the stock of 
 wliich is intended to push up young shoots for the 
 formation of coppice, great care is necessary to 
 see that the bark is not injured below that part 
 where the tree is cut over ; for if the bark be 
 hurt and ruffled there, so as to separate it from 
 the wood, moisture will be lodged between it and 
 the wood, and consequently a rot at that part 
 will be apt to take place. In order to prevent this, 
 it is always a good plan, previous to commencing 
 the operation of cutting down the trees, to employ 
 a cautious trustworthy man to go before the wood- 
 cutters, who, with a hand-bill and wooden mell, 
 should be instructed to cut the bark right through 
 to the wood, in the form of a rins; all round the cir- 
 
184 THE manage:ment of 
 
 cumference of the tree, just about three inches above 
 the surface of the ground. This first ring being 
 cut all round the bottom of the tree, three inches 
 above the surface of the ground, another should be 
 made in like manner about twelve inches higher 
 up on the boll of the tree, when the piece of bark 
 situated between those two cuts can be removed, 
 and the woodmen made to saw each tree across 
 exactly by the lower mark, or bottom of the 
 peeled wood ; this forms a guide to the men 
 not to injure the lower part left with the bark 
 upon it, as well as, when any difficulty is ex- 
 perienced in bringing the tree down, avoiding all 
 waste of bark. 
 
 As soon as the wood and bark have been 
 removed from the ground, all rubbish and useless 
 underwood should be carefully cleared away, except- 
 ing any young healthy shoots, or young plants which 
 may be considered worth leaving upon the ground 
 with the view of their ultimately becoming trees. 
 And immediately after the ground has been cleared 
 of rubbish, the stocks or stools of the old trees will 
 have to be dressed with the adze, in order to cause 
 the young shoots to come away as low down, and as 
 near to the surface of the ground as possible. If 
 the young shoots of the oak, which are intended to 
 grow up into coppice, be allowed to proceed from 
 that part of the old stock which rises two or three 
 inches above ground, these shoots will always par- 
 
OAK COrPlCE-WOOD. 185 
 
 take more of the character of branches than of trees, 
 and never will make a valuable plantation ; but if the 
 shoots be made to come away from that part of the 
 stock where the roots join with the main stem, and 
 which lies immediately under the surface of the 
 soil, they will partake of the character of trees, and 
 independent of the nourishment that they will re- 
 ceive from the parent stock, they will also send out 
 roots of their OAf n, and derive nourishment from the 
 common earth, and form pretty large trees if de- 
 sired. Now, in order to cause the young shoots to 
 issue from this point, the long grass should be 
 all cleared away round the stock, and itseh' dressed 
 off with an adze. In executing this, care must be 
 taken that the part where the roots issue from 
 the main stem be not injured ; but supposing 
 that three inches of wood have been left above 
 ground upon the stock, the workman will com- 
 mence by levelhng his tool upon it fully two 
 inches down upon the wood, and hew off this part 
 all round, gradually lessening the depth of his cut 
 as ho nears the centre or crown of the stock, which 
 is left untouched, thus leaving a fall from the crown 
 of the stock to its circumference of fully two inches, 
 and forming a convex crown. This form prevents 
 the lodgment of moisture, as well as causes the 
 young shoots to come away as near to the earth as 
 possible, which should always be aimed at ; and in 
 this manner, each and every stock which may be 
 
186 THE MANAGEMENT OF 
 
 intended for the rearing up of coppice-wood should 
 be managed. The sooner that the operation is done 
 after the trees are cut, the better is the hope of 
 a good crop of heaUhy shoots ; therefore, the forester 
 ought not to delay this until all the other work of 
 clearing away the trees and rubbish be finished; 
 the whole of the work ought indeed to be gone on 
 with according to the time that I have above stated, 
 but still, the whole may be proceeding simulta- 
 neously. My way of proceeding with work of tliis 
 kind is : — I have a party of men with horses and 
 carts, who begin upon one side of the ground, and 
 clear away all the valuable wood as they proceed, 
 which is delivered to the sawyer, or otherwise as 
 the case may be : immediately following this first 
 party, I have a second, consisting of women and 
 boys, headed by a man to superintend them, 
 who gather up all the rubbish that is left by the 
 men with the carts, and carry it to convenient 
 openings, and burn it at once, unless some other 
 more valuable use can be made of it : the ground 
 being cleared by this second party, I have a man, 
 or men if the grounds be extensive, following them 
 di'essing the stocks in the way described ; — and in 
 this manner the Avhole work can be made to go on 
 at once without losing any time. 
 
 If the stocks of the old trees which were cut 
 down are not numerous upon the ground, as is 
 more than likely to be the case if the trees were of 
 
OAK COPPICE-WOOD, 187 
 
 any considerable age, there will not be enough for 
 a permanent crop upon the ground. If, for instance, 
 they were eighty years old, there will not be more 
 than one hundred and twenty trees to the acre, 
 making them about twenty feet one from another. 
 Now, to have a piece of forest ground with that 
 number of stocks upon it to the acre, would never 
 pay the proprietor the common rent of his land : 
 therefore, in order to take advantage of the ground 
 forming the vacant spaces between the stocks, and 
 to make the whole pay ultimately as any other 
 plantation would do, the ground should be properly 
 drained wherever found necessary, and a crop of 
 young oak-trees planted all over it wherever there 
 is room. In this case, the young oaks which 
 may be put in, together with the old stocks, may 
 be made to stand, as nearly as possible, eight 
 feet apart : and again, all the intermediate spaces 
 between them should be filled up with larches, 
 so as to make the trees over the whole plantation 
 stand about four feet one from another ; that is, 
 taking the old stocks into account also. 
 
 By filling up the ground in this manner, the old 
 stocks will ultimately become of more value than if 
 they had been left in an exposed state ; and again, 
 from their growing more rapidly than the young 
 trees, they will produce shelter to the latter in 
 their yoimg state ; so that, putting the whole 
 together, a plantation of this kind grows more 
 
188 THE MANAGEMENT OF 
 
 rapidly than one altogether planted with young- 
 trees. 
 
 When the young shoots from the old stocks have 
 been allowed to grow undisturbed for two years, 
 they should then be carefully looked over, and all 
 small ones removed, leaving the strongest all round 
 the circumference, not closer than six inches one 
 from another : these again should be left for other 
 two years, when a second and final thinning should 
 be made, choosing the strongest and healthiest 
 shoots to remain, and in no case leaving more than 
 six shoots to stand as a permanent crop upon any 
 individual stock, or fewer still if the health and 
 strength of the parent require it. 
 
 I am aware that many foresters are in the habit 
 of not thinning their oak stools at all, until such 
 time as the shoots have attained a large size, when 
 they thin them out and peel the bark from them, 
 supposing that by this system there is a gain from 
 the sale of the young bark produced. Now, as 
 regards this system, I am quite of a contrary 
 opinion ; for, when the shoots are thinned out as I 
 have advised, they very quickly attain a large size, 
 whereas, when they are not thinned out until a late 
 period of their growth, the shoots become stunted, 
 and shortly indicate a want of vigour in their con- 
 stitution ; consequently, at the end of a given 
 number of years, instead of an advantage being 
 gained by letting the shoots grow up until they 
 
OAK COPPICE-WOOD. 189 
 
 are fit for peeling, there is a decided loss. I have 
 compared two plantations which were managed 
 upon these two different systems, and found the one 
 managed upon that which I have recommended, at 
 the end of twenty years, worth nearly a half more 
 than the one managed upon the opposite system. 
 
 AVhen the young trees have received their second 
 course of thinning, as has been pointed out, they 
 should at the same time receive a judicious pruning, 
 and that in the same manner as has already been 
 recommended for the pruning of young oak trees : 
 the larch firs, as they grow up, should be thinned 
 away by degrees, in order to give room to the 
 oaks as they advance, whether that may be to re- 
 lieve the old stools or the young trees; and in every 
 respect this thinning of the firs should bo done as 
 has already been recommended for the management 
 of oak plantations generally. 
 
 Seeing that the value of oak bark has fallen so 
 much during the last twenty years, I do not con- 
 sider the growing of oak coppice so profitable a 
 crop as it has been. About twenty-five years ago, 
 the price of oak bark was £16 per ton, while 
 this year (1847) the highest price that has been 
 given in Edinbm^gh is £5, 10s. — making its value 
 at the present time only about one-third of what 
 it was twenty-five years ago, and consequently 
 reducing the value of oak coppice plantations in 
 the same ratio ; and, upon this consideration, I 
 
190 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG 
 
 do think that proprietors should not, at the present 
 time, rear up oak plantations with the intention of 
 converting them into coppice, as has in many in- 
 stances been done of late. I have seen plantations 
 of healthy oak trees, about thirty-five years of 
 age, cut down for the sake of the bark they pro- 
 duced, and with the view of converting them 
 into coppice-wood, so as to have a crop of bark 
 every twenty-five years afterwards. Now, had 
 those trees which were cut down at thirty-five 
 years of age, been allowed to grow for other forty 
 or fifty years, they would, of course, have attained 
 their full magnitude, and been worth to the pro- 
 prietor, at the end of that period, more than three 
 times the money that he could get as the produce 
 of the same plants if cut down and disposed of in 
 the form of coppice-wood, at periods of twenty-five 
 or thirty years. 
 
 The safest and the best plan, with regard to all 
 plantations, is, to allow the trees to attain their full 
 magnitude in the usual way, when the timber will 
 in all cases find a ready market, and at a fair price. 
 No doubt, where old plantations are cut down, it is 
 right and proper that the stocks of them should 
 be converted into coppice-wood ; for tliis is taking 
 advantage of growths Avhich can be converted into 
 use, and which would otherwise be lost; but to 
 raise up trees to a certain age, and then cut them 
 down prematurely for the sake of their bark, is, at 
 
LARCH FIR PLANTATIONS. 191 
 
 best, an enormous loss to the proprietor, as well as 
 to the country in general. 
 
 SECTION II. CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG LARCH FIR 
 
 PLANTATIONS IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 It is my opinion, that there is no tree cultivated 
 in Britain more worthy the attention of landed 
 proprietors than the larch. I am not aware of any 
 purpose for which oak is now used, for which larch 
 would not answer as well. It is a rapid-growing 
 tree, and attains maturity long before the oak. I 
 have seen larch trees, little more than thirty years 
 old, sold for 60s. each, while oaks of the same age, 
 and growing upon the same sort of soil in the 
 same neighbourhood, were not worth 10s. each ; 
 and this at once points out the advantage of plant- 
 ing larch where immediate profit is the object. The 
 larch has been held in high estimation in former 
 times, as we learn from several old authors. The 
 first mention made of the cultivation of this tree in 
 England is by Parkinson, in his " Paradisus," in 
 1629 ; and Evelyn, in 1664, mentions a larch tree 
 of good stature at Chelmsford, in Essex. It appears 
 to have been introduced into Scotland by Lord 
 Kames, in 1734. But the merit of pointing out to 
 the proprietors of Scotland the valuable properties 
 of the larch as a timber-tree for our climate, ap- 
 pears to be due to the Duke of Athol, who planted 
 
192 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG 
 
 it at Dunkcld in 1741, The rapid growth of these, 
 and of others of the same species, afterwards 
 planted in succession by that nobleman, as well as 
 the valuable properties of the timber of the trees 
 that were felled, realised the high character pre- 
 viously bestowed upon the larch by foreign and 
 British authors, who were followed in their opinion 
 by others, such as Dr Anderson, Watson, Professor 
 Martyn, Nicol, Pontz, Lang, and Monteith — all con- 
 firming, and further extolling, the valuable proper- 
 ties of the tree. It is no wonder, therefore, that 
 the larch has been planted so extensively in Scot- 
 land of late years, in almost every kind of soil and 
 situation, and under every variety of circumstances 
 capable of being conceived in forest management, 
 seeing that its culture has been so much recom- 
 mended by men in whose opinions landed pro- 
 prietors put much confidence as regards forest mat- 
 ters. I say that it is in a great measure owing to 
 the advice of such men as 1 have above named, that 
 the larch has been so extensively planted within 
 the last fifty years in Scotland. According to their 
 opinion, it was one of the hardiest, and most easy 
 of culture, among our forest trees ; and proprietors, 
 relying too implicitly in this matter upon the sound- 
 ness of the opinions of such authors, planted larch 
 too indiscriminately, upon all kinds of soil, without 
 having due respect to the nature of the tree ; for 
 the larch, as well as every other tree, is influenced 
 
LARCH FIR PLANTATIONS. 193 
 
 by a natural law, which restricts it to particular 
 states of soil, in order to develope itself fully and 
 perfectly; and it is upon this point that the cause 
 of the disease now so prevalent in the larch rests. 
 It is well known that, in many instances, whole 
 plantations of larch trees have died, I may say almost 
 suddenly ; and, in many instances, plantations of it 
 have failed in making a return of the expected 
 advantages, far inferior even to the Scots fir. 
 
 For some years past, much has been said and 
 written relative to the nature and cause of that dis- 
 ease, now so prevalent among our larch planta- 
 tions, generally termed the heart-rot, or, as some 
 writers term it, dry-rot {merulius destructor) ; but, 
 for all that has been written upon the subject, 
 I am not aware that any thing as yet really satis- 
 factory has been the result, at least in so far as to 
 cause any likelihood of a really permanent improve- 
 ment in the cultivation of the tree for the future : 
 therefore, in consideration of this, I may here be 
 allowed to give my opinion, as a practical forester, 
 of the cause of a disease which appears still to pre- 
 vail extensively among the most useful of our tim- 
 ber trees. Many who have written upon this most 
 important subject assert that, from the circum- 
 stance of the larch not being a native, it is fast 
 degenerating in our country ; and, in illustration of 
 their argument, they point out the healthy develop- 
 ment of many old original specimens yet remaining 
 
 N 
 
194 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG 
 
 in different parts of the country. Such a weak 
 argument as this is scarcely worthy of being con- 
 futed ; for we may as well say that the plane tree, 
 which is not a native of Scotland, ought to be fast 
 degenerating also, which we know is by no means 
 the case. Another argument against this assertion 
 is, that in many places we find healthy larch 
 plantations, and in other places unhealthy, both, 
 nevertheless, being of the same age. Now, I would 
 ask such as hold the above opinion, if the larch be 
 degenerating, why is it found to succeed well in one 
 place and not in another, — and that, too, even 
 within the bounds of the same gentleman's pro- 
 perty ? The only reasonable answer that they can 
 give to this question is, that, wherever the larch is 
 found thriving well, it must be growing in a state 
 of soil agreeable to its constitution ; and wherever it 
 is found not thriving, it must be growing in a state of 
 soil not agreeable to its constitution. Therefore, 
 in our further inquiries after the cause of the rot 
 in the larch,.we must first ascertain the nature of the 
 circumstances which affect the tree in both cases. 
 
 The larch is a native of the south of Europe, 
 and also of Siberia. It inhabits the slopes of moun- 
 tainous districts, in the lower parts of which it 
 attains its largest dimensions. In its native moun- 
 tains, the larch is never found prospering in any 
 situation where water can lodge in the ground in a 
 stagnant state ; nor is it ever found of large dimen- 
 
LARCH FIR PLANTATIONS. 195 
 
 slons in any extensive level piece of country having 
 a damp retentive bottom or subsoil. Upon the other 
 hand, the larch in its native localities is found luxu- 
 riating upon a soil formed from the natural decom- 
 position of rocks ; for there the surface soil rests 
 upon a half- decomposed stony subsoil, through 
 which all moisture passes freely in its descent from 
 the higher grounds. In this state of things, the 
 roots of the trees always receive a regular supply 
 of fresh and pure moisture, and, at the same time, 
 the ground in which the trees grow is kept in a 
 cleansed and sweet state, not having any stagnated 
 particles of gas or water lodging in it; and this 
 forms, in my opinion, the perfection of soil for 
 the cultivation of the larch. 
 
 On making some inquiries at a gentleman who 
 travelled among the mountainous districts in Ger- 
 many, where the larch is found in its native state, 
 I am informed that, upon level and dry-lying parts 
 of the region mentioned, the larch does not succeed 
 well, being upon such parts always more stunted in 
 its growth, and apparently not enduring so long, as 
 when found with moisture passing freely among its 
 roots ; and this assertion is exactly in accordance 
 with the state of our larch plantations in Scotland, 
 for, wherever disease is found to prevail, there is 
 either a want of or too much moisture in the soil. 
 
 Now, until upon inquiry I was made aware of 
 these circumstances relative to the larch as found 
 
196 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG 
 
 in its native localities, I never could satisfy myself 
 as to the cause of the disease which has appeared 
 among the larch plantations in Scotland ; but 
 since I have been made aware of the above circum- 
 stances, and have compared them with examples of 
 healthy and unhealthy plantations upon several 
 estates, where I have had the opportunity of ex- 
 amining for myself, I am now perfectly convinced 
 as to the cause of the chsease in question ; and I am 
 further convinced, that any man who will compare 
 the state of the ground upon which a healthy plan- 
 tation of larch is found in Scotland (that is to say, 
 one which has arrived at a considerable age, and is 
 in a sound state) with what I have stated relative 
 to the healthy state of trees of the same species as 
 found in their native regions, will at once see the 
 same circumstances acting in each case. Thus : — In 
 all cases of healthy larch plantations in this country, 
 where the timber has attained large size, and is sound 
 in quality, we find them growing upon a soil through 
 which the water that may fall upon it can pass away 
 freely ; as for instance, upon the slopes of hills, and 
 even in hollows, upon a strong clay soil, but where 
 there is a proper drainage for the ready and free 
 passage of the superfluous water ; and I have even 
 cut down larch timber, of large size and sound in 
 quality, growing upon a light sandy moss, two feet 
 deep, which rested upon a stiff clay. In this case 
 the moss was drained, and the water passed freely 
 
LARCH FIR PLANTATIONS. 197 
 
 through the light soil ; and the situation being upon 
 a slope, there was a continual circulation of mois- 
 ture passing along upon the top of .the sub-soil, or 
 clay. In short, I have found good larch timber 
 growing upon almost all varieties of soil; but I 
 never found it upon one which had not its particles 
 constantly cleansed by the continual circulation of 
 water passing through it, either by natural advan- 
 tages or by artificial drainage. Upon the other 
 hand, in all cases of diseased larch plantations, 
 where the trees have become stunted and rotten in 
 the hearts prematurely, we will find that the soil 
 has either been badly drained, or not drained at all^ 
 There must be ingredients lodging in the soil, which 
 act against the health of larch trees growing upon 
 it, and which can alone be carried off by an effective 
 system of drainage, in order to make it fit for the 
 healthy rearing of larch. 
 
 In a plantation on a level piece of ground upon 
 the estate of Arniston, I had occasion to cut down 
 some larches, in the Avay of thinning ; the plan- 
 tation is about forty years old, and consists of a 
 mixture of larch and Scots firs. Upon cutting a 
 number of larch trees in the central parts of this 
 plantation, I found them without exception all 
 rotten in the heart, which was exactly what I anti- 
 cipated, for the soil had never been drained ; and 
 upon cutting some trees upon one side of the plan- 
 tation which formed a sloping sandy bank, I found 
 
198 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG 
 
 every tree sound, and of excellent quality of timber ; 
 while at the same time, every tree in this position 
 was at least three times as large as those planted in 
 the interior level parts of the plantation, although 
 all were of the same age. Now, the cause of this 
 superiority of the trees which grew upon the sloping- 
 bank may at once be seen, from what I have already 
 said upon the point. Again, another side of this 
 plantation was bounded by a deep ditch, forming a 
 fence upon the edge of a field ; and all along this 
 ditch upon the side of the wood, larch trees of ex- 
 cellent size and quality were growing. Nothing can 
 be more convincino- than this, that in order to grow 
 larch timber of sound and good quality upon land 
 which formerly grew diseased trees, all that is re- 
 quired is to drain it, when success will be the result. 
 I have always found larch trees succeed better 
 when growing among hard-wood trees, than when 
 growing by themselves, or among other firs, even 
 although planted upon soil in the same state in both 
 cases ; and the cause of this, I conceive, to be that the 
 roots of the hard-wood, from their penetrating deeper 
 into the earth than those of the fir, have a tendency 
 to divide the soil, and open it up for the more ready 
 circulation of the water through it. It is, indeed, 
 well known to almost every forester, that the roots 
 of the hard-wood trees will penetrate through the 
 stiffest soil, and considerably break up and improve 
 it, to the depth of about two feet ; and when the 
 
LAKCH FIR PLANTATIONS. 199 
 
 trees are of any considerable age, with their larger 
 roots spreading far and wide, I have often seen the 
 water running along the beds of such roots in con- 
 siderable quantities, showing that they acted as coa- 
 ductors for the water though the soil : it is to this, 
 that I attribute the superior health of such trees 
 found growing among hard-wood, as compared with 
 those among their own species upon the same quality 
 of ground. 
 
 Upon the south lawn, at Arniston House, there 
 are about twenty larches yet growing, of very large 
 dimensions. They are generally above eighty feet 
 high, and a few of them contain upwards of a hun- 
 dred cubic feet of timber ; one in particular con- 
 tains one hundred and fifty cubic feet, and the tree 
 is apparently in good health. The soil upon which 
 these trees are growing, is a hght sandy loam 
 of about fifteen inches deep, and resting upon a 
 stratum of yellow sand; they are, as nearly as I 
 could calculate from the appearance of one which 
 was cut down lately, nearly one hundred years old. 
 and must have been among the first of the species 
 which were planted in the lowlands of Scotland. 
 
 These fine specimens are growing among older 
 hard-wood trees, as tall as themselves, but pro- 
 bably at least twenty years older. My opinion 
 is, therefore, that the hard-wood trees had been 
 a considerable length before the larches were 
 planted among them ; and owing to this circum- 
 
200 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 stance, the ground would be well prepared by the 
 roots of the hard-wood for the reception of the 
 larches ; which must, in a great measure, be the 
 reason that most of our original specimens are the 
 finest trees of the kind at present in the country, 
 — they having always been planted in favourable 
 localities, and near the residence of the proprietors. 
 From what I have said above, it will appear 
 evident, that the disease in the larch is attri- 
 butable to the want of proper drainage of the soil. 
 Since I came to Arniston, to act as forester, I 
 have recovered a considerable extent of young 
 larch plantations, which were fast going back, and 
 that simply by draining the soil, in order to 
 draw away from (it superfluous water, as well 
 as to cleanse it from bad qualities which were 
 natural to the soil, and formerly prevented the 
 healthy development of the larch tree. These 
 young larch plantations were under fifteen years 
 of age when I drained them ; but I cannot say if 
 draining would recover plantations of an older 
 standing. In all cases where it is desirable to cul- 
 tivate sound larch timber, the land should be drained 
 with open cuts at eighteen feet distance, and not 
 shallower at first than eighteen inches deep ; and 
 as the plantation advances in age, the drains should 
 be gradually deepened, and kept properly clean, 
 and stagnant water never allowed to remain in 
 them : for however well land may be drained at 
 
GKOWING PLANTATIONS. 201 
 
 first, if those drains are not kept in a clean running 
 state, in order to prevent stagnant water lodging in 
 them, they will ultimately be of very little benefit 
 to the rearing of healthy larch timber. 
 
 SECTION III. HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF GROWING 
 
 PLANTATIONS, AND OF FULL-GROWN TIMBER TREES. 
 
 The valuing of plantations is a point in forestry 
 which, to be done properly and justly, requires 
 the exercise of the judgment of a man who has 
 had long practical experience in the matter. He 
 who gives himself out as a valuator of plantations, 
 in the settlements and divisions of landed pro- 
 perty, must be possessed of an accurate knowledge 
 of the prospective value of all the plantations that 
 can possibly come under his notice, under the age 
 of full-grown timber. He must have an intimate 
 knowledge of the habits of growth of the different 
 species of forest-trees, and of the influence of soil 
 and local cUmate on their periocHcal increase of 
 timber ; these properties being absolutely necessary 
 in the valuing of young plantations, wliile they are 
 under the age of full-grown timber trees : and seeing 
 that such properties are only attainable by a pretty 
 long course of experience as a practical forester, I 
 shall here state only the general method of going 
 to work in valuing plantations. 
 
 In taking the present transferable value of plan- 
 
202 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 tations, tliey are divided into tlirce different and 
 distinct classes, namely : — 
 
 1st, Plantations not thinned for the first time. 
 
 2d, Ditto, which have been thinned, but are 
 under full-timber size. 
 
 3d, Djtto, full-timber size. 
 
 As each of these classes of plantations is valued in 
 a manner different from the others, I shall here 
 treat the manner of valuing in each case separately. 
 With regard to the first, then — were I called upon 
 to give the transferable value of any young plan- 
 tation which had not been thinned for the first time 
 when I saw it, I would in the first place calculate 
 the original expense of fencing and planting ; and 
 having ascertained tliis point, I would next measure 
 the extent of the plantation in acres, and put upon 
 it a rent per acre, corresponding with the land in the 
 immediate neighbourhood, but in all cases making 
 an allowance for inaccessible heights and hoUoAvs. 
 Then, the rule for finding the valuation is — to the 
 cost of fencing and planting, and the rent of the land 
 occupied for the time, add the sum of compound 
 interest on the amount of these, and the result 
 will be a fair transferable value between two parties. 
 
 With regard to the second class of plantations 
 mentioned above, namely, those which have been 
 thinned, but are under full-timber size : — 
 
 Wlien trees attain a size when it is necessary to 
 thin them for the first time, they will then afford 
 
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 203 
 
 certain evidences on wliicli to found calculations of 
 their ultimate produce and value. Therefore, at the 
 time when young trees show evidence of their future 
 health, and until they have attained to a full-timber 
 size, the valuation of all plantations of such trees 
 ought to proceed on the principle of prospective 
 value, and the rule for doing so is this : — first. 
 Determine the number of years the trees will re- 
 quire to arrive at maturity ; second, calculate the 
 value of all thinnings that are likely to be taken from 
 the plantation before it arrives at maturity, and that 
 in periodical thinnings of five years from the time 
 that the valuation is taken ; and third, estimate the 
 value of all the trees which will arrive at perfection 
 of growth ; and from the total amount of these 
 sums, deduct compound interest for the period the 
 trees require to attain maturity, and the result will 
 be the present transferable value of the plantation. 
 
 With regard to the third class of plantations as 
 above stated — namely, those which have arrived at 
 full-timber size : — 
 
 As this is a class of plantations which every for- 
 ester ought to be able to value at sight, I shall be 
 more particular in pointing out the method of going 
 to work in the valuation of such. Few foresters 
 are ever called upon to value the two first-named 
 classes of plantations, but the case is altogether dif- 
 ferent with regard to full-grown trees : these are the 
 harvest of their labours, and they are almost every 
 
204 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 day called upon to cut down and value trees of full- 
 grown dimensions. In this case it is not the trans- 
 ferable value of the unripe crop as found upon the 
 land that we have to do with : it is the simple value 
 of wood itself, the value of each tree in its perfect 
 state, in so far as the ground is qualified to produce 
 it. It is often necessary that full-grown timber 
 trees should be valued previous to their being cut 
 down; and particularly in the case of a transfer of 
 property, it is absolutely necessary to have this done, 
 seeing that the trees are a part of the property to 
 be sold. In taking the value of timber in its grow- 
 ing state, two methods are in practice among wood- 
 valuators : the one is to measure the height of each 
 tree by means of a measuring pole with a ladder, 
 and by actually girthing the tree in the middle with 
 a cord, and finding the contents in the usual 
 manner of measuring round timber : the other 
 method is, that of judging by the eye the number 
 of feet that each tree may contain. 
 
 With regard to the first method — namely, that 
 of measuring the trees by means of a pole with a 
 ladder; — some suppose that this is the most correct 
 way of going to work in the valuation of growing 
 timber; and in consequence of this opinion having 
 for some time past prevailed among the older class 
 of valuators, much precious time has been lost by 
 them, as well as useless expense entailed upon the 
 proprietors who have employed them. I have my- 
 
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 205 
 
 self seen three men, apparently busily employed 
 for the space of ten days, in the measurement of 
 four hundred trees, by the method in question ; and 
 even after all their labour, their valuation was dis- 
 puted. A friend of mine being called in to make a 
 second valuation, he did so by estimating the size of 
 each tree by sight, and did the whole work in about 
 half a day ; and when those trees actually were cut 
 down and measured, his report of the valuation cor- 
 responded to within five per cent of the truth, while 
 the report given by the other party was thirty per 
 cent beyond the truth; — this instance at once point- 
 ing out the possibility of being very incorrect in the 
 valuation of trees measured with a polo and cord. 
 From the many obstacles that are apt to come in 
 the way, it is almost impossible to measure cor- 
 rectly any large tree in its growing state ; and 
 by a short sketch of the manner of proceeding in 
 this kind of work, the impossibility of correctness 
 will at once appear. In measuring trees in their 
 growing state, the valuator has with him two men — 
 the one carrying with him a pretty long ladder, 
 in order to get upon the trees from the ground ; 
 while the other bears with him a measuring pole, 
 generally about ten feet in length, divided into 
 feet and inches for the sake of measuring the 
 length of the trees, and a tape line marked with 
 feet and inches for the purpose of taking the 
 girth of the tree in the middle. With these 
 
206 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 assistants thus furnished, the valuator proceeds 
 by causing the man with the ladder to hold it 
 to a tree, while the other goes upon it, and with 
 his rod measures the height of the tree as he 
 proceeds upwards. Having ascertained the entire 
 height, as far as may be considered measurable 
 timber, he again measures downwards, one half of 
 the height of the tree, in order to take the girth at 
 that part, for the calculating of the side of the 
 square ; and in this manner the valuator proceeds 
 from one tree to another, noting down the dimen- 
 sions as he proceeds. Now, as to correctness, this 
 method would do very well, provided that there 
 were no branches upon the trees ; and, no doubt, 
 the operators always choose that side of a tree 
 which is most free from branches ; but notwith- 
 standing, there are few trees which, in taking a 
 straight line from top to bottom, have not several 
 branches to intercept the object. And this is what 
 makes their measurement so very incdrrect; for 
 when the man with the pole has his line of mea- 
 surement intercepted by one or two branches, he 
 generally has to change his position upon the tree, 
 and this often many times in the ascent of one 
 tree ; — often causing consequently a defect of several 
 feet in the value of one tree, either less or more, 
 MrMonteith,the well-known author of the Forester s 
 Guide, invented an instrument which wrought with 
 a wheel, in taking the height of a tree, and with 
 
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 207 
 
 this instrument he himself practised, in the valuation 
 of forest trees. But for the same reason that I have 
 already mentioned, — that is, from the wheel being 
 interrupted by the branches of the trees, — it soon fell 
 into disrepute, and is now scarcely or ever used : 
 besides, the time and labour necessarily required 
 for accomplishing the work of valuation by the 
 method above referred to, is very much against 
 Hs being used by active valuators of the present 
 day. Such men, in almost all cases, accustom them- 
 selves to value any standing tree simply by sight — 
 which is, indeed, when done by an experienced man, 
 the method most to be depended upon. The eye is 
 not easily deceived in the comparative magnitude of 
 any two or more objects ; and more particularly, if 
 the action of the eye be long accustomed to com- 
 pare the relative sizes of different objects of the 
 same form, its judgment, if I may so speak, be- 
 comes almost indisputable : at least, a man is very 
 seldom deceived by his eyes in the viewing of an 
 object, if he have but accustomed them to act in 
 accordance with his judgment ; and this is all that 
 is required in order to give a correct idea of the 
 size of any tree. It merely requires that the eye 
 should bo accustomed to the work, and never to 
 pass judgment on the size of a tree, until the mind 
 be actually satisfied of the truth of the impression 
 produced. 
 
 Every forester ought at once to be able to 
 
208 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 estimate the size of any tree upon first sight of 
 it. But a course of training is necessary before 
 being able to do this ; and as I myself, in all cases 
 of Taluing growing timber, pass judgment of the 
 size simply by sight, I shall here point out the 
 course of training necessary to those who may wish 
 to become active in this most useful point in forestry. 
 Those who never have accustomed their eyes to 
 compare the relative sizes of differ ent objects, may 
 at first be led to thinlc that it is impossible for any 
 inan to give a correct judgment of the exact bullc 
 of one tree as compared with another. This opinion, 
 at first sight, is natural ; but the power of habit 
 is well known to be incredible ; and to those who 
 may entertain the idea of there being great difficulty 
 to overcome, I beg to say, that a few weeks of per- 
 severing practice will overcome all the difficulty. 
 When I first commenced to train myself to value 
 trees by sight, I was engaged in the thinning of plan- 
 tations from twenty to forty years old. For a few 
 weeks, I, in every case of cutting down a tree, first 
 eyed it from bottom to top, and from top to bottom, 
 and passed my judgment as to the number of cubic 
 feet it contained, before I cut it down : and as soon 
 as I had the tree cut down and pruned, I measured 
 the length with my rule, and took the girth in the 
 middle, and upon casting up the contents, I com- 
 pared the truth with my previous judgment of the 
 matter : and at the end of three weeks, which time 
 
' GROWING PLANTATIONS. 209 
 
 I was employed in the thinning of the plantations 
 mentioned, I could have told, to within a mere trifle, 
 the actual number of feet and inches in any indivi- 
 dual tree, before I cut it down. And in like manner, 
 I practised myself when cutting down large trees, 
 embracing every opportunity of improving my judg- 
 ment upon the point, until I came to have perfect 
 confidence as to the correctness of my decision. 
 
 But there is one remark which may be useful 
 for me to mention in this place, relative to the cor- 
 rectness or incorrectness of the judgment of the 
 eye in taking the size of a tree — and that is, the 
 mind must be perfectly at ease. A valuator, with 
 liis mind uneasy upon any point foreign from his 
 present purpose, is certain to commit errors ; and 
 this I mention, in order that any young beginner 
 who may read this, and may commence his learning 
 in the way I did, may be upon liis guard at all 
 times when valuing. 
 
 Having thus pointed out the way by which any 
 forester may acquire the useful habit of valuing 
 trees by sight, I shall now give a statement of the 
 manner in which I generally go to work in the 
 actual valuation of the trees in a plantation. 
 
 When called upon to take the valuation of a 
 plantation of full-grown trees, or, as it may be, a 
 thinning of trees from a plantation, I pro\ide 
 myself with a pretty large pass-book, containing, 
 as usual, money columns on the right-hand side of 
 
 o 
 
210 
 
 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF 
 
 each, page, aud tlie spaces upon the left-hand side 
 of the money columns I divide into four equal 
 parts, parallel with them ; the first space upon the 
 left-hand side is for entering the numbers to corre- 
 spond with these as intended to be marked upon 
 the trees ; the second for entering the species of 
 each tree as it is numbered ; the third for entering 
 the number of cubic feet contained in the tree as 
 marked ; and the fourth contains the price, per 
 cubic foot, of each tree as numbered. The follow- 
 ing sketch of tliis form of book will more readily 
 assist the learner : — 
 
 Number of 
 each Tree. 
 
 Species of each 
 Tree. 
 
 Cubic feet in 
 each Tree. 
 
 Price per 
 
 foot of 
 each Tree. 
 
 . 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 
 Oak 
 
 90 
 
 ». d. 
 3 6 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Ditto 
 
 30 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ash 
 
 82 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Ditto 
 
 20 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Elm 
 
 73 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto 
 
 30 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Beech 
 
 75 
 
 1 6 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Ditto 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 Plane 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Ditto 
 
 26 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Larch 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Ditto 
 
 32 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 Scots Fir 
 
 68 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Ditto 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 211 
 
 In the act of valuing trees in the forest, I do not, 
 of course, take time to sum up the value of each 
 tree, but leave the money- columns blank until I 
 have the work finished, or at least until the even- 
 ings when I get home, and then I have leisure to do 
 so correctly. Having provided myself with a book 
 of the description mentioned above, all ready and 
 ruled, with the numbers filled in, and the uses of 
 the columns written along the top of each page, 
 I next engage three, or perhaps, if the trees are 
 hard in the bark and difficult to mark, four men 
 of active habit, each provided with an h'on adapted 
 for the marking of figures upon the bark of trees : 
 one of the men I cause to begin by marking No. 1 
 upon the first tree to be valued, a second man marks 
 No. 2, a third No. 3, and the fourth No. 4 ; and in 
 tliis manner the four men follow one another, each of 
 them marking his own number next in succession 
 upon another new tree : that is, if the first man mark 
 No. 1, his next in succession will be No. 5, if the 
 second mark No. 2 his next in succession will be No. 
 6, and so on with the rest. When the men are pro- 
 perly arranged at their work of marking the trees, 
 I next commence myself with the tree having 
 the mark No. 1 upon it, and write opposite the 
 same number in my book the species of the tree, 
 next the number of cubic feet that I think it con- 
 tains, and lastly, the price per cubic foot of each 
 tree, as I think it would really bring in the market 
 
212 MANNER IN WHICH TREES OUGHT 
 
 at the time of valuation — and in the same manner I 
 go on with each and every tree that is to he taken 
 value of. 
 
 I may remark here, that every valuator of grow- 
 ing timher, previous to entering upon the valuation 
 of it in any locahty with which he is not well 
 acquainted, should in all cases make himself pro- 
 perly aAvare of the general prices of wood in that 
 district ; for if he do not, he will unquestionably 
 commit gross errors in his work. If, for instance, 
 a valuator were to be called from Edinburgh to 
 value wood in the county of Peebles, or any 
 other inland district, and he proceeded to value the 
 same according to the rate of wood-sales in the 
 neighbourhood of Edinburgh, his valuation would, 
 of course, be about one-half too high ; because, in 
 the county of Peebles, or indeed any other inland 
 district, there is little or no demand for wood : 
 consequently, before the wood could be sold, it 
 would require to be carted by the purchaser a 
 great distance to reach a market ; and seeing this, 
 the valuator should always regulate his prices 
 per foot according to the prices that he knows 
 will be given at the nearest seaport, deducting the 
 expenses which Avill be necessary to carry the 
 timber between the place where it is growing and 
 the seaport where it is to be sold. 
 
TO BE PREPARED FOR SALE. 213 
 
 SECTION IV. A FEW PRACTICAL HINTS RELATIVE 
 
 TO THE MANNER IN WHICH TREES OUGHT TO BE 
 PREPARED FOR SALE. 
 
 In order to the disposing of wood growing upon 
 gentlemen's estates to the best possible advantage, 
 a few practical hints may not be out of place here. 
 
 All sorts of hard-wood, the bark of wliich is not 
 Tised for tanning purposes, should be cut down for 
 sale from October till March ; during those months 
 the sap of the trees is in a dormant state, and when 
 wood is cut in such a state it is of better quality for 
 any permanent use than when cut in the summer 
 months. 
 
 All oak, larch, and birch, the bark of wliich is 
 used for tanning purposes, should be cut down and 
 peeled just when the buds of the trees are ex- 
 panding into a green state ; but in all cases where 
 the wood of these trees is wanted for permanent 
 use, the trees should be cut from October till 
 March. 
 
 All sales of wood should be conducted upon the 
 principle of public roup. At public sales there is 
 always a competition of purchasers, who generally 
 set up the wood to its proper value. 
 
 Where there is a saw-mill upon a gentleman's 
 estate, for the cutting up of trees for valuable pur- 
 poses, and where there is a good demand for wood, 
 private sales of wood after being cut at it generally 
 
214 MANNER IN WHICH TREES OUGHT 
 
 pay the proprietor better than when the wood is 
 sold in its rough state and without measurement. 
 
 In preparing wood for a public sale, each sort 
 should be arranged into separate lots by itself, and 
 no individual lot should contain less timber than 
 twenty -five cubic feet, in order that there may be 
 a cart-load for the purchaser. 
 
 All timber of good quality should be lotted sepa- 
 rately from that of indifferent quality. Let good 
 timber be sold in lots by itself, and bad timber in 
 the same manner ; and if possible, whatever num- 
 ber of trees may be put into a lot, let them be 
 nearly of an equal size. 
 
 All oak timber should be sold in its growing 
 state, unless the proprietor wish to have the cutting 
 and peehng of it kept in his own hand, which is ad- 
 visable, seeing this sort of work is more likely to 
 be done to the general advantage of the stock than 
 when done by strangers. At all events, in all cases of 
 taking down oak trees, the cutting, at least, ought 
 to be done by the proprietor's men, not only with 
 a view to the safety of the stools, but also for 
 the sake of other trees that may not be intended 
 to come down. In the case of thinning out among 
 lai'ge full-grown oak trees, I have seen much 
 damage done to the standards from carelessness 
 in allowing the fallen trees to smash the branches of 
 those which were to remain ; and in that instance 
 the purchaser cut down the trees himself, and, 
 
TO BE PREPARED FOR SALE. 215 
 
 not being a conscientious man, he had no respect 
 to the remaining trees. Now, in all cases of like 
 nature, were the work done by the proprietor's 
 men, it would be done with care. 
 
 All trees for sale should be cut down with the 
 saw, when of a size above six inches diameter at 
 the bottom ; and all trees under that size may very 
 properly be cut with the axe. In cutting a large 
 tree with the axe much valuable wood is lost at the 
 bottom part; but when cut with the saw, all the 
 available wood may be preserved. 
 
 When trees are laid together, in the way of let- 
 ting out for sale, the bottoms and tops should all 
 be laid one way, and that in a regular manner. 
 
 The lots, as they are prepared for a sale, should 
 be all numbered, and entered to a corresponding 
 number in a book kept for the purpose ; at the same 
 time stating the kind of wood that each lot consists 
 of, with the number of trees in it, and the value of 
 the same. When this necessary precaution is used, 
 should any dispute take place relative to the lots 
 afterwards, such may be at once adjusted by refer- 
 ring to the roup roll. 
 
 All lots of wood prepared for public sale should 
 be carried out of the plantations, and put upon 
 road-sides for the conveniency of purchasers getting 
 to them with their carts. 
 
CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BT 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS 
 
 EDINBURGH 45 GEORGE STREET 
 LONDON 37 PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Alison's Europe .... 
 
 S 
 
 Macfarlane's Glance at the Temple 
 
 13 
 
 
 Alison on Population . . 
 
 5 
 
 Maefarlane on Late Secession . 
 
 IS 
 
 
 Alisons Life of Marlborough . 
 
 6 
 
 Mansie VVauch .... 
 
 
 
 England in 1815-45 
 
 5 
 
 Margaret Lvndsay 
 
 7 
 
 
 on Currency t- 
 
 5 
 
 Men and Manners in America . 
 
 10 
 
 
 Ainslie's Land Surveying . 
 
 25 
 
 Morren's Sermons . . . 
 
 13 
 
 
 Arago's Elogeof Watt 
 
 18 
 
 Mulder's Chemistry 
 
 21 
 
 
 Atlas to Alison's Europe . 
 
 C 
 
 Murdoch's Notes and Remarks 
 
 10 
 
 
 Badham on Insect Life 
 
 24 
 
 Mure's Journal .... 
 
 10 
 
 
 Bennie'8 Sermons and Discourses 
 
 13 
 
 Napier's Life of Lord Napier 
 
 18 
 
 
 Billings' and Burns' Antiquities 
 
 IS 
 
 New Statistical Account of Scotland 
 
 20 
 
 
 Blackwood's Atlas 
 
 24 
 
 Nights at Mess .... 
 
 32 
 
 
 Blacker on Small Farms . 
 
 26 
 
 Outram's Conquest of Scinde . 
 
 10 
 
 
 Book of the Farm .... 
 
 21 
 
 Parnell's Grasses of Britain 
 
 24 
 
 
 Brown's Forester 
 
 21 
 
 Peninsular Scenes and Sketches 
 
 U 
 
 
 Croly's Life of Burke 
 
 18 
 
 Pollok's Course of Time 
 
 8 
 
 
 Cruickshank's Planter 
 
 26 
 
 Recreations of Christopher North 
 
 7 
 
 
 Cruise of the Midge . . . 
 Cunningham on Cottages 
 
 32 
 
 Reginald Dalton .... 
 
 32 
 
 
 25 
 
 Sandford's Works 
 
 17 
 
 
 Cyril Thornton . . . 
 
 32 
 
 Schiller's Ballads by Bulwer . 
 
 8 
 
 
 Delta's Legend of Genevieve . 
 
 16 
 
 Schlegel's Lectures on Literature 
 
 17 
 
 
 Domestic Verses . 
 
 9 
 
 Scotfs Scripture History . 
 
 14 
 
 
 Diary of a Late Physician 
 
 
 Southey's Life of Beil 
 
 
 
 Elkington on Draining 
 
 26 
 
 Southev's Robin Hood 
 
 u 
 
 
 Finlay-s Greece under the Romans 
 
 10 
 
 Southeys (Mrs)Chapters on Churchyards 11 
 
 
 Foresters, The 
 
 Forsyth on Genesis . 
 Fortunio 
 
 7 
 
 Solitarv Hours . 
 
 9 
 
 
 14 
 
 Birthd.ay 
 
 g 
 
 
 12 
 
 Speculative Difficulties 
 
 13 
 
 
 Galbiaith on Surveying . 
 
 23 
 
 Stephens' Book of the Farm 
 
 21 
 
 
 Gaits Annals of the Parish 
 
 16 
 
 Stephens on Draining 
 
 
 
 Sir Andrew Wylie . . 
 
 16 
 
 Irrigator . . . 
 
 26 
 
 
 Entail .... 
 
 16 
 
 Stewart's Stable Economy 
 
 23 
 
 
 Provost .... 
 
 10 
 
 Advice to Purchasers of Ho 
 
 rses 23 
 
 
 Hastings' Poems 
 
 9 
 
 Stoddarfs Angler 
 
 12 
 
 
 Hay's Works .... 
 
 10 
 
 Student of Salamanca . . . 
 
 11 
 
 
 Hemans' Works .... 
 
 
 Subaltern, The .... 
 
 32 
 
 
 Hill's Lectures on Divinity 
 
 30 
 
 Ten TlH.usand A-Tear 
 
 11 
 
 
 Hogg's Jacobite Relics 
 Inglis on Christian Faith . 
 
 IC 
 
 Thiersch's Greek Grammar 
 
 15 
 
 
 31 
 
 Thomson's (Rev. A.) Works 
 
 28 
 
 
 Establishments . . 
 
 31 
 
 Tom Cringle's Log 
 
 32 
 
 
 Johnsons Scots Musical Museum 
 
 16 
 
 Train's History of the Buchanites 
 
 12 
 
 
 Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry 
 
 
 Valerius. A Roman Story 
 
 
 
 Journal of Agriculture 
 
 24 
 
 Walton on the Alpaca 
 
 
 
 Lawson's Agricu'turisfs Manual 
 
 25 
 
 Watt's Correspondence 
 
 16 
 
 
 Liehig's Question to Mulder 
 
 25 
 
 White Cat, The .... 
 
 12 
 
 
 Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life 
 
 7 
 
 Wilson's Poems 
 
 
 
 M'Crie's Works .... 
 
 31 
 
 Younger on River Angling 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
CATALOGUE OF BOOKS. 
 
 Publishing in Monthly Volumes, 
 
 THE HISTORY OF EUROPE, 
 
 FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 IN MDCCLXXXIX. 
 
 TO THE RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS 
 
 IN MDCCCXV. 
 
 BY ARCHIBALD ALISON, F.R.S. 
 
 The Seventh Edition, Handsomely Printed in Crown Octavo. 
 
 PRICE SIX SHILLINGS PER VOLUK'. 
 
 The last Volume will contaia a copious Index to the whole work. 
 
 [^Continued. 
 
BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 ALISON'S HISTORY OF EUROPE— Conthmed. 
 CRITICAL NOTICES OF THIS EDITION. 
 
 Elorning Ctaronicle. 
 
 " Mr Alison has produced what deserves to be regarded as the only 
 complete and authoritative English account of the grandest period of 
 modern history, when the world saw with amazement, the social and 
 political struggles, contests, and mutations, which might well have 
 occupied the lapse of centuries, crowded into the strange and eventful 
 drama of a few short years. » » « His pages embody some of the 
 most valuable lessons of Christian philosophy, and the lottiest precepts of 
 public morality. They have already received the seal of general approba- 
 tion; and we" cannot doubt that the favour extended to them in the 
 elegant and moderately priced form in which they now appear, will be 
 still greater and more lasting." 
 
 Times> 
 
 " At the time this great work appeared in successive volumes, we 
 noticed it at such length, that any detailed repetition of its merits would 
 be superfluous. In spite of the defects which may appear in isolated 
 parts— and how could a work of such magnitude be without them ? — it is 
 unrivalled as a Tliesanrus of information, during one of the most impor- 
 tant periods of the world's history ; and is at the same time a monument 
 of industry and eloquence. Having passed through six editions in its 
 original octavo form, a seventh has now commenced in a more portable 
 shape. The size adapts it to the pocket, while the beauty of the appear- 
 ance qualifies it for a place in the library of the most fastidious." 
 
 Sun. 
 
 " So much has already been written upon the dramatic and elegant style 
 of Alison, as well as upon his endeavour to maintain throughout his pages 
 a scrupulous impartiality — so familiarised is the general public with his 
 magnificent production, and so fully are the abilities of our historian appre- 
 ciated, that we shall content ourselves with simply commenting upon the 
 peculiarities which exclusively characterise the present edition. In its 
 publication the utmost care has been taken to preserve every portion of 
 the original unmutilated and unabbreviated, so that in the compass of a 
 most portable volume, are comprised the entire contents of an octavo or 
 even of a quarto. The classification, the arrangement of the chapters, the 
 foot-notes, and the marginal references, are singular for their compactness ; 
 and this supervision has even extended to the enumeration of the autho- 
 rities quoted in the narrative. A merely superficial glance at this catalogue 
 will be sufficient to show the enormous research and labour required in 
 the composition — a research extending over many hundred volumes, and 
 necessitating a perusal of documents in German. French, English, Italian, 
 Spanish, Latin and Russian. Even in external appearance, the work is 
 remarkable for the attention paid to its general character, the binding 
 lieing at once chaste and substantial * * * A better edition suited to 
 the public at large, could not possibly have been issued." 
 
 Spectator. 
 
 " After standing the test of time and criticism, in continuous publica- 
 tion, volume by volume, both in England and America, and reaching a 
 sale equivalent to six editions, the seventh edition of " Alison's History of 
 Europe " is now to appear in a more compact form, at a lower price, and 
 in a closer, and we think, a handsomer style, both as regards type and 
 paper." 
 
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 
 
 The Military Life of John Duke of Marl- 
 
 BOROUGH, with some account of his Contemporaries. By 
 ARCHIBALD ALISON, Esq., F R.S., Author of "The History 
 of Europe." In One Volume Octavo, illustrated with Maps and 
 Plans of Battles, &c. Price ISs. 
 
 By the same Author, 
 
 Eno-Iand in 1815 and 1845, 
 
 and the MONETARY FAMINE OP 1847; or. A Sofficie.nt and 
 A Contracted Curre.ncv. Fourth Edition, price 1;. 6d. 
 
 Free Trade and a Fettered Currency. 
 
 In Octavo, price 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Principles of Population, 
 
 AND Their Connexion with HujMAn Happiness. In Two Vols. 
 Octavo, price £1, 10s. 
 
 Contents : — Volume I. — Chnp. I. On the Early Increase of 
 Mankind. — II. On the Fundamental Relation between Popula- 
 tion and Subsistence. — III. On the Changes in the Progress of 
 Society which limit the Principles of Increase. — IV On the 
 Changes in the Progress of Society which limit the Demand for 
 Labour. — V. Mndifications arising from Human Corruption. — 
 
 VI. Principles of Renovation and Decay in Human Affairs. — 
 
 VII. Action of Principle of Increase in the East. — VIII. Action 
 of the Principle of Increase in Europe. — IX. In America. 
 
 Volume II. — Chap, I. On the Acquisition of Landed Property by 
 the Labouring Clashes. — II. Moral Dangers and Evils of Great 
 Cities. — III. The Religious Instruction of the People, and the 
 Necessity of an Established Church. — IV. Advantages and 
 Dangers of Secular Instruction. — V. On a Legal Provision for 
 the Poor. — VI. The Factory System and Trades' Unions. — VII. 
 The Corn Laws. — VIII. Colonisation, and the Reciprocity Sys- 
 tem. — IX. The Future Increase and Prospects of Mankind. 
 
O BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Publishing in Monthly Parts, 
 
 THE 
 
 ATLAS 
 
 TO 
 
 ALISO^^'S HISTORY OF EUROPE. 
 
 ILLOSTRATING, IN A SYSTEMATIC SERIES OP 
 
 ONE HUNDRED MAPS AND PLANS, 
 THE CABSFAIGNS, BATTIiES, AND SIEGES 
 
 DURING THE PERIOD EMBRACED BY THE HISTORY. 
 
 CONSTRUCTED AND ARRANGED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP 
 
 MR ALISON, 
 
 FROM THE MATERIALS USED BV HIM IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE WORK, 
 BY 
 
 ALEXANDER KEITH JOHNSTON, F.R.G.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE NATIONAL," AND EDITOR OP "TUE PHYSICAL ATLAS." 
 
 The Maps are constructed on a uniform scale, so as to enable the 
 reader to carry in his mind, from one country to another, correct 
 estimates of relative masnitude and distance; while the plans of 
 Battles and Sieges, which could not be reduced to uniformity without 
 the sacrifice of necessary detail, will contain, besides the usual scale of 
 Military steps, a corresponding one of English feet or miles. Promi- 
 nence is given to every spot rendered memorable by the events recorded 
 in the History ; and the sites occupied from time to time by the various 
 armies being laid before the reader in their regular geographical posi 
 tion, he is enabled, with facility, to trace the course of each campaign. 
 The colours will be uniform in their indications throughout, and the 
 Atlas is to be accompanied by an Ind x Map of Europe, and a Plate 
 explanatory of Fortification, and Military Topography. Thus complete 
 in all its parts, the work serves to illustrate every History of the 
 Revolution, and the Empire • and the Publishers trust that, from the 
 minuteness of its details, and the accuracy of its construction, it will 
 be found as valuable to the Military Student, as from the elegance of 
 its execution, and the convenience of its form, it will be attractive 
 and useful to the General Reader. 
 
 The Atlas isptiblishmg in monthly parts, each containing Five Plates, 
 price Two Shillings and SLvpence. andon Large Paper, to range with 
 the first editions of the History, Three Shillings and Sixpence. The 
 Maps will be so arranged, that they may he either done up as a separate 
 Volume in Quarto or Octavo, or inserted in any edition of the Work. 
 
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 
 
 Professor Wilson's Poems. 
 
 In two volumes post 8vo, 21s. 
 
 — o — 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR, 
 
 In foolscap 8vo, price 2s. 6d. each, sewed; 3s. neatly bound in cloth ; or 
 
 3s. 6d. handsomely bound in cloth, gilt edges, 
 
 NEW EDITIONS OF 
 
 Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life. 
 
 o 
 
 " What child will not hang over the Tales of the Covenanters in 
 Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life ? . . . We have already said 
 a word or two on this delightful volume — the work of one of the 
 most amiable of contemporary minds — a genius which shines with 
 equal felicity in the tender and humorous." — Quarterly Beview. 
 
 The Trials of Margaret Lyndsay. 
 The Foresters. 
 
 The Recreations of Christopher North. 
 
 In Three Vols, post 8vo, price £1, lis. 6d. 
 
 Contents : — Volume I. Christopher in his Sporting Jacket — A 
 
 Tale of Expiation — Morning Monologue — The Field of Flowers 
 
 — Cottages — An Hour's talk about Poetry — Inch Cruin — A Day 
 
 at Windermere. 
 
 Volume II. The Moors— Highland Snow-Storm— The Holy Child 
 
 — Our Parish — May-Day — Sacred Poetry. 
 Volume III. Christopher in his Aviary — Dr Kitchiner — Soliloquy 
 on the Seasons — A Few Words on Thomson — The Snowball 
 Bicker of Pedmont — Christmas Dreams — Our Winter Quarters 
 — Stroll to Grassniere — L'Envoy. 
 
 " His contributions to Blackwood's Magazine raised the uhole tone 
 and character of periodical literature. The keenest wit, the most 
 playful fancy, the most genial criticism, the deepest pathos, were 
 lavished year after year, with a profusion almost miraculous. Some 
 of the finest of these productions have been collected as 'The Recrea- 
 tions of Christopher North.' It would be difficult to point to three 
 volumes of our own times, that have an equal chance of becoming 
 immoTtdl."— Knights Half Hours with the Best Authors, vol. ii. p. 103. 
 " Delightful volumes— full of fun and fervour, power and pathos 
 — of deep feeling and light-hearted gaiety— of impassioned language, 
 rolUng along in the strength and majesty of genuine eloquence— 
 and of familiar gossip, tripping it lightly over the merrier pages."— 
 Scotsman. 
 
BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 The Course of Time. 
 
 A Poem, in Ten Books. By ROBERT POLLOK, M.A. A New 
 Edition, (being the Eighteenth,) with Portrait, Engraved by 
 Robiuf on. In Small 8vo, 7s. 6d., neatly bound in cloth. 
 
 The Works of Mrs Hemans : 
 
 A Complete and Uniform Edition, with a Memoir by her Sister. 
 In Seven Vols, foolscap 8vo, price £1, ISs., neatly bound in cloth, 
 with Portraits and Vignettes; or £3, 3s. in morocco. 
 
 JSach Volume may be had as a separate and complete Book, 
 price 5s., viz. : — 
 
 I. MEMOIR OF MRS HEMANS, BY HER SISTER. 
 II. TALES AND HISTORIC SCENES, &c. 
 
 III. THE SIEGE OF VALENCL\, THE SCEPTIC, &c. 
 
 IV. THE FOREST SANCTUARY, DE CHATILLON, &e. 
 
 V. RECORDS OF AVOMAN, VESPERS OF PALERMO, &c. 
 VI. SONGS OF THE AFFECTIONS, NATIONAL LYRICS, &c. 
 VII. SONGS AND LYRICS, SCENES AND HYMNS OF LIFE. 
 
 The Poems and Ballads of Schiller, 
 
 Translated by Sir EDWARD BULWER LYTTON, Bart., with a 
 BRIEF Sketch of Schillers Life. In Two Vols, crown 8vo, 
 price One Guinea. 
 
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 of none so complete and so fiiithfiil."—Mornijig Chronicle. 
 
 " The work of one poet who has perfectly seized the meaning of 
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 " A translation of Schiller which not only far surpasses all existing 
 attempts in our language, but which finely reflects the spirit of tlie 
 original, in its poetic tire and strength of expression." — Britannia. 
 
 " No richer gift could be made to any language than a fair and 
 worthy version of such masterpieces of the German tongue. It is 
 the task undertaken in the work before us, and we thmkwith a rare 
 success ." — Examiner. 
 
■WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 
 
 Robin Hood. A fragment. 
 
 By the late KOBERT SOUTHEY, and CAROLINE SOUTHEY. 
 With other Fragments and Poems, by R. S. and C. S. Crown 8vo, 
 price 83. 
 
 Solitary Hours. By Mrs Southey. 
 
 In foolscap 8vo. A New Edition. Price 63. 
 
 " Those sweet poems in the little volume of Solitary Hours, which 
 for truth and depth of feeling, and for tenderness and holiness of 
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 tliis generation." — Quartei-ly Review. 
 
 By the same Author, 
 
 The Birthday and Other Poems. 
 
 In foolscap 8vo, price 7s. 
 
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 Southey's Works, Moreover, her versiticatiun, especially in her two 
 later volumes, is not only generally correct, but, in several instances, 
 of very great beauty and perfection. In her latest poem, ' The 
 Birthday," she has attained to a still higher excellence of style." — 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 — o — 
 
 Poems by the Lady Flora Hastings. 
 
 With a Portrait by K. M'LEAY, R.S.A., Engraved in Line by 
 Horsburgh. Second Edition, beautifully printed in foolscap 8vo, 
 price 7s. 6d. A few copies remain of the Large Edition, which, 
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 receive their share." — Morning Post. 
 
 Domestic Verses. By Deha. 
 
 In One Vol. foolscap 8vo, price 5s., bound in cloth. 
 
 " The poems refer chiefly to the deaths of three beloved children, 
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10 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 The Conquest of Scinde. 
 
 A Commentary. By Lieut.-Colonel ODTRAM, C.B., Resident at 
 Sattarab. 8vo, price 18s. 
 
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 Greece under the Romans. 
 
 A Historical View of the Condition of the Greek Na- 
 tion, FROM THE TIME OF ITS CONQUEST BY THE RoMANS UNTIL 
 
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 146-A.D. 717. By GEORGE FINLAY, K.RG. 8vo, price 16s. 
 
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 " The History of Greece under the Romans has been ably written 
 by Mr Finlay." — Qvarterly Review. 
 — o — 
 
 Men and Manners in America. 
 
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 Journal of a Tour in Greece and the Ionian 
 
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 Notes and Remarks made in Jersey, France, 
 
 ITALY, and the MEDITERRANEAN, in 1643-44. By J. BURN 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 11 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 13 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 15 
 
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 BARONIAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL 
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 James Watt's Correspondence 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 17 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 19 
 
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 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF SYMMETRICAL BEAUTY. 
 
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WORKS 
 
 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS. 
 
 A NEW EDITION OF 
 
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 PHYSIOLOGY. By Dr J. G. MULDER, Professor of 
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22 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and 
 
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 Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 23 
 
 Stephens on Draining. 
 
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 Advice to Purchasers of Horses. 
 
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 Trigonometrical Surveying, Levelling, and 
 
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24 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
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 AND The Transactions of the Highland and Agricul- 
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 Insect Life. 
 
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 Blackwood's County Atlas of Scotland; 
 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 25 
 
 Liebio- and Mulder. 
 
 LIEBIG'S QUESTION to MULDER, tested by Morality and 
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 The Agriculturist's Manual. 
 
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 Elkington's System of Draining. 
 
 A Systematic Treatise on the Theory and Practice 
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WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 27 
 
 Witsv'ki an %a\xi aittf ^iurtgjinititnce. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF THE CRIMINAL LAW OF SCOT- 
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