^•T^^" ■^xm^~- '^oxi\\ Carolina ^init Colkge =•?) NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES S02263923 R This book is due on the date indicated unless recalled by the Libraries. Books not returned on time are subject to replacement charges. Borrowers may access their library accoujits at: http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/ads/borrow.html ivrir THE POTATO A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE POTATO, ITS CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, CUL- TIVATION, HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING, INSECTS, AND DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES, ETC., ETC. SAMUEL ERASER Assistant Agronomist, Cornet/ University ILLUSTRJTED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1905 Copyright, 1905 BY ORANGE JTDD COMPANY To %<}^mt6 ^cott (Borbcn WHOSE LIFE AND WORK ARE AN INSPIRATION TO MANY PREFACE Thk literature issued on the subjedt of potatoes during the past three hundred years would form a large library, many works having been published in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and other countries. It is safe to say that no plant has aroused a deeper interest than ' * the noble tuber. ' ' Its very existence to-day is largely due to the efforts of enthusiasts. Several of the older writers were keen observers and acquainted intimately with the history and character of the potato, and modern authors in- clude the names of men who are eminent in the scientific world. The vast amount of research and demonstration carried out by the experiment stations of this country during the past ten years, and the fadl that every station has done something in this line, show the breadth of the subjedt and furnish material hith- erto unobtainable. The excellent research work now being carried on in Europe, especially in France, Ger- many, etc., and more recently established in Ireland, indicates a demand for more information about this crop. We feel that the ".science of agriculture" is a reality ; that, like every past generation, we are on the eve of great discoveries; that something of the laws governing plant nutrition and growth will shortly be revealed, that we may be able to prevent rather than cure the troubles which assail our plants. To be of Vlll PREFACE any use, scientific research must be rigidly accurate in its observ^ation and merciless to fallacy in logic. Once a principle is proven it is of no use unless applied, and the man to apply it is the farmer. At the present time it behooves us to divest our- selves of prejudice, whether of tradition or custom, which might tend to warp our judgment and treat as debatable assumptions which long-established associa- tion have made shameful to doubt, but which, undis- turbed, would make the discovery of truth impossible. To-day theories are no longer revered because our fathers believed in them. The search-light of all- prying Science illuminates the whole field of agricul- ture, and has led men to doubt and call in question even truth itself, in order that they might expose those things which are not true. It is by this means alone, by this attitude of questioning all statements and theories, both the truth and the untruth alike, that we can form a just estimate of what is true. That which cannot .stand the fire may rightly be esteemed dross. In this book the endeavor has been to colledt many scattered fa(5ls from many sources, and present these — along with experience derived by growing potatoes for several years, commercially and experimentally, in two continents — in the hope that these data will be of value to the reader. Samuel Fraser. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1905 JVo/f.— With the exception of Figs. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43, and 44, which were kindly loaned by the makers of these implements, and those in which credit is given in the text, all illustrations have been prepared by the Author. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES History and Botany 1-7 CHAPTER II Some Conditions Influencing Growth AND Development 8-16 Influence of Light on Yield, 8; Amount of Mois- ture, 8; Respiration, 9; Influence of Tempera- ture on Respiration, 9; Influence of Temperature on Growth, 10; Potato Roots, 10; Influence of Depth of Planting on Roots, 15; Blossoming, Tuber Formation, and Hilling, 16. CHAPTER HI Soils 17-25 Best Soils, and Reasons why Certain Soils are Better than Others, 17; Influence of Soil on Different Varieties, 19; Subsoiling, 20; Prepara- tion of the Soil, 21; Surface-fitting Tools, 23. CHAPTER IV Rotation 26-29 CHAPTER V Manuring and Fertilizing 30-50 Object, 30; Influence of Nitrogen, 31; Influence of Potash, 32; Sources of Potash, 33; Influence of Phosphoric Acid, 34; Influence of Calcium, 35; Barn Manure, 36; Function of Fertilizers, 39; Purchasing and Applying Fertilizers, 42; Value, 43; Unit Value, 44, Purchasing, 44; Valuing Barn Manure, 44; Mixing Fertilizers, 46; Ap- plying Fertilizers, 48; Water Requirement, 48. X CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGES Considerations of Seed 51-69 Source of Seed, 51; Management of Seed Previ- ous to Planting, 53; Sprouting Potatoes, 54; Sprouting Trays, 60; Whole vs. Cut Sets, 60; Time to Cut, 61; Size of Seed, 61; Amount of Seed per Acre, 63; Relative Value of Bud and Stem Ends and the Middle of the Tuber, 66; Viability. 66. CHAPTER VII Varieties 70-90 Selecting a Variety, 70; Cooking Quality and Flavor, 70, 72; Yield, 70, 74; Ability to Resist Disease, 71, 76; Color of Skin and Tuber, 71, 76; Nature of the Skin, 71, 78; The Shape. 71, 78; Depth and Frequency of Eyes, 71, 79; Time of Maturity, 71, 79: The Haulm, 71, 80; The Leaf, 71, 81; The Vigor of the Variety, 71, 82; Second Growth, 71, 85; Trueness to Type, 72, 85; Test- ing Varieties, 86; The Relationship of Variety to Soil, 87; The Most Popular Varieties, 87. CHAPTER VIII Planting 91-104 Distance Apart, 91; Depth of Planting, 93; Influ- ence of Depth of Planting on the Depth at Which Tubers Form, 94; Influence of Depth on Quality, 96; Date of Planting, 96; Influence of Late and Early Planting, 97; Methods of Planting, 97. CHAPTER IX Management of the Growing Crop. . 105-110 Cultivation, 105; Systems of Culture, 106; Hills, 106; Drills, 106; Level Culture, 107; Method of Cultivation and Tools Used, 107; Mulching, xio. CONTENTS XI CHAPTER X ' PAGES Obstructions to Growth and Develop- ment 111-127 Influence of Season and Climate, iii; Weeds, 112; Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- ria, 112; Late Blight or Rot, 112; Early Blight or Leaf Spot Disease, 118; Potato Rosette, 118; Scab/ 119; Diseases in Storage, 121; Wet Rot, 121; Dry Rot, 122; Stem Rot or Bundle Blacken- ing, 122; Bacterial Diseases, 122; Insects, 123; Flea-beetle, 123; Potato Bug, 124; Potato Worm, 125; Potato Stalk Weevil, 126; Grasshoppers, 126; June Bug, 126; Wireworms, 127; Striped Blis- ter Beetle, 127; Arsenical Poisoning, 127. CHAPTER XI Sprays and Spraying 128-142 Fungicides, 128; Bordeaux Mixture, 128; Mixing, 129; Testing Bordeaux Mixture, 130; Strength of Solution, 130; Bordeaux Dust or Dry Bordeaux Mixture, 130; Washing Soda and Copper Sul- phate Mixture, 131; Benefits from Use of Bor- deaux Mixture, 131; Time of Spraying, 134; Number of Sprayings, 134 ; Insecticides, 135 ; Paris Green, 136; Lead Compounds, 137; Arsenic and Lime, 138; Cost of Spraying and Profits De- rived, 139; Spraying Machines, 140. CHAPTER XII Harvesting 143-146 Digging, 143; Methods of Digging, 143; Diggers, 144. XU CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII PAGES Storing • 147-152 Piles, 147; Cellars, 149; Construction of Cellars, 149; Ventilation and Temperature, 150; Losses in Storage, 151. CHAPTER XIV Production, Transportation, and Mar- kets 153-165 Factors Influencing Farm Prices, 157; Modes of Selling, 159; Local Markets, 159; Distant Mar- kets, 160: Commission Rates, 160; Grading, 162; Packages, 162; Barrels, 162; Bushel Boxes, 164. CHAPTER XV Chemical Composition and Feeding Value 166-170 Composition, i66; Digestibility, i6S; Feeding Value, 168; Cooking, 169; Uses, 170. CHAPTER XVI Breeding and Selection 1 71-177 Propagation and Breeding, 171; Selection, 175. Appendix 179-180 Spray Calendar, 178; Seed Treatment, 179. Index . i8i ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE Spraying in a New York Potato Field . Frontispiece 2 Copy of Engraving of the Virginian Potato from Gerard's "Herbal," 1636 2 3 Sectional View of Potato Flower 4 4 Tuber, Showing the Arrangement of the Eyes . . 6 5 Potato Plant, Showing Tubers (Viewed from Above) 12 6 Potato Plant, Showing Tubers and Roots (Side View) 13 7 A Useful Type of Spring-tooth Harrow 22 8 A Disk Harrow , . . . 23 9 A Double-action Cutaway Harrow 24 10 The Influence of Lime Upon Potatoes 36 11 Potato Tray for Storing and Sprouting Seed ... 53 12 Potato Planted Four Inches Deep, Showing its Growth and Development of Tubers 55 13 Seed Potatoes Sprouted for Use in the Planter , , 56 14 Seed of Early Potatoes, Sprouted for Hand Planting 56 15 Seed Potatoes, Showing Weak, Long Sprouts ... 57 16 Diagram, Showing the Stand of Twenty Plats of Carman No. 3 Potatoes 6S 17 Diagram, Showing the Stand of Thirty-six Plats of Early Trumbull Potatoes 68 18 Section of a Tuber of Poor Cooking Quality ... 72 19 Section of a Tuber of Good Cooking Quality ... 73 20 Three Varieties Differing in the Character of Net- ting of the Skin 77 xiii xiv ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 21 Three Favorite Shapes of Potatoes 79 22 Potato Plant, Showing Upright Haulm So 23 Potato Plant, Early Variety, Showing Dwarf Haulm 92 24 The Modern Method of Planting Potatoes .... 98 25 Planting by Hand 99 26 Sectional View of the Aspinwall Potato Planter. . 100 27 Aspinwall Potato Planter (Side View) loi 28 The Robbins Improved Planter 103 29 Platform of the Robbins Improved Planter . . 104 30 Halleck Expansible Weeder 107 31 Five-tooth Cultivator, with Hiller Attachment . . 108 32 A Useful Two-horse Cultivator 109 33 One-horse Spring Tooth Cultivator no 34 Section of Potato Leaf, Showing the Parts and Mycelium of Blight {Phytophthora infestans) . . 114 35 Maturation of a Spore Sac and Germination of a Spore of Rot (P. infestans) 115 36 Longitudinal Section of a Potato Stalk, Showing a Germinating Spore of Rot {P. infestans) . . . . 116 37 The Germinating Tube of a Spore of Rot (P. infes- tans) on a Leaf 117 38 Tubers with and without Scab 120 39 The Cucumber Flea-beetle {Crcpidodera Epitrix cucti- mcris) 123 40 Leaflet of Potato, Showing Over a Hundred Holes Made by Flea-beetles 123 41 Sprayed and Unsprayed Portions of a New York Potato Field 133 42 A Suggestive English Spraying Machine .... 140 43 The Reuther Potato Digger 145 44 The Hoover Digger 146 45 Potato Shovel 147 ILLUSTRATIONS XV FIG. PAGE 46 Storing Potatoes in Pits 148 47 Showing the Distribution of Potato Production in the United States in 1899 • ^54 48 Showing the Distribution of the Area in the United States in Potatoes in 1S99 155 49 Grading and Barreling Potatoes for Market . . . 163 50 Potato Flower, with Calix and Corolla Removed, Showing Anthers and Stigma 173 51 Pistil of Potato Flower, Showing Parts 174 ABBREVIATIONS USED U. S. D. A. — United States Department of Agriculture, in connection with reports or bulletins. E. S. R., V:33 — Experiment Station Record, Volume V., page 33. Issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Experiment Stations in the various States are designated by the common abbreviation for the State — as, "Wis.": Wisconsin. Where there are two stations in a State, the particular one is designated — as. New York (N. Y.) Cornell. The number of the bulletin follows. Some States issue their bulletins in volumes, thus: Tenn. Bui., Vol. XI., I., p. 116 — Tennessee Bulletin, Volume XI., No. I., page 116. Pa. D. A. — Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. State Departments of Agriculture are abbreviated in this manner. Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117 — Canada Experi- mental Farms Report for 1901, page 117. Ont. Agr. Col. and Farm Report, 1898, p. 158— Ontario Agricultural College and Farm Report for 1898, page 158. Hort. Trans., Vol. I. — Horticultural Transactions of Eng- land, Vol. I. Nat. His. of Car. — Natural History of Carolina. By Mark Catesby, F.R.S. Second Edition. London. Proc. Assoc. Prom. Agr. Science — Proceedings of the Association for the Promotion of Agricultural Science (America). THE POTATO CHAPTER I HISTORY AND BOTANY The potato {Solanioii ticbcrosum), also called " white potato," "Irish potato," "English potato," or "round potato," is a native of the elevated valleys of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, one form of it being found as far north as Southern Colorado. The wild potatoes of Chili differ from the cultivated form, in that they produce seed-balls more freely. Tobacco, tomato, egg-plant, capsicum, henbane, and belladonna all belong to the potato family, but of this large family of 1 600 species but six bear tubers. Some of these latter — as, Darwin's potato {Solarium viaglia) — were thought to have some value for cross- ing to produce a blight-proof new race, but so far success has not been attained in the latter respedl. A variety of Solanum commersoni, another tuber-bearing plant, is now being boomed in Europe as a substitute for the common potato. The Arizona wild potato {Solanjwi jamesii) has been grown for many years in this country in various places, but its tubers are small and of little value. The Mexican or Central American potato (^Solarium tuberosum var. boreale) is found native in Colorado. ^.g^^^ T^^'' THE POTATO fig. 2 — copy ok engraving ok the virginian potato in Gerard's " herbal," printed in 1636 (Compare with photograph, Figs. 5, 6.) In England the name Virginian potato was used to designate its source. The potato was probably introduced into that part of the United States now known as Virginia and North Carolina between the middle and close of the sixteenth centur}'. It is claimed that in 1586 colonists returning from Virginia probably took the potato with HISTORY AND BOTANY 3 them to England. The Spanish had previously carried it to Europe. Gerard's " Herbal," published in 1597, describes the potato, and the edition published in 1636 contains a woodcut representing the potato as it ap- peared about three hundred 3-ears ago (Fig. 2). The potato was more readily appreciated in this country than in Europe, and by the year 1722 it was a common article of food among the whites and Indians in Vir- ginia and Carolina.' In Europe, with the exception of Ireland, potato growing made little progress until the middle of the eighteenth century. The potato {Solaiuun tuberosum) is an annual, but is virtually perennial by means of its tubers. It has smooth, generally solid, more or less quadrangular, herbaceous stems, which often attain a hight of two to five feet. The stems are often furnished with membra- nous wings at their angles, and bear compound leaves formed of oval leaflets, between which are often found small, leafy growths. The flowers (Fig. 3 ) are borne in clusters, and have an entire, wheel-shaped, five-pointed corolla, varying in breadth from one to one and a half inches, and in color from pure white to purple. It is often claimed that many varieties do not flower, and of those which do a great number never bear fruit. This dearth of fruit is generally attributed to lack of pollen. In many varieties the stamens have degenerated, or do not open to let the pollen out." Conditions .seem to have an influence, as a variety may bear abundance of pollen and mature seed in one distridl, but not in another in the same year. ' "Nat. His. of Carolina," by Mark Catesby, F.R.S., 2d ed. 2 Halstead, Proc. .\ssoc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1888, p. 33, " Potato Flowers and Fruit." 4 THK POTATO The idea is prevalent that potatoes do not bloom so freely now as formerl^^ The fadls do not tend to con- firm this. Mark Catesby, who was in this country in 1722 and 1726, wrote that " in Virginia and to the FIG. 3 — SECTIONAL VIEW OK I'OTATO FLOWER (Diagrammatic) ,■ a — Ovar>'. b — Ovules, which finally become seeds, c — Calyx, made up of green-colored leaves, d — Stigma. The pollen attaches itself at this place. ^— Style, down which the pollen-tube passes to the ovary and ovules. p — Petals, white to purple in color, i — Stamens. The thick upper portion bears the pollen, and is known as the anther. north thereof, they [potatoes] are annuals, and produce no flowers, while in Carolina and the Bahama Islands they produce flowers." Many varieties existed at that time, particularly in Virginia, and five kinds were common — the Common, Bermudas, Brimstone, Carrot, HISTORY AND BOTANY 5 and Claret potatoes. The Bermuda potato was the only one that had a white flower, the flowers of all the other kinds being purple. This was the only variety that had a white skin, and was white fleshed. It was round in shape, more tender, and more delicate to raise than the others, and did not keep so well.' George Don, in 1831, enumerates several English early varieties, and says that ' ' none of the above sorts, when true, produce blossoms." * At Wyoming Experiment Station,' in 1895, out of 56 varieties grown 14 did not bloom, but in 1896 but 4 varieties failed to bloom out of 56, and only one va- riety. Blue Victor, failed to bloom in one of the two years. In other parts of the State all the varieties grown came into bloom. In New York, during 1904, the variety Blue Vidlor was profuse in its bloom, and bore abundance of seed-balls. Out of 300 varieties I have followed closely, having grown many for several years, I find that it is seldom that a variety will not bloom at some time in its life, and I am sure that many of the heaviest-yielding varieties bloom as freely as those of inferior merit. At Wyoming Experiment Station the ten heaviest jdelding varieties all came into bloom both in 1895 and in 1896, in experiments con- ducted in various parts of the State. The fruit, or seed-ball, is a globular or short oval berry, either green or green tinged with violet, brown, purplish, or yellowish in color, and from three-quar- ters to one and a half inches in diameter. It contains > "Nat. His. of Carolina," by Mark Catesby, F.R.S., 2d ed. 2 Don's "Gardener's Dictionary," 1831-S, Vol. IV., pp. 40x5-406. * Wyo. Bui. 32, pp. 54-63. THE POTATO small white kidney-shaped seeds embedded in the midst of a green and very acrid pulp (Fig. 3). These seeds are sown for the purpose of raising new varieties. The main vertical underground stem varies in length with the depth of planting. This stem branches at in- tervals, and each branch enlarges at the end to form a tuber (Fig. 12). Usually from two to four roots start from the vertical underground stem at the base of each tuber- l)earing branch, but roots may start where such branches are absent. This charadleristic growth may be seen by grow- ing a potato in a barrel half full of soil and manure, and watering it well; then, as the stem grows, place soil round it, thus increasing the length of the underground portion and the number of tuber-bearing branches. The tubers may be formed above ground, and whenever thej- are abundant in the axils of the leaves there are few or none below ground. The tuber is an underground stem, and the eyes on it are equivalent to the leaf buds on a stem of a young peach or ailanthus. They are arranged more or less spirally in both cases (Fig. 4). From the eye a num- ber of buds may start; hence, in the case of new and expensive varieties, the tubers may be split through the FIG. 4 — KIDNEY-SHAPED I'OTATO {Does Pride) Showing the alignment of the eyes, and that the ter- minal buds tend to start first. Note the short, thick, desirable shoots. HISTORY AND BOTANY 7 ej-es, if desired, and a shoot obtained from each half. As each shoot sets a root it may be broken off and trans- planted, and another may start. By these means and great care a pound of seed tubers has been made to yield 2,558 pounds of potatoes in one season. Historical Note. — The early history of the potato is obscure. The most authentic information I have secured is that Sir Robert Southwell, the President of the Royal Society of Eng- land, at the meeting held December 13, 1693, stated that the potato was brought into Ireland by his grandfather, who ob- tained tubers from Sir Walter Raleigh, after the return of his expedition from Virginia. This was in the year 1584. It is now believed that Sir Walter Raleigh fitted out this expedi- tion, but did not lead it personally, and never was in Virginia. ■ Timbs' "Curiosities of History," page 233, places the date of its introduction to the British Isles as 15S6. CHAPTER II SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT It is common knowledge that a certain amount of heat and an adequate supply of air and moisture are essential for plant growth. All plants that have green leaves require light, in addition, to enable them to as- similate carbon dioxid from the air, dissociate it into its component parts, and elaborate the carbon into such complex substances as starch, sugar, and other carbo- hydrates. Influence of Light on Yield. — E. Pagnoul' placed colored glass over different potato plants. Two plants under darkened glass elaborated 31 and 20 grams of starch respecfli vely , while those under ordinary glass elaborated 170 and no grams; at the same time plants under normal conditions elaborated 223 and 361 grams. To the favorable influence of abundant light this writer attributes the large yield of potatoes in a season when the aggregate number of hours of sunshine is unusually large. At Wisconsin Experiment Station coldness and cloudiness were believed to be the cau.ses of a poor yield.^ The Amount of Moisture. — The amount of water the plant can obtain from the soil is closely cor- I E. S. R., v., p. 1 16. - Wis. Report, 1902, p. 188. 8 SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 9 related with the mode of development. If the soil is very dry, and particularly if the tuber is cut, the seed tuber may be so weakened by loss of moisture that it cannot grow. If a tuber has access to but a small amount of water, there will be little or no root devel- opment, with little formation of leaf shoots, but tubers will be formed. Advantage is taken of this fa (51 when small earl}' potatoes are required, the tubers being placed in sand, in a cellar, when small tubers will form, but none or few leaves. Under certain conditions, with an abundance or excess of moisture, numerous leaf shoots and roots appear, but no tubers. An increase in the supply of moisture in the air has been found to favor the development of leaves on the shoots, where only scales were formed in an insufficient supply of moisture. Respiration. — We may say that all plants breathe or take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxid. With potatoes this is a necessary fundlion, and if checked, growth is injured. It is probable that light induces some conditions more favorable to increased respira- tion than darkness; hence, if the obje(5t is to store pota- toes, it will be better to hold respiration at its lowest point and keep them in the dark. Respiration cannot go on without force or energy, and as this must be supplied, at least partly, from the tuber, it follows that adlive respiration will be attended b)^ loss of weight, and this goes on very rapidly when the tuber sprouts. If we wish to ' ' sprout ' ' tubers, the best conditions for doing so are still undetermined. Influence of Temperature on Respiration. — All plants have a range of temperature at which respi- lO THE POTATO ration is normal. The minimum, optimum, and max- imum temperatures have been ascertained for some plants. Young wheat plants will respire at as low a temperature as 28° F. , or below freezing-point. The optimum temperature for wheat is about 104° F., while that of potato plants is about 113° F. The maximum for wheat is 113° F. , while that for pota- toes is about 131° F. In other words, the potato respires best at about 113° F. , but should the temper- ature go above 131° F., the respiration will be some- what less than before, and the vitality weakened ; hence, after a hot spell, when the temperature exceeds the maximum for respiration, it is noticeable that the potatoes fail and become more susceptible to the blight or other troubles, owing to their impaired constitu- tion. By sele(5lion we might procure plants of greater vitality, capable of standing the higher temperatures, which would enable them to be better ' ' disease-resist- ers," Present-day potatoes thrive best in a cool climate. Influence of Temperature on Growth. — The minimum temperature for germination of potato tubers is about 50° F. ; hence, in the Northern States early planted tubers make little or no growth unless planted shallow, and this is not desirable, except, perhaps, for the earliest varieties. It is better to germinate the tubers in the barn before planting, thus saving time (see Chapter VI., " Sprouting Potatoes "). Potato Roots. — Generally speaking, far more at- tention has been paid to the stems and leaves of plants than the roots, j-et in order to cultivate the soil in a rational manner it is essential to know where the roots SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH I I are, their cliara(5ler, and requirements. Examination of the roots of Earl}' Ohio potatoes,' made July 5, 1899, forty-three days after planting, about the time the crop received its third cultivation, showed that at this time there was little growth of fibrous roots — only the skele- ton system supplied with numerous delicate root hairs. The seed tuber appeared to be sound and whole, but on closer. examination it proved to be but a shell. Only a few eyes on the upper side of each tuber produced shoots; thus one hill produced three stalks from two eyes, and another had seven stalks springing from five eyes. The latter plant had more numerous but smaller roots than the former. Twenty-five small potatoes were set on the first plant, the largest of which were the size of a large pea. At this stage of development the main portion of the roots was in the surface eight inches, a few roots reached to the depth of eighteen inches, but the greatest root growth was in a horizontal diredlion. The roots from each hill had already met and interlaced, some having reached a length of two feet, the plants being three feet apart. At six inches from the hill some of the main lateral roots were but two and one-quarter inches from the surface of the ground, while midway between the rows their depth was barely three inches from the surface. Further examination of Early Ohio potatoes seventy- two days after planting, when the tubers were nearly full size, showed that the main root growth was in the upper foot of soil ; several of the large horizontal roots were within three inches of the surface, and one was but one inch deep. Some of the vertical roots reached ■ N. Dak. Bui. 45, p. 541. 14 THE POTATO a depth of two and a half feet. The deep-growing roots are very tender and brittle and easily broken, differing in this respedl from corn roots. The hori- zontal roots send out vertical branches, which often descend to a depth of two feet or more. Shallow tillage, such as hand-hoeing without hill- ing, retains all the roots. Moderately deep tillage with a five-tooth single horse-cultivator and slight hilling destroj-s pradtically all the surface roots, and undoubtedly interferes seriously with the plant's de- velopment ; while with deep tillage nearly all the long horizontal roots are destroyed, and with theni all their numerous vertical branch-roots with their intricate system of fibres and root hairs, by which the potato receives its food. In very heavy soils it may be wise to plant potatoes shallow and then hill them, but in most soils it is better policy to plow deep, plant fairly deep, and give shallow flat cultivation. With deep tillage the roots nearest the surface were at a depth of seven inches, while in the case of those receiving shallow tillage the bulk of the horizontal roots were in the sur- face seven inches. The hilling covers the potatoes and prevents them from sunburning, and this seems to be all the benefit received. The loss of roots is very hurtful, and takes place at a time when the plant can least afford to suffer injur}'. Experiments conducted at Vermont Experiment Station' show that during the last weeks of growth the weekly increase in weight of tubers is at its maximum, and that checks when the tubers are approaching maturity depress the yield cor- respondingly. ' Ver. Bui. 72, p. 5. SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 1 5 A sample of Early Ohio potatoes taken ninety days after planting, when the vines were beginning to die and the tubers were nearly ripe, showed that the roots penetrated to a depth of over two and a half feet.' The branches from the main lateral roots had reached about as deep as those immediately under the hill, and the soil was filled with roots to a depth of about two and a half feet. The system of rooting is similar to that of corn, but the plant is not so good a forager, and the roots do not fill the soil so completely; hence, plants can be placed closer together. Late varieties have a similar root system, but root more freely, more deeply (a depth of three and a half feet being common if the soil conditions will permit), and occupy the ground more completely; hence, require more room than early varieties. At Cornell University, during 1904, many potatoes had horizontal roots in the surface inch of soil. All of these would be destroyed by moderately deep tillage. Influence of Depth of Planting on Roots. — Generally speaking, the new potatoes and the roots start out above the seed, although if an under eye of the potato produces the shoot the roots and tubers may develop at the side of the seed. Depth of planting has some influence on the depth, at which the tubers will form, and may have some on the roots. The question deser\'es investigation. Many plants prefer to send out their roots at a uniform depth below the surface : thus, at Cornell University, wheat, whether planted six inches deep or one inch deep, will send out its per- 1 N. Dak. Bui. 43, p. 544. 1 6 THE POTATO manent roots about one and a half inches below the surface. Blossoming, Tuber Formation, and Hilling. — Potatoes are hilled about the time they come into bloom, and this is the time that tuber formation is beginning. The ancestral tj'pe of potato developed seed about this time and died ; the tendency acquired by cultivation is to throw all the reserve material into tuber production. These reproductive processes cause a severe drain upon the plant's energies, and the fort- night immediately following the blossoming period is therefore a peculiarly critical time for the plant, during which time its life hangs in the balance. At this time it is subje(ft to extreme heat, and may be injured; also insedls, fungi, etc., may attack it, and, to add to its troubles, cutting off a lot of its roots, either just before or about this time, is no doubt the common cause of a decline from which the plant never recovers. Even tuber formation , without the influence of other agen- cies, may cause a plant to die. The importance of studying the condition of the plant at this time will be appreciated when it is remembered that the entire crop of salable tubers is formed after this critical period is past, and full success with the crop depends upon retain- ing the plant healthy for from one to three months after the blossoming period. During August, in one case,' the crop of potatoes increased at the rate of over 50 bushels, or over 3,000 pounds, weekly per acre. The importance of avoiding checking growth prepara- tory to or during such a time is evident. 1 Ver. Bui. 72, p. 5. CHAPTER III SOILS The soil considered best is a deep, mellow, free- working loam, grading either to a sandy loam or clay loam, although the crop may be raised on lighter or heavier soils, provided the latter are drained. Tile drainage should be resorted to, if necessary, to reduce the water table to from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet below the surface. Some reasons for seledting a light, sandy, or gravelly loam for the crop are : 1 . Such soils can be worked early in spring, and gotten ready for early planting, if desired ; 2. The lighter soil becomes warm more readily in the spring than a heavier soil, and germination of the tuber and growth of the plant proceeds more rapidly ; 3. They can be easily worked, and placed and main- tained in good tilth without a heavy labor bill ; 4. The effects of the manures and fertilizers applied are generally perceptible for a longer period of time than on lighter soils ; 5. The potatoes grown on such a soil usually come out bright and clean, smooth and of more uniform size — important fadtors when they go on the market ; 17 1 8 THE POTATO 6. Light soils usually produce potatoes of better qual- ity, because they tend to shorten the growing period by cutting off the moisture supply, and thus forcing the potatoes to mature earlier; 7. Those grown on well-drained sandy loam soils usu- ally keep better than those grown on stiff clay soils. Aroostock County, Maine, is famous for its potatoes.' Its soil presents a gentl)' rolling surface, and is com- posed essentially of drift deposited during the melting of the ice after the ice age, and resting on a stratum of limestone, which in many places comes to the sur- face. The soil partakes of the general nature of drift containing a considerable portion of sand and the usual amount of organic matter. It is peculiarly suited to potatoes, because it does not pack after hard rains nor during periods of drouth. Its open and porous nature permits the free development of tubers and the ramifi- cation of the roots. The soil was originally covered with a growth of hard and soft woods, consisting chiefly of maple, cedar, birch, white poplar, spruce, hemlock, and pine. The forest growth was dense, and in clear- ing large quantities of ashes were produced, which fitted the virgin fields particularly for the produ(5lion of large crops of potatoes. After a few years of culti- vation, the crop-producing power of the soil showed a diminution, and to-day applications of farm manures and commercial fertilizers containing a large percent- age of potash are resorted to. Analyses of Maine soils show that they are silicious, contain considerable or- 1 U. S. D. A., Div. of Chemistry, Bui. 58, p. 5-8. SOILS 19 ganic matter, and are reasonably rich in lime and mag- nesia, which seem to be essential constituents of a soil suited to the growth of potatoes. The potash is also in fair quantity, but not sufl&cient to produce maximum crops. The famous potato-growing counties of Wiscon- sin, Portage, Waushara, and Waupaca had over 60,000 acres in potatoes in 1899, and these are as important to the Central States as Aroostock County, Maine, is to the Eastern States. The soil is glacial drift, some of it being made up of level deposits of sand and gravel covered with a light loam. The sand is usually un- derdrained by a bed of coarse gravel. Sandy loams prevail. Clayey loams occupy some areas, but are not prevalent. The average 3'ield is 100 bushels per acre. On lyong Island, N. Y., the chief potato soils on the south side of the island are light silt loams underlain either by gravel or sand, while gravelly till is the main type on the northern side. The yields var}^ from 80 to 250 bushels per acre. The Influence of Soil on Different Varieties. — Professor Buffum,' of Wyoming Experiment Station, reported on eight varieties grown on each of two kinds of soil represented on the experiment farm. The soil and crops were treated alike. Plat i is bench-land above the river, and is a deep red colluvial soil con- taining little humus. Plat 2 is bottom-land next the river, and is a black soil containing a large amount of humus. » Wyo. Bui. 32, p. 6. 20 THE POTATO TABLE 1 VARIETY Plal I Yield per acre Plat 2 Yield per acre Increased yield on Plat 2 Beauty of Hebron Early Maj-flower Early Puritan Empire State Late Puritan Pride of the West Snowdrop White Elephant Lbs. 9,678 15,060 12,702 15.372 18.858 5.040 14.562 11,808 Lbs. 23.628 28,842 32.340 22,698 26,742 23.322 25,500 27,990 Lbs. 13.950 13.782 19,638 7.326 7,884 18,282 10,938 16,182 Average 12,885 26,383 13.498 The figures taken colle(ftively show the importance of selecfling a soil suitable for the crop to be grown, the yield being doubled on Plat 2, while taken indi- vidually it is evident that certain varieties were better adapted to the environment than others. The ques- tion of which variety will best suit the environment must be determined by the grower. Subsoiling. — BufTum', of Wyoming, states that sub- soiling may be recommended throughout that State for potatoes. The cost of subsoiling to a depth of 16 inches to 18 inches varied between $3.00 and $6.00 per acre. Hays% of Minnesota, found it to be expensive and not profitable under most conditions in that State, and that it reduced the yields of crops on land already suffi- ciently open and porous. In humid climates, if at- tempted, it is advocated that subsoiling be done in the fall, to permit the readjustment of the soil granules before springtime, so that the moisture will be able to rise upward from the subsoil, as evaporation takes ' Wyo. Bui. 41, pp. 20. 21; Bui. 32, pp. 7, 8.' 2 Minn. Bui. 68, p. 609. SOILS 2 r place at the surface, and prevent the crop being de- stroyed by lack of moisture. Injurious results from subsoiling in spring have been noted, probably due to the working of the subsoil when it was too wet. It does not follow that because the surface soil to the depth of eight inches is dry enough to plow the subsoil will be, and in many cases the subsoil has been puddled by spring working, and the supply of moisture from below more or less completely cut ofif, with disastrous results to the crop. Preparation of the Soil. — The ideal crop to pre- cede potatoes is timber, but as no rotation comprising this crop is in use, the preparation given after timber demands little attention. Potatoes are more commonly grown after potatoes, corn, or after clover or sod. In such cases preference is usually given to fall plowing, accomplished during Odlober or November until freez- ing prevents further work. Deep plowing should be done in fall, because opportunity is then given for the storage of water in the soil during the winter and when the thaw occurs in spring. If manure is to be applied it is spread before plowing, but, if rotted, it may be applied later and disked in. The depth of plowing varies with the soil, probably six inches or eight inches being most common, although, if the soil will permit, eight inches to twelve inches will be better. When soils are deficient in humus, it is generally inadvisable to plow deeply. The humus content of such soils should be increased and the depth of plowing increased correspondingly, thus bringing the land into a higher state of produdlion. In some districfts where the snow covers the ground all winter the land is harrowed well 22 THE POTATO in fall and left nearly ready for planting, thus facilita- ting spring work. Where the frost penetrates deeply, or the soil is apt to run together, the land is better left rough plowed all winter and fitted in spring ; but this entails some loss of time, and prevents the earl}^ plant- ing of potatoes. Sometimes it is necessary to plow in spring, and in many cases it is profitable to replow when a fall plow- FIG. 7 — A USEFUL TYPE OF SPKI.NG- i'UOTHED HARROW ing has been given. Under such conditions a depth of not more than six inches or eight inches is advised, because plowing land is attended by loss of moisture, and in most cases the amount of moisture held in the ?oil or supplied as rainfall during the growing period is insufficient to insure maximum yields ; hence, care should be taken to conserve all the moisture possible by plowing judiciously, making and maintaining a mulch of the surface soil, thus checking evaporation, SOILS 23 and by enriching the soil in humus either by manuring or a suitable rotation. Humus affedls the physical properties of the soil considerably — among other things, enabling it to hold more moisture without injury to the plants in a wet time, and to endure drouth in a FIG. 8 — AN EFFICIENT PULVERIZER; THE DISK HARROW dry time.' Even where irrigation is pradliced the above fa(5lors cannot be economically negle Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1896, pp. 25, 26. 2 Md. Bui. 17, p. 257. 3 R. I. Report, 1S97, p. 380. * I,a. Sacond Series Bui. 4, p. 77. •Ga. Bui. 17, p. 166. 51 52 THE POTATO best, and the statement is made that the value of seed depends more upon the care exercised in the seled:ion of the strain than the locahty where it is grown. Martinet', of France, reports that in several diversified trials seed tubers from higher altitudes gave better yields under all circumstances. Bailey-, of Cornell, lodges a criticism against the comparison of northern and southern grown seed. He believes the variations to be due much more to the stock itself — how the plants have been grown and handled in previous years — than to any influence of latitude. He believes it to be impossible to secure stock from different growers which is sufficiently uni- form to allow of comparative experimentation. That such variation exists is shown by Brooks'^ obser\^ation on Beauty of Hebron and Early Rose potatoes. Seed potatoes of the same variety obtained from different localities gave a variation in yield of about 50 per cent, for each variety. Probably the matter is one of indi- viduality. It is necessary to study each potato and hill, and perpetuate a variety suited to the particular environment. If this variety possesses the capacity'' of adapting itself rapidly to other environments it is more useful, but it must be able to grow vigorously and mature its tubers in order to maintain its value. The Ohio Experiment Station^ found that the selection and storage of potatoes is of more importance than the use of seed grown on other soil. Kansas Experiment Sta- tion* found that tubers matured in July were the most 1 E. S. R., XII., p. 636. 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 25, p. 175. ' Mass. (Hatch) Report 1899, P- ^2 ■* Ohio Bui. 76, p. 46. * Kans. Bui. 37, pp. 155, 136. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 53 satisfadlory seed for the second crop, and the pra(5lice of using first-crop tubers as seed for the second crop is rapidly gaining ground in the South, owing to the difficulty of holding seed over. Management of Potatoes Previous to Plant- ing. — The best way to hold seed potatoes is in cold storage at a temperature of 33° to 35° F. Should the temperature fall to freezing-point (32° F.) for a short 2' 6 FIG. II — A USEFUL POTATO TKAY FOR THE STORAGE AND SPROUTING OF SEED POTATOES For small quantities, a useful size is 24 x 12 inches. This size will hold about forty pounds of tubers, and can be conveniently handled. The larger size holds about eighty pounds of tubers. time probably no harm will result, as the freezing- point of potatoes is rather lower than that of water. As most farmers do not have cold storage some sub- stitute must be found. A cool, fairly dry cellar, or a root-house, is a very good alternative, or, failing this, the potatoes may be pitted outside and covered so that no frost can reach them (see "Storing"). Several weeks before planting the tubers should be spread out on the barn floor two or three thick, in the light, to quicken growth. Potatoes vary in the time they take 54 THE POTATO to germinate. Mature potatoes will not begin to grow until they have had a period of rest. In some varie- ties this may be but a few weeks, while others may be held months before they show signs of growth. In the island of Jersey and the early potato grow- ing districts of the United Kingdom it is customary to store the seed potatoes in flat trays (Fig. ii). The advantages of these are: (i) the seed cannot heat; (2) a large quantity can be stored in a room, the trays being tiered almost to the roof; (3) seed can be easily examined at any time and conveniently moved, hence diseases — as, wet-rot, dry-rot, etc. — are more easily con- trolled; (4) the potatoes may be sprouted in the traj^s; (5) the potatoes can be moved to the field in and planted from the trays. The tray is the best means of storing new varieties which have been purchased or grown in small quan- tities. Sprouting Potatoes.— Lavallee' and many others have found that sprouting seed potatoes in a well- lighted room increases the yield and earliness, and produces a more vigorous growth of vines and a larger starch content in the tubers. One explanation offered for the increase in j'ield is that the short, thick stem developed under the above conditions bears many scales or leaves for its hight, and it is from the axils of these scales, the place where the scale joins the stem, that the tuber-bearing branches are produced (Fig. 12). The more scales produced, the more op- portunity for the development of tubers. If the tu- bers start growth in the dark, either indoors or below 1 E. S. R., XII., p. 1032. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 55 ground, the scales are formed at longer intervals, and there are correspondingly fewer places for the produc- tion of tuber-bearing branches. Also, in the latter FIG. 12 — POTATO PLANTED FOUR INCHES DEEP {DiagranDiiat ic) a— Ground level. i5— Seed potato, c— Short sprout sent up before plant- ing, which sent up two branches, d, e \ d being broken off, and e cut off at/. ^^— The tuber-bearing stem, or rhizome, which bears buds at h, and thickens at the end to form a tuber, /, upon which eyes having buds, k, niaj' be seen m is a tuber-bearing branch, or rhizome, which has not yet begun to form a tuber, and r shows where the roots were broken off. Generally four roots are sent out for each tuber-bearing branch. case, the leaf-bearing branches produced above ground are weaker. The system is considered essential in the island of Jerse}- and the early potato growing dis- tricts of the United Kingdom, and is practiced to a small extent for the .second crop in the Southern States. K^CS. IS, 14, 1:> Cornell Univ. Dej)!. of Ilortii'iiltu FIG. 13 — POTATOES SPROU'ED PROPER LENGTH FOR THE PLANTER Starting the growth of the tubers in this way is profitable in many places. K-IG. 14 — EARLY POTATOES SPROUTED FOR HAND PLANTING lyOnger sprouts than these should not be permitted to deve lop. 56 CONSIDERATIONvS OF vSEED 57 By sprouting the seed tubers, the Kansas Experiment Station' have planted potatoes in March and Hfted the crop on June i. At the Rhode Island Experiment Sta- tion" potatoes were held in a fairly well-lighted room at a temperature of 60° to 75° F. for four to six weeks. FIG. 15 — SPROUTS TOO LONG AND WEAK This often occurs when potatoes are left in sacks, barrels, or in piles in the cellar. As soon as sprouting begins, spread the tubers thinly on the barn floor, in the light, to check this waste of energy. In this time thick buds, one-half to an inch long and one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, formed (Fig. 14). The potatoes may be held at this stage for some weeks if necessary by lowering the tem- perature. Early Rose potatoes weighing about three ounces each were sprouted as described, and planted on May I beside similar tubers which were unsprouted. ' Kan. Bui. 70, p. 149, and Press Bui., March 6, 1S99. *R. I. Bui. 36, pp. 9 19. 58 THE POTATO Part of the crop was harv^ested July 29, the yield being decidedly in favor of the sprouted seed, which lead was maintained (see Table). TABLE IV YIEIvD PER ACRE FROM SEED TUBERS SPROUTED AND NOT SPROUTED Sprouted Not sprouted. . Sprouted Not sprouted. . Date Harvested July 29. . . July 29. . . Aug. 20. . Aug. 20. . YIELD PER ACRE Large Tubers Small Tubers Bushels Bushels 97.96 53.23 76.10 42.78 135-47 94-45 55-51 41.90 Total 151-19 118.88 190.98 136-35 Gain by Sprotiting Bushels 32-31 54-63 Increase from Further Growth Bushels 33-79 '7-47 In trials made at Cornell Station by the writer dur- ing 1904, with the varieties Sir Walter Raleigh and Carman No. 3, increased yields of from 0.9 percent, to 73.7 per cent, resulted from sprouting potatoes in the light for 36 days previous to planting, when com- pared with holding them in a root-cellar to the time of planting. The sprouts on the tubers held in the cellar were up to three inches long; those held in the light were but one-half to tliree-quarters of an inch long. No misses occurred, except from those sets held in the cellar. It seems probable that each variety may have its own optimum temperature, as conditions were uni- form for both varieties. Eighteen hills were used in a plat, and Table V., on page 59, shows the results. Another great advantage in sprouting is that it gives an opportunity to note variation and "rogue" the va.r\e\.y. Almost every variety shows a difference in the sprout, either in color or habit of growth; one CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 59 may have a white, spiudly stem, which becomes green on exposure; another a short, sturdy stem, which be- comes bright red; while another may be purple, and so on. So far I have found the ' ' sprouting stage ' ' the most reliable one at which to note differences in varie- ties, and varieties of potatoes may l^e distinguished as readily as varieties of other crops. TABLE V SIR \\'ALTER RALKIGH CARMAN NO. 3 Method and Temperature of Gertnination 5 ^ YIELD 2 ■§ YIELD of Plat 1 III Jo 1"^ h * s I 2 3 4 • Cellar so-6o°F... Cold Frame bot- tom heat So°F. sash off Cellar 50-60° F... Barn, near open window 45- 7S°F 2 ij8 330 119 100 140 127 94 Lbs. 1-7 -50 17.00 16.20 20.12 17-50 20.25 15.75 0.9 19.4 22.0 I 93 I2S 89 122 107 85 117 Lbs. 15-25 26.5 15-25 21.25 16.25 16.25 15.00 - 73-5 36-9 4-1 6^ Cellar 50-60° F... Greenhouse 78- 90° F 7 Cellar 50-60° F. . . The disadvantage of the system of sprouting pota'- toes is that the tubers must be planted by hand on ac- count of the liability of knocking the sprouts off if passed through the planter. There are many local markets in the United States poorly supplied with early potatoes, and to supply such a small area of the crop could be profitably handled as above described. A distin(5lion must be noted between the above method 6o THE POTATO and the vSlovenly practice of many who allow their seed tubers to send out long sprouts before planting, which are either broken off intentionally before or unintentionally during planting. This practice cannot be too strongly condemned. The Trays may be made small to hold 40 pounds of potatoes, with a handle running lengthwise across the top, or to contain 80 to 100 pounds, and handled by two men, when the handles run across. The lum- ber for the trays, ready sawn in lengths, should be purchased at from five cents to ten cents per tray, according to size. Whole Sets vs. Cut Sets. — Considerable atten- tion has been given to the advisability of cutting seed tubers. The question is wholly a financial one, as in an average year with an ordinary late variety the weight of the seed planted is of more importance than whether it is whole or cut. Early varieties do not do so well w^hen cut, and varieties with white flowers seem to be softer in texture and more liable to failure, if cut, than those with purple or colored blo.ssoms. Some varieties cannot be cut with profit, owing to lack of bud-producing eyes. The labor of cutting is often greater than the cost of the extra seed. When seed is expensive, as when a variet}^ is new, it is wise to cut as far as possible to secure the largest possible yield in the least time, but this course must be followed by selecftion, or rapid deterioration of the variety will result. A potato cut into single-eye pieces, and each piece, planted in a hill, will give a greater 5deld than it would had it been planted whole. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 6 1 Time to Cut. — Formerly it was advised to cut the potatoes a few da^'S before planting. Generally speak- ing, this is a mistake. Zavitz ' reports as the result of hundreds of trials, during a period of eight years, that potatoes cut the da}- of planting gave 8 bushels per acre heavier yield than those cut four to six days before planting. Similar results were obtained at the Montana Experiment Station.^ Size of Seed. — It is a matter of general observa- tion, supported by experiments, that large seed usually insures a larger yield than small seed. This may be due to the greater amount of nourishment furnished to the 3'oung plants, which enables them to make stronger growth, and to the greater hereditarj' vigor possessed by such tubers. Good-sized seed is especially desira- able on light soils, and for early maturing varieties. Smaller seed from vigorous plants may be as satisfac- tory with late varieties, owing to their longer period of growth. The advisability of using large or small seed, cut or whole, depends largel}' upon the cost of the seed, the season, the culture given, and the price realized when harvested. Generally speaking, tubers weighing two to three ounces make the most profitable seed, as they are worth less for consumption. The amount of experimental work which has been under- taken to decide the influence of the size of the seed tuber upon the yield is enormous, and only a few ref- erences can be given here. Fischer,^ of Germany, advises (i) that under ordi- > Ont. Agr. College and Farm Report, 1S9S, p. 15S; 1902, p. 127. 2 Mon. Bui. 9, p. 21. = E. S. R.. IX.. p. 331: X., pp. 361-367. 62 THE POTATO nary conditions large seed should be used, (2) on good soils with heavy fertilizing small tubers and closer planting is advisable; but that the small tubers shall be the progenj^ of large tubers grown on well-cultivated and fertilized soil, to prevent degeneration. Tubers which are small because the parent plant had not suf- ficient vigor to produce any larger are worthless for seed. At Arkansas Station' whole tubers 2 inches to 3 inches in diameter jnelded 18 per cent, more than small whole tubers ^ inches to iJ/( inches in diameter, and large cut tubers 15.8 per cent, more than small cut tubers. At the Ontario Agricultural College^ the largest yields for four ^-ears in succession Avere from planting large seed. Sets weighing one-sixteenth of an ounce and having one eye 5-ielded, on an average, for the four years, 44.2 bushels, while two-ounce sets having one eye averaged 177.4 bushels per acre, and intervening sizes of sets yielded in proportion to their size. As the result of eight years' careful experi- ments, this station advises that large tubers be cut into pieces wei-ghing about two ounces each for sets.' J. C. Arthur,^ of Indiana, condudled an elaborate set of experiments for three j-ears to ascertain the rela- tion of the number of eyes on the .seed tuber to the produdl. He found that within certain limits the yield will increase with an increase in the weight of the set, and that the exacl; number of eyes per cutting is rela- tively unimportant. With tubers of the same weight and variety the number of shoots does not perceptibly 1 Ark. Bui. 50, p. 28 2 Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1898, p. 156. ' Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1922, p. 126. * Ind. Bui. 42. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 63 increase with the increase of eyes on the tuber. Seed tubers weighing iy4. ounces and carrying 8 to 10 eyes sent up, on an average, 5.5 stalks per tuber, while seed tubers weighing 3 ounces and having 14 to 18 eyes sent up, on an average, 11.3 stalks per tuber. Bisect- ing an eye tends to increase the number of stalks, be- cause each e^e is usually a colledtion of buds, and some would be left uninjured on each piece. The number of stalks sent up tended to increase with the size of the seed tuber, and the yield increased with the increase in number of stalks. The Virginia Experiment Station ' reports that large seed cannot be used at a profit, while small seed is not recommended, but that sound tubers of the size of a hen's ^gg and upward are proper seed. Green," of Ohio, found that crops from whole seed mature a few days earlier than from the same sized seed cut in two, and that small cuttings require the soil to be in better condition than large cuttings, or whole potatoes, in order to secure a good stand and a profitable crop. Amount of Seed Per Acre — Cost and Influ- ence on Yield. — Plumb,' of Tennessee Experiment Station, found the largest seed tubers to be most pro- dudtiveand the least profitable, while those varying in weight from one to three ounces were most profitable. At Kentucky Experiment Station' the amounts planted varied from six bushels per acre when medium- sized seed were cut to two eyes to 48 bushels per acre where large whole potatoes were planted. At the ' Va. Bui. 8, p. 3. iOhio Second Series Bui., Vol. III., I., p. 14. 3Tenn. Bui., Vol. III.. I., p. 6. * Ky. Bui. 22, p. 136. 64 THE POTATO TABLE VI YIELD PER ACRE Cost oj Value of Balance Amount IVcighl of seed Distance planted seed per acre at crop per acre at ajter of seed pa\ive peracre. Bushels tubers. Ounces apart. Feet Bushels Number of Tubers 75c. per Bushel 40c. per Bushel for^ Seed 64 12-14 3 146 90,980 48.00 58.40 10.40 81 10-12 2 220 135,075 60.75 88.00 17.25 66 8-10 2 '95 1 18. 102 49-50 78.00 28.50 52 6- 8 2 168 115.273 39.00 67.20 28. 20 37 4-6 2 158 108,908 27.75 63.20 35-45 26 3- 4 2 146 104,665 19-50 58.40 38.90 18 2- 3 2 141 81,328 13.50 56.40 42-90 11 1- 2 2 128 67,184 8.25 51-20 42-95 Michigan Experiment Station' three varieties were tested, with results as shown in the following table: TABLE VII SIZE OF SEED Amount of seed per acre Yield per acre Net yield in excess of seed Net gain from using halves Halves Quarters .... Eighths Single eyes . . . Whole tubers . . Bushels Lbs. 20 19 9 54 5 44 4 10 41 40 Bushels 317 254 221 178 293 Bushels 297 . 244 215 174 251 Bushels 53 82 1^ The writer has found from seventeen to twenty bushels to be necessary to furnish a good seeding, and others have advocated the same amount,' although a less quantity is frequently mentioned as satisfadlorj-. A compilation' of experiments made at thirteen stations to determine the proper amounts of seed shows: I. Within ordinar}^ limits, an increase in seed pro- duces a marked increase in total yield and marketable potatoes. ' Mich. Bui. 57, p. 18. 2 Mich. Bui. 93, pp. 5, 6. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 65 2. An increase in the size of the seed from one eye to half a potato produces an increase in the net value of the crop. A comparison of the half potato with the two e5^es shows that : 1. For the total yield (large and small) of 95 ex- periments, 76 are in favor of the half potato and 19 in favor of two eyes. 2. For marketable yield (total less small) of 73 ex- periments, 58 are in favor of the half potato and 15 in favor of the two eyes. 3. For net marketable yield (marketable less amount of seed) of 30 experiments, 23 are in favor of the half potato and 7 in favor of the two eyes. 4. For net value of crop (value of crop less value of seed) of 30 experiments, 22 are in favor of the half potato and 8 in favor of two eyes. A comparison of the whole potato with the half potato shows that : 1. For the total jaeld (large and small) of 54 ex- periments, 46 were in favor of the whole potato and 8 in favor of the half potato. 2. For the marketable yield (total less small) of 42 experiments, 36 were in favor of the whole potato and 6 in favor of the half potato. 3. For the net marketable yield (marketable less amount of seed) of 13 experiments, 7 are in favor of the whole potato and 6 in favor of the half potato. 4. For the net value of crop (value of marketable less value of seed planted) of 12 experiments, 7 are in favor of the whole potato and 5 in favor of the half potato. 66 THE POTATO The Value of Bud and Stem Ends and the Middle of the Tuber for Seed. — Many ideas have prevailed as to the relative values of different parts of the tuber, for seed. Some growers advocate the re- moval of one end or the other, but thus far the ex- periments conducfted at a dozen stations, including such varying points as Illinois,' New Jersey,^ and North Dakota' Experiment Stations, show that there is no material difference noticable in yield that could be at- tributed to the different pieces, and that the two ends of a tuber are pradlically of equal value. Viability. — The buds of tubers varj^ considerabl)^ in their ability to grow, and the same is true of the tubers themselves. Goff, of Wisconsin,' when using the vari- ety Burbank, obtained a stand varying from 88 to loo per cent, of the potatoes planted. The importance of proper moisture content of the soil is shown by the results reported in the following table by Woods, of Maine:' TABLE VIII VARIETY STAND Percentage of Ciitlings that Produced Plants Rose 22 Early Michigan 46 Hulett's Rust Proof 37 Mill's Mortgage Lifter 20 Green Mountain 61 New Queen i Polaris 55 Maggie Murphy 50 Irish Cobbler 65 Early Ohio 57 Gem of Aroostock 28 Bovee 55 ' 111. Bui. 40, p. 132. » N. J Report, iSyS. p. 30S. » N. D. Report, 1901, pp. 40-42. •» Wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. "* Me. Bui. 98, p. 1S3. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 67 This poor stand was largely due to a verj- dry spell in Maj' and June, and the differences observed in the various varieties may be due to the vitality of the vari- eties themselves, or to the way in which the}' were grown and stored, or to both causes. Girard, of France, summarized his experiments some time ago, showing the influence of the size of the tuber upon the ' ' stand ' ' and yield. TABLE IX WEIGHT OF SEED I — Tubers 3.5 oz. each, planted whole .... 2 — Tubers .^.5 oz. each, cut into two portions 3— Tubers 7.0 oz. each, cut into two portions . 4 — Tubers 10.5 oz. each, cut into three portions 5 — Tubers 1.75 oz. each, two tubers planted together 6 — Tubers i.o oz. each, three tubers planted together Percentage Number of Failures 6.0 12.0 10.5 14-5 3-7 3-7 Percentage Weight of Crop 100.00 69.36 82 00 74.00 95-36 89.12 The yield of No. 2 is not comparable with the others, because the same weight of seed was not used. Plats I and 3 are probably the best to use for ordinary consideration, and would show that from 90 to 95 per cent, of the tubers planted should grow, but it is a well-known observation that under adverse conditions — as, a dry season, ill-fitted land, etc. — a small cutting is not so likely to grow as a whole tuber. The diagram (Fig. 16) .shows that with Carman No. 3, where twenty plats were noted, there were 3 chances in 20 that the germination of the tubers and stand would be 100 per cent., and that it is much more likely to be between 91 and 98 per cent, than any other 68 THE POTATO ^ — 9 \ / - -/ \ \ /^ / \ ^ / \ / \ A 10 d 9 9 3 8 5 7 5 65 5 9 n Z 5/ 5tf 89 88 87 8 6 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 li J.-,,;. i6 — DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF TWENTY PLATS OF CARMAN NO. 3 POTATOES' The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the cuive from the base-line shows the actual number of plats. m 1 9876 4321 9 8 7 6 4 32 I ^9 8 7 6_-4 3 2 / 9 8 76 43 2 ; 9 8 7 6 m 35 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 FIG. 17 — DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF THIRTY-SIX PLATS OF EARLY TRUMBULL POTATOES' The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the curve from the base-line shows the act\ial number of plats. number, although the average as usually worked out would show 93.5 per cent. With Early Trumbull, using seed showing the rosette disease {^Rhizodonia solani) and some not showing it, treated with various fungicides, the average germina- 1 From data in Ohio Bui. 145, p. 21. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 69 ting power for 36 plats is 73. 8 per cent. Yet, here again this does not convey a true impression, as on six plats all of the tubers germinated, and the table shows that there is a greater chance of securing a stand of between 83 and 98 per cent, than lower.' The viability of tubers is injured or ruined if they heat or sweat to any extent; hence, if they have been treated with a solution, as for scab, it is essential that they be planted at once or spread thinly to dry. Po- tatoes may be ruined for seed purposes, if frozen, or if shipped in bags or barrels which have contained sub- stances injurious to the buds — as, sugar, nitrate of soda, etc. ; and even moving them on the farm in unwashed sugar-bags has been found to be dangerous. Immer- sion in water for more than a day may destroy the buds, and probably cause the tuber to decay in a few days. By this means potatoes have been destroyed in pits and in the field when floods have occurred. Soak- ing them in too strong a solution of formalin or other preservative is liable to reduce viabilit}', because the formalin tends to preserve the tuber and prevent its de- composition. Potatoes which have been subjedl to diseases may be weakened and their vitality impaired. 1 From data in Ohio Exp. Sta. Bui. 145, p. 21. CHAPTER VII VARIETIES Selecting a Variety. — For general farming it is advisable to grow only a few varieties. Most success- ful growers seldom have half a dozen growing for mar- keting, and usually one is selected as more suitable than the rest. The beginner is advised to seledl a variety from the more thoroughly tested kinds that have done well in his immediate vicinity and on his type of soil. The seed should be obtained from a reliable grower or a respon.sible seedsman. The importance of growing the best varieties cannot be too strongly emphasized. To many a potato is a potato, and any- thing is used for seed. Such haphazard methods cannot survive. Potatoes are grown for human con- sumption, and the public taste must be considered. Good quality and good yield are required. In some localities good quality potatoes appear to be grown in spite of adverse conditions, but not all of the crop can be produced in this way. Some of the points to consider in sele(5ting the variety are : 1 . Good cooking qicality and flavor. This is partly influenced by the soil, season, ability to mature before frost, etc. 2. The yield. The late maturing varieties usually yield heavier than the early varieties. Yield is influenced, among other things, bj- the adapta- bility of the variety to the distri(5l and soil. 70 VARIETIES 71 3. Ability to resist diseases. The potato is so sub- jedt to disease that this is now of prime impor- tance in a variety in the Eastern States, although not so important in parts of the Trans- Missis- sippi area. 4. T/ie color of the skin a7id tuber. In the Eastern States red varieties are not in favor at present, a white-fleshed and white-skinned tuber being preferred. In the South red-skinned varieties are sought.' 5. The natiire of the skin. A netted, or rough, skin is preferred. 6. The shape. Some markets discriminate in favor of a particular shape, the flat-round and oval generall)' being popular shapes. 7. The depth and frequency of eyes. Potatoes with deep and numerous eyes are not economical in preparation for cooking. 8. The time of maturity . This is essential to know before planting, in order to facilitate the dis- tribution of farm work and determine whether it is likely to mature in the locality. 9. The hazilm. 10. The leaf. 11. The vigor of the variety. This is important, although it is of equal importance to obtain a vigorous strain of a variety, as wide variations are noted in the same variety. 12. Tendejicy to viake second growth. ' Tex. Bui. 71, p. 9. 72 THE POTATO 13. Trueness to type. It is essential that the seed be as represented. As none but an expert can tell the different varieties apart, seed should be obtained from a reliable grower or a responsible seedsman. I. Cooking quality aiid flavor are two of the fa(5tors which determine culinary value. They are distinct. Cooking quality is recognized in a boiled potato b}- mealiness or soggi- ness. This appears P-Envelope, or Periderm, consisting of an tO depend UpOU the inner and outer layer. />./,- Pigment layer, physioloffical StrUC- where coloring-matter of the skin is found. • £.C-ExternaI Cortical, or Cambium layer, tUrC of the tubcr, and usually poor in starch. /.C— Internal Cor- ig not neCeSSarllv COll- tical, or Cambium layer, rich in starch. E.M —External Medullary layer, rich in starch. neCtcd witll chcmical /.il/— Internal Medullary layer, or pith, or romOOsitioil T Pie's water-core, poor in starch. The objectionable features of this tuber are 18, 1 9). A potatO large pith area and lack of uniformity in showiug Uniformity cellular structure. Each layer is readily rec- . ognized, and each one varies in the amount of ^ tlie distribution OI time required forcooking; hence, it is of poor gtarch ill the VarioUS cooking quality. (Compare with Fig. 19. ) layers may be con- sidered to be of better quality than one not showing this uniformity. Immature potatoes tend to be soggy FIG. 10 — SECTION OF A POTATO OF POOR COOKI.NG QUALITY VARIETIES 73 when cooked, starch grains in a ture of the cell walls during cook- ing. Sogginess occurs when the cell walls retain their form. Opin- ions differ as to what constitutes good cooking quality. Amer- icans like a white, mealy, or fiour)^ potato. The French prefer a yellow, sogg)' potato which re- tains its shape when boiled. Good cooking quality can be de- termined by cook- ing. The common Mealiness is due to the union of the cell into one mass, and the rup- FIG. 19 SECTION OF A POTATO OF GOOD COOKING QUALITY (Compare with Fig. iS.) The desirable features of this tuber are well- netted skin, showing maturity; large Internal Cortical (/.C'.)and External Medullary (iT.il/.) layers, which are rich in starch ; small pith area {I.M.), with marked uniformity in cellu- lar structure. The different layers nearly ap- proach each other in appearance, and cook uniformly. method is to take a sample and steam or boil some of the potatoes. When cooked 'the potato .should be dry and floury, free from wetness, and readily break to pieces on slight pressure, or be readily reduced to a coarse meal free from hard lumps. The particles should glisten as though crystalline, and the potato should have a white color, which is retained when cold. Potatoes which 74 THE POTATO are yellow when cooked, or turn dark or black, are not considered of good quality, even if the flavor is good, and can be sold only to a low-class trade. Tubers must not be hollow in the center, as this gives rise to a hard, dark-colored core, which is decidedly objectionable if potatoes are to be mashed. Some varieties will cook better if they have been kept ; they are, in other words, for spring use. Thus, in New York, Carman No. 3, White Star, and Doe's Pride come in this category. The flavor should be mild, and free from earthiness. 2. The yield. The average yield of potatoes from one plant in the United States is about half a pound. Having weighed the j'ield of hundreds of potato plants during the past year, we find that in the case of Early Ohio one plant yielded three tubers weighing half an ounce, while another yielded thirteen tubers weighing two and a half pounds. The latter yield is eighty times the former. In late varieties plants yield- ing four pounds of tubers were found. In some of the recent English productions whole plats would average six pounds of tubers per plant, while individual plants have yielded over twenty pounds of potatoes, as man)' as 150 potatoes being set on one plant.' These fa(5ls emphasize the value of the farmer seledling seed him- self and eliminating the poor plants. All the tubers from the best plants should be saved and planted sep- arately to produce the seed for the following 3ear. The expenses of growing a poor and a heavy crop vary little. The onl}- additional cost of the latter is ' Gardener's Chronicle, Oct. 15, 1904, pp. 276-278. VARIETIES 75 a little more for digging. The variety controls the yield to a large extent, and there is much more like- lihood of obtaining a 300-bushel crop from a variety capable of yielding 600 than from one whose maxi- mum yield is 300 bushels. This fa (ft is realized, and the high prices paid in recent years in Great Britain for seed potatoes of good quality, heavy yield- ing, and disease-resisting varieties are legitimate and proper recompense to the men who have the skill to breed such. These new varieties are profitable to grow because there is an assurance that the crop will yield well, and that it will keep well; hence there is an opportunity to hold it until it can be sold at a profit. These farmers realize that the best is none too good, and that it is useless handling varieties that are out of date. The potato grower of Great Britain and Europe must be up to date if he is to stay in the business. High-priced seed receives more care in storage and is handled more intelligently, the seed-bed is better pre- pared, and the result is better farming. The farmer who grows such crops is a more thoughtful and better business man, as slovenly methods have to be aban- doned. Yield is influenced by the size and number of tubers at a root. Uniformity and good size are desired. Potatoes vary in size from almost nil to six pounds each or more. In Doe's Pride one plant set 21 tubers, varying in size between i-io ounce and 6^ ounces; in other words, one potato was 65 times larger than the other. In the East potatoes over 8 ounces in weight are large. Medium-sized tubers of merchant- able value var}^ between four and eight ounces. Sec- 76 THE POTATO onds between two and four ounces, and tubers less than this weight, are hardly worth picking up. 3. Ability to resist diseases. No varieties can be termed ' ' disease proof, ' ' but many varieties are better disease-resisters than others. Stuart, of New Hamp- shire, found that the variety Hulett's Rust Proof was the only one that was disease-resistant out of several varieties, although the varieties Dakota Red, Green Mountain, New Queen, and Enormous showed some resistance. Hulett's Rust Proof falls below the re- quirements in other respe(5ls and is of little value, and in Minnesota has been found to be subjedl to disease. At Ontario Agricultural College, Carman No. 3 and Stray Beauty resisted disease well. At Minnesota Exp'eriment Station, Rural New Yorker and Sir Wal- ter Raleigh showed some resistance.- 4, The color of the skin and tuber. Many of the colored-skinned varieties of potatoes, and those show- ing a blush of pink — as, the Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, etc. — belong to a type which have white blooms. The}^ are generall}^ early maturing, rather liable to dis- ease, and of good qualit}', according to the American standard. The colored-.skinned early varieties are gen- erally more readily sold than the late ones, although in some districts colored-skinned potatoes are not ob- jected to on the market. All colored-skinned potatoes are not deficient in vigor. Some are among the best di.sease-resisting and best-flavored varieties, but the red color of some weak varieties has rendered some growers skeptical of all. Minn. Bill. IS7, p. 2. ^ Minn. Bnl. S7, p. 10. 78 THE POTATO 5. The nature of the skill. The skin may be thick, medium, or thin. Some growers claim that thick- skinned varieties are of better quality than thin-skinned ones, but such correlation does not always exist. Potatoes grown on sandy soils usually have smoother skins than those grown on heavy loams. Some va- rieties develop a netted, or rough, skin as they mature in storage, although such may not be apparent at harvest-time. The rough, or netted, skin in these cases appears to denote maturity, and this may account for the common idea that a rough-skinned potato is of good quality. The size and type of netting (Fig. 20) varies with the variety, and the conditions under which it is grown. 6. The shape. Most of the recent introductions, exclusive of the Early Rose type, have had a tendency to partake of the fiat-round or oval (Fig. 21). These shapes have been sought because such potatoes appear to be of better quality consistent with an economical shape and shallow eyes. The probable explanation is that in a flat-round orthinni.sli potato there is a greater surface in proportion to the bulk. The greater the surface the larger the percentage of the tuber taken up in the cortical layer and outer medullary layer (Fig. 18). These are the starch-bearing areas, and as they are increased the inner medullary layer, or pith, which has little starch, is dimini.shed, thus rendering the potato more uniform. Whatever shape is desired can be be obtained, but a potato should be true to shape. The tendency of a tuber to become pointed or drawn out at the tip or butt end, especially if the variety is a flat-round or round, indicates lack of vigor (Fig. 21). VARIETIES 79 7. Depth a7id frequency of eyes. Deep eyes (Fig. 21), to some extent, are regarded as associated with robust- KIG. 21 THREE FAVORITE SHAPES OF POTATOES {Upper row, the broad surface ; lower rozc, the narrow surface.) Beginning on the right, the small one is a flat-round; the center one, kid- ney; the largest one, on the left, elongated oval. Notice the shallow, wide eyes on the latter; they are the most desirable. The eyes of the flat-round are too deep. ' ness and, frequently, coarseness. They are wasteful in peeling. Deep eyes tend to hold moisture, which hastens decay when the potatoes are stored. 8. Tifuc of viaturity. In the Northern States pota- 8o THE POTATO toes are classified into early, medium or second early, and late varieties, according to the time they take to reach maturity. Early varieties may mature in 70 to FIG. 22 — THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING ri'RIGHT HAULM AND PRESERVING THE FOLIAGE IS NOT SUFFICIENTLY APPRECIATED Plant photographed early in September, 1904, when many others near were dead (C. U. Farm). Upright haulm facilitates late cultivation and spray- ing. The foliage dri^s quickly, and then is not so favorable for the growth of spores of rot. 90 days after planting ; second earlies, in 90 to 130 day^, while late varieties may continue to grow for 200 days. 9. The haulm. The haulm and leaf are receiving more attention to-da}' than formerly. The size of haulm has an influence upon the distance apart of planting. Large haulm is more trouble to .spray, re- VARIETIES 8l quiring more solution, and it is alwa)^s lying over the ground when the last spraying ought to be given, and is in the way at lifting-time, whether the potatoes are raised by hand or digger. Modern breeders aim to produce a short haulmed, upright, heavily leaved top, because the upright habit of growth (Fig. 22) is more likely to keep clear of disease than a spreading habit, owing to water being shed from the former more read- ily than from the latter, and not offering a foothold to the disease spores (Fig. 37). Plants whose branches lie on the ground are more liable to disease because they cover a greater area, their leaves, touching the ground, are almost always damp from contacfl with it, and sun and wind cannot so readily reach them. \'ery tall haulmed varieties are readily beaten down by storm and wind, and in this state they cannot dry so readily; hence, they fall in a clammy mass, v^ery favor- able for the growth of disease spores. Varieties with strong, hardy haulm suffer less from spring frosts. Late varieties usually have taller haulm than first early varieties. Some varieties make their heaviest growth of foliage late in the season, and in this way are not so subjedl to attacks of early blight. 10. The leaf. The British disease-resisting varieties have hard, thick leaves. Whether the thickness of the leaf is an important fadtor in their resistance to rot {Phy- tophthora infestans) is not determined. The fadl that spraying the upper surface of the leaf tends to prevent blight would seem to show that access to the inside of the leaf is obtained by growth through the cell walls as well as through the stomata, on its under surface. If this be true, then the thickening and hardening 82 THE POTATO of the cuticle and the palisade cells (Fig. 34), or thick cells on the upper surface of the leaf, will no doubt prevent many spores from reaching the inside cells of the leaf. They may germinate on the surface, but not enter, unless they find some place where the leaf has been injured. The pundtures of the flea- beetles are, on this account, of great importance, as they furnish an entrance to the inner cells (Fig. 40). N. A. Cobb, of Australia, has shown that in the case of wheat the varieties most resistant to rust {Puc- cinia graminis ?i\\^ P. riibigo vera), none being abso- lutely resistant, have narrow, stiff, upright foliage, while those most liable to attacks have broad, flabby, and pendant foliage. In the plants resistant to rust the cuticle of the leaf is much thicker than in the others, and is so thick that the rust spores, when they germinate on the outside of the leaf, cannot penetrate it, or if they do succeed in entering the leaf through storaata, the threadlike growths of the parasite cannot rupture the cuticle wall to fructify ; and, further, some wheats have stomata so narrow and are so well cov- ered with wax that the germinating threads of the rust spore fail to enter every time. These circum- stances seem to support the claim that the tough, thick- walled, hard, dry leaf is the one to selecft for di.sease- resistant powers. It has been observed that plants of the potato family having this type of leaf are fairly free from fungus leaf diseases. It is essential that the leaves of the potato be abundant to in.sure a good yield. 1 1 . The vigor of the variety. Vigor is the power stored in a plant which enables it to overcome difficul- ties at different periods of growth. A variety must VARIETIES 83 have vigor. If not, it may fail to establish itself dur- ing the early part of its career, being a shy budder ; it may be readily injured by frost, heat or cold, drouth or a wet period, and, having little recuperative power, will give small returns for the labor bestowed upon it. If it survives to tuber- formation time it will probably fail then. Plants or varieties showing lack of vigor must be discarded. Some varieties have short staying power; they appear to be vigorous for one or two years, and then suddenly collapse. Others have great staying power — as. Early Rose, which has been prominent for over forty years. The statement is sometimes made that modern vari- eties are not so long-lived as their ancestors — that they are deficient in staying power. If the statement were true, it might be explained by saying that new vari- eties are produced more frequently, and that on account of their heavier yielding power or better quality they displace the old ones. The fadts seem to show that modern potato breeders have more than maintained vigor and staying power. Hays, of Minnesota, and others, place the life of a good modern variety at about thirty years. This seems to be accepted by many, both here and abroad. Dr. Hunter, of England, in his " Geological Essays," ' writing about one hundred years ago, states ' ' that varieties continue in vigor about fourteen years, after which the produce gradually declines." ShirrefF and T. A. Knight held similar views ; the latter wrote " that ' ' not a single healthy ' "Geological Essays," Exp. 14, p. 348. - Hort. Trans., Vol. I., and Miller's " Gardeners' Dictionary," ed. i5 'Potatoes." 84 THE POTATO plant of any sort of potato that yields berries, and which was in culture twenty years ago, can now be produced." So late as 1838 this idea was accepted by the horticulturists of England.' It is interesting to note that the average yield of potatoes in England a hundred years ago is stated to vary between 185 and 300 bushels, and sometimes 440 bushels, per acre. The average yield to-day is about 230 bushels, but some growers produce 750 bushels per acre frequently. The average improvement in the quality of the tubers is greater than the average improvement in yield. Formerly the potatoes were grown largely for stock, and were of poor flavor and bad cooking quality. Some new varieties make vigorous growth, and, be- coming bark-bound, the skin cracks. Such varieties are regarded as of coarse and inferior quality, and lack- ing in appearance. This chara(5ler may be eliminated by judicious sele<5lion. Deficiency in vigor is indi- cated by the formation of misshapen tubers drawn out at either end, the presence of second growth, weak buds, lack of uniformity in texture — as, hardness at the ends of the tubers when cut, especially brittleness of texture. Tubers showing any such chara(5leristics should not be planted. When potatoes are planted 15 inches apart in 36- inch rows, there are 11,616 plants per acre. If each plant had sufficient vigor to yield three tubers, each weighing half a pound, or four weighing six ounces each, a j-ield of 290 bushels of salable potatoes per acre is assured. No one can afford to use seed of less vigor than this. 1 Don's" Gardeners' Dictionary," 183S, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. VARIETIES 85 12. Tendency to make second growth. Second growth (Fig. 38) is most prevalent in a season when drouth is followed by a wet period. The drouth checks the development of the tubers, causing them to begin to mature, while the subsequent wet period restarts growth. If one varietj' or a plant does not show any such abnormal growth, it is regarded as being more vigorous; hence, other things being equal, such should be used for seed, and all showing second growth should be reje(5ted. Abnormalities in shape may be due to contadl with stones or hard lumps. 13. Trueness to type. This may be viewed as em- bracing several considerations. In new varieties there is always more or less tendency to lose the features for which the variety has been seledled. The type is then said to be insufficiently fixed, and often those which depart from the type degenerate. In such cases selec- tion must be continued. Many varieties are deliberately or unintentionally .sold for something else. Mixtures of varieties are sold as one. Good varieties are often renamed and sold by unscrupulous seedsman and others as some- thing new. There is considerable duplication of varieties of potatoes;' thus, Brooks, of Massachusetts,^ believes, after growing the following varieties, that King of the Earliest and Early Ohio, Salzer's Earliest and Bliss Triumph, Mills' Banner and Livingston Banner are identical, and that White Beauty and Cambridge Russet differ but -slightl)-. Mills' Mortgage Lifter is often sold as Burpee's Extra Early. Some dealers 1 Wyo. Bui. 32, p. 65. 2 Hatch (Mass.) Sta. Report, 1899, p. 81. 86 THE POTATO have been known to deliberately rename a well-known variety and sell it as their own, and as a new and heavy yielding variety. Dakota Red is sold for Bliss Triumph, although in- ferior in quality. The above is not a complete list, but will show that this state of affairs exists, and empha- sizes the importance of dealing with a firm who have a reputation to lose. Testing Varieties. — It is advisable to secure copies of experiment-station literature and papers in which variety trials are reported. The best variety for one soil is not the best for another. The only way to have the best is to make a trial with small quanti- ties of different varieties. Secure seven to ten pounds of seed of each new variety, and plant, say, three rows of each on a piece of land as uniform as obtainable, using a standard variety, called A, as a check. If we take B, C D, E as four untried varieties, buy the seed in the fall, hold it all, including the A seed, under simi- lar conditions, and plant under similar conditions in the following order: A, B, C, A, B, E, A. Treat all plats alike in every respect, dig when ripe, and weigh the crop. If the A plats yield approximately the same, then the dedudlion is that the soil conditions are fairly iniiform. If not, compare the yield of each plat with the yield of the A plat nearest to it. Condu(5l the trial for three years. I find that the second and third years' results are better than the first, as the conditions are more uniform, although if a variety is a long way ahead the first year and shows up well in other ways, I would increase the area under it at once. VARIETIES 87 Relationship of Variety to Soil.— Disappointment and loss are often the result of not knowing and study- ing the environment best suited to a variety. Each variety, and probably each individual in a variety to a lesser degree, has its idiosyncrasies, and, to succeed, these must be recognized and catered to. The failures in potato-growing deserve more attention. The suc- cesses take care of themselves. The careful grower takes note of the failure and the success. Both have a cause or causes, and the climatology and characfter of the soil may be among them. Some varieties do better on a heavy loam than on a sandy loam, probably be- cause the former is cooler, owing to its greater moisture content, and under such conditions these varieties give a higher return of starch per acre and are of better qual- ity. Other varieties, as those inclined to be coarse and rough, do better on sandy loams. In this class are Eureka and Uncle Sam. Some require a rich loam soil — as, Earlj^ Ohio, Bovee, Early Harvest, Early Michigan. T. L. Wat- son,' of Virginia, also noted that some varieties want more plant-food than others, other conditions being the same. Others are more cosmopolitan — as. Car- man No. 3, Early Rose. The Most Popular Varieties. — With the objedt of ascertaining the best variety as determined by yield in different places, a letter was addressed to the diredlor of each experiment station and to some grow- ers; 49 replies were received; 28 men mentioned vari- eties which had yielded or appeared to be best in their 1 Va. Bill. 56, p. 144. 88 THE POTATO districfls. In all 59 varieties were raentioued. Tabu- lating the data presented, we find that 21 of these varieties were mentioned twice or more. In the South- ern and Southern Trans-Mississippi States all vari- eties mature about the same time and may be classed as earlies, and early maturing varieties are usually planted. Of these and the early varieties, as grown in the North , Bliss Triumph and Early Ohio are the most popular with ten votes each; Six Weeks Market re- ceived five; Early Rose, four ; Burpee's Extra Early and Bovee, three each; while Beauty of Hebron, Early Fortune, Eureka, Irish Cobbler, Michigan, and Polaris had two each. Among late varieties, Green Mountain leads with eight votes, Carman No. 3 had five. Rural New Yorker and Sir Walter Raleigh had four each, and Burbank, Carman No. i, Vermont Gold Coin, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Freeman had two each. Although the above method of determi- nation may not be absolutely correcft, undoubtedly the varieties mentioned are among the favorites. Station Leading Varieties 1. Alabama, Tuskegee . Early — Bliss Triumph. Medium — Early Rose. Late — Peerless. 2. Alabama, Auburn . . Triumph. 3. Arizona Burpee's Extra Early, Triumph, Early Rose. 4. Arkansas Red Bliss, Ohio, Michigan, Six Weeks, Crown Jewel. 5. California .... Burbank. 6. Canada, Ontario . . Extra Early — Pinkeye, Stray Beauty, Early Ohio. Medium — Burpee's Extra Early, Rose of the North. Late — Empire State, American Wonder. VARIETIES S/ation 7. Colorado . 8. Connecticut Illinois Iowa . , Kansas . 12. G. L. Foss, Fort Fairfield, Me. 13. Maryland . . 14. Massachusetis 15. Montana 16. Nebraska, Bui. 80 , 17. New Hampshire 18. New York, Cornell . ig. New York, Geneva Leading Varieties Medium — Queen of the Valley, Rose Seedling. Late — Pearl, Rural No. 2. Late — Green Mountain, Car- man No. 3, Rural New Yorker. Early — Early Ohio. Vermont Gold Coin. Early — Six Weeks. Medium — Early Ohio. Early — Early Ohio. Medium — Burpee's Extra Early. Late — Green Mountain. Late — McCormick. Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, Early Andees, Early Dawn, Triumph, Salzer's Earliest, LX.L., Steuben, Early Nancy, Million Dollar. Early — Si.x Weeks Market, Early Ohio. Medium— White Ohio, Rural New Yorker. Late — Freeman, White Main. Early — Early Ohio. Late — Rural New Yorker. Late — Green Mountain, Wash- ington. Early — Early Ohio-, Bovee. Late — Green Mountain^ Carman No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh. Early — Michigan, Early Trum- bull. Late — Carman No. 3, Uncle Sam, Whiton's White Mam- moth, Sir Walter Raleigh. 90 THE POTATO Station iQrt. Prof. Stewart, Geneva, N. Y. 20. Long Island, N. Y. 21. North Carolina 22. Ohio 23. Oklahoma . . 24. Pennsylvania 2=;. Rhodk Island 26. Tennessee . . 27. Texas, Bui 71 28. M. Alexander, Charlotte, Vt. 29. Washington Leading Varieties Rural New Yorker No. 2, Car- man No. 3, Green Mountain, Sir Walter Raleigh. (Most popular late varieties in the State, apparently.) Carman No. i, Green Mountain. Bliss Triumph (both red and white skinned), Bovee, Eu- reka, Houlton Rose, selected strains of Early Rose. Late — Green Mountain, Wash- ington. Early Ohio, Six Weeks. Medium — Bovee, Early Fortune. Bliss Triumph, Early Ohio. Early — Extra Early Crusaders, Six Weeks, Irish Cobbler, Beauty of Hebron. Medium — J. A.. Totten, Free- man. Early — Early Harvest, Early Fortune, Polaris. Late — New Queen. Triumph. Triumph (generally grown), Thorburn, Irish Cobbler, Eu- reka. Early — Triumph. Medium — Polaris, Garfield, Early Vermont, Charles Downing. Late — Green Mountain, Dela- ware, Alexander's Prolific, Dakota Red, Gold Coin, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carman No. i, Carman No. 2. Burbank. CHAPTER VIII PLANTING Distance Apart. — As potato roots spread laterall)- to a distance of 2 to 2.5 feet, the potatoes might be planted in rows four to fi.ve feet apart without the roots overlapping in the feeding-ground. The advan- tage of such distances would be that intertillage could be maintained until quite late in the season, and that there would be opportunity to spray the plants as late as one wished. Whether such distances would be eco- nomical is a local question largely controlled by the supply of moisture available for the crop. In Colo- rado the potatoes are usually planted in rows four feet apart. In humid climates 30 to 36 inches is more common, and 27 inches and even less is profitable in some cases. Other fa(5tors are the value of land and the cost of labor. Where land is low in value and labor high, wdder rows and the use of machinery are necessities. With high-priced land and low-priced labor the rows may be much closer together, and a much larger yield per acre may be possible. The most suitable distance probably varies with each variety; it certainly varies with some. For spraying purposes a variety with long, straggling haulm requires more space than one with short, upright haulm. Most of the early varieties belong to the latter tj'pe, and such are planted closely. Rows 27 to 30 inches apart, with plants 8 to 12 inches asunder, for early varieties, and 91 92 THE POTATO 30 to 33 inches, with plants 12 to 18 inches asunder, for late varieties, are suggested for most Eastern conditions. For irrigation experiments in Wisconsin, King' used 30 X 15 inches with success. In Europe, where heavy -N ^B< ^^ ^Pjiff^^i v/ *^^HHBhB^S3Bl5^H||^^^ Jf^^3t r .^K ^^^^^" . ^3^^ iSt^KK^^ ^1^^^^^^^ * '■ ^^l^m^: KIG. 23 — EARLY MATURING VARIETIES These generally have dwarf haulm, and may be planted much closer together than the later ones. This plant grew about one foot tall. yields are obtained, the potatoes are planted close to- gether; thus, Vuyst," of Belgium, and Lavalee' advise that the rows be 24 inches apart and the plants 12 inches asunder, because of the increased yield, the hastened maturity, and better-formed tubers. West- ermeier,' of Germany, states that about 360 square inches for each plant gave the highest yield on a humous 1 "Irrigation and Drainage. » E. S. R., XII., p. 1032. F. H. King. 2 E. S. R., v., p. 232. * E. S. R., VII., p. 681. PLANTING 93 loam. This would result from rows 30 inches apart with plants 12 inches asunder. In the United King- dom my observation is that 2 7 -inch rows with plants 1 2 to 15 inches asunder for late varieties and 8 to 1 2 inches for early (Fig. 23) and second early varieties is most popular. The Maryland Station' reports 25 per cent, heavier yield from planting 30 x 1414 inches than from 36 X 1 2 inches. The average of Canadian" exper- iments for the six years, 1 896-1 901, shows that 12 to 14 inches asunder in 30-inch rows was better than 10, 16, or 18 inches, whether considered from the stand- point of total yield or of total jaeld mhms the seed. At North Dakota Experiment Station,^ with 40-inch rows and the variet}^ Early Ohio, it was better to plant the sets 10 inches asunder than at greater distances. Depth of Planting. — The best depth varies to some extent with the soil, climate, and season. It is better to plant deeper on an open or light soil than on a compact or clay soil, in order to insure a more uniform temperature and moisture supply. These conditions aid in the producflion of good quality tubers. In a wet or a cold climate shallow planting may be good pradlice. In a wet season, on a compadl soil, i inch or 2 inches deep seems to be best. The Michigan Experiment Station* reports that on a sandy loam, in 1892, the yields of potatoes planted at various depths were, per acre : 2 inches deep, 275 bushels ; 3 inches, 298 bushels ; 4 inches, 279 bushels ; 5 inches, 273 bushels; 6 inches, 238 bushels. At North Dakota Ex- ' Md. Bui. 31, p. 77. = Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117. ' N. D. Report, 1901, p. 96. * Mich. Bui. 95, p. 9. 94 THE POTATO periment Station 3 to 5 inches deep gave the heavi- est yields, but 5 to 6 inches deep is recommended, as tubers of better quality are produced.' While in a dry season, on a rich clay loam soil. Green", of Minnesota, obtained better results from deep planting, the yields being, per acre, planted on the surface, 216 bushels; 3 inches, 227 bushels ; 6 inches, 297 bushels ; 8 inches, 328 bushels, it was felt that the results would have been different if the season had been wet. The New Jersey Experiment Station^ obtained similar re- sults, but found a depth of 4 inches most ' profitable. From the data submitted and other sources, 3 inches to 4>^ inches seems to be the most profitable depth.' On soils which are heavy and bake, and under certain climatic conditions, the seed should be planted fairly deep, but not covered more than 2 inches or so, to aid germination.^ The soil can then be gradually worked toward the potatoes until level culture is obtained. This system is sometimes advocated for the second crop in the South." Influence of Depth of Planting on the Depth at Which Tubers Form. — This question is of im- portance, because mechanical diggers must be used, and it is essential to know the depth to which they must work in order to dig all the crop. Zavitz,' of Ontario, as the result of three years' trial, found that on an average potatoes from tubers planted 1 N. D. Report, 1901, p. 97. ^ Minn. Bui. 10, p. 74. 3 N. J. Bui. 120, p. 10, and Botanist's Report, 1896, p. 318. * Ga. Bui. 29, p. 304. Tex. Bui. 71, p. 7. ^ Pa. D. A. Report, 1902, p. 722. * Ga. Bui. 29, p. 305. '' Ont. Agr. Coll. Farms Report, 1894, p. 98. PLANTING 95 One inch deep were formed 2.3 inches below the surface ; Three inches deep were formed 2.9 inches below the surface; Five inches deep were formed 4.1 inches below the surface; Seven inches deep were formed 6 inches below the surface. It was observed that those planted i inch deep fur- nished many sunburned potatoes, while those planted deeper had almost none. Gilmore, of Cornell, ob- tained somewhat similar results during the year 1904. Goff,' of Wisconsin, planted the Burbank variety at different depths, and found that shallow planting in- sured greater germination and more tubers per hill, but that they were nearer the surface and had more ex- posed tubers. TABLE X Depth of Planting Hills Ger- minating Tubers Protrifding from Soil A verage Number of Tubers per Hill Average Weight of Tubers per Hill Average Depth to Deepest Tuber 2 4 6 Per cent. 100 96 88 Per cent. 8.4 .8 6.6 5-4 3.2 Pounds ■58 .62 •35 Inches 2.5 3-5 50 The Canadian Experiment Farms^ report, as the re- sult of four years' trials, that with tubers planted i inch to 8 inches deep, where the sets were planted less than 4 inches deep, nearly all the tubers were formed between that depth and the surface, and when plant- ed deeper than 4 inches most of them formed within 4 inches of the surface. The deducftion made from these results was that the potatoes developed in the surface 1 wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. - Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117. 96 THE POTATO 4 inches of soil because it was warmer than the 3 or 4 inches lower down. Influence of Depth on Quality. — On a sandy loam, under New York conditions, potatoes grown about 4 inches deep are generally of better quality than those grown nearer the surface. In other places, those grown at even greater depths have been observed to be of better quality; thus, at North Dakota Station,' potatoes 5 to 6 inches deep were better than those 3 or 4 inches deep in this respec5l. Date of Planting. — As would be expedted, the dates of planting potatoes vary widely, and the only way to deal with the question is to give the common dates for a certain locality. The reader is advised to inquire of the growers in the locality the date con- sidered best, and, as a general rule, it is wise to plant early for the districT;. Canadian experimenters'" report, after four years' trial, that the end of May is the best time, and that June 24 is usually found to be the latest date for planting potatoes to produce satisfacftory re- turns, although in 1900 a good crop was obtained from a planting on July 7. In Wisconsin the middle to the end of May, and in Maine late in May and early in June, are considered best. At Cornell University, in 1901, potatoes planted May 16 yielded 250 bushels per acre, while those planted June 12 and 17 yielded 162 and 197 bushels respedtively. In Oklahoma^ potatoes planted March 14 came up and matured as early as those planted February 27. The early potato crop of Vir- ginia is usually planted during February and March, 1 N. D. Report, 1901, p. 96. ^ Can. Exp Farm Report, 1901, p. 119. 3 Okla. Bui. 52, p. 9. PI^ANTING 97 and the second crop about August i. In latitude 33° the dates are about two weeks later. Influence of Late and Early Planting. — The practice of growing a late crop of potatoes has spread northward, and in parts of New York it is custom- ary to plant potatoes late in the season after another crop, as peas, has been removed. The pracflice seems commendable, but discouraging reports from the potato salesmen in regard to the qualit}' of these potatoes led the Cornell University Experiment Station to under- take investigations to determine, if possible, the fa<5ts. Mr. Gilmore, who is conducfting this investigation, has furnished the first years' results, but these are in- sufficient to permit of dedudlions being made. TABLE XI VARIETY Dale of Planting Green Mountain.. May 7 Green Mountain.. July 6 Doe's Pride May 7 Doe's Pride Jwly 6 Date of Lifting Sept. 1 Oct. 22 Oct. 20 Oct. 22 Total Ash Protein Dry in Dry in Dry Matter Matter Matter Per ct. Per ct. Per. ct. 22.9 4-5 9-77 18. 1 556 11.86 21.75 5 39 10-35 19-05 5-10 12. II Starch i>i Dry Matter Per ct. 77-38 72-43 74.28 71.14 In both cases the late-planted potatoes contained less dry matter and less starch, or, in other words, were more watery, and appeared to be immature. Similar results were obtained during the present year (1904). Methods of Planting, — The former method and one still quite common is to plant potatoes by hand. A furrow is thrown out by a common plow, or a shovel-plow, 5ind, if applied, the fertilizers, and in PLANTING 99 some cases the manure, are placed in the furrow, the potatoes dropped in, and then covered by the plow. Generally speaking, the furrows should be thrown out so that the potatoes will be four inches below ground when the surface is level. The furrows are made the B Courtesy Cornell University, FIG. 25 — PLANTING BY HAND A — Tuber planted by hand in furrow opened with a shovel or double mold- board plow. B — The potatoe.s covered with shovel plow. C— l,and har- rowed level a few days after planting, to destroy weeds, leaving the potatoes four to five inches deep. Few farmers plant at this depth, even when they mean to do so. required distance apart. It has been deemed necessary to place the potato in position, and fix it so that it will not move when covered. In England this is done by requiring the planters to press it down by hand, and in this country the potatoes are often stepped on for the same reason. The stepping on them may injure lOO THK POTATO buds, and hence is detrimental. The rows should be made straight, and care should always be taken to have the potatoes planted in a straight line and at a uniform distance apart. The former facilitates in- tertillage to such an extent that it is worth**' of atten- tion. On a dry, hot day it is inadvisable to open the FIG. 26 — SECTIONAL VIEW (il" ASI'INWALL I'LANTER rows much ahead of the planters, and the" seed should be covered as soon as possible to prevent loss of mois- ture. Frequently the rows plowed out before the noon meal hour and left ojien for this time show the injuri- ous effedl of the loss of moisture, especiall}^ if the seed is cut. Wherever hand-planting is done and the tubers are not sprouted, the hand-planters, which are PLANTING lOI somewhat like hand corn-planters, may be used with profit. They cost $i .00 to $1 .50, and it is claimed that an adlive man can plant at least one acre per day. Every large grower of potatoes requires a horse- planter. From six to eight acres will warrant the use of such a machine, and it may be made to pay for itself in a short time by hiring it out — preferably with FIG. 27 — ASPINWALL POTATO PLANTER (SIUE VIEW) a man to work it. Some planters require one man, others two men, to work them; the latter generally do the best work, although good work is done by the former. Two systems of mechanism are employed — the picker and the platform. In some planters the tubers are fed from the hopper onto pickers, or spikes, which projecft from a revolving vertical disk. The disk carries them round to the top of a delivery pipe, where they are knocked off, or fall off, going down the pipe I02 THE POTATO to the ground. This system, or a modification of it, is used in the Aspinwall (Figs. 26-27), the Deere, and the the Eureka planters. Trials with a planter of this type showed that, with small whole seed and well-prepared ground, this machine will work up to its guarantee of 95 per cent. ; that is, it will not skip more than 5 places in 100. With longer cut seed and rougher land, espe- FIG. 28 — THE ROUHI.NS IMPROVED PLANTER cially if slightly hilly, it will miss up to 20 in 100. If these misses were distributed it would not be so serious, but often 5 or 6 occur at a .stretch. If the seed is cut long and thin, the pickers ma}' take hold of two pieces instead of one. This happens frequently — often up to 20 per cent. These machines open the furrow, distribute the fertillizer, plant the potato, and cover. The latter operation is usually performed by revolving concave disks. The distance apart of the tubers is regulated by adding or removing the pickers. The higher-priced PLANTING 103 machines are stronger made than the lower-priced, and, in some cases the fertiHzer attachment is extra. The Robbins improved potato-planter (Fig. 28) is of the platform type. The potatoes are elevated from the hopper by means of a wheel, and are discharged onto a platform which is cleared by several revolving arms (Fig. 29); the mechanism is so timed that a potato FIG. 29 — THE I'LATFOKM OF THE ROBBINS IMPROVED PLANTER should fall on the platform between each two arms. Sometimes the elevator comes up empty or brings two pieces up ; in either case it is necessary for the man sit- ting behind to put one piece on the vacant part of the table between the arms or take the extra piece off. In this way the tubers are planted more carefully and regu- larly than most hand work. The amount and distance apart of seed, and the amount of fertilizer sown, are I04 THE POTATO regulated by interchangeable sprockets. The various parts of the machine are driven by means of a chain drive. This machine opens the row, distributes the fertilizer in rather a wide stream, plants the potato, and covers it in a satisfa(5lory manner. Any ordinary required depth can be obtained. It can be used for planting beans, corn, and other crops. With potato- planters three to six acres can be planted per da3\ Losses of crop due to insufficient seeding cannot be made up during the year. The land requires the same amount of work, and the soil needs moving at digging- time; but there is not the yield, and it is an important consideration whether 5 per cent, to 20 per cent, los;; of plants per acre is not too high a price for the sake o. one man's pay per day. Even with the cheapest " picker ' ' planter, the lower initial cost is not sufficient to recompense the grower for the lo.ss sustained by using it on ten acres when compared with the perfedl machine. CHAPTER IX MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP Cultivation. — Almost invariably judicious cultiva- tion of potato land is profitable. It is secondary to good preparation of the land. The objedl is not primarily to destroy weeds, although this may be a consideration. To-day intelligent farmers till to in- crease yield. Tillage is manuring. No better illustra- tions of this fadl can be found than the tillage experi- ments of Roberts and others at Cornell University.' In these trials potatoes were grown several years in suc- cession, without manures or fertilizers, upon the same land, and yields varying from 300 to 350 bushels per acre, or three to four times the average jdeld of the State, were secured for several years. This illustrates the value of tillage, but in its entirety is not necessarily a good pradlice. Tillage destroys humus, and as this is one of the most essential constituents of a good potato soil, a rotation of crops is advised to aid in maintaining the supply. Tillage may be overdone, especially deep tillage in dry weather. During such a time only sufficient shallow tillage should be given to maintain a mulch. At Cornell from seven to nine cultivations seemed to be most profitable, or about every seven to ten days until the potato-vines meet in the rows. Tillage must be given when necessary. The right number of cultiva- ' (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 140, pp. 389-390; 191. P- 192. 105 Io6 THE POTATO tions will vaty with each year and the class of soil. The Ohio Kxperiment Station' found that thorough culture encouraged vigorous growth and aided the plants to resist fungous troubles. The objedls of tillage, then, are : 1. To increase the crop-producing power, presum- ably by : (a) Liberating plant-food. (d) Maintaining good texture. (c) Conserving moisture by the aid of a soil mulch. (d)- Pulverizing the ground, so that every shower of rain can enter the soil and not flow off, transporting the fine soil particles. 2. To keep weeds in check. System of Culture.— ^///^.— Generally hills— that is, where potatoes are planted in checks — are unprofit- able because there are not enough plants per acre and the yield is too low; hence the system is little used un- less a piece of land is very weedy. Drills. — By " drills" it is understood that the soil is thrown toward the potatoes, leaving a depression or furrow between the rows. This system is used for irrigation, when the water flows between the rows. It is also pradliced in humid climates, where the tempera- ture does not go high — as. Northern England, Scot- land, etc. — and on wet soils and in wet seasons. Often the "furrowing" injures roots and reduces the yield, but many growers claim that the ease with which the potatoes can be dug from drills compensates for any loss in yield. The objedlion to level culture is that Ohio Bui. 76, p. 47. LIBRARY. Didsion of Horticulture, N. C. Dep't of Amodture* MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP 107 difficulty is experienced in securing machinery which will dig all the tubers. Level Culture. — In this system the potatoes must be planted a little deeper than in the case of the other two, to reduce the percentage of sun-burned tubers. This system is advocated throughout most of Eastern North America, as, among other things, the quality of FIG. 30 — HALI.ECK EXPANSIBI.E WEFDER the potatoes is better, owing to the ground being cooler. Its use has been found advisable at such various points as Cornell,' Louisiana," North Caro- lina,^ Wisconsin,' and Arkansas'' Experiment Stations, while the Maryland' Station, in a trial lasting six years, found little difference between level and drill culture, but the slight variation was in favor of level culture. " Method of Cultivation and Tools Used. — About a week after planting the spike-tooth harrow should be run over the land, preferably in both directions, if a mulch is not made by one harrowing. This destroys • (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 140, p. 390; 156, p. 175. 3 N. Car. Bui. 85, p. 4; 146, p. 262. ' Ark. Bui. 50, p. 29. - I,a. Bui. 22, p. 705. * Wis. Report, 1899, p. 210. * Md. Bui. 62, p. 204. Io8 THE POTATO young weeds and brings more seed up to germinate, which ma}' be killed by another harrowing a week later. When the potatoes appear, the weeder (Fig. 30) will be found the most serviceable implement for holding the weeds in check and maintaining the mulch. It may FIG. 31 — FIVK-TOOTIt CULTIVATOR WITH lULLEK ATTACHMENTS Still used by many farmers. be driven across the rows after each cultivation until the potatoes are 9 or 10 inches high. As a good horse and man can do twenty acres a day, it is quite expeditious and generally satisfaclor}-. Generally speaking, it is advised to cultivate widely and deeply from 4 to 6 inches the first, and, in some cases, the .second time after the potatoes aj'pear, then reduce the width and the depth to one inch or so. MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP IO9 The first and second cultivations may be given with a five- tooth cultivator (Fig. 31), or a sulky cultivator (Fig. 32) maybe used. The spring-tooth cultivator (Fig. 33) is found to be a very useful tool for inter- FiG. 32 — A USF.KIL r\v>.)-in>RSK rri,ii\AroR A requisite wherever large areas of potatoes are grown. tillage work for the third and subsequent cultivations, and the spike-tooth expansible cultivator with the shields is an excellent tool for shallow tillage, as it destroys the small weeds and helps to maintain a soil mulch. no THE POTATO Mulching. — In some districSls good yields have been obtained by mulching the land with straw, shavings, pine straw, or some similar substance, instead of cultivating it. Waugh found that it increased the FIG. 33 — iiNK-HoKsl ^ I Kl N(,- I OOTH CUL'llVATOR An excellent tool for the later cultivations. yield in Oklahoma' and similar results were obtained in New Jersey,^ while in Georgia,^ Michigan,^ Wis- consin,^ and in my own trials in New York, it was found to be unprofitable, even when the yields obtained were about the same under both conditions. ' Okla. Bui. 15, p. 32. 3 Ga. Bui. 29, p. 348. * Wis. Report, 1899, p. 209. 2 N. J. Report, 1901, p. 418. * Mich. Bui- 95, pp. 13-16. CHAPTER X OBSTRUCTIONS TO GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT The obstrudlions to growth may be treated under the following heads: 1. Season a7id Climate. 2. Weeds. 3. Diseases due to parasitic fiaigi and bacteria. 4. Insects. 5. Arseyiical poisoning. I. Influence of Season and Climate. — The in- jurious influence of dry weather at planting-time has already been observed ("Viabilit}-," page 66). At the (Hatch)' Massachusetts Experiment Station it was observed that the wet condition of the soil at the time of planting appeared to induce the rotting of the young plants just below ground. The occurrence of several extremely hot sunny days in July, following a long rainy period, caused the plants to wilt from the wet condition of the soil and low vitality. No disease was apparent. Probably these plants showed the injurious results consequent on defedlive respiration due to high temperatures. Frost may cut down early planted potatoes. Tip Bnrn.'' — This is most common in Northeastern 1 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 189S, p. 52. 2 Ver. Report, 1899, p 151; Bui. 72, p. 10. (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 113, p, 309. Conn. Report 18 (1894), p. 133. Ill 112 THE POTATO America. The leaves become brown on the margin and die. It is caused by drought, and is more prevalent on light soils. Irrigation and seledlion of vigorous varieties, more care in cultivation, and fertilizing are suggested. At Wisconsin Experiment Station,' Green Mountain, Rural New Yorker No. 2, Everett's Heavy Weight, and Colossal proved most resistant in 1896. Siin Scald.'' — Its efFedl is similar to that of tip burn. It is more prevalent in the Southeastern United States, and is often noticed when long-continued damp weather is followed by several hot, bright days. 2. Weeds. — These injure the plant by using water and other plant-food, crowding the plant, preventing the free circulation of air, and in these ways reducing the vitalit}' and rendering the potato more subjedl to disease. 3. Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- ria. — Late Blight or Rot ' {Phytophthora infestans). — There is reason to believe that this di.sease has existed for ages in the western parts of South America, and was disseminated over Europe a long time before its presence was recognized. It seriously injured the crops of potatoes in the United States and Canada in 1843, and reappeared the following year. In July, 1845, it was first detecfted in Europe, in Belgium, and within two months thereafter it was recorded in Eng- land, Ireland, Scotland, France, Germany, Denmark, and Russia. Since that time it has never been entirely 1 Wis. Report, 1896, p. 240. - U. .S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 91, p. * (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 113, pp. 297-302. Vt. Bui. 49, pp. 90, 91; Bui 13. U. S. D A. Farmers' Bui. 91, p. 8. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT II3 absent from the potato crops, although in some years it is not so destrucftive as in others. The disease appears during damp, muggy weather in August and September. It is often noticed as small brownish spots on the lower leaves, which rapidly en- large. In moist weather the edges of these spots, on the under surface of the leaf, appear to be covered with a white downy mildew. In dry weather this may be difficult to detecft. L,ater the leaves appear as though burnt, and finally the whole plant, and in some cases the whole field, will become a putrid, offensive mass of decaying stems and leaves. The tubers may be attacked also, and rot in the field or in storage. Sometimes the disease runs a very rapid course, and a field will wilt down in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Ca2(se. — The cause is a parasitic fungus which com- pletes its life history in four or five days or less. The whitish mold is made up of stalks bearing branches (Fig. 34). These bear spore cases (Figs. 34 and 35), which break up to form spores (Fig. 35). These spores send out small tubes (Figs. 35, 36, 37), which enter the potato leaf through a stomata, or breathing pore (Fig. 37), or penetrate the cell wall (Figs. 36, 37). The tubes spread in the walls of the leaf cells (Fig. 34) like mushroom spawn in a mushroom bed, utiliz- ing the plant-food which should go to form tubers. At intervals they send out spore-bearing branches through the stomata (Fig. 34), which perpetuate the trouble. Unless the tubers are well covered with soil, the spores may fall on the ground, and, reaching the tubers, transmit the disease to them. 114 THE POTATO FIG. 34 — SECTION OF A POTATO LEAK (After Marshall Ward) Showing the parts and the threads, or mycelium, of the blight or rot {Phy- lophlliura itifcslaus) a — Epidermis, or outer cells, b — Palisade cells, which aid in giving rigidity- and firmness to the leaf, and in the manufacture of starch and other ingredients, c — Spongy tissue, showing cells and large air spaces between, d — The stoniata, or breathing pores of the leaf, with aerial branches of the parasite growing outward through them, e — The spore sacs, or conidia, in which the spores, or seeds, are formed. /^\ pe- culiar hair on the under surface of the leaf. The dots in the cells are the chlorophyll granules, which give the green color to the leaf, and aid in the production of starch. The dark parts of the tis.sue show where cells are dying from the effects of the disease. Loss of cells means a reduction in the amount of food prepared, and, consequently, reduced yield. In New York alone the farmers lose js, 000,000 to f 10,000,000 annually from diseases, and because they do not spray. This is the most important disease preva- lent at present. Aids to Attack. — i. Flea-beetles puncfture the leaves and furnish easy access for the spores to the inner parts of the leaf. 2. Humid, still days, with a tempera't-ure of about 73° OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 115 F. Above 78° F. and below 50° F. there is pracftically no germination of the spores. Prevention. — i. Spraying with copper compounds — as, Bordeaux mixture, copper sulphate and soda mix- FIG. 35 — THE MATURA'ION OK A SPORE SAC (CONIDIA) AND GERMINATION OF A SPORE (ZOOSPORE) OF ROT {Pkytop/Ukora i lifts tatis) (After Marshall Ward) a — Ripe spore sac in water, b — The protoplasmic contents break up into blocks and escape as kidney-shaped zoospores (c and d). e — Each have two thread-like arms, called cilia, which are lost as the spore comes to rest (/and g) ; /;, i,j\ and k show stages of germination. Moist, warm, or still, muggy days are best for the growth and development of these spores. On such occasions the disease spreads rapidly. ture. If the surfaces of the leaves and stems be covered with a thin film of some copper compound, we either prevent the entrance or injure the vitality of the ger- minating .spore tubes, so that the potatoes enjoy a certain degree of immunity from the disease. This is the philosophy of the use of Bordeaux mix- ii6 THE POTATO ture. The degree of immunity varies with our ability to keep the whole of the plant covered with an armor of Bordeaux mixture. Plants half sprayed are not secure, as the disease can spread rapidly inside the plant. The plant must be com- pletely coated all the time to be immune. This may be impos- sible when a plant is growing, but this is not the fault of the Bordeaux mixture. The more thoroughly and more frequently the spraying is done the better the chances of bringing the crop through. It will be seen that Bordeaux is but a prevent- ive; it is not a cure. Hence, the poof results from spraying after the disease has obtained a foothold. 2. Obtaining disease-resisting varieties, or changing the seed if it has lost its resisting power. 3. Planting on fresh ground, and planting early. 4. Giving good cultivation, and having a good rotation. 5. Destroying all refuse of potatoes. 6. Having good drainage — both water and air drain FIG. 36 — LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A POTATO STALK, SHOWING A GER- MINATING SPORE OF ROT {P/ivtop/itkora infestans) (After Marshall Ward) The number of stomata.per square inch on a potato stem is much smaller than in the case of a leaf, but here the germ tube has pierced the cell wall, and is growing in the cell. In spraying, the stems should be coated with Bordeaux. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 117 age. Near woodland, where the air drainage is poor, the disease spreads rapidly on damp or misty days. Land choked with weeds keeps the lower leaves and stalks damp, and more subject to attack. FIG. 36 — THE GERMINATING TUBE OF A SPORE OF ROT {^Phytophthora infestans) (After Marshall Ward) This may enter a plant through a stomata, or breathing pore, as at a, or it may penetrate the cell wall, as at b. The maintenance of a coat of Bor- deaux mixture all over the plant would check the growth of these spores. 7. Not digging until ten days after the vines die. 8. Getting potatoes out of the field as soon as dug, and never covering piles of potatoes with spore-laden haulm. I I 8 THE POTATO Early Blight,' or Leaf Spot Disease {Macro- spon'jwi so/afiz). — It is a fungus disease which appears usually in June to July, or ahead of the late blight. It does not generally attack vigorous plants. It spreads in warmer, drier weather than the late blight. It forms circular brown spots with target-like markings on the leaves. It enters the leaf through tissues weak- ened by other agents, as flea-beetles, etc. It does not attack the tubers directly, and never causes them to rot. Preventives. — i. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 2. Seledlion of vigorous varieties. 3. Better tillage and fertilization. Potato Rosette {RJdzoctonia solani.") — This dis- ease has been known since 1842, but it is only recently that it has caused considerable trouble. It is now well established all over the country, and in some places 90 per cent, of the tubers appear to be affecled by it. It tends to cau.se the formation of an abnormal number of small tubers of no value. The stems show discolored deca3'ing areas above ground and brown dead areas be- low, and the leaves tend to grow in rosette-like clusters. The resting spores live for several years in the .soil, and the methods of infedlion are by seed potatoes, beet and mangold roots, dead potato stems, and some weeds; hence, fields .should be kept clean. The disease at- tacks beets, mangolds, and clover. Soaking the seed in formalin will destroy the spores on the potatoes, but is of no value if the soil is infe U. S. D. A. Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 55. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. loi, pp. 83, 84; Bui. 138, pp. 632, 634. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 123 4. Insects. — The Flea-beetle {Crepidodera {Epi- trix) cucumeris) (Fig. 39). — These small insedls often cause more loss than the potato beetles. They perforate the leaves (Fig. 40) during a critical FIG. 39 — THE CUCUMBER FLEA-BEETLE {Crepidodera {Epitrix) cucumeris) (After Chittenden) Highly magnified. The insect is barely one-eighth inch long. The damage done by this iii- .sect is considerably under- estimated. period of the plant's life. The holes pro- duced are used by the p,^ ^o-leaflet of potato, show- spores of both early i^q over a hundred holes made and late blight for by flea-beetles entrance into the leaf. The ease with which this damage might be .... overlooked is evident. These holes make i\.rsenicai poisoning is suitable avenues for the entrance of spores usually first noticed °^ disease, and pave the way for the rapid . destruction of the plant. on the margins 01 these holes. At no time in their life history can these insedls be readily destroyed. They dislike Bordeaux 124 THE POTATO mixture ; hence, the only known means of reducing their ravages is to spray the plants with this material. NUMBER OF FLEA-BEETLE PUNCTURES IN 50 LEAFLETS FROM 12 ADJACENT ROWS ' Ptinctures Row I. — Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture . 1,794 Row 2. — Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture and soap 1,071 Row 3. — Not Sprayed 2,511 Row 4. — Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture . . 1,194 Row 5. — Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture and soap 1,090 Row 6. — Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture . . . 1,295 Row y. — Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture and soap 901 Row 8.— Not sprayed 2,287 The grubs of the flea-beetle infest the tubers and roots of potatoes, doing some damage and causing the trouble known as " pimply potatoes."" In the Pacific Coast the flea-beetles {Epiirix siibcri- fiita, Lee, and E. hirtipemiis, Mels. ) sometimes reduce the yield 50 per cent, by their ravages. As they are leaf-eaters, the foliage should be sprayed or dusted with an arsenical poison. One pound of Paris green to 150 gallons of water per acre is suggested,' but it is better to apply the Paris green in Bordeaux mixture. The Potato Beetle, Colorado Potato Beetle, OR Potato Bug {Doryphora decemlineata) . — Until 1850 this insecft was confined to Mexico and the Rockies. In 1859 its eastward movement was noted, and it is now well distributed. A related species {D. jtmda) 1 Vt. BuL 72, pp. 6-9. " (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 113, pp. 312-317. ^CaL BuL 135, p. 29. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 1 25 retreated before its advance, and is now more common in the South. In New Mexico' a parasite lives on the eggs and larvae. The eggs are laid on the potato leaves, on which the young "bugs" live, chewing holes in or eating the whole of the leaf. The insedls are most adlive about blossoming-time, and do con- siderable damage if left alone. Modes of Combatting. — The leaf should be thoroughl)'- coated with a poison, generally an arsenical compound being used. The poison should be applied as soon as the " bugs " hatch, because the younger the " bugs " the more easily they are destroyed. Various arsenical compounds are used — as, Paris green, arsenate of lead, and others. ' ' Bugs ' ' objedl to Bordeaux mixture, hence in applying the poison it is found to be good pra(5lice to apply Bordeaux mixture at the same time. The whole of the plant should be covered, because if badly sprayed the bugs live on the unsprayed foliage. The standard application '\s % \.o yi pound of Paris green to 50 gallons of mixture. Generally i pound of Paris green is sufficient per acre, and if it is desired to apply more than 100 gallons, the proportion of Paris green .should be varied accordingly. If desired, Paris green may be applied in the dry form by means of a powder gun, the Paris green being mixed with flour, land plaster, etc., as desired. About 50 cents per acre should cover the cost of one application. The Potato Worm," also known in the South as the tobacco-leaf miner {Gelechia operculella, Zell.), is estimated to destroy 25 per cent, of the potato crop ' American Naturalist, iS99,pp. 927-29. New Mexico Bui. 33, pp. 47-51. 2 Cal. Bui. 135, pp. 5-29. 126 THE POTATO on the Pacific Coast. Great losses often occur in stor- age as well as in the field. The moths fly at night, and la}' eggs on the stalks and tubers. Destru<5lion of the moths l^y trap lanterns, the destruction of infested stems, careful hilling of potatoes, getting them under cover as soon as dug, cleaning up the refuse of the field, and a rotation of crops is recommended. In storage, fumigation with i}{> pounds of carbon bisulphide per thousand cubic feet of air-space will destroy all the larvae if repeated five times at intervals of two weeks. This gas is inflammable, and no lights must be taken near. It is a heavy gas, and sinks from the top of the building. Potato Stalk Weevil ' ( Tridwbaris trmotata). — This beetle attacks the stalks, causing them to wilt. It is found from Canada to Texas and Florida. The vines should be destroyed as soon as attacked, and weeds belonging to the potato family kept down. Another insedl has caused similar trouble in Maine. ^ Grasshoppers {Alelanophis sp.) do much damage during some seasons, especially after the hay crop is cut, by severing parts of the leaves. Bordeaux mix- ture containing an arsenical poison is the best deter- rent, being better than the arsenical compound alone. The June Bug {Lachnostcrna .sp.). — The big white larvae of these beetles often eat the tubers. They are most prevalent on land which has been in grass, although if land is in clover but one or two years less trouble may be expe<5led. ' Consult V. S. D. A. Div. of Entomology, Bui. 33, 6. Ind. Report, 1895. Kan. Bui. 82. Pa. D. A. Report, 1896. N. J. Bui. 109, pp. 25-32. 2 Me. Report, 1897, p 173. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 1 27 Wireworms injure potatoes by boring through them. They are more prevalent on land which has been in grass a few years. Frequent rotation and fall plowing are advised for both of these pests. Other insedls injurious to potatoes include: Striped Blister Beetle, or "Old-fashioned Potato Bug" {Epi- cauta vittata). This inse(5l should be combatted in the same way as the Colorado potato beetle — by applica- tions of arsenical poisons to the foliage. The Tomato Worm and Cutworms are injurious. The latter are very destrucflive at times, and the best remedy seems to be to place bait, made of moist bran and sugar, poisoned with Paris green in the fields. ' Arsenical Poisoning. — Paris green, London pur- ple, and other arsenical compounds usually carry their arsenic in an insoluble form, but some may be soluble. This soluble arsenious oxide may burn the leaves, espe- cially the tips where the mixture flows, and the edges of mutilated leaves, causing death of the spot and a ' ' target-like ' ' appearance of the leaf. Remedy. — Do not use more than i pound of Paris green per acre, dissolved in 100 to 200 gallons of Bor- deaux mixture. The trouble is most prevalent where people half spray and use Paris green alone, or i pound of Paris green in one barrel (50 gallons) of water and lime or Bordeaux mixture. N. J. Bui. 109; Report, 1S95, p. 366. CHAPTER XI SPRAYS AND SPRAYING Fungicides are materials used to combat fungi, or small plants which are usually parasitic. Bordeaux mixture is the leading fungicide for pota- toes. The ingredients for making this mixture are freshly slaked lime and copper sulphate. The fungi- cidal value lies in the copj)er compound. The lime is added to prevent the copper sulphate burning the foli- age, and to make the mixture more adhesive and more readily seen when applied. The amount of lime and copper sulphate used vary considerabl3^ Not less than 2 pounds of lime can be used to 3 pounds of copper sulphate. Excess of lime is disadvantageous in some ways, as it renders the mixture less efficient by making it thicker, and in this way more liable to settle' and more difficult to apply, causing nozzles to clog, but in a wet season an excess of lime is desirable. A thin mixture can, however, be more uniformly applied. Use freshly burnt, clean, firm lime; slake it by pour- ing water, preferably hot, over it in small amounts at a time, until the lime has fallen to a fine powder ; then add enough water to make a thin paste. A large quantity of lime may be slaked at one time and kept covered with water. This is a " stock solution." To dissolve copper sulphate, it should be placed in a (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243, p. 320. 128 SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 1 29 coarse sack and suspended in the top of the water in a wood, brass, or porcelain vessel — usually a wooden barrel, as it corrodes iron. The copper sulphate sinks in the w^ater as it dissolves, and a gallon of water will dissolve 3 pounds of copper sulphate. This is a satu- rated solution. If 6, pounds of copper sulphate are re- quired to a barrel of water, 2 gallons of this stock solution should be used. Mixing. — It is economical to have an elevated stage, under or alongside of which the spray-cart may be drawn. Place four 50-gallon barrels on this stage, two of which are for the stock solutions of lime and copper sulphate, and two for making the mixture. To make 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture, pour 2 gal- lons of copper sulphate saturated solution into one barrel and fill it up to the 25-gallon mark with w^ater. Stir up the stock solution of lime and dip out as much as is required; if 5 pounds, then the solution equivalent to this amount; strain it, to exclude particles which might clog nozzles, into the lime-mixing barrel, and fill up to the 25-gallon mark and stir. The mixing- barrels should be provided with 2-inch or 3-inch rubber hose, one end of which is attached in an opening near the bottom of the barrel, the other free. When read)% put the hose from each barrel into the spray-tank, and let them empty and mix together. The rubber hose should be long enough so that the free end can be turned over into its barrel w^hen not in use. If desired, the stock-solution barrels may be placed above and over the mixing-barrels, so that dipping out solution is avoided; it may be run out through a faucet. Convenience to a water-supply expedites the w'ork. 130 THE POTATO Testing Bordeaux Mixture. — In pradlice little attention is paid to the quantity of lime, except that sufficient is added to combine with all of the copper sulphate. To determine when this has taken 'place the potassium ferrocyanide test is made. Purchase ten cents' worth of potassium ferrocyanide, or yellow prussiate of potash, and dissolve it in water. Isabel it ' ' Poison. ' ' Stir the Bordeaux mixture in the spray- tank and take out a sample in a small vessel, to which add a drop of potassium ferrocyanide. If no change in color is noted where it dropped there is sufficient lime, but it is better to add lime solution equivalent to a pound of lime more. If the drop changed the color of the solution reddish brown it shows that there is not enough lime. Strength of Solution. — For potatoes, i pound of copper sulphate to 7 or 8 gallons of water is com- monly used; that is : Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 6 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked). 4 to 6 pounds. Water, 48 to 50 gallons. Bordeaux Dust,' or Dry Bordeaux Mixture, can be made in two ways : 1 . Slaking the lime by pouring a strong solution of copper sulphate over it. 2. Mixing the strong copper sulphate solution with freshly slaked lime which has been made into a paste, then placing the mixture in a bag and drying and pul- verizing it. The two ingredients must be well mixed and passed through a fine sieve. Dry Bordeaux is offered for sale under various names. Adler's Bor- 1 For details, see Missouri Bui. 60. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243, p. 325. SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 131 deaux is reported to be as efficient as newly mixed,' but generally these preparations are much inferior to the newly prepared, and, when applied drv, are less effective than in the wet form. Washing Soda and Copper Sulphate Mixture. — This mixture is being used with success in parts of Europe. It does not clog nozzles, spreads evenly over the leaf, and is easily and cheaply prepared. The washing soda is dissolved in water, poured into the barrel of water and stirred, and the copper sulphate added and stirred. Various strengths are in use, but the most satisfadlory one for American conditions has yet to be determined. We are trying 4 pounds of cop- per sulphate, 6 pounds of washing soda, and 50 gallons of water, adding i pound of lime if Paris green is used. A little over i pound of washing soda might be suffi- cient to neutralize the 4 pounds of copper sulphate, but it is safer to use more. In Ireland 5 pounds are used and for three successive years in extended trials this mixture has given better results than Bordeaux mix- ture.^ At (N. Y.) Geneva Station, in 1904, it was not so good as ordinary Bordeaux mixture. Spraying with Bordeaux Mixture. — Benefits. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture influences the potato crop in the following ways : 1 . The strucflure ^ of the leaf shows a slight increase in thickness and in strength, and so offers more resistance to the growth of disease spores. 2. The chlorophyll,' or green coloring matter of the leaf and stem, is increased. 1 Me. Bui. 73, p. 55. ■■' Department of Agric. for Ireland I' to the foliage occurred. The results show that Paris green is of distindl fungicidal value, and that it in- 1 Me. Bui. 68, 87, . SPRAYS AND SPRAYING I37 creased the yield of potatoes from 175 bushels per acre, on plats where bugs were removed by hand, to 221 bushels per acre, and that it was better applied in water than in lime water. Lead Compounds. — Insoluble arsenate and arsen- ite of lead are recommended because they contain no injurious soluble arsenic, a heavy dose will do no harm, they lead all other materials in remaining in suspension, they adhere to the foliage, and they can be easily made at home and their purity insured. The articles required are sugar of lead (acetate of lead), costing ']}{, cents per pound, wholesale, and arsenate of soda, costing 5 cents per pound, wholesale, at pres- ent. They may be dissolved in cold water, but for quick solution hot water is better. The formula for making i pound of arsenate of lead — enough for 100 gallons — is: Dissolve 24 ounces of sugar of lead in i gallon of cold water, and 10 ounces of arsenate of soda in 3 quarts of water, both in wooden vessels.' When dis- solved, pour together into the spraying-tank. Pre- pared in this way, it is superior to any ready prepared sample. Of the latter there are several makes, which ma}' be used if but a small amount is required. ' ' Swift's Arsenate of Lead ' ' may be purchased in a white powder form or as a paste; it is easily mixed with water, but both forms settle more quickly in the spra}-- tank than the freshly made. Disparene retails at 25 cents per pound, and is a heavy white paste which finally mixes well with water, but takes some time. 1 Cal. Bui. 151. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243. 138 THE POTATO It has great adhesive power, and will not burn foliage. The Adler lead compounds are similar. Arsenite of lead is made by dissolving separately 12 ounces of sodium arsenite and 4 pounds of sugar of lead, then pouring them into 150 gallons of water. The home-made mixture remains in suspension longer than the prepared. Pink arsenoid is arsenite of lead colored; it is no more dangerous to foliage than Paris green, and is cheap. It will remain in suspension about twice as long as Paris green. Green arsenoid (copper arsenite) sometimes con- tains considerable soluble white arsenic, and is then dangerous to foliage, especially in a drj' climate or time. White arsenoid (barium arsenite) is dangerous to foliage. Calco green and laurel green do not contain enough arsenic to render them of much value, and some sam- ples cause serious injury- to foliage.' Paragrene is a prepared compound containing, in some cases, considerable soluble ' ' white arsenic, ' ' which is objedlionable. Arsenic and lime is a cheap mixture. Boil i pound of white arsenic, costing 7 cents per pound, with 2 pounds of lime in 2 gallons of water for forty minutes and add to 150 or 200 gallons of water. It cannot be safely applied alone, even with the addition of consid- erable lime, but may be used in Bordeaux mixture. The copper sulphate in the Bordeaux mixture seems to prevent the caustic adlion. If the lime and arsenic fail to combine, the mixture is dangerous. ' Vt. Report, 1899, p. 271. Cal. Bui. 151, p. 24. SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 139 Cost of Spraying and Profits Derived. — In 1903, at the farm of J. V. Salisbury & Son, Phelps, N. Y., the total expense of spraying' 14 acres five times was $55-76, the items being as follows: 504 pounds of copper sulphate, at 6 cents 8 bushels of lime, at 35 cents 12 pounds of white arsenic, at 5^ cents 55 hours' labor for man, at 17% cents 47 hours' labor for team, at 173^ cents Wear of sprayer $30.24 2.80 .66 9-63 8.23 4.20 Cost of spraying per acre for each application was 80 cents. Bushels Yield of sprayed rows, per acre 147 Yield of unsprayed rows, per acre .... 83 Increase in yield per acre ....... 64 A good showing, con.sidering that there was no blight this year. 64 bushels per acre on 14 acres (S96 bushels), worth Less cost of spraying $448.00 55.7(J Net profit on 14 acres $392.24 Net profit per acre 28. 01 Mr. Salisbury sprayed potatoes for his neighbors at 80 cents per acre and furnished everything. In other experiments conducted in 1 904 by the Geneva Experi- ment Station, the cost of each application was as low as 61 cents per acre, and the net profit as high as $60.00 per acre. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 241, p. 275. 140 THE POTATO Spraying Machines.' — A spraying outfit consists of a pump, nozzle, agitator, tank rods, hose, crop-spray- ing attachments, etc. The3' are made in various sizes, and are known as knapsack, carried and worked by a man; barrel, hauled by man or horse (Fig. 42), and worked by manual labor; and power sprayers, in which the pumping is done by gearing from the wheels, steam "bw^ FIG. 42 — A SUGGESTIVE ENGLISH SPRAYING MACHINE Emphasis is laid upon coating the under surface of the leaves, and experi- ments show that it is profitable to do so under British conditions. or gas engines, compressed air or carbon dioxid. The pressure is generated in the pump; 100 to 120 pounds pressure per square inch gives a much finer spray than 50 to 60 pounds. The power sprayers give the former, the manual labor sprayers rarely exceed the latter. The working parts of the pump should be of brass or bronze; rubber or leather valves, or any parts that Bor- ' Consult Mo. Bui. 50 and (N.Y.) Geneva Bui. 243. SPRAYS AND vSPRAYING 14I deaux mixture will corrode, are inadmissible. The pump should be easy to clean. The nozzle and the pressure determine the charadler of the spray. The Vermorel type of nozzle is one of the best; it does good work at a low pressure of 50 to 60 pounds, but better work at 100 pounds. It does not throw the spray a great distance. The nozzle used should permit of being readily cleaned. The agitator may be (i) mechanical or (2) the jet type. The former is generally used and considered more efl&cient, dashers being used in barrel outfits and whirling paddles in large tanks. The jet type returns a stream of solution from the pump to the bottom of the tank. It can be made efficient on power sprayers, but deficiency of power bars their use on hand outfits. Tanks. — Cypress, pine, and cedar are used in mak- ing tanks, the first being considered best. Their ca- pacity varies from 50 to 250 gallons. Hose. — The hose should withstand a pressure of 125 pounds per square inch. Three and four ply are most used. Some prefer five and six ply. Half-inch hose is most commonly used; some prefer three-eighths of an inch . Crop-spraying Attachments. — The potato spraying attachment should carry two or more nozzles for each row. These should be capable of being turned up- ward when not in use, to prevent their clogging with sediment while drying. The spray should be thrown upward and sideways, to coat the under surface of the leaves as well as the upper surface. From two to six rows are sprayed at a time (see Frontispiece and Fig. 42), and the attachment should fold or turn up to 142 THE POTATO facilitate turning or going through a gateway. Sta- tionary nozzles cannot diredl the spray so well as hand nozzles; hence, more should be put on to make sure that the plants are coated. The cost of the extra amount of mixture is -small compared with the cost of the labor used in applying it. CHAPTER XII HARVESTING . Digging. — Early potatoes may be dug as soon as large enough. F'or late varieties which are to be stored it is necessar}- to wait until the tubers have at- tained full size, the haulm and leaves have died, the tubers come freel}' from the stem and have not to be jerked off, and the skins are firm and will not come off easil}^ when rubbed. If the vines have been de- stroyed b}' blight the potatoes should not be dug until at least ten days after the vines are dead, as there is then less liabilit}' of rot in storage." If frost sets in early and the growing .season has been late, it may be necessary to dig before the potatoes are quite mature. In this case the shrinkage in weight, if stored, will be greater than if they had matured, and a reasonable offer for them straight from the field should not be declined. For storage, potatoes must be dug when dry, picked up at once, and kept cool. If possible, haul to some cool place at once, and let them cool all night before placing in storage. This is impossible where large quantities are grown, and in such cases good ventila- tion of the storage-place must be given to reduce th'; temperature as quickly as possible. Methods of Digging. — i. By Fork, Spade, cr Potato-Jwok. — The early potatoes are often dug by hand because they are so easily injured. The skin is ' Vt. Bui. io6, p. 233. 144 THE POTATO tender, the tubers adhere to the stem, and often require removal. It is a slow, tedious process, but nearly every potato is obtained. A man will dig one-eighth to three-eighths of an acre a day. With the main crop a man will dig from one-tenth to one-half acre a day at a cost generally varj-ing between two and six cents per bushel, sometimes running to eight and occasion- ally lower than two cents, depending a great deal on the skill of the man, the yield, the soil, and state of the land. As weather conditions may retard digging, and labor is hard to obtain, this method is being discon- tinued except on small patches. 2. Ploiv. — Plowing out with a common plow, or a potato plow, or so-called "digger," many of which are : Modified Shovel Plows. — All that I have tested have been failures. They dig some of the potatoes out and cover some up. On harrowing after them many more potatoes appear, and on digging the rows some may still be found. My experience has been that the pota- toes left in would more than pay for digging by hand. They may be useful for small growers on a light soil, and for those who, being short of labor, wish to save part of their crop. Six to ten hands and two horses will dig one and a half to two acres per day. In the Southern States early potatoes are plowed out, and ten cents per barrel is paid for picking them up. 3. Mechanical Diggers. — The high-priced horse- power diggers, as the " Reuther " (Fig. 43), the " Hoover" (Fig. 44), and the " Dowden," are all re- ported as satisfacflory machines. They work on the same principle. The shovel-point is forced under the HARVESTING 145 row of potatoes, and the row lifted and deposited on the elevator, which gradually shakes out the soil and leaves the potatoes in a row on the ground in the rear. These require two to four horses, according to con- ditions, and do better work on soils free from stones. The Standard Digger is different. A divided shovel FIG. 43 — THE KEl'THER POTATO DIGGER lifts the row onto a shaker, which separates the pota- toes and soil, leaving the latter on the surface behind. This digger works well when potatoes are ridged or planted shallow, but when deep it does not do so well.' One other form used successfully in Canada and Great Britain consists of a strong frame on two wheels and a small wheel in the front and rear. It carries a set of revolving forks working at right angles to the share, 1 Minn. Bui. 52, p. 439. I46 THE POTATO which pass underneath the row and raise it. The forks throw the potatoes and soil against a screen, which lets the soil through but deposits the potatoes KIC;. 44 — THE HOOVER DKIGER in a row. Several good diggers are made on this plan. Two or three horses are used. With a mechanical digger, four to six acres can be dug per day, and eight to sixteen hands are required to pick up. The cost of digging should not exceed two cents per bushel, and may be much less. Another ad- vantage of a digger is that if the land is clean it needs harrowing only to be in excellent shape foi seeding to wheat. CHAPTER XIII STORING Potatoes may be stored in the open in piles covered with straw and earth, in cellars or root-houses, accord- ing to the climatic conditions. Piles. — These are useful for temporary storage in the North. Dig a trench about 3 or 4 inches deep, 3 feet wide, and as long as desired; make the bottom per- FIG. 45 — POTATO SHOVEL fe<5lly level and firm, so that a potato shovel (Fig. 45) may be used on it when moving the potatoes. Throw the soil from the trench onto each side, making a bank about 15 inches wide with it. This will give a trough about 7 inches deep in which to empty the potatoes. Pile the potatoes neatly, so that the face of the pile at the center will be 3 feet or so high. When sufficient potatoes are stored, place about 3 inches thick of rye or wheat straw (oat straw being liable to heat and become mouldy) with the butts down and heads up on the sides and one end of the pile, leaving the other end for additional potatoes ( Fig. 46) . Then cover the straw 147 148 THE POTATO with soil, beginning at the bottom and piling it toward the apex; 2 or 3 inches thick will be sufficient near the top with the straw, and 6 or 7 inches at the base. Finish the surface off by patting it with the spade so FIG. 46 — STORING POTATOES IN I'lTS Useful in climates where the winter is not severe. that it will turn rain. Dig a channel all around the pile, using this soil for the covering. The bottom of this channel should be below the floor of the pile, and have an outlet to let off water, thus insuring a dry bot- tom for the pile. Leave the ridge of the pile open to permit the moisture to escape when the potatoes " sweat." If it is desired to hold the potatoes in these STORING 149 piles over winter, more soil or old hay must be put over them as the frost comes on. The mouth of the pile should be closed at night, and care should be taken to have no potatoes left on the ground at night. Rain or frost may come on and injure them, or retard the work. Sufficient covering must be put on the piles to prevent the rain and sun discoloring the potatoes. I have known a whole crop ruined by inattention to this point. The rain browns them, and the sun makes them green and unsalable. This method is not advisable in the Northern States unless one is sure that they will not want to sell or put up the potatoes until spring, as the pit cannot be opened during frost or in wet weather, and in spring moving potatoes on wet land is objectionable. Cellars. — If seed potatoes only are held, they may be kept in trays, bushel boxes, or barrels, storing these so that air can circulate under and round them, or they may be held in bins. Construction. — The location of the cellar should be dry and well drained. It should be built under- ground, of concrete, brick, or stone walls, with a plastered ceiling if a building is above it, to make a dead air-space between the plaster and the floor. Con- crete walls are readily made with clean gravel, sand, and cement, with boards to hold the material while set- tling. Use one part of Portland cement, three of sand, and six of gravel; mix the sand and cement, then add the gravel; wet and mix, and fill into the wall-space. To hold it in position while drying it is customary to use I -inch boards, nailed onto 2 x 4-inch studding, which may be placed i foot 6 inches on centers. To pre- 150 THE POTATO vent sagging, the studding of one side is braced to that on the other side by J^ x ^-inch iron strips, which are placed three feet apart each way, and nailed to the studding on each side. These are left in the wall, and the ends cut off when the boards are taken down. Apertures through which to shoot the potatoes should be left at intervals. One satisfadtory cellar of which I know has a driveway through the center and bins on each side. The bins are about 10 feet wide and are filled 4 to 6 feet deep. Divisions are put in as desired. Ventilation and Temperature are most impor- tant. The potatoes must be kept cool, about 33° F. being a favorable temperature. If possible, lead air through a deep underground drain-tile into the cellar; the length of the tile should be sufficient to warm the air a little in winter, and the outside end of it vShould be covered to prevent the entrance of vermin. A ventilator on the roof will remove warm air. Have a raised board floor in each bin and a ventilator running from it up through the tubers at intervals. Have double doors at the entrance and the shoots, and keep the place dark. Darken the windows if there are any. A small cellar can be made if desired, but make the roof high enough to work in — say, 8 feet. Purchase a reliable thermometer and hang it in the cellar, an oil- stove and radiator, and, if the temperature is going down too low, warm the place. It is folly to have potatoes freeze to save ten cents worth of kerosene. The advantages of a cellar are: 1 . You can see how the crop is keeping. 2. The conditions can be controlled. 3. The potatoes can be sold at any time. STORING 151 Losses in Storage. — Potatoes suffer loss in weight in keeping in addition to any loss due to disease or inse(5t attacks. At Cornell University, during the past winter, the variety Sir Walter Raleigh, stored in crates in a cool cellar, lost 12 per cent, in weight between the date November 6, 1903, and April 27, 1904, a period of 173 days, while the variety Carman No. 3 lost nearly 10 per cent. Neither variety had sprouted at all. This seems to show that in this distridl the latter is better for storage, and growers have noted this. Sir Walter Raleigh seems better adapted for selling from the field than for storage. No doubt other varieties vary in the same way, and the same variety will vary under differing conditions. At the Michigan Experiment Station a barrel of potatoes stored September, 1893, ^^^^ lost 5 per cent, in weight by March 28, and 11.5 per cent, by May i, 1894. ^6" search shows that these losses are influenced by tem- perature and the state of moisture of the air. The higher temperature increases the loss, while the higher moisture content diminishes it. I^ight seems to have little influence upon the loss of weight, but is injurious because it diminishes the selling value of the potato. The average percentage losses of twelve varieties of potatoes carefully stored in a cool cellar at a tempera- ture of 42° to 51° F. during seven months, as recorded by E. Wollny,' are: Odtober, 2.02 per cent.; Novem- ber, 1. 18; December, .50; January, .50; February, .81; March, .41; April, .50; the total loss aggregated, on an average, 6.17 per cent. In every case the losses were ' E. S. R., III., p. 493- 152 THE POTATO greatest diredlly after digging, and in February the losses were higher than the month before or after. The size of the tuber, or whether the variety was early or late, had no perceptible influence. The three early varieties lost from 4.87 to 8.48 per cent., the five medi- um-early varieties from 4.55 to 6.78 per cent., and the four late varieties 5.71 to 7.28 per cent. These losses are believed to be lower than those usually assumed and observed. The loss of weight of these tubers from May to Odlober was 21.57 P^r cent., considerably more than their loss from Odlober to May i . As soon as the sprouts begin to grow the loss is rapid. Nobbe found that about 75 per cent, of the loss of potatoes in storage is due to loss of water and 25 per cent, to respiration. As the potato is alive and breathes, its existence depends upon its using some of its stored-up energy. A ferment changes some of its starch into sugar, and this sugar is used to furnish energy. At low temperatures sugar formation contin- ues, but respiration and the use of the sugar diminishes, and at 30° F. to 28° F. (2° to 4° below freezing-point) respiration almost ceases; hence, frozen potatoes taste sweet because of the accumulation of sugar. E. Wollny believes that between 32° and 50° F. is the best range of temperature for holding potatoes. The adtual losses which may occur in storage as the result of disease cannot be definitely stated. CHAPTER XIV PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND MARKETS In the North the potato is a quasi-staple produdl. It can be kept a number of months in storage. In the South, except in cold storage, it cannot be kept long and is purely a garden-truck crop, hut its culture is extending. 2,836,196 farmers grew potatoes in 1899. I'he area was 2,938,952 acres, and the yield 273,328,207 bushels, valued at $98,387,614. The average value of the product per acre was $33.48, that of all crops was $10.04, while that of all vegetables was $42.09 per acre. The price per bushel varied between 22 cents in Iowa and Nebraska to $1.10 in Arizona, the average price being 36 cents. The average 3'ield ' per acre in the year 1879 was 96.7 bushels; in 1889, 83.6 bushels, and in 1899, 93 bushels per acre, although yields of 300 and 400 bushels are common, and over 800 bushels have been obtained. In 1900 six States grew 51 per cent, of the potatoes (Figs. 47, 48) — viz.. New York, Wisconsin, Michi- gan, Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Minnesota — while Ohio, Illinois, Maine, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, and California grew 25 per cent. more. The sandy pine belt region, skirting the lakes, has shown a phe- nomenal increase in potato producftion. In Maine, 1 Consult Twelfth Census Report 1902. 153 ® L. HI" ■; ; * » ••'i; w -^ 156 THE POTATO Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota the potato acre- age has increased faster than the population in the past ten years. New York comes in the same belt. The per capita production of potatoes in the United States is given as about 3.5 bushels.' About one-third of the total crop of the Southern States is shipped North as early potatoes, and some late potatoes are shipped back from the North. The consumption north of Mason and Dixon's line is about 4)^ bushels per head, exclusive of potatoes used for seed or starch-making. The South consumes a relatively small amount, being less than 1^2 bushels per capita. Knowing the approximate consumption and the area and condition of the crop (obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture reports, which are posted monthly), the farmer can form an idea of the outlook of the business. Thus, in 1903 there were 2,916,855 acres grown, and the jaeld as now known was 247, 127, 880 bushels. The table below will show the uses to which this crop was put. In 1904 as large an area would need to be planted (a larger one ought to be, because the population is in- creasing); hence, 10 bushels of seed are allowed per acre on: Bushels 2,925 000 acres 29,250,000 Plus 10 per cent, loss in storage . . . 2,925,000 Used for starch-making, etc. (largely small potatoes, etc.) 5,000,000 Available for human consumption . . . 209,952,880 247,127,880 ' Consult Twelfth Census Report, 1902. PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 1 57 The public can consume about three bushels of pota- toes per head per year, and as there were 79,000,000 people to be fed, it would require 237,000,000 bushels to furnish this quantity. The shortage of 27,000,000 bushels insured a fair price, 61.4 cents per bushel being the average farm value. The States having a surplus of potatoes are the Southern and Eastern Coast States (notably Maine, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida), their market being the cities of the East and interior. The Trans-Mississippi and Nortwestern States also have a surplus. The potato trade is a home trade. The yield is sel- dom more than is required for home consumption, and several times it has been less — as in 1902, w^hen over 8,000,000 bushels were imported. Factors Influencing Farm Prices. — Farm prices are the net value of farm produces to the producer upon delivery at the local market. Between the grower and the consumer profits must be made by the local buyer, the wholesaler, the retailer, and perhaps a broker or two, and the transportation companies. To yield a profit to the grower the price received from the con- sumer must exceed (i) the expenses of distribution, including transportation, (2) the cost of producftion. It may not. The market price is regulated by the law of supply and demand. In marketing live stock, cotton, grain, tobacco, and wool the main tendency is to eliminate the expensive middle man. This is easier accomplished with non- perishable products than with perishable ones. There are three reasons why the expensive middle man has 158 THE POTATO been retained in the marketing of perishable prod- ucts — 1. The extraordinary risks of depreciation. 2. Insufl&cient capitaHzation of the distribution end. 3. Absence of large-scale haudhng of the products. There is little consolidation in marketing potatoes. Generally speaking, selling on commission is antiqua- ted and should be abandoned, as it is the most demoral- izing feature of farming. The market is more stable when goods are bought and sold outright. An inter- esting feature is that rural districts are doing more of their own banking, so far as the financiering of the grain and some other crops is concerned, and the same will eventually be extended to potatoes. Cold storage improves prices, preventing .slumps and excessively high prices, both of which are injurious. High prices inevitably lead to reduced consumption. The absence of public markets where consumer and producer can meet is a noteworth}- feature of American cities and towns. Such markets have a salutar}- effect upon the distributor and middleman wherever they exist. The useless retailers are eliminated and the service of the survivor is improved, and both producer and public are benefited. One important cause of this lack of system is the poor roads. Hauling is high. It costs, on an average, 25 cents to haul a ton of produce a mile, and in man}' cases more. 90 per cent, of all the freight handled by the railroads is brought to them on wagons; most of it is farm produce. With team and man at $3.50 per day, the co.st of hauling this freight aggregates about as much as the cost of running the railroads PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 1 59 one year. It is useless to double the produdtion of the farm unless we increase the facilities for market- ing the produce, and to do this it is imperative that we have good highways. In Belgium loads of farm prod- uce are hauled 60 to 70 miles in competition with the railroad. Let ever}^ farmer join the good roads' move- ment; then he will be able to go to market with prod- uce on days when the land is too wet to work or when the price is high. How many miles will $1.25 haul a ton of potatoes or other farm produce on a road, a trolley road, a railroad, and on water? $1.25 will haul a ton 5 miles on a common earth road ; 1 2)4 to 15 miles on a well-made macadam road; 25 miles on a trolley road ; 250 miles on a steam rail- way; 1,000 miles on a steamship. The value of cheap steamship transportation is seen in the Eastern potato trade. The prices of potatoes are better sustained in the Central States than in the East- ern because, although the tariff of 25 cents per bushel is an ample safeguard for the producer, as soon as potatoes are 50 cents per bushel, wholesale imports from Europe and the West Indies are apt to prevent them from going much higher. The South Atlantic States, from Florida to Virginia, supply the early potato trade of the Eastern cities. The water transportation enables them to handle large quantities at low rates, and to compete with Northern potatoes (old) during at least three months, of the year. Modes of Selling-. — i. The Local Market. — This deserves attention, as higher prices are received in it by the producer than when shipped away. l6o THE POTATO 2. The Distant Market. — Many growers must ship. For such, combination is essential. The method adopted by the Eastern Shore potato farmers (Vir- ginia) is noteworthy. There are 2,500 shippers in the Exchange. They sell all their produce through seledt- ed receivers, appointed by the directors, in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The receivers charge 8 per cent, commission, of which 3 per cent, is given to the agent who solicits the business. This agent should be familiar with the market requirement and give in- structions in regard to methods of grading, assorting, and packing, and in this way render the produce more valuable. Combinations such as the following com- mend themselves : the use of the " registered label," which is similar to a " union label," and is placed on all packages, or a trade-mark similar to that used by the Farmers' Produce Association, of Delaware, which carries the number of the shipper, and enables the .sele(5led salesman to inform the grower at once if any- thing is wrong. FARMERS' PRODUCE ASSOCIATION OF DELAWARE (2?) The contents of this package are GUARANTEED to be as good all through as on top Commission Rates. — In Cleveland potatoes are sometimes sold on a commission basis of 4 and 5 cents per bushel, or 10 per cent, of the sale price. In St. PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS l6l Louis the wholesaler purchases and makes his profit by selling to large customers and hucksters at an ad- vance of lo cents per bushel over what they cost him in car lots. In Cincinnati the rate of commission is 3 cents per bushel. In Kansas City the brokerage for handling is 2 to 2^ cents per bushel. In Richmond, Virginia, and Atlanta, Georgia, if not sold by the grower, 10 per cent, is the commission. In Lincoln, Nebraska, when potatoes retail at 80 cents per bushel, the money is divided about as follows: Retailer's share, 20 cents; wholesaler's share, 10 cents; railroad freight, 18 cents; seller's commission, 7 cents; net price to producer, 25 cents ; 69 per cent, of the cost to the consumer goes to pa}' the transporters and distributors, and 31 per cent, to the grower. At Portland, Oregon, the com- mission is 5 per cent., and the burlap sacks in which the potatoes are handled cost about 5 cents each. The retailers sell at an advance of 10 to 30 cents per sack (100 pounds). At New York and Philadelphia 8 and 10 per cent, commission will find good sales- men. The producer usually receives, net, between 25 and 65 per cent, of the retail price of potatoes. Taking a number of market returns, they show that the producer's returns are about 63 per cent, of the price paid in the markets, and of this, in some cases, about half is paid to the railways for transportation if the goods are sent by rail, so that, then, roughly .speaking, the producer, transporter, and distributor divide the customer's money equally. The value of a local market, where the producer can sell direct to the consumer, is apparent. 1 62 THE POTATO Grading, — The proper grading of potatoes is essen- tial to success. Scabby, second-growth, ill-shapen, diseased, and undersized tubers must be removed from first-class grade. The grading may be done by having a .sand screen on trestles .set at such an angle that the potatoes roll down i ito baskets at the bottom, while the dirt falls through, and the seconds and refuse are thrown into baskets or boxes on the side. Let two men sort and one shovel, and have one emptying and bagging if the}- go into bags. A sack-holder is a con- venience in filling the bag. The small potatoes and dirt may be removed by a potato-sorter (Fig. 49), of which there are several types on the market. Packages. — Potatoes are sold by the pound, peck, bushel, barrel, cental, and car lot. The early potatoes are shipped in barrels holding 3 bushels (180 pouhds). A canvas cover is nailed on the head. Such barrels cost about 20 cents, including the cover. The late crop is sometimes shipped in bulk in car lots. In the East seed potatoes are shipped in double-headed bar- rels containing 165 pounds, net. Such barrels cost, new, about 30 to 33 cents. Flour-barrels are often purchased at about 15 cents each instead. The high price of new barrels leads some to ship seed potatoes in strong burlap sacks w^hich hold the same amount as a barrel. The sacks cost 15 to 20 cents less than the barrel. Boxes are used for .shipping small quan- tities. On the Pacific Coast burlap sacks holding a cental (100 pounds), and costing 5 cents each, are used. Barrels. — Before filling, drive the hoops firm on the bottom and nail with shingle nails; drive on the bulge I 64 THE POTATO hoops, and secure with 3 or 4 barrel nails; then pro- ceed to fill. The potatoes should be shaken down oc- casionally while filling, and the barrels filled full, and, if headed, the head should be put in where it belongs with a screw press, so that the potatoes cannot rattle. The head should be nailed firmly with shingle nails. If in bags, sack them up well, and tie tight ; or sew up, according to requirements. Bushel Boxes. — For marketing early potatoes in the local market bushel boxes or crates are often used. T. B. Terry uses a bushel box 13x16 inches and 13 inches deep, all inside measurement. The sides and bottoms are of ^-inch, and the ends are ^-inch, white wood. Hand-holes are cut in each end, and the upper corners are bound with galvanized hoop iron to strengthen them. They cost $25.00 to $30.00 per hundred at the factory, and weigh 6 to 7 pounds each. Each box has a lid, so that in change- able weather the potatoes can be picked up and cov- ered as fast as dug. This box holds five pecks. The legal bushel for grain is 2,150.4 cubic inches, and in measuring potatoes the rule is to heap the half-bushel , measure sufficiently to add one level peck to the two level half-bushels. Five level pecks are held in 2,688 cubic inches. These boxes hold 2,700 cubic inches when level full ; hence, they maj- be piled three or four high on a wagon. The recent introducflion of a crate in which the sides fold onto the bottom when not in use reduces the amount of storage room re- quired by about two-thirds. These crates cost the same as others, and appear to be equally strong. Advantages of a bushel box: : PRODUCTION, Transportation, markets 165 1 . Potatoes are put in the boxes and covered as soon as dug, thus preventing them from heating in the sun. 2. They are easily and quickly loaded on a wagon, saving time. 3. They are convenient packages in which to carry early potatoes to the home market. 4. The potatoes may be left at the store in the box and delivered in the box when sold, saving handling and bruising. 5. When drawing the main crop to the storage-cellar they are convenient to handle. 6. They may be used for storing seed potatoes, apples, etc. , and carrying seed potatoes to the field to be planted. CHAPTER XV CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE Composition. — Early attempts were made to deter- mine the food value of the potato by means of chemical analyses. In 1 795 Pearson reported ' ' Experiments and observations on the constituent parts of the potato root." Einhof publi.shed analyses of the potato in 1805, as did Vanquelin in 1817. Rather more than fifty years ago Emmons in this country reported anal- y.ses. Lawes and Gilbert devoted considerable time to the study of the composition of potatoes, and more re- cently various agricultural experiment stations, nota- bly the Connedticut State and the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Stations, the Division of Chemi.stry, U. S. D. A., and various European institutions have been investigating the problem. The approximate chemical composition of a number of varieties is : Water, 75 per cent.; protein, 2.50 per cent.; ether ex- tract, .08 per cent. ; starch, 19.87 percent. ; fibre, .33 per cent.; other non-nitrogenous materials, .77 per cent.; ash, I per cent. A more extended analysis is taken from the "\''ermont Experiment Station, report 1901: TABLE XII ., i^ 5 Dextrin and Soluble Starr h Is ^1 s 5^ Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. 79-41 20.59 i4-5t 1-35 0.09 0.36 2.2S 0.06 1.26 0.68 166 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MARKET VALUE 1 67 The percentage of water usually ranges between 70 and 80 per cent., the extremes being 65 and 85 per cent. Potatoes contain more dry matter than any root crop. Per cent. White turnips 7 to 9 Rutabagas 9 to 14 Mangel-wurzels 9 to 16 Sugar-beets 12 to 24 Carrots 10 to 17 Parsnips 10 to 18 Potatoes 20 to 30 About 85 per cent, of the matter is present in the solid portion, or marc, and 15 per cent, in the juice. It has been believed by many that the specific gravity of the tubers varied with the percentage of dry matter, and on this basis tables for ascertaining the dry matter present in the tubers from the specific gravity have been worked out and used considerably. From these data the starch content was determined. Woods,' of Maine, and Watson," of Virginia, found that the ratio existing between the specific gravity and the starch content is not fixed. Starch is the most important constituent of the dry matter of potatoes; it generally constitutes 15 to 20 per cent, of the fresh tubers, but may be as low as 10 or as high as 25 per cent. Maine-grown potatoes are usually lower in their starch content than European- grown potatoes. The starch content varies wath the variety and the locality. Northern-grown samples of the same variety usually contain more starch than Southern-grown samples.^ 1 Me. Bui. 57, p. 150. « Va. Bui. 55, p. 102; Bui. 56, p. 144. 3 Va. Bui. 56, p. 144. 1 68 THE POTATO TABLE XIII DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES Animal Potatoes, with eggs, milk and cream Potatoes, raw ' , Potatoes, cooked Potatoes dried '■' and ground Man Pigs Pigs Sheep Per cent. s V S y IS .8 4 < o; Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. 90.6 71.9 93 84-5 82.0 98.1 82.0 80.0 97.6 81.5 i9-5 92.0 44.6 40.0 The above data show that potatoes are almost wholly digestible. Feeding Value. — When abundant and low^ in price, potatoes may be fed to all classes of stock. In France, Girard fed 55 to 66 pounds of cooked potatoes per day to fattening steers and 4;!^ to 6)^ pounds to sheep. Yon Funke^ found uncooked potatoes were good for all stock except pigs. He fed 60 pounds of raw potatoes, 6 pounds of linseed meal, and 9 pounds of clover hay, with .salt, per i ,000 pounds, live weight, per day to fat- tening steers. For milch cows, 25 pounds daily per 1 ,000 pounds, live weight, is the limit. For yearlings, ewes, and wether sheep, 25 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight, per day is advised, and fattening sheep, 40 pounds. For horses, about 12 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight, may be given with other food. Stock should not be watered soon after feeding pota- toes, but preferably about half an hour before feeding. Potatoes* are not a valuable food for young animals, 1 Snyder, Minn. Bui. 42, pp. 89, 90. a E. S. R., v., p. 812. •^ Kellner, et al. E. S. R., XIV., p. 595. * Minn. Bui. 42, p. 95. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VAI^UE 1 69 as they are deficient in protein and ash — hence, should not be fed to growing cattle under two years old, lambs, or young pigs, unless in very small amounts, with other food to balance the ration. At Wisconsin Kxperiment Station,' hogs ate cooked potatoes better than uncooked, and 445 pounds of cooked potatoes were equal to 100 pounds of corn-meal in feeding value. One pound of dry matter of corn is superior to one pound of dry matter of potatoes for making gains with pigs. Cooking. — In cooking potatoes a considerable portion of the albumen may be lost. Peeled potatoes started in cold water lost 80 per cent, of albumen, while those started in hot water lost but 10 per cent, lycss is lost if the potatoes are not peeled. Salt should be added to potatoes, because the mineral matter they con- tain is deficient in sodium salts, which are requisite for the human system, and because salt increases the pala- tability. Varieties vary in the time they require to cook, and even soil and climatic conditions have an influence. In a floury, mealy potato the starch grains have swollen and burst, and ruptured the cell-walls surrounding them, while in a soggy potato this has not taken place. Potatoes showing second growth will not cook uniformly; the last-grown portion will cook first. When second growth' takes place the starch passes from the older portion to the new; hence, when cooked, the older portion appears to be hard and dark, while the newer portion is white and floury, the difference being due to the presence or absence of starch. 1 wis. Seventh Annual Report, 1S90, and Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," p. 212. lyo TH« POTATO Uses. — Potatoes are used as human food, stock food, for the manufadlure of starch,' syrup, alcohol, dextrin, etc. Potatoes niaj' be preserv^ed as ensilage^ for stock feeding, while the pomace' resulting from starch manu- fa<5ture and potato feed ' have received attention for the same purpose. Potatoes may be dessicated, and in this form can be easily preser\^ed in the tropics and ar(ftic regions, and thus furnish an excellent article of diet in a convenient form for transportation. The in- dustry is small at present, but can be readily extended. 1 U.S. D. A. Div. of Chemistry, Bui. 58. 2 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 79, p. 21. => Me. Sta Report, 1S96, p. 28. Bui. 65, p. 115. * Vt. Bui. 82, p. 72. CHAPTER XVI BREEDING AND SELECTION-PROPAGATION AND BREEDING Potatoes are propagated from seed, cuttings, lay- ers of green shoots, sprouts from the 63-68 of tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. About the beginning of the eighteenth century Shirreif , of England, wrote that " the potato is to be considered a short-lived plant," and that " the onlj- way to obtain vigorous plants and to insure produdlive crops is to have frequent recourse to new varieties raised from seed." Dr. Hunter and T. A. Knight held the same views. T. A. Knight stated that late planting tended to re- invigorate a degenerating variety.' The value of rais- ing new varieties from seed is recognized to-day, and for their production some modern breeders selecft as parents two varieties, which in most qualities bear close resemblance to each other, avoiding the use of oppo- sites, the claim being that it is easier to fix the type. Others, including Burbank and Garton, make crosses between widely divergent tj'pes, although it takes longer to fix the ones they selecft and there is a lower percentage worth)' of a trial. There is, however, more chance of obtaining something above the average. Wide crosses act upon the chara(5lers in the plant in a manner similar to a vigorous push on the pendulum of a clock — it goes higher on each side: plants of higher 1 Miller's "Gardeners' Dictionarj'," ed. 1807, "Potatoes." and Don's " Gardeners' Dictionary," 1S31-3S, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 171 172 THE POTATO value and plants of lower value than either parent are secured. A plant of high value is secured and grown for a period of j-ears in order to fix it. Those who have regarded the valuable characfters which led to the selection of the individual as fixtures from the beginning claim that this period of fixing is solely for the pur- pose of elimination of the undesirable characflers, and that it ought to be termed ' ' the elimination period ' ' rather than ' ' the fixing period. ' ' The interrelationship of different qualities is not well known, but it has been noted that a variet}' having a few thick stalks yields large tubers, but few in number, while a number of weak stalks is often found with a number of small tubers. Early ripening and resistance to blight or rot {P/iytopht/iora infestans) are not generally found to- gether. It is claimed that a large produ(5lion of seed- balls goes hand in hand with a small produdlion of tubers. T. A. Knight claimed that varieties which did not bloom readily could be induced to do so by removal of the soil from round the tuber-bearing stems, the ex- planation offered being that the plant's failure in tuber produdlion would stimulate the production of seed.' In pollenizing varieties artificially the stamens should be removed from the female parent with fine pin- cers just as the bloom opens, or before, and the flower enclosed in a paper or gauze bag. The proper time to apply the pollen is known by the moist appearance of the stigma. The pollen from the desired variety should be dusted on the stigma on two or three successive days. The bag may be removed when the stigma dies 1 Philosophical Transactions, 1806. BREEDING AND SELECTION 173 and the bloom withers. The fruit, or seed-ball, may contain from 100 to 300 seeds. These are washed from the ripe seed-balls, dried, and at the proper season sown under glass, or in a hot-bed, or out-of-doors in FIG. 50 — POTATO FLOWER, WITH CALYX AND COROLLA REMOVED On the left are shown the anthers closed round the pistil. On the right the anthers are expanded, pistil not shown The inner surfaces of the anthers show the line where rupture occurs when the pollen is liberated. Gener- ally this occurs only near the upper portion of the anther. flats. The seeds germinate rapidly. Later they are transplanted to a well-prepared piece of land outside. The distance apart varies with different growers — from 12x12 to 26x26 inches, and sometimes more. The up- right stem bears leaves and the axils of the first leaves bear shoots, which turn downward into the ground and bear tubers. The old idea that the first year's 174 THE POTATO crop consist of small tubers, the next larger, and so on, does not always hold, as a tuber weighing over seven ounces has been produced the first year. The Burbank potato was full size the first year it w^as grown from seed, and many breeders feel that unless the tubers are of edible size the first year they are not likely to be worth fur- ther care. Frequently the tubers do not reach full size imtil the second year.' The tubers from each plant must be kept separate, the best seledled , , , . ^, KIG. 51 riSTIL OK I'OTATO and planted again. The ,..^^^^,^^^ showing tmk parts distance apart vanes be- a_stigma, where poUen is applied, tween 26 X 12 and 40 X * — style, down which the pollen tube 40 inches. Wider plant- ing permits the study of the individual. The third, fourth, and fifth year field culture is given, and a variety may be found worthy of a name and further trial before distribution. The breeder's aim is to produce varieties which excel in produdlivity, power to resist diseases, earliness, quality, percentage goes to the ovary, c. where it fertilizes tlie ovule, which become the seeds (see Fig. 3<. d — Attachment of stamens, removed to prevent self-fertilization. ^—Petals, partly torn away to expose ovary. _/— Sectional view of calyx. Minn. Bui. Sy, p. lo. BREEDING AND SEL,ECTlON 1 75 of starch, and have other desirable chara(5leristics — as, suitable shape, color, depth of eyes, etc. Selection. — Hybridizing is of small value unless attended by careful seledlion and vigorous elimination of the poorer types. All potatoes tend to vary in cul- tivation, either to improve or degenerate. This varia- tion is more marked in some plants than in others; hence, once a variety is established, the yield may be materially increased and the rapid deterioration of the variety prevented by selection of the best plants. Seledlion must be made in the field, not from the bin. The whole plant must be considered, not a single tuber. Goff' showed that by perpetuating the most produdlive and least producflive plants of Snowflake potatoes the total yield of the most produdlive one for two years was 322 ounces, while that of the least pro- dudlive was but 100 ounces, and, summarizing fourteen years' trials, the most produdlive plants yielded 180 per cent, more than the least produdlive. Bolley, at North Dakota, found that "equal weight pieces from small or large tubers of the same vine are of equal value, provided all are normally mature, ' ' ^ confir- matory evidence that the whole plant is the unit of seledlion. Growers may at least maintain the produdlivity of their stocks of potatoes by careful seledlion of the best plants when digging, careful storage of these tubers, and then using all of them for seed. These might be planted by themselves on a piece of good land, and se- 1 (N. Y.) Geneva Report, 1887, p. 85. Wis. Report, 1S99, p. 306. 2 N. D. Bui. 30, p. 243. 176 THE POTATO ledtions made from them at the following harvest, the best plants being again retained for the nursery plat and the balance used as seed. A. Girard,' one of the foremost potato growers of France, selecfls his potatoes every year from those hills whose foliage is especially luxuriant. He uses the variety Richter's Imperator, and prepares the soil to a depth of 12 to 16 inches, giving a liberal applica- tion of barn-yard manure and fertilizers, acid phos- phate, sulphate of potash, and nitrate of soda. He seledls, for planting, tubers weighing from 3^ to 4 ounces. When he cannot get such, he recommends that tubers of 7 ounces in weight be cut in two, and tubers of io}4 ounces into three pieces — always cutting in the diredlion of the greatest length. He insists on the rejection of all potatoes weighing more than 1 1 ounces. If the potatoes available for planting weigh less than 3^ ounces he places in each hill several smaller tubers, enough to bring the total weight to about 4 ounces. He lays great stress on the distance between the plants; the rows are 24 inches apart and the tubers are planted 19 inches in the rows, these dis- tances having been determined to be best by careful experiment. He advises early planting, as soon as danger from frost is past. The crop should be well worked and all potatoes kept covered, and the tops well sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, and the crop not dug until all of the tops have withered. Farmers in the co-operative experiments under his diredtion report yields of 400 to 700 bushels per acre as common, and > E. S. R., v., p. 117. BREEDING AND SELECTION 1 77 even up to 1,353 bushels per acre with a starch content of 20 to 25 per cent. One farmer secured almost 10,000 pounds of starch per acre, probably one of the largest yields of carbohydrates ever obtained from an acre of land. APPENDIX Spray Calendar Disease Spray First Second Third Fourth Insect Mix lure Spraying- Spraying Spraying Spraying RKMARKS Early Bor- When 7 to 14 7 to 14 7 to 14 Blight deaux plants da^'s days days mixture are 4 to later later later 6 in. tall I,ate Bor- As for Up to 7 spray- Blight deaux early do do do. ings are some- mixture blight times given Rosette Treat the seed Flea- Bor- When Repeat As for A deterrent beetle deaux mixture beetles appear if neces- sary I and 2 only Colorado Paris When Repeat As for I pound Paris Potato- green or beetles if neces- I and 2 green per acre beetle other appear sary in 100 gallons or arsenites or more of Bor- "Bugs" in Bor- deaux mixture. and deaux Arsenate of Blister- mixture lead, 3 pounds beetles to 50 gallons. or old- Arseni t e of fashion- lead, 3 pounds ed Potato to 50 gallons. bug Green arsen- oid I pound per 100 gallons. Grass- Paris When Repeat As for C 1 0- hopper green or other arsenites in Bor- deaux mixture they appear it neces- sary rado beetle 179 l8o THE POTATO Seed Treatment Disease Treatment Scab . Soak uncut seed in formalin, i pound to 30 gallons of water, for two hours; then dry and plant on scab-free soil. Rosette {Jikizoctonia) . As for scab. Dry Rot Diseased tubers to be destroyed; those in contact with them to be treated as for scab and sprayed as for blight. Wet Rot (due to Blight or Bacteria) .... Have seed potatoes in such storage that they can be examined, and these tubers sorted out and de- stroyed. Do not plant affected tubers. Soaking them in forma- lin, as for scab, is advisable in some cases, depending on the cause. Stem Rot or Dry End Rot {Fusariutn oxyspo- rutn) It attacks the stem-end first; hence, cutting off this end of suspected tubers will reveal the disease. Discard diseased tubers. INDEX PAGE Acid Phosphate 43,47,119 Acme Harrow 23 Ammonium Salts as Fertilizers 31 32, 43, 47, 119 Area in Potatoes in 1899 . . 153, 156 in 1903 156 Arizona Potato 1 Arsenate of Lead 135, 137 Arsenical Poisoning .... 1'23, 127 Arsenious Oxide 136 Arsenite of Lead .... 135. 137. 138 Lime 135, 138 Soda 135 Available Phosphoric Acid . . 43 Bacteria, Useful 40, 41 Bacterial Diseases 122 Bags 161, 162 Barium Arsenite 138 Barn Manure . . . 36,37,44,46,119 Amounts used 36, 37 Barrels 162, 164 Filling 162 Size of 162 Bermuda Potato 4, 5 Blacli Death 135 Blight, Early, or Leaf Spot Dis- ease 118, 178 Late, or Rot . 113, 113-117, 121, 178 BUster Beetles 127, 178 Blooms 4. 5 Encouraging 172 Blossoming 16, 172 Bordeaux Dust, or Dry Bor- deaux 130 Bordeaux Mixture . 115, 116, 118, 12:3 124, 138, 131 Benefits from Use of . 115, 118, 124 131, 132 for Flea-beetles 12:3. 124 Mixing 129 Strength of Solution 130 Testing 1.30 Botany 1-7 Boxes 163 Bushel 164, 165 Breeding 171 Buckwheat 29 as a Cover Crop 29 in a Rotation 29 Bug Death 135 PAQE Bugs, or Potato Beetle ... 124, 125 Bundle Blackening, or Dry End Rot 122, 179 Bushel, Weight of a 162 Calcium, Influence of . . . . 35, 36 Calco Green 138 Carbon Bisulphide 126 Castor Pomace 32 Cellars, Construction of ... . 149 for Storing 149, 150 Temperature of 150, 152 Ventilation of 150 Chloride, Calcium, injurious . . 34 Chlorides, Injurious to Growth, 34,43 Varieties with Heavy Foliage Readily Injured by 34 Climate, Influence of . .8, 66, 111 Clover, Value for Plowing Un- der 27, 28 Red 27 Crimson 27, 28 Sweet 28 Clover, Influence on Yield ... 27 Cold Storage 153, 158 Color of Skin 76 Colorado Beetle 124, 125 Commission Rates 160, 161 Composition, Chemical 132, 166, 167 Intluenced by Spraying. ... 132 Consumption of Potatoes . 156, 157 Cooking 169. 170 Quality 70, 72-74 Co-operative Methods of Mar- keting 160 Copper Arsenite 138 Sulphate 128, 129 Cottonseed-meal 32, 48 Cost of Selling 161 Cover Crops 28, 29 Cow-peas, Value for Plowing Under 27, 28 Crepidodera cucumeris, or Flea- beetle 123 Crop Producing Power of Soil Reduced 18 Cultivation 105-109 Method of 107 Tools Used In 107 Cultivations, Number of . . 105, 106 181 I82 INDEX PAGE Culture, Level 107 Systems of ii'G Cutworms V27 Darwin's Potato 1 Date of Planting 96 Depth of Planting 93-96 Influence on Quality 96 Influence on Tuber Forma- tion 94. 95 Dessicated Potatoes 170 Digrestibility of Potatoes .... 16.S Diggers, Mechanical .... 14-1-146 Digging the Crop 117, 143 Methods 143, 144 Di.sease Resistance Required in a Variety 71 Relation of Temperature to . 9 Disease-resisting Varieties . 75, 116 Disk Harrow 23, 24 Disparene 135, 137 Distance Apart 91-93 Doryphoru decemUnvnta, or Po- tato Beetle 124. 125 junctn, or Southern Potato Beetle 124 Drainage 17, 116 Dried Blood 31 Drills 106 Dry End Rot 122 Dry Rot 122 Early Blight 118, 179 Planting 97 Ensilage, Potato '70 Epicdiita vitatta 127 Epiirix subcrhiata, or Flea- beetle 124 Eyes 6 Depth and Frequency of . . 71, 79 Relation of Number of Stalks Produced to 62, 63 Farm Prices 157, 161 Feed, Potato 170 Feeding Potatoes to Stock . 168, 169 Value 168, 169 Fertilizers 30,31, 37-40 Amounts Used 30, 37, 38 Applying 48 Compounding 46 Cost of 45 For Early Potatoes .... 35, 39 Function of 39-41 Inoportant Ingredients in . 42, 43 Influence of Period of Growth Upon the Necessary .... 31 Mixing 46, 47 Poor Mixtures of 47, 48 Profit from Use of 37, 38 PAOE Fertilizers. Purchasing . 42, 43, 44, 45 Value of Home Mixing of . . 46 Valuable . .37, 38, 40, 176, 177 Valuing 39,40,43-46 Fixing New Varieties ..... 172 Flavor 60, 74 Flea-beetle 83,114,118,123 Punctures Injurious . . 82, 114, 118 Flowers 3, 5 Formalin 69. 118, 119, 128 Too Strong a Solution Injuri- ous 69 Fungicides 128 Eiisarinm oxysporum . . . 122, 179 (lelechin Operrulclla Zell., Po- tato Worm 125, 126 Good Roads, Value of . . . 158, 159 Grading Potatoes 162 Grasshoppers 126 Green Arsenite 135 Green Arsenoid 135, 138 Growth, Conditions Influtnc- ing 8, 16, 30 Effect of Chlorides on ... . 34 Influence of Dry Weather on . 9 Manuring 30 Influence of Respiration on . 9 Influence of Time of, on Fer- tilizing 31 Obstructions to Ill, 127 Period of 14, 31 Habitat of Potato 1 Hammond's Slug Shot 135 Harrow, Acme 23 Disk 24 Spike-tooth 107 Spring-tooth 23, 34 Harrows, Action of, on the Soil 24 Harvesting 143 Methods of 143 Hauling Farm Produce . . 158. 159 Cost of 1.58. 159 Haulm 34,71,80,81 Hellebore 135 Hilling 14, 16 Time of 16 Hills 106 Humus, A Food for Bacteria . . 41 Effects on Physical Proper- ties of the Soil 23 In Soils 21,41,42 Influence of Tillage on ... . 105 Influence on Depth of Plowing 21 Influence on Soil Moisture . . 23 Hybridizing 171-173 Imports of Potatoes 157 INDEX 183 PAGE Insecticides 135, 136 Insuluble Phosphate of Lime . 43 Introduction into Virginia ... 2 into Europe 3, 7 Irrigation, Amount of Water Used in 48, 49 Dangers of 49 Value of 48, 49 June Bug 136 Kainit 43,48,119 Kno-bug 1.3.5 Lachnosterna 126 Late Planting 97 Laurel Green 13.5, 138 Leaf 71,81,83,114,131,133 of Rust-resistant Varieties of Wheat 83 Spot Disease, or Early Blight 118, 178 Value of a Tough, Hard . . 81,83 Level Culture 106, 107 Objections to 106 Light, Influence on Yield ... 8 Lime 35,36,41,119,138 Uses 41, 128 Liming 31. .32 London Purple 135 Loss of Potatoes in Storage 151, 1.52 Macrosporium solani. or Early Blight 118, 178 Manure 30, 36, 37, 44 Amounts Applied 36, .37 Influence of 30 Value 44-46 Manuring. Reasons for ^0 Marketing, Cost of 160,161 Markets 1.57, 158 Distant 1.57, 160 Local 1,59, 161 Maturity, Time of 71,79,80 Melimnplus sp 126 Mexican Potato 1 Moisture, Conservation of Soil, 22, 23 Influence of 8, 9 Mulch, Soil 106, 109 Mulching 110 Nitrate of Soda . . . 31, 32, 42. 47, 48 Effect on Buds 69 Nitrates 42 Nitrogen 30, 31,42 Effect of Excess 31 Influence of 31 Occurrence in Fertilizers . . 42 PAGE Nitrogen of Barn Manure ... 86 Requirement while Young . . 31 Sources of 31, 42 Nozzles 141,142 Organic Nitrogen of Fertilizers 42 Oospora scabies (Thax.;, Scab, 119, 121 Packages 161 Paragrene 1:3.5, 1.38 Paris Green . . 124, 125, 137, 135. 136 Amount to use 125, 127 for Flea-beetles 124 for Potato Beetles 135 Peas in Rotation !>7 Phosphatic Fertilizers . 35, 43, 43, 47 Effect on Maturity 35 Phosphoric Acid, Influence of . 35 Phytophthora infestans. Blight or Rot 112-117, 121 Pits 147-149 Pimply Potatoes 124 Pink Arsenoid 135, 137 Planters 100-104 Hand 100, 101 Horse loi- 104 Planting, Date of 96, 97 Depth of 14, 93-96 Distance Apart 91-93 Early and Late 97 Hand 59. 97-100 Influence of Depth on Depth at which Tubers Form . . 94-96 Influence of Depth of, on Quality % Methods of 59, 97-100 Plow, Potato or Shovel 144 Plowing 21-23 Conditions Governing . . . 21,22 Deep 21,42 Depth of 21,22 Fall . 21 Plowing, Spring 22 Pollen 3, 173 Pollenizing ' 172 Pomace, Potato 170 Potash, Amounts Applied . . 35, 38 Influence of 31 , 3:3 on Leaves .32 on Quality 33, 34 on Roots .33, 33 on Starch Formation . . .33, 34 on Tubers . . 32, 33 Muriate of ... . :33, .34, 38, 43, 119 Amounts Used 38 Sources of 33 Sulphate of ... . 33, 34, 43, 119 Potassic Fertilizers 43 Potassium Ferro-Cyanide ... 130 Potato Beetle 124, ]25 Bug, Old Fashioned . . . 137, 178 184 INDEX PAGE Potato, seed 5, 6, ir3 Stalk Weevil 126 Worm 125, 126 Preparation of Land 21-23 Pressure Required for Spraying. 140 Prices, Average 153 Farm 157 in Eastern and Central States . 159 Production 153-157 Propagation 171 Pumps 140 Quality, Cooking 70 Influence of Depth of Tubers ou 96 Quick Death 136 Rainfall, Amount Sufficient . 48, 49 Rape as a Cover Crop 29 Respiration 9, 10, 152 Influence of Temperatore on 9, 10 Rhizoctoniasolani 118, 179 Roads 158 Roots C, 10, 55 Cho.racterof 11,14,15 Depth of 11,14, 15 Effects of Tillage on 14 Rosette Disease 118, 179 Rot, or LateBlight . 112, 113-117, 121 Rotation . 26-29, 110, 118, 119, 121, 127 Factors in 26, 27, 50 Five-course 26 Four-course 26 Leguminous Crops in a . . 27, 28 Maine 26 Ohio 27 Three-course 36 Rust-resistant Varieties of Wheat 82 Rye 27-29, 120 Sack-holder 162 Sacks, Costof 161,162 Scab 119, 121 Scheeles Green 135 Season, Influence of 66, 111 Second Growth 12, 85 Seed 5, 6, 173 Amount per Acre 63, 64 Bud. Stem Ends, and Middles. 66 Cost of 64 Cutting 60 Effect of Insufficient Amount. 104 Importance of a Good Strain of 51,53 Proper Storage of .... 52, 53 Selection 52, 74, 175 Influence of Altitude .... 52 Management Previous to Planting 53 PAGE Seed, Methods of Storing . . 53, 54 Northern and Southern ... 51 Relation of Number of Stalks to the Eyes on 62, 63 Relation of Weight to Viabil- ity of 67 Single Eyes 62,64 Size of 61-65, 67, 175 Source of 51 Sprouting 53-60 Time to Cut 61 Treatment for Diseases . . . 179 Uses of Second Crop for . 52, 53 Viability of 66, 69 Whole and Cut 60-63, 65 Seed-balls 1,5, 173 Selection 52, 175 Shape of Tuber 5,71,76 Shovel, Potato 147 Sizeof Tubers, Variation in . . 75 Skin 5, 71,78, 120 Color of 76 Cracked 84 Desirable 78 Soil Moisture, Conservation of 22 23 Soils 17-25,153 Changes in 41 Chemical Composition and Crop Producing Power of . 30 Composition of New York . 39 Diminished Crop Producing Power of 18 Ingredients Removed by Pota- toes from 39, 40 Preparation of 21-23 Relationship of Varieties to 19, 87 Sandy Loam 17 Solanum commersoni 1 Solannm jamesii 1 maglia 1 tuberosum ... 1,3 var. Boreale 1 Soluble Phosphate of Lime . . 43 Sorters, Mechanical 162 Specific Gravity of Tubers . . 167 Spray Calendar 178 Spraying Attachments . . 140, 141 Cost of 139 Effect on Yield . . . . 132, 134 Hose 141 Spraying, Machines 140 Nozzles 141, 143 Pressure Required for .... 140 Profits from 139 Pump 140 Tanks 141 Time of 134 Sprayings, Number of . . . 134, 135 Sprays and Spraying . . . 128-142 Spring-tooth Harrow .... 23, 24 Starch .31, 72,73, 78, 132, 167, 170, 177 Content and Speciflc Gravity . 167 INDEX 185 PAGE Starch, Distribution in the Tuber „ , "2, 73, rs Production 31, 132, 177 Stem Rot 122, I79 Storage 52, 143-152 in Cellars 149, 150 'n Pits 147-149 Losses in 143, 151, 152 Temperature for . . ."3. 151, 152 Striped Blister Beetle 127 Subsoiling 20 21 Sulphur '120 Sun Scald .111 Sweet Clover as a Green Manure, 28 Tanks 141 Tile Drainage 17 Tillage 14, 42, 105, 10(5, 109 Deep 14 Objects of ' 106 Shallow 14, 195, 109 Value of 42 Tip Burn . m, 112 Tobacco Leaf Miner .... 125,' 126 Tools for Cultivation .... 107-109 Surface-fitting 23 Tomato Worm 127 Transportation, Cost of . . 159 by Rail 159 by Road l.-,8, 159 by Water 159 Trays 54, 60 Trichobaris trinotata 126 Tuber Formation . 6, 16. .54. .55, 94 ^ , 95.' 172 Depth of 54, ,55, 94. 95 Retarding of 172 Stimulation of ... . .54 55 Tubers, Hollow '74 Number Formed by a Plant '. 74 Rate of Growth of I6 Size of Seedling 173. 174 Type, Varieties Not True to . 72, 85 Unit Value of Fertilizers .... 44 Uses of Potatoes ^70 Value per Acre 153 Varieties . . 19, 51. 72, 75, 76, a3-90 u A- X. 171-174 Breedmg New 171-174 Disease-resisting 76 PAGE Varieties. Duplication and Re- naming of 85, 86 Fixing New 170 Importance of New '. 171 Improvement in g4 Influence of Soil and Condi- tions on 19, 87 Influence of, on Yield . . . . ' 75 Life of Modern 83 Life of Older 83 84 List of 88^90 Most Popular 87-90 Staying Power of ... . 83 Testing §6 True to Name 85 True to Type 72 Variety. Selecting a 70-90 Variation in the 52-54 Viability of Tubers . . . . 66-69 Vigor of the Plant . . 7l, 82-85, 118 Indications of Deficiency in . 84, 85 Washing Soda and Copper Sul- phate Mi.xture 131 Water, Available 43 Requirement 33. 48-50 Efl'ect of Fertilizers on 33 Per Pound of Dry Matter . 50 Weeder 193 Weeds, Injurious 105 Wet Rot 121 122 Whale Oil Soap 136 AVheat, Depth at which Roots Form 15 Varieties Resistant to Rust . 82 White Arsenoid .... 1.33 Wild Potato ; ; 1 Wireworms ' 127 Wood Ashes 43,119 Yield . . 7, 14, 26-28, 70, 74, 75, 84, 87 132, 134, 1.53 Average 74, 153 Eflfects of Sprouting Upon . . 58 Influence of a Crop of Clover on 27,28 Influence of Light Upon ... 8 Influence of Soil on . . . 19, 20, 87 Influence of Spraying on , 1.32, 134 Influence of the Variety Upon 19, 20, 75, 87 Maximum 74 f»0f£Jt7T LIBRARY ti. C State CoUeffe STANDARD BOOKS ..PUBLISHED BY.. 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It is an indispensable book for farmers, fruit grow- ers, nurserymen, gardeners, florists, millers, grain dealeis, transpor- tation companies, college and experiment station workers, etc. Illus- trated. 313 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.00. Alfalfa By F. D. COBURN. Its growth, uses, and feeding value. The fa<5l that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil ; that without reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four, and sometimes five cuttings annually for Hve, ten, or perhaps 100 years ; and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable infor- mation upon its production and uses of unusual interest. Such in- formation is given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. 50 cents. Coburn's Swine Husbandry By F. D. CoBURN. New, revised, and enlarged edition. The breed- ing, rearing, and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest and freshest compen- dium relating to swine breeding yet offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. I1.50. The Cereals in America By Thom.\s F. Hunt, JM.S D. Agr., Professor of Agronomy in Col- lege of Agriculture, Cornell University. This is primarily a text-book on Agronomy, but is equally as useful to the farmer as to the teacher or student. It is written by an author than whom no one is better qualified The subject-matter includes an accurate, comprehensive, and succintft treatise of wheat, maize, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum (Kafir-corn), and buckwheat, as related particularly to American con- ditions. The author has made a comprehensive study of the topics treated, drawing freely from the publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, American Experiment Stations, and rec- ognized journals related to agriculture. First-hand knowledge, however, has been the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is presented in the light of individual study of the plant. Illustrated with 100 entirely new and original drawings by C. W. Furlong and A. K. Dawson. "450 pages. 5^4x8 inches. Cloth. ^1.75. Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing By F. A W.AfGH. A pracflical guide to the picking, storing, shipping, and marketing of fruit. The principal subje<5ts covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and packing, the fruit storage, evapo- rating, canning, statistics of the fruit trade, fruit package laws, com- mission dealers and dealing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can afford to be without this most valuable book. Illus- trated 232 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.00. The American Sugar Industry By Herbert Mvrick. A pracftical manual on the production of Sugar Beets and Sugar Cane, and on the nianufa<5ture of Sugar there- from. A handbook for the farmer, manufacturer, statesman, or stu- dent. This book is the only complete, up-to-date epitome of this new and promising industry. It covers just the points that every one in- terested wants to know about. It illustrates and describes the newest model sugar mills. It gives the results of the latest experience in promoting and operating sugar factories. It shows just how to estab- lish the industry in any given locality. Illustrated. 10x7 inches. 240 pages. Cloth. I1.50. Farmer's Cyclopedia of Ag(riculture A Compendium of Agricultural Scie?tce a?id PraSlice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals 'By EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph.D. and CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M.S. Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Depariment of Agriculture THIS is a new, practical, and complete pres- entation of the whole subject of agricul- ture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the use of agriculturists who de- sire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detzuled directions for the culture of every important field, orcheo-d, and gz^-den crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an ac- count of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm stock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies sug- gested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical, and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 suberb half-tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agricul- ture ever attempted. Handjomely bound in cloth. ^3. SO; half morocco {•Very jumpiuouj^. ^4.50, postpaid RDAUPr Minn OnUDAUV 52 Lafayette Place. New York, N. Y. UnDflUt uUUU UUillrAnT, Marquette Building, Chicago, in. SENT FREE ON APPLICATION Descriptive Catalog qf Rural Books CONTAINING }00 Svo PAGES, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED, AND GIVING FULL DE- SCRIPTIONS OF THE BEST WORKS ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS : ■• ■■ ■• ■• Farm and Garden Fruits, Flowers, etc. Cattle, Sheep and Swine Dogs, Horses, Riding, etc. Poultry, Pigeons and Bees Angling and Fishing Boating, Canoeing and Sailing Field Sports and Natural History Hunting, Shooting, etc. Architecture and Building Landscape Gardening Household and Miscellaneous ...PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS... 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