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 JAN 5 
 
 1966 
 
 QH53 
 E57 
 
 19715 
 
 - A. G . 
 
 Outline r ii mature-study and 
 
Outlines in Nature Study and History 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK 
 
 FOR PUPILS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 ANNIE GILBERT ENGELL 
 
 SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF THE GEORGE B. MCCLE1.LAN COMBINED PRIMARY' SCHOOL, FH11 ADELPHlA 
 
 GO ;TS OF 
 
 rT *00MPASI 
 
 - v 
 
 SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 
 
Copyright, iqoc, 
 b*Y SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Note to Teachers . 
 Illustrative Lessons 
 
 faull 
 
 V 
 
 . * • 
 
 Vlll 
 
 Outlines in Nature Study. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plants. 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 Trees 
 
 11 
 18 
 
 Parts of Plants used for Food . 
 
 How Plants are prepared for 
 
 Food 
 
 15 
 17 
 
 V 
 
 II. The Human Body. 
 
 f General Plan of the Human Body 20 
 t How to take Care of the Human 
 
 Body 21 
 
 ! Food — Wholesome and Un- 
 wholesome 22 
 
 Cleanliness and Bathing ... 23 
 Clothing in Hot and Cold 
 
 Weather 24 
 
 The Teeth 25 
 
 The Lungs and Breathing . . 2G 
 Importance of Breathing Pure 
 
 Air 28 
 
 Ventilation of Rooms .... 29 
 
 The Bony Structure ..... 30 
 
 The Head 81 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bones of the Trunk, — the Spin.' 32 
 
 The Collar-bone 33 
 
 The Shoulder-blades .... 33 
 
 The Ribs 34 
 
 Bones of the Arm and Hand . . ?A 
 
 Bones of the Leg and Foot . . 35 
 
 The Joints 36 
 
 The Muscles 37 
 
 The Senses 38 
 
 Structure of the Eye .... 41 
 
 Care of the Eyes 42 
 
 Structure of the Ear .... 4:; 
 
 Care of the Ear 44 
 
 Animals. 
 
 The Domestic Animals and their 
 
 Uses 4") 
 
 The Horse 46 
 
 The Cow 47 
 
 The Sheep 49 
 
 The Dog 50 
 
 The Cat 51 
 
 Birds that are Domesl ic Animals ^2 
 
 Movements of Domestic Animals ")4 
 
 The Skeletons ..f Animals. . . 57 
 Comparison of the Bodies of 
 
 Animals 61 
 
 Means of Defense 66 
 
 19 
 
 - 
 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Color as a Protection .... 68 
 
 IIow Different Animals Breathe 69 
 
 Beasts 72 
 
 Birds 76 
 
 Reptiles 82 
 
 Fish 85 
 
 Shellfish 89 
 
 Insects 94 
 
 IV. Natural Science. 
 
 The Sun . . . 104 
 
 The Moon 106 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stars 108 
 
 Stars on October 15 at Nine 
 
 O'clock .... ... 112 
 
 Stars on February 15 at Seven 
 
 O'clock 114 
 
 Stars on April 15 at Eight O'clock 116 
 
 Stars on July 15 at Nine O'clock 118 
 
 The Air . . 120 
 
 Sound 124 
 
 Water 125 
 
 Magnetic Attraction .... 129 
 
 Outlines in History. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Story of Columbus 131 
 
 The Indians 132 
 
 •Story of Pocahontas 134 
 
 The Pilgrims 135 
 
 Thanksgiving Day 136 
 
 Story of William Penn 137 
 
 Story of Independence Day . . . 138 
 The Pennsylvania State House . . 139 
 
 Story of Washington 141 
 
 The Flag 142 
 
 Lydia Darragh 143 
 
 Valley Forge 144 
 
 Lafayette 145 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 146 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stephen Girard 148 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 149 
 
 Memorial Day 151 
 
 Travel by Land and Water . . . .152 
 Means of Communication .... 153 
 Places of Historical Interest in Phila- 
 delphia 155 
 
 America 156 
 
 Hail, Columbia 157 
 
 The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers $ 158 
 
 The Star Spangled Banner .... 160 
 
 Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean . 161 
 
 Hurrah for the Flag 162 
 
 The Bell of Liberty 163 
 
NOTE TO TEACHERS. 
 
 The most advanced thought on systematic education considers the harmoni- 
 ous development of all of the intellectual faculties, together with the relative 
 value and interdependence of the three aspects of mental operations, — intel- 
 lect, feeling, and will. Formerly, when the aim of education was conceived 
 to be the acquisition of a fixed number of facts in certain branches rather 
 than the development of mental power, memory was the only faculty 
 deemed worthy of receiving special training. 
 
 The preeminent value and importance of memory cannot be denied, but it 
 can be properly strengthened and developed only by a judicious training of 
 the other faculties. " Seek ye first the kingdom of intelligence, and all knowl- 
 edge may be added unto you." 
 
 Growth of intelligence requires and presupposes a world of sights and 
 sounds by means of which mental activity may be stimulated. According to 
 Herbert Spencer, "No act of cognition can be absolutely free from emotion." 
 Therefore, Xature Study is a means particularly adapted t<> the attainment of 
 intellectual power. It should be presented so as to arouse curiosity, enga 
 attention, direct observation, and inspire a desire to investigate causa] 
 conditions. 
 
 In this way the powers of comparison, judgment, and reasoning will be 
 supplied with material calculated to stimulate their activity, and the store- 
 house of.memory will become filled through the child's own efforts. Lack of 
 interest in this branch of study is owing principally to its being made sym- 
 bolic rather than natural. 
 
 All information cannot be acquired by personal investigation for obvious 
 reasons. Most knowledge obtained in later vears must of necessity be svm- 
 bolic. For this reason, it is well, in connection with so concrete a subject as 
 Nature Study, to inspire the intensest love of research, and also i<> show the 
 child the proper use of text-books, and to train him in the best methods of 
 study. 
 
VI NOTE TO TEACHERS. 
 
 After a subject has been thoroughly investigated and comprehended, to 
 make it valuable to the student it must be memorized for future use. Train 
 the children, therefore, to study by heart and not by rote. They will not 
 memorize the mere words of a book unless permitted or obliged to do so by 
 an inefficient teacher. The printed sentences of a text-book or the script of 
 dictated notes should not, under any conditions, precede or supersede the 
 thorough observation and investigation of the real thins;. The text-book 
 should be used only for reference and review. 
 
 "When a child has been thus trained to the proper use of a text-book, the 
 burden of study in more advanced grades will be decreased and the pupil will 
 "know that he knows," or will be equally positive when he "knows that he 
 does not know" a subject. Habits of intelligent study are thus formed which 
 will be of infinite value to him whether his attendance at school be for few 
 or many years. 
 
 The primal object of language work in elementary schools is to develop in 
 the child the power to express his thoughts in well-constructed sentences. 
 The difficulty which confronts many teachers is that the child has no thoughts 
 to express. Clear and well-defined thought will assist greatly the power of 
 expression. The need of a book to fill these requirements has been recognized 
 by many. By placing such a book in the hands of the pupils, the boundaries 
 of the schoolroom will be widened, and home and school life will more nearly 
 become a unity. 
 
 The presentation of questions was designed to stimulate curiosity in the 
 child and indicate a line of observation and investigation outside of school 
 hours. It was further intended to create discussion and to lead pupils to talk 
 fluently as well as to think logically. The real knowledge which 'the child 
 gains through his own effort and experience he will only too gladly dissemi- 
 nate among his companions, and he will come to the class rilled with enthusiasm 
 for the subject, — the enthusiasm of discovery. In this way some additional 
 time will be gained for the teacher in the well-filled school day. 
 
 -Ml of the questions are answered somewhere in the book, although it may 
 not be in the summary immediately following. Were this the case, there 
 would be a possibility of the work's deteriorating into the mechanical answer- 
 ing of questions, and the object of the book would be defeated. 
 
 The questions on a subject may be assigned to the class for consideration. 
 
JSTOTE TO TEACHERS. VI] 
 
 When the conversational lesson takes place, it should be accompanied by as 
 much concrete material as possible, and also by drawings illustrating various 
 parts of the lesson. Because the child's own work will be more valuable to 
 him, it was deemed advisable in a book of this character to omit all illustra- 
 tions. These drawings should be made by each child in a book devoted to the 
 purpose and retained for future reference. A collection of as many specimens 
 as possible should also be made. 
 
 Following: all this work of investigation and discussion should come the 
 written account of the subjec* by each pupil. Power to expres i thought will 
 develop rapidly in this way. 
 
 The summary can be used as a reading lesson for general review — a ready 
 reference by which the memory can be refreshed from time to time. The 
 drudgery of note-taking, with its deleterious effects on both spelling and 
 writing, will be avoided. 
 
 By this method Nature Study and language work can be combined a* 
 preparation for more formal study. Power to think incisively and accurately 
 will be developed, as well as power to express resultant conclusions in well- 
 arranged sentences, and thus will be accomplished the end and aim of Ian- 
 guage work in elementary schools. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 
 
 Before starting the lessons in Nature Study, the teacher should familiarize 
 herself with the subject matter of every summary. Every question contained 
 in the hook is answered in some one of the summaries on the subject. 
 
 For each lesson there should be concrete material in the schoolroom. When 
 the real objects cannot be secured, pictures may be substituted. Pupils and 
 teachers must cooperate in obtaining this material. 
 
 The lessons are so arranged as to lead the pupils to see that there is much 
 to learn about each subject. For this reason the questions precede the sub- 
 ject matter. In order that the teacher may know how to use these lessons 
 most profitably the following work on plant study has been outlined : — 
 
 FIRST DAY'S LESSON. 
 
 Teacher: — "To-morrow we will commence to study about plants. You 
 have all seen plants growing. Sometimes we have them growing in the 
 schoolroom. Many of you have them at home. They can also be seen in 
 the various public parks. You must all examine some and find out all that 
 you can about them. When we come to school to-morrow we will tell each 
 other all that we have learned. 
 
 "On page 1 in your book on Nature Study and History you will find ques- 
 tion:, about plants. Read these questions and find the answers to as many of 
 them as you can. Any one who wishes to do so may bring a plant or a part 
 of a- plant to school." 
 
 SECOND DAY'S LESSON. 
 
 Teacher: — "How many children read the questions' about plants? How 
 many children can tell us something that they learned froni examining some 
 plants ? " 
 
 viii 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. ix 
 
 The children are then to be given an opportunity to talk, — each child 
 telling to the class all that he has found out on the subject 
 
 In this first talk on plants, the teacher may consider all of the questions or 
 as many as seem best fitted to the needs of the class, directing the attention 
 of the pupils to the others, and telling them that this knowledge they will 
 learn in later lessons. In each lesson the teacher may supply any information 
 which the pupils cannot discover for themselves. This talk is simply an in- 
 troduction to the study of plants. The class is now ready for the lesson on 
 the development of the plant from the seed. 
 
 THIRD DAY'S LESSON. 
 
 The teacher must provide some dried peas, beans or corn for the use of 
 the pupils during this lesson. These can be purchased at any Beed store. 
 
 The dried seeds are to be distributed among the pupils. Each child will 
 examine and make a drawing of the seed on his own desk. The teacher ma\ 
 then collect the seeds and place them in two tumblers, half the quantity in 
 each, 
 
 Teacher: — "You all see that I have placed half of the seeds in each of 
 these tumblers. The seeds in one glass are to remain dry. We will cover 
 the seeds in the other glass with water. To-morrow we will look at them 
 again and see whether the seeds in the two tumblers look just as they do now." 
 
 FOURTH DAY'S LESSON. 
 
 The teacher will have the pupils examine and compare the seeds in the two 
 tumblers, and then have the pupils note the difference and state the effect of 
 the absorption of water. 
 
 Each pupil will now receive a soaked seed, and make a drawing of it beside 
 the drawing of the dried seed previously made. 
 
 The soaked seeds may now be planted by the pupils. Place some in moist 
 sawdust, some in raw cotton (in a tumbler of water), and some in moisl BOiL 
 
 Enough seeds should be planted to give one to each pupil on the following 
 day. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 
 
 FIFTH DAY'S LESSON. 
 
 Remove the seeds from the sawdust, soil, and cotton, and distribute them 
 
 among the pupils. 
 
 Have the pupils describe the condition of the seed. Each pupil will make 
 a drawing, showing one day's growth. 
 
 Return the seeds to the tumblers. A few of them may be retained for the 
 purpose of investigation. 
 
 Open these and have the pupils see the seed leaves and radicle. The 
 pupils may now watch for these to appear in the seeds that are still growing. 
 
 Each succeeding day's lesson is to consist of similar observation, conversa- 
 tion, and drawing, to show the growth and development until a perfect plant 
 i- formed, showing root, stem, and leaves. 
 
 During these lessons some plants should be placed in the dark. Some 
 should be placed where they will receive no heat; others should be given no 
 moisture. Lead the pupils to note the effect of depriving the plant of light, 
 heat, or moisture, and also to see the necessity of these elements to plant 
 growth. 
 
 Show the pupils also that the plants would not continue to grow and thrive 
 in either sawdust or cotton because these do not contain materials for nour- 
 ishing the plant such as are found in soil. 
 
 Alter these talks, have each pupil write an account of how a plant grows 
 from the seed. The summary can be used as a reading lesson for review. It 
 is also to be used by the pupil as a reference with which to refresh his memory 
 from time to time. 
 
 Succeeding lessons in Nature Study and History are to be conducted ac- 
 cording to the same methods. Observation, investigation, and discussion along 
 the line indicated by the questions must always precede the written lesson. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 I. PLANTS. 
 
 PLANTS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Compare the stems of a number of plants. Name Bom< 
 plants that have soft stems ; woody stems. Name sonic whose 
 stems or branches are covered with bark. 
 
 Which plants are called herbs? shrubs? trees? How do 
 shrubs and trees resemble each other? How do they differ! 
 
 What are vines? In what various ways do they climb *.' Name 
 some that climb by means of tendrils; rootlets. Sonic thai 
 climb by winding the plant itself around its support. 
 
 Compare these classes of plants with reference to their length 
 of life, size, shape, etc. 
 
 On what do plants feed? What do they breathe? Which part 
 of the plant performs the work of breathing? What other uses 
 have the leaves? How does a plant provide for its future 
 growth? Name some plants in which the Beed pod is made 
 attractive so that the seeds will be planted elsewhere. Name 
 some plants in which the material for future growth is stored jay 
 the seed leaves. ^#f U tt#€* 
 
2 OUTLINES E* NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Name some plants in which the material for future growth is 
 stored in underground stems; in the roots. 
 
 I low are 1 the Beeds of the pine tree protected? Why is the 
 chestnut encased in a burr? Why has the walnut so hard a cov- 
 ering? Of what color is the covering of the walnut? the fil- 
 bert ? the chestnut? 
 
 ( )t" what advantage is it to the tree that the seed cover should 
 be of this color ? Why should the seeds of these plants be so fleshy ? 
 
 Why are the unripe fruits of various trees and bushes green in 
 color ? 
 
 ( )f what use to plants are insects? Of what use to plants are 
 the color and the fragrance of the blossoms? Of what use are 
 thorns to plants ? 
 
 Of what use is rain? snow? How do worms assist the 
 growth of plants? In what ways are air and wind of use to 
 plants? 
 
 How do beasts, birds, and streams assist in scattering seeds? 
 
 Of what uses are plants to beasts ? birds ? reptiles ? insects ? 
 
 In how many ways are plants useful toman? Name some 
 plants that furnish us with food, medicine, dyes, perfumes, 
 building materials for houses, furniture, vessels, fuel, etc. 
 
 Watch some flowering plants to observe their habits. Some 
 blossoms close at twilight; some close during the heat of the 
 day. Why? Why is the sunflower so called? Why is the 
 moonflower so called? Why is the heliotrope so called ? Why 
 has the morning-glory its name? Some blossoms are open at 
 night ; to what animals are they of use ? Some flowers are 
 supplied with hairs so arranged that insects cannot enter them. 
 Other flowers have their parts so arranged that insects can enter, 
 but cannot leave them. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Plants have many peculiar habits ; some like plenty of water ; 
 some grow best among rocks. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 
 
 Examine some peas, beans, corn, wheat, and other seeds. Soak- 
 some of these seeds for twenty-four hours, and then examine 
 them again to find out what effect the soaking lias had. 
 
 Plant some of these seeds and watch them -tow. Pull them 
 up from time to time to see how the root is growing. These 
 can be planted in moist earth, sawdust, or raw cotton. Keep the 
 materials moist, Another way is to cover a tumbler of water 
 with a piece of netting or other thin cotton goods, and place the 
 soaked seeds on the wet cover. 
 
 Make a drawing of the dry and the soaked seeds; also daily 
 drawings to show the growth. 
 
 What things are necessary to the growth of a plant? Where 
 does it obtain its food or the materials for making it grow V Will 
 a plant grow in the dark? in the cold? where there is no 
 moisture? in extreme heat? Place some of the growing plains 
 
 O > 1 
 
 under these various conditions and observe the effect upon them. 
 
 What things are necessary to the growth of plants? 
 
 How are plants supplied with light, heat, and moisture '.' 
 
 In the larger cities there are many places which can be visited 
 for the purpose of examining numerous varieties of plants. In 
 Philadelphia, for instance, Bartram's Garden and Horticultural 
 Hall contain many species of plants. 
 
 A visit to the woods and fields will be the means of obtain- 
 ing much interesting information. 
 
 L & "1"VU ^^IV^UIIq 
 
4 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 After the soe<l has been placed in the soil, it receives heat from the sun, 
 and moisture from the rain. These cause the seed to burst open. It sends 
 a tiny root down into the ground and a stem up through the ground. The 
 stem growB above the ground and bears leaves and flower buds. These 
 flower buds erow larger and become flowers. Inside of the flower is the 
 fruit After the flower petals fall off, the fruit grows larger. In the fruit 
 we find the seeds for new plants. 
 
 The root also grows larger. It takes in food from the soil for the growth 
 of the plant. 
 
 Light, heat, ah-, moisture, and earth supply the plant with materials for its 
 growth. 
 
 ROOTS, 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 What is a plant ? 
 
 Name the parts of a plant. Where is the root of a plant ? Of 
 what uses is it to the plant? How do roots vary in size and. 
 shape? Do all plants need the same kind of food? Why do 
 farmers change the kind of crops in a field in different years? 
 Where does a plant obtain its food? What brings food to the 
 roots of plants? 
 
 Colled as many different kinds of roots as possible. Make 
 drawings of them to show the different shapes. Many roots 
 can be planted in moist sand in September, and the growth of 
 the plant watched. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 A plant is anything that grows with a root, stem, and leaves. 
 
 The root of a plant absorbs food from the moist ground. It also furnishes 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 a base which supports the plant in an upright position. It fastens the plant 
 in the ground so that it can most easily obtain the necessary food. 
 
 Roots vary in shape. Some have one main body which is broad at the top 
 and tapers toward the bottom. Among roots of this kind are the radish, 
 carrot, beet, and turnip. These roots are furnished with hair-like rootlets, 
 which absorb the liquid food. 
 
 Others have no main body, but are made up of a number of fibrous 
 branches. These are either thread-like or fleshy. Among roots of tlii- kin.] 
 are those of the morning-glory, dahlia, sweet potato, grains, and trees. 
 
 Plants having thick, fleshy roots store up material in the root on which 
 the plant can live during the winter, or be prepared to renew its growth the 
 next spring. 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Make a collection of as many stems as possible. Examine 
 their structure with a microscope and find out how it differs in 
 different plants. Also find out how the stems differ in Bize and 
 shape. 
 
 As the stems of many plants will decay in a short time, draw- 
 ings of them should be made to show the various shapes. 
 
 Where are steins of plants? Of what uses are they to the 
 plant? How does the sap get up into the stem? 
 
 (To find this out, hold a strip of muslin with one end in .1 
 basin of water, and see what happens.) 
 
 Is the sap of all plants the same? Of what use is sap to a 
 plant? What causes a flower or part of a plant to wilt when it 
 is plucked? What two things cause the earth in a Qower-pol tu 
 become dry? 
 
 Why are some plantn supplied with thorns? 
 
6 OUTLINES IN N ATI UK STUDY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The Btem is the part of the plant which rises above the ground and bears 
 tlif leaves and flowers. Tin* stems cany the sap from the root to the leaves, 
 where it is acted on by the air, and a part of the moisture is taken from it 
 and Bent out by the leaves. The sap then goes through the stems to every 
 pari of the plant to supply it with materials for growth. 
 
 Stems are of many different shapes. Some are round and solid like a 
 cylinder. Among these are the violet, honeysuckle, etc. Some are shaped 
 like a half cylinder, as the palm. r I ne stems of some plants are hollow, as 
 in grasses and -rains. Some plants have stems that are jointed, as grains, the 
 carnation, and the bamboo. Some stems are thick, with several flattened sides, 
 as the Btem of the squash. Some are flattened, as that of the onion. Others 
 are kidney-shaped, as the rhubarb. 
 
 Some stems are supplied with thorns to protect the plant against snails, 
 dugs, and other creatures that would injure it. 
 
 In the class of plants called shrubs the stems are woody. The trunk and 
 branches of trees are covered with bark. 
 
 The Bap of some plants is thin and watery, while that of others is thick 
 and gummy. Among the plants whose sap is thick are the fir, rubber-plant, 
 cherry, and pine. 
 
 In Borne plants the sap is colored. Among these are the poppy, milkweed, 
 Borrel, sumac, etc. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where are the leaves of plants? Of what uses are they to 
 plants? What would be the result if all of the leaves were 
 removed from a plant? Why would this happen? 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 7 
 
 Examine as many different leaves as possible and compare 
 their edges, the number of parts of which they are composed, 
 the arrangement of their veins, etc. 
 
 Examine the leaves of the ivy, the violet, the rose, the lilac, 
 the wistaria, the cypress, the larkspur, the strawberry, the clover, 
 the horse-chestnnt. 
 
 Which of these leaves have one part? Which leaves arc com- 
 posed of several parts ? 
 
 Examine the leaves of the mor nin g-glory, the geranium, tin 1 
 peach, the begonia, the fleur-de-lis or flag, the lilac, the carnation, 
 the pine, and various grasses. How do they vary in shape? 
 What is the shape of each of these leaves ? 
 
 What kind of edo;e has each of the following leaves. — the 
 lilac, the rose, the violet, the maple, the oak, the daisy, the butter- 
 cup, the dandelion, the rose-geranium, oxalis, etc.? 
 
 Examine the veins and find out the arrange incut of the lol>»-> 
 and notches in reference to the veins. 
 
 Find some leaves which have a pointed tip; some thai have 
 a rounded tip; some with a notched tip. Compare also the 
 bases of leaves. Find some that have a heart-shaped base; 
 some that have a flat, broad base; some that have a taper- 
 ing base. Notice how the leaf and the stem are joined in differ- 
 ent plants. 
 
 Examine a number of plants to find out how the leaves are 
 arranged on the stem, — whether they are single or in grou] 
 whether they are opposite or alternate, etc. 
 
 How are the leaves of the following plants arranged: the 
 morning-glory, the maple, the ivy, the horse-chestnut, the cedar, 
 the daisy, the wistaria, etc.? 
 
 The surfaces of leaves are of different kinds. Examine the 
 
8 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 leaves of the lily, the lilac, the geranium, strawberry, etc., and 
 find out how their surfaces differ. 
 
 Compare the upper and under surfaces of leaves. 
 
 Examine a number of leaves and find out how their veins are 
 arranged. Of what use are veins? 
 
 A collection of leaves should be made, consisting of as many 
 varieties of leaves as possible. These can be pasted on card- 
 board, and drawings of them made to illustrate the differences of 
 shape, edge, etc. 
 
 Use a magnifying glass to examine the leaves and their various 
 parts. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Leaves of different plants vary in size, from the tiny leaf of the forget-me- 
 not to that of the elephant's ear. 
 
 Some leaves are simple and some are compound (that is, composed of 
 several parts or leaflets). Among the simple leaves are those of ivy, geranium, 
 sweet william. 
 
 Some compound leaves are those of the rose, the clover, the pea, the bean, 
 strawberry, etc 
 
 The edges of some leaves are notched in various ways, — as the rose, the 
 violet, the holly, the cherry, the willow, the palm, etc. 
 
 The edges of some leaves are plain, — as the carnation, the morning-glory, 
 the clover, the elephant's ear, etc. 
 
 Some leaves are lobed and also have notched edges, as the rnaple. 
 
 Some leaves are lobed and have plain edges, as the sassafras, the oak, the 
 rose-geranium, etc. 
 
 Leaves are of various shapes. Among these are heart-shape, as the 
 morning-glory; oval, as the leaflet of the rose; needle-shape, as those of 
 evergreens; lance-shape, as that of the peach; shield-shape, as those of the 
 nasturtium and the geranium. 
 
 Some leaves are thick, as those of the mullein and India-rubber plant ; some 
 are fleshy, as those of the portulaca. The surface of some leaves is smooth, 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 9 
 
 as the ivy and laurel. Others have a hairy surface, as the mullein, geranium, 
 and strawberry. 
 
 The veins of leaves are arranged in various ways. Some are parallel and 
 extend from base to tip, as in the lily of the valley, the fleur-de-lis, etc, 
 
 Some are feather-veined, as the rose, the lilac, the oak, etc Some are hand. 
 veined, as the ivy, the geranium, the nasturtium, etc. 
 
 Leaves of plants vary in color. Generally they are green, of various shades, 
 as the nasturtium, the palm, the rose, etc. 
 
 Others have leaves of some other color, as the coleu<. the mullein, the silvei 
 maple, the miller's plant, Japanese honeysuckle, ribbon grass, etc. 
 
 The leaves of some plants have a pleasant odor, as the pine, geranium, 
 mint, lemon, etc. 
 
 Leaves are of use to the plant in absorbing light and heat. They also take 
 in material from the air (carbonic acid gas) which ads on the sap s<> that it 
 will give more nourishment to the plant. Leaves also send out moisture 
 which the plant does not need. 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Of what use to the plant is the flower? Which pari ifl called 
 the calyx? the corolla? the stamens? the pistil? Why 
 the end of the flower stalk called the receptacle ? T<> wli.it is tin* 
 pistil fastened? Of what use is it? Of whal use are the 
 stamens? Of what use are insects to flowers? Of whal use b 
 color to flowers ? Of what use arc flowers to insects V Of whai 
 use are flowers to birds? Why are some flowers open at nighl V 
 How do the corollas of different flowers vary in structure, size, 
 shape, color, number of parts, etc.? 
 
 What injury is it to pluck the blossom of a plant V 
 
 How do flowers vary in their arrangement on the stem or 
 
10 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 branch of a plant? Name some flowers that are fragrant. Of 
 whal value is odor to the plant? 
 
 As many blossoms as possible should be examined with the aid 
 of a magnifying glass, and their various parts observed. 
 
 Drawings to illustrate the various parts and shapes should also 
 be made. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The blossom protects the seed pod. It is composed of several different 
 parts. These are the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, and the pistil. The re- 
 ceptacle is the end of the stalk which holds all of the parts of the blossom 
 
 ether. 
 
 The calyx is the green covering between the stem and the corolla. 
 " Calyx " means cup, and it is so called because it holds and protects the rest 
 of the blossom. 
 
 The corolla is that part of the blossom inside of the calyx. It is either 
 white or colored, but very rarely green. It contains a sweet fluid, on which 
 ma^y insects feed. Its color is useful to attract insects. It protects the 
 honey for which the insects visit the plant, and it protects the pollen which is 
 the food of the seed vessel. 
 
 The stamens are a number of slender, thread-like parts inside of the 
 corolla. At the top of each stamen is a little box or ball containing yellow 
 dust called pollen. 
 
 The pistil is that part of the plant which is attached to the seed pod at its 
 base. The pistil is in the center of the stamens. It is capped by a rough, 
 moist knob. The pollen of the stamens falls on this knob and is used to 
 nourish the seed in the pod at its base. 
 
 Winds and insects assist in causing the pollen to reach the pistil. 
 
 The colors of flowers attract insects, which are useful in supplying the 
 seed vessel with the pollen. 
 
 Flowers vary in color and in the arrangement of their various parts. 
 
 Sometimes the corolla is composed of a number of parts, as in the buttercup, 
 the apple-blossom, the dandelion, etc. In some plants the corolla consists of 
 one pai% as the morning-glory, phlox, spring beauty, etc. . 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUBE STUDY. 11 
 
 The corolla is of various shapes. Among these are bell-shape, Bfl the lily 
 of the valley; star-shape, as the quaker lady; salver-shape, as the geranium; 
 funnel- shape, as the morning-glory. 
 
 The corollas of some flowers are irregular in shape, as the violet, the -\ i - 
 pea. 
 
 Some flowers grow singly, as the pansy, the violet, buttercup, the quaker 
 lady, etc. Others grow in clusters, as the lily of the valley, hyacinth, 
 mignonette, golden-rod, clover, yarrow, etc 
 
 The stripes in the petals of some flowers all point to the place where the 
 insect can obtain hone v. 
 
 The hairs which are on the petals of some flowers prevent the entrance 
 insects (such as the ant) which would obtain the honey withoul benefiting 
 the plant by dusting the pollen on the seed vessel. 
 
 Some flowers have no pollen. Bees, butterflies, and moths carry pollen 
 from other flowers to those that have none. 
 
 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 When the flower petals fall off, what part of the plant develops 
 rapidly? Where is the fruit while the blossom is still on the 
 
 plant ? 
 
 Of what use to the plant is the fruit? What injury is done to 
 the plant if the blossoms are plucked ? 
 
 Of what uses are fruits to man ? 
 
 Examine as many fruits and seeds as possible in reference to 
 
 their difference in structure, si ze 3 shape, color, number of cells, 
 
 and seeds. 
 
 Soak and open a number of seeds, and observe the pari- inside 
 
 of the seed. 
 
12 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 When the seeds have been sufficiently nourished by the pollen, the sta- 
 mens and corolla are no longer needed. These fall off, and the sap that is 
 sent through the blossom stem is use'd for the growth of the seed pod. 
 
 When the seed vessel is ripe it is called the fruit. 
 
 Fruits are arranged in classes according to the covering of the seeds and 
 the arrangemenl of the seed cells. 
 
 Some fruits have a thin, dry covering composed of several valves, which 
 split open. Fruits of this kind are called pods, as the pea, bean, willow, 
 larkspur, etc. 
 
 ^•■nie fruits have a covering that is not composed of separate -parts, as the 
 buttercup and various grains. 
 
 In some plants the seeds have a thick, hard covering, as the walnut, filbert, 
 acorn, almond, etc. 
 
 In some plants, the inner wall of the seed holder becomes thick and hard 
 and the outer part becomes fleshy, as the peach, plum, prune, olive, 
 
 cherry, etc. 
 
 The seed cells of some fruits have horny walls surrounded by a fleshy cover- 
 ing, as the apple and pear. 
 
 The seeds of some fruits are not arranged in cells but have a fleshy cov- 
 ering in which thev are distributed. A fruit of this kind is called a berry, 
 as the currant, cranberry, tomato, watermelon, cucumber, squash, orange, 
 banana, etc. 
 
 Within each seed is a tiny plant consisting of a radicle (stem) and seed 
 leaves. At one end of the radicle is the plumule, which grows upward and 
 forms the stem. The other end of the radicle grows downward, and becomes 
 the root. 
 
 Some seeds contain one seed leaf, as the various kinds of grain. In some 
 other seeds there are two seed leaves, as the pea, bean, morning-glory, 
 almond, etc. 
 
 The seeds of pine trees contain several seed leaves. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUEE STUDY. 18 
 
 TREES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why are trees plants? What difference is there between 
 
 trees and other plants? What is the main body of a ti 
 called? What is the difference between a stalk and a trunk? 
 Which live longer, — plants with woody stems, or those whose 
 stems are not woody ? 
 
 How do trees indicate their a^e ? During which seasons do 
 trees grow? Of what uses to the tree arc the following: the 
 roots? the sap? the trunk and branches? the leaves? tin- 
 hark? the fruit? Of what use arc leaves after they fall from 
 the tree? Compare the bark of different trees and find out 
 some that have smooth and some that have rough bark. Com- 
 pare also in reference to color, thickness, etc 
 
 How does the chestnut tree protect its seed leaves? the 
 walnut? the pine ? Why are the seeds protected in this way? 
 Of what uses are trees to man? to leasts'.' to birds? t<» in- 
 sects? Name some trees of which we use the bark, the bast> 
 the sap, the leaves, the fruit, the seeds. 
 
 Name some trees that furnish materials for each of the follow- 
 ing purposes: food, medicine, fuel, shade, building purposes, 
 etc. From which part of a tree do we obtain cork, quinine, <>li\»' 
 oil, material for making matting, baskets? 
 
 Of what uses are the maple, sugar maple, birch, yellow pine, 
 white oak, walnut, peach, India rubber, fir, cinnamon, nntne 
 palm, olive, cinchona, ash, white pine, linden or lime tree, wil- 
 low, elm ? 
 
14 OUTLINES IX NATTJBB STUDY. 
 
 Which part of each of these trees do we use ? 
 
 Wh.it are forests? Of what uses are forests? Name some 
 trees that are found in forests. 
 
 Of what wood is each of the following articles in the school- 
 room made: iloor, desks, teacher's desk, chair, blackboard frame, 
 bookcase, lead pencil, etc. ? 
 
 Examine a cross section of a tree and observe the pith, the 
 rin lis of growth, the sap wood, etc. 
 
 A collection of the different kinds of wood should be made, as 
 well as a collection of leaves. These should be drawn, also, to 
 indicate how the leaves of trees differ in size, shape, arrange- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 A visit to the woods or to a park will be a means of obtaining 
 much valuable information. Bartram's Garden, in Philadelphia, 
 contains many varieties of trees and plants. 
 
 A dictionary or encyclopedia, and many other books in any 
 public library, will furnish much information in reference to trees 
 and other plants, their uses to us, the uses of their different parts 
 to the trees themselves, etc. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Plants are divided into three classes, according to their length of life and 
 kind of stem. These are called herbs, shrnbs, and trees. 
 
 Herbs are ]>lants with soft stems which do not live through the winter. 
 
 onetimes the root remains alive and the plant grows again in the next spring. 
 Sometimes the root aN<> dies. Among plants of this kind are the morning- 
 glory, pea, dandelion, carnation, etc 
 
 Shrubs are plants with many Avoodv stems rising from the root. Thev are 
 gem-rally less than ten feet high. They are able to endure the winter season. 
 Among plants of this kind are the blackberry, spiraea, hydrangea, and syringa 
 or orange blossom. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 15 
 
 Trees are plants with woody stems branching from a trunk Th< ow 
 from ten to sixty feet high. Tlie trunk is generally somewhat conical in 
 
 shape, larger at the base and tapering toward the t<>|>. 
 
 The part of the tree that is just under the hark is the <>nly part that is 
 really alive. This is called the sapwood. Through the sapwood the Bap 
 starts to rise in the spring to feed all of the parts of tin- tree that are ab< 
 the ground, so that they can grow. Anew layer of wood i- thus formed 
 each year. During the winter season the tree ceases it- work of growing. 
 
 The pith in the center is white and soft, and always remains the -aim*. 
 Youn^ trees s^row faster than older ones. For this reason the rings near the 
 center are thicker and plainer than those near the hark. 
 
 A forest is a large tract of woodland that has never been cultivated. 
 
 The moisture in the form of rain, snow, etc., that falls in forests, does not 
 run off on the surface. The snow melts more slowly in the forest than it 
 does in other places, and the moisture from the rain and snow sinks into I 
 ground, and forms springs which come to the surface and Bupply creeks 
 and streams with water. 
 
 Trees purify the ah for human beings. The leaves take in carbonic acid 
 gas from the atmosphere and send out oxygen. The roots absorb moistu 
 from the ground and send it out slowly into the air through the leav« The 
 leaves absorb heat and light for the use of the tree, thu- further modifying 
 the temperature. Forests influence the rainfall, modify the climate, and afford 
 protection and homes to many animals. 
 
 Trees furnish us with food, medicine, fuel, shade, materials for building 
 purposes, such as houses, vessels, furniture, etc. 
 
 PARTS OF PLANTS USED FOR FOOD. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Name some plants that furnish us with fond. Name Bome 
 plants of which we eat the seeds; seed-covering; roote; stems; 
 sap ; bark ; leaves. 
 
1(3 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Why is it that some plants are not used as food? What prop- 
 erty must a plant possess to make it valuable as food? 
 
 What color is the covering of the walnut, the filbert, the chest- 
 nut, etc.? Of what advantage to the tree is it that its seed-cover 
 should be of this color? Why are these seed-covers so hard? 
 Why is the chestnut covered by a burr? 
 
 What parts of the seed do Ave eat in these foods? Why are 
 
 they so fleshy? 
 
 Why are many unripe fruits and berries green in color ? Why 
 are ripe fruits of various bright colors? 
 
 Name some plants whose roots are used for food. How do 
 they differ in color, size, shape, arrangement, etc.? What is the 
 reason for the fleshy texture of these roots ? By what means do 
 these roots perform their work of absorbing liquid food from the 
 
 ground ? 
 
 From what part of the plant do we obtain each of the follow- 
 ing foods: celery, rice, pepper, mustard, nutmeg, cinnamon, 
 vanilla, coffee, cocoa, tea, chestnut, walnut, water cress, onion, 
 spinach, strawberry, olive, fig, date, watermelon, white potato, etc.? 
 
 Toward which end of the potato do the eyes of a potato curve ? 
 Which part of the potato does the farmer plant ? 
 
 Collections of roots, stems, leaves, fruits, seeds, etc., that will 
 not decay should be made. Pictures of many of them can be 
 found in seed catalogues. Drawings of each class of foods should 
 also be made. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The roots of some plants are used for food. Among these are the turnip, 
 carrot, radish, beet, etc. These roots were used by the plants for storing food 
 to assist the growth of the plant during the following year. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBB STUDY. 17 
 
 Among stems that are use<l for food are those of the celery, rhubarb, 
 paragus, white j)otato, and onion. The white potato is an underground stem, 
 bearing tiny buds and leaves (eye and scale). The •minii i> a short, unde- 
 veloped, underground stem, bearing a great many crowded Leaves which over- 
 lap each other. 
 
 Among seeds which are used for food are peas, beans, celery seeds, rice and 
 other grains, pepper, coffee, mustard, nutmeg, vanilla beans, cocoa beans, and 
 the kernels or seed leaves of various nuts, such as the chestnut, walnut, 
 filbert, e^. 
 
 Some plants whose leaves furnish us with food are the cabbage, celery, tea, 
 parsley, lettuce, water-cress, spinach, thyme, sage, sweet marjoram, etc. 
 
 The seed-covering of some plants or fruits is used for food. Among V. 
 are the apple, date, prune, peach, pineapple, blackberry, strawberry, olive, 
 pepper, etc. Cinnamon is the inner bark of a tree. 
 
 HOW PLANTS ARE PREPARED FOR FOOD. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Of what use is food to us? Why are some plants used for 
 
 food ? 
 
 Name some plants that furnish us with beverages, — tea, 
 coffee, cocoa, wine, cider, etc. 
 
 From what plants do we obtain extracts or essences for use 
 flavoring, such as vanilla, lemon, etc. V 
 
 Mention some oils that we use for food, and tell from what 
 part of the plant each is obtained. 
 
 What is meant by seasoning? Mention some plants thai are 
 of use for this purpose. From which pari of each plant is 
 
 this food obtained ? 
 
 How do we obtain sugar, molasses, cinnamon, and other spices? 
 
18 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Some plants furnish us with material for making beverages. Tea is made 
 from the leaves of a plant that are gathered and dried. This plant grows 
 principally in China. 
 
 Coffee is the seed or bean of a plant. Eaeh berry contains two seeds. 
 The seeds are removed from the fruit, freed from every particle of cov- 
 ering, and thoroughly dried. The coffee plant grows in parts of South 
 America and the East and West India Islands. It grows only in warm 
 countries. Cocoa is made from the ground bean or seed of a tree that grows 
 in Central America and the West India Islands. 
 
 Wine is made from the pulp and juice of grapes. Vinegar and cider are 
 made from the juice of apples. 
 
 Spices are also obtained from various plants. Xutmeg is the dried seed of 
 a juicy, pulpy fruit that looks something like a mellow peach. The tree on 
 which it grows resembles the laurel. Cloves are the unripe tlower buds of a 
 tree. Cinnamon is the inner bark of a tree. The finest cinnamon is obtained 
 from the new shoots that spring from the roots. 
 
 Mustard is the powdered seed of a plant. Pepper is made by powdering 
 the dried berry of the pepper plant. All of these spices grow in the East 
 and West India Islands. They grow only in warm countries. 
 
 From some plants we obtain oil. Olive oil is pressed out of the pulp and 
 seeds of the fruit of a tree. The seeds of the cotton plant furnish us 
 with oil. Vanilla extract is obtained by soaking the vanilla bean in alcohol 
 and adding water and sugar. 
 
 Flour is obtained by threshing the grain from its husk. The grains are 
 ground and crushed between heavy rollers. The flour is then separate- 1 
 from the hull by being passed through very thin material called bolting 
 cloth. 
 
 Sugar is obtained from the sap of the sugar cane. Sugar cane is cut into 
 pieces and boiled until a thick syrup is obtained. This is separated into two 
 parts. The thick fluid is molasses, and the remainder, or sediment, is brown 
 sugar. It is whitened by another process. We obtain sugar also from beets 
 and certain kinds of maple trees. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 19 
 
 Some plant foods are not fit to eat until they are cooked The heat acta 
 on the materials in them in such a way as to make them of more use in nour- 
 ishing the body. Sometimes they need heal and moisture also. Wlien flour 
 
 is made into bread it needs fermentation, moisture, and heal to render it 
 
 fit for use as food. 
 
II. THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 GENERAL PLAN OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 What are the principal divisions of the human body? To 
 
 which part are the arms and legs joined? What forms the 
 framework of the human body? How is the skeleton covered? 
 With what are the muscles covered? 
 
 In which part of the body is the brain? the stomach? the 
 
 heart? What other organs are in the trunk? Where are the 
 blood vessels? What uses has the blood? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The human body is made up of two principal parts, the head and trunk. 
 To the trunk are attached the arms and leers. It consists of a bonv skeleton 
 covered with flesh (or muscles) and fat.' Throughout the flesh are blood- 
 vessels through which the blood flows to carry new materials to the different 
 parts of the body and to take away those which are worn out. 
 
 The flesh is covered with two la vers of skin. At the ends of the fingers 
 and toes are nails, and on the head there is a growth of hair. There are also 
 fine hairs all over the body. 
 
 The trunk is like a house with two rooms in it. In the upper chamber are 
 the heart and lungs. In the lower chamber are the stomach, liver, and intes- 
 tines. These two chambers are separated by a large muscle. 
 
 The bony part of the head is called the skull. Inside of the skull is the 
 brain, from which the nerves radiate to all parts of the body. 
 
 20 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 21 
 
 HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why do we need food? How much food do \\ < * need to eal '.' 
 What is meant by nourishment? What is the resull if we do 
 not eat enough nourishing food '.' if we eat too much ? 
 
 What else besides food do we take into our bodiee Of wli.it 
 use is air to us? What organs in the body use the air which we 
 inhale? What is done with the air after the blood has used it '.' 
 What kind of air do we breathe out ? 
 
 What is meant by exercise? Of what value to as is exercis< 
 What is its effect on different parts of the body? What is the 
 effect of too much exercise? too little? What is the use of 
 sleep ? 
 
 Why is it necessary to bathe the body frequentlj . Why musl 
 the clothing be changed frequently at all seasons of the yeai 
 
 Why do we need clothing;? Do we wear the same kind and 
 amount of clothing; at all seasons? What changes do we mak 
 
 Summary. 
 
 To keep the body healthy we must care for it in many way-. We must 
 eat enoup-h wholesome food to nourish it well. We must breathe pure air 
 at all times, when we are asleep as well as when we are awake. The whole 
 ot the boclv must be bathed, and clean clothing musl he put on frequently. 
 We should dress according to the weather, varying the kind and amount 
 clothing according to the temperature and the amount of moisture. Each 
 part of the body must have the proper kind and amount of exercise to enable 
 it to do its work well. The body must be held in an erect position in Bitting 
 
22 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 or standing. .V sufficient amount of sleep and rest is necessary to the health 
 of the body. We must avoid the use of stimulants and narcotics. 
 
 FOOD — WHOLESOME AND UNWHOLESOME. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why does the body need food? What causes the different 
 parts of the body to wear out? To what does food become 
 changed before the bodv can use it ? How much food does the 
 bodv need ? 
 
 Why are those foods unwholesome that are not easilv digested 
 (or made into blood) ? Why is it unwise to eat too much food ? 
 Why is it injurious to eat between meals? Is unripe fruit whole- 
 some or unwholesome ? Why ? 
 
 Name some classes of food that the body needs. Why is it 
 injurious to eat too much sugar, oil, starch foods, etc. ? Why is it 
 injurious to eat foods that contain too much nourishment ? 
 
 Why should food be properly cooked ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The body is constantly wearing out, and needs new material to build up 
 the different parts. The food that is eaten is made into blood. The blood 
 carries these new materials to each part of the body. Food should contain 
 the kind of material that the body needs for its nourishment. 
 
 AVholesome foods are those that contain the materials necessary for the 
 
 Mi 
 
 growth and repair of the body. They are easily digested. Unwholesome 
 foods do not nourish the body, or they are not easily digested. Some 
 unwholesome foods interfere with the building up of the body. Foods that 
 contain too much nourishment are unwholesome if taken in large quantities. 
 
OUT LINKS IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Digestion is the process of changing the food into a condition to be taken 
 
 into the blood. 
 
 The first thing necessary in the process of digestion is thoroughly chewing 
 
 the food and mixing it with the saliva that is in the mouth. The i ! 
 
 then passes down the gullet to the stomach. The stomach contains a fluid 
 called gastric juice, which is mixed with the fond by the churning action of 
 
 the stomach. 
 
 From the stomach the food passes into the intestines, where it is acted on 
 by several other fluids. All through the intestines are tiny bl I \. 
 
 which absorb material to make blood. 
 
 CLEANLINESS AND BATHING. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Use a magnifying glass to examine the skin. Find <»ut bow- 
 many layers of skin cover the body. Of what use is the Bkin? 
 Of what uses are the oil glands and sweat elands! What 
 property of the skin permits us to move in any direction '. 
 
 How does the skin help to purity the blood'.' How does it 
 help to regulate the heat of the body? Wbat causes the skin 
 become dirty ? 
 
 How does the skin wear out? Why is it necessary to bathe 
 the body frequently? 
 
 Summary. 
 The skin which covers the body consists of two layers. The outer layer i> 
 
 • « • 
 
 the scarf skin. The inner layer or true skin is filial with blood vessels aud 
 nerves. The use of the scarf skin is to protect the true -kin. 
 
24 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 The >kin is also furnished with oil glands and sweat glands. The oil 
 glands Becrete oil which nourishes the skin. The sweat glands send waste 
 matter out of the body. Perspiration is of use in regulating the temperature 
 
 of the body. 
 
 The scarf skin is constantly wearing out, and falls off in tiny scales. The 
 oil and sweat cause the dead skin to stick to the body and also attract float- 
 in-- dirt and dust. If the skin is not washed frequently, the tiny glands get 
 clogged, and the body will become unhealthy. Every part of the body must 
 be washed often so that the skin will be able to do its work properly. 
 
 We should pnt on clean clothing frequently, because clothing holds the 
 scales of the dead scarf skin, which is constantly wearing out 
 
 CLOTHING IN HOT AND COLD WEATHER 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Is the body warm ? Is it warmer or cooler than the air around 
 ns ? Prove this with a thermometer. 
 
 How does a piece of heated metal or other article become 
 cool ? How does the human body lose its heat ? What effect 
 has fanning the body ? Why ? 
 
 In what way does clothing protect us from heat? from cold? 
 
 What effect has the wearing of woolen clothing ? Why does 
 it cause us to feel warm ? What effect has the wearing of cotton 
 clothing? Why? 
 
 Examine pieces of silk, wool, cotton, and linen goods with a 
 magnifying glass. What is the difference in their fibers? 
 Which is the warmest? Why? Which is the coolest? Why? 
 
 Why do we wear hats in summer ? 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBB .s'Ll'DV. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The heat of the body is constantly passing off from the surfiioe. Anything 
 that causes the heat to pass off more rapidly makes u 8 fee] cooler. Any- 
 thing that prevents the heat from leaving the body makes as feel warmer. 
 
 In cold weather we wear woolen clothing to prevent the heat from .--rap- 
 ing from the body, and also to protect it from the cold air. 
 
 In summer we wear thin cotton or linen clothing so that the heat i i the 
 body can easily escape. This also permits the fresh air from the outside to 
 reach the skin, and thus assists it in cooling the body. Clothing also prote 
 the body from the heat of the sun. 
 
 THE TEETH. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine the teeth of a cat, dog, horse, cow. etc., as well as 
 those of people. Of what use are teeth? On what does each 
 these animals feed? Compare our teeth with those of these 
 animals. Are our teeth all of one shape? Of whal use are the 
 teeth of each shape? How many teeth have we in each jaw? 
 How many teeth of each kind have we? \Vh;it is meant l>\ a 
 tooth decaying? What are some of the causes of decaj Why 
 does a toothache? Of wdiat use is the enamel? Why is it 
 necessary to cleanse the teeth as well as the rest of the bodj ! 
 
 How r many -sets of teetli do we get ? Why are w< Biipplied 
 with a second set? What are the differences of size and shape 
 of the teeth in the two sets? AYliv do we have twenty teeth 
 first and thirty-two later ? 
 
26 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The teeth are hollow and are made of a hard, bone-like substance, covered 
 with enamel. Thev are fastened in the iaws by roots. Each tooth is sup- 
 plied with a nerve. The part of the tooth that we see is called the crown. 
 There are thirty-two teeth in a full set, sixteen in each jaw. Beginning at 
 the middle of each jaw, there are, on each side, two incisors or cutting teeth, 
 one canine or dog tooth, and five grinding teeth. 
 
 The cutting teeth or incisors have sharp edges for cutting or biting the 
 food. Animals that gnaw have teeth of this kind. The canine or dog tooth 
 is sharp for tearing food. Animals that feed on flesh need teeth of this 
 kind. 
 
 The grinding teeth are large, strong teeth, and they have broad surfaces for 
 grinding the food. Animals that feed on grass or grain have teeth of this 
 kind. The first two grinders are called bicuspids because they have two 
 points or cusps. The last three grinders are called molars. 
 
 Teeth decay when the enamel begins to wear out. This is caused in 
 various ways. Food that is too hard or too hot or too cold will cause che 
 enamel to crack. Picking the teeth with a pin, biting thread or string, 
 cracking nuts or other hard substances are likely to injure the enamel and 
 cause the teeth to decay. 
 
 The teeth should be thoroughly cleansed after each meal. 
 
 THE LUNGS AND BREATHING. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine the lung of a chicken to obtain an idea of the color 
 and texture of the material of which our lungs are made. 
 
 Look at pictures of the lungs to find out their shape. 
 
 Where are the lungs? For what are they used? How do 
 they obtain air ? Of what two movements does breathing con- 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE BTUDY. 27 
 
 sist? What movement is made by the Lungs when we inhale 
 air? When are the lungs larger, — when we breathe in air 
 or when we breathe out air ? 
 
 What kind of blood is sent to the lungs? Wh.it kind of Mood 
 leaves the lungs? What is the difference in the color of pure 
 and impure blood? 
 
 Why is the breath warm when it leaves the bodj V 
 
 Breathe on the bulb of a thermometer. What is the result? 
 What does this prove? Breathe on a piece of Looking-gla 
 What is the result? What does this prove? Breathe into a 
 bottle containing lime water. What is the result ? What does 
 this prove ? 
 
 What causes hiccoughs ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 We have two lungs in the chest. They are made of pink, spongy material, 
 and are filled with blood vessels and air cells. We use the lungs 
 breathing. 
 
 Breathing consists of two movements, one by which we breathe in air, and 
 the other by which Ave breathe out air. We breathe in pure air and we 
 breathe out impure, poisonous air. 
 
 The object of breathing is to purity the Moo.l. The pure air which we 
 inhale contains oxygen. It enters the blood and changes it t<» a bright red 
 color. 
 
 The air which we breathe out takes impurities from the blood. It contains 
 carbonic acid gas. 
 
 The pure blood flows from the heart through the bod} to carry new 
 materials for building up the different parts of the body. It also gathers the 
 waste material from each part of the body; This makes it impure and dark 
 in color. Then it returns to the lungs, where it gives up its impurities and 
 receives a supply of pure air in exchange. 
 
28 OUTLINES IN N ATI' UK STUDY. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF BREATHING PURE AIR. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where is the air? Can it be seen? How do yon know that 
 it is all around von? Of what use is it tons? What is the 
 difference between the fresh air that we take into the lungs and 
 the air after it has been used in the lungs? 
 
 What effect does breathing pure air have on the blood? What 
 would be the effect on the blood if we were to inhale impure air? 
 on the brain? What is the work of the brain? 
 
 When air is very impure which sense warns us of our danger? 
 Does impure air have a pleasant or an unpleasant odor ? Are we 
 always able to find out by the sense of smell when the air is impure ? 
 When the air in a classroom (or other room in which there are 
 many people) becomes impure, what is the effect on the occupants ? 
 What is it necessary to do to avoid this ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Air is made up chiefly of two gases : oxygen and nitrogen. The one that 
 we need in breathing is oxygen. We breathe in air that contains oxygen and 
 some of it is used up by the blood in the lungs. The air that we breathe 
 out contain- impure, poisonous air in place of the oxygen that is used. This 
 impure air is called carbonic acid gas. 
 
 The object of breathing is to make the blood pure. If the blood is not 
 pure it cannot do its work, and the different parts of the body are not prop- 
 erly nourished. Inhaling impure air will thus injure every part of the body. 
 If the lungs are constantly supplied with air that is not pure, they will be- 
 come diseased. 
 
 If the brain is supplied with impure blood, it Mill be unable to do its work. 
 
OUTLINES IN MATURE STUDY. 29 
 
 Inhaling impure air will cause a feeling of dullness and drowsiness. It the 
 air that is inhaled contains a large quantity of poisonous gas, unconsciousn 
 will follow. 
 
 VENTILATION OF ROOMS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 If all animals that breathe air are constantly breathing out im- 
 pure, poisonous air, why does not the air around us become im- 
 pure? How do plants help to purify the air? How does wind 
 help to purify the air? How does rain help to purity the air 
 
 Is the air inside of buildings used in breathing? Does it be- 
 come impure? Is it then fit for breathing ? How can it be made 
 fit to breathe ? What is ventilation ? 
 
 The purity of the air in a room can be tested by exposing a 
 jar of lime water. It will become clouded if the air is impui 
 
 Which is purer, warm water or cold water? Which is purer, 
 warm air or cold air ? 
 
 Can a room be ventilated without using cold air? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The open air is constantly being changed by the breathing of plants and 
 
 animals. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe oul carbonic acid 
 Plants breathe in carbonic acid gas and breathe out oxygen. Wind and nun 
 also help to purify the air, so that it is iit for us to breathe. 
 
 The air inside of buildings becomes impure in many ways. Fire and 
 consume the oxygen, and people are constantly making the air impure by 
 taking its oxygen and giving it carbonic acid gas in exchange 
 
 If this inside ah is not constantly changed, it will soon contain a large amount 
 
30 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 of carbonic acid gas, and thus be unfit to breathe. For this reason there 
 should always be a current of fresh air passing through the different room:'. 
 There should always be an opening to admit pure air and another to let out 
 impure air. 
 
 The air in a room can be changed rapidly by opening all the doors and 
 windows. 
 
 THE BONY STRUCTURE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine the bone of a sheep's leg, the shin bone of beef, or 
 other bones of animals, to find out their structure, appearance, 
 materials of which they are made, etc. 
 
 Examine the bone under a magnifying glass. What appear- 
 ance has a bone? What is the inside of a long bone like? Of 
 what use is this ? What are the ends of the bone like ? What 
 difference is there between the. ends and the shaft? 
 
 Place a bone on top of some hot coals, and tell what happens. 
 
 Soak a bone in some weak muriatic acid, and tell what happens. 
 
 From these two experiments find out what two kinds of mate- 
 rial make bone. 
 
 What is the difference between the bones of a child and those 
 of a grown person ? 
 
 Think about the different bones of the body and find out their 
 uses : The skull, the ribs, the bones of the arm and leg, the 
 collar-bone, the shoulder-blades. 
 
 Of what use are the bones to the muscles ? Consider the vari- 
 ous sizes and shapes of bones, and how they are fitted for their 
 special work in the body. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. :\\ 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The bones form the framework of the body. They have three u& Thev 
 give shape and support to the different parts of the body. They protect 
 organs inside of the body and are used as a firm place to which the muse 
 are fastened so that they can act. There are more than two hundred boi 
 in the human body. They are of many different shapes and sizes according 
 to their work. Some of the principal bones are the skull, jawbones, ribs, 
 collar-bones, shoulder-blades, and the bones of the hands and arms, legs and 
 feet. 
 
 Bones are made of lime and gristle. Some bones are hollow, and are 
 filled with marrow. 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Pupils should examine a skull. Notice the number of bones 
 which compose it and the way they arc joined ; the roughni 
 of the skull for the attachment of muscles; the holes for blood 
 vessels and nerves to pass through; the cavities for eyes, brain ; 
 reason for its shape. 
 
 How many upper jawbones are there? How many lower jaw- 
 bones? Can we move the lower jaw? Can we move the upper 
 jaw? Why is it useful to have the skull rounded in shape . 
 
 What are the uses of the skull and jawbones? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The skull is an oval, bony case which holds and protects the brain and gii ee 
 shape to the head. It is made up of a number of separate bones, fastened 
 
32 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 together with edges like the teeth of a saw. In children these bones are not 
 fastened firmly, but grow together as the child grows older. 
 
 The jawbones are the bones of the month in which the teeth are set. 
 There are two tipper jawbones an J one lower jawbone. The lower jaw is 
 movable. Bach jaw contains sixteen teeth. The jaws give shape to the face, 
 and are also used in eating and talking. 
 
 Pictures and drawings should be made to illustrate this lesson. 
 
 BONES OF THE TRUNK — THE SPINE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why is the trunk so called? 
 
 String together circular pieces of wood with pads of felt be- 
 tween. This will serve to illustrate the structure of the spine. 
 Consider the spinal cord and its uses. 
 
 Consider why the spine is made up of a number of parts in- 
 stead of being a solid bone. 
 
 What uses has the spine ? Of what use are the pads of gristle ? 
 The separate bones can be felt in a row down the back. 
 
 If a vertebra cannot be obtained, pictures should be used to 
 show shape and size. This should be followed by drawings. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The spinal column or baek-bone is made up of twenty-four separate bones, 
 piled one on another. Between the bones are pads of gristle. The pads are 
 springy and prevent the bones from grating; and also break the force of a 
 shock or fall. Each bone in the column lias a hole through it. The spinal 
 cord runs through these holes. The spinal column supports the entire body, 
 and permits us to bend in any direction. It also protects the spinal cord. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 THE COLLAR-BONE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Consider the shape and use of the collar-bone. How man? 
 collar-bones have we? What is the collar-bone of a chicken 
 called? How does the wishbone differ in shape from our collar* 
 bone ? What is the reason for this difference ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The collar-bones are fastened to the breast-hone in front, and to tlu» 
 shoulder-blades. They are useful for keeping the shoulders back and to 
 keep them firm when the arms are used. 
 
 THE SHOULDER-BLADES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Consider the number, shape, size, position, and uses. Pictures 
 •showing position and adjacent bones should be examined. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The shoulder-blades are the two large, flat, triangular bones on the back, 
 outside of the ribs. They are fastened to the backbone at the back and to 
 the collar-bones at the shoulders. They help to keep the arms in place and 
 
 to protect the lungs. 
 
• I 
 
 4 OL'TLINKS IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 THE RIBS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Preparation for this lesson may consist in the endeavor of each 
 pupil to find out the number of ribs in his own body, and where 
 the ribs arc fastened. Breathe forcibly, but slowly, and note the 
 movements of the ribs. 
 
 Pictures of the ribs, to show the conical shape, should also be 
 examined. 
 
 What uses have the ribs? What organs are protected by the 
 
 ribs ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The ribs are the thin, Hat bones which pass around the body. There are 
 twenty-tour ribs, twelve on each side. They are all fastened to the spinal 
 column. The seven upper pairs are also joined to the breast-bone. The next 
 three pairs are not joined to the breast-bone, but each rib is joined to the one 
 above it by gristle. The two lower pairs are not joined to anything in front. 
 
 The ribs form the framework of the chest and protect the heart and lungs. 
 
 BONES OF THE ARM AND HAND. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 By examining the arm, the bones in the upper arm and fore- 
 arm can be traced by each pupil. How many bones are there in 
 each arm? In the same way the bones forming the palm and 
 fingers can be found. Consider also their number, size, and 
 shape. Note the beauty of the mechanism of the hand; the use 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 35 
 
 of the thumb. Consider also how one bone in the forearm turns 
 round the other. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The arm consists of three parts, — the upper arm, the forearm, and the 
 hand. The upper arm contains one large bone. The forearm contains two 
 bones. The hand consists of three parts, — wrist, palm, and fingers. Thi 
 are eight bones in the wrist, live in the palm, three in each finger, and two in 
 each thumb. 
 
 Illustrations. 
 
 BONES OF THE LEG AND FOOT. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 After the previous lesson pupils can make preparation for this 
 lesson by trying to ascertain the number of bones in the leg and 
 foot, by comparison with the arm and hand. 
 
 What bone is there in the leg to which there is no correspond- 
 ing: bone in the arm ? What is its use? How nianv hone- in 
 each foot ? each toe ? each leg ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The leg consists of three parts, — thigh, lower leg, and foot The thigh 
 contains one bone, which is the largest and Btrongesl bone in the body. The 
 lower leg contains two bones. Thekneepan is a small bone which protects 
 the knee joint and gives firmness to the leg. 
 
 The foot consists of four parts, — the ankle heel, instep, and toes. S< veil 
 bones form the ankle and heel, five bones form the instep. Kadi toe has 
 three bones except the great toe, which has only two. 
 
 Illustrations. 
 
36 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 THE JOINTS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Procure a joint of a sheep's leg at the butcher's. Open the 
 joint, and the various parts may then be examined. Of what 
 use is the cartilage? the synovial fluid? the ligaments? Why 
 do we oil machinery ? What takes the place of oil in a joint of 
 the body? 
 
 Name some joints in the body. The movements of the various 
 joints in the body will show the various ways in which the joints 
 are formed, and the amount of motion permitted by each joint. 
 Consider the inconvenience we would experience if we had no joints. 
 
 What kind of. joint have we at the shoulder, elbow, hip/ knee, 
 fingers, between spinal column and skull? 
 
 Why are these joints so named? 
 
 What kind of joint fastens the different parts of the skull to- 
 gether ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 A joint is a place where two or more bones are joined. There art 
 three kinds of movable joints, — ball and socket joint, hinge joint, and 
 pivot joint. We have a ball and socket joint at the shoulder and the hip. 
 We have hinge joints at the elbow, knee, wrist, ankle, and knuckles. The 
 skull and spinal column are joined by a pivot joint. The ends of the bones 
 in a joint are covered with a thin layer of gristle which is moistened by q. 
 fluid . This makes the joint move easily. 
 
 The seven bones of the skull are joined by fixed joints. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. :J7 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 The structure and color of the muscles of the body can be 
 
 « 
 
 understood by examining the muscle (meat) of other animals. 
 
 Consider the fact that all muscular action is the same. All 
 muscles contract when they act, and draw together the bones to 
 which they are fastened. 
 
 Muscles generally act in pairs. Bend the elbow joint. Where 
 
 is the muscle that caused this motion ? How d l< I it act ? Straighten 
 
 ■ 
 
 the arm. What caused the action ? 
 
 Where are the muscles that move a chicken's foot? How are 
 they fastened to the foot? What does a tendon look like . 
 Where are the muscles that move a bird's wings V 
 
 Are all muscles the same size? Whv are some larger than 
 others? Whv are the muscles of the arm large . Whv are the 
 muscles of the eyeball small ? 
 
 When a muscle shortens itself, or contracts, does it become 
 thinner or thicker? Stretch a piece of rubber and permit it to 
 relax. When is it thicker ? 
 
 Consider how many muscles are used in the simplest move- 
 ments: such as conveying food to the month. Binging a song from 
 the notes. Consider also the connection between the muscL 
 and brain. 
 
 How can the muscles of the bod v be kept in a healthy con- 
 dition ? 
 
 What muscles have we inside of the body whose movements 
 we cannot control ? 
 
38 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY* 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Muscles are the fleshy part of the body just under the skin. They are 
 made up of libers. They cover the skeleton and are fastened to the bones. 
 Muscles are used to give motion to the various parts of the body. A muscle 
 acts by contracting, or drawing up. When a muscle contracts it draAvs the 
 bone with it. When it relaxes the bone goes back in place. 
 
 Muscles sometimes act in pairs. When one of these muscles contracts or 
 shortens itself the opposite muscle lengthens. 
 
 Muscles grow thicker and stronger with the proper kind and amount of 
 exercise. 
 
 THE SENSES, 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 How do we obtain information about the world around 
 us ? In how many ways do we get this knowledge ? What is 
 the connection between these organs of sense and the brain? 
 When we receive a single impression of hearing or sight, etc., 
 what is the effect on the brain called ? From this term we get 
 the word "senses' 1 because it is through the senses that we re- 
 ceive sensations. 
 
 Why are the senses called " gateways of knowledge " ? 
 
 What kind of information do Ave obtain with the eyes ? the 
 ears ? the skin ? the tongue ? the nose ? What protection do we 
 owe to the sense of touch ? 
 
 Of what special use are the tongue and the nose in jDreserving 
 the health of the body? 
 
 Which sense do we first learn to use ? 
 
 What forms the connection between each sense organ and the 
 brain ? 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDX. 
 
 What do deaf persons use sometimes to take the place of heap- 
 Lag? What do blind persons use to take the place of seeing? 
 
 Who were Helen Keller and Laura Bridgman? How many 
 senses did they each have? How much information were, they 
 able to acquire ? 
 
 Information in reference to these people, and also in reference 
 to the different parts of the body, can be found in many books 
 in a public library. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The brain is the organ of the mind by means of which every part of thb 
 body is regulated, and every action is controlled. 
 
 The brain is protected by the skull. 
 
 The brain and every part of the body are connected by nerves, through 
 which the brain receives information of the condition of the body, and also 
 knowledge in reference to the world outside. The ways in which the brain 
 receives information of the world are called the five sense-, or five gateways 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Nerves also pass from the brain to the muscles in every part of the body, 
 for the purpose of telling them how to act. 
 
 To be of use to us the brain must pay strict attention to the messages Bent 
 from the different parts of the body, and must remember this knowledge so as 
 to use it in the future. The different organs must also do their work properly, 
 and attend strictly to their duties, so as to send correct messages to the brain. 
 
 If we are looking at anything, the eye helps us to see the object, and the 
 brain helps us to know a great deal about it, if we attend carefully, think 
 about the object, and remember what we have seen and Learned in reference 
 to it. This is true of each of the five senses. 
 
 Close attention is always necessary. Unless careful attention is given by 
 the ear to the sound, and by the tongue, nostrils, and skin to their Bpecial 
 work, the brain will not receive exact information, and it cannot do it- 
 work properly. The more carefully we attend, the better will the brain 
 do its work. 
 
40 OUT LINKS IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 We have seen that the skin is made up of two layers; the outer layer 
 called tlu* scarf skin, and the inner layer or the true skin. 
 
 The true skin is made up of a Dumber of tiny ridges. These are filled 
 with minute blood vessels and neryes. 
 
 The sense of touch is in the skin all oyer the body. The neryes of touch 
 are in the little ridges of the true skin. They are protected by the scarf 
 skin. When the scarf >kin is removed, the nerves of touch are exposed, and 
 on this account pain i- felt. 
 
 I J v this sense we are able to tell whether an object is hot or cold, 
 rough or smooth, round or square, hard or soft, etc. The nerves of touch 
 carry to the brain the impressions received at the surface of the body. 
 
 The -cn-e of taste is in the tongue. The nerves of taste are in the 
 little ridges all over the tongue. They are arranged in the form of a letter V 
 with the point of the letter towards the back. 
 
 The nerves of taste receive impressions from substances placed on the 
 tongue, and carrv to the brain the information as to whether the substance is 
 sweet, -our. bitter, salt, etc. 
 
 The nerves of smell are arranged on the skin which lines the nostrils. 
 
 All odors are made up of tiny specks of floating material. These are 
 carried bv the air to the nerves of smell. 
 
 * 
 
 The nerves of smell carry to the brain information in reference to the sub- 
 stance whose odor has reached them. 
 
 The senses of taste and smell are placed at the entrances of the passages to 
 the stomach and lungs. By means of these senses we can guard against 
 impure air and improper food. 
 
OUTLINES IX NAT! 'UK STUDY. 41 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 If possible, dissect in the class the eve of a sheep or Bome 
 other animal, and examine the different parts. Examine also 
 pictures of the eye and its various parts. 
 
 Where is the eye placed in the human body? Consider its 
 size, shape, and the various ways in which it is protected. What 
 is the use of the bony socket, the lids, lashes, and eyebrows? 
 
 How are the eyes moved? Of what advantage is this power? 
 Can a fly move its eyes? What takes the place of this power? 
 
 Photography follows the structure of the eye in the use of 
 lenses, blackened box, etc. 
 
 The use of the lens will be understood by finding out the use 
 of the lens in an opera glass. Why is the pupil always black? 
 
 Find out the position and use of the cornea, iris, pupil, tears, 
 and the coats of the eye. 
 
 Compare the eye of a human being with that of a cat. 
 
 How is the eye connected with the brain ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The eye is the organ of sight. It is a small hall, about one inch in diameter. 
 It is placed in the eye-socket and moves aboul on a cushion of fat. 
 
 The eye-socket is made of seven bones in the form of a cone. The eye II 
 protected by the eye-socket, eyelids, eyelashes, and eyebrows. 
 
 The eye has three coats or coverings. The outside coat is hard, so as to 
 protect the delicate parts inside. This is called the white ol the eye. 
 
42 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 The m i<ldle coat is filled with blood vessels and nerves, and is black on 
 the inside. 
 
 The inner coat is the most important of all, because it is made up of a 
 network of nerves which are connected with the brain by means of the nerve 
 of sight 
 
 These three coats cover the entire eyeball, except the anterior, or front, 
 part. The cornea covers the front part of the eye. Inside of the cornea 
 i^ the iris, which gives color to the eye. In the iris is the pupil, which regu- 
 lates the amount of light entering the eye. 
 
 The eye has two cavities or chambers separated by a transparent circular 
 lens. 
 
 The nerve of sight passes from the inside of the eye through an opening 
 in the eve and the eve-socket to the brain. 
 
 The light passes through the cornea, pupil, and lens, and strikes the nerves 
 spread out on the inside of the eye. The nerve of sight carries the impres- 
 sion to the brain and then we know that we see. 
 
 CARE OF THE EYES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 What is the reason for each of the following statements ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 We should not use the eyes in a dim light. The eyes should not be used 
 too long at a time. Reading when lying down is very injurious to the sight. 
 We should never read m a moving car or a rocking-chair. 
 
 The eyes should be given the aid of the proper kind of glasses as soon as 
 they begin to fail in any way. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUBB STUDY. 1.; 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE EAR. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Pictures and drawings of the various parts of the ear should 
 accompany the consideration of this subject. 
 
 What is the proper name for thai part of the body usually 
 called the ear? Of what is this made? Could we bear if this 
 were removed? Of what use is it? Hold a shell to the ear, and 
 see how much more sound is collected. 
 
 What causes the sounds that we hear? What is meant by 
 " vibrations " ? 
 
 What is the use of hairs and earwax in the ear ? 
 
 What is the drum of the ear? Why is it so called? What 
 would happen if all the air were removed from the inside of the 
 musical instrument called the drum? 
 
 What is the use of the opening which passes from the throat 
 to the ear ? 
 
 Of what use is the ear ? 
 
 Consider the value of the brain in reference not only i<> hear- 
 inff, but in reference to remembering things that we bave beard 
 before, and connecting them with things tli.it we bear later, and 
 the amount of knowledge obtained by this means. Hearing a 
 person speak in a foreign language does not give us any informa- 
 tion; why? What is the use of the brain in reference to this 
 point ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The ear is the organ of hearing. It is divided into three parts, — the 
 
 outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. 
 
44 OUTLINES IX NATUBE STUDY. 
 
 The outer ear consists of a broad plate of gristle, shaped somewhat like 
 a shell, and of a tube about one inch long. The tube is protected by earwax, 
 and by a set of fine hairs. These are used to moisten the ear, catch floating 
 dust, and keep away small insects. 
 
 The middle ear is called the drum of the ear. Between the middle ear and 
 outer ear i^ a thin skin called the membrane of the drum. It is very delicate, 
 and it it i- once broken, it cannot be repaired, and deafness will follow. 
 
 In the drum of the ear are three little bones, the smallest in the body. An 
 air passage le:id> from the throat to the drum of the ear. 
 
 The inner ear is made up of a number of winding passages cut through 
 the skull to the brain. These passages are lined with a thin skin on which 
 the nerve of hearing is spread out. Inside of this skin is a watery fluid in 
 which float tiny grains of sand. 
 
 Waves of sound are collected by the outer ear and pass to the membrane 
 of the drum, causing it to vibrate. When this membrane vibrates, it causes 
 the three little bones in the middle ear to vibrate. This causes the fluid 
 in the inner ear to wash the tiny grains of sand against the nerve of hear- 
 big; the nerve of hearing carries this impression to the brain, and we know 
 that we hear a sound. 
 
 CARE OF THE EAR. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 What is the reason for each of the following statements ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 We should never use earpicks of any kind, but the ear should be washed 
 gentlv with warm water. A loud noise close to the ear is dangerous because 
 it may break the membrane of the drum and cause deafness. The side of 
 the head should never be struck, nor the ear pulled, as either may injure the 
 hearing. 
 
III. ANIMALS. 
 
 THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Name a number of different animals. 
 
 What is an animal ? 
 
 Name some domestic animals. 
 
 What is a domestic animal ? 
 
 Examine as many live domestic animals as possible. 
 
 Name some beasts that are domestic animals. 
 
 Name some birds that are domestic animals. 
 
 What wild animal does each of our domestic animals resembl 
 
 In how many ways are domestic animals ot use t<> us 
 
 Tell all the different kinds of food with which these animals 
 furnish us. 
 
 Which of these animals are of value on account of their cover- 
 ing? their hoofs? their horns? Which are useful for carrying 
 heavy loads? Which protect us againsl other animals . 
 
 Which of these animals furnish us with the following articL 
 or with materials for their manufacture. — veal, mutton, milk, < 
 beef, tripe, haircloth, glue, feathers, horns, woolen cloth, etc.! 
 
 Of all the domestic animals, which is the most intelligent V I >i 
 all animals, which is the most intelligent? Why? What 
 domestic animals do people in other countries have that we do 
 
 45 
 
40 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 not have? Of what use are the camel, elephant, ostrich, stork, 
 etc.? 
 
 The hoofs, horns, bones, etc., of many of our domestic animals 
 can be obtained for close observation. 
 
 In any public library Avill be found many books containing 
 stories of these animals, their traits of character, and the uses to 
 which they are put by people in other countries. 
 
 Look at the feet, horns, bills, and teeth of these animals, and 
 make drawings of them. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 An animal is any living tiling that has feeling and the power of voluntary 
 motion, — that is, that can make a movement when it wishes. 
 
 Domestic animals are those that live with man and are useful to him. 
 
 Some domestic animals are the horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, chicken, duck, 
 goose, and turkey. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 To what class of animals does the horse belong? Which wild 
 animal docs the horse resemble ? How is the horse useful to man? 
 Why does the horse have large and strong bones and muscles? 
 
 Describe the hoof of a horse. Why is the horse shod? What 
 is the shape of the shoe? Who makes the shoe and puts it on? 
 How is it fastened? 
 
 On what part of the foot does the horse walk? 
 
 Of what does the food of the horse consist? 
 
 What kind of teeth has the horse ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. -17 
 
 What movement have the jaws of a horse in chewing his 
 
 food? 
 
 For what does the horse use its lips in eating? Of what use 
 to a horse is its tail ? its mane ? 
 
 Of what use to man are the horse's hoofs, hones, hide, tail, 
 and mane ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The horse is useful to man as a beast of burden. Its feet are fitted to walk 
 on firm ground. The toe-nail of the horse grows in such a way a- i<> 
 form hard, firm hoofs, on which he walks. To this horny hoof is nailed an 
 iron shoe, which protects the hoof against the wear of travel. 
 
 The horse is fond of grass, hay, corn, and oats, which it grinds between it- 
 teeth. Its front teeth are sharp for cutting. Its lips and teeth are formed 
 for eatino; the shortest 2;rass. 
 
 It is one of the most intelligent animals. It is faithful and affectionate t«> 
 its master, and will patiently endure long hours of toil and hardship, until \\< 
 strength gives out. It often sleeps standing. 
 
 The hide of the horse is used in making leather. The hair i< used in 
 making plaster. Haircloth is made from the mane and tail. The bones and 
 hoofs are used in making glue, and material for fertilizing the ground. 
 
 THE COW. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 In how many ways is the cow useful to us ? How many kinds 
 of food do we obtain from the cow? What is meant by milk 
 foods ? Name some milk foods. 
 
 What is tripe? What other parts of the cow do we use foi 
 
48 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 food ? What use do we make of the cow's bones ? How do we 
 use the hide ? the hair ? the horns ? the hoofs ? 
 
 What kind of food does the cow eat ? How many stomachs 
 
 t/ 
 
 has the cow? Of what use are the first two stomachs? Why 
 is the cow a cud-chewer ? 
 
 What kind of teeth have cud-chewers ? Which teeth has a 
 horse that a cow has not? What is the difference between the 
 hoof of a horse and that of an ox ? How many shoes does an 
 ox wear? What means of defense has a cow that ahorse has 
 not ? 
 
 Of what use to the cow are its horns ? What differences are 
 there between the horns of a cow and those of a stag ? What 
 difference is there between the tail of a horse and that of a cow ? 
 What wild animal does the cow resemble ? 
 
 Summary. 
 Bovines mav be divided into several classes which are useful to man in 
 
 m 
 
 different ways. Some are used as beasts of burden. These are called oxen. 
 Others are useful for providing us faith beef, veal, tripe, and milk foods. The 
 hide of the cow and ox is useful in making leather. The hair is needed in 
 making plaster, (due is made from the hoofs. Knife handles, umbrella 
 handles, and buttons are made from the horns. 
 
 The cow is a cud-chewer and is fond of grass and hay. When a cow first 
 swallows the food it passes to a large stomach, where it is well moistened; 
 then into a second stomach, where it is rolled into balls. These form the cud 
 which passes back to the mouth to be chewed. After it is well chewed it 
 goes to the other stomachs to be further prepared for use in the body. The 
 cow uses its tongue to place the food in its mouth. 
 
 The horns of the cow are round and hollow, with bone inside. They are 
 used by the cow for defending itself against its enemies. 
 
OUTLINES IN N ATI i:i: STUDY. 19 
 
 THE SHEEP. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 In how many ways is the sheep useful to us ' For whit pur- 
 pose do we use its wool ? With whit food does the sheep Bupply 
 ns? For what is its fat used? In whal countries is its skin 
 made into wine hottles ? 
 
 What is meant by a flock or herd".' What name is given to 
 the man who looks after the sheep ? 
 
 What kind of food does the sheep prefer V In regard to eat- 
 'ng, does the sheep resemhle the cow or the horse? \n wh.it 
 ,ther ways does the sheep resemble the cow V 
 
 Is the sheep fitted to live in hot or cold countries V Why do 
 vou think so ? Over what kind of land is it particularly fitted to 
 ,ravel ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The sheep is useful to man in furnishing wool for clothing and mutton I 
 food. From its fat, talknv is made. Its skin is made into rags, parchment, 
 
 and leather. 
 
 Sheep are cud-chewers and are fond of green grass or hay. 
 generally kept in flocks, and in each flock there is a Leader. Th 
 driven by a shepherd or a dog, and the resl of the flock follow. Sheep are 
 very timid and unable to take can' of themselves. 
 
 They are good climbers, and are found frequently in mountainous count 
 
60 OUTLINES IN i^ATUBB STUDY. 
 
 THE DOG. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Of what use is the dog to mankind ? In what part of the 
 world does it do the work of a horse ? Why are not horses 
 used in those countries ? Of what use is the dog in sheep-raising 
 districts ? Which of the five senses are highly developed in the 
 dog' ? 
 
 What kind of food does the dog prefer ? What kind of teeth 
 has it ? Why does the dog gnaw a hone ? What does it do with 
 a bone that it no longer wishes to gnaw ? Of what uses are the 
 claws of a dog? What peculiarity have a cat's claws that a dog's 
 do not possess ? 
 
 How do dogs vary in size, covering and traits of character? 
 What wild animal does the dog resemble ? 
 
 In any public library will be found books containing stories of 
 dogs and the different uses to which they are put in different 
 countries. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The dog is useful to protect man and warn him of the approach of danger. 
 It also destroys rats and mice. Some kinds of dogs are useful in hunting. 
 In cold countries dogs are used as beasts of burden, and are harnessed to 
 sledges. One kind of dog is useful in driving sheep. Some dogs are very 
 intelligent and can be trained to do many things. 
 
 Dogs have very keen senses of smell, sight, and hearing. They eat many 
 things that we do, but prefer raw meat. Dogs drink water by lapping it with 
 the tongue. They are faithful to people that are kind to them. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 51 
 
 THE CAT. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Describe the coat or covering of the cat. How many feel has 
 the cat? How many toes has the cat on each of its fore ]»;iw 
 On each of its hind paws? What peculiar power docs the cal 
 possess in reference to its claws ? For what purposes does the cat 
 use its claws? Of what three uses are the cushions or pads on 
 the cat's paws? What peculiarity have the eves of the cat? 
 What does this indicate ? Do all animals that wander at night 
 have eyes fitted to see in the dark? What peculiarity has the 
 tongue of the cat? How does it drink? For what other pur- 
 pose than eating and drinking does the cat use its tongue? 
 What kind of teeth has the cat? Are its teeth all alike '.' Why 
 does it need teeth of that character? Do all animals that feed 
 on flesh or meat have that kind of teeth? Of what use are the 
 cat's whiskers? How does the cat act when it is watching 
 and catching its prey? How does it resemble the tiger in this 
 respect? What is the difference in the coverings of a cat and a 
 dog? Why has the cat so soft a covering? Of what use to us 
 is the cat ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The cat is useful to protect us against rats and mice. The cat is covered 
 with fur. The paws of the cat are supplied with claws, which are used for 
 climbing, for holding a bird or a mouse, and for defending itself against it** 
 enemies. The claws can be sheathed when they air not in use, and do uot 
 touch the ground in walking. 
 
52 OUTLINES IN NATUEB STUDY. 
 
 The cushions on a cat's paws cover its claws, permit it to walk silently, and 
 prevent it from being jarred in jumping. 
 
 When trying to catch its prey, it creeps along and crouches before spring- 
 ing on it. It teases its victim usually before killing it. 
 
 The cat eats many foods that we do, but it prefers raw meat. It is fond of 
 milk, and when drinking laps the liquid with its tongue. The mouth 
 extends far back, so that it can use the tearing teeth easily. 
 
 BIRDS THAT ARE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Name some birds that are domestic animals. Why are they 
 called domestic animals ? Of what nse to man are the chicken, 
 turkey, duck, and goose? With what kinds of food do these 
 animals supply us ? 
 
 How does each of these animals move about from place to 
 place ? What is the difference between the feet of those that swim 
 and those that do not? Whv do ducks need to be fitted for 
 swimming ? Why do chickens have claws for scratching ? 
 
 How many toes has each of these fowls ? Where are the le^s 
 of each fastened to the body? Where are the muscles that 
 move a fowl's feet ? How are these fastened to the claws ? 
 What does a tendon look like ? 
 
 What shaped bill has each of these fowls? What kind of food 
 does each of them eat? Why is the bill of a duck supplied with 
 nerves and saw-like edges on the inside? How do fowls drink? 
 Have fowls teeth ? Of what use is the gizzard to birds ? 
 
 How are these fowls covered ? Which of them has the lightest 
 and softest feathers ? Which has very oily feathers ? Why are 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUEE STIUV. 
 
 the feathers of the cluck supplied with more «>il than those of 
 other fowls ? 
 
 How do the head and neck of a turkey differ from those of 
 
 other fowls ? 
 
 Which of the domestic fowls desert the young bird* 
 
 The head and feet of these fowls are easily obtained lor the 
 
 purpose of examining them. If possible, observe the fowl alii 
 
 and notice its various habits. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Some fowls of the barnyard are the chicken, turkey, •_:'< >■>-«■. and 'luck. 
 These animals are useful to us on account of their feathers and their flesh. 
 They also supply us with eggs. 
 
 These animals all walk on land, but ducks and geese can swim. The birds 
 that swim are web-footed. 
 
 Ducks obtain much of then food from the bottom of stream- bv discing 
 for it. They eat worms, frogs, tadpoles, and fish, a- well as grain. When a 
 duck wishes to capture some creature for food, it dives under the water. Ii 
 passes the mud and water out between the saw-like edges "t' it- bill, and re- 
 tains the food. 
 
 The goose in swimming does not dive under water like the duck, but it 
 thrusts its head and neck into the water while it i- using it- bill. The 
 feathers of the goose are the best for pillows, because they are bo light and 
 soft. 
 
 Chickens scratch much of their food from the ground. They eat bugs, 
 worms, and grain. When a worm is too large i" eat the chicken tears it up 
 with its claws and bill. 
 
 The turkey can run very fast because it has such long legs. The feet are 
 partly webbed, so that it can swim a little. It has no feathers en it- head and 
 neck. Turkeys eat grain, nuts, and insects of various kinds. 
 
 Ducks and geese roost low, chickens and turkeys roost high. 
 
54 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Mention some animals that move by walking. 
 
 Mention some animals that move by living. 
 
 Mention some animals that move by swimming. 
 
 Mention some animals that wade. 
 
 Name some animals that can move in each of the first three 
 wavs. 
 
 Are the bones of the horse's leg large or small ? Why ? Why 
 must the muscles that move the le^ of the horse be large and 
 strong ? When a four-footed domestic animal walks, which leus 
 move at the same time ? 
 
 Where are the muscles that move a chicken's claws? How 
 are they fastened to the bone? Which of the barnyard fowls 
 walk the most awkwardly ? Which can run the fastest ? How 
 may the wings be compared to the sails of a boat, when one of 
 these birds runs ? Why cannot these birds fly well ? 
 
 Which parts of the body must be strong in animals that walk ? 
 In those that fly ? In those that swim ? 
 
 Do all animals use the same organs in swimming ? What part 
 of the body does the duck use? Why cannot beasts and human 
 beimrs swim for so lonir a time as fish or ducks? What is the 
 difference in position between the legs of a duck and those of a 
 chicken ? Why are a duck's so placed ? What must all swim- 
 mers do in order to advance through the water? 
 
 Compare the size of a sparrow's wings with the size of its 
 
.OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 00 
 
 body. Examine a pigeon or a chicken in the same way. Why 
 cannot a chicken fly to any great heighl ? 
 
 What must birds do in flying in order to advance through the 
 air? Why cannot we fly? Where are the muscles thai move 
 
 the wings? Why can wild ducks llv farther than tame one* 
 
 A fan that is somewhat scoop-shaped may be used to illustrate 
 how a bird's wing pushes the air down. 
 
 • What is the difference between walking and wading What 
 kind of legs are necessary to a wading bird '! Whal kind of feel V 
 Why do these birds wade ? 
 
 Consider the fact that organs are given to animals as they are 
 needed for moving about, obtaining food, defense, etc Tin 
 organs develop with use, but become weak and small, and finally 
 disappear if they are not used. Name some animals which 
 
 illustrate this. 
 
 All of these animals or pictures of them should be examined in 
 connection with the consideration of the subject. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Animals that walk have strong bones and muscles 1- form the Legs. Th< 
 form a support to the body. The muscles are fastened to the bones in rach 
 a way that they bend the legs and cause the body to move forward. 
 
 When a bird flies, it opens its wings in a rounded Bhape and raises them 
 in the air. As the wings are raised the edges cut the air. The under 
 side of the wing is hollow, and holds a large quantity of air. The feath 
 are lapped so that the air cannot escape. The bird pushes the air 
 back and down with its wings and thus raises its body and moves forward 
 The bird keeps moving its wings in this way by means of its breast muse 
 and thus forces its way through the air. The breast-bone of a bird hi 
 ridge down the center, forming two large, hollow places for the- attachment 
 of the large breast muscles. 
 
5G OUTLINES IN NATUKE STUDY. 
 
 The wings of all birds that fly are very large in proportion to their bodies. 
 AVheii the wines of a bird are too small, it cannot fly well. If the breast- 
 bone of a bird is flat, the breast muscles will not be sufficiently large to move 
 the wings. Birds arc supplied with wings so that they can escape from their 
 pursuers. 
 
 An animal that swims forces its way through the water in the same way 
 that a bird forces its way through the air. Fishes push the water back with 
 their fins. 
 
 .V bird that swims is web-footed. The bird pushes the water back with its 
 feet and thus sends the body forward. 
 
 When a duck thrusts its foot forward in swimming, it folds it together so 
 as to pass through the water easily. When it is ready to push it back again,, 
 it spreads the foot out in a sort of scoop-shape, so as to force back as much 
 water as possible. 
 
 Eorses and many other animals can swim short distances, but this is not 
 the usual way in which they move from place to place. These animals cannot 
 swim well because they cannot push away enough water to move the body 
 forward rapidly. The muscles are not strong enough for this work, and they 
 soon become tired. 
 
 Animals are supplied with organs for swimming so as to obtain the kind of 
 food which they need and also to escape from danger. 
 
 Some birds, such as the stork, heron, sandpiper, and crane, are fitted not 
 only to fly and walk, but also to wade. For this purpose the legs are long 
 and the feet have straight, long, flat toes, upon which the bird can stand firmly 
 in the mud at the bottom of a stream. Tliev also have Ions; necks and bills. 
 They wade into the water and stand quite still, with the toes spread to avoid 
 sinking in the mud. Then, as fish and frogs swim about the bird's legs, it 
 bends its Long neck down quickly and catches the animal, which goes down 
 its long throat whole. 
 
 All movement of animals i> caused by the contraction of muscles. Muscles 
 that are used frequently become thicker and stronger and better able to do 
 then- special work. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATTTBB STUDY. oT 
 
 THE SKELETONS OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine the hones of as many animals as possible. If p 
 sible, obtain all the bones of some animal and wire them to- 
 gether in the proper places. 
 
 In any public library will be found books containing pictures 
 of the skeletons of animals. At the Academy of Natural Sciences, 
 Philadelphia, can be seen skeletons of many different kinds of 
 animals. 
 
 In which class of animals are the bones most easily bent? 
 Why? Why are bones of this kind of use to fish? 
 
 Which animals have the heaviest bones? Whv do they Deed 
 such large, strong hones ? 
 
 What jDeculiarity have the bones of birds ? Of what advanta 
 is this? Why do birds need bones that are light ? 
 
 The backbones and ribs of a cat or a dog can often be fell on 
 the surface of the body. Compare the backbone and ribs of 
 beasts, birds, and reptiles. 
 
 Which animals have the most looselv jointed backbones 
 Which animals have a backbone in which ihe vertebrae or bones 
 forming: it are firmlv mined? What is the reason for the 
 peculiar formation in each case ? 
 
 Compare the skulls and ribs of different animals as to size and 
 
 shape. 
 
 Which animals have the most prominent breastrbone? Why 
 do birds need a breast-bone of this kind? Why docs a wood- 
 
58 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 pecker or a parrot have a flatter breast-bone than other birds ? 
 Whv cannot the ostrich fly ? 
 
 What name is sometimes given to the collar-bone of a bird? 
 to the fore leg of a chicken? How many collar-bones has a 
 bird? How many hay e we? Compare the jawbones of beasts 
 with those of human beings. Why do we not need such strong 
 jawbones or such large teeth as beasts ? Which animals have 
 no teeth ? 
 
 What organ in a bird takes the place of teeth in grinding up 
 the food? 
 
 How many kinds of teeth have we ? Of what use is each 
 kind ? Name some animals that have teeth for cutting and 
 gnawing ; for tearing ; for grinding. What kind of food does 
 each of these animals eat ? Of what use are teeth to snakes ? 
 
 To what parts of our body do the fore legs of a beast corre- 
 spond ? the hind legs ? Compare the fore leg of a beast to the 
 arm of man, and find the joints that correspond to the wrist and 
 elbow. Also compare the hind leg of a beast with the leg of 
 man, and find the corresponding joints. 
 
 How many toes has the dog? the cat? the horse? the pig? 
 the cow ? the bear ? the monkey ? Have the fore legs the same 
 number of toes as the hind letrs ? 
 
 On what does each of these animals walk ? Which walk on 
 the toe-nails ? on the toes ? on the whole foot ? on the four feet ? 
 
 Which beast has four thumbs? Of what advantage to us is 
 the thumb ? 
 
 To what part of our body does the wing of a chicken corre- 
 spond ? Examine the bones in the wing, and find the bones and 
 joints which correspond to the bones and joints of the arm and 
 hand.. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 5'J 
 
 In what direction does the knee joint always bend? Where 
 
 is a bird's knee joint? To what joint in man docs the first joint 
 from the toes in a bird correspond? On what docs a bird gen- 
 erally walk ? 
 
 At the Zoological Garden many beasts, birds, and reptiles can 
 be seen. Careful observation will give much information in 
 reference to the formation of their skeletons. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The skeleton of an animal is of such a size, shape, weight, and arrange- 
 ment as to suit the needs of the animal and the conditions of its existence. 
 
 Some beasts need large, heavy bones for the attachment of strong muscles. 
 Birds need bones that are -light in weight. For this reason their bones are 
 hollow and are filled with ah. Snakes need bones that can be quickly moved 
 This power is obtained by means of very loose joints. Most of the bones of 
 fish are soft and flexible, so that they are easily bent. The bones of be 
 are much heavier and stronger than those of human beings. 
 
 Every animal that has a skeleton inside of the body is supplied with a back- 
 bone. Most animals that have backbones are supplied with tour Limbs. In 
 human beings these consist of two arms and two legs. Beasts have four le 
 Birds have two wings and two legs. Fish have two pairs of tins which cor- 
 respond roughly to the limbs of other animals. The tortoise and the crocodile 
 have four legs. Some lizards have four legs and some have two Legs, - >me 
 lizards and snakes have no legs. 
 
 The ribs of animals that feed on grass and grain form a foundation for a 
 large, heavy body. These also have a long, narrow skull. 
 
 The ribs of animals that feed on flesh form a Blender body, as they q< 
 to move quickly in seeking their prey. The skull of these animals is br< 
 and short. Beasts of prey need large, strong bones in the fore Legs and 
 shoulders. The backbone of animals that crouch is so arranged that it is 
 very flexible and can be bent and twisted in almost any direction. 
 
 The jawbones of beasts are heavier and stronger than those ^i man. Afl 
 
60 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 man uses knives and forks to assist him in cutting his food, he does not need 
 the large jawbones for this purpose. Neither does he need them as a means 
 of defense. 
 
 Some animals, such as the bear, Cape ant-eater, sea-lion, etc., walk on four 
 feet. Most animals walk on their toes or toe-nails, and the remainder of the 
 foot between the toes and ankle consists of one long bone. This is of use 
 in supporting the weight of the body and allowing the animal to move more 
 lightly and quickly. 
 
 The toes of some beasts are supplied with claws. Their feet are called 
 paws. The toe-nails of others cover and protect the toes, and these are called 
 hoofs. 
 
 The arrangement of the bones and joints in the hand of man which per- 
 mits freedom of motion to the thumb is of great advantage. 
 
 In a bird the bones forming the backbone between the neck and tail are 
 firmly joined. The skull and backbone are so joined that the head can be 
 turned almost completely round. In man and beasts these are so joined that 
 the head can be turned from side to side and can be moved or nodded 
 forward and back. 
 
 The breast-bone of man is flat, but a bird has a keel-shaped breast-bone, 
 with a ridge of bone down the center. This forms large, hollow places for 
 the attachment of the huge muscles which move the wings. 
 
 The lower jaw of a bird is joined to the skull by means of a small bone. 
 This permits the jaws to be opened very wide. Reptiles also haA-e this bone. 
 
 The two collar-bones of human beings are placed end to end and fastened 
 to the top of the breast-bone. These are used for holding the shoulders back 
 in place. The collar-bones of a bird are fastened together, forming one bone 
 of a rounded V shape. This rests against the ridge of the breast-bone and 
 the ends support the large bones of the wings. 
 
 The bones of the Iclts are almost entirely covered by muscles and feathers, 
 so that the knee is out of sight. Birds walk on their toes, except the adju- 
 tant bird, or marabout. One bone forms that part of a bird's foot between 
 the toes and ankle. A bird has but one bone in the lower leg, while man is 
 supplied with two. 
 
 The bones and joints of a bird's wing correspond to those of the arm and 
 hand of man. It consists of one long bone corresponding to the long bone 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUEB STUDY. 61 
 
 of the upper arm. Joining this are two hones corresponding to die two bo 
 of the forearm. To these are joined two bones which correspond roughly to 
 the five sets of hones forming the palm and fingers. The joints correspond to 
 
 the elbow and wrist. 
 
 The backbone of the tortoise is composed of bones which are firmly 
 fastened together. The ribs also are joined together and have no power 
 motion. 
 
 The backbone of the snake is made up of bones joined by a succession of 
 ball and socket joints. For this reason it can glide swiftly from place to 
 place. The snake has no breast-bone, as this would interfere with its active 
 movements. All other reptiles have flat breast-bones. 
 
 The bones forming the backbone and tail of the lizard are so loosely 
 joined that a part of the tail can be cast off without inconvenience. 
 
 The bones in the head of a fish are somewhat harder than its other boi 
 Its bones are light in weight and are very soft and gristly. This permits 
 them to bend easily, and by this means the fish can twist its body in any 
 direction in gliding through the water. 
 
 Some animals have no skeleton within the body. Some of these are pro- 
 tected by a covering on the outside. Among these are spiders, insects, shell- 
 fish, and starfish. 
 
 Some have neither a hard covering nor anything corresponding to a sk< 
 ton. Among these are worms and jellyfish. 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE BODES OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Compare the eyes of various animals, such as the cat, the 
 eagle, the mole, the fly, the penguin, the hen, the horse, etc. 
 Compare, as to then- shape and use, the tails of a n i m als, such 
 the horse, the cow, the squirrel, the rat, the whale, the catfish, 
 the alligator, the opossum, etc. 
 
62 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Which animals have a keen sense of sight, hearing, smell, or 
 touch ? Of what use is this to the animal ? 
 
 How do the coverings of animals differ ? Why are birds cov- 
 ered with feathers? Why are fish covered with a scaled armor? 
 
 ■ 
 
 Why is the snake covered with a smooth skin ? Why is it sup- 
 plied with scales ? Why is the hide of a rhinoceros in folds or 
 wrinkles ? Why is the bear covered with fur ? 
 
 Compare the tongues of various animals, such as the snake, 
 the frog, the woodpecker, the giraffe, the cat, the tiger, the 
 horse, the lizard, etc. What is the advantage of the peculiarity 
 in each case ? 
 
 Examine various animals for the purpose of finding out how 
 they obtain their food. 
 
 Of what uses are a crab's claws ? 
 
 Of what use is the elephant's trunk ? 
 
 Why has an owl such large eyes ? 
 
 Of what use is a camel's hump ? What causes it to increase or 
 diminish in size ? When is it smallest ? 
 
 Of what use is the long neck of the giraffe ? of the stork ? 
 
 Why has the chamois double hoofs ? 
 
 What takes the place of muscles in a fly's eves? 
 
 Win* have a cat's eyes power to change the shape of the pupils ? 
 
 Of what use are whiskers to a cat ? 
 
 Why have owls and bats such prominent ears ? 
 
 Why has a tiger padded toes ? 
 
 Whv is the cow a cud-chewer? 
 
 Why is the beaver web-footed ? 
 
 Why does the tail of the tadpole disappear ? 
 
 Which has the softer covering, the cat or the dog ? Why ? 
 
 What is the color of the polar bear ? Why ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 6 
 
 Why can a fly walk on the ceiling ? 
 
 Of what uses are a chicken's claws ? 
 
 Of what uses are a sparrow's wings ? Why cannol a chicken 
 fly well ? 
 
 Why does not a canary fall from its perch when it is asleep? 
 
 Of what use are nostrils to a fish ? 
 
 Of what use are a snake's tongue and teeth? Wha1 takes tin- 
 place of feet in a snake? Of what color is it? Why? 
 
 Why is not the whale a fish ? 
 
 Why is not the spider an insect ? 
 
 Why is not the bat a bird ? 
 
 Of what uses is the lion's mane ? 
 
 Why can a camel close its nostrils ? 
 
 Of what use is the squirrel's tail ? the horse's tail ? 
 
 Name some animals that walk on their toes; some that walk 
 on their toe-nails. 
 
 At the Zoological Garden many animals of all kinds can be 
 examined for the purpose of ascertaining their peculiarities and 
 the reasons for them. The climate in which they are fitted to 
 live, the kind of food which they eat, the ground over which 
 they are fitted to travel, and their means of protection or 
 defense can all be discovered by close observation. 
 
 In any dictionary or encyclopedia, pictures of many varieties 
 of animals can be seen. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 All animals have bodies that are fitted to the conditions of their existence. 
 They are covered according to the climate b which they live and the mode 
 of life which they lead. They are given organs for the purpose of obtaining 
 
64 OUTLINES IX NATUBB STUDY. 
 
 food. They have also some means to protect and defend themselves or else 
 to escape from danger. The way in which they move from place to jilaee is 
 adapted to obtaining food or escaping from an enemy. 
 
 All organs grow with use. The more any organ is used, the better it will 
 do its work. If an organ is not used it becomes weak and small, and finally 
 disappears. 
 
 Some animals need a covering that is light in weight. Many beasts need 
 a heavy, warm covering. Under some conditions a smooth covering is neees- 
 v to the animal to permit it to move easily and quickly. Birds need a cover- 
 ering as light in weight as possible. BeaMs that live in warm countries do 
 not need so heavy a covering as those of cold countries. Some birds change 
 their homes on account of the scarcity of food. Some other animals lie dor- 
 mant during the winter season when there is a lack of food. Animals that 
 do not change their homes have power to change their covering with the 
 change of seasons. 
 
 Animals that live in water either all or a part of the time have organs fitted 
 to supply their needs. Fish have the scaled, oily body and head of such a 
 shape that it can glide most easily through the water. In many cases a fish 
 is also supplied with an air bladder, by means of which it can float. 
 
 Birds and reptiles that swim are web-footed. The hippopotamus, alligator, 
 and frog can close their eyes, ears, and nostrils under water. These also have 
 coverings suited to life in the water. 
 
 All animals have organs specially arranged to suit their needs. 
 
 The eyes of birds are supplied with three eyelids, one of which is a thin 
 skin, with which the eyes can be shielded from the bright sun without inter- 
 n-ring with sight. The eyes of the eagle and the hawk are supplied with bones 
 arranged in such a way that they can see distant objects as well as those that 
 are near. The eyes of insects are not supplied with muscles, but are many- 
 sided instead. 
 
 When an organ is no longer used, it soon becomes powerless to act and 
 finally is lost entirely. The blind fish of Mammoth Cave are blind because 
 they live in darkness. The eves of the mole are almost covered bv thick 
 fur. The tail of the tadpole becomes smaller and smaller, and finally disap- 
 pears when it is no longer used. 
 
 The lion's mane protects its eyes from sand. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATtJRE BTUDY. 65 
 
 The camel's eyes are covered with a fringe of hair. It has power to «•!■ 
 its nostrils. Its knees are cushioned for kneeling. It- feel will qo1 -ink in 
 the sand. Its stomach can be used'for storing food and water. It- hump also 
 supplies it with food when no other can be obtained. 
 
 The polar bear has a growth of coarse hair od it- feet, which enables it to 
 walk on slippery ice and snow. 
 
 Beasts that climb in rocky and mountainous places have slender, nimble 
 legs and double hoofs. Those that climb trees have -harp claws. 
 
 Animals that seek their food at night have eyes thai can see in darkm 
 Their covering is soft and smooth, so as to make as little noise as possil 
 Tigers and cats are supplied with feelers or whiskers. Their padded 1 
 also assist them to move quietly and prevent the body from being jarred when 
 jumping. The bat's body is covered with soft hair and it ha- prominent eat 
 
 Animals have organs of various kinds for obtaining t' 1. 
 
 Beasts of prey have slender, agile bodies. They air supplied with teeth 
 and claws with which thev capture animals for food. Thev have also rough 
 
 v J. « 
 
 tongues and sharp teeth for tearing the flesh food. Tiny nave a keen g 
 of sight, smell, and hearing. 
 
 Birds of prey have sharp beaks and talons with which they Beize ami tear 
 their food. In place of teeth a bird has a gizzard. In the gizzard the food 
 is ground and crushed by means of the pebbles which arc swallowed for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Some animals that feed on grass and grain are cud-chewers. These ani- 
 mals could not, at one time, eat enough food and chew it properly t<> -ap- 
 ply the necessary amount of nourishment for their large, heavy 1>"<1 
 Anions; wild animals of this kind many are obliged t<» travel a long distance 
 to obtain food. For these reasons they are supplied with stomachs in which 
 they can store food for future use. These animals have fleshy tongues ami 
 broad, flat teeth for grinding their food. The giraffe hafl long tore legs and 
 neck so as to reach the leaves of trees, on which it feeds. It has also a flex- 
 ible tongue, which it can twine around the leaves in plucking them from the 
 trees. 
 
 Beasts and reptiles that feed on insects have many -mall, sharply pointed 
 teeth. Birds that feed on insects have Ion--, -lender l.ill- with which they can 
 obtain food from the flowers or the bark »>t' a t iv. . The frog ha- ii- tong 
 
60 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 fastened to the front of its mouth. It can dart its tongue out quickly, catch 
 an insect with the tip, and carry it to the hack part of the mouth. 
 
 Ducks have bills with toothed edges. Through these they sift the mud 
 and water, retaining in their hills only the food which they desire. 
 
 The broad snout of the hog is used for digging from the ground the roots 
 on which it feeds. 
 
 Rats and mice use their hairless tails for obtaining liquid food which would 
 otherwise he beyond their reach. 
 
 MEANS OF DEFENSE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine various animals for the purpose of rinding out how 
 they protect themselves from attack. 
 
 Name some animals that have any of the following means of 
 defense: stings, horns, fins, teeth, pincers, claws and beak, claws 
 and teeth, tail. 
 
 How do the following animals defend themselves: cat? dog? 
 horse? cow? mouse? squirrel? bee? fish? snake? hen? rabbit? 
 tortoise? lobster? eagle? sparrow? What animals are enemies 
 to those animals ? 
 
 Which animals escape from their enemies by quick movement? 
 Which have homes that their enemies cannot reach? 
 
 Of what use are a deer's antlers? 
 
 Why does a rabbit live in a hole in the ground ? 
 
 Why is the tortoise covered with shell? 
 
 Why does an opossum pretend to be dead? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUKE STUDY. 67 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Animals defend themselves in various ways. 
 
 Birds of prey attack other animals with talons and Leaks, Other birds, 
 when attacked, use their bills and claws to defend them>elv< - Beasts I 
 prey use claws and teeth for the same purpose. Some of these -nik<- an 
 enemy with a heavy paw. 
 
 Animals that feed on grass or grain are supplied either with Bharp front teeth 
 or tusks, or else wdth horns with which to defend themselves. The tails of 
 many animals are also used to defend then i against attack or a- a means of 
 escaping from it. 
 
 The mane of the lion and the horse not only protects the eyes from dust, 
 but also protects the animal from the teeth or claws of other animals. 
 
 Some beasts hug then* victims until the breath is forced oul of the body 
 and the lungs collapse. The flat foot of the hear enables it to stand firmly 
 on its hind feet while suffocating;- its victims. The kangaroo holds it- prey in 
 its fore leers and tears the body with the long; middle claw of each hind foot 
 
 Some snakes crush then- victims bv twining their long body round and round 
 the captive. Others are .supplied with poison fangs with which they kill an 
 enemy. Other snakes and lizards seek safety in flight The lizard can c 
 part of its body and thus escape from danger. 
 
 The tortoise cannot move rapidly and it protects itself from danger by 
 withdrawing: into its shell. It also uses its beak to defend itself. Snails also 
 can withdraw into then* shells at the approach of an enemy. 
 
 Oysters and clams have then bodies protected by a hard covering which 
 they can close when in danger. 
 
 Fish use fins and tail as a defense. Nearly one half of the body is made 
 up of backbone and muscle, with which a blow can be struck, as well as the 
 body propelled through the water. 
 
 Lobsters and crabs are covered by shells. They are also supplied with 
 pincers and ckws with which they can capture their prey or injure an enemy. 
 These animals can also drop off the whole or part ^i a claw and thus remove 
 the remainder of the body from danger. 
 
 Insects are supplied with wings with which they can escape from danger. 
 
68 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Some are supplied with stings as a means of defense. Birds also find safety 
 in flight from their natural enemies. Some animals climb for the same pur- 
 pose. Monkey- use their four hand-like feet and then* tails for escaping from 
 danger. 
 
 Some animals have homes of such a kind that their enemies cannot reach 
 them. This may he the nest of the bird, the burrow of the rabbit, or the 
 squirrel's hollow tree. Animals build their homes so as to imitate the sur- 
 rounding. To these homes they flee swiftly when they have no means 
 to combat an enemy successfully. 
 
 Some animals have the power of sending forth an unpleasant odor which 
 acts as a safeguard and prevents the approach of an enemy. 
 
 COLOR AS A PROTECTION* 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Consider the color of animals in reference to where they make 
 their homes and seek their food. 
 
 Of what use is it to many birds to be brown in color? Why 
 are birds in tropical countries covered with brilliant plumage? 
 
 Why is the tiger striped? the leopard spotted? Why has the 
 grasshopper its color? Why is the frog green? 
 
 Of what colors are bears ? Why ? 
 
 What is the difference in color between the ovster and the 
 clam? Of what use is its color to each of these animals? 
 
 Name some other animals that live in the water. What is the 
 color of each? Why? 
 
 Which animals seek their food at night? Of what color is 
 each ? Why ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 09 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Animals are protected by their color, which is generally similar to the 
 surroundings. This is of use whether the animal is seeking to attack or to 
 escape from another. 
 
 Fish generally have bodies with the upper side dark. Those thai live a< 
 the surface of sparkling water have brilliant, silvery bodies somewhat lil 
 sunlit ripples. Those that inhabit the deepest water are of a color resembli 
 the bed. 
 
 Lobsters and crabs are of the same color as seaweed. 'I'll*- snake and liz- 
 ard are similar in color to the mossy ground. The brown feathered coats of 
 birds resemble the bare branches of the trees. Those of more brilliant plum- 
 age are found among bright- colored grasses, leaves, and flowers. 
 
 Insects that hover near water have transparent wings. Those that live 
 among leaves or on the stems of plants are green. Others that live among 
 dried and faded grasses, on the bark of trees, or on the ground have bodies 
 of a color to imitate the surroundings. 
 
 The tiger's striped body has the effect of the shadow and sunlight of the 
 long grasses among which he roams. 
 
 The leopard's spots resemble leaf shadows. The sable and brown bear b 
 coverings of a color similar to that of the bark of tree-. The polar bear is 
 white. Animals that live in sandy regions are of a tawny color, as the lion, 
 the camel, the shrimp, and the clam. The bat is black in color, and the rat 
 and mouse are of a dark color that cannot be seen easily at night when t hex- 
 leave their nests to seek food. 
 
 HOW DIFFERENT ANIMALS BREATHE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Is our blood warm or cold? What is the temperature of the 
 blood of the chicken? the tortoise? the catfish? the grass- 
 
 hopper? the frog? the cat? the whale? 
 
TO OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 What is the color of our blood ? What is the color of the blood 
 of each animal just mentioned? 
 
 What material do Ave use for breathing? What is used by 
 birds? snakes? whales? crabs? oysters? flies? do«"s? 
 
 Examine the body of a grasshopper for the purpose of finding 
 the breathing holes. Have insects lungs? Why do insects and 
 birds need air in every part of the body ? 
 
 Why does a fish constantly open and close its mouth? Of 
 what use are nostrils to a fish ? Where are the gills of a fish ? 
 Of what color are they ? Why ? What becomes of the water 
 after a fish has used it for breathing ? How are the gills of a fish 
 protected ? 
 
 Where are the gills of the oyster? lobster? clam? What 
 arrangement does a clam possess for sending water to and from 
 the gills ? 
 
 What organs do we use for breathing? 
 
 What other animals use lungs? What is the color of a 
 chicken's lungs ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 All animals have organs of breathing suited to their modes of life. Some 
 animals breathe air. Among these are human beings, beasts, birds, reptiles, and 
 insects. Some animals breathe water, as fish and shellfish. The object of 
 all breathing is to purify the blood. 
 
 Among those that breathe air, some animals have lungs for breathing, as 
 man, beasts, reptiles. Reptiles breathe very much more slowly than we do. 
 
 The tortoise takes in air through the nostrils and swallows it. After it has 
 been used, the lungs slowlv collapse and the air is thus sent out. The lungs 
 of the lizard are protected by movable ribs. The muscles attached to the 
 ribs move them and thus help to pump the air in and out of the lungs. 
 Snakes use but one lung and this is a very long, narrow bag. The hissing 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 71 
 
 noise which snakes make is caused by forcing the air quickly in and oul of 
 
 this ah- bag. 
 
 The crocodile has a valve in its mouth. This is used to separate the mouth 
 from the air passages. The air is taken in through the nostrils and Bent to 
 the lungs. The nostrils are very far back <m its head. By this arrangement 
 it can hold a victim under water until it is drowned, without being deprived 
 of air itself. 
 
 Birds breathe by means of lungs connected with air sacs. These air sacs 
 are connected also with the hollow bones. There are nine air Bacs altogether. 
 Three are near the collar-bone, four are in the chest, and two are in the abdo- 
 men. This arrangement for breathinir is also an advantage in making the body 
 of the bird light and thus assisting its night. 
 
 Insects have no lungs and no closed svsteni of blood vc^cK. They 
 breathe air by means of spiracles. Spiracles are tubes which open on the 
 surface of the body. These openings are called breathing holes. The tubes 
 extend to every part of the body, even to the ends of the legs and antennas, 
 and in this way the blood in every part of the body is purified. A- tl 
 creatures move about very quickly, it is necessary that the spiracles or air 
 tubes should be very flexible. If they were stiff they would interfere with 
 the movements of the insect. Most tubes that are flexible will flatten it" 
 they are bent (as a piece of rubber hose). If this were the case with the 
 ah* tubes of insects, they would be deprived of air whenever the tubes w< 
 bent. To avoid this danger, the air tubes have double wall-, aid between 
 these two walls is Avound a strong, hair-like thread in the form of a Bpiral. 
 
 Fish breathe water by means of gills. Gills consist --t* a number of folds 
 of the skin. These are full of blood vessels, which cause them t<- have a red 
 color. The gills are protected by a scaly cover. The fish takes in water 
 through the mouth and passes it through toothed slits in the throat to the 
 gill chamber. The blood ispurified in the gills by mean- ^\ this water, Then 
 the toothed slits are closed and the water which ha- been used i- forced out 
 under the gill covers. 
 
 In fish the sills are attached to the sides of the head. In Lobsters and 
 crabs the gills are attached to the legs. In the clam and oyster the gills are 
 along the edge under the mantle. 
 
 The clam has an organ for carrying water to and from the gills. This is I 
 
72 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 bent tube called the siphon, that passes through the clam. The two ends of 
 the tube are side by side on one edge of the body. It has power to extend 
 this tube so as t<> obtain water when it buries itself in the sand. 
 
 The tadpole breathes water by means of gills, but when it becomes a frog 
 it breathes ah* by means of hums. It can also breathe water by means of 
 its skin. 
 
 BEASTS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine a number of beasts in reference to their covering. 
 How are the following animals covered: the lion? the bear? 
 the sheep? the hor.se ? the dog ? the cat? the whale ? the bat? 
 the hedgehog? the hippopotamus? 
 
 What is the reason for the kind of covering each of these ani- 
 mals has? 
 
 How do the feet of animals differ ? Name an animal that 
 walks on the toes; one that walks on the toe-nails ; one that 
 walks on its whole foot. 
 
 Which animals have paws? Which animals have hoofs? 
 What is the difference between a paw and a hoof? 
 
 Name an animal that climbs by means of its claws. What 
 does a monkey use for climbing? 
 
 Why is the beaver web-footed? 
 
 Why have the deer and chamois double hoofs ? 
 
 On what kind of food do each of these animals feed : the horse ? 
 the cat ? the dog ? the pig ? the cow ? the rabbit ? 
 
 What kind of teeth have animals that feed on flesh ? What is 
 the difference between the front and back teeth of these animals ? 
 
 What kind of teeth have animals that feed on grain ? What 
 
OUTLINES IN NAT I TOE STUDY. ?•» 
 
 teeth are missing in the mouths of cud-chewer Whv Lb the 
 cow a cud-chewer? What movement have the jaws of a cow in 
 
 eating ? Why ? 
 
 What kind of teeth have animals that gnaw? What teeth are 
 missing in the jaws of these animals ? 
 
 Plow do the following animals defend themselves: the cat? 
 the dog? the cow? the horse? the rabbit? the opossum? the 
 tiger? the squirrel? the monkey? the hear? 
 
 Which animals use their horns as a means of defense? teeth 
 and hoofs ? teeth and claws ? the tail ? flight ? 
 
 Why does a rabbit live in a hole in the ground 7 
 
 Compare the body of a tiger with that of a hippopotamus in 
 reference to its shape. Which has the most nimble body? 
 Which is the swiftest ? Why ? 
 
 Why do flesh-eating animals have more slender, agile bodies 
 than grain-eaters ? 
 
 Why has the lion a thinly covered body 7 
 
 Why has the hippopotamus a tough, thick covering? Why is 
 its hide in wrinkles or folds ? 
 
 When do the cat's eyes have the largest pupils ? Whit are 
 they like in the light ? 
 
 Why is the tiger covered with smooth, soft fur'.' 
 
 Of what use are the padded toes of the cat and tiger? 
 
 Why are the bat and rat dark in color? 
 
 Why is the tiger striped ? 
 
 Why is the lion tawny ? 
 
 Why has the squirrel its color ? 
 
 Of what uses are the various animals to us? 
 
 Name some that are useful for their covering, teeth, horns, 
 hide, hoofs, etc. 
 
74 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 A visit to the Zoological Garden will be a means of g ainin g 
 much information in reference to all kinds of beasts. Careful 
 observation will reveal the climate of the country from which 
 they come, and the kind of ground over which they travel. The 
 kind of food which they prefer and the means by which they 
 protect and defend themselves from danger can also be discovered. 
 
 Pictures of these animals can be seen in any dictionary or 
 encyclopedia at any public library ; other books also can be found 
 containing information about these animals, their traits of char- 
 acter, how they build their homes, and many other interesting 
 facts. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Beasts are four-footed animals. Thev are warm-blooded, and breathe air 
 by means of lungs Their bodies consist of a bony skeleton covered with 
 muscle-. The outside covering varies with the climate and habits of the 
 animal. Beasts vary in size from the mouse to the elephant. 
 
 Some animals are covered with thick hah- or wool, as the bear and sheep. 
 Some are covered with soft fur, as the tiger, cat, and rabbit. Others are 
 covered with a tough, thick hide, as the hippopotamus, elephant, and whale. 
 Others have a Bkin covered with hair, as the horse and giraffe. 
 
 Beasts have organs fitted to their needs, by means of which they move from 
 place to place, obtain food, and defend themselves. 
 
 The teeth of beasts differ according to the kinds of food which thev need. 
 Flesh-eating animals have sharp teeth for tearing their food. These animals 
 have also very rough tongues, as the tiger, cat, dog, wolf, and lion. Animals 
 that feed on grain and grass have broad, flat teeth for grinding their food. 
 Some of these animals have sharp front teeth for cutting their food, or 
 sharp tusks for digging roots froni the ground. .Among these are the horse, 
 elephant, hippopotamus, and pig. 
 
 Some grass-eating animals are cud-chewers. These have no front teeth in 
 the upper jaw. These animals are supplied with horns. Among these are 
 the cow, sheep, goat, deer, etc. The camel is the only cud-chewer that has 
 front teeth in its upper jaw. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. T.j 
 
 Animals that gnaw have two long, sharp, cutting teeth in the front of each 
 
 jaw and grinding teeth on each side of the jaws at the hack, with a Bpaoe be- 
 tween the cutting and the grinding teeth. The teeth of these animals grow 
 from deep sockets and continue to grow during the whole of the animal's 
 life. The beaver, the rabbit, the squirrel, and the rat have teeth of this kind 
 
 Animals that feed on insects, such as the hedgehog, the inch-, and the bat, 
 are supplied with a great many very small teeth with sharply pointed Bur- 
 faces. 
 
 The feet of beasts are fitted for the kind of ground over which they tra 
 Some have hoofs for traveling over firm, compact surface-, as the horse and 
 buffalo. The toe-nail of these animals covers and protects the toe. The camel 
 is fitted to walk on sandy soil. 
 
 Some beasts have paws, as the dog, cat, wolf, and panther. The feet of 
 these animals are supplied with claws. The claws of animals like the tigei 
 and cat can be sheathed or extended according to the animal's needs. 
 
 Some have feet adapted to rocky surfaces and mountain climbing, as the 
 deer, chamois, sheep, and goat. Animals of the bear family walk on the wh 
 foot. Most other animals walk only on their toes. Some animals have : 
 of such a kind that they can grasp firmly when climbing or swinging from 
 branches, as the monkey, the opossum, and the bat The Eeel of the m 
 and rabbit are also of use in burrowing through the ground. They make their 
 homes so that enemies cannot reach them. 
 
 Beasts defend themselves in various ways. Beasts of prey are supplied 
 with strong muscles and bones, and sharp teeth and claws with which they 
 seize then victims. 
 
 Other animals defend themselves with hoofs, horns, or teeth when they are 
 attacked. Some animals have solid horns that branch, as the deer. Tin 
 fall off each spring and grow again, increasing in size each year. The cow 
 has hollow horns that are fastened firmly to the head and never fall off. 
 
 Some beasts that are not fitted for combat seek safety in flight and h 
 agile muscles and limbs to take them from danger. The home- of these 
 weaker animals are generally of such a kind and location that they cannot 
 be reached bv other beasts that seek to injure them. 
 
 Some animals use their tails to defend themselves, a- the horse and li<>u. 
 Others use their tails to assist them in climbing, as the monkey and opossum. 
 
76 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 The squirrel uses its bushy tail in balancing the body as it jumps from tree 
 to tree. The whale uses its tail to defend itself from an enemy. 
 
 Animals are of a color that imitates their surroundings. This is of use 
 whether they are seeking to attack or escape from another animal. 
 
 Beasts are useful to us in various ways. Some are used for carrying bur- 
 dens, such as the horse, the elephant, the camel, the ox, and the mule. Some 
 supply us with food. Among these are the cow, the deer, the buffalo, the rab- 
 bit, the giraffe, and the bear. 
 
 The coverings of some animals are of use in making rugs and fur garments. 
 Among these are the buffalo, the bear, the marten, the ermine, the tiger, the 
 squirrel, and the seal. The coverings of certain other animals supply us 
 with materials for making clothing, as the camel, the sheep, and the alpaca. 
 The hides of some animals are tanned into leather, as the ox, the chamois, 
 the goat, and the kangaroo. 
 
 The horns and tusks of some animals are used in making combs, buttons, 
 handles for knives and umbrellas, and other fancy articles. Among these are 
 the cow, deer, and elephant. The bones ami hoofs of the horse, cow, and 
 some other animals are sometimes made into glue, and the hah- is used in 
 making plaster. 
 
 The seal, whale, and walrus supply us with oil. From another kind of 
 whale we obtain a material known as whalebone. The whale of this class 
 has no teeth. To the roof of the mouth is attached a substance consisting 
 of many rows of hard fringes. This constitutes an immense sieve for 
 obtaining its food, which consists of small marine animals. This arrangement 
 is made of the material which we call whalebone. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine as many birds as possible. A visit to the Zoological 
 Garden will be a means of gaining much information in reference 
 to the structure, size, shape, and coloring of these animals, as well 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 77 
 
 as the difference in the shape and color of their bills, claws, 
 
 eyes, etc. 
 
 From these facts much can be discovered in reference to their 
 manner of moving about, their means of defense, and their method 
 of obtaining food. Much information can be obtained from 
 a dictionary or encyclopedia, hi any public library can be 
 found other books about their habits and manner of building 
 
 their nests. 
 
 How many legs have birds ? Do they all have the Bame number 
 of claws ? Name some birds that scratch with their claws. What 
 is the difference in position of the back toe of a scrateher and a 
 percher? Why does not a bird fall from its perch when it is 
 asleep? Name some birds that perch; some thai swim: Borne 
 that wade; some that climb; some that hop: some that run: 
 some whose claws are a means of defense: some whose claws 
 are used in obtaining food. How do the claws of animals differ? 
 What peculiarity have the claws of a parrot? Wh.n are the 
 claws of an eagle called ? 
 
 Consider the fact that the claws of a bird are really lis toes. 
 The first joint from the toes, that bends backward, corresponds 
 to the heel of human beings. The knee joint (which bends for- 
 ward in all animals) is close to the body u\u\rv the feathers. 
 
 Do all birds have the same kind of covering? Why are birds 
 covered with feathers instead of fur? What is the difference be- 
 tween the feathers of a duck and those of a chicken V Why are 
 the duck's feathers more oily? Why are the owl's feathers a 
 soft and downy ? Why has the eider duck sndi a close covering 
 
 of down ? 
 
 Of what use are feathers to a bird ? As the feathers are suffi- 
 cient covering to keep them warm, why do some \nnU migrate at 
 
78 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 the approach of cold weather? What is meant by "birds of 
 passage ? ' 
 
 Examine a bird's feather closely, under a microscope. A feather 
 is fastened in the bird's skin by means of a tube. This tube forms 
 a middle vein in the feather. On each side is a row of smaller 
 stalks or veins closely planted. These also in some cases bear 
 still smaller veins. 
 
 Of what advantage to a bird are hollow bones ? 
 
 On what do birds feed ? Do all birds eat the same kind of food ? 
 What kinds of food are preferred by the sparrow, the duck, the 
 canary, the eagle, the sea gull, the parrot, the crow, the stork, the 
 woodpecker, and the blackbird ? 
 
 What kind of beak and claws have the eagle and the owl? 
 Why have buds that eat insects long bills? Why have grain 
 eaters strong bills ? Why have birds of prey sharp hooked 
 beaks ? 
 
 What kind of a beak has each of the following : humming-bird, 
 sparrow, raven, hawk, pelican, robin, bobolink (or rice-bird), crow, 
 duck, lark, blackbird, and magpie ? 
 
 Of what use are wings to a bird ? Where are the muscles that 
 move the wings ? Of what use are wings to the ostrich and pen- 
 guin ? How does a bird use its wings in flying ? 
 
 Consider how the sizes of birds vary, from the tiny humming- 
 bird to the albatross, which measures from ten to twelve feet be- 
 tween the tips of its wings. 
 
 In how many ways are birds useful to us ? Name birds that 
 are useful in each of the different ways. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. TO 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Birds are two-footed animals. They have a bony skeleton covered with 
 flesh and feathers. Their bones are hollow and filled with air; this helpe to 
 make the framework of the body very light. They are warm-blooded animals. 
 They have no teeth, but crush their food by means of a gizzard. They feed 
 on worms, grains, fruits, insects, and fish, and have a 1 > il 1 and daws fitted for 
 obtaining the kind of food which they need. The bill of the bird is the horny 
 covering of the jaws. 
 
 The eyes of birds are supplied with three eyelids, — an upper eyelid, a 
 lower eyelid, and a skin or membrane attached inside the lower lid. This can 
 be drawn over the eye like a curtain, and by means of it birds can look at tin- 
 sun without inconvenience. The eyes of birds like the eagle and hawk are 
 supplied with a set of bony plates which can be arranged for seeing objecte 
 that are distant as well as those that are near. 
 
 Birds of prey have strong, sharp beaks that are hooked, and sharp claw 
 talons. Among these are the eagle and the owl. Birds that feed on grain 
 have short, strong beaks, as the lark, the bobolink, and the sparrow. Birds 
 that feed on insects have long, slender beaks. The blackbird, humming-bird, 
 and robin have bills of this kind. 
 
 Birds can move from place to place in different ways. Most birds move by 
 flvimr. These have bodies that are light in weight, and wings and muscles 
 of size and strength sufficient to raise them in the air. Some birds can run. 
 Among these are the ostrich and sandpiper. The ostrich can run Yen- 
 swiftly for many hours, using its wings like sails, but it does no1 escape from 
 its pursuers because it runs in a series of circles. Many birds that fly hop 
 when they are on the ground. 
 
 The adjutant bird or marabout, which is found in Asia and Africa, i- the 
 only bird that walks on its whole foot. The first joint from the toes (which 
 is really the heel) rests on the ground along with the toes. The Legs of birds 
 are covered with a scale-like skin. 
 
 Thb claws of birds are fitted for the particular needs of the bird. Some 
 need claws for scratching, as the peacock, chicken, pigeon, and quail. Birds 
 that scratch do not fly much and they have short wings. The parrot and 
 
80 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 woodpecker have long, large feet, with two front toes and two back, with 
 which they can climb along the bark of trees. 
 
 The lark and canary have claws with which they can grasp a twig firmly in 
 perching. All birds that perch have a long hind toe. 
 
 The tendon that is used to bend the claws passes over the joint in such a 
 May that when the bird is perching, the weight of the body, pressing down- 
 ward, keeps the claws bent firmly. 
 
 Birds that swim are web-footed, and have broad bodies. Among these are 
 the duck, goose, pelican, and sea gull. 
 
 Birds that wade have long legs, with long, flat toes, as the stork, heron. 
 and sandpiper; but these birds can fly as well as wade. 
 
 All birds have bills or beaks fitted to obtain the kind of food that thev 
 nee«l. They make their homes near places where this food can be most 
 easily obtained. 
 
 * 
 
 Some birds go fishing for food. Among these are the duck, the pelican, 
 the penguin, the sea gull, and the stork. 
 
 Some of these have webbed feet so that thev can swim after their food. 
 The wings of the penguin have no feathers. It uses them as fins for the 
 purpose of swimming. The stork and heron have long legs and spread toes 
 for the purpose of wading after frogs, lizards, etc. Other birds, such as the 
 sea gull and the pelican, fly close to the water and seize the fish as it ap- 
 proaches the surface of the water. 
 
 The pelican has a skin-like pouch, or bag, in which it places the fish which 
 is captured, to be eaten later. The sea gull and pelican are web-footed and 
 have long, hooked beak-. 
 
 The fishhawk or osprey has claws like the eagle, with which it catches fish. 
 
 All birds of prey are solitary in their habits. The owl is a bird of prey 
 that flies at night and feeds on other creatures that wander at night, such as 
 rats, mice, bats, etc. 
 
 The flesh of some birds is useful for food to man and other animals. The 
 eggs of some birds are also useful for food. 
 
 The feathers of some birds are used as decoration by both civilized and 
 savage races. 
 
 Some birds are useful in destroying other creatures that annoy us, as worms, 
 bugs, beetles, etc. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUIIE STUDY. 
 
 81 
 
 Some birds build nests; others do not. Nests arc generally built bo that 
 the inside is soft and warm. Sometimes they arc made of bay and Btraw. 
 Some are lined with horsehair, feathers, thistledown, moss, or sheep's wool, 
 
 which are found on bushes. The nest of the ostrich is -imply a hole in I 
 ground, in which it places the eggs. It sometimes wanders a long distance 
 seeking food. If in its wanderings it finds another nest, it forgets it- own 
 and adopts the one it has found. 
 
 Some birds build then nests in high places. The eagle places itfl nesl 
 among the rocks. The sea gull builds its nest of seaweed on ledges of rock 
 close to shore. The heron makes its nest in the tops of tall trees. 
 
 Other birds have their nests in low places. The lark"- aest i> built on the 
 ground and is lined with dried grass and roots. The partridge scratches a h< >le 
 in the ground among high grass or corn, and lays a few twigs across it The 
 peacock hides its nest on the ground among low bushes. It Is made of a few 
 sticks, twigs, and leaves closely put together. 
 
 Some birds build their nests in trees. The thrush uses either a tree or a 
 low bush. The jay's nest is made of roots woven together like a basketj I 
 is placed upon a kind of platform of birch and other small t\\ iga pul together 
 
 very loosely. 
 
 The nest of the bobolink or reed bird is woven of broken reeds and grasses 
 and pieces of moss. It fixes it among the tall reels and grasses on the edge 
 of a stream, using the reeds as pillars to support it. 
 
 The sparrow builds a nest either in a tree or under the eaves of a houi It 
 will also steal the nests of other birds. 
 
 Birds build then* nests so as to imitate the surroundings and thus protect 
 the inmates from their enemies. Then nests are always bo placed a- to be 
 near the kind of food which they prefer. 
 
 As a general thing, the smaller the bird and the more delicately formed 
 its feet and bill, the more compactly will its nest be built 
 
82 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine some animals that are reptiles. These can be seen 
 at the Zoological Garden, as well as in many damp places in 
 meadows or Avoods. Examine each reptile in reference to its color, 
 size, shape, covering, manner of moving from place to place, its 
 means of defense, etc. Snake skins and tortoise shells should also 
 be examined. 
 
 In what kind of climate are reptiles fitted to live ? During 
 which season are the}' inactive? What does "dormant" mean? 
 What do they use for breathing ? Why can some of them remain 
 under water for a time ? What kind of food does each of these 
 animals eat ? Which of these animals have no teeth ? Which 
 have beaks ? What peculiarity have the teeth of snakes ? the 
 teeth of alligators ? 
 
 Which of these reptiles have no feet ? What kind of feet have 
 the other reptiles ? 
 
 Where are the nostrils of the crocodile ? 
 
 How do the eggs of the tortoise and crocodile differ from those 
 of the chicken ? 
 
 Name some snakes that are poisonous. Name some that are 
 not. Where does a snake carry its poison ? How does a boa- 
 constrictor treat its victims ? 
 
 What use do we make of reptiles ? 
 
 In what country is the crocodile considered sacred ? 
 
 What peculiarity has the chameleon ? 
 
 Many interesting facts in reference to the habits of these ani- 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 83 
 
 mals, as well as to their structure, color, etc., can be found in 
 books in any public library. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The lizard, tortoise, snake, crocodile, and alligator are reptiles. 
 
 Reptiles are cold-blooded, egg-laying animals that crawl along the ground. 
 Thev all have backbones. Some have bodies covered with horn-like plates 
 Others are covered with scales. These scales are really folds of the -kin, 
 and are not separate like fish scales. 
 
 Reptiles breathe air through the lung's. Their eggs are deposited in mud 
 and hatched bv the heat of the sun. These animals live in or Dear water, but 
 like to lie in the sun on land. Thev are of a sluggish nature. 
 
 During the winter they burrow in the mud of swamps and marshes or bide 
 in some dark place and lie torpid until spring. All of these animals feed on 
 other animals. 
 
 Some reptiles have an upper and a lower eyelid, in others there are no 
 evelids. 
 
 The body of the tortoise is protected by a box formed by two bony shells. 
 The upper part is called the carapace and the lower one the plastron. When 
 in motion the head and legs are thrust from the shell. The carapace i- really 
 composed of the backbone and ribs, which have grown together. This is 
 covered by the bony plates of shell. Around the edge of the -hell i- a series 
 of plates for binding the ends of the ribs together. The tortoise ha- two 
 pairs of legs, fitted for either swimming or walking, although it walk- \. 
 slowly. The jaws are toothless and are made of hard, bony material, which i- 
 extended to form a kind of beak. 
 
 The flesh of the tortoise is used for food, ami it> shell i- made into combs 
 and manv other fancv articles. 
 
 Some tortoises live on land. Some live in fresh water or marshes and 
 others live in the ocean and are called turtle-. The land tortoise has a con- 
 vex or rounded carapace and short Legs. The sea tortoise or turtle ha- a 
 flat carapace and long, flat legs for swimming. The fresh-water tortoise is of 
 a shape between the other two. Land tortoises feed on plants. Sea turtles 
 
84 outlines m nature study. 
 
 feed on seaweed and jellyfish. Fresh-water tortoises feed on frogs and 
 
 fish. 
 
 Crocodiles and alligators are very much alike. The crocodile lias a longer 
 head and tail, and its feet are more webbed than those of the alligator. It 
 has two pairs of legs, the front pah- being shorter than the hack pah*. The 
 jaws contain sharp teeth, set in sockets. As the teeth wear out or are 
 broken, new ones grow inside of the old ones. Crocodiles are supplied with 
 a pair of thin valves at the hack part of the throat in front of the pas- 
 sages from the nostrils. By closing these valves, the mouth can be opened 
 in the water without danger of suffocation, as the animal can continue to 
 b rcathe through the nostrils. These animals can hold their prey under water 
 until drowning occurs and yet keep their own nostrils above water, thus being 
 able to continue breathing. Then- eyes are supplied with three eyelids, one 
 of which is a skin which thev can draw over their eves from the side. They 
 are covered with a thick scaly skin, which can be tanned into leather. 
 
 Snakes have no legs, but crawl along the ground with a rising and falling 
 motion of the body. The backbone of the snake is made of bones which are 
 joined together by a ball and socket joint. To each of these bones is joined 
 a pair of ribs. The snake uses these ribs in place of feet, even though they 
 are under the skin. The ribs of the snake can be moved backward and for- 
 ward, and as these are moved the scales on the under side of the body catch on 
 the surface of the ground and thus assist in moving the body. 
 
 The Bcaly skin of the snake is of different colors in the different kinds of 
 snakes. At various times dining the summer the snake changes its skin. It 
 becomes dull and inactive, stops eating, and seeks a hiding place. When the 
 old skin slips off, the snake leaves its hiding place and starts out in its new 
 skin to seek food. Snakes have no movable eyelids. The eyes are covered by 
 the skin, which has two transparent places directly over the eyes. 
 
 The jaws of the snake are joined together loosely by gristle, so that the 
 mouth can be opened wide enough to swallow toads, frogs, and larger animals 
 easily. The bones of the lower jaw are separate from the skull. The tongue 
 of the snake is forked and is used for feeling, like a finger. The teeth of the 
 snake curve backwards. The snake does not chew its food, but uses its teeth 
 for holding and swallowing its prey. 
 
 Most snakes are poisonous. The fangs contain the poison. These are two 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBB STUDY. 
 
 teeth longer than the other teeth. When at rest these turn backward like the 
 other teeth. When they are in use they are thrown forward and thrust into 
 the victim. 
 
 Some snakes kill their victims by winding their bodies closely around and 
 crushing: them. 
 
 The noise of the rattlesnake is made bv rattles in the tail. These con- 
 sist of a series of button-like plates. The age is indicated by the number of 
 rattles, one for each year of its life. 
 
 The skin of snakes is tanned into leather. Indians cover their arrowtips 
 with the poison from the fangs of a snake. 
 
 The lizard has a long, rounded body covered with scales, somewhat like 
 those of a snake. Some have two pairs of short legs by mean- of which, to- 
 gether with the scaly skin, they can travel very quickly. < >ther Lizards have no 
 legs. The tail is very long, sometimes longer than the rest of the body. 
 It tapers from the body to a point. 
 
 Some lizards are supplied with sharp teeth. Some have forked tongues and 
 some have tongues that are club-shaped. They have very bright eyes, sup- 
 plied with two or three movable lids. Lizards vary in color, but they are 
 usually green. The skin of the lizard is sometimes tanned into leather. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 What is a fish? Where does it live? What do 6sh breathe T 
 What are the organs of breathing called ? How many gills has a 
 fish? Of what color are thev ? Of what use are the} Bow 
 are they protected ? How many fins has a fish V ( M' what use are 
 they? How- do these differ in shape, size, and structure in differ- 
 ent fish? To what parts of human beings <1<> the fins of fish 
 roughly correspond? Compare the bones of fish with those of 
 other animals. 
 
8Q OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 How are fish generally covered ? Why is the covering thick ? 
 Whv is it smooth ? Why is it oilv ? Why is it composed of many 
 scales instead of being in one piece? In what direction does the 
 free edge of the scale extend ? 
 
 What kind of covering do eels, mackerel, and catfish have? 
 
 Examine the mouths of fishes to find out the kind of food each 
 is fitted to eat. What kinds of food are used by smifish, catfish, 
 trout, minnows, shark, shad, etc. ? 
 
 What peculiarity has the mouth of a fish that feeds on other 
 animals? Why has the shark several rows of three-cornered 
 sharp teeth ? 
 
 What fish wander in "schools" from place to place? Name 
 some fish that live in one place. 
 
 Name some fish that live in salt water, and some that live in 
 fresh water. 
 
 In what kind of water are the following found : trout, shark, 
 herring, catfish, bass, bluefish, and cod? Why is not the whale 
 a fish? Compare the color of fish that live in deep water with 
 that of fish that live in shallow water. Why are some fish the 
 color of sand '.' 
 
 What kind of blood have fishes? 
 
 Of what use are the nostrils of a fish? 
 
 Of what use are mackerel, sturgeon, menhaden, catfish, cod, 
 etc. ? Examine as many fish as possible in reference to their struc- 
 ture, size, color, etc. When the real fish cannot be observed, pic- 
 tures can be found in a dictionary or encyclopedia. Many other 
 books can be found in a public library, describing their food, 
 homes, modes of life, etc. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUBB STUDY. 8' 
 
 Summary. 
 
 A fish is a cold-blooded animal. It has a backbone and lives in the wa1 
 Fish breathe by means of gills, and use water instead of air for that pur- 
 pose. Water is taken in through the mouth, and after the fish has used it 
 
 for the purpose of purifying the blood, it is sent out through the gills. Tl 
 gill cover opens and closes regularly for the purpose of letting out the wafc 
 
 Some fish are covered with a tough skin, but most fish are covered with 
 scales which overlap each other. 
 
 The scales of different fish vary in shape. Some are circular in shape, as 
 those of the carp. Some are toothed, as those of the perch. Some are hard 
 and polished, as those of the sturgeon. Some are flat, as those of the d< 
 
 shark. 
 
 The seven fins of a fish are used for propelling, balancing, and steering it 
 
 through the water. 
 
 The fins vary in shape in different fish. Some fish have fin- longer than 
 they are wide. Among these are the flounder, halibut, carp. Others h 
 fins wider than they are long, as the pickerel, cod, trout, and catfish. The 
 fins of some fish are supplied with hard, bony rays, such a- the rock, perch, 
 bass, bluefish, etc. In other fish the rays of the fins are of tough gristle. 
 Among these are the minnow, sardine, and herring. 
 
 The tails of fish vary in shape. In some the tails are cut in. in a sharp 
 point, as the mackerel, sardine, shad, and herring. The tails of Borne have l 
 almost straight edge, as the cod and catfish. In some fish the tails are slightly 
 curved in, as salmon, halibut, haddock, perch, and black bass. In others, as 
 the minnow and sea bass, the edge curves out slightly. The tails of the Bhark 
 and sturgeon have the upper point much longer than the lower one. 
 
 Most fish are supplied with an air bladder, by means of which they can 
 float in the water. Some fish have no air bladder and must Bwim all the 
 
 time, as the shark. 
 
 The eves of some fish are large. Those having small eyes are generally 
 
 supplied with feelers. 
 
 The sense of smell is located in the nostrils. 
 
 The mouths of fish vary according to their habits and the kind of food which 
 
88 OUTLINES IX NATUBE STUDY. 
 
 thev eat. Those that are flesh eaters nee<l sharp teeth. Those that feed on 
 insects have do teeth. 
 
 Some fish live only in salt water and others live in fresh water. Some 
 
 * 
 
 inhabit quiet, shallow pools and lakes. Others prefer deep water or rapid 
 stream-. 
 
 Fish that inhabit shallow water are bright in color. Those that inhabit 
 deep water are dull in color on the upper side. 
 
 Some fish wander from place to place in "schools," while others live in one 
 place. 
 
 Some fish migrate from the sea to the river at certain seasons, as the shad 
 and the sturgeon. Others migrate from the river to the sea, as the eel. 
 
 Fish \ arv in size from the tiny minnow to the large shark that is sometimes 
 sixty feel in length. 
 
 A young minnow is almost transparent. If we examine it closely, we can 
 see that the head, gills, heart, and stomach occupy the front half of the body. 
 The remainder is made up of bone and muscle. 
 
 Fish are useful in various ways. Some are used for food. Others fur- 
 nish us with oil, and from others material for fertilizing the ground is made. 
 The covering of the air bladder of the sturgeon is used for making isinglass. 
 
 Most fish have uests of some kind in which to deposit then* eggs. These 
 sometimes consist of a hole in the ground or gravel. Two fish that follow 
 this plan are the salmon and the trout. Many salt-water fish visit fresh-water 
 streams for the purpose of depositing their eggs. 
 
 The lamprey eel builds a nest of stones. Many fish of this species combine 
 to build a common nest. The mouths of these fish are capable of great power 
 of suction. By this means they succeed in raising large quantities of stones 
 and carrying them long distances for the purpose of building the nest. 
 
 The sunfish uses a hole in the sand under a leafy growth. The leaves and 
 stems of the plant surround and protect the nest, which is made of stray twigs. 
 
 The stickleback makes a solid nest of grasses, twigs, etc., and then makes 
 a hole in the solid nest to receive the eggs. These fish will work at nest- 
 building in an aquarium, if they are supplied with materials. 
 
OUTLINES EN NATUEB BT1 DT. 39 
 
 SHELLFISH. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Examine some shellfish, such as the oyster, clam, mussel, crab, 
 
 lobster, snail, shrimp, hermit crab, etc. 
 
 Compare the coverings of these animals in regard to size, color, 
 shape, structure, hardness, and how the parts are joined. 
 
 Which of these are called mollusks? What does "mollusk" 
 mean? Which are called bivalves ? Why? Which are Crusta- 
 cea ? Why are these so called ? 
 
 To what part of other animals does the shell of each of these 
 
 animals roughly correspond ? 
 
 What is the color of the crab and the lobster 7 Of what advan- 
 tage is it to these animals to have the color of seaweed V Which 
 of these animals are the color of sand ? W 1 1 \ - 7 Which of them 
 have the hardest covering? Which of them in growing cast 
 their shells? How do the others increase the size of their shells 
 as they grow ? 
 
 Which of these mollusks move from place to place? What 
 organ do they use for that purpose ? 
 
 Why is the flesh of the clam tougher than that of the oyster? 
 Why is its shell smoother ? 
 
 What furnishes food for the oyster? What does animalcule 
 
 ■ 
 
 mean? Examine some of these little animals with a magnifying 
 glass. 
 
 What happens to the valves when the oyster dies? What is 
 the cause of this ? 
 
 Find the lines of growth on the outside of the oyster shells. 
 
90 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Find the hinge which ioins the two valves, and also find the liga- 
 ment. Find the scar in the shell caused by the attachment of 
 the muscle, and the line of scars made by the muscle as the 
 oyster grew larger. 
 
 On what do each of the other shellfish feed? What is the 
 difference in structure between those that feed on plants and those 
 that feed on animals ? 
 
 What is the shape of a snail's shell? What is the operculum? 
 Of what use is it to the animal that has it? 
 
 Which of these shellfish do we use for food ? Which do we 
 not use as food ? Which do we cook while they are yet alive ? 
 Which do we sometimes eat while they are still alive? 
 
 AVhich of these animals are found in salt water? in fresh 
 water ? 
 
 What means of defense has each of these animals ? Of what 
 advantage to the era!) is its ability to cast a claw? 
 
 Consider the fact that all shells found on the shore of salt or 
 fresh water have been at some time the homes of animals. Some 
 shells are spiral in shape with an opening at one side. Examine 
 a number of shells for the pnruose of finding out whether the 
 animal was covered by one or mure shells. 
 
 As many shellfish as possible should be examined with the aid 
 of a magnifying glass. Various kinds of snails can be observed 
 in an aquarium. Pictures of many varieties of shellfish can be 
 seen in a dictionary. At any public library can be found books 
 containing much interesting information about these animals, — 
 their homes, habits, etc. 
 
OUTLINES LN NAT IKE STUDY. 91 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Shellfish mav be divided into several classes, according t<> tin* nature and 
 arrangement of their shells. Some shellfish cast their shell- and grow new 
 ones as they increase in size. In others the shell is a part of the animal, t«» 
 which it is firmly fastened. The shell of an animal of this kind grows \\ ith it. 
 
 Mi 
 
 Animals like the oyster, clam, and mussel form one da--. These are called 
 mollusks. Animals of this class have no head. 
 
 Another class is composed of animals like the lobster, crab, shrimp, and 
 barnacle. Those like the snail, conch, etc., form another class. 
 
 Some shellfish live in salt water and some in fresh water. 
 
 We use the lobster, crab, oyster, clam, and shrimp for food. 
 
 The clam: The clam is covered bv two shells joined together by a hintre 
 and a ligament. The edge at whieh the two shells are joined i- called the 
 hino-e marsrin. The lisrament is inside of the shells. 
 
 The hollow places on the inside of the shells show where the animal has 
 been attached to the shells. The hollow place around the edge is caused by 
 the thickened mantle. 
 
 The shell increases in size as the clam grows, and the lines of growth can 
 be seen en the outside. The beak is found on thai ride of the shell where 
 the lines of growth are smallest. 
 
 Hold the shell with the edge on which is the ligament uppermost, with the 
 lio-ament toward the bodv and the Inline away from it. The back of tin- clam 
 will be next to the person holding it and the front of the clam will he 
 at the edge furthest from the body. The siphon openings arc at the hack and 
 the foot is at the front of the clam. The mouth of the clam i- just above 
 
 the foot. 
 
 The fleshy part close to the edge of the shell is called the mantle. The 
 edge of the mantle deposits material for the growth of the shell in layers 
 around its edge. 
 
 The mantle deposits the pearly material which sometimes forms the inner 
 coating of shells. A tiny pebble or any other small particle that get- between 
 the mantle and the shell becomes formed into a pearl. 
 
92 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 The clam breathes by gills. These are four broad folds of the mantle. 
 The water is carried to and from the gills by the siphon. 
 
 The siphon is a tube divided into two channels. The channel toward the 
 free edire of the shell is the opening by which the water is admitted. The 
 channel nearest the hinge carries the water out after it has been used by the clam. 
 The siphon can be extended so as to obtain Mater when the clam has buried 
 itself in the sand. The water thus obtained also supplies the clam with food. 
 
 The foot which is at the front of the clam (opposite the siphon openings) is 
 the muscle by means of which the animal crawls or burrows. 
 
 ■ 
 
 The clam is joined to its shell by two muscles. 
 
 Tin: oyster: The oyster is enclosed in two shells. The left valve is larger 
 and deeper than the right, and is the one which is fastened to the oyster bed. 
 The shells are ioined by a hinge and a ligament. The animal is attached to 
 it- -hells by means of a muscle. This muscle is used to draw the shell 
 together. The dark purplish mark on the inside of the shell shows where the 
 oyster has been joined to it. 
 
 The mantle of the oyster is not thickened as in the clam, but the edges are 
 separate. The gills by which the oyster breathes are four in number and are 
 under the edges of the mantle. They can be seen by removing the mantle. 
 
 The oyster admits the water between its shells at one point and sends it out 
 at another. It has no special tubes or canals for this purpose. The oyster 
 uses this water for breathing and also feeds on the little animals (called ani- 
 malcules) which the water contains. 
 
 The dark part of the oyster contains the stomach and liver, and the hardened 
 part is the heart. 
 
 Tin: snail : Animals like the snail, conch, etc., have one shell. Some snails 
 live in fresh water and some in salt water, and some live on land. 
 
 Many of these have shells which are twisted in the form of a spiral. Some 
 are in the shape of a long spiral and others in the shape of a flat spiral. 
 Land snails jjrenerallv have flattened shells. 
 
 The lines of growth in a spiral shell are parallel to the opening or aperture. 
 
 The part on which the snail rests is its stomach. It uses the stomach as a 
 foot when it wishes to move. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUBE STUDY. 93 
 
 A shellfish of this kind has a head. On the head are two feelers. It lias 
 four eyes. Two are on the head and look like tiny black dots, and two are 
 on the ends of the feelers or tentacles. 
 
 Some snails are supplied with an operculum. When the snail wish* I i 
 withdraw into its shell it can close the opening by means of this Bcale-like 
 covering. 
 
 Snails that have an operculum are supplied with gills, and use water for 
 breathing purposes. All others have a lung, and breathe air. Those that 
 breathe air and live in the water are obliged to come to the surface al in- 
 tervals to send out the impure ah which they have used, and get a fresh sup- 
 
 Snails that live on land have four feelers on the head which can he extended 
 and drawn in. 
 
 Some shellfish of this class have a little notch in the edge of the opening. 
 Shellfish having this notch feed on the flesh of other animals. Those that are 
 not notched feed on vegetables, leaves, or seaweed. 
 
 Crustacea: Shellfish like the lobster and the crab belong to a ela^s that 
 have jointed feet or legs. They resemble seaweed in color. 
 
 Then- bodies are covered with a crusty shell, not so hard as that of the 
 oyster and clam. They are made up of rings or segments. 
 
 Then- bodies consist of two parts. The head and the thorax (or chest) 
 form one part, and the abdomen is the other part. 
 
 They breathe by gills. They have two pairs of antenna' or feelers, and 
 always more than eight feet. 
 
 When the shell becomes too small, they cast it aside and a larger one grows 
 in its place. Should a claw be lost or torn off, another grows. The blood of 
 these animals is colorless. 
 
 The lobster: The lobster's body is somewhat, cylindrical in shape. On 
 the head are two pahs of antennae and a pair of compound eyes. 
 
 It feeds on other fish. It has three pairs of jaws, — one pair for biting and 
 two pairs for chewing. 
 
 Attached to the foremost section of the body are three pairs of jaw-feet, 
 which it uses for catching its prey. On this part of the body are also live pain 
 
94 OUTLINES IN" NATURE STUDY. 
 
 of legs. The first pair of legs are larger than the others and the right one 
 is larger than the left. They are furnished with large pincers. One claw has 
 a hook for holding its prey, and the other has sharp, tooth-like edges for tear- 
 ing. The second and third pairs are also supplied with pincers. To the ab- 
 domen are attached six pairs of legs called " swimmerets," which are broad 
 and fiat, and in shape and use are somewhat like fins. 
 
 The crab : The crab's body, instead of being longer than it is wide, 
 like that of the lobster, is wider than it is long. The abdomen of the crab 
 is very small. 
 
 The crab has a two-part body. The part consisting of the head and thorax 
 is much larger than the other part. It has a groove on the under side into 
 which the abdomen can be tacked. It has four eyes, — one pah* simple and 
 immovable, and the other pah- compound. 
 
 It has five pairs of feet. In walking it uses one set for pushing, and the 
 other for pulling. It can move backwards, forwards, and sideways. 
 
 The crab casts its skin several times in growing. When it is soft-shelled 
 it remains buried in the sand with only its eyes and feelers exposed until the 
 new shell is formed. 
 
 The oyster crab lives in the shell of the oyster, and has hooked claws so that 
 it can cling. 
 
 Other animals of this kind are the shrimp, hermit crab, king crab, barnacle, 
 etc. 
 
 INSECTS- 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 In studying about insects every pupil can obtain a large num- 
 ber of insects for the purpose of examining their structure with 
 a magnifying glass. 
 
 Insects can be captured with a scoop-net, killed in a poison jar, 
 fastened on a mounting block to dry, and then mounted on card- 
 
OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 95 
 
 board or in a case for future use and observation in a permanent 
 
 collection. 
 
 In the poison jar insects can be killed without being cither 
 wounded or tortured. The jar is prepared as follows : — 
 
 Into a low, wide-mouthed jar drop a lump of potassium cyanide 
 about one half the size of an egg. Cover this with a paste about 
 as thick as molasses, made of plaster of Paris and tepid water. 
 Always keep the jar air-tight. Raw cotton saturated with chloro- 
 form can also be used. 
 
 A collection of the different parts of the various insects (anten- 
 nas, legs, wings, etc.) should also be made for the purpose of com- 
 parison. These can be fastened to cardboard, and drawings <>t' 
 the separate parts, as well as of the whole insect, should be 
 made from these real objects. 
 
 In order to study the habits of insects, how they move from 
 place to place, how they eat their food, etc., it is necessary to 
 observe them alive. 
 
 For this purpose ajar containing soft earth can be used. Keep 
 the jar covered with net, and supply the insects placed in it with 
 the proper kind of food. 
 
 Examine a number of insects with a mamifying glass, and find 
 out how many parts make up the body, and the formation of 
 each part or section. Of what advantage is it to the insect to 
 have its body formed in rings or segments ? 
 
 The word "insect" means "to cut in." Why was this name 
 applied to insects ? Are the three parts joined exactly alike in 
 all insects? Are the rings seen equally well in all insect- . 
 
 What organs or appendages are joined to the middle section 
 or thorax? How many legs has each insect V On which part of 
 the body are they? How are they arranged on the thorax? 
 
96 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 Find out for what purpose they seem best fitted in the different 
 insects, — walking, running, jumping, etc. Find out, also, what 
 the surfaces are like, and what kind of legs each has. Name 
 some that have thick legs ; some that have long legs, etc. 
 
 Do all insects have the same number of wings? Name some 
 that have no wings; some that have two wings; some that have 
 four wings. On which part of the body are the wings placed? 
 How do the wings of insects differ in structure, size, and shape? 
 
 Examine the mouths of insects. Mention some insects that 
 have jaws and some that have a proboscis. Insects that feed on 
 other insects have sharp jaws and also sharp claws. Examine 
 the eyes and find out how many each has and of what kind. 
 
 Examine the antennae of different insects. Where are they 
 placed ? Of what use are they ? How do they differ in size and 
 structure ? 
 
 Examine the grasshopper. How many wings has it ? Compare 
 its wings in reference to structure, size, shape, and use. What 
 other insects have wings similar to those of the grasshopper? 
 How do these insects arrange their wings when they are not fly- 
 ing? Why are they called "straight-winged" insects? Are the 
 legs of a grasshopper all alike ? How many parts in each leg ? 
 For what does it use its different legs ? How does it walk ? Of 
 what use are the back legs ? 
 
 Examine roaches, crickets, katydids, walking sticks, etc. 
 Which of these have no wings for flying ? Examine their legs. 
 Which are formed for running ? which for jumping ? Are the 
 surfaces of their legs alike ? Examine, also, the eyes, mouths, 
 and antennae carefully and find the breathing holes. 
 
 Consider the fact that their bodies are formed according to 
 the means by winch they obtain food, and that they are of a color 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 97 
 
 which is the greatest protection in their respective haunts. Those 
 that make their homes on or near water are transparent. Those 
 whose homes are in sand, grass, on stems of plants or branches of 
 trees are colored accordingly. 
 
 Examine the cicada or harvest fly. Compare its wings with 
 those of other insects just examined. What differences are ther< 
 How many rings can be counted in its body? Examine each 
 part carefully. 
 
 Another class of insects are called "sheath-winged' insects. 
 Among them are the ladybird, potato bug, squash bug, water 
 beetle, etc. Why are they called "sheath-winged"? Examine 
 the wings and wing covers, and all of the appendages. Are all 
 three parts of the body free to move ? 
 
 Notice how the thorax and abdomen are joined in different 
 insects. Some become very narrow where they join, and others 
 are broad. 
 
 Why are moths and butterflies called "scaly-winged ' insects '.' 
 What do the scales look like? Compare the mouth of these in- 
 sects with that of other insects. What kind of food do they u> 
 What happens to the proboscis when it is not in use ? 
 
 What difference is there between the wings of a moth and 
 those of a butterfly? between the feelers of a moth and those of 
 a butterfly? Which of these insects flies at night ? which flies in 
 the daytime? which has a covered cocoon? which has a naked 
 cocoon? Why does a moth cover its cocoon with a leal '. 
 
 How many wings has a fly? how many has a mosquito? 
 Where are the wings of these insects? Are the rings of the 
 thorax movable as they are in the butterfly? Examine the pro- 
 boscis of a fly. It cannot be coiled up like thai of the butterfly, 
 neither is it a pointed beak like that of the cicada. What enables 
 
98 OUTLINES IS NATURE STUDY. 
 
 the fly to walk on the ceiling ? What takes the place of muscles 
 in the eyes of the fly ? 
 
 Examine the wings of bees and wasps. Why are insects of 
 this kind called " transparent-winged" ? How many wings have 
 these insects? Are the wings of each insect all of the same 
 size ? 
 
 Examine the dragon fly. Compare its wings with those of 
 other insects in reference to structure and position. Examine the 
 feelers, legs, claws, mouth, and eyes. 
 
 If all of these insects cannot be obtained, examine as many of 
 them as possible or examine any insects that can be obtained. 
 Examine and compare the bodies of these insects in reference to 
 structure, shape, size, manner in which the three sections are 
 joined, and amount of motion of which the body is capable. Ex- 
 amine and compare wings, legs, antennae, eyes, and mouth. 
 
 What is a cocoon? Who made it? Where did the caterpillar 
 come from ? How many legs has the caterpillar ? Are they all 
 used for walking? How are the legs arranged on the body? 
 On what does the caterpillar feed ? How many rings or segments 
 in its body ? how many in the thorax ? How many breathing 
 holes has it? 
 
 When the insect leaves the eo*cr what name is given to it? 
 When the larva lives in the cocoon which it spins, in what stage 
 of its life is it ? 
 
 What names are given to the larvae of flies, mosquitoes, and 
 beetles ? 
 
 Mention some insects that do not pass into the chrysalis or 
 pupa state. What name is applied to this kind of insect from 
 the time it leaves the egg until its wings are fully grown ? 
 
 How many times does the nymph cast its skin ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATri:i: STI'DY. 99 
 
 Of what uses are insects to us? to plants? Of what uses .ire 
 plants to insects ? 
 
 Are the spider and daddy longlegs insects '.' Why V 
 In any dictionary or encyclopedia will be found pictures of 
 many insects. In any public library are books containing inter- 
 esting accounts of insects, — their habits, their homes, modes of 
 life, etc. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Insects are animals having a body which consists of three parts or sections. 
 Each insect has three pahs of jointed legs. 
 
 The three parts are the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Each part is 
 protected on the outside by a case made up of rings or segments. It has no 
 bones and no red blood. Some insects have no wings, some have one pair, 
 and some have two pairs. 
 
 The thorax is made up of three rings or segments, and one pair of 
 legs is fastened to each segment by means of a ball and socket joint [nsects 
 in walking use the three pairs of legs alternately. The wings are fastened 
 to the second and third segments of the thorax. The segmenl nearest the 
 head never has wings attached to it. 
 
 The eyes of insects vary in number. They are sometimes simple and some- 
 times compound. 
 
 A compound eye has many sides or facets, and looks very much like a tiny 
 jewel that has been cut. 
 
 Mouths of insects differ according to the kind of food which is eaten or 
 the uses to which they are put Insects that gnaw have two pairs of jaws. 
 The mandibles are used for biting and the maxilla' arc used for chewing. 
 
 The jaws of insects move from side to side. Those Insects that feed on 
 other insects have rather long, sharp jaws, supplied with a kind of toothed 
 edge. Those that feed on vegetables have broad, blunt jaws. 
 
 Insects that suck have a proboscis. 
 
 Some insects that suck and also bite are supplied with a proboscis and 
 jaws. 
 
100 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 An insect passes through several stages before it becomes the adult insect. 
 From the egg is hatched out the larva or cater} >illar. The caterpillar sheds 
 it- coat several times and finally becomes the winged insect. 
 
 The larva or caterpillar, after casting its skin several times, spins a cocoon 
 in which it remains quiet and inactive. From the cocoon comes the winged 
 insect. Among insects of this kind are butterflies, moths, tlies, mosquitues, 
 and beetles. 
 
 Other inserts have no wings when they are young. They shed their skins 
 several time-, and gradually the wings develop. These insects do not spin a 
 cocoon or pass through the inactive state. Among these are the grasshopper,, 
 katydid, dragon fly, cricket, etc. 
 
 Many insects that do not spin a cocoon have two stages of existence, — 
 the nvmph and the winged. 
 
 Insects grow only while casting their skins, and cease to grow as soon 
 as the wings have developed. During the time of growth when the old 
 skin becomes too small, a new one forms underneath and the old one splits 
 d<>\vn the back. 
 
 The life of an insect that spins a cocoon is divided into the following stages 
 after it leaves the egg : (1) larva, or caterpillar ; (2) pupa, or chrysalis ; (3) 
 imago, or winged insect. 
 
 Scai.v-wixged ixsects : This class of insects includes moths and 
 butterflies. 
 
 The butterriv passes through three stages of existence, as caterpillar, 
 chrysalis, and winged insect or imago. The body of the caterpillar is 
 composed of thirteen rings or segments. These are connected by tiny mus- 
 cles. 1 i \- alternately contracting and relaxing, the rings are drawn together 
 and separated when the caterpillar crawls. It is supplied with two pairs of 
 jaws. In addition to three pairs of legs on the first three segments, it is 
 supplied with five pairs of false legs. Four pairs are on the middle of the 
 body and one pair are on the last segment. 
 
 The caterpillar sheds its skin four times as it grows, and then it spins its 
 cocoon. The inactive stage in the butterfly is called the chrysalis, in other 
 insects it is called the pupa state. 
 
 The cocoon is spun from the body of the caterpillar. The spinnerets are 
 
OUTLINES IX NAT nil-: STUDY. 1<»1 
 
 en the head. It turns its head round and round more than twenty thousand 
 times in spinning the cocoon. The caterpillar eats enough food to lasl while 
 it is in the chrysalis state, as no insects eat during the period of inactivity. 
 The cocoon of the butterfly is naked, while that of the moth La covered. 
 
 The butterfly comes out of the cocoon. It has two pairs of wine The 
 wings and body are covered with tiny scales. These look like dusl and can 
 be easily rubbed off. AV hen the insect is at rest one pair of wings is held 
 erect. It has compound eyes and a proboscis. 
 
 The proboscis is really the lower lip extended into a tube. It can be coiled 
 up when not in use. The moth and the butterfly are the only insects that h 
 a mouth of this kind. 
 
 The two feelers of the butterfly have knob-like ends. 
 
 Straight- winged insects: The grasshopper or locust has four wings. 
 
 The back pah* of wings are used for flying, and when not in use they are 
 folded together like a fan and covered by the straight, narrow, parchment- 
 like front wings. 
 
 It sheds skin five times and then the wings begin to appear. It becomes 
 the complete insect supplied with wings when it casts its skia the sixth time. 
 
 It has a pah* of compound eyes and also three simple eyes. It has two 
 pairs of jaws for biting and chewing. These insects produce their peculiar 
 noise by rubbing their legs against the wing covers. 
 
 In walking, the grasshopper uses the first right leg and second left leg 
 together. Then it uses the first left leg and second righl leg together. 
 The third pah* are dragged along in walking, but are used id jumping. They 
 are straightened out when the insect flic-. 
 
 When preparing to jump, the fore legs are straightened and the hind L< 
 are bent, with the lower section resting on the ground. 
 
 Some insects in this class are the cricket, katydid, walking stick, praying 
 bug, locust, and green grasshopper. 
 
 Sheath-w-inged insects: In another da— of insects, the front pair of 
 wings are hard and horny, and are used to cover the flying wings when th< 
 are not in use. In flight, the wing covers stand straight ou1 from the body. 
 
 These insects have jaws for chewing. Their legs are adapted for walking. 
 
102 OUTLINES IX NATXJBE STUDY. 
 
 The larva is called a grub and the succeeding state is called the pupa. The 
 potato hug, May beetle, firefly, and ladybird are insects of this kind. 
 
 Ti: \\>i- a i: i:\t- winged insects: Bees, wasps, ants, and hornets belong to 
 another class of insects. These insects have four wings, all of which are 
 transparent The front wings are larger than the back wings. The upper 
 and lower wings on each side of the body are hooked together in Hying. 
 These insects have jaws for biting, but some of them have also a sort of pro- 
 boscis. 
 
 The bodies of bees are supplied with hairs for the purpose of gathering 
 pollen from flowers. The pollen thus gathered is placed in pockets on the 
 back legs. 
 
 In the wasp there is a very slender connection between the thorax and 
 the abdomen. In bees the connection is broad. 
 
 Two- winged insects : The fly, mosquito, and crane fly belong to this 
 class. They have two stiff wings which cannot be folded. They also have 
 a pair of balancers in place of the second pair of wings. The larvae of the 
 fly are called maggots. The fly has a short, stiff proboscis with knob-like 
 ends, which it can open. The proboscis can be extended when it is being 
 used, and drawn in when it is not in use. 
 
 The eggs of the mosquito are stood up on end, side by side in a cluster, 
 which floats in the water. The larvae are called wrigglers. These crawl 
 from the lower end of the egg. The breathing tube, which is near the tail, is 
 always kept above the surface of the water until the insect passes into the 
 pupa state. When the winged insect is ready to leave the cocoon, it crawls 
 out and uses the cocoon for a boat. The proboscis of the mosquito is a tube 
 formed by the upper and lower lip. It contains a bristle-like sting. 
 
 Crane flies resemble mosquitoes. They can be seen in swarms usually at 
 twilight They are very tiny insects that can neither walk nor fly very far. 
 
 Dragon fly : Another insect with which we are familiar is the dragon 
 fly. Its four gauze-like wings are of nearly the same size. It flies rapidly 
 from place to place, hunting for insects, uj)on which it feeds. At times 
 it stops flying and rests for a moment, but it does not walk. It has two 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 103 
 
 pairs of jaws for biting and chewing. Its thorny legs have long claws at 
 the tip. It has large, compound eyes. 
 
 Like the mosquito, it places its eggs in water or on the Btems of plants 
 that are under the surface of the water. 
 
 The nymph has a large lower lip supplied with two ]i< »< »ks with which it 
 catches its prey. 
 
IV. NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 THE SUN. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where is west? Why? Where is east? Why? Where 
 is the sun at noon? In what direction do the shadows point 
 at noon? At what time this morning did the sun rise? At 
 what time this evening will it set? Does the sun rise on a 
 cloudy day? Does the sun rise at the same time every day? 
 On which day in the year does the sun rise earliest ? On which 
 day does the sun set latest? On the day after this does the 
 sun rise earlier or later ? Until which day of the year will it 
 continue to rise a little later each day ? Which is the shortest 
 day of the year? Why? Does the sun rise earlier or later on 
 the following day? Until which day of the year mil it continue 
 to rise a little earlier each day ? Which is the longest day of the 
 
 year ? 
 
 Does the sun rise earlier in summer or in winter ? When are 
 the days longer than the nights ? When are the nights longer 
 than the days ? When are they equal ? 
 
 Does the sun rise in exactly the same place every day? In 
 which direction does the sun appear to travel each day ? When 
 does it rise exactly in the east and set exactly in the west? 
 
 When does it rise furthest north ? When does it rise furthest 
 south? Where is the sun's path when the days are longest? 
 
 104 
 
OUTLINES IN' NATUBB STUDY. 105 
 
 when they are shortest? when the dnvs and nighta are equal? 
 
 What is twilight? What causes twilight? 
 
 What is meant by " noon " ? When is it ooon? How Ion- is 
 noon? Is the sun always at the same place at noon ? In which 
 season are the shadows longest at noon? Is it noon at the same 
 time all over the world ? Why ? 
 
 What is meant by "a.m. " ? by "p.m. " ? Where is the bud at 
 night? Which are warmer, long days or short days? Win ? 
 Which months are the hottest ? Why ? 
 
 Which side of the schoolhouse is the coldest? Why V Which 
 side of the schoolhouse has the lightest rooms ? Why V 
 
 When is it warmer, before sunrise or after sunset? Why? 
 Which is warmer, autumn or spring? Why '.' 
 
 What actually happens when the sun appears to rise, move 
 across the sky, and set ? 
 
 If any one traveled from the earth toward the sun. at the rate 
 of six hundred miles per day, how long would it take to reach the 
 sun ? 
 
 Of wdiat use is the sun to plants ? to animals ? to the air ? 
 
 How does moisture get into the air ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The sun is a laro;e ball of highly heated material It is more than ninety 
 
 millions of miles away from us and it is more than a million times as lai 
 the earth. 
 
 The sun gives us light and heat. It causes vapor t«» rise from the surface 
 of streams, thus making the air moist. Without the BUD we would have no 
 evaporation, no rain, no rivers, no plants. 
 
 The earth revolves on its axis once in twenty-four hours, or one day, and 
 
106 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 the sun is shining on one half of the earth at a time. The sun rises in the 
 east, travels across the sky with a southerly curve, and sets in the west. 
 
 The sun travels across the sky by a slightly different path each day. Start- 
 ing at the close of autumn and the beginning of winter, the sun is traveling 
 over its path furthest south. It then takes a path a little more to the north 
 each dav for six months. When spring ends and summer begins, it is trav- 
 eling over the path furthest north. The sun travels over its middle path 
 at the close of summer and at the close of winter. 
 
 The paths that are furthest north and south are directly over that part of 
 the earth's surface indicated by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of 
 Capricorn. 
 
 The middle path is directly over that part of the earth's surface indicated 
 
 by the equator. 
 
 THE MOOR 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where is the moon ? Of what use is it to us ? What causes 
 it to give light ? What is the shape of the moon ? Does the 
 moon always appear to us to have the same shape ? What is 
 meant by the phases of the moon ? Where is the sun when we 
 see the new moon? Are the ends of the crescent toward the 
 sun or away from it ? What is the length of time from one new 
 moon until the next? Why was the name " month" given to 
 that period of time ? What does the full moon look like ? 
 
 Where is the sun when we see the full moon ? Which side of 
 the moon is always light ? What causes the moon to seem to 
 change its shape ? 
 
 Where do we first see the new moon ? When does the new 
 moon appear ? Does the moon appear each evening in the same 
 
OUTLINES IN NAT IRK STUDY, 107 
 
 place? Does it appear earlier or later each night after we . 
 
 the new moon ? 
 
 What are the dark places n the moon tli.it seem to form ;i 
 face? Is it hot or cold on the moon? Is there any rain on the 
 moon ? Why ? 
 
 Does anything grow on the moon? What motion has the 
 moon ? 
 
 What is meant by an eclipse of the moon? In what positions 
 are the earth, moon, and sun when there is an eclipse <>t' the 
 moon ? 
 
 Watch the moon and make drawings to show its various aha] 
 as we see them. 
 
 If the new moon is examined each night with opera glass* . 
 the ragged edge formed by mountains can be seen. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The moon is a ball or globe that moves around the earth <m<v in twenty- 
 nine days. It is about two hundred and forty thousand miles away from 
 It has neither light nor heat. It is visible to us because of the sunlight that 
 shines on it. 
 
 The moon appears to change its shape. These different shapes are cam 
 by the moon's changing its position with reference t<> the sun in movi 
 round the earth. 
 
 When the moon is in the shadow of the earth and when it is between the 
 earth and the sun, we cannot see it. When it is a short distance toward one 
 side of the sun, it looks like a crescent or curved line of light When this 
 first makes its appearance it is called the new moon. 
 
 The half of the moon that is toward the sun is always light : when the 
 moon is "new," we can see only the narrow arc of lighl that is Dearest to us. 
 
 The new moon is seen in the west just after the Bun Bets. It appears Car- 
 
108 OUTLINES IX XATUKE STUDY. 
 
 ther toward the east and a little later each night. For this reason we see 
 more and more of the light surface until we see the whole of the light half. 
 It is then called the full moon, and it rises in the east directly opposite to the 
 place where the sun sets. 
 
 As it continues its travels round the earth we see less and less of the lighted 
 surface until no part of it is visible. 
 
 These different shapes of the moon are called its phases. Some of the 
 names applied to the different phases are new moon, first quarter, full moon, 
 gibbous moon, etc. 
 
 STARS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 What becomes of the stars in the daytime ? 
 
 What are the differences between planets and fixed stars? 
 
 Which are farther from us, clouds or stars ? 
 
 How can the North Star be found ? 
 
 In what season does the sun seem to get nearer to the North 
 Star each day ? 
 
 Of what use is the North Star to mariners? 
 
 Why is it used instead of the other stars ? 
 
 On what part of the earth would the North Star be directly 
 overhead ? 
 
 How many stars are in " the Dipper " ? 
 
 What motion does the Dipper seem to have ? 
 
 Which of the stars in this group are called " pointers " ? Why ? 
 
 Is the Dipper always in the sky at night ? 
 
 In which season does the Dipper appear above the North Star? 
 
 What effect on the stars has the rising and setting of the sun ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 109 
 
 Summary. 
 
 All the stars that we see in the sky are fixed stare except the planets. 
 
 The eight planets are worlds, one of which is the earth. Like tl rth, 
 they all move round the sun. They all shine with a steady Light The 
 planets receive then* light from the sun. 
 
 The fixed stars do not change their places. They are really oth< r - 
 very far away from us. The fixed stars twinkle. Light travels at the t 
 of one hundred and eighty-six thousand miles in a BeconcL and it takes th 
 years for the light from the nearest star to reach us. 
 
 The fixed stars are balls of highly heated material, like the sun. The 
 materials of which thev are made are in a molten state, something like the 
 iron in a rolling-mill when it is taken from the furnace. 
 
 If the sun and the planets that revolve around it could be looked at from 
 the nearest star, the sun would look like a star and the eight planets would 
 look like a tiny cloud of silvery light. 
 
 The reason that the stars appear to us to move is because the earth is 
 changing its position daily in its journey round the sun. 
 
 The Xorth Star, or Pole Star, is always seen in the Bame pla It is 
 directly over the Xorth Pole on the earth's Burface. The other Btars and 
 star groups appear to move from east to west across the sky. 
 
 All of the stars that are seen in the north appear to move round th< North 
 Star. In twenty-four hours they complete the circuit ami travel a little beyond 
 
 The Dipper, so called on account of its shape, is ;i group of seven stars that 
 appears to move round the Xorth Star. The two stars that are farthest from 
 the handle are called "pointers," because they always point toward the 
 
 Xorth Star. 
 
 The MilkvAVavis an irregular band of silvery light which pass - - the 
 
 sky. It is made up of myriads of stars. 
 
 As the earth moves round the sun. we look at the -tars from one place one 
 night and from a place farther along in the earth's journey the next night. 
 It takes one year for the earth to trav< 1 round the sun. For this reason, the 
 stars which we see at nine o'clock to-night, we shall not - smu in the 
 same place at the same time for one year. Six months after the si B are 
 
110 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 seen rising in the east, they will be seen at the same hour setting in the 
 west. 
 
 If we observe the stars on different nights, we shall notice that they appear 
 at a given point a few minutes earlier each night. For instance, on Octo- 
 ber 1, at ten o'clock, we see the stars in the same positions that we do at four 
 minutes of ten on October 2. On October 3 we shall see them in the same 
 positions at eight minutes of ten. On October 5 they will be seen in the 
 same positions at 9.45. This difference in time amounts to one hour in two 
 weeks, or two hours in one month. 
 
 Some of the stars and star groups are the Pole Star, the Dipper, Cassio- 
 peia. Andromeda, Pegasus, Perseus, Orion, Sirius, Gemini (Castor and Pol- 
 lux), Taurus, Capella, Vega, and the Milky Way. 
 
 To fixd the staks ix the sky : With a compass find north. Facing 
 the north, the Xorth Star or Pole Star will be found at a point almost one 
 half of the distance from the horizon to the point directly overhead 
 (zenith). 
 
 The Xorth or Pole Star will always be found in that part of the sky 
 directly opposite to the place where the sun is at noon. 
 
 Xear the Pole Star is the Dipper. The Dipper is composed of seven stars. 
 The two stars farthest from the handle are called the pointers, because a line 
 drawn through them and continued across the sky (about five times the dis- 
 tance between them) will reach the Xorth Star. 
 
 The Dipper is a part of a larger group of stars called Ursa Major (the Great 
 Bear). 
 
 The Pole Star is the tail star in another group called Ursa Minor (the 
 Little Bear). 
 
 If a line be drawn from the middle star in the Dipper through the Xorth 
 Star and continued the same distance on the other side of the Xorth Star, it 
 will reach the group called Cassiopeia. This group is somewhat in the 
 
 # # # 
 form of VV 
 
 If this line be extended still farther, it will reach a row of three stars form- 
 ing a group called Andromeda. 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBB STUD*. ]11 
 
 The end star of this group is the corner star in a group of four Btarg form- 
 ing a square. This latter group is called Pegasus. 
 
 If this line be crossed bv another at right angles to the first at the N'ortb 
 Star, it will join two star groups, Lyra and Auriga. The main star of I 
 called Vega, and the main star of Auriga is called Capella. h\ many grou I 
 Dniy the main stars can be seen with the naked eye. 
 
 Stars can be located with the aid of the charts on the following pa| 
 x^lace the chart in a horizontal position overhead, with the directions toward 
 the proper points of the compass. 
 
]12 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 STARS ON OCTOBER 15 AT NINE O'CLOCK. 
 
 These stars will be seen in the same places on November 15 at seven 
 o'clock, and on September 15 at eleven o'clock. 
 
 The group railed Cassiopeia is nearly overhead, slightly to the northeast. 
 
 The groups of Andromeda and Pegasus are southeast of Cassiopeia. 
 
 ( ygnus (the Swan) is a group in the form of a cross. This group is also 
 nearly overhead, slightly toward the west. 
 
 If a line be drawn from Cygnus through Cassiopeia, it will reach another 
 group called Perseus, which is northeast of Cassiopeia. 
 
 Vega and Capella can also be found according to directions given above. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 113 
 
 N. 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dipper. 
 
 Capella. 
 
 
 
 • * 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 * * * * 
 Pole Star. 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Cassiopeia. 
 
 • * • 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 
 • Vega. 
 
 "* Perseus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Andromeda. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 Pegasus. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 * • 
 
 Cygnus. 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 -■ 
 
 STARS ON OCTOBER 15 AT NINE O'CLOCK. 
 
114 OUTLINES IN NATUEE STUDY. 
 
 STARS ON FEBRUARY 15 AT SEVEN O'CLOCK. 
 
 These stars will be in the same positions at nine o'clock on January 15 and 
 at eleven o'clock on December 15. 
 
 Find the Pole Star and Dipper. Opposite the Dipper will be found, in 
 the western part of the sky, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, and Pegasus. They are 
 in the same positions with regard to each other, but we see them in another 
 part of the sky. 
 
 South of Perseus (which is nearly overhead) will be seen a cluster of tiny 
 stars. This is called the Pleiades. 
 
 In the southeast is a group called Orion. The principal stars of this group 
 form the corners of an oblong. Within this oblong is an oblique line of 
 stars. 
 
 In a line halfway between Orion and the Pole Star can be seen a brilliant 
 star in a group called Auriga, The star is called Capella. This group is east 
 of Perseus. 
 
 Starting with Capella and journeying round Orion in a curved line toward 
 the east and then toward the south we will reach successively the following 
 stars. Northeast of Orion are two stars called Gemini ( meaning the Twins). 
 These are named respectively Castor and Pollux. Continuing the line to the 
 southeast, we come to a bright star in a group called Canis Minor (meaning 
 the Little Dog). Procyon, which is the principal star of this group, is the 
 only one that can be seen easily with the naked eye. 
 
 Continued toward the south, the line will reach the brightest star in the 
 sky. Sirius, sometimes called the Dog Star, is the principal star in a group 
 called Canis Major (meaning the Great Dog). This is the only star of the 
 group that can be readily seen by the naked eye. Dog days are so called be- 
 cause at this time Sirius rises with the sun. 
 
 Between Orion and the Pleiades is a bright star called Aldebaran. It is 
 the principal star in a group called Taurus (the Bull). 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBE STUDY. 
 
 115 
 
 N, 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dipper. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 Pejrasus. 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 • * 
 
 * • 
 
 Pole Star. 
 
 * 
 
 Cassiopeia. 
 
 * 
 
 
 * • 
 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 
 Andromeda. 
 
 
 * • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Cape] 
 
 la. 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 * 
 Gemini, ■¥• 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 if Perseus. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Procyon. 
 
 * * * 
 
 ** 
 * • 
 
 • 
 
 * * Pleiades. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 Taurus. 
 
 • 
 • 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sirius. * • • Orion. 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 STARS ON FEBRUARY 15 AT SEVEN O'CLOCK. 
 
116 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 STARS ON APRIL 15 AT EIGHT O'CLOCK, 
 
 These will be in the same place on March 15 at ten o'clock and on May 15 
 at six o'clock. 
 
 With the Pole Star and Dipper located, Capella can be found west of the 
 
 Dipper. 
 
 I Overhead, slightly toward the south, will be a group of six stars called Leo 
 (the Lion). This group has the shape of a sickle, with the handle pointing 
 south. 
 
 If the curved handle of the Dipper be continued toward the southeast, it 
 will reach a bright, slightly reddish star called Arcturus. 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 117 
 
 N. 
 
 Cassiopeia. 
 • 
 
 North Star. * 
 
 • * • * 
 
 • • 
 
 Dipper. 
 
 • 
 Capella. 
 
 Arcturu8. 
 
 Gemini. 
 
 • • 
 
 * • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 Leo. 
 
 S. 
 
 STARS ON APRIL 15 AT EIGHT O'CLOCK. 
 
118 OUTLINES IN NATUBE STUDK. 
 
 STARS ON JULY 15 AT NINE O'CLOCK. 
 
 These will be in the same positions on June 15 at eleven o'clock and on 
 August 15 at seven o'clock. 
 
 Find the stars already pointed out. The Dipper will be west of the Pole 
 Star. Yega will be southeast of the Pole Star. Arcturus will lie nearly 
 overhead, slightly toward the west. 
 
 Between Yega and Arcturus is a small cluster of stars called the Northern 
 Crown. 
 
 Southwest of Arcturus is another group called Virgo. The chief star of 
 this group is called Spica. It shines with a brilliant white light. 
 
 The Milky Way crosses that part of the sky in which are found Cygnus, 
 Cassiopeia, Perseus, Gemini, Orion, Canis Major and Canis Minor. It passes 
 between Orion and Gemini and between Sirius and Procyon. 
 
OUTLINES IS NATUEE STUDY. 
 
 
 K. 
 
 Cassiopeia. 
 • 
 
 North Star. 
 • 
 
 H 
 
 Cygnus. 
 • 
 
 Dipper. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 Vega. 
 
 • 
 
 * • • 
 
 Northern Crown. 
 
 Arcturu*. 
 
 Bplca* 
 
 s. 
 
 STARS ON JULY 15 AT NINE O'CLOCK. 
 
120 OUTLINES IN NATUBB STUDY. 
 
 THE AIR. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where is the air? What kind of air do we inhale? What 
 kind of air do we exhale ? What kind of air do plants breathe 
 in ? Of what is the air made ? 
 
 How does water get into the air ? What becomes of the water 
 that enters the air ? 
 
 Why does water left in a cnp dry up ? 
 
 What causes a pond or pool to dry up ? 
 
 What becomes of steam from the boiling kettle ? from 
 enemies or factories ? 
 
 If an ink-well is left uncovered what is the effect on the ink ? 
 Why ? 
 
 Fill a tumbler or cup with ice water in a warm room. What 
 happens to the outside of the tumbler or cup? Where did the 
 moisture come from ? 
 
 Why does moisture collect on the window panes when we are 
 cooking ? 
 
 Why does it not collect on the stove ? 
 
 When does the air lose its moisture ? 
 
 What is the rainbow? When does it appear in the east? 
 When do we see it in the west ? 
 
 Where does the air obtain its heat ? 
 
 Where does the surface of the earth obtain its heat ? 
 
 Place some lumps of coal or pebbles in water. What happens ? 
 Is the water or the mineral heavier ? How do you know ? 
 
OUTLINES IN NATUBB STUDY, 121 
 
 Place some shavings in water. What happens? Which is 
 
 heavier ? Why ? 
 
 Which is warmer, air near the ceiling or air near the floor? 
 
 Which is heavier, hot air or cold air? How do you know . 
 
 Which is heavier, air or water ? 
 
 Why does an empty bottle float in water? Is it really empty? 
 
 Why do soap bubbles rise? Why do sparks fly upward ? 
 
 What causes a draught when we leave a door or window open '.' 
 
 What causes the wind to blow ? 
 
 Of what use is the wind to plants ? 
 
 Of what use is wind to us ? 
 
 Is there any fog: on a windy day ? Whv ? 
 
 Place a lighted candle near the ceiling in an open doorway 
 between two rooms of different temperature. Then place it near 
 the floor. What is the direction of the flame in each ca& 
 What does this prove ? 
 
 On which part of the earth is the air always rising ? 
 
 How are bicycle tires and footballs kept in shape .' 
 
 If the air is removed from the inside of any of these articles 
 what happens ? Why ? 
 
 Suck the air from a hollow key and place it quickly against 
 the tongue or lip. What is the result '.' Win . 
 
 Fill a smooth-ecl^ed tumbler with water and cover it closelv 
 with a sheet of paper. Invert the tumbler, keeping the pn j »» r 
 pressed closely to the glass. Why does the water remain in tie- 
 tumbler ? 
 
 What would happen if the air were removed from inside oi a 
 drum ? 
 
 Lift a brick by means of a piece of soaked leather attached to 
 a string. Why is it possible to do this V 
 
122 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 "What causes the cork to fly from a pop-gun ? 
 
 What causes the water to enter a squirter ? 
 
 When a person is drinking lemonade through a straw or tube 
 of any kind, what causes the lemonade to rise in the tube ? "When 
 does it begin to rise ? 
 
 Place a bucket of water on the table. Insert in it both ends 
 of a rubber hose (three or four feet in length). Fill the hose 
 with water and then turn one end quickly into another bucket 
 on the floor. What happens? What is the cause of this 9 
 
 If only one end of the tube be placed in the water, why does not 
 the water run out ? 
 
 A siphon generally has the shape of a goose-neck, — a curved 
 tube with the ends unequal in length. Place the shorter end in 
 some water, exhaust the air from the tube by means of suction. 
 Remove the lips from the tube as soon as the air is exhausted. 
 What is the result ? What causes it ? 
 
 What is a vacuum ? 
 
 Use a glass tube that is curved or U-shajDed. Partly fill it with 
 water and closely cover one end. Tilt the tube so that the water 
 will flow into one arm of the tube toward the closed end. Then 
 hold the tube so that the two ends are again upright. What 
 happens to the water ? Why ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The air is all around us. It is composed of several gases. It also contains 
 some moisture. The principal gases in the ah* are oxygen and nitrogen. 
 
 The sun heats the surface of the earth. From the earth's surface the air 
 receives its heat. Hot ah* is lighter than cold ah. For this reason the cold 
 
OUTLINES IN NATTJBE STUDY 123 
 
 air is always pushing the warmer air up and taking its place. The warm air 
 
 floats on the cooler air in the same way thai chips float in water. 
 
 The rising of the warm air and the flowing in of the cold air causes wind 
 Wind is air in motion. 
 
 The sun causes the water on the surface of the earth to evaporsl This 
 vapor enters the air. 
 
 Wind carries moisture to places that need water, in the form of rain, snow, 
 etc. It also carries to plants and animals the kind of air which they need. I" 
 carries the pollen of flowers to other flowers that need it. It is also of use in 
 scattering seeds of plants and carrying odors of various kin«ls. 
 
 The ah* receives its moisture from the surface of the ocean, streams, la] 
 ponds, etc. It also obtains moisture from the leaves of planls and tin' lu • - 
 of animals. This moisture becomes visible in the form of clouds and fogs. 
 
 The ah* loses its moisture in the form of rain, hail, snow, dew, and frost 
 
 Were it not for the moisture in the air we would have no twilight "W hen 
 the sun is below the horizon (either just before sunrise or after sunset) it 
 shines on the moisture in the atmosphere and this light is reflected to the earth 
 If there were no atmosphere the change from daylight to darkness would l>u 
 
 sudden. 
 
 Air has pressure, or weight. The pressure of the air serves to raise water 
 
 in pumps, siphons, fountains, etc. 
 
 If all of the air is removed from a siphon the water rises in it. Thisish 
 the ah* is pressing on the water that is around the tube while QO air p 
 on the water within it. The water enters the empty tube and flows out at the 
 
 other end. 
 
 As long as there is ah* in the tube, the pressure is the same all over the 
 surface of the water. As soon as the air is removed from the tube the water 
 rises at the part on which there is no pressure. 
 
124 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 SOUND. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 If a bell is rung what happens to its surface? 
 
 What happens to a tuning fork when it is sounded? 
 
 What is meant by vibration ? In what way do vibrations reach 
 us? 
 
 Make a string telephone in the following manner: Remove 
 the bottoms from two cylindrical tin boxes. Cover one end of 
 each with a piece of moist paper. When the paper is per- 
 fectly dry, connect the boxes by passing a string through the 
 center of each and knotting it on the inside. The string may be 
 twelve or fifteen feet in length. When the boxes are held so 
 that the string is perfectly straight, a whisper in one box can be 
 heard in the other held close to the ear. What carries the 
 sound ? 
 
 If the end of a log is scratched with a pin, the sound can be 
 heard distinctly at the other end. What carries the sound ? 
 
 What causes anaeolian harp to produce sounds? What causes 
 the sound in any stringed instrument ? What connection is there 
 between the length of the string and the pitch of the sound ? 
 
 Winch vibrates more rapidly, a long or a short string ? 
 
 A whisper in one end of a rubber hose can be heard at the 
 other end. Why? Of what use are speaking tubes? How do 
 they carry sound ? 
 
 What causes the noise of a tin horn ? What is the effect of 
 covering one or more of the holes in a toy whistle or a flute? 
 
OUTLINES IX NATUBB STUDY. 125 
 
 What connection is there between the Length of the column of 
 
 air and the pitch of the sound ? 
 
 When a book falls to the floor what causes the sound ? 
 When a cannon is fired what causes the sound? 
 What makes the noise when the pencil scratches the slate? 
 How is the human voice produced ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 When a soimdin 2; bod v vibrates, these vibrations cause tin* air around I 1 
 vibrate also. The vibrations of the air are carried to the drum of th< 
 The more rapidly a sounding body vibrates, the higher will be the pitch f 
 the sound. 
 
 The lowest sound that we can hear is caused by thirty-two vibrations u 1 
 
 * « 
 
 second. The highest sound that we can hear is caused by sei enty-six thousand 
 vibrations per second. 
 
 When the vibrations are regular, the sound will be pleasant or musi 
 When the vibrations are irregular the sound will be a noise. 
 
 The more air that is displaced with each vibration, the louder or m 
 forcible will be the sound. 
 
 WATER 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 What is the difference between river water and ocean water! 
 
 Where does the ocean get a new supply of water? 
 
 Where does the ocean get its salt? 
 
 Of what uses are the minerals in ocean water to marine 
 
 animals ? 
 
 What animals live in salt water? 
 
126 OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY. 
 
 What animals live in fresh water ? 
 
 Examine some water under a magnifying glass. What does it 
 contain ? What name is given to these tiny creatures ? 
 
 Does fresh water ever have any particular flavor? What 
 causes it ? 
 
 In what direction does water always flow? 
 
 Why do some streams flow more rapidly than others? 
 
 Are streams found in level countries ? 
 
 Of what use is water to plants ? 
 
 Is high land or low land more fertile ? Why ? 
 
 How are rivers supplied with water ? 
 
 What is the source of supply of underground springs and 
 streams ? 
 
 Where does rain come from ? 
 
 How does moisture get into the air ? 
 
 Hold a wet handkerchief in front of the fire or where the 
 wind blows on it. What happens? What causes wet clothing 
 to dry? 
 
 If water is exposed in a saucer what happens? What be- 
 comes of the water ? 
 
 Why do ponds dry up ? 
 
 What becomes of escaping steam from an engine or boiling 
 kettle ? 
 
 What is vapor ? What is evaporation ? 
 
 Why does there appear to be a vacant space between the 
 escaping steam and the spout of a tea kettle in which water is 
 boiling ? 
 
 How are clouds formed ? 
 
 On a cool day stand under steam that is escaping from an en- 
 gine. What happens ? What causes this to happen ? 
 
OUTLINES IN JSATOBB STUDY. 127 
 
 When do clouds empty themselves? 
 
 When water is boiling in a room why does moisture colled on 
 the window panes ? Why does it not collect on the outer sun. 
 of the window ? 
 
 If a pitcher of ice water is carried into a warm room, wli.it 
 happens to the outside of the pitcher? Where does the moist 
 come from? Why does it form on the pitcher? 
 
 What causes dew to form ? 
 
 What always causes air to lose its moisture? 
 
 Why does frost sometimes form on the window pane '.' 
 
 What effect on the temperature of the air has the moisture 
 which it contains ? 
 
 Is it warmer or cooler after a rainstorm ? Whv? 
 
 Weigh an empty tin cup. Fill it with water and weigh it 
 again. What does this prove ? 
 
 Which is heavier, a cup that is full of water or one that is full 
 to the brim with ice? Of what advantage is it that ice is 
 lighter than water ? 
 
 Place each of the following substances in water for the purp 
 of finding out which are heavier and which are lighter than water : 
 wood, stone, mercury, cork, oil, ice, glass. 
 
 What happens to a bottle that is full of water or other liquid 
 when the liquid which it contains becomes frozen ? AVh\ . Why 
 do water pipes burst when the water in them freezes . 
 
 Why does the lid of the tea kettle rise when the water is 
 boiling ? 
 
 What causes the bursting of the boiler connected with an 
 engine ? 
 
 Of what uses are rivers and oceans to man ? 
 
 Of what use to us is water in the atmosphere? 
 
128 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 What other uses has water for us ? Of what use is water to 
 beasts? birds? reptiles? fish? shellfish? insects? 
 
 Of what use to plants is water in its different forms, — rain, 
 snow, clew, and frost ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Water is a transparent liquid, without odor, flavor, or color. It is necessary 
 to the life of plants and animals. 
 
 On the earth, water forms springs, streams, and oceans. 
 
 Streams on the surface of the earth are kept supplied by means of under- 
 ground 8] trings and also by means of moisture from the atmosphere. 
 
 Springs and streams carry various materials, such as salt, lime, iron, sand, 
 and other substances, which they obtain from the soil through which they 
 flow. It is by this means that the ocean is furnished with mineral substances 
 for the use of marine animals. 
 
 Vapor is constantly passing into the ah- from the breath of animals, the 
 leaves of plants, and from the surface of the ground and streams. 
 
 When the air is full of moisture, this becomes visible in the form of clouds, 
 fogs, steam, etc. 
 
 When this moisture comes in contact with a cold current of air, it condenses 
 and returns to the earth in the form of rain, snow, or hail. When the surface 
 of the earth is colder than the ah- above it, the moisture of the ah- be- 
 comes visible in the form of dew. 
 
 Water when heated beyond boiling point becomes invisible and passes into 
 the air in the form of vapor. When this vapor comes in contact with cooler 
 air it condenses and becomes visible in the form of steam clouds. 
 
 Heated water expands, that is, it takes up more room. Steam is used to move 
 machinery and engines. 
 
 Water that is frozen occupies more space than when it is in the form of 
 a liquid. 
 
 Water is of use to plants and animals in various ways. 
 
 Plants absorb their food from the ground through the roots by means of 
 water in the soil 
 
OUTLINES IN NATURE STUDY, 129 
 
 Rain moistens the ground. Snow keeps the ground warm during th^ arinl 
 and when it melts it moistens the ground. Frosl in the ground breaks up 
 the soil and makes it softer. 
 
 Some animals have their hoi i Lea in the water. Many of these animals :ire 
 used for food by man and by other animals. 
 
 Moisture in the air modifies the temperature. Rain and bimxw purify the 
 air by carrying the impurities hack to the earth. 
 
 Water is also useful to animals for drinking and bathing purpofi 
 
 MAGNETIC ATTRACTION. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Procure a magnet. Place some needles near it. Whal is the 
 result? What is this power of attraction called V 
 
 Mix some sand, sawdust, steel filings, and chalk. P 
 two ends of the magnet over the mixture. What is the result? 
 
 What does this prove ? 
 
 Pass the blade of a knife through sonic steel filings. Bafl it 
 any power to attract them? Rub the point of the knife-blade 
 on the ends of the magnet. Pass it again through the liliu 
 What happens? What does this prove V 
 
 Pass the middle of the magnet through the steel filings. I)' 
 the end or the middle have the more attraction for the steel I 
 
 Why is a magnet generally made in the shape of ;i horseshoe ? 
 
 Place a magnet on the table and lay a pane of glass on it. 
 Sprinkle some'iron or steel filings on the glass. Tap the ed 
 of the glass lightly. What happens to the filings V 
 
 Place a needle on one surface of a pane of glass or a sheet of 
 
130 OUTLINES IX NATURE STUDY. 
 
 cardboard and a magnet on the other. What is the result? 
 What does this prove ? 
 
 Magnetize a long knitting needle. Float a piece of cork in 
 water. Lay the magnetized needle on it. In winch general 
 direction will it point ? 
 
 On a cloudy day or night, how can a sailor discover the direc- 
 tion in which he is traveling? 
 
 Why is the needle of the compass so carefully covered ? 
 
 Why is no iron or steel permitted near it ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 A certain kind of iron ore was discovered in ancient times by the people 
 living near a town called Magnesia. This material, called loadstone, was 
 found to possess the power of attracting iron. On account of the place of its 
 discovery, the name magnet was applied to it. 
 
 A magnet may have any shape, but it is usually made somewhat in the shape 
 of a horseshoe. It is made in this shape because the greatest power of attrac- 
 tion is found in the ends, or poles, of a magnetic bar, and this shape per- 
 mits the two poles to act together. If a magnetic bar be broken, the broken 
 ends will be found to have the same power of attraction. A magnet can hold 
 about twentv-five times its own weight of iron. 
 
 If we magnetize a slender steel bar or needle and then suspend it so that 
 it can move freely in all directions, it will take the direction of north and 
 south. This fact was made use of for the benefit of sailors. 
 
 The mariner's compass is an instrument containing a magnetized needle. 
 This needle is carefully protected so that wind cannot affect it. The presence 
 of iron or steel, even at a distance, will attract the needle. Any of these 
 things would influence the needle and cause it to point in some other direction 
 than the exact north. 
 
OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 STORY OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Where was Columbus born? Find Italy on a map. Find 
 Genoa on a map. In what direction from the schoolhous< is 
 Italy? What is the appearance of an Italian? What led ( 
 lumbus to wish to be a sailor? Consider the following points: — 
 
 Belief of the people as to the shape of the earth. — Trade with 
 India and desire for a more direct route. — Opinion of Columbus 
 as to the shape of the earth. — His poverty and difficulties in obtain- 
 ing; assistance. — His wanderings through different countries. — 
 His appeals to different governments for aid. — Queen Isabella's 
 offers of assistance. — Pinta, Nina, and Santa Maria. — The Length 
 of the voyage. — Terror and mutiny of the sailors. — Signs oi ap- 
 proaching land. — Discovery of San Salvador. — Reason for being 
 so named. — Reason for name "West Indies.** — Strange Inhabi- 
 tants. — Reason for name "Indians." — Visits to other islands. — 
 His return to Spain. — His reception. — Columbus and the 
 — Another voyage. — Treachery of his companions. — Columbus 
 in chains. — His poverty and death. — His ignorance of the 
 greatness of his discovery. — His present burial-place. — Reason 
 
 for names "Columbia," "America." 
 
 131 
 
132 OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, a seaport town in Italy. When 
 he grew up he became a sailor. At this time people thought that the earth 
 was fiat, but Columbus believed it to be round. lie wanted to prove this by 
 sailing around the earth, but he had no vessels. He visited kings and queens 
 of different countries, asking them to supply him with vessels, but they all 
 refused. 
 
 At last the queen of Spain fitted out a fleet of three vessels for him. The 
 one in which Columbus sailed was called the /Stntta Maria. 
 
 For many weeks these vessels sailed without seeing land. The sailors be- 
 came frightened and wanted Columbus to return home, but Columbus refused. 
 Then the sailors were going to put him in chains and return home, but one 
 evening thev saw lights ahead and knew that land must be near. 
 
 The next morning, October 12, 1492, thev saw a beautiful island before 
 them with strange-looking people on it. These people were Indians, and the 
 island was one of the West Indies. 
 
 Columbus had discovered a new land, which was afterward called America*. 
 
 THE INDIANS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Appearance of the Indians, — hair, complexion, painting the 
 face. I Hothing, — skins of animals, blankets, moccasins, leggings, 
 head dross of feathers, articles of decoration, such as beads, teeth 
 and claws of animals, scalps of victims. 
 
 Houses or wigwams, — variation in size and structure. — 
 Mud huts, hide tents, lack of windows and furniture. — Blankets 
 or skins of animals for beds. — Indian cradle. — Food, — how ob- 
 
OUTLINES IN BISTORY. 1... 
 
 tained and cooked. — Cooking utensils. — Open fire. — Cancx 
 
 — materials and manner of making various kinds. — Warfare, 
 
 — implements and methods of warfare. — Cruelty and treach- 
 ery. — Form of government, — Wandering life. — Work of bra^ 
 
 work of squaws. — Religious belief. — Mode of curing the sick. 
 
 — Indian dances. 
 
 Why did Columbus call them "Indians"? I low did they 
 greet Columbus ? 
 
 Origin of the use of tobacco among white people. — The story 
 of Hiawatha in Longfellow's poem tells us much about the life of 
 Indians. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 When the white men first came to America they found the Indians li- 
 The Indians have a copper-colored skin, with high cluck bones and straight 
 black hah-. They are divided into tribes, and each tribe has a chief. They 
 live in wigwams made of skins of animals and boughs of fcri They wander 
 
 from place to place, carrying these wigwams with them. 
 
 They spend their time in hunting, fishing, and warfare. The ><|ua\\ 
 obliged to do all the work, — till the ground, plant the crops, and gather 
 the harvest. When they move, the squaws look after the wigwams and all 
 of the household goods, as well as the papooses. The men carry only their 
 hunting knives, tomahawks, bows and arrows. 
 
 Indians are treacherous and cruel. They think thai the bravest man La the 
 one who kills the greatest number of people and takes their scalps. In war 
 they never fight openly, but shoot their arrows from a hiding phu 
 
 The braves are fond of gay colors and like to dress themselves in bright 
 blankets, feathers and beads, and decorate their Eaces with colored pain: 
 
 They worship the sun, moon, stars, thunder and lightning, rain and wind 
 They believe that the Great Spirit always watches over them, and thai when 
 they die they will go to a place called the -happy hunting-grounds," where 
 they will hunt and fish forever. 
 
134 OUTLINES IX 1IISTOHY. 
 
 STORY OF POCAHONTAS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Settlement of Virginia. — Captain John Smith. — Starvation 
 of colony. — John Smith captured by Indians. — Showed them 
 compass, letter writing. — Became friend of Pocahontas, daugh- 
 ter of Powhatan. — Pocahontas saved Smith's life. — Smith set 
 free. — Trouble between Indians and colonists. — Indians plan 
 to kill the white people. — Pocahontas warns the English and 
 saves the colony. — Pocahontas captured by the English. — She 
 became a Christian. — Was baptized and changed her name to 
 Rebecca. — Married John Rolfe. — Received at the Court of 
 England as Lady Rebecca. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Captain John Smith was living with white people in Virginia who were 
 very poor. While hunting food for them he was captured by the Indians, 
 who would have put him to death, but his life was saved by Pocahontas, to 
 whom Smith had been very kind. Pocahontas often visited the white people 
 after Smith returned to the colony. She taught them the language of the 
 Indians and told them much about the different tribes and the surrounding 
 country. During the hard times she often supplied them with food. After- 
 wards the Indians planned to kill the white people, but Pocahontas went 
 through the woods at night and warned them of their danger. She after- 
 ward lived among the white people, became a Christian, and took the name 
 of Rebecca. 
 
OUTLINES LS' HISTORY. 1 
 
 THE PILGRIMS. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Religious intolerance in England. — Puritans goto Bolland — 
 
 Reason for name Puritan. — Dislike of Holland. — Poverty of I'd- 
 
 * 
 
 grirns. — Reason for name "Pilgrims." — Number of Pilgrims. — ■ 
 Reason for their wanderings. — Spi < dwi II and Mayflowi r. — 
 Size of the vessels. — Length of voyage. — Where they landed. — 
 Reason for names New England, Plymouth, Pilgrim Fathers, 
 Plymouth Rock. — Sufferings during winter. 
 
 The story of Captain Miles Standish in Longfellow's poem tells 
 us a good deal about the Pilgrims in America. 
 
 Consider their manner of living in their new home. — How 
 they were clad. — Their relations with the Indians. — Their me< - 
 ing houses. — Their amusements, etc. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Many years ago people were expected to accept the religion of the country 
 in which they lived. In England there were people called Puritans who 
 did not like the Church of England. So they left England and wenl to l!«'l- 
 land; but they were not happy there, and they decided to come to Ameri . 
 where they could worship God as they pleased. On account of their wan- 
 derings they were called Pilgrims. 
 
 They started for America in the Mayflower, and after sailing for two 
 months they landed in December, It i '1 0, on the coasl of Massachusetts, and 
 called the place Plymouth. A large rock, known as Plymouth Rock, is -up- 
 posed to be the place where they first Btepped ashore This event is spoken 
 of as the " Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." 
 
136 OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 THANKSGIVING DAY. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Sufferings of Pilgrims from hunger and cold of the northern 
 winter. — Sickness and death. — Planting of crops. — Lack of rain. 
 — Prayer for rain. — Abundant harvest. — Thankfulness of Pil- 
 
 ■ 
 
 grims. — Governor Bradford appointed a day of thanksgiving. — 
 Services in the meeting house. — Rejoicing lasted three days. — 
 Custom spread to all parts of New England; to all parts of the 
 country. — Who appoints Thanksgiving Day at present time? — 
 What is the usual date ? — How is it celebrated ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 In the fall of 1621 the Pilgrims celebrated the first Thanksgiving Day. 
 They had suffered a great deal from cold, sickness, and lack of food, but they 
 had planted Indian corn and potatoes in the spring and in the fall they gath- 
 ered in a laro;e harvest. 
 
 The Pilgrims felt that they had so much to be thankful for that Governor 
 Bradford appointed a day on which to give special thanks. The men went out 
 hunting and fishing and brought home wild turkeys and deer. The women 
 made pumpkin pies and corn-meal bread. 
 
 After a thanksgiving service in the meeting house they went to their 
 homes and held a great feast. 
 
 In time, Thanksgiving Day came to be celebrated all over the country. 
 The day is appointed now by the President. It is usually the last Thurs- 
 day in Xovember. 
 
OUTLINES EN H1STCBY. 137 
 
 STORY OF WILLIAM PENN. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 His birthplace and boyhood. — The religious belief of hia par- 
 ents. — His change of religious belief. — General objection in 
 England to the Society of Friends or Quakers. — Dress of 
 most people at that time. — Dress and form of speech of Quake 
 — His father's anger. — William Perm's imprisonment — II - 
 father's forgiveness. — His riches inherited from his father. — 
 The king's gift. — Penn's colony. — The shin Welcome. — Voy- 
 age to Pennsylvania. — What is the meaning of sylvan? — Rea- 
 son for the names Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Kensington. — 
 Was the site of Philadelphia well chosen*.' Why".' — Penn's 
 treatment of the Indians. — His treaty with them under the 
 "Treaty Tree." — Purchase of land. — Laying ou1 the town. — 
 How did he name the streets? — Penn's views of government 
 and education. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 William Penn was an Englishman. He was boro in 1644 and died in 
 1718. The kino- of England gave Penn a tracl of land west of the Dela- 
 ware River, in payment of a debt he owed lii- father. The first Bet 
 arrived in 1681. Later Penn and a number «>t" other Quakers Bailed I 
 America in the. ship \Y<h-<>me. 
 
 They landed November 8, L682. Be founded a towa and gave it the 
 name of Philadelphia, which means "Brotherly Love," because he hoped il.at 
 all would live together peacefully. 
 
 Penn was very kind and just, and made a treaty with tin- Indians under an 
 
138 OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 
 
 old elm tree. The spot on which this elm tree stood is now marked by a 
 marble monument, and the tract of laud surrounding it is called Penn Treaty 
 Park. 
 
 The house in which Penn lived in Philadelphia now stands in Fairmount 
 Park. 
 
 STORY OF INDEPENDENCE DAY. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Many people had left England and other countries of Europe 
 and come to America to live. Then there was a war in 
 Europe between England and France. This war cost England 
 a large sum of money. — Taxation of colonists without represen- 
 tation in the government. — Stamp Act. — Tea Act. — Boston 
 Tea Party. — Indignation of colonists at the injustice of Eng- 
 land. — Desire to be a separate nation. — Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. — What was it, when and where was it signed? — 
 "Where was it written? — Who wrote it? — The number of sign- 
 ers. — How was the news of its adoption proclaimed? — What 
 followed its adoption? — How was the first Independence Day 
 celebrated ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Many years ago England owned a great deal of land in America, and the 
 people who lived here were governed by England. England had a great 
 many debts because of having been at war with other countries. 
 
 To obtain money to pay her debts England commenced to tax nearly every- 
 thing that the people in America used. Although the peojile paid these 
 heavy taxes, they were not allowed to help make the laws. 
 
 This was not just, so the people in America decided not to be governed 
 
OUTLINES IS BISTORY. 1 
 
 by England any more, but to declare themselves free from land a 
 
 establish a government of their own. 
 
 On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted in the 
 State House in Philadelphia. This is the reason thai w< July 
 
 fourth as Independence Day every year. 
 
 After this, England sent armies to America, an. 1 the Revolutionary War 
 was fought. The Americans won the Avar and became a free and independi 
 nation. 
 
 THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE HOUSE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Location and appearance. — Reason for its being built. — R 
 son for the name "State House." — Later Philadelphia became I 
 capital of the country. — Meaning of word "capital." — What is 
 the present capital of Pennsylvania? — Of the United States ? — 
 Meaning; of word "Congress." — Continental Congress me< id the 
 east room on the first floor of the State House — Meeting of dele- 
 gates in that room to consider England's treatmeni of ti lo- 
 rries. — Decision to adopt the Declaration of Independence. — 
 Liberty Bell and its inscription, Leviticus _ : > : LO, — R« 
 for names " Liberty Bell " and " Independence 1 [all." 
 
 At a later period it was used as the City Hall of Philadelphia 
 until the erection of the present City Hall. 
 
 After a visit to Independence Hall, a description of many 
 famous relics and documents can be given by the pupils. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 The State House is on Chestnut Street between Fifth and Sixth si 
 It was at first a single brick building, two stories in height. Afterward two 
 
1-iO OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 other buildings were erected, one on each side of the first. These three are 
 now joined by means of arches. Later a tower was built and in 1752 a bell 
 was purchased in England and placed in it. 
 
 It had a large yard which extended to Walnut Street. This is now called 
 Independence Square. On the pavement on Chestnut Street stands a 
 statue of George Washington. 
 
 At first law-makers met there and made laws for Pennsylvania. After- 
 ward Philadelphia became the capital of the whole country, and Congress 
 met there. 
 
 The principal event that occurred there was the adoption of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence. This took place on the Fourth of July, 1776. In 
 this building also the Declaration of Independence was signed, although all 
 the names were not signed on that day. 
 
 The people of Philadelphia gathered in the yard of the State House and 
 waited for the news. At last the bell in the tower was rung. This was the 
 signal which told them that the Declaration of Independence had been 
 adopted. 
 
 This event brought on the Revolutionary War, bv which we became a free 
 and independent nation. 
 
 After this the State House was called Independence Hall and the bell was 
 called the Liberty Bell. 
 
 The building at the corner of Sixth and Chestnut streets was called Con- 
 gress Hall because Congress met there for ten years after Washington be- 
 came President. 
 
 In Independence Hall there are many relics connected with the early his- 
 tory of our country. The old Liberty Bell is kept there, as well as portraits 
 of many men famous in the history of our country. 
 
 The Liberty Bell was made in Whitechapel, in England, and brought to 
 Philadelphia in 1752. It was cracked at the trial ringing before it was hung 
 in the State House and was recast by Pass and Stow of Philadelphia. After 
 it was repaired, it was hung in the tower of the State House in Philadelphia. 
 In 1777 the bell was taken to Allentown to prevent its being captured by the 
 British, who were about to take possession of Philadelphia. This was a very 
 long journey in those days. After the British left Philadelphia it was 
 brought back to the State House. The old tower being out of repair, it was 
 
OUTLINES IN IIIsTui:y\ 
 
 not considered safe to place the bell there. The framework on which the 
 bell hung was placed lower down, where it was supported by the l>ii<k part 
 of the tower. 
 
 The bell is three feet in height and the circumference of the base is I 
 feet. It weighs 2,080 pounds. Around the crown of the bell is be prophetic 
 inscription, "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabi- 
 tants thereof. Lev. xxv, X." 
 
 Immediately under this inscription is another, also in a line encir 
 bell : — 
 
 By Order of the Assembly of the Province of Pennsylvania for the 
 State House in Philada. 
 
 Pass and Stow 
 Philada. 
 
 MDCCLIII. 
 
 STORY OF WASHINGTON. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 His birthplace. — His boyhoodand education. — Bis character. 
 
 — His truthfulness. — Washington and the cherry tree. — French 
 and Indian War. — His errand to Fort Du Quesne. — England's 
 treatment of the colonies in America. — The Revolutionary War. 
 
 — Washington appointed commander-in-chief. — Love ol 
 soldiers for Washington. — (lose of the Revolutionary War.— 
 Washington elected President. — Death at .Mom,. Vernon.— 
 Reason for the term "Father of his Country." — Meaning of the 
 term "First in war, first in peace, and lirst in the hearts of I - 
 countrymen." — Celebration of Washington's birthday. 
 
142 OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 
 
 Summary, 
 
 Geonre "Washington, who is calle<l the " Father of his Country," was bom 
 in Virginia, February 22, 173'2. His parents were rich, but this did not make 
 him proud or lazy. His father died when he was quite young. He was 
 educated by his mother, who taught him to be good and truthful. He grew 
 to be a noble man. 
 
 When the Revolutionary "War between the American colonies and England 
 broke out, he was chosen commander-in-chief of the army. He was willing 
 to serve his country. He was a wise and brave general. 
 
 When the war was over, England gave up all control over the colonies. 
 After the colonies became free, they were called the United States of America 
 and George Washington was chosen to be the first President. He served two 
 terms, or eight years. 
 
 The people wanted him to serve another term. He refused because he did 
 not think it was right for the same man to be President more than two terms. 
 He died at his beautiful home at Mount Vernon in 1799. 
 
 Because he is considered the greatest American, and because the people wish 
 to show how much they love and honor him for his services to his country, he 
 is often spoken of as "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of 
 his countrymen." 
 
 THE FLAG. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Betsy Ross. — Her place of residence. — Her occupation. — 
 Why she was chosen to make the flag. — Committee appointed 
 to call on her. — Discussion in reference to the kind of star. 
 
 Why are there thirteen stripes in the flag? How many stars 
 are on our flag now ? Why ? What is meant by " Star Spangled 
 
OUTLINES IX BISTORT. 
 
 Banner"? What does our flag signify, no matter w] it u 
 seen ? On tins account, of what service is it to Americana I 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Betsy Ross lived in Philadelphia at 239 Arch Street. She was noted 
 being a fine needlewoman, and had made nrffled-bosom shirl 
 Washington. Congress appointed a committee to ask her to make a 
 according to a design which had been adopted. General Washington, Rol 
 Morris, and her uncle, Colonel Ross, formed the committee. The design I 
 the flag contained six-pointed stars, but she thought that five-point 
 would be better. The five-pointed star was the one used 
 
 The first American flag was made by Betsy Ross at 239 Arch Stn 
 Philadelphia, On June 14, 1777, Congress adopted a Hag of red and w] 
 stripes with a blue field studded with white stars as the flag i t the Unil 
 States. 
 
 The first flag contained thirteen stripes and thirteen stars. Our flag r. 
 has thirteen stripes and fortv-five stars. Each -tar means ;i state. 
 time a state is admitted to the Union a star is added to the fl . 
 
 Each color in the flag has a meaning. Red means divine love, corn . and 
 glory. White means purity and truth. Blue means peace and justi Tl 
 flag floats from jmblic buildings and vessels, and insures the protection of ; 
 United States to all American people. 
 
 LYDIA DARRAGH. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why were English soldiers in the house .of an American? — 
 Meaning: of the term "headquarters." — Necessity for Becr< 
 meetings of the English officers. — Why did Lydia Darragh 
 
144 OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 listen to the plans of the English and send the news to Washing- 
 ton? — Meaning of the word "patriotism." — Are there any pa- 
 triots in our country to-day ? — How can we show our patriotism ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 General Howe commanded the English army in Philadelphia during the 
 Revolutionary War. He established his headquarters at the house of William 
 and Lydia Darragh. "Whenever he held meetings with his officers to consider 
 plans for carrying on the Avar, he ordered every one in the family to go to 
 bed. 
 
 One night they held a secret meeting for the purpose cf planning a surprise 
 attack to destroy the American army. Lydia Darragh listened at the door 
 and heard all of then* arrangements. 
 
 The next day she obtained permission to go to Frankford to buy some flour. 
 While she was away from home she succeeded in sending to General Wash- 
 ington the news of the intended attack. 
 
 By this means the Americans were prepared for the attack and the British 
 were defeated. 
 
 General Howe never knew how his plans were discovered by the Americans. 
 
 VALLEY FORGE. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Revolutionary War in progress. — Necessity for shelter during 
 the winter season. — Encampment at Valley Forge on the 
 Schuylkill River. — Hewing trees and building huts plastered 
 with mud. — Poverty of the government. — No money or supplies 
 for the army. — Sufferings and deprivations of the soldiers. — 
 Lack of beds and bed clothing. — Lack of shoes, stockings, and 
 
O UTL1 N ES IN III ST( > I : V . 145 
 
 other clothing. — Lack of food. — Washington's prayers, and hu 
 
 encouragement of the army. — Bravery and patriotism i ti 
 
 CD %J % \ 
 
 suffering soldiers. — Their self-sacrificing devotion to their can 
 
 and country. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 As the fio'htingj could not be continued during the winter, the An • 
 army under General Washington went into winter quarters al : 
 
 The soldiers marched to the woods, cut down trees, and built log huta, in 
 which they passed the winter. They had no bedding of any kind and the 
 little clothing which they had was in rags. 
 
 When they marched, the icy ground was tracked with blood from tl 
 bare feet. 
 
 Thev had little to eat, and nearly died of cold and starvation. Only lore 
 for their country and their desire to gain independence for the nation 
 them corn-age to endure the terrihle hardships. 
 
 At the close of tins winter of suffering^ news reached the camp thai !'• 
 jamin Franklin had succeeded in persuading the king of France to asfl it the 
 Americans in then- struggle for liberty. 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 A youth of twenty at the time of the Revolutionary War. — 
 His wealth and social position at the French court — Position in 
 the French army. — Desire to help the American colonies.— 
 Objection of his' family and the French government. — Disol 
 dience would make him liable to punishment as n deserter.— 
 Presented himself to the American agents (Silas Deane, Benj* 
 
148 OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 
 
 min Franklin, Arthur Lee) in Paris. — Terms of his contract, to 
 serve as major-general without pay. — Difficulty in getting away 
 from France. — Purchase of a vessel at his own expense. — Giv- 
 ing up his estates and position in France. — After a two months' 
 voyage he landed in South Carolina, June, 1777. — Rode on 
 horseback to Philadelphia and presented himself to Congress in 
 the State House. — Service in American army. — Friendship 
 between Washington and Lafayette. — Wounded in the leg at 
 the Battle of Brandywine. — Yisited America fifty years later 
 when he was an old man. — Entertained at Independence Hall. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Lafayette was a rich and titled Frenchman who came to this country 
 ay hen he was a young man to help the Americans in their war for freedom, 
 lie became an officer in the American army, and not only served without pay, 
 but supplied a great many soldiers with fire-arms and clothing at his own 
 expense. When lie came to America fifty years later lie was welcomed by 
 all on account of his services to the Americans in the Revolutionary War. 
 
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 His birthplace and boyhood. — Poverty of his father. — Two 
 years of school. — Apprenticeship to his brother to learn print- 
 insr. — His leaving: home and ^oino; to New York and thence to 
 Philadelphia. — His poverty. — His energy and hard work. — 
 His thrift and economy. — Establishment of his printing house 
 
OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 147 
 
 and newspaper. — " Poor Richard's Almanac." — [nteresl in <•!• - 
 tricity. — Flying of his kite in the neighborhood of Ninth and 
 Eace streets, Philadelphia. — Invention of the lightning rod. — 
 Journey to Paris as acrent for the United Stated erovernment — 
 His invention of the stove. — How were houses heated prior to 
 this? — Mention some of the uses that electricity basal present — 
 His establishment of the first public library in Philadelphia. 
 
 Of what value is a public library '.' 
 
 Franklin's place of burial at the corner of Fifth and Arch 
 streets. — His statue on the pavement near the Philadelphia 
 post office. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston. He was the son <>f a poor n 
 who could afford to send him to school only two years. He Learned t<> !.. 
 jmnter, and when he became a young man he left home and worked bis w 
 to Philadelphia. He read and studied early in the morning and late at night 
 bv the ligdit of a candle. He worked hard and saved enough money i-> 
 into business for himself. He published a newspaper and also a little 1'". k 
 called "Poor Richard's Almanac." This contained information about I 
 time of sunrise, sunset and tides, predictions aboul the weather, and many 
 short sayings which gave people good advice. 
 
 He became interested in the study of electricity. By flying a kite which 
 he made after a great deal of thought, he found that lightning and electricity 
 were the same thing. What he learned led him t.» invent the lightning rod 
 This was the beo-innW of all the wonderful uses which electricity no* 
 
 He made the first stoye. He also founded the University of Pennsylvania 
 and started the first public library in Philadelphia. 
 
148 OUTLINES IX HISTORY. 
 
 STEPHEN GIRARD. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Birthplace. — Positions of father and grandfather in the French 
 navy. — Entered merchant marine service. — Accident of storm 
 drove his vessel into Delaware Bay, in 1776. — Howe's hlock- 
 ink'. — Establishment of business on Water Street- 
 Yellow fever in Philadelphia, 1793. — Horrors of the disease. — 
 Its contagions character. — Flight of the j3eople leaving all their 
 jDOsscssions and the sick of their families. — Awful number of 
 deaths. — Manner of collecting the dead. — Effect on business 
 and social life. — Lack of nurses in the hospital in the suburbs 
 at Bush Hill (now Seventeenth and Spring Garden streets). 
 
 Girard's offer of his services. — Two months' constant attend- 
 ance at the pesthouse. — Removing the sick to the hospital in 
 his private carriage. 
 
 His purchase of all of the outstanding stock of the United 
 States Bank, 1812. — Refusal of Congress to re-charter it. — 
 Establishment of his private bank under the name of " Bank of 
 Stephen Girard." This averted a financial panic. 
 
 On account of the war, the government attempted to raise five 
 million dollars, 1815. — Only twenty thousand subscribed. — 
 Girard pledged his fortune, thus saving the army from disbanding 
 and the country from dishonor and defeat. 
 
 Government wished to re-establish the United States Bank. — 
 Girard made it possible by subscribing three million dollars. 
 
 Consider his kindness to the poor. — His love for children and 
 
OUT LINKS IX BISTORT. J 
 
 dumb animals. — His bravery. — TI is generosity. — Hia en 
 and activity. — His charity. — His numerous bequ< be 
 
 public good. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Stephen Girard was born in Bordeaux, France. When 1 v op I 
 
 gaged in commerce and became captain of a vessel. He came 
 and started in business in Philadelphia at the beginning of the I i * • \ < »I m t • 
 War. 
 
 Xearly twenty years later yellow fever broke out in Philadelphia. I '• >r I 
 months he took care of the sick people in the hospital at the risk of his own 
 life. 
 
 He was patriotic and generous, brave and charitable, and very fond oi 
 children and dumb animals. 
 
 Several times he saved the credit of the country bv loaning the _ 
 money. He left large sums of money in his will for the improvement of I 
 state of Pennsylvania and the water front of Philadelphia. 
 
 He also willed a lar^e amount of monev to establish a home trphan 
 boys where they could receive an education. This is called Girard Colle 
 and occupies that part of Girard Avenue between Nineteenth an. I Twenl 
 fifth streets. 
 
 On account of his public services, a statue of Stephen Girard wsa placed 
 the pavement near the City Hall. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 His birthplace. — The poverty of his parents and their la< 
 of education. — Removal, to Indiana and later to Qlinois. — Bis 
 
 occupation as wood cutter and rail splitter. — His effort* to obtain 
 
150 OUTLINES IX HISTOHY. 
 
 an education without having the advantage of schools. — How 
 he purchased his first book ("The Life of Washington"). — Tlis 
 energy led him to walk miles for the purpose of borrowing 
 books. — Occupation as store-keeper. — How he became a law- 
 yer. — Election to the legislature of Illinois; later to Congress; 
 and still later to the office of President of the United States. — 
 Agriculture in the South required many laborers and led to the 
 general practice of slavery. — Growing opposition to slavery. — 
 South Carolina's attempt to leave the Union. — The Civil War. 
 — Emancipation Proclamation. — His speech at Gettysburg.— 
 Close of the war. — Assassination of Lincoln. — Why was he called 
 " Honest Abe " ? — A statue of Lincoln is in Fairmount Park, near 
 the Green Street entrance. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, in a log cabin in Kentucky. 
 His parents were very poor. While he was still very young lie was obliged 
 to earn his living by chopping wood and splitting rails for fences. There 
 were no schools near his home and his mother taught him to read and write. 
 He had a few books, and these he studied over and over at night after work- 
 in "• hard all day. 
 
 When he grew older he moved to Illinois and studied law. lie was so suc- 
 cessful and made such line speeches that the people all over the country 
 began to hear of him. Then lie was elected to Congress by the people of 
 Illinois. He was opposed to slavery and often spoke against it. In 18G0 
 he was elected President of the United States. 
 
 While he was President the Civil War took place. He was a very wise 
 and just President. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which de- 
 clared all slaves to be free. 
 
 Some people did not like him because he was opposed to slavery. In 
 1865 he was shot by a man named Wilkes Booth. Lincoln was a good 
 and upright man, whom we love to honor. 
 
OUTLINES EN BISTOBY. 
 
 MEMORIAL DAY. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Who were some of the prominent officers of the army during 
 the Civil War ? — Why were the soldiers ready to answei Lin- 
 coln's call and join the army? — Bravery of the soldiera 
 
 Readiness to sacrifice home, health, comfort, and life. — Suffer- 
 ings of the soldiers during the war andafter it was over. — Whirl! 
 day of each year is set apart for the purpose of honoring them '.' 
 
 — Why is it called Memorial Day? — How do we celebrate it '.' 
 
 — What ismeantby G. A. R. ? — Why do the soldiers take such 
 an active part in these ceremonies? — Whv is the flag of our 
 country displayed on that day? — How can we show our love for 
 our countrv ? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 During the Civil War many soldiers lost their live< in the def 
 nation. Many others became ruined in health by wounds and exposure, and 
 these also died for our country. To show thai we honor and revei Bra 
 
 for then- brave sacrifice, we strew their graves with flowers on Memorial 1 ' 
 of each year. 
 
 May 30 was appointed by General Logan for this purpose in 18C8, At' 
 ward it was made a legal holiday, and as Mich it is observed in many 
 
J 52 OUTLINES EN HISTORY. 
 
 TRAVEL BY LAND AND WATER. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Wild condition of the country and of the roads in early times. 
 
 — Use of stage coach, emigrant wagon, sedan chair, omnibus, 
 horses, and oxen. — Pictures of these can be seen in many books. 
 
 — Toll gates, and reasons for them. — Omnibus routes. 
 First steam wagon built by George Stephenson. 
 Sailing vessels. — Length of time for an ocean voyage. 
 Present modes of conveyance for short distances; foi long 
 
 distances on land and water. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 In olden times people could not travel so quickly as they can now. They 
 were obliged to walk or to use horses and wagons. Two people often rode 
 on the back of one horse. 'When they wished to take a long journey, wagons 
 drawn by oxen were often employed. The roads were very poor, and toll 
 was collected to keep them in repair. 
 
 The first stage coach that ran between Xew York and Philadelphia took 
 three days to make the iournev. This coach was called " The Flying Ma- 
 chine." Later on there were omnibuses in the cities of Xew York and 
 Philadelphia to carry people from one part of the city to another. 
 
 Travel on the ocean was also very slow. Before steam was used, it took 
 sailing vessels two or three months to cross the ocean. 
 
 The first locomotive, or steam wagon, was constructed by an Englishman 
 named George Stephenson. It traveled at the rate of from ten to fifteen 
 miles an hour. At its trial trip it was raced against a fast horse. 
 
 At the present time the use of steam and electricity permits us to travel 
 very rapidly. Locomotives are run by steam, trolley cars and motor wagons 
 
OUTLINES IN BISTOlfcx. 1 
 
 are run by electricity. The distance between New York and Philadi 
 
 can now be traveled in two hours. 
 
 Vessels crossing the ocean are run by steam and make the journey betwi 
 Europe and America in one week. 
 
 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 
 
 Conversational Lesson. 
 
 Why is postage charged ? Who receives the money What 
 does the postage stamp on a letter indicate?? Wlmi is the 
 advantage of having a systematic postal service? In whit other 
 ways can messages be sent to distant places ? 
 
 In how many ways is steam of use in sending mess 
 Electricity? By what means does a message reach the great< 
 number of people ? 
 
 Why is rapid communication between distant places 
 necessarv now than in the time of William Perm V 
 
 Why are telegraph hues built beside railroads? 
 
 Summary. 
 
 In early times, when people wished to send me 3, a man was em] 
 
 to carrv the letter. He either walked or used horses to make the jounn 
 
 After this, stage routes for carrying mails and people we tablis] 
 
 Thes3 stages were wagons drawn by horses, and were called post 
 When the journey was a long one the horses were changed at dil 
 places along the road. 
 
 A stage route was established between Providence and Boston. Another 
 ran between Xew York and BoBton. The round trip on this r ipie 1 
 
 one month. Another sta^e route was established between New Yuik and 
 
154 OUTLINES m HISTORY. 
 
 Philadelphia. This journey occupied three days each way. Two trips were 
 made each week. 
 
 At a later date the colonies all united in the formation of a general post- 
 office system. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first to take charge of this 
 work. In order to make the system more satisfactory, he took a journey 
 through the colonies. This occupied a period of live months. 
 
 Unless the mails were large they were carried in saddle bags by men on 
 horseback. In places at a distance, mail was not taken until there was enough 
 in postage on the letters to pay the cost of the journey. 
 
 When railroads and steam vessels were established, it became possible to 
 deliver mail more rapidly. 
 
 In addition to the rapid mail service which extends to every part of the 
 country, we can now send messages by telegraph and telephone. Both of 
 these means of communication have been improved by Thomas Edison, al- 
 though he did not invent them. 
 
 The telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse. This is an instrument 
 -which sends sounds by means of electricity from one point to another along a 
 wire. Each word or phrase is expressed by a certain sound. These sounds 
 are made at one point and received at another. Those who operate the in- 
 strument know what word each sound represents. 
 
 The first telegraph line was established between Washington and Balti- 
 more. The first message that was sent by this means was : " What hath God 
 wrought?" (Numbers 23:23). 
 
 At first only one message could be sent over the wire at a time. Edison 
 has so improved this that at present three messages can be sent in each direc- 
 tion over a single wire, making six messages in all. Messages can also be 
 telegraphed from moving trains by means of wires laid along the tracks. 
 This is also due to Edison. 
 
 The telephone is an instrument so arranged that the vibrations of the human 
 voice at one point are carried by an electric wire to a distant point and re- 
 peated so that the words can be distinctly understood. 
 
 Thomas Edison improved the telephone by inventing the transmitter and 
 the microphone. The transmitter receives the spoken words which are to be 
 carried along the electric wire. The microphone magnifies sound so that a 
 very low sound can be heard distinctly at a distance. 
 
OUTLINES IX BISTOBY. 1 
 
 In addition to sending messages in this rapid way in our own country, we 
 can send them across the ocean by means of the Atlantic Cable. ( 
 Field formed a company to lay a cable across the Atlantic ( I and the 
 
 Great Eastern Avas the name of the vessel that successfully mplis] i 
 
 this work in 1866. 
 
 A system of wireless telegraphy has also been invented recently. By i - 
 system messages can be sent through the air from one vessel i" another. At 
 present, messages can be sent by this system a distance of twenty-two mi 
 
 In addition to these ways of sending me>sages. we have hundred* 
 papers printed daily all over the country. 
 
 When we think of the length of time that it formerly took to send 
 sages to a distant place, we can easily see the great advantage we now have 
 from the use of steam and electricity in sending messages quickly. 
 
 AVe must always remember that we owe the modern conveniences obtaii I 
 from the use of electricity to Benjamin Franklin, who discovered that 
 lightning and electricity were the same thing and that it could be of use to 
 
 PLACES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST IN 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Betsy Boss House, 239 Arch Street, where the first American Hag 1 
 
 made. 
 
 Carpenters' Hall, rear of 322 Chestnut Street, occupied by the Firsl ( 
 tinental Congress until the State House was ready for occupancy. 
 
 Chew House, Germantown Avenue and Johnson Street The Battle of 
 Germantown in the Revolutionary War Mas fought around this house, which 
 was occupied by English soldiers. 
 
 Independence Hall, Chestnut Street, between Fifth and Sixth 
 
 Perm Treaty Park, in the section of Philadelphia known as Kensingt 
 on the Delaware River, at the foot of Hanover Street In this is a monu- 
 ment erected to mark the spot where the elm tree Mood under which Penn 
 made the treaty with the Indians. 
 
156 OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church, Swanson Street, below Christian Street 
 Grave of Benjamin Franklin in Christ Church burying-ground at Fifth 
 
 and Arch street-. 
 
 Girard College, Girard Avenue, near Twentieth Street. 
 
 Christ Church, Second Street, above Market Street, This church was at- 
 tended by General Washington, Betsy Ross, and John Ross. 
 
 The following places are in Fairmount Park : — 
 
 General (nam's log cabin near Lemon Hill. This cabin was brought 
 from the James River in Virginia, where it was used by General Grant as his 
 headquarters during the last few months of the Civil War. 
 
 William Penn's House, west of Girard Avenue bridge. This house was 
 built south of Market Street between Front and Second streets. As houses 
 were built around it a street was made, which, in honor of Penn's daughter, 
 was called Letitia. 
 
 Grant Monument and Mount Pleasant are east of the Schuylkill "River 
 drive, north of Girard Avenue. The mansion was once owned by Benedict 
 Arnold. It is now used as a restaurant and is called "The Dairy." 
 
 Lemon Hill was originally the country seat of Robert Morris. 
 
 Lincoln Monument is near the Green Street entrance. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 My country ! 't is of thee, 
 Sweet land of liberty, 
 
 Of thee I sing ; 
 Land where my fathers died! 
 Land of the Pilgrims 1 pride ! 
 From everv mountain side 
 
 Let freedom ring ! 
 
 My native country, thee, 
 Land of the noble free, 
 Thy name I love ; 
 
u 
 
 ' . 
 
 OUTLINES IN BDB5TOBY. 
 
 I love thy rocks and rills, 
 Thy woods and templed hills; 
 My heart with rapture thril 
 Like that above. 
 
 Let music swell the breeze, 
 And ring from all the trees, 
 Sweet freedom's song ; 
 Let mortal tongues awake; 
 Let all that breathe partake ; 
 Let rocks their silence break,— 
 The sound prolong. 
 
 Onr fathers' God ! to Thee, 
 Author of liberty, 
 
 To Thee we sing ; 
 Long m ay our land be bright 
 With freedom's holy light; 
 Protect us by Thy might, 
 
 Great God, our King! 
 
 Samuel Fbahcm Smith, D.U 
 
 HAIL, COLUMBIA. 
 
 Hail, Columbia, happy land ! 
 
 Hail, ye heroes, heaven-bom band! 
 Who loaght and bled in Freedom's cai 
 
 Who fought and bled in Freedom's cause* 
 And when the storm of war was gone, 
 Enjoyed the peace your valor won. 
 Let independence be your boast, 
 Ever mindful what it cost, 
 Ever grateful for the prize, 
 Let its altar reach the skies. 
 
lo8 OUTLINES IX BISTOBY. 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 Firm, united, let us be, 
 Rallying round our liberty! 
 As a Land of brothers joined, 
 Peace and safety we shall find. 
 
 Immortal patriots, rise once more! 
 Defend your rights, defend your shore; 
 Let no rude foe with impious hand, 
 Let no rude foe with impious hand, 
 Invade the shrine where sacred lies, 
 Of toil and blood the well-earned prize; 
 While offering peace sincere and just, 
 In Heaven Ave place a manly trust 
 That truth and justice shall prevail, 
 And every scheme of bondage fail. 
 
 THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 The breaking waves dashed high 
 
 On a stern and rockbound coast, 
 And the woods against a stormy sky 
 
 Their giant branches tossed ; 
 And the heavy nio:ht hung dark 
 
 The hills and waters o'er, 
 When a band of exiles moored their bark 
 
 On the wild New England shore. 
 
 Not as the conqueror comes, 
 
 They, the true-hearted, came ; 
 Not with the roll of the stirring drums, 
 
 And the trumpet that sings of fame ; 
 Not as the flying come, 
 
OUTLINES IN HISTORY, J 
 
 In silence and in fear; — 
 They shook the depths of the desert gloom 
 With their hymns of lofty cheer. 
 
 Amidst the storm thev saner. 
 
 And the stars heard and the sea : 
 And the sounding aisles of the dim woods raw? 
 
 To the anthem of the free ! 
 The ocean eagle soared 
 
 From his nest by the white wave's foam. 
 And the rocking pines of the forest roared — 
 
 This was their welcome home. 
 
 There were men with hoary hair 
 
 ■ 
 
 Amidst that Pilgrim band : — 
 Why had they come to wither there, 
 
 Away from their childhood's land? 
 There was woman's fearless eye, 
 
 Lit by her deep loye's truth ; 
 There was manhood's brow serenely high, 
 
 And the fiery heart of youth. 
 
 What sought they thus afar? — 
 
 Bright jewels of the mine ? 
 The wealth of seas, the spoils of war? — 
 
 They sought a faith's pure shrine] 
 Av, call it holv ground, 
 
 The soil where first they trod ! 
 Thev left unstained what there they found. — 
 
 Freedom to worship God. 
 
 MkS, Hi ma-< 
 
1G0 OUTLINES IN HISTORY. 
 
 THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER. 
 
 Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's earlv light, 
 
 What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming, 
 
 Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, 
 O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? 
 
 And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
 
 Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 Oh, say does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
 O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 
 
 On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, 
 Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, 
 
 What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, 
 As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? 
 
 Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, 
 
 In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream. 
 
 Chorus. 
 
 5 T is the star-spangled banner : oh, long may it wave 
 O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 
 
 Oh, thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand 
 
 Between their loved home and wild war's desolation; 
 
 Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land 
 Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! 
 
 Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, 
 
 And this be our motto : " In God is our trust ! " 
 
 Chorus. 
 And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
 O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 
 
 Francis Scott Key. 
 
OUTUNES IN HISTOB . 
 
 COLUMBIA, THE GEM OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 O Columbia! the gem of the ocean, 
 
 The home of the brave and the tree, 
 The shrine of each patriot's devotion, 
 
 A world offers homage to thee. 
 Thy mandates make heroes assemble, 
 
 When Liberty's form stands in view: 
 Thy banners make tyranny tremble, 
 
 When borne by the red. white, and blue, 
 
 When borne by the red, white, and blue, 
 
 When borne by the red, white, and blue, 
 Thy banners make tyranny tremble 
 
 When borne by the red, white, and blue. 
 
 When war winged its wide desolation, 
 
 And threatened the land to deform, 
 The ark then of freedom's foundation, 
 
 Columbia, rode safe through the storm ; 
 With garlands of vict'ry around her, 
 
 When so proudly -lie bore her brave crew, 
 With her nag proudly floating Let. -re her, 
 
 The boast of the red, white, and blue, 
 
 The boast of the red, white, and blue. 
 
 The boast of the red. white, and blue. 
 With her flag proudly floating before her, 
 
 The boast of the red, while, and blue. 
 
 The star-spangled banner bring hither, 
 O'er Columbia's true sons let it wave; 
 
 May the wreaths they have won never wither, 
 Nor its stars cease to shine ^i the brave, 
 
102 OUTLINES EN" HISTORY. 
 
 May the service united ne'er sever, 
 But hold to their colors so true; 
 
 The army and navy forever, 
 
 Three cheers for the red, white, and blue, 
 Three cheers for the red, white, and blue, 
 Three cheers for the red, white, and blue, 
 
 The army and navy forever, 
 
 Three cheers for the red, white, and blue. 
 
 David T. Shaw. 
 
 HURRAH FOR THE FLAG. 
 
 There are many flags in many lands, 
 
 There are flags of every hue ; 
 But there is no flag, however grand, 
 
 Like our own " Red, White, and Blue." 
 
 Then hurrah for the flag! our country's flag! 
 
 Its stripes and white stars, too ; 
 For there is no flag in any land, 
 
 Like our own " Red, White, and Blue." 
 
 I know where the prettiest colors are, 
 
 And I 'm sure if I only knew 
 How to get them here, I could make a flag 
 
 Of glorious " Red, White, and Blue." 
 
 I would cut a piece from the evening sky, 
 Where the stars were shining through, 
 
 And use it just as it was on high, 
 For my stars and field of blue. 
 
 Then I 'd want a part of a fleecy cloud, 
 And some red from a rainbow bright: 
 
 And put them together, side by side, 
 For my stripes of red and white. 
 
OUTLINES IN JIlSToKY. 163 
 
 We shall always love the stars and stripe 
 
 And Ave mean to be ever true 
 To this land of ours, and the dear old flag, 
 The Red, the White, and Line 
 
 THE BELL OF LIBERTY. 
 
 There was tumult in the city, 
 
 In the quaint old Quaker town, 
 And the streets were rife with people 
 
 Pacing restless up and down ; 
 People gathering at corners, 
 
 Where they whispered each to each, 
 And the sweat stood on their temples, 
 
 With the earnestness of speech. 
 
 As the bleak Atlantic currents 
 
 Lash the wild Newfoundland shore, 
 So thev beat against the State House, 
 
 So they surged against the door, 
 And the mingling of their voices 
 
 Made a harmony profound. 
 Till the quiet street of Chestnut 
 
 Was all turbulent with sound. 
 
 "Will thev do it?" "Dare they do it?" 
 
 "Who is speaking?" "What's the Dews . " 
 "What of Adams?" " What of Sherman?" 
 
 "Oh! God grant thev won't refuse.' 1 
 "Make some way there! 1 ' u Le1 me nearer!" 
 
 "I am stifling!" u Stifle, then J 
 When a nation's life 's at hazard, 
 
 We've no time to think of men." 
 
164 OUTLINES IX HISTOKY. 
 
 So they beat against the portal, 
 
 Man and woman, maid and child; 
 And the July sun in heaven 
 
 On the scene looked down and smiled. 
 The same sun that saw the Spartan 
 
 Shed his patriot blood in vain, 
 Now beheld the soul of freedom, 
 
 All unconquered, rise again. 
 
 See ! See ! The dense crowd quivers 
 
 Through all of its length v line, 
 As the boy beside the portal 
 
 Looks forth to give the sign ; 
 With his little hands uplifted, 
 
 Breezes dallving with his hah*, 
 Hark ! with deep, clear intonation, 
 
 Breaks his young voice on the air. 
 
 Hushed the people's swelling murmur, 
 
 List the boy's exulting cry ! 
 •'Ring ! " lie shouts ; " Ring ! grandpa, 
 
 Ring ! Oh, ring for Liberty ! " 
 Quickly at the given signal 
 
 The old bellman lifts his hand, 
 Forth he sends the good news, making 
 
 Iron music through the land. 
 
 o 
 
 Ilow they shouted ! What rejoicing ! 
 
 How the old bell shook the air, 
 Till the clang of freedom ruffled 
 
 The calmly gliding Delaware. 
 How the bonfires and the torches 
 
 Lighted up the night's repose, 
 And from flames, like fabled Phoenix, 
 
 Our glorious Liberty arose! 
 
OUTLINES IH BISTOBY. 
 
 That old State House bell is silent, 
 
 IIushM. is now its clamorous tongues 
 But the spirit it awaken'd 
 
 Still is living — ever young; 
 And when we greet the Bmiling sunlight, 
 
 On the fourth of each July, 
 We will ne'er forget the hellman, 
 
 Who, betwixt the earth and sky, 
 Rang out, loudly, "Independence," 
 
 Which, please God, shall never die. 
 
 s 
 
 r. 
 

 


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