m m WE (■ 4*' % A L^c^C. / c^>^-- /^c c r?r- *-"£*■!-■*-* m\t 1. B. Bill IGthrarg Norttj (£amlina &tatr Inttieraity Collections S509 Ko <^* ci^sf THIS BOOK MUST NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE LIBRARY BUILDING. 20M 1 1-75 loxtiki antes / ff /// ///( ' /rs////f// /Jtf/// >s / // //,< _. Sr/.Jf/jt Robert Graham I s<£ of THE GENTL EMAN FARMER- AN ATTEMPT TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE, BY SUBJECTING IT TO THE TEST O F RATIONAL PRINCIPLES. THE FOURTH EDITION, WITH THE AUTHOR'S LAST CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. Semper ego auditor tantum ? Juv. EDINBURGH: TRINTED FOR BELL Sc BRADFUTE AND FOR G. G. a J. ROBINSON, LONDON. M,DCC,5CVIII, EPISTLE T O Sir JOHN PRINGLE, Prefident of the Royal Society. f 'Here are few perfons who ri- -"- val Sir John Pringle in my efteem: There are ftill fewer whofe friendihip I value more. It is not, however, my purpofe in this let- ter, to proclaim thefe things to the world ; for what concern has the world with private connections ? a 2 Ambition 57560 iv EPISTLE. Ambition to have the patronage of the Royal Society to this work, is my motive for addrefling you in this public manner. The plan it re- commends, has been my guide ma- ny years ; and fuccefs has left me no doubt of its folidity. Your fanc- tion, my friend, will enfure it a gra- cious reception, from a body of learned men, who have diftinguifh- ed your literary merit by the great- eft honour they have to beftow. It is my fervent defire to be ufeful to my country : the ftamp of that illuftrious Society, will give a cur- rency to the work : every one will read ; £ P I S T L £. v read ; and every fenfible farmer will profit by it. Agriculture juftly claims to be the chief of arts : it enjoys befide the fignal pre-eminence of combi- ning deep philofophy with ufeful practice. The members of your Society cannot employ their ta- lents more profitably for their country, nor more honourably for themfelves, than in promoting and improving an art, to which Britain fundamentally is indebted for the figure it makes all the world over. <*3 The vi EPISTLE. The theory here fuggefted, is in fome meafure new: it belongs to the Royal Society to determine, whether it be founded on folid principles. It will give me entire fatisfaction, to be countenanced by a Society, which has contributed more to promote natural know- ledge, than any other Society exift- ing, or that ever did exift. Your, &c. Henry Home. PRE- Preface. *|3 Eh old another volume on husbandry! ex ■*■-* claims a peevifh man on feeing the title- page : how long mall we be peftered with fuch trite fluff ? " As long, fweet Sir, as you are " willing to pay for it : hold out your purie, " and wares will never be wanting." It mull indeed be acknowledged, that the commerce of books is carried on with no great degree of candour : thofe of hufbandry, with very little. A bookfeller contrives a new title, collects books upon the fubject, delivers them to his author to pick and cull ; and, " Here, " Sir, is a fpick and fpan new work, full of cu- " rious matter." Agriculture is the prime of arts : every thing is made welcome on that fub- ject ; and provided the title be itew, it is to the bookfeller of no great importance, how thread bare the contents. a 4 Writer* viii PREFACE. Writers on agriculture, very few excepted, deliver their precepts from a ftudy lined with books, without even pretending to experience. Principles and proportions are afTumed on the authority of former writers : opinions pafs cur- rent from generation to generation ; and no per- fon inquires whether they wear the livery of truth. Take the following fhortfpecimen, drawn from a lingle head, that of manures. Writers talk learnedly of lime, flone-marl, clay-marl, fhell- marl, and of other manures ; and foretel how they will operate upon foil, with the fame affurance as if they could penetrate into their nature and ef- fence. " Clay-marl," fay they, " has more power " to deflroy acids and to produce falts, than ftone- 11 marl : erg o, a lefs quantity of it upon land is " fufficient. Marl extracts greafe out of woollen " cloth : greafe is a fpecies of oil : ergo, marl " extracts oil from the air. A greater quantity u of marl is laid on land, than of lime : ergo, it " mud have a greater effect in attracting vege- " table food from the air. Shell-marl found un- " der mofs, is compounded of earth and the al- " kaline fait of rotten wood. Becaufe clay is " mixed PREFACE. ix " mixed with fand in making brick, that mixture " muft be an enemy to vegetation. The mixing " earth and lime with dung, makes an excellent " compoft. Rain makes flinty fand firmer and " more compact." &c. &c. Some of thefe pro- politions are erroneous, fome at belt doubtful. And yet, they are but a few of many propofi- tions, boldly afferted by writers, though they would require the elucidation of a Newton, or a Boyle. So much I will vouch for myfelf, that I have not mentioned a fingle article as certain, but what I have pra&ifed many years with fuc- cefs : the inftrudtions contained in this book,, are founded on repeated experiments and diligent obfervation. If any particular happen to be mentioned that has not come under my infpec- tion, the reader is "warned of it. In fhort, it will foon be perceived, that this is not a bookfeller's production. The dawn of a manufacture, is irkfomely flow in its progrefs to broad day. Indocility is diffi- cult to be overcome : habitual indolence, ftili more. Thefe obftruclions vaniui in a manufac- turing x PREFACE, turing country. A boy learns by fight his father's trade, even before he can ply his little hand about, an inftrument. He acquires activity by feeing others active : he comprehends not what it is to be idle. This obfervation is ftrongly exemplified in agriculture. Some years ago, farmers in Scot- land were ignorant and indolent ; nothing to be feen but weeds and trafh, not a lingle field in or- der. People who never faw better hufbandry, had no notion of any better. Skill in agricul- ture is fpreading gradually in Scotland ; and young people acquire fome knowledge by fight, even before they think of practice. After fuch advance, may we not hope, that our progrefs will be rapid ; and that agriculture will foon be fa- miliar among us, and as fkilfully conducted as in England ? May this reflection animate our landed gentry ; and inflame them with a defire, to acquire riches to thcmfelves, and luftre to their country ! There never was in Scotland a period, when good leffons in hufbandry were more feafonablc than at prefent. This country growing in po- pulation, PREFACE. xi pulation, affords not corn fufficient for its inha- bitants ; and yet wafte land abounds, which ibme fkill and much induftry would fertilize. Is it not deplorable, that in the belt- cultivated fhires, large patches of land mould produce nothing but broom and whins, not from barrennefs but from indo- lence ? Can greater encouragement to induftry be wifhed, than a ready market for every thing the foil produces ? how different from the condi- tion of Scotland, not more than forty years ago! Can a landholder be employed more profitably for his country, or more honourably as well as profitably for himfelf, than to roufe emulation among his tenants, by kind treatment, by inflruc- tion, by example, and by premiums ? Let him ftudy the rules contained in this little work, all of them plain and adapted to practice. Let him convene his tenants once a-year to a hearty meal, and engage them to follow thefe rules. What if he mould beftow on the deferving, a plough or harrows of the .beft conftrudtion ? Land can- not be improved at a cheaper rate. It was by fuch means, that the late John Cockburn of Or- miftown, promoted emulation and induftry a- mong Xll PREFACE. mong his people. His patriotic zeal was reward- ed : he lived to fee his eftate in a higher degree of cultivation, than even to this day is feen in any other part of Scotland. The fame means were employed more extcnfively, by the late Earl of Findlater : the fkiill and perfeverance of that nobleman, raifed his tenants from a torpid ftate, to a furprifing degree of activity ; and few can now vie with them, either for induftry or know- ledge. Had other landlords been equally active, how flourifhing would agriculture have been in Scotland ? How great a change to our advantage would there have been in the commercial ba- lance, had we been feeding our neighbours in- stead of being fed by them ; had we been in the courfe of receiving money for our corn, inftead of receiving corn for our money ! The field is ftill open : let us join hearts and hands to re- deem time wofully mifpent. I fay again, there never was in Scotland a period more favourable to agriculture than the prefent. Agriculture is a very ancient art. It has been practifed every where without intermiiTion ; but with PREFACE. xin with very little attention to principles. In ft tidy- ing the principles laid down by writers, I found myfelf in a fort of ^labyrinth, carried to and fro without any certain direction. After a long courfe of reading, where there was nothing but dark- ' nefs and difcrepance, I laid afide my books, took heart, and like Des Cartes commenced my in- quiries with doubting of every thing. I reforted to the book of nature : I ftudied it with atten- tion : and the fecond part of this work contains the refult of my inquiries. It is far from my thoughts, to impofe my opinions upon others : I pretend only to have reduced the theory of agri- culture into a fort of fyftem, more concife at lead, and more confiftent, than has been done by other writers. Many eyes are better than one : and if my theory fhall be found erroneous, the many that have erred willfervein fome mea- fure to keep me in countenance. I am not how- ever afraid of any grofs error. An imprimatur from one of the ableft chemifls of the prefent age, has given me fome confidence of being in the right tracl: *. I * Dr Black, Profeflbr of Chemiitry in the College of Edinburgh. xiv PREFACE. I have all along ftudied brevity, as far as con- iillent with perfpicuity ; and therefore, have con- fined myfelf to matters that I know to be of real ufe in practice. I am ambitious to have my plan followed, becaufe fuccefsful experience has pro- ved it to be folid : but I mould not hope for ma- ny readers, if I hazarded the tiring them with unnecefTary matters. Varro de re rvftica, appears to be very fparing of inftruclion ; but rivals Ariftotle himfclf in the fubtletyof his divifions. " Nunc dicam agri quibus rebus colantur. Quas " res alii dividunt in duas partes, in homines et " adminicula hominum : fine quibus rebus colere " non poffunt. Alii in tres partes, inftrumenti " genus vocale, et femivocale, et mutum. Vocale, " in quo funt fcrvi : femivocale, in quo funt bo- " ves : mutum, in quo funt plauftra." Such puerile divifions may be of ufe to fwell a vo- lume ; but give no inftruction, and are extreme- ly tirefome. I cannot finifh this preface without warmly re- commending agriculture to gentlemen of land- eltates ; for whofe ufe chiefly this work is intends PREFAC E. x v ed. In every well-governed flate, agriculture has been duly honoured. In ancient Perfia, a fefti- val was yearly celebrated, in which huiband- men were freely admitted to the King's table. il From your labours, faid the King, we receive ** our fuftenance; and by us you are protected. fl Being mutually neceflary to each other, let us " like brethren, live together in amity." The great Emperor of China, performs yearly the ce- remony of holding the plough, to ihow that no man is above being a farmer. The iiland Mile- tus, during many years, had been afflicted with factions; the government was fettled by fome wife men of Paros, a neighbouring ifland, Thefe men having furveyed the iiland, and marked the poffeflTor of every well-cukivated farm, ccnvo- cated an affembly of the people, and appointed thefe perfons to be governors. " The perfon," laid they, ** who governs his private affairs with " prudence and induftry, is qualified to govern " thofe of the public," The King of Tunis, invaded by a powerful enemy, promifed to a neighbour who afiifted him, the philofopher's ftpne. He fent a plough ; terming it the philo- fopher's *vi PREFACE. ibpher's ftone, becaufe it would produce rich crops, to procure gold in plenty. In the view of profit, agriculture is fit for eve- ry man. In the view of pleafure, it is of all oc- cupations the beft adapted to gentlemen in a pri- vate ftation. Matter crouds upon me, and I am at a lofs where to begin. Agriculture correfponds to that degree of exercife, which is the beft pre- fervative of health. It requires no hurtful fa- tigue, on the one hand, nor indulges, on the other, indolence, ftill more hurtful. During a throng of work, the diligent farmer will fome- times be early and late in the field : but this is no hardfhip upon an active fpirit. At other times, a gentleman who conduces his affairs pro- perly, may have hours every day, to beftow on reading, on his family, on his friends. Agriculture is equally falutary to the mind, [n the management of a farm, conftant atten- tion is required to the foil, to the feafon, and to different operations. A gentleman thus occupied, becomes daily more active, and is daily gather- ing knowledge : as his mind is never fuffered to languiQi, PREFACE. xvii languifh, he is fecure againft the difeafe of low fpirits. But what I chiefly infill on is, that laying afide irregular appetites and ambitious views, agricul- ture is of all occupations the mod confonant to our nature ; and the moft productive of content- ment, the fweeteft fort of happinefs. In the firft: place, it requires that moderate degree of exer- cife, which correfponds the moll to the ordinary fucceffion of our perceptions. Fox-hunting pro- duces a fucceffion too rapid : angling produces a fucceffion too flow. Agriculture correfponds not only more to the ordinary fucceffion, but has the following fignal property, that a farmer can di- rect his operations with that degree of quicknefs and variety which is agreeable to his own train of perceptions. In the next place, to every oc- cupation that can give a lading relifh, hope and fear are elfential. A fowler has little enjoyment in his gun who miffes frequently ; and he lofes all enjoyment, when every fliot is death: a poach- er, fo dextrous, may have pleafure in the profit, but none in the art. The hopes and fears that b attend xvni PREFACE. attend agriculture, keep the mind always awake, and in an enlivening degree of agitation. Hope never approaches certainty fo near, as to produce fecurity ; nor is fear ever fo great, as to create deep anxiety and diftrefs. Hence it is, that a gentleman farmer tolerably fkilful, never tires of his work ; but is as keen the lad moment as the fir ft. Can any other employment compare with farming in that refpect ? In the third place, no other occupation rivals agriculture, in connecting private intereft with that of the public. How pleating to think, that every ftep a man makes for his own good, promotes that of his country ! Even where the balance happens to turn againft the farmer, he has ft ill the comfort that his coun- try profits by him. Every gentleman farmer mult of courfe be a patriot; for patriotifm, like other virtues, is improved and fortified by exer- cife. In fact, if there be any remaining patrio- tifm in a nation, it is found among that clafs of men. A gentleman farmer who is difpofed to embel- lifli his fields, has a great advantage over others. < He PREFACE. xix He can execute that pleafing work at the cheap- eft rate, by employing upon it his farm fervants and cattle, every vacant hoar. This flow method is indeed ill fuited to the ardour of an Indian Nabob, impatient for enjoyment. But is not the advantage clearly on the fide of the farmer ? The refined pleafures of embellimments, arifes from a flow progrefs ; which affords leifure to feaft the eye upon every new production. In former times, hunting was the only bufinefs of a gentleman. The prad ice of blood made him rough and hard-hearted : he led the life of a dog, or of a favage ; violently active in the field, fupinely indolent at home. His train of ideas was confined to dogs, horfes, bares, foxes : not a rational idea entered the train, not a fpark of patriotifm, nothing done for the public, his de- pendents enflaved and not fed, no hulbandry, no embellifliment, loathfome weeds round his dwel- ling, diforder and dirt within. Coniider the pre- fent mode of living. How delightful the change, from the hunter to the farmer, from the deilroyer of animals to the feeder of men : Our gentle- b 2 men xx PREFACE. men who live in the country, have become ac- tive and induftrious. They embellifh their fields, improve their lands, and give bread to thou- fands. Every new day promotes health and fpi- rits ; and every new day brings variety of en- joyment. They are happy at home ; and they wiih happinefb to all. As the fcene of my experience has all along been in Scotland, toy native country, I am fliy to recommend this plan of hufbandry to any but to my countrymen. I have, however, a thorough conviction, that, giving allowance for flight va- riations of climate, the plan will fuit England, France, Italy, and every other country iituated within either of the temperate zones. Among the old Romans there were excellent writers on hufbandry ; but I cannot prevail on myfelf to think that their praclice was aniwer- able. They were cnflaved by oblerving fuperfti- tioufly omens, prognoftics, unlucky days, &-c. which frequently prevented them from taking advantage even of the moft favourable weather. They PREFACE. xxl They were conducted in a great meafure by chance ; and little fcope was left for (kill or fore- fight. Examples may be found in every one of their writers on hufbandry. I mall confine my- felf to Columella the moil celebrated of them. He gives the following receipt againll the wevil from his own experience. " At the change of " the moon, pull your beans before day-light ! " when perfectly dried before full moon, threfh " them ; and the feeds laid up in a granary, " will fuffer no damage from the wevil." He forbids vetches to be lowed before the twenty- fifth day of the moon ; that otherwife they will be hurt by the mail. His way to prevent rats and mice from preying on a vineyard, is to prune the vines in the night-time when the moon is full. The feed of medic, fays he, ought to be covered with a wooden rake ; for that iron is deftructive to it. He orders frequent digging about a tree new. planted ; but difcharges the ground to be touched with an iron tool after the planting. He quotes Ariftotle as his authority, that among ftieep the way to procreate a male is to admit the ram when t!ie north wind blows; b 3 and xxii PREFACE. and to admit the ram when the fouth wind blows, in order to procreate a female. Tie up before copulation the left tedicle, and the ftallion will produce a male ; tie up the right tefticle, and he will produce a female. What does the reader think of the following prognostic ? If a horfe af- ter covering a mare defcend on the right hand, the foal will be a male : if on the left, it will be a female. It was believed by the Roman writers without a fingle exception, that mares in Lufita- nia were impregnated by the weft wind. I con- gratulate my countrymen for their happy delive- rance from fuch heavy fetters. There is now a fair field for exerciiing our talents, natural and acquired ; and if we fail in any article, we have ourfelves only to blame, not deftiny. In arts and fciences, a plentiful fource of ob- fcurity and indiftmctnefs, is the ufing a word in different fenles, without warning the reader of it. Considering what volumes have been compofed on agriculture, it is amazing how little preciHon there is in the terms of art. Take the following inttance. The word furrow is employed to lig- nify PREFACE. xxiii nify not only the hollow made by the plough, but the earth taken out of that hollow, and alio the hollow between ridges. Better coin words than write indiftinftly. Let furrow be appropri- ated to the fpace in which the plough moves, and alfo to the hollow between ridges ; which will not occaiion any confuiion. But I venture to diftinguifh the earth moved by the plough, by the name of the furrow-pee. The fmall hollows that appear between the flices when a ridge is plowed, may be tzxme& feams. Earth, land, ground, foil, are not fynonymous j and therefore, in corredt writing, their meaning ought to be afcertained. Earth is oppofed to metals, fomls, and fuch like. Land is any inde- finite fedion of this globe a ccsh ad centrum. Ground is the furface of land ■ and every quality of a furface can be attributed to it, hilly ground, flat ground, fmooth ground, rough ground, ioft ground, hard ground. Quantity is an attribute of land, improperly of ground. We fay current- ly a quantity of land, net a quantity of ground, otherwife than figuratively. The earth we tread £4 on, xxiv PREFACE. on, with refpedt to its power of nourifhing plants, is termed foil, rich foil, poor foil, dry foil, wet foil, clay foil, fandy foil. Staple is ufed by Eng- lifh writers with refpect to the nature of the foil. In common language thefe terms are not diftincT:- ly feparated ; nor do I pretend that my defini- tions are altogether accurate. To fix a precife meaning to each will probably require a century or two more. Scotch and English Meafures and Weights compared. The meafure of oats and barley is the fame. The meafure of wheat, peafe, and beans, the fame, both Linlithgow meafure. The wheat firlot of Scotland contains of cubic inches - - 2i97_y_ The barley firlot contains - 3 2 °5-ro1y The Winchefter bufhel of England 2150^5. Therefore four firlots of barley are nearly equal to fix firlots of wheat. And the Winchefter bufhel nearly equal to our wheat firlot. The PREFACE. xxv The Scotch acre contains 55,353^ fquare feet. The Englifh acre contains 43,360 fquare feet. Therefore four Scots acres are little lefs than five Englifh. WEIGHTS. The Troy ounce is - 480 Troy grains The Avoirdupois ounce is 437i- The Scotch ounce is 476 100 pounds net Amfterdam weight is equal to 108-=- pounds Avoirdupois. CON- CONTENTS. PART I. Pra&ice of Agriculture. CHAP. I. Inftruments of Hufbandry. Pag. i. The Plough, 3 2. The Brake, or Drag-harrow, - 15 3. The Harrow, - - 17 4. The Roller, - - 23 5. Tfo Fanner, - - 27 CHAP. II. Farm -Cattle and Carriages. 1. Farm-Horfes, - - .27 2. Farm-Oxen, - - 28 v 3. Breeding Horfes and horned Cattle, 41 4. Wheel-Carriages, - -.44 CHAP. xxviii CONTENTS. CHAP. III. Pag. Farm-Offices, 5 1 CHAP. IV. Preparing Land for Cropping. 1. Objlruclions to Cropping, - 58 2. Bringing into culture Land from the Jlate of nature, - - 68 3. Forming Ridges, - - 73 4. Clearing Ground of weeds, 80 CHAP. V. Culture of Plants for Food, 37 Sed. 1. Plants cultivated for fruit, - 89 1. Wheat and Rye, ib. 2. Oats, 95 3. Barley, 98 4. Beans, 102 5. Peafe, 105 Sea. 2. Plants cultivated for roots, 108 I. Turnip, 109 2. Potatoes, 114 3. Carrot and Parfnip, 118 Sea. 3. Plants cultivated for leaves, 120 CHAP. CONTENTS. xxix CHAP. VI. Pag. Culture of Grafs, 122 CHAP. VII. Rotation of Crops, 136 CHAP. VIII. Reaping Corn and Hay Crops, and ftoring them up for ufe, - - !^8 CHAP. IX. Feeding Farm- Cattle, 171 1. Green food, - - 172 2. Dry food, - .. jgtf 3. Feeding for the Butcher ; - jg 2 4. The wintering of cattle that are not in- tended for immediate J ale, - 204 5. Rules fer buying and felling cattle and corn, - . 20 g CHAP. X. Culture of other plants proper for a Farm, 214 Sed. 1. Forejl Trees, - _ 2I r 1. Raijing trees by feed, - 216 2. Cuttings, layers, fuckers, ^226 3. Soil xxx CONTENTS. Pag. 3. Soil proper for trees, - 230 4. Climate, - - 232 5. Time of planting trees in the field, - - 234 6. Manner of planting, 1^6 7. Pruning, - - 243 8. Wood proper for injlruments of hujbandry, 247 Bed:. 2. Flax, 251 Sett. 3. Hops, 252 CHAP. XI. Manures, 2 54 CHAP. XII. Fences, 269 CHAP. XIII. The proper lize of a Farm, and the ufeful accommodations it ought to have, 290 CHAP. XIV. What a Corn-Farm ought to yield in rent, 303 PART. CONTENTS. xxxi PART II. Pag. Theory of Agriculture, 313 CHAP. I. Preliminary Obfervations, 315 1 . Elective attraction and repulfion, ib 1. Plants have a faculty to accommodate them- felves to their Jituation, - - 327 3. Change of feed and ofjpecies, - 333 CHAP. II. Food of Plants and Fertility of Soil, 336 4 CHAP. III. Means of Fertilizing Soils, - 364 1. Plowing, - - ib 2. Manures, - - 372 APPENDIX. Art. 1. Imperfediion of Scotch hu/bandry, 383 Art. 2- A board for improving agriculture, 391 Art. 3. General heads of a leafe for a corn- far m t - - 4°6 Art. 4. Plants and animals compared, 413 Art. 5. Propagation of plants, - 4 2 7 THE uttn ' 'Y<>//tr// WV,tA- / . ///r// //!<•/!/.< /?< -n- ,/ f //n-;n',;/,t/r r<\r./t//nr/rMt//i '/ny/ Uuvrrtnv > /'/, « f /////-//' //> J >/?/.> t*azi< Shr //■/>//' './>s&C7 GENTLEMAN FARMER. NAtural History is confined to effects, lea- ving caufes to Natural Philofophy. From a number of effects, Natural Philofophy afcends by induction to the immediate caufe \ and ma- ny of thefe caufes are by another induction found to proceed from one more general and comprehenfive. Such is the mode of reafoning in Natural Philofophy, till we arrive at an ulti- mate caufe ; that is, a caufe beyond which we cannot penetrate. Molt writers treat huflbandry as a branch of Natural Hiftory. Some, more bold, conlider it as alfo a branch of Natural Philofophy : They begin with effects, and en- deavour to unfold the caufes or principles. In addreffing this treatife to Gentlemen, I attempt both. This fuggefts a divtGon into two parts. C In [ v 1 * In the firft part, which indeed is the moil ufe- ful, the beft practice in every branch of huf- bandry is carefully explained. In the fecond, with timid fteps and flow, I endeavour to trace out a few caufes or principles that have an im- mediate influence upon practice. PART PART I. Practice of Agriculture, IT is unneceffary here to make a lift of what is contained in this part. The particulars are in the prefixed table. CHAPTER I. INSTRUMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. IN the natural courfe of ideas, the hand goes before the inftrument, and the inftrument be- fore the operation. But as the nature of man is a fubjecr. too important and too extenfive to be ran- ged under any other head, I begin this Treatife of Agriculture with the inftruments employed. I. THE PLOUGH This is the mod ufeful inftrument ever was in- vented. It is of more ufe than even the fpinning wheel: for men may make a fhift for clothing without that inftrument, but a country cannot be populous without the plough. The only plough ufed in Scotland, till of late, is a ftrong heavy inftrument, about thirteen feet C 2 from 4 PRACTICE. Part 1. from the handles to the extremity of the beam, and commonly above four feet from the back end of the head to the point of the lock. It is termed the Scotch plough ; to diitinguifh it from other forms ; and it needs no particular delcription, a^ it may be feen in every field. It may well be termed the Scotch plough ; for of all forms it is the fitted for breaking up ltitfand rough ground, efpecially where (tones abound ; and no lefs fit for ftrong clays hardened by drought. The length of its head gives it a firm hold of the ground: its weight prevents it from being thrown out by itones : the length of the handles give the ploughman great command to direct its motion : and by the length of its head, and of its mould- board, it lays the furrow-fiice cleverly over. The Scotch plough was contrived during the infan- cy of agriculture, and was well contrived : in the foils above defcribed, it has not an equal. But in tender foil it is improper, becaufe it adds greatly to the expence of plowing, without any counterbalancing benefit. By the length of the head and mouldboard the friction is increa- fed, requiring a greater number of oxen or horfes than are nccefiary in a fhorter plough. There is in its form, another particular that reiifts the draught : the mouldboard makes an angle with L he fock, inllead of making a line with it gently curving backward. An objection againft it (till more material, is, that it does not ftii th« Ch. I. i. Instruments of Husbandry. 5 the ground perfeclly: the hinder part of the wrift rifes a foot above the fole of the head ; and the earth that lies immediately below that hinder part, is not fufficiently turned over. This is rib- bing land below the furface, iimilar to what is done by ignorant farmers on the furface. Thefe defecls muft be fubmitted to in a foil that requires a ftrong heavy plough ; but may be avoided in a cultivated foil by a plough dif- ferently conftrudred. Of all the ploughs fitted for a cultivated foil free of (tones, I boldly re- commend a plough introduced into Scotland a- bout twelve years ago, by James Small in Black- adder Mount, Berwickiliire ; which is now in great requeft ; and with great reafon, as it avoids all the defects of the Scotch plough. The Ihort- nefs of its head and of its mouldboard lelTen the friction greatly : from the point of the fock to the back part of the head it is only thirty inches ; and the whole length, from the point of the beam to the end of the handles, between eight and nine feet. The fock and moulboard make one line gent- ly curving ; and confequently gather no earth, lnftead of a wrift, the under edge of the mould- board is in one plain with the fole of the head ; which makes a wide furrow, without leaving any part unltirred. It is termed the cbahi-plougb, be- caufe it h drawn by an iron chain Used to the back part of the beam immediately before the coulter. This has two advantages : firft, by means C 3 of 6 PRACTICE. Part L of a muzzle, it makes the plough go deep or ih allow ; and next, it ftrefles the beam lefs than if fixed to the point, and therefore a flenderer beam is fufficient. Thefe particulars will be better underftood from infpecting the annexed figure. This plough may well be confidered as a ca- pital improvement; not only by faving expence, but by making better work. It is proper for loams, for carle clays, and, in general, for every fort of tender foil free of Hones. It is even pro- per for opening up part Lire- ground that has for- merly been well cultivated. To finifh an account of the plough, I muft add a word about the fock. A fpiked fock is ufed in the Scotch plough, and is efTential in ftony land. But a feathered fock ought always to be ufed in tender foil, free of ftones : it cuts the earth in the furrow, and makes neat work. It is indifpenfable in ground where roots abound, as it cuts them below the furface, and prevents their growing. I efteem the feathered fock to be a valuable im- provement. The induftrious farmer would even borrow money to clear his ground of ftones, in order to introduce it : in a twenty- years leafe, the profit of it would repay the expence tenfold. A wheel-plough pofTefTes one advantage, that it requires no fkill in the ploughman. But it re- quires more ftrength of cattle, the friction of the wheels being added to that of the ground. But Chi. I. Instruments of Husbandry. 7 a much greater defect is, that the furrows mult partake of the inequalities of the furface : every Hone, every clod, difturbs its motion. To crofs with a wheel-plough a field of high and narrow ridges, fuch as is fit for turnip, would ridge the furrows like the furface, and retain every drop of rain that falls on it. Therefore, I great- ly prefer a plough without wheels, in expert hands. Some ploughs are made with two fmall wheels running in the furrow, in order to take off the friction of the head; and this plough is recom- mended in a book, intitled, The Complete Farmer. But all complicated ploughs are baubles ; and this as much as any. The pivots of fuch wheels are always going wrong ; and befide, they are choked fo with earth, as to increafe the friction inftead of diminifhing it. If we look back thirty years, ploughs of diffe- rent conflrudlions did not enter even into a dream. The Scotch plough was univerfally ufed j and no other was known. There was no lefs ig- norance as to the number of cattle neceflary for this plough. In the fouth of Scotland, fix oxen and two horfes were univerfal ; and in the north, ten oxen, fometimes twelve. The firft attempt to leflen the number of oxen, was in Berwick- fhire. The low part of that county abounds with ftone and clay marl, the moft fubflantial of all manures, which had been long ufed by one C 4 or 8 PRACTICE. Part I. or two gentlemen. About twenty-five years ago it acquired reputation, and fpread rapidly. As two horfes and two oxen were employed in every marl-cart ; the farmer, in fummer- fallow- ing and in preparing land for marl, was con- fined to four oxen and two horfes. And as that manure afforded plenty of fucculent ftraw for oxen, the farmer was furprifed to find, that four oxen did better now than fix formerly. Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded (lowly, till people were taught by a noted farmer in that country, what induftry can perform by means of power properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty tafk to marl five or fix acres in a year. That gentleman, by plenty of red clover for his working cattle, accomplifhed the marling fifty acres in a fummer, once fifty-four. Having fo much occafion for oxen, he tried with fuccefs two oxen and two horfes in a plough ; and that practice became general in Berwickshire. Now here appears with luftre the advantage of the chain-plough. The great friction occa- fioned in the Scotch plough by a long head, and by the angle it makes wich the mouldboard, ne- ceflarily requires two oxen and two horfes, what- ever the foil be. The friction is fo much lcfs in the chain-plough, that two good horfes are found fufficient in every foil that is proper for it. And as good luck feldom comes alone more than bad, the reducing the draught to a couple of horfes has Ch. I. i. Instruments of Husbandry. 9 has another advantage, that of rendering a driver unnecefiary ; no flight faving at prefent, where a fervant's wages and maintenance are very fmart articles. This faving on every plough, where two horfes and two oxen were formerly ufed, will by the ftricteft computation be fifteen pounds Sterling yearly ; and where four horfes were ufed, no lefs than twenty pounds Sterling. There is now fcarce to be feen, in the low country cf Berwickfhire, a plough with more than two hor- fes ; which undoubtedly in time will become ge- neral. Had the practice of four horfes in a plough continued, in vain would one have ex- pected in this country a good breed of labouring horfes, when four of our own paultry kind were more than fufficient : But, by better dreffing, plowing became an eafier work, and two horfes in many foils were found fufficient. This dif- covery became gradually more general by lighter ploughs and ftouter horfes. There is now a de- mand for a better breed of labouring horfes ; which probably in time will perfect the breed. I know but of one further improvement, that of uling two oxen inftead of two horfes. That draught has been employed with fuccefs in feve- ral places ; and the faving is fo great, that it muft force its way every where. I boldly affirm, th:it no foil ftirred in a proper feafon, can ever require more than two horfes and two qxen in a plough, even fuppofing the ftiffeft clay. In all other foils. io PRACTICE. Part I. foils, two good horfes or two good oxen, abreaft, may be relied on for every operation of the chain-plough. A chain-plough of a fmaller fize than ordinary, drawn by a lingle horfe, is of all the moil proper for hone- hoeing, fuppofmg the land to be mel- low, which it ought to be for that operation. It is fulncient for making furrows to receive the dung, for plowing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the crop. A ftill fmaller plough of the fame kind, I warmly recommend for a kitchen garden. It can be reduced to the fmalleft fize, by being made of iron; and where the land is properly drefled for a kitchen-garden, an iron-plough drawn by a horfe of the fmalleft; fize will law much fpade-work. Strange is the effect of cuf- tom without thought ! Thirty years ago, a kit- chen- garden was an article of luxury merely, becaufe at that time there could be no cheaper food than oat-meal. At prefent the farmer main- tains his fervants at double expence, as the price of oat-meal is doubled : and yet he has no no- tion of a kitchen-garden, more than he had thir- ty years ago. He never thinks, that living part- ly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would lave much oat-meal : nor docs he ever think, that change, of food is more wholefome than vege- tables alone, or oat- meal alone. I need not re- commend potatoes, which in our late fcanty crops of Ch.I. i. Instruments of Husbandry. ii of corn have proved a great bleffing : without them the labouring^poor would frequently have been reduced to a ilarving condition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen-garden with as much induftry as he beftows on his potatoe- crop, he needed never fear want ; and he can cultivate it with the iron-plough at a very fmall expence. It may be held by a boy of twelve or thirteen ; and would be a proper education for a ploughman. But it is the landlord who ought to give a beginning to the improvement. A very fmall expence would enclofe an acre for a kit- chen-garden to each of his tenants ; and it would excite their induftry to bellow an iron-plough on thofe who do belt. Nor is this the only cafe where a fingle-horfe plough may be profitably employed. It is fuffi- cient for feed-furrowing barley, where the land is light and well drelTed. It may be ufed in the fecond or third plowing of fallow T , to encourage annual weeds, which are deftroyed by fubfequent plo wings. To procure food is indeed the chief object, of the plough, but not its only object. Good roads are elTential to internal commerce ; and the ex- pence of making them may be confiderably lef- lened by the plough. As this hitherto has been little thought of, an explanation is neceffary. The method in ufe is, to form a road with the pick-axe, the fpade, and the wheelbarrow. Even where 12 PRACTICE. Part I. where a pick-axe is not neceiTary, you fee ten or twelve men prefllng down the fpade with the foot oftener than once before a fufficient load of earth can be railed ; — dearly bought by the workmen, and flill more dearly by the employer. Where a pick- axe is nccefiary, there mull be a great addition of hands; for ten pickmen are no more than fufficient to loofen what can be thrown up with four or five fpades. Now a great part of this labour may be faved by the plough. The Scotch plough, fortified with iron plates, and the head connected with the beam by a bar of iron, is an excellent inftrument for making roads. Suppofe a new road is purpofed thirty feet wide, plow it up into a ridge, beginning in the middle : and plow it. a fecond time in the fame manner. Where the ground is foft, and requires to be raifed high, a very deep furrow is neceflary. Where the ground is firm, a fhallow furrow i^ fufficient. After thefe two plowings are finifhed. if the fides of the road be too fleep, leave fix feet in the middle, and go round the remainder in a third plowing, gathering it toward the top. If the fides be flill too deep, leave twelve feet w the middle, and gather up the remainder as in the former plowing. If thefe operations be well conducted, the water-channels on each fide of the road will be two feet lower than the fur- face of the adjacent ground. Smooth the road with a drag-harrow ; and correct with a fpade any remaining Ch. I. i. Instruments of Husbandry. 13 remaining defedts or inequalities, which is a very eafy work. Thus the road is completely formed to receive a covering of gravel, or of Hones beat fmall. A plough may alfo be ufed advantageouily in making ditches for enclofing. The immenfe coft of loofening a hard or ltony foil by the pick-axe and fpade, may be totally faved by the plough. The furface-earth is commonly foft : after it is removed with the fpade, let a plough, drawn by three horfes in a line, go round and round the fpace intended for the ditch, cleaving it as if it were a ridge. After the earth thus loofened is thrown up with the fhovel, renew the plowing and {hovelling till you come within eight inches of the bottom; and to thefe eight inches apply the pick- axe and fpade. One precaution is necef- iary, that no more be plowed at a time than can be thrown up the fame day. If rain fall in any quantity, the ground tilled will become mud, ve- ry improper to be laid upon thorns. In this o- peration there is no occafion for the coulter : it is rather an impediment. I efteem this a valuable difcovery for Scotland ; which being more pefter- ed with high winds than England, requires the more to be enclofed. The expence of enclofing with hedge and ditch the ordinary way, is great ; and the ditch is the mod expenfive part. Two thirds of the expence may be faved by the plough, ?ji hard ground. In 14 PRACTICE. Part I. In every cafe where earth is to be removed, the plough is ufeful; as for example in a gravel- pit opened for high-roads. The gravel may be fo loofened by the plough as to require a fhovel only for filling it into the carts. Has any one (tumbled on the thought of ufing the plough in planting young trees? The method I have praclifed, is to mark out lines due north and fouth, at intervals of ten or twelve feet. Let three deep furrows be made with the plough at the fide of each line. Lay the fod of the eaft- moft furrow upon the other two, which will raife a fcreen about two feet high. Plant along the furrow from whence the fod was removed, and the fcreen behind will make good fhelter. This method is chiefly intended for firs in a bare muir. Before the firs rife much above the fcreen, the roots will have taken fuch hold of the ground as to refill even wefterly winds : fcarce a plant will fail, if they be wholefome. Three thouiand firs plant- ed in this manner may be fufficient for an acre, equal to five or fix thoufand in the ordinary way. A fir makes a choice nurfe for other trees. After three years, even in the pooreft foil, the firs begin to grow with vigour; and then is the time for planting among them oaks, elms, or other trees ; cutting down the firs from time to time to make room for thefe trees. Thus, the method here pointed out for planting firs, is the beft pre- paration for raifing all other barren trees. 2. The Chi. i. Insiruments of Husbandry. 2. THE BRAKE, OR DRAG-HARROW. The brake is a large and weighty Harrow, the purpofe of which is to reduce a ftubborn foil, where an ordinary harrow makes little impreflion. It confifts of fquare bulls*, four in number, each fide five inches, and fix feet and a half in length. The teeth are feventeen inches long, bending forward like a coulter. Four of them are infert- ed in each bull, fixed about with a fcrew-nut, ha- ving twelve inches free below, with a heel clofe to the under part of the bull, to prevent it from being pufhed back by (tones. The nut above makes it eafy to be taken out for iharping. T&is brake requires four horfes or four oxen. One of a lefler fize will not fully anfwer the purpofe : one of a larger fize will require fix oxen ; in which cafe the work may be performed at lefs expence with the plough. See the figure an- nexed. This inftrument may be applied to great ad- vantage in the following circumftances. In fal- lowing ftrong clay that requires frequent plow- ings, a brakeing between every plowing, tends to pulverize the foil, and to render the fubfequent plowings more eafy. In the month of March or * The wood of a brake, or of a harrow, in which the teeth are inferted, is termed in Scotland a bull. 16 PRACTICE. Part I. or April, when flrong ground is plowed for barley, efpecially if bound with couch-grafs, a crofs-brakeing is preferable to a crofs-plowing, and is done at half the expence. When ground is plowed from tjje (late of nature, and after a competent time, is crofs-plowed, the brake is applied with great fuccefs immediately after, to reduce the whole to proper tilth. Let it be obferved, that a brake with a greater number of teeth than above mentioned, is im- proper for ground that is bound together with the roots of plants ; which is always the cafe of ground new broken up from its natural (late. The brake is foon choked, and can do no execu- tion till freed from the earth it holds. A lefs number of teeth would be deficient in pulve- rizing the foil. To fet in a clear light the advantages of this inftrument, we fhall flop a little, to obferve how infumcient the common harrow is for any of the operations mentioned. It may anfwer for cover- ing the feed, and may do tolerably well in light and free foil; but is altogether infufficient for re- ducing fliff foil. The harrow with wooden teeth is a ridiculous inftrument, fit to raife laughter inflead of railing mould. The poor farmer la- bours with it, thinks he is doing an ufeful work, when all the time he is doing nothing. It ought to be prohibited by the landlord ; for a tenant with fuch an inftrument cannot pay a rent that the Chi. 2. Instruments of Husbandry. 17 the farm properly cultivated will eafily bear. Though the brake has been known above twenty years, yet none but gentlemen, and a few felecT tenants, have ever thought of it : in fome coun- ties even the name remains unknown. It be- longs to gentlemen of fortune, for their own in- tereft, to make it more general. The neceflity of fome inftrument, more effedtual than the com- mon harrow, for reducing a ftubborn foil, has led farmers to put three or four harrows, one above another, in order to prefs the undermoft into the ground. This fubftitute to the brake is far inferior in its effecT: ; belide, that the under- moft harrow is torn to pieces in an inftant. To conclude this article, a farmer who has no brake, wants a capital inftrument of hufbandry. Its price above that of common harrows, bears no proportion to the profit. J* THE HARROW. Harrows are commonly confidered as of no ufe but to cover the feed. They have another ufe fcarce lefs eflential, which is to prepare land for the feed. This is an article of importance for producing a good crop. And to ihew how imperfectly either of thele purpofes is performed by the common harrow, take the following ac- count of it. D The 18 PRACTICE. Parti. The harrow commonly ufed is of different forms. The firft I fhall mention has two bull% four feet long and eighteen inches afunder, with four wooden teeth in each. A fecond has three bulls and twelve wooden teeth. A third has four bulls, and twenty teeth, of wood or iron, ten, eleven or twelve inches afunder. Now, in fine mould, the laft may be fuflicient for covering the feed ; but none of them are fufficient to prepare for the feed any ground that requires fubduing. The only tolerable form is that with iron teeth ; and the bare defcription of its imperfections, will fhew the necemty of a more perfect form. In the fir ft place, this harrow is by far too light for ground new taken up from the ftate of nature, for clays hardened with fpring-drought, or for other ftubborn foils : it floats on the furface, and after frequent returns in the fame track, does nothing effectually. In the next place, the teeth are too thick fet, by which the harrow is apt to be choked, efpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which is commonly the cafe. At the fame time, the lightnefs and number of teeth keep the harrow upon the furface, and prevent one of its capital purpofes, that of dividing the foil. Nor will fewer teeth anfwer for covering the feed properly. In the third place, the teeth are too fhort for reducing a coarfe foil to proper tilth ; and yet it would be in vain to make them longer, becaufe the harrow is too light for going deep Ch. I. 3. Instruments of Husbandry. 19 deep into the ground. Further, the common harrows are fo ill constructed, as to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is loft in difengaging them. What pity it is, that an in- duitrious farmer mould be reduced to fuch an imperfect inftrument, which is neither lit to pre- pare the ground for feed, nor to cover it proper- ly. And I now add, that it is equally unfit for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo bound with coucb-grafs, as to make the furrow- flice Hand upright, as when old lea is plowed : notwithstanding much labour, the grafs roots keep the field, and gain the victory. What fol- lows? The farmer at lad is reduced to the ne- ceility of leaving the weeds in peaceable poffei- iion, becaufe his field will no longer bear corn. A little reflection, even without experience, will make it evident, that the fame harrows, what- ever be the form, can never anfwer all the dif- ferent purpofes of harrowing, nor can operate equally in all different foils, rough or fmooth, firm or looie. Looking back not many years above thirty, no farmer in Scotland had the flight- eft notion of different ploughs for different pur- poles. The Scotch plough was the only one known. Different ploughs are now introduced ; and it is full time to think of different harrows. Rejecting the common harrows, as in every re- fpect insufficient, I boldly recommend the follow- ing. I ule three of them of different forms, for D 2 different 20 PRACTICE. Part I. different purpofes. They are all of the fame ■weight, drawn each by two horfes. Birch is the beft wood for them, becaufe it is cheap, and not apt to fplit. The firft is compofed of four bulls, each four feet ten inches long, three and a quar- ter inches broad, and three and a half deep ; the interval between the bulls eleven and three fourths inches ; fo that the breadth of the whole harrow is four feet. The bulls are connected by four crofs-bars, which go through each bull, and are fixed by wooden nails driven through both. In each bull five teeth are inferted, ten inches free under the bull, and ten inches afunder. They are of the fame form with thofe of the brake, and inferted into the wood in the fame manner. Each of thefe teeth is three pounds weight ; and where the harrow is made of birch, the weight of the whole is fix ilone fourteen pounds Dutch. An erect bridle is fixed at a corner of the har- row, three inches high, with four notches for drawing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is fixed for two horfes drawing abreaft, as in a plough. And to ftrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is nailed upon the harrow from cor- ner to corner in the line of the draught. The fecond harrow confiits of two parts, con- nected together by a crank or hinge in the mid- dle, and two chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep the two parts always parallel, and at the fame diftance from each other. The crank Chi. 3. Instruments of Husbandry. 21 crank is fo contrived, as to allow the two parts to ply to the ground like two unconnected harrows; but neither of them to rife above the other, more than if they were a fingle harrow without a joint. In a word, they may form an angle downward, but not upward. Thus they have the erTe& of two harrows in curved ground, and of one weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is com- pofed of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad, and three and a half deep. The interval between the bulls nine and a half inches ; which makes the breadth of the whole harrow, including the length of the crank, to be five feet five inches. Each bull has five teeth, nine inches free under the wood, and ten inches afunder. The weight of each tooth is two pounds ; the reft as in the former. The third confifts alfo of two parts, connected together like that laft mentioned. It has eight bulls, each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and three deep. The interval between the bull is eight inches ; and the breadth of the whole harrow, including the length of the crank, is fix feet four inches. In each bull are inferted. five teeth, feven inches free under the wood, and ten and a half inches afunder, each tooth weigh- ing one pound. The reft as in the two former harrows. The figure of each is annexed. Thefe harrows I hold to be a confiderable im- provement. They ply to curved ground like two J) 3 unconnected 22 PRACTICE. Part I. unconnected harrows, and when drawn in one plain, they are in effect one harrow of double weight, which makes the teeth pierce deep into the ground. The imperfection of common har- rows, mentioned above, will fuggeft the advan- tages of the fet of harrows here recommended. The firft is proper for harrowing land that has lain long after plowing, as where oats are fown on a winter-furrow ; and in general, for harrow- ing ftiff land : it pierces deep into the foil by its long teeth, and divides-it minutely. The fecond is intended for covering the feed : its long teeth lays the feed deeper than the common harrow can do ; which is no flight advantage. By placing the feed considerably under the furface, the young plants are protected from too much heat ; and have fufheiency of moifture. At the fame time, the feed is fo well covered that none of it is loft. Seed flightly covered by the common harrows, wants moifture, and is burnt up by the fun ; be- fide, that a proportion of it is left upon the fur- face uncovered. The third harrow fupplies what may be deficient in the fecond, by fmoothing the furface, and covering the feed more accurately. The three harrows make the ground finer and finer, as heckles do flax ; or, to ufe a different comparifon, the firit harrow makes the bed, the fecond lays the feed in it, the third fmooths the clothes. Thefe advantages are certain. If any man doubt, let him try the experiment, and he will Ch. I. 3. Instruments of Husbandry. 23 will find the effect of them in his crops. I can &y fo with affurance from the experience of many years. They have another advantage not inferior to any mentioned ; they mix manure with the foil more intimately than can be done by common harrows ; and upon fuch intimate mix- ture depends greatly the effect, of manure, as (hall be explained afterward. To conclude, thefc har- rows are contrived to anfwer an eftabliihed prin- ciple in agriculture, That fertility depends great- ly on pulverizing the foil, and on an intimate mixture of manure with it, whether dung, lime, marl, or any other. 4. THE ROLLER. The roller is an initrument of capital ufe in lmibandry, though fcarcely known in ordinary practice; and, where introduced, it is commonly fo flight as to have very little effect.. Rollers are of different kinds, Hone, yetling, wood. Each of thefe has its advantages, I re- commend the lalt, conltructed in the following manner. Take the body of a tree, fix feet ten inches long, the larger the better, made as near a perfect cylinder as pofftble. Surround this cy- linder with three rows of fillies, one row in the middle, and one at each end. Line thefe fillies with planks of wood equally long with the roller, and fo narrow as to ply into a circle. Bind them D 4 faft 24 PRACTICE. Part I. faft together with iron rings; Beech wood is the beft, being hard and tough. The roller thus mounted, ought to have a diameter of three feet ten inches. It has a double pair of fhafts for two horfes abreaft. Thefe are fufficient in level ground : in ground not level, four horfes may be necciTary. The roller without the lhafts ought to weigh two hundred fl;one Dutch; and the large diameter makes this great weight eafy to be drawn. With refpect to the feafon for rolling. Rolling wheat in the month of April, is an important ar- ticle in loofe foil ; as the winter-rains, preffing down the foil, leave many roots in the air. Bar- ley ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is (own; efpecially where grafs- feeds are fown with it. The belt time for rolling a gravelly foil, is as foon as the mould is fo dry as to bear the roller without clinging to it. A clay foil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed, nor rolled till the field be perfectly dry. And as rolling a clay foil is chiefly intended for fmoothing the furface, a dry feafon may be patiently waited for, even till the crop be three inches high. There is the greater reafon for this precaution, beeaufe much rain immediately after rolling is apt to cake the furface when drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled immediately after the feed is fown, unlets the ground be fo wet as to cling to ^he roUer. In, a clay foil, delay rolling till the grain Ch. I. 4. Instruments of Husbandry. 25 grain be above ground. The proper time for fowing grafs-feeds in an oat-field, is when the grain is three inches high ; and rolling mould immediately fucceed whatever the foil be. Flax ought to be rolled immediately after fowing. This fhould never be neglected ; for it makes the feed pufh equally, and prevents after-growth, the bad effect of which is vifible in every ftep of the procefs for dreffing flax. The firft year's crop of fown graffes ought to be rolled as early the next fpring as the ground will bear the horfes. It fixes all the roots precifely as in the cafe of wheat. Rolling the fecond and third crops in loofe foil, is an ufeful work ; though not fo effential as rolling the firft crop. The effects of rolling properly ufed, are fub- ftantial. In the firft place, it renders a loofe foil more compact and folid ; which encourages the growth of plants, by making the earth clap clofe to every part of every root. Nor need we be afraid of rendering the foil too compact ; for no roller that can be drawn by two or four horfes will have that effect.. In the next place, rolling keeps in the moifture, and hinders drought to penetrate. This effecl is of great moment. In a dry feafon, it may make the difference of a good crop or no crop, efpecially where the foil is light. In the third place, the rolling grafs-feeds, befide the forgoing advantages, facilitates the mowing for hay. And it is to be hoped, that the advan- tage 26 PRACTICE. Part I, tage of this practice will lead farmers to mow their corn alfo, which will increafe the quantity of ftraw, both for food and for the dunghill. There is a fmall roller for breaking clods in land intended for barley. The common way is, to break clods with a mallet, which requires ma- ny hands, and is a laborious work. This roller performs the work more effectually, and at much lefs expence : let a harrowing precede, which will break the clods a little; and after lying a day, or a day and half to dry, this roller will diffolve them into powder. This, however, doea not fuperfede the ufe of the great roller after all the other articles are finifhed, in order to make the foil compact, and to keep out the funnier* drought. A ftone roller four feet long, and fif- teen inches diameter, drawn by one horie, is iuf- flcient to break clods that are ealily duTolved by preffure. The ufe of this roller in preparing ground for barley is gaining ground daily, even among ordinary tenants, who have become fen- fible both of the expence and toil of uling wood- en mells. But in a clay foil, the clods are fome- times too firm, or too tough, to be fubdued by fo light a machine. In that cafe, a roller of the fame fize, but of a different conftruftion, is neceffary, It ought to be furrounded with circles of iron, lix inches afunder, and feven inches deep; which will cut the moft ftubborn clods, and reduce them to powder. Let not this inftrumentbe coniider- cd Ch. I. 5. Instruments of Husbandry. 27 ed as a finical refinement. In a ftiffclay, it may make the difference of a plentiful or fcanty crop. 5. THE FANNER. This inftrument for winnowing corn was in- troduced into Scotland not many years ago. For- merly wind being our only refource, the winnow- ing of corn was no lefs precarious than the grind- ing it at a windmill : people often were redu- ced to famine in the midft of plenty. There was another bad effect : it was neceffary to place a barn open to the weft wind, however irregular or inconvenient the fituation might be with regard to the other buildings. But it is needlefs to be particular upon that ufeful inftrument ; becaufe every farmer confiders it now as no lefs effential than a plough or a harrow. CHAP. II. Farm Cattle and Carriages. I. FARM- HORSES. AHorse fit for a waggon, cart, or plough, ought to be ftrong, compact, and about fifteen hands high. A carter or a ploughman cannot perform the fame work with horfes of lefs fize ; 2S PRACTICE. Part I. fize ; by which there is a considerable lofs, as he is paid by the year, not by the quantity of work he performs. Great attention ought to be given to the breaking a farm-horfe : good educa- tion will make him tradable and obedient to the voice, without neceffity of applying the whip : the former makes the whole team move at once : the latter moves the horfe only that feels it. We Hop a little to confider the difadvantage of fmalt and ill-fed horfes, common in Scotland. Two ftout horfes in a plough will make as deep a furrow as four of what are commonly ufed j and yet the former are lefs expenfive both in price and maintenance. A gentleman cannot do better for his own intereft, than to promote a good breed of farm-horfes : two good horfes will be a faving of L. 8 Sterling yearly, that is ex- pended by ufing four weak horfes. I fhall men- tion only the carriage of lime. One fervant fills his cart with a hundred ftone, which two good horfes can pull with eafe. Another lays but the half upon his cart, becaufe his two weak horfes are able for no more. This is a double lofs to the matter : he gets lefs work, not from the horfes only, but alio from the fervant. 2. FARM -OXEN. There is not in agriculture any other improve- ment that equals the uling oxen inftead of horfes : they Ch. II. i. Farm Cattle and Carriages. 29 they are equally tractable ; and they are purcha- fed and maintained at much lefs expence. As this improvement is obvious to the meaneft capa- city, one might expect to fee every farmer gree- dily embracing it, as he would a feaft after be- ing famifhed. Yet few ftir. How is this to be accounted for ? Men are led in chains by cuftora ; and fettered even againft their intereft. " And " why ihould we pretend to be wifer than our " fathers ?" they will fay modeltly, or rather obftinately. What warms me upon this fubject, is the great confumption of oats by work-horfes, which would be totally faved by ufing oxen only. Did our own product furnifh this confumption, it were lefs to be regretted ; but it is grievous to be re- duced to the neceffity of importing annually vaft quantities of oats ; all of which would be faved by employing oxen only in a farm. Nor is this all that would be faved, as fhall be mentioned by and by. But that I may not be acciifed of declaiming without foundation, I am willing to enter into a candid companion between horfes and oxen as employed in a farm. I begin with affirming, that an ox is as tradable as a horfe, and as eafily trained to a plough or a cart. I have feen a couple of them in a plough going as fweetly with- out a driver as a couple of horfes ; directed by the voice alone without a rein. Oxen befide are preferable for a Heady draught, as they always pull 3 o PRACTICE. Part I. pull to their flrength, without ever flinching ; horfes, on the contrary, are apt to flop when they meet with unexpected refi (lance. As oxen have lefs air and fpirit in moving than horfes, their mo- tion is concluded to be flower. They are lefs ex- peditious, it i- true, in galloping, or perhaps in trotting; but as farm- work is performed by ftep- ping, let the flep of a horfe and of an ox be com- pared, and the latter will be found not inferior, efpecially where an ox is harnafled like a horfe. Colonel Pool in Derby lhire plows as much ground with three oxen, as the neighbouring farmers do with four or five horfes. In fummer they eat nothing but grafs : in winter they have hay or turnip when much wrought ; ftraw only when wrought moderately. About Bawtry, in Yorkfhire, four oxen in a plough do as much work as the fame number of good horfes. In fe- veral parts of Kent, an acre daily is plowed with a team of oxen, fometimes a quarter more. Near Beaconsfield, Mr Burke plows an acre in a day with four oxeft ; .and his. neighbours do no more with four horfes. In the road from Leeds to Wetherby, I few a loaded cart drawn bv two flout horfes and a bull, all in a line, the bull in the middle. That draught was not flower than thofe before and after in the fame road. And f urely the bull would not have been added hud he retarded the horfes *. Hithertn * Fleta, an old Engliih law-book, fuppofed to have been written in the reign of Henry the Firft. From the fecond book, Ch.II. 2. Farm Cattle and Carriages. 31 Hitherto the companion holds pretty equal. In one article oxen are clearly preferable. Their dung makes excellent manure ; and by that means they always improve the pafture. Horfe- dung, on the contrary, burns where it falls, and hurts the pafture. Horfe-dung from the liable has a greater tendency to burn than to rot ; and to make it ufeful, it requires to be carefully mix- ed with cooler materials. But the chief advantage of oxen comes under the article of favings, which branch out into many particulars. In the firft place, the price of a horfe fit for labour doubles that of an ox. An ox worth feven pounds, will perform as much folid work as a horfe worth fourteen. This is an important article: the labouring cattle are the moft expenfive part of a farm flock ; and it is that expence which keeps back from farm- ing many men whofe (kill and induftry would •afford them a comfortable living. In that view, it is greatly the intereft of landlords to promote oxen, as they tend to multiply candidates for a farm ; book, ch. 73. it appears that oxen were, at that time, com- monly uted in hulbandry work. The author holds, i//, that two oxen and two horfes will plow as much in a dciv a5 four hoifes. id, That in heavy land oxen make a itronger draught, yi, That a horfe requires the hxth pan. of a buihel of oats every day •, but that for a whole week an ox requires but three one-half meafures of oats, of which ten make a buihel. In the laji place, that an old horfe is of no value but for his ikin ; but that an ox, after being pad labour, will give a good price when made fit. 32 PRACTICE. Part I. farm ; which not only gives the landlord oppor- tunity for a proper choice, but railes every farm to its juft value. As an ox is cheaper than a horfe, fo he is fed cheaper in proportion. He requires no corn, and he works to perfection upon cut grafs in fummer, and upon hay in winter. He does well even upon oat- draw, Thus by uling oxen, a far- mer can make money of his whole crop of oats, except what is neceffary for maintenance of his family. The bulk of that product, on the con- trary, is coniumed by farm-horfes. Even in the Carle of Gowrv, the confumption of oats on farm- horfes is fo great, that at Perth and Dundee, there are annually imported between four and five thoufand bolls of oat- meal. A horfe is liable to many difeafes that an ox is free from. If he happen to turn lame, to which he is fubjecled from many accidents, he is rendered ufelefs. An ox may always be turn- ed to account ; for if difabled from work, he can be fatted for the fhambles, and fold for more than was paid for him. A horfe commonly turns ufelefs for work in ten years; and the flock of horfes mull be re- newed every ten years at a medium, which is a deep article of expence to the farmer. Oxen lall for ever ; or which comes to the fame, they can be fold to the butcher when pall the vigour of work, and their price will be more than fuf- ficient to put young oxen in their (lead. Horfe* Ch. II. 2. Farm Cattle and Carriages. 33 Horfes reqirre more attendance than oxen : they muft be curried, combed, and rubbed down. Let oxen have their proper quantity of food, and they require no other care. It is fuf- ficient employment for - a man to manage four or five horfes : he will manage with equal eafe double the number of oxen. The fhoeing of horfes is no inconfiderable ar- ticle. The expence of fhoeing oxen is a mere trifle*. Thefe feveral articles of faving are fummed up in a following table, and are very confiderable. This mm ought to go wholly to the landlord as additional rent. The tenant has no claim for any fliare ; becaufe after paying that additional rent, he has as much profit as he had formerly when he wrought with horfes. By this mode of hufbandry, the advantage to the landlord is great ; and to the kingdom much greater, by faving the importation of an immenie quantity of oats. But the advantage of oxen is itill more exteniive: it reaches every manufactu- rer, and indeed the whole people. There muft. be a great increafe of oxen to anfwer the pur- pofes of farming : every one of thefe, after their prime is over, goes to the fhambles: the markets E are * Another fignal~ advantage of ufing oxen in hufbandry, is, that, by the cheapnels of beef, it will be a more frugal food to the low people than meal. The confequence will be to increafe the quantity of pafture which meliorates land, and to diminilh the quantity of corn which exhauft- it. 34 PRACTICE. Part. L are filled with beef, which not only lowers the price of beef, but of leather and tallow. The favings upon thefe articles would bring down the wages of our manufacturers, and confequent- ly the price of our manufactures in a foreign market; not to mention that cheap manufactures at home tend alfo to lower wages. People differ in the manner of yoking oxen. In fome places they are yoked by the tip of the horn ; in fome by the root. Thefe modes are vilibly inconvenient. When an ox draws by the moulder like a horfe, his head is free, and his motion natural. When yoked by the horns, he lowers his head to the line of the draught: hi? pofture is conftrained, and his ftep fhort. His neck indeed is ftrong, but his (boulder is a bet- ter fulcrum for the draught. To yoke an ox by the moulder, his harnefs ought to be the fame with that of a horfe. The only difference is, that as his horns hinder the collar from being flipped over his head, it muft be open below, and buckled after it is on. The advantage of yoking- an ox by the moulder was known even in the time of Columella; who fays, that fattening the yoke to their horns is rejected by almoft all who have written directions for hufbandmen ; for the cattle can exert greater efforts with the bread than with the horns. Book 2. chap. 2. When the advantages of oxen for draught arc fo great, it cannot but appear itrange, that in Britain oxen have almoft totally been laid alide. Among Ch.II. 2. Farm Cattle and Carriages. 35 Among the ancients, we read of no beafts for draught but oxen. It was fo in Greece, as early as the days of Heiiod ; and it was fo every where. The Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope plow with oxen, and exercife them early to a quick pace, fo as to equal horfes in the waggon, as well as in the plough. They are ufed in the Ealt In- dies for carrying burdens ; and they are fitter even than horfes for fhat fervice, the back of an ox being convex, and confequently more able to fupport a weight than that of a horfe. All that is necefTary in the furniture for the back, is a bit of wood or ftiff leather, to prevent the load from falling down upon the neck. The only caufe I can aflign for preferring horfes, are bad roads, which were univerfal in Britain till lately. Being impracticable for carts during winter, the farmer carried his corn to market on horfeback. A pro- per furniture for the back of an ox was not thought of, though an eafy invention. And horfes being thought necefTary for carrying bur- dens, they were employed inftead of oxen in every work: if employed at all, they are too ex- penlive ever to be furTered to be idle. Another circumftance contributed. Becaufe oxen require no corn, it is commonly imagined that they fcarce require any food. They are jftit or! during win- ter with dry ftraw, which after the turn of the year affords very little nourifhment. They be- come too Weak for working ; and yet, inftead of bettering their food, it is vainly thought that E 2 multiplying 36 PRACTICE. Pari L multiplying their number will anfwer ; and thus may be icen in feveral places yoked in a plough, ten or twelve weak animals that can fcarce fup- port their own weight. We are now provided with good roads every where ; and there is no longer the pretext of bad roads for preferring horfes. Corn is now carried to market in carts, for which oxen are no lefs proper than horfes. And it is hoped, that farmers will at laft break through a bad cuftom, and open their eyes to their own intereft. Nothing is more deeply their inteteft than to lay afide horfes totally in form-operations', and to employ oxen. The tackiman profits firft ; but does not the landlord p;ain more, by enabling his tenants in new leafes to pay a higher rent ? Why then fhould gentle- men loiter, while they can fo eafily advance their rent without opprefiing their tenants? Why do they not encourage their tenants by example and precept, to follow a mode that is equally be- neficial to themfelves and to their country ? It v. ill be hard indeed, if a tingle tenant cannot be found to fee his intereft : if a landlord can pre- vail but upon one or two of his tenants to take the lead, the reft will naturally follow. At any rate, he can force them to their own good, by prohibiting horfes in every new lcafe. It is a ilrange fort of ambition that moves gentlemen to fpend their eftates in the Houfe of Commons, where mod of them are mere mutes, inftead of ferving Ch. II. 2. Farm Cattle and Carriages. 37 ferving their country and thcmfclves at home, which is genuine patriotifm *. As computation is the touchftone of profit and lofs, two computations are fubjoined ; one to fa- tisfy the farmer of the fum he will fave by em- ploying oxen inftead of horfes ; and one to ihew what benefit will accrue to the public by the change. To fet the firll computation in a clear light, and to avoid fractions, I make the fuppo- fition, that a horfe put to work at the age of five may endure hard work for twelve years, which is a large allowance beyond the truth. An ox is put to work at the age of four, and at feven is in his prime, which is the proper time to feed for the fhambles. The computation according- ly is framed upon a revolution of twelve years ; during which period oxen are four times chan- ged without any change of horfes. At the end of the period, both mult be changed ; and a new- revolution goes on as before. E3 TABLE, * Columella, B. 2. eh. 2. advifes the ploughmnn to give his oxen a little reft at the end of zxzry ridge. " But, fays ** he, a longer ridge than one hundrt-d and twenty feet is " hurtful to the cattle, by fatiguing them more than they 11 ought to be." Oxen are more fatigued with heat than horfes •, which appears even in this cold country during the heat of fummer. Yet in the hotted countries oxen are pre- ferred for labour ; how much more in a cold country like Scotland ? A yoke of oxen among the old Romans common- ly plowed zjugerum in a day, which is nearly equal to two- thirds of an Englifh acre •, two Englifh acres making about three 38 P R A C T I is made in ■ Ch. IV. i. Preparing Land for Cropping. 71 its cultivation. We fee a fair example given near twenty years ago, neither expenfive nor intricate. Why does not every farmer exert his utmofl indu- stry upon fo valuable an improvement ? Cuftom fetters men in chains. To break loofe from flavery, a man muft be blefTed by nature with a fuperior degree of under (landing and activity. Such men there are, though rare : their example will be imitated *, and it is a pleafing profpecl:, that our barren moors will in time be converted into good foil, productive of nourifhment for man and beaft : villages will arife, and population go on in a rapid courfe. I prefent to the view of my reader an immenfe moor between Greenlaw in Berwickshire, and Fala in Mid Lothian, as a de- iirable fubjec~t for an improving farmer, now that there is accefs to lime by a turnpike-road. As the foil for the moft part is too fhallow for paring . and burning, it may be cultivated according to the directions given above. At the fame time, there are many fwampy fpots, which upon paring and burning will yield a great quantity of allies, to be laid upon the dry parts ; and thefe allies make the very beft manure for turnip. A fuc- cefsful turnip-crop, fed on the ground with Iheep, is a fine preparation for laying down a field with grafs-feeds. And it is a ftill greater improve- ment, to take two or three fuccefn ve crops of tur- nip, which will require no dung for the fecond and following crops. This will thicken the foil, G 4 and 72 PRACTICE. Parti. and enrich it greatly. In that high country, where rain fuperabounds, the profitable crop is grafs, not corn. And farms in that country, af- ter being improved, ought to be divided into en- clofures of fifty or fixty acres. Sheep require a hundred acres, to give them fpace for an exten- five '\alk; and in iuch an enclofure any fence keeps them in *. The bed way of improving fwampy ground after draining, is paring and burning. But where the ground is dry, and the foil too thin for paring, the beft way of bringing it into tilth, i^ to plow it with a feathered lock, laying the grafiy furface under. After the new furface is mellowed with froft, fill up all the feams by harrowing crofs the field, which by excluding the air will effectually rot the fod. In this ftate let it lie fummer and winter. In the beginning of May after, a crofs- plowing will reduce all to lmall fquare pieces, which muft be pulverifed with the brake, to make it ready for a May or June crop. If thefe fquare * Scotland probably was moftly covered vviih trees be- fore the commencement of agricukure ; from which we ought to expect its furface to be generally vegetable foil. Yet mod of it is barren earth, without any mixture of vegetable foil. Did fuch large tract; never carry trees ? I can hardly think fo, as trees are found growing in the molt barren fpots. Yet in America, which abounds with trees, one in fome places may travel feveral hundred miles without feting a tree. This appears difficult to be ac- counted to- Ch. IV. 3. Preparing Land for Cropping. 73 fquare pieces be allowed to lie long in the fap without brakeing, they will become tough and jiot be eafily reduced. 3. FORMING RIDGES. The firft thing that occurs on this head, is to confider what grounds ought to be formed into ridges, what ought to be tilled with a flat furface. Dry foils, which fuffer by lack of moifture, ought to be tilled flat, in order to retain moifture. And the method for fuch tilling, is to go round and round from the circumference to the centre, or from the centre to the circumference. This me- thod is advantageous in point of expedition, as the whole is finifhed without once turning the plough. At the fame time, every inch of the foil is moved, inftead of leaving either the crown or the furrow unmoved, as is commonly done in tilling ridges. Clay foil, which furTers by water, ought to be laid as dry as pofiible by proper ridges. A loamy foil is the middle between the two. It ought to be tilled flat in a dry country, efpecially if it incline to the foil firft mentioned. In a moift country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high or low, according to the degree of moifture and tendency to clay. In grounds that require- ridging, an error pre- vails, that ridges cannot be raifed too high. High ridges labour under feveral difadvantages. The foil ; 4 PRACTICE. Part. I. foil is heaped upon the crown, leaving the furrow, bare : the crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet : the crop, which is always bell on the crown, is more readily fhaken with the wind, than where the whole crop is of an equal height : the half of the ridge is always covered from the fun, a dilad- vantage which is far from being (light in a cold climate. High ridges labour under another dif- advantage in ground that has no more level than barely fufficient to carry off water : they fink the furrows below the level of the ground ; and con- fequently retain water at the end of every ridge. The furrows ought never to be funk below the level of the ground Water will more effectually be carried off, by contracting the ridges both in height and breadth : a narrow ridge, the crown of which is but eighteen inches higher than the furrow, has a greater flope, than a very broad ridge where the difference is three or four feet. Next of forming ridges where the ground hangs contiderably. Ridges may be too fteep as well as too horizontal ; and if to the ridges be given all the itcepnefs of the field, a heavy (bower may do irreparable mifchief. One inftance I was witnefs to. A hanging field had been care- fully dreiTed with lime and dung for turnip. The turnip was fairly above ground, when a fatal fummer-fhower fwept down turnip, lime, dung, and a quantity of the lode foil, leaving the land bare. To prevent fuch mifchief, the ridges ought Ch. IV. 3. Preparing Land for Cropping. 75 ought to be fo directed crofs the field, as to have a gentle flope for carrying off water flowly, and no more. In that refpect, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of one that is nearly hori- zontal ; becaufe in the latter there is no oppor- tunity of a choice in forming the ridges. A hill is of all the beft adapted for directing the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be plow- ed round and round, beginning at the bottom and afcending gradually to the top in a fpiral line. This method of plowing a hill, requires no more force than plowing on a level : at the fame time it removes the great inconvenience of a gravelly hill, that of rain going off too quickly ; for the rain is retained in every furrow. If the foil be fuch as to tequire ridges, they may be directed to any Hope that is proper. Columella, Book 2. chap. 5. advifes, in plowing a hill, the furrows to be directed crofs the hill : which he obferves is much eafier than the plowing it up and down. In order to form a field into ridges that has not been formerly cultivated, the rules mention- ed are eafily put in practice. But what if ridges be already formed, that are either crooked or too high ? After feeing the advantage of form- ing a field into ridges, people were naturally led into an error, that the higher the better. But what could tempt them to make their ridges crooked ? I an fiver, Not defign, but the lazinefs of the driver fuffering the cattle to turn too ha- ftiJy, 76 PRACTICE. Parti. flily, inftead of making them finifh the ridge without turning. There is more than one difad- vantage in this flovenly practice. Firft, the wa- ter, kept in by the curve at the end of every ridge, fours the ground. Nex.t, as a plough has the lead friction poflible in a ftraight line, the friction mult be increafed in a curve, the back part of the mould-board prefling hard on the one hand, and the coulter prefling hard on the other. In the third place, the plough moving in a ftraight line, has the greateft command in laying the earth over. But where the ftraight line of the plough is applied to the curvature of a ridge in order to heighten it by gathering, the earth moved by the plough is continually falling back, in fpite of the moll lkilful ploughman. The inconveniencies of ridges high and crook- ed are lb many, that one would be tempted t* apply a remedy at any rifk. And yet, if the foil be clay, 1 would not advife a tenant to apply the remedy upon a leafe fhorter than two nineteen years. In a dry gravelly foil, the work is not difficult nor hazardous. When the ridges are cleaved two or three years fuccellively in the courfe of cropping, the operation ought to be concluded in one fummer. The earth, by reite- rated plowings, fhould be accumulated upon the furrows, fo as to raife them higher than the crowns : they cannot be raifed too high, for the accumulated earth wjll fubfide by its own weight. Croft- Ch.IV. 3. Preparing Land for Cropping. 77 Crofs-plowing once or twice, will reduce the ground to a flat furface, and give opportunity to form ridges at will. The fame method brings down ridges in clay foil : only let care be taken to carry on the work with expedition ; becaufe a heavy fhower before the new ridges are form- ed, will foak the ground in water, and make the farmer fufpend his work for the remainder of that year at leaft. In a ftrong clay, I would not venture to alter the ridges^ unlefs it can be done to perfection in one feafon. In the operation of flattening ridges, there is a eircumftance that has fcarce ever been attended to. Ridges are evidently an improvement of k.rt ; and fo is manure. The foil muft have been ex- haufted by frequent cropping before either ridges or dung were attempted; and after ridges were formed, the foil under the crowns muft continue in its exhaufted ftate,bemg deprived of the benefit both of fun and rain. We find thefe conjectures verified by experience. When a ridged field is made level as originally, the foil immediately un- der the crown, which had the thickeft coverings is commonly exceedingly poor. Farmers, fen- fible of this, never fail to give more dung to that part ihan to the reft of the field. But a more effeclual remedy is, to pierce deeper than the ori- ginal furface with the fpade or plough, in order to bring up virgin foil. This foil is generally good; and the whole is made equally fertile, by- mixing 7 8 PRACTICE. Part I. mixing it with the exhauftedfoil in crofs-plowing and harrowing. In the low country of Berwick - fhire, I frequently ufed this remedy, and never was difappointed. In making ditches there for draining, I have brought up a brick-clay lying four feet under the furface, which without being mellowed either by fun or froft, carried oats of a furprifing fize. Wild plants may be feen every where much larger than ordinary, growing even in gravel thrown up from the bottom of a new- made ditch*. Let * The infractions contained in this work regard a peo- pled country, where every acre is occupied and pays rent. They cannot have place, where the corn-land, by paucity of inhabitants, bears no proportion to what is left wafte ; which was the cafe in Scotland two centuries ago, and is at prefent the cafe of North America. The profpect of dung will never engage a farmer to fubm.it to the expence of feeding his cattle at home, when they can be maintain- ed in the common without expence. Having thus little or no dung, the farmer crops field after field, till they can bear no more. He chcofes fields that are dry ; and when thefe are exhaufied, he mufl attempt moift ground, where ridges are necelfary. Ridges thus introduced, were, from imitation andcutiom, extended to all ground* wet and dry. Drj T fields exhaufted by cropping without manure, were in fome meafure benefited by ridges, which brought up new foil to the furface, and thickened the crown of the ridge. But foil, rich or poor, when covered from the fun and rain by a thick coat of earth, will, as obferved in the text, remain in that ftate for ever, without turning better or worfe. The divifion of a farm into infield and cutfield, once Ch.IV. 3. Preparing Land for Cropping. 79 Let it be a rule, to direrft, the ridges north and fouth if the ground permit. In this direction, the eaft and weft fides of a ridge, dividing the- fun equally between them, will ripen at the fame time. It is a great advantage in agriculture, to form ridges fo narrow, and fo low, as to admit the crowns and furrows to be changed alternately every crop. The foil neareft the furface is the beft ; and by fuch plowing, it is always kept near the furface and never buried. In high ridges, the foil is accumulated at the crown, and the furrows left bare. Such alteration of crown and furrow, is eafy wher&the ridges are no more but feven or eight feeftroroad. This mode of plowing anfwers perfectly well in fandy and gra- velly foils, and even in loam. But it is not fafe in clay foil. In that foil, the ridges ought to be twelve feet wide and twenty inches high; to be preferved always in the fame form by calling, that is, by plowing two ridges at a time, begin- ning at the furrow that feparates them, plowing round that furrow, and fo round and round till the two ridges be fAnimed. By this method, the feparating furrow is raifed a little higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges. But at the next ©nee univerfal m Scotland, and dill frequent, proceeds from the lame caufe. We have therefore no reafon to blame our forefathers for a practice perfectly well failed to a country flack of inhabitants. 80 PRACTICE. Part I. next plowing, that inequality is corre&ed, by beginning at the bounding furrows, and going round and round till the plowing of the two ridges be completed at the feparating furrow. I cannot conclude this article without inveigh- ing againft the commons in England, which pro- duce very little, and are deftructive by increafing the number of the idlers who fubfill by charity. An act for dividing them, as in Scotland, would give work to many thoufands, would increafe population, would add greatly to the land pro- duel, and no lefs to the public revenue. 4. CLEARING GROUND OF WEEDS. The farmer views plants in a very different light from the botanift. All are weeds with the farmer that give obftrudHon to the plants he pro- pagates in his farm. Thefe I diftinguifh into tu o kinds, that require different management, viz.—~ firft, annuals; and next, all that have a longer exiftence, which I fhall comprehend under the general name of perennials. It is vain to expect a crop of corn from land over-run with couch-grafs, knot-grafs, or other perennial weeds ; and yet the time may be remembered, when, among Scotch farmers, it w r as a difputed point, whether fuch weeds were not more profitable than hurtful. Some found them profitable in binding their light land : the getting a plentiful crop of ftraw and Ch< IV. 4. Preparing Land for Cropping. 9x and hay for their cattle, weighed with others. I mould be alhamed of expoiing ignorance fa grofs in my countrymen, could I not fay, that . they now underftand the matter better, though few of them hitherto have arrived at the perfection of cleaning. Summer-fallow is the general method ; and excellent it is, though it doth not always prove effectual. The roots of couch-grafs in par- ticular are long, and full of juice : if a lingle joint be left in the ground, it never fails to fpring. Here the common harrow is of very little ufe, its teeth being too wide. The time relied on by our farmers for deftroying couch-grafs, is in prepa- ring for barley. After the harrow has raifed part of a root above ground, men, women, and chil- dren, are employed to pull it up. There are on- ly two objections to this method : the expence is one ; the other is, that after all this expence, many roots are left in the ground. In order to pave the way for rooting out perennials eftectual- ly, and with little expence,.! take liberty to in- troduce a new inltrument, which I term a clean- ing barrow. It is of one entire piece, like the firft of thofe mentioned above, coniifting of feven bulls, four feet long each, two and one fourth inches broad, two and three fourths deep. The bulls are united together by crofs bars, Ami* lar to what are mentioned above. The inter- vals between the bulls being three and three fourth inches, the breadth of the. whole -harrow H £b 82 PRACTICE. Part I. ' is three feet five inches. In each bull are infert- ed eight teeth, each nine inches free below the wood, and diftant from each other fix inches. The weight of each tooth is a pound, or near it. The whole is firmly bound by an iron plate from corner to corner in the line of the draught. The reft as in the harrows mentioned above. The fize, however, is not invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger or lefs according as the foil is ftiffor free. See the figure annexed. To give this inftrument its full effect, ftones of fuch a fize, as not to pafs freely between the. teeth, ought to be carried off", and clods of that fize ought to be broken. The ground ought to be dry, which it is commonly in the month of May. In preparing for barley, turnip, or other fum- mer-crop, begin with plowing and crofs-plowing. If the ground be not iufficiently purverifed, let the great brake be applied, to be followed fuc- cefiively with the harrows, No. i. aDd No. 2. In ftiff foil rolling may be proper, once or twice between the acts. Thefe operations will loofen every root, and bring fome of them to the fur- face. This is the time for the harrow, No. 3, conducted by a boy mounted on one of the horfes, who trots fmartly along the field, and brings all the roots to the furface : there they are to lie tor a day or two till perfectly dry. If any ftones or clods remain, they mud be carried off in Ch. IV. 4. Preparing Land for Cropping. 83 in a cart. And now fucceeds the operation of the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a iingle horfe directed by reins, which the man at the oppoiite corner puts over his head, in order to have both hands free. In this corner is fixed a rope, with which the man from time to time raifes the harrow from the ground, to let the Weeds drop. For the fake of expedition, the weeds ought to be dropt in a ftraight line crofs the field, whether the harrow be full or no ; and ieldcm is a field ib dirty but that the harrow may go thirty yards before the teeth are filled. The weeds wiil be thus laid in parallel rows, like thole of hay raked together for drying. A harrow may be drawn fwiftly along the rows, in order to (hake out all the dull ; and then the weeds may be carried clean off the fields in carts. But we are not yet done with theie weeds : inttead of burning, which is the ordinary practice, they may be converted into ufeful manure, by laying them in a heap with a mixture of hot dung to begin fermentation. What better politic than to make a friend of a foe ! At firft view, this way of cleaning land will appear operofe ; but upon trial, neither the labour nor the exp nee will be found immoderate. So far from it, fcfciat I believe it will not be eafy to name any other way of cleaning ground effectually that coils fo little. At any rate, the labour and expence ought not to be grudged ; for if a field be once H a thoroughly 84 PRACTICE. Parti. thoroughly cleaned, the feafons mull be very crofs, or the farmer very indolent, to make it necefiary to renew the operation in kfs than twenty years *. Mofs is one of the moil pernicious weeds that enter into a grafs field : in a very dry foil, it ufurps upon the good plants, wears them out, and covers the whole furface. I have tried lime and dung to very little purpofe. Coal- allies do better: they keep it back a few years ; but it re- covers llrength gradually as the afhes lofe their influence, and prevails as much as before. Some writers talk of rolling, becaufe mofs is never feen on a foot-path. They do not advert, that the continual treading of feet on a narrow path, confolidates the ground more, and makes it more retentive * Since the firft edition, a leuer received from a gentle- man no lefs accurate than fkilful in huibandry, is in the following words : " The ground preparing for turnip 9 *« very foul. I caufed harrow it with common harrows " as well as poffible, and employed people with rakes to " gather the wreck. When the common harrows could " do no more fervice, I employed your cleaning harrow, «* which from four acres and a half brought to the furface " as much wreck as loaded ten fingle horfe carts. I tried . " it again this fummer on a fmall bit of ground, about a " quarter of an acre, near my houfe, in order to lay it " down with grafs-feeds. After the common harrows and " gardeners with rakes, had cleaned it as well as they " could, a quantity was gathered by your cleaning harrow " that filled four of the carts mentioned." Ch. IV. 4. Preparing Land for Cropping. 85 retentive of moifture, than rolling can do. Nor do they advert, that mofs is the moft plentiful in dry ground, where the weightier!: roller makes no impreflion. As mofs profpers the moft on the dried ground, the laying the field under wa- ter a whole winter will deftroy it. There is rea- fon however to fufpecl:, that it will encroach a- gain, when the moifture is exhaufted, and the foil returns to its arid ftate ; not to mention the many fields that lie out of the reach of water. One infallible method there is ; which is, to cover the ground an inch thick with foil reten- tive of moifture, and to mix it with the original foil by the plough and harrow. Thus will mofs be baniihed, and the foil at the fame time en- riched. But the good foil here muft be at hand: it would be too expenftve to bring it from a di- ftance. Lucky it is, after all, that there ft ill re- mains an infallible method, which, inftead of being expenfive, is extremely profitable. It will be made evident afterward, in laying down rules for rotation of crops, that a quick fucceflion of corn and grafs, is more profitable, than to allow any ground to continue long in either. There- fore, as foon as mofs begins to prevail, plow up the ground for a crop of corn. *, H 3 Next, * The following method is propofed by Dr Home for deflroying mofs. " Shut up the inclofure from the middle ** of May till the beginning of December : feed it till " Aprii, 86 PRACTICE. Parti. Next, of annual weeds, which are propagated by feed. As feeds cannot be gathered out of the ground like roots, the only way of dell roving them, is to promote their vegetation ; which lays them open to be extirpated by the plough or harrow. For want of indultry, annual weed . prevail is many parts of this ifllnd, in the bell foils efpecially. To view a crop near a town, end of May, or beginning of June, one would be- lieve it to be a crop of charlock or wild milliard. Thefe plants, it is true, lofe their fplendid ap- pearance after their flowering is over ; but they remain to encumber the ground. As they ripen, and drop their feed long before the corn is ripe, they multiply more and more. They not only rob the ground, and fiarve the good grain, but. prevent circulation of air about the roots, which is a great impediment to vegetation. Freedom of circulation is one of the caufes that make drilled crops fucceed fo well. What mud have been the condition of corn- land in Scotland be- fore fallowing was known ! And " April, and then fave it for a crop of hay. Tlie mofs bc- 44 ing fo long covered with grafs, is cut off from the bene- "fit of i he air, and dies." 1 doubt. t)ver-fhadowing may retard its picgrefs. ; but as over fhado wing dots net correct the drynefs of the foil, it is not likely to complete the cure. A haugh on the river Nith was over run with mofs, and lime proved a cure. But mofs growing on a rich haugh at the fide of a river muft be different from ivhat grows on a dry gravelly ioil that holds no water, Ch. IV. 4. Preparing Land for Cropping. 87 And now to the deftruction of fuch weeds. Summer-fallow, among its other advantages, does this effectually, by obferving the following method. Begin with plowing in April, as foon as the ground is dry ; and let the brake fucceed crofs the field ; which by pulveriiing the foil, will promote the vegetation of every feed. As foon as the weeds appear, which may be in ten or twelve days according to the feafon, plow and braise as before: the plough will make many feeds vegetate ; the brake ftill more. Proceed in the fame courfe while any weeds appear. In the heat of fummer, rolling not only promotes vegetation by keeping in the moifture, but bruifes the clods which lock up many feeds. This procefs requires the following precaution. Avoid plowing or brakeing when the ground is wet. The ftirring wet ground hardens it, ex- cludes the fun and air, and prevents vegetation. CHAP. V. Culture of Plants for Food. THE articles hitherto infilled on, are all of them preparatory to the capital object, of a farm, that of railing plants for the nourifhment ^f man, and of other animals. Thefe are of H 4 two S8 PRACTICE. Part I. two kinds; culmifcrous, and leguminous, differ- ing widely from each other. Wheat, rye, bar- lev, oats, rye-grafs, are of the firft kind : of the other kind are peafc, beans, clover, cabbage, and many others. Culmifcrous plai Bon- net, have three fets of roots. The tirll Iffuc from the feed, and puih to the furface an up- right ftem ; another let iifue from a knot in that flem ; and a third, from another knot, nearer the furface. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo deep in the ground, as to afford J'pacc for all the fets. Leguminous plants form their roots differently. Peafe, beans, cabbage, have ltore of I'm all roots, all iffuing from the feed, like the undermoft fet of culmiferous roots ; and they have no other roots. A potatoe and a turnip have bulbous roots. Red clover has a ftrong tap-root. The difference between culmiferous and Leguminous plants with rei'pect to the effects they produce in the foil, will be explained after- ward, in the chapter concerning rotation of crops. As the p relent chapter is confined to the propagation of plants, it rails naturally to be di- vided into three lections: Firft, plants cultivated for fruit; Second, plants cultivated for r< Third, plants, cultivated for leaves. SEC- Ch. V. i. Culture of Plants for Food. 89 SECTION I. Plants cultivated for Fruit. WHeat, rye, oats, barley, beans, and peafe, are the plants that are moftly cultiva- ted in Scotland for fruit. I begin with wheat and rye, 1. wheat and rye. As foon in fpring as the ground is fit for plow- ing, the fallowing for wheat may commence. The moment fhould bechofen, when the ground, beginning to dry, has yet fome remaining foft- nefs : in that condition, the foil divides eaiily by the plough, and falls into fmall parts. This is an eiTential article, deferving the ftri&eft atten- tion of the farmer. Ground plowed too wet, rifes, as we fay, whole- fur, as when paiture-ground is plowed : where plowed too dry, it rifes in great lumps, which are not reduced by fubfequent plowings ; not to mention, that it requires double force to plow ground too dry, and that the plough is often mattered. When the ground is in proper order, the farmer can have no excufe for delaying a fingle minute. This fir ft courfe of fallow, mull, it is true, yield to the barley-feed ; but as the barley-feed is commonly over the firit week 9» PRACTICE. Part L week of May, or fooner, the feafon mud be un- favourable if the fallow cannot be reached by the middle of May. As clay foil requires high ridges, thefe ought to be cleaved at the firft plowing, beginning at the furrow, and ending at the crown. This plowing ought to be as deep as the foil will ad- mit; and water- furrowing ought inftantly to fol- low : for if rain happen before water-furrowing, it ftagnates in the furrow, neceffarily delays the fecond plowing till that part of the ridge be dry, and prevents the furrow from being mellowed, and roafted by the fun. If this firft plowing be well executed, annual weeds will rife in plenty. About the firft week of June, the great brake will loofen and reduce the foil, encourage a fe- cond crop of annuals, and raife to the furface the roots of weeds moved by the plough. Give the weeds time to fpring, which may be in two or three weeks. Then proceed to the fecond plow- ing about the beginning of July ; which muit be crofs the ridges, in order to reach all the flips of the former plowing. By crofs-plowing, the fur- rows will be filled up, and water-furrowing be ftill more necefTary than before. Employ the brake again about the ioth of Auguft, to de- flroy the annuls that have fprung iince the laft flirring. The deftruction of weeds is a capital article in fallowing : yet fo blind are people to their intereft, that nothing is more common, than a Ch. V. i. Culture of Plants for Food. 91 a fallow field covered with charlock and wild milliard, all in flower, and ten or twelve inches high. The field having now received two har- rowings and two brakeings, is prepared for ma- nure, whether lime or dung, which without de- lay ought to be incorporated with the foil by re- peated harrowing and a gathering furrow. This ought to be about the beginning of September ; and as foon after as you pleafe the feed may be fown. As in plowing a clay foil it is of importance to prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought to be done with two horfe in a line. If four ploughs be employed in the fame field, to one of them may be allotted the care of the hinting fur- rows. What will one think, who has never been in the Highlands, of four horfes abreaft in a plough, the driver going backward, and Itriking the horfes on the forehead to make them come forward? The ignorant and illiterate are ftrange- ly dull in point of invention : let the molt ftupid practice turn once cuflomary, and it is rivetted in them for ever. Is it not obvious, that four horfes abreaft muft tread down the new-moved foil, and reduce it to as firm a ftate as before the plough entered? Next of dreffing loam for wheat. Loam, be- ing a medium between fand and clay, is of all foils the fitted for culture, and the lead fubjecl to chances. It does not hold water like clay 3 and 02 PRACTICE. Part L and when wet, is fooner dry. At the fame time, it is more retentive than fand of that degree of moillure which promotes vegetation. On the other hand, i is more fubjecl to couch-grafs than clay, and to other weeds; to deftroy which, fallowing is ftill more neceflary than in clay. Beginning the fallow about the firft of May, or as loon as barley- feed is over, take as deep a furrow as the foil will admit. Where the ridges are fo low and narrow as that the crown and fur- row can be changed alternately, there is little or no occasion for water furrowing. Where the ridges are fo high as to make it proper to cleave them, water- furrowing is proper. The fecond plowing may be at the diftanace of five weeks. Two crops of annuals may be got in the interim, the firft by the brake, and the next by the har- row ; and by the fame means eight crops may be got in the feaibn. The ground mull be clear- ed of couch-grafs and knot-grafs roots, by the cleaning harrow, defcribed above. The time for this operation is immediately before the manure is laid on. The ground at that time being in its loofeit ft ate, parts with its grafs-roots more freely than at any other time. After the manure is fpread, and incorporated with the foil by brake- ing or harrowing, the feed may be fown under furrow if the ground hang fo as ealily to carry off the moifture. To leave it rough without harrowing, has two advantages; it is not apt to cake. Ch. V. i. Culture of Plants for Food. 93J cake with moifture ; and the inequalities make a fort of fhelter to the young plants againft froft. But if it lie flat, it ought to be fmoothed with a flight harrow after the feed is fown, which will facilitate the courfe of the rain from the crown to the furrow. A fandy foil is too loofe for wheat. The only chance for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind the foil ; and the inftrudions above given for loam are applicable here. Rye is a crop much fitter for fandy foil than wheat ; and like wheat it is generally fown after a fummer- fallow. Laftly, Sow wheat as foon in the month of October as the ground is ready. When fown a month more early, it is too forward in the fpring, and apt to be hurt by froft : when fown a month later, it has not time to root before froft comes on, and froft fpews it out of the ground. 2. OATS. As winter- plowing enters into the culture of oats, I muft remind the reader of the effect of froft upon tilled land. Providence has neglected no region intended for the habitation of man. If in warm climates the foil be meliorated by the fun, it is no lefs meliorated by froft in cold cli- mates. Froft ads upon water, by expanding it, and 94 PRACTICE. Part I. and making it to occupy a larger fpacc. Froft: has no effect upon dry earth ; witncis fund upon which it makes no impreffion. But upon wet earth it acts molt vigorouily : it expands the moifture, which puts every particle of the earth out of its place, and feparates them from each other. In that view, froft may be confidered as a plough fuperior to any that can be made by the hand of man : its action reaches the minuted particles; and, by dividing and feparating them, it renders the foil loofe and friable. This ope- ration is the moft remarkable in tilled land, which gives free accefs to froft. With refpect to clay foil in particular, there is no rule in huf- bandrymore efiential than to open it before win- ter in hopes of froft. It is even advifable in a clay foil to leave the ftubble rank, which, when plowed in before winter, keeps the clay looie, and admits the froft into every cranny. To apply this doctrine, it is dangerous to plow- clay foil when wet ; becaufe water is a cement for clay, and binds it fo as to render it unfit for vegetation. It is, however, lefs dangerous to plow wet clay before winter than after. A fuc- ceeding froft corrects the bad elfects of fuch plowing : a fucceeding drought increafes them. No rule is fo eafy to be followed as what I am inculcating •, and yet no other is fo frequently tranfgrefled. Many farmers have a fort ofbaftard induftry. Ch. V. 2. Culture of Plants for Food. 95 mduitry, that prompts activity without ever thinking of confequences. And now to the culture of oats, a culmiferous plant. The common method is, to fow them on new-plowed land in the month of March, as foon as the ground is tolerably dry. If it conti- nue wet all the month of March, it is too late to venture them after. It is much better to fummer- fallovv and to fow wheat in the autumn. But the preferable method, efpcially in clay foil, is to turn over the field after harveft, and to lay it 0- pen to the influences of frott and air, which leffen the tenacity of clay, and reduce it to a free mould. The furface foil by this means is finely mellowed for reception of the feed ; and it would be a pity to bury it by a fecond plowing before fowing. In general, the bulk of clay foils are rich ; and fkitful plowing without dung, will probably give a better crop than unikilful plowing with dung. Hitherto of natural clays. I muft add a word of carfe clays which are artificial, whether left by the fea, or fweeped down from higher grounds by rain *. The method commonly ufed of dref- fing carfe clay for oats, is, not to ftir it till the ground be dry in the fpring, which feldom hap- pens before the firft of March ; and the feed is fowm as foon after as the ground is fufficiently dry for its reception. Froft has a ftronger effect, 011. fuch clays- than on natural clay. And if the field be * See carfe clay defcribed Part IL chap. 1. § 1. 96 PRACTICE. Part, I. be laid open before winter, it is rendered fo loofe by froft as freely to admit rain. The particles at the fame time are fo fraall, as that the firfl drought in fpring makes the fur face cake or cruft. The difficulty of reducing this cruft into mould for covering the oat- feed, has led farmers to de- lay plowing till the month of March. But we are taught by experience, that this foil plowed before winter, is fooner dry than when the plow- ing is delaved till fpring ; and as early lowing is a great advantage, the objection of the fuperricial crufting is calily removed by the harrow, No. i. above defcribed, which will produce abundance of mould for covering the feed. The plowing before winter not only procures early fowing, but has another advantage : the furface-foil that had been mellowed during winter by the fun, frpft, and wind, is kept above. I have no experience of managing carfe clay in this manner, but to me it appears greatly preferable to the common prac- tice. One accurate experiment I am informed of, that juftihes my opinion. A carfe field was- cleaved in October as a preparation for the next year's fallow. One ridge happened to be left which was jiot tilled till the beginning of March following. At the end of that month after a fall qf rain, the early tilled ground was dry, and the ridge very wet. The dreffing a loamy foil for oats, differs little from drefling a clay foil, except in the following particular, Ch. V. 2. Culture of Plants for Food. 97 particular, that being lefs hurt by rain, i. requires not high ridges ; and therefore ought to be plow- ed crown and furrow alternately. Where there is both clay and loam in a farm, it is obvious from what is faid above, that the plowing of the clay after harveft ought firft to be difpatched. If both cannot be overtaken that feafon, the loam may be delayed till the fpring with lefs hurt. Next of a gravely foil ; which is the reverfe of clay, as it never fullers but from want of moi- fture. Such a foil ought to have no ridges ; but plowed circularly from the centre to the circum- ference, or from the circumference to the centre. Itiought to be tilled after harveft ; and the firft dry weather in fpring ought to be laid hold of to low, harrow, and roll ; which will preferve it in fap. One ufed to ridges may find fome difficul- ty in fowing without them. But a proper breadtli may be marked, either with poles or by the fow- er's confining himfelf to a certain number of the circular furrows. The culture of oats is the fimpleft of all. That grain is probably a native of Britain : it will grow 7 on the worft foil with very little preparation. For that reafon, before turnip was introduced, it was always the firft crop upon land broken up from the ftate of nature. Upon fuch land, may it not be a good method, to build up on the crown of every ridge, in the I form 98 PRACTICE. Part I. form of a wall, all the furface earth, one fod a- bove another, as in a fold for fheep ? After {land- ing in this form all the fummer and winter, let the walls be thrown down, and the ground pre- pared for oats. This will fecure one or two good crops ; after which the land may be dunged for a crop of barley and grafs-feeds. This method may anlwer in a farm where manure is fcanty. 3, BARLEY. Barley is a culmiferous plant that requires a mellow foil. Upon that account, extraordinary care is requifite where it is to be fown in clay. The land ought to be ftirred immediately after the foregoing crop is removed, which lays it open to be mellowed with froft and air. In that view, a peculiar fort of plowing has been intro- duced, termed ribbing ; by which the greateft quantity of furface poffible is expofed to air and froft. The obvious objection to this method is, that half of the ridge is left unmoved. And to obviate that objection, I offer the following me- thod, which moves the whole foil, and at the fame time expofes the fame quantity of furface to froft and air. This I efteem a valuable improve- ment ; and I am only in pain about making it to be clearly underftood. As foon as the for- mer crop is off the field, let the ridges be ga- thered with as deep a furrow as the foil will ad- mit, Ch. V. 3. Culture of Plants for Food. 99 mit, beginning at the crown and ending at the furrows. This plowing loofens the whole foil, giving free accefs to air and froft. Soon after, begin a fecond plowing in the following man- ner. Let the field be divided by parallel lines crofs the ridges, with intervals of thirty feet or fo. Plow once round an interval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth toward the middle of the interval ; which covers a foot or fo of the ground formerly plowed. Within that foot plow another round iimilar to the for- mer ; and after that other rounds, till the whole interval be finillied, ending at the middle. In- ftead of beginning at the edges, and plowing to- ward the middle, it will have the fame ellecl to begin at the middle and to plow toward the edges. Plow the other intervals in the fame manner. As this operation will fill up the fur- rows, let them be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By this method, the field will be left waving like a plot in a kitchen- garden, rid- ged up for winter. In this form, the field is kept perfectly dry ; for befide the capital fur- rows thit feparate the ridges, every ridge has a number of crofs furrows that carry the rain in- ftantly to the capital furrows. In hanging grounds retentive of moifture, the parallel lines above mentioned ought not to be perpendicular to the furrows of the ridges, but to be directed a little downward, in order to carry rain-water the more 1 2 haftily ioo PRACTICE. Fart L haftily to thefe furrows. If the ground be clean, it may lie in that (rate winter and fpring, till the timj of iced -furrowing. If weeds happen to rife, they mull be deftroyed by plowing, or brakeing, or both ; for there cannot be worfe hufbandry, than to put feed into dirty ground. This method refembles common ribbing in ap- pearance, but is very different in reality. As the common ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow, the half of the field is left untilled, firm as when the former crop was removed, imper- vious in a great meafure to air or fro ft. It at the fame time lodges the rain-water on every ridge, preventing it from defcending to the fur- rows ; which is hurtful in all foils, and poifon- ous in a clay foil. The Hitching here defcribed, or ribbing if you pleafe to call it fo, prevents thefe noxious effects. By the two plowings the whole foil is opened, admitting freely air and froft ', and the multitude of furrows lays the furface perfect- ly dry, giving an early opportunity for the bar- ley-feed. — But I have more to fay in favour of the method propofed. When it is proper to fow the feed, all is laid flat with the brake, which is an eafy operation upon foil that is dry and pulve- rifed ; and the feed- furrow which fucceeds, is fo lhallow as to bury little or none of the furface- earth : whereas the ftirring for barley is com- monly done with the deepeft furrow ; and confe- quently buries all the furface-foil that was mel- lowed Ch.V. 3. Culture of Plants for Food, ioi lowed by the froft and air : Nor is this method more expenfive; becaufe the common ribbing muft always be followed with a ftirring furrow, which is faved in the method recommended. Nay, it is lefs expenfive ; for after common rib- bing, which keeps in the rain-water, the ground is commonly lb foured, as to make the ftirring a laborious work. Where the land is in good order, and free of weeds, April is the month for fowing barley. E- very day is proper from the firft to the laft. But in a light foil, the latter part of the month is the fafeft. Three lippies fown firft of April, were cut twelfth of Auguft. The increafe was 36 lip- pies, weighing at the rate of 18 ftone ^r boll. The draw weighed 17 ftone and 8 pounds. In the fame field, all of one foil, other three lippies were fown firft of May, and cut fixth of Septem- ber. The increafe 67 lippies, or one boll and three lippies, weighing as the former did at the rate of 18 ftone per boll. The ftraw weighed 30 ftone. The dreffing loamy foil and light foil for bar- ley, is the fame with that defcribed ; only that to plow dry is not altogether fo effential as in dref- fing clay foil. Loam or fand maybe ftirred a little moift : better, however, delay a week or two, than to ftir a loam when moift. Clay muft never be plowed moift, even though the feafon ihould efcape altogether. But this will feldom I 3 be 102 PRACTICE. Part I. be neceflary ; for not in one year of twenty will it happen, but that clay is dry enough for plow- ing fome time in May. Froft may correct clay plowed wet after harveft ; but plowed wet in fpring, it unites into a hard mafs, not to be dif- folved but by very hard labour. The foregoing culmiferous plants are what are ordinarily propagated for food in Scotland. What follow are leguminous plants. And I be- gin with beans, being fown the earlieft in fpring. 4. BEANS. The propereft jfoil for beans is a deep and moift clay. There was lately introduced into Scotland a method of fowing beans with a drill-plough, and horfe-hoeing the intervals ; which, befide afford'- ing a good crop, is a drefling to the ground. But as that method is far from being general, I keep in the common track. As this grain is early fown, the ground intend- ed for it mould be plowed before winter, to give accefs to froft and air ; beneficial in all foils, and neceflary in a clay foil. Take the fir ft: oppor- tunity after January when the ground is dry, to loofen the foil with the harrow firft defcribed, till a mould be brought upon it. Sow the feed, and cover it with the fecond harrow. The third will fmooth Ch.V. 4. Culture of Plants for Food. 103 fmooth the furface, and cover the feed equally, Thefe harrows make the beft figure in covering beans, which by them can be laid deeper in the ground than by the ordinary harrows : In clay foil, the common harrows are altogether infuffi- cient. The foil that has refted long after plowing, is rendered compact and folid : the common har- rows fkim the furface : the feed is not covered ; and the firft hearty (hower of rain lays it above ground. Where the farmer overtakes not the plowing after harveft, and is reduced to plow im- mediately before fowing, the plough anfwers the purpofe of the firft harrow ; and the other two will complete the work. But the labour of the firft harrow is ill faved ; as the plowing before winter is a fine preparation, not only for beans, but for grain of every kind. If the ground plow- ed before winter happen by fuperfluity of moi- fture to cake, the firft harrow going along the ridges, and crofting them, will loofen the furface, and give accefs to air for drying. As foon as the ground is dry, fow without delaying a mo- ment. If raifl happen in the interim, there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or two come. Carfe clay, plowed before winter, feldom fails to cake. Upon that account, a fecond plowing is neceftary before fowing ; which ought to be per- formed with an ebb furrow, in order to keep the froft- mould as near the furface as poflible. To cover the feed with the plough is exprefied by 1 4 ths 104 PRACTICE. Part I. the pbrafe to fow under furrow. The clods rai- fed in this plowing, are a fort of fhelter to the you. g plants in the chilly fpring- months. The foregoing method will anfwer for loam. And as for a fandy or gravelly foil, it is altoge- ther improper for beans. Though I cannot recommend the horie-hoeing of beans, with the intervals that are commonly allotted for turnip, yet I warmly recommend the drilling them at the diftance of ten or twelve inches, and keeping the interval- clean of weeds. This may be done by hand-hoeing, taking op- portunity at the fame time to lay frelh foil to the roots of the plants. But as this is an expen five operation, and hands are not always to be got, I propofe a narrow plough, drawn by a lingle horfe, with a mould-board on each fide to lay the earth upon the roots of the plants. This is a cheap and expeditious method : it keeps the ground clean ; and nourifhes the plants with frefii foil *. As * Cornelius Celfus declares againfl weeding or hoeing beans; becaufe, fays he, " after having pulled them up M with the hand, a crop of grafs remains for making hay." I have, often regreted the lofs of that author's work upon hufbandry ; becaufe, from that on medicine, he appears a firft rate genius. But, if we can truft to a fpecimen, the lofs is not great. Columella, book 2. ch. 12. juftly condemns him for this doctrine. " It appears, (fays he,) bad huf- " bandry to fuffer weeds to grow up with corn, which " muft deprive the corn of fo much nouriihment." He adds, with refpecl: to beans in particular, " that the keeping a them clean produces much meal and a very th'ji huik." Ch. V. 4. Culture of Plants for Food. 105 As beans delight in a moid foil, and have no end of growing in a moift feafon, they cover the ground totally when fown broadcaft, keep in the dew, and exclude the fun and air ; the plants grow to a great height, but carry little feed, and that little feed not well ripened. This difplays the advantage of drilling, which gives free accefs to the fun and air, dries the ground, and affords plenty of ripe feed. 5. PEASE. Pease are of two kinds ; the white, and the gray. The latter is what generally is cultivated in Scotland for fruit ; and the latter only fhall be here handled, leaving the former to gardeners. There are two fpecies of the gray kind, diftin- guifhed by their time of ripening. One ripens foon, and for that reafon is termed hot feed : the other, which is flower in ripening, is termed cold feed. Whether thefe be really different fpecies or be accidentally different only, is left to natu- ral philofophers. Peafe, a leguminous crop, is proper to inter- vene between two culmiferous crops ; lefs for the profit of a peafe-crop, than for meliorating the foil. Peafe however in a dry feafon will produce fix or feven bolls each acre ; but in an ordinary feafon they feldom reach above two or two and a half. This leads me to think, that in a moift climate, ic6 PRACTICE, Part I. climate, which all the weft of Britain is, red clo- ver is a more beneficial crop ; as it makes as good winter-food as peafe, and can be cut green thrice during fummer. When hufbandry comes to be better underftood, I have little doubt but that red clover will banifh peafe altogether, ex- cept in the warmeft and drieft fpots. A field intended for cold feed ought to be plowed in October or November ; but the feed ought not to be put into the ground before March : more early fowing fubjedts the tender plants to the nipping cold of April. A field in- tended for hot feed, ought to be plowed the midle or end of April immediately before fow- ing. But if infefted with weeds, it ought to be alio plowed in October or November. Peafe laid a foot below the furface will vege- tate : but the molt approved depth is fix inches in light foil, and four inches in clay foil ; for which reafon, they ought to be fown under fur- row when the plowing is delayed till fpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, they are the leaft in danger of being buried. Peafe differ from beans, in loving a dry foil and a dry feafon. Horfe-hoeing would be a great benefit, could it be performed to any ad- vantage ; but peafe grow expeditiouliy, and foon fall over and cover the ground, which bars plow- ing. Horfe-hoeing has little effect when the plants are new fprung j and when they are ad- vanced Ch.V. 5. Culture of Plants for Food. 107 vanced to be benefited by that culture, their length prevents it. Faft growing at the fame time is the caufe of their carrying fo little feed : the feed is buried among the leaves ; and the fun cannot penetrate to make it grow and ripen. For the fame reafon, in a peafe-crop, there is always more grain on the weft fide of the ridge than on the eaft fide. The plants are commonly laid over by the weft w T ind, and fmoother the feed on the eaft fide. The only practicable method to obtain grain, is thin fowing ; but thick fowing produces more ftraw, and mellows the ground more. Half a boll for an Englifti acre may be reckoned thin fowing ; three firlots thick fow- ing. Notwithftanding what is faid above, Mr Hun- ter, a noted farmer in Berwickfhire, has begun of late to fow all his peafe in drills ; and he ne- ver fails to have great crops of corn as well as of ftraw. He fows double rows with a foot inter- val, and two feet and a half between the double rows, which admit horfe-hoeing. By that me- thod, he has alfo good crops of beans on light land. Peafe and beans mixed, are often fown toge- ther in order to catch different feafons. In a moift feafon, the beans make a good crop ; in a dry feafon, the peafe. The growth of plants is commonly checked by drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain 10S PRACTICE. Part I. rain in Auguft. In July, grafs is parched ; in Auguft, it recovers verdure. Where peafe are fo far advanced in the dry feafon as that the feed begins to form, the growth of the plants is indeed checked, but the feed continues to fill. If the plants are only in the bloffom at that feafon, their growth is checked a little \ but they become vi- gorous again in Auguft, and continue growing without filling till flopped by froft. Hence it is, that cold feed, which is early fown, has the beft chance to produce corn : hot feed, which is late fown, has the beft chance to produce ftraw. The following method is practifed in Norfolk, for fowing peafe upon a dry light foil, immedi- ately opened from pafture. The ground is pared with a plough extremely thin, and every fod is laid exactly on its back. In every fod a double row of holes is made. A pea dropt in every hole lodges in the flay'd ground immediately below the fod, thrufts its roots horizontally, and has fufficient moifture. This method enabled Nor- folk farmers, in the barren year 1740, to furnifli white peafe to us at 12 s. per boll. SECT. II. Plants cultivated for Roots. PLants of that kind commonly cultivated in the field, are turnip, potatoes, carrot. parfnip. I. TUR- Ch. V. i. Culture of Plants for Food. 109 I. T UR N I P. It animates me to have opportunity for giving directions about a crop, that the belt farmers in this country have now taken into their plan of hufbandry ; and that does not altogether efcape even fmall farmers. Nor am I acquainted with a fingle inftance in Scotland, where turnip fairly begun have been relinquifhed. The proper foil for. turnip is a gravelly foil ; and there it can be raifed to the greateft perfec- tion, and with the leaft hazard of mifcarrying. At the fame time, there is no foil but will bear turnip when well prepared. No perfon ever deferved better of a country, than he who firft cultivated turnip in the field. No plant is better fitted for the climate of Bri- tain, no plant profpers better in the coldefl parts of it, and no plant contributes more to fertility. In a word, there has not for two centuries been introduced into Britain a more valuable improve- ment. Of all roots, turnip requires the fined mould 1 and to that end, of all harrows froft is the beft. In order to give accefs to froft, the land ought to be prepared by ribbing after harveft, as above directed in preparing land for barley. If the field be not fubjedt to annuals, it may lie in that ftate till the end of May ; otherwife the weeds mull be destroyed by a brakeing about the middle of no PRACTICE. Parti. of April; and again in May, if weeds rife. The flrlt week of June, plow the field with a mallow furrow. Lime it if requifite, and harrow the lime into the foil*. Draw fingle furrows with intervals of three feet, and lay dung in the fur- rows. Cover the dung fufBciently, by going round it with the plough, and forming the three feet fpaces into ridges. The dung comes thus to lie under the crown of every ridge. The feafon of fowing muft be regulated by the time intended for feeding. Where intended for feeding in November, December, January, and February, the feed ought to be fown from the i ft to the 2cth of June. Where the feeding is intended to be carried on till March, April, and May, the feed muft not be fown till the end of July. Turnip fown earlier than above directed, flowers that very fummer, and runs faft to feed; which renders it in a good meafure unfit for food. If fown much latter, it does not apple, and their is no food but from the leaves. Though by a drill-plough the feed may be fown of any thicknefs, the fafeft way is to fow thick. Thin fowing is liable to many accidents, which are far from being counterbalanced by the expence that is faved in thinning. Thick fowing can bear the ravage of the black fly, and leave a fufficient * Mr Baillie of Jervifwood, has remarked that turnip raifed by lime are more relifhed by cattle than railed by dung •, and that after feeding on the former, his cattle paflured long before they would eat the latter. Ch. V. I. Culture of Plants for Food, hi fufficient crop behind. It is a protection againft drought, gives the plants a rapid progrefs^' and eftablifhes them in the ground before it is necef- fary to thin them. The fowing turnip broadcaft is univerfal in England, and common in Scotland, though a barbarous practice. The eminent advantage of turnip is, that, befide a profitable crop, it makes a mod complete fallow ; and the latter cannot be obtained but by horfe-hoeing. Upon that ac- count, I recommend with confidence the fowing turnip in rows at three feet diftance : wider rows anfwer no profitable end ; ftraiter rows afford not room for a horfe to walk in. When the turnip is about four inches high, annual weeds will ap- pear. Go round every interval with the flighted furrow poflible, at the diftance of two inches from each row, moving the earth from the rows toward the middle of the interval. A thin plate of iron muft be fixed on the left fide of the plough, to prevent the earth from falling back, and burying the turnip. Next, let women be employed to weed the rows with their fingers ; which is better, and cheaper done, than with the hand-hoe. The hand-hoe, befide, is apt to di- fturb the roots of the turnip that are to ftand, and to leave them open to drought by removing the earth from them. The Handing turnip are to be at the diftance of twelve inches from each other : a greater diftance makes them fwell too much ; a lefs diftance affords them not fufficient room. JI2 PRACTICE. Parti. room. A woman foon becomes expert in finger- weeding. The following hint may be neceflary to a learner. To fecure the turnip that is to {land, let her cover it with the left hand ; and with the right pull up the turnip on both fides. After thus freeing the Handing turnip, me may fafely ufe both hands. Let the field remain in this (late, till the appearance of new annuals make a fecond plowing neceflary ; which mull be in the fame furrow with the former, but a little deeper. As in this plowing the iron-plate is to be removed, part of the loofe earth will fall back on the roots of the plants : the reft will fill the middle of the interval, and bury. every weed. When weeds begin again to appear, then is the time for a third plowing in an oppofite direction, which lays the earth to the roots of the plants. This plowing may be about the middle of Auguft, after which, weeds rife very faintly. If they do rife, another plowing will clear the ground of them. Weeds that at this time rife in the row, may be cleared with a hand-hoe, which can do little mifchief among plants diftant twelve inches from each other. I am certain however from ex- perience, that it may be done cheaper with the hand*. And after that the leaves of turnips in a row * Children under thirteen may be employed to weed turnip with the fingers. I have feen them go on in that work with alacrity ; and a {mail premium will have a good effect. Ch. V. i. Culture of Plants for Food. 113 row meet together, the hand is the only inftru- ment that can be applied for weeding. Tull was the father of horfe-hoeing hufbandry ; •and to defert his method requires an apology. The apology 1 make is, that the method I pre- fcribe, and have long pra&ifed, is more fimple, lefs operofe, and, as far as I can judge, equally iuccefsful. Our farmers ought to be excited by every motive to embrace the cultivation of tur- nip : and nothing will contribute more than to render it eafy and limple. Tull's method is not a little intricate ; and to # its intricacy, I am per- fuaded, is owing the neglect of it in England. In Yorkfhire the lambs are fed in July in a turnip field. They eat the weeds without touching the young turnip. Why mould we clean a field for turnip, they will fay, when it deprives the lambs of their food ? Where land is clean and the Toil well pulveri- fed, a crop of turnip may be procured with very little trouble. ■ The field being laid flat without ridges, cover it with well rotted dung. With a plough having a double mouldboard, make fur- rows having intervals of three feet, which will mix the dung with the foil, and make three feet ridges ; on the crowns of which drill the feed. As fooq as weeds begin to appear, a deeper fur- row with the fame plough will bury the young weeds. Thin the turnip in the rows when two inches high, and gather clean earth to the roots. K If ii 4 PRACTICE. Parti. If the land was perfectly clean, this will be fuf- ficient for a good crop. In fwainpv ground, the furface of which is belt reduced by paring and burning, the feed may be fown in rows with intervals of a foot. To fave time, a drill-plough may be ufed that fows three or four rows at once. Hand-hoeing is proper for fuch ground ; becauie the foil under the burnt Jlratwn is commonly full of roots, which digeft and rot better under ground than v. ;k q brought to the furface by the plough. In the mean time, while thefc are digeft in g, tl will fee u re a good crop. The black fly is a great enemy ro turnip I may juitly fay the only enemy, becaufe other article can be fecured, by (kill and dili- gence in the huibandman. In a rich and u arm foil, where the black fly is inltinclivc iy tii. • to depolit its eggs, I take it to be an unconquer- able enemy. Our only fecurity is, to ch the field of battle, by railing turnip in a moor j ill ground, or in ground newly broken up, ac- cording to the directions given ah- 2. fOTA T O E S. The choice of foil is not of gre ance in ai r plant than in a potatoe. This plant in clay foil, or in rank ■ Ch. V. 2. Culture of Plants for Food. 115 low without ventilation, never makes palatable food. In a gravelly or fandy foil, expofed to the fun and to free air, it thrives to perfection, and has a good relifli. But a rank black loam, though improper to raife potatoes for the table, produces them in great plenty ; and the product, is good and wholefome food for horned cattle, hogs and poultry. The fpade is a proper inftrument for railing a fmall quantity, or for preparing corners or other places inaccelfible to the plough ; but for railing potatoes in quantities, the plough is the only in- ftrument. As two great advantages of a drilled crop, are to deftroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the fame time with the crop, no judicious farmer will think of railing potatoes in any other way. In September or October, as foon as that year's crop is removed, let the field have a roufing furrow, a , crofs-brakeing next, and then cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. Form it into three-feet ridges, in that ftate to lie till April, which is the proper time for planting potatoes. Crofs-brake it to raife the furrows a little. Then lay well- digefted horfe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roots at eight inches diftance. Cover up thefe roots with the plough, going once round every row. This makes a warm bed for the potatoes ; hot dung below, and a loofe covering above, that admits every ray of the K 2 fun u6 PRACTIC E. Part I. fun. As foon as the plants appear above ground, go round every row a fecond time with the plough, which will lay upon the plants an addi- tional inch or two of mould, and at the fame time bury all the annuals ; and this will complete the plowing of tiie ridges. When the potatoes are fix inches high, the plough, with the deepeft furrow, mud go twice along the middle of each interval in oppolite directions, laying earth firft to one row, and next to the other. And to per- form this work, a plough with a double mould- board will be more expeditious. But as the earth cannot be laid clofe to the roots by the plough, the fpade mud fucceed, with which four inches of the plants muft be covered, leaving little more but the tops above ground : and this operation will at the fame time bury all the weeds that have fprung fince the former plow- ing. What weeds arife after, muft be pulled up with the hand. A hoe is never to be ufed here : it cannot go fo deep as to deftroy the weeds with- out cutting the fibres of the plants; and if it fkim the furface, it only cuts off the heads of the weeds, and does not prevent their pulhing agaja. The fhorteft and mod perfect method of ta- king up potatoes, is to plow once round every row at the diftance of four inches, removing the earth from the plants, and gathering up with the hand all the potatoes that appear. The diftance is made four inches to prevent cutting the roots, which "Ch. V. 2. Culture of Plants for Food. 117 • which are feldom found above that diftance from the row on each fide. When the ground is thus cleared by the plough, raife the potatoes with a fork having three broad toes or claws, which is better than a fpade, as it does not cut the pota- toes. The potatoes thus laid above ground, mull be gathered with the hand. By this me- thod fcarce a potatoe will be left. As potatoes are a comfortable food for the low people, it is of importance to have them all the year round. For a long time, potatoes in Scot- land were confined to the kitchen-garden ; and after they were planted in the field, it was not imagined at firfl that they could be ufed after the month of December. Of late years they have been found to anfwer even till April ; which has proved a great fupport to many a poor family, as they are eafily cooked, and require neither kiln nor mill. But there is no caufe for flopping there. It is eafy to preferve them till the next crop : When taken out of the ground, lay in the corner of a barn a quantity that may ferve till April, covered from froft with dry draw preffed down : bury the remainder in a hole dug in dry ground, mixed with the hufks of dried oats, fand, or the dry leaves of trees, over which t ■.: I'd a flack of hay or corn. When the pit is opened for taking out the potatoes, the eyes of what have a tendency to pufti mull be cut out ; and this cargo will ferve all the month of Tune. To K 3 - be n8 PRACTICE. Parti. • be (till more certain of making the old crop meet the new, the fetting a fmall quantity may be de- layed till June, to be taken up at the ordinary time before fro ft. This cargo, having not arri- ved to full growth, will not be fo ready to pufh as what are fet in April. If the crop happen to be exhausted before the new crop is ready, the interval may be fupplied by the potatoes of the new crop that lie next the furface, to be picked up with the hand; which, far from hurting the clop, will rather improve it. 3. carrot and parsnip. Of all roots a carrot requires the decpcft foil. It ought at lean; to be a foot deep, all equally good from top to bottom. If fuch a foil be not in the farm, it may be made artificially by trench-plowing, which brings to the furface what never had any communication with the fun or air. When this new foil is fufficiently improved by a crop or two with dung, it is lit for bearing carrots. Beware of dunging the year when the carrots are fown ; for with frefh dung they feldom are free of fcabs. Loam and fand are the only foils proper for that root. The ground muft be prepared with the deeped furrow that can be taken, the fooner after har- vdt the belter \ immediately upon the back of which Ch. V. 3. Culture of Plants for Food, iiij which a ribbing ought to fucceed as directed for barley. At the end of March or beginning of April, which is the time of fowing the feed, the ground mull be fmoothed with a brake. Sow the feed in drills, with intervals of a foot for hand hoeing ; which is no expenfive operation where the crop is confined to an acre or two :' but if the quantity of ground be greater, the in- tervals ought to be three feet, in order for horfe-- hoeing. In flat ground without ridges, it may be pro- per to make parallel furrows with the plough, ten feet from each ether, in order to carry off any redundant moifture. At Parlington in Yorkfhire, from the end of September to the firft of May, twenty work- horfes, four bullocks, and fix milk-cows, were fed on the carrots that grew on three acres ; and theie animals never tailed any other food but a little hay. The milk was excellent ; and,, over and above, thirty hogs were fattened upon wliat. was left, by the other beads. 1 have this fad from undoubted authority. The culture of parfnips is the fame with that of carrots. K 4 SECT, 120 PRACTICE. Part I. SECT. III. Plants Cultivated for Leaves. THere are many garden-plants of this kind. The plants proper for the field are cabbage, red and white ; colewort, plain and curled. I know very little difference in the cultivation of thefe plants. And therefore, to fave trouble, I fhall confine myfelf to cabbage. Cabbage is an interefting article in hufbandry, every foil being more or lefs proper for it. It i» eafily raifed, is fubject to few diieafes, rcfiftS frofl more than turnip, is palatable to cattle, and iboner fills the ftomach than turnip, carrot, 6x potatoes. The feafon for fetting cabbage, dependi on the uie it is intended for. If intended for feeding in November, December, and January, the plants mutt be fet in March or April, from feed fown the end of July the preceding year. If intended for feeding in March, April and May, the plants mud be fet the firft week of the preceding July, from feed fown end of February or beginning of Mai'ch the fame year. The late fetting of the plants retards their growth ; by which means they have a vigorous growth the following fpring. And this crop makes an important link in the chain that connects winter and fummer green food. Ch. V. Culture of Plants for Food. 121 food. Let me obferve by the by, that where cabbage for fpring-food happens to be neglected, a few acres of rye fown at Michaelmas will fup- ply the want. After the rye is confumed, there is time fufficient to prepare the ground for tur- nip. And now to prepare a field for cabbage. Where the plants are to be fet in March, the field muft be made up, after harveft, in ridges three feet wide. In that form let it lie all winter, to be mellowed with air and froft. In March, take the firft opportunity between wet and dry, to lay dung in the furrows. Cover the dung with a plough, which will convert the furrow into a crown, and confequently the crown into a furrow. Set the plants upon the dung, diftant from each other three feet. Plant them fo as to make a flraight line crofs the ridges, as well as along the furrows, to which a gardener's line ftretched per- pendicularly crofs the furrows will be requiiite. This will fet each plant at the diftance precifelv of three feet from the plants that furround it. The purpofe of this accuracy, is to give opportunity for plowing, not only along the ridges, but crofs them. This mode is attended with three fignal advantages : it faves hand-hoeing, it is a more complete dreffing to the foil, and it lays earth neatly round every plant. . If the foil be deep and compofed of good earth, a„ trench-plowing after the preceding crop will not i22 PRACTICE. Part/. not be amifs ; in which cafe, the time for divi- ding the field into three-feet ridges as above, ought to be immediately before the dunging for the plants. If weeds happen to rife fo clofe to the plants as not to be reached by the plough, it will re- quire very little labour to deftroy them with a hand-hoe. Unlefs the foil be much infefted with annuals,* twice plowing after the plants are fet will be a iufficient dreffing. The firft removes the earth from the plants ; the next, at the diftance of a month or fo, lays it back. Where the plants are to be fet in July, the held mult be ribbed as directed for barley. It ought to have a flight plowing in June before the planting, in order to loofen the foil, but not fo as to bury the furface-earth ; after which the three-feet ridges muft be formed, and the other particulars carried on as directed above with re- fpect to plants that are to be fet in March. C H A P. VI. Culture of Grass. r |^HE graftes commonly fown for pafture, for' JL hay, or to cut green for cattle, are red clover, white clover, yellow clover, ryegrafs, and narrow- Ch.V'I. Culture of Grass. 123 harrow- leaved plantain, commonly called rib- wort. Among th great variety of gralfes, there is little doubt, but that fome new forts may be introduced to advantage. But without meaning to fhut out light, I am certain that the graffes mentioned anfwer completely all ufeful purpofes of hufbandry. Red clover is of all the moil proper to be cut green for fummer-food. It is a biennial plant when filtered to perfect its feed ; but when cut green, it will lair, three years, and in a dry foil longer. At .he fame time, the fa fed courfe is to let it ftand but a fingle year : if the fecond year's crop happen to be fcanty, it proves, like a bad cropofpeafe, a great encourager of weeds by the fhelter it affords them. Sainfoin and lucern make excellent green food ; and, when preferred clean from weeds, they will ftand good ten or twelve years, efpecially in a deep gravel. There they extend their roots very deep, and will grow vigo- roufly in a dry fummer, when other plants of ihorter roots languifh by lack of moifture. But except in fuch a foil, I venture to declare in fa- vour of red clover ; and my reaion is, that the expence of fo wing it yearly is much lefs than that of hand- hoeing fainfoin and lucern frequently every year. Sainfoin indeed feems to be the har- dier plant. Farmers about Bath low it in their higheft unlheltered grounds ; audit endures froft better than clover, or any fort of grain. Like clover 124 PRACTICE. Part I. clover it is fown with barley ; but as the feed is fmall, much lefs will fuffice than of barley. It is commonly cut but once the firft year ; and the tirit winter, coal-afhes are fpread upon it. Here, as in all other crops, the goodnels of red-clover feed is of importance. Choofe plump feed of a purple colour, becaufe it takes on that colour when ripe. It is red when hurt in the drying, and of a faint colour when unripe. Red clover is luxuriant upon a rich foil, whe- ther clay, loam, or gravel ; it will grow even upon a moor properly cultivated. A wet foil is its only bane ; for there it does not thrive. To have red clover in perfection, weeds muft be extirpated, and ftones taken off. The mould ought to be made as fine as harrowing can make it ; and the furfacebe fmoothed with a light rol- ler, if not fufficiently fmooth without it. This gives opportunity for'difti'ibuting the feed evenly, which mull be covered by a fmall harrow with teeth no larger than of a garden-rake, three inches long, and fix inches afunder ; of which there is a draught annexed. In harrowing, the man mould walk behind with a rope in his hand fix- ed to the back part of the harrow, ready to dif- entangle it from (tones, clods, turnip or cabbage roots, which would trail the feed, and difplace it. Nature has not determined any precife depth for the feed of red clover, more than of other feed. It will grow vigoroully from two inches deep, and it Ch. VI. Culture of Grass. J25 it wiH grow when barley coveted. Half an inch I reckon the molt advantageous polition in clay foil, a whole inch in what is light or loofe. It is a vulgar error, that fmall feed ought to be £pa- ringly covered. Milled by that error, farmers commonly cover their clover-feed with a thorn bulb ; which not only covers it unequally, but leaves part on the fur face to wither in the air. The proper feafon for fowing red clover, is from the middle of April to the middle of May. It will fpring from the firft of March to the end of Au- guft ; but fuch liberty ought not to be taken ex- cept from neceflity. The ordinary manner of fowing, is to hold the ieed between the thumb and two fore fingers. I prefer another manner ; which is to take into the hollow of the hand as much as will ferve in walking three or four fteps^; and to join the fin- gers to the palm fo loofely, as to make many fmall holes for throwing out the feed. A hand clofed fo loofely, referable s the rofe of a water- ing pan, which fcatters the water through a number of fmall holes. There is not a greater miftake in huibandry, than to be fparing of feed. Ideal writers talk of fowing an acre with four pcunds. That quan- tity of leed, fay they, will fill an acre with plants as thick as they ought to ft and. I admit this rule to be good where grain is the object ; but not with refpecT: to grafs. Grafs- feed cannot be fown too 126 P R \ C T 1 C £. Part I. too thick : the pla: 1 3 fhelter one another : they retain the dew : and ihey mufl pufh upward, ha- % jug no room laterally . Obferve the place where ack of peafe, or of other grain, has been let d vn for fowing: the feed dropt there acciden- ts v grows more quickly than in the reft of the fieiJ fown thin oUt of hand: I have feen it fix incl high, when the reft of the feed fcarce ap- peared above ground. A young plant of clover or of fainfoin, according to Tull, may be railed to a great fize where it has room ; but the field will not produce half the quantity. When red clover is fown for cutting green, there ought not to be left than twenty-four pounds to an acre. A field of clover is fcldorn too thick : the fmaller a ftem be, the more palatable to cattle. When too thin, the Hems tend to wood. Red clover is commonly fown with grain ; and the doubt may be, what grain is the moll proper. I pronounce in favour of flax ; and I pronounce with confidence from multiplied experience. The foil muft be highly cultivated for flax as well as for red clover. The proper feafon of fowing i> the fame for both : the leaves of liax being very fmall, admit of free circulation of air j and flax being an early crop, is removed fo early as^to give the clover time for growing. In a rich foil it has grown fo fall, as to afford a good cutting that very year. Next to flax, bailey is the belt com- panion to clover. The foil muft be loofc and free for Ch. VI. Culture of Grass. 127 for barely ; and fo it ought to be for clover : the feafon of fowing is the fame ; and the clover is well eilablifhed in the ground before it is over- topped by the barely. At the fame time, barely commonly is fooner cut than either oats or wheat. In a word, barley is rather a nurfe than a ftepmo- ther to clover during its infancy. When clover is fovvn in fpring upon wheat, the foil, which has Jain five or fix months without being flirred, is an improper bed for it ; and the wheat, being in the vigour of growth, overtops it from the begin- ning. It cannot be fown along with oats, becaufe of the hazard of froit ; and when fown as ufual among oats three inches high, it is overtopped, and never enjoys free air till the oats are cut. Add, that where oats are fown upon the winter furrow, the foil is rendered as hard as when un- der wheat. Red clover is fometimes fown by it- felf, without other grain ; but this method, befide loling a crop is not falutary ; becaufe clover in its infant ftate requires fheiter. The year 1775 confirmed all my experiments about clover. In part of a field, flax was fown with it ; iii another part, barley ; and, in the remainder it was fown alone. The clover on the firlt was the beft j on the fecond, inferior ; and, on the third, the worft. Yet the barley was fown thin, as it ought to be with grafs-feeds,' and was but an indifferent crop. And this leads to the quantity of grain proper to be fown with clover. In a rich foil well pul- verifed. 128 PRACTICE. Part I. verifed, a peck of barley on an EngliQi acre is all that ought to be ventured ; but there is not much foil io Scotland fo rich. Two Linlithgow firlots make the proper quantity for an acre that produces commonly fix bolls of barley, half a firlot for what produces nine bolls. To thofe who are govern- ed by cuftom, fo fmall a quantity will be thought ridiculous. Let them only confider, that a rich foil in perfect good order, will from a fingle feed of barley produce twenty or thirty vigorous ftems. People may flatter themfelves with the remedy," of cutting barley green for food, if it happen to opprefs the clover. This is an excellent remedy in a field of an acre or two ; but the cutting an extenfive field for food mull be flow ; and while one part is cutting, the clover is fmothered in other parts. The culture of white clover, of yellow clover, of ribwort, of ryegrafs, is the fame in general with that of red clover. I proceed to their pecu- liarities. Yellow clover, ribwort, ryegrafs, are all of them early plants, blooming the end of April or beginning of May. The two latter are evergreens, and therefore excellent for winter- pafturc. Ryegrafs is lefs hurt by froft than any of the clovers, arid will thrive in a moifter foil : nor in that foil is it much affected by drought. In a rich foil, it grows four feet high : even in the dry fummer 1775, it role to three feet eight inches ; but it had gained that height before the drought Ch. VI. Culture o? Grass. 129 drought came on. Thefe grafles are generally Town with red clover for producing a plentiful crop. The proportion of feed is arbitrary ; and there is little danger of too much. When ryegrafs is fown for procuring feed, five firlots wheat-mea- fure may be fown on an acre ; and for procuring feed of ribwort, forty pounds may be fown. The roots of ryegrafs fpread horizontally ; they bind the foil by their number ; and though fmall, are yet fo vigorous as to thrive in hard foil. Red clover has a large tap-root, which cannot pene- trate any foil but what is open and free ; and the largenefs of the root makes the foil ftill more open and free. Ryegrafs* once a great favourite, ap- pears to be difcarded in moft parts of Britain. But were the management of it well understood, it would be reftored to high favour. The com- mon practice has been, to low it with red clover, and to cut them promifeuoully the beginning of June for green food, and a little later "for hay. This indeed is the proper feal'on for cutting red clover, becaufe at that time it begins to flower; but as at that time the feed of the ryegrafs is ap- proaching to maturity, its growth is at an end for that year, as much as of oats or barley cut after the feed is ripe. Oats or barley cut green before the feed forms, will afford two other cut- tings; which alfo is the cafe of ryegrafs, of yellow clover, and of ribwort. By fuch management, L all 13* PRACTICE. Part. I. all the profit will be drawn that thefe plants can afford. When red clover is intended for feed, the ground ought to be cleared of weeds, were it for no other purpofe than that the feed cannot other- wife be preferved pure : what weeds efcape the plough, ought to be taken out by the hand. In England, when a crop of feed is intended, the clover is always firft cut for hay. This I conjec- ture to be done, as in fruit-trees, to check the growth of the wood, in order to encourage the fruit. This practice will not anfwer with us, as the feed would often be too late of ripening. Bet- ter to eat the clover with fheep till the middle of May,, which will give time for the feed to ripen. The firft crop of red clover, if not retarded by eat- ing, will not anfwer fo well for feed as the fecond. The plants grow vigoroufly ; and the leaves co- ver the feed fo as to give little accefs to the fun and air. For the fame reafon, peafe on rich land grow to the ftraw, and feldom produce much feed. The feed is ripe when, upon rubbing it be- tween the hands, it parts readily from the hufk. Then apply the fcythe, fpreaJ the crop thin, and turn it carefully. When perfectly dry, take the firft opportunity of a hot day for threihing it on boards covered with a coarfe fheet. Another way lefs fubject to rilk, is to Hack the dry hay, and to threfh it the end of April. After the firft threihing, expofe the hulks to the fun, and threfh them Ch. VI. Culture of Grass. 13J them over and over till no feed remain. Nothing is more efficacious than a hot fun to make the hufk part with its feed; in which view, it may be expofed to the fun by parcels, an hour or two before the flail is applied. White clover intended for feed, is managed in the fame manner. No plant ought to be mixed with ryegrafs that is intended for feed. In Scot- land, much ryegrafs -feed is hurt by tranfgrefling that rule. The feed is ripe when it parts ealily from the hufk. The yellownefs of the ftem is an- other indication of its ripenefs ; in which particu- lar it refembles oats, barley, and other culmife- rous plants. The bell manner to manage a crop of ryegrafs for feed, is to bind it loofely in fmall iheaves, widening them at the bottom to make them itand erect ; as is done with oats in moift weather. In that ftate they may Hand till fuffi- ciently dry for threfhing. By this method, they dry more quickly, and are lefs hurt by rain, than by clofe binding and putting the fheaves in mocks like corn. The worft way of all, is, to fpread the ryegrafs on the moift ground ; for it makes the feed malten. The (heaves, when fufficiently dry, are carried in clofe carts to where they are to be threihed on a board, as mentioned above for clover. Put the ft raw in a rick, when a hun- dred itone or fo are threfhed. Carry the threfh- kig-board to the place where another rick is in- tended; and fo on till the whole feed is threfhed, L 2 and 132 PRACTICE* Parti. and the ftraw ricked. There is neccfllty for clofe carts to fave the feed, which is apt to drop out in a hot fun : and, as obferved above, a hot fun ought always to be chofen for thrething. Carry the feed in facks to the granary or barn, there to be feparated from the hufks by a fanner. Spread the feed thin upon a timber floor, and turn it once or twice a-day, till perfectly dry. If fuffered to take a heat, it is ufelefs for feed. I fhall conclude this chapter with a few obser- vations upon the different endurance of plants. That fome plants rouft be perpetual is evident from the old grafs fields feen in every quarter,, that are always paftured, and never fuffered to go to feed. Even the largeft trees have a period of exiftence; but fuch grafs plants can never wear out, otherwife the field would be left bare. Some plants endure but a year; wheat, for example, oats, barley, peafe. Their deftined purpofe is to carry feed, which is completed within the year, and then they die. Some plants require two years to perfecl their feed, which is the cafe of cabbage. Red clover, yellow clover, ryegrafs, carry feed every year; but the firfl: feldom lives above two years, and the others not above feven or eight. White clover is a perennial plant. Like a ftrawberry it throws out flagellae or run- ners from the ftem, which take root and become new plants without end. From the roots of others there are Hems produced yearly, which do not Ch.VI. Culture or Grass. 133 not perfect their feed till the fecond -ear ; after which thefe ftems die and give place to others. Such plants have at the fame time not only Hems of the fecond year bearing feed, but recent ftems that require another year's growth to carry feed. It is of perennial plants that the green covering of an old pafture field is compofed. Some of thefe are more palatable and nouriming than others ; and the oldgrafs field is valuable in pro- portion to the goodnefs of plants that grow in it. But to give ail the fatisfadtion pofiible on a fub- jecT: of capital importance in bufbandry, I here annex a lift of perennial graffes, including not only what endure for ever, but what are very long lived. Every pafture field in Scotland from 5 s. to L. 5 per acre, is compofed of fome of the fixteen following grafles. 1. Poa annua. Suffolk grafs. This grafs requires a mild climate more than any other gramineous plant we have. It perifhes by the feverity of the Swedifh winter ; and upon that account is clafled among annuals by Lin- naeus. But though it is an annual in Sweden, it is perennial in Scotland. 2. Poa trivialis. Common meadow-grafs. 3. Poa pratenjis. Great meadow-grafs. 4. Poa anguftifolia. Narrow-leafed meadow- grafs. 5. Lolium perenne. Ryegrafs. £, Avenaflavefcens. Yellow oat-grafs. L 3 The l 3 4 PRACTICE. Parti. The moft valuable paftures both in England and Scotland, are moltly formed of thefe fix fpe- cies. which never grow but in rich foil. They affect old manured land, and prevail in our croft 'lui.ds , but are never to be feen in what we call out- held, nor will they grow in it. y. dlopecurui ;,ra ten/is. Meadow fox-tail. 8. .intboxanthum odoratum. Vernal-grafs. 9. Cynojurus crijlatus. Crefled dogs-tail. 10. sigr^jlis capillar is * . Fine bent-grafs. T! -efc four fpecies, though often mixed with the former in rich pafture, can take up with a meaner foil. They compofe the chief part of all the out-field pafture, that is, of all the paiiure in Scotland The tenth fpecies is the molt preva- lent \ and forms more of the herbage of Scotland than any other plant. 11. Pbieum pratenfe. Meadow cats-tail. 12. Holms lanatus. Meadow foft-grafs. 13. Datlylis glomerata. Orchard-grais. 14. Bromus fec(ilinus\. Goofe-grafs. Thefe four are tall rank grafles, that are poft- poncd by cattle when green, where they can get any of the former. They afford good hay how- . ever, and give a great crop. 15. Ftjluca * Modern botaaufts have named this gtafs Agrcjl is .vul- garis. f Bromus mollis. Ch. VI. Culture of Grass. 135 15. Fejluca ovina, Sheeps fefcue. 16. Fejluca duriufcula. Hard feicue. Thcfe two fpecies form ourbeft fheep pafture ; but are of too diminutive a growth for the fcythe, and not a fubject of culture. £.11 thefe graffes propagate powerfully by the roots, as well as by feed. Their manner of growth by the roots, as above hinted, is in two different ways. The firft by fuckers, which rife fucceffive- ly from the prefent plant ; and the graffes that grow in this way, form large tufts of a round figure. The fecond is by runners, which flioot forth on all fides of the plant. Thefe are the graffes which form the molt clofe uniform fvvard, and the bell palture. Both kinds are perennial ; and I may fay perpetual ; for in their proper foil they will grow for ever, without being renewed by feed. Ribwort and white clover, are not in this lift j becaufe they are not confidered as graffes by the learned in botany. But as they are perennial, propagating both by feeds and roots, they are capital articles in old pafture. Ryegrals in its natural foil is a perennial : in that foil, it propa- gates both by feeds and roots, and lubfifts in vi- gour where it never was fown by art. In a foil lefs natural to it, the feeds fown may produce a few good crops ; but it will not renovate itfelf either by feeds or roots. This is the cafe in molt L 4 fields 136 PRACTICE. Part I. fields of cultivated ryegrafs, efpecially in a wet or clay foil, or where other predominant grafles prevail. Even white clover will decay, where it is raifed in a foil that is not natural to it. CHAP. VII. Rotation of Crops. NO branch of hufbandry requires more (kill and fagacity than a proper rotation of crops, fo as to keep the ground always in heart, and yet to draw out of it the greateft profit pof- fible. A horfe is purchafed for labour ; and it is the purchafer's intention to make the moft of him. He is well fed, and wrought accord ing to his ftrength : to overwork him, is to render him ufelefs. Precifely fimilar is land. Profit is the farmer's object ; but he knows, that to run out his farm by indifcreet cropping, is not the way to make profit. Some plants rob the foil, others are gentle to it : fome bind, others loofen. The nice point is, to intermix crops, fo as to make the greateft profit confidently with keep- ing the foil in order. In that view, the nature of the plants employed in hufbandry, mult be accurately examined. The difference between culmiferous and legu- minous plants, is occafionally mentioned above*. With ? Chap. 5. Ch.VII. Rotation of Crops. 137 With refpedt to the prefent fubjedt, a narrower in- fpe&ion is necefiary. Culmiferous plants, having fmall leaves and few in number, depend moftly on the foil for nourilhment, and little on the air. During the ripening of the feed, they draw pro- bably their whole nourilhment from the foil ; as the leaves by this time, being dry and withered, muft have loft their power of drawing nourifh- meo/ from the air. Now, as culmiferous plants are chiefly cultivated for feed, and are not cut down till the feed be fully ripe, they may be pro- nounced all of them to be robbers, fome more, fome lefs. But fuch plants, wmile young, are all leaves ; and in that ftate draw moft of their nou- rifhment from the air. Hence it is, that where cut green for food to cattle, a culmiferous crop is far from being a robber. A hay- crop accor- dingly, even where it confifts moftly of ryegrafs, is not a robber, provided it be cut before the feed is formed ; which at any rate it ought to be, if one will have hay in perfection. And the fog- gage, excluding froft by covering the ground, keeps the roots warm. A leguminous plant, by its broad leaves, draws much of its nourifhment from the air. A cabbage, which has very broad leaves and a multitude of them, owes its growth more to the air than to the foil. One fadl is cer- tain, that a cabbage cut and hung up in a damp place, preferves its verdur longer than other plants. At the fame time, a feed is that part of a i 3 5 PRACTICE. Part I. a plant which requires the moil nourifliment ; and for that nourifliment a culmiferous plant mufl be indebted entirely to the foil. A legu- minous crop, on the contrary, when cut green for food, mufl be very gentle to the ground. Peafe and beans are leguminous plants ; but be- ing cultivated for feed, they feem to occupy a middle ftation : their feed makes them more fe- vere than other leguminous crops cut green : their leaves, which grow till reaping, make them lefs fevere than a culmiferous plants left to ripen. Theie plants are diflinguifhed no lefs remark- ably by the following circumftance. All the feeds of a culmiferous plant ripen at the fame time. As foon as they begin to form, the plant becomes ftationary, the leaves wither, the roots ceafe to pufh, and the plant, when cut down, is blanched and faplefs. The feeds of a legumi- nous plant are formed fuccefiively : flowers and fruit appear at the fame time in different parts of the plant. This plant accordingly is continually growing and pufhing its roots. Hence the va- lue of bean or peafe ftraw above that of wheat or oats : the latter is withered and dry when the crop is cut \ the former, green and fucculent. The difference, therefore, with refpecl: to the foil between a culmiferous and leguminous crop, is great. The latter, growing' till cut down, keeps the ground in conftant motion, and leaves it to the plough loofe and mellow. The former gives over Ch. VII. Rotation or Crops. 139 over growing long before reaping, and the ground, by want of motion, turns compact and hard. Nor is this all. Dew falling on a culmi- ferous crop after the ground begins to harden, refts on the furface, and is fucked up by the next fun. Dew that falls on a leguminous crop, is fhaded from the fun by the broad leaves, and finks at leifure into the ground. The ground accordingly after a culmiferous crop, is not only hard but dry : after a leguminous crop, it is not only loofe, but foft and undtuous. Of all culmiferous plants, wheat is the moft fe- vere, by the long time it occupies the ground without admitting a plough. And as the gram is heavier than that of barley or oats, it probably requires more nourifhment than either. Spring- wheat is creeping into ufe : if it fucceed, it will probably be not much more fevere than other culmiferous plants. It is obferved above, that as peafe and beans draw part of their nourilhment from the air by their green leaves while allowed to ftand, they draw the lefs from the ground ; and by their conftant growing they leave it in good condition for iubfequent crops. In both rcfpeds they are preferable to any culmiferous crop. Culmiferous crops, as obferved above, are not robbers when cut green : the foil, far from har- dening, is kept in conftant motion by the pufh- ing • i 4 o PRACTICE. Part I ing of the roots, and is more tender than if it had been left at reft without bearing any crop. Bulbous rooted plants are above all operative in dividing and pulverifing the foil. Potato roots grow fix, eight, or ten, inches under the furface ; and, by their fize and number, they divide and pulverife the foil better than can be done by the plough; consequently, whatever be the natural colour of the foil, it is black when a potato- crop is taken up. The potato, however, with refped to its quality of dividing the foil, mult yield to a carrot or parfnip ; which are large roots, and pierce often to the depth of eighteen inches. The turnip, by its tap-root, divides the foil more than can be done by a fibrous rooted plant ; but as its bulbous root grows moftly above ground, it di- vides the foil lefs than the potato, the carrot, or the parfnip. Red clover, in that refpect, may be put in the fame clafs with turnip. Whether potatoes or turnip be the more gentle crop, appears a puzzling queftion. The former bears feed, and probably draws more nourishment from the foil, than the latter when cut green. On the other hand, potatoes divide the foil more than turnip, and leave it more loofe and friable. It appears no lefs puzzling, to determine be- tween cabbage and turnip : the former draws more of its nourilhment from the air, the latter leaves the foil more free and open. Here CK.VII. Rotation of Crops. 141 Here are a number of fadts : What is the re- fult of the whole ? Clearly what follows. Culmi- ferous plants are robbers ; fome more, fome lefs : they at the fame time bind the foil ; fome more, fome lefs. Leguminous plants in both refpects are oppofite : if any of them rob the foil, it is in a very flight degree : and all of them without exception loofen the foil. A culmiferous crop, however, is generally the more profitable : but few foils can long bear the burden of fuch crops, unlefs relieved by interjected leguminous crops. Thefe, on the other hand, without a mixture of culmiferous crops, would foon render the foil too loofe. Thefe preliminaries will carry the farmer fome length in directing a proper rotation of crops. Where dung, lime, or other manure, can be pro- cured in plenty to recruit the foil after fevere cropping, I know no rotation more proper or profitable in a ftrong foil, than wheat, peaie or beans, barley, oats, fallow. The whole farm may be brought under this rotation, except fo far as hay is wanted. But as fuch command of manure is rare, it is of more importance to deter- mine what mould be the rotation, where no ma- nure can be procured but the dung collected in the farm. Coniidering that culmiferous crops are the more profitable in rich land, it would be proper to make them more frequent than the, other kind^ But as there are few foils in Scot- land i 4 2 PRACTICE. Parti. land that will admit fuch frequent culmiferou? crops without fuffering, it may be laid down as a general rule, that alternate crops, culmiferous and leguminous, ought to form the rotation. Nor are there many foils that will Hand good, even with this favourable rotation, unlefs relie- ved from time to time by pafturing a few years. If iuch extended rotation be artfully carried on, I take it for granted, that crops without end may be obtained in a tolerable good foil without any manure but what is produced in the farm. Having difcuffed the nature of plants as far as rotation of crops is concerned, the nature of the foil comes next under coniideration. It is fcarce neceffary to be mentioned, being known to every fanner, that clay anfwers bed for wheat, moift clay for beans, loam for barley and peafe, light foil for turnip, fandy foil for rve and buck wheat : and that oats thrive better in coarfe foil than any other grain. Now, in directing a rotation, it is not fufficient that a culmiferous crop be always fucceded by a liguminous : attention mull be alfo given, that no crop be introduced that is un- fit for the foil. Wheat being a great binder, requires more than any other crop, a leguminous crop to follow. But every fuch crop is not pro- per : potatoes are the greatefl openers of foil ; but they are improper in a wheat foil. Neither will turnip anfwer, becaufe they require a light foil. A very loofe foil, after a crop of rye re- quires r Ch. VII. Rotation of Crops. 143 quires ryegrafs to bind it, or the treading of cattle in pafturing : but to bind the foil wheat muft not be ventured ; for it fucceeds ill in loofe foil. Another confideration of moment in directing the rotation, is to avoid crops that encourage weeds. Peafe is »the fitted of all crops for fuc- ceeding to wheat, becaufe it renders the ground loofe and mellow, and the fame foil agrees with both. But beware of peafe, unlefs the foil be left by the wheat perfectly free of weeds ; be- caufe peafe, if not an extraordinary crop, fofter weeds. Barley may be ventured after wheat, if the farmer be unwilling to lofe a crop. It is hi- ded a robber ; better however any crop than run the hazard of poifoning the foil with weeds. But to prevent the neceffity of barley after wheat, the land ought to be fallowed before the wheat : it cleans the ground thoroughly, and makes peafe a fecure crop after wheat. And after a good crop of peafe, barley never fails. A horfe- hoed crop of turnip is equal to a fallow for ^root- ing out weeds ; but turnip does not fuit land that is proper for wheat. Cabbage does well in wheat -foil; and a horfe-hoed crop of cabbage, which eradicates weeds, is a good preparation for fpring-wheat. A crop of beans diligently hand- hoed is in that view little inferior*. As red clover * Spring-wheat will not anfwer in a itrong clay, as it has not fufficient time to ripen. 144 Practice. part i. cl ver requires the ground to be perfectly clean, a good crop of it enfures wheat, and next peafe. In loam, a drilled crop of turnip or potatoes pre- pares the ground, equal to a fallow, for the fame fucceflion. Another rule is, to avoid a frequent repetition of the fame fpecies ; for to produce good crops, change of fpecies is no lefs necefTary than change of feed. The fame'fpecies returning every fecond or third year, will infallibly degenerate, and be a fcanty crop. This is remarkably the cafe of red clover. Nor will our fields bear pleafantly perpetual crops of wheat after fallow, which is the practice of fome Englim farmers. Hitherto of rotation in the fame field. I add one rule concerning rotation in different fields ;■ which is to avoid crouding crops one after ano- ther in point of time ; but to choofe fuch as admit intervals fufficient for leifurely drefiing, which gives opportunity to manage all with the fame- hands and with the fame cattle ; for example, beans in January or February, peafe and oats in March, barley and potatoes in April, turnip in June or July, wheat and rye in October. For illuftrating the foregoing rules, a few in- ftances of exceptionable rotations will not be thought amifs. The following is an ufual rotation in Norfolk. Firft, wheat after red clover. Se- cond, barley. Third, turnip. Fourth, barley with red clover. Fifth, clover cut for hay. Sixth, a fecond Ch.VII. Rotation of Crops. 145 Tecond year's crop of clover commonly paftured. Dung is given to the wheat and turnip. Agairrft this rotation feveral objections lie. Barley after wheat is improper. The two crops of barley are too near together. The fecond crop of clover mull be very bad, if pasturing be the beft way of confuming it ; and if bad, it is a great encou- rager of weeds. But the ftrongeft objection is, that red clover repeated fo frequently in the fame field cannot fail to degenerate ; and of this the Norfolk farmers begin to be fenfible. Salton in Eaft Lothian is a clay foil ; and the rotation there is, wheat after fallow and dung. Second, bar- ley after two plowings ; the one before winter, the other immediately before the feed is fown. Third, oats. Fourth, peafe. Fifth, barley. Sixth, oats : and then fallow. This rotation confifts chiefly of robbing crops. Peafe are the only le- guminous crop, which even with the fallow is not fufficient to loofen a ft iff foil. But the foil is good, which in fome meafure hides the badnefs of the rotation. About Seaton, and all the way from Prefton to Gofsford, the ground is ft ill more fe- verely handled: wheat after fallow and dung, bar- ley, oats, peafe, wheat, barley, oats, and then an- other fallow. The foil is excellent ; and it ought indeed to be fo, to fapport many rounds of fuch cropping. But let not our wonder be confined to this nar- row fpot ; for what better do we find in the great- M eft 146 PRACTICE. Part I. eft part of this county ? In the parilhes of* Tra- nent, Aberlady, Dirleton, Northberwick, and Athelftonfoord, the following rotations were for- merly univerfal, and to this day are much more frequent than any other mode. 1. After fallow with dung, wheat, barky, oats, peafe and beans, barley, oats, wheat. 2. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, peak and beans, wheat, barley, oats, peafe, wheat. 3. After fallow and dung, wheat, oats, peafe, barley, oats, wheat. 4. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, beans, wheat, peafe, barley, oats. Eaft Lothian, time out of mind, has been fa- mous for fuperior fkill in agriculture ; and yet, to feek for inftruclion there, one would be greatly milled. That county, for the richneis of its crops, is more indebted to the fertility of its foil, than to the fkill of its farmers. What pity it is, that fo fine a country mould be poflefled by men fo little grateful to nature for her bounties ! But their in- gratitude is not fuffered to pafs with impunity. Every farmer complains that his crops are not fuch as they have been : the decay is vilible : but the, caufe, however obvious, is not manifeft to every one. Some few, who juftly afcribe the decay to feverity of cropping, have ventured upon fome alterations ; but fo imperfe&ly, from the prepof- feflion of former practice, as to have made no confiderable progrefs. The following rotations held Ch. VII. Rotation of Crops. 147 held to be improvements upon the former prac- tice, will juftify this obfervation. ' 1. After fallow without dung, barley, clover. Dung laid on .the clover-ftubble, and after a lingle plowing, wheat, barley, oats. 2. After fallow with dung, wheat, barley, peafe, wheat. 3. After fallow with dung, wheat, beans hand- hoed, wheat, peafe and beans drilled, wheat with dung, barley, clover. Dung laid on the clover- ftubble. Spring-wheat, one furrow before winter, and one before fowing. Turnip broadcaft, bar- ley and grafs-feeds for pafture. 4. After fallow with dung, wheat, barley with clover-feed. Clover made hay two years. After the fecond year's crop, fallow and dung for wheat, barley, oats, peafe, oats, or wheat, turnip with dung, barley, peafe, barley, oats. 5. Potatoes dunged, wheat, peafe, barley and grafs-feeds. 6. After fallow with dung, wheat, oats, peafe or clover, wheat, oats, clover. The clover-ftub- ble dunged for barley, oats, peafo alter two fur- rows, wheat after one furrow. 7. Lincoln barley upon ground opened from pafture-grafs, peafe, wheat, turnip, barley, clo- ver. The ftubble dunged for wheat, beans, bar- ley, oats, 8. After fallow and dung, barley, clever red and white for hay, pafture feven years, oats, peafe, wheat, barley, oats. M 2 9. Turnip 148 PRACTICE. . Part I. 9. Turnip after lime and dung. Barley, with which white clover, yellow clover, ryegrafs, and ribwort, are fovvn. Paftured with lheep feven years, broken up for oats, drilled beans, barley, oats. Thefe rotations are far from being orthodox ; but it is good to be convinced of an error: and when once a reformation is fairly begun, it is to be hoped, that the farmers in the beft county of Scotland, will at laft fettle in fuch a rotation of crops, as will prove no lefs beneficial to them- felves than to their landlords. After fuch fevere cenfure I would gladly make fome apology for the Eaft-Lothian farmers. In Young's fevcral Tours through the bell counties of England, examples are found without end of rotations no lefs exceptionable than many of thofe mentioned. Where a field is laid down forpafture in order to be recruited, it is commonly left in that ftate many years ; for it is the univerfal opinion, that the longer it lies, the richer it becomes for bear- ing corn. This I believe to be true ; but in or- der to determine the mode of cropping, the im- portant point is, what upon the whole is the mod profitable rotation ; not what may produce luxu- riant crops at a diftant period. Upon that point, I have no hefitation to affirm, that the farmer who keeps a field in pafturc beyond a certain time, lofes every year confiderably ; and that a few lu- xuriant Ch. VII. Rotation of Crops. 149 xuriant crops of corn, after twenty years of pa- fture, and ftill more after thirty, will not make up the lofs. The novelty of this proposition will difcredit it with the generality ; but as the fubjecl is.of capital importance in the management of a farm, I muft notwithstanding hope for a patient hearing. Grafs-feeds intended for hay, produce the weighteft crop at firft : were hay to be taken many years fucceilively without manure, the crops would turn exceeding fcanty. To prevent lofs, the farmer confines himfelf to two or three crops; and then furrenders the field to pafture. The fame happens where a field is laid down with pa- flure gralfes : the firft year's pafture is more plen- tiful than any of the fucceeding. For a proof of which, a field newly laid down for pafture will draw a greater rent, than after being paftured feven or eight years ; if I (hould fay double, it would not be far from the truth. Nor is it diffi- cult to alfign a caufe for the degeneracy. Of the plants cultivated for hay and pafture, few are long lived. Red clover, the chief of them, is only a biennial ; and neither ryegrafs nor yellow clo- ver lafts above feven or eight years. They pufh vigorous ft ems at firft, which every year turn weaker and weaker. In the mean time, the pa- fture is fcanty till natural graffes fpring up to fup- ply what are gone ; w T hich feldom equal fown graffes for feeding. The precife time when grafs pught to yield to corn, depends greatly on the M 3 nature 150 PRACTICE. Part I. nature of the foil. Our bed director is practice. £ will only venture to fuggeft, that clay foil may, without lofs, be kept in pafture much longer than gravelly or light foil. The former being reten- tive of moifture, preferves grafs in vigour, even during the heat of fummer : grafs in the latter foon withers by lack of moifture. This is provi- dential : a light or gravelly foil can be cultivated almoft in any feafon : clay is extremely ticklifh ; and where fuccefsfully laid down for pafture, ought not rafhly to be taken up again ; efpeci- ally as it maintains more cattle, and confequently receives more dung, than the other kind. It i> extremely true, that a greater number of corn- crops may be fuccefsfully taken upon a field that, has been long in pafture, than when paftured but a few years. But \\ ill the additional crops of corn overbalance the mean returns from older grafs ? Far from it. Why not then reftore a field to corn as foon as the pafture begins to fail ? The corn will quadruple the value of the pafture : the labour indeed and expence is greater \ but they will be amply recompenfed by the profit. If the leffon here inculcated be iolidly founded, it muft produce a great change in the manage- ment of a farm. Pafture-grafs, while young, maintains many animals; and the field is greatly recruited by what they drop : it is even recruited by hay-crops, provided the grafs be cut before ng. But the field ought to be taken up for corn, Ch. VII. Rotation of Crops. 151 ■corn when the pafture begins to fail : and after a few crops, it ought to be laid down again with grafs-feeds. Seduced by a chimerical notion, that a field, by frequent corn- crops, is fatigued and requires reft, like a labouring man or animal, careful farmers give long reft to their fields by pafture, never adverting that it affords little pro- fit. Pity it is, that by a chimerical notion they mould be tantalized, to negled good crops with- in their reach. It ought to be their ftudy to im- prove the foil, by making it free and alfo reten- tive of moifture. If they accomplish thefe ends, they need not be afraid of exhaufting the foil by cropping *. Againft frequent changes from grafs to corn, what follows has the appearance of an objection, that much labour is requifite to convert old pa- fture land to good tilth, reiterated plowing and harrowing, frequent brakeing, and carts after all to remove the grafs -knots. Long experience en- courages me to recommend trench-plowing as the moft effectual, cheapeft, and molt expeditious ' method for operating this converiion. With a paring-plough the furface is laid at the bottom of the furrow with the graffy fide under ; and M 4 covered * As vegetable and animal food are equally natpral to man, it is admirable in Providence, to adjuft the foil we tread on fo hapily to our nature, as to yield more food by a rotation of corn and grafs crops, than if it were confin» •C d to either. 152 PRACTICE. Part I. covered with three or tour inches of frefh mould railed by another plough going in the lame track. This being done before winter, the froft prepara- tion makes the foil a fine bed for the feed when the feafon opens. Where the foil is tolerably ten- der, trench plowing never fails to lay the furface finooth : the feed is all laid at an equal depth and fprings up equally. Much feed alfo is faved, which in ordinary plowing is buried by the rough- nefs of the furface. There is another advantage above all the reft, efpecially in light foil, that the moifture is retained by the graf^ at the bottom of the furrow, and gives great nourifhment to the young plants. Old grafs is generally acknowled- ged to be the moil nourifhing, to produce finer meat, and richer milk and butter, than when it was young. And it will be objected, that the farmer is deprived of that benefit by the rotation above recommended. Suppofing old grafs to be a benefit with refpcdl to profit, the farmer's chief objeel ; he pays a very high price for old grafs by abftaining from the profit of fuch rotation. I yield, however, that where in a farm there hap- pens to be very old grafs of a good quality, the moil prudent way is to let it remain as it is. And with refpect to gentlemen of fortune, it may be .commendable luxury to fet apart for old grafs a field adjacent to the manfion-houfe, never to be converted into corn. But the quality of the grafs ought to be good \ othcrwifg the field will con- tribute Ch. VII. Rotation of Crops. 153 tribute to luxury as little as to profit. A foil has no choice in its plants; but fofters indiffe- rently every kind, palatable or unpalatable. In old pafture, nothing is more common than cattle every now and then putting out at the fide of the mouth certain graffes ; an evident proof that they are unpalatable. This never is feen in new pa- fture from choice plants. Therefore, to have old pafture in perfection, let the field be ftored with white clover, ribwort, and other fucculent peren- nial plants, fo thick fown as to exclude all other plants. Unlefs where this precaution has been ufed, it is a great chance to find old pafture that will give abfolute fatisfaction. Where a farmer has accefs to no manure but what is his own production, the cafe under con- lideration, there are various rotations of crops, all of them good, though perhaps not equally fo. I (hall begin with two examples, one in clay, and one in free foil, each of the farms ninety acres. Six acres are to beenclofed for a kitchen- garden, in which there muft be annually a crop of red clover, for fummer food to the working cattle. As there are annually twelve acres in hay, and twelve in pafture, a lingle plough with good cattle will be fufficient to command the remain- ing fixty acres. Ro. 154 PRACTICE. Parti. Rotation in a clay foil. s 5 x 775- 1776. 1777- I778. I779. 178C. 1. Fallow. Wheat. D eafe. Barley. Hay. Oats. 2. Wheat. Peafe. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow, 3- Peafe. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. 4- Barley Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peafe. 5- Haj. Oats. fallow. Wheat. Peafe. Barley. 6. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Peafe. Barley. Hay. 7- Failure. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture When the rotation is completed, the feventli enclofure having been fix years in pafture, is ready to be taken up for a rotation of crop*, which begins with oats in the year 1781, and pro- ceeds as in the fixth enclofure. In the fame year 1781, the fifth enclofure is made pafture; for which* it is prepared, by fowing pafture grafs- feeds with the barley of the year 1780. And in this manner may the rotation be carried on with- out end. Here the labour is equally diftributed ; and there is no hurry nor confufion. But the chief property of this rotation is, that two culmi- ferous or white-corn crops, are never found to- gether : by a due mixture of crops, the foil is preferved Ch.VII. Rotation of Crops. 155 prefer ved in good heart without any adventitious manure. At the fame time, the land is always producing plentiful crops : neither hay nor pa- fture gets time to degenerate. The whole dung is laid upon the fallow. Every farm that takes a grafs crop into the ro- tation mud be enclofed, which is peculiarly necef- fary in a clay foil, as nothing is more hurtful to clay than poaching. Rotation in a free foil. 1780. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Failure. For the next rotation, the feventh enclofure is taken up for corn, beginning with an oat-crop, and proceeding in the order of the fourth enclo- fure ; in place of which, the third enclofure is laid down for pafture, by fowing pafture-grafTes with 3 1775- 1776. x 777- I778. *779- 1. Turnip. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. 2. Barley. Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. 3- Hay. Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. 4- Oats. Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. 5- Fallow. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay. 6. Wheat. Turnip. Barley. Hay. Oats. 7- Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture. Pafture 156 PRACTICE. Part I. with the laft crop in that enclofure, being barley. This rotation has all the advantages of the for- mer. Plere the dung is employed on the turnip- crop. We proceed to confider what rotation is pro- per for carfe clay. The farm I propofe confifts of feventy- three acres. Nine are to be enclofed for a kitchen-garden, affording plenty of red clover to be cut green for the farm- cattle. The remaining fixty-four acres are divided into four enclofures, lixteen acres each, to be cropped as in the following table. w o o 1775- I776. 1777. 1778. o I. Beans. Barley. Hay. Oats. ^ Barley. Hay. Oats. Beans. 3- Hay. Oats. Beans. Barley 4- Oats. Beans. Barley. Hay. Here the dung ought to be applied to the bar- ley. Many other rotations may be contrived, keep- ing to the rules above laid down. For a clay foil, fallow, wheat, peafe and beans, barley, cab- bage, oats. Here dung rauft be given both to the wheat and cabbage. For free foil, drilled turnip, barley, red clover, wheat upon a fingle furrow. Ch. VII. Rotation or Crops. 157 furrow, drilled potatoes, oats. Both the turnip and potatoes muft have dung. Another for free foil : turnip drilled and dunged, barley, red clo- ver, wheat on a fingle furrow with dung, peafe, barley, potatoes, oats. The following rotation has proved fuccefsful in a foil proper for wheat. I. Oats with red clover after fallow, without dung. 2. Hay. The clover-ftubble dungedj and wheat fown end of O&ober with a fingle furrow. 3. Wheat. 4. Peafe. 5. Barley. Fal- low again. Oats are taken the firft crop to fave the dung for the wheat. Oats always thrive on a fallow, though without dung ; which is not the cafe of barley. But barley feldom fails after peafe. In ftrong clay foil-, the following rotation anfwers. 1. Wheat after fallow and dung. 2. Beans fown under furrow as early as poffible. Above the beans, fow peafe end of March, half a boll per acre, and harrow them in. The two grains will ripen at the fame time. 3. Oats or barley on a winter-furrow with grafs-feeds. 4. Hay for one year or two ; the fecond growth paftured. Lay what dung can be fpared on the hay-ftubble, and fow wheat with a lingle furrow. 5. Wheat. 6. Beans or peafe. 7. Oats. Fal- low again. CHAP. 158 PRACTICE. Part I. CHAP. VIII Reaping Corn and Hay Crops, and Storing them for Use. CUlmiferous plants are ripe when the item is totally white : they are not fully ripe if any green ftreaks remain. Some farmers are of opinion, that wheat ought to be cut before it is fully ripe. Their reafons are, firft, that ripe wheat is apt to make ; and, next, that the flour is not fo good. With refpect to the laft, it is con- trary to nature, that any feed can be better in an unripe flate, than when brought to perfection : nor will it be found fo upon trial. With refpect to the firft, wheat, at the point of perfection, is not more apt to (hake than for fome days before : the hufk begins not to open till after the feed is fully ripe ; and then the fuffering the crop to ftand becomes ticklifh ; after the minute of ripen- ing, it mould be cut down in an initant if poi- iible. This leads to the perfons that are commonly- engaged to cut down corn. In this country, the universal practice was, to provide a number of hands in proportion to the extent of the crop, without regard to the time of ripening. By this method, the reapers were often idle for want of work \ and what is much worfe, they had often more Ch.VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops 159 more work than they could overtake, and ripe fields were laid open to fhaking winds. The Lo- thians have long enjoyed weekly markets for reapers, where a farmer can provide himfelf with the number he wants ; and this practice is creep- ing into neighbouring mires. Where there is no opportunity of fuch markets, ought not neigh- bouring farmers to agree in borrowng and lend- ing their reapers ? The advantage is obvious ; and yet I believe it is feldom practifed. One mould imagine, that a caveat againft cut- ting corn when wet, is unnecelTary ; yet from the impatience of farmers to prevent making, no ca- veat is more fo. Why do they not conlider, that corn itanding, dries in half a day, when, in a clofe lheaf, the weather muft be favourable if it dry in a month ? in'moift weather it will never dry. With refpect to the manner of cutting, I mull premife, that barley is of all the moil difficult grain to be dried for keeping. Having no huik, rain has eafy accefs ; and it has a tendency to mal- ten when wet. Where the graund is properly fmoothed by rolling, I am clear for cutting it down with the fcythe. This manner being more expeditious than the fickle, removes it fooner from the danger of wind; and gives a third more itraw, which is a capital article for dung where a, . farm is at a diftance from other manure. I ex- cept only corn that has lodged ; for there the fickle is more convenient than the fcythe. As it ought i<3o PRACTICE. Part I. ought to be dry when cut, bind it up directly ; if allowed to lie any time in the fwath, it is apt to be clifcoloured. Barley Town with grafs-feeds, red clover efpe- cially, requires a different management. Where the grafs is cut along with it, the difficulty is great of getting it fo dry as to be ventured in a ftack. The cunning way is, to cut the barley with a fickle above the clover, fo as that nothing but clean barley is bound up. Cut with a fey the the ftubble and grafs ; they make excellent winter- food. The fame method is applicable to oats ; with this only difference, that when the fijid is expofed to the fouth-weft wind, it is lefs nftef- fary to bind immediately after mowing. As wheat commonly grows higher than any other grain, it is difficult to manage it with the fey the ; for which reafon the fickle is preferred in Eng- land. Peafe and beans grow fo irregularly, as to make the fickle necefTary. The bell way for drying peafe, is to keep fe- parate the handftils that are cut : though in this Way they wet eafily, they dry as foon. In the common way of heaping peafe together for com- pofing a (heaf, they wet as eafily, and dry not near fo foon. With refpecl; to beans, the top of the handful laft cut, ought to be laid on the bot- tom of the former ; which gives ready accefs to wind. By this method, peafe and beans are ready for the ftack in half the ordinary time. Thd Ch. VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops. 161 The fize of the (heaves ought to be regarded. A fheaf commonly is made as large as en be contained in two lengths of the corn made into a rope. To fave frequent tying, the binder prcifes it down with his knee, and binas it fo hard as totally to exclude air. If there be any moilturc in the crop, which feldom fails, a procefs of fer- mentation and putrefaction commences in the fheaf ; which is perfected in the (tack, to the de- ftru&ion both of corn and ftraw. How barba- rous and ftupid is it, to make the fize of a fheaf depend on the height of the plants ! By that rule, a wheat- fheaf is commonly fo weighty, as to be unmanageable by ordinary arms : it requires an effort to move it, that frequently burfts the knot, and occafions lofs of grain, befide the trou- ble of a fecond tying. I have long pra&ifed the following method with fuccefs. My fheaves are never larger than to be contained in one length of the plant, cut clofe to the ground : I admit no exception if the plants be above eighteen inches high. The binder's arm compreffes the fheaf fufficiently, without need of his knee. The addi- tional hands that this way of binding may require, are not to be regarded, compared with the advan- tage of drying foon. Corn thus managed may be ready for the flack in a week : it feldom in the ordinary way requires lefs than a fortnight, and frequently longer. Of a fmall fheaf compreffed by the arm only, the air pervades every part •, N nor i6i PRACTICE. Part I. nor is it lb apt to. be unloofed as a large fheaf, however firmly bound. The 'ordinary practice of directing the fhocks to the fouth-well for re- filling the force of that wind, mud be approved : but I cannot approve the placing on each fide five large fhcaves, fuch as require for a binding two lengths of the corn ; which rnakes fo I line as to be but imperfectly covered with the two head (heaves, There ought lo be no more but four Ihcaves on, a fide. Five o£ my fmall fheaves, occupying it i 1 1 lefs fpacc than four of the ordinary fort, are covered fufliciently by tlu head Ihcaves; and for that reafon, i follov ordinary practice of twelve ihcaves to a (hock. Every article is of importance that haftcn operation, in a country like Scotland, fubjecred to unequal harveft-weathcr. For carraying corn from the field to the Hack-yard, a fledge is a very awkward machine: many hands are.r. red, and little progrefs made. Waggons and large carts are little lefs dilatory, as they mull ft and in the yard till unloaded fheaf by fheaf. My way is, to ufe long carts moveable upon the axle, lo as at once to throw the whole loud on the ground ; which is forked up to the Hack by a man appointed for that purpofe. By this me- thod, two carts will do the work of four or five. It will not be eafy to convince me, that build- ing round ftacks in the yard is not preferable to hauling the corn. Here it is fhut up from the. air ; €h. VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops. 163 air ; and it muft be exceedingly dry, if it contract not a muftinefs, which is the firft ftep to putrefac- tion. Let me add another circumftance, which would make a figure were it detached from that now mentioned. In the yard, a Hack is preferved from rats and mice by being fet on a pedeftal : no method has hitherto been invented, for pre- fervingcorn.in a houfe from fuch deftructive ver- min*. The proper manner of building is to make every fheaf incline downward from its top to its bottom. Where the (heaves are laid horizontally, the (lack will take in rain both above and be- Jow. The belt form of a flack is that of a cone placed on a cylinder ; and the top of" the cone Ihould be formed with three fheaves drawn to a point. If the upper part of the cylinder be a little wider than the under, fo much the better. N % The * Magazines for corn have been much extolled both in France and in England. But befide the immoderate ex- pence, they are very prejudicial to the commerce of corn. A farmer who has his flacks upon pedeftals waits pa- tiently for a market ; and thereby the price of corn is re- gulated by the demand. The proprietors of magazines, who are few in number compared with farmers, can by combination fix the price above or below the demand as it fuits their intereft ; which is hurtful to buyers ; and Hill more to poor tenants, who, if it were not for magazines, would draw high prices in cafe of a fcanty crop. This would be a great difcouragement to agriculture, and make the farmer relax from his induftry. Many would aban- don the bufinefs altogether. 1 64 PRACTICE. Part 1. The delaying to cover a ftack for two or three weeks, though common, is however wonderfully ahfurd ; for if much rain fall in the interim, it is beyond the power of wind to dry the flack. Vegetation, begun in the external parts, ihuts out the air from the internal ; and to prevent a total putrefaction, the ftack mull be thrown down, and expofed to the air, every fheaf. In order to have a ftack covered the moment it is finifhed, ftraw and ropes ought to be ready ; and the covering ought to be fo thick as to be proof againft rain. Scotland is fubject not only to floods of rain, but to high winds. Good covering guards a- gainft the former, and ropes artfully applied guards againft twe latter. 1 will aniwer for the following mode. Take a hay-rcpe well twilled, and furround the ftack with it, two feet or fo below the top. Surround the ftack with another fuch rope immediately below the ealing. Con- nect thefe two with ropes in an up and down pofttion, dift ant from each other at the eafing a- bout five or fix feet. Then furround the flack with other circular ropes parallel to the two firft mentioned, giving them a twift round every one of thole that lie up and down, by which the whole will be connected together in a net work. What remains is, to finifh the two feet at the top of the ftack. Let it be covered with bunches of ftraw* laid regularly up and down; the low part Ch. VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops, i 6$ part to be put Cinder the circular rope firft men- tioned, which will keep it fait, and the high part be bound by a fmall rop artfully twilled, com- monly called the crown of the Jlack. This me- thod is preferable to the common way of lay- ing long ropes over the top of the Hack, and tying them to the belting-rope ; which flattens the top, and makes it take in rain. A ftack co- vered in the way here defcribed, will ftand two years fecure both againft wind and rain; a no- table advantage in this variable climate*. So much for corn. Now for hay. N 3 The * A granary for holding the whole product of a farm, mull be a very expenfive building, and a ievere tax up- on hufbandry. I have heard it computed, that laying afide towns and villages, the Englifh barns have coft more money than all their other houfes together. I can evilly conceive an indolent practice iupporm.! long by cullora againft the cleared light. But expenfive works are fel- dom attempted but from neceflity, and 1 cannot eaiily conceive what at firft produced that expenfive mode of preferving corn and ft raw together, when both can be pre- ferved in good condition by flacks in the yard ; and at any rate, when it is much lei's expenfive to More up the grain feparated from the ftraw. There was a time not long pall, when the moil inventive heads in England and France were employed upon contriving granaries for corn, but without fuccefs. I have no difficulty to pronounce, that a ftack built as above directed, and fet upon a pedeftal, is the beft way for preferving corn, and that for years, far beyond the moil complete granary that ever was con- trived, even laying afide the^expence of building and of management. 166 PRACTICE. Part I. The great aim in making hay is, to preferve as much of the fap as poilible. All agree in this ; and yet differ widely in the means of making that aim effectual. To defcribe all the different means, might be profitable to the bookleiler ; but the reader would lofe patience, and gather no in- ftruclion. I fhall therefore confine myfelf to what I think the befl. A crop of ryegrafs and yellow clover ought to be fpread as cut. Let it lie a day or two ; and in the forenoon after the dew is evaporated, rake it into a number of pa- rallel rows along the field, termed uind-roivs, for the convenience of putting it up into fmall cocks. After turning the rows once and again, make fmall cocks weighing a ftone or two. At the diftance of two days or fo, put two cocks into one, obferving always to mix the tops and bot- toms together, and to take a new place for each cock, that the leaft damage poffible may be done to the grafs. Proceed in putting two cocks' into one, till fufficiently dry for tramp-ricks of 100 ftone each. The eafielt way of erecting tramp- ricks, is to found a rick in the middle of the row of cocks that arc to compofe it. The cocks may be carried to the rick by two perfons joining arms together. When all the cocks are thus carried to the rick within the diftance of forty yards or fo, the reft of the cocks will be more expeditioufly carried to the rick, by a rope wound about them and dragged by a horfe. Two ropes are Ch. VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops. 167 are fufficient to fecure the ricks from wind, the lliort time they are to ftand in the field. In the year 1775, ten thoufand flone were put into tramp-ricks the fourth day after cutting. In a country fo wet as many parts of Scotland are, expedition is of mighty confequence in the dry- ing both of hay and corn. With refpect to hay intended for horned cattle, it is by the generality held an improvement, that it be heated a little in the Hack. But I violently fufpect. this doctrine to have been invented for exculing indolent management. An ox, it is true, will eat fuch hay ; but I have always found that he prefers fvveet hay ; and it cannot well be doubted, but that fuch hay is the moil falutary and the mod nourifhing. The making hay confuting chiefly of red clo- ver, requires more care. The feaion for cutting is the laft week of June, when it is in full bloom ; earlier it may be cut, but never later. To cut it later, would indeed produce a weightier crop ; but a late firit cutting makes the lecond alfo late, perhaps too late for drying. At the fame time, the want of weight in an early tirll cutting, is amply compenfated by the weight of the fe- cond. The additional labour required to make hay of red clover, arifes from the largenefs of the ftem, and the hazard of the leaves dropping off in moift weather. I have tried two methods. N 4 One x68 PRACTICE. Parti. One is, to let it lie in the f\vath two days, and longer if the weather be unfavourable. The fwaths mult be turned over and over two or three times every day, but not unlefs the weather be dry. It will then be ready to be put into cocks, containing each about two ftone. After two, three, or four days, according to the wea- ther, let two cocks be put into one ; and fo on at proper intervals till ready for the tramp-rick. The other way, more expeditious, may be ven- tured on where ryegrafs is mixed with the clo- ver. Stir it not the day it is cut. Turn it in the fwath the forenoon of the next day ; and in the afternoon put it up in fmall cocks. The third day put two cocks into one, enlarging every day the cocks till they be ready for the tramp- rick. Sixteen pounds of red clover cut in the bloom, are reduced to four pounds when fufli- ciently dry for keeping. I have tried, but with- out fuccefs, to prepare it for keeping with a lels diminution of weight. Ryegrafs cut in the bloom lofes of weight the lame proportion ; w T hich was contrary to my expectation. When the fealbn is too variable for making hay of the fecond growth, mix itraw with t;;at growth, which will be a fubuantial food fur cattle during winter. This is commonly done by lay- ing it rata of the ft raw and clover alternately in the ftack. But this method I cannot approve': if the ftrata of clover do not heat, they turn mouldy Ch. VIII. Reaping and Storing Crops. 169 mouldy at leaft, and unpalatable. The better way is, to mix them carefully with the hand be- fore they are put into the (lack. The dry ftraw imbibes moifture from the clover, and prevents heating. I mull add in general with refpecl: to hay of whatever kind, that if the weather be fo wet as to prevent cocking in the ordinary time, there ought to be no intermimon in turning the fwaths ; which will help to evaporate the moilture, if there be any motion in the air ; and at the fame time, prevent the fwaths from linking into the ground among the uncut grafs, which never fails to blanch it. The expence of making an acre of hay, com- pofed of ryegrafs and yellow clover, is, in a tole- rable feafon, from four to fix millings ; and from fix to eight if compofed of red clover. This however is an uncertain computation, the ex- pence differing greatly in a good or bad feafon. I will not Hop to give any rule for making hay of natural grafs, termed meadow-hay ; be- caufe in a well conducted farm there ought to be no meadow -hay. This is made evident in the chapter, Rotation of Crops. In the yard, a Hack of hay ought to be an ob- long fquare, if the quantity be greater than to be eafily Mowed in a round flack ; becaufe a fmaller furface is expofed to the air than in a number of round itacks. For the fame reafon, a ftack of peafe 170 PRACTICE. Parti. pcafe ought to have the fame form, the ftraw be- ing more valuable than that of oats, wheat, or barley. The moment a ftack is flnifhed, it ought to be covered ; becaufe the furface-hay is much damaged by withering in dry weather, and by moiftening in wet weather. Let it have a pavilion-roof; for more of it can be covered with ftraw in that fhape, than when built perpendicu- lar at the ends. Let it be roped as directed a- bove for corn -flacks ; with this difference only, that in an oblong fquare the ropes mud be thrown over the top, and tied to the belt-rope below. This belt- rope ought to be fixed with pins to the Hack : the reafon is, that the rope- thrown over the itack will bag by the linking ol the (lack, and may be drawn tight by lowering the belt- rope, and fixing it in its new petition with the fame pins. The flems of hops, being long and tough, make excellent ropes ; and it will be a faring article, to propagate a few hop plants for that very end. A* fiack of ryegrafs-hay, a year old and of a moderate fize, will weigh, each cubic yard, eleven Dutch Hone. A Hack of clover-hay irv the fame circumflances weighs fomewhat lefs. I conclude this article with obferving, that till lately the making hay was little underftood in Scotland ; nor to this day is it gcneralh under- ftood. "J he method was, to expofe it as much as poflible. Ch. IX. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 171 poffible to the fun and wind, and never to give it reft till it was fo dry as to be grindable in a mill, and rendered a caput mortuum. The poor ani- mals reduced to fuch food were truly to be pi- tied :. is it wonderful that they were too feeble for work ? But this made no impreflion, as the feeblenefs of the cattle was but in proportion to the lazineis of the men. They had no check of confcience for being idle, becaufe they were edu- cated in that way, and knew no better. CHAP. IX. Feeding Farm-Cattle. Aving difcufTed the management of corn md hay, what naturally follows is, to ap- ply them to the maintenance of farm-cattle : for to confider corn as the food of human beings, falls not properly under any branch of agricul- ture. As in this chapter are contained many diffe- rent matters upon which the profit of a farm greatly depends, I wifh what I have to fay may be clearly apprehended. In that view the chap- ter is divided into five feetions. Green food is the fubject. of the firft ; dry food, of the fecond ; feeding for the butcher, of the third, : the foul . h, contains rules for the wintering of cattle that are not 172 -PRACTICE. Part I. not intended for immediate laic ; and the fifth, rules for buying and felling cattle and corn. I. GREEN FOOD. I begin this lection with the fummer-food of farm horfes. The manner of feeding them du- ring fummer, is and has been various through Scotland : none of them good. Some time ago, horfes were fed in balks between ridges of corn ; which required the attendance of men, and wa- fted much time. In many parts, horfes are re- duced to thirties ; the time of the men being confirmed in pulling, and of the horfes in eating. Jn fome places, a part of the common pafture is referred for them, termed hained graft. The man appointed to attend them falls afleep, and fuffers the horfes to trefpafs on the corn. Dogs are employed to chafe them from it : they run about ; and their fatigue- is little lefs than when at. work. To prevent this, the horfes are fome- times tethered on the hained grafs : the half is loft, being trodden under foot ; beiide that they often breck loofe, and deftroy the Handing corn. The leaft exceptionable is a grafs-enclofure ; and yet far from deferring approbation. In the firft place, where the grafs is fo rank as to afford plenty of food to the horfes in the intervals of work, a fourth part at leaft is trodden under foot : the horfes befide are pcftered in hot wea- ther Gh. IX. I. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 173 ther with flies, and cannot feed with eafe. In the next place, they have no time for refting ; and much time is loft in laying hold of them for the yoke. Laftly, few enclofures in the hands of a tenant, are in fo good order as to keep in horfes when they fee corn ; and if they once break out, it is in vain to think of imprifoning them after. The approved method to prevent every inconvenience, is to feed the horfes with cut grafs, under cover. In the interval between the work of the forenoon and afternoon, they can fill the belly in an hour, and have time to reft another hour : nor is a moment loft in yo- king. Several plants ferve this purpofe, fainfoin, lu- cern, red clover, white clover, ryegrafs. Red clover is the beft. Sainfoin and Jucern early cut are excellent food ; but when they turn ftrong and reedy, horfes are not fond of them. The dif- advantage of white clover and ryegrafs, is, that, being fmall plants, they are not eafily collected in heaps for food. Red clover is extremely luxu- riant : it is eafily collected : and it ought to be eafily collected ; for to feed properly a horfe of a middle fize, requires ten ftone a-day. It flowers the firft week of June ; but in rich foil it will rile to eighteen inches before flowering. So rapid is its growth, that in good foil it may be cut thrice in a year, and afford over and above fome pafture. It fhould be cut in the morning when moift with dew : 174 PRACTICE. Part I. dew : it is lefs palatable when cut dry. The cut- ting ought to begin long before flowering ; that all may be cut before it is too old, and that it may grow the fafter for a fecond cutting. Thefe con- fi derations are not fufficiently attended to : people are loath to cut till the clover is fully grown ; tho' early cutting will upon the whole afford more food, as well as more palatable food, to horfes efpecially, which diflike old clover. I defpair not to fee all the corn-farmers in Scotland, depending on red clover for the fummer-food of their cattle ; and then we fhall no longer be dunned with loud complaints commonly thrown out as excufes for idlenefs : " How can I improve, having no food " for my horfes but bare lea or thirties ? they " cannot work on fuch food ; I cannot ftir a " foot." A horfe works as he is fed : it is fur- prifing what work he will perform upon cut clo- ver, without loiing flefli. Many a fummer, for feven or eight weeks running, have my horfes been daily employed in bringing lime from a quarry fifteen Englifli miles difhmt, fed on red clover only ; and at the end of the feafon, as plump and hearty as at the beginning. Let an- other article be confidered. In every farm, a great proportion is left out for pailure, if that can be called pafture which affords little or no food. A fingle acre of good red clover, will give more food than fifteen or twenty fuch acres. How much Ch. IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 175 much better might thefe acres be employed in bearing profitable crops of corn ? But a fkilful farmer will not confine himfelf to red clover for fummer-food. There are other graffes that fpring more early, and grow later than red clover. Ryegrafs, ribwort, and yellow clo- ver, flower a month before red clover, are fuilv ready for cutting green the middle of May, and if cut at that time continue growing, and may be cut a fortnight after red clover is gone. To en- large the period of green food for cattle, is a de- finable object in hulbandry. It affords plenty of food both early and late ; it faves pafture- fields in fpring till the grafs cover the ground, which retains the dew, and fhelters the grafs- roots from withering winds ; and it enable* the farmer to leave his fields rough at the end of the feafon to keep out the fro ft during winter, inftead of eat- ing them bare, which is the ordinary practice. Now thefe falutary effects, all of them, may be procured by a very fimple operation ; which is, to low part of the field with ryegrafs, ribwort, and yellow clover mixed. Thefe plants are ready for being cut the middle of May ; and if the feafon prove favourable, they may be cut again as late as even the middle of November. Cut grafs is of all the cheapen 1 food, and the moll agreeable to horfes. Therefore to add a month cf this food, is a valuable improvement, efpecialiy du- ring fpring : for however nourifking dry food may be, 170 PRACTICE. Parti. be, yet a hort'e put upon green food turns re- markably more agile and plump # . I proceed to the fummer-food of horned cattle. A beaft that chews the cud, takes in at once a large • It may be agreeable to bring under one view the grafies mentioned above, with refpecl to the feafon of their mooting and ripening. Ryegrafs fown in fpring with corn, moots the year fol- lowing, from the 20th to the 30th of April, according to the tfoil and fealbn. It flowers from the ift to the icth of June. The flower continues about eigth days, falls off, and the feed at that time begins to form. The feed is ripe between ift and 10th July. When it is fully formed, the ftalk begins to turn brown ; and more and more fo till the feed fall, which is about the end of July. Ribwort /hoots the laft week of April. The head in a thriving plant is three inches long, full of feed, which is completely ripe about the 10th of July. Upon the head are found at the fame time feed formed, flowers, and part that has not yet flowered. Red clover fhoots from the ift to the 10th of June ; r.nd in eight days after begins to flower. It continues in flower twenty days ; and about the end of July the feed is ripe. The progrefs of white clover is precifely the fame. Yellow clover fhoots the laft week of April, and flowers till Auguft. On a flalk is found at the fame time, feed ripe, feed half ripe, floWers, and fhoots juft beginning. It accordingly refembles peafe, and grows a long time. It, continual growing keeps the item full of fap. The time of cutting plants for hay is in the middle of their flower- ing •, but as yellow clover flowers much longer than the others mentioned, it affords a greater latitude for cutting without injuring the hay. Ch. IX. I. Feeding Farm- Cattle. 177 large quantity of green food, efpecially of red clo- ver, which is extremely palatable when young. So large a quantity is apt to ferment with the heat of the ftomach, fo as fometimes to make the creature bur ft. This is coniidered as a formi- dable objection to the feeding horned cattle on red clover. But it is eafily obviated, by feeding them in thehoufe: fervants will not readily give rnore than fufficient, when cutting and carrying is a work of labour. And red clover mould always be cut for food ; for where cattle have liberty to pafture, more is trampled down than is eaten. At any rate, burfting may be prevented even when cattle are allowed to pafture. Indulge them, but half an hour or fo, for two or three days when the clover is dry ; after which there is no hazard. If yellow clover and ribwort be fown with red clover, there is little or no hazard of fermenting to fuch a degree as to be hurtful. White clover is no remedy : it ferments in the ftomach as much as red clover. Red clover cut green, is preferable to all other food for milk-cows. Being foon filled, they have much time to reft, which increafes the quantity of milk. The milk at the fame time is richer and higher coloured, than from any other food. Red clover is good food for fheep ; but the cut- ting it for them would be too expenlive. White clover at the fame time is their favourite, which is never wanting in good foil, growing naturally. O One 17S P R A C T I C K. Part I. One fignal advantage of feeding horfes and horned cattle in the houfe during fummer, is their being protected frcin heat and infects. And it is a ft ill more fignal advantage, that the dung turns to much better account, than when fcattered du- ring fummer in a pafture-fVeld. Horfe-dung in a pafture-field is totally loft : it dries, and withers away, not to mention that its heat burns the grafs its falls. on. Dung is an article of great import- ance, efpecially in a farm diftant from other ma- nure. And a dunghill, procured by feeding on cut grafs, may be confiderably increafed by add- ing to the heap every weed that grows in the farm ; which at any rate ought to be cut, to pre- vent feeding. The carrying cut grafs from the field to the liable is a laborious work; and the only circum- itance that weighs againft: cut grafs in competition with pafture. A horfe of a middle fize will eat ten Dutch itone daily ; fome go the length of feventeen : an ox or a cow will eat eight itone. Suppoling in a farm ten horfes, ten oxen, and fix cows: they will conlume 228 ftone a-day. If the clover be at any diftancc, that quantity requires a cart going continually from morning till evening. Computing a cart at three (hilling per day, the expencefor the i\x. fiimmer-months is no lefs than L. 25, 4 s. Even this high expence, is far from counterbalancing the advantage of feeding cattle m the houfe. The expence, however, is fo conh- derable. Ch, IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 179 derable, as to make it of importance to leffen it. In that view, I recommend the following plan, the purpofe of which is, to carry the cattle to their food, inftead of carrying food to the cattle. Erect a moveable fned in the field, all of wood, the back coniiderably higher than the front, in order to have a doping roof againft rain. Sixteen feet in widenefs is fufficient for a beaft of any fize ; the length correfponding to the number of cattle that are to be fed. On the back at the heads of the cattle, a deal is hung with hinges, to be lifted up for throwing food to them. Upon the ground along the length of the houfe, three beams are laid, crofTed with fpars an inch diftant from each other. The channel or gutter behind the cattle, is lined with a deal in the bottom, and one on each 1ide, to convey the urine from the cattle to a pit filled with rich earth ; which I hold to be pre- ferable even to dung itfelf. The three beams covered with fpars make a vacuity below, which receives the urine at the firft inftance, and pre- ferves the cattle dry. This is an important ar- ticle in feeding cattle, which every animal at li- berty is fond to procure to itfelf. There is no ne- ceflity for racks in this fhade ; on the contrary, horfes eat more conveniently in the natural way, by bending down the neck to food. The only thing neceflary is a board between their fore feet and the clover, to fave it from being trampled under foot. It is proper that in a corner a bed O 2 be r8o PRACTICE. Part I. be erected for a fervant, to attend the cattle du- ring night. The deals of this fliade muftbeheld together with wooden nails, fo as eafily to be ta- ken down, and fet up again where it may be wanted. It fbould be placed at the loweft part of the field ; becauie the clover is more weighty, than the dung it produces. It is poflible to let a little flied on wheels, to be carried from place to place, without being taken down •, but that will never anfwer for a fhed of thirty or forty j ards long. Such a fhed is proper in every farm, where red clover is annually raifed in the courfe of cropping ; and the expence will be the lelV grudged, considering that it alio anfvvers for con- fuming turnip and cabbage in winter. Let the expence be computed of carrying thefe to an im- moveable fhed ; and in a farm of any extent, it will be found, that the expence thus faved, even in a lingle year, will equal the coft of the pro- pofed fhed. In a fmall farm, where red clover enters not into the rotation of crops, and yet is necefiary for fummer-feeding ; the moft conve- nient way is, to enclofe fix or feven acres as near as may be to the farm- offices, upon a part of which there fhould always be a crop of red clo- ver in rotation. In that cafe the carriage is a trifle. I have only to add, that room mould not be fpared ; for horfes are hurt as much as horn- ed cattle by being crowded. The Ch. IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. iB* The proper feafons for difpofing of cattle fatted on grafs, are the June markets, and thole of De- cember and January. With a view to the firft early grafs ought to be provided, and late grafs with a view to the others. In an open winter, there is no difficulty to preferve grafs-cattle fat through December and January : in a hard win- ter, the addition of a little hay will do. Next in order is the feeding cattle in a pa- flure-field. White clover is for pailure the bell grafs known in Britain, being extremely palatable to cattle of every kind. It is a native of Britain; and like a ftrawberry it throws out flagellar or runners from the Item, which take root and be- come new plants. But as this is a work of time, it is more profitable to flock the field with it at once. Good feed is weighty, and full without dimples : it is red when hurt in drying. A field intended for paflure, requires a mixture of graf- fes : every fpecies of animals has its favourite grafs ; and when animals of different fpecies feed together, not a tingle flump is left. Dif- ferent grafies alfo, having different times of flowering, keep the chain of food more complete during the feafon. Ryegrafs, for example, an- fwers fpring-food better than any other plant, and continues longer after autumn. But white clover during fummer holds out better than rye- grafs. Different grafTes at the fame time ex- O 3 cite iSa PRACTICE. Part. I. cite the appetite : an ox will leave turnip for cabbage ; and after feeding plentifully on both, will take kindly to hay or ftraw. The proper quantity of feed to an acre intended for imme- diate pafture, is ten pounds white clover, five pounds yellow clover, as much ribbed grafs, and two wheat-firlots of ryegraf-. An enclofure proper for paflure, ought to have the following properties. It ought to be well aired. Second, well watered. Third, well fheltered. Fourth, the larger the better. And, laftly, the grafs ought to be fo rank as to afford a full bite. With refpecE to the firft, a field well aired makes cattle feed kindly : in a hot day, they go to the higheft part for frefh air : if they have neither frefh air nor water to refort to, they fret, and lofe flefh. The want however may be fupplied artifi- ciallv, by clump • of evergreens (battered through ihe field, to flicker them from the fun. With re- fpecl to the fecond, plenty of water for drinking is not alone fufiicient : there ought to be plenty for bathing, in a hot day : cattle are never more at eafe in fuch a day, than when they are plun- ged in water. With refpect to the third, it is not fufficient that cattle be flickered againft heat : flicker againil cold i-. frill more necefiarv. By proper management, the chain of grafs ma) bt ted on in tolerable weather till the end of the*. year ; but unlcfs the cattle be protccled from coW blafts, grafs will d^ them little good. The clumps Ch. IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. iBg -clumps mentioned planted in the form of a crofs, will afford fhelter from whatever quarter the floral comes. With regard to the fourth, the field ought to be fo large as to give cattle their natural range. Every fpecies of animals that feed on grafs, have a natural range in feeding ; and to confine them within narrower bounds, is to them a fort of imprifonment. Sheep have a wide range ; and ought to have, bccaufe they delight in fhort grafs : give them eighty or ninety acres, and any fence will keep them in : confine them to a field of feven or eight acres, and it mult be a very ftrong fence that keeps them in. A range of fifty or fixty acres is fufficient for horfes; and a ftill narrower range for horned cattle. In oppofition to the field defcribed, ad- vert to cattle cooped up in a fmall enclofure of eight or nine acres, furrounded with high hedges. In fummer they are ftifled for want of air, are peftered with infeds, and lofe fat inftead of gain- ing. To examine the progrefs of fattening, I weighed twenty flots the firlt day of May and the firft day of the five fucceeding months. Thei* quickeft advance was in May and September, being at an average two pounds daily each. I could not attribute this to any other caufe, but to lefs heat and fewer infects than in the three intermediate months. With refpect. to the pro- perty lalt in order, the benefit of a full bite is too obvious to need explanation. 4 A J84 PRACTICE. Parti. A pafture field bare of grafs in fpring, having no protection againft withering winds, turns hard and unfit for vegetation, efpecially after wet wea- ther. But where a field fprings early, and is co- vered with grafs before drought fets in, it con- tinues nioiit and tender, by retaining dew and keeping out drought. To encourage early grafs in fpring, the field ought to be left rough in win- ter ; which keeps the ground warm, and protects the roots from froft. P^agwort is a troublefome gueft, as it never fails to infeft rich paflure-rlelds : it is not only a robber, but overfliadows the grafs, and renders it anwholefome. I am at a lofs however whether to call it a weed or an ufeful plant. As it bears no feed till the third year of its growth, it cannot propagate in land under tillage: in parture-land, it dies indeed after dropping its feed, but new plants fpring from that feed, and have a fucceffion with- out end. Many things in appearance noxious, have been found ufeful ; of which this plant is an iniiance. The fame means will prevent its noxi- ous effects, and make it profitable. Ragwort in flower was never feen in a field paftured with fhcep. Why ? becauie that animal is exceflively fond of it. Therefore, in every pathire-fichl, for fome years after it is laid down, there ought to be a proportion of lheep. They prefer ragwort before any other vegetable; and experience pro- nounces, that every food is wholeiome which an animal Ch.IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 185 animal is fond of. Lincolnshire fheep do belt ; becaufe a fence fufficient for horned cattle, is more than fufficient for them. Sheep are Angu- lar with refpect alfo to other food. They are fond of the tender fhoots of broom and whins ; and no lefs fo of the fruit of the horfe-chefnut. The rufh may be compared to ragwort : it is a troublefome weed : and yet may be made in fome degree profitable. Whether it ihould be claffed among the evergreens, appears doubtful from the following account of it. It fp rings fix or feven inches high in April, grows on till Auguft, when the feed appears at the fide of the Item, five or fix inches below the top. While the feed is draw- ing toward maturity, the part above withers gra- dually ; and when the feed ripens and falls, the part below withers down till within a foot or fo of the ground. That part continues green all winter, but dies away before next fummer. In place of the Items that thus die, frefii Items arife, which, as obferved above, make a figure in April. Whether thefe Items arife from feed, or from the bulky root, or from both, I cannot at prefent de- termine. As the rufh is an aquatic, and grows fo vigo- roufly as to deltroy all other plants, it ought to be rooted out if poffibile ; not only becaufe it is a bad pafture-grafs, but becaufe the infallible way of rooting it out is, to lay the ground dry ; which makes a double improvement. But if this cannot be 186 PRACTICE. Parti. be got done at a moderate expence, the refource is, to make all the profit of it that is poflible. Rufhes cut in June while young and tender, and dried into hay, make tolerable winter-food: a frefh growth enfues which is proof againft froit, and is not unfavoury to cattle that run out all winter. In the month of April, while grafs is ftill fo fhort as not to afford a bite to horned cattle, I have feen fourteen cows living on rufhes. At that feafon, they are to horned cattle almoft a^ palatable as red clover. They are rejected when old ; and fo is even red clover. A fprat is not an evergeeen, for it dies away in winter. It is an aquatic, like a ruin, but thrives with a lefs degree of moilture. It may be of fome ufe for hay when cut in June ; and the af- ter-growth is not unpalatable when eat young. But after feeding no bealt will touch it. 2. DRY FOOD. I proceed to dry food. As hay is of ufe to cattle of every kind, it is a capital object in hulbandry ; *ai;d not the lefs capital, that, in my thought, it may be carried to greater perfection than is commonly done. To give fatisfaction, we mutt enter into an examination of the different grafles that arc ufed for making hay. Red clover, i.i'acculent plant of the leguminous tribe, that, flowery £h. IX. i. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 187 flowers about the beginning of June, and rifes to the height of between three and four feet. Rye- grafs is a culmiferous plant, dry and folid like other plants of that tribe ; rifing commonly in good foil to three feet and above. It fhoots the end of April or beginning of May 5 and above all other plants haftens to perfect its feed. Yel- low clover and ribwort, both of them leguminous plants, are more tender and fucculent than rye- grafs ; but lefs fo than red clover : they rife com- monly to three feet. They fhoot at the fame time with ryegrafs, but perfect their feed not al- together fo foon. Ryegrafs, becaufe of its foli- dity, is of all the beft food for horfes ; and next to it, yellow clover and ribwort. Horned cattle delight in leguminous plants, red clover efpecially: it is probable that tender gralfes are fitted for ani- mals that chew the cud. White clover blooms and perfects its feed at the fame time with red clover : it makes excellent dry food for fheep ; but as it feldom rifes above eighteen inches, it is lefs proper for hay than any of the others men- tioned ; and upon that account, is often left out in the mixture of graffes for hay. With refpedl to 'the time of endurance, red clover cannot be depended on for hay longer than two years ! the third year, it makes at beft a 1'canty crop, and frequently vanifties altogether. Ryegrafs, ribwort, and yellow clover, ftand good |hree years. From that time, the product lefTens gradually ; x88 PRACTICE. Parti. gradually ; and after the feventh or eighth year they afford little pafture. The general practice of Britain for hay, has been to mix ryegrafs and red clover with a fmall proportion of white clover ; which I believe con- tinues to be the practice in many places. I cannot help condemning it, as the child of igno- rance or inattention. Two weighty objections occur. The firft is, that when the red clover is fit to be cut for hay, which is about the begin- ning of July, the ryegrafs feed is ripe. And what follows? The ryegrafs that year grows no more than barley or wheat cut when the feed is ripe ; whereas if ryegrafs be cut before the feed is form- ed, it grows all fummer, and even all winter, till it makes way for new (hoots in fpring. It may poflibly be thought, that the feed, like that of other culmiferous plants, is more than fufficient to make up the fcantinefs of fubfequent cuttings ; but in drying for hay, mod of it is loft, fome in the field, fome in the (lack, and fome in the hay- loft ; little being left but the dry draw, which cattle do not willingly eat. The other objection is of (till greater weight. After a crop or two of hay, the field is furrenderedto pafture. The red clover wears out the fecond year, leaving nothing but the ryegrafs, which continues but another year in perfection : and the fmall proportion of white clover has not yet had time to fpread over the field. Thus, after the fecond year, the pa- fture Ch. IX. 2. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 189 dure is but indifferent ; and turns worfe and worfe till the field have time to ftock itfelf with natural grafifes. Nor is that all : while the field is but half-ftocked with fown grades, weeds take poffefiion of the vacuities, and accelerate the dwarfing of the ryegrafs and white clover. And if the red clover happen to be a fcanty crop the fecond year, it encourages weeds no lefs than a fcanty crop of peafe. I venture to fugged a better plan for hay than any I have read of. I pronounce the bed hay for horfes to be a mixture of ryegrafs and yellow clo- ver, which flower together, and are fit to be cut for hay the beginning of June, when ftill in flower and the feed not formed : at that time, being full of fap, they are in perfection for hay. When cut fo early, they grow again vigoroufly and afford a fecond crop end of September ; or excellent pafture, if the feafon be unfavourable for hay. When the firfl cutting is later than be- ginning of June, the ftem turns dry and woody ; and much of it is rejected, if a horie be not ex- tremely hungry. But I recommend this to gen- tlemen only and farmers, for feeding their own horfes. In the view to fell hay, their profit I ac- knowledge will be greater in cutting when the feed is ripe, becaufe the fe*ed is a profitable ar- ticle. The hay, it is true, feparate from the feed, is no better than draw :' but that is no ob- jection to an innkeeper ; for the lefs a travelling horfc 190 PRACTICE. Part h horfe confumes, the profit is the greater. My reafon for choofing thefe two plants for hay to horfes is, that of all leguminous plants, yellow clover approaches the neareft in folidity to rye- grafs, and that they dry well together. Ribwort is left out as being lefs lit for horfes ; and with plenty of feed the two plants chofen will make as weighty a crop as the ground can bear. Three wheat-firlots of ryegrafs, and ten pounds of yel- low clover, make a fufficient dofe for an acre. And when cut early, as it ought to be, the crop muft be very weighty, if the cutting cod more than eighteen pence per acre. For hay to horned cattle, the mixture ought to be red clover, yellow clover, and ribwort. Red clover, it is true, falL properly to be cut a little later than the other two ; but as it is choice food for horned cattle, it is better to cut it along with the other plants, than to lofe their foggage by cutting them too late. Ten pounds red clover, fix pounds ribwort, and four pounds yellow clo- ver, are fufficient for an acre. A farm-horfe, during winter, requires at leail two lippies of oats daily ; in fpring, which affords more working hours, they are increafed to three. The reil of his food ib hay or flraw : bean-ftraw. is the belt, peafe-ftraw next, and after it good oat-ftraw. Upon that food, a pair of good hor- fes will labour ten hours a-day, and plow an acre of cultivated land ; or draw on a linooth road Ch. IX. 2. Feeding Farm-Cattle. Iqi a hundred (tone in a cart, fixteen Englifli miles. Such work they can perform daily without lo- fing flefli. When too much hay or corn is given to a horfe at once, he eats greedily, and is apt to furfeit on it. On this account, as well as to fave food, bet- ter to give it in fmall parcels at intervals, in which cafe every particle will be eat up clean. Were it not for the expence, the bed way of feeding a horfe with hay would be to give it out of the hand. As for corn, a horfe when hungry is apt to fwallow it without chewing ; in which cafe it panes entire and gives little nourifhment. Therefore with oats mix chaff or cut ftraw, which require chewing. If that labour be grudged, there is an inftrument contrived for bruiting oats, which has a promifing appearance. I will not, however, venture to recommend it, becaufe I have no experience of it. A dairy may be turned to great account. A good cow, during the fix fummer-monchs, will give at a medium twelve Scotch pints of milk daily ; the butter of which, with the fkimmed milk, may amount to eighteenpence^r day, and thirteen pounds, ten millings in the fix months. The grazing of fuch a cow for that time, will not colt above forty (hillings, which makes eleven pounds ten (hillings of profit. 3. Feeding i 9 2 PRACTIC E. Parti. 3. Feeding for the Butcher. Horned cattle continue to grow till they are full fix years old ; during which time they do not readily take on fat, nor carry much tallow. The proper time to enter them upon fattening food, is at the age of feven. There is an additional reafon, that three years work can be got from them, which in all events will do more than ba- lance the expence of their food. As the demand for butcher-meat in Scotland increafes rapidly, the feeding cattle for the fham- bles has become an interefting article to the far- mer. Thirty years ago, he had no temptation to keep fat on his cattle during winter, becaufe fait meat was our only food during winter and fpring. We have now frefh meat in plenty, all the year round ; only a little dearer in fpring ; and of that circumftance a provident farmer will avail himfelf. The difference of a month will fometimes add a halfpenny to the price of t pound of beef ; which, upon an ox of fixty ftone, makes forty millings for that month's feeding. A field fown with the graffes above mention- ed, may be depended on for fattening from the middle of April, in a warm foil, till the middle of November : nor will they fall off till the middle of December, if froft and fnow keep a- way. Hay, though greatly preferable to ft raw of Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 193 of any kind, yet will not fatten horned cattle for the market without green food. It indeed keeps the fat upon them ; but adds little or none. It is however profitable to feed a fat ox with hay during winter ; becaufe the additional price got in the fpring, will defray the expence of the hay. Some years ago, I fed twelve oxen with hay through winter \ and though they were not a pound heavier in April, I fold them at that time for double the fum I paid for them. An ox of a middling fixe, eats thirty pounds of hay, Dutch weight, in twenty four hours, and drinks forty-eight Scotch pints of water. An ox of a large fixe will eat forty pounds, and will drink in proportion. Of all the beafts I know, a fpayed quey is the molt profitable both for labour and for the butcher. She is little inferior to an ox in ftrength ; but much more agile, and confequent- ly better fitted for travel. She will work even till eight years old, and (till be fit for feeding fat. People of delicate tafte prefer her beef. It is a great lofs to have a cow to maintain that has miffed calf. The only profit is to feed her for the butcher. She feeds the farter after having received the bull But care muil be ta- ken not to admit the bull, but fo as that (lie may be fold fat three months before the time of calving ; for during thefe three- months me com- monly lofes fat. 1? Confiderable i 9 4 PRACTICE. Part I. Confiderable profit may be made by feeding- fmall catle bred in the Highlands, pnrchafed when four years old at a fmall price, becaufe they are unfit for work. This branch of commerce is accordingly well underftood. A fow is a profitable animal: it feeds greedily on cut clover ; which, with the offals of the kit- chen, dairy, and barn, prepare it finely for being, fatted in a fhort time with more nouriihing food. The feeding of calves for veal is alfo profit- able. The calf, even of a middle -fized cow, after fucking her for fix weeks, will fell at thirty (hil- lings. The fame cow will in fix months feed four calves for the butcher, fometimes more \ and after all, will give milk two months longer. For making fine veal, the calf ought to be blood- ed frequently, kept from light, laid clean and dry, and get chalk to lick. For fome years part, a Ihed erected upon pil- lars, with intervals of eight or ten feet, has been ufed for ftall- feedings Such a Ihed 1 pronounce to be too cold for our climate. A houfe fo con- ftruc~ted as to avoid the extremities of heat and eold, anfwers much better. Upon a feed of tur- nip in hard froft, cattle may be obferved to con- tract their feet together, and to tremble as in an ague. No animal can feed well in diftrefsi On the other hand, cattle in a clofe houfe, and in a hot day, may -be obferved panting for want of breath. Therefore let the fecding-houfe have^ many* Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle* 195 many windows or air-holes, to be fhut or open- ed as occaiion requires. As to the time of houfing cattle for feeding, it is evident, that as grafs is more eafily raifed than cabbage or turnip, the longer flail-feeding is delayed without loling fat, the better for the farmer. With refpect to the food proper for flail-feed- ing, turnip, cabbage, colewort, potatoes, carrot, are all proper, and may be raifed in every farm. For feeding in perfection, all of them ought to be provided ; for which there is more than one reafon. In the firft place, variety excites the ap- petite : next, fome of thefe vegitables endure the winter better than others : turnip, for example, does not anfvver for fpring-food, fo well as cab- bage and colewort. Therefore, as far as is con- fident with variety, I would be {paring of the ve- getables that are the lead hurt by winter. Pota- toes anfwer belt for the concluding food. If fuf- ficient (lore be provided and well preferved, which is an'eafy matter, all complaints of wanting green food in fpring mud be at an end. Every animal is fond of potatoes, not even excepting a horfe. They are a choice food for milk-cows, and pro- duce plenty of milk ; which has no rank tafte more than where fed on hay or grafs. And yet after all, how many indolent farmers ftill remain, who for want of fpring-food are forced to turn their cattle out to grafs, before it is ready for P 2 paftuje *, tg6 PRACTICE. Part. L pafture ; which not only ftarves the cattle, but lays the grafs-roots open to be parched by fun and wind. One precaution^ however, is necef- fary with refpecl: to grafs in proper condition for pafture : furrender it not to the cattle at once, which would give a loofenefs, but for a few days let them feed an hour or two only. Preparatory to the feeding cattle in the houfe with cabbage and turnip, they ought to be made acquainted with that food in the field, by getting now and then fmall feeds of it ; beginning with cabbage, which they foon take to as being foft,. and then proceeding to turnip. Without being thus prepared, fome beafts have been known to fail obftinately for days, before they would touch them. In the houfe, it is common to fill the (tails at once for faving trouble. This is wrong : cattle are fo fond of cabbage and turnip after ac- quaintance, as to be apt to furfeit upon them. A hungry horle, by eating too much corn at a time, takes a loathing of that food ; and his loathing continues for days. Begin with giving a bullock one turnip after another, and he will not readily furfeit. One bullock of ninety ftone Dutch thus fed, ate up thirteen Dutch ftone before he flop- ped; and in twenty- four hours he devoured thir- ty ftone. This was the third part of his own weight ; and every bullock in health will do the fame, when thus fed. Therefore, after cleaning the turnip, let the feeder begin in the morning with Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 197 "with throwing a turnip or two to every bullock : let him repeat the dofe till they turn fhy : let him then give them cabbage in the fame man- ner ; and conclude with handfuls of hay. When they are thus fatisfied, prepare them a foft bed as an invitation to lie down. Leave them to chew the cud and fleep, till they rife of their own accord. Repeat the dofe as before. As they grow fat, they will rejecl the coarfer parts of the food ; which may be given to winterers, or to fwine. If the turnip be large, there is no danger of giving them whole. But they are apt to choke upon fmall turnip ; which therefore muft be cut into fmall bits that can be eafily fwallowed. A machine to bruife turnip for eat- ing would be an ufeful invention. Thefe inftrudtions are intended to make cattle eat the greateft quantity poffible \ it being cer- tain, that the more a bullock eats with an appe- tite, the fooner he grows fat. It is bad oecono- my to fpare food in this cafe : a certain quanti- ty daily is requifite to preferve a beaft from fal- ling away ; and an addition is neceffarv to put fat on him. Therefore the fooner he is fatted, the greater proportion of what is neceflary for bare maintenance, is faved. To keep cattle clean and well littered, is to them half food ; and this maybe eafily done in a flied conftructed as defcribed above. Let them t>e combed every day, warned with water every P 3 week, 198 PRACTICE. Part I. week, and bled every month ; for thefe all con- tribute to fattening. Mod of the cattle in this country fold to the butcher, are. fed upon grafs, and fold in Novem- ber at twopence per pound, or twopence half- penny. But as the profit here is very finall, a farmer who is ftudious of his intereft, will have a provifion of cabbage and turnip for winter, in or- der to fell his cattle at double price in fpring. It has become a pretty general practice, to feed cattle in the field with turnip, cabbage and other annual greens. There is not another way of fat- tening cattle fo cheap ; nor another way by which fo much dung can be raifed in a farm. Thefe are important objects. But what I chiefly infill on is, that there is not within the invention of man, a more effectual method for improving a gravelly or fandy foil. Nothing indeed is more hurtful to clay or rank loam than poaching ; but the poaching a light foil takes away the pore-, makes the earth more compact, and more reten- tive of moifture. A crop of turnip or cabbage on ftiff land, ought not to be fed in the field, but in a fried, fuch as above defcribed, or in an adjacent dry field. To be fuccefsful in this article, let cattle be chofen that have been accuftomed to run out in winter. Cattle that have been always houfed in winter, are too tender for field feeding : they wijl never turn fat. There Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 199 There requires more management in feeding cattle with cabbage and turnip in the field, than is commonly pradtifed. What muft one think of the flovenly method of turning cattle into a tur- nip-field, to feed at random ? I hope this is rare; but another method is not rare, which is, to en- •clofe with flakes a portion of the field, and with- in that fmall fpace to confine the cattle, is 11 not obvious, that by dunging, pilling, trampling, a great part of the turnip muft be loft or become naufeous ? To prevent that lofs in a light porous foil that turns more folid by poaching, I have always pra&ifed the following method, Suppo- iing the enclofure to be an oblong fquare, which is the moft convenient for flakes, begin at one of the fhort fides, and from the fence throw the tur- nip towards the middle of the field, clearing as much ground as can be done at one throw, which may be thirteen or fourteen feet. Separate this vacant fpace from the turnip by flakes. Let the ilakes incline inward to the field, which will pre- vent the cattle from rubbing them down. Intro- duce the cattle into this void fpace, and begin with throwing over to them, from time to time, the turnip that were taken up, fo fparingly that they may eat without trampling them under foot. After thefe are clean eat up, clear another ftrip of the fame breadth with the former, by throw- ing over to the cattle the turnip that grew there. Remove the flakes to the fide of the growing P 4 turnip, 200 PRACTICE. Part I. turnip, and go on till the field be ate up. In this manner, the whole field will be knead and poach- ed, ib a=> totally to alter the texture of the foil. But bccauie to give the cattle no other bed, would greatly retard the progrefs of fattening ; an adjacent grafs-field is necefiary, in which they mould be put every night for a dr> bed. In this grafs-field place hecks, for feeding th: cattle with hay or draw ; as nothing contributes more to expeditious fattening, than alternate green and dry food. Froft is the only enemy to this manner of feeding. In froft, the digging up the turnip is expenlive ; and they give the cattle a loofenefs, which makes them lean inftead of fat. Hard froft deftroys the turnip altogether. I have tried feveral preventatives. At the corner of a field, I built in a ftack all the turnip that grew on four acres. They remained entire fix weeks ; but after that time, they began to fprout, efpecially about the centre, which exhaufted the turnip, and rendered them lefs palatable. I tried ano- ther method ; which was, to fill a large houfe with turnip, on the firft appearance of froth The warmth of the houfe made them fprout fooner than in the former way. A third experiment was to dig a pit in the field fix or feven feet deep, where I flowed the turnip and covered them with three feet of earth, reckoning that this would prevent vegetation. But they fprout- ed Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 201 ed as foon as in the houfe. A fourth experi- ment was to build in the (»eld what would fill two large carts, covering the heap with ferns or ltraw. In this lituation, they were longer of fprouting ; but they were mor- expoie i to froft. Upon the whole, the beft method, as appears to me, is to ftore up in a houfe as many turnip as will ferve the cattle a fortnight. As after that time they began to wither, give them to the cattle though the weather be frefh ; and then fill the houfe again. This is a refource againft a fort- night's froft; and as a further refource, a few heaps may be collected in the field, ready at hand if froft fet in. A refource ft ill more com- modious of late invention, is mentioned below page 208. The beft preventive of all againft a long froft are potatoes, which may be eafily pre- ferved in a houfe during the longeft froft. Cattle are fond of potatoes, and they make a good change of food to fupply the want of turnip or cabbage during froft. The fame method may be taken with cabbage. Carrots are preferred by taking them up, and burying them in fand. Potatoes being more hurt by froft than any other root, they ought to be ftored up in a houfe, and covered with dry ftraw prtiTed down with litter. But here a precaution is neceflary. If allowed to lie too long in their winter-quarters, they will fprout, and be ufelefs. Therefore, as foon as the froft is over in fpring, they mult be expofed to 202 PRACTICE. Part. L to the fun and air till perfectly dry ; and then laid up where there is a free circulation of air. Cabbage and turnip give a ftrong tafte to but- cher-meat, when not intermixed with dry food. But the remedy is eafy : give nothing but dry food for a few days before they are delivered to the butcher. The intermixing dry food with turnip and cabbage in feeding milk- cows, ought never to be omitted ; becaufe thefe plants with- out that intermixture give a naufeous tafte to the milk, cream, and butter. The feeding cattle with turnip and cabbage in the field, is an interefting article. There are few farms but what are fit for raifing green food of one kind or other ; and by far the greater part are fit for every kind. Light foil is fit for turnip, both light and loamy foil for potatoes, deep foil for carrots, and ftrong foil for cabbage. For a dozen of years back, the ordinary profit of fuch feeding from the end of November to the end of March, has been to double the price of the cattle ; which affords a very handfome rent for the land. Nor do I reckon this the capital part: the gain is ftill greater by the improvement of the foil. No other method is fo effectual to con- vert light porous foil into what is firm and heavy, as the poaching of cattle during winter. To compare it with ordinary manure, would not do itjuftice. It alters and improves the foil like clay-marl ; and thefe two are the only means I am Ch. IX. 3. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 203 am acquainted with, to produce a new foil equal to one originally rich. There are few foils in- deed but what may be hurt by cropping ; but a foil fo improved, can never be hurt (o much by cropping, as to be reduced to its original poor Hate. After fuch a winter-feeding, it would fur- priie one, to find ground formerly fo loofe as not to hold together, become now fo folid as to be raifed by the plough in folid mafTes. This way of feeding cattle, is at the fame time a good dunging to the field, equal at leaft to an ordina- ry dunging from a dunghill. The cattle eva- cuate abundantly, and what drops from them mixes intimately with the foil : not a- particle is loft. The feeding fheep on turnip and cabbage, ought to be delayed as long as pomble, for the reafon given above with refpect to horned cattle. But as fheep are better protected againft cold, there is the lefs neceflity of providing a fried for them. To fave the turnip, flakes ought to be ufed ; and a dry bed is ltill more neceflary to them than to horned cattle. Their dry food ought to be white- clover hay, or unthraihed fit- ches ; both of which they delight in. White- clover hay, however, without corn or green food, will not fatten fheep for the butcher. In frofl and fnow, fheep mould always be fupplied with hay or other dry food ; which prepares them for green food the end cf March ; at which time a few 2o 4 PRACTICE. Part I. few weeks of ryegrafs will make them ready for the market, at the deareft time of the year. Where fheep are fed in the houfe, which is feldom done except for the ufe of a family, they ought to be feparated by rails from each other ; otherwife the ftrongeft wedder will opprefs the reft. They muft be fhorn when put up to feed, and be always kept s clean. There muft be a heck for holding hay, a place for the turnip or cab- bage, and a rip of oats be hung up within their reach. A iheep, like an ox, eats of turnip the third of its own weight in twenty-four hours. The beft age for feeding wedders is four or five : (hortofthat age they feed not fo kindly, nor tallow fo well. Some land is fitted for feeding ; fome for breeding only. A farmer who poiTefies rich land, buys lean cattle from the breeder, and fattens them for the butcher. 4. THE WINTERING OF CATTLE NOT INTENDED FOR IMMEDIATE SALE. The food proper for fuch cattle is, firft, coarfe grafs that they refufe to cat during fummer, when they have better food. Second, ftraw or coarfe hay ; and, laft, what is left by milk-cows, by beafts ftall-fed, or by working oxen and horfes, With refpect to the firft, the common but very improper method is, to let them go at large in the Ch. IX. 4. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 205 the field ; and in froft and fnow to give them food in hecks. By this method, the dung is al- moft entirely loft ; and unlefs the field happen to be well fheltered, which feldom is the cafe, Scot- land is a climate too cold for fuch managements This is verified in our highland cattle, which ne- ver arrive at half their fize ; not fo much from want of food, as from piercing cold in a moun- tainous country. To remedy both thefe evils r an open fhed fhould be erected in the field, for fhelter to the cattle in a ftorm ; and this fhed fhould be in the molt fheltered fpot, fronting the fouth. To preferve the food given them during froft and fnow, a heck fhould be put in the fhed ; and the dung be carefully collected, from time to time. It is evident from what is faid, that no cattle are fit to be managed in this manner, but what have been accuftomed to lie out all winter. Where there is no coarfe grafs for winter- feeding, the ordinary method to feed winterers is in a dung- yard with ftraw, the half of which, trodden down with the foot, turns to no account, The more provident farmers fet up a heck in the yard, which faves fome of the ftraw that is loft the other way. This method, though common, lies open to many objections : firft, it is ftill too cold for win- ter : next, much good food is deftroyed by it ; and, third, the dung, by trampling of the cattle, is 206 PRACTICE. Part I. is kept from rotting. This matter is interefting, and I beg the reader's attention, while I endea- vour to verify thefe propofitions. With refpecl: to the firft, the (belter of a yard is far from be- ing fufficient to preferve cattle in a kindly heat, during frofty weather. Such an enclofure is fub- ject to whirling winds, which pinch the cattle even in frefh weather. Obferve, that when cattle are brought from a warmer climate to mend the breed, every one is fenlible, that during winter a warm houfe, and plenty of food, mould be pro- vided for them. A cow when thus treated gives more milk, and a bead intended for the butcher grows fooner fat. To anfwer thefe purpofes, I believe it will be found, that the nearer the air approaches to the heat of the blood, the cattle thrive the better. That cattle fed in a yard de- llroy much ftraw, is obvious to ocular infpeftion. Even when ftraw is put into a heck, one beaft no fooner draws out a mouthful, than he is pufhed away by another, and lofes in his hurry part of what he draws from the heck : none of them are fu fibred to feed peaceably or quietly. The third propofition is the mod important of all. Half- rotten dung trodden under foot, and kneaded to- gether by the cattle, excludes the air totally from the inner parts of the heap ; and it is a truth in- difputable, that there never can be any putrefac- tion where there is no air ; putrefaction cannot go on without moifture, and as little without air. Put Ch. IX. 4. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 207 Put a fpoonful of cream in an exhaufted recei- ver ; and after a year it will come out as fweet as when put in. When a dunghill, after heatings turns cool again, turn it over and admit frefh air, it heats a fecond time : a ftake driven into an open gravelly foil, which admits air into every pore, rots fooner than even in a wet clay-foil that excludes air. From thefe premifes I conclude with firmnefs, that the beft way of feeding winterers is in a houfe where there is free ventilation ', indulging them only an hour or two in the field when let out to water, longer or fhorter according to the weather. I know many judicious farmers, who prefer the feeding on a dunghill, with an open fhed to retire to in a ftorm ; and they even hold, that the treading of cattle on a dunghill con- tributes to its putrefaction. I flatter myfelf that I have difcovered their reafon for this opinion^ Their practice is, to throw quantities of dry ftraw from time to time on the dunghill, part of which is eaten by the cattle, and the reft trod- den under foot. Straw is elaftic, and when laid on a dunghill dry, it admits too much air ; in which cafe the dunghill gains by being trodden on. But where all the ftraw is ufed, either in food or in litter, and none of it carried to the dunghill till it be half putrefied, it becomes too compact by being trodden upon ; and the air is excluded altogether, which obftructs putrefaction no 208 PRACTICE. Parti. no lefs than too much air. A provident farmer will never wafte his draw, by throwing it on a dunghill : he will provide as many winterers, as to confume all the draw that is to fpare from his working cattle. I add, that fuppofing winterers to be as comfortably put up in a farm-yard as in a houfe, the latter however ought to be prefer- red ; firft, becaufe it faves draw, and the beads are more regularly fed ; next, that it is a better way of having a dunghill well putrefied ; and, laftly, that the urine of the cattle can be wholly preferved ; whereas in a farm-yard all is lod but what happens to fall on the dunghill. Join another particular not of flight moment. A dughill feparate from cattle, may contribute greatly to the feeding with turnip. A quantity of turnip taken up in the beginning of a frod and laid upon the dunghill, will be preferved entire for weeks, perhaps as long as frod commonly lads in this variable climate. 5. RULES FOR BUYING AND SELLING CATTLE AND CORN. The common and condant way is, to fell cattle by the eye ; which is far from being equal be- tween the farmer and the butcher. The former has but a very uncertain guefs of the weight : the latter, who is dealing the year round, can guefs very near. Fair commerce is in general the Ch. IX. 4. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 209 the mo ft beneficial ; and every thing that ap- proaches to chance or gaming is hurtful. To bring on a perfect equality between the feller and buy- er, 1 propofe, that. every bead mould be fold by weight, and that the weight mould be afcertained by a balance. The moil: convenient one I know is a fteel-yard, being the fitteft for weighing heavy goods ; and a ft eel-yard I have ufecl with eafe and fuccefs many years. But it is not fufficient to have the weight of a living beaft afcertained. Different parts are very different in their value ; and there is a rule for afcertaining the proportion of thefe different parts, by which their weight may be known, almoft with equal certainty as the weight of the whole beaft. My experience goes no further than to Scotch cattle fold fat, to which the following proportions will nearly anfwer. The four quar- ters make the half of the weight of the bullock. The lkin is the eighteenth part. The tallow the twelfth part. Thefe make twenty-three thirty r- fixths of the whole ; and the head, feet, tripe, blood, &c. make the remainder, being a third part and a little more. Thefe offals never fell by weight, but at a certain proportion of the weight of the beaft. They commonly draw ten millings and fixpence when the bullock weighs a hundred ftone Dutch ; and fo in proportion. Thefe particulars adjufted, the next thing the feller is to inform himfelf of, is the price of but- Q^ Cher 3io PRACTICE. Parti. cher-meat in the market, of tallow, and of hides. Suppofing the bullock 1 have to fell is fevemy- two none living weight, the four quarters make thirty-fix none, which at 4 s. per flonc, or 3 d. per pound, amount to L. 7, 4 s. The hide is worth 16 s. at 4 s. per Hone ; and the tallow, be- ing 5 s. 4 d. the ftone, is worth L. 1, 12 s. Ster- ling. '1 he offals, according to the proportion above mentioned, will give 7 s. 6 d. ; and by that computation the value of the bullock is L. 9, 19*. 6 d. This anfwers to 2 s. 9^^. per ftone living weight. And therefore, if the butcher agree to give me that fum per ftone, no more is neceftary to afcertain the price of the whole car- go, than to weigh the beafts by threes or fours as the fcale can hold them. Out of this fum how- ever mull be deducted the butcher's profit, which cannot be much lefs than 5 per cent. The weighing cattle alive anfwers another im- portant purpofe : which is, to difcover whether the feeder gets the value of the food by the ad- ditional weight of the beatl. For example, the food of a bullock cofts 9 d. per day, or 5 s. 3 d. per week. If the bullock do not take on two ftone per week, which feldom happens, the keep- er is a lofer; and there is no excuie for keeping the beaft on hand, if it be not the expectation of a rifing market. There is another advantage of regulating the price of cattle by living weight. Where a but- cher Ch. IX. 4. Feeding Farm-Cattle. 111 cher buys by the lump, and bargains that he is to take away the bead at a day certain, the vender is tempted to be fparing of food. But fuppofing the bead to be fold by living weight, it is the intereft of the feller to make it as fat as poffible. The fame rule in felling is applicable to' fheep. The four quarters make half of the living weight, the ikin the eleventh part, the tallow the tenth part, the offals fomewhatlefsthan the third part. But computing the prices that thefe particulars fell for in the market, the amount will not be the value of the fheep, becaufe the wool alio muft be taken under consideration. The wool from (hear- ing-time to Lammas is of little value. At the end of December the value is by many under- flood to behalf of the value of a full grown fleece ; and upon that fuppofition, the following calcula- tion is made. Yet there are not wanting expert dealers who value it much higher. They fay, that in February or March, the wool begins to fork at the ends ; after which it increases in weight, but little in value. A Linton, Ochill, or Lammermuir wedder, at the age of four, carries a fleece weighing at a medium two pounds eight ounces, valued at 9 d. per pound when not tar- red, which makes the value of a fleece at clip- ping-time, 1 s. io-^d. Sterling. At the end of December it is u T 9 T d. *. Thus having a fcore " Q^ of * As the wool of fheep degenerates into hair in both extremes of heat and cold, fmearing is a remedy in a cold 212 PRACTICE. Part I. of wedders to fell at the end of December, each of which weighs fix Hone fourteen pounds Dutch weight, I want to know what they are worth per head. i. The four quarters weighing 55 pounds, is, at 3 d. per pound, L. o 13 9 2. The value of the wool as above 11-ij.d. to which muft be added iod. as the value of the fkin, inde, o 1 g T \- 3. The tallow, being the tenth part of the weight, makes u pounds, which, at 4 d. per pound, is 038 4. The offals are not fold by weight, but are commonly valued at o j o The fum, L. i Thij cold climate. It alfo kills vermin, and makes a (beep Cake on fat five or fix weeks fooner than it would do otherwifc. Some miles round Cheviot hills, none but flieep of a year old are fmeared : elder iheep are reckoned luflieiently itrong to endure the cold without it. But there black iheep of all ages are fmeared, becaule black wool is nut riiicoloured by fmearing. In the north of Scotland i'meai - ing is not known. Wool lhorn immediately after a .(beep is warned, never rums white. A kind of oil. termed glett t perfpires from the animal, and contributes to whiten the wool in fcouring. Therefore, where wafhing is necciTary, delay (lier.ring for ■\ tnight,that the wool may again be covered with gieet. Ch. IX. 4* Feeding Farm-Cattle. 213 This price anfwers to is. n~d. Sterling /w ftone living weight. And if the butcher agree to give that price, the value of any particular beaft may be determined by weighing him as above. From this mud be deducted the butcher's pro- fit at 5 per cent, or under, as can be agreed. A r . B. An animal weighs more or lefs as his' belly is more or lefs full. The above proportions were made out when the fheep and horned cat- tle were weighed at eleven o'clock forenoon. Having difcuiTed cattle, I proceed to corn. The variety of meafures in felling and buying corn, has been time out of mind a juft caufe of Complaint in Scotland, as well as other countries ; and it is indeed an inlet to many frauds. And yet, were all the meafures ufed in Scotland redu- ced to the Linlithgow ftandard, there would ftill remain a great inconvenience in felling gram by meafure ; for, of all commodities, it is the leaft proper to be fold in that manner. The quality of grain differs widely ill different foils, and even in the fame foil by good or bad culture. One boll of barley weighs eighteen Dutch ftone, an- other only fifteen. One boll of oats weighs fif- teen ftone, another only eleven. The fame dif- ference is obfervable in other grain. There is another objection again ft felling bf meafure. The flovenly farmer is fatisfied with Q.3 bulk > 214 PRACTICE. Part h bulk, without any regard to the quality of hi* grain : whereas, were it the rule to fell by weight, it would make the farmer doubly attentive to the drelling of his land, in order to produce the weightiest grain. Befide weight, another circumftance enters in- to confideration for afcertaining the value of grain ; which is, the proportion of the hulk to the kernel. Middling wheat weighs per boll fourteen Dutch ftone ; of which the hulk makes the feventh part, or two Dutch (lone. Middling barley weighs^r boll eighteen Dutch itone ; of which the hulk weighs one Hone four pounds. « Middling oats weigh per boll fourteen Dutch ilone ; of which the hulk weighs fix' Itone. Middling becns weigh per boll fifteen ftone eight pounds Dutch weight ; of which the hulk weighs but eight pounds. And the fame proportion holds as to peafe. CHAP. X. Culture of other Plants proper for a Farm. THere are many ufeful plants propagated by curious farmers that do not anfwer for food. I confine myfelf to three, the moll com- mon, Ch. X. Culture of Forest-Trees. 215 mon, and at the fame time the mod ufeful ; fo- rell-trees, flax, hops. I begin with fo reft- trees, as the moil complex. SECT. I. Fores t-T r ee s. Considering the great quantity of wafte land in Scotland, fit only for bearing trees, and the eafinefs of tranfporting them by navigable arms of the fea, one cannot but regret the indo- ' lence of our forefathers, who neglected that pro- fitable branch of commerce, and left us to the neceffity of purchafing foreign timber for every ufe in life. The Commiffioners of the Annexed Eftates, deeply fenlible of this neglect, have be- llowed liberally to raife plantations everywhere in the King's ellates. Their laudable example has animated many land-proprietors, to benefit them- felves and their country by the fame means. The fpirit of planting is roufed ; and there feems little doubt of its fpreading wider and wider, till this country be provided with timber for its cmn confumpt at leaft, if not for exportation. As an author, I am fond to keep up that fpirit : and in that view, the prefent chapter on the culture of fo- reft-trees, will, I hope, be well received. A regular treatife upon the fubject would require a volume : but as I mult contracl what I have to fay within 0.4 the 2i6 PRACTICE. Pint E the nutftiell of a chapter, I fhall ftudy brevity > and mention nothing but what appears material. Trees are propagated by feed, by cuttings, by layers, and by fuckers. I. RAISING TREES BY SEED. The propagating treees by feed is nature's me- thod. One inconvenience it has, that the trees thus raifed are not always the fame with the pa- rent plant : though they are of the. fame fpecies, they copy not always its varieties. What follows will enable us to judge of the maturity of feed. Seed enclofed in a capfula, in a pod, or in a cone, is ripe when the covering opens by the heat of the fun. The feed of a fruit-tree is ripe when it no longer adheres to the fruit; and where unripe fruit is pulled, the feed ripens with it. In general, feed is ripe when it links in water to the bottom. The feed of a Scotch elm ripens* before the middle of June. The bell way of gathering it is, to fhake the tree gently : the ripeft feed falls firft, which may be gathered in a Iheet laid at the root of the tree. The feed of the am and of the mapple may be put into the ground without being taken out of its capfula. The beft way of opening the cones of pine, fir, &c. is to expofe them in boxes to fun and dew. The. Ch.X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 217 The drying them in a kiln is apt to deftroy the germ. The cones of the larix are at their fall fize in autumn ; but the feed is not fo early ripe. Delay gathering them till March or April, when they begin to drop from the tree. Cut off a part of the cone next the ftalk, which will render it eafy to feparate the quarters : the ripeft feed falls out upon {baking the cone with the hand. The feed of the birch, the willow, the poplar, the aller, being very fmall, is not eafily gathered : itir the ground about thefe trees, and it will foon be filled with young plants. With refpe& to the, feed of the birch and alh, it is lingular,, that when dropt from the tree, no feed takes root fo readily ; yet, when gathered, and fcatter- ed with the hand, it feldom grows. As for a choice of feed, fmall acorns gathered from large and lofty trees, are preferable before the larger! acorns of fmaller trees ; in general, the feed is always the belt that is procured from the moil vigorous trees. But as in extenlive plantations much precilion cannot be expected, it ought to be the chief care that the feed be per- fectly found. .Next, as to preparing feed for fowing. Trees propagated from feed have all of them a tap- root, which puihes perpendicularly downward. The purpofe of nature in this root is, to fit trees for growing in the ftiffeft foil, and to fecure them againft wind; but it proves hurtful to trees in- tended 2i8 PRACTICE. Part I. tended for tranfplantation. A young oak live or fix years old, when taken up for tranfplanting, has, like a turnip, but this fingle root, which will be four or five feet long when the ftem is with- in one foot. Planted in this manner, it feldom lives. This evil is prevented by making the feed germinate in moift earth, and lowing it in the feed-bed after the radicle is cut off. The radicle never pufnes more ; and inftead of it the tree pulhes out many roots, which fpread horizontal- ly. Walnuts, almonds, and other fliell-fruit, being long of germinating, ought to be put in moift fand, in order that the radicle may pufh before the end of April, to be cut off as afore- faid. Acorns, chefnuts, and beech-maft, will germinate timeoufly in dry fand. In wet fand or moid earth, they would, before the time of lowing, not only germinate, but pufh out long roots, which would ruin all. As this method is too troublefome for fmall feeds, fow them in beds as gathered : pull them up the fecond year: cut off the tap root : and plant them again at the dirtance from each other of three or four in- ches. Two years after, they may again be tranf- planted wider ; there to remain till they be fit for the field. Some imagine, that to deprive a tree of the tap-root prevents its growth. But ex- perience vouches the contrary. And fo docs rea- fon ; for it is obfervable, that the roots next the furface, being accefiible to fun and moifture, are always Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 219 always the moft vigorous, and are farther fpread than thofe below. A tap-root is deprived of fun and air, and even of water, unlefs where it hap • pens to glide below the furface : how then can it equal a horizontal root in nourifning the tree ? The feeds of the white thorn fown without preparation, rife not till the fecond year. If bu- ried under ground in a heap till the pulp be rot- ted off, and fown in the fpring following, they will germinate that very year. Jnftead of bury- ing them under, ground, a more approved me- thod is, to lay them in a heap at the end of a barn, mixed with earth. By that method, a greater number will germinate than in the ordi- nary way. I made an experiment. One bed was fown with haws prepared in the ordinary way ; and one with haws prepared in the other way. Upon the latter bed fprung a double quantity of thorns, and more vigorous. 1 made another experiment upon elm-feed. Of a quan- tity gathered when ripe, the half was immedi- ately fown; the other half was carefully dried in the fhade, and fown a fortnight after. The lat- ter produced a greater number of plants, and more vigorous. Thorns are propagated ftili more expeditioufly by cuttings from the root. When thorns are taken from the nurfery to be planted in a hedge, the roots that are either wounded by the fpade, or too long, mull be cut off. Let thefe be fhred into fmall parts, and fown 220 PRACTICE. Part I. fown in a bed prepared for them : they will pro- duce thorns that very year. The feed of the am feldom germinates till the fecond year : when gathered in the month of October, let it be put in pots with earth, and fown in the fpring : it will germinate immediately. The ordinary way of railing hollies, is to fow the berries entire ; which is wrong : every berry contains four feeds ; and the plants that fpring from them are fo interwoven, as not to be feparable without in- jury. A better way is, to gather the berries in December, the later the better, if they can be faved from birds. Throw them into a tub with water, and between the hands rub them care- fully in the water till all the pulp fall off. The good feed will fink to the bottom, which, after the water is poured otf, mud be laid upon a cloth to dry. Mix them with dry faiid, which will preierve them all winter. Sow them in March or April, and cover them with earth about three quarters of an inch thick. With refpect to the time of Cowing, the beft rule is, to imitate nature, by fowing when the feed is ripe ; provided the tree be of a hardy kind to endure the froft of winter. By this rule, the feed of Scotch elm ought to be fown in June ; the feed of pine and fir in April, at which time their cones open. Acorns, chefnuts, and beech-maft, ripen in autumn, which is the time of fowing them. If they ripen later it is more Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 221 more fafe to fow them in the fpring following ; becaufe the young plants cannot reiift froft, if be- fore winter they have not acquired fome degree ■of vigour. There is another reafon for ftoring up thefe feeds till fpring ; which is, that the longer they lie in the ground, the greater rifk they run of being deftroyed by vermin. As the white thorn vegetates early, the haws ought to be fown the firfl dry weather in February, after being fepa- rated by a wire-u'eve from the mould with which they were mixed. Avoid frefh dung, which is in- jurious to them. Sow the feed of the larix when taken out of the cone in March or April ; for though in the cone it will ftand good for years, yet it does not long retain its vegetative quality when feparted from the cone. Next, as to the manner of fowing feed. Na- ture drops feed upon the furface of the ground. We mud depart from nature in this inftance, upon the following account, that after much ex- pence and trouble- in procuring feed, the far greater part would perifli, partly by vermin, and partly by inclement air. This is not regarded by nature, which is profufe in the production of feed. All feed therefore ought to be covered with earth, birch-feed alone excepted, which ought to be preflfed down with the back of the fpade, but left open to the air without covering. $mall feeds mull be flightly covered, as having 222 PRACTICE. Part I. lefs vigour to pufh upward*. In ftrong foil, the covering ought in every cafe to be flight. The depth is pretty much arbitrary, becaufe the fame feed will thrive at different depths. But it muft be attended to, that a flight covering expofes the feed to drought ; and therefore the ground ought to be watered if the feafon be dry. Where the ground fown is too extenfive for watering, a crop of barley will preferve the tree-feed from the fun, and alfo prevent weeds. The tree-feed and the barley may be fown alternately in lines. If trees are intended to remain where their feed is fown, it is proper to fow thick, partly for flielter, partly to keep down weeds. M. Buffon declares againil weeding the ground upon which the feed is fown : " For," fays he, " weeds (belter the " young plants from the fun, keep in the dew, " and preferve the plants warm in winter." In Scotland nothing is more hurtful to plants than weeds, which choke them, and exclude air. A better * As a flight covering expofes the feed to drought, wa- tering is commonly ufed if the feafon prove dry. But the furface by fucli watering is apt to harden and to pre- vent the tender plants from fpringing. It is eafy indeed to break the cruft by a harrow or rake ; but this lays the plants open to be deflroyed by the fun. A method that has been ufed with fuccefs, is to cover the feed half an inch deeper than ordinary i and from time to time to remove part of the covering. The furface by this means being rendered loofe and free, will be a kindly invitation to the young plants to pufh upward. Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 223 better way, even in France, is to fovv barley with the feed, which will protect the young plants from the fun, and admit air. The beft way of preferving feed is in dry fand, which fucks in the moifture from the feed, and prevents muftinefs. It withal retains fo much moifture as to prevent the feed from withering. This method is chiefly ufeful in preferving during winter feeds that require fpring-fowing, and in the conveyance of feeds to a diftance. The effi- cacy of dry fand appears in preferving oranges and citrons, which in the air dry and wither : if to prevent withering they be laid in a moid place, they never fail to turn mufty. There is one ex- ception, that feed which lies long in the ground before it germinates, ought to be preferved in moift earth. The feed of the feniitive plant will keep entire for twenty years ; of a melon for nine or ten. There are many feeds that will not keep entire longer than two or three years ; which is the cafe of flax -feed, though remarkably oily : fome feeds require to be put in the ground as foon as ripe. To prevent young plants in the feed- bed from being fpewed out by froft, cover the beds with leaves of trees, to be removed when the fevere frofts are over. We proceed from the feed-bed to the nurfery. Plants form very different roots, according to the foil they grow in. In ftiff foil, the roots are com- monly 224 PRACTICE. Parti. monk few, but flrong and vigorous for over- coming the refiftance of fuch a foil. Roots mul- tiply in proportion to the richnefs and mellow- nefs of a foil. An oak, for example, has a ftrong tap-root, which fits it, more than any o- ther tree, for growing in a (tiff foil. This root diminifhes in ftrength and fiz,e in a loam, and ftill more in a fandy foil. When it grows in water, it has a multitude of roots, but not the lead ap- pearance of a tap-root. Hence it follows, that the foil of a nurfery ought always to be light and free : fuch a foil produces a multitude of roots ; and the vigour of growth is always in proportion to the number of roots, the fmaller the better. But it alio follows 1 , that in tranfj -laming trees from fuch a nurfery, the foil about them ought to be made as mellow' and free as poilible, in or- der to encourage the fmall roots. When thefe are enlarged in fo fine a foil, they will be able to overcome the ftirThefs of the natural foil of the field. Avoid dung in a nurfery. If any be ad- mitted, it ought to be thoroughly putrefied, and digefted into a fort of rich mould. Green dung makes the roots ill conditioned, and encourages a large white worm, which live c . on the bark of the roots. Neither the walnut nor horfe-chefnut fucceed in a nurfery : the plants require to be placed at a diftance from each other; and the earth about them muft be ftirred feveral years. Aqqatics that are intended to be propagated by large Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 225 large cuttings, ought firft to have the benefit of a nurfery ; becaufe they thrive beft when planted out with roots. Avoid a mixture of different trees in the fame bed, for the flow growers will be opprefTed. The true feafon for tranfplanting from the feed-bed to the nurfery is about the fall of the leaf. Catch the time when the earth is fo moift as to fuffer the plants to be drawn without tear- ing the roots. All evergreens ought to be tranf- planted in fpring ; and alfo allj other trees^ that fuffer by froft. Where trees are fo young as that an interval of five or fix inches along the rows is fufficient, there mull be an interval of a foot at leaft be- tween the rows, in order to give accefs to clean the ground of weeds ; and this interval is fuffi- cient, even when the plants are fo large as to make an interval of a foot along the rows necef- fary. Where the diftance along the rows is made eighteen inches, or two feet, the intervals be- tween the rows ought to be no lefs, for the fake of the trees, though unneceffary for the fake of weeding. Yet fuch is the influence of cuftom, contrary to common fenfe, that from the original pofition of young plants in a nurfery, the interval between the rows is always made double of the in- terval along the rows. Thus if the latter be eigh- teen inches, the former is always made three feet ; and four feet where the fize of the trees requires R an 326 PRACTICE. Part I. an interval of two feet along the rows; The fame influence of cuftom occalions trees to be planted in rows in the field, where they are to ftand ; and yet they make a much better figure when, in imitation of nature, they are fcattered as at random. The pruning young trees, in the nuriery is an article that deferves attention. Lateral branches that are like to get the better of the item, ought to be retarded in their growth by being pinched more than once during fummer: and where the lateral branches are too frequent, they ought to be thinned. This practice promotes greatly the growth of the Item. The like good effect will follow from treating in the lame manner, for two or three years, young trees after they are planted out. Thus managed, they will for ever after need very little pruning. 1. CUTTINGS, LAYERS, SUCKERS. Seed is not the only means that nature hat. provided for. propagating trees. They can be propagated by cuttings, by layers, and by fuck- <. re. They have one advantage, that whereas feed propagates the kind only, thele carry on any variety in the tree from whence they are taken. Crafting has the fame effect. The willow, the oiler, the vine, the alder, the poplar, both black and white, the platanus, the yew. the box, mav all be propagated by cuttings. The Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 227 The black poplar is lingular : a branch will not anfwer for a cutting, unlefs the top be left entire. A cutting of willow eight or ten feet long, and feven or eight inches thick, planted in the follow- ing manner, will foon become a tree. Let the great end be immerfed in water a foot deep as foon as cut, which ought to be the end of March ; and remain in that ftate till planted, which ought to be the beginning of May. Immediately be- fore planting, cut the great end flopping to a point ; and on the tide that is not cut, keep the bark entire down to the point. Make a hole in the earth a foot and a half deep, fufficiently large to admit the cutting without ruffling the bark, which would prove deftructive. Any vacuity left in the hole mufl be filled up with frefh earth, and preffed down clofe to the cutting. A fafer way, and little lefs expeditious, is to make the hole with the fpade, to return the earth to the hole round the cutting, and to prefs down all firm and dole. After {landing a year, throw fome frefh earth upon the roots. It is ilill better, to make a ditch two feet from the row of the trees thus planted, and to lay upon the roots the earth of the ditch. Several trees that can be propagated by cuttings, require more precaution than the willow or poplar. TJie branches intended for cuttings muft be young; and a part of the greater branch from whence they are taken mull be cut with them, to ferve as a fort of root. With all R 2 thefe ^8 P R A C T I C K. Part I. thefe precautions, it mud not be expecled, that every cutting from the platanus, the white pop- lar, the poplars of Virginia and of Lombardy, the afpin, the maple with a(h leaver, u ill take root. Cuttings from the yew, the alati rnue>, the box, require the utmoft care. They ought tn be plant- ed in beds flickered from the fun, and watered in dry weather. All trees do by layers ; and the method is eafy in fhrubs which have brandies near the ground : but to propagate by layers from large trees that have no branches near the ground, fuch as t!v.- lime, the mulberry, the aller, more art is nccef- fary. One method is, to cut the tree by the ground before the fap begins to rife ; which will produce many fhoots the firft year. The next year at the fame time, heap earth upon the roc t till it rife a foot upon the ftioots. After two or three years remove the earth, and cut oft' the fhoots, which will be full of roots as far as tiiev were covered with earth. Thcfe will make good plants. Spare the fmaller (hoots, and cover them with earth as before : they will in time produce new plants. By the following Method, the f. maybe fo managed as to produce )oung plants without end. Toward the end of February, ber.d the beft moots down to the ground, twilling them a good deal about the middle, c;nd covci in a that part with earth. Set the ends upright to be prefcrved in that pofture by earth \ ret. \d about them. Ch. X.i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 229 them. A {hoot by being twitted, will produce more roots the firft year, than otherwife in two or three. Every fhoot thus laid, will produce feveral moots : of which layers may be made, managed as above mentioned. A third method is; to chooie a young tree eight or nine inches in circumference ; and cut it over two feet from the ground. In every part, the Hump pufhes many fhcots. The fecond or third year, take all out of the ground ; lay the ltump with its roots and moots in a trench ; and cover them -with earth, lb as to leave nothing open to the air but the ex- tremities of the fhoots. Thefe will thru ft out roots under the furface, which will afford young plants in abundance. When a pine or a fir is cut down, the root dies without producing any moot. Nor can thefe trees be propagated either by cuttings or by layers ; if a fpruce fir be ex- cepted, which it is faid can be propagated by cuttings. / To have flraight trees, cuttings and layers ought to be of perpendicular branches, efpecially where the wood is hard. How long layers mould, continue in the ground to have good oots, de- pends much upon the feafon, and Mill more on the nature oT the tree. A bramble will take root on the furface of the ground, without the leaft covering of earth. Layers of lime and of piata- nus have commonly good roots in three years, R 2 and 230 PRACTICE. PartL and fomctimcs in two. Many trees require long- er time. To propagate by fuckers, part of the root of the parent plant muft be cut along with the fucker. It muft be immediately planted in a nurfery, in order to acquire roots. When planted out to ftand, the old root mould be cut away all but what is clofe to the fucker ; for it is apt to fwell under ground, and to obftruct the growth of the plant. To have a quantity of fuckers, which rife not plentifully from old trees, cut the old tree over, and the ground will be filled iwith them. Some writers fay, that trees propagated by lay- ers take on a better fhape, and grow fafter, than thofe propagated by fuckers. 3. SOIL PROPER FOR TREES. The foil proper for trees comes next in order. Fat fand, that is, clay mixed with a large propor- tion of fand, agrees with almofl every fort of tree, efpecially if the foil be deep. Evergreens do well in fuch a foil. And even aquatics, fuch as am, poplar, willow, aller, thrive in it, though more ilowly than in moift ground : thefe aquatics make a fhift even in ground too dry for the oak, the beech, the chefnut. A pine grows well in fand. The juniper will grow in a very thin foil where fcarce any other tree will thrive. An afpin does well in a pure clay : a chefnut does not. Dry earth Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 2,3't earth of a good quality, though but eighteen inches above a tough till, will bear the elm, the maple, the hornbeam, the walnut, the am, the birch, the mulberry, the white poplar, and almoit every kind of ihrub. If but ten or twelve inches deep, it is only fit for fhrubs ; excepting the birch, which will grow if the till be covered with but five or fix inches of black and light earth. The lime and the horfe-chefnet love a tender and deep foil. Marfhy foil is proper for the willow, the afh, the aller, the occidental platanus, and for moft forts of the poplar. An alder, though it makes a fliift in the dried foil, yet loves moifture ; and therefore is proper for a fence on the fides of ditches, for cattle do not touch it. Ground elevated two or three feet above a running water, being moift without being marfhy, is fit for trees of every fort, particularly for the occidental and oriental platanus, the tulip-tree, and the lime, Young trees ihould be planted differently, accord- ing to the nature of the foil : in a foil retentive of moifture, the tree fhould be bulked above the furface ; in a very dry foil, the earth round the tree fhould dope down to the root, in order to collect the rain. In general, though corn pro- fpers in clay, fandy or gravelly foil is fitter! for trees. The culture of corn, renewed annually, renders clay open and free ; but when left untii- led, it turns too hard even for the roots of trees, R 4 4. CLI- 232 PRACTICE. Part I. 4. CLIMATE. With refpect to climate, an oak is an inhabi- tant of the temperate zone : none are found be- tween the tropics, and none farther north than Stockholm. Fir and birch bear much cold, the latter efpecially. Plants, like animals, after le- veral generations, come to thrive in a climate very different from their own. It requires peculiar fkill and attention to habituate to a new climate fuch as grow on the top of the Alps, and on the top of high mountains farther north. Their na- ture fits them for a very cold fummer; and for a temperate winter, being always covered with fnow during that feafon. In a low country the want of fnow can be tolerably well fupplied by fome fmall degree of artificial heat ; but in our fummers it is not eafy to give them the cold of their native place. The advantages and difadvantages of different expofures come under the prefent article. In fpring, even a ftrong froft hurts not plants, pro- vided the ice be melted before they are expofed to the fun : but even a moderate froft commits- great wafte, if the ice continue till it be melted by the fun 1 for the ice acts as a burning-glafs. By that means, delicate plants, expofed to the riling fun, are often deftroyed in fpring; while fuch' plants, expofed to the north, are fafe : which is the Ch. X. r. Culture of Forest-Trees. 233 the fate even of young moots of the oak. An eaftern expofition has, on the other hand, its a4- vantages. Plants are fooner relieved from the morning cold by the heat of the fun : they are protected from the fun's meridian heat : and as the eaft wind is generally dry, fpring-froft makes lefs impreffion than where there is more moifture. In a fouthern expofition, plants, being covered from the north, are the lefs fubject to froft. As the fun reaches them not till about ten in the morning, the fpring-ice is commonly melted be- fore that time ; and if the climate be rainy to temper the meridian heat, trees in that expofure grow faft. The difadvantages are, firft, that young plants are apt to be fcorched by the fun, efpecially in a light foil and dry fummer : next, that ice is frequently melted in that expofure even by winter-heat ; and if the moifture be not fucked up by heat or difftpated by wind, it con- geals in the evening, and does much hurt. A weftern expofition is free from the burning fun in a dry feafon ; but is expofed to fpring fnow and hail which come moftly from the weft. We often feel a weft expofition infupportably cold, when the air is tolerably foft in other ex- pofitions. Hardy trees can bear this cold ; but- tender trees are often deftroyed by it. In a northern expofition, fnow never melts ; and the wind from that quarter is the coldeft and drieft of any. By that means however per- fpiration 234 PRACTICE. Part I. fpiration is fo faint, that little moifture is re- quired. Here deciduous foreft-trees grow flowly ; but the pine, the fir, the yew, the evergreen oak, the box, and the other evergreens, thrive well. This fact, appears lingular : evergreen perfpire little ; and one would think that they fhould, more than other trees, need the ad ion of the fun to keep their fap in motion. The birch alfo thrives well in a northern afpecl. In a dry and light foil, trees thrive better expofed to the north, than to the fouth : in the former, the dew continues on the trees till nine or ten in the morning ; and the fun ftrikes not fo vio- lently as to wither the ground, or to occafion great perfpiration. But a fouthern afpect me- rits the preference in a clay foil, and in a cold climate. 5. TIME OF PLANTING TREES IN THE FIELD. With refpect to the time of planting trees where they are to ftand, it runs from autumn when they drop the leaf, till fpring when the buds begin to fwell; provided it be freih weather, and the ground be tolerably dry. But becaufe in the dead of winter froft prevails, or too much moifture, two feafons chiefly are recommended, namely autumn before ftrong froft fets in, and fpring after it is paft. In this feafon, planting may be continued till the buds begin to open ; which Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees 235 which in fome trees is early, in others late. The opening the buds depends alfo on the feafon, late or early. Whether autumn or fpring be the beft for planting is not agreed. As the weather is commonly moid in autumn, trees brought from a diflance fuffer lefs in that feafon by being long kept out of the ground ; and if the winter happen to be mild, new roots are produced, which are a fine preparation for a more vigo- rous vegetation in fpring. Millar holds October to be the beft feafon for planting trees that lofe the leaf in winter, provided the foil be dry. In a moift foil, it is better, fays he, to defer plant- ing till the latter end of February or beginning of March. But though this may hold in gene- ral, there are feveral exceptions. Tender plants that are hurt by froft, ought to be delayed till fpring. Trees that retain the leaf during winter, ought to be tranfplanted in fpring ; for, having a flow circulation of fap, they perfpire little, and run lefs rifk of being hurt by drought. Another reafon concurs with refpect to the oak, the beech, and the hornbeam, which hold the leaf all win- ter : the reafon is, that they are late in puming ; and when planted in February or March, they have time to prepare new roots before the buds begin to fwell *. April is undoubtedly the beft feafon * It is maintained by fome writers, that the beft feafon for planting oak and larche, is immediately before the buds begin to pufh. I have not difcovered any good rea- fon for making thefe trees an exception from the genera! rule. 236 PRACTICE. Part. I. feafon for evergreens ; though they may be late- ly removed at Midfummer, if near the place where they are to ftand. During winter ever- greana arc in a Mate approaching to reft. If removed at that lealon, they do not take root till the fpring lets the fap in motion ; and in a hard winter they commonly die. Light land mould infallibly be planted in autumn ; for fpring-pianting in fuch land is fubjeel to great diftrels from the fummer-fun. 6. MANNER OF PLANTING. As to t]ie manner of planting trees in a field, the fafeft way to draw them out of a nurfery for planting, is to remove the earth from the fir ft row of trees, which by that means will be eatily drawn without hurting the roots ; proceeding in the fame manner till all be taken up. What arc too fmall, may be planted in a new bed prepared for them. For three years after trees are tranf- plantcd from the nurfery, the ground about them ought to be twice ftirred annually. Once a-ycar after will be fufficient, till the trees get entirely the better of weeds. Plantations weeded for a year or two only, have vilibly languilhed. As foon as trees thus cultivated begin to join their branches, the lower branches fall off, and the weeds are fmothered. This is the time of the moil vigorous growth. Trees cannot be planted too thick, provided attention be given to thin them CH. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 237 them timeouily. Thick planting fhelters them from wind and from cold. When they rife to feven or eight feet height, fo as to wave with wind, they ought to be thinned, to prevent their rub- bing upon one another, which is apt to create a fort of gangrene, But let them be thinned cau- tioufly : fhorten the branches of the weakeft tree, for giving room to the trees that are to ftand ; and let that tree be cut down a year or two after. This is a better method than to cut down the tree at firft ; for young trees that have too much room, are apt to branch out inftead of pufhing up. This method does finely in a plantation of firs and pines. When the trees rife to eighteen or twenty feet, and by good roots are proof againfc wind, they ought to be much thinned, fo as not to leave one nearer another than its own length. Where trees of that height ftand clofe together, they occalion a ftagnation of air : the air they fuck in is unwholefome, and makes them languifh. Young trees five or fix feet high only, occafion very little ftagnation of air : the free air above mixing with that below, preferves all fweet and wholefome. Free air is necefiary for plants as well as for animals. . People crowded together in a great town, lofe vigour and become difeafed. For the fame reafon, trees planted thick, wither and lefe their growth Of this, there are examples with- out number in Angus and Mearns. We fee every i 238 PRACTICE. Part I. every where clumps of firs, many that have flood thirty or forty years, without lateral branches, not a leaf but at the top where the air is free ; the outer rows where the air can penetrate, to- lerable j of the reft of the clump, within, not one tree bigger than a man's leg. Yet, in no other part of the world can there be a ftronger inducement to thin trees ; not only to procure timber, which is much wanted in that country, but to procure a ftill more ufeful commodity, and that is fuel ; which is fo fcanty in that popu- lous and manufacturing country, that for an acre of broom of five years growth, L. 5 Sterling is an ordinary price. Yet the proprietors in other re- fpects, are careful of their affairs. It is not in my power to find a meaning. Suppofe a field of fine wheat is fuftered to rot on the ground, without ever applying the fickle ; would it not be juflly concluded, that the farmer is crazy ? Is there no reafon to apprehend the fame imputa- tion upon gentlemen, who, after the expence of fencing and planting, look on and fuffer their plantations to go to ruin, by neglecting to apply the. axe ? I have often cenfured this lupine ne- gligence, as not only hurtful to the proprietors, but to their manufactures. I willingly embrace this opportunity of public admonition, hoping it may prove more fuccefsful than private cenfure. One method of making a plantation turn to profit in a fhort time, is to begin with planting birch Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 239 birch in rows with intervals of fix feet, ftirring the ground about them two years. In the inter- vals fow acorns, chefnuts, or beech-matt. The birch, a faft grower, will in a few years form a thick wood, deftroy the weeds, and fhade the young plants below them. The birch cut out when they begin to opprefs the trees under them, will afford fome profit, and leave the ground plentifully ftored with better trees. The beft way to encourage trees planted in a row, is to draw a trench at the fide of the row, at fuch a diftance as not to wound the roots. The earth thrown upon the roots will lave weed- ing, and fecure the trees againft wind. The water in that trench will be an additional nou- rifhment to the trees. Evergreens, perfpiring lefs than other plants, require lefs nourilhment, and for that reafon con- tinue green all winter. They referable the exan- guous tribe of animals, the frog, the toad, the tortoife, the ferpent, which, perfpiring little, make a fhift to pafs the winter without food. Evergreens, by perfpiring little, have a thick, vifcid, oily fap, which enables them to endure the winter's cold. They feem many of them to thrive belt in the temperate feafons of the year; not fo well in the heat of fummer, their perfpi- ration being then too great for the flow afcent of the fap. Evergreens, when tranfplanted, do not fo readily ftrike root as other trees : for which 2 4 o PRACTICE. Part I. which reafon they ought to be taken up with a bulk of earth about their roots. Gardeners commonly place fhrubs of this kind in an olier- bafket, which foon rots after it is put into the ground with a tree. A holly thus tranfplanted ought to be watered in the month of May, if the feafon be dry. In order to tranfplant a tree with a bulk of earth about the roots, cut a trench round it at the diftance often or twelve inches, as deep as the roots go, cutting over with a fharp knife all the roots that appear. Return the earth into the trench. Rep.at the operation next year, but a little farther from the tree. When the tree i* tranfplanted the year after, the roots will be lo interlaced in the bulk, that none of the earth will fall away in carrying. The hole where the tree is to itand, fliould be confiderably larger than the bulk, and made fome months before planting, to receive the influence of fun, rain, and froft. Fill up the hole with frefli good earth, fit to en- courage the young roots. The harder the foil is, the hole ought to be the larger, to receive the greater quantity of the nouri (hing earth. In making the hole, lay the upper Jlratum on the one fide, and what is below on the other : lay the former about the roots, being the bell foil, and cover it with the latter. Preferve as many roots as pofTiblc, fhortening thofe only that are too long, and what are torn in taking up. In the. Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 141 the tree have too much head, fhcrten the largeft branches, leaving the {mail branches for carrying leaves : it is by thefe that the Tap is drawn up ; and it is by thefe that perfpiration is performed. But preferve carefully the leading moot or (hoots ; for many experiments have made it evident, that, thefe have the greater!: power to draw up the fap. If the lime be not an exception, a tree, after its head is lopped off, fpreads into a bufh, but never rifes in height. Conclude all, by prefling down the earth vigoroufly with the foot, A tree plant- ed deep in the ground, ftands the firmer againft wind : its roots are better protccled againft fun and froft, and lefs apt to throw up fuckers. Thefe coniiderations notwithstanding, trees ought not to be planted deep ; for they ianguiih till they acquire roots hear the furface. Thefe, fp read- ing themfelv?- m the belt foil, and being accef- fible to fun and rain, convey much more nourihh- ment to the tree than thofe below. Nothing however is meant againft planting large trees deeper than what are fmall. At the fame time, if the under foil be bad, or very inoift, even large trees ought to be planted near the furface, with a bulk of earth about them. Becaufe in a porous foil the fun penetrates deeper than in clay, and withers the roots near the furface : for that reafon a tree ought to be planted deeper in the for- mer than in the latter. Many think, that a fir does bell where fir-trees have been recently cut : a fir being the native of a cold country, ftands S much 2 4 2 PRACTICE. Part I. much in need of a fhade in fummer ; and there- tore fucceeds the beft when protected from the fun by furrounding firs. So far the obfervation holds, and I believe no farther. It ought to be an indifpeniable duty, to vifit young plantations after every high wind, and to let upright thole that are thaken, prefling the earth clofe about the roots. Support a tree much ihaken with a forked ftick. I know no general rule more important than this. It is my opinion, that more trees are loft by negleft of this operation, than any other way. The opera- tion ought to be renewed after every high wind, till trees have acquired fuch roots as to ftand firm againft wind. Some are careful, to give a tranfplanted tree the fame pofition with refpect to the fun, that it had in the nurfery. But experience has proved this precaution to be ufelefs. As the expence and rilk of filling up a vacant fpot with a full grown tree is great, a nurfery may be fet apart for rearing young trees till they be from fifteen to eighteen feet high. '1 hefe trees may be tranfplanted twice or thrice in the nurfery for multiplying their roots ; and they ought to be planted where they are to ftand, with as much as pollible of the nurfery foil about the roots. In that view, froft is the proper time for the operation. Such trees will not at firft make fo great a figure as full-grown trees ', but there will be lefs hazard of mifcarrying. Where Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 243 Where trees of unequal growth are planted together, the quickeft growers will overtop the reft, and deftroy them. Therefore let trees of the fame kind be planted in clumps ; or let none be mixed but what grow equally fall. I imagine there is a beauty in fmall clumps, as it makes dif- ferent lliades the more confpicuous. Colours, even the fined, make but a faint impreffion in a confufed mixture # . 7. PRUNING. And now of pruning. By multiplied experi- ments it is afcertained, that the cutting off young branches, hurts not any fort of tree, not even the walnut, nor the relinous kind. The loweit branches, which in time would wither and drop off, ought firft to be cut ; but gradually, that the tree may not be bared of leaves. Severe pruning makes trees grow tall, but withal fo flender as not to refill wind. Every tree fuffers by having its large branches cut off, but in different de- grees. The wound of an elm is foon healed : not of a walnut, an oak, or a pine ; if the tree be S 2 . not * With regard to trfe railing trees, there are two things that never ought to be neglected, though far from being common in practice. The firft is, that after every high wind, plantations under ieven years old ihould be vifited, and every tree loofcned at the root by the wind, be fixed with the foot or with the fpade. I am perfuaded that the neglect of this fimple practice has hurt many plantations. The next is, to commence from that period of feven years, to thin trees as they grow up, that they may have both room to grow and air to breathe, This operation ought to proceed gradually, flowly indeed, but weekly or monthly. 244 PRACTICE. Part 1. not vigorous, the wound is apt to rot in to the body. When a large branch is cut off, though the place of its infertion is foon covered with wood and bark ; yet the new wood doth not unite with the old, and there always remains a defect with- in. When an overgrown branch is cut clofe to the trunk, which ought to be at the end of the vear, the young fhoots muft the next June or July be pulled off with the hand. Jf cut off with a knife, flioots will grow without end, and create a disfiguring bunch in the tree. A writer, whofe HUegrity equals his experience, affirms, that a branch cut fome inches from the trunk will make no blemiili in the tree *. The greatelt attention ought to be given to the head : if forked, one of the rival branches muft be cut off fix inches high ; and to the remaining Hump ought to be tied the other branch, in order to give it an up- Tight direction. If a youug tree become itatio- nary, as it is apt to do in fliff foil, cut it over by the ground in September, or rather below the ground. Next June or July tear off with the hand all the flioots but the ftrongeft, and lay earth round the Mump. If this be delayed till the fap fall, there is danger of tearing the bark of the flump, which would hurt it. Avoid a knife ; for at every amputation fhoots will pufl) r which mutt again be cut, and a bunch will grow. Inftead of cutting by the ground a young tree become flationary, fome recommend a flit in the bark * Kennedy. Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 245 bark from the root upward. A trial was made of thefe two methods in the fame field ; andthofe that were flit became the nioft thriving trees. The experiment was made upon afhes. Pruning may go on from the beginning of July till the middle of September: trees later pruned fufter by cold. A holly is an exception : it has a large heart, and is hurt by frofl: if clipped or pruned after the month of July. A holly-hedge that was not clipped after the month of June, endured without hurt the hard frofl of the year 1740. The Scotch fir, which is not a fir but a pine, deferves to be cultivated for beauty as well as for ufe. In a natural wood, the timber is always better, and freer of knots, than in a plantation. Trees are always planted at the fame time; but in a natural wood are of different ages, the elder bearing down the younger, but not without lo- fing all their under branches. This in effect proves a benefit ; for, as the under branches do not fpring again, there happens to be much tim- ber without knots. In a planted field, on the contrary, the trees grow all equally ; and if weed- ing be neglected they grow up like fpindles with- out a lateral branch : if duly weeded, fo as to give room for lateral branches, the lower bran- ches die by degrees, and leave knots in the trees. Therefore to train a fir-plantation, the trees ought to be thinned as foon as they begin to wind-wave ; and the loweft tire of branches fhould be cut off from every tree that is intend- S 3 ed 246 PRACTICE. Fart I. ed to (land. Another tire fliould be cut off the next year ; and fo on, leaving five or fix feet of the trunk without a branch. All the wood that is added to the tree after, will be folid with- out a knot. A better way is, to tear off with the hand the under branches, which bring their roots with them : the hollow is foon filled up with re- gular fibres, and the wood is all equally good. A branch cut away with the knife, though clofe to the item, leaves its root, which becomes a knot when furrounded with new wood. If a Scotch fir be intended for beauty, let all other trees be kept at a diirance, and it will fland forty or fifty years without lofing a branch. Travelling in Northumberland, Durham, Yorkfhire, clumps of Scotch fir are feen advantageoufly planted on knolls. But never an attempt to weed. They are in the high way to deftruction for want of air and room. When a larche is fifteen or lix- teen feet high, cut off the lowed tire of branches in October clofe to the ilem, and the next two tire fucccffivcly, year after year. The rays of the fun will be admitted to the root of the tree ; and the air will have a free circulation, neceflary to all plants. It will not be neceflary afterwards to ufe a knife to a larche, unlefs it be to lop oil" a broken branch *. Sheep * In Mr Duffs garden, town of Ayr, there was an o!d itump of a thorn three or four feet high, that appeared to have very little life in it. It was pierced in feveral pla- ces with an iron nail : buds came out at every hole ; and now it is a flourishing tree about fifteen feet high. Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 24.7 Sheep and goats are more deftruclive to young trees than horned cattle ; and thefe, more than horfes. Sheep are fond of the leaves of the white- thorn, above all other food : it is folly to think of white-thorn hedges, without baniming them. The depredations of thefe creatures upon my plan- tations have often fvvelled my heart againft Pro- vidence. Why has it made young trees fo pa- latable to them : what woods might not be rai- fed, were it not for the expence of fencing ! Such thoughts were apt to Heal in upon me. But in nothing are we more in the wrong than in murmuring againft Providence. It is to us a iignal bleffing that domefticated animals feed on young trees : otherwife, the utmolt induftry of man would be infufficient to prevent trees from occupying the whole ground, and putting an end to agriculture ; he would be reduced to his original favage ftate. 8. WOOD PROPER FOR INSTRUMENTS OF HUS- BANDRY. Among the moil expenfive articles of a farm, are carts, ploughs, brakes, harrows, rollers, &c. and it is of importance with refpecl to ceconomy, that thefe mould be conftrucled of proper wood. To. that end the following hints may be of ufe. I begin with examining, at what age a tree is in perfection for the purpofes of a farm. At the S 4 age 248 PRACTICE. Part I. age of fixty, it is fufticiently large for every farm-purpoie ; being, when cut to the fquare, from twelve to fifteen inches each fide. 1 muft except the oak, which, even for the purpoies of farming, improves till it be a hundred years old. Every oak confifts of reu a^d white wood ; the former the firmed of all wood, the latter good for nothing. Aih, after the growth of fixty years, turns fhort and brittle. The proper feafon for cutting a tree is, when it has lead fap ; which is precifely in the middle between the time of ihedding the leaf and that of budding: in that interval it is tough, and fit- ted for every farm purpofe. When cut in the lap, the wood is ihort, and apt to fplit with drought. For preferving wood after being cut, there are three methods. One is, to dry it in the air ; an- other, to immerfe it in water ; and a third, to cover it with horfe-dung. Afh, when fawed green, never fails to fplit. Before applv ing an inftrument, it ought to be expofed eighteen months in a dry fituation, that all the lap may evaporate. During that time, both ends ought to be covered from the air : the bark prevents the body from fplitting •, but when the ends are expofed, they will fplit into the body five or fix inches. When afh is defigned for ufes that re- quire fplitting, let it be fplit immediately after cutting, and the parts laid up where the air has not Ch. X. i. Culture of Forest-Trees. 249 not free accefs, in order that they may dry by flow degrees ; for fudden drought makes them warp. Oak and elm require the lame treatment. The Huntington willow, and other willows that rife to a large fize, turn extremely tough when dry ; and therefore, if intended for planks or boards, they ought to be fawed directly after being cut. But as in this cafe they are apt to fplit, great care ought to be taken to dry them flowly. Alder and birch ought to be managed in the fame manner. The immerling in water, and covering with horfe-dung, are far from being the belt methods of drying wood. It is always harder and tougher when dried (lowly in the air. Therefore thefe methods are only for expedition, in order to ex- tract the fap the more quickly when the wood is wanted for immediate ufe. There is not an inftrument of husbandry that confifts of different parts, but requires wood of different kinds. Of all wood, oak is that which refifts moifture the belt, and can the belt endure the being totally deprived of air. For thefe rea- fons, oak is the only wood fit for being mortifed into other wood. From the part that is mortifed, air is totally excluded ; and yet fome moifture finds accefs, being more penetrating than air. Therefore the fpokes of a wheel, which are mor- tifed both intothe nave and fillies, ought indifpen- fably to be of oak ; the fheths of harrows, which bind c 5 o PRACTICE. Parti. "bind the parts together, ought to be of the fame wood ; as alio the head of the chain-plough, be- < ; i it is mortifed into the beam. As afh is lefs apt to fplit than oak, it is more proper for naves and fillies. Being the toughefl of all wood, and the mod elaftic, it is the fitted for the fhafts of a cart. The beft wood for the body of a cart or waggon, is the Huntington willow. It is both lighter and tougher than even the beft red fir. The head of the Scotch plough may be of alder, becauie it is not mortifed into any other part. Whatever the plough be, the mouldboard may be of willow, or alder or plane ; becauie they are light and not apt to fplit. The bulls of brakes and harrows fhould be of birch or alder. A roller fhould be made of beech-wood, being heavy ; the flieths and pins of oak, and the ihafts of afh. Foreign fir is the beft and chcapefl for couples. Beech-wood would be itill better, were it not apt to take the worm : but in a farm-houfe that is not lofted, will not the japanning with fmoke prevent that evil ? The handles of fpades, ihovels, picks, &-C. ought undoubtedly to be of afh : beiide its toughneis, it is lefs apt to turn warm in handling than any other wood. For gates, fir is undoubtedly the beft : It is light; it refills moifture ; and is not apt to warp. One general rule I give, of more importance than at firft view may be thought, which is, that the angle made by mortifing, or otherwife, being always Ch. X. 2. Flax. 251 always the weakeft part of the inftrument, ought to be fortified with a plate of iron fitting accu- rately the angle of the wood. SECT. II. Flax. HAving finifhed what I had to fay on foreft- trees, flax comes next in order, according to the diflribution made above. The regulations publifhed by the truftees for manufactures, have left me little to obferve upon that article. I fhall venture a few particulars only, more immediately connected with huibandry. Annual weeds abound fo much in this country by carelefs management, that the weeding of flax is the greatefl incum- brance on its culture. After horfe-hoed turnip, cabbage, or potatoes, flax fucceeds well ; and I know no other crops that extirpate weeds fo ef- fectually. A potato-crop being removed in Octo- ber, the ground during winter gets a froft-prepa- ration ; which cannot be obtained after cabbage or turnip, becaufe thefe keep the ground all win- ter. Therefore, above all, I recommend a pota- to-crop as a preparation for flax. Next to it, if at all inferior, is pafture-ground three or four years old, left rough in foggage, and in that ftate trench-plowed before winter. It gets the frofU preparation, is clean of weeds ; and the rough foggage, 252 PRACTICE. Part I. foggage, turned to the bottom of the furrow, re- tains moifture like a fpunge, which it yields plen- tifully to the roots of the flax. Flax is a thirfty plant ; and a better fituation it cannot have for procuring nourifhment. In pulling flax, the fully ripe ought to be fe- parated from what is lefs fo, and the tall from the fhort : when mixed, they neither water well, nor drefs well. Let the feed, when fparated from the plant, be beat lightly and paifed through a lieve. The bed and plumpeft will come out firft; and this ought to be referved for fowing again. Beat what remains with a heavier hand : the feed thus got will be fit for the oil-mill. Lint pulled green requires lefs watering than when fully ripe. SECT. IH. Hops. r |~*HE lad article of this kind I undertook, is X the hop. A regular hop-yard is an under- taking too great for an ordinary farmer ; but every farmer, by the following plan, may have hops of his own growing, fufficient for his own ufe, and perhaps for his neighbours. If I can reduce the expence within moderate bounds, I am not afraid of the climate of Scotland : many judicious Ch. X. 3. Hops. 253 judicious trials made here, have produced good hops. Dr Woodward has obferved, that the fruit which grows neareft the ground, is always the bed. This has fuggefted to me a thought, that hops may be propagated in the efpalier way like apples or pears. Fix in the ground, at an inter- val of three feet, a number of poles eight or nine feet high, in a line from weft to eaft. Beginning at the weft end, plant a hope- vine at the foot of each pole, the laft fix or feven excepted. In- ftead of allowing them to afcend the poles, train them from weft to eaft in an angle with the ho- rizon of nine or ten degrees, and directing them from pole to pole by fmall twigs between the poles; obferving to twift them round the poles and twigs as they grow naturally in afcending upon a pole : in a contrary direction they can- not be made to grow. In this manner, eachrvine may extend itfelf twenty or thirty feet, without riling at its extremity more than nine feet above the ground. ]f a hop refemble other fruit-trees, it will carry more fruit by having the growth of the wood checked. And if this method fucceed, a fmall hop- plantation may be within the reach of every farmer, requiring fome attention, but little expence. Poles above twenty feet long, renewed every two or three years, are a moft expenfive ar- ticle in an Englifh hop-yard ; and the place: in Scotland are few where they can be procured at any 254 P R A C T I C E. Part I. any rate : but poles of nine or ten feet may be procured every where. There is another fignal advantage of this method : Wind is a great ene- my to a hop-yard ; but a row of humble poles bound together by hop-vines will be fufticiently fecure againft wind, efpecially in a line from weft to eaft. Taking it for granted, that the fruit next the ground is the beft, I ^am in the courfe of an ex- periment with a young apple-tree having two branches, one trained to the weft, the other to the eaft, upon fmall pegs of wood about fix inches high. Under thefe branches the earth is covered with fharp fand, in order that the fruit may be benefited both by the direct and reflected rays of the fun. It deferves an experiment, whether hops may not be trained fuccefsfully the fame way, without the expence of any poles. It will coft very little expence to fill a whole acre in that manner, making an interval of a foot or eighteen inches, in order that the fun may have accefs to all of them equally. CHAP. XI. Manures. THE manures commonly ufed in Scotland are dung, lime, (hell-marl, clay-marl, and ftonemarl. Many other fubftances are ufed; lhavings Ch. XI. Manures 255 ihavings of horn for example, refufe of malt, and even old rags ; but as the quantity that can be procured is inconfiderable, and as their appli- cation is fimple, I fhall confume no time upon them. Dung is the chief of all manures ; becaufe a quantity of it may be collected in every farm, and becaufe it makes the quickeft return. A field fufficiently dunged, will produce good crops four or five years. Dung of animals that chew the cud, being more thoroughly putrefied than that of others, is fit to be mixed with the foil without needing to be collected into a dunghill. A horfe does not chew the cud ; and in horfe-dung may be perceived ftraw or ryegrafs broken into fmall parts but not dhTolved : It is proper therefore that the putrefaction be completed in a dung- hill. It ought to be mixed there with cool ma- terials : fo hot it is, that in a dunghill by itfelf, it finges and t burns inftead of putrefying. The difference between the dung of a horfe and of a horned animal, is viiible in a pafture-field : The grafs round the former is withered ; round the latter, it is ranker and more verdant than in the reit of the field. A mixture of dry and moift fluff, ought to be ftudied : the former attracting moifture from the latter, they become equally moift. To 256 PRACTIC E. Parti. To prevent fap from running out of a dung- hill, its fituation fhould be a little below the fur- face ; and to prevent rain from running into it, it fhould be furrounded with a ring of fod. If the foil on which the dunghill ftands be porous, let it be paved, to prevent the fap from finking into the ground. If moifture happen to fuperabouncl, it may be led off by a fmall gutter to impregnate a quantity of rich mould laid down to receive it, which will make that mould equal to good dung. Straw mould be prepared for the dunghill, by being laid under cattle, and fufficiently moiftened. When laid dry in a dunghill, it keeps it open, admits too much air, and prevents putrefaction. Dung from the liable ought to be carefully fpread on the dunghill, and mixed with the for- mer dung. When left in heaps upon the dung- hill, fermentation and putrefaction go on equal- Complete putrefaction is of importance with regard to the feed of weeds that are in the dung- hill : if they remain found, they are carried out with the dung, and infeft the ground. Com- plete putrefaction is of ilill greater importance by pulverifing the dung ; in which condition it mixes intimately with the foil, and operates the molt powerfully. In land intended for barley, undi- gefted dung has an unhappy effect : It Keeps the ground open, admits drought, and prevents the feed from fpringing. On the other hand, when thoroughly Ch. XI. Manures. 257 thoroughly rotted, it mixes with the foil, and en- ables it to retain moifture. It follows, that the propereft time for dunging a field, is in its high- eft pulveration ; at which time the earth mixes intimately with the dung. Immediately before fetting cabbage, fowing turnip or wheat, is a good time. Dung divides and fpreads the moft accurately when moift. Its intimate mixture with the foil is of fuch importance, that hands fhould be employed to divide and fpread any lumps that may be in it. Though dung is the chief manure in Scotland, the generality of our farmers feem not to give due attention to it. They are not only negligent in collecting mate- rials, but apply it green without being putrefied. It may be juftly faid that the half at leaft of its benefit is loft ; or, in other words, that the efiedt would be double were it well prepared and mix- ed intimately with the foil. Dung fhould be fpread, and plowed into the ground without delay. When a heap lies two or three weeks, fome of the moifture links into the ground, which will produce tufts of corn more vigorous than in the reft or the field. There cannot be a worfe practice than to lead out dung before winter, leaving it expofed to fro ft and fnow. The whole fpirit of the dung is extracted by rain, and carried off with it. The dung di- verted of its fap becomes dry in fpring, and inca- pable of being mixed with the mould. It is T turned 253 P R A C T 1 C E. Part I. turned over whole by the plough, and buried in the furrow. I approve not of plowing down buck- wheat, red clover, or any other crop, for manure. The bed way of converting a crop into manure is, to parts it through the body of an animal. The clung and urine, not to mention the profit of feeding, will enrich the ground more than to plow down the crop. As dung is an article of the utmoft importance in hufbandry, one mould imagine, that the col- lecting it would be a capital article with an indu- strious farmer. Yet an ingenious writer, obfer- \ing that the Jamaicans arc in this particular much more industrious than the Britifh, afcribes the difference to the difficulty of procuring dung in Jamaica. " In England, where the long " winter enables a farmer to raife what quantity 44 he pleafes, it is not collected with any de- 44 gree of industry. But in Jamaica, where 44 there is no winter, and where the heat of the 44 fun is a great obstruction, the farmer muft be 44 indefatigable, or he will never raife any dung." Cool intereft is not alone a fufficient motive with the indolent, to be active. As dung is of great importance in husbandry, a farmer cannot be too affiduous, in collecting animal and vegetable fubftances that will rot. One article of that kind there is, to collect which there is a double mo- tive, and yet U neglected almolt every where. A Ch. XI. Manures. 259 A farm full of weeds is a nuifance to the neigh- bourhood : it poiibiis the fields around ; and the poiTeiTor ought, to be difgraccd as a pell to fo- ciety. Now the cutting down every weed before the feed is formed, anfwers two excellent pur- pofes. Firft, it encourages good crops by keep- ing the ground clean. Next, thefc weeds mixed with other materials in a dunghill, will add con- iiderably to the quantity of dung # . In erecting a large dunghill, a cart and horfes are commonly employed to lay the materials up- on it, and in a dunghill of a fmaller fize, a hand barrow is commonly employed. This practice I cannot approve ; for where a dunghill is much trodden upon, the air is excluded from the parts that are the molt comprefTed, which prevents pu- trefaction. A dunghill compofed, as it ought to be, of half digeited materials, may be railed as high as can be done with the reach of the hand : its own weight will comprefs it iufficiently for putrefaction. And to prevent evaporation, it may be finifhed with a covering of fine earth and barley fown on it. Next of lime, which is a profitable manure, and greatly profitable when it can be got in plen- ty within a moderate diftance. Philofophers differ widely about its nature, and the caufe of T 2 its * At the roots of hedges in England fronting the high- road, the weeds grow i.i quantity fufhci^nt, if collected, to make many thoufand cartloads of dung yearly. 260 PRACTICE. Part I. its effects ; and they talk fo loofely, as to con- vince a plain farmer that the matter is very little underftood. But practice is our prefent theme ; and the benefit of lime is fo vifible, that the ufe of it has become general, where the price and carriage are moderate. However people may differ in other particu- lars, all agree, that the operation of lime depends on its intimate mixture with the foil ; and there- fore that the proper time of applying it, is when it is perfectly powdered, and the foil at the fame time in the higheft degree of pulveration. This opinion appears to have a folid foundation. Lime of itfelf is abfolutely barren ; and yet it enriches a barren foil. Neither of the two produces any good effect without the other : therefore the ef- fect muft depend on the mixture ; and confe- quently the more intimately they are mixed the effect mud be the greater *. Hence it follows, that lime ought always to be flaked with a proper quantity of water, becaufe by that means it is reduced the mod effectually into powder. Lime left to be flaked by a moift air, or accidental rain, is feldom or never tho- roughly reduced into powder ; and therefore can never be intimately mixed with the foil. Some- times * Mr Buchanan of Achlefhy, in Perthfhire, prepared a quantity of lime for manuring a moor plowed before winter. Lime was immediately fpread upon a part of it ; but the work was flopped by bad weather. The remaining lime Ch. XI. Manures. 261 times an opportunity offers to bring home fhell- lime before the ground is ready for it ; and it is commonly thrown into a heap without cover, trufting to rain for flaking. The proper way is, to lay the fhell-lime in different heaps on the ground where it is to be fpread, to reduce thefe heaps into powder by flaking with water, and to cover the flaked lime with fod fo as to defend it from rain. One however would avoid as much as poflible the bringing home lime before the ground is ready for it. Where allowed to lie long in a heap, there are two bad confequences : firit, lime attracts moifture, even though well co- T 3 vered, lime was indeed covered with fod, but fo {lightly as not to throw off the rain. When laid on the reft of te field in March, it was fo clotted as to be but imperfectly mixed with the foil. The crop of oats on the part firft limed was good ; that on the part laft limed was good for nothing. The fubfeqent crops however on this part proved tolerable, the lime, by repeated plowings being better mixed with the foil. In feveral parts of Scotland are found limeitone of two different forts. The operation of the one is quick, when fpread upon a field after calcination ; but its prolific effects are foon over. The other operates more (lowly ; but its prolific effe&s continue longer. The former upon being flacked falls readily into a very fine powder ; the latter falls more (lowly into a powder that is not fo fine. This accounts for the difference. The fine powder mixes more intimately with the foil, and more quickly, than the coarfe powder. For the fame reafon, the fine powder makes the bell cement, by mixing eafily and perfectly with the fand and water. 262 PRACTICE. Parti. vered, and runs into clots, which prevents an in- timate mixture ; and, next, we learn from Dr Black, that burnt limeftone, whether in (hells or in powder, returns gradually into its original ftate of limeftone ; and upon that account alio, is lcf> capable of being mixt with the foil. And this is verified by a fact, that after lying long, it is fo hard bound together as to require a pick-axe for breaking it down. Therefore, make it an indif- penfable rule not to manure wet ground with lime ; it will run into clots, and never mix inti- mately with the earth. For the fame reafon, it is a bad practice, though common, to let fpread lime lie on the furface all winter. The bad effects above-mentioned take place here in part : and there is another ; that rain wafhes the lime down to the furrows, and in a hanging field carries the whole away. As the particles of powdered lime are both fmall and heavy, they quickly fink to the bottom of the furrow, if care be not taken to prevent it. In that view, it is a rule, that lime be fpread and mixed with the foil, immediately before lowing, or along with the feed. In this manner of appli- cation, there being no occafionto move it till the ground be furred for a new crop, it has time to incorporate with the foil, and does not readily feparate from it. Thus, if turnip- feed is to be lowed broadcaft, the lime ought to be laid on im- mediately before fowing, and harrowed in with the Ch. XI. Manures. 263 the feed. If a crop of drilled turnip or cabbage be intended, the lime ought to be fpread imme- diately before forming the drills. With refpecT: to wheat, the lime ought to be fpread immedi- ately before feed- furrowing. If fpread more ear- ly, before the ground is fufficiently broken, it links to the bottom. If a light foil be prepared for barley, the lime ought to be fpread after feed- furrowing, and harrowed in with the feed. In a ftrong foil, it links not fo readily to the bottom ; and therefore, before fowing the barley, the lime ought to be mixed with the foil by a brake. Where moor is fummer-fallowed for a crop of oats next year, the lime ought to be laid on im- mediately before the laft plowing, and braked in as before. It has fufficient time to incorporate with the foil before the land is (lirred again. The quantity to be laid on depends on the nature of the foil. Upon a llrong foil, feventy or eighty bolls of fhells are not more than fuffi- cient, reckoning four fmall firlots to the boll, termed wheat-meafure ; nor will it be an over- dole to lay on a hundred bolls. Between fifty and fixty may fuffice upon medium foils ; and upon the thin or gravelly, between thirty and forty. It is not fafe to lay a much greater quan- tity on fuch foils. Jt is common to lime a pafture-field immediate- ly before plowing. This is an unfafe practice : it is thrown to the bottom of the furrow, from T 4 which 264 PRACTICE. Parti. which it is never fully gathered up. The proper time for liming a pafture -field, intended to be ta- ken up for corn, is a year at leaft, or two, before plowing. It is waflied in by rain among the roots of the plants ; and has time to incorporate with the foil. With regard to the expence of carriage, to have the lime-kiln fo near as to go twice a-day, is a great faving. But if there can be but one carriage in a day, there is little difference as to expence, whether the di fiance be {exen or eleven miles. A little more food to the cattle makes all equal. Limeflone beat fmall makes an excellent ma- nure, and fupplies the want of powdered lime, where there is no fuel to burn the limeftone. Limeftonebeat fmall has not hitherto been much ufed as a manure ; and the proportion between it and powdered lime has not been afcertained. What follows may give fome light. Three pounds of raw lime is by burning reduced to two pounds of fhell-lime. Yet nothing is expelled by the fire but the air that was in the limeftone : the calcarious earth remains entire. Ergo, two pounds of fhell-lime contain as much calcarious earth as three pounds of raw limeftone. Shell- lime of the belt quality, when flaked \\ ith * ater, will meafure out to thrice the quantity. But as limeftone lofes none of its bulk by being burnt into ihells, it follows, that three bulhels of raw limeftone Ch. XI. Manures. 265 limeftone contain as much calcarious earth as fix bufhels of powdered lime. And confequently, if powdered lime pofTefs not fome virtue above raw limeftone, three bufhels of the latter beat fmall fhould equal as a manure fix bufhels of the former. Shell- marl, as a manure, is managed in every refpecl like powdered lime, with this only differ- ence, that a fifth or a fourth part more in mea- fure ought to be given. The reafon is, that fhell- marl is lefs weighty than lime, and that a boll of it contains lefs calcarious earth, which is the fruc- tifying part of both. I fhall conclude with clay and Hone marls, which, with refpecl: to hufbandry, are the fame, though in appearance different. The manures hitherto mentioned are reftoratives only : they recruit land when worn out by cropping, and enable it to bear more crops. The marl now under confideration is not only a reftorative, but has an effect ftill more defirable, that of altering the nature of the foil, and improving its texture, fo as to convert it from light to heavy, and from weak to ftrong. I know nothing comparable to it in that refract, but the poaching light land by cattle fed with turnip, mentioned in a foregoing- chapter. It has another effect, in appearance oppofite ; which is, to loofen a clay foil, and to make it more free. The goodnefs of this marl depends on the quantity 266 ' PRACTICE. Part I. quantity of calcarious earth in it ; which I have known to amount to a half or more. It is too expenfive if the quantity be lefs than a third or a fourth part. Good marl is the molt fubllantial of all manures ; becaufe it improves the weakeft ground to equal the beft borough-acres. One inltance I know, of two ridges marled a hundred and twenty years ago, that at this day make a fi- gure both in grafs and corn far above the reit of the field. The low part of Berwickfhire, term- ed the Merfe, abounds every where with this marl ; and in no other part of Scotland is it in fuch plenty. As none of the manures I am acquainted with make any diflinclion between weeds and corn, the land ought to be cleared of weeds before marling ; and it ought to be fmoothed with the brake and harrow, in order that the marl may be equally fpread. Marl is a foffil on which no ve- getable will grow : its efficacy depends, like that of lime, on its pulveration, and intimate mixture with the foil. Toward the former, alternate drought and moitture contribute greatly, as alio froil. Therefore after being evenly lpread, ir ought to lie on the furface all winter. In the month of October, it may be routed with a brake, which will bring to the furface, and ex- pofe to air and froft, all the hard parts, and mix with the foil all that is powdered. In that refpect it differs widely from dung and lime, which ought to Ch.XI. Manures. 267 to be plowed into the ground without delay. Oats is a hardy grain, which anfwer for being the rirftcrop after marling, better than any other; and it will fucceed thoug 1 tlu marl be iut tho- roughly mixed with the foil. In that cafe, the marl ought to be plowed in with an ebb farrow immediately before fowing,and braked thorough- ly. It is tickliQi to make whea' the firfl cop : if fown before winter, froft fwells ..he ma I, and is apt to throw the feed out of the ground ; if fown in fpring, it will furTer more than oats by want of due mixture. Summer is the proper feafon for marling ; be- caufe in that feafon the marl being dry, is not only lighter, but is ealily reduced to powder. Froft however is not improper for marling, efpe- cially as in froft there is little opportunity for any other work. Marl is a heavy body, and links to the bottom of the furrow, if indifcreetly plowed. There- fore the firfl crop mould always have an ebb fur- row. During the growing of that crop, the marl has time to incorporate with the foil, and to beccme a part of it ; after which it does not readily feparate. Stone marl is fo hard by a conliderable mixture of fand, that it will contiVie without diffolving for years. In that cafe, the expence of breaking the larger lumps with hammers would not be loft : fuch lumps have no effecT: to promote ve- getation ; 268 PRACTICE. Part I. getation ; and they are befide an obftruclion to plowing and harrowing. About twenty years ago, many Merle tenants applied their whole ftrength to marling, with very great fuccefs : and yet of late they feem more in- tent on liming ; which may appear Angular in a country where hufbandry goes on with alacrity. But leafes in that country are commonly limited to nineteen years, which, it is thought, affords too little time for drawing all the profit from this expenlive manure, that the tenant is entitled to. To marl to perfection, requires four hundred cart-load to an acre, as much as can be drawn by two fturdy horfes ; which, at a moderate computation, cofts about L. *\per acre. But a field can be iufficiently limed from the diftance of fif- teen Englifh miles, for little above the half of that fum ; with this additional convenience, that a farmer can hire carts for liming, inftead of be- ing confined to his own horfes, as he muft be in marling ; by which means, liming can be carried on with much more expedition than marling. Notwithstanding thefe differences, it is eafy to evince, that even on a leafe of nineteen years, marl will afford a greater profit than lime. Limed ground cannot bear without injury above three or four crops ; afterjfchich it ought to be laid down in grafs. A field well marled, will pro- due rich crops of corn, in the iimpleft manner of culture, as long as the leafe endures. Now, though Ch. XII. Fences. 269 though grafs is more profitable than corn in a poor foil, the profit bears no proportion in a rich foil, which produces excellent crops, with no greater labour nor expence than is neceffarily bellowed on poor foil. I CHAP. XII. Fences. N Scotland, fences of feveral kinds are ufed. Stone-walls and thorn hedges are the beft and the moft common. The height of a dry-ftone wall is directed by the ufe it is intended for. If intended for fheep, it cannot be under fix feet high, every rood of which, being thirty-fix fquare ells, will at a me- dium coft twenty fhillings. A dry-ftone wall for horfes or horned cattle cannot be under five feet high. The expence of enclofing in this manner is confiderable. A fquare field of ten acres en- clofed with a wall fix feet high, will coil L. 50, 15 s. ; and L. 42 : 5 : 10, if the wall be five feet high. And it will require two and one half pet- cent, annually to keep them in order. To build with lime, as many do, inflames the coft ; and yet upon the whole is a faving where lime is at hand. To reduce both the expence of building dry- ftone walls, and of upholding them, I warmly re- commend 270 P R A C T I C E. Part I. commend the following mode. Raife the wall to the height only of two feet and a half, and cope it with fod in the following manner. Firil, lay on the wall with the graffy fide under, fod cur with the fpnde four or five inches deep, and of a length to equal the thicknefs of the wall. Next, cover this fod with loofc earth rounded like a ridge. Third, prepare thin fod, cad with the paring fpade, fo long as to extend beyond the thicknefs of the wall two inches on each fide. With thefe cover the loofe earth, keeping the graffy fide above : place them fo much on edge as that each fod fhall cover part of another, leaving only two inches without cover. Fourth, when twenty or thirty yards are thus finifhed, let the fod be beat with mells by two men, one on each fide of the wall, flriking both at the fame time. By this operation, the fod becomes a compact body that keeps in the moifture, and en- courages the grafs to grow. Laftly, cut off the ragged ends of the fod on each fide of the wall, to make the covering neat and regular. The month of October is the proper feafon for this operation, becaufe the fun and wind, during fum- mer, dry the fod and hinder the grafs from ve- getating. Moift foil affords the beft fod. Wet foil is commonly too fat for binding ; and at any rate, the watery plants it produces will not thrive in a dry fituation. Dry foil, on the other hand, being commonly ill bound with roots, fliakcs to pieces Ch. XII. Fences. 271 pieces in handling. The ordinary way of cop- ing with fod, which is to lay them flat and fingle, looks as if intended to dry the fod and to kill the grafs ; not to mention, that the fod is liable to be blown off the wall by every high wind. Having finifhed the wall, make a ditch on each fide, beginning a foot from the root of the wall, and Hoping outward to the depth of three feet, or at leaft two and a half. The ditch mould be equally Hoped on the other fide, fo as to be four feet wide. A rood of this fence, including every article, may be done for three (hillings or thereabout; and a field of ten acres may be thus enclofed for about L. 30. If the ditch be made three feet deep, the fence will be above fix feet high ; and above L. 20 will be faved of what a dry-ftone wall fix feet high will coft. Nor is the faving of this fum the mod considerable article. A fence of which the parts are fo well connected, will Hand many years with little or no reparation. That this is far from being the cafe of a dry-ftone wall fix feet or even five feet hich, all the world know. Though a deer-park of great extent, fuch as we fee many in England, is no favourite of mine, 1 have no objection to one of forty or fifty acrts ; which may be enclofed at a very fmall expence. After furrounding it with the wall here defcribed, plant within laburnums cloie to the wall. Lope oif their heads to make the branches 272 PRACTICE. Part I. branches extend laterally and interweave in form of a hedge. The wall will prevent the deer from breaking through ; and if the hedge be trained eight feet high, they will not attempt to leap over. I prefer the laburnum, becaufe no beaft will feed on it, except a hare, and that only when young and the bufh tender. Therefore no extraordi- nary care is neceflary, except to preferve them from the hare four or five years. A row of al- ders may be planted in front of the laburnums, which a hare will not touch nor any other beaft. Next of thorn- hedges. The advantage of the white thorn for a fence above every other plant, is well underftood. It is a quick grower when planted in proper foil, mooting up fix or ieven feet in a feafon. Though tender when young and hurt by weeds, it turns ftrong, and may be cut into any fhape. Even when old, it is more difpofed than other trees to lateral moots. And, laftly, its prickles make it the molt proper of all for a fence. The method of fowing the feed in beds, is fet forth in the chapter of Eoreft-Trees. After the plants have itood a full year in the feed- bed, tranfplant the largeft into a nurfery, which will leave fufficient room for the remainder, to (land where they are another year. In the nurfery, they ought to (land at the diftance of feven, eight, or nine inches from each other ; and there they may remain till fit to be planted in a hedge, which is no fooner than at the age of five. Room in a nurfery Ch. XII. Fences. 273 nurfery is of great importance : when ftraitened for room, the plants fhoot up faft, are weakly, and unfit to bear the hardlhips of an open field. The diftance ought to be proportioned to the foil; the greater! in a rich foil, becaufe they grow faft ; the leaft in a poor foil, where they grow flow. The belt foil for a nurfery is between rich and poor. In the latter, the plants are dwarfifh : in the former, being luxuriant and tender, they are apt to be hurt during the feverity of weather : and thefe imperfections are incapable of any re- medy. An eiTential requilite in a nurfery is free ventilation. How common is it to find nurferies in hollow-fheltered places, furrounded with walls and high plantations, more fit for pine-apples than for barren trees ! The plants thrufl out long fhoots, but feeble and tender : when expo- fed to a cold fituation, they decay, and fometimes die. But there is a reafon for every thing : the nurferyman's view is to make profit by laving ground, and by impofing on the purchafer tali plants, for which he pretends to demand double price. It is fo difficult to purchafe wholefome and well-nurfed plants, that every gentleman- farmer ought to raife plants for himfelf. As thorns will grow pleafantly from roots, I have long praclifed a frugal and expeditious me- thod, of railing them from the wounded roots that mult be cut oft when thorns are to be fet in a hedge. Thefe roots cut into fmail parts, and U put 274 PRACTICE. Parti. put in a bed of freih earth, will produce plants the next fpring, no lefs vigorous than what are produced from feed. And thus a perpetual fuc- ceilion of plants may be obtained without any more feed. It ought to be a rule, never to admit into a hedge plants under five years old : they deferve all the additional fum that can be demanded for them. Young and feeble plants in a hedge, are of flow growth ; and befide lofs of time, the pa- ling, necefiary to fecure them from cattle, mult be renewed more than once before they become a fence. A thorn-hedge may be planted in every month of winter and fpring, unlefs it be froft. But I have always obferved, that thorns planted in Octo- ber are more healthy, puth more vigoroufly, and fewer decay, that at any other time. In preparing the thorns for planting, the roots ought to be Left as entire as poffible, and nothing cut away but the ragged parts. As a thorn-hed not leffened by i'uch fa- Wflg*. On the other hand, where a tenant, by fupe- rior dull or extreme diligence, raifes on an acre a buftiel more than ufual, the profit ought to be his own : it is owing to himfelf, not to the fer- tility of the foil. Laftly, Suppofe a lime-quarry, or a bed of mell-marl, to be difcovered within a farm, or near it, it ought to be confidercd as an article for the landlord, in giving a new leafe. The profit ought to be his, dating only an allowance to the tenant for the expence he lays out upon the manure. It is in effect adding to the fertility of the foil ; which, for the reafon above given, ought to be- nefit the landlord only. Let us illudrate thefe general views, by dating an account of particulars. Take a farm of fixty acres ; which being partly in padure, may be ma- naged by a lingle plough with four horfes. I be- gin with computing the rent of fuch a farm, where the product in corn and grafs is at a medium e- qual to the value of five bolls per acre, or 50 s. amounting upon the whole farm to L. 150. Add the profit of ten winterers fed with draw, which may be dateu at L. 5. The whole fum drawn out of the land is L. 155 , from which is to be deducted Ch. XIV. Rent of a Corn-Farm. 309 deducted the tenant's fliare, and every other ar- ticle of expence : the balance is the landlord's rent. Let us enter into the feveral articles of de- duction. Firft, The feed, which mail be dated at L. 20 only, as a part is in paiture. Second, The fifth part, or 20 per cent, of the value of the labouring itock, which flock by computation is L. 74, 10s.* Inde, L. 14, 18 s. Third, The farmer's fliare L. 20. Fourth, As the farmer himfelf may Hand for one fervant, I ftate only the wages and mainte- nance of another L. 12. Fifth, The maintenance of the four horfes L. 24. Laftly, The money paid for reaping, threfhing, &.c. lumped at L. 8. Thefe deductions amount to L. 98, 18 s. But if the land can be managed with two horfes, the deductions will amount to L. 82, 2 s. only, be- fide faving a driver. Y3 * Four horfes - - L. 48 Horie-furnkure - - 2 Two ploughs - 2 Carts and wains 14 c Harrows and brake - - 2 Roller ... 1 Fanner - - - 2 Forks, fpades, fcythes, rakes, wheelbarrows, hooks, &c. 1 10 Twelve harden facks - - 2 L. 74 10 3 io PRACTICE. Part I. N. B. Reparation of houfes, and other fmail articles, are too minute to enter into a general view. But if any article be thought too high, they may ferve to balance what is fubtractcd from that article. The account then {lands thus. On the one hand the product - L. 155 o o Subtract on the other hand - 98 18 o L. 56 2 o This balance of L. 56, 2 s. is the landlord's rent. Suppofing the product to be but four bolls per acre, or 40 s. ; inde the product L. 125 o o Subtracl: as before - - 98 18 o Rent L. 26 2 o Suppofing the product to be 3I bolls per acre, or 35 s. ; inde - - L. no o o Subtract - - - - 98 18 o Rent L. 1 1 2 o Here an unexpected difcovery is made of great importance in farming ; which is, that a farm yielding no more but an average of 3} bolls per acre, had better be wholly fet for paflure. For fuppoling it in that fhape to yield no more but 5 s. per acre, which is L. 15 for the whole, the Ch. XIV. Rent of a Corn-Farm. 311 the clear profit is greater than when the farm is in corn ; and the landlord draws more rent : he draws the whole L. 15, as land fet in pafture is not burdened with any expence. This difcovery may be of ufe to many a poor tenant, who la- bours and toils at the plough from year to year, to his own lofs. If his farm produce not more than jf bolls per acre, better abandon the plough, turn his farm into pafture, and fit idle. But if a tenant can reduce his labouring cattle to two horfes or two oxen, the faving will be fo confiderable as to make it his own intereft as well as that of the landlord to continue his corn- crops. the faving amounts to L. 16, 16 s. year- ly, not to mention the driver ; which throws the balance againft pafture no lefs than L. 12, iSs. fuppofing the farm in pafture to yield but 5 s. per acre. This faving benefits the tenant during his leafe, and benefits the landlord in giving a new leafe. But fuppofing the produd to be but 3 bolls per acre, the balance turns clearly for pa- fture, after every faving that can be made when fuch a farm is in corn. At the fame time, however fertile the foil may be, the man who takes in leafe a made farm, can- not expect more but to live comfortably. If his heart be fet orywealth, it is not to be found but in land recently broken up from the ftate of na- ture, where there is /cope for great and 1 ailing improvements. y 4 This 3 i2 PRACTICE. Parti. This fpeculation ought to be a ruling motive with every gentleman of a land-eftate, to encou- rage improvements with all his might. The ex- pence of culture is not lefs in a mean foil than in the mod fertile ; and we now fee, that the ex- pence of the former cuts fo deep into the corn- product, as to leave little or nothing to the land- lord. In our corn-counties, it is not difficult nor extremely expenfive, to make the land carry two or three bufhels per acre more than the or- dinary product ; the value of which goes entire- ly to the landlord as rent. Upon a review, the only doubtful article is the 5 per cent, ftated for infilling the tenant's la- bouring cattle. It appears to me, that a yearly fum precilely equivalent to the chance of loling cattle, is not fufficient ; for if the chance go a- gainlt the poor tenant, he is undone. Something for infurance he ought to have ; more or lefs is arbitrary. But fuppofing it to be 3 per cent, or 2 only, it will be eafy to frame the computation upon that fuppofition. PART PART II. Theory of Agriculture. THE operations of men can be eafily traced : they are confined to the furface of bodies. The operations of nature, going far out of fight, reach even elementary particles. In ex- plaining, therefore, natural effects, we ought to reft fatisfied with the immediate caufes, lea- ving the more remote to fuperior beings. In order to unfold the theory of agriculture, the nature of plants ought to be ftudied, their nourifhment, their propagation : we ought to be acquainted with all the different foils, and in what manner they are affected by weather and climate. And yet, after all our refearches, how imperfect remains our knowledge of thefe particulars! Fortunately, agriculture depends not much on theory. If it did, baneful it would be to the human race : fkilful practition- ers would be rare; and agriculture, upon which we depend for food, would, by frequent dii- appointments, be profecuted with little ardour. Notwithftanding therefore that the theory of a- griculture is ftill in its infant ftate,the practice has made confiderable advances, efpecially in Bri- tain ; 314 THEORY. Part II. tain ; and there are rules founded on experience, that ieldom millead when applied by a fagacious farmer. In theory, the deepeft penetration pre- ferves not writers from wide differences. In practice, the ignorant only differ : fagacious far- mers generally agree ; giving allowance only for varieties in foil and climate. But admitting experience to be our only fure guide, theory, however, ought not to be rejected, even by a practical farmer. Man is made for knowledge ; and he has a natural curiofity to learn the reafon of every thing. Why not in- dulge an appetite, that will amufe, and may bring forth initruction ? In dipping into theory, a com- plete fyftem is far from my thoughts, and far above my reach. I venture only to felect a few particulars, that have an immediate influence on practice. Theie will be underltood by every gentleman who joins reading to experience ; and in doubtful cafes may help to direct his opera- tions. I give warning beforehand, that I pre- tend to no demonitration. However pofitively I may happen to exprefs myfelf in the glow- of compolition, my belt arguments are but conjec- tural. Thofe that are here difplayed appear to me highly probable ; and if they appear fo to the reader, I can have no further wifh. The fubjects handled in this part of my work, are divided into three chapters. In the .firit are contained Ch. I. I. Preliminary Observations. 315 contained fome preliminary obfervations that have an immediate influence on practice. In the fe- cond are handled the food of plants, and ferti- lity of foil. And the third is upon the means of fertilizing foil. CHAPTER I. Preliminary Observations. TO be an expert farmer, it is not neceflary that a gentleman be a profound chemift. There are however certain chemical principles relative to agriculture, that no farmer of education ought to be ignorant of. Such as appear the mod ne- ceflary mail be here Hated, beginning with elec- tive attraction and repulfion, which make a capi- tal article in the fcience of agriculture as well as of chemiitry. I. ELECTIVE ATTRACTION AND REPULSION. By an inherent quality of matter, every par- ticle of it has a tendency to unite with every other particle ; and this tendency is termed^rtf- vity. Betide gravity, inherent in all matter, there is in fome bodies a peculiar tendency to unite together ; acids and alkalies for example, air 3 i6 THEORY. Part II. air and water, clay and water. The particular bodies thus difpofed to unite, may be termed cor- refponding bodies ; and as fuch difpofition or ten- dency has a refemblance to choice in voluntary agents, it is termed eleclive attraction. The power of gravity extends as far as matter exifts. Elective attraction, on the contrary, is confined within a very narrow fpace; it operates not but between bodies in contact, or approach- ing nearly to it. Even in the largeft bodies, fuch as the fun and planets, every particle of matter operates by its power of gravity. But elective attraction has no fenfible effect between large bodies, no particle operating but thofe in contact, or near it. It has no fenfible effect therefore but between bodies that mix together. The attraction of gravity be- tween two bodies is in the direct proportion to the quantity of their matter : elective attraction is in the inverfe proportion ; which in plain lan- guage is faying, that the lefs bodies are, the great- er is their elective attraction. Between large bo- dies accordingly, elective attraction, in oppoii- tion to gravity, is as nothing : between very fmall bodies in contact, or near it, it is far fuperior to gravity. The power of gravity in each particle of matter correfpoiids to the quantity of matter in the uni- verfe : double that quantity, and you double the p(n Ch.I. i. Preliminary Observations. 317 power of gravity in every particle : annihilate the half, and the power of gravity is reduced to the half. Eledive attraction, on the contrary, is In* variable. It can hold but a certain quantity of correfponding matter: bring more within its fphere of attraftion, it has no efted. Thus, wa- ter, will hold fait till it be faturated ; or, in other words, till every particle of the water be in con- tact with a particle of fait. Add more fait: it is not attraded, but falls to the bottom of the veffel. The fame is obfervable in clay faturated with wa- ter : what water is added falls to the bottom. Eledive attraction between fome correfpond- ing bodies, is more vigorous than between others. Acids and alkalies attrad each other violently, and mix intimately. Such is the cafe alfo of fait and water : fait is fo thoroughly diffolved in water as to vanifh out of fight, leaving the water tranfpa- rent as before * There is an eledive attradion between air and water : neither of them in its natural * We have Sir Ifaac Newton's authority, that the opa- city of a body is owing to the reflecTion or refraction of the rays of light at its furface ; and that the particles of a body muft be of a certain fize to rened or refrad the rays of light. A body compofed of fmaller particles, is tranfparent. Water, compofed of very fnrall particles, is tranfparent : throw fait into it, it maintains its tranfpa- rency, having the power to diffolve fait into very fmall parts j and the fame happens with refpeft to any other fubftance that is diffolvable by water into very fmall parts. 3 i8 THEORY. Part II, natural ftate is ever found pure without the o- ther ; and yet their mixture feldom difturbs their tranfparency. In the inftances above given, elec- tive attraction prevails over gravity, which has not power to feparate the heavier body from the lighter. Water and clay attract each other, but with leis vigour : powdered clay is fufpended in water ; but the elective attraction is not fo ftrong as to diflblve the clay into its fmallefl: parts : it continues viiible in the mixture, and makes the water turbid. Their mutual attraction yields by degrees to the repeated impulfes of gravity : the clay fublides, leaving the water tranfparent as ori- ginally. But each particle of clay draws along with it the particles of water with which it is in contact. And accordingly when «the water is poured off, the clay remains moiil and foft. Both air and clay attract water ; and when they act in oppolition, it is of importance to know which of them prevails. Where clay is fo wet as that many particles of the water are not reached by the attraction of the clay, fuch loofe particles are attracted by the air without oppofition. Even particles of water, barely within the fphere of at- traction of the clay, are drawn up by the fuperior attraction of dry air. But the air muuVbeboth hot and dry, to carry off water that is in actual contact with the clay. This I conjecture never happens in pure clay, unlefs the heat be intenfe. All Ch. I. i. Preliminary Observations. 319 All forts of earth do not attract water equally : the attraction of clay is the ftrongeft, of fand the weakeft. Between thefe extremes, foils vary in every degree with refpect to their power of at- tracting and holding water. Even clays differ. Some clays attract: water vigoroufly, others lefs. This is manifefted from the time that is taken in drying; as the clay that attracts the mofl vigo- roufly will be the lateft in parting with its water. I witnefled an experiment of different clays put in fhallow veffels, and foaked with water. They differed in the times of drying at leaft a fortnight. I take it for granted, that the clay which retains its water the longeft, will turn the hardefl after it is dry ; for both effects depend on the force of the elective attraction. It is laid down above, that elective attraction is the greateft between the fmallefl bodies. Hence an important leffon in agriculture, which may be juftly efteemed the corner-ftone of the fabric, that the more pulverifed earth is, the more water it will hold. A lump of dry clay immerfed in wa- ter, carries none away but what is attracted by the furface- particles. Pulverife this lump, and give free admiflion to the water : let it be divided into a million of parts or into ten millions : each particle however minute will hold a certain pro- portion of water ; and this procefs may be car-* ried on as far as clay and water can be divided by 3 2o THEORY. Part II, by the hand of man*. It is amazing what a quantity of water may be contained in clay well pulvcrifed, without even appearing moift. Shell- lime requires at leaft its own weight of water to flake it perfectly ; in which ftate it is a dry pow- der without any appearance of moifture. Clay well pulvei ifed is fimilar : every particle of it at- tracts a particle of water ; and after perfect fatu- rution, it Hill appears dry. This I conjecture t" be the propereft condition of ground for throw- ing feed into it. Now as earth ferves to retain moifture, and to furnifli it gradually to its plants, the chief object of husbandry is, by plowing and harrowing, to pulverife clay, and every other foil that requires it. There is alfo obfervable an elective attraction between earth and air. Much air is found in earth, becaufe gravity concurs with the elective attraction to bring down air. But very little earth is found in air ; becaufe in that cafe gra- vity counteracts the elective attraction. A plant attracts air and water, and is attracted by them. The latter attraction is without effect, becaufe plants are fixed to a place. The former is clearly difplayed by Dr Hales in his Statical Ef- fays, containing the beft conducted experiments that * Mr Evelyn dug a deep hole in the ground, reduced the earth to powder, and put it back into the hole. After a time, the powdered earth was found moift to the bottom, the ground round it remaining hard and dry. Ch. I. I. PRELIMrNARV OBSERVATIONS. %2t that are known, next to thofe of Sir IfUac Newton* upon light and colours. There is not the flight- eft evidence, that plants attract any dry matter, however pulverifed. Set the moil healthy vege- table in dried earth, or in qu'(t gathered from the highway : it dies, and the earth remains as weighty as before. It is clear then, that a plant can receive no nourishment but what is conveyed to it by air or water ; and confequently that no- thing can ferve as its nourifhment but what is fo- luble in thefe elements. Earth is not foluble even in water : it is eafily feparated from water by the force of gravity % and its particles are probably too grofs to cuter with water into the mouths of a plant. Black bodies attract and abforb rays of the fun. A black wall facing the fun, is hotter even to the touch than a wall of any other colour ; and hence the practice of blacking fruit-walls. Soil made black by high culture, attracts and abforbs rays of the fun in plenty ; and turns remarkably hot- ter than foil of any other colour. That there is a mutual attraction between par- ticles of water, appears from the globules it forms itfelf into in falling ; from the globules it forma itfelf into when dropt gently upon a dry board -, and from its riling above the brim when gently poured into a glafs. But I am uncertain whe^ ther there be any elective attraction between par- ticles; of clay : put dry powdered clay into a vef- Z fel, 322 THEORY. Part II. fel, and prefs it together at pleafure •, it comes out with little or no cohefion. Water is the ce- ment that hardens particles of clay into a folid lump ; and it is in the propereft (late for har- dening, where every particle of the one is in con- tact with a particle of the other. Where there is more water than to admit of fuch mutual con- tact, what fuperabounds is carried off by the air in its ordinary ftate of drynefs. But to carry off any particle of water in contact with a particle of clay, ftrong clay efpecially, a very dry air is re- quilite, and perhaps alfo a very hot air. The reafon is, that water is attracted more ftrongly by clay, than by air in its ordinary ftate. A green turf from a moift foil, falls to pieces in handling. Let it lie a few days to dry, it becomes tough and firm. The like happens in a mixture, of quicklime, fand, and water. The water con- tinues for a time fluid ; and the mafs is foft and ductile. Upon evaporation of the fuperfluous moifture, the elective attraction operates ; and the mafs tirrns hard like a ftone. A mixture of clay and fand moiftened with water, continues long foft ; but in time turns exceedingly hard : the pier of Eyemouth, in Berwiekihire, is built of a. plumcake ftone, compoied of peebles, clay, and fand, cemented with water ; yet no ftone is hard- er, nor lefs affected with the fea-air. Plafter of Pari'- ib compofed of gvpfum and water ; which are mixed together to a certain confidence ; and tlue Ch. I. i. Preliminary Observations. 323 the mafs, ftill fluid, is poured into a mould : in a few minutes it acquires a ftony hardnefs. A compofition of that kind is ufed for bridges in the ifland Minorca : no fooner is one (tone of the arch joined to another, than it bears a man to add a third. The cement here operates almolt inftan- taneoufly : water operates flower in hardening clay ; and ftill flower in hardening a mixture of lime arid fand. Thefe differences depend probably on the more or lefs vigour of the elective attraction. As the fuperfluOus rhoilture evaporates, the correfpond- ing bodies approach nearer and nearer to each other, and at laft unite in one mafs. The eva- poration is flow in proportion to the vigour of the elective attraction ; and the flower the eva- poration is, the mafs becomes the harder. Some forts of .clay attract water more vigoroufly than others ; and when the fuperfluous moifture is ex- haled, which is done very flowly, the mafs turns hard in proportion. Garfe-clay affords a good inftance. It is compofed of the fineft parts of natural clay, waihed off by running water : it is depoiited in flat ground where the water (tag- nates ; and by gradual accumulation, the ground rifes above the ftream. Carfe-lands are general- ly near the fea, and the reflux of the tide contri- butes to the effect. By the minutenefs of its parts, carfe-clay mixes fo intimately with water as to give the elective attraction ifs utmoft efli- X a cacy. 324 THEORY. Part II. cacy. Thus carfe clay, which is extremely wet in winter, becomes lb hard in a droughty fpring as to yield but a very fcanty crop, unlels the fummer be" moift. In a dry fummer, fiflures are every where feen in it, fome of them ib wide as to admit a man's hand. Common clay, compo- fed of giolVer parts, never hardens fo much. Hence it is, that of all crops beans thrive the belt in carfe-clay : the tap-root pulhes vigbrouily into the hard foil ; and finds more water locked up there than in cfommon clay *. This tendency to hardnefs in clay-foil, is a great obstruction to fertility : and to counteract that bad quality, 1 know no means more effectual than frequent -plowing and harrowing. In that View partly, the harrows above defcribed were invent- ed : they divide the foil into minute parts: every part holds a particle of water ready for the nou- lilhment of plants ; and the foil at the fame time is * The clay in the Carfe of Gowry, of Falkirk., and of Stirling, is much of the fame nature. When dry, it is white, lefs weighty than common clay, pure without fand, and divides inta very minute parts. The lafl mentioned quality, which gives elective attraction its greateft efficacy, makes it cake at the iurface when ltirred before winter. It makes it alio in drought unite into very hard clods, harder than thofe of common clay, compofed of groiler p^rts. As all clays hold water in proportion to the mi- nute nefs of the.r parts, froft acts more vigorously upon caiie-ciay than upon the ordinary fort; becaufe frolt .ids rapon bodies in proportion to the quantity of water in the in. Ch. I. i. Preliminary Observations. 325 • . is kept open, inviting the roots to extend them- felves in all directions. The time that water takes to harden clay, will explain feveral articles. I mention firit an article ■ of importance, which is the different effects of plowing clay wet or dry. The running a plough through clay foaked in water, produces no change. Upon evaporation of the looter parts of the wa- ter, the vacuities left render the foft mafs com- preffible. To comprefs it in that Hate would have the effect to keep in the remainder of the loofe water from evaporating, atthe fame time give the elective attraction its ftrongeft effect, and ac- celerate the hardening contrary to the very inten- tion of plowing. Let not the plough be applied till the air has performed its part by drawing off every particle of water that is not in contact with the clay. Nick that minute for applying the plough : the clay ft ill foft is eaiily divided : a new furface is laid open to the air ; and at the fame time is preferred free and open. The next article I fhall mention, is the making brick. Where air and water are brought into, contact, by elective attraction, the procefs is com- pleted : for they never harden into a folid body. But after clay and water are brought into con- tact, the procefs goes on till they be firmly united. In the commencement of that procefs, the air may be rendered ,fo hot and dry, as to overcome the elective attraction, and fuck up the whole %, 3 moifture, 326 THEORY. Part II. * moifture, leaving the clay dry with little or no cohefion. Wet clay put into a hot fire does not harden, but falls into a burnt powder. The fu- perfluous moifture muft be evaporated, and the cohefion be cqnfiderably advanced, before it can be hardened into a brick by fire. In that con- dition, the elective attraction prevails over the hotteft air. Form dough into a thin cake, and lay it upon a plate of iron over a fire : the moi- fture fuddenly evaporates : and no more is left but what is barely fufficient to keep the parts flightly together. Give the elective attraction time to operate : the cake turns- hard like a brick*. Nature operates by elective repulfion as well as by elective attraction ; but as agriculture feems to depend little upon the former, I fhall fay but a word upon it. There is an elective repulfion in the particles of air, which gives them a tendency to recede from each other ; and this operation is greatly * With refpect to brickmaking, where the mould is nine inches long, three broad and three thick, a brick new moulded weighs commonly eight pounds •. ready for the oven four pounds: half burnt, three pounds 12 ounces : when thoroughly burnt to be fit for ufe, three pounds ei"ht ounces. This hflbn is of importance. If proper clay be chofen, a man cannot be deceived about the quali- ty of his bricks. A bargain to tJay for no bricks that weigh above three pounds eight ormces will enfure him. A fmaller fum may be agreed on for what weight a little more ; which may be fufficient for any building that is tiot expofed to the external air. Ch. 1. 1. Preliminary Observations. 327 greatly invigorated by heat. Heat, therefore, pul- verifes the foil by rarefying the air contained in it, which moves the particles of earth out of their place. Froft has a fimilar effect, by rarefying the water contained in a foil. Black, as obferved a- bove, attracts and ubforbs rays of the fun ; and therefore black is the beft colour of foil. The more parts clay or loam is divided into, the black- er it is. Whatever be the colour of the foil wher* potatoes are fet, it is rendered black by that crop. A potato-crop is a powerful pulverifer : the bul- bous roots fwelling without intermiffion, keep the furrounding earth in conftant .motion, and divide more effectuallythan a plough or a harrow. White repels the rays of the fun ; and upon that account is a bad colour for foil. Pulveriiing by dunging, plowing and harrowing, is a fure means to con- vert white foil into black ; which is anaddition- nal motive for being diligent in thefe operations. 2. PLANTS HAVE A FACULTY TO ACCOMMO- DATE THEMSELVES TO THEIR SITUATION. All trees are provided by nature with a tap- root, fit for piercing the hardeft foil ; and a tree growing in clay exerts .great energy on that root. •It lefTens in vigour .and lize where a tree grows in ]oam ; and lateral roots prevail more, which are Z 4 fpread 3 23 THEOR Y. Part II. fpread all around for procuring food. In very light foil, the tap-root is very fmall : and a tree growing in water has many roots, but not the lealt appearance of a tap-root. Nature is won- derful in all her works. A plant here acts as if endued with the fagacity of a thinking being : in this inilance, and in many that will be unfold- ed afterward, vegetable life feems to be not far Tcmote from animal life. The conftitution of a plant depends greatly on "the foil it is bred in. Cuftom becomes a fecond nature : and it appears no lefs difficult, to trani- pl.mt a tree from the foil where it was reared, to an oppoiite foil, than to tranfplant a tree from a £tot to a cold climate. However fitted by nature a tree may be for growing in a loofe foil ; yet if planted young in a ftifffoil, it acquires a conili- tution accommodated to that foil ; and its nature is fo far altered, as in a meafure to difqualify.il for being tranfpLinted into a loofe foil. Take a vegetable that has been reared in water, and plan- it in a foil even the mofl proper for it by nature : it will infallibly die. In general, plants reared in water will not grow in earth ; and plants reared in earth will not grow in water. Hence it is, that where water Magnates ten or twelve inc under the furfacc, the plants reared in t] ground turn iickly when their roots reach tf water. Yet thefe plants would have llouriihcd in pure Ch. I. 2. Preliminary Observations 329 pure water, had they been accuftomed to it ear- But may not a plant acquire a conftitution, fit- ting it for growing partly in earth, partly in wa- ter? Trees grow vigorouily on the brink of a re- ver, where fome of the roots muft be in water. At the feat of Mr Burnet of Kemnay, ten miles from Aberdeen, a kitchen-garden, a flower- gar- den, awildernefs of trees indigenous and exotic, are all in a peat-mofs, M T here water ftagnates from one foot to two under the furface. The fame faculty is exerted to remedy an in- convenient fituation. A tree that grows without fhelter, refills wind by the length of its roots : the roots of the fame tree, are commonly much fhorter in a fheltered place. In the Leeward Iflands, the eait'wind is almoft conftant ; and the trees there, extend their roots much farther to that quarter, than to any other. A tree overtop- ped by neighbouring trees, directs its courle to a ipace that is free ; and then mounts up perpen- dicularly according to its nature. Set a plant in a room that has no light but from a fingle hole in the wall : inftead of riling perpendicularly, it di- rects its'courie toward the light, palfes through the hole into open air, and then mounts upward. The power of remedying a bad fituation, is re- markable in feed of every kind. A feed contains the plant in miniature, with a plumula that tends upward, and a radicle that tends down- ward. 33 o THEORY. Part II. ward. Put a feed into the ground with its plu- mula above and its radicle below, as the plant grows, the former afcends and the latter defcends, both perpendicularly. Invert the polition of the feed, the plumula (hoots not downward, nor the radicle upward : they twill round the feed, till the former gain the open air, and the latter pierce into the ground. Providence is wonderful in e- very operation : were not provilion made for the fpringing of feed in every polition, agriculture never could have made any progrefs *. A change of conilitution, in plants, occafioned by their fituation, is commonly tranfmitted to their offspring Plants propagated from feed pro- duced in a warm fandv foil, grow fall in whatever foil the feed is fown, and have early flowers. Plants from feed produced in a cold flirf foil, are late of growing, even in a warm foil. Plants from feed produced in a very rich foil, grow vigoroufly in a poor foil. Plants from feed of a poor foil, grow weakly even in the richefl foil, and produce fmall feeds. In the rainy harvelt 1744, oats that grew in a warm light foil, fprouted in the ihock ten days more early than oats that grew in a cold foil ; though both were produced from the fame feed, and both were cut down the fame day. Hence the advantage of changing feed from a •warm to a cold foil. It may be true, that feed from * See more about the powers and faculties of plants. Appendix, Nc. 4. Ch. I. 2. Preliminary Observations. 331 from a warm foil, will not grow fo quickly in a cold foil as in a warm foil ; but it will always grow more quickly than feed from a cold foil. To rear trees in a middling foil, it is certainly right to take the young plants from a richer foil. But is it right to tranfplant them from a rich foil to (Be that is poor ? They have, it is true, a tendency to grow vigoroufly. But will they not be dwarfifh in the poor foil, which cannot afford them fuf- ficiency of nourifliment to fupport their vigour ? That a plant may change its conftitution by being tranfplanted into a climate a little warmer or colder is certain ; and the change of conftitu- tion is ftill more eafy when the plant is raifed from feed. Thus plants of one climate may, by gra- dual change of place in fucceflive generations, profper in a very different climate. When Galen the phyiician lived, the peach was too delicate for the air of Italy. It has been creeping northward flowly ; and, even in Britain at prefent, it is of a good flavour, if artfully cultivated. The cherry tree was brought by Lucullus from the Leffer Afia to Rome, as a great rarity ; and now it bears good fruit even in Scotland. The bleftings of Providence are diftributed with an equal hand. Induftry will remedy the natural defects of our foil and fituation : are we lefs happy than thofe who owe all to foil and fituation ? If wheat, if fruits, if cabbage, if collyflower, were confined to 332 T H E O R Y. Part II. to their native climates, what would Britain be ? Iceland would be not much inferior *. But though a change of constitution is produ- ced as far as necefiary for accommodating a plant to a different climate, vet it is obiervable, that in other refpe&s the original conftitution remains entire. I give for one inftance the flowering of plants. A plant tranflated into a different cli- mate preierves its original feafon of flowering, unlefs prevented by fome powerful caufe. The climate of the fhores of Spain and Portugal, fuits the flowering of the lauruftimis in December and January ; nor is the cold of Scotland in thefe months fufficient to deter him from his feafon. I mean the milder parts ; for in thofe that are higher and more rigorous, the cold puts him pall his feafon, and prevents his fpreading any flower till April. Dr Walker fays, that were he to fee a laurujiinus flowering with us in winter, and had never heard of the fhrub, he would without fcruple pronounce it no native of this country ; and that for the fame reafon he would deny the * Columella, book i. chap. I. quotes from Saferna the following argument to prove an alteration of climate. " Countries where neither the vine nor the olive would " grow from the feventy of the winter, abound now both II with wine and with oil." It is natural that this mould have appeared to Columella a conelufive argument •, for in his days there was little experience of plants changing their nature in their gradual progrefs from hot to cold climates. Ch. I. 3. Preliminary Observations. 333 the arbutus to be a native of Ireland, or the whig, of Scotland. He adds pleafantly, that the flower- ing of thefe ihrubs with us, is an outlandifh faihion;.and that no fenfible Scotch plant will ever think of fuch a thing. 3. CHANGE OF SEED, AND OF SPECIES. The reafon for changing feed from a warm to a cold foil, is explained in the foregoing fedion^ But fkilful farmers are not fatisfied with that fingle change : they frequently change feed from a cold to a warm foil ; and they feldom venture to fow twice fuccefsfully the fame grain in the fame field. Such changes of feed, as well as of fpecies, are common ; yet I know not that the reafon has betn rightly explained by any writer. I wifli that what follows may give fatisfaction. Every fpecies of animals has a climate adapted to it, where is flourifhes, where it grows to per- fection, and where it never degenerates. Propa- gation will go on in a lefs proper climate ; but the fpecies degenerates, if not kept up by fre- quent recruits from the original climate. In that view, Arabian and Barbary horfes are from time to time imported into England. Nor is this alone fufficient : animals procreated of the fame breed quickly degenerate ; for which reafon, great attention is given to mix different breeds. In thefe particulars, plants refemble animals. Bri tain 334 THEORY. Part II. tain is not the native climate of melons : they de- generate quickly, if feed be not procured from the native climate, Where wheat grows natu- rally, feed dropping from the mother plant ar- rives at perfection, though neither feed nor foil be changed. But as wheat is not a native of Bri- tain, it has a tendency to degenerate here, efpe- cially in the northern parts ; and it degenerates rapidly, if the feed be fown year after year where it was produced. It is not fufficient, that the feed be taken from a different field : it ought al- fo to be taken from a different foil. Nor is this all : the greater! care in changing feed will not prevent degeneracy, where the fame fpecies is .fuccefiively propagated in the fame field. It is accordingly a rule univerfally pradlifed in crop- ping a field, not only to bring feed from a diffe- rent foil, but alfo to change the fpecies ; or, in other words, to make a rotation of crops. This rule holds in barley as well as in wheat ; and itill more in red clover, which degenerates quickly when fown without intermifTion in the fame field. It is more common to low oats after oats ; and if that plant be a native of Britain, the practice may efcape cenfure, efpecially if care be taken to change the feed. White clover is a native of Bri- tain, and requires little precaution in cropping. By lull's mode of huibandry, tolerable crops of wheat have been raifed in the fame field, fifteen or fixteen years fuccefiively ; but toward the end, the degeneracy became viiible. Artful culture will Ch. I. 3. Preliminary Observations. 335 will do much ; but it is not alone fufficient to prevail over the laws of nature. This is an ob- jection to Tull's hufbandry, which that ingenious author did not forefee. His mode however ought not to be totally rejected : to raife by artful cul- ture, without manure, ten . or twelve crops of wheat fucceffively in the fame field, is a capital improvement in farms where manure is fcarce. The degeneracy of plants and animals in cli- mates where they are not natives, depends on caufes beyond the reach of human investigation. But to a perfon whofe curiofity is not boundlefs, it may be fufficient to obferve, that if every fpe- cies of animals and plants have a climate .fitted for them, there is no reafon to expect perfection in an improper climate *. If what is faid hold true, an extenfive rotation of crops in the fame field mult be good huiban- dry. In a clay foil, conftant crops of wheat after fallow without change of fpecies, is in England not uncommon. I mould imagine, that in Scot- land * In the fame field, all equally drefied, a firlct of Blain- fly oats was fown ; and clofe to it the like quanity of good oats produced in the farm that had not been changed for fome years. Four bolls, two pecks, two lippies, were the product of the former. The corn weighed at the rate of 34 ftone ten pounds per boll, and the ftraw 96 ftone. Three bolls, two firlots, one peck, were the producl or the latter. The corn weighed at the rate of 13 ftone two pounds per boll. And the ftraw weighed 80 ftone. 336 THEORY. Part II. land wheat every other year in the fame field, would degenerate. There is an additional reafon againit that practice, that it requires a larger flock of working cattle than a more varied rotation. A fkilful farmer cultivates his wheat-land in Oc- tober, hib beans in January, his oats in March, his barley in April or May, and his turnip in June or July, all with the fame cattle. The particulars above fet forth, are what 1 judge the moll effential in the theory of agricul- ture, and what will be found neceilary for under- ftanding the fubjects handled in the following chapters. Many other particulars, lefs extenfive, though perhaps no lefs eifential, are introduced where there is occafion for them. Upon the whole, in order to eafe the reader, I have avoid- ed every article of theory that is not clofely con- nected with practice, fuch as a gentleman may be ignorant of, without fufFering the imputation of being an unfkilful farmer. CHAP. II. Food of Plants, and fertility of Soil. IN no branch of philoibphy are imagination and conjecture more freely indulged, than in what concerns the food of plants. Every wri- ter Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 337 ier erects a fyftem : if he can give it a plaufible appearance, he inquires no further. It never enters into his thoughts, that his fyfiem ought to be fubjected to the rigid touchftone of fads and experiments : fo grievous a torture he can- not fubmit to. This reflection will be juftified by what follows. And to pave the way, the me- thod chofen by nature for feeding plants fhall be premifed. Juices imbibed through the roots and leaves of a plant, are by an internal procefs converted into fap, which, not improperly, may be called the chyle of vegetables. Sap is in a continual ofcillatory motion, afcending during the heat of day, and defcending during the cold of night. The fap of a plant is nearly the fame, in what- ever foil the plant grows. Homberg filled a pot with earth mixed with a portion of faltpetre : he filled another pot with pure earth well wafhed. The creffes that grew in thefe pots were entirely of the fame nature, equally alkalefcent; what grew in the firft pot as little acid as what grew in the fecond. In other two pots, prepared in the fame manner, he planted fennel, an acid plant. The difference of earth made no difference in the two plants. I advance a ftep further. If we can judge of fap from what of it perlpires from the plant, it is nearly the fame, even in different fpe- cies. Dr Hales collected the liquor perfpired from trees of different kinds. It was very clear : A a its 336 Theory. Part it its fpecific gravity was nearly the fame with that of common water ; and no difference of tafte Could be perceived in the differ, nt liquors. Thele facls are confirmed by many other experiments ; all of them evincing, tha however different the juices may be that are imbibed by a plant, yet that the lap into which thefe juices are converted is the fame, or nearly the fame, even in plants of different fpecies. If fo, every plant mull be en- dowed with proper powers ; firft, to imbibe juices ; next, to convert into fap the juices imbi- bed ; and laft, to convert that lap into its own fubftance. With refped to the two rii ft powers, all plants appear to be fimilar. The difference oi fpecies is carried on by the laft power only, that of converting fap into the fubftance of a plant. Hence a peculiar texture, colour, fmell, tafte, in each fpecies. " Thus," fays Dr Hunter of York, " a mafs of innocent earth can give life and vi- " gour to the bitter aloe and to the fweet cane, " to the cool houfe-leek and to the fiery mu- " Hard, to the nourifliing wheatand to the dead- " ly night-inade *." In what manner or b\ what * Plants are diftributed by nature into claffes, diftinguifh- viblc by a limple aft of vifion. Each clafs has its peculiar properties, which makes it eafj' to apply them to the pur- pofes for which they are the fitted. Otherwife to attain any perfect knowledge of plants, would be an endlcis la- bour, and at any rate far above an ordinary mechanic. But the dalles could never be preferved diftincl, if the jui- ces imbibed by plants had any influence to vary their n?. tare. Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 339 what means the changes mentioned are produced, will for ever remain a fecret : they depend on energies impenetrable by the eye, and beyond the reach of experiment. Nor ought the farmer to repine at his ignorance of fuch matters. The province of agriculture is, to cultivate foils in fuch a manner as to furnifh juices in plenty : the reil muil be left to nature ; and may fafely be left, for fhe never errs in her operations. Thus prepared, we proceed to examine the moll noted opinions concerning the food of plants. A number of writers hold, that oil and fait are ca- pital ingredients in vegetable food ; and that the richeft foils are what contain the greatelt quan- tity of thefe fubftances. Oil and fait are found in vegetables. " Ergo" fay thefe writers, " oil " and fait in the foil make the nourifhment of " plants." It may as well be reafoned, that as all animals have blood, ergo, blood is the nou- rifhment of animals. The fame doctrine applied to manures has led Dr Hunter, mentioned a- bove, to propofe a manure coniifting chiefly of oil, termed by him the oil compojl ; upon which he lays great weight. Every attempt to enlighten is praife-worthy ; but fuch attempts feidom are fuccefs&l, unlets to miflead the credulous huf- bandman. From what is faid above, it may be pronounced with certainty, that the oil and fait which enter into the composition of vegetables, are not imbibed from the earth or air ; but are A a 2 formed 3*0 THEORY. Part II. formed from more fimple materials, by the inter- nal procefs above mentioned A number of plants of different kinds, may find room for growing in thirty or forty pounds of earth. Each of them has an oil and a fait peculiar to itfelf; though there may not be in the earth the fmalleft particle of either. Nay, by repeated experiments it has been found, that plants raifed in water are com- pofed of the fame parts with thofe raifed in earth. Led by the above-mentioned opinion, ieveral wri- ters have conje&ured, that clay-marl, a potent manure, mull contain a large proportion of fait and oil. But it being found on trial that it con- tains neither, they were reduced to another con- jecture, that when mixed with the foil it attracls fait and oil from the air. And now from Dr Ain- flie's accurate and elegant experiments*, that fuppofition appears to have as little foundation as the others mentioned. Had due attention been given to the mouths of roots, fo fr.iall as not to be difcernible by the na- ked eye, it muft have been obvious, that oil is a fubitance too grofs for entering thefe orifices. Chemifts hold, that all oils are compofed of in- flammable matter, mixed, by means of an acid, with earthy and watery particles. Nay, it is held in general, that every fubltance fufceptible of a chemical operation, is a -compound ; and it is natural ■ Edinburgh Phyfical Eff.ys, vol. 3. article 1. Gh. II. Food of Plants, Sec. 341 natural to think fo, for elementary particles are furely too minute for our handling. Now, as oil, for from being an element, is compofed of va- rious parts, it is certainly too grofs for the mouths of plants. Its component parts may be fuffici- ently minute for admiflion : but thefe parts are not oil •, though by an internal procefs they may be converted into oil, Or converted into any other fubftance. Salt indeed is foluble in water, fo as to become invifible ; and with water confe- quently it may be imbibed by plants. But fait is too acrid to be a nourifhment for plants ; and if imbibed in any quantity, will be, destruc- tive. I have given the ftricteft attention to this doc- trine, in order to put the fpeculative farmer on his guard. If he affent to what is here delivered, it may fave him much time, that would be loft in perufing certain hulbandry-books, and much la- bour in proiecuting idle experiments. And here I muft fay again, for it cannot be too often laid, that the province of agriculture, is to prepare the foil for yielding plenty of juices, leaving the reft to nature. Tull is one of the boldeft theoritts that have come under my inspection. He pronounces with-, out hefitation, that all plants live on the fame food or pabulum, which he fays is pulverifed earth ; and upon that foundation, he pretends to raife perpetual crops of wheat in the fame field, A a 3 by 342 THEORY. Part II. by the plough alone, without manure. This in- deed wuuld reftore the golden age of eafe and in- dolence ; as there is no foil fo barren, but what may readily be pulverifed. Tull was a man of genius, but miferably defective in principles. Plants imbibe water plentifully at the leaves, bark, and roots ; and with water they imbibe whatever is diffolved in it. But earth is not foluble in wa- ter ; and accordingly, by an experiment of Van Helmont, it appears, that earth makes no part of the food of plants. He put into a vefTel two hun- dred pounds of dry earth ; which, he moiftened with rain-water,' and planted in it a cutting of willow, weighing five pounds. The mouth of the veflel, to keep out duft, was covered with a tin-plate, having many fmall holes, through which- rain or diddled water was poured from time to time, for keeping the earth moilt. The willow weighed at the end of five years a hundred and iixty-nine pounds and about three ounces ; and the weight would have been much greater, had the leaves that fell the firft four years been com- puted. At the end of the fifth year, the earth was taken out of the veiled ; and, when dried, was found to have loft none of the original weight excepting two ounces. Mr Boyle made a fimilar experiment with gourds, the remit of which was the fame*. Tull's fyitcm then is iingularly un->. lucky : * From experiments made by Dr Woodward, he nffirnw, that earth is imbibed with water in a conliderable quanti- ty Ch. II. Food of Pjlants, &c. 343 lucky : of all fubftances, earth appears to be the lealt fitted for nourifhing plants ; and from Van Helmont's experiment it is clear, that if at allit enter the mouths of plants, the quantity is incon- liderable : of the great quantity of earth,, two ounces only were loit ; and fuppofing thefe two ounces to have been difTolved in the water and fucked in by the plant, it was next to nothing, conlidering the weight of the whole plant, which ivas a hundred and iixty-nine pounds. Other writers, more cautious, avoid fpecifying any particular fubftance as the food of plants: but hold, that every fpecies requires a peculiar nourifhment ; and that roots imbibe thofe juices only which are fitted for nourifhing the plant. The refutation of this hypothecs will not require many words. It is fufficient to obferve, that it js refuted by inconteilible experiments. Plants A a 4 take ty, (Tranfactions of the Royal Society, ann. 1699). In two glafs phials full of water, he put an equal quantity of garden-mould. In one of them a plant of mint was fet, and the earth after a time was fenfibly diminished ; but not in the other where no plant was fet. The Doclor did not advert, that garden-mould, which perhaps fur a centu- ry had been regularly dunged, mult be replete with ani- mal and vegetable particles that are fcluble in water, and with it are 'imbibed by plants. By the extraction of fuch particles it is no wonder that the earth put into the phial was diminilhed. But futh particles are not earth ; and therefore the Doctor's experiments contradict not thofe of Van Helmont and Mr Boyle. 344 THEGR Y. Part II. take in with air and water whatever is difiblved in them, without diflinguifhing the falutary from the noxious : there is not the lead appearance in any plant of a choice. Barley has been poifoned with brimftone, and mint with fait water. Mr George Bell ftudent of phytic in the college of Edinburgh, an ingenious young gentleman, made the following experiments, which he obligingly imparted to me. A number of Jerufalem arti- chokes were fet in pots filled with pure fand. One plant was kept as a ftandard, being nourifh- ed with common water only. Other plants of the fame kind, were nourifhed with water in which fait of tartar, a fixed alkali, was difiblved. Thefe grew more vigorously than the ftandard plant. But by reiterated waterings, there came to be fuch an accumulation of the fixed alkali-, among the fand, as to make the plants decay, and at laft to die. Some plants w r ere nouriflied with water, in which fal ammoniac, a volatile alkali, was difiblved. Thefe grew alfo well for fome time ; but, like the former, were deftroyed by the frequent reiteration of it. Weak lime-water promoted the growth of its plants more than com- mon water. But water completely faturated with quick-lime, proved more noxious than tiiat which contained a folution of fixed alkali •, dtough lefs than that which contained a folution of volatile alkali. Hence appears the hurt of overdofing a field with quick-lime. Urine promoted long. the Ch. if. Food of Plants, &c. 345 the growth of plants ; and the mod putrid ap- peared to have the ftrongeft effect : but at lait, it totally deftroyed them. Water impregnated with putrid animal and vegetable fubftances, did more effectually promote the growth of plants than any other iblution ; and in every ftage of the progrefs appeared to be falutary. Rotation of crops in the fame field, univerfally practiled, is what probably has promoted the o- pinion of a fpecific nourilhment. It has been ur- ged, that if all plants live on the fame food, the foil mull; be exhaufted by a fucceffion of different plants, as much as by a fucceffion of the fame plant. This argument for a fpecific nourifhment has a formidable appearance ; and in order to ob- viate it, I found it necefiary to give peculiar at- tention to that branch of husbandry, which is done above *. It is there made evident, that change of fpecies is necefiary, not for food, but for preventing degeneracy. It is not want of food that makes a horfe degenerate in Britain ; and as little want of food that makes wheat dege- nerate, where fown without intermiffion in the fame field. Plants native to Britain never dege- nerate, though always growing in the fame fpot ; white clover, for example, nettles, broom, whins, rufhes, couch- grafs, ckc. &c. A bull-dog never degenerates in Britain. Animal* * Part 2, chap. 1. feci. 3 34<5 THEORY. Part II. Animals from their food are divided into two kinds, carnivorous and graminivorous. But I difcover no fuch diftinclion among plant9 : they imbibe indifferently whatever is diffblved in wa- ter. And the plan of nature appears to be what follows. Certain fubitances were originally pro- vided for their food. It is highly probable, that a quantity was lodged on the furface of this earth, for nourifhing the firft plants : whence the ferti- lity of virgin foils, fuch as have never been culti- vated. This matter diflblved in water and im- bibed by plants, is communicated to animals that feed on plants ; and is again fet free by the death and putrefaction of thefe animals. The more vo- latile parts are attracted by the air : fome are fucked in with air at the leaves of plants : fome are w r afhed down to the ground by rain ; and with it are fucked in at the roots. The lefa vo- latile parts, which the air does not attracl:, are diliblved in water, and with it are alio fucked in. And thus the procefs is continued without end. This dodtrine of a common nourifhment, is firm- ly fupported by the following fads. Firft, Plants of ditferent kinds growing on th- 1 fame fpot, rob and ftarve each other ; which could not be if each drew from the foil a feparate nourifhment. Second, Grafting and inoculating demoilrate a common nourifhment. If the roots of the ftock- imbibe thofe juices only that are proper for its own nourifhment, the grafted plant mull flarve. The Ch. IT. Food of Plants, &c. 347 The juices imbibed by the former, nourifh both; and thefe juices are by each plant converted firft into lap, and then into its own fubftance. Third, Dung of putrefied vegetables, of whatever kind they be, is one homogeneous fubftance ; and yet vegetable dung prepares the foil equally for every fort of plant. I add a confederation of a kind that to me is always perfuafive : a common nou- rifhment is not only a more iimple, but a more wife difpenfation of Providence than a peculiar food for each fpecies : every plant grows not eve- ry where ; and if each fpecies required a pecu- liar food, a vaft flock of vegetable food would re- main unufed ; which is not conformable to the frugality of nature, nor to the wifdom of Provi- dence, which makes nothing in vain. But though all plants imbibe indifferently eve- ry fubftance that is diilblved in water ; it follows not, that every fuch fubllance, even where inno- cent, is equally nourifhing. Some fubftances may be proper nourimir.ent, fome not : and it may rationally be fuppcied, that the latter is thrown off as excrement. Why may there not be a refemblance in this particular, between plants and graminivorous animals ? A horfe, an ox, a fheep, a goat, live all of them on grafs ; but each of them have favourite graffes, which they prefer before o:her kinds. This will lb far juitiiy the notion of a fpecific nourilhment. Let experi- ments be made, t« try what is the molt falutary food 34 8 THEORY. Part I L food for plants. A few experiments of that kind are mentioned above ; but to give fatisfaclion, they ought to be multiplied and extended to plants of different kinds. There is not an opinion more generally adopt- ed, than the following concerning agriculture, whoever was the author, That fertility of foil de- pends on the quantity of nutritive matter in it, whether fpecific or common ; that when the quantity contained in any field is exhaufted by cropping, it is reftored by the plough, by dung, or by other manure ; and that to reftore an ex- haufted field by fuch means, is the fole object of agriculture. This opinion has a fair appearance : nor did I ever entertain a doubt about it, till the following confiderations happened to occur. I do not much relifli the notion, that the number of plants growing at any time on this globe, mult be limited by the quantity of matter created ori- ginally for their nourifhment, nor that the quan- tity of graminivorous animals muft be alfo fo li- mited ; and yet this mult neccifarily follow, ir' plants have no other food but what was thus ori- ginally provided for them. But fuppoling this consideration not to weigh with others as with me, there are other confiderations that cannot fail to make an imprefiion. Some countries produce corn and cattle, not only for the inhabitants, but for exportation. According to the eftablilhed opinion, thefe countries muft long ago have been Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 349 been reduced to abfolute barrennefs. Egypt and Sicily were of old the granaries of Italy; and vaft quantities of vegetable food, converted into corn/ were annually exported from thefe coun- tries never to return. Yet we do not find that they are lefs prolific than formerly. Sicily at prefent does not confume at home above the feventh part of its wheat ; the remainder is ex- ported ; and yet not the leaft fymptom of ap- proaching barrennefs. Confider the endlef* quantity of beef exported every year from Cork in Ireland : whatever quantity of vegetable food may originally have been ftored up in that part of the ifland, it rauft long ago have been totally exhaufted. I urge another objection more gene- ral. Wherever burying under ground is the practice, the vegetable food contained in the bo- dies of human beings is totally loft, not to men- tion thole who perifh at fea. At that rate, there is a gradual diminution of vegetable food, fo as that in time the whole rauft be exhaufted. I add a fact to convince any thinking perfon, that plants muft be provided with fome food befide that originally created. In Scotland, there are fields that pad memory have carried fucceffive crops of wheat, peafe, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without manure. And that there are iuch fields in England and elfe where, it is not to be doubted. A field of nine or ten acres on the river Carron, is ftill more extraordinary. Up- on 350 THEORY. Part I L on it I faw a good crop of oats almoft ripe ; and by information it was the hundred and third crop of oats without intermiflion and without manure, as far as was known. Now, whatever be the nu ture of fuch a foil, its unremitted fertility cannot be accounted for, from any fuppofed quantity of vegetable food originally accumulated in it. It is eafy by manure to make a foil too rich for corn : it vegetates without end, and the feed has nor, before winter, time to ripen. But fuppo- iing the richeft foil to be proper for corn ; yet the vegetable food it contains, however great the quantity, mull in time be exhaufted by cropping. Some other provifion therefore muft be made by nature for the nourifhment of plants, belide the vegetable food originally created. Immenfe is the quantity of corn and ft raw, that during a century is produced in a foil perpe- tually fertile. It is a puzzling queftion. whence proceeds fuch a quantity of matter ; for a new creation cannot be admitted. A perpetual effecl muft have a perpetual caufe : the foil muft re- ceive additions without end, to reftore what is taken away in corn without end. I am aware, that the fmalleft portion of matter may by di\i- fion be made to occupy fpacc without bounds. But obierve,that the difficulty arifes from weight, not from bulk. Corn is a weighty fubftancc ; and the corn produced on this globe from the beginning, muft amount to a weight above com- putation : Ch. II. Food o* Plants, &c. 351 putation : the fmall portion reftored to the ground in manure, is a mere atom in compan- ion. I have endeavoured above to evince, that earth is not converted into corn ; and here is an additional proof; for fuch converfion would exhi- bit a very new fcene : inftead of the hills finking down flowly into the vallies, the vallies would fink rapidly down from the hills. A perpetual effect, I have obferved, mult have a perpetual caufe * to preferve a foil perpetually fertile, there muft be a continual influx of Vegetable foocj, to fupply what is taken away by cropping. Whence comes that vegetable food ? where is it ftored up ? Air and water contribute to vegetation : let us try to build on that foundation. Suppoiing air and water to be the food of plants, not meaning to exclude what may be diffolved in them, the difficulty vanifhes, as air and water are inexhauft-- ible. And why may not that fuppofition hold in fad ? I begin with air. Many plants grow to perfection, without having any nourifhment that can be difcovered but air only. The houfe leek grows from choice on a dry mud-wall, which furely affords no nourifhment. A fpecies of the fedum, requiring a hot houfe in winter, is never watered. The wall flower grows luxuriantly in the feams between large fquare ftones in old buildings, from which all moifture is excluded but what is in the air. Various kinds of racf;> grow 352 THEORY. Part II. grow upon hard (tones, where they can have no nourishment but from the air. It is an univerfal opinion, that leguminous plants, before they feed, draw mod of their nourishment from the air. Conformable to that opinion, Dr Hales, in his curious Statical EfTays, has made it evident, that every vegetable contains a quantity of air, which adds to the weight as well as to the bulk. The fixed air in a green pea, makes no lefs than a third part of the weight. In wood, however, old or dry, air is found, very obfervable when let loofe by fire. Here is one inexhauftible ltore of matter for compoling plants. Water is another inexhauftible (lore. A plant regularly watered, will grow vigoroufly in the molt barren foil, ev.-n in deed fand. In Pcrfia, very little rain falls during fummer, and the land is burnt up ; not a pile of grafs to be feen. But plants there regularly watered, grow excefiively. There are many experiments of plants fet in glaf- fes upon mofs or fpunge, which grow well when watered. Some cotton was ipread on water in a phial : a pea dropped on it lprung and puihed roots through the cotton into the water. The plant grew vigoroufly, and bore large pods fuli of ripe feed. There is a noted experiment of an oak growing in pure water to the height of eighteen feet. 'Water is attracted by ve- getables of every kind ; and is fucked in at the roots, at the leaves, and even at the bark. The Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 353 The quantity imbibed during a fpring and a fum- mer is amazing. The quantity exhaled every day is accurately meafured in the Statical Eflays mentioned ; which muft be lefs than what is im- bibed, becaufe plants do not throw off all they im- bibe, part being converted into their fubftance, and adding to their bulk and weight*. The drieft wood accordingly yields, by diftillation, a large proportion of water. A ftream occupies the loweft ground, without regard to foil ; and yet the grafs on its borders is always more rich and verdant than at a diftance. A tree grows no where more vigorouily than at the fide of a brook. About a large (tone fixed in the ground, the grafs is generally the beft in the field : for what other reafon, than that the rain which falls on the ftone runs off to the fides ? I do not fay, that the heat of the ftone during fumrner may not contribute fomewhat. The north fide of a hill, is obferved to be commonly better foil than the fouth fide : if there be truth in the obfervation, it muft pro- ceed from moifture, lefs being evaporated from the former than from the latter. Black folid peat- B b mofs * The emiffion of water from plants, is the occafion that a country abounding with trees, is more fubjedt to damps, humid air, and frequent rain, than a bare country where no trees grow. The exceflxve moifture of the Ame- rican air, was a great annoyance to our firft fettlers ; bur the air became more dry and the weather more conftant, as the ground was cleared of trees. 354 THEORY. Part II. mofs retains moilUire like a fpunge : trees grow vigoroufly in it, provided they be fheltered from wind ; for their roots cannot refift a\ iiul in a foil fo tender and loofe. On the other hand, no foil is more barren than a gravelly or fandy moor that holds no water ; upon which the foot makes no impreflion, not even after a heavy fliower. I am bufy at prefent in cultivating a moor of that kind, upon which are fcattered fome dwarfifn plants of heath and bent, that leave half of the furface bare. 1 judged that manure would not anfwer, till the field mould be made to retain moiAure; for which reafon 1 incorporated with it a quantity of foft fpungy earth. • 1 added lime and dung ; and now it carries a rich crop of turnip and cabbage. The alteration of the foil is obvious to the eye j and alfo to feeling, as the foot dips in it ar'tei every fliower. Lord Bacon long ago gave his opinion, that for nourilhing vegetables, water is almoft all in all ; and that the earth ferves but to keep the plant upright, and to preferve it from too much heat, or too much cold. To fupply the endlefs quantity of moiilure ne- celTary for vegetation, nature has made ample provifion. The continual circulation of water up- on this globe, from its furface to the atmofpheie, and down again to the furface, is juftly admired for the fimplicity of its caufe, no lefs than for its bountiful effects. An elective attraction between air and water, is the primum mobile of thefe ef- fects. Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 355 fects •* Water is eight hundred times heavier than air ; and yet by that fingle power, an im- menfe quantity of water is fufpended in air ; and falls down from time to time in rain, dew, and fnow, impregnating the earth with moifture. Dr Hales, in a dry July, dug up a cubic foot of brick-earth, weighing one hundred and four pounds, which contained fix pounds and eleven ounces of water. Under the former he dug up another cubic foot, weighing one hundred and fix pounds and fix ounces, which contained ten pounds of water. Under this he dug up a third cubic foot, weighing one hundred and eleven pounds and one third, which contained eight pounds and eight ounces of water. Here is a confiderable flock of moifture, fufficient without rain to afford vegetable nourifhment feveral weeks ; not to mention what may be attracted from below, by the upper ftratum when its moi- fture is exhaufted. Evaporation goes on fo ra- pidly between the tropics, that to preferve plants alive, moifture mull be attracte'd from below : for, as mentioned in the firlt chapter of this part, there is an elective attraction between earth and water ; and where a portion of earth is faturated with water, it readily yields its fuperfluous water to a dry body in contact: with it. This afcent of moifture is promoted by the heat of the fun, B b 2 which * Edinburgh Phyfical EflTays, vol. 3. art. 4. 356 THEORY. PartlL which pierces deeper into the earth than two feet, according to experiments made by Dr Hales. Were not plants thus fupplied with moifture in the torrid zone, where no rain falls for many months, they would be deftroyed by the fcorch- ing heat of the fun. The evening dew that falls in a hot fummer, is fucked up the following day, without ever finking to the roots of plants. But though air and water are made by nature the conftant and inexhauftible food of plants, there feems to be little doubt but that this food may be enriched by various fubftances diffolved in them. We have feen above, that water im- pregnated with rotten animal and vegetable fub- ftances, makes rich nourifhment for plants ; and from experiments, other fubltanccs may probably be difcovered, equally efficacious. Plain water may be fufficient for the ftem, branches, and other grofs parts ; but we have reafon to think, that richer nutritive matter is neceffary for per- fecting the feed. Hence the imperfection of feed in a rainy year, where the rich matter bears no proportion to the quantity of water that paffes through a plant. Moderate rain in a kindly feafon, warms tilled land and produces a flight fermentation. It is here as in a dunghill : a very fmall quantity of moifture has fcarce any effect : a great quantity chills the ground, inftead of warming it. Differ- ent plants require different quantities of moifture. Graf- £h. II. Food of Plants, 8cc. 357 Grafs is benefited by all it receives ; provided the moifture exceed not fo much, as to chill the ground and the roots of the plants *. So far corn refefhbles grafs, '•as to be ftunted by lack of moifture, and confequently to blanch early. The feed has more than time to ripen ; but it is lank and ill filled. Corn differs in being hurt by much moifture : it vegetates continually ; and winter comes on before the feed begins to ripen. Holland is a moift country : there is fcarce a foot of dry ground in it. Trees, grafs, and vege- tables, grow there luxuriantly : but its fruits fel- dom ripen : and where ripe have little tafte. Thus from air and water, with what they con- tain, there is an inexhauftible fupply of vegetable nourifhment, which fairly accounts for the im- menfe quantity of corn that is annually produced. If water be the chief food of plants, there ne- ver can be a large tree but adjacent to water running either above or under the furface. The experiments of Dr Hales make it appear, that plants perfpire greatly ; and the perfpiration of a B b 3 large * A grafs plant cannot retain fo much as to hurt it : whatever is imbibed more than fufficient for nounfhment, "perfpires at the leaves. There is a confiderable latitude in the quantity of healthy perfpiration ; which in the fun- flower, by an experiment of Dr Hales, appears to be from fixteen to twenty-eight ounces in twelve hours day. And he adds, that the more it was watered the more it per- fpired. 358 THEOR Y. Part II. large iprcading oak mud be very great. Part of this perfpi ration muft be fupplied by a running ltream ; for all the rain that falls within the circumference of a tree is not fuilicien*. The fun joins with air and water in nourifhing plants. The green colour of plants is decafioned by an oily fubftance, which can be feparated by a chemical operation ; and that oily fubftance is owing to the fun, for no plant is green where the fun is excluded. The fun therefore contributes to advance plants to perfection. And it is one of the properties of leguminous plants, that their broad leaves abforb more of the fun's rays, than the narrow leaves of culmiferous plants. According to the foregoing theory, the only ufe of a foil, is to fix the roots of plants, and to hold water for nourifhment. But at that rate, where lies the difference between a rich and a poor foil ? This globe is furrounded with air, and rains pay not homage to one field in prefer- ence to another. The folution of this queftion will, if I be not grofsly miftaken, confirm the foregoing theory, and evince that it is founded on truth. Soils originally may have been very different with refpect to fertility, fuppoling vege- table food to have been unequally dillributed by the hand of nature. A virgin foil may be extremely rich ; witnefs the furpriting fertility of America, when agriculture was introduced there. But cultivated grounds muft long ago have been deprived • Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. *$g deprived of that original food, in the courfe of cropping ; after which, it does not enter into my conception, what other circumftance can remain to make a foil fertile, but the holding water in fufficient quantity for its plants. A clay foil holds a great quantity ; a fandy foil very little. Some foils there are Angularly retentive of moi- fture : and that quality makes them long of dry- ing : fuch foils are favourable to vegetation ; for though they refill drought, they yield to the at- traction of plants*. Other foils are very little retentive of moifture : they dry in an inftant, and the nourifnment they can afford is very fcanty. Here the myftery is unfolded. The richeft foil is what gives the greateft refinance to a drying air, and at the fame time furnifhes to its plants their proper quantity of moifture. I have a thorough conviction, that this property belongs to a foil perpetually fertile : and it is to me a firong con- firmation of the prefent theory, that I cannot form even theflightefl conception, how perpetual fertility can other wife be accounted for ; aud as little can I form a conception, how offierWife countries like Poland or Livonia, out of which great cargoes are annually exported of corn and fiaxfeed, mould fuffer no diminution of fertility. B b 4 To " May it not be thought, that the quantity of moifture which gives to a foil its higheft fermentation, is at th? fame time the fkteft for perfecting feed. However plea- fin g this conjecture may be, I dare not vouch it for truth : it muft be left to experiment. 3 6o THEORY. Part it To recruit with vegetable food a foil impoverifh- ed by cropping, has hitherto been held the only object of agriculture. But here opens a grander object, worthy to employ our keeneft induftry, that of making a foil perpetually fertile. Such foils actually exift : and why mould it be thought, that imitation here is above the reach of art ? Many are the inftances of nature being imitated with fuccefs : let us not defpair while any hope remains •, for invention never was exerted upon a fubject of greater utility. The attempt may fug- ged proper experiments : it may open new views ; and if we fail in equalling nature, may we not however hope to approach it ? A foil perpetual- ly fertile, muft be endowed with a power to retain moifture fufflcient for its plants ; and at the fame time muft be of a nature that does not harden by moifture. Calcarious earth promiies to anfwej?, both ends : it prevents a foil from being harden- ed by water ; and it may probably alio invigorate its retentive faculty. A field that got a fufticient dole of clay -marl, carried above thirty fucceffive rich crops, without either dung or fallow. Doth not a foil fo meliorated draw near to one perpe- tually fertile ? Near the eaft fide of Fife, the coaft for a mile inward is covered with fea-fand, a foot deep or fo ; which is extremely fertile by a mixture of fea-lhells, reduced to powder by attri- tion. The powdered Ihells, being the fame with {hell-marl, make the fand retentive of moifture > and Ch. II. Fool) of Plants, &.c. 361 and yet no quantity of moifture will unite the fand into a folid body. A foil fo mixed feems to be not far diftant from one perpetually fertile. Thefe, it is true, are at beft but faint eflays ; but what will not perfeverance accomplish in a good caufe ? A foil is denominated fertile, that affords plenty of nourifliment to its plants ; and accordingly it is fuch a foil only that has been the fubject of the foregoing inveftigation. Plants that live moftly on air, require not fuch a foil ; witnefs the houfe- leek mentioned above. Juniper thrives on the top of a mountain, in the poorefl and drielt foil ; becaufe, in that fituation, it is fufficiently fupplied with moifture from the air. If planted in a dry climate, it requires a moift foil, to fupply the want of a moift atmofphere. The nature of the yew is the fame. Planted in a valley, it requires a damp foil. It will grow in the drieft foil, as in the cleft of a rock, but then it muft be at fuch a height as to enjoy a humid air. Thefe belong to the clafs of plants that affect to grow in a foil commonly reckoned barren. A foil that a mere farmer would pronounce^ barren, is for many plants excellent. How otherwife could the earth be every where clothed with beauty ? How great muft be the diverfity of foil, climate, and fitua- tion, that can raife to perfection above 2o,cco kinds of plants, to each of which is requifite fome peculiarity of foil, of climate, or of fitua- tion ? Whether 362 THEORY. Part II. Whether the theory here exhibited will occa- sion any material alteration in the practice of agri- culture, mult be left to the difcovery of time. Of one thing I am firmly convinced, that the in- structions above delivered, arc in every particular conformable to that theory. Take the following flight fpecimen. Plants, like animals, cannot live long in the fame air : a circulation is to both equally requifite. For that reafon, the growth of plants under cover, is flow ; and feed fprings ilowly in Stagnated air. Conformable to this ob- servation, a free circulation of air for corn is warmly recommended ; and there is a caveat a- gainit fmall enclosures furrounded with (trips of planting, becauie they occafion a Stagnation of air. Impure air imbibed, renders a plant un- healthy : the grain has a bad tafte, and tends to generate difeaics ; which holds remarkably in a fruit-orchard, if the trees be crowded, and the walls high. Even grafs, where the air Stagnates, is unpalatable and unwholefome. Next with re- spect to moifture. No branch of hufbandry i^ more feduloufly inculcated, than that of dividing and pulvcrifing earth by the plough, by the brake, by harrows, and by manure : it is the very life of agriculture. And from what is laid down above, it appears, that fertility depends greatly on that practice * : it increafes the capacity of foil to con- tain water : it invigorates its retentive power ; and it prevents the foil from hardening : to thefe end* * Part 2. ch. i. fe£t. I. Ch. II. Food of Plants, &c. 363 ends manure greatly contributes; and in that view it makes the fubjed of the following chapter. To aid the fertility of foil, the pickling feed has been much practifed. We iiiten readily to the marvellous, efpecially where any great advantage is promifed. The boafted effefts of the Abbe de Valemont's prolific liquor, found many belie- vers, by which vaft crops were to be reaped, with- out manure, and almofl without plowing. (See Du Hamel's treatife on the culture of land, vol. 6.) And the Baron de Haac's powder, is at prefent no lefs fuccefsful in England. The credulity of farmers might in fome meafure be excufable, were fuch bold pretentions within the verge of poffibility. In every feed there is an embryo plant ; and the reft of the feed ferves to feed that plant, till it acquire roots for drawing its nouriih- ment from the foil. The pulp is thus exhaufted, and there remains only the ufelefs hulk. What advantage then can be derived from a prolific li- quor or powder ? It may poffibly render the pulp fitter to feed the young plant, till it ftrike root. That it can have no other effecl is evident ; firft, becaufe it is exhaufted with the feed ; and next, that fuppofing any of it to remain, it can be of no benefit to roots that are fpread an inch, two, or three, from the place where the feed was laid. Yet books of agriculture are ftiuTed with fuch receipts. T 364 THEORY. Part II. I clofe this chapter with a reflection of the juft- ly-etteemed Dr Hales. " Though I am feniible " that from experience chiefly we are to expect " the moft certain rules of practice ; yet the " liklieft method for making the moft judicious " obfervations, and for improving any art, is to " get the belt inlight we can into the nature and " properties of what we are defirous to cultivate " and improve.'* CHAP. III. Means of Fertilizing Soils. A S thefe means are plowing and manuring, they (hall be treated in their order. I. PLOWING. There are mutual connections between man and the ground he treads on, that fit them for each other. The dry part of this globe, is every where covered with a Jlratum of earth, produ- cing vegetables for the nourifhment of man and of other animals. Some Jlrata there are, lb bar- ren as not to bear vegetables ; and fome vegeta- bles there are, that afford no nourifhment : but both are rare, and intended probably for other purpofes. This Ch. III. I. Fertilizing Soils. 365 This Jlratum is commonly fufficiently deep for a free courfe to the roots of plants : or it may be made fo by art, it being one of the many pur- pofes of agriculture to deepen a fhallow foil. A deep foil, befide giving free courfe to roots, re- tains much water to nourifh them. In Scotland, partly from ignorance, partly from the weaknefs of labouring cattle, it is the general practice to plow with a fhallow furrow, commonly under four inches ; and hitherto the progrefs toward a better mode has been flow. It is never difficult to invent reafons for juftifying what we are ac- cuftomed to, " If we plow deep, we are afraid *' of till." And what is till ? Where ground is ftifF, rain fettling at the bottom of the furrow ce- ments the earth under it, which intime is harden- ed to a ftone ; and it is this hardened earth which is named till. The earth is hardened as far as the water penetrates, which may be one or two inches ; but after till is formed, every drop of rain refts upon it without making any impreffion. To fubdue till is an important object ; and luckily the undertaking is feldom difficult : a ftrong plough, railing it to the furface, lays it open to the fun, air and froft, which reftore it to its o- riginal ftate. One precaution is neceffary. Cer- tain earths, as hinted above, are averfe to vege- tation. Thefe muft be avoided, however {hal- low the foil be : but as fuch earths are rare, they 366 THEORY. Part II. they ought not to be an excufe for (hallow plow- ing. The advantages of deep plowing-, are mani- fold. In the firft place, roots extend far where they meet no refiftance \ and the growth above the furface correfponds to that below : roots cramped in a (hallow foil, are dwarfifti ; and confequently fo is the tree. Dr Hales juftly ob- ferves, that the greater proportion the furface of the roots bears to that of the tree, the greater is the vigour of the tree, and the better able to refift the attacks of an unkindly feafon. In the next place, a deep foil affords not only fpace for roots, but holds a due proportion of water for nouriftiing the plant. If more rain fall than the Toil can retain, it defcends to the bottom of the furrow, where it lies lower than the roots, or but barely touches their extremities : the fea- fon mud be very wet, that raifes the water fo high as to do much damage. The difadvantage of a (hallow foil is in that refpect very great. Roots accuftomed to earth are unqualified to grow in water : they futfer when foaked in water ; which mutt often happen in a (hallow foil, and is vifible above ground by a fickly yellow hue *. Upon that account, Miller enters a caveat againit over- watering tranfplanted trees : " it rots the young " fibres," fays he, " as fad as they grow." Dr Hales * Part 2. chap, i. feci. a. Ch. III. i. Fertilizing Soils. 367 Hales give the fame leflbn. There is another difadvantage of a fhallow foil : the water lodges fo near the furface, as foon to be exhaled in dry weather. Thus, the exceffes of moiflure and of drought, are both of them incident to a fhallow foil. In a deep foil, water lodged at the bottom of the furrow, is a refervoir, which is not ex- hausted but by long drought. Laftly, a deep foil affords fpace for placing the feed fo, as that the roots may fpread every way : in a fhallow foil, if the feed be laid fo deep as to be fufficient- ly covered, it approaches the hard bottom, un- kindly to tender roots. So much for a deep foil. I proceed to other advantages of plowing. Stiff foil is not pene- trable by water : loofe foil does not retain it. Plowing diminifhes the tenacity of the former, and opens it to receive water : it makes the latter more compact, and increafes its power of retain- ing water. Some earths fill not the hole out of which they were dug : fome do more than fill it. Porofity occafions the former : the pores are di- minifhed by handling, which makes it more corn- pad. Solidity occafions the latter : clay fwells by ftirring ; and continues fo, till its former foli- dity be reftored by the power of gravity *. Another * This experiment ought to be tried upon ground that has refted many years. Among the caufes of porofity, one is, the great number of inle&s that have their dwell- ing 3 68 THEORY. Part II. Another advantage of plowing regards clay chiefly, which by moifture turns hard if not duly ftirred. This is an important article. Sand has no cohefion ; and dry clay very little, if any *. It is water that cements clay ; and in plowing makes it rife in lumps or clods, great or fmall in proportion to the degree of cohefion. Plowing prevents water from binding a clay-foil : the fu- perfluous moifture is exhaled by frequent plow- ing, and no more left but to give the clay a de- gree of cohefion fufficient for fixing the roots. The next point is, the time of applying the plough after much rain. To plow wet, kneads the parts together : on the other hand, the ground mult not be fuffered to turn hard. Between foft and hard is the proper condition for plowing ; which may be known by the mouldering of the earth that is raifed by the plough. During win- ter, clay may be ftirred in a moifter ftate, than during fummer : froft prevents cohefion : heat promotes it. The management of light foil is very diiferent. It is eafily pulverifed ; but the dif- ficulty in g undr ground, and are expert miners. I fpeak not r lea and mice, whofe fubterranean walks and alleys ar^ obvious to the eye ; but of worms, beetles, ants, wafps, ficc. whofe works efcape obfervation. Their excavations may in a long tradl of time render the foil extremely po- rous. The fine earth they dig out, is left upon the furface, and blown away by the wind. • Part 2. chap. i. fe£l. I, Ch. Ill* i. Fertilizing Soils. 369 ficulty is to preferve its moifture. A long drought, by extracting much of its moifture, renders it. the lefs fit for vegetation; and to "plow it in that ftate in dry weather, would render it entire- ly unfit. The only remedy is rain ; and if drought fet in, it ought to be rolled immediately after plowing. The proper time of lowing and harrowing, is when there is no more moifture than fufficient to give the foil a proper conliftence ; and 1 conjec- ture that the fame degree of moifture is the fit- ted for making the feed fpring. Reflect upon the making of malt : a certain degree of moifture is neceflary for fermentation : too much checks it. Let roiling immediately follow, to prevent as much as poffible any more evaporation. Where feed is to be fown in winter, or early in fpring, it is right to plow fome time before, in order that the fuperfluous moifture may evaporate : for at that feafon there is no fear of exhaufting the moifture. But late in the fpring, if the feafon be dry, fow the feed immediately after plowing. The plants in their courfe of growing, return to the foil, during night, part of the moifture they draw from it during day. Their roots at the fame time, fpreading in every direction, keep the foil in conftant motion, and prevent it from turn- ing hard. I clofe this fection with an effect of plowing, the moil important of all, b<»cauie it holds in all C c foils 370 T H E O R t. Part IL foils lefs or more. Plowing keeps the foil loofe for root; to take their natural courfe, and open for admitting air, dew and rain. Dew in parti- cular, which falls in plenty during fummcr, when \ wanted, is loft upon hard foil, being exha- led by the next fun ; but it finks deep into loofe foil, and is flieltered from the fun's power. Ground ftirred before w inter, is not only laid open to the action of the fun, wind, and froft, but is early ready for a fpring crop, beans for ex- ample. It foon wets indeed, but it dries as foon. To drench in water ground left unftirred, may :ct|uire a month or two; but then equal time is required to dry it. The more earth is puhe- rifed, the more water it holds * ; and the more- parts water is divided into, the more readily it is imbibed by plants. If the ground be rendered too loofe, rolling not only makes it folid to ie- cure the plants againft wind, but alio prevents evaporation. How beneficial it is to keeep foil open for the i.Jmiilion of nutritive matter, will appear from the following fads. Stiff foil gains little by reft ; for as rain and dew get no admittance, they are foon carried off by evaporation. But foil, if to- lerably open, improves by reft. 1 fufpeel that it ins iitile by the pafturing of cattle ; for what they take away in fat with what they perfpire,wiU nearly - Part 2. chap. I. feci. i. Ch. III. i. Fertilizing Soils. 371 nearly balance the dung they leave : but it gains by the nutritive matter that rain and dew depofit in it : the fain may evaporate, but it leaves the nutritive matter. This cafe refembles fait deposit- ed in the fea by rivers : water is evaporated from the fea, but the fait is left behind; and hence the faltnefs of the fea. The nutritive mat- ter thus left in the earth, is again diluted in rain- water ; and though not attracted by the air, is attracted by plants, and enters into the orifices of the roots along with the water in which it is dif- folved. There is another caufe that has a mare in the improvement of an open foil, and that is air, which, with its contents, enters by attraction into the bofom of an open foil *. The operation is indeed flow, becaufe the attraction has no ef- fect but in contact .or near it : yet in time, the quantity of nutritive matter attracted with air, may be conliderable. Du Hamel reports, that the rubbiih of a mud-wall made good manure, though the mud had been taken from a very poor foil. Graffy fod, ufed as a covering for cot- tages, turns good manure when it has lain long upon a houfe. The walls of a fold for (beep, be- ing compofed of fod, make good manure : when thrown down and misted with the foil, they af- ford a better crop than the fold within, though enrich', d with the dung of the fheep. Among C c 2 many * Part 1. chap. 1. fe£t. I. 372 THEORY. Part II. many advantages of .fallowing, the expofing to the air a new furface from time to time, is one ; by that means every part of the foil draws air with the vegetable food it contains. Columella, book 2. chap. 4. advifes ground to be reduced to duft by plowing. And he quotes a faying of the ancient Romans, That that land is ill plowed which wants harrowing after the feed is fown. ■2. MANURES. The operations of nature, hid from the igno- rant, and not always obvious to the learned, breakout fometinies into broad day-light. Did animal bodies after death wither and dry with- out difiblviiig, this earth, could not long have been a iiabitation for men : their utmoft efforts would have been infufficient to remove dead car- cafes out of the way. Happily, putrefaction corner to their relief: dead bodies diffolve and mix with the foil, without leaving a trace behind. Putre- faction is a curious procefs of nature : air, moi- fture, heat, all of them contribute ; but too much, or too little, is an impediment to the pro- cefs. On the furface of this globe, a procefs is conti- nually g'>ing on, unregarded by the vulgar, being too familiar to draw their attention ; and yet il- luftrious among tie works of Providence for its beneficial effects. Plants and animals are gene- rated, Ch. III. 2. Fertilizing Soils. 373 rated, arrive at maturity ; and after ferving the purpofes of nature, decay and rot. But the pro- cefs ends not there. Loathfome putrid matter, from which we avert the eye, is made fubfervient to an excellent purpofe, namely, renovation of plants ; and the procefs goes on without end. Manures are of two kinds. One attracts wa- ter and is attracted by it, dung for example, fait, calcined limeftone, commonly called quicklime, or limply, lime. Another neither attracts water nor is attracted by it, mell-marl for example, clay-marl, ftone-marl, raw limeftone beat into powder. Of all manures, dung is the molt univerfal. A foil naturally (tiff turns free and open, in propor- tion to the quantity of dung beftowed on it. Re- duce clay into a dry powder : moiften it with wa- ter and form it into a ball : repeat the operation at pleafure, it ftill returns to its original hardnefs. But moiften it. once or twice with the juice of a dunghill, it becomes mellow, and never recovers its hardnefs Dung therefore renders clay fertile by opening it and giving admiflion to water. It does more : it makes every foil retentive of water. Examine a kitchen-garden that has been often dunged in the courfe of cropping : it will be found moift above any neighbouring ground of the fame original foil. As dung is compofed of putrefied vegetables or of animal excrements, it is natural to think that it C c 3 contains 374 THEORY. Part II. contains more or lefs vegetable food. This how- ever goes not beyond a conj cture: a plant or an animal may con rain abundance of vegetable food ; but we are not certain that this is the cafe after putrefaction : it may by that procefs be converted into a different fubftance : fuch converlions in na- tural operations, are far from being rare. But if vegetable food be contained in dung, which is the mod likely, another ufe of it is to dcpolit in the ground its vegetable food, which being dilTolvcd in water, is imbibed by plants, and converted into their fubttance. And from an experiment men- tioned above it appears, that water impregnated with dung, is of all the greateft nourilher of plants. A third ufe of dung is, to promote vegetation by railing a kindly heat in the ground. The fan- rays produce the fame effect upon ground render- ed black by culture ; for it is a property of all black bodies to attract and abforb rays of the fun*. Heat is belt promoted by hot du:: which therefore feems the molt proper for corn. Whether hot dung be the belt for making a foil retentive of moiiture, remains to be afcertained by experiments. But I incline to think, that dung thoroughly putrefied, and confequently cool, is in its belt condition for grafs ; as il an be equally fpread to give every plant its (hare. It is * Part 2. chap. i. feet. 1. Ch. III. 2. Fertilizing Soils. 375 alfo in its bed condition for a kitchen-, garden : green dung infects pot-herbs with an unfavoury tafte, and fometimes with a difagreeable fmell. Let a dunghill remain years without ftirring : it is reduced in appearance to fine earth ; which however has very little natural earth in it, as there is very little natural earth in vegetables, or in ani- mals that feed on vegetables. Verv few natural earths equal this vegetable earth in fertility : and it is a kind difpenfation of Providence, not only that dung is a great fertilizer, but that when it becomes vegetable earth, it proves the bed foil for vegetables. In corn- countries, the furface- earth comes in time to be moftly vegetable ; were it inferior to natural earth, corn-countries would long ago have been rendered barren and unfit for agriculture. From dung I proceed to other manures. Lhne- flone, fhell-marl, clay-marl, ftone marl, are all of them a compofition of calcarious earth with other fubftances. Sand with calcarious earth makes limeftone *. The fliells of fifh are almoft entirely calcarious ; and thefe fliells foftened and reduced to powder in water, are csllt&Jbetl-marl. Clay- marl is a compofition of calcarious earth and clay. Stone-marl is a compofition of clay, fand, and calcarious earth : it is the fand that hardens C c 4 it ; * I have heard of limeftone aim oft entirely calcarious, with little or no mixture of fand. 376 • THEORY. Part 11. it; and according to the proportion of land, it approaches to limeftone or to clay-marl *. It is oblerved above, that powdered clay is fufpended in water, till by the fuperior force of gravity it fall to the bottom f. But as far as I kmu\ water has not the power of diflblving any fort of earth, calcined limeftone alone excepted. A fmall quantity of calcined limeftone, a pound for example, will impregnate a vaft quantity of water, with no lofs of bulk, and with a lofs of ,ght fcarce perceptible. Calcined limeftone thus impregnated called lime-watery difcovers it- feif to the tafte though not to the eye. But this effect is confined to calcined limeftone ; for be- tw.-en water and calcarious earth in its natural ftate, there appears no elective attraction : water poured on fhell-marl comes off pure, carrying nothing along with it. Nor do clay or ftone- marl differ, even when reduced into powder. Vegetation is more promoted by weak lime wa- ter than by pure water. Two beans every way equal were fet in pots filled with earth from the fame heap : the one was moiftened with lime- water, the other with pure water: the lirft \. by far the quickeft grower, and the moft vigo- rous. Hence one benefit of quicklime : it con- \ erts * See Dr Ainflie's accurate Effay on Marl. Edinburgh EflViys Phyfica] and Literary, vol. 3. art. 1. f ^art 2. chap. 1. feci. 1. Ch. III. 2. Fertilizing Soils. 377 verts rain into lime-water, which is a great ferti- lizer. This effect however is but temporary, as will thus appear. Quicklime is limeftone deprived of its air, by the force of fire : but quicklime ex- pofed to the air, attracts air ; and in time be- comes again limeftone as originally ; confequent- ly unfit to make lime-water*. Quicklime may have an effect on land as well as on plants. It is highly probable, that it opens clay- foil to admit water that formerly relied on the furface. How otherwife can it be explained, that liming renders clay-foil drier ? May it not alio have the effect to increafe the retentive pow- er of a loofe foil? This feems probable, if what Young the itinerant farmer fays hold true, that lime has a much greater effect upon loofe moor than upon any other foil. Salt is powerful ; and an overdofe of it does more mifchief than of any other manure. It is foluble in water, and by that means enters the mouths of plants. Its effect then muft be the fame with that of lime-water ; and confidering how fparingly it ought to be laid on land, it is not obvious what other effect it can have. As nothing can enter the mouths of plants but what is diffolved in air or water, calcarious earth in its natural ftate cannot enter. Yet fhell-marl, clay-marl, (lone-marl, compofed moilly of calca- rious * Edinburgh Eflays Phyncal and Literary, vol. 2. art. S. 378 THEORY. Part II. rious earth, contribute undoubtedly to fertility. If thefe manures cannot furnifh nourifhment to plants directly, they mult produce that effect in- directly, by fitting a foil to retain moifture, or by preventing moifture from acting as a cement, or by both. They certainly have the effect to keep ground from hardening : they render clay loofe and ductile, and prevent its being hardened by water. Whether they increafe the power of any foil to retain water, is left to experiment. An ovcrdofe of fhell-marl, laid perhaps an inch thick, produces for a time large crops. But at laft it renders the foil a caput mortuum, capable neither of corn nor grafs ; of which there are too many inftances in Scotland : the fame probably would follow, from an ovcrdofe of clay- marl, (tone-marl, or pounded lime-ftone. How is this to be accounted for? Of one thing we are cer- tain, that by fuch overdofe, light foil is rendered fo loofe as to be moved by the wind ; and that even clay -foil is rendered fo foft, as to receive the impreflion of the lighteft foot at every itep. Is it not then probable, that the foil is rendered to open, as to retain little or no water? But then, how comes the land to bear any crop at all ? I am reduced to another conjecture, that ordinal plowing once a-year, is not fufficient to mix with the foil fuch a quantity of manure ; and that an intimate mixture requires fcveral years. lL\en a moderate dofe of lime requires more than a year bv Ch. III. 2. Fertilizing Soils. 379 by fuch management for an intimate mixture; for which reafon, the fecond crop after lime is always better than the firft, and the third frequently better than the fecond. Now as the foil is open- ed by that part only which is mixed with it, the cropping may go on feveral years, before fuch a quantity of the overdofe, is mixed as to occafion a total fterility. This conjecture may be brought under the touchftone of an experiment. Before or after harveft, let an overdofe of ihell-marl be intimately mixed with the foil by reiterated plowings and harrowings. If the barley fuwn next feafon fail by lack of moifture, the conjec- ture will be converted into a certainty. Quicklime is of a nature very different from calcarious earth in its natural Mate : by the latter, land is rendered fo loofe by an overdofe as to hold no water : by an overdofe of the former, it is hardened to fuch a degree as to be impervious to water or to the roots of plants. Several fpots in the Carfe of Gowry, are thus rendered fo hard as to be unfit for vegetation. The quantity of calcarious earth in clay-marl, is frequently a half, and lometimes more. Five hundred cart-loads of clay-marl laid on an acre, are found not to be an overdofe. Sup poring the half to be calcarious earth, and reckoning a cart to hold fix bolls ; here are fifteen hundred bolls of calcarious earth laid on an acre. Yet a far lefs quantity of iliell-marl has been known to render the jte |T H E O R Y. Part II. the foil a caput mortuum ; tho' there is not difco- vered any chemical difference between the cal- carious earth in clay-marl and that in fhell-marl : they both equally are converted into lime by the force of fire. Ignorance of nature, betrays us at every turn to doubts and difficulties. May it not be conjectured, that calcarious earth, by en- tering into the compofition of an animal body, bocomes a more powerful manure than when mixed with earth ? There is an argument from analogy to fupport that conjecture. Calcarious earth changes its nature by the action of fire ; and why may it not furTer fome change by being made part of an animal body ? Every particular in the prefent chapter, whe- ther relative to the plough or to manure, is per- fectly agreeable to the general proportion, That air and water with what is dhTolved in them, make the nourifliment of plants. To cultivate land in fuch a manner as to retain a proper quantity of air and water, is in all probability the chief or only means for making it fertile. In that view, I have all along warmly recommended pulverifa- tion ; becaufe the more a foil is pulverifed, the more water it will hold, and the more retentive it will be of it. No mode of hufbandry tends more to pulverifation than horfe-hoeing ; nor any in- struments more than the brake and the harrows above defcribed. Soils are very different with re- fpect to their power of attracting and retaining air Ch. III. 2. Fertilizing Soils. 381 air and water. Let the diligent farmer make ac- curate experiments for afcertaining that differ- ence, and for increafing that power : no inquiries tend more to tlie improvement of agriculture. Our attempts to make a foil perpetually fertile will probably fail ; but our hopes of approaching it, may be crowned with fuccefs. With refpecT: to the contents of this part in ge- neral, I have to obferve, that in natural philo- fophy, of which the fcience of Agriculture is a branch, queftions occur of two kinds. Firft, Will a certain event happen in given circum- ftances ? Second, Suppoiing the event, what is the caufe ? To queftions of the firft kind, the anfwer is fiat experimentum. All that can be done with refpect to the other kind, is from a number of analogous facts, to form a gene- ral rule or law of nature. Such rules at the fame time ought to be admitted with caution, even after the cooleft induction. But thofe who are ardent for knowledge, cannot eafily fub- mit to the flow progrefs of philoibpliy : they are always in a hurry to draw ccnclulions, and hurry commonly leads them into error. Lord Bacon fancifully -compares knowledge to a ladder. Up- on the firft ftep particular truths are difcovered by obfervation or experiment. The next ftep is to colled thefe into more general truths ; from which the afcent is to what are ftill more general. There are many fteps to be taken before we ar- rive 382 T H E O R Y. Part IL rive at the top ; that is, at the mod general truths. But impatience makes us endeavour to leap at once from the lowed flep to the higheft : we tumble down, and find with regret that the work mult begin anew. To conclude. Here is my theory of agricul- ture, difplayed at full length ; which is freely fab- mittcd to the public, againft whole judgment there lies no appeal. But let it be kept in view, that it is fubmitted as probable only, not as cer- tain. It would require the life of an antedilu- vian, to make all the experiments that are necef- f iry, for piercing to the foundation, and for re- folving all into clear principles. My life at any rate is too" far advanced, for an undertaking fo extenfive. I found an impulfe to expofe this theory, naked as it is ; and I gave way to the impulfe, becaufe I flutter myfelf, that it may af- ford lome light in traci ig the operations ojima- ture. One advantage it has above feveral other theories, that it can be fubjected to the touch- done of experiments, many of which are fug- gefled above. By fuch experiments, fagaciouily concluded, it mult ftand or fall. AP- APPENDIX. ARTICLE I. IMPERFECTION OF SCOTCH HUSBANDRY. A Man can never have thorough confidence in his road, till he be made acquainted with the by-paths that miflead him ; and to be made acquainted with the errors of our neighbours, is the high- way to good hufbandry. My prefent purpofe, is to delineate the imperfect ftate of Scotch hufbandry, not only as formerly practifed every where, but as practifed at prefent in moil places. To contemplate the low ftate of their country in the moll important of all arts, cannot fail to excite ambition to excel in the few who are fkilful, and to roufe imitation in others. Our crops in general are very indifferent ; and how can it be otherwife, conlidering our inftru- ments of hufbandry, which are fadly imperfect ? What can be expe&ed from them in a poor foil, when they perform fo little even in the richeft ? Our crops accordingly correfpond to our inftru- :nents, From 384 Imperfection of App. From many examples it is made evident, that our foil and climate are capable of producing draught-horfes, patient of labour, and iingularly Vet the breed is fo much neglected, that they are commonly miferable creatures, without ftrength or mettle. Did landlords attend to their intereft, they would be diligent to improve the breed. Why do they not reflect, that the fame farm-fervants with better horfes, would double the ordinary work? By improving the breed, they would draw more rent from their tenants, without laying any additional burden upon them. With refpecl to oxen, there is no care taken cither in the breeding or feeding. How eafy is it for a gentleman to procure a good bull for his tenants ? and from the little care of providing food for draught-oxen, one would fufpect it to be a gene- ral opinion, that they require no food. In fum- mer they are turned out into bare pafture, fcarce fufficient for fheep. In winter, a fmall bottle of ftraw, not above a flone weight, is all that is al- lowed them in the tw 7 enty-four hours ; which af- ter the turn of the year, being dry and faplefs, affords very little nourifhment. What can ani- mals fo fed do in a plough ? And yet fuch is the ftupidity of many farmers, that inftead of adding to the food, they add to the number ; as if it would mend the matter, to add cattle that can fcarce fupport their own weight. One unaccu- stomed to fee ten oxen in a plough led on by two horfes, Art. i. Scotch Husbandry. 385 horfes, cannot avoid milling. With his goad the driver beats the horfes, and pricks every ox as he advances. He then runs forward twenty yards to beat the horfes a fecond time and prick the oxen. Some of the oxen in the mean time, inftead of drawing, are found hanging on the yoke, and keeping others back. It is indeed next to im- practicable, to make ten weak oxen in a plough, draw all at the fame time. Nor is this the only inconvenience. A great number of oxen by fuch management, are requilite for Hocking a farm ; the expence of which is not always within the reach of the moft induftrious. In a year of fear- city befide, the beafts are actually ftarved. And what is worft of all, the tenant, in order to get ftraw for his cattle, is commonly neceiTitated to threfh out his corn, without waiting for a market, or having a granary for it. Our farmers, led entirely by cuftom, not by reflection, feldom think of proportioning the num- ber of their working cattle to the ufes they have for them. Hence, in different conties, from fix to twelve oxen in a plough, without any regard to the foil. Seldom it is, that more than four good beafts can be neceffary, if the proper time for plowing be watched. The divilicn of a farm into infield and outfield, is execrable hufbandry. Formerly, war employed ihe bulk of our people : the remainder were far from fufficiently numerous for cultivating even D d that 386 Imperfection of App. that fnvall proportion'of our land which is capable of the plough. Hence extenfive farms, a fmall part of which next the dwelling, termed in- frlJ, was cultivated for corn : the remainder term outjleld, was abandoned to the cattle, in learance tor pafture, but in reality for ftarving. The fame mode continues to this day, without many exceptions, though neceflity cannot be pleaded for it. But cuftom is the ruling princi- ple that governs all. Sad is the condition of the labouring cattle ; which are often reduced to ihiilles, and withered draw. A fingle acre of red clover would give more food than a whole outfield ; yet how common is the complaint of tenants, that they are dilabled from carrying on any fummer-work, for want of food to their horfes ; a fhameful complaint, coniidering how eafy the remedy is. Cuftom is no where more prevalent than in the form of ridges. No lefs high than broad, they are enormous mafles of accumulated earthy that admit not crofs-plowing, nor any plowing but gathering and cleaving. Cuftom and imitation are fo powerful, as that our ridges are no lefs high in the fteepeft bank, than in the flattelt field. P>alks between ridges are equally frequent, though invincible obftructions to good culture. It would puzzle one at firit view to explain, why fuch ftrips of land are left untilled. They mult have been aicrved originally, as a receptacle for Hones, thrown 'Art. i. Scotch Husbandry. 387 thrown off the tilled land ; and hufbandmen were led by imitation to leave fuch (trips, even where there were few or no ftones. The proper time for plowing or harrowing, is when the foil upon ftirring moulders into fmall parts. This is not obferved by farmers fo care- fully as it ought to be. How common is it to fee even a clay foil plowed, when foaked in water, or when hard like a ftone. Little attention is gi- ven to what may be termed the frojl prepara- tion ; which is, to open the ground before win- ter, in order that froft may pierce deep, and mellow the foil. Shallow plowing is univerfal, without the leaft regard to deepnefs of foil. The temperance of our people may be a proper fubjec~t for ironical praife ; for though nature affords commonly ten or twelve inches of foil, they are humbly fatisned with a half or third. Ribbing is a general practice, though the flight- eft reflection is fufficient to make it evident, that to leave half of the land untilled, muft be wretch- ed hufbandry. Summer-fallow has of late years crept in, and is now common in three or four counties. In the reft of Scotland, for want of fummer- fallow, there is a continual ttruggle for iuperiority, be- tween corn and weeds. Do not fuch provoking farmers fee, that it is fruitlefs to manure land o- ver-run with weeds ? Do they not obferve, that D d 2 the 3&'9 Imperfection of -^PP' the manure they beftow encourages weeds as much as corn ; or rather, that it invigorates the weeds to deftroy the corn ? Make a progrefs- through Scotland, you fee ftubborn weeds in c- very corner fcattering their feed, and fouling the ground more and more. It is an eafy work to cut down weeds before they go to feed. Would not one think, that work fo eafy would never be negleded ? and yet it is never done. A Scotch farmer behaves worfe than Efau : the lat- ter got a mefs of pottage for his birth-right; the former furrenders his to weeds, without any re- compenfe. There is fcarce fuch a thing praclifed as to harrow before fowing. The feed is thrown into rough uneven ground, and the half is buried. The roller is a moft ufeful inftrument. It was unknown till lately ; and even at prefent is very little ufed. With regard to rotation of crops, a moft im- portant article, there is great ignorance among our farmers. As it would be tedious to enter in- to particulars, I refer to ch. 7. where that fub- jecl: is treated of. Our farmers fhow very little ikill in harveft- work. I confine myfelf to a iingle inftancc. The lheaves are bound up with a rope, compofed of two lengths of the corn, twilled together: which makes the fheaves commonly of a monftrous lize. The binder, prcfling hard with his knee, binds the Art. i. . Scotch Husbandry. 389 the flieaf fo clofe, as with difficulty to admit his finger. The weather mull be extremely favour- able, if it be fufficiently dry in a fortnight, to be ventured in a (tack ; it commonly muft ftand in the field three weeks. Let any one confider the rifk of'the crop in various weather, fuch as hap- pens ordinarily in autumn. Nor is this all. Such fheaves are not only unhandy, but are apt to loofen in being carried to the ftack, or from the ftack to the barn. A. fheaf fliould never ex- ceed what can be flightly bound together with a fingle length of the corn : it is fitter to be Hacked in a week, than ordinary fheaves in three. No branch of hufbandry is lefs underftood, than manure. A. dunghill is a very improper bed for corn : lime and marl are ftill more improper ; for nothing will grow on them. Hence it is ap- parent, that the intimate mixture of manure with the foil, is the great circumftance for vegetation. In order to that end, the foil ought to be highly pulverifed and the manure divided into its fmall- eft parts. With refpecl to dung in particular, it ought to be carefully mixed in the dunghill, not neglecting to divide by the hand any lumps that may be in it. Let our farmers fay, whether they are fo accurate. Nothing more ordinary, than heaps of dung withering in the field, incapable to be intimately mixed with any foil. Nothing more ordinary, than dung laid on the dunghill in D d 3 barrowfuls, 3SP Imperfection of -App* barrowfuls, without being fpreador mixed with what was there before. A potato is a moil ufeful plant, and, when properly cultivated, affords a plentiful crop. It is a great refource to the labouring poor, being a nourifhing food that requires very little cook- ing. We have been afflicted of late years with very bad feafons, which, but for that refource, muft have driven many of our people from their native country. Yet potatoes to this day con- tinue to be propagated in lazy- beds. Expert farmers, not many in number, raife them with the plough at the twentieth part of the expence. This method has belide two other advantages : it leaves the foil in the beft ftate for fubfequent crops ; and the potatoes are more palatable than what are raifed in a lazy-bed. Swine make a profitable article of hufbandry, very little attended to in Scotland. They arc fed at a fmall expence, and yet make moft nourifhing food. Every perfon who has a cow, ought alfo to have a pig. This is univcrfal i;i England : it is creeping into Berwickshire, but in few other places, as far as I know. Very few farms in Scotland are juftly propor- tioned : fome are too fmall ; the bulk of them too large. The former lead to a habit of idle- nefs ; the latter into a habit of flovenlinefs, by want of power to do juflice to every part. There is not an article in hufbandry more ellential, than to Art. 2. Scotch Husbandry^ 391 to adjuft a farm to the fkill and ability of the te- nant. ARTICLE II. A BOARD FOR IMPROVING AGRICULTURE. IT is a maxim in politics, that every country will be populous in proportion to the fertility of its foil ; upon which account agriculture is the moil ufeful of all arts. And yet it is a fad truth, that in Scotland, this art has advanced not far beyond the firft flage of its progrefs. In England indeed, it has made a much greater advance ; and yet far inferior in perfection to Englifh ma- nufactures and commerce. Agriculture is car- ried on every where without a fchool ; and for that reafon, is commonly thought to require no fchooling. Can a Britiih minifter embrace any meafure more patriotic, than to encourage agri- 1 culture and its profelfors ? No other meafure would fo effectually aggrandize Britain. A ftnall fhare of the money and attention bellowed on railing colonies in America, would have done wonders at home. And yet, mark the linking difference : our arts are our own, which we ne- ver can be deprived of while induftry remains : in the very constitution of our colonies, on the contrary, there are caufes of feparation„that grow D d 4 daily 391 A Board for App. daily move and more efficacious ; a wide extend- ed country, a fertile foil, navigable rivers, and a growing population. I difregard the prefent re- bellion of our Americans : for they will foon be reduced to obedience. But as they derive from Britain high notions of liberty and independence, . and as they are daily increafing in power and o- pulence, the aera of their total feparation cannot be at a great diftance. It is indeed abfurd to think, that a great nation, in the vigour of pro- fperity and patriotiim, can be kept in fubjeclion by a nation not more powerful, enervated by- luxury and avarice. Let us not however defpond : for if agriculture be carried on but to the per- fection that our foil and climate readily admit, it will amply compenfate the lofs of thele colo- nies. Books are ufeful for advancing hufbandry, o- therwife this little treatife mould not have feen the light. But books are far inferior to living- in- itructors, who convey knowledge by practice as well as precept. We have a board for manufac- tures and iifheries; a wife inftitution which has been attended with great fuccefs. Why not alio a board for agriculture ? Is agriculture a lefs ufe- ful art than thefe mentioned ? or does it lefs re- quire inflruclion ? Hartlib, in his legacy, laments that no public director of hufbandry had ever been eftablifhed in England. The prefent tin in Scotland the happieft for fuch an eftablifhmcnt. Before Art. i. Improving Agriculture. 393 Before the union of the two kingdoms, our people were fo benumbed with oppreffion, that the molt able director would have made no im- preffion. Freedom has braced their nerves, and has made thera take heart to be induftrious. They liften to inftruction : let them perceive their intereft, and the) 7 will cheerfully pradtife what they are taught. A board for agriculture would among us have wonderful iuccefs in many important articles. Considering the quantity of wafte land even in our beft cultivated counties, it is not too fanguine to hope, that our corn- crops may be doubled. What a bleffing would this be to Scotland, which for many years has been reduced to import great quantities? Our horfes and horned cattle, are far inferior to what may be produced by good management. Our iheep weigh not above ten pounds a-quarter, nor their wool above two pounds. The foil by ;;ood culture would feed fheep to the weight of twenty-four pounds a-quarter ; carrying from fix to ten pounds of wool, a valuable acquiiiticn to the woolen manufacture. Lambs in feveral in- stances have been advanced to twelve {hillings a-head, and wedders to forty millings. Thefe are but a fpecimen of the various improvements that might be perfected by fiich a board. The plan I have in view, is fimple. Let the board confiit of nine members, the molt noted for (kill in hufbandry, and for patriotifm. As I propofe 394 A- Board roR. -A-PP* propofe no reward to thefe gentlemen but the honour of ferving their country, the choice will not be difficult : in lucrative employments, perfo- nal connections have more influence than perfo- nal merit ; and it is avarice only that fets people at variance. Where perfonal merit is the fole ob- ject of choice, there is feldom much difference in opinion. And to have a right let of members at rlrft is of the utmoft importance. If deficient in knowledge, they will have no influence, and per- haps be fneered at. But let men be chofen who have the public voice for them : they will have great authority, and every dire ct ion of theirs will be obeyed. To eafe the board in the laborious branch of their bufinefs, they ought to be pro- vided with an able fecretary, to minute their pro- ceedings, to write their difpatches, and to carry on their correfpondence, foreign and dotneflic. As punctual attendance is necefiary, the good be- haviour of fuch an officer may well entitle him to a falary of L. ioo yearly ; with the addition of L. 30 more in a year of extraordinary buiinefs, at the difcretion of the board ; but not unlcfs all the members be unanimous. A larger falary would be an object of intereft, and foon degene- rate into a finecure. A regular meeting once a-month may be fuf- flcient ; with liberty to thole Mho have moft lei- fure, to meet at intervals for expediting what may require difpatch. It would cramp the pro- ceedings Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 395 ceedinn-s of fuch a board, to confine it to a quo- rum. As there cannot be any felf-intereft to create a bias, thofe who meet ought to have the power of the whole ; and what they tranfad ought to be final, if not altered by a greater number the next monthly meeting. The things necefiary to be undertaken by this board at the commencement of their operations, will require much labour and fagacity. Thefirft is to make out a date of the hufbandry pradifed in the different counties ; in which notice muft be taken of the climate, of the foil, of the mode of cropping, and of the muniments of hufbandry, noting the prices of all the particulars that enter into farming. The next is written inftrudions for improving hufbandry, fuited to the foil and fituatipn of every diftrid ; with fpecial reference to the prefent pradice, fhowing where it is de- fedive or erroneous, and propofing the cheapeft and mofl effedual corredions. Thefe prelimi- naries being fettled, the ordinary bufinefs of the board may be carried on eaiily and commodi- oufly. In the firft place, there is a neceffity for an infpedor, named by the board, to make a .progrefs from time to time in fucceffive places, for reporting the progrefs of the improvements direded, and for giving inflrudion in cafes that cannot fo clearly be put in writing. In this pro- grefs, fpecial notice ought to be taken of the beft conduced farms, whether by landlords or tenants. A yj6 A Board for App. A few filver medals bellowed on the mofl deferr- ing, will roufe emulation in all, and promote in- duftry. Second, this board will confider it as a capital branch of bufinefs, toanfwer queries, and to lblicit a correfpondence with men of fkill. Third, they ought carefully to inform themfelves of every invention that tends to improve the art, and to publifh what they think uleful. Fourth, premiums ought to be propofed and diftribut'ed among thofe who profit the moft by the inftruc- tions of the board. Thefe premiums ought to be ploughs, harrows, carts, conftructed after the bed models ; which befide exciting induftry, will be a means to introduce the bcfl: hufbandrv- inftruments. Fifth, in no other reipcct would a board of agriculture be fo ufeful, as in directing proper experiments. Agriculture, though the prime of arts, is far from perfection in any coun- try. This in part is owing to its 'complex na- ture ; but chiefly, to the length of time that is neceffary to afcertain, by a courfe of experi- ments, any capital point in theory or practice. The life of man is too fhort for fuch an under- taking. The only remedy is to employ many hands upon different experiments ; whicli cannot be done effectually, but under the direction of a board that never dies. Let lifts be made from time to time, of the points that are capable to be afcertained by experiments : let proper experi- ments be fuggefted : let thefe experiments be djftributed Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 397 diftributed among perfons of fkill. And when their fuccefs is reported, the conclusions that may be drawn from them ought to be published. This would be the moft effe&ual method that ever has been contrived, to ripen knowledge in hufbandry. To enliven this branch of bufinefs, premiums ought to be propofed, lucrative as well as honorary. Of the premiums to be diftributed, fcarce any would be of more general benefit than to the belt hand-hoers under the age of fifteen. Boys in driv- ing the cart or the plough find exercife for their limbs ; but in hufbandry the arms are feldom exercifed till they be full grown. I reliili hand- hoeing for keeping ground clean : I relifh it more for the opportunity it gives to exercife the arms of young creatures, male and female, from ten upward : give them only hoes of different fizes adapted to their ftrength. I venture to af- firm, that the ftrength of a man's arms who has been employed in hand-hoeing from his tender years will be far greater, perhaps a third, than if they never had been exercifed till he was fully grown. This would be a great advantage in feveral employments, civil and military, as well as in agriculture. Add another advantage. People accuftomed from their tender vears to keep ground clean, will contract an early aver- fion to weeds, and declare perpetual war againll them. My labourers have good kitchen-gardens, v. here 398 A Board for App. where onions, leeks, cabbage, turnip, and pota- toes are (own in drills. The hoc is conftantly employed by their wives or their children. You may lee a dirty face among them, but not a dirty garden. To make the board proceed with fpirit, a book or pamphlet ought to be publifhed annually, con- taining their tranfactions during the preceding year. The profit of the work is a perquifite to the fecretary ; which will encourage him to bc- ftow his utmoft (kill in the compilation. To procure public favour, men of character and knowledge may be introduced by the mem- bers at their monthly meetings, to affift in their deliberations. The choice of proper members is the capital point : The whole depends on it. The choice is the more difficult, as it mud be confined to gen- tlemen who refide in Edinburgh, fome part of the year ; becaufe from others punctual attend- ance cannot be expected. It would be unfafe to leave the choice to members of Parliament ; who, even againft their private fentiments, are obliged to iolicit for their friends and voters, without re- gard to merit. The choice muft not be left ab- folutely to the chief minilter : who, at fuch a di- itancc, is feldom perfonally acquainted with the Deft qualified. The fa felt method I can think of is, that the juftices of peace of each corn-county, fhould at a quarter-fefiions name one. Out of thefe, Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 399 thefe, the nine members are chofen by the Crown. In Scotland, many noblemen and gentlemen, fkilful in hufbandry and zealous to promote it, would make excellent members but for their diftance from the capital. To require conftant attendance from fuch would be too great a bur- den ; but to entitle them to act when they mould find it convenient, under the title of honorary members, would add great luftre to the board. The choice of a member to fupply a vacancy, is a matter no lefs delicate. A fociety of gentle - men who ferve for honour not for profit, are well entitled to choofe their companions. But to a- void faction, which would be ruinous in fuch a fociety, the choice ought to be unanimous. The difTent of a fingle member need not be regarded ; but if two difTent, the choice muft be in the Crown. If a member be abfent three fucceflive monthly meetings, without an excufe approved by the board, he is to be held as having deferted his office, to make way for the election of a new member. The election of a fecretary is a point ftiil more delicate. The board ought naturally to have the choice of their own fecretary ; but in cafe of a divifion, the difient of three from the other fix, (hall transfer the election to the Crown. The Royal Society in London, is perhaps the enly fociety in the world, that has flourifhed fo long, 400 A Board for App. long, with no other motive but thirft for know- ledge. The members have now an additional mo- tive, which is the reputation of being cnliiled in a fociety fo illuitrious. In the preient low ftate of patriotifm, affection to one's country is not alone fufficient, to preferve long in vigour a board of agriculture. Luckily, there is an additional mo- tive, inherent in the very nature of the inftitu- tion. Money is neceflary to carry on the opera- tions of the fociety ; and the diitribution of that money among peribns of merit, will be a con- ftant entertainment to the members. A great fum would be a temptation to mifapply it. 1 here- fore, no more ought to be put in their power, bat what is barely fufficient to carry on the ma- nagement with fuccefs. Belide the iecretary's ia- lary, L. 500 yearly diicreetly dillributed may be fufficient. And I boldly affirm, that fuch a fum cannot be laid out with more advantage, whether the public be regarded, or the good of a valuable portion of our people. The houfe poffeiTed by the Truftees for Manu- factures, will aiford good accommodation to both focieties ; and feveral of the acting trultees are qualified to make a figure in both. Zeal for the profperity of Britain, makes me ardently with to have tins plan extended to Eng- land. The Englifh enjoy the reputation of being excellent farmers ; and fo they are, compared with their neighbours in France, Italy, and Spain, The^ Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 401 They are however far, very far, from the perfec- tion of the art. A board for agriculture is indeed lefs neceffary in England than in Sc 1I.1 id it that England would be greatly routed by fuch an inflitution, will be acknowledged by every one • who is acquainted with Englith agriculture. I appeal to Mr Young for the following fads, ex- tracted from his different tours ; which, at the fame time, are but a fpecimen of much wrong practice mentioned by him. Seldom is a plough feen in England with fewer than four horfes, nor is it always confined to that number ; and yet feldom are more than two horfes necefTary, if the plough be well conftrud- ed. A great fum is thus expended upon fuper- fluous horfes, which wounds the public by unne- ceflTary coniumption, is hurtful to landlords by leffening their rent, and retards the progrefs of hufbandry. Among numberlefs inftances, I men- tion the Ille of Thanet, where the foil is a light loam on a chalky bottom ; and yet with four horfes in each plough, they feldom pierce deeper than three inches, which is fcratching inftead of plowing. In Leicelterfhire the common pradice is to ufe from four to feyen horfes in a plough, even where the foil is a fandy loam. With this plough they feldom do more than half an acre in a day ; and yet there are gentlemen there who with two horfes plough with eafe a whole acre. The number of draught cattle is feldom pro- portioned, with any accuracy, to the extent of E e the 4C2 A Board for App. the farm. Frequently, no fewer than eight horfes and as many oxen, are employed in a farm of a hundred acres. With fuch an expence, the laud mud be fertile indeed, if it afford any rent to the landlord. In fome farms not exceeding fifty acres, fix horfes are kept. The ufing oxen inftead of horfes, and employing no more of them than ne- ceilary, would be a faving to England of feveral millions yearly. Were that improvement accom- panied with a proper regulation for the poor, England would be in a higher fiateof prolpcrity than is enjoyed by any other nation. A fkilful rotation of crops is far from being common. In (lances are frequent in every part of England of the following rotations, fallow, wheat, oats, wheat. Alio, fallow, wheat, oats, oats. Alfo, fallow, wheat, oats, barley. Alio, barley, oats, oats. Alfo, turnip, bailey, oats, oats. E- ven the beft foils mud be exhaufted in time, by fuch oppreflive cropping. The great advantages of horfe-hoeing, are a crop, and at the fame time a fubfiantial fallow. And yet horfe-hoeing, though invented in Eng- land, is not practiied there. Many farmers do not even hand-hoe their turnip crop \ and many neglect to hand-hoe their bean crop, after being fowed in drills. The proper management of artificial grafTes, is far from being common. Of all grafTes, red clo- ver, is the moll beneficial ; and yet there are farm- ers, not a few in number, who banifli red clover, as, Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 403 as hurtful by foftering weeds. It has- indeed that effect, if allowed to grow three -or four years ; but why not change it every year ? It is not un- frequent to fee afield left to be covered with na- tual grafs. By this flovenly practice, the crops are not only fcanty but of a bad kind. In Der- byfhire particularly, a field, after three fucceflive crops of oats, is abandoned to nature. Worfe hufbandry is not to be met with, among the mofl ignorant farmers in Scotland. Draining indeed is common, but conducted with little fkill. There is no fuch thing known in England as drains on the furface made with the plough ; though fuch drains poflefs the ad- vantages of being cheap, effectual, and perpetual. Let me add to thefe the following of my own obfervation. Travelling from Burrowbridge to Ferrybridge, Doncafter, Worfop, Mansfield, Not- tingham, &e. the land is moftly of a fandy foil. The far greater part is laid out in grafs enclofures, which give no proper return as the grafs foon withers in fummer. It ought to be cropped with turnip, potatoes, barley, hay, and plenty of red clover for fummer feeding. Such cropping would afford four times its prefent rent, befide promo- ting population and the public revenue. But with- out a board of agriculture this reform cannot \>z made. A board of agriculture would felect a few of the mod promiimg tenants to execute their improving plans, and join with the landlords in premiums to the molt deferring. Succefs.and profperity would prevail with others to follow their E e 2 . example. 404 A Board for App. example. From Birmingham to Liverpool thro' Woolverhampton, Stafford, &c. moftly a iandy foil,* yet no turnip and little red clover. The making hay is not generally well conducted in " England. In the year 1778, the weather was both dry and hot during the time of this opera- tion i and yet I frequently faw the hay fpread on the ground lying withering whole days together. In the county of Ghefter, cheefe is the chief pro- duct. ; and yet appears not to be managed to the grjatclt advantage. The grafs enclofurcs are far from being rich. It is faid indeed that rich grafs would make the curd ferment and fwell, which would occafion the cheefe to be full of holes. How- ever this be, I am certain that an acre of red clo- ver would feed more than fix of their grafs acres ; and if the cheefe produced be richer, it may not indeed be Cheihire cheefe, but it will give a bet- ter price. In a dry fummer belide, their palime grounds become early bare ; and they fupply the want of grafs with hay. Would not green clover be a comfortable refource in fuch a cafe ? But what I chiefly infill on as inexcufable, is that their cows are a heavy burden on them all winter, be- ing fed with hay, and at times with (heaves ofun- threfhed corn. The foil is every where well adapt- ed for turnip ; which during winter would pro- duce milk, fufiicient in butter to pay the expence of the turnip ; betide preferring the cows in good plight for calving. It would' be eafy for a board pf agriculture to fct on foot this improvement ; and Art. 2. Improving Agriculture. 405 and as the prefent practice is of a long {landing, it will never be thought of otherwife. From the beginning of time every fubflantial improvement has been fet on foot by the landlord, who has the capital intereft. The management of eftates in England is generally not in the hands of the proprietor, but of his fteward, whofe advantage it is to iqueeze the tenants for his own profit, and not to improve the land for that of his mailer. It is his intereft to keep the tenants low and at his mercy ; for an opulent tenant might Hand in oppofition and proclaim danger- ous truths. When this is the cafe, k it a wonder to fee much bad hufbandry in England ? The foregoing errors and imperfections, with an endlefs number more, would be remedied by a board, eminent for patriotifm and for fkill in agriculture; and farmers would fairly be di- rected to the road that leads to the perfection of their art. Population and induftry would be the coniequences, with a great increafe in the pu-> blic revenue. England would become fo pro- fperous and powerful, as to fufifer little diflrefs from the lofs of its American colonies*. Ee 3 AR- * There is another advantage of a board for agriculture, productive of a very falutary tflfcct. The Royal Society at London, and fimilar focieties in different pat ;ts of Europe-, are found of great utility for promoting and propagating knowledge. Every man ambitious of making a figure by enlightening others, has a learned fociety to apply to, who kindly receive his work, and publifh it to the world under their patronage. In a country where fuch an inltitution does 406 General Heads of a App, ARTICLE III. GENERAL HEADS OF A LEASE FOR A CORN-FARM. IN a leafe of this kind, what chiefly ought to be in view, is to reftrain the tenant from im- poverifhing the land, and yet leave him at liber- ty to improve it; refembling a Britifh monarch, who has unbounded power to do good, none to do mifchief. In this variable climate, the te- nant mult not be tied down to invariable rules (;f cropping : an unufual feafon, hot, cold, dry, or wet, will neceffitate him, for a year at leaft, to abandon the bed plan of cropping that can be contrived beforehand. This obfervation is not intended to banifli rules altogether. Some tenants, like fome kings, may be trufted with unlimited powers. But fuch powers would be no lefs deftru&ive to the gene- rality of tenants themfelves, than to their land- lords. Tenants, therefore, like kings, muft be fettered ; but in what manner, is a queflion no lefs does not exift, men of genius having little incitement to exert themfelves, remain in obfeurity, and their flight at- tempts die with them. The fame utility will be derived from a board of agriculture, efpecially if the members be men of knowledge refpecled in the world. By means of fuch a board, many ufeful effays on agriculture would fee tbe light, which otherwife would not be attempted, or if attempted, would remain unknown. Art. 3. Lease for a Corn-Farm. 407 lefs difficult than ufeful. They ought not to be fo fettered as to bar improvements ; nor left at liberty to do mifchief. Before entering into particulars, it rnuft be ob- ferved, that different iituations with regard to manure, foil, and climate, require different modes of hufbandry. All that can be done in an at- tempt like the prefent, is to fuggeft a few general rules for a landlord to choofe upon in granting leafes. It is his bufmefs to judge which of thefe rules will beft fit his fituation. ♦ The firft refpects the time of endurance, which, though an important article, is uanecef- fary to be enlarged on here. It is believed to be now the unlverial opinion, that without a long leafe, it is vain to hope for an improving tenant. The mod approved time of endurance, as the like- lier! to prevent wafte, is to fix a time certain, fup- pofe nineteen or two nineteen years ; and to add the life of the tenant who is in pofTeffion at the expiry of the time certain. A man never lofes hope of living longer ; and he will never run out ground, that he hopes yet to be long in pofTef- fion of. By this means, the tenant is deluded in- to a courfe of management, equally profitable to himfelf and to his landlord. But what, if, after liming or other expenfive manure, the tenant happen to die fuddenly before reaping any pro- fit ? With a view to that event, let there be a claufe in the leafe, for paying to his reprefenta- E e 4 tives 4o8 General Heads of a App. what' mm the tenant's profit has fallen ihort of the ex pence. Second, Ailignees and fubtenants ought to be excluded. For where a tenant has it in his power to make his leaie a fubjed: of commerce, he will be fparing in laying out money on improve- ments. Third, Whether the rent ought to be paid in corn or money, depends on circumflances. Corn- rent cramps the tenant in his management ; for it obliges him to fow yearly corn of the lame kind with what he pays. Money rent, on tha contrary, promotes good culture, in order to pro- duce the weightieli grain, the benefit of which accrues entirely to the tenant. There is an ad- ditional reafon for money-rent, that the tenant, by prudence and patience, can draw a better price for his corns at the home market, than his landlord can. The rent therefore ought to be paid in money, unlefs where there is a fuperfluity of corn for exportation; which can be managed with more advantage by the landlord, who has all his farm- corns to export, than by the tenant who has but a fmall quantity. Fourth, In this country, the profit of gra to this day not underitood, but by a few. Corn is the object of the generality ; and that wrong- bias ought to be rectified, by a claufe confining the tenant to a certain proportion of his land in corn, a third, for example, or a half. There cannot Art. 3. Lease for a Corn-Farm. 409 cannot be a general rule ; becauie it varies with the nature of the foil, and ftill more with the op- portunity of manure. But to give room for ex- traordinary improvements, an addition to the proportion of corn may be indulged, upon condi- tion of paying millings additional rent for every acre above the proportion originally agreed on. Fifth, A claufe prohibiting white corn-crops to be taken in immediate fucceflion, will be an ef- fectual bar againft impoverilhing the land. Peaie, beans, turnip, cabbage, and potatoes are profit- able crops ; and red elover may be more profit- able than any of them, by feeding all the farm- cattle upon it, which will fave many acres of pa- fture. This and the foregoing rule, without any other precaution, will in all events fuffice to keep the ground in good heart. Sixth, The following, or fotne fuch claufe, will excite a tenant's higheft induttry to improve his farm, fuppofing it to be only for nineteen years. At expiry of the leafe, the tenant (hall be entitled to a lecond nineteen years, upon pay- ing a fifth part more of rent ; unlefs the landlord give him ten years purchafeof that fifth part. The rent, for example, is L. ico. The tenant offers L. 120. He is entitled to continue his poffeffion a fecond nineteen years at the advanced rent, un- lefs the landlord pay him L. ico. If he oiler a ftill higher rent, the landlord cannot turn him out, wnlefs he pay him ten years purchafe of that offer. Seventh,- 410 General Heads of a App. Seventh, As both landlord and tenant are con- cerned in preferving the fences,- both ought to concur in the expence. Therefore, let the care of the fences be trufted to the landlord's hedger; and whatever work is bellowed on the tenant's fences, mall be paid to the hedger at fo much pet day. Where the preservation of the fences is left entirely to the tenant, he turns carlefs and does things by halves ; where it is left entirely to the landlord, the tenant takes no care to keep his cattle from trefpaffing. Eighth, In order to preferve to the landlord a privilege to plant trees, v/hich is commonly ne- glected in leafes, I propofe that out of the leafe be excepted certain fpots, proper to be planted, for fhelter, for beauty, or as not being arable ; the landlord to enclofe and plant, the tenant to carry the (tones that are neceffary for encloling. To encourage him to preferve the trees, he is to have the whole weedings for the purpofes of his farm. There may belide be added a claufe, en- couraging the tenant to plant trees, by permit- ting him to cut them down for his own ufe. And the landlord is to have his choice, either to pay for what are left at the tenant's removal, or to allow him to difpofe of them. Ninth, In a tenant two things are required ; firft, lkill and indmlry for managing the farm ; and, next, money for {locking it Sufficiently, without which, lkill and induitry avail not. With relpecl Art. 3. Lease for a Corn-Farm. 411 refpect to both, our common law errs grofsly. As to the firft, a farm can never be prudently managed by a plurality ; for there it holds, fo many men fo many minds; and yet, by law heirs- portioners fucceed in a leafe, as well as in other heritable fubjects. To remedy the common law in leafes that go to heirs, let it be provided, that the eldeft heir-female (hall fucceed without di- vifion ; or that the landlord fhall have it in his power to choofe any of the heirs- female he pleafes. With refpect to the other, our common law is altogether unjuftifiable, as it gives the whole dock- ing to the other children, leaving the bare leafe to the heir, without means to flock the farm a- new, unlefs other heritable funds be left befide the leafe, which feldom is the cafe. This is cruel- ly unjuft, both to the heir and to the landlord. The heir has not even the benefit of collation, be- caufe it would bring a plurality of conjunct leffees upon the landlord. The heir therefore is in ef- fect totally difinherited ; as a bare leafe is of no fignificancy without money or credit. The in- juilice with regard to the landlord is no lefs fla- grant, who has thus a tenant impofed on him, from whom no rent can be expected. To pre- ferve the leafe and flocking united, which muft be done by paction iince law is defective, let a fum be fpecified in the leafe, fuch as may be fuf- ficient for flocking the farm ; which fum the heir fhall be entitled to demand from hispredeceflbr's reprefentatives, 412 Ceneral Heads of a App. reprefentatives, unleis the farm be left to him with a Hocking equal in value. And the claufe may be conceived in ibme manner like what fol- lows: " And confidering that if the laid A. B. " die during the currency of this leafe, his whole " moveables, not excepting the flocking of his " farm, will fall by law to his otker children, by " which it may happen, that nothing is left to the " heir but the naked leafe, without a Hocking " or money to purchaie it ; therefore, to prevent " this hardfhip, equally prejudicial to the heir " and to his landlord, it is exprefsly covenanted, " notwithstanding the time of endurance above " fpecitied, That this leafe fhall fall and be extinct " by the faid A. B's. death, unlefs he make good " to his heir effects heritable or moveable to the " extent of Sterling, the parties being fen- " iible, that a flocking proper for this farm can- " not be of vr.lue lefs.than the faid fum." Tenth, To render the removing of tenants at the expiry of the leafe more eafy and certain than it is by our law, and without expence to either party, I propoie the following article. Suppofing a leafe for nineteen years to be agreed on at a rent of L. 50,- let one, two, or three years be added, binding the tenant to pay an additional rent for thefe years, a half more for example, or double. But with a provifo, that the tenant fhall be at liberty to remove at the end of the nineteen Art. 4. Lease for a Corn- Farm. 413 nineteen years, upon notifying to his landlord, three months before, his inten'uon to remove. ARTICLE IV. PLANTS AND ANJMALS COMPARED. ANimals are provided with correfponding to their deftii. a ion; fome for fupporting the animal frame, fome for gra- tifying defire. Plants, in all appearance, no feeling of pleafure nor of pain ; and confe- quently no delires. But they are endowed with powers for preferring vegetable life, as animals are for preferring animal life. Doth not the fpringing of the feed, the motion of the fap, the production of leaves, flowers, fruit, &c. proceed from a power in plants: as the beating of the heart, the circulation of the blood, &c. proceed from a power in animals ? There is not an ar-, gumentfor the latter that does not equally -con- clude for the former. Next, as to the power of Icco-motion. That power is more perfect in animals ; but plants pof- fefs a (hare of it, fuch as is neceflary for their well-being : they grow both upward and down- ward ; and in their progrefs to maturity, they are continually occupying new parts of fpace. Plants, it is true, cannot, like animals, go out of harm' 414 Plants and Animals -A-pp. harm's way ; but it is curious to obferve, how they exert that (hare of loco-motion they are en- dowed with, to avoid harm. Upon the flighted touch, the fenfitive plant (brinks back and folds its leaves \ fimilar to a mail, which on the flight- eft touch retires within its ihell. A new fpecies of the fenfitive plant has been lately difcovcred. If a fly perch upon one of its flower-leaves, it clofes inftantly, and crufhes the infect to death. The nettle never fails to fling the hand that touches it. There is not an article of botany more admirable than a contrivance vilibleinmany plants, to take advantage of good weather, and to protect themfelves againft bad. They open and clofe their flowers and leaves, in different circum dances : fome clofe before furrfet, fome after : fome open to receive rain, fome clofe to avoid it. The petals of many flowers expand in the fun ; but contract at night, or on the approach of rain. After the feeds are fecundated, the pe- tals no longer contract. The common goatibeard clofes up its flowers while the fun pafles the me- ridian. The pimpernel expands its leaves at fun- fet, and clofes them at funrifing. All the trefoils may ferve as a barometer to the hufbandman : they always contract their leaves on an impend- ing dorm. Some plants follow the fun, fome turn from it. Mod difcous flowers follow the fun ; which has been long obferved of the fun-flower, while young and tender. The leaves of the mal- Jow tribe follow daily the courfe of the fun, from Art. 4. Compared. 415 from eaft by fouth to weft. Many plants on the fun's recefs vary the pofition of their leaves ; which is ftyled the Jleep of plants. Every bo- tanift, after Pliny, has obferved this in a field of clover. A lingular plant was lately difcovered in Bengal. Its leaves are in continual motion all day long; but when night approaches, they fall from an erect pofture down to reft # . A * This curious property ftyled the Jleep of plants de- ferves further illuftration, by an induction of particulars. Yellow goatlbeard flowers in June. It expands its flowers about three or four in the morning, and clofes them about nine or ten forenoon. The flowers of fmooth fuccory hawkweed are expanded from four in the morning till noon. The African fowthiftle with a poppy leaf, expand* its flowers between four and fix in the morning, and clofes them about three hours after. The flowers of the day-lilly, expand about five in the morning, and clofe about feven or eight in the evening. Wild-poppy with a naked ftalk and a yellow fweet-fmelling flower, ex- pands its flowers at five in the morning, and clofes them at feven in the evening. Bindweed, a little blue convol- volus, expands its flowers between five and fix in the morning, and clofes them in the afternoon. Rofe colour- ed goadbeard expands its flowers between five and fix in the morning, and clofes them about eleven forenoon. Dandelion flowers early in the fpring, and again in the autumn. It expands at five or fix in the morning, and clofes them at eight or nine forenoon. Narrow-leafed bulhy hawkweed expands about fix in the morning, and clofes about five afternoon. Succory-leafed mountain- hawkweed, has its flowers expanded from fix in the morning 416 Plants and Animals App. A plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food. A quantity of fine comport for flowers, happened to be laid at the root of a full grown morning till five afternoon. The garden -hawkweed with deep purple flowers, expands from fix or feven in the morning till three or four afternoon. The tree fow- thiftle, common in corn-fields, flowers in June, July and Augufr, expands about fix or feven in the morning, and clofes between n and 12 forenoon. The other fpecies of the fowthiftle follow nearly the fame courfe. Garden-lettuce expands about feven in the morning, and clofes about ten forenoon. Hawkweed flowers in July or Auguit. It expands about feven in the morning, and keeps expanded till about three in the afternoon. Bufhy- hawkwecd with broad rough leaves, flowers June and July; is expanded from about feven in the morning till one or two afternoon. Branched-fpiderwort with a fmall flower, expands about feven in the morning, and clofes between three and four afternoon. White water-lilly grows in rivers, ponds and ditches •, and the flowers lie on the furface of the water. At their time of expanfion, about feven in the morning, the ftalk is ere&ed, and the flowers raifed above the furface of the water. In this fi- tuation it continues till about four in the afternoon, when the flowers fink to the furface of the water and clofe. Marygold with indented leaves, has its flowers expanded from feven in the morning till three or four afternoon. Linnaeus obferves of this plant, that if its flowers expand later than their ufual time, it will moft afTuredly rain that day. The male pimpernel flowers in June, and continues to flower three months : it expands about eight in the morning, and clofes not till pad: noon. The blue flower- ed pimpernel with narrow leaves, obferves nearly the fame time. The proliferous pink expands its flowers about Aft. 4. Compared. 417 grown dm ; where it lay neglected three or four years. When moved, in order to be carried off, there appeared a net-work of elm fibres fpread through the whole heap. No fibres had before appeared at the furface of the ground. The red whortleberry, a low evergreen plant, grows na- turally on the top of our higher! hills, among {tones and gravel. This fiirub was planted as an* edging to a rich border, under a fruit- wall. In two or three years, it over-ran the adjoning deep- laid gravel-walk ; and feemed to fly from the border, in which not a fingle runner appeared. Were our London aldermen equally temperate, they might partake of turtle and venifon with fafety. An effort to come at food in a bad fitua- tion, is extremely remarkable in the following inftance. Among the ruins of Newabby, for- merly a monaftery in Galloway, there grows on the top of a wall, a plane-tree about twenty feet high. Straitened for nourifhment in that bar- ren fituation, it feveral years ago directed roots F f down about eight in the morning, and doles them about one afternoon. The flowers of wild fuccory, open about eight forenoon, and keep expanded till about four afternoon. Wild marygold has its flowers expanded from nine in the morninig till three afternoon. The purple-fpurry flowers in June, expands between nine and ten in the morning, and clofes between two aud three afternoon. Common purflain expands about .nine or ten in the morning, and clofes an hour after. The leiTer water plantain opens its flowers about noon, 4i8 Plants and Animals App. down the fide of the wall, till they reached the ground ten feet below ; and now the nourifh- ment it afforded to thefe roots during the time of their defcending, is amply repaid, having every year fince that time made vigorous (hoots. From the top of the wall to the furface of the earth, thefe roots have not thrown out a iingle fibre ; but are now united into a pretty thick root. Plants, when forced from their natural pofition, are endowed with a power to reltore themfelve^. A hop-plant twilling round a ltick, directs its courfe from fouth to weft as the fun does. Un- tvvilt it, and tie it in the oppolite direction : it dies. Leave it loofe in the wrong direction : it recovers its natural direction in a Iingle night. The leaves of all trees and vegetables, have an upper and an under furface which never vary. Twill a branch fo as to invert its leaves, and it in that pofition. If left in any degree ha it untwifts itlelf gradually, till the leaves be rc- ftored to their natural pofition. What better can an animal do for its well-fare ? A root of a tree, meeting with a ditch in its progrefs, is laid open to the air. What follows ? it alters its courfe like a rational being, dips into the ground, fur rounds the ditch, rifes on the oppofifce fide to it^ wonted Ak.EDfr 423 we admit not in plants any knowledge or con- fcioufnefs. Far lefs do plants exert any actions that refemble voluntary actions in animals. After much labour bellowed on botany, and many volumes compofed on that fubject, it ap- pears very little advanced above infancy : no o- ther fcicnce has made fo flow a progrefs. I praife the diligence of our botaniils : fome of them have great merit. But, as far as I under ft and, their ftudy has been moftly confined to give names to plants, and to diftribute them into clalfes ; not by diilinguiihing their powers and properties, but by certain vilible marks. This is an excellent pre- paration for composing a dictionary : but it leaves us in the dark as to the higher parts of the fci- ence, fuch as are the moil proper to engage a thinking and rational mind. No perfon who has given attention to the conduct of Providence, can entertain any doubt, that the powers and proper- ties of plants are given for beneficial purpofes. Have we not reafon to hope, that thefe purpofes will be unfolded, when botaniils, tired of dicrio- nary-making, mail foar higher in their inquiries. Then will botany become an intereiting fcience, not inferior to any other in dignity and. import- ance : then mail we have occafion to admire more and more the wifdom of the creation. How plealairt to have it obferved, that the humbleft plant is framed with no lefs Hull than the molt •elevated animal ! Ff 4 So 4-4 Plants and Animals . App. So much upon a companion between plants and animals with refpect to motion. Another comparifon occurs no lefs curious, and itill more interefting, that the external frame is nicely ad- jured to the internal, lb as to accomplifh in per- fection the ends of Providence. No one who I ftudied natural hiftory, but mult be fenfible of this agreement in the animal creation. How well ad- apted are the claws of a lion and the talons of an eagle, to their rapacious nature. What fort of figure would an innocent lamb make, or timid dove, with fuch arms ! The Ihape of a fifh is \i- iibly contrived for moving in water : how ab- furd would the animal be, if it had, an averlion to that element. A duckling waddles by inttind to the firft water it fees ; for, which it is fitted by its oily feathers : fuch an inftincl: in a chicken would be highly incongruous. The hoof of u node correfponds to his fhallow underiianding : fingers would be inconfiftent with the ule that na- ture intends him for. Without fingers a man would be a miferable creature : he would always be contriving, but without power to execute *. This truth would be equally evident in plants, were their nature and qualities as well known as of animals. A plant is an organized being, as well as an animal ; if the external frame of the latter * Wonderfully fhallow is the reflection of Helvetius, that the only excellency of a man above a horfe, is his ha- ving fingers. Art. 4. Compared. 425 latter be adapted to its internal frame, can we doubt of the fame ©economy with refpect to the former ? In whatever manner particles of matter are formed into an organic body, of which we know nothing, one thing is certain, that the or- ganic body acquires a nature very different from, that of its conitituent particles, and alfo new pow- ers qualifying it for acting according to its defti- nation. The power of gravity, of remittance, of continuing motion, eflential to matter in general, will never by any combination produce any thing but motion ; but the power of producing a body fimilar to itfelf, inherent in all organic bodies, is tar fu peri or to the powers mentioned ; and there- fore muft be a new power added in the formation of every organic body. As plants were originally created of many fpe- cies, each fpecies has powers peculiar to itfelf, which preferve the different fpecies diftinct, and confequently preferve uniformity among the indi- viduals of the fame fpecies. Thefe powers va- rioufly modified in every different fpecies, are ex- erted inthe propagation of new plant's, with leaves, flowers, feed, &.c. peculiar to each fpecies. And as a perfect agreement between the external and internal frame of plants, as well as of animals, is undoubtedly the plan of nature, incapable of de- fect or oversight, it may' be taken for granted, that each external part contributes to the well- being of the plant, and that any alteration would • - be 426 Plants and Animals App, be hurtful i to exchange, for example, the leaves of an oak and an a(h, would be prejudicial to both, perhaps deftruclive. Were we acquainted with the nature of different plants, we mould be able to account for the difference of fize, of leaves, of roots, of colour, and of feed. We mould alio be able to explain why fomc plants fpring early, fome late : why fome are adapted to a hot climate, fome to a cold ; why fome thrive bed in dry foil, fome in wet ; why fome produce flowers before leaves ; and why fome never fhed the leaf. This fpeculation opens a wide field for obferva- tion and experiment, that may worthily employ the moft acute philofophers. Why not then at- tempt to peep into the nature and conftitution ot plants ? The belt we can make of that fubject, will, I am afraid, be but conjectural. But fair and rational conjectures, which we may hope for, will give fome entertainment to the curious in- quirer. If we defpair of acquiring fuch know- ledge in the internal conftruclion of plants, as to explain all the differences above mentioned, we may at lead hope to difcover facts that will il- luftrate the agreement between external and in- ternal ftructure. 1 venture to fuggeft an inftance or two. Some plants draw moft of their nouriih- ment from the foil, fome from the air. Do not l'mall leaves correfpond to the former, and large leaves to the latter ? I have feen a houfe-leek grov. ing Art. 4. Compared. 427 growing vigoroufly on a dry mud- wail, excluding rain entirely from the roots. But it has thick leaves, and many in number, which fit it for drawing its nourishment from the air. It is not the light, nor the fun, that makes plants grow erect, but the appointment of nature. A fcan- dent plant has a tendency to grow erect like other plants • but as it is too weak to it and erect, it- has tendrils or clafpers, to lay hold of any fup- port within reach. Why do certain trees never ihed the leaf, even in this country? Is it not a rational conjecture, that they are fitted by nature to bear cold, and that the cold of this climate does not fufpend their power of drawing nourifli- ment all the year round ? Were this important uranch of botany dili- gently itudied, I fondly hope, that considerable infight might be obtained into the nature of plants, and poflibly into their medicinal ciTecls. By that ftudy, the natural hiftory of plants may become no lefs inftru&ive and entertaining, than- that of animals. ARTICLE V. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. EQuivocal generation is by all philofophers exploded from animal life ; but fome conti- nue tohefitate with refpect to vegetables. Animals, fay they, wandering from place to place, can Mock the 428 Propagation of Plants. App. the earth with their progeny ; but plants are fixed to the earth they grow in. It is urged, that plants are never wanting where the foil is proper for them ; that iflands raifed by a volcano at a diftance from any more, are foon covered with grafs ; that mufhrooms and other organized bodies, fpring from rotten flumps of trees, where they were ne- ver feen before ; that various plants rife on the foundation of old houfes, when cleared of the rub- bifh ; and that upon liming or dunging, white clo- ver fprings up in the very central parts of a wide extended barren moor, though the feed of white clover has not wings to carry it to a diftance. To account for thefe fingular fads, it is held, that both plants and animals were originally or- ganized atoms or embryos, having all neceflary part3 in miniature ; that the earth, the water, the air are full of iuch atoms, which begin not to un- fold themfelves into plants or animals, till they happen to meet with a proper matrix or nidus \ that in their original flate, they are too minute for any of our fenfcs, but that they become vifi- ble by expanuon. What means were employed at the creation to cover the earth with plants, may be conjectured, but is far beyond the reach of evidence. It is to me a rational conjecture, that a number of plants and animals were originally created, and endowed with proper powers ^f generation; and that from thefe, all the planes and animals exifting in the world Art. 5. Propagation of Plants. 429 world are defcended. In that belief, I cannot fubmit to organized atoms, becaufe there is no evidence of them, and becaufe they are unnecef- fary. To illuftrate this conjecture, I add the fub- (tance of a letter I had the pleafure to receive from an eminent naturalift *. " The doctrine of equivocal generation was " univerfally admitted, till about 130 years ago; " not, however, fo much by the ancients, as by " the half-enlightened moderns. They faw " mites in cheefe ; and myriads of flies and creep- " ing things in a dunghill, or a putrid marfh. *' Ignorance of the natural hiftory of thefe ani- " mals, made way for conjecturing that they " were mere fpontaneous productions, the effect, *'• not of generation, but of corruption. This " doctrine indeed was confined to thefe poor in- " fects, and never was extended to a lion or a " horfe. They did not advert, that to form a M maggot and an elephant, require equal power " and vvifdom. The fame diftinction was car- '* ried into the vegetable kingdom. Becaufe " no feed appeared to the naked eye in a fern, a " mumroom, or in any of the mofs -tribe, it was " afTerted that none exifted ; and while the oak " and the laurel were dignified with generative " faculties, thefe humble plants were vilified as " the progeny of putrefaction. Equivocal gene- " ration became thus an afylum for ignorance. "I * Dr Walker, minifier of Moffat. 45^> Propagation of Plavts. Apf>. " 1 am clear to banifh equivocal generation tl from vegetables, as well as from animals; and " 1 boldly maintain as a fundamental truth in " nutur:. onine vivum ex cvo. By the ovum in "vegetables, I mean, a feed, or any part of a " plan: that contains a bud, or is capable of M forming it. They are in effect the fame ; be- " caafe every bud, as well as every feed, con- M tains the embryo of a future plant. 1 know of " no other way by which plants are propagated, " but by feeds, fuckers, and layers. The lall is •" imitated by art, in cuttings, grafting, and ino- " culation. Some late experiments are men- " tioned of propagating trees by planting their u leaves ; but I do not believe it. " Plants, it is true, are deftitute of locomotion ; " and by means of fuckers and layers, they can " only cover contiguous fpots. But numerous •* and wonderful are the expedients practifed " by nature to diiTeminate plants. Some feed- " velfelsburft with an explolivc force, and throw M the feed to a di (lance. 1 bis is the cafe of our " whin : did the feeds fall perpendicularly down, " they would be fuffocated in the heart of an im- " penetrable bufli. Some feed-veiVels open not " till wet witn rain ; but the feeds are found to *' fuSer by draught and to require immediate u moiiture when fown. The afh and the plane " have heavy feeds ; but thefe feeds are fupptied " with wings: a gale of wind carries th-m u^va M their Art. 5. Propagation of Plants. 431 * their lofty fituation to a diftance, and they re- ** main on the tree till the gale comes. The feeds " of humble plants, that they may rife and re- " move, fpread more fail to the wind : the thiille ** fpreads his beard ; and away he travels to fix " his refidence in remote parts. A plant of this " kind, Erigeron Canadenfe, was imported from " Canada about one hundred years ago, into the " Paris garden. It is now fpread as a wild plant " over France, Holland, Germany, Italy, and it " is faid over Sicily. It is fpread to fuch a de- " gree over the fouth of England, as to be in- " lifted among the indigenous plants. Some " feeds, fuch as our clot-bur, are of an adheiivc " nature : they lay hold of animals that come " near them, and are fpread far and near. u Many other agents are employed by nature, " to (lock the earth with plants. The fea and " rivers waft more feeds than they do fails, from " one part of the world to another. I have M found feeds call afhore in the Hebrides, that " had been dropt accidently into the fea among " the Weft India ifiands. The iiland of Afcen- *' fion, is the drofs of a volcano of a recent date. " Its immenfe diftance from land, renders its ac- " quifiticn of feeds difficult and precarious. I " know but of two ways for fupplying it with " feeds, one by the waters of the ocean, the 0- 11 ther by birds. By one or other of thefe ways, (l it has got pCiTeffion of three fpecies of plants " and 432 Propagation of Plants. App. " and only three ; a Angularity no where elfe " known *. " The animal creation is fupported by the ve- " getable ; but in return, vegetables owe much " of their progrefs to birds and graminivorous f quadrupeds, which are prime agents in the dif- " femination of plants. Many birds live on fruits " and berries : the pulp is their aliment ; and " they difcharge the feeds unimpaired, and fpread " them every where, Thefe feeds are heavy, " and unprovided with any apparatus for flight ; " but the birds ferve them for wings. Hence " may be feen plantHtions of holly, yew, white- " beam, rowan, fpindletree, hawthorn, and ju- " niper, formed by the birds of the air, upon im- " pending cliffs and inacceffible precipices. Be- M caufe the miiTelto grows upon trees, and has no " flower that can be perceived, it was reckoned " formerly a product of equivocal generation. " It was concluded, that its large, round, heavy, u berries, were not the feeds of the plant, be- " caufe they might fall to the ground, but never " could mount up into trees. No berries are M more palatable to birds of the thrulh kind ; and ** it is they who plant them on high and dillant li trees. * In no fuch iiland was there ever found an animal that was not imported. And why fhould we admit fpon- taneous generation to be more poffiblc in a plant than i» an animal ? Art. 5. Propagation of Plants. 433 " trees. It' is extremely remarkable, that the ve- M getating power of feeds, inftead of being im- " paired in the ftomach of birds, feems to be " fortified. The feeds of the magnolia, import- " ed from America, commonly refufe to vegetate " under the management of the moft fkilful gar- * deners. But I have heard, that thefe feeds, ** when voided by turkies, never fail to grow. " It is well known, that the dung of domeftic *' animals, while it fertilizes a garden, fills it " with weeds. It approaches to a miracle, that " feeds mould withftand the power of animal di- " geftion, which no other vegetable fubftance u can do. Here is a meafure laid down by Pro- " vidence for the prefervation and diflemi nation " of feeds, that I cannot reflect upon without " wonder. " In order to fill the earth with plants, any o- " ther method except by feeds, fuckers, and lay- " ers, appears to me unneceffary, and therefore " improbable. Farewell then to equivocal gene- " ration. I can fcarce write of it, without be- ** ing a little ruffled ; fo ill it correfponds with " the more auguft and comfortable ideas of crea- " tion, which have made a principal article of " happinefs in my life." So far my correfpondent. 1 join heartily with him in his conclufion, that the known means for ftoring the earth with plants, which are confpi- cuous marks of defigning wifdom, are in all ap- G g pearance 434 Propagation of Plants. App. pearance fo completely adequate, that to fearch for unknown means, feems to be an idle attempt. Having thus reftored the plan of nature, which in the fimpleft manner employs feeds as the chief means for propagating plants, we proceed to con- fider how feeds are formed. Many philofophers, holding it to be incredible, that a plant, or even an animal, mould be endowed with a power to produce its own likenefs, have embraced an opi- nion, that all the plants and animals that ever ex- ilted, or that ever can exit!, were formed origi- nally, not plants or animals, but embryos of thofe inclofed in an egg or feed, which when depofited in a proper hid us or matrix, grow up to a plant or animal, and then decay. And to account for future generations, it is held, that every embryo contains within it (mailer embryos w ithout end, like cups of different fizes cafed one within ano- ther. Thefe philofophers muft go flill farther. To accoun for each feed producing a tree, and that tree producing feed, it muft alfo be held, that the embryo inclofed in a feed contains (mailer embryos decreaiing in lize without end : and that each of thefe fmalier embryos contains another feries of decreaiirg embryos, alfo without end. Here are infinites upon infinites, ftili without end. To avoid the intricacy of infinites upon infinites, fome philofophers have varied the fyftem a little, with a view to render it, as they think, more fimplc, by recurring to organized atoms, exploded above. Art. 5. Propagation of Plants. 435 above *. But this fyftem, not to repeat what is faid againft it above, is only in appearance more limple : it refolves into infinites upon infinites like the former, and is in reality no lefs intricate. Take any of the fuppofed embryos, hovering in air, fwimming in water, or fixed in earth : give it a proper matrix, and let it become a tree, with feed. As each feed may produce a tree, and each tree produce feed which may alio become trees, it is manifeft, that an infinite number of embryos muft have been contained in the firft embryo, and an infinite number in every one of that infinite number. That every feed contains an embryo- plant, is a valuable difcovery in natural hiftory ; but that there is a decreafing feries of embryos within every feed, is a mere conceit, alfumed without the leaft appearance of truth. So far is it from holding true that plants within plants fubiift in a feed without end, that even the fingle plant it con- tains is there in a very imperfect (late. The. plume and radicle alone fubfift in it ; and the other parts are produced in the courfe of growing. But let us give way to the fuppofition of an infinite feries, to fee what can be made of it. Writers Hop fhort and leave the reader in the dark, pre- cifely where he needs light the moft. A feed is laid in earth : by what mechanical power is vegetation * See Bonnet upon organized bodies. 436 Propagation of Plants. App. vegetation produced and continued during the life of the plant ? And by what mechanical power does motion commence in the foetus of an animal, and the blood circulate ? When a feed happens to be inverted in the ground, with its radicle above, and its plume below ; what is the mechanic power that makes them wreathe about the feed till the radicle gets into earth and the plume into air *? Unlefs thefe particulars can be accounted for mechanically, an embryo muft be held a pure vifion. A power muft be ad- mitted even in the fmalleft embryo, to expand it- felf into a plant or animal, where it happens upon a proper nidus. And yet the admiflion of that power deftroys the hypothefis, root and branch. A feed thrown into the ground would reft there for ever, were it not endued with a power to begin vegetation, and to continue it. It grows into a tree : why may not that tree be endued with a power to form its own feed? If fo, there is no neceffity to go farther back : organized atoms or embryos mud: vanifh, becaufe there is no ufe for them. Power in a tree to form its feeds, is no more extraordinary than that of fucking juices from • To afcend and dofcend is not the ultimate view in thefe two parts, but to get into the air and earth. As feeds are generally depofued en or near the furface of the ground, the plume afcenda and the radicle defcends. But place a feed in an inverted flower-pot with earth in it : the radicle afcends and the plume defcends : the firft purfues his road into the earth ; and the other into the air. Art. 5. Propagation of Plants. 43^ from the earth, and converting them into its own fubftance, a power that every plant is ad- mitted to have. And if plants have power to form feed, there furely can be no hefitation in afcribing the fame power to animals. Can any thing be more fimple, or more agreeable to the analogy of nature, than that the Almighty, who created plants and animals, mould endue them with a power to propagate their kind ? Are we not informed of this by eye-light ; and can any folid argument be urged againft what we fee ? Thus the operations of nature, when underftood, turn out no lefs illuftrious for their fimplicity than for their extenfive effe&s. I Ihall clofe this effay with a paifage of another letter from my correfpondent above mentioned. " As for the do&rine of organized atoms diffufed " through the univerfe in order to be converted " into animals and vegetables, it is not counte- " nanced by any thing within the fphere of my " knowledge. No fads are adduced, nor do I " recoiled any, to fupport it. I adhere more and " more to this plain truth, that all plants and " animals are propagated by feeds, or analogous " organizations ; which are formed out of unor- *' ganized matter, by the power of the vital prin- " ciple of plants and animals, in the way of iecre- " tion. By analogous organizations, I mean a "bud of a tree, a fection of a polypus, and fuch- " like organized parts, that are capable like feeds' " of £- r Propagation of Plants. App, " of growing up into a complete plant or ani- " mal. " The fecretory power of plants and animals is " indeed a wonder A lyncean anatomift, with '* hi-^ great magnifiers, cannot penetrate the dark- " nefs in which it is involved. The tranfmuta- " tion of matter by animal and vegetable fecre- " tion, is obvious to every eye. By what means " it is performed, fecms to be that high legerde- " main which nature will never reveal. But if " by this power bread and water can be changed " into flefh and blood, into bones and finews, " into the Argus' eye on the peacock's tail ; if by " this power limple water can be converted into " the hardeft wood, into aromatic flowers and " rich fruits ; I then ceafe to wonder, that the " fame water fhould be converted into a feed, ca- " pable of unfolding itfelf into a future plant. I " require no aid from vagrant organized atoms : " 1 fee no affiltance they can afford. 1 diflike a " hypothefis that appears not to have any ioun- ** dation in truth, or even in probability." FINIS. 3% j. p. jcm ICtJbraru \ JCortlj darolma jiiaie J 560 77?/s bool^ must not be taken from the Library building EXCEPT WITH THE SPECIAL PERMISSION OF THE LIBRARIAN ffS «^fBB ' mm* V lli ' - RHUS ^ftj Kftfc