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 Bulletin No. 17. ^Ut'- 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 
 
 CHECK LIST 
 
 FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 THEIR NAMES AND RANGES 
 
 GEORGE B. SUI3WORTH, 
 
 Dendrologist of the Division of Poresir}'. 
 
 Issued November 5, 1898. 
 
 PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 
 
 B E. EERMOW, 
 
 Chief of the Division of Forestry. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMEN-T PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 ) 8 g8. 
 
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 ■•?■.» 
 

 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Division of Forestry, 
 Waskinfjfo7i, I). C, March 7, 1898. 
 Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication a Check 
 List of the Forest Trees of the Unired States, prepared by Mr. George 
 B. Siidworth, Dendrologist of the Division. 
 
 It represents in the main a condensed reproduction of Bulletin 
 No. 14, ^Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States, 
 by the same author, with notes on the distribution of trees added 
 for better identification. 
 
 This shorter list, it is believed, will be helpful in bringing about a 
 more uniform and stable use of names by lumbermen, nurserymen, and 
 others interested in forest trees. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 B. E. Fernow, 
 
 Chief of Division. 
 
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 Page. 
 
 Introduction. By B. E. Feruow 7 
 
 Note ou ranjie of species. By ( ieorge B. Sud worth 9 
 
 Clieik list of tlie forest trees of the United States, their nanu^s and ranges ... 13 
 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The first necessity for any forestry work is a knowledge of the trees 
 which the forester is ai)t to meet in the forest, and again the first 
 knowledge before he can think or talk of trees is that of their names. 
 
 While most of our forest trees are named both by botanists and lay- 
 men, a great number of entirely different kinds, or species, have received 
 the same name, and also the same species has received a great number 
 of names by which it is called in different parts of its range of occur- 
 rence. This confusion of names has led not only to many annoying 
 inconveniences and misunderstandings, but often to fatal mistakes, as 
 when a nurseryman fills an order with an entirely different kind of tree 
 than was intended by the customer, or when a lumberman supplies an 
 architect with an unsuitable material because their ideas as to what 
 was ordered are at variance. Hence, the Division of Forestry has con- 
 sidered it a first duty to arrive at a uniform and stable nomenclature, 
 both of scientific and vernacular names, by a revision of the existing 
 names, or synonymy, in the hope that, while neither uniformity nor sta- 
 bility can be brought about by the mere publication of a list of names, 
 such i)ublication, carefully considered, might at least pave the way for 
 such a desired end. 
 
 The botanical names have been revised according to certain laws 
 now adopted by many botanists. The revision has been made by the 
 competent Dendrologist of the Division, Mr. George B. Sudworth, and 
 has been printed with a full synonymy and explanations in Bulletin 
 No. 14: of this Division, Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the 
 United States. This bulky publication was, however, printed only in 
 limited numbers, thereby preventing its widespread use. Since for 
 practical uses it was not necessary to state the entire botanical syn- 
 onymy, and in order to make the work more accessible, the present 
 check list, being in part an abbreviated and amended reproduction of 
 Bulletin No. 14, has been prepared. 
 
 For better identification, and in order to increase the value of the 
 list, the geographical range of the species has been added in a few 
 brief Avords. 
 
 The list of names comprises an enumeration of all the trees indig- 
 enous to the United States, 495 in number, the designation of "tree" 
 being applied to all woody plants which produce naturally in their 
 native habitat one main, erect.stem bearing a definite crown, no matter 
 what size they attain. 
 
8 
 
 A few thoronj;lily naturalized trees are also noted, and natural or 
 artificial varieties and hybrids Lave been fully cited. 
 
 Underneath the name adopted as correct accordin<>' to the laws of 
 uouienclature referred to, whenever a (;hange has been made from the 
 name usually found in current textbooks, the text-book name is also 
 given, in different type. 
 
 The selection of a vernacular name from the multitude of those in 
 use is much more difficult, especially since the same name is often 
 applied to many totally different trees. Thus, we have lii Ironwoods, 
 10 Junipers, (» Yellow Pines, 8 Balsams, etc., each referring to different 
 species and often to different genera. There are also many species 
 which have no vernacular name, not being recognized by the layman. 
 There is no law upon tlie basis of which a selection could be made. 
 The selection, therefore, had to be based on a few common-sense rules 
 as a guide and with the principle of conservatism, the only rational 
 one, in the foreground. A large number of correspondents were asked 
 to submit lists of names in common use in various localities. Upon 
 the basis of these lists the name used in the greatest number of locali- 
 ties has been given the preference unless it was also applied to some 
 other tree, when, as an interference had to be avoided, either another 
 name most commonly used or a name njost descriptive and pertinent 
 was selected. When possible, and where no vernacular names existed, 
 a translation of the botanical name was taken, keeping, however, in 
 mind the "name quality" of the combination, that is, a combination 
 into the use of which as a name it would be natural to fall. 
 
 In some cases, where confusion or undesirable inconsistency was 
 caused by one name serving different genera, an attempt at segrega- 
 tion without too much violence to well-established usage has beeu 
 made, as, for instance, in th(^ case of Cedar. This name is usod indis- 
 criminately for Juniperus, Thuja, Gham<ecyparis, and Libocedrus. 
 We have with consistency a 'opted the names Juniper for.tlie first, 
 Arborvitu' for the second, and Cedar, for the last two, well aware that 
 it may be difficult to overcome the objection of the logger's practice, at 
 least to the name Aiborvita'. 
 
 To enable ready reference and pave the way for general adoption of 
 these names, not only a complete index to all the common names in the 
 list, but a full synonymy grouped by States is added, so that the lay- 
 manor botanist can readily determine what plant probably is meant by 
 the native. 
 
 Changes in practice can only come gradually and as the desirability 
 for change ai)pears; then what is sensible and adaptable will be adopted 
 and what lacks in adaptability will fail of acceptance. This list, there- 
 fore, is to be considered only as a first step to improvement and will 
 serve as basis for further work of this Division. 
 
 B. E. Fernow. 
 
NOTE ON RANGE OF SPPXIES. 
 
 The first attempt in recent years to enumerate all of the North 
 American trees (iiortli of the Mexican boundary), with a description of 
 their range and habitat, was made by Prof. 0. S. Sargent, and the cat- 
 alogue was published in a bulky volume (IX) of the Tenth Census 
 (1884). The rai^id increase of knowledge of American trees since then, 
 however, has made many additions necessary, both as to newly discov 
 ered species and as to a better understanding of the range of many of 
 those new or little known and also of the well-known species. The 
 elaborate Silva of North America, which Professor Sargent has now 
 nearly completed as a sequel and amplification, with botanical features, 
 etc., of the Tenth Census catalogue, will be the most complete work 
 issued, but from its high price it must unfortunately remain inaccessible 
 to many. 
 
 Aside from these two works our best information concerning the 
 number of species and range of North American trees is to be found 
 chiefiy in such regional works on botany as Gray's Manual of Botany 
 of the Northern States, Synoptical Flora of North America (unfinished), 
 Chapnian's Flora of the Southern States, Coulter's Manual of Rocky 
 Mountain Botany and Botany of Western Texas, and the Botany of 
 California, by Sereno Watson and other collaborators; also, recently, 
 the Illustrated Flora of the United States and Canada, by Britton and 
 Brown. Other sources of information are found in the modest and 
 often little known State and county catalogues of idants issued by local 
 botanists, together with various articles scattered through American 
 and foreign scientific journals and proceedings of scientific societies. 
 
 Moreover, the army of professional and amateur botanists engaged 
 in botanical research are yearly bringing to light new facts, which are 
 constantly enlarging our understanding of the geographical distribu- 
 tion of trees and other plants. But our knowledge of the range of tree 
 species alone, especially since so vast a territory, with nearly 500 dif- 
 ferent species, has to be compassed, must long remain a variable quan- 
 tity ; and the sum total of facts concerning the geographical range of 
 any of our trees must necessarily be an expression of the united 
 efforts of all working botanists; for the unaided diligence of one 
 man's lifetime could never carry his search and study into all of 
 nature's hiding i^laces for even trees alone. The geographical range 
 notes presented in this volume are, therefore, drawn from all the reli- 
 «able botanical jmblications available, supplemented by new facts per- 
 sonally gathered in recent field work. 
 
10 
 
 In ontlining the range of each species care has been taken, when- 
 ever reliable information was available, to indicate as exactly as possi- 
 ble points of liinit;ition by the mention of counties, water courses, 
 mountain systems, etc., and especially has this been aimed at in the 
 case of new, rare, or little-known species. Wherever the range appears 
 in more general terms specific information has not been at hand with 
 which to give more definite limits. In the case of very common, 
 widely, and continuously distributed species, however, the range often 
 appears in somewhat general terms, for the reason that the ready 
 detection of the species within the general lines renders more detailed 
 delineation unnecessary. 
 
 A lack of space has excluded from the present catalogue any but 
 occasional statements of the manner of occurrence of each species, 
 that is, whether found in forests of pure growth, as in the case of 
 Beech, Sugar Maple, White Oak, White Tine, etc., or as single indi- 
 viduals or scattered groups in a mixed growth, as is the case with the 
 magnolias, bass woods, ashes, etc. Related and alike interesting facts 
 which have been omitted are the special characters of soil, moisture, 
 and altitude appearing to limit the natural occurrence of individuals 
 to certain sites within a species' broader range; as, for example, the 
 exclusive occupancy of low, mucky ground in the Northeast by the 
 Tamarack, while the adjoining stififer soils may bear Black Ash, with 
 Red Maple and Yellow Birch, and the still drier contiguous upland 
 soils may bear Red Oak, White Oak, Sugar Maple, etc. 
 
 Again, many trees are found to be more or less continuously distrib- 
 uted throughout their range, so that they are likely to be met with at 
 frequent intervals. Thus, in traversing the territorial range of the 
 familiar White (3ak, individuals may be found in nearly every county 
 and township, while less common species will be met with only in more 
 widely separated stations, in some cases occurring as ap])arently acci- 
 dental individuals. Peculiar, but usually accountable, phenomena are 
 also seen in tree distribution where extensive areas of forest forming 
 species are very widely disconnected. A familiar example of this is 
 the distribution of Plnus palustris in the Gulf region, where the species 
 suddenly fades out east of the Mississippi River, but reappears again 
 and in commercial quantities about 100 miles westward, in eastern 
 Texas. Other less marked examples might be cited. 
 
 It is, therefore, to be understood by the layman that within the ranges, 
 as stated in general terms, the species may be absent in many locali 
 ties, and personal observation must aid the student to properly inter- 
 pret the general range. 
 
 ADVENTIVE TEEES. 
 
 In enumerating the indigenous trees of North America, it seems proper 
 from tinje to time to include also certain exotic species which show the 
 power of existing and spreading independently and without cultivation. 
 Occurrence under such conditions may be taken as fairly indicative of 
 
11 
 
 naturalization. Such trees as the poplars, willows, Ailantlms, etc., 
 baviiii]: been more or less extensively cultivated, have escaped and be- 
 come widely and tlioroufthly naturalized. Still other exotics, such as 
 the Paulownia, Paper Mulberry, Tallow- tree, etc., of less extensive 
 adaptability to varying dim itic conditions, have become naturalized 
 HI certain restricted regions. There are also many indigenous trees, 
 such as locusts and catalpas, which, through wide cultivation, have 
 largely increased the area of their distribution and become naturalized 
 outside of their original range. 
 
 No systematic ceusus of the actual range of such naturalized species 
 in North America has been attempted in the present catalogue, the 
 statements of their presence being often based upon more or less incom- 
 plete observations, but in all cases sufficient to warrant their introduc- 
 tion as associates of native species. Several cultivated exotic species, 
 not included in the present catalogue, show a tendency to become 
 naturalized. But the existence of such species seems for the most part 
 to be confined to old and neglected grounds where, to a limited extent, 
 the trees have become self-propagated, though hardly capable of advanc- 
 ing and holding their own against the vicissitudes of more exposed 
 localities and other contestants for the soil. It is thought best, there- 
 fore, to exclude such trees till further observation proves them to be 
 naturalized. 
 
 
 Geoege B. Sud worth. 
 
 
 JjOO 
 
 
CHECK LIST OF FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 GYMNOSPERM^E. 
 
 Familv PINJVCE^E.. , 
 
 Pinus strobus Liun. White Pine. 
 
 Raxgk. — From Newfoundland (White Bay region) and along the northern sborcs of 
 St. Lawrence Gulf to northern Ontario (uear Abittibl and Nipigou lakes) southern 
 Manitoba (near southern end of Lake Winnipeg); southward tiirough northern and 
 easteru Minnesota, northeastern (Mitchell County) and eastern border of Iowa (to 
 Scott County), northeru (counties) Illinois, soutbern shores of Luke Michigan, 
 southern Michigan (north of Allegau, Eaton, and St. Clair counties), northeastern 
 and easteru (border counties) Ohio, and along the Allegheny Mountains to northern 
 Georgia (Tallulah Falls). 
 
 Names in use.— White Pine (Me., X. U., Vt., Mass., E. I., Conn., 
 K Y., X. J., Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, Ga., Ind., III., Wis., Mich., 
 Minn., Ohio, Ont., Nebr.); Weymouth Pine (Mass., S. C); Soft Pine 
 (Pa.); Northeru Pine (S. C); Spruce Pine (Tenn.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Pinus strobiis brevifolia Loud. 
 Pinus strobus umbraculifera Knight. 
 Piuus strobus niiuima Beissn. 
 Piuus strobus fastigiata (Koch) Beissn. 
 Pinus strobus viridis Carr. 
 Pinus strobus gracilifolia Sndw. 
 Pinus strobus iiivea (Knight) Carr. 
 Pinus strobus aurea Carr. 
 Pinus strobus variegata Carr. 
 Pinus strobus zebrina Beissn. 
 Pinus strobus prostrata Hort. Kew. 
 Piuus strobus unifolia' nom. uov. 
 
 Pinus monticola Dougl. Silver Pine. 
 
 Rance. — From Vancouver Island and southern British Columbia (coast and gold 
 ranges) through northern Idaho (Cojur d'Alone and Bitter Root mountains) to 
 nortbern Montana (Flathead River) and southward through Washington and Oregon 
 (Cascade Mountains) to California (on Sierra Nevada Mountains to Calaveras 
 County). 
 
 ' Pinus sfrobiis uvifolia nom. nov. = Pinus strobus forma nova monophylla Tubeuf, in 
 
 Forstl.-natnrw. Zeitschr., VII., 34, (t.) 35, 1898, not P. monophijUa Torr. «fe Frem. 
 
 1845. A form recently detected in Germany and characterized by Dr. Tubeuf as 
 
 having the needles more or less cohering througboat their length and forming a 
 
 single needle. 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 Names in use. — White Pine (Cal., Nev., Oreg.); Finjjer-cone Pine, 
 (Cal.); :\Ioniitain Pino (Cal.); Soft Pine (Cal.); Little Sugar Pine (Cal.); 
 Mountain Weymouth Pine; Western White Pine. 
 ^^je4i'I*inus lambertiana Dougl. Sugar Pine. 
 
 J^ Kangk.— Coast rci^ion from Oregon (head of McKinzie and Rogue rivers) to 
 
 kJI^' California (Sierra Nevada Moiintaina and coast ranges to Santa Lucia Mouutain.s; 
 San Bernardino and Cuyaniaca mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Sugar Pine (Cal., Oreg.); Big Pine; Shade Pine 
 (Cal.); Great Sugar Pine; Little Sugar Pine; Gigantic Pine (Cal. lit.); 
 Purple coned Sugar Pine. 
 
 Finns flexilis James. Limber Pine. 
 
 Range. — Rocky Mountain region from Montana to western Texas (Guadalupe and 
 Limpia mountains) and New Mexico; in mountains of northern Arizona, Utah, 
 Nevada, and California (Inyo Mountains and Mount Sillman). 
 
 Names in use.— White Pine (Cal., Nev., Utah, Colo., N. Mex.); Pine 
 (Utah, Mont); Bull Pine (Colo.); Rocky Mountain White Pine (Cal.); 
 Kocky Mountain Pine; Limber-twig Pine (Cal. lit.); Western White 
 Pine (Cal. lit.); Arizona Flexilis Pine. 
 
 Finns albicaulis Engelm. White-bark Pine. 
 
 Rangk. — From British Columbia (coast ranges and Lltasyouco River) southward 
 and through Washington and Oregon (on Blue Mountains); eastward tlirough 
 northern Washington to northern Montana (eastern base Rocky Mountains); Cali- 
 fornia (Sierra Nevada to San Bernardino mountains; Scotts Mountain and Mount 
 Shasta). 
 
 Names in use. — White-stem Pine (Cal., Mont.); Scrub Pine (Mont.); 
 Pitch Pine (Mont.); White-bark (Oreg.); White bark Pine (Cal.); 
 Creeping Pine (Cal. lit.) ; Alpine White-bark Pine (Cal. lit.). 
 
 Finns strobiformis Engelm. Mexican White Pine. 
 
 Rangk. — Southwestern New Mexico (mountains) to Arizona (Santa Rita and Santa 
 Catalina mountains); mountains of Mexico and Guaten)ala. 
 
 Names in use. — Ayacahuite Pine; White Pine (Ariz.); Mexican 
 White Pine; Arizona White Pine. 
 
 Pinus quadrifolia Pari. Parry Pinon. 
 
 PiNUS PARRYANA Engelm. 
 
 Ran(;e. — Southern California (San Diego County) and southward into Lower 
 California. 
 
 Names in use. — Nut Pine (Cal.); Parry's Pine (Cal.); Parry's Nut 
 Pine (Cal.); Parry Nut Pine (Cal. lit.); Pinon (Cal.); Mexican Piuou 
 
 ''"'•'"■'• , UloJi*^ '^'''^- 
 
 Pinus cembroides Zucc. "^^^"^^ ' Mexican Pinon. 
 
 Rangk. — Arizona (Santa Catalina Mountains) and northern Mexico. 
 Names in use. — Nut Pine (Ariz., N. Mex.); Pinon (Mex.); Stone- 
 seed Mexican Pinon (lit.); Mexican Cembra-like Pine (lit.). 
 
 Finns ednlis Engelm. Pinon. 
 
 Range. — From Colorado (eastern base Pikes Peak) through New Mexico and to 
 western Texas (mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Pifion (Tex., Colo.); Nut Pine (Tex., Colo.); Pinon 
 Pine (Colo.); New Mexican Pinon (lit.). 
 
15 
 Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frem. Single-leaf Pinon. 
 
 l\A\(iK. — From rtah (^near Utah Lake) to California, (eastorn foothills Sierru 
 Nevada Moinitains) and southward into eastern Arizona (San Francisco Mountains). 
 
 Names in tse. — Piuoti (Cal., Ariz., Nev., Utah); Nut Pine (Cal., 
 Ariz., Nev., Utah) ; Gray Pine (Nev.) ; Nevada Nut Pine (Cal.) ; Siu<;le- 
 leaf (Gal. lit.); Fremont's Nut Pine (Cal. lit.). 
 
 Pinus balfouriana Murr. Foxtail Pine. 
 
 Range. — California (Scotts Mountain in Siskiyou County; Mount Whitney and 
 sources of King and Kern rivers). 
 
 Names in use. — Spruce Pine (Cal. lit.); Foxtail Pine (Gal.). 
 Pinus aristata Eiigelm. Bristle-cone Pine. 
 
 Range. — From Colorado through southern Utah, northern Arizona, and Nevada to 
 southeastern California. 
 
 Names in use. — Hickory Pine (Cal. lit.); Bristle-cone Pine (Gal. lit.) ; 
 Foxtail Pine (Cal. lit.). . . 
 
 Pinus resinosa Ait. J\m4 WA X /9lAAt'<fevH^ . Red Pine. 
 
 Rani'.e. — From Newfoundland and along the northern shores of St. Lawrence Gulf 
 to northern Ontario (north of Ahittibi Lake) to southern Manitoba (near southern 
 end of Lake Winnipeg); southward through the Northern States to Massachtisetts 
 (Middlesex Countj^), Pennsylvania (Chester County), northeastern Ohio (north of 
 Cleveland), central Michigan (Saginaw), northern Wisconsin (Oshkosh and Eau 
 Claire), and northeastern Minnesota. 
 
 Names in use.— Red Pine (Vt.,N. H.,N.Y., Wis., Minn., Ont.); Nor- 
 way Pine (Me., N. H., Vt, Mass., N. Y., Wis., Mich., Minn., Out.); Hard 
 Pine (Wis.); Canadian Red Pine (Eng.). 
 
 Pinus torreyana Parry. Torrey Pine. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (Soledad River in San Diego County). 
 
 Names in use. — Soledad Pine (Gal.); Del Mar Pine (Gal.); Lone 
 Pine (Cal.); Torrey Pine (Cal. lit.); Torrey's Pine. 
 Pinus arizonica Engelin. Arizona Pine. 
 
 Range. — Southern Arizona (Chiricahna, Santa Catalina, El Rincon, and Santa 
 Rita mountains). 
 
 Names IN USE. — Arizona Yellow Pine (Cal.); Arizona Pine; Arizona 
 5-leaved Lumber Pine (Gal. lit.). 
 
 Pinus ponderosa Laws. Bull Pine. 
 
 Range. — From British* Columbia (interior south of latitude 51°), and Dakota 
 (Black Hills region) southward in the Pacific and Rocky Mountain region to west- 
 ern Texas and Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow Pine (Cal., Colo., Mont., Idaho, Utah, 
 Wash., Oreg-.); Bull Pine (Cal., Wash., Utah, Idaho, Greg.); Big Pine 
 (Mont.); Long leaved Pine (Utah, Nev.); Red Pine; Pitch Pine; South- 
 ern Yellow Pine; Heavy-wooded Pine (Eng.); Western Pitch Pine; 
 Heavy Pine (Cal.); Foothills Yellow Pine; Sierra Brownbark Pine; 
 Montana Black Pine (Cal. lit.); "Gambler Parry's Pine" (Eng. lit.). 
 
 Pinus ponderosa scopulorum Engelm. Rock Pine. 
 
 Range. — Rocky Mountain region. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow Pine (Mont., Nebr.); Bull Pine (Colo.); 
 Long leaved Pine (Colo.); Rocky Mountain Yellow Pine (lit.). 
 
16 
 
 VARIKTY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Pinus pouderosa penduliformis Sudw. Weeping Bull Pine. 
 
 tinus apacheca Lenimon. Apache Pine. 
 
 Rancji:. — Soutlieasteru Arizona (Chiricahua Mountains). Species insufficiently 
 unilcrstood, and may prove to be a lorm of /'. ponderosa. 
 
 Pinus mayriana Sad worth. Arizona Long-leaf Pine. 
 
 Pinus latifolia Sarg., not of authors. 
 
 Range. — Soutbera Arizona (Santa Rita Mountains). Range insufficiently known. 
 
 Names in use. — Broad-leaf rine (lit.); Arizona liroad-leaf Pine (lit.); 
 Mayr Pine (lit.). 
 Pinus jefFreyi "Oreg. Com." Jeffrey Pine. 
 
 Raxge. — California (Scotta Mountain in Siskiyou County and along Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains to San Bernardino and Sau Jacinto mountaius); Soutliern Oregon 
 (Dongl.is Connty, 30 miles south of Roscburg). 
 
 Names in use.— Bull Pine (Cal.); Black Pine (Cal.); Western Black 
 Pine (Cal. lit.); Pinos(Cal.); Trnckce Pine(Nev.); Sapwood Pine (Cal.); 
 Jeffrey Pine (Cal. lit.); Blackbark Pine (Cal. lit.); Redbark Pine (Cal. 
 lit.): Peninsula Pine (Cal. lit.); Sierra Redbark Pine (Cal. lit.); 
 Peninsula Black Pine (Cal. lit.). 
 Pinus chihuahuana Engelrn. Chihuahua Pine. 
 
 Ramie. — Sowtliwesteru New Mexico and Arizona (Santa Rit<a and San Francisco 
 mountains) and southward iu ilexico. 
 
 Names in i se. — Chihuahua Top-cone Pine (Cal. lit.). 
 Pinus contorta Loud. Shore Pine. 
 
 Raxcji;. — Coast region from xVlaska to California (Mendocino County). 
 
 Na:\ies in use.— Scrub Pine; Knotty Pine; Tamarack (Cal.); Sand 
 Pine (Oreg.): North Coast Scrub Pine (Cal. lit.); Bolander's Pine; 
 Henderson's Pine. 
 
 Pinus murrayana "Oreg. Com." Lodgepole Pine. 
 
 Range. — From Alaska (Yukon River) and southward through interior British 
 Columbia; the mountains of Washington and Oregon to California (Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains to San Jacinto Mountains); plateau east of the Rocky Mountains (latitude 
 56°) and south through the Rocky Mountain region to New Mexico and northern 
 Arizona. 
 
 Names in use.— Tamarack (Wye, Utah, Mont., Cal.); Prickly Pine 
 (Utah); White Pine (Mont.); Black Pine (Wyo.); Lodgepole Pine 
 (Wyo., Mont., Idaho); Spruce Pine (Colo., Idaho, Mont.); Tamarack 
 Pine (Cal.); Murray Pine (Cal. lit.j. . ^ ^ ^i ^ ^ 
 
 Pinus sabiniana Dougl. ^^*''^ '" ' " ^^^^ ^js^'^V^-' ' ^^^^ p . ^^^ 
 
 Ranue. — California (.Shasta Connty and southward in foothills of coast ran<;oa 
 and on western .slojies of Sierra Nevada Mountains). yu^W^ *Vvi<>.t>W ;/ 
 
 Names in use.— Sabine's Pine (Cal. lit.); Gray-leaf Pine fcal.j^^^ 
 Pinus coulteri Lamb, fry a >/ ,^ y,^ / ' * Coulter Pine. '► 
 
 Ra.nce. — California (from Monte Diablo to Cuyamaca Mountains); possibly far- 
 ther southward iu Lower California. 
 
 Names in use.— Coulter's Pine (Cal.); Nut Pine (Cal.); Bigcone 
 Pine (Cal.); Large-coned Pine (Eng. lit.). 
 
17 
 
 Pinus radiata Don. Monterey Pine 
 
 I'lNi'S iNSiGNis Douglas in herb, ex Loudon. 
 
 Eangk. — California (Poiut Tiiios on Monterey Bay, and along the toast from Ven 
 cadero to San Simeon I5ay). 
 
 Names in use. — Monterey Pine (Cal.); Spreading-coiie Tine (Cal. 
 lit.); Nearly smooth-cone Pine (Cal. lit.); Remarkablo Pine (Cal. lit); 
 Siuall-couetl Monterey Pine (Cal. lit.); Two-leaved Insular Pine.' 
 
 Pinus attenuata Lommon. Knobcone Pine 
 
 I'lXUS TUBERCULATA (xOrd. 
 
 Range. — Oreg:on (McKinzie River and south on western slopes of Cascade and 
 Sierra Nevada nionntains) to California (coast ranges from Santa Cruz to San Jacinto 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names in vse. — Knobcone Pine (Oreg., Cal.); Prickly-cone Pine. 
 (Idaho); Snn-loving Pine (Cal. lit.); Sunny-slope IMne (Cal. lit.); Nar- 
 row-cone Pine (Cal. lit.); Tuberculated-coned Pine (Eug. lit.). 
 
 Pinus tasda Linn. Loblolly Pine. 
 
 Raxgk. — South Atlantic and Gulf States from New Jersey (C:ipe May >, sontliern 
 Delaware and AYcst Virginia (Wood, Mineral, Hampshire, and Hardy conntics) to 
 central Florida (Cape Malabar and Tampa Bay) and west to eastern Texas (Colorado 
 River; in Bastrop County) ; northward into southeastern Indian Territory, Arkan- 
 sas, and southern border of middle and west Tennessee. 
 
 Names in use. — Loblolly Pine (Del., Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., 
 Miss., La., Tex., Ark.); Oldfield Piue (Del., Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., 
 Fla., :\Iiss., La., Tex., Ark.); Torch Pine (Eng. lit); Rosemary Pine (Va., 
 N. C, in part); Slash Piue(Va., N. C, in part); Lo)igschat Pine (Del.)., 
 Longshncks (Md., Ya.); Black Slash Pine (S. C); Frankincense Pine 
 (lit) ; Shortleaf Pine '( Va., N. C, S. C, La.) ; Ball Pine (Texas and Gulf 
 region); Virginia Pine; Sap Pine (Va., N. C); Meadow Pine (Fla.); 
 Cornstalk Pine ( Va.) ; Black Pine ( Va.) ; Foxtail Pine ( Va., Md.) ; Indian 
 Piue (Va., N. C); Spruce Pine (Va., in part); Bastard Pine (Va., 
 N. C); Yellow Piue (north Ala.,N. C); Swamp Pine (Va., N. C.]; 
 Longstraw Pine ( Ya.^. C., in Dart). J . ^ yyjujih 
 
 Pinus rigida Mill. ^4/<iJlgfhSl^ PJ^^^^ Pitch Pine. 
 
 Raxgk. — Fiom southern Wew Brunswick (St. Johns River) to eastern Ontario 
 (north shore of Lake Ontario and Lower Ottawa River) and southward in the Atlantic 
 region to southern Virginia (\orfolk) and along the mountains to northern Georgia 
 (Atlanta); west to western New York (Ithaca), northeastern Pennsylvania, eastern 
 Ohio (border counties south of Canton) and Kentucky, eastern Tennessee (to Cum- 
 berland Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Pitch Pine (Vt, N. H., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., Wt Va., :^. C, S. C, Ga., Ohio, Out, Md., Eng.); Long- 
 leaved Pine (Del.); Longschat Pine (Del.); Hard Pine (Mass.); Yellow 
 Pine (Pa.); Black Pine (N. C); Black Norway Pine (N. Y.); Rigid Pine 
 (Eng. lit); Sap Piue (lit). 
 
 •Refers to the two leafed form Piints radiala ifnna/a (Engelm.) Lemni., found on 
 Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Guadaloupe islands. 
 
 19193— No. 17 2 
 
18 » ' yr-r^rr^ 
 
 PInus serotina Michx. f AY'^-' -f - ^^'^*' M,^ f Pond Pine. 
 
 Ra\i;k. — Coast rei^ion from North Carolina to Florifla (head of St. .Johns Kivt-r, 
 ami probahly farther south ; on the west coast from Pensacola to Citrus Couuty ami 
 probably iiiiuli farther south). Eange imperfectly known. 
 
 Names in use. — Marsh Pine (N. C); Meadow Pine (N. C); Pond 
 Pine (X. C, S. C, Fla., Miss., La.); Loblolly Pine (N. C, Fla.); 
 Spruce Pine (S. C, Ga.); Ba.stard Pine (S. C, Ga.); Bull Piue (S. C, 
 Ga.). 
 
 Pinus Virginians Mill. • ' '^ " Scrub Pine. 
 
 PiNU.s iNops Solander ex Ait. 
 
 Range. — From New York (Staten Island) to South Carolina (Aiken River) and 
 nortlieru Alabama (Winston, Cullman, and Dekall) counties); west into southern 
 Indiana, to middle Tennessee (Putnam County). 
 
 Names in use. — Jersey Pine (N. J., Pa., Del., N. C, S. (3.); Scrub 
 Pine (R. I., N. Y., Pa., Del., N. C, S. C, Ohio); Short Slincks (Md., 
 Va.); Sliortsliat Pine (Del.); Spruce Pine (N. J., N. C): Sliorth-aved 
 (N. C); Cedar Pine (N. C); Ptiver Piue (N. C); Nigger Pine (Teuu); 
 New Jersey Pine (lit.). 
 Pinus claiisa (Enoelni.) Sargent. Sand Pine. 
 
 Kaxgk. — Coast of Alabama (Baldwin County) and western Florida (to Pease 
 Creek) ; east coast of Florida from St. Augustine to Halifax River. 
 
 Names in use.— Sand Pine (Fla., Ala.); Oldfield Pine (Fla.); 
 Florida Sprui;e Pine (Ala.); Scrub Pine (Fla.); Spruce Piue (Fla.); 
 Upland Spruce Pine (Fla.). 
 Pinus pungens Miclix. f. Table-mountain Pine. 
 
 RaN(;i;. — District of Columbia, Maryland, and Allegheny Mountain region I'rom 
 Pennsylvania to eastern and middle Tennessee and Georgia (Tallulah Falls). 
 
 Names in use. — Table mountain Pine (Pa., Del., Md., S. C); 
 Southern Mountain Piue (Tenu.); Prickly Piue (N. C.). 
 Pinus muricata Don. California S-wramp Pine. 
 
 Rangk, — Calil'ornia coast (Fort Bragg, Mendocino County, and south in coast 
 range- to San Luis Obispo County); Lower California (Cedros Islands and coast of 
 Esenado and San Quitan). 
 
 Names in use. — Swamp Pine (Cal.); Dwarf Marine Pine (Cal.); 
 Prickle cone Pine (Cal.); P.isliop's Piue (Cal. and Eug. lit.); Anthony's 
 Prickle cone Pine (Cal. lit.); Obispo Piue (Cal.) 
 
 Pinus echinata Mill. ^}(r^ 'X /tier /^i "ifj Shortleaf Pine. 
 
 Pinus mitis Michx. -^ ^^^ *^' ' 
 
 Ran(;e. — From New York (Stateu Island) to Florida (Chattahoochee region) and 
 west to soutberu Missouri, eastern Indian Territory, and northeastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use.— Yellow Pine (N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., N. C, Ala., 
 Miss., La., Ark., Mo., 111., Ind., Kans. (scarce), (Ohio, Eng. lit.); Short- 
 leaved Pine (N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Miss., Fla., La., Tex., Ark.) ; Spruce 
 Pine{l)el., Miss., Ark.); Bull Pine (V^a.); Shortsbat Pine (Del.); Pitch 
 Pine (Mo.); Poor Pine (Fla.); Shortleaved Yellow Pine; Rosemary Pine 
 (N. C); Virginia Yellow Pine (V^a.,in part); North Carolina Yellow 
 Pine (N. C. and Va., in part); North Carolina Pino (N. C. and Va., in 
 part); Carolina Pine (N. C. and Va., in part); Slash Pine (N. C, Va., 
 in part) ; Oldtield Pipe (Ala., Miss.). 
 
urtliern Indiana a 
 
 Vlich, Minn *7 
 
 III rnn!wln\- ^^*fJ9y 
 
 19 
 
 Pinus glabra Walt. Spruce Pine. 
 
 Rangk. — Coast rejLjion, from South Carolina (between latitude 31^ and 33^) to 
 Florida (Cbattahoocliee region) and west to Louisiana (Pearl Kiver). 
 
 Names in use.— Si)ruce Tine (S.C, Ala., Fhi.); Cedar Pine (Miss.); 
 White rine(S.C.,Fla.); Walter's riiie(S.C.); Lowlaud Spruce Pine 
 (Fla.); Poor Pine (Fla.); Kinj;stree (S. C). 
 
 Pinus divaricata (Ait.) Dii Mout tie Cours. -^^ / - Jack Pine. A 
 Pinus i?anksiana Lamb. ^^Ua^mT^^^^ ^ 7^^'t^-«Tyi ^ ^tMii/Jf^ 
 
 Rangk. — New Brunswick to New Hampshire and west through Great Lake and 
 Hudson Bay (sontlieiu shores i region to Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie Rive»-, and 
 Rocky Mountains; sonlh into northern Maine, northern New York, northern Indiana 
 and Illinois, and central Minnesota. fjf^^Jt^ C^O'^AMQ 
 
 Names in use.— Scrub Pine (Me., Vt., N. Y., Wis., Mich., Minn!,', 
 Out.); Gray Pine (Vt., Minn., Out.); Jack Pine (Mich., Minn., Canada); 
 Priuces Pine (Ont.); iJlack Jack Pine (Wis.); Black Pine (Minn.); 
 Cypress (Quebec to Hudson Bay); Canada Horn cone Pine (Cal. lit.); 
 Chek Pine; Sir Joseph Bank's Pine (Eng.); ''Juniper" (Canada); Bank- 
 sian Pine (lit.). , . 
 
 Pinus palustris M ill. \MiruJU\JrOfy ^^Mh^A^oii^a^^me. VHf^ 
 
 Range. — Coast region, from southern Virginia (Norfolk) to Florida (TariiiialBay n. 
 and Cape Canaveral) to eastern Texas (Trinity River) ; northward in Alabama to the J^^^' 
 northeastern part of the State (Clay and Walker counties), and northwestern A^-^ 
 (border counties) Georgia. ^ 
 
 Names in use.— Lono-leaved Pine (Va., N.C., S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., j!^^ 
 Miss., La., Tex.); Southern Pine (N. C, Ala., Miss., La.); Yellow PineJ?M? 
 (Del., N.C., S.C., Ala., Fla., La., Tex.); Turpentine Pine (N.C.); Rose-^*te77^ 
 mary Pine (N. C); Brown Pine (Tenn.); Hard Pine (Ala., Miss., La.); ""■ 
 Georgia Pine (general, Del.); Fat Pine (Southern States); Southern ' 
 Yellow Pine (general); Soutliern Hard Pine (general); Southern Heart 
 Pine (general); Southern Pitch Pine (general); Heart Pine (N. C. and 
 South Atlantic region); Pitch Pine (Atlantic region); Louglcaved 
 Yellow Pine (Atlantic region); Longleaved Pitch Pine (Atlantic re- 
 gion); Longstraw Pine (Atlantic region); North Carolina Pitch Piue 
 (Va., N. C); Georgia Yellow Pine (Atlantic region); Georgia Heart 
 Piue (general); Georgia Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region); Georgia 
 Pitch Pine (Atlantic region); Florida Yellow Pine (Athmtic region); 
 Florida Pine (Atlantic region); Florida Longleaved Pine (Athintic 
 region); Texas Yellow Pine (Atlantic region); Texas Longleaved Pine 
 (Atlantic region). 
 
 Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth. C^>uiuyiC\, Cuban Pine. 
 Pinus cubensis Griseb. 
 
 Rangk. — Coast region (60 to 100 miles inland), from South Carolina (Charleston) 
 to southern Florida (CapS Canaveral and Biscayne Bay) and west to Louisiana 
 (Pearl River). 
 
 Names in use. — Slash Pine (Ala., Miss., Ga., Fla.); Swamp Pine 
 (Fla., Miss., Ala., in part); Bastard Pine (Ala. luinberinen, Fla.); 
 Meadow Pine (Fla., eastern Miss., in part); I'itch Pine (Fla.); She 
 Pitch Piue (Ga.); She Piue (Ga., Fla.); Spruce Piue (southeru Ala.). 
 
r Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch. '"'' Tamarack, 
 
 LARIX AMERICANA Michx. 
 Ranuk.— From Newfoundland and T^abrador to northern Pennsylvania, northrrn 
 Indiana, Illinois, central Minnesota, and northwestward to Hudson Bay (Cape 
 Churchill, Great P>ear Lake, and Mackenzie River) (in Arctic Circle). 
 
 Names in use.— Larch (Vt., Mass., R. I., Coun., N. Y., E. J., Pa., 
 Del., Wis., Miun., Ohio, Out., Miun.) ; Tamarack (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., 
 li. I., K. Y., N. J., Pa., Ind., 111., Wis., Mich., Minn., Ohio, Ont.); Hack- 
 matack (Me., N. H., Mass., li. I., Del., 111., Minn., Ont); American Larch 
 (Vt., Wis., nurserymen); Juniper (Me, N. Bruns. to Hudson Bay); 
 Black Larch (Minn.); Epinette Rouge (Quebec); Ka neh-tens="The 
 leaves fall" (Indians, IST. Y.); Red Larch (Mich.); Hacmack (lit.). 
 
 Larix occidentalis Nutt. Western Larch. 
 
 Range. — Southern British Columbia (south of latitude 53) and south in the Cas- 
 cade Mountains to the Columbia River, and to western ^lontana; also in Blue 
 Mountains of Washington and Oregon. 
 
 Names in use. — Tamarack (Oreg.); Hackmatack; Larch (Idaho, 
 Wash., etc.); Red American Larch ; Western Tamarack; Great West- 
 ern Larch (Cal. lit.); Western Larch (Eug.) 
 
 Larix lyallii I*arl. Alpine Larch. 
 
 Range.— High mountains (6,000 to 7,000 feet) of northwestern States, from Mon- 
 tana to Washington and Oregon, and northward in adjacent territory. Range imper- 
 fectly known. 
 
 Names in use.— Tamarack (Idaho, Wash., Oreg.); Larch (Idaho, 
 Wasa., Oreg.); Mountain Larch; Lya^'s Laych (lit.);^ Woollj^ Larch 
 (Cal. lit). n 
 
 Black Spruce. 
 
 Picea mariana (iMill.) B. S. P. a It . J^I 
 
 PiCEA NIGRA Link.<i,f*X^tA>»ft/> 4^'''^^''^ 
 
 Range. — Newfoundland to Hudson Bay and northwestward to the Mackenzie 
 River; southward in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and in the eastern mountains 
 to North Carolina and Tennessee. 
 
 Names in use. — Black Spruce (N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., Pa., 
 W. Va., N. C, S. C, Wis., Mich., Minn., Ont., Eng.); Double Spruce 
 (Me., Vt.; Minn.); Blue Spruce (Wis.); Spruce (Vt); White Spruce 
 (W. Va. ; Yew Pine (\V. Va,); Juniper (N. C); Spruce Pine (W. Va., 
 Pa.); E3Balsam(Del., N. C); Epinette Jaune (Quebec); Water Spruce 
 (Canada, Me.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Picea mariana doumetti (Carr.) Beis.sn. 
 
 Picea mariana pumila (Carr.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea mariana humilis Sudw. 
 
 Picea mariana argenteo-variegata (Beissu.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea mariana aurescens Sudw. 
 
 Picea mariana albescens Sudw. 
 
21 
 
 4 
 
 Picea rubens Sargent. Red Spruce. 
 
 PiCEA RUBRA. Diet. 
 Kaxgk. — Nova Scotia to North Caiolina and Tennessee. Range imperfectly known. 
 
 Names in use. — lied Spruce; Yellow Spruce (N. Y.); North Ameri- 
 can Red Spruce (foreign lit.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Picea rubens coerulea (Loud.) nom. nov. 
 
 PiCEA RUBRA ccERULEA (LoiuT.) Forbes. 
 Picea rubens peudula (Carr.) iiom. nov. 
 
 PiCEA RUBRA PENDUX^ Carr. 
 Picea rubeus gracilis (Knight) nom. nov. 
 
 Picea rubra gracilis (Knight) Carr. 
 
 Ficea canadensis (Mill.) B. S. P. White Spruce. 
 
 Picea alba Liuk. 
 
 Raxgk. — Newfouudhmd to Hudson Buy and northwestward to Alaska; southward 
 to northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Montana, 
 and British Coliinibia, 
 
 Names in use. — White Spruce (Yt., N. H., ]\rass., N. Y., Wis., Mich., 
 Minn., Out.); Single Spruce (-Me., Yt., Minn.); Bog Spruce (New Eiig.); 
 Skunk Spruce (Wis., Me., New Eng., Out.); Oat Spruce (Me., New 
 Eng.); Spruce (Yt.), Pine (Hudson Bay); Double Spruce (Yt.). 
 
 VARIETIES distinguished IX CULTIVATION. 
 
 Picea canadensis glauca (Moench.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis acutissima (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis compressa (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis nana (Loud.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis nana glaucifolia Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis echinoformis (Carr.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis compacta gracilis (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis compressiforniis Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis nutans Sudw. 
 
 Picea canadensis aurea (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Picea engelmanni' Eugelm. Engelmann Spruce. 
 
 Raxgk. — Northern Arizona and tbrougli the Rocky Mountain region to British 
 Columbia. 
 
 Names in use.— Engelmaun's Spruce (Utah); Balsam (Utah); White 
 Spruce (Oreg., Colo., Utah, Idaho); White Pine (Idaho); Mountain 
 Spruce (Mont.); Arizona Spruce (Cal. lit.). 
 
 VARIETIES distinguished IX CULTIVATION. 
 
 Picea eng:elinanni griseifolia Sudw. 
 Picea engelmanni argyrophylla Sudw. 
 Picea engelmanni minutifolia Sudw. 
 
 Picea parryana (Andre) Parry. Blue Spruce. 
 
 Picea pungens Eugelm. > 
 
 Raxge. — Ceutral Rocky Mountain region — Colorado, ITtali, and Wyoming. 
 
 Names in use. — Parry's Spruce (Utah); Blue Si)ruce (Colo.); Spruce; 
 Balsam (Colo., Utah); White Spruce (Utah, Colo.); Silver Spruce 
 (Colo.); Colorado Blue Spruce (Colo.); Prickly Spruce (lit.) 
 
 'Prof. J. G. Lemmon has recently described the following as distinct from the 
 Engelmann Spruce: Picea columbiana Lemm. (== P. engelmanni Engelm. in part). 
 
22 
 
 VAKIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Picea parryana glaucescens iioin. nov. 
 
 PlCKA PL'NC-KNS GLAUCK-SCr.X.S Suilw. 
 
 Picea parryana cyaiiea noni. nov. 
 
 PlClCA PUNGKNS CVANEA Siulw., 
 
 Picea parryana argentea (Heissii.) nom. nov 
 
 PlCKA rUNC.EXS ARGKXTKA IJeissU. 
 
 Picea parryana glauca pendens nom. nov. 
 Picea iTNtJiiiS glauca i4;nubxs Sudw 
 
 ^l^^dtf W{>^ Vrn^ 
 
 Picea sitchen^ (Bons.) Ti^utv. & Mayer. ' Sitka Spruce. 
 
 Kaxgk. — Const region (extending inland about 50 miles) from Alaska to northern 
 California (Mendocino County). 
 
 Names in use. — Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., Wash.); Menzies' 
 Spruce; Western Spruce; Great Tidelaud Sjiruce (Cal. lit.). 
 Picea breweriana Wats. Weeping Spruce. 
 
 Raxgk. — Northern California (Siskiyou Mountains), very local, and southern 
 Oregon. 
 
 Names in use. — Weeping Spruce; Brewer's Spruce; Siskiyou 
 Si>ruce '^Germ. lit.).^ M jA a 
 
 Tsuga canadensis (Linn.) Carr. Hemlock. 
 
 Kan GK.— Nova Scotia to Minnesota (Carleton Connty), Wisconsin, Michigan, and 
 Bouthwiird in the Atlantic region along the mountains to northern Alabama (Winston 
 County) and Ceorgin. 
 
 Names in use.— Hemlock (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., E. I., Conn., N. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., Va., N. C, S. C, Ky., Wis., Midi., Minn., Ohio, Ont); 
 Hemlock Spruce (Yt., E. I., N. Y., Pa., :N. J., W. Va., N. C, S. C, 
 England, cult.); Spruce (Pa., W. Va.); Spruce Pine (r'a., Del., Va., 
 N. C, Ga.); Oh-neh-tah = "Greens on the stick" (N. Y. Indians); 
 Canadian Hemlock (lit.); New England Hemlock (lit.). 
 
 VAHIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis pumila Sndw. 
 
 Tsuga canaden.sis compacta minima Sudw. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis globosa Heissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis gracilis Carr. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis milfordeusis Nichol. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis erecta Sudw. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis columnaris Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis macrophylla Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis paucifolia Sndw. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis microphylla Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis parvifolia (Veitch) Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis pendula !*>eissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis aurea Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis albo-spica (Oord.) Beissn. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis argenteo-variegata Sudw. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis argentifolia Sudw. 
 
23 
 
 Tsuga caroliniana Engelm. Carolina Hemlock. 
 
 Rax(;k. — Moiiirtuiiis of southwestern Virginia, western Nortli Curoliiia, and north- 
 ern Georgia: very local. 
 
 Names in use.— Hemlock (N. C, S. O.); Southern Hemlock (lit.). 
 
 Tsuga heterophylla (liaf.) Siirueiit. Western Hemlock. 
 
 Tsuga mkrtknsiana authors, not Carr. 
 Kaxgk. — Alaska to Idalio and Montana and southward (in the Cascade and coast 
 ranges) to California (Marin County). 
 
 Names in use.— Hemlock Spruce (Cal. ; Western Hemlock (Cal.); 
 Hemlock (Oreg., Idaho, Wash.); Western Hemlock Si)ruce (lit.); Cali- 
 fornia Hemlock Si»ruce: Western Hemlock Fir (En.u.); Prince Albert's 
 Fir (Eng.); Alaska Pine (Northwestern lumbermen). 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Tsuga heterophylla latifolia noni. nov. 
 
 TsCGA MKRTEXSIANA LATIFOLIA Sudw. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr. Black Hemlock. 
 
 Tsuga pattoniana (.Jeff'r.) Engelm. 
 
 RaX(;e. — Northern Briti.sh Columbia to Idaho and northern Montana, and south- 
 ward to California (Sierra Nevada Mountains) ; usually above 10,000 feet; at sea level 
 only in region of Sitka. 
 
 Names in use. — VV^illiamson's Spruce (Cal.); Weeping Spruce (Cal.); 
 Alpine Spruce (Cal.); Hemlock Spruce (Cal.); Patton's Spruce; Alpine 
 Western Spruce. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana hookeriana(Carr.) nom.iiov. Hooker Hemlock. 
 Tsuga pattoniana hookeriana (Carr.) Lemraon. 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana argentea (Beissn.) nom. nov. 
 
 TSUGA PATTOXIANA AUGEXTEA BelsSH. 
 
 7>^t n/.^MAi^ /• PSEUDOTSUGA Carr. 
 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia ' (Lam.) Britton. Douglas Spruce. 
 
 PsEUDOTSUGA DouGLASii Carr. 
 
 Range. — From the Kocky Mountain region (in United States) and northward to 
 central British Columbia; Pacific coast. 
 
 Names in use. — Red Fir (Oreg., Wash., Idaho, Utah, Mont., Colo.); 
 Douglas Spruce (Cal., Colo., Mont.); Douglas Fir (Utah, Oreg., CrL).); 
 
 ' Douglas Spruce ( I'nendotsuqa faxifolia vs. rscudotmiga nincrotiata). — The retention 
 of the specific term laxifolia in the j;cnus I'l^cudolsuga is held by some botanists to be 
 at variance with the meanini;- of the law excluding the use of synonyms and houio- 
 uynis. Lambert first described the Douglas Spruce as /'/hhs /flJ-i/o?i« (Pinus ed. 1, 
 51, t. 33) in 1803, not knowing that in 17!J6 Salisbury had already described another 
 coniferous tree, a trus (ir and now known as Abies balaatnea (L.) Mill., as J'hiiis taxi- 
 folia. At this point, according to bot inical laws now observed, the Douglas Spruce 
 was witiiout a name, since 8ui)posing the tree to be a true pine, there could exist but 
 one Pinns laxifolia and that one only the earlier, or Finns taxifolia Salisbury (1796). 
 So far as is known Poiret (in Lamarck, Enc. Mcth. Bot., vi, 523) was the next to 
 describe this tree iu 1804, Jiuder the following designation: "Ahiea laxifolia Lam- 
 bert." But as we know Lambert did not write "Abies tojifolia." but Pinu8 taxifolia, 
 
24 
 
 Yellow Fir I Orejj., Mont., Idaho, Wash.); Spruce (Mont.); Fir (Mont.); 
 Oregon Pine (Cal., Wash., Oreg); Rod Pine (Utali, Idaho, Colo.); 
 Puger. Sound Pine (Wash.); Douglas-tree; Corlc-barked Douglas 
 Si)ruee (var, snberosa Lennu.). 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia pendula (Kngelin.) Sudwoith. 
 
 Weeping Douglas Spruce 
 
 VAKIKTIKS DISTINCUISllEl) IX CL'l.TI NATION. 
 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia peudula caerulea Siidw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia glauca (Heissa. ) 8'-idw. 
 Ps3udotsuga taxifolia fastigiata (Kmglit) Sudw. 
 
 tlio Abies taxifolia must be taken as original with Poiret, and is the first name in the 
 phint's history Avhich coiihl be considered tenable, as there is none other like it in 
 form. Kalinesqne, however, subsequently describeil the Douglas Spruce under ttill 
 another nauu', Abies mucronata (Atl. .Journ., 120, 1832), which briugs us to the point 
 of controversy. 
 
 Now, this tree at present being considered a Pseudotsuga, shouhl l)ear its earliest 
 specific name in combination. It is here luaiutained that this combinat inn should lie 
 l's(udotsn(ja taxifolia (Poir.) Brittou, founded on the (irst tenable name ajiplied to 
 the plant, tliat is, Abies taxifolia Poiret (I.e.). It is held by others, however, that 
 I'scitdoisiKja miieronata (Raf.) Suilworth should be maintained, as I myself did at one 
 time, to the exclusion of Pseudot'<iiga taxifolia. Tiiose opposing the use of the latter 
 name base their objection f)n the argunumt that it is founded on a synonym {Abies 
 taxifolid) derived from the homonym Piinis taxifolia Lambert (1803), which is, to be 
 sure, invalidated by Piiins taxifolia Salisbury (1796). Clearly Pjh»8 taxifolia Lam- 
 hi-rt (1803) is an inert name to which no ilerivative reference can bo made. The sup- 
 position, however, that Abies taxifolia Poiret (1804), being fiuinded or derived by 
 Poiret from the homonym Pimis taxifolia Lambert, renders the former name unten- 
 able, is lielieved to be an entirely erroneous interpretation of the meaning of the 
 law touthing this mooted <iuestion. For, so far as is known, and independent of its 
 supposed derivation, Abies tarifolia Poiret (1804) is the first name in form of its kind- 
 proposed, and is therefore inviolable. Moreover, the ]iri)of that Abies taxifolia Poiret 
 is actually derived from the homonym Pinus taxifolia Lambert, and therefore unten- 
 able, is faulty, b(;causo Lambert is (juoteil (by Poiret, 1. c.) as writing wliat he did 
 not write. But from still another point of view and disregarding tho taxonomic 
 relationsbij) of Pseudotsiif/a tarifolia with Abies taxifolia Poiret, were Pseudotsuga taxi- 
 folia not now in existence, no one could deny that according to present practice 
 the name could be create! and applied for any other species of Pseudotsuga. It must 
 stand because it would be the lirst and only oneof its tyi)e ])ub]ished. For the same 
 reason tho speciHe term taxifolia .^^eems perfectly tenable for the Douglas Spruce, 
 as it conflicts with no other like specific or varietal term in the genus Pseudotsuga. 
 
 It would appear that the essential point in tho application of the law preventing 
 the u.se of diqiliiate or .synonymous names and terms should be strictly a mechanical 
 one, reganljfcss of any synthetic relationship which may exist between names. 
 
 Prof. J. G. Leminon lias ])roposed the following varieties of the Douglas .^jiruie, 
 which are as yet unknown to me in nature : 
 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia var. subciosa Lemin. — SiiihII tree, disrin.;;uished by its thick, 
 corky bark, thin f(diage, and small ovate cones, 1 to 2 inches long, and found (tn the 
 juincipal mountains of northern Arizona and New Mexico. 
 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia \nv. elougaia Lemm. — Distinguished Sy its ''comparatively 
 thin, whitish (outside), shallow-furrowed bark ami conspicuous, long, narrow, yel- 
 lowish, shiny cones, 3V to 4i inches long and one-fifth as thick, with com))aratively 
 .short bracts and thin, soft scales." Found at ba^^e of Mount Hood, Oregon. 
 
 Pseudotsuga mucronafa var. pnluslris Lemm {^= Abies mueronata var. iialuslrix Raf.). — 
 Ralinesque founded this form on the following: " Grows in swamps, only 30feet high, 
 and with sjireading branches," Said to oecur in the region of the lower roliimbia 
 River. 
 
25 
 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia standlshiana (Gor<l.) Sudw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia duniosa (Carr.) Smhv. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia compacta (Beissii.) Sndw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia elegans (Heissi).) Sudw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia argentea (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 PGsudotsuga taxifolia argentea deusa Sudw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia variegata (McDon.) Sudw, 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia stairi (Beissu.) Sudw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifclia brsvifolia (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia revoluta (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 
 Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Ton.) Mayr. Bigcone Spruce 
 
 Kange. — Soutlieru Caliluruia (Sau Bernardino Mountains to tin* Cuyaiiiaca Mouo- 
 
 tains). 
 
 Xames in use.— Spruce (Cal.); Hemlock (Cal.); Bigcone Spruce 
 (lit.) ;|BigconevDpuglas Spruce (lili). >* i - /) 
 
 Abies fraseri (Pursli) Lindl. T ^ Fraser Fir. Xf^^ 
 
 liAXGK. — ^louutaius of North Carolina and Teunessee. 
 
 Xames in use.— Balsam (N. C, Temi.); Balsam Fir (N. C); Double 
 Fir Balsam (Tcnn.); Double Spruce (X. C); She Balsam (N. C); She 
 Balsam Fir (N. C); Mountain Balsam (N. C); Healing- Balsam. 
 Abies balsamea (Linn.) j\Iill. Balsam Fir. 
 
 Range. — From Xewfouudland and Labrador to Hudson Baj^ and northwestward 
 to Great Bear Lake region, and south to Pennsylvania (and along high mountains 
 to Virginia), Michigan, and ^linnesota. 
 
 Xames in use. — Balsam Fir (X. H,, Vt., Mass., K. I., N. Y., Pa., 
 W. Va., Wis., Micb., Minn., Xebr., Ohio, Ont.; Fng.cult.); Balsam (Vt., 
 N. H., ^.Y.); Canada Balsam (X.C.); Balm of Gilead (Del.); Balm of 
 Gilead Fir (X. Y., Pa ); Blister Pine (W. Va.); Fir Pine (W. Va.); Fir- 
 tree (Vfc.); Single Spruce (N.Bruns. to Hudson Bay); Silver Pine (Hud- 
 son Bay); Sapin (Quebec); Cho-kob-tung=" Blisters" (N. Y, Indians). 
 
 AARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Abies balsamea hudsouia (Knight) Veitch. 
 Abies balsamea brachylepis Wiilk. 
 Abies balsamea longifclia (Loud.) Endl. 
 Abies balsamea casrulea Carr. 
 Abies balsamea hemisphcerica Sndw. 
 Abies balzamea prostrata (Knight) Carr. 
 Abies balsamea paucifolia Sndw. 
 Abies balsamea nudicaulis Carr. 
 Abies balsamea versicolor Sndw. 
 Abies balsamea argeutifolia Sudw. 
 
 Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Alpine Fir. 
 
 K'ange. — Kocky Mountain region from Colorado to Montaua an<l IdiUio, and west-- 
 ward tlirough northern On-gon and northward toAhisk.fli latitude 60^). 
 
 Names in use. — Sub Ali)ine Fir(Utali); Balsam (Colo., Utnli, Idaho, 
 Greg.); White Fir (Idaho, Mont.); White Balsam; Oregou Balsam tree 
 
26 
 
 (Cal.); Pumpkin-tree; Alpine Fir; Mountain Balsam (mountains of 
 Utali and Idaho); J)owu-coue Fir (lit.); Downy-ctme Sub-Alpine Fir 
 (Cal. lit.;. 
 
 VARIKTY DISTIXGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Abies lasiocarpa caerulescens (Beissu.) Sudw. 
 Abies arizonica ]Merriam. Arizona Cork Fir. 
 
 li'ANCK. — At j)resent kuowu only from Arizona f Siin Fra nfiacn-MomitniiisV 
 
 Abies grandis Lindl. Lowland Fir. 
 
 Raxgk. — Coast region from Vancouver Island to California (Mendocino County), 
 and from Washington and Oregon to northern Idaho and ^lontana. 
 
 Names IN USE. — Wliite Fir (Cal., Oreg., Idaho); Silver Fir (Mont., 
 Idiibo); Yellow Fir (IMont., Idaho') ; Ore^^on White Fir (Cal.); Western 
 White Fir; Grand or Oregon White Fir (Cal. lit.); Great California 
 
 Fir (lit.). 
 
 VAIUETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Abies grandis aurifolia Sudw. 
 Abies grandis crassa Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor (Gortl.) Parry. White Fir. 
 
 IvANcii:. — Oregon ( Siskiyou ^lountaina) to south ern California (San Bernardino 
 County); norther n Arizona an d New Mexico t o Colorado a n d Uta h (Wasatch 
 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— White Fir (Cal., Idaho, Utali, Colo.); Balsam Fir 
 (Cal., Idaho, Colo.); Silver Fir (Cal.); Balsam (Cal.); White Balsam 
 (Utah); Bastard Pine ([Jtah); Balsam tree (Idaho); Black Gum 
 (Utah); California White Fir (Cal.); Colorado White Fir (Cal. lit.); 
 Concolor Silver Fir (Eng. lit.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Abies concolor pendens (Beissn. ) Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor varia Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor purpurea Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor purpurea compressa Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor angustata Sudw. 
 
 Abies concolor lo^viana (Murr.) Lcmmon. Pale-leaf White Fir. 
 
 liAM.K. — California (Sierra Nevada Mountains) and southern Oregon (Siskiyou 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Pale-leaved White Fir (Oal. lit.); California White 
 Fir. 
 
 Abies venusta (Dougl.) Koch, -^y-- -^^^^jj^- U^ Bristle-cone Fir. 
 
 Ka.\(;i;. — Southern California ( Santa ^('if-in ^lonntains on the northern boundary 
 of San Luis Obispo Cou.ity and 40 miles northward). 
 
 Nam i:s in use. — Fringed Spruce, Bristle-cone Fir (Cal.) ; Santa Lucia 
 
 Fir (Fug. lit.). 
 
 Abies amabilis (Loud.) Forb. Amabilis Fir. 
 
 1\aN(;e. — From British Columbia (Fraser River and southward in the Cascade 
 Mountains) to Washington and Oregon. 
 
 Names in use.— Bed Fir; Bed Silver Fir (Western Mountains); 
 Fir (Cal.); Lovely Bed Fir (Cal. lit.); Lovely Fir (Cal. lit.); Amabilis 
 or Lovely Fir (Cal. lit.); "Larch" (Oreg. lumbermen). 
 
•2^ 
 
 Abies nobilis Lindl. •A^.-^jouy ^ 4X^e^'^a^ ^^/ftn\ Noble Fir. 
 
 KaN(;e. — Washington (coast mountains in sontiiwestern part of State; Olvnipio 
 Mountains on !<oUlnc Kiver; from Monnt Baker southward in the Cascade Monn- 
 tains) to Orejjon (Browdi r Ridge o n head waters of McKinzic Kivcr in Lane Connty). 
 Kangc at present but little known. 
 
 Names in use.— Ke\l Fir (Oreg:.); "Larcli'' (Oreg. lumbermen); 
 Noble Fir (Oreg.); Bigtree; Featber-cone Keel Fir (Cal. lit.); Noble or 
 Bracted Red Fir (Cal. lit.); Tuck Tuck (Pacific ludiaus). 
 
 ^ ARIICTIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Abies nobilis glaucifolia Sndw. 
 Abies nobilis robustifolia Sudw. 
 
 Abies shastensis Lemmon. Shasta Fir. 
 
 Raxgk.— S outhern Oregon (Cascade Mountains ) and California ( Mount Sliast a, 
 Mount Eddy, Trinity Mountain, Scotts Mountain). Range :is yet iusutificieutly 
 understood. 
 
 Names in use.— Shasta Red Fir (Cal. lit.); fehasta Fir (Cal. lit. 
 
 Abies mas 
 
 Range. — Ci 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Red Fir (Cal.); California Red-bark Fir (Cal.); 
 Magnificent Fir (Cal. lit.); Calitbrnia Red Fir (Cal. lit.); Golden Fir 
 (Cal. 
 
 IN USE. — »Dasra itea i^ir (uai. iir.); snasta i^ir (Ual. lit.). 
 ignifica Murr. J^^'■t^AH|^% <AK^t\a^ \Afirmk^ Red Fir. 
 
 California (Mount Shasta and along the'^veste^n slopes of Sierra Nevada, 
 
 '^-'^■^^ ViffllETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVi 
 
 Abies magnifica cyanea Sndw. 
 
 Abies magnifica xanthocarpa Lemmon. Yellow-fruit Fir. 
 
 TAXODIUM Rich. 
 Taxodium distichum (Linn.) Rich. Bald Cypress.^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 Range. — From southern Delaware (Sussex County and southwaid in the coast A/\^j 
 
 region) to Florida (Mosiiuito Inlet and Cape Romano); westward in the (uilf coast 
 region to Texas (Devils River) and northward through Louisiana, Arkansas, and 
 eastern Mississippi and Tennessee, .southeastern Missouri, western and northwestern 
 Kentucky, southern Illinois, and southwestern Indiana (Knox County). 
 
 Names in use.— Bald Cypress (Del., N. C, S. C, Ala., La., Fla., Tex., 
 Ark., Mo., 111., Ind.); White Cypress (N. C, S. C, Fla., Miss.); Black 
 Cypress (N. C, S. C, Ala., Tex.); Red Cypress (Ga., Miss., La., Tex.); 
 Swamp Cypress (La.) ; Gyi)ress (Del., N. C, S. C, Fla.', Miss., Ky., Mo., 
 111.); Deciduous Cypress (Del., III., Tex.); Southern Cypress (AlaJ. 
 
 w 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum (Forb.) Carr. 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum elegans Beissu. 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum novum Beissn. 
 Taxodium distichum patens (Ait.) Endl. 
 Taxodium distichum denudatum Carr. 
 Taxodium distichum imbricarium (^^utt.) Sarg. 
 Taxodium distichum knighti Carr. 
 Taxodium distichum pyramidatum Carr. 
 
 *\*. 
 
28 
 
 Taxodium distichum microphyllum (Brong.) Ilenk. an<l H.xrhst. 
 Taxodium distichuni intermedium Carr. 
 Taxodium disticlium iiauum Carr. 
 Taxodium distichum nigrum Gord. 
 
 SEQUOIA Eiidl. 
 
 (j^-jSequoia washingtoniana ' (Winsl.) Sudworth. Bigtree. 
 
 ytiiJC^ Sequoia gigantea Decaisne. 
 
 JjVi^ Hangk. — Cnliforuia (I'rom latitude 39^ to a little south of latitude 36", that is, 
 
 J) *j^f^^^roui luiddle fork of American River and along the western slope of Sierra Nevada 
 
 Mountains to the head waters of Deer Creek). 
 
 Names in use. — Sequoia (Cnl,); Bigtree '(Cal.); Giaut Sequoia (Oal.)j 
 
 Mainmotli-tree (Cal., ajid in Eng. cult.) 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISH KD IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Sequoia -washingtoniaiia peudula (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia washingtoniana glauca (Gord.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia T77ashingtouiaua aurea (IJei-sn.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia •wrashingtoniana argeutea (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia ■washingtouiaua variegata (Gord.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia washingtoniana holmsi (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia -wrashiugtoniana glaucescens p3'^ramido-compacta Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia washingtoniana pygmaea (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl. Red-wood. 
 
 Range. — From thb southern borders of Oregon (on Chctco River, about 6 miles 
 from moutli, and on Wiuchuck River), and south ,vard iu the coast region (20 to 30 
 miles inland) through California (to Salmon Creek Canyon, 12 miles south of Punta 
 Gorda, Monterey County). ' 
 
 Names in use. — Redwood (Cal. and Am. lit.): Sequoia (Cal.); Coast 
 Redwood (Cal.); California Redwood (Eng. lit.). 
 
 ' BiGTHEE (.S'er/Ho/a weUiiigtonia vs. Sequoia wasliin'jtoniana). — It is held by some bot- 
 anists tliat since the long-used name for this tri^e, S. </i(iantea, \s now excluded (for 
 reasons shown below), S. ivelliiujlonia is the next tenable name, and the reallj' older 
 na,n\(i S. nasltiiigtoniatia should be neglected because thought not to be technically 
 established. The first name applied to this tree is IVelUngtoma ghjantta Lindley 
 (London Gard. CLrou , 820, 823, 1853). The second name is Sejiioia gigatiiea Decaisne 
 (Bull. Bot. Soe. France, I, 70, l^S-l). The third name is Tarodiitm Wash inytonian urn 
 Winslow (Calif. Farmer, September, 1854). The fourth name is Sfijuoia WellUKjtoina 
 Secman (Bonidandia, 111,27, 18.")5). 
 
 The Bigtree is uo.w conceded to rightly belong to the genus Sequoia of Endliclier 
 (Syn. Conif., 147, 1847), and the specific term giijanlea being the iirst applied, the 
 apparently correct name would be Sejuoia giijanlea, the name ai)plied by Decaisne 
 (1. c, 1854). But this name bi-ing identical with one ])revious\v applied by Endliclier 
 in 1847 to the (Jalifornia Redwood, must, by reason of being antedated, fall into 
 synonymy and the next oldest name be sought for the Bigtree. 
 
 Passing over Wiuslow's Taxodinm U'ashiiirjtoiiiannvi. (1. c, 1851) on the ground that 
 it is thought not to be properly published, some botanists would now apply Seeman's 
 Sequoia U'eUinglonia (I.e., 1855). It is here maintained, however, that the rightl'ul 
 name should be Sequoia washint/loiiiana (Winslow) Sudw., and for the following 
 reasons: 
 
 It has been asserted that 2'axodium IVaahingtoniannm Winslow (I.e., 1854) is tech- 
 nically unpublished, and therefore to be disregarded. The writer believes this name 
 
29 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Sequoia sempervi en? gracilis (/urr 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens tazifolia Carr. 
 
 Se.iuoia sempervirens adpressa Carr. 
 
 Sequoia sempeivireus picta KjUf'.w. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens albo-spica (Gord.) Beissn. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens glauca Gord. 
 
 LIBOCEDRUS Endl. 
 Libocedrus decurrens Torr. Incense Cedar. 
 
 lv.\X(5K. — From Or('u:i)ii (\ortli Fork of Santiain Kiver and south ward on the 
 westeru slopes of tbo Ciiscade Monntaiiis); through California (\vi\sti'ru slopes of 
 Sierra Nevada Mountains and coast ranges from south(!rn border of Mendocino 
 County to San Bernardino, San Jacinto, and Cuayamaca mountains); western 
 Nevada; Lower California (Mount San Pedro Marti r). 
 
 Names in use.— White (Jedar (Cal., Oreg.); Cedar (Cal., Oreg.); 
 Inceuse Cedar (Cal., Oreg.); Post Cedar (Cal., Nev.); Juniper (Nev.); 
 Bastard Cedar (Cal., Wash.); Red Cedar; California Post Cedar (Cal. 
 lit.). 
 
 VARIF.TIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 ■ Libocednis decurrens depressa Gord. 
 Libocedrus decurrens columnaris Beissn. 
 Libocedrus decurrens compacta Beissn. 
 Libocedrus decurrens glauca Beissn. 
 
 was tenably published, a convictioa which is supported by the following qnotation 
 from Winslow's published letter (1. c, 1854) : 
 
 "The name that has been applied to this tree by Professor Liudley, an English 
 botanist, is Wtllingtonia (jifjantea." » * * 
 
 "If the tree be a Taxodiam, let it be called Taxoclium Wushijigtoniamun. If a new 
 genu.s, irashinjtoiiia Californica." 
 
 According to Article VI of the Rochester Code of law-s adopted for botanical nomen- 
 clature, Winslow's Taxodiiim M'ashUKjtoniauum in validly published by reason of his 
 having fuliilled the essential conditions of the following clause of Article VI : " Publi- 
 cation of a species consists ' ■ * (2) in the publishing of a binomial with refer- 
 ence to a previously published 8[)ecies as a type." 
 
 This is a common and expedient method employed by botanists in publishing new 
 names for plants found to have been previously characterized under synonyms, 
 which results in duplicate names in the same genus, and therefore often leaves a 
 plant without a tenable name. The method of referring to the "])revion8ly pub- 
 lished species as a type "is u.sually tojiriut such species' name and author in connec- 
 tion with the newly proposed name, and in such a way that the two designations 
 are seen to be presented as e juivalents, the one to replace the other. 
 
 Now, since WeUin'jionia giganten Lindley is a recognized "previously published 
 species," it would seem undeniable that Winslow's intention w:is to supphiut Lind- 
 ley's name by Taxodium M'ashingtouiannm — entirely, of course, because his American 
 patriotism preferred that an Am(Mi(an monster tree siiould bear the name of an 
 American rather than that of an English general. It is maintained here that Wins- 
 low definitely pointed out the tree he h:i<l in nnnd by stating that Liudley had called 
 it Jrei/m(7<0HJa i/if^ttJjfea (an nudisputably published name), and that he effected the 
 I>ublication of laxodinm llaxliiiKitoiiiauiim for this tree by jjroposing this name as a 
 substitute for Liudley 's name. 
 
 In interpreting the fundamental object of the arti(;le cited ibr the publication of 
 species and appl\ing it to all cases likely to arise, it would seen; the duty of the 
 interpreter to al)ide l)y the princii)l(! involved in the law, an<l to be influenced rather 
 by the actual meaning of a describi-r's combined words than by his unfortunate lack 
 of technical procedure in descrii)tion. 
 
r TTTTT.T> 
 
 30 
 THUJA Linn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis Liiiii. Arborvitae. 
 
 Kaxgk. — Fri)in Xew Hrnuswick to Lake Winnipeg and south to central Minne- 
 sota and Micbi^an, northern Illinois, and in the Atlantic region along the mountains 
 to North Carolina and eastern TennL-ssco (Holston Kiver). 
 
 NA3IES IN USE, — Arborvit;e (Me., Vt., Mass., It. I., Conn., IT. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., Ind., 111., Wis., Mich., Minn., Ohio, Ont.); White 
 Cedar (Me., N. H., Yt., 11. 1., Mass., JST. Y., N. J., Ya., N. C, Wis., Mich., 
 Minn., Out); Cedar (Me., Yt., N. Y.); American Arborvitai (N. Y. 
 and iu cult. Eng.); Oo-soo-lia-tah=Feather-leaf (Indians); Yitae (Del.); 
 Atlantic lied Cedar (Cal. lit.). 
 
 VAIJIETIKS DISTIXGUISHKD IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis ell'wangeriana ((4ord.) Heissn. 
 
 Tauja occidentalis spaethi Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis wareaua Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis Tj^areana lutescens Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis wareana globosa Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis densa Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis A?7althameusis Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis fastigiata Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis fastigiata nova Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis I'haveana Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis rosenthali Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis viridis Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis theodonensis Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis tatarica Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis riverii Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidsutalis Vervaeneana Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis lutea Veitch. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis lutea humilis Sudw. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis aurea Goi"d. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis varia Sudw. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis pendula Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis pendula glaucescens Sudw. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis reflexa Carr. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis bodnieri Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis athrotaxoides Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis recurvata Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis recurvata argenteo-variegata Beieen. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis recurva puslla Sudw. 
 
 Thiija occidentalis denudata Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis asplenifolia Carr. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis gracilis (Jord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis filicoides Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis cristata Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis boothi Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis globosa Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis globularis Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis hoveyi Gord. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis spihlmanni Beissn 
 
 Thiija occidentalis frcebeli Beissn. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis parva Sudw. 
 
31 
 
 Thuja occideutalis albo-variegata Beissn. 
 Thtija occidentalis aureo-variegata Beissn. 
 Thuja occidentalis argentea Gord. 
 Thuja occidentalis alba Gord. 
 Thuja occidentalis little-gem Beissn. 
 Thuja occidentalis silver-queen Beissn. 
 
 Thuja plicata Don. Giant Arborvitae. 
 
 TUUYA GIGANTEA Xutt. 
 
 Raxgk. — From coast of soutbern Alaska to northern California (Mendocino 
 Conuty); eastward through British Coliuiibia and nortliern Washington to northern 
 Idaho (Cceur d'Alene, Bitter Koot, and Salmon River mountains) and Montana; 
 western slopes Kocky Mountains. 
 
 Names in use. — Red Cedar (Idaho, Oreg., Wasli.); Canoe Cedar 
 (Orcg., Wash.); Arborvitai (Cal.); iSbinglewood (Idaho); Gigantic 
 Cedar (Cal.); Cedar (Oreg.); Gigantic Red Cedar (Cal. lit.); Western 
 Cedar; Gigantic or Pacific Eed Cedar (Cal. lit.); Lobb's Arborvitae 
 (iu cult. Eug.); Pacific Eed Cedar (Cal. lit.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Thuja plicata gracillima (Beissn.) Sndw. 
 Thuja plicata atrovirens (Gord.) Sndw. 
 Thuja plicata auresceus (Beissn.) Sndw. 
 Thuja plicata argenteo- versicolor Sudw. 
 Thuja plicata flava Sud^. 
 Thuja plicata variegata Carr. 
 Thuja plicata compacta (Carr.) Beissn. 
 Thuja plicata llaveana Gord. 
 Thuja plicata minima Gord. 
 Thuja plicata erecta (Gord.) Sudw. 
 Thuja plicata pumila (Gord.) Sudw. 
 Thuja plicata penduliformis Sndw. 
 Thuja plicata cristatiformis Sudw. 
 
 JCUPRESSUS Linn, ^j^ -^ -f- 
 Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. Monterey Cypress. 
 
 Range. — Southern California coast (from Cypress Point to south shores of Carmel 
 Bay and on Point Lobos). 
 
 Name in use. — Monterey Cypress (Cal.) 
 
 varieties DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Cupressus macrocarpa angulata Lemm. 
 Cupressus macrocai-pa lambertiana (Carr.) Mast. 
 Cupressus macrocarpa crippsii Mast. 
 
 Cupressus goveniana Gord. Gowen Cypresa 
 
 Range. — California coast region (Mendocino County to San Diego County). 
 
 Name in use. — North Coast Cypress (Cal. lit,). 
 
 \ AIUETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Cupressus goveniana parva Sudw. 
 Cupressus goveniana huberiana Caxr. 
 Cupressus goveniana glaucifolia Sudw. 
 
32 
 
 CupressuB goveniana gracilis (Nels.) Carr. 
 Cupressus goveniana cornuta Carr. 
 Cupressus goveniana viridis Carr. 
 Cupressus goveniana attenuata (Gonl.) Carr. 
 
 Cupressus macnabiana Murr. Macnab Cypress. 
 
 Kancm:.— California (soiitli and west of Clear Lake, Lake County; very rare; once 
 reported from the southern base of Mount Shasta, but at present not knowu to exist 
 there). 
 
 Names in use.— Cypress; White Cedar; Shasta Cypress (Cal.); 
 MacNab's Cypress (cult. Eng., Eu.); California Mountaiu Cypress 
 (Cal. lit.). 
 
 Cupressus arizonica Greene. Arizona Cypress. 
 
 Cupressus guadalupensis Sarg., not Wats. 
 
 Rangk. — Arizona (central, eastern, and southern mountains; Santa Kita, Santa 
 Catalina, and Chihuahua mountains); Mexico (mountains of Souora and Chihuahua). 
 
 Names in use. — Yew (Ariz.); Arizona Cypress (Ariz.); Red bark 
 Cypress (Ariz.); Arizona Ked-bark Cyj)ress. 
 
 aA I Jj^ CHAMiECYPARIS Spach. 
 
 cfhamsecyparis thyoides (L.) B. S. P. White Cedar. 
 
 N. ,t Cham.ecyparis sph.eroidea Spach. 
 
 l^NGE. — Coast region from southern Maine to northern Florida and westward to 
 ^J^b2£ W^issippi (Pearl Kiver). 
 
 K^^' NAMES IN USE.— White Cedar (Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., 
 WWW N. C. S. C, Fla., Ala., Miss.) ; Swamp Cedar (Del.) ; Post Cedar (Del.) ; 
 1^ / Juidper (Ala.. N. C, Va.). 
 
 VAKIETIE.S DISTINGUISHED IN' CULTIVATION. 
 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides glauca (Eudl.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides crocea Sudw. 
 Chameecyparis thyoides variegata (Loud.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides atrovireus (Knight) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides pyramidata (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides fastigiata cinereo-folia Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides peuduliformis Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides hoveyi (Veitch) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides nana (Loud.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides leptoclada (Gord.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides pumila (Carr.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis thyoides ericoides (Knight) Sudw. 
 
 araPBcyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.) Spach. Yellow Cedarr 
 
 CUAM.KCYPARIS NUTKAIONSIS Spacll. 
 Rangk. — Coast regiou and islands from Sitka through Washington and Oregon 
 (in Cascade Mountains as far as the Santiam River and Mount Jett'erson) ; east in 
 Washington to the head waters of Yakima Kiver. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow Cedar (Greg.); Sitka Cypress (Oreg., Cal.); 
 Yellow Cypress (Oreg., Wash.); Nootka, Cypress (Cal. lit.); Nootka 
 Sound Cypress (cult. Eng.): Alaska Ground Cypress (Cal. lit.); Alaska 
 Cypress (Cal. lit.). 
 
33 
 
 V'AUIKTIKS IMSTlNliUISUEl) IX ( I I.Tl \ ATIOX. 
 
 Chameecyparis nootkatensis viridifolia Sudw. 
 Chaniaecyparis nootkatensis cinerascens Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis nootkatensis cinerascens geuuina Sn<l\v. 
 Chamascyparis nootkatensis cinerascens anreo-discolor Sudw. 
 Chama3cyparis nootkatensis argenteo-varians Sudw. 
 Chaniaecyparis nootkatensis aureo-versicolor Sudw. 
 Cham=ecypaiis nootkatensis zanthopliylla Sudw. 
 Chamsecyparis nootkatensis pendens Sudw. 
 Cham3scypaiis nootkatensis compacta (Veitcli) R«is8ii. 
 Chaniaecyparis nootkatensis comprcssa Beissu. 
 Clianiascyparis nootkatensis nidiformis Eeissu. 
 Chamaecyparis nootkatensis albo-picta Sudw. 
 Chamsecyparis nootkatensis aureo-viridis (Hoit. Kew.) Sudw. 
 Chai/I^cyparis nooJJtatensis picta Sudw. 
 
 CSiamaecyparis l^hvsoniana (Miirr.) Pari. Port Orford Cedar. 
 
 Ii.v\(iE. — Coast regiou from southwestern Oregon ("Cods Hay) tn (alilbrnia 
 (Klamath IJiver), extending inland alxuit 40 uiiles. 
 
 XA:\rKS IN USE. — Port Orford Cedar (Orei;-.. Oal.); (tregoii Cedar 
 (Greg-., Cal.); White Cedar (Greg., Cal.): Ginger Piue (Cal.j;^La\j;^son's 
 Cypress (Cal., Greg.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTIXGUISHEl) IN CUI.TI VATIOX. 
 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chameecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 Chamaecyparis 
 
 laAwsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 la'wsoniana 
 la-wsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 la-vA^soniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 law^souiana 
 law^soniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 law^soniana 
 la'wsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 law^soniana 
 lawsoniana 
 la^wsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 la'wsoniana 
 la^vsoniana 
 law^soniana 
 law^soniana 
 law^soniaua 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 lawsoniana 
 la^vsoniana 
 
 erecta (Gord.) Sudw. 
 
 erecta viridis (Veitch) Beissn. 
 
 erecta glaucifolia .Sudw. 
 
 erecta elaucescens Sudw. 
 
 pyramidalis leucophylla Sudw. 
 
 pyramidalis flaveola Sudw. 
 
 pyramidalis luteo-teuuis Sudw. 
 
 roseuthali Beissn. 
 
 ^vorlei Beissn. 
 
 alumi Beissn. 
 
 monumentalis nova Beissn. 
 
 monumeutalis albescens Sudw. 
 
 fraseri Beissn. 
 
 robusta Beissn. 
 
 robusta aurifolia Sudw. 
 
 robusta cinerea Sudw. 
 
 robusta argentifolia Sudw. 
 
 atroviridis Sudw. 
 
 cyanea Sudw. 
 
 cyanea pendens Sudw. 
 
 beissneriana Smith and Cic 
 
 uivea Beissn. 
 
 lutea (Gord.) Beissn. 
 
 lutea flavesceus ((Jord.) Sudw. 
 
 aurea (Gord.) Beissn. 
 
 aurea magn^fici (Beissn.) Sudw. 
 
 ■westermanni Beissn. 
 
 versicolor Bei.ssn. 
 
 argenteo-variegata (\'eitch) Beissn. 
 
 argenteo-variegata novicia Sudw. 
 
 aureo-variegata (\'^eitth) Beissn. 
 
 19193— No. 17 3 
 
34 
 
 Chamsecyparis laTWsoniana aureo-spica lieissn. 
 Chamaecyparis la^srsoniana albo-spica (Gord.) Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana overeynderi Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis law^son^Jina nutans Siidw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana nutans vera (Beiasn.) Sudw. 
 Chamsecyparis la-wsDniana nutans alba (Gord.) Sndw. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana filiformis (Veitcb.) Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis la-wsouiana filiformis globosa Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana intertexta (^'('itch.) Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis law^.soniana gracilis (Gord.) Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana gracilis pusilla Sndvr. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana laxa Boissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana crispa Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lav^soniana casuarinifolia Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawrsoniana tortuosa ]5eissn. 
 Chamaecyparis la^wsoniana compacta recens Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana fragrans (Gord.) Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana fragrans argyropsis Sudw. 
 Chamcecyparis la-wrsoniana fragrans conica Beissn. 
 Chamaecyp^is lav^soniana parva Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniaua parva Candida Sndw. 
 Chamcecyparis law^soniana parva albo-variegata yGord.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana parva albo-spiciformis Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana parva densa Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis lavrsoniana shaw^i l^>eissu. 
 Chamaecyparis la^vsoniana minima (Gord.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana argentea ((Jord. ) Beissn. 
 Chani3ecyparis laAvsoniana argentea depauperata Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana argentea minuta Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis la^vsoniana argentea prostrata (lieissn.) Sndw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana forstekiana Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis la'wrsouiana ■wreisseana Moell. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana silver-queen Beissn. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana amabilis (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana bow^leri (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis law^soniana californica (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana darleyensis (Hort. Kew.) Sudw. 
 
 J> ' JUNIPERUS Liun, . _, ; 
 
 Juniperus virginiana Linn. ' Red Juniper. 
 
 Ranck. — Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Florida and west in Ontario (Geor 
 gian Bay) to Dakota, central Nebraska and Kansas, and Indian Territory. Actual 
 range imperfectly known at present, the supposed Kooky Mountain and Western 
 range bcinj^ represented l»y a new, distinct species (J. scopulariim Sarg.). 
 
 Names in use.— Red Cedar (N. U., Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., Ya., W. Va., N. C. S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., 
 IlL, Ind., Wis., Iowa, Mich., Minn.. Ohio, Ont.); Cedar (Conn., Pa., N, J., 
 S. C, Ky., 111., Iowa, Ohio); Savin (Mass., K. I., N. Y., Pa., Minn.); 
 Juniper C^. Y., Pa.); Juniper Hush (Minn.); Cedre (La.). 
 
 VAKIKTIKS niSTINGUISHEU IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana caroliniana (Marsh.) Willd. 
 Jvmiperus virginiana gracilis (Endl.) Sarg. 
 Juniperus virginiana pyramidiformis Sudw. 
 Juniperus virginiana pyramidiformis glaucifolia Sudw. 
 
35 
 
 Juniperus virginiana pyramidiformis viridifolia Sudw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana cannarti (Kodi.) Reissn. 
 
 Junijiferus virginiana polyniorpha Beissii. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana pendula Carr. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana smithi penduliformis Sudw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana chamberlayni Carr. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana nutans Beissn. 
 
 Jiiniperus virginiana interrupta (W»!ud.) Ut-issn, 
 
 Juniperus virginiana dumosa Carr. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana pumila Gord. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana pumila nivea (Beissn.) Snd-w. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana schotti Gord. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana tripartita Gord. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana tripartita aureo-versicolor Sndw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana kosteriana Beissn. 
 
 Junipenis virginiana glaucescens Sudw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana cinerascens Carr. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana pluniosa alba (Carr.) Beissn. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana plumosa Candida Sudw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana albo-spica Beissn. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana albo-variegata Beissn. ' 
 
 Juniperus virginiana aureo-spica Beissn. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana aureo-variegata Veitch. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana aurea superba Sudw. 
 
 Juuiperiis virginiana elegantissixna Beissu. . 
 
 Juniperus virginiana horizontaliforniis Sudw. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana triomphe d'angers Beissn. 
 
 Juniperus barbadensis Linn. Southern Red Juniper 
 
 JuiS'iPERUS VIRGINIANA authors ill part, not L. 
 Raxge. — South Atlantic and Gulf ( oast region and southward through Florida. 
 Range imperfectly known at present. Formerly not distinguished from the more 
 northtru true J. rirginiaua. 
 
 Juniperus occidentalis Hook. Western Juniper. 
 
 Raxge. — From western Idaho, eastern Oregon, ou Cascade, Sierra Nevada Moun- 
 tains to southern California (San B<Tuar(lino Mountains). 
 
 Xames in use. — Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Colo., Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho. 
 N. Mex.); Cedar (Idaho, Mont.); Yellow Cedar (Colv)., Mont.); ^yeste^ll 
 Cedar (Idaho); Western Red Cedar; Western Juniper (Cal. lit.) 
 
 Juniperus scopulorum Sargent. Rocky Mountain Juniper. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana authors in jiart. not L. 
 
 Range. — Nebraska and Dakota (Black Hills) to Montana, Idaho, northern Wash- 
 ington and British Columbia to Vancouver Island ; Rocky Mountains from Montana 
 to Arizona and Nevada. Range imperfectly known. 
 
 Juniperus monosperma ' (Engelm.) Sarg. One-seed Juniper. 
 
 IiANGK. — Eastern base Rocky Mountains of Colorado (Platte and Arkansas rivers) 
 and southward into western Texas; southern Utah to central New Mexico and 
 Arizona. 
 
 Xames in use. — (3ne-seeded Juniper: Naked-seeded Juniper (Cal. 
 lit.) 
 
 ^Juniperus Knighti Nelson, in Hot. Gaz., XXV, 198, f. 1, 2, 1898. Prof. Avea 
 Nelson describes this species as a ''scraggy .shrub or small tree" common in the Red 
 Desert region of Wyoming from the Seminole Mountains to the Green River. I have 
 not examined specimens, but its affinities appear to be with ./. mono»perma audi/. 
 scopulorum. 
 
Juniperus sabinoides (H. B. K.) Sargent. Mountain Juniper. 
 
 l»AN(iK. — Centiiil Texas (('olorado Kiver), southward and westward. 
 
 Names in use. — Juniper Cedar (Tex.) : Mountain Cedar (Tex.) ; Juni- 
 per; Mountain Juniper; Kock Cedar (Tex.). 
 Juniperus californica Carr. California Juniper. 
 
 IiAXCiK. — Central California (lovrei- Sacranicnto River) and southward through 
 California in coast ranges and in Sierra Nevada to Kernville and Lower California. 
 
 II^'AMES in use. — White Cedar; Juniper (Cal.); California -Mtniper 
 (Cal. lit.); Sweet-fruited Juniper (Cal.); Sweet-berried Cedar. 
 Juniperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemm. Utah Juniper. 
 
 Rangk. — Desert region from eastern Utah ( Wasatch Mountains) to southeastern 
 'Calilornia, northern Arizona, and western Colorado. 
 
 Names in use. — Juniper (Utah); Western Red Cedar, Desert Juni- 
 per (Cal. lit.); Utah Junii)er. 
 Juniperus pachyphloea Torr. Alligator Juniper. 
 
 R.\XGK. — Southwestern Texas (Eagle and Limpia mountains;, and westward on 
 desert ranges of Xew Mexico and Arizona south of Colorado River plateau: moun- 
 tains of northern Arizona; ?»Icxico. 
 
 Names in use. — Juniper {Av\7.., N. Mex.); Oak-barked Cedar (Ariz.); 
 AUioator Juniper (Ariz.); Oakbark Juniper (Ariz.); Mountain Cedar 
 (Tex.): Thick-barked Juniper (Cal. lit.); Checkered-barked Juniper 
 (lit.). 
 Juniperus flaccida Schl. Drooping Juniper. 
 
 IvANGK. — Southw<!stern Texas (Chisos Mountains); northeastern Mexico. 
 
 Juniperus communis Linn. Dwarf Juniper. 
 
 Raxgk. — From (Greenland to Alaska and in the east southward to Pennsylvania 
 and northern Nebraska ; in the Rocky Mountains to Texas, Xew Mexico, and Arizona ; 
 in the Pacific region to northern California: also in Old World. 
 
 VAUIKTIKS DISTINGUISIIKI) IN (TI.TI VATION. 
 
 Juniperus communis cracovia (Koch) Beissn. 
 Juniperus communis suecica (Mill.) Loud. 
 Juniperus communis hibernica (Lodd.) Gord. 
 Juniperus communis hibernica compressa Carr. 
 Juniperus communis oblonga (liieb.) Loud. 
 Juniperus communis oblongo-pendula (Loud. ) CaiT, 
 Juniperus communis pendens Sudw. 
 Juniperus communis hemisph^rica (Presl. i Pari. 
 Juniperus communis echinoformis (Knight) Beissn. 
 Juniperus communis variegata aurea Carr. 
 Juniperus communis sibirica (Burgad.) Rydberg. 
 Juniperus communis argyrophylla Sudw. 
 Juniperus communis pygniaea fKoch) Sudw. 
 
 TUMION Raf. 
 Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene. Florida Torreya. 
 
 TORllEYA TAXIFOLIA Am. 
 Ra.ngk. — Western I'lorida (east bank of Apalachicola River from River . I unction 
 to Bristol, Gadsden County); very looal. 
 
 Names in use. — Stinking Cedar (Fla.); Savin (Fla.); Torrey-tree 
 (Fla.); Stinking Savin (Fla.); Fetid Yew (Eng. lit.). 
 
3Y 
 Tumion californicum (Torr.) Greene. California Torreya. 
 
 TORREYA CALIFORNICA ToFF. 
 
 Range. — California (Mendocino County to .Santa Cruz Mountains in .^anta Clara 
 Connty). 
 
 IN^AMES IN USE. — California Nutmeg (Cal. i; Stinking Cedar; Yew" 
 (Idaho); California False Nutmeg (Cal. lit.): Coast Nutmeg (Cal. lit.).. 
 
 TAXUS Linn. 
 Taxus brevifolia Nutt. Pacific Yew. 
 
 ivAXGE. — Pacific coa.st region from liritish Columbia (Queen Charlotte Island and 
 Skeena River), and east to Selkirk Mountains: through western Washington and 
 Oregon to California (coast ranges t<> .Monterey Bay and western slopes of Sierra 
 Nevada Mountains to Tiilare County) ; mountains of eastern Washington and Oregon 
 to Montana (western slopes of Kocky .Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Yew (Cal., Idaho, Oreg.); Mountain Mahogany 
 (Idaho): Western Y^ew (Cal.): Pacific Yew (Cal. lit.). 
 
 Taxus floridana Nutt. Florida Yew. 
 
 Range. — Western Florida (east bank of Apalachicola River, (Gadsden County, from 
 Aspalaga to the vicinity of Bristol); very local. 
 
 Names in use. — Yew (Ha.): Savin (Fla.). 
 
 MO:N^OCOTYLEDO]SrES. 
 
 Family P^^^LM^A^CE^E. 
 
 THRINAX Liu 11. f. 
 
 Thrinax parviflora Swartz. Silktop Palmetto. 
 
 Rangk. — Southern Florida keys i from Bahia Honda Key to Longs Key) ; Bahamas. 
 
 Names in use — Silktop Palmetto (Fla.): Silver Thatch (Fla.). 
 Thrinax microcarpa Sargent. Silvertop Palmetto. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (No-Xame Key, Boca Cliica Key, and Bahia Honda Key) : 
 also on Sugar Loaf Sound. 
 
 Names IN USE. — Silvertop Palmerto (Fla.); Prickley Thatch (Fla.); 
 Brittle Thatch (Fla.). 
 
 SABAL Adans. 
 
 Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Rcem. »S: Sch. Cabbage Palmetto. 
 
 Range. — Coast region trom North Carolina (Smiths Island, Ca)>e Fear Kiver) to 
 Florida (Key Largo), and on the Gulf coast to the Apalachicola River. 
 
 Names in use. — Cabbage Palmetto (N. C, S. C); Bank's Palmetto 
 (N. ('.); Palmetto (N. C, S. C); Cabbage-tree (Miss., Fla.); Tree Pal- 
 metto (La.). 
 Sabal mexicana Mart. Mexican Palmetto. 
 
 Range. — Southwestern Texas (Rit) Crande River from near Kdinhurg nearly to 
 the Gulf of Mexico) and southward into Mexico (in coast region to southern jiart). 
 
 PSEUDOPHCENIX Weiidl. 
 Pseudophcenix Sargentii Wend. Sargent Palm. 
 
 Range.— Southern Florichi keys (Elliotts Key and Key Largoj; Bahamas. 
 
 Names in use. — Florida Palm (Fla.); Sargent's Palm. 
 
3H 
 
 OREODOXA Willd. 
 
 Oreodoxa regia H. B. K. Royal Palm. 
 
 Kangk. — lloiiiUi (oil Kogues Kivev, I'O miles east of Caximba.s li;iy, Loii^s Key, 
 jliiscayne Bay, near mouth of Little IJiver); West Indies, ami Central America. 
 
 Name in use. — Royal Palm fFla.). 
 
 NEOWASHING-TONIA' Sudwoitb. 
 Neowashingtonia filamentosa ( Weiul.) Sudw. Tanleaf Palm. 
 
 W'ASHINGTONIA FILIFERA Weiull. 
 Range. — Sonthein Calitornia fSau Bernardino Mountain.s to Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use. — Washington Palm (Cal.); California Fan Palm 
 (Cal.); Arizona Palm (Oal.): Wild Date (Cal.); Fanleaf Palm (Cal.). 
 
 Family LILI^CE^^. 
 
 YUCCA Linn. 
 
 Yucca treculeana Cair. Spanish Bayonet 
 
 Raxck. — Texas (Matagorda Bay) and southward into Mexico (Sierra Madre Moun- 
 tains, Nuevo Leon), and along the Rio Grande to the eastern base of monntaius of 
 ■vvt'stern Texas. 
 
 Name in use. — Spanisli Bayonet (Tex.). 
 
 Yucca arborescens (Torr.) Trelease. Joshua-tree. 
 
 Yucca brevifolia Engelm. * 
 
 Raxgk. — Southwestern Utah to California (to the western and northern borders of 
 the Mohavo Desert). 
 
 Names in use. — Tree Ym^ca (Cal.); Yucca Cactus (Cal. ) ; The Joshua 
 {(Jtah): Josima tree (CTtah, Ariz., N. Mex.). 
 Yucca brevifolia Torr. Schott Yucca. 
 
 Range. — Southern boundary of Arizona; .Mexico. 
 
 Yucca constricta Buckl. 
 
 IvANtiK. — Southwestern Texas to southern Arizona; northern Mexico. 
 
 Yucca macrocarpa (Torr.) Coville. Breadfruit Yucca. 
 
 IvANCiE. — Soutli\ve>tern Texiis ( desert plateau). 
 
 Yucca mohavensis Sargent. Mohave Yucca. 
 
 Range. — From northeastern Arizona and southern Nevada into California (across 
 the Mohave Desert; ; and from southern base of San Bernardino Mountains to the 
 coast and northward to Monterey Bay. 
 
 Yucca aloifolia Linn. Aloe-leaf Yucca. 
 
 RaN(;i;. — Coast of North Carolina to I'lorida and <iulf coast to Louisiana. 
 
 Name in use. — Spanish Bayonet. 
 Yucca gloriosa Linn. Spanish Dagger. 
 
 Ran(;i:. — (oast of South Carolina and islands. 
 
 varieties DISTINGIISHKD IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Yucca gloriosa plicata Carr. 
 Yucca gloriosa recurrifolia Kngelin. 
 
 Washingtonia VVendL (1879), not of Winslow (1854) nor of Carr. (1867). 
 
39 
 
 DICOTYLEDO]Srii:S. 
 
 Family JXJOL^jST D^CE^El. 
 
 JXTGLANS Linn. 
 Juglans cinerea Linn. Butternut. 
 
 Raxge. — Southern New Hriinswick to Delaware and on the Appalachian Mountains 
 to Georgia and Alabama (head waters of Black Warrior River, Winston County) ; 
 westward through Ontario to Dakota, southeastern Nebraska, southern Missouri, 
 and northeastern Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Butternut (Me., K H.. Vt., Mass., K. I., Conn., K Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., W. Va., X. C, S. C, Ala., Ark., Ky., Mo., 111., Iowa, 
 Ind., Mich., Minn., Wis., Kans., Xebr., Ohio, Ont.) ; White Walnut (Del., 
 Pa., Va.,W.Va., N.C., S. C, Ala., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., Wis., Iowa, Nebr., 
 Minn., S. Dak.); Walnut (Minn.); Oil Nut (Me., N. H., S. C); Buttnut 
 (N. J.). 
 
 Juglans nigra Linn. Black "Walnut. 
 
 Range. — Southern < )iitario to Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and west- 
 ward through southern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota to Nebraska, Kansas, 
 and Texas (San Antonio River). 
 
 Names in use. — Black Walnut (N. H., Vt., Mass., E. L, Conn., N. Y., 
 K. J., DeL, Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., Tex., La., Ark., 
 Ky., Mo., Ind., 111., Kans., Nebr., Iowa, Mich., Oliio, Ont., S. Dak., 
 Minn.); Walnut (N. Y., Del., W. Va., Fla., Ky.. Mo., Ohio, Ind., Iowa); 
 Walnut-tree (Pa., S. C); Deut-soo-kwa-no-ne (=Ilound Nut, N. Y. 
 Indians). 
 
 Juglans rupestris Engelm. Mexican Walnut. 
 
 Ranue. — Central Texas (Colorado, Idano, and Guadaloiipe rivers) westward 
 tlirough southern New Mexico and Arizona and southwiird into Me.vico. 
 
 Names in use. — Western Walnut (Tex.); Dwarf Walnut (Tex.); 
 LittleWalnut(Tex.);Galitoruia Walnut(Ariz.); Waluut(N. Mex., Ariz,). 
 
 Juglans californica Wats. California Walnut. 
 
 Raxge. — Calif rnia coast region (from the Sacramento River to the- San Harnardino 
 Mountains). 
 Names in use. — Walnut (Cal.): California Walnut (Cal.). 
 
 HICORIAKaf.^ti^^'VV^lX*^ j 
 
 Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britton. . fl Pecan (Hickory), c <. 
 
 Carya oLiv^EFORMis Nutt. ^^^^^f^XiA^ 0^ l/€A-^^^Jt©L -^^ ' 
 
 Range. — Iowa (vicinity of Sabula) througli southern Illinois and Indiana, western 
 Kentucky and Tennessee to central Alaliania and Mis8issi]ipi, througli Missouri and 
 Arkansas to southeastern Arkansas, Indian Territory, western Louisiana and central 
 Texas (Concho River); Mexico. Considerably extended l>y cultivation. 
 
 Names in use.— Pecau (Va.. N. C, S. C., (Ja.(cult.), Ala., Miss., Tex., 
 La., Ark., Mo., 111.. Ind., Iowa, Kalis.); Pecau Nut(La.); Pecaiiier (La.); 
 Pecan-tree (La.). 
 
40 
 
 Hicoria pecan x minima Trelease. 
 
 Hicoria pecan x alba Trcleiise. 
 
 Hicoria pecan x laciniosa Trelease. Nussbaum Hybrid (Hickory), 
 
 Hicoria minima (Marsh.) Brittou. Bitternut (Hickory). 
 
 Carva amara Nutt. 
 
 K'axce. — Southern Maine anil Ontario to Horirla (Apalachitola River); west 
 tbrongb central Michigan to Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and 
 Texas (Trinity River). 
 
 Names in use. — Bitternut (X. H.. Mass., K. I., N. Y., X. J., Pa., 
 Del., Ya., W. Ya., K C, S. C, Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Mo.. 
 111., Kans., Nebr., Mich., Minn.. Ohio, Out.); Swamp Hickory (Del., Pa.. 
 X. C, S. C, Miss., Tex., Ark., Iowa, Minn.); Pig Hickory (111.); Pi<i 
 Nut (N. Y., W. Ya., Mo., 111., Iowa, Ivans.) ; Bitter Pecau Tree, Pecanier 
 Amer, Pecanier Sauvage (La.); Bitter Pig Nut(N. Y., N. J.); Hickory 
 (Nebr.); Bitter Hickory (N. H.); Pig Walnut (N. H.); Bitter Walnut 
 (Yt.); Xoyer Dur (Quebec); White Hickory (Tex.) 
 
 Hicoria myristiceeformis (Michx. f. ) Brittou. Nutmeg Hickory. 
 Oarya myristic.kformis Nutt. 
 
 Range. — Coast region of South Carolina (Goose Creek, Cooper River) ; central 
 Alabama (between Tombigbee and Alabama rivers, from Deuiopolis to Gallioni; 
 central Mi.ssissippi (Mboons Valley); southern Arkansas (Pine Blutf to Arkansas 
 City, and in K'ed River bottoms above Fulton). Often cultivated in the middW' 
 Atlantic region. 
 
 Names in use. — Nutmeg Hickory (S. 0., Ala.); Bitter Waternur 
 
 (La.). 
 
 Hicoria aquatica (Michx. f.) Britten. Water Hickory. 
 
 Oarya a^)UATica Nutt. 
 
 Range. — Coast region \'irginia (Mobjack Bay) to Florida (Cape Malabar and 
 Coosa), and in the Gulf i*egion to Texas (Brazos River) extending northward in 
 west(;rn Louisiana to northeastern Arkansas, eastern Mississippi .ind southim 
 Illinois (Gallatin County, near Equality). 
 
 Names in use. — Water Hickory (N. C, Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Te\., 
 Mo.); Swamp Hickory (S. O., Fla., Miss., La.); Bitter Pecau (.Miss., 
 La., Tex.); Water Bitternut (S. O., Tenn.). 
 
 Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Brittou. Shagbark (Hickory). 
 
 Oar'^a alba Nutt. 
 
 Range. — Southern Maine and Quebec (near Montreal) to Delaware and along ihe 
 Appalachian Mountains to Florida, northern .\labam:i aiul Mississipjii; west through 
 southern .Michigan to central Minnesota, and northeastern Nebraska, central Kansas, 
 Indian Territory, and eastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use.— Shellbark Hickory (Vt., N. H., Mass., R. I., N. Y., 
 Pa.. Del., Ya., W. Va., N. C, S. (J., Ga., Ma., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ky., 
 Mo., Ind., III., Wis., Iowa, Kans., Neb., Ohio, Ont., Mich.); Shagbark 
 Hickory (Yt., N. H., Mass., K. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., S. C, 
 Ala., Miss., Tex., Ark., Mo., 111., Wis., Mich., Minn.. Kans., Neb., Iowa); 
 Shellbark(R. I., N. Y., Pa., N C); Upland Hickory (111.); Hickory(Yt., 
 Ohio); Scalybark Hickory (W. Ya., S.O., Aia.); Shagbark (K. L, Ohio); 
 
41 
 
 Shellbark-tree (Del.) ; White Walnut (l!5". J.); Walnut fVt., N. Y.) ; White 
 Hickory (Iowa, Ark.); Sbagbark Walnut (Vt.); Sweet Walnut (Vt.); 
 Eedheart Hickorj' (-Miss.), 
 
 Hicoria laciniosa (Miclix. f.) Sargent. Shellbark (Hickory). 
 
 Carya sulcata Nutt. 
 
 KaJs'GE. — Iowa (vicinity of Muscatine) through Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Kan- 
 sas, and Indian Territory (near Ouachita), southern Illinois and Indiana to ini<ldle 
 Tennessee, western and tentral New York and eastern Pennsylvania. 
 
 Names in use.— Big Shellbark (R. I., Pa., W. Va., Ky., Mo., 111., 
 Kans.); Bottom Shellbark (111.); Western Shellbark, Shellbark (II. I., 
 Ky.,) Thick Shellbark (S. C, Tenn., Ind.); Thick Shellbark Hickory 
 (K C, Ark.); King Nut (Tenn.). 
 
 Hicoria alba (Linn.) Britton. l^ocker Nut (Hickory). ^^ 
 
 Carta TOMENTOsAXutt.i^>^ " '" ,. *-^ . ,- .4 ^^^^^ 
 
 Range. — Ontario to Florida (Cape Canaveral and Tam]{i Bay) and west toA / 
 
 Missouri, eastern Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas (Brazos River). "i^^^^^L 
 
 Names in use. — Mocker Nut (Mass., E. I., N. Y., N. J., Del., Ala., 
 Miss., La., Tex., Ark., 111., Iowa, Kans.); Whiteheart Hickory (R. L, 
 N. Y., Pa., Del., N.C., Tex., 111., Ont., Iowa, Kans., Minn., Nebr.) ;Bulluut 
 (N. Y., Fla., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ohio, 111., Minn.); Black Hickory (Tex., 
 Miss., La., Mo.); Big-bud, Red Hickory (Fla.); Hickory (Ala., Tex.); 
 Hardbark Hickory (III.) ; Hickory (Pa., S. 0., Nebr.); Common Hickory 
 (N. C); White Hickory (Pa., S. C); Hickory Nut (Ky.); Big Hickory 
 Nut (W. Ya.); Hog Nut (Del.). 
 
 Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton. Pignut (Hickory). 
 
 Cary^a porcina Nutt. 
 
 Range. — Southern Maine and southern Ontario to Florida ( Indian River and Peace 
 Creek) ; west through southern Michigan to southeastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, 
 Indian Territory and eastern Texas (Nueces River). 
 
 Naivtes in use. — Pignut (N. H., Vt, Mass., Conn., R. L, N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., W. Ya., N. C, S. C, Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ky., 
 Mo., 111., Ind., Wis., Iowa, Kans., Nebr., Minn., Ohio, Out.); Bitteruut 
 (Ark., 111., Iowa, Wis."); Black Hickory (Miss., La., Ark., Mo., Ind., 
 Iowa); Broom Hickory (Mo.); Brown Hickory (Del., Miss., Tex., Tenn., 
 Minn.); Hard-shell (W. Y.); Red Hickory ( DeL ) ; Switch-bud Hickory 
 (Ala.); White Hickory (N. H., Iowa). 
 
 Hicoria odorata (Marsh.) Sargent. Small Pignut (Hickory). 
 
 Cary'A microcarpa Nutt. 
 
 Range. — Eastern Massachusetts, Connecticut, eastern and central New York, east- 
 ern Pennsylvania, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland (Montgomery i^ounty), 
 central Michigan, southern Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. 
 
 Names in use. — Small Pignut (Md.); Little Pignut (Md.); Little 
 Shagbark (Md.). 
 Hicoria villosa (Sarg.) Ashe. Pale-leaf Hickory. 
 
 Hicoria glabra yillosa Sarg. 
 
 Hicoria pallida Ashe 
 
 Rangk. — Missouri (Allentown); middle Tennessee and northern Alabama to 
 Georgia and southern Virginia. Distribution insufficiently known. 
 
42 
 
 Family jMYKIC^CE^E. 
 
 MYRICA Liim. 
 
 Myrica cerifera Linn. Wax Myrtle. 
 
 Eaxge. — Southern Maryland to sontliern Florida and west in the (Julf States to 
 Texas (Rockport, Arkansiis Bay); northward west of Mississippi River to Arkansas 
 (Washita River). In the Bahamas, Bermuda, West Indies. 
 
 Names ix use.— Wax Myrtle (R. I., N. J., Del., N. C, S. C, Ala., 
 Fla.); Bayberry (Mass., R. I., N. J., N. Y., Pa., Del., :N^. C, S. C, xVIa., 
 Fla.); Waxberry (K. I., Pa., S. C); (Jirier (La.); Caudleberry (Fla.); 
 Myrtle (Fla.); Myrtletree (Fla.); Puckerbush (Fla.). 
 Myrica inodora Bartr. Odorless Myrtle. 
 
 Raxgk. — Near Apalachicolu, Fla.; Mobile and Stockton, Ala., and ro])larvillt>, 
 Miss. Rare. 
 
 Myrica californica Cham. California Wax Myrtle. 
 
 Kaxge. — I'acitic coast region from Paget Sound to California (Santa Monica). 
 Xames in USB. — California Bayberry; Myrtle; Bayberry (Cal.): 
 Oalilornia Myrtle (Cal.); AVax Myrtle (Cal.). 
 
 Family LEITNERI_ACE^E. 
 
 LEITNERIA Chapm. 
 
 Leitneria floridana Chapm. Corkwood. 
 
 Raxge. — Western Florida (swamp near Apalachicola) ; Missouri (Butler and 
 Duncan counties); Arkansas (near Vamer). Very local, and range imperfectly 
 understood. , __, . A I i 
 
 Salix nigra Marsh. , .f^Jcoll^^ «^^J/mJt^nBlack Willo'^ 
 
 Rangi:.— New Brunswick fo southern Florida and • w^t to eastern Dakota, 
 
 Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, southern Arizona, and south into Mexico. In 
 California (from the Sierra Nevadas to Colusa County, and from Sacramento River 
 to Arizona). 
 
 Names in use.— Black Willow (N. H., Vt.. R. I., N. Y., Pa., Del., 
 S. C, Fla., Ala., Miss,, La., Tex., Ariz., Cal., N. Mex., Utah, 111., Wis., 
 Mich., Minn., Nebr., Kan., Ohio, Ont., N. Dak.); Swamp Willow (N. C, 
 S. C.) : Willow (N. Y., Pa., N. C, S. C. Miss., Tex.. Cal., Ky., Mo., Nebr.). 
 Salix nigra falcata (Pursh) Torr. Crescentleaf Willow 
 
 Salix nigra x amygdaloides Glatf. 
 Salix nigra x alba Bebb. 
 
 Salix wardi Bebb. Ward Willow. 
 
 Raxge. — Virginia (Potomac River near Washington, D C), Kentucky (Ohio 
 River), central Tennessee, Illinois (Horse Shoe Lake, near Venice), southern Missouri, 
 Indian Territory. Distribution insufficiently known. 
 
43 
 
 Salix occidentalis longipes (Aiiderss.) Bebb. Longstalk WilloTV. 
 
 Range. — Florida (Jacksonville) and westward tbronfjh Texas to New Mexico, Ari- 
 zona, and the sonthern Sierra Nevadas, California. Also in northern Jlexico. 
 
 Salix amygdaloides Anderss. Almondleaf Willo-w. 
 
 IvAXGE. — Quebec (near ^lontreal) and New York (Cayuga County) to the upper 
 Saskatchewan; southward to (^hio and Missouri, and westward in the Plains region 
 to the Rocky Mountains, where it ranges from southwestern Texas to Oregon, Wash- 
 ington, British Columbia. 
 
 NA:\rt:s in use.— Willow (Xev., Oreg., Colo., Utah, Mont); Black Wil- 
 low (Mo., Idaho); Common Willow (Mont.). 
 
 Salix laevigata Bebb. Smoothleaf Willow. 
 
 Range. — California (Siskiyou County to the southern boundary of the State), 
 if AMES IN USE.— Wiliow (Cal.) ; Black Willow, 
 
 Salix laevigata angustifolia Bebb. Narrowleaf WilloTV. 
 
 Salix laevigata congesta Bebb. 
 
 Salix lasiandra Beutli. "Western Black Willow. 
 
 Raxge. — Calilornia (west of the Sierra Nevada) : western Oregon, Washington, and 
 southern British Columbia (Selkirk Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Willow (Cal., Oreg.); Black Willow. 
 
 Salix lasiandra lyalli Sargent. Lyall Willow. 
 
 Range. — Western Oregon, Washington, and southern British Columbia. 
 
 Salix lasiandra caudata (Nutt.) Sud worth. 
 
 Range. — Northern Calilornia (Sierra Nevada) to northern Montana, Colorado, and 
 iiKitliem New Mexico. 
 
 Salix bonplandiana B. B. K. Bonpland Willo-w. 
 
 Range. — Arizona (Sabino Canyon and Santa Catalin.i mountains) ; central and 
 southern Mexico. 
 
 Salix lucida Muehl. GS-lossyleaf Willow^. 
 
 Range. — Newfoundland (Exploits River) to Hudson Bay and northwestward to 
 Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie River, and to the Rocky Mountains; southward to 
 Pennsylvania and west to eastern Nebraska. 
 
 Salix fluviatilis Nutt. Longleaf Willow. 
 
 Salix longifolia Muehl. 
 
 RaXge. — Quebec (Lake St. John and Island of Orleans) and southward through 
 western New England to the Potomac River; northwestward to the Arctic Circle 
 (valley of Mackenzie River) and British Columbia and Californi:i ; soutliward in the 
 Mississippi River basin to northern Mexico and Lower California. 
 
 Names in use. — Sandbar Willow (E. I.. Miss., Cal., Kans., Nebr., 
 Minn., S. Dak., Wis., Ont.); Longleaf Willow (Ala., Kans., Mich.); 
 Loiig-leaved Willow (Tenn., Minn., Nebr., Colo., Cal., Idaho, Wash.); 
 Narrow-leaved Willow (Nebr.); Shrub Willow (Nebr.); Wbite Willow 
 (Mo.); Ked Willow (Mont.); Osier Willow (Mont.); Willow ("^'^, N. Y., 
 Ky., Ind., Miss., Tex., Cal.. Nev., Utah, Mont.). 
 
 Salix fluviatilis exigua (Nutt.) Sargent. 
 Range. — Western Texas to northern California. 
 
 Salix fluviatilis argyrophylla (Nutt.) Sargent. 
 
 Range. — Western Texas to northern California 
 
44 
 Salix sessilifolia Nutt. Silverleaf Willo-w. 
 
 IjAXcii:. — From I'ligftt Sonnil to southwestern California, ranging through western 
 Washington and Oregon, western slopes of California, Sierra and coast ranges. 
 
 Xames i\ rsE.— Willow (Cal., Oreg.); Silver Willow (Cal.)- 
 Salix taxifolia H. B. K. Yewleaf Willow. 
 
 Kanc.e. — Texas (near El Paso), southern Arizona (near Tucson and on mountain 
 streams); Mexico to Guatemala and Lower California. 
 
 Salix bebbiana Sargent. Bebb Willow. 
 
 Salix rostrata Kich. 
 
 Range. — St. Lawrence Kiver /'c'vor valley) to Hudson Bay and northwestward 
 to the Arctic Circle (Mackenzie River) and British C<dnmhia (coast ranges) ; south 
 to Pennsylvania and west to Minnesota; western Idaho and norlhern Montana to 
 Dakota (Black Hills); western Xebraska, through Colorado to norlhern Arizona. 
 
 Salix discolor Muelil. V Glaucous Willow. 
 
 Range. — Xova Scotia to Manitoba ami south to Delaware; southern Indiana and 
 Illinois and northeastern Missouri. 
 
 i!^AMES IN USE. — Glaucous Willow (E. I., N. Y., Pa., Miss., Midi., 
 Miun., Out); Pussy Willow (X. J., Miuu.); Silver Willow; Swamp 
 Willow (X. J.); WiHow (Vt., N. Y., Mo.). 
 Salix discolor eriocephala (Michx.) Anderss.' 
 Salix discolor prinoides (Pursh) Anderss. 
 Salix cordata mackenzieana Hook. Mackenzie Willow^. 
 
 Range. — Great Slave Lake and southward (through region along eastern base of 
 Rocky Mountains) to northern Idaho and California (Lake County). 
 
 Salix cordata lutea (Xutt.) Bebb. Yellow Willow. 
 
 Rance. — South'-rn Assiniboia and northern Montana. 
 
 Salix niissouriensis Bebb. Missouri Willo^v. 
 
 Salix coruata var. yestita Sargent, not Pursli. 
 
 Range. — Western Missouri (Courtney, Jackson County, Fort Osage, and near 
 Watson, Atchison County). 
 
 Salix lasiolepis Bentli. Bigelow^ Willow^. 
 
 Range. — Northern California (Klamath Kiver) and southward through the west- 
 ern part of the State to Lower C'alifornia and southern Arizona (Tanners Canyon on 
 Huachuca Mountains, and White River Canyon on Chericahua Mountains). 
 
 Name in i^se. — Willow (Cal., Xev.). 
 Salix nuttallii Sargent. Nuttall Willow^. 
 
 Salix flavescens Nutt. 
 
 Range. — From southern Assiniboia and British Columbia (Columbia River near 
 Donald) southward in the Rocky Mountain region to northern New Mexico and 
 Arizona (San Francisco Mountain): California (Sierra Nevada to the San Bernardino 
 Mountains). 
 
 Xames IN USE. — Mountain Willow (Mont.); Willow (Oreg., Ttab); 
 Black Willow. 
 
 Salix nuttallii brachystachys (Benth.) Sargent. 
 
 Ran(;e — Western Washington and Oregon, and California coast region. 
 
 Salix piperi Bebb. Piper Willovr. 
 
 Range. — Western Washington. 
 
 Salix hookeriana Barratt. Hooker Willow^ 
 
 Range. — Vancouver Island to southern Oregon — coast region. 
 
45 
 Salix alba Linn. White Willow. 
 
 RaX(;k. — Europe. Widely u.atuialized in the I'lii ted States. 
 
 Salix alba x lucida Bebb. 
 
 Salix fragilis Limi. Crack Willow. 
 
 Kancje. — Enioi)e. Naturalized in eastern North Anierii-a. 
 
 Salix babylonica Linu. Weeping Willow. 
 
 RaX(;e. — Europe. Naturalized in f<!w localitif« in Atlantic region. 
 
 Salix sitchensis Sans. Silky Willow. 
 
 Kangk. — Alaska to southern California (Santa Barbara) — coast region. 
 
 Names in use. — Silky Willow (Oreg.): Sitka Willow (derm. lit.). 
 
 y POPULUS Lnin. «^^Ax^ ^ (^AM^^oji^ 
 
 Populus tremuloides Miclix. -ui^J^o<^Ai'j^/-<ft/7^ ^Amm^**^ Aspen. 
 
 Range. — Southeru Labrador to Hudson Bay (southern shores) and northwestward^ 
 to the Mackenzie River (near mouth) and Alaska (Yukon River); southward to"tC^-)^ 
 Pennsylvania (mountains), northeastern Missouri, southern Nebraska, and through- 
 out the western mountains to northern New Mexico and Arizona and central Cali- 
 fornia; Lower California (San Pedro Matir Mountains) and Mexico (mountains 
 of Chihuahua). y^^C-^/^^^-^^^n^, - 
 
 Names in use. — Aspen (X. H,, Mass., E. I.. Conn., N. Y., N J., Pa., 
 Del., 111., lud., was., Mich., Minn., N. Dak., Nebr., Obio, Ont., Oreg., 
 Utah, Idaho, Nev., Mont, Colo., Cal.); Quaking Asp (N. Y., Pa., Del., 
 Cal., N. Mex., Idaho, Colo., Ariz., 111., Iowa, Minn., Mont., Nebr., Utah, 
 Oreg., Nev.)5 Mountain Asp (Mont.); American Aspen (Vt.); Aspen luTil^ 
 Leaf (Pa.); White Poplar (Mass.); Trembling Poplar (Minn., ColoO; K 
 American Poplar (Minn., Colo.); Poplar (Vt., N. Y., 111., Ind., Minn., Wj 
 Mont.); Popple (Wis., Iowa, Mont.); Tremble (Quebec); Trembling >»^, 
 Asnen (^towa) : Aspen Poj^lar (Cal., ^Mont.). / ^ 
 
 Hi VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Populus tremuloides pendens Sudw. . • 
 
 \ 
 
 Populus grandidentata Michx. Largetooth Aspen. 
 
 Range. — Nova Scotia through New Brunswick, southern Quebec, and Ontario to 
 northern Minnesota ; southward to Delaware (and along the Allegheny Mountains to 
 North Carolina, central Kentucky, and Tennessee;, southern Indiana, and Illinois. 
 
 Names in use. — Large-toothed Aspen (N. J., Pa., Del., S. C, Mich., 
 Minn.); Poplar (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., E. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 W. Va., K C, S. C, Ga., 111., Ohio); Large toothed Poplar (N. C); 
 Large Pojilar (Tenn.); White Poplar (Mass.); Popple (Me.); Large 
 American Aspen (Ala.). 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Populus grandidentata penduliformis Sudw. "Weeping Largetooth Aspen. 
 
 Populus heterophylla Linn. S^vanip Cotton^vood. 
 
 Range. — From Connecticut (North Gilford) and Long Island (Northport) south- 
 ward near the coast to southern Georgia; westward in the Gulf region to western 
 Louisiana and through Arkansas to southeastern Missouri, western Kentucky, and 
 Tennessee, and southern Illinois and Indiana. 
 
l^huu 
 
 46 
 
 Xames in use. — Eiver Cottonwood (R. I., Miss., La., Ohio); Swamp 
 Cottoiiwoml (S. C, Miss., Del.); Black Cottonwood (Ala.); Cottonwood 
 (X. Y, Ya., X. C, S. C, Miss.); Downy Poplar (Tenn., Ala., Ark.); 
 Swamp Poplar (N. J.); Cotton-tree (N. C); Liar (La.); Langues de 
 femmes (La.). 
 Populus balsamifera Linn. KA^,3.<rvL- <■ Balm of G-ilead. 
 
 Range. — Coast of Alaska ami valley of Mackenzie River (latitude OD") to Hudson 
 Bay and Xcwfouudland; southward to northern New England and New York 
 (Taughannock Falls, Cayuga Lake), central Michigan and Minnesota. Dakota (Black 
 Hills), northwestern Nebraska, northern Montana, Idaho, Oregou, and Nevada. 
 
 ISTames in use. — Balsam (N. H., N. Y., AVis., Mich., Minn., Nebr., 
 Mont., Ohio, Ont.); Balm of Gilead (Me., X. H., Vt., Mass., It. L, Conn., 
 N. Y., Mich., Xebr., Minn., ]Sr. Dak., Out.) ; ('ottonwood (Idaho i ; Poplar 
 (Wis., Minn.); Balsam Poplar (X. H., Yt., Nebr., Minn.); Tacamahac 
 (Minn.) ; Baumier (Quebec) ; Kough-barked Poplar (Hudson Bay region). 
 Populus balsamifera candicans (Ait.) Gray. 
 
 Hairy Balm of Gilead. 
 
 Names in use. — Balm of Gilead (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., N. Dak., 
 Minn., Ont.); Balsam (Mich., Md., and Ya. Cult.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTINATION. 
 
 Populus balsamifera intermedia l^ond. * 
 
 Populus balsamifera vimiualis Loud. 
 Populus balsamifera latifolia (Mcench.) Lotid. 
 
 Populus acuminata Kydberg. Lanceleaf Cotton^rood. 
 
 KAN(iE. — Soutli Dakota i, IJlack Hills) and western Nebraska to the eastern base of 
 the Kocky Mountains of Colorado. Range insufficienilv understood. 
 
 Populus angustifolia James, t Narro-wleaf Cotton^vood. 
 
 Ranch. — From southwestern Assiniboia (Milk and lielly rivers) to Dakota (Black 
 Hills) and northwestern Nebraska; southward in the mountain regions to central 
 Nevada, New Mexico (Mojj^oUon Mountains), central Arizona. 
 
 . Names in use. — Black Cottonwood (N. Mex., Utah, Colo.); Narrow- 
 leaved Cottonwood (Colo., Utah) ; Narrow-leaved Poplar (Mont., Utah); 
 Balsam (Mont.); Cottonwood (Idaho, Colo.); Willow Cottonwood 
 (Idaho); Bitter Cottonwood (Idaho); Willow-leaved Cottonwood 
 (Mont.). 
 
 Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gr. Black Cottonwood. 
 
 Ranue. — From southern Alaska through western British Columbia (east to Colum- 
 bia River), Avestern Washington, Oregon, California (and islands) to the southern 
 8lo])e of the San Bernardino Mountains. Northern range insuHiciently understood. 
 
 Names in use. — Black (Jottonwood; Cottonwood (Oreg., Cal.); Bal 
 sam Cottonwood; Balm (Oreg.); Balm Cottonwood (Cal.). 
 
 j^jjPopulus deltoides Marsh. a (jCommon) Cottonwood. 
 
 Populus monilifera Ait. 'O-'^^^^x-Jca^'l^ "^ Cl«uvx,!>li>vvU4 ^ 
 
 Rance.— From Quebec (Lower Maurice River) and "Vermont (Lake Champlaiu) 
 through Avestern New England and New York, Pennsylvania (west of Alleghenies), 
 Maryland, and Atlantic States to western P'lorida and west to the Rocky Mountains 
 from southern Alberta to northern New Mexico. 
 
il 
 
 Names in use.— Cottonwood (N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 W. Va., N. C, Ala., Fla., .^liss.. La., Tex., Cal., Ky., Mo., 111., Wis., 
 Kaiis., Nebr., Iowa, Minn,, :Mieli,, Ohio, Ont., Colo., Mont., N, Dak,, 
 S. Dak,); Big Cottonwood (Miss., Xebr,); Yellow Cottonwood (Ark., 
 Iowa, Nebr.); Cotton-tree (N. Y.); Carolina Poplar (Pa,, iliss., La., 
 N. ]\Iex,: Ind,, Ohio); Xecklace Poplar (Tex,, Colo,); Vermont Poplar 
 (Vt.); Whitewood (Iowa); Broad-leaved Cottonwood (Colo.). 
 
 A AKIETIES DISTINGLISHKD IX CULTIVATION. 
 
 Populus deltoides aurea (Nichol.) 8udw, 
 Populus deltoides erecta (Selys) Sudw. 
 Populus deltoides crispa (Dipp,) Sudw. 
 
 Goldenleaf Cottoii'wood. 
 
 Erect Cottouwood. 
 
 Crisp-leaf Cottonwood. 
 
 Populus fremontii' Wats. Fremont Cottonwood. 
 
 Range. — Westein Califoriiia (Sacramento River) to Lower California ; eastward to 
 central Nevada, southern Utah and Colorado, western Texas and north(!rn Mexico, 
 
 is^AMES IN USE.— Cottonwood (Cal., Utah) ; White Cottonwood (N. 
 Mex.). 
 Populus alba Linn. "White Poplar. 
 
 Range. — Europe. Widely naturalized in the United States T)y cultivation. 
 
 A'ARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CUI>TIVATH)N. 
 
 Populus alba nivea (Willd.) Loud. 
 Populus alba canescens (Smith) Loud. 
 Popiilus alba canescens lunbraculifera Sndw, 
 Populus alba boUeana Louche. 
 Populus alba nutans Sudw. 
 Populus alba globosa Dipp. 
 
 Sno-wy Poplar, 
 
 Silver Poplar. 
 
 "Weeping Silver Poplar. 
 
 Bolle Poplar. 
 
 "Weeping "White Poplar. 
 
 Roundtop Poplar. 
 
 Populus nigra Linn. Black Poplar. 
 
 Range. — Europe. Naturalized in several localities in the East. 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Populus nigra italica Du Roi 
 Populus, nigra elegans Bailey. 
 
 Isombardy Poplar. j _^ 
 
 BETULA Linn. ,< 
 
 Betula populifolia Marsh. White Birch. 
 
 Range. — From Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Lower St. Lawrence River south- 
 ward (mostly in coast region) to Delaware (Newcastle County) and westward through 
 uorthern New England and New York to Lake Ontario (southern shores). 
 
 Xames in use.— White Birch (Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., X. J., 
 Penn., Del., Out.); Gray Birch (Me., R. L, Mass.); Oldfield Birch; 
 Poverty Birch (Me.); Poplar leaved Birch; Small White Birch (Vt.). 
 Betula populifolia x papyrifera Sargent. 
 
 Range. — Massachusetts and New Haippshire — local. 
 
 1 Includes P. Fremontii var. Wializeni Wata. 
 
 JifipHAd 
 
 ^*M^ 
 
 AkhiAJbA^ 
 
^ illfVjUV^ ' 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISIIKI) IN CTI.TIVATIOX. 
 
 Betiila popiilifolia purpurea Hort. Am. 
 Betula papyrifera Marsh. Paper Birch. 
 
 RaN(;e. — From Labrador to Hudson Bay (southern shores j, (Jreut liear Lake, 
 Ynkon Kiver and coast of Ahiska; sontliward to New York (Long Island) and north- 
 ern Pennsylvania, central Michigan, and Minnesota, northern Neliraska (hlufls of 
 Niobrara River), Dakota (Black Hills), northern Montana, and north western Wa.sli- 
 ington (near Seattle). 
 
 Names in u.^k. — Paper lUrcli (N. II., Yt., Mass., li. L, Conn., N, Y., 
 Wis., Mich., Miim.,Ont.); Canoe Birch (Me., Yt., N. H., 11. I., .Alass., 
 K. Y., Pa., Wis., Mich., Minn., Ont.) ; White Birch (Me., N. H., Yt., R. 1., 
 N. Y.. N. J., W^is., Minn., Mich., Nebr., Ont.); Silver Birch (Minn.); 
 Large White Birch (Yt.); Boleau (Quebec). 
 
 Betula papyrifera minor (Tuck.) Wats. »& Coult. 
 
 Alpine Paper Birch. 
 
 I\^\_NGK. — Northern New England (mountains). 
 
 Betula occidentalis Hook. 'Western Birch. 
 
 Raxck. — From British Columbia (upper Fraser and Pease rivers) south to Cali- 
 fornia (valleys of Mount Shasta and eastern slopes of the northern Siena Nevada); 
 eastward in British America to eastern Alberta and along the Saskatchewan Kiver 
 to Edmonton, and south in the Rocky ^Mountains and other interior ranges to Nevada, 
 Utah, northern New Mexico; east to Dakota (Black Hills), northwestern Nebraska, 
 and eastern base of Rockies in Colorado. 
 
 Names in use. — Black Bircli (Cal., Colo., Mont., Utah); Canon 
 Birch (Utah); Sweet Birch (Idaho); Cherry Birch (Idaho); Gray Birch 
 (Mont.); Water Birch (Colo.); West ern Bi rch. 
 
 Betula nigra Linn. Oficni^ ^OJ^aS^Javi^ . River Birch. 
 
 Uance. — Massachusetts (Nashua River near F'itchburg; Merrimac River near 
 Lawrence and Lowell; Spicket and Shawsheen rivers) ; New York (Wading River, 
 Loui!,- Island) and southward east of the Alleghenies to western Florida; west in 
 Gulf States to Texas (Trinity River) and north through Mississippi to Indian Terri- 
 tory, eastern Kansas, eastern Nebraska (Missouri River bottoms), central Minnesota, 
 southern Wisconsin (near Madison), and Ohio. 
 
 Names in use.— Red Birch (Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., N. C, 
 S. C, La., Mo., Wis., Kans., Nebr., Ohio); River Birch (Mass., R. I., 
 N. J., Del., Pa., W. Ya., Ala., Miss., Tex., Mo., 111., Wis., Ohio) ; Water 
 Birch (W. Ya., Kans.); Blue Bircli (Ark.); Black Birch (Fla., Tenu., 
 Tex.); Birch (N. C, S. C, Miss., La.). 
 
 Betula lutea ^Nlichx. f. Yello-w Birch. 
 
 Ran(;k. — From Newfoundland and along the northern shores of St. Lawrence 
 Gulf to Abittibi Tiake and Rainy River; southward to northern Minnesota and 
 through the Northern States to easteru Tennessee, North Carolina, and Delaware. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow Birch (Me., N. H., Yt., Mass., Conn., R. I., 
 N. Y., N. J., Pa., N. C, S. C, 111., Mich., Minn., N. Dak., Ont.); Gray 
 Birch (Yt, R. I., Pa., Mich., Minn.); Swamp Birch (Minn.); Silver 
 Birch (N. H.); Merisier (Quebec); Merisier Rouge (Quebec). 
 
Bettila lenta Linn, ' ^-iAA^e^ S-weet Birch. 
 
 IvANGE. — Xt'wfouudlaiul to northwostern Outaiio iiutl soutlnvanl to southcrc 
 Indiana and Illiuois, and along the Allegheny Mountains to central Kentnrky, 
 Teunesset', and Avestern Florida. 
 
 Kajvtes in use.— Sweet Birch (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., N". Y., 
 X. J., Pa., Del., S. ( "., Mich., Miun.); Birch (K C); Black Birch (X. H., 
 \t.. :\rass., H. I., Conn., X. Y., X. J., Pa., W. Va., Ga., 111., lud., Mich., 
 Ohio); Cherry Birch (X. H., R. I., X. Y., Pa., Va., Del., X. C, S. C, 
 Fla., Wis., Mich., Out); River Birch (Minn.); Mahogany Birch (X. C, 
 S. C); Mountain Mahogany (S. C). 
 
 ALNUS Ehrh. 
 Alnus maritima (Marsh.) Muehl. Seaside Alder. 
 
 Kaxge. — Southern part of the peninsula of Delaware and Maryland (Nauticoku 
 River near Seaford, Del.; Wicomico River near Salisbury, Md.) : Indian Territory 
 (Red River). 
 
 Xames in use. — Seaside Alder (Del.); Alder (Del.). 
 
 Alnus acuminata H. B. K. Lanceleaf Alder. 
 
 Alnus oblongifolia Torr. 
 
 Range. — Southern New Mexico and Arizona (canyons of mountains); southern 
 Mexico, Central America to Peru (Andes^. 
 
 Alnus rhombifolia Xutt. White Alder. 
 
 Raxge. — From northern Idaho to the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains of 
 \A'ashington and southeastern Cregon, and southward through California (coast 
 ranges, western slopes Sierra Nevada, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, and Cnayamaca 
 mountains). 
 
 Xames in use. — Alder (Cal., Oreg.); Western or California Alder 
 (Idaho); Mountain Alder. 
 
 Alnus tenuifolia Xutt. Paperleaf Alder. 
 
 Alnus incana var. virescens Wats. 
 
 Raxge. — From British Columbia (Kicking Horse Lake to Lower Fraser River) 
 through the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico, to southern California 
 (Sierra Nevada), and Lower California. 
 
 Alnus oregona Xutt. Red Alder. 
 
 Raxge. — From Sitka (through islands and coast ranges of British Columbia, 
 western Washington, and Oregon) to California (coast ranges to Santa Inez Moun- 
 tains, near Santa Barbara). 
 
 Xames in use. — Alder (Cal., Oreg.); Red Alder (Cal., Oreg.); West- 
 ern or Red Alder. 
 Alnus glutinosa (Linn.) Gsertii. European Alder. 
 
 RaX(;e. — Europe and northern Asia, but naturalized in few localities in the United 
 States. 
 
 varieties distinguished IX CULTIVATION. 
 
 Alnus glutinosa quercifolia Willd. 
 Alnus glutinosa laciniata (Khr. ) Willd. 
 Alnus glutinosa incisa Willd. 
 Alnus glutinosa aurea (Koch) Nichol. 
 19193— Xo. 17 4 
 
V i/v»*^»v ■ 
 
 50 
 
 Jl\ylfMi4i OSTRYA Scop. 
 
 : .sjnitl* to northern Flyida (near 
 
 , R. r, Mass., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 
 
 ^trya virginikna ' (Mill.) Ivocb. Hornbeam 
 
 KaN(;k. — FiDiu Nova Scotia and Capt- Hrentoii Island and New Urunssvick (Ba.\ i 
 ("lialeur and alonj^ .St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa rivers and over northern shums 
 of Lake llnrou) to western Ontario, northern Minnesota, Dakota (Black Hilla), 
 eastern and northern Nebraska, eastern J-Cansasj 
 .Jacksonville) and eastern Texas. \fiXt^*'t^ 
 
 Names in use. — Hop Ilonibeain (Vt. 
 Dfl., K C, S. C. Ala.. Tex.. Ark., Ohio, 111., lud.. Wis., .Alinn., Kans., 
 Xebr., iS. Dak.); Ironwood (K. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., VV. Va.. K C, 
 S. C, Ala., Tex., Ark., Ky., Ohio, Ind., 111., Iowa, Mich., Wis., Minn., 
 S. Dak., Nebr., Out.); Leverwood (Vt., Mass., E. I., X. Y., Pa.. Kans.); 
 lionibeam (R. I. ., N. Y., Fla.. S. C, La.); Hardback (Vt.). 
 Ostrya knoTvltoni Coville. Knowlton Hornbeam. 
 
 Kax(;i;. — Arizona (canyon of the Colorado Eiver 70 miles north of Flagstaff, where 
 Tolf.ee (P. O.) is located. Abnndant along the trail leading to the bottom of the 
 canyon, at 6,000 to 7,000 feet elevation). Range insufficiently understood ; southern 
 Mexico and Central America (mountains). 
 
 Blue Beech. 
 
 Kanck. — Southern and western Quebec to Georgian Bay (north shores) and south- 
 ward to Florida (Cape Malabar and Tampa Bay) ; west in United States to northi^n 
 Minnesota, eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Indian Territory and Texas ('lYiuity River). 
 
 Names tn use.— Blue Beach (N. H., Vt, li. I., N. Y., Pa., Miss., Tex.. 
 Xy., Mich., Iowa, Nebr., Minu.,^Ohi«), Out.); Water Beech (R. I., N. Y., 
 Pa., Del., W. Va., Ohio,*Tll., Ihd., Mftlrl:, Minn.. Nebr., Kans.); Horu- 
 beaiu (Me., N. H., Mass., Couu.. R. I., N. Y., N. J.. Pa., Del., N. C, S. C. 
 Ala.,Tex., Ky., 111., Kans., Miun.); Ironwood (Me., Vt., Mass., R. I., N.Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., K C, S. C, Fla., ALi., Ln.,Tex.! Mo., Wis., 111.. Iowa, 
 Kans., Minn., Ohio. XovajScotia); 0-taii-talu--te-wgli/ip " A lean tree" 
 (Mi^ms,N.Y.). -(ROitf ->t/Vt JjtJ<XK4 
 
 Familv F-A^G^CE^E. 
 
 CARPINUS Linn. 
 ^arpinus caroliniana Walt. 
 
 inn. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 , FAGUS Linn. 
 
 iis atropunicea'^Marsh.) Sudworth. 
 PaC'Us feuruginea Ait. 
 
 Range. — Nova Scotia to Lake Huron (north shores) and northern Wiscoiisin ; south 
 to western Florida and west to southeastern Missouri and i'exas (Trinity River). 
 
 Names in use.— Beech (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Coun., N. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark., Ky., :\Io., Ohio, 111., Ind., Mich., Nebr., Miun., Out.); Red Beech 
 (Me., Vt., Ky., Ohio); White Beech (Me., Ohio, Mich.); Ridge Beech 
 
 (Ark.). 
 
 'The Ostrya reported from southern Mexico and (iuatemala and referred to this 
 species is nrobably (Kknbwiloni. I have not seen specimens of the Mexican plant. 
 
51 
 
 CASTANOPSIS 8i)acb. 
 Castanopsis chrysophylla (IJook.) de C, Goldenleaf Chinquapin. 
 
 Kaxcik. — Pacific coast rcj^ion iVoiii tiie CoJiimbia l\i\er laloiiLi wcsteiii sloiies of 
 Cascade Wonntaiiis and Siena Nevada i to southern California (San .Jacinto 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Cliinqunpin (Cal., Oreg.); Cliestiiut (Cal,); Western 
 Chiuqua])in. 
 
 CASTANEA Adans. 
 
 Castanea pumila (Linn.) Mill. 
 
 Chinquapin 
 
 ZbjtSL^ Chastaut, ,AlM 
 
 Range. — From southern Pennsylvania ( .Vdains, York, Franklin, and Cumberland, 
 counties) to northern Flori(hi and eastern iexas (Neches Piver . ^ 
 
 Names in itse.— Cbin(iua])in (Del., K J., Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, "^X^OuuA 
 S.C, Ga., Ala., Fla.. Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ohio, Ky., Mo., Mich.* 
 (cult.). 
 Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkli. 
 
 Castanea yesca /y Americana Miehx. kJl JP^ m ^y} 
 
 Castanea vulgaris r Americana A. de C. "J '"^'■'w'^*^^'— 3 
 
 Range. — From soiithern Elaine to northwestern Vermont (\Yiuooski River), south{^,. , 
 em Ontario, and southern shores of Lake Ontario to southeastern Michigan; south- 4^ 
 ward to Delaware and southeastern Indiana, and on the Allcijheny Mountains to 
 central Kentucky and Tenue.ssee, central Alabama, and Mississippi. 
 
 Na:mes in use.— Chestnut (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., li, L, Conn., N. Y., 
 K J., Pa.. Del, Ya.,W.Va., N. C, Ca., Ala., Miss., Kj^, Mo., MJch.. Opt.) ; - . 
 0-heli-valytah = ''Prickly P.ur" (Indians^ N. Y.). J^/JlL^^Cth^ rtAhMiJjtl 
 
 Quercus alba Linn. i^xj^uTfUTM^^ '^^^ White Oak. 
 
 Range. — From southern Maine'o sonthwester' Queffec and through central and 
 southern Ontario, lower peninsula of Michigan and southern Minnesota to south- 
 eastern Nebraska and eastern Kansas; sdtuth to uoEthern Florida and Texas (Brazos 
 River). P-' >^. ."'O -^' U-tr. n^^l^A.^JZ ,^V.v/V 
 
 Names in use.— White Oak ( Me., N.H.,Yt., Mass., R.L, Conn., KY. 
 X. J., Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., X. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Ga.. Miss., La., Tex. 
 Ky., Mo., Ohio, 111., Ind., Kans., Xebr., Mich.,Wis., Minn., S. Dak. (cult.), 
 Iowa, Out.); Stave Oak (Ark.). 
 Quercus alba x macrocarpa Engelni. 
 
 Range.— Illinois (near Fountaiudale and Athens); Vermont (near Charlotte). 
 Quercus alba x minor Coulter. 
 
 Range.— Illinois (Fountaiudale); Maryland (Silver Springs); Missouri (Alien- 
 to \n n ' . 
 
 Quercus albaxprinus Engelm. 
 
 Range.— District of Columbia; Vermont (near Charlotte); Tennessee (near' 
 
 Fowlei). 
 
 Quercus lobata Xee. California "White Oak. ^ 
 
 Range.— Western California (Sierra Nevada to the ocean, from the upper Sacra-/ X , 
 minto to Tejon Pass, thence to Antelope Valley and to Santa Monica). -«V ^ 
 
 Names in use.— California White Oak (Cal.): Weeping Oak (Cal.);^ 
 Valley Oak (Cal.)yH^e" (Mexu-ans); White Oak (Cal.); Swamp 
 Oak (Cal.). aUAe^MA, OW. . (<yi/^ ^^i^frJif^ 
 
52 
 'Quercus breweri Biij>elm. Shin Oak. 
 
 Ka>'GK. — Caliioruia xyesteni slopes of .Sierra Nevada from northern Ixmler of the 
 ;State to Tulare County). 
 
 Quercus garryana Dougl. Pacific Post Oak. 
 
 Kangk. — From soutliern Vaiicoiivt^r Island and southwestern British Columbia 
 (lower Fraser River) south through western Washington, and Oregon and California 
 (coast A-alleys to Santa Cruz Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — White Oak (Cal., Oreg.); Oregon White Oak (Cal.); 
 Pacific Post Oak (Oreg.); Oregon Oak (Oreg.); Western White Oak 
 (Oreg.). 
 
 Quercus gambelii Xutt. G-ambel Oak. 
 
 Quercus undulata .» Oambelii Engelm. 
 
 Range. — From Colorado (eastern slopes Rocky Mountains and as far north as €he 
 tlivido between Platte and Arkansas rivers) to Utah (Wasatch Mountains), and 
 southward through the mountains to western Texas (Pecos River region) and south- 
 western ^'evada (Charlestown Mountains); Mexico (mountains of northern Sonora). 
 
 Names in use. — Scrub Oak (N. 3Iex., Ariz., Colo., Nev., Utah); 
 Kooky Mountain Scrub Oak(Nev.); Mountain Oak (Nev.); Pin Oak 
 (Ariz.): White Oak; Shin Oak. / "\ 
 
 Qusrcus minor (Marsh.) Sargent. (^ Post Oak. 
 
 QuEiicus OHTUSiLOBA Michx.^-O 
 
 Range. — From .southern Massachusetts (jiear nrewstt^r. Cape Cod, and islands of 
 Marthas Vineyard and Naushon), Rhode mland' (\Xort4i Kingston), and New York 
 (Long Island) to northern Florida, southern 4l''^'""'^> *^"*i Mississippi; west from 
 Long Island to Missouri, eastern Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas (here south to 
 San Antonio River and west to one hundredth meridian). 
 
 Names in use.— Po.st Oak (Coun., E. I., N. J., Pa, Del., W. Va., 
 
 N. C, S. 0., Ala., Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., A^-k., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., 
 
 fowa, Kans., Nebr., Out.); Box Whit<' Oak (R. I.); Iron Oak (Del., 
 
 Miss., Nebr.); Cheiie etoile (Quebec): Overcup Oak (Fla.); White Oak 
 
 Ky., Ind.) ; Box Oak (Md.) ; Brash Oak (Md.). 
 
 Quercus chapmani Sargent. Chapman Oak. 
 
 RaN(;e. — South Carolina to Florida (connnouly lipar the coast). 
 
 Ouercus ina.croca.icp^^W<i^^^-^^^Yy^r^fAh^ijL ^ s^Bttt -Q^ 
 
 Range. — From ^jy I3runswick aiicljiNova .Scotia ~\^slwamrTin)iiT;Tr ST.' TTjItvrt'W'e* 
 River vallej', Ontario, southwestern ^fanitoba (south Lake Winnipeg); from Maine 
 
 'enobscot River region), Vermont (sjiores Lake Champlain), Massachusetts (Ware 
 River), Peuusylvama^THancaster CtMrnty) west to Montana (eastern base Rocky 
 .Mountains), western Nebraska, ceutjsin Kansas, and south westward into ceuiral 
 TgjiueiJ-iee, Indian Terrifory, and jC^Jf^ (to Nueces River). 
 
 Names in use.— Bur Oak^^t., N. Y., Pa., Del., W. Va., Ala., Miss., 
 La., T^^-., Ai'k., Mo., Ohio, ^111., Ky., Iowa, Kans., Nebr., Wis., Mich., 
 Minn., N. Dak., S. Dak.);o>Iossycup Oak (Mass., Pa., Del., Miss., La., 
 Tex., Ark., Ill,, Iowa, Nebr., Kans., Ont.); Overcup Oak (R. 1., Del., 
 Pa., Miss., La., 111., Minn.); Blufe Oak (Ont.); Scrub Oak \ Nebr.. Minn.); 
 Overcup White Oak (Vt.): :\[ossycup White Cbik (Minn.) 
 
 Quercus lyrata NValt3U»JW" lAitO-wv. -4«1J^I||L, Overcup Oak. 
 
 r^ AS Range. — From Maryland (Potomac River near iJistrict orColunibia, and Patuxent 
 '^ •C#OJRivei', l^kmiles^elow Tjaurel) southward to western Florijla and west through the 
 
53 
 
 Gulf re<?ion to Texas (Trinity River), throuj'h Arkansas, sontliwestern Missour 
 (only near Allenton), central IVTuiossee, southern Indiana, Illinois (K'ales Mill on 
 Einl>:irras River iu southeastern .Ias])er County). 
 
 Names in use. — Overcup Oak (N. C, S. C, Ga.-, Fla., AUi., ]\Iis.s., La., 
 Tex., Ark., 111.); Swamp Post Oak (Ala., S. C, Miss., La., Mo.); Water 
 
 Swamp White Oak (Tex.). 
 
 Chestnut Oak. 
 
 ind Mount Agauienticns) ;in(l eastern 
 
 t of Colnniliia), and in the mountains 
 
 ) Lake Chainplain and the (ienesee 
 
 res from Niasrara River to Amhurst- 
 
 .,N.J.,Pa.,1^ 
 
 White Oak (S. C, Miss.): Oak 
 
 Quercus prinus Linn. 
 
 Range. — From southern Maine 
 Massachusetts (Blue Hills) to Maryl 
 to northern Georgia and Alabama 
 River in New York, to Lake Erie i 
 burg), to central Kentucky and T 
 
 Names in use. — ChestnntjOak (Mask, R. I., Conn., N. Y 
 Del., Va., W. Va., N. (J., Ga.I^Jvy.)h li^ck Chestnnt Oak (Mass., R. I 
 Pa., Del., Ala.); Rock Oak (NS3^.^el., Pa.).; Tanbark Oak; Swamp 
 
 Cliestnut Oak (N. C); Mountain (|ak (Ala.). 
 
 Quercus acuminata (Michx.) Il»uba. Chinquapin Oak. 
 
 RaN(;e. — From New York (GardeHj^s^Island in Lake Champlain and on Hudson 
 River north of Newburg) westwWrd through southern Ontario to southeastern 
 Nebraska and eastern Kansas; southward in the Atlantic region to the District of 
 Columbia (and upper Potomac li^ver), ancLwest of the Allegheny Mountains to cen- 
 tral Alabama and Mississippi, through Arkansas and northern Louisiana to the 
 eastern border of Indian Territoly and Texas (to Nueces River, and canyons of Gua- 
 dalupe Mountains in extreme western p^t of State ,i. 
 
 Names in use. — Oliestn^t Oi\k (Conn., Del., Ala., N. C, Miss., La., 
 Tex., Ohio, 111., Mich., Kans.^Nel^r.) ; Chinquapin Oak (Mass., 11. 1., Pa. 
 Del., N. C, S. C, Ala., Ark., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ind., Nebr., Kans.) 
 Pin Oak (Kans., Ark.); Yellow Oak (111., Kans., Nebr., Mich.); Scrub 
 Oak (N. Y.); Dwarf Chestnut Oak (Mass., N. C, Tenn.); Shrub Oak 
 (Nebr.); White Oak (Tenn.); Rock Oak (Ark.). 
 Quercus prinoides Willd. D-warf Chinquapin Oak. 
 
 Range.- -Massachusetts (Ess<'X Comity) to North Carolina and westward to south- 
 eastern Nebraska, ceniraL Kansas* Indian Teiritiuiv, :kn<ii eastern 'liexas^ 
 
 HI 
 
 imperfectly understoo 
 
 yy^ 
 
 >rth.^ I S-w^uip White <^lfc— — *" 
 
 Quercus platanoides (Lam.) Sudwor ^ -.^ . . a^ « 
 
 Quercus bicolor Willd. ^ MJCIwOe 'WA'»al^>V^t^^ 
 
 Range.— From southern Maine tt>"-4i^rtheru Vermont an<l southwestern Qnebec ; 'Ir*'*^ 
 ■west through Ontario and 8ontherri4)eninsuliL,of Michigan to southeastern Iomvh and f^pj^J^f^ 
 western Missouri; south to the (^District ol* Columbia, northern Kentucky and 
 Arkansas, and along the AppalachiJin Mountauis to northern Georgia. 
 
 Names in use.— Swamj) White Oal< (Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., W. Va., Mo., Ill>, Ind.. Iowa, Micli..Ont.) ; Swamp Oak 
 (R. I., Pa, Mich.). \J ^X^^LA- f^MC 
 
 Quercus michauxii Nutt. \ ^ Cow Oak. 
 
 Rangk.— From Delawaie (near Wilmington) to northern Florida; west thrcmgh 
 the Gulf region to Texas (Trinity River), and through Arkansas and southeastern 
 Missouri to central Tennessee and| l^ntutky, Ijlinois, ai}# Indiana (in valley lower 
 
 Wabash River). Xe4M>^ rV^-wJjM^ tJjtYlMZ*^- 
 
 Names in use.— Basket Oak (Ala.. .Miss., La., Tex., Ark.); Cow Oak 
 (Ala., Miss., Tex., Ark., Mo. )j Sw^p White Oak (Del., Ala.); Swamps 
 Chestnut Oak (Fla.) 
 
 ^r^^ 
 
 ).); Swamp \ 
 
nv 
 
 54 
 Quercus michauxii x macrocarpa Sudworth. 
 
 Kangk. — Simtliwcstfrii Tennessee (near Covinj;ton). 
 
 Quercus breviloba (Torr.) Sargent. Durand Oak. 
 
 Quercus durandii Buckl. 
 
 Range.— Central Alabama (and to Mulberry Fork of Tombigbee River, in filonnt 
 County) and Mississippi (near Columbus and near Mhoons Valley); Louisiana (Red 
 River near Shreveport); Texas (I'rom near Dallas west to central part of the State 
 .and southward on streams flowing into the Gulf to near Monterey). 
 
 Names in use. — White Oak (Tex.); Texas White Oak (Ala.); Shin 
 Oak (Tex.); Pin Oak (Tex.): Bastard Oak (Ala., La., Tex.); Basket 
 AuiC Oak (Ala., La., Tex.); Dnrand's Oak (Ala., La., Tex.). 
 
 ^^•Otjuercus undulata '''<>rr.^n8^iij*f^ Rocky Mountain Oak. 
 
 Rangk. — Colorado to western Texa8(mouutains) and thr^^uh X^w Mexico and 
 Arizona to southern Utah and Nevada ; northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in ise. — Scrub Oak; Shin Oak. 
 Quercus douglasii Hook. & Arii. (California) Rock Oak. 
 
 Range. — California (from Mendocino County and valley of upper S iiraraento 
 River .southward on westward slopes of vSierra Nevada and valleys of the coast 
 ranges to the Tehachapi Pass and across to the border of the Mohave Desert . 
 
 Names in use. — Mountain White Oak (Cal.); Hock Oak (Cal,); 
 White Oak (CaL); Blue Oak (Cali. x.^^^j^CkmJl'i 
 Quercus engelmanni Greene. " r Engelmann Oak. 
 
 Ra.ngk. — .Southwestern California (in a belt 15 miles wide from vicinity ot Sierra 
 Madre to the mesa east of San Diego). 
 Names in use. — Eiigelniann's Oak; Evergreen White Oak. 
 
 Quercus oblongifolia Torr. Blue Oak. 
 
 Range. — Western Texas (Chisos Mountains) through southern New Mexico and 
 Arizona, and south into iiorthern Mexico. 
 
 Name in use. — White 
 
 hern Mexico. ^, f\ 
 
 Quercus arizonica Sargent. Arizona White Oak. 
 
 Range. — Southern New Mexico and Arii^tna. 
 
 Name tn use.— White Oak. &A</»AAZ«4t . 
 
 U Quercus reticulata Humb. & Bonpl. Netleaf Oak. 
 
 Range. — Southern New Mexico (Mount Graham, Santa Rita, Huachuca, Chiri- 
 cahiia, and Santa Catalina mountains) and Ar.zona (San Luis and Aniin;is moun- 
 tains). 
 
 Quercus toumeyi Sargent. Tourney Oak. 
 
 Han(. I.. — Southeastern Arizona (Mule Mountain, Cochise County) 
 
 . Quercus dumosa Nutt. (California) Scrub Oak. 
 
 Range. — California (western slopes of Sierra Nevada; coast ranges south of San 
 J'rancisco liay; islands otf southern coast and inland to Mohave Desert; San Ber- 
 nardino and San .Jacinto mountains); Lower California (to near San Telmo). 
 
 Quercus dumosa revoluta ^Sargent. Curl-leaf Scrub Oak. 
 
 Range. — Northern California (San Francisco Bay to Mendociun County and Napa 
 Valley). 
 
 ^nw* 
 
'^^"'-^■^^ ^UJJ^J^iti^L^jJ^ 
 
 Quercus virginiana' ?*Ih1. 
 
 QUEKCl S YIRKNS Ait. '' Li^ji^ 
 
 Kanck. — From Virgiuia (shores ot Mobjack Bay), oti islai^ 
 and tlirough southern Florida (Biscayne Bay) and alonji the Gull" coast (from Caj)!- / a J^ 
 Romano) to western Texas (mouth ot Kio Grande Hiver and inland to tb« Red Ixiver 
 and Apache and Guadalupe mountains); Fowet CalifoMiia (^lirilllores), son^ern 
 Mexifo. Central America, and Cuba. l^/£C0i ''^v^LA^ "^t^ *i'tytt\JfS§ , 
 
 Names in use.— Live Oak (Va., N. G., S. ('.. (;a.. FLa., Ala., Miss., 
 La., Tex., CaL); Cbtue Yeit (La.). P^^dkA^^^-yKUl^ 
 
 Quercus emoryi Torr. Emory Oak. 
 
 Range. — Mountains of western Texas and of New Mexico and Arizona sDUtb of 
 the Colorado plateau; Mexico (mountains of Nuevo Leon, Cliibualnia. and Souora). 
 
 Names in use. — Emory's Oak (Cal.); BlarkOak i Aii/ N. Mcx.). 
 Quercus cnrysolepis l..iebin. Canyon Live Oak. 
 
 RANt;E. — From southern Oregon (Cow Creek V.-illey) through Califmnia (ciast 
 ranges, western slopes Sierra Nevada, San Bernardino, San .Jacinto, and Cuyamat-a 
 mountains) to Lower California (Mount San Pedro Martir); (ami mountain sum- 
 mits) southern Arizona and New Mexico; Mexico (northern Souora). 
 
 Names in use.— Live Oak (CaL, Oreg.); Maul Oak (Cal.); Iron Oak 
 (Cal.): Valparaiso Oak (Cal.); Black Live Oak (Cal.); Canyon Live 
 Oak (CaL), Canj'ou Oak (CaL); Golden-cup Oak (Cal.); Hickory Oak 
 (Kern County, Cal.). 
 
 Quercus chrysolepis palmeri Engelm. Palmer Oak. 
 
 Range. — Boundary between California and Lower California. 
 Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia(Kell.) Ensielni. Huckleberry Oak. 
 
 Range. — California (highest elevations Sierra Nevada i. 
 
 Quercus tomentella Engelm.dwxVw. m^tALUvJL^ vwv V OtA^^aviA 
 
 R.\NGE. — Santa Kosa. Sauta Cruz (south of Santa Barbara i. ."^anfa Catilina Islands, 
 south of Cape Vincent, off coast of Calilbrnia; Guadalupe Fslands, ott coast of 
 Lower California. 
 
 Quercus agrifolia Nee. California Live Oak. 
 
 Range. — From northern California (Mendocino County and along the coast ranges 
 and islands) to Lower California (Mount San Pedro Martir). 
 
 Names in use. — Coast Live Oak (CaL); California Live Oak (Cal.); 
 Eiicina (CaL); Evergreen Oak (Cal.) 
 
 Quercus hypoleuca Engelm. Whiteleaf Oak. 
 
 Range. — From western Texas (Limpio Mountains) over mountains of New Mexico 
 ami Arizona, south of the Colorado Plateau; Mexico (northern Chihuahua and 
 Sonora). 
 
 Names in use. — Oak (Ariz.); Mexican Oak; White leaved Oak. 
 
 'Di. J K. Small has recently described the following species as new. I have not 
 seen specimens ot it, but it appears to be very closely related to (Quercus rirgin'mna. 
 
 (Jnenns fieiititiata Small (Bull Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 24, p. 4.3S. 1897). A shrub or 
 small tree 6 to 1.5 feet high. ''Leaves narrowly oblong, elliptic, or oblong-oblanee- 
 olate, 3-6 cm long, entire, obta.se or apiculate, strongly revolute, mostly gradually 
 narrowed at the base, glabrous and parchment-like above, finely tomentose and con- 
 spicuously rngose on the prominent nerves beneath * ' " ; acorn><, usually 2 at the 
 enijof a peduncle * * Jt', cups turbinate * ' *." Florida (sandy soil). , 
 
56 
 
 Quercus -^vislizeni A. de C. Highland Oak. 
 
 liiANGK. — From uortliern California (lower slopes Mount Shasta and southward 
 tbrough the coast region to Santa Lucia Mountains, Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz 
 Islands, and lower slopes of Sierra Nevada to Tijon Pass; San Rernadino, Sau 
 Jacinto, and Cuyamaca mountains) to Lower California (Mount Sau I'edro Martir). 
 
 Names in use. — Live Oak (Cal.); Highland Live Oak (Oal.). 
 Quercus morehus Ivell. Morehus Oak. 
 
 Kaxge. — California (Lake County). 
 
 Quercus myrtifolia Willd. Myrtle Oak. 
 
 Kanok. — From South Carolina (on coast and islands) to eastern Floriila. and from 
 Biscayne Bay to eastern Lonisian; 
 
 Quercus rubra Linn. 
 
 )nisi:ni;i. ^ a _, 
 
 Red Oak. 
 
 Range. — Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick through QutU)ec and along 
 the north shores of Lake Huron to near Lake Namekagou; south to Middle Tennes- 
 see and Virginia, and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia; west 
 to eastern Nebraska, central Kansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Eed Oak (Me., Vt., N. H., Mass., K. I., N. Y., N. J , 
 Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ark., Mo., Ky., 111., lud., Iowa, 
 Nebr., Kans., Mich., Minn., S. Dak., Ont.) ; Black Oak (Vt., Conn., N. Y., 
 Wis , Iowa, Nebr., S. Dak., Ont.); Spanish Oak (Pa., N. C). 
 Quercus rubra runcinata A. de C. 
 
 Rangk. — Missouri (bottom lands opposite St. Louis). 
 
 Quercus texana Buckl. Texan Oak. 
 
 j^-RAN(;ft.^-From northeastern Iowa (near Waterloo) and central Illinois through 
 Quthern Illinois and Indiana, western Kentucky and Tennessee to Florida vvalley 
 ilachicola River) and through southern Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana to 
 ^tern 'lexas (Limpio Mountains). Range imperfectly known. 
 
 Names in use.— Ked Oak (Tex.); Spotted Oak (Tex.); Spanish Oak 
 (Tex.). 
 
 Quercus coccinea Muenchh. Scarlet Oak. 
 
 Range.— From Maine (Androscoggin River) through southern ^e>\\ Hampshire 
 and Vermont and central New York to southern Ontario; west through centiiil 
 Michigan and Minnesota to southeastern Nebraska, and south to the District of 
 Columbia, northern Illinois, and on the Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and 
 eastern 'I'enuessee. 
 
 Names in use.— Scarlet Oak (Vt, Mass., li. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., N. C, Mo., III., Ind., Wis., Minn., Mich., Nebr., Iowa, Ont.); 
 Eed Oak (N. C, Ala., Wis., Nebr., Minn.); Black Oak (Mo., 111.. Iowa, 
 Wis.); Spanish Oak (N. C). 
 
 Quercus coccinea x pumila Sud worth. 
 
 Kangk. — Ma.ssachnsetts (near Witiiw yijle ). 
 
 Quercus velutina Lam. 
 
 Quercus tinctoria Bartr. 
 
 Ran(;i:. — From .southern Maine (coast) toTiorthern Veiilibnt,'^ 
 Ontario and central Minnesota; south to northern IloriUa, wes 
 Indian Territory, and eastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use.— Black Oak (Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del , 
 Va., W. Va., N.C., S. O., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ohio^ll., Iowa. 
 Kans., Nebr., Mich., Wis., Minn., Ont.) ; Quer^tron Oak (dS!^. C.,La., 
 
 0^ 
 
 Yellow Oak. 
 
 rn and western 
 to eastern Kansas. 
 
57 
 
 Kans., Minn.); Yellow Oak (R. I., N. Y., 111., Tex., Kans., Minn.); Tan- 
 bark Oak (111.); Yellow-barked Oak (Minn.); Spotted Oak (Mo.); Yel- 
 low-bark (R. I.): Dyer's Oak (Tex.). 
 Quercus californica (Torr.) Coop. California Black Oak. 
 
 Kaxge. — From western Orejjjou (McKinzio River) to the southern boundary of 
 California (through coast mountains and on western slopes of Sierra Nevada, San 
 Boniardino, San Jacinto, and Cuyainac-a mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Black Oak (Cal., Oreg.) 5 Mountain Black Oak (Cal.); 
 Kellooo's Oak (Cal.); California Black Oak (Cal.). 
 Quercus catesbaei Micbx. Turkey Oak. 
 
 Kaxge. — In c^^j^egiou from Xor1|i Carolina l|p Florida (Cape Malabar and Tease 
 Creek) and west^ eastern T>onisiana. 
 
 Names in use. — Turkey Oak (Fla., Ga., Ala., Miss., La.); Scrub 
 Oak (X. C, S. C, Fla.. Miss.); Black Jack (S. C); Barren Scrub Oak; 
 Forked-leaf (S. C); Forked-leaf Black Jack. 
 
 Quercus catesbaei xbrevifolia Sud worth. 
 Rang?:. — Florida (Lake County). 
 
 Quercus catesbaei x laurifolia Engelm. 
 
 Range. — South Carolina (Bluliton). 
 
 Quercus sinuata (Lam.) Walt. 
 
 Range. — South Carolina (near Bluffton; tiee now destroyed.) 
 
 Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sud worth. f(j|^^f^]^^^^j^ — Span 
 Quercus fax,cata Michx. ^^^Ni'lCU 
 
 Range. — From southern New Jersey to central Florida and through the Gul 
 States to eastern Texas (Brazos River), Arkansas, southwestern Missouri to middl 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, southern Illinois and Indiana. 
 
 Names in use. — Spanish Oak (Del.,Ya., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Miss 
 La.. Tex., Mo., 111.) ; Red Oak (N.C.,Va., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Ind.) 
 Sj^anish Water Oak (La.). 
 
 Quercus digitata x velutina Sud worth. 
 
 Range. — Tennessee (near Covington). 
 
 Quercus palustris Muenchh. Pin Oak. 
 
 Range. — From Massachusetts (Connecticut River, near Amherst) to southeastern 
 Missouri, and south to Virginia (Lower Potomac River), central Kentucky, northern 
 Arkansas, and eastern border of Indian Territory. 
 
 Names in use. — Pin Oak (Mass., Conn., R. I., N. Y., Pa., Del.. Ya., 
 Md., Ark., Mo., 111.. Wis., Iowa, Kans.); Swamp Spanish Oak (Ark., 
 Kans.); Water Oak (R. L, 111.); Swamp Oak (Pa., Ohio, Kans.): Water 
 Spanish Oak (Ark.). 
 
 Quercus pumila (Marsh.) Sud worth. Barren Oak. 
 
 Quercus ilicifolia Wang. 
 
 Range. — From Maine (Mount Desert Island off the coa.st) through eastern and 
 southern New England; in New York (Lake George and valley of Hudson River); 
 New Jersey (pine barrens) ; eastern Pennsylvania (aud along the Allegheny Moun- 
 tains — east in Maryland to Montgomery County) to northwestern North Carolina 
 (King anil Crowders mountains). 
 
 Na:mes ijj.use. — Bear Oak; Barren Oak (Md.); Dwarf Black Oak; 
 Scrub Oak. 
 
58 
 Quercus georgiana ('urtis. Georgia Oak. 
 
 Kanck. — Central G«M)rgi:i (Stone Mountain, Little Stone Mountain, 9 miles south 
 of Stone Mountain, and other granite hills 12 to 18 miles eastward in Dekalb Connty). 
 
 Quercus georgiana x marilandic a Sargent. 
 
 Ran(;k. — Central (ieorj^ia (Stone Mountain, Dekalb Connty). 
 
 Quercus marilandica Mueuchh. Black Jack. 
 
 QiERCrs NIGRA of autliors, not of L. 
 
 Kangi:. — I'roui New York (Forbells Lamliug and Tine Island, l-ong Island) through 
 northern Ohio, Indiana, and southern Michigan (Ann Arbor and Lansing) to south- 
 eastern IS'ebraska, central Kansas, and Indian Territory; south to Florida (Matanzaa 
 Inlet and Tampa Bay) and west to Texas (Nueces River). 
 
 Names in use. — Black Jack (Pa., Del., W. Va., ]^. C, S. C, Ga., 
 Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Mo., 111., Iiid., Kans., Xebr., Mich., Minn., 
 Iowa., S. Dak.); Jack Oak (N. Y., W. Va., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ohio, III., 
 Kans.. Nebr.); Iron Oak (Tenn.); Black Oak (Ark., Wis.); Barren Oak 
 (Kans., Term.): Barrens Oak (Fla.); Scrub Oak (S. C). 
 
 Quercus marilandica x velutina Bush. 
 
 Ra.\(;k. — Indian Territory (near Sapula). 
 
 Quercus brittoni Davis. Britton Oak. 
 
 Rantje. — New York (Watchogue, Staten Island). 
 
 Quercus nigra JAun. "Water Oak. 
 
 Quercus AciUATicA Walt. 
 
 Range. — Southern Delaware to Florida (Cape Malabar and Tampa Bay); west to 
 the Appalachian Mountains and through the Gulf States to Texas (Colorado River); 
 through Arkansas and eastern border of Indian Territory to southeastern Missouri 
 (Black River), middle Tennessee, and Kentucky. 
 
 i^AMES IN USE.— Water Oak (Del., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., IMiss., La., 
 Tex., Ark.. Mo.); Spotted Oak (Tex., Ala.); Duck Oak; Possum Oak; 
 Pnnk Oiik. 
 
 Quercus laurifolia Michx. Laurel Oak. 
 
 Raxck. — Coa.st region from southeastern Virginia (Dismal Swamp) to Florida 
 (Mosfpiito Inlet and Capo Romano) and west in the Gulf region to Louisiana. 
 
 ]!f a:\ies IN USE.— Laurel Oak (N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla ); Swamp Laurel 
 Oak (Tenn.): Darlington Oak (S. C); Willow Oak (Fla., S. C); Water 
 Oak (Ga.). 
 
 Quercus brevifolia (Lam.) Sargent. Blue Jack. 
 
 Quercus cinerka^IMIcIix. 
 
 RANOlij. — From North tJaroliua (in a maritime belt 10 to .^0 miles inland) to Florida 
 % (Ca]te Malabar and Tease Creek across the peninsula); west on Gulf coast to Texas 
 (Brazos River and inland as far as Dallas). 
 
 Names in use.— Upland Willow Oak (N. C, Ala., Tex.); Blue Jack 
 (N. C.Fla., Tex., Ga.); Sand Jack (Tex.); Hij^h-jiround Willow Oak 
 (S. C); Turkey Oak (S. C, Ga.); Shin Oak (Tex.); Oinnamou Oak 
 (Fla.). 
 
 Quercus imbricaria Michx. Shingle Oak. 
 
 Uant.h. — From Pennsylvania (Lehigh County) west through soutliern Michigan 
 (Washtenaw County, Kalamazoo County), and Wisconsin to northern Missouri and 
 
59 
 
 northeastern Kansas; south to the District of Cohimbia and (in the AlleKheny 
 Monntains) to northern Georgia an<l Alabama, to mi<l(lle Tennessee and northern 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Shingle Oak (Del., N. C, S. C, Ky., Mo., Ind., 111., 
 Kan., Iowa, Nebr.); Laurel Oak (Pa., Del., S. C, Ky., 111., Nebr.); Jack 
 Oak (111.); Water Oak (N. C). 
 
 Quercus imbricaria x palustris Engelm 
 
 Kaxge. — Missouri (8 miles west of 8t. Louis; but tree since destroyed). 
 Quercus tridentata (de C.) Engelm. Trident Oak. 
 
 Range. — Missouri (near St. Louis — but tree nov destroyed — and near Allentown) 
 and Michigan (Washtenaw County). 
 
 Quercus leana Nutt. Lea Oak. 
 
 Range. — Ohio (near Cincinnati) ; District of Columbia and western North Carolina 
 to southern Michigan, central and northern Illinois, and southeastern Missouri. 
 Range imperfectly known. 
 
 Quercus phellos Linn. Willo-w Oak. 
 
 Range. — From New York (Tottenville, Staten Island) to northeastern Florida — 
 usually in the low maritime plain, and through the Gulf region to Texas (Sabine 
 River), and through Arkansas to southeastern Missouri, central Tennessee, and 
 southern Kentucky. 
 
 Names in use.— Willow Oak (R. I., N. Y., Pa.. Del., Ala., N. C, S. C, 
 Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Mo.) ; Peach Oak (N. J., DeL, Ohio); Water 
 Oak (S. C); Swamp Willow Oak (Tex.). 
 
 Quercus phellos x digitata Small. 
 
 Range. — North Carolina (Stanley County). 
 
 Quercus phellos x pumila Sadworth. 
 
 Range. — New Jersey (Mays Lauding). 
 
 Quercus heterophylla Micbx. f. Bartram Oak. 
 
 Range. — Pennsylvania (ne..;r Philadelphia — but tree long siuce destroyed] ; New 
 Jersey (near Camden) ; Delaware (Wilmington) ; New York (Staten Island) ; Virginia 
 (near Alexandria) ; Districtof Columbia; western North Carolina ; Tennessee (Coffee 
 County); Alabama (near Falkville) ; Texas (Houston). 
 
 Names in use. — Bartram's Oak (Del., Ala.); Burriers Oak (lit.). 
 Quercus subimbricaria (de C.) Sudworth. 
 Quercus phellos x tinctoria Gray. 
 Quercus phellos x nigra Britt. 
 
 Range. — New Jersey (between Keyport and South Amboy); New York (Staten 
 Island); North Carolina (Yadkin River); South Carolina (near Aiken). Aa^ ..^^m'^ 
 
 Quercus densiflora Hook. & Am. '(California) Tanbark Oak.JUi»^f/^ 
 
 Range. — Southern Oregon (Umpqua River) and southward through California (/ 
 
 (coast raufics to Santa Inez Mountains — east of Santa Barbara, and western slopes 
 of the Sierra Nevada to Mariposa County). 
 
 Xames in use. — Tanbark Oak (Gal.); Chestnut Oak (Cal.); Cali- 
 fornia Chestnut Oak (Oreg.); Peach Oak (Oreg.); Live Oak (Oreg.). 
 
 Quercus densiflora echinoides (R. Br. Cainpst.) Saigent. 
 
 Range — Southern Oregon (Canyon Creek) and northern California (Mount Shasta 
 and Sierra Nevada). 
 
/ 
 
 60 
 
 , j|T^lmus crassifolia Nutt. ^- A -^^ Cedar Elm. 
 
 ^"*^?*^ Range.— From Mississippi (Sunflower River) through southeoi Arkanajis UJi'L^^ 
 Texas (from coast to th»> Pecos River) to Mexico (Nuevo Leon). ^.^IprxilPll^ \^ W-T jK^v. 
 t Names in use. — Cedar Elm (Tex.); Red Elm (Tex.); Basket Elm ^ 
 
 ^ Ulmus pubescens Walt. -Z<X>ftO ^A\ rhciZf . Slippery^Elm. 
 vy>4 Ulmus FULVA Michx. jStr^**-^ J4i^ V \>^^ ^'^'-^-t. 
 
 jh^ Rangk. — From Lower St. Lawrenco River (Orleans IslandjthTough Ontario to 
 North Dakota au<l eastern Nebraska; south to vpesterii Florida, central Alabama, 
 ,nd ^lississippi and Texas (San Antonio River). 
 
 Names in use. — Slippery Elm ( Vt., N. H., Mass., II. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Dei., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Fla., Ala., Ga., Miss., La., Tex., Ky., 
 Mo., Kaus., Nebr., Ohio, 111., lud., Wis., Mich., Iowa, Miim., Out.); Red 
 Elm (Yt., Mass., N. Y., Del., Pa., W. Va., S. C, Ala., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark., Ky,, Mo., 111., Kans.. Nebr., Iowa, Ohio. Out., Wis., Mich., Minn.); 
 Red wooded Elm (Tenu.); liock Elm (Tenn.): Orme gras (La.); Moose 
 ^ Elm; Oo-hoosk-ah = "It slips" (Indians, N. Y.).. 
 
 jf ^ Ulmus americana Linn. White Elm. 
 
 JffJBtt.^ Rangk. — From southern Newfoundland to Lake Superior (north shores) and to the 
 l^m eastern base of the Rocky Mountains (here np the Saskatchewan River to latitude 
 MK 54° 30") ; south to Florida (Cape Canaveral and Pease Creek) ; west to Dakota (Black 
 iioSU^ ♦ Hills), western Nebraska, western Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas (Rio Concho 
 River). 
 
 Names in use. — American Elm (Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y'., Del., Pa., 
 N. C, Miss., Tex., 111., Ohio, Kans., Nebr., Mich., Minn,, Ont); White 
 Elm (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. L, N. Y., Pa., N.,1., Del., Va., W. Va., 
 N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., Kans., 
 Nebr,, Oliio, Ont., Iowa, Mich., Minn., N. Dak,, S. Dak.); Water Elm 
 (Miss., Tex., Ark., Mo., 111., Iowa, Mich,, Ohio,, Minn., Nebr.); Elm 
 (Mass., R, I., Conn., N. J., Pa., N. O., S, C, Iowa, Wis.); Orme Maigre 
 (La.); Swamp Elm; Rock Elm. 
 
 \ AKIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Ulmus americana pendula Ait. "Weeping American Elm. 
 
 Ulmus racemosa Thomas. fh*t£' 1/>H/ ^ ; t^ Cork Elm. 
 
 liANtiE. — From t^iiebcc (eastern townships) through Ontario, and south throiijih 
 northwestern New Hampshire to southern Vermont; westward throui^h northern 
 New York, southern Michigan, and Wisconsin (Lake Mendota, near Madison^ to 
 northeastern Nebraska (Meadville, Keyapaha County), southeastern Missouri, ami 
 middle Tennessee. 
 
 Names in use.— Cork Elm (Vt., Mass., R, I., N. Y., N. J,, Ark., Ky,, 
 Mo., Wis., Mich., Ohio, Iowa); Rock Elm (R. 1., W. Va., Ky., Mo., 111., 
 Wis., Iowa, Mich., Nebr., Ont.); Hickory Elm (Mo., 111., Ind., Iowa)- 
 
61 
 
 White Elm (Ont); Thomas Elm (Tenn.); I^ortherii Cork-barked Elm 
 (Teiin.); Corkbark Elm (N. Y.); Northern Cork Elm (Vt.); Wahoo 
 (Obio); Chff Ehn (Wis.); Corky White Elm. 
 ITlmus alata Michx. Wing Elin. 
 
 KAN(iK — From sontlunu Virginia to western Florida, and from soiitberii Illinois 
 and Indiana through western Kentucky and Tennessee to the Gulf, and west through 
 southern Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Indian Territory, and Texas (to Trinity River). 
 
 Names in use.— Winj;ed Elm (N. C, S. C, Ark., Tex., 111., Ind.) 
 Wahoo (W. Va., N. C, S. C, La., Tex., Ky., Mo.): Wahoo Elm (Mo.) 
 Witch Elm (W. Va.); Elm (W. Va.); Cork Elm (Fla., S. C, Tex.) 
 Water Elm (Ala.); Small-leaved Elm (X. C); Red Elm (Fla., Ark.) 
 Whahoo (S. (1); Corl^y Elm (Tex.): Mountain Elm (Ark.). 
 
 Planera aquatica (Walt.) Gniel. Planertree. 
 
 Iyange. — From North Carolina (Cape Fear River) to western Florida, and west 
 through southern Alabama and Mississippi to Texas (Trinity River); northward 
 through western Louisiana and Arkansas to southern Missouri, west Tennessee 
 (Brownsville), central Kentucky, and Illinois (to lower Wabash River). 
 
 Names in use. — American Planetree (Ala.); Planertree (N. C, 
 S.C ,Fla.,La.,Tex., Ark.,Tenn.); Water Elm (Fla.); Sycamore (N. C.;; 
 Pleue (La.). 
 
 CELtiS' Limi. 
 Celtis occidentalis Linn. Hackberry. 
 
 Range. — From St. Lawrence River (St. Helens Island, near Montreal) to southern 
 Ontario; in the United States from Massachusetts (Massachusetts Bay) to north- 
 western Nebraska, North Dakota, southern Idaho (Boise City), eastern Washington 
 and Oregon (Snake River), western Washington (Puget Sound), Nevada- (East 
 Knmboldt Mountains), New Mexico, and soi.th to PTorida (Biscayne Bay and Cape 
 Romano), middle Tennessee, Missouri, eastern Kansas, Indian Territory, and eastern 
 Texan. 
 
 Names in use.— Hackberry (N. H., Vt, R. L, N. Y., N. J., Del., Pa., 
 W Ta., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ariz., Ark., Ky., Mo., III., 
 
 •Dr. J. K. Small Las recently described the following new species, specimens of 
 which 1 have not seen : 
 
 Celtis Georgiana Small (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 24, p. 439, 1897). "A low species 
 ('diffuse shrub') related to C. pumila, from which it may be distinguished by its 
 smaller, nearly acute leaves, the very short pedicels, and smaller tan-colored 
 drupes " North central Georgia (Yellow River Valley, near McGuire's mill in 
 Gwinnett County, and in vicinity of Stone Mountain). 
 
 Celiig Helleri Small (1. c). A tree about 30 feet high and 3 feet in diameter, with 
 much branched and wide-spreading crown. Bark of trunk and main branches with 
 corky warts. The leaves are described as ''rather firm, the l)lades ovate to oblong, 
 4 to 7 cm. long, obtuse or acute, crenate-serrate, * ' " rounded or subcordate at 
 tLe base, ' * ' scabrous pubescent above, pale and tomentose beneath." 
 Between San Antonio an<l San Antonio River, Texas. This tree appears to be very 
 closely related to Celtis occidentalin reticulata 
 
 ^Shrubby variety, C. occidentalis pit mila Gr., common from South Atlantic States 
 to Missouri, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada. 
 
62 
 
 Ind., Wis., Iowa, Kans., Nebr., Mich., Minn., S. Dak., Ohio, Out.), 
 Supiiberry (N. Y., Pa., TJel., N. C, s! C, Minn.); Nettle-tree (K. I., 
 Mass., Del., Mich.); American Nettle tree (Tenn.); Hoop Ash (Vt.); 
 One-berry (11. 1.); Hack-tree (Minn.); Juniper- tree (N. J.); Bastard 
 Elm (N. J.). 
 Celtis occidentalis reticulata (Torr.) Sargent. Palo Blanco. 
 
 Kangk. — From eastern Texas (Dallas) to the Rio Grande River ami throuuh New 
 Mexico and Arizona to southern Utali, Nevada, California (western rim of Colorado 
 Desert) ; Lower California (.San Julio Canyon and Cerros Island). 
 
 Names in use.— Hackberry (Tex.); Palo Blanco (Tex.). 
 Celtis mississippiensis Bosc. Sugarberry. 
 
 Rangk. — From southern Indiana and Illinois through Kentucky and Tennessee to 
 Florida ( Biscay ne Bay), and through Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas to Mexico 
 (Nuevo Leon). 
 
 Names in use. — Sugarberry (Fla., Ala., Miss.): Connu (La.); Bois 
 inconnu (La.); HackberryVTitsnn.), *#_ if / i \ 
 
 Range. — From Avestern Massachusetts and New York (Long Island) to southern 
 Ontario, central ^lichigan, southeastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas; south to Florida 
 (Biscayno Bay and Cape Romano) and Texaff (Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use.— Red Mulberry (Me., Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, Fla., Ala., Ga., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ky., 
 Mo.,Ohio, Mich.. 111., Ind., Kans., Nebr.,Ont.); Mulberry (Pa.,N. C.,S.C., 
 Fla., Ala., Ark., Tex., Ky., Mo.. Ohio, 111., Iowa, Nebr.) ; Black Mulberry 
 (N. J., Pa., W. Va.): Virginia Mulberry- tree (Tenn.); Murier Sauvage 
 (La.). 
 Morus celtidifolia H. B. K. Mexican Mulberry. 
 
 Range. — From Texas (south from the Colorado River and mountains of western 
 part of the State) and southern New Mexico to Ai'izona (Santa Rita Mountirtns) ; 
 Mexico (from Nuevo Leon to Chihuahua and through southern Mexico) to Central 
 America and Peru. 
 
 Name in use. — Mexican ^Mulberry (Tex.). 
 
 Morus alba Linn. White Mulberry. 
 
 Rangk. — China; hut wi<h-ly cultivated and naturalized in the I'liifcd States. 
 
 VAKIKTIES IHSTINGIISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Morus albatatarica (Linn.) Loud. Russian Mulberry. 
 
 Morus alba rosea Loud. 
 
 Morus alba macrophylla (Moretti) Loud. Largeleaf Mulberry. 
 
 Morus alba vulgaris tokwa (Sieb.) Bur. 
 
 Morus alba pyramidalis Seringe. 
 
 Morus alba peudula (Dipp.) Sudw. 
 
 Morus alba constantinopolitana (Poir.) Loud. 
 
 Morus alba multicaulis (Parr.) Loud. 
 
 Morus alba venosa Delile. 
 
VVxy>^ 
 
 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent 
 
 Paper Mulberry. 
 
 Kaxge. — Japan. Cultivated and naturalized in the Southern S 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum Raf. '"'^ 
 
 Maclura aurantiaca :N^utt. 
 
 Range. — From southern Arkansas (south of Arkansas River) throujjjh southeast- 
 ern Indian Territory and southern Texas (to about latitude 35*^56'). Widely dis- 
 tributed elsewhere by cultivation. 
 
 Names in use. — Osage Orange (Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., 
 Va., W. Va., K C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Miss., La., Tex.,Ky., Mo., Ohio., 111., 
 Kans.,Nebr., Iowa, Mich.); BoisD'Aic (La.,Tex.,Mo.); Bodock(Kaiis.); 
 ]Mock Orange (La.); Bow- wood (Ala.); Osage Apple-tree (Tenn.); Yel- 
 low-wood (Tenu.); Hedge (HI.); Hedge-plant (Iowa, Nebr.); Osage 
 (Iowa). 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum inerme Andre. ^ Thornless Osage Orange. 
 
 Ficus aurea Nutt. f G-olden Fig. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (shores and islands from Indian River on the east coast, 
 and Tampa Bay on the west coast to the southern keys') ; Bahama Islands. 
 
 i^AMES IN USE. — Wild Fig (Fla.); India-Rubber-tree (Fla.); Wild 
 Rubber-tree (Fla.).; Rubber-tree (Fla.). 
 Ficus populnea Willd. Poplarleaf Fig. 
 
 FiCUS PEDUNCULATA Xutt. 
 Range. — Florida (Biscayne Bay region and Key Largo, I'mbrella Key, Boca 
 Checa Key, Pumpkin Key, and Key West) ; West Indies. 
 
 Names in use. — Wild Fig (Fla.); India-Rubber-tree (Fla.). 
 
 Family POLYGON_A.CE^E. 
 
 COCCOLOBIS Browne. 
 
 Coccolobis uvifera (Linn.) Sargent. Sea Grape. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (shores from Mosquito Inlet on the eiist eoast to the 
 southern keys, and from Tampa Bay on the west coast to Cape Sable); Bermuda and 
 Bahama Islands, West Indies, and in South America from Colombia to Brazil. 
 
 Kames in use. — Sea Grape (Fla.); Seaside Plum. 
 Coccolobis laurifolia (Jacq.) Sargent. Pigeon Plum. 
 
 CoccoLOBA floridana Meisn. 
 
 Range.— Southern Florida (east coast from Cape Canaveral to the southern keys, 
 and on the west coast from Cape Romano to CapeSable; Bahamas, West Indies, and 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Name in use. — Pigeon Plum (Fla.) 
 
64 
 Family nSTYOT^GI^^CE^E. 
 
 PISONIA Liiiii. 
 Pisonia obtusata Jacq. BloUy 
 
 Range. — Sontbern Florida (shores on the east coast from Cape Canaveral to the 
 southern islands; especially large on Elliotts and Old Rhodes Key); West Indies to 
 Brazil. 
 
 Names in use. — Pigeon wood (Fla,); Beef wood (Fla.); Cork-wood 
 (Ela.); Pork- wood (Fla.); Bklly (Fla.). ' i^ 
 
 ^^^i-^^ V 3VIAGNOI^IA linn, ''^'^'^tjwj 
 
 Magnolia fcetida (Linn.) Saro€fiif/ (Evergreen) Magnolia. 
 
 ^L|j;jJ|>jJUE;v\jVIagnolia aRANDiFLORA Linn. 
 
 X Range. — Coast region North Carolina (south of Cape Fear River ) to Florida (Mos- 
 quito Inlet and Tarapa Bay) and westward in the Gulf coast region to Texas (Brazos 
 River) ; through western Louisiana to southern Arkansas. 
 
 I^AMES IN USE. — Magnolia (X. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ky.); Big Laurel (N. C, S. C, Miss., La.); Bull Bay (Ala., Ga., Miss.); 
 Great Laurel j\Iagnolia(Ala.); Laurel-leaved Magnolia; Large-flowered 
 Evergreen Magnolia; Bat-tree; Laurel Bay; Laurel (S. C.). 
 
 VAKIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Magnolia foetida lanceolota (Ait.) Sudw. . Exmouth Magnolia. 
 
 Magnolia fcEtida praecox (Loud.) Sarg. \ 
 
 Magnolia fcetida angustifolia (Loud.) Sarg. 
 Magnolia foetida ferruginea (Sims) ^^^w. ^^«^ 
 
 Magnolia glauca Linn. \%J^u^i)Jt}''h4^ ^*^^'\ Sweet Magnolia. 
 
 Range. — Massachusetts (Gloucester, Kssejc (f|i/uty) ; Long Island (Tur tle Pond , 
 Suffolk County); from New Jersey to Florida (Biscayne Bay on the east coast, and 
 to Tampa Bay on the west coast) ; west in the Gulf region to Texas (Triuity River). 
 
 Names in use.— Sweet Bay (Mass., K. I,, Pa., N. J., N. C,, S. C, 
 Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Ark., Mo.); White Bay (N. C, S. C., Ala., Fla., 
 Miss., La.); Swamp Laurel (j\Iass.,N. C, Ga., Miss.); Swamp Sassafras 
 (Del., Pa., Tenn.); Swamp Magnolia (N. J., Pa., Tenn.); Magnolia 
 (K J., Del., Pa.); White laurel (Del., iljss., L^); Beavar-tree (Del., 
 
 S. C., Miss.); Bay (S. C.). -Ji^. »*0 
 
 ,|Ijss., L^); Beav|r-tr 
 
 varieties distinguished in cultivation. 
 
 Magnolia glauca longifolia Ait. 
 
 Magnolia glauca major Sims. Thomson Magnolia. 
 
 ^^.JjjJTMagnolia acuminata Linn. ^./rA^f^ .d/WV-^l^ Cucumber-tree. 
 
 f),^/ffO ^ Range. — Froui western New York through soutnern Ontario to southern Illinois 
 and south in the Appalachian Mountains to southern Alabama (Stockton) and north- 
 eastern Mississippi (Meridian) ; central Kentucky and Tennessee (near Nashville and 
 eastern part of State); northeastern, southern, and southwestern Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Cucumber-tree (R. L, Mass., N.Y., Pa., D.C. (cult.), 
 ^K. C.^. C., Ala., Miss^La., Ark., Ky., W. Va., Ohio, Ind. aIU.); Moun- 
 
 ftWk <utJL 4*^. >AA;^^^-yt4MwMvc 
 
Tm>xella 
 
 ■ -tree. 
 
 tain Masrnolia (Miss., Ky.); Cucumber (W. Va.);Blaqki 
 Maiiiiolia (Ark.); Pointed-leaved Magnolia (lit.). VVff^^ - 
 
 Magnolia acuminata cordata (Michx.) Loud. '^'^/^f^Ji^-^\jOJUU4 « 
 
 Yello"w-flo"wered Cucumber-tiree. 
 
 Range. — Occasional in the Alleghenies, but most i)erfect in ciiltivatimi. 
 
 Names in use. — Cucumber tree (Va., I^. C.,.Miss., La.); Yellow- 
 tiowered Magnolia (Ala., La.); Yollow-tiowered Cucumber-tree (Ala.); 
 Yellow Cucumber-tree (Ala.); Heart-leaved Cucunil»er-tree (N. C.). 
 
 Magnolia macrophylla Michx. Largeleaf Umbrella. 
 
 RaN(,e. — From North Carolina (southern Alleg^liony Mount lins) to southeastern 
 Kentucky, to middle and western Florida and southern Alah.ima; tlirough northern 
 Mississippi to Louisiana (Pearl River); central Arkansas (Garland, Montgomery, 
 Hot Springs, and Sebastian counties). 
 
 Names in use. — Large-leaved Cucumber-tree (Ala.. Miss., La.); 
 Great-leaved Magnolia (X. C, Miss., La.): Large leaved Umlnella-tree 
 (N. C. Tenn.); Cucumber (Ky.); Cucumber-tree (Fla.); Laug-leaved 
 M.gnolia (S. 0.). ^4i^,^, ^j »>* JJH^JaU ^iA-.^J^ 
 Magnolia tripetala Liifn. "jU^^wiC^* 
 Magnolia umbrella Desrouss. 
 
 Range. — From southern Pennsylvania (throughouFtneAlfegheny Mountains and 
 to the coast) to central Alabama; west to central Kentucky and Tennessee and 
 northeastern Mississippi ; central and southwestern Arkansas. 
 
 Names in u.se. — Umbrella tree (Pa.. W. Va., X. C, S. C, Ala., Miss^ 
 La.); Cucumber (Ky.); Magnolia (W^V^): W^^f^ Q^jJi^^tJ 
 Magnolia fraseri ^Valt. ^hAM/AJK "W»«S? -^T^aserUiAbrell^- 
 
 Range. — Southwestern Virginia (nrountains) to Florida (Chattahoochee River) 
 and west thcough eastern ^'enuessee^ud Alabam^ to northern Mississippi (Pearl 
 River). Jj^^JJt.'i^^f^^ ^^yUM -^X^y^^^ ' 
 
 Names in use. — Long-leaved Cucumber-tree (N. C, S. C); Ear- 
 
 -leaved Umbrella-tree (N. C, S, C, Miss.); Ear-leaved Cucumber-tree 
 
 (N. C, Fla.); Indian Physic (N. C, Tenn.); Indian Bitters (N. C); 
 
 Cucumber (Ky.); North Carolina Bay-tree (W. Va.); Cucumber-tree 
 
 (Fla.); Water Lily-tree; Mountain Magnolia; SVliahoo. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera Linn. fj Tulip-tree. 
 
 Range. — From Rhode Island to southwestern Vermont and west to Lake Michi- 
 gan (through southern Michigan as far north as the Grand River) ; south to Florida, 
 southern Alabama, and Mississippi: west of Mississippi River in southeastern Mis- 
 souri and adjacent Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Tulip-tree (Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., 
 Del., Pa., Va., W. Va., D. C, N. C, S. C, Ga., Ark., Ky., Obio, Ind„ 
 111., Out.) ; White-wood ( Vt., Mass., li. 1., Couu., N. Y., N. J., DeL, S. C, 
 Ky., Ohio, 111., Mich., Out.); Yellow Poplar (N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., 
 W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Ark., Ky., Ohio, Ind., Mo.); Tulip Poplar 
 (Del., Pa., S. C, 111.); Poplar -(K. I., Del., N. C, S. C, Fla., Ohio); 
 White Poplar (Pa., Ky., lud.); Blue Poplar (DeL, W. Va.); Hickory X- ' 
 
 H 
 
 f 
 
 LIRIODENDRON Linn. 
 
 
 1 V**'*^ 
 
6o 
 
 Poplar (Va., W. Va., KC); Popple (R. I.); Cucumber-tree (K Y.); 
 Canoe- wood (Teim.); Old-Wife's Shirt-tree (Tenii.); Ko-yen-ta-ka ah- 
 ta='' White-tree" (Ouaudaga ludiaus, a!^^. Y.); Basswood (Ohio). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera obtusiloba Michx. 
 
 Liriodendron tvilipifera pyramidalis Dipp. Pyramidal Tulip-tree. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera peuache Ehv. As 13. Variegated Tulip-tree. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera aureo-naaculata (Arb. Kew.) Sudw. 
 
 Family j^lS'lSlOlSi J^Cl^^^. 
 
 ASIMINA Adaiis. h I) ()^, ^ rfc^. 
 Asimina triloba (Linn.) Dunal. r — '--^^'''-^'^^ Papaw. 
 
 Eaxgk. — From Avestern New York to the north shores of Lake Huron: from east- 
 ern and central Pennsylvania throujjjh southern Michigan, eastern Kansas; south to 
 iddlc Florida and Texas (to the Sabine River). * 
 
 ^AiviES IN USE.— Papaw (R. I., Del., N. Y., X. J., D. C, Va., W. Va., 
 ) )J5^- C., S. C, Ga., Miss., La., Ky., Ohio, 111., Ind., Mo., Iowa, Kans., Nebr.) ; 
 Custard Ai)ple (Out., Del., Pa., Ohio, S. C, Miss.) ; Banana (Ark.) ; False 
 Banana (III.); Jasmine (La.); Jasiuinier (La.); Fetid iShrub (N. C). 
 
 ANNONA Linn. 
 Annona glabra Linn. Pond Apple. 
 
 Eange. — Southern Florida (shores on the east coast from Biscayne Bay to Cape 
 Malabar, and on the west coast from Pease Creek to Caloosa River) ; Bahama, iSau 
 Domingo, St. Thomas, and St. Croix islands. 
 
 Names in use. — Pond Apple (Fla.); Custard Apple (Fla.). 
 
 ly L^Iip^CiiL^. d ^ 
 
 PERSEA Gaertn f , " *VT-c/ - 
 
 -'Vy4i/-'v/<(Rp<i Bay. 
 
 VTJJJ^ Range. — Coast region from \ irginia to Florida (Biscj^yneliay and Cape Romano) 
 ■^ and the Gulf region to Texas (Brazos River); northward through Louisiana to 
 A tii^"iithern Arkansas. 
 
 Na:vies in use.— Red Bay (N. C, S. C, Ga., Flk, Ala., Miss., La.); 
 Bay Galls (Tenn.); Laurel-tree (La.); Laurier Petit Magnolia (La.); 
 Florida Mahogany (Fla.); Sweet Bay (Fla.); False Mahogany (lit.) 
 
 Persea pubescens (Pursh) Sargent. Swamp Bay. 
 
 Persea cabolinensis var. palustris Chapm. 
 
 Range. — South Atlantic and Gulf coast region from North Carolina to Mississippi. 
 
 Names in use. — Swamp Red-Bay (Fla.); Bay (Ga.). 
 
67 
 
 OCOTEA Aublet. 
 
 Ocotea catesbyana (Michx.) Sarg^eiit. Lancewood 
 
 Necta^dka willdenoviana Meisner. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (shores and ishiuds on the east coast south of Capo 
 Canaveral, and on the Avest coast south of Cape Romano). 
 
 iSTA^iES IN USE. — Lancewood (Fla.); Sweetwood (Jamaica); Cigua 
 (Cuba); Avispiilo (Puerto Rico); Canela (Puerto Kico). 
 
 SASSAFRAS Nees «.^ l'A)e|m.- q ^ ^ I -i^ f 
 
 Sassafras sassafras (Liuii.) Karst. I Sas|afraSo. 
 
 Sassafras OFFICINALE Nees& Eberm. —^-2 J} ^-^(^^XU, ' 
 
 Range. — From eastern Massachusetts through southern Vermont, southern Ontario, >A kt^^ 
 and central Michigan, southeastern Iowa, eastern Kansas, and Indian Territory^ ^^VhEmJ 
 south to central Florida and Texas (Brazos River). 
 
 Names in use. — Sassafras (Vt., N. H., Mass., Coun., E. I., N. Y., 
 K. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., W. Va., K C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., Kans., IS^ebr., Mich., Ohio, Out.); Saxifraxr) 1,5^^ 
 (Fla.); Saxifrax-tree (Tenn.); Sctssafac (W. Va.); Sassafrac (Del): V * 
 Gumbo file (La., Xegro dialect); Wah-eh-nah-k|is^"Smelliug. stiak'' 
 (Onoiyfa^^a^^g^Y^j^^^^^ O^y^'Orl. ^AfM. 
 
 UMBELLULARIA Nutt. M}41 ^APMt^jf^J^ 
 
 Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt. California LaureL^ 
 
 Range. — From Oregon (Rogue River) throutrh Calilornia (coast ranges and 
 western slopes of Sierra Nevada to southern slopes of San Bernardino Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Califoruia Laurel (Cal., Nev.); jMountaiu Laurel 
 (Cal., Nev.); California Bay-tree (Cal., Nev.); Myrtle-tree (Oreg.); 
 Cajeput (Oreg.); California Olive (Oreg.); Myrtle (Oreg.); Spice-tree 
 (Xev., Oreg.); Laurel (Cal.): Bay-trey^ (pal.); ^reydapliiie (Ca^.)^ Qali| 
 fornian Sassafras. I L A Z. 
 
 I Family C^PF^^RIDA^CE^E. 
 I CAPPARIS Linn. 
 
 Capparis jamaicensis Jacq. Florida Caper. 
 
 Range. — Southern I'lorida (coast from Cape Canaveral to the southern keys). 
 
 Name in use. — Caper-tree (Fla.). 
 
 Family SA.XIFKA.GA.CE^E» 
 
 LYONOTHAMNUS Gray. 
 
 Lyonothamnus floribundus Gray. Santa Cruz Ironwood. 
 
 Range. — Santa Catalina and Santa Cruz islands off the southern coast of Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
■43!&t^<^?^ 
 
 B8 
 
 Family H^IVC^ 
 ^ A fiAMA.MELI 
 
 Hamamelis virginiana Linn 
 
 IvAXciK. — From Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and valley of the St. Lawrence 
 River to southern Ontario, Wisconsin, an<l eastern Nebr.iska ; south to northern 
 Florida and eastern Texaa. 
 
 Names in use. — Witch Hazel (Me., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., 
 N. J., Del., Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., 
 Tex., Ky., Mo., III., Wis., Iowa, Ohio, Mich., Xebr.); Oe-eh-nah-kwe- 
 ha-he = " Spotted stick'' (Onondaga Indians, N^. Y.); Winter Bloom, 
 Snapping Hazel, Spotted Alder (lit. of domestic medicine). 
 
 CCuAiJ^AJt. V-«|-^-*«^ LIQUIDAMB AR Linn. i-tOA>HJ S w^ < 
 
 Liquidambar styraciSaaiCmnT^^ ^T^*^^ (Red, or) Sweet Gum. 
 
 Rangk. — From Connecticut (Fairtield County) to southeastern Missouri and 
 Arkansas; south to Florida (Cape Canaveral and Tampa Bay) and Texas (Trinity 
 Eiver). 
 
 Names in use. — Sweet Gum (Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., 
 Va., W, Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Ky., 
 Mo., 111., Ind., Ohio); Liquidamber (K. L, N. Y., Del., N. J., Pa., La., 
 Tex., Ohio, 111.); Red Gum (Va., Ala., Miss., Tex., La.); Gum (Va.); 
 Gum-tree (S. C, La.); Alligator- wood (N. J.); Bilsted (N. J.); Star- 
 leaved Gum; Satin Walnut (lumber markets). 
 
 Platanus occidentalis Liuii. 
 
 Sycamore. 
 
 Raxgk. — Southeastern New linmpshire au<l southern Maine to northern Vermont 
 and I>ake Ontario (Don River, near north shores of the lake): west to eastern 
 Nebraska and Kansas, and south to northern Florida, central Alabama and Missis- 
 sippi, and Texas (Brazos River and thence south to Devils River). 
 
 ' Na:mes in use. — Sycamore (Vt., N. H., Mass., Conn., K. I., N. Y., 
 IgPa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., 
 ?^k., Mo., 111., Ind., Iowa, Kan., Nebr., Mich., Wis.. Ohio. Out.); 
 Button wood (Vt, N. H., R. I., Mass., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., S. C, Ala., 
 Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Mo., 111., Nebr., Mich., Minn., Ohio, Out.); But- 
 tonball-tree (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.,N. J., Pa.. Del., Miss., La., Mo., 
 111., Iowa, Mich., Nebr., Ohio): Buttonball (R. I.. N. Y., Pa., Fla.); 
 Plane-tree (R. I., Del., S. C, Kans., Nebr., Iowa); Water Beech (Del.); 
 Matane (La.); Cotouier (La.); Bois puant (La.); Oo-da-te-cha-wun- 
 nes = "Big stockings" (Indians, N. Y.). 
 
 Platanus racemosa Nutt. California Sycamore. 
 
 Range. — California (from the lower Sacramento River throu<'h interior valleys 
 .»nd coast ranges) to Lower California (San Pedro Martir Mountain). 
 
 Names in use. — Sycamore (Cal.); Button wood; Buttonball- tree 
 X^al.); |ButtonbaM (Cal.) a 
 
Platanus ■wrignxii Wats.'X ^^*OiO ^vv" ^j^l^ Arizona Sycamore. 
 
 Range. — Southwestern New Mexico and souThern Arizona; Mexico (Sonora. 
 
 Names in use. — Sycamore (Ariz.): Arizona Sycamore (Cal.). 
 
 Family :R0SA.CE^E. 
 VAUQUELINIA Correa ex H. B. K. 
 
 Vauquelinia califomica (Torr.) Sargent. Vauquelinia, 
 
 Yauquelinia torreyi Wats. 
 
 Range. — Southern Arizona (nioniitains ; arl>ores<ent on Santa Catalina Mountains) 
 and Mexico (Sonora) to Lower ("alit'ornia. 
 
 ^ CERCOCARPUS H. B. K. 
 CercocarpuS' ledudlius ]^utt. Mountain Mahogany. 
 
 Range. — From western Wyoming to Montana (western slopes Rocky Mountains), 
 Idaho (Cceur d'Aleue Mountains). Oregon (eastern Blue Mountains), and southward 
 (through Wasatch Movmtains and ranges of the Great Basin) to California (easteru 
 slopes Sierra Nevada and northern slopes of San Bernardino Mountains), and ta 
 northern New Mexico and Arizona. 
 
 Name in use. — Mountain Mahogany (Cal., N. Mex., Utah, Idaho^ 
 Mont). 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius Nutt. Valley Mahogany. 
 
 Range. — t rom western Nebraska to Oregon (Siskiyou Mountains), south to west- 
 ern Texas and northern Mexico; California (west of Sierra Nevada and south to 
 San Jacinto mountains; Santa Cruz Islands) ; Lower California (mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Mountain Mahogany (Cal., N. Mex., Utah, Idaho» y 
 Colo.); Valley Mahogany (Cal.); Feather tree (Cal.). 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius betuloides (Nutt) Sargent. 
 
 Birchleaf Mahogany. 
 
 Range. — California (coast ranges). 
 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus (Gr.) Jones. 
 
 Short-flower Mahogany. ^""^ 
 
 Range. — Southern boundary of New Mexico, Arizona, and California. 
 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius paucidentatus Wats. 
 
 Entireleaf Mahogany- 
 
 Range. — Northern. New Mexico and southern Arizona. 
 
 PYRUS Linn. 
 Pyrus coronaria Linn. S"weet Crab. 
 
 Range.— Canada (from Humber River west on shores of Lake Erie) and south 
 through western New York and Pennsylvania to the District of Columbia, and on 
 the Allegheny Mountains to central Alabama; west to southern Minnesota, eastern 
 Nebraska, eastern Kansas, Indian Territory, northern Louisiana, and eastern Texas. \, 
 
 Names in use.— American Crab (R. I., N. J., Del., Pa., xVla., Miss., 
 La., III., Ohio, Ont., Kans., Nebr., Mich., Minn.); Sweet-scented Crab 
 (Mass., Del., Pa., N. C, S. C, Miss., 111., Ohio, Iowa) ; Crab Apple (S. C.,. 
 La., Ky., Mo., 111., Ohio, Iowa, Kans., Nebr.); Wild Crab (N. Y., 111., 
 Ind., Wis., Iowa, Kans., Minn., Mo., Ark.j; Crab (W. Va., N. C, Ga., 
 Miss., Wis.); American Crab Apple (Nebr.); Fragrant Crab. 
 
70 
 Pynis ioensis (Wood) Bailey. Iowa Crab. 
 
 Kangk. — Wisconsin. Illinois, Iowa, iind Kansas. Range imperfectly understood. 
 
 :Pyrus soulardi Bailey. Soulard Apple. 
 
 Kan(;e. — Minnesota to Texas. Less common in nature than in cultivation. 
 
 Pyrus malus Liim. Wild Apple. 
 
 Ran(;k. — Europe. Widely naturalized in the United States and running wild in 
 many localities. 
 
 Pyrus angustifolia Ait. Narrowleaf Crab. 
 
 Kaxgk. — From Pennsylvania (Allegheny County), New .Jersey (Cape May County), 
 And southern Delaware southward (in coast region) to western Florida (Chattahoo- 
 chee River); west through the Gulf States to Louisiana (Red River), and north to 
 middle (Bonair, Dickson County) an<l eastern Tennessee. 
 
 Kames in use. — Southern Crab Apple (Del., N. C, Ala., Miss., La.); 
 American Crab Apple (K. I., N. J., Miss.); Narrowleaf Crab (Ala.); 
 €rab Apple (N. C, S. C, Ga.); Wild Crab Apple; Narrowleaved Crab 
 Apple (N. C); Narrowleaved Crab (S. C); Crabtree (Va., Fla.). 
 Pyrus rivularis Dougl. Oregon Crab. 
 
 Range. — From the Aleutian Islands south along the coast and islands of Alaska 
 and British Columbia through western Washington and Oregon to California 
 (Sonoma and Plumas counties). 
 
 Names in use. — Oregon Crab Apple (Ca^, Wash., Oreg.); Crab or 
 Wild Apple, 
 Pyrus americana (Marsh.) de C. Mountain Ash 
 
 Range. — From Newfoundland to Manitoba, and south through Quebec and 
 Ontario, Great Lake region, and high elevations in northeastern United States to 
 eastern Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina. 
 
 Names in use.— Mountain Ash ( Vt., N. H., Mass., E. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Ya., W. Va., N. C, Ky., Mich., Ont.): American Mountain Ash 
 (Pa.); Mountain Sumach (N. C, S. C); Wine-tree (N. C); Roundwood 
 (Me.); Life of Man (N. Y.); Rowan-berry; "Peruve" (mts., Tenn.). 
 Pyrus americana microcarpa (Pursh) Torr. & Gr. 
 
 Smallfruit Mountain Ash. 
 
 Range. — Allegheny Mountains. 
 
 Pyrus sambucifolia Cham. & Schl. Elderleaf Mountain Ash. 
 
 Ran(;e. — Southern ( Jreenland to Labrador and northern New England (mountains) ; 
 westward on the northern shores of the Great Lakes to Little Slave Lake, through 
 the Rocky Mountains to Alaska (Kamchatka and northeastern Asi:i. Kuril Islands 
 to Japan); south (in mountains) to New Mexico and central California (Yosemite 
 Valley). 
 
 Names IN USE. — Mountain Ash (Vt., Ont.); Elder- leaved Mountain 
 Ash. 
 
 AMELANCHIER Medic. 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis (Linn.) Medic. Serviceberry. 
 
 Range. — From Newfoundland southward to northern Florida, and west along the 
 northern shores of the Great Lakes to Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, 
 Louisiana, and southern Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use. — June-berry (Mass., N. Y., Pa., Del., 111., Kans., 
 S. Dak.); Shad Bush (Mass., R. L, N. Y., Pa., Del., S. C); Service- 
 
71 
 
 berry (Del., 111., Ark., Fla., S. Dak.); Service-tree (Pa., Del.); May 
 
 Cherry (Pa., N. 0.); Indian Cherry (Pa.); Wild Indian Pear (New- 
 
 fonndland); Currant tree (Fla., Ala.); Shad-berry (Fla.); "Savice" 
 
 (Tenn.). 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis obovalis (Michx.) B. S. P. 
 
 Longleaf Service-tree. 
 
 Range. — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, ;iu(l nortli westward to 
 the Mackenzie River (latitude 65°) ; south to Yirgini:i, and west to Minnesota and 
 Missouri; South Cmolina (coast rej^ion) to Alabama (Mobile Bay). 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis spicata (Lam.) Sargent. 
 
 Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. Western Serviceberry. 
 
 Range. — From Alaska (Yukon River, latitude 62° 45) to California (southern 
 boundary); eastward through British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to 
 Lake Superior (western shores), northern Michigan, Nebraska, Colorado, and New 
 Mexico (Rocky Mountains). 
 
 Xames in ttse. — Pigeon-berry (So. Oreg.); Serviceberry; Western 
 Serviceberry; "Sarvice" (Wyo.). 
 
 ^^J:^$l'm''^4inl4^ ^yviAtt -- 
 
 Crataegus douglasii Lindl. r Black Haw. 
 
 Range. —From British Columbia (Parsnip River) through Washington and Oregon 
 to California (Pitt River), and through Idaho and Montana (Flathead River at 
 western base of Rocky Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Thorn Apple (Cal., Utah, Wash., Idaho, Kev.); 
 Hawthorn (Cal.); Black Haw (Mont.); Western Haw (Oreg.); Thorn 
 (K Mex., Mont., Idaho); ^aw (Oreg.); Black Thorn (Idabo, Utah, 
 Wash.); Western Hawthorn (Utah); River Hawthorn (Utah); Wild 
 Hawthorn (Utah); Thorn-tree; Wild Thorn (Oreg.). 
 Crateegus brachyacantha Sarg. & Engelm. Hog Haw. 
 
 Range. — Northwestern Louisiana (valley of Bayou Dorcheat) and western Louisi- 
 ana to eastern Texas (Sabine River). 
 
 Names in use. — Hog's Haw (La.); Red Haw (La.); Poniette Bleue 
 (La.). 
 Crataegus saligna Greene. Willow Haw. 
 
 Range, — Lower Cimarron River, Colorado. 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli Linn. Cockspur. 
 
 Hange. — P>om the St. Lawrence River to Lake Erie (north shores) and southward 
 to western Florida (Chipola River); westward to Missouri and Texas (Colorado 
 River). 
 
 Names in use.— Cockspnr Thorn (Vt., N. H., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 Del.,W\Va., N.C.,S.C.,Ala., Fla., Miss., Mo., in.,Kans.,Ont.); Red Haw 
 (Tex., 111., Mich., Miss.); Newcastle Thorn (Del.. Miss.); Thorn Apple 
 (N. Y.,W.Va.); Thorn Bush (Pa.); Thorn (Pa., Ky.); Pin Thorn (W. 
 Va.); Thorn Plum (Me.); Cockspur Hawthorn (Pa.); Hawthorn (Pa.); 
 Haw (S. C). 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli salicifolia (Medic.) Ait. 
 
 Willowleaf Cockspur. 
 
72 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli prunellifolia (Poir.) Siulw. 
 
 Broadleaf Cockspur 
 Crataegus crus-galli angustifolia (Ehr.) 8u(l\v. 
 
 Narro-wleaf Cockspur. 
 Crataegus crus-galli prunifolia (Marsh.) Ton\ & Gr. 
 
 Plumleaf Cockspur. 
 Crataegus crus-galli fontanesiana (Spach) Weuz. 
 Crataegus crus galli berberifolia (Torr. & Gr.) Sarg. 
 
 Barberryleaf Cockspur. 
 
 Range. — South Atlantic States, and in western Louisiana and eastern Texas. 
 
 Crataegus coccinea Linn. Scarlet Haw. 
 
 IvANGE. — From Isewfoundlaod (western shores) through Quebec and Ontario west 
 through Winnipeg nearly to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains; south to 
 northern Florida, and west to eastern Texas, Nebraska, and Kansas. 
 
 Names in use.— Scarlet Haw (N. H., Mass., IT. Y., N. J., Pa., N. C. 
 S. C, Miss., Ark., Mo., 111., Nebr., Iowa, Minn.); Eed Haw (R. I., N. Y., 
 W. Ya., S. C, Ga., Miss., La., Tex., Mo., 111., Nebr., Ohio, Iowa, Miuii., 
 S. Dak.); White Thorn (Vt., R. L, Del., x\Mss., Iowa, 111., Kans., Minn.. 
 Out.); Scarlet Thorn (Yt., Mass., E. I., N. J., Del., Ont.); Scarlet- fruited 
 Thorn (Mich., Minn,); Eed Thorn (Ky.); Hawthorn (Pa., Iowa); Thorn 
 (Yt., N. Y., Ky., Mont.); Thorn Bush (R. I., Pa.); Thorn Apple (Yt., 
 Mont.); Thorn Apple-tree (Minn.); Thorn Plum (Me., Yt., N. Y.): 
 Haw Bush (Mont.); Scarlet Thorn-Haw (Fla.); Hedge Thorn (Mont.); 
 Eed Thorn Bush (Ky., Ind). 
 
 Crataegus macracantha (Lindl.) Loud. . Longspine Ha-w. 
 
 Range. — Eastern Massachirsetts, Maine (coast), northern New Hampshire and 
 Vermont, Quebec, and west through Winnipeg, southern Michigan, Missouri, south- 
 western Colorado and New Mexico (Rocky Mountains), eastern Oregon and Washiug- 
 tou (eastern t..ope.s Cascade Mountains). 
 
 Crataegus mollis (Torr. & Gr.) Scheele. Downy Haw. 
 
 OratyEgus tomentosa var. mollis Gray. 
 
 Range. — From Massachusetts (Bay) to northern New England and Quebec, and 
 ■west through southern Michigan (as far north as Rosconiuion County) to Missouri. ;mil 
 through middle 'I'eiinessee to northern Alibama, and through Arkansas to Texas 
 <'San Antonio River): Mexico (Sierra Madre, near Saltillo). 
 
 Names in use. — Scarlet Haw; Eed Thorn-apple (Mich.). 
 Crataegus oxyacantha J^inn. English Hawthorn. 
 
 Range. — Euroi)e. Widely cultivated, and naturalized in a few localities in the 
 Eastern United States. 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha oxyacaiithoides (Thiiill.) Reich. 
 Cratffigus oxyacantha monogyna (.Jacq.) Loud. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha r.aciniata (I>orkh.) de C. 
 Ciatcegus oxyacantha diversifolia (l^oir. ) Sudw. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha incisa Rcgel. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha auriculata l>ipp. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha sorbifolia (Desf.) Dipp. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha pinnatiloba (Lange. ) Sudw. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha ferox Dipp. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha curtispina Sudw. 
 
73 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha flexuosa T.oud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha striata Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha pendula Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha aurea Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha variegata (Dipp.) Sndw. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha splendens (Koch) Siulw. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha eiiocarpa Loud, 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha oliveriana (Poir. ) Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha aurantiaca Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha leucocarpa Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha apetala Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha praecox Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha multiplex Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha rosea Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha puuicea Loud. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha punicea plena Sudw. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha semperflorens Dipp. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha gratanensis (Boiss.) Sudw. 
 
 Crataegus oxyacantha macrocarpa (Hegetsch.) Sudw. 
 
 Crataegus tomentosa Linn, Pear Haw. 
 
 Range. — From New York (FIudsouRiveruearTroy) to eastern Pennsylvania (Chest- 
 nut Hill); west through central New York to Michigan (as far north as Roscommon 
 County) and Missouri; Allegheny Mountains from northern Georgia to Middle Ten- 
 nessee (near Nashville) ; through Arkansas to eastern Texas (near Dallas), 
 
 Names in use.— Black Thorn (E. I., N. J., Pa,, Del., Ga., Fla., La., 
 Miss,, Ky., III., Ind., Ohio); Pear Haw (Miss., Ohio); Red Haw (Miss., 
 Mo.); Pear Thorn (R. L, N. J., Mich.); White Thorn; Thorn (K Y., 
 Ky.); Common Thorn (Pa.); Hawthorn; Thorn-apple (111.); Thorn 
 Plum. 
 
 Cratcegus punctata Jacq. Dotted Haw. 
 
 Crat^gus tomentosa var. punctata Gray. 
 
 Range.— From Quebec (Chateaugay River ne:ir Moutreal) to Ontario (Detroit 
 River); northern New Hampshire and Vermont and south through southern Michi- 
 gan and western Massachusetts to Middle Tennessee, and along Appalachian Moun- 
 tains to northern Georgia and Ahibama. 
 
 Name in use. — Dotted-fruited Thorn (lit.), 
 Crataegus punctata canescens Britton. White Dotted Haw. 
 
 Range. — Vermont (Ferrisburg). 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Crataegus punctata xanthocarpa (Medic.) Lav. Yellowfruit Dotted Haw. 
 
 Crataegus spathulata Michx. Spatulate Haw. 
 
 Range.— Coast region from southern Virginia to northern Florida and west to 
 Arkansas (Hot Springs) and Texas (Colorado River). 
 
 Crataegus cordata (Mill.) Ait. Washington Haw. 
 
 Range.— From Pennsylvania fLe\)anon County) and Virginia (upper Potomac 
 River) south in Appalachian foothills region to northern Georgia; west to Middle 
 Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern Illinois (lower Wabash River). 
 
 Names in use. —Washington -Thorn (IST, J., Pa., Del., N, C, S, C, 
 111.); Virginia Thorn (Del.); Heart-leaved Thorn (Tenu.); Thorn (Ky.); 
 Eed Haw. 
 
74 
 Crataegus viridis Linn. Green Haw. 
 
 Ra.\(;i:.— Iroin South Carolina (Savannah River) to v/^estern Florida (Chatta- 
 hoochee River); Alahama (mountain region to coast plain), from the Mississippi 
 River (up to near St. I.ouis) to Texas (Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use.— Tree Haw (Ala., Miss., La., S. C); Red Haw (Ala., 
 Miss., La.); Haw (Ala.); Seuellier (La.); Tree Thorn (Fla.). 
 
 Crataegus apiifolia (Marsli.) Micbx, Parsley Haw. 
 
 Range. — Coast region from southern Virginia to central Florida, and west in the 
 Gulf region to southern Arkansas and Texas (Trinity River). 
 
 Names in use.— Parsley Haw (N. C, Ala., Fla., Miss., La.); Red 
 Haw (Miss.); Parsley-leaved Hl.w (S. C). 
 
 Crataegus flava Aifc. Yellow Haw. 
 
 Raxuk. — Coast region from southern Virginia (in North Carolina to western sh>pes 
 of the Allegheny Mountains) to Florida (Tampa Jiay); west through Alal>auia 
 (mountain region to coast pine helt) and Mississippi. 
 
 Names in use. — Haw (Fla.); Yellow Haw (Fla.); Red Haw. 
 Crataegus elliptica Ait. Downy Yellow Haw, 
 
 Raxgk— Middle districts of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia to the 
 coast plain of Alabama. 
 
 Name in use. — Summer Haw (S. C, Ga.). 
 
 Crataegus uniflora Miieiichli. Small-leaf Haw. 
 
 Crat^gus PAiiviFOLiA Solander in Ait. 
 
 Range. — From New Jersey (Delaware River) to Florida and west in the Gulf 
 Stati'S to l^ouisiana and southern Arkansas. 
 
 Crataegus aestivalis (Walt.) Torr. & Gr. Summer Haw. 
 
 Range. — Coast region i'rom South Carolina (Savannah River) to northern Florida 
 and west in the Gulf States to Texas (Sabine River). 
 
 Names in use.— May Haw (Tex.); Apple Haw (Fla.); Summer 
 
 Haw (Fla.). 
 
 HETEROMELES Roem. 
 Heteromeles arbutifolia (Poir.) Roem. Christmas-berry. 
 
 Range.— Through Califoruia (coast region from Mendocino County) and islands to 
 Lower California; iuhmd to Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino mountains. 
 
 Na:mes in use. — California Holly (Oal.); Christmas-berry (Cal.); 
 Chamiso (Cal.); Toyon (Cal.); Tollon (Cal.). 
 
 CHRYSOBALANUS Linn. 
 Chrysobalanus icaco Linn. Cocoa Plum, 
 
 Rangi;. — Southern Florida (on the east coast from Cai)e Canaveral to Hiscayne 
 Bay, and on the west coast from Caximbas liay to the southern keys); shores of 
 West Indies, southern Mexico, and Central America; South America (northern and 
 eastern coast to southern Brazil); Africa (west coast from Senegambia to Congo 
 country). 
 
 Names in use. — Cocoa Plum (Fla.); Gopher Plum (Fla.). 
 
75 
 
 PRUNUS Li I 111. 
 Prunus nigra Ait. Canada Plum. 
 
 Rangk. — From Newfoundland through the St. Lawrence River valley to Manitoba 
 (Rainy and Assiiiiboine rivers and Lake Manitoba). By cultivation, naturalized in 
 parts of Michitjan, northern New England, New York, and eastern Massaclmsetts, 
 and may also be looked for in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. 
 
 Names in use. — Canada Plum (Mass., X Y., Mich., Ont.) ; Ked Plum 
 (Me., Vt, Out., Mich.) ; Horse Plum (Me., Yt.) ; Wild Plum (Me., Mass., 
 
 Vt., K Y.). 
 
 Prunus americana Marsh. Wild Plum. 
 
 Range. — From middle and northern New Jersey and central New York to Mon- 
 tana (Missouri River), Nebraska, Colorado (eastern base Rocky Mountains), south- 
 ern New Mexico (Rio Grande River), and south to western Florida; northeastern 
 Mexico (mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Wild Plum (R. I., N. J., Del., Pa., Va., W. Va., 
 N. C, S. 0., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ky., Mo., Ark., 111., lud., 
 Ohio, Mich., Out., Kans., Nebr., Iowa, Colo.) ; Yellow Plum (N. Y., Del., 
 Pa., Miss., Nebr.) ; Eed Plum (Del., Pa., K C, Miss., La., Nebr.) ; Horse 
 Plum (Miss., Ark., Colo.) ; Hog- Plum (Colo., Mo.); August Plum (8. C); 
 Native Plum (Iowa); Plum (111.); Plum Granite; Goose Plum (Ind.)j 
 Sloe (Fla.). 
 Prunus americana lanata Sudworth. WooUyleaf Plum. 
 
 Range. — Missouri to northern Mexico. 
 
 Prunus hortulana Bailey. G-arden Wild Plum. 
 
 Range. — Illinois (near Oquawka on Mississippi River); Missouri (near St. Louis; 
 Maramec River) ; middle Tennessee (near Lebanon ;ind Lewisburg). Range imper- 
 fectly known and may be looked for from southern Illinois and Indiana to eastern 
 Texas. 
 
 Names in use. — Wild Goose Plum (Tenn.); Goose Plum (Teiin.). 
 
 Prunus hortulana mineri Bailey. Miner Plum. 
 
 Name in use. — Goose Plum (Tenn.). 
 
 Prunus angustifolia Marsh. Chickasaw Plum. 
 
 Prunus chicasa Michx. 
 
 Range. — Natural range uncertain. Widely naturalized from southern Delaware 
 and Kentucky to eastern Kansas and south to central Florida and eastern Texas. 
 Appears like a tree escaped from cultivation. 
 
 Names in use. — Chickasaw Plum (Del., W. Ya., N. C, Ga., Fla., 
 Ala., La., Tex., Miss., 111., Kans.); Hog Hum (Miss., Tex.); Wild lied 
 Cherry (La.); Mountain Cherry; Yellow Plum (Fla.). 
 
 Pnmus allegheniensis Porter. Allegheny Sloe. 
 
 Range —Central Pennsylvania (Tusseys Mountain, Huntingdon County; Raid 
 E:tgle Mountain and valley, and Alleghenies in Clearlield and Klk counties). 
 
 Prunus subcordata Benth. Pacific Plum 
 
 Range.— Southern Oregon to central California (west of the Cascades and Sierra 
 Madre mountains). 
 
 Name in use. — Wild Plum. * 
 
76 
 Pninus umbellata^ Ell. Black Sloe. 
 
 ItAXci".. — (Oast r<'gi(iu iVom South Carolina to Florida (Mosquito lulet on the east 
 coast, and ou the west coast from Tamjia Bay) west to eastern Mississippi ; in Louis- 
 iana (Mississii)iii Iviver near ]5aton Ilougeand Red l^iver from Alexandria to Slireve- 
 port) to southern Arkansas (near Camden). 
 
 Names in use. — Black Sloe (S. C, Ga., Ala., Miss.); ISoutbern Biil- 
 lace Plum (S. C, Ala., Miss.); Hog Plum (Fla.); Wild Plum (Fla.); 
 Sloe. 
 Prunus emaraiinata (Dougl.) AValp. Bitter Cherry. 
 
 l\AX(iE. — From Montana (upper Jocko Kiver) through tlie mountains of Idaho and 
 Washington, and southern British Columbia to Vancouver Island; south through 
 western Washington, Oregon, an<l northern California (on coast ranges, to near San 
 Francisco Bay); southward in California (on western slopes Sierra Xevada to the 
 Yosemite Valley, and on eastern slopes Sierras to Lake Tahoe and vicinity of Car- 
 son City, Xev.); also on Santa I>U(ia Mountains; Xevada (Washoe Mountain). 
 
 Names ix use. — Wild Plum (Cal.); Bitter Cherry (Idaho, Cal.); 
 Wild Cheirj^ 
 
 Prunus eiuarginata villosa Sudworth. Woollyleaf Cherry. 
 
 Prunus emargixata var. mollis Brewer, liot Torr. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (San Bernardino Mountains), 
 
 Prunus pennsylvanica Liim. f. Wild Red Cherry. 
 
 Range. — From Xewfoundland and Labrador (Strait of Bellisle) northward to Hud- 
 son Bay (near Big River), south Indian Lake, and west to British Columbia (eastern 
 slopes coast ranges in valley Fraser River); south to Pennsylvania and along the 
 Allegheny Mouutayis to western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, to Michigan 
 (as far south as Ionia County), northern Illinois, central Iowa; Colorado (eastern 
 slopes of Rocky ^lonntains). 
 
 Names in use.— Wild Red Cherry (Me., Vt., N. H.. .Mass., R. I., 
 Comi., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Va., N. C, Mich., Out., 111., Wis., Iowa, Minu., 
 N. Dak.); Piu Cherry (N. H., Vt., N. Y., Mich., Iowa, N. Dak.); Pigeou 
 Cherry ( Vt., N. H., P. I., N. Y., Out., N. Dak.) ; Wild Cherry ( N. Y., Teun.) ; 
 Bird Cherry (Me., N. H., N. Y., Pa., Minn., Iowa): Re<l Cherry (Me., 
 R. I.); Fire Cherry (N. Y.). 
 
 Prunus cerasus Linn. Sour Cherry. 
 
 Raxgk. — Europe. Escaped from cultivation and rimuing wild in various localities 
 in eastern United States. 
 
 Prunus mahaleb Linn. Mahaleb Cherry. 
 
 Raxgk. — Europe;. Escaped from cultivation and running wild in southern New 
 York and eastern Pennsylvania. 
 
 Prunus avium Linn. S^weet Cherry. 
 
 Range. — Europe. Escaped from cultivation and running wild in various localities 
 in eastern United States. 
 
 Prunus virginiana Linn. Choke Cherry. 
 
 Kaxgk. — From Labrador and Hudson liay region to the Mackenzie Iiivrr (latitude 
 62'^) and northern British Columbia (coast region); south to southern Georgia, 
 Louisiana, Texas, and northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Choke Cherry (Mich., Wis.) ; Wild Cherry. 
 
 'Dr. J. K. Small has recently described the following new species: Pruiuts injii- 
 cunda Small, in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 25, p. 1-10, 1898. Detected on Stone Moun- 
 tain and Little Stone Mountain. Georgia. Said to be a tree 1.") to 20 feet high, and 
 formerly coniused with Prunus iimbellata. I have not seen specimens of this species. 
 
77 
 
 VARIETIKS DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Prunus virginiaiia leiicocarpa AVats. White-fruit Choke Cherry. 
 
 Prunus virginiana pendens Siulw. Weeping Choke Cherry. 
 
 Prunus virginiana nana (Da Roi) Dipp. Dwarf Choke Cherry. 
 
 Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Walp. Western Choke Cherry. 
 
 Range — Rocky Mountains to the Pacific (in United States j. 
 
 Names in use.— Wild Cbeny (Cal., N. Mex., Utah, Idaho, Mont., 
 Oreg-.); Cboke Cherry (Cal., Nev., Idaho, Utah); California Cherry 
 (Cal.); Western Choke Cherry. 
 
 Prunus serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry. 
 
 Range. — From Nova Scotia westvrard through Canadian Provinces to the K.. Jiinis- 
 tiquia River; south to Florida (Matauzaa Inlet and Tampa Bay) and west to North 
 Dakota (Missouri River), eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Indian Territory, and eastern 
 Texas; western Texas (mountains). 
 
 Names in use.— Wild Black Cherry (Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Del., Pa., N. C, Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., 111., Iowa, Wis., Kans., Nebr., 
 Minn., Ohio, S. Dak. (cult.), Ont.); Wild Cherry (Conn., K J., Pa., 
 Del., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Tex., Ark., Ky., Ind., 111., Iowa, 
 Wis.); Black Cherry (Me., N. H., Vt., R. L, N. Y., Miss., Ky., Mich., 
 Wis., Ind., Nebr.); Rum Cherry (N. H., Mass., R. I., Miss., Nebr.); 
 Whisky Cherry (Minn.); Choke Cherry (Mo., Wis., Iowa). 
 
 Prunus serotina neomontana Sudworth. Mountain Black Cherry 
 
 R.A.NGE. — .Southwestern Virginia ("balds" ou White Top Mountain); Alabjima 
 (Talladega and Clay counties). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Prunus serotina penduliformis Sudw. Weeping Black Cherry. 
 
 Prunus serotina asplenifolia Dipp. Fernleaf Black Cherry. 
 
 Prunus salicifolia H. B. K. Willowleaf Cherry. 
 
 Prunus capuli Cav. 
 
 Range. — Southern New Mexico and Arizona (mountains); Mexico (mountains); 
 Central America (Pacific coast region) ; Colombia and Peru. 
 
 Names in use. — Mexican Cherry-tree; Mexican Cherry. 
 Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Ait. Laurel Cherry. 
 
 Range.— Coast region and islands (15 to 20 miles inland) from South Carolina 
 (Cape Fear River) to Florida (Biscayne Bay and Kissimmee River) ; west in the Gulf 
 regioQ through southern Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas (to Guadalupe 
 
 River). 
 
 NajVIES in use. — Wild Peach (Miss., La., Tex.); W^ild Orange (N. C, 
 S. C, Miss., Tex.); Mock Orange (N. C, S. C, Ala., Miss., La., Tex.); 
 Laury Muudy (La.); Laurii amande (La.); Cherry Laurel (Fla.); Ever- 
 green Cherry (Tex.); Mock Olive (Fla.); Carolinian Cherry (lit.); 
 Laurel Cherry. 
 
 Prunus sphserocarpa Swartz. West India Cherry. 
 
 Range. — Florida (Biscayne Bay); West Indies; Bia/il. 
 
 Name in use. — West India Cherry (Fla.). 
 
i 
 
 78 
 Prunus ilicifolia (IN'utt.) Walp. Hollyleaf Cherry. 
 
 Range. — California (from San Francisco Bay throngh tli« const ranges, also on 
 western slopes of San Bernardino Mountains and on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa 
 islands) to Lower California (San Julio ("anyon). 
 
 Names in use. — iSpauish Wild Cherry (Cal.); Islay (Cal.); Ever- 
 green Cherry (Cal.); Holly-leaved Cherry (Cal.); Oakleaf Cherry (Cal.); 
 Holly Cherry (Cal.); Wild Cherry (Cal.); Holly (Cal.); Mountain Ever- 
 green Cherry (Cal.i. 
 
 Prunus icilifolia integrifolia Sud worth. Entire-leaf Cherry. 
 
 Range. — California (coast i.slands and mainland). 
 
 Prunus persica (Linn.) Stokes. Peach. 
 
 Range. — China. Escaped from cultivation and running wild in various localities 
 in the United States, especially in the Middle and South Atlantic region, y' ' 
 
 "'\ Family LEaXIMilNOS^E. 
 
 ^^' ZYG-IA Browne. '^^J 
 
 Zygia unguis-cati (Linn.) Sudworth. Florida Catsclaw. 
 
 PiTHKCOLOEIUM UNGUIS-CATI Benth. 
 Rangk. — Florida (Caximbas Bay) and southern keys; West Indies to V^enezuela 
 and New Granada . 
 
 xS^AMEs IN USE. — Cat's Claw (Fla.) ; Long Pod (Fla.). 
 
 Zygia brevifolia (Benth.) Sudworth. Huajillo. 
 
 PiTHECOLOBIUM BREVIFOLIUM Benth. 
 Range. — Texas (Lower Rio Grande River from Rio Grande City to mouth of the 
 river); Mexico (mouth of Rio Grande River to Sierra Madre Mountains, etc.). 
 
 Zygia flexicaulis (Benth.) Sudworth. Texan Ebony. 
 
 Acacia flexicaulis Benth. 
 
 Range. — (Julf coast of Texas (from Matagorda Bay) to Mexico (Sierra Madre 
 Mountains in Nuevo Leon); I^ower California (La Paz). 
 
 LYSILOMA Benth. 
 Lysiloma latisiliqua (Linn.) Benth. Wild Tamarind. 
 
 Range. — Florida keys — Largo, Elliotts, Plantation, Boca Chica; Bahamas; Wes* 
 Indies. 
 
 Name in use. — Wild Tamarind (Fla.). 
 
 ACACIA Adans. 
 Acacia farnesiana (Linn.) Willd. Huisache. 
 
 Range. — Native in America (from Rio Grande River to northern Chile) ; Australia 
 (northeastern and north central); Africa (subtropical); naturalized in West Indies, 
 Guiana, Brazil, Argentin^,, Africa (northern and north-tropical), India, China (south- 
 ern), Indian Archipelago, and islands of Pacific Ocean. Widely cultivated and 
 naturalized from the Gulf coast region to southern California. 
 
 Names in use. — Huisache (Tex.); Cassie (Tex.). 
 Acacia vrrightii Benth. Texas Catsclaw. 
 
 Range. — Western Texas (from the Guadalupe River) to Mexico (Sierra Madre 
 Mountains in Nuevo Leon). 
 
 Name in use. — Cat's Claw (Tex.). 
 
79 
 
 Acacia greggii Gray. Devils Claw. 
 
 Rangk. — From AVestcrn Texas (Rio Grande River) through sontheru j^ew Mexico 
 and Arizona to southern California. 
 
 Names in use. — Cat's Claw (Tex., Cal., Ariz.); Paradise Flower 
 (N. Mex.); Devil's Claws (Xev.); Rainsliorn; Una de Gato. 
 
 LEUC^NA Hooker. ' 
 Leucaena glauca (Linn.) lieiitli. Leucaena. 
 
 ]\AX(;e. — Western Texas (from S;in Saba t<> Devils River); Florida (Key West); 
 Mexico; West Indies and Babanias; South America (down to southern Brazil); trop- 
 ical Africa and Asia. Native ranj^e uncertain; established mostly by cultivation. 
 
 Leucsena pulverulenta (Scblecbt.) Benth. Chalky Leuceena. 
 
 Range. — Texas (few milea above mouth of Rio Grande River); Mexico (from 
 Matamoras to Monterey in Nuevo Leon; Misantla River, near San Antonio; at 
 Orizaba and Cordova, near city of Mexico). 
 
 i^AME IN USE. — Mimosa. 
 
 PROSOPIS Linn. 
 
 Prosopis odorata Torr. & Frem. Screw^bean. 
 
 Prosopis pubescens Beiith. 
 
 Range, — Western Texas (valley of Rio Grande River, from Devils River to El 
 Paso) ; west through New Mexico, Arizona, southern borders of Utah ami Nevada to 
 California (arid region of Colorado Basin to San Diego County); northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Screwbeau (Tex., Utah, N. Mex., Ariz., Nev., Cal.); 
 Screw-Pod Mesquite (Tex., Utah, Ariz., N. Mex., Nev., Cal.); Tornillo 
 (Tex., Utah, N. Mex., Ariz., Nev.); Mescrew (Nev.); Screwbeau Mes- 
 quite (Ariz.). 
 Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) de C. Mesquite. 
 
 Range. — From the southern border of Indian Territory and northern and western 
 Texas (eastern limit defined by a line from the intersection of latitinle 37° with the / 
 one hundredth meridian to Dallas; thence south to the Colorado River and south- V 
 westward within 20 or 30 miles of the Gulf, which is reached near the mouth of the ( 
 Rio Grande River) into northern Mexico. Also from the southern borders of Colo- \ 
 rado and Utah through New Mexico, Arizona, and southern Nevada to southern J 
 California (western limit defined by a line'from Tejon Pass over Los Angeles to San / 
 Pedro); in Lower California; western South America (Andean region to Chile)ir 
 Argentina and southern Brazil; Jamaica. 
 
 Names in use. — Mesquite (Tex., N. Mex., Ariz., Cal.); Algaroba 
 (Tex., N. Mex., Ariz., Cal.); Honey Locust (Tex., N. Mex ); Honey Pod 
 (Tex.); Ironwood (Tex.). 
 
 CERCIS Linn. 
 
 Cercis canadensis Linn. RedbudA 
 
 Range. — From New Jersey (Delaware River) and southern Michigan (Grand and / 
 Raisin rivers) to Florida (Tampa Bay), northern Alabama (Tennessee River to/ 
 Madison, Monte Sano, Cullman, Tuscaloosa) and Mississippi; west to Missouri.?; 
 eastern borders of Indian Territory, Louisiana, Texas (Brazos River) ; Mexico (Sierra^ 
 Madre in Nuevo Leon). 'I 
 
 Names in use.- Redbud (Mass., N. Y. (cult.), N. J., Pa., Del., D. G^ 
 ya., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Ark., Miss., La., Tex., Mo., 111., Ind., 
 
80 
 
 Mich, (cult.); Judas-tree (Mass., E. I., N. Y. (cult.), N. J., Del., Pa., 
 D. C, Va., N. C, S. C, Miss., La., Tex., Ky., 111., Iii(l.,Ohio., Mich.,Miim. 
 (cult.); Eed Judas-tree; Salad-tree (Del.): Canadian Judas tree (lit.). 
 
 Cercis canadensis pubescens Pursb. Do-wny Redbud. 
 
 Range. — Type locality, "Georgia;" westward. 
 
 VARIETY DISTINCiUlSHEl) IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Cercis canadensis plena Siidw. ' Double-flOTver Redbnd. 
 
 Cercis reniformis Engelm. Texas Redbud. 
 
 Range.— Eastern Texas (from near Dallas) to Mexico (Sierra Madre m Niievo 
 Leon). 
 
 Names in use. — lledbud (Tex.); Texas Eedbud. 
 
 GLEDITSIKk Linn. ^^ ^ ^^^ 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos Linn, t'^'" Honey Locust. 
 
 Range. — From Pennsylvania (western slopes Allegheny Mountains) west tlirongh 
 sonthern Ontario (Pelee Island, Lake Erie), southern jNIichigan (npto River Raisin) to 
 eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Indian Territory (to longitude OB-'); south to Georgia 
 and through Alabama, ISIississippi, and Texas (to Brazos River). Range more or less 
 extended elsewhere by seeding from cultivated trees. 
 
 Names in usl. — Honey Locust ( Vt., N. H., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Del., D. C. , Va., W. Va., N. C, S. 0., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark., Ky., Mo., Ohio, 111., Ind., Kans., Nebr., Micb., Iowa); Black Locust 
 (Miss., Tex., Ark., Kans.,Nel)r.); Sweet Locust (S. C,La., Kans., Nebr.); 
 Three-thorned Acacia (Mass., R. I., La., Tex., JSebr., Mich., Ont.) ; Tliorn 
 Locust (N. Y., Ind., La.); Thorutree (N. Y., Ind., La.); Thorny Locust 
 (K J.) ; Locust (Nebr.) ; Honey (R. I.,N. J., Iowa) ; Honey Shucks (R. I., 
 N. J., Va., Fhi., Iowa); Tliorny Acacia (Tenn.); Honey-Sh\4.cks Locust 
 (Ky.): Piquant Amourette (La.); Confederate Pintiee (Fla ). 
 
 Grleditsia triacanthos laevis (Loud.) Sudworth. 
 
 Thornless Honey Locust. 
 
 (tLeditsia triacanthos, var. inekmis Willd. 
 
 G-leditsia triacanthos brachycarpos Michx. 
 
 Short-pod Honey Locust. 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos bnjotii (Keum.) nom. nov. Bujot Locust 
 
 GiEDiTSiA lujJOTii Neumann. 
 
 Grleditsia aquatica Marsh. Water Locust. 
 
 Gleditsia monosperma Walt. 
 
 Range. — Coast region, from South Carolina to Florida (Matanzas Inlet and Tampa 
 Bay), from which it extends along the Gulf coast to Texas (Brazos River); nortli- 
 ward through western Louisiana and southern .\rkansas, southern Missouri, middle 
 and west Tennessee and Kentucky, southern Illinois, and Indiana. 
 
 if ame in USB. — Water Locust (Fla., La., Tex., Mo., Ind., 111.). 
 
w ^-v *^^ 
 
 81i 
 
 r^«MW£Ri^ 
 
 <p-^cfcw^ 
 
 G-YMNOCLAmrS Lam. . a 
 
 Grymnocladus dioicus (Linn.) Koch. rOW^A/A^l TO/Q pffeetree. 
 
 Gymnocl,adu8 canadensis Lam. (/ 
 
 Range. — New York (Cayuga .md Seneta lakes); Pennsylvania (Coiiococheague 
 Creek, Franklin County), and west through southern Ontario (Pelee Island, Lake 
 Erie), southern Michigan (Maple River, in Clinton County; Fish Creek, in Mont' 
 calm County; Grand River), to Minnesota (Minnesota River), eastern Nebraska, 
 eastern Kansas, southwestern Arkansas, Indian Territory (longitude 96°); south- 
 wartl, mainly between the Mississippi River and Allegheny Mountains, to Tennessee 
 (upper eastern section and middle section, near Nashville). Range somewhat 
 extended elsewhere by seeding from cultivated trees. 
 
 Names in use. — Kentucky Coffeetree (Mass., R. I. (cult.), N. Y., Pa. 
 (cult.), Del., Va., W. Va., N. C, Miss., Ark., Mo., 111., Kaus., Ont., Mich., 
 Iowa) ; Coffeenut (Ky., Mo., 111., lud., Nebr.) ; Coffeetree (W. Va., Ark., 
 Ky., iSTebr.) ; Coffeebeau (111., Kans., ISfebr.) ; Coffeebean-tree (Ky., Ark.) ; 
 Mahogany (N. Y.); Yirgilia (Tenn.); Nickertree (Tenn.); Stumptree 
 (Tenu.). 
 
 PARKINSONIA Linn. 
 
 Parkinsonia aculeata Linn. Horse-bean. 
 
 Range. — Texas (lower Rio Grande River); Arizona and California (in valley of 
 Colorado River); northern Mexico and Lower California. 
 
 Names in use. — Horse-beau ; Ketama (Tex.). 
 Parkinsonia microphylla Torr. Small-leaf Horse-bean. 
 
 Range. — Southern Arizona (desert region); southern California (desert region 
 adjoining Arizona); Lower California (adjoining California); Mexico (Sonora). 
 Names in use, — Desert Bush; Jerusalem Thorn; Palo Verde (CaL). 
 
 CERCIDIUM Tulasne. 
 Cercidium floridum Benrh. Gi-reenbark Acacia. 
 
 Range. — Western Texas (.Matagorda Bay to Hidalgo County) to Mexico (mouth of 
 Rio Grande River to foothills of .Sierra Madre; also near Monterey). 
 
 Names in use. — Green-barked Acacia (Ariz.); Palo Verde (Tex., 
 Ariz., N. Mex ); Acacia. 
 
 Cercidium torreyanum (Wats.) Sargent. ' Palo Verde. 
 
 Parkinsonia torreyana Wats. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (Colorado Desert) and Arizona (lower Gila River 
 Valley) and sonth into Mexico (Sonora) and Lower California. 
 
 Names in use. — Green barked Acacia; Palo Verde. 
 
 SOPHORA Linn. 
 Sophora secundiflora (Cav.) de C. Frijolito. 
 
 Ka.ngk.— Southern Texas (Matagorda Bay) to New Mexico (mountain cauyous) 
 and southward into Mexico (mountain canyons of NnevoLeon and San Luis I'otosi). 
 
 Names in use. — Coral Beau ; Frijolito (Tex.). 
 Sophora affinis Torr. & Gr. Sophora. 
 
 Range. — Arkansas (from Arkansas River) to Texas (San Antonio River and west 
 "ward to the upper Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use. — Pink Locust (Tex.); Beaded Locust (Tex.). 
 -. 11U93— No. 17 (> 
 
82 
 
 CLADRASTIS Raf. 
 
 Cladrastis lutea (Michx. f.) Koch, Yellow- wood. 
 
 ClADKASTIS TINCTOlilA IJaf. 
 Range. — Central Kentucky (Kentucky and Dick rivers); middle Tennessee (near 
 Nashville) and eastern Tennessee (Great Smoky Mountains in Cocke and Sevier 
 /•ouuties) ; North Carolina (Cherokee County); Alabama (Tennessee River Valley, 
 near Colbert, Sheffield l.andiiig). 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow- wood (Tonn., IST. C); Yellow Locust (Ky., 
 Teuu.); Yellow Ash; (xoplierwood (Teiin.) 
 
 EYSENHARDTIA H. B. K. 
 Eysenhardtia orthocarpa ((xray) Wats. Eysenhardtia. 
 
 Range. — From western Texas (upper Guadalupe River) to southern Arizona (Santa 
 ( atalina and Santa Rita mountains) and south into Mexico (to southwestern Chi- 
 huahua and to near San Luis Potosi). 
 
 DALEA Willd. 
 Dalea spinosa Gray. Indigo Thorn. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (Colorado Desert — at Agna Caliente and Toras) and 
 eastward into Arizona (to lower Gila River); south into adjacent Mexico (Sonora) 
 and Lower California (to Calamujuet). 
 
 Names in use. — Dalea (Ual.); Indigo Bush (Cal.k . y • ,^ f 
 Robinia pseudacacia Linn. ,>i,>-%iJ , r Locust^^ » 
 
 I\AN(iE. — From I'eTinsylvnnia (on the Appalachian Mountains from Locust Ridge in /f^ 
 Marion County) to northern Georgia. Widely naturalized Tlirongh cultivntiou iind ^ 
 other agencies throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains; possibly • 
 indigenous in ]tarts of Arkansas (Crowley's Ridg(>, etc.) :ind eastern Indian Territory; 
 also in the (Jreat Smoky Mountains of eastern Tennessee (Sevier County). 
 
 Names in use. — Locust (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn.. X. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Miss., Tex., Ky., Aik., 
 Ariz., 111., Wis., Ohio, Ind., Kans., Nebr., Mich., Iowa, Minn.); Black 
 Locust (Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, S. C., Ala., Miss., La.. Tex., Aik.^ Ky., 
 Mo., 111., Ohio, Ind., Iowa, Kans., Nebr., Mich., Minn.); Yellow Locust 
 (Vt., Mass., N. Y., Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., Miss., La., 111., Ijid., Kans., 
 Nebr., Minn.); White T^ocnst (R. I., N. Y., Tcnn.); Red Locust (Teun.); 
 Green Locust (Tenn.); Acacia (La.); False Acacia (S. C, Ala., Tex., 
 Minn.); Honey Locust (Minn.); Bastard Acacia (lit.); Pea-flower 
 Locust; Post Locust (Md.). 
 
 VAUIETIKS DISTINCillSHEI) IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia decaisueana Cair. Pink Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia crispa de C. Crinkleleaf Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia amplifolia Sudw. Broadleaf Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia angustifolia (Loud.) Lav. Smallleaf Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia monophylla I'etz. A Kirchn. Simpleleaf Locust. 
 
 Robinia oseudacacia tortuoa* (liolVm.) de C. Twistbranch Locust. 
 
 ■n^"^^ -^ "^^ '^M-^vwij ki 
 
83 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia pyramidalis Petz. & Kirchn. Pyramid Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia pendula (Ortega) Loud. Weeping Locust. 
 
 Robiuia pseudacacia inermis (Jai-q.y .Sudw. Parasol Locust. 
 Robinia pseudacacia spectabilis (Du Mont Cour.) Koch. Thornless Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia latisiliqua Loud. Broadpod Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia dissecta (Koch) Sarg. Cutleaf Locust. 
 
 Robiuia pseudacacia glaucescens Koch. Blue Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia aurea (Koch) Dipp. Goldenleaf Locust. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia purpurea l>ipp. Purpleleaf Locust. 
 
 Robiuia pseudacacia argenteo-variegata (Koch) Sudw. Spotted Locust. 
 
 Robinia neo-mexicana Gray. New-Mexican Locust. 
 
 KaN(;e.— Colorado (Croiu Purgatory Kiver) throuj^h northern New .Mexico and 
 Arizona (to Santa Catalina and Santa Kita mountains) and to southern Ttah (near 
 Kanah and in Mount Ziou (^anyon, west fork of Kio Virgen Kiver). 
 
 Name in use. — Locust (Ariz., N. Mex.). 
 Robinia viscosa Veut. Clammy Locust. 
 
 Raxge. — Mountains of North Carolina. Widely naturalized l>y cultivation cast of 
 the Mississippi River. 
 
 Names in use. — ClamDiy Locust (Mass., K. I., X. Y., N. J., Pa., X.C, 
 S. C, La., Miss., 111.) ; Honey Locust (N. Y., N. J.) ; Red-flowering Locust 
 (Ala.); Eose-flowering- Locust (Tenn.); Rose Acacia (Vt., R. I., Pa.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Robinia viscosa albiflora Dipp. White-flower Clammy Locust. 
 
 Robiuia dubia P^ouc. 
 Robinia bella-rosea Nichol. 
 
 OLNEYA Gray. 
 Olneya tesota Gray. Sonora Iron-v^ood. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (from Colorado River south of Mohave Miuintains) 
 tosouthwestern Arizona and through adjacent Mexico (Sonora) and Lower California 
 (between Comundee and Calauuijnet). 
 
 Names in use. — Iron Wood (Cal.); Arbol de Hierro (Cal.); Palo de 
 Hierro (Ariz.). 
 
 ICHTHYOMETHIA Browne. 
 Ichthyomethia piscipula (Linn.) Kuntze. Jamaica Dogrwood. 
 
 PiSCIDIA ERYTHRINA Linn. 
 Range. — Southern Florida (Hiscayne Bay on east coast, and on the west from 
 Pease Creek to Cape Sable) and southern keys; West Indies and southern Mexico. 
 Name in t'SE. — Jamaica I)oj]fwo<)d (Fla.). 
 
 Family ZYaOP»HYLL^CE^3i;. 
 
 G-UAJACUM Linn. 
 Guajacum sanctum Linn. Lignum-vitae. 
 
 Ra.vge. — Florida keys from Key West eastward (up])er and lower Metacoinbe 
 keys. Lii^num vitie Keys, CinhrellaKoys); Bahamas, Saii Domingo, and I'uerto Rico. 
 
 Names in use. — Lignum- vitie (I'^la.); Iron wood (Fla.). 
 
84 
 
 Family RX^T^CE^E. 
 
 XANTHOXYLp-M Linn. 
 
 Xanthosylum clava-herculis JJnn. Prickly Ash. 
 
 Range. — Coast regiou Iroin southern Virginia to Florida (Biscaync; Bay and rani])a 
 Bay); west through the Gulf .States to northwestern Lonisiana, aouthern Arkansas, 
 and through Texas (to Devils River). 
 
 Names in use.- Prickly Ash (N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark.) ; Toothache-tree (N. C, S. C, Fla., Miss., La., Ark.) ; Pepper- wood 
 (Miss.); Sea Ash (Miss., Fla.); Southern Prickly Ash (Ala.); Ash 
 (Va.); Freiie-piquant (La.); Sting-tongue (Fla. Negroes, Ark.); Wait- 
 a-bit, Tear-blanket (Ark.); Wild Orange. 
 Xanthoxylum clava-herculis fruticosum Gray. 
 Xanthoxylum cribrosum Spreng. Satinwood. 
 
 Rangk. — Floriila keys (Marquesas Keys, South Bahia Honda, and Boca Chica 
 Keys) ; San Domingo, Puerto l\'ico, Bahamas, and Bermuda. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow-wood (Fla.); Satinwood (Fla.). 
 
 Xanthosylum fagara (Linn.) Sargent. Wild Lime. 
 
 Xanthoxylum pterota H. B. K. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida coast and islands (on the east coast south of Mosquito 
 Inlet and on the west coast soutli of latitude 29 ) ; coast of Texas (from Matagorda Bay 
 to the Rio Grande River); West Indies; northern Mexico; Central and South 
 America (to Brazil and Pern). 
 
 Name in use. — Wild Lime (Fla.). 
 
 PTELEA Linn. 
 Ptelea trifoliata Linn. Hoptree. 
 
 Rangk. — Southern Ontario (Point Pelee, Lake Untario) ; New York (Long Island) ; 
 Pennsylvania and west through southern Michigan (up to Montcalm County) to 
 Minnesota; south to northern Florida and west to Texas, and through New Mexico 
 to Colorado (Mimbres River); northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Hoptree; Wafer Ash; Whahoo; Quinine-tree 
 (Mich.). 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Ptelea trifoliata aurea Xich. Golden Hoptree. 
 
 HELIETTA Tulasne. 
 
 Helietta parvifolia Benth. Baretta. 
 
 Range. — Texas (near Rio Grande City): Mexico (south of the lower Rio Grande 
 to the lower slopes of the Sierra Madrc Mountains and through Nuevo Leon). 
 
 AMYRIS Browne. 
 
 Axnyris maritima J acq. Torch^vood. 
 
 Amyris sylvatica de C. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (from Mosquito Inlet on the east coast to the southerr 
 keys) ; Bahamas, St. Thomas. Cuba, and Jamaica Islands. 
 
 Name in use. — Torchwood (Fla,). 
 
85 
 
 CANOTIA Torr. 
 Canotia holacantha Torr. Canotia. 
 
 Range. — Arizona (from White Mountain region to tlie Bill Williams (River) Fork) ; 
 sontliern California (Providence Mountains). 
 
 Name in use. — Canotia (Ariz.). 
 
 Family SI]Vd:A.IlOUB^CE^E. 
 
 SIMAROUBA Aublet. 
 
 Simarouba glauca de C. Paradise-tree. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (from Cape Canaveral, on the west coast, to the south- 
 ern keys and to Biscayne Bay); Cuba, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and Brazil. 
 
 Names in use.— Paradise-tree (Fla.); Gumbo Limbo (Fla.) ; Bitter - 
 wood (Fla.). 
 
 KCBBERLINIA Zucc. 
 Kceberlinia spinosa Zucc. Koeberliiiia„ 
 
 Range. — Texas (from valley of Rio Grande River southward) to northern Mexico 
 (to near Altar River, in Sonora, and to near San Luis Potosi). 
 
 AILANTHU 
 
 3teirw<i 
 
 Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. jt " 
 
 Range. — China; but widely naturalized in Eastern United States. 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Ailanthus glandulosa rubra Dipp. Redfruit Ailanthua 
 
 Ailanthus glandulosa pendulifolia Dipp. Drooping Ailanthus. 
 
 Ailanthus glandulosa aucubaefolia Dipp. 
 
 Family BUIlSEIlA.OE.a5. 
 
 BURSERA Jacq. 
 
 Bursera simaruba (Linn.) Sargent. G-umbo Limbo. 
 
 BURSERA GUMMIFERA Linn. 
 Range. — Southern Florida (on the east coast from Cape Canaveral to the southern 
 keys; west coast on Caloosa River and Caximbas Bay); West Indies, sonthern 
 Mexico, Guatemala, New Grenada, Venezuela. 
 
 Names in use. — Gum Elemi (Fla.); Gumbo Limbo (Fla.); West 
 Indian Birch (Fla.). 
 
 Family DMELI^OE 
 
 MELIA Linn. 
 Melia azedarach Linn. 
 
 Range.— Persia. Widely cultivated jn Old and New World and naturalized by- 
 cultivation in Southern United States. 
 
 Melia azedarach iimbraculifera iSargent. Umbrella China-tree. 
 
86 
 
 SWIETENIA Jacq. 
 Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Mahogany. 
 
 Kanck.— Florida keys (Key T.argo and Elliotts Key); Bahamas, West Indies, 
 southern Mexico, Central America, and Peru. 
 
 ^AMES IN USE. — Mahogany (Fla.); Madeira (Fla.); Redwood (Fla.). 
 
 Family EUFH:0RBIA.CE^E. 
 DRYPETES Vahl. 
 
 IDrypetes lateriflora (Swartz) Urban. Florida Plum. 
 
 Drypetes crocea Poit. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida ( Biscayne Bay) and several of the southern keys; 
 Bahamas, Cuba, San Domingo, Jamaica, Puerto Rico. 
 
 Names in use. — Guiuua Plum (Fla.); Whitewood (Fla.). 
 
 Drypetes keyensis Urban. G-uiana Plum. 
 
 Range. — Florida keys (Key West, Umbrella Key, Elliotts Key). 
 Names in use. — Guiana Plum (Fla.); Whitewood (Fla.). 
 
 G-YMNANTHES Swartz. 
 
 ■G-ymnanthes lucida Swartz. Crabwood. 
 
 Sebastiana lucida Muell. 
 
 Range. — Coast of southern Florida (from Biscayne Bay to the Marquesas Keys;; 
 Bahamas, West Indies. 
 
 Names in use. — Crabwood (Fla.); Poison wood (Fla.). 
 HIPPOMANE Linn. 
 Hippomane mancinella Linn. Manchineel. 
 
 Range. — From the keys of southern Florida through the Bahamas and \\ est Indies 
 to northern South America and eastern and western coast of Central America and 
 southern Mexico. 
 
 Name in use. — Manchineel (Fla.). 
 
 SAPIUM Browne. 
 
 Sapium sebiferum Roxb. Tallow-tree. 
 
 Stillincjia sebiferum Michx. 
 
 Range. — China and Japan. Cultivated and naturalized in the Gulf States. 
 
 Family OHEIR^NTHODENRE.^. 
 FREMONTODENDRON Coville. 
 
 Fremontodendron californicum (Torr.) Coville. Fremontia. 
 
 Fremontia califoknica Torr. 
 
 Range. — California (from Mariposa) to Lower California. 
 
 Names in use.— Slippery Elm (Cal.); Silver Oak (Gal.); Leather- 
 wood (Gal.); Fremontia (Cal.). 
 
87 
 
 Family THE^CE^^E. 
 Gordonia lasianthus (Linn/ Ellis. ^ Loblolly Bay. 
 
 Raxcje. — Coast region from southern part of Vir<;inia to Florida (Cape Malabar 
 and Cape Romano) and west in the Gulf region to th<^ Mississippi Kiver. 
 
 Names in use. — Loblolly Bay (N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., 
 La.); Tan Bay (Miss., Fla., La.); Black Laurel (N. C). 
 Gordonia altainaha (Marsh.) Sargent. Franklinia. 
 
 Gordonia pubescens L'Her. 
 
 Range. — At present known onlj- in cultivation. Originally (17(i5) found grovtring 
 wild in Georgia (near Fort Br^rrington on the Altamaha River), but not seen sineo 
 1790. 
 
 Family CA-TsTELL^CE^^i:. 
 CANELLA Browne. 
 
 Canella winterana (Linn.) Gcertn. Cinnamon-bark. 
 
 Canell alba Murr. in Linn. 
 
 Range. — Florida keys 
 
 NA3IES IN USE. — Cinnamon bark (Fla.); Wliittnvood; Wild Cinna- 
 mon. 
 
 Family A.]>TA.CA.RDIACE_zai;. 
 COTINITS Adans. 
 
 Cotinus cotinoides (Kutt.) Britten. American Smoke-tree. 
 
 Ehus cotinoides Nutt. 
 
 Range.— Indian Territory (Grand River); Alabama (north of Tennessee River and 
 on southern slopes of Cumberland Mountains near Iluntsville); eastern Tennes- 
 see (Cheat Mountain); Texas (Medina River). 
 
 Names in use.— Cliittamwoodg;Al^.);y^Yello\v-wood (Ala.).; Smoke- 
 
 Wlj^ia^ 
 
 Rhus metopium i/inn. ^ ^ 
 
 Range.— Southern Florida (Biscayne Bay) and southtiiT keys: Bahamas, Cuba, 
 Jamaica, Honduras. , 
 
 Names in use. — Poisonwood(Fla.); Coral Sumach; Mountain Mar.- 
 cbineel; Bumwood; Hog- Plum; Doctor Gum. 
 
 Rhus hirta (Linn.) Sudworth. Staghom Sximach. 
 
 Rhus typhina Linn. 
 
 Range. — From New Brunswick (through the St. Lawrence Kiver Valley) to south- 
 ern Ontario and Minnesota; south through the Northern States and along the Alle- 
 gheny Mountains to northern Georgia, central Alabama, and Mississippi. 
 
 Names in use.— Stagborn Sumacb (Vt., N. H., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
 N. Y., N. J., Del., Pa., N. C, S. C, Miss., Mo., Mich., Wis., Ohio, Ont.); 
 Sumacb pie., Vt, N. Y., Pa., W. Va., Ark Ky., Ind., Wis.); Virginia 
 
88 
 Rhus copallina Linn. D-warf Sumach. 
 
 Kaxge. — Xcw^ England to Florida (Manitee and Caximbas Bay), and \\v»i to Mis- 
 souri, Arkansas, and Texas (San Antonio River) ; Cuba. 
 
 ]SrA:MES IN USE. — Dwarf Suinacb (Vt., N. H., R. I., Mass., N. Y., Del., 
 Pa., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Kans.) ; Sumach (Vt., Pa., W. Ya., S. C, Fla., 
 Ga., Miss., La., Tex., Ky., Mo.. Kans.); Smooth Sumach; Mountain 
 Sumach (Vt., Tenn.); Black Su:;..ich (Ark., Tex.); Wing-rib Mountain 
 Sumach (S. <\); Common Sumach (S. C). 
 Rhus copallina leucantha (Jacq.) cle C. 
 
 White-flo-wered D-warf Sumach. 
 
 Range. — Texas (near New Brannfels). 
 
 Rhus copallina lanceolata Gray. Lanceleaf D-warf Sumach. 
 
 Range. — Eastern Texas (to Rio Grande River). 
 
 Rhus vernix Linn. Poison Sumach. 
 
 Khus venenata de C. 
 
 Range. — Northern New England to northern Georgia and Alabama ; west to 
 northern Minnesota, Arkansas, .and western Louisiana. 
 
 Navies in use. — Poison Sumach (Vt., N. H., Mass., R. I., Conn., oS^. Y., 
 N. J., Del., KC, S. C, Ala., Miss., La., Mo., Iowa, Wis., Mich., Minn., 
 Ohio, Ont., Xebr.); Poison Elder (Vt., Mass., R. I.,is\ Y., Del., S. C, Ga., 
 Ala., Miss., La., Mo., >ebr., Minn.) ; Poison Dogwood (N. H., Vt., ]S". J., 
 Pa., D. C, Mo., Mich., Minn.) ; Dogwood (Vt., Mass., R. L, Wis., Mich.. 
 Iowa, Nebr., Minn., La.); Swamp Sumach (R. L, N. Y., N. J.. Tenn.. 
 Minn.); Sumach (R.L); Poison Oak (La.); Poison Ash (Pa.); Poison- 
 wood (Tenn.); Poisontree; Thunderwood (Ga.). 
 
 Rhus integrifolia (Nutt.) Benth. & Hook. Western Sumach. 
 
 Range. — Coast of southern California (from Santa Barbara) to southern Lower 
 California (Magdalena Bay); Santa Barbara and Cedros Islands. 
 
 Family C YRILLA^CE^E. 
 
 CYRILLA Linn. 
 Cyrilla racemiflora Linn. Iron^vood. 
 
 Range. — Coast region from North Carolina to Florida (to latitude 30° and on 
 southern keys) ; inland in South Carolina and Georgia to near Augusta; west on 
 Gulf coast to Texas (Neches River); Cuba, Jamaica, Dominica, Demerara, and 
 Brazil. 
 
 Names in use. — Iron wood (S. C., Ga., Fla., Miss., La.); Leatherwood 
 (Ala., Fla.); He Huckleberry (S. C); Burnwood; Burn wood-bark; 
 Firewood (Ga.); Burning- wood (Ga.) ; Red Titi (Fla.) ; White Titi. 
 
 CLIFTONIA Gffirtn. f. 
 
 Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sargent. Titi. 
 
 Cliftonia ligustrina Sims ex Spreng. 
 
 Range. — Coast region from South Carolina (Savannah River) to northern Florida, 
 and west in the Gulf region to eastern Louisiana. 
 
 Names in use. — Titi (S. C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss.); Buckwheat-tree 
 (Fla., La.); Black Titi (Fla.); Iron wood. 
 
Family ^qxjifolia.ce:^e:. 
 
 ILEX Linn. 
 Ilex opaca Ait. - American Holly. 
 
 K'angk. — Coast rof^iou from Massachusetts (Massachusetts Hay, near (jiuiucy) to 
 Fk)n(la (Mos(inito Inlet and Charlotte Harbor); from southern Indiana (through 
 Mississippi River Valley) to the Gulf, and through Missouri, Arkaubas, Louisiana, 
 and eastern Texas. 
 
 Namks in use.— Holly (R. I., Del., W. Va., Pa., N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., 
 Miss., La., Ark) ; American Holly (Mass., K. L, Conn., N. Y., N. J.. Pa., 
 Del., N. C, Ala., Miss., La.) ; White Holly (Va.). 
 
 Ilex cassine Linn. Dahoon (Holly). 
 
 Ilex dahoon Walt. 
 
 liANGK. — Coast regiou from southern Vii'ginia to Florida (Biscayue l>ay and 
 Tampa Bay) ; west ou the Gulf coast to western Louisiana. 
 
 Ilex cassine angustifolia Willd. Narrov/leaf Dahoon. 
 
 Ilex cassine mytifolia (Walt.) Sargent. Myrtle-leaf Dahoon. 
 
 Rangk. — North Carolina to Louisiana. 
 
 Xames in use. — Dahoon (N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La.); 
 Dahoon Holly (K. O., S. C, Fla.); Yaupou (Fla.). 
 
 Ilex vomitoria Ait. Yaupon (Holly). 
 
 Ilex cassine Walt. 
 
 Range. — Coast region from southern Virginia to Florida (St. .Johns River and 
 Cedar Keys); west ou the Gulf coast to southern Texas (Matagorda Bay) and to 
 western Texas (Rio Blanco River), and west of the Mississippi River northward to 
 southern Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use. — Yopon (K C, Ga., Ala., Miss., Tex.); Yaupon 
 (N.C, S.C., Fla., Miss., La.); Cassena (N. C, S. C., Fla., La.); Cassine 
 (La.); True Cassena; Bverg:reen Casseua; Cassio-berry Bush; Emetic 
 Holly (S. C). 
 Ilex decidua Walt. Deciduous Holly. 
 
 Range. — From southern Virginia (ranging from the coast to the eastern hase of 
 the Appalachian Mountains) to westeru Florida : from southern Illinois to the Gulf 
 and tlirough southwestern Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Texas (Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use. — Holly (Tex., Ark., Mo.); Bearberry (Miss.); Possum 
 Haw (Fla.). 
 Ilex monticola Gray. Mountain Holly. 
 
 Range. — From New York (Catslcill Mountains and Cattaraugus Connty) south- 
 ward in the mountains (and in Pennsylvania as far east as Northampton Comity) to 
 northern Alabama. Arborescent chietly in the mountains of North Carolina, South 
 Carolina, and eastern Tennessee (Great Smoky Mountains). 
 
 Family OEL-A^STH^CE^El. 
 
 EVONYMUS Linn. 
 
 Evonymus atropurpureus J acq. Waahoo. 
 
 Range. — From western New York through Michigan to Nebraska (and in Montana 
 on upper Missouri River) ; south to northern Florida, soutliern Arkansas, and Indian 
 Territory. 
 
 Xames in use.— F>urning Bush (K. 1., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., 
 N. C, S. C, Miss., Ark., Ky., Ohio, 111., lud., Iowa, Kaus., Nebr.^ 
 
90 
 
 Mich.); Waahoo (X. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Miss., Ky., 
 Ark., Mo., Nebr.. 111., Iowa, Kaus., Ohio, Ind.); Spiiidle-tree (R. I., 
 Del., Pa., N. C, HI.); Arrow wood (Miss., La., 111., Mo.): Strawberry- 
 tree (N. Y.); Strawberry Bush (Tenn.); "Moses in the Burning Bush" 
 ^N. J.); Bleeding Heart (N. 0.); Indian Arrow (Ind.). 
 
 GYMINDA Sargent. 
 
 G-yminda grisebachii Sargent. Gyminda. 
 
 Myginda pallens Smith ex Sargent. 
 
 Range. — Islands ol' southern Florida (from Marquesas to Upper Metacombe Key); 
 Cuba, and Puerto Kico. 
 
 Names in use. — False Boxwood (Fla.); Gyminda. 
 Gyminda grisebachii glaucifolia (Griseb.) Sudworth. 
 
 Pale Gyminda. 
 
 Range. — Cnba. 
 
 SCH^FFERIA Jacq. 
 Schaefferia frutescens Jacq. Florida Boxwoocl. 
 
 RAXfJi':. — Islands olsoutlieru Florida (vicinity Caloos River, and from Metacombe 
 Key eastward, and on Reef Keys) ; Bahamas, West Indies, Aenezuela. 
 
 Names in use. — Yellow- wood (Fla.); Boxwood (Fla.). 
 Family ^CER^CE^^. 
 
 ACER Linn. 
 Acer spicatum Lam. Mountain Maple. 
 
 Range. — From the lower St. Lawrence River to northern Minnesota and region of 
 the Saskatchewan River; south through the Northern Mates (in Michigan down to 
 Eaton County) and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia. 
 
 Names in use. — Mountain Maple (Vt., N. H., R. I., Conn., N. Y., K 
 J., Pa., N. C, S. C., Mich., ^linu.); Moose Maple (Vt^;I|OW Maple 
 (Tenn.) ; Water Maple (Ky.). IT ## +^ ^fewf- 
 Acer pennsylvanicum Lmn. ^▼'•Ci'^-V V*'^; Striped Maple. 
 
 liANUE. — From l^iiehec (Ha- Ha Bay, on Saguenay Ri^T^r) westwar<l along the 
 shores of Lake Ontario and islands of Lake Huron to northeastern Minn .sota; 
 southward into the Northern and North Atlantic States (in Michigan tjhfeoscoi|nJion 
 County) and along the Appalachian ^lountaius to northern G<'orgia. 2^1MKV 'lA^^i/V 
 
 Names in use. — Striped Maple (Vt., N. H., K. 1., Mass., N. Y., Pa., 
 N. J., S. C., Ga., Ky.jMich., Minn., Ont.); Moosewood (Me., Vt., N H., 
 R. I., Mass., N. Y., Pa., N. C, Mich., Minn.); Xorthern Maple (Minn.); 
 Striped Dogwood (N. Y., N. 0.); Mountain Alder (N. C); Whistlcwood 
 (Mich.); Goose foot Maple. ^rh^ L§ 
 
 Acer macrophyllum Pursh. ^i^^^v^f^^wf^^'JI^KA Maple. 
 
 RaXge. — From the coast region of Alaska (south of latitude .55"), British Colum- 
 bia, and islands southward through Washington an<l Oregon (west of the Cascade 
 Mountains) and California (coast ranges and western slopes of Siena Nevada Mojiin- 
 tains to San Bernardino Mountains and Hot Si)riug Valley in San Diego County). 
 
 Names in use. — Bigleaf Maple (Oreg.), Broad-leaved Maple (cen- 
 tral Cal.; Greg., Willamette Valley); Oregon Maple (Oreg., Wash.); 
 
 (Cal.). 
 
 7 0-7 ail 
 
 White Maple^Oreg.,jVash.); Mauie (Ca 
 
Acer circinatum Puisli. 
 
 Vine Maple. 
 
 Range. — From the coast region of British Columbia south through Washington, 
 Oregon, and Calilbrnia (to Mendocino County). 
 
 Names in use. — Vine Maple ((;entral and northern Cal. 
 Willamette Valley) ; 
 
 Orearou — 
 
 -za's^v-i'^^er^ 
 
 Acer glabrum Ton 
 
 Range. — From Fnitish Coluiiil>ia;^^l§tWar(l and southward over the mountains of 
 the West to California (oiv^ierra Nefvada Mountains to Yosemite Valley), Colorado 
 ^eastern slopes of RockyiMountains), eastern New Mexico, and western Arizona. 
 
 Names in use. — Dwarf Maple (Oreg., Utah, Cal., Colo.); Mountain 
 Maple (Colo., Mont.) ; Soft Maple (Utah) ; Shrubby |VIaple (Utah) ; Bark 
 Maple (Idaho); Maple (Moi 
 
 Acer saccharum Marsh. 
 
 Acer saccharinum wang 
 
 Range. — From southern Newfoundland (along the St. Lawrence and Saguenay 
 rivers. Lake St. John, and northern borders of Great Lakes; to Lake of the Woods 
 and Minnesota; south (through the Northern States and on the jVllegheny Mountains) 
 to northern Georgia and western Florida; west to eastern IfelJrasJIa, eastern Kansas 
 and 
 
 tArt*M 
 
 kL 
 
 NAivn^!? m^rsE.— iSugarflMaple (Me., N. H., Vt., Mas*, E. I., «Jonn., 
 N. Y., N. J.,^ Pa., Del., Va., W. Ya., N. C, S. C, Ala., La., Ky., Mo., 
 Ohio, 111., lud., Iowa, Kans., Ncbr., Mich., Minn., Wis., Ont.); Hard 
 Maple (Vt., E. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Va., xlla., Ky., Mo., Kans., Nebr,, 
 HI., lud., Iowa, Mich., Ohio, Minn., Ont.) ; Sugar tree (Me., Vt., E. I., 
 Pa., Va., W. Va., Ala., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., Ohio, Kans.); 
 Eock Maple (Me., Vt., N. H., Conn., Mass., E. I., N. Y., Tenn., 111., 
 Mich., Iowa, Kans., Wis., Minn., Ont.); Black Maple (Fla., Ky., N. C); 
 Maple (S. C). 
 
 Acer saccharum nigrum (Michx. f.) Britton. Black Maple. 
 
 Acer saccharinum Wang. 
 
 Range. — From Vermont (Lake Champlain) to Minnesota, eastern Kansas, and 
 southwestern Arkansas; southward (west of the Allegheny Mountains) to northern 
 Alahama and Mississippi (Chickasaw River). 
 
 Names in use. — Black Sugar Maple (Mich., Mo.); Black Maple 
 (Mich., Iowa); Hard Maple (Minn.). 
 
 VARIETY DISTIXGUISHEU IN CULTIN'ATION. 
 
 Acer saccharum nigruni moiiumentale (Temple) Sudw. 
 
 Acer saccharum barbatum (Michx.) Trelease. 
 
 Raxgp:. — Nearly the same as the jjn^ceding, but itiHufficiently known. 
 
 Acer saccharum leucoderme (Small) Sudworth. 
 
 Whitebark Maple, 
 
 Range. — North Oarolinii to (Jeor;;ia and Alabama. 
 
 Acer saccharum floridanum (('hapui.) Small ^^ Heller. 
 
 Florida Maple. 
 
92 
 AoER SACCHARINUM Wang", var. floeidanum Chapm. 
 
 Rangk. — From western Florida through southern Alabama (to ceutral prairie 
 region) to Texas (Cibolo Elver) and into Mexico (Sierra Madre Mountains in \uevo 
 Leon). 
 
 Acer saccharum grandidentatum (Nutt.) Sud worth. 
 
 Large-tooth Maple. 
 Acer grandidentatum (Nutt. ! inss.) in Torr. «Si Gr. 
 
 Range. — Montana (head waters of Colnmbia River); Utah (Wasatch .Mountains); 
 southern Arizona (ilnachuaca Mountains and others); New Mexico (Monijollou 
 Mountains); western Texas (Guadaloupe Mountains); Mexico (mountains of Coa- 
 huila). 
 
 NAME.S IN USE. — Western Sugar Maple; Hard Maple (Utah); Large- 
 toothed Maple. 
 
 Acer saccharinum Linu. Silver Maple. 
 
 Acer dasycarpum Ehr. 
 
 Range. — From New Brunswick (St. Johns River) to western Florida; west to 
 southern Ontario, through Michigan to eastern Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas (Blue 
 River), and Indian Territory. 
 
 NA31ES IN USE. — Silver Maple (Me., Vt, Mass., R. I., N. Y., K J., Pa., 
 Del.,Va., W.Va., K C, S. C, Fla., Miss., Ky., Ohio, 111., Ind., Mo., Kans., 
 Nebr., Iowa, Mich., Minn., S. Dak.) ; Soft Maple (Vt., N. H., Mass., 11. 1., 
 N. y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Mo., Oliio, 3Ii(h., Ont., 
 III., Ind., Kans., Nebr., Iowa, Wis., Minn., S. Dak.); White Maple (Me., 
 Vt, K. I., K. Y., N. J., Pa., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., 
 Ky., Mo., 111., Iiid., Kans., Nebr., Minn.) ; River Maple (Me., X. II., R. L, 
 W.Va., Minn.); Silver-leaved Maple (Del., N.J.) ; Water Maple (Pa., 
 W.Va.); Greek Maple (W. Va.); Swamp Maple (W. Va., Md.). 
 
 VAKIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Acer saccharinum pendulum (Xich.) Sudw. 'Weeping Silver Maple. 
 
 Acer saccharinum aureo-variegatum.(Nich. ) Sudw. 
 
 Variegated Silver Maple. 
 Acer saccharinum wierii (Pax) Sudw. Cutleaf Silver Maple. 
 
 Acer saccharinum dissectifolium Sudw. 
 Acer saccharinum lutescefts (Pax) Sudw. 
 Acer saccharinum no-oAn (EUw. & Barjfc) ^idw. I Crig^a^ejffJBilver Maple. 
 
 Acer rubrunx Linn.i^JcBtPtF' ■^^rT^KflM^ V^» TRed Maple. 
 
 RaNcje. — From New liruuswuk, C^uebec, and ()nt;irio (latitude 49 ) to Florida 
 (Caloosa and Indian rivers); west to Lake of the Wood, eastern D.akota and 
 Nebraska, Indian Territory, and Texas (Trinity Kiver). 
 
 Names in use. — Red Maple (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Gonn., 
 N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., W. Va., N. G., S. G., Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., 
 Tex., Ky., Mo., 111., Ind., Ohio, Ont.. Iowa., Wis., Nebr.); Swamp Maple 
 ( Vt., N. H., Mass., Gonn., R. L, N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., N. G., S. G., Fla., 
 Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Mo., Ind., Ont, Minn.); Soft Maple (Vt., Mass., 
 N. Y., Va., Miss., Mo., 111., Ind., Obio, Ont., ISIich., Kans., Nebr., Minn.) : 
 Water Maple (Miss., La., Tex., Ky., Mo.); White Majde (Me., N. H.); 
 Shoe-peg Maple (W. Va.); Erable (La.); Ah-weh-liot-kwah = "Red 
 Flower" (Onondaga Indians, N. Y.); Scarlet Maple (Tex.). 
 
93 
 
 Acer rubruni druminondii (Hook. & Am.) Sargent. 
 
 Drummond Maple. 
 
 Rangk. — Soiitheru Georgia aud Alabama (coast plain), sotithweslcni Tennessee 
 I (Covington), western Louisiana, southern Arkansas, eastern Texas. 
 
 VARIETY DISTINGITISHKD IN (niLTIVATION. 
 
 Acer rubrum sanguiueuni (Sjiacb) Pax 
 
 Acer negundo Linn. ^--lT/tVY^PiJ^VfKC^ 'v^^**'^ Boxelder. 
 
 Xegundo aceroides Moeuch. 
 
 Kange. — Yermout (Lake Champlain aud Winooski River), New York (Cayuga 
 Lake), eastern Penusjlvania, and south to Florida (Hernando County); northwest- 
 ward to Winnipeg (Dogs Head Lake aud along southern branch of the Saskatche- 
 wan River), to the eastern base of the Rockj- Mountains (in British America), to 
 Montana (Rocky Mountains), Utah (Wasatch Mountains), western Texas, New Mex- 
 ico, and eastern Arizona. 
 
 Names in use. — Boxelder (Vt., Mass., K. I., Del., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 Va., W. Va.,N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ark., Mo., Ariz., 
 X. Mex., Mont., 111., Ind., Wis., Ohio, Mich., Iowa, Kans., Nebr., N. Dak., 
 S, Dak., Minn.); Ash leaved Maple (R. I., Mass., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., 
 S. C, La., Tex., 111., Wis., Iowa, Ont., Kans., Xebr., Mont., N. Dak.. 
 :.Iicli., Minn.); Cnt-leaved Maple (Colo.); IS^egiindo Maple (III.); Red 
 iiiver Maple (N. Dak.); Three-leaved Maple (Pa.); Black Ash (Tenn.); 
 Stinking Ash (S. C.) ; Sugar Ash (Fla.) ; Water Ash (Dakotas). 
 
 ^Acer negundo californicum (T. & Gr.) Sargent. 
 
 California Boxelder. 
 j^EGUNDO CALIFORNICUM Torr. «& Gr. 
 Ran'GE. — Southeru California (valley lower Sacrameuto River; valleys and coast 
 ranges from San Francisco Bay to about latitude 35^ ; western slopes San Bernardino 
 Mountains). 
 
 Names injuse. — Box Elder dOal.) j Mapk (CaI/i: Ff 
 
 Acer negundo variegatum Kuutze 
 Acer negundo angustissimum (Pax) Sudw. 
 Acer negundo crispifolium Sudw. 
 Acer negundo violaceum (Koch) Dipp. 
 
 Family HIP»I>OCA^©T^]Sr^CE^E. 
 
 -ffiSCULUS Linn. 
 
 .Sisculus glabra Willd. Ohio Buckeye. 
 
 Range. — From Pennsylvania (western slopes Allegheny Mountains) to northern 
 Alabama (Tennessee River Valley and mountains) aud west to southern Iowa, central 
 Kansas, aud Indian Territory. 
 
 iSTAMES IN USE. — Ohio Buckeye (Miss., (hd., Ark., Mo., Ohio); Buck- 
 eye (Pa., Ky., Mo., IIL, Ind., Ohio, Iowa, Kans.); Fetid Buckeye (W. 
 Va.); Stinking Buckeye (Ala., Ark.); American Horse Chestnut (Pa.). 
 
Isculus octandra Marsh.] ^^- ^ / t Prellb-wa Buckeye. i 
 
 M/2 
 
 Eko^ ^sculus 
 
 iM/ yEsCULIS FLAVA Ait ^ , w^ ^ » 
 
 ]/i RaN(;e. — From renusylvaniii'^rf^lle<;heyy County aud al^ig the .vt^uliciiy Momi- 
 
 ~ ^^^ tains to Georgia (Augusta) audnortlierii Alabama (inouiitaiiis) ; wcstwnrd tosoutlieni 
 Qf Iowa, Indian Territory, and western Texas (upper Cibolo River, near Hoerne). 
 
 Names in use. — Buckeye (N. C, S. C, Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Ky,); 
 Sweet* Buckeye ( W. Va., Miss., Tex., Mo., Ind.) ; Yellow Buckeye (S. C, 
 Ala.); LargeBuckeye (Tenn.); Big Buckeye (Tex., Tenu.); Ohio Buck- 
 
 ft^ eye (Pa., cult.) 
 
 .Cir ..aJsculus octandra hybrida (de C.) Sargent. Purple Buckeye. 
 
 TiC ^X . ^5^^fULUS FLAVA Ait. var puri'URAScens Gray. 
 
 Range. — From West V'irginia soutliward (on Allegheny Mountains); Texas. 
 
 'fM£ ^sculus californica (Spach) Nutt. California Buckeye. 
 
 O/f IvANCE. — California (from Sacramento River in Mendoeiuo County along coast 
 
 M^jfjt ranges to San Luis Obispo County; western footiiills of Sierra Nevada Mountains to 
 j^' northern slopes of Tejon Pass in Kern CouI^.y ; Antelt^ Valiej' of San (iabriel 
 ' Mountains in Los Angeles County), '^ftfl ./>#i<?*-tf -C*-**^' 
 
 AMES INCISE. — California Buckgve (('al.); Jl^orse Chestnut (Cal.). 
 
 Ungnadia speciosa Endl. Texas Buckeye. 
 
 Raxce. — From Texas (Trinity River) to New Mexico (Organ Mountains), and 
 southward into Mexico (Sierra Madre Mountains in Nuevo Leon and mountains 
 of Chihuahua). 
 
 Names in use. — Spanish P.uckeye (Tex.); Texas Buckeye (Tex.). 
 
 SAPINDUS Linn. 
 Sapindus saponaria Linn. Soapberry. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (Cape Sable, shores and islands of Caximbas Ray and 
 Biscayne Bay) and keys (Key Largo and Elliotts Key); West Indies and Venezuela. 
 Xames in use. — False Dogwood (Fla) ; Soapberry ( I'Ma). 
 
 Sapindus marginatus Willd. Wild China. 
 
 Range. — From Georgia (Savannah River) to Florida (St. Johns River on the east 
 coast and on the west coast from Cedar Keys to Manatee River) ; Alabama (escaped 
 from cultivation and running wild near Mobile) ; from western l^ouisiana to southern 
 Arkansas (Washita River) and southern Kansas, through Texas to southern New 
 Mexico, southern Arizona, and into northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Soapberry (Fla,, La., Tex., Ark.) ; Wild China (Fla., 
 La., Tex.); Chinaberry (N. Mex.). 
 
 EXOTHEA Macfadyen. 
 
 Ink-w^ood. 
 
 Exothea paniculata (Juss.) liadlk. 
 Hypelate paniculata Camb. 
 
 R.vxGE. — Southern Florida (from Mos(|uit() Inlet to the southern keys); San 
 Domingo, Cuba, and .lamaica. 
 
 Names in use. — Inkwood (Fla.)j Iron wood. 
 
• 95 
 
 HYPELATE Browne. 
 Hypelate trifoliata Swartz, White Ironwood. 
 
 Kanhk. — Floridii keys (Upper Metacombe and Umbrella keys); Jamaica aii(}-»- 
 (.'uba. 
 
 Name in usk. — White Ironwood (Fla.). 
 
 Family RHA^IMN^CE^E. 
 
 REYNOSIA Griseb. 
 
 Reynosia latifolia Griseb. Red Ironwood. 
 
 Kaxoe. — Soutlieru Florida (Marquesas Islands to Biscayne Baj'); Cuba, Virgiu 
 
 and Bahama islands. 
 
 Names in use. — Ked Ironwood (Fla.); Darling Plum (Fla.). 
 
 CONDALIA Cav. 
 Condalia obovata Hook. Blue-wood. 
 
 Range. — Western Texas (Matagorda Bay to the Rio Grande River) and north- 
 |^#astdrn Mexico. 
 
 >v Names in use. — Bluewood (Tex.); Logwood (Tex.); Purple Haw 
 (Tex.). 
 
 RHAMNIDIUM Keissek. 
 
 Rhamnidium ferreum (Valil) Sargent. Black Iron-wood. 
 
 Condalia ferrea Griseb. 
 
 Range. — Southern Florida (coast from Cape Canaveral and keys to Biscayne 
 Bay) ; St. Croix, San Domingo, St. Thomas, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica. 
 Name in use. — Black Ironwood (Fla.). 
 
 RHAMNUS Linn. 
 Rhamnus crocea Nutt. Evergreen Buckthorn. 
 
 Raxge. — California (upper Sacramento River, west of Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
 to latitude 29^) to Lower California (Guadalupe Islands). 
 
 Rhamnus crocea insularis (Greene) Sargent. 
 
 Range. — Southern California (Cedros and Santa Barbara islands and adjacent 
 mainland). 
 
 Rhamnus pirifolia Greene. 
 
 Kaxgk. — < )tt' coast Houthern California (Santa Cruz Islands). 
 
 Rhamnus caroliniana Walt. Yellow Buckthorn. 
 
 Range. — From New York (Long Island) to Florida, and west (through the Ohio 
 River Valley) to caster u Nebraska, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use. — Indian Cherry (W. Va., N. C, Miss., La., Tex., 
 Ark., Nebr.); Buckthorn (Ark., Iowa, Nebr.); Alder Buckthorn (Tex., 
 Nebr.); Yellow-wood (xUa,, Fla., La.); Stinkwood (La.); Bog Birch 
 (Minn.); Stink Berry (Nebr.): Stink Cherry (Nebr.): Carolina Buck- 
 thorn (S. C, Pa.); Polecat-tree (.Tex.); Polecat- wood (Ark.); Brittle- 
 wood 'Ark.). 
 

 Rhamnus purshiana de C. Cascara Buckthorn. 
 
 IJange. — From Piiget Sound soutliward into Lower California; eastward through 
 northern Washington to Idaho (Bitter Koot Mountains), Montana (Flat Head Lake); 
 eastern slopes Sierra Nevada Mountains; mountains of Colorado and western T»'xas. 
 
 Na:vies in use. — Shittimwood (Orej?., Idaho, Wash.); Caseara 
 Sa^ada (Cal., Oreg.); Be.iiberry (Oieg., Idaho, Wash.); Bearwood 
 (Oreg.); Yellow- wood (Oreg.); Buckthorn (Idaho); Pigeon-berry 
 (Idaho); Oregon Bearwood (Oreg., Wash.); Coffee berry (Cal.); Wild 
 Coffee-bush (Cal.) ; Western Coffee (Oreg., Cal.) ; Bayberry (Oreg., Cal.) ; 
 Wild Coffee (Cal.); California Coffee (Cal.). 
 
 CEANOTHUS Linn. 
 Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Esch. Blue Myrtle. 
 
 Kaxgi;. — Western California (from Mendocino County to San Luis Key Eiver). 
 
 Names in use. — Blue Myrtle; California Lilac (Cal.);* Wild Lilac 
 (Cal.); Blue Blossom (Cal.). 
 
 Ceanothus arboreus Greene. Tree Myrtle. 
 
 Range. — Off coast of southern California (Santa Catalina, Santa Cruz, Santa Kosa 
 Islands). 
 
 COLUBRINA Brongn. 
 
 Colubrina recimata (L'Her.) Brongn. Naked-wood. 
 
 IJaX(.k. — Southern Florida (Umbrella Key, north end of Key Largo, and islands 
 south of Elliotts Key); Jamaica, San Lucia, St. Vincent, Cuba, St. Croix, Haiti, 
 Virgin and Bahama islamls. 
 
 Names in use. — Naked- wood (Fla.); Soldierwood (Fla.). 
 
 TILIA Linn. 
 Tilia americana Linn. BassTvood. 
 
 IvAXi.i:. — New lirunswick to Virginia and (along Allegheny Mountains; to Georgia 
 and Alabama (mountains); west (in Canada) to Lake Superior (eastern shores) and 
 o Lake Winnipeg (southern shores) and Assiniboine River (in United States), to 
 eastern Dakota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and eastern Texas. 
 
 Navies in use. — Basswood (Me.,N. H.,Vt., ILL, Mass., Conn., N.Y., 
 N. J., Del., ]»a., W. Va., D.C, N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., 
 Ill,, Ind., Iowa, Wis., Mich., Ohio, Ont., Nebr., Kans., Minn., N. Dak.); 
 American Linden (Me., N. H., K. I., N. Y., Pa., Del., N. C, Miss., Ohio, 
 111., Nebr., N. Dak., Ont., Minn.) ; Linn (Pa., Va., W. Va., Ala., La., 111., 
 Ind., Ohio, Mo., Iowa., Kans., Nebr., Wis., S. Dak.); Linden (Vt., 
 R. I., Pa., W. Va., Nebr., Minn ); Limetree (K. I., N. C, S. C, Ala., 
 Miss., La., 111.); Whitewood (Vt., W. Va., Ark., Minn., Ont.); Beetree 
 (Vt., W. Va., Wis.); Black Limetree (Tenn.); Smooth-leaved Limetree 
 (Tenn.); White Lind (W. Va.); Wickup (Mass.); Yellow Basswood 
 (Ind.); Lein (Ind.). 
 
 Tilia pubescens Ait. Do-wny Bass^vood. 
 
 Tilia Americana 3 pubescens Loud. 
 
 Range. — New York (Long Island — swamp in Wading River, Suffolk County); 
 coast of Nyrth Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia; northern Florida, Louisiana, 
 Texas (Rio ]>lauro Rivcr^. Range insufficiently known. 
 
 Name in use.— Wahoo (Fla.). 
 
97 
 
 Tilia pubescens leptophylla ^ ent. Thinleaf Downy Bassvrood. 
 
 Range. — Lnaisiaua; local. M §»■ I i M 
 
 TUia heterophylla Veiit.P-*<*<l t^U(>f. "^^J^^hite Basswood. 
 
 IjANiiK — Fio:n Pennsylvania (tbr()ugli tlu' Allej'lu'iiy Moiinxirins) to western and 
 central Florida (Lake Charm in Orange Connty) and Alabama (Tennessee Kiver 
 valley to central luairie region) ; west to soutlnrn Indiana and Illinois, Kentiicky 
 and Tennessee (to Nashville). 
 
 Names in use. — VVbite Kasswood (Ind., Ala.); WaLoo (Ga., Fla.); 
 Wild Liiideii; Smooth-fruited, White-leaved Liinetree (Tenn.); Large- 
 leaved Limetree (Tenii.); Silverleaf Poplar (Ky.); Cottonwood (Ky.); 
 Lin LliuL. Teiiii.L . /D /) 
 
 Family C^^CTA^CE^rE. 
 
 CEREUS Mill. 
 
 Cereusgiganteus Engelm. Giant Cactus . 
 
 RangkT— C^ntrirriuHl southern Arizona (from Hill Williams River to the San 
 Pedro River) and southward into Mexico (Sonora). 
 
 Names in use. — Giaut Caotus (N. Mex., Ariz.); Sahuara (Ariz.):^ 
 Saguaro (Ariz.). jtL*^ 
 
 Cereus thurberi Eiigelru. Thurber Cactus. /^^ 
 
 R.v.NuE. — Southwestern Arizona; Mexico (Sonora); Lower California. ^'"M 
 
 Names in use. — Pitahaya (Mex.); Pitahaya dulce (Hex.). 
 Cereus schottii Engelm. Schott Cactus.'^ 
 
 R.\XGK. — Southern Arizona; Mexico (Sonora); Lower California. ^ 
 
 Names in use, — Ziua. Sina, Sinita, Hombre viejo, and Cabezi 
 
 viejo (Ariz., Mex.). \ 
 
 OPUNTIA^ Mill. 
 
 Opuntia fulgida Engelm. Cholla. 
 
 Range. — From southern Nevada (Cottonwood Springs) through Arizona (south 
 of Colorado plateau in Pima, Maricopa. Pinal, and Cochise counties) into Mexico" 
 (Sonora). and Lower California. ^^l#l 
 
 Opuntia fulgida mammillata (Scott) Coult. ''^^^>l| 
 
 Range. — Through southern Arizona (southern loothills of Santa Catalina Moun- 
 tains, etc.) into Mexico (Sonora). 
 
 AW 
 
 ■ Although several species of Opuntias have long been known to be of tree-lik^ 
 form and dimensions, these arborescent species have usually not been considered 
 strictly trees. It is evident, however, that they should be regarded as true trees, 
 both from their tree-like form, and also from their truly woody internal structure. 
 Prof. J. W Tourney, of the University of Arizona, who has conducted many critical 
 studies on southwestern Cactaceie, writes the following concerning one of the tree 
 Opuntias: 
 
 " The reticulated wood is used to some extent in the manufacture of light furni- 
 ture,, fancy articles, canes, picture frames, etc. A factory wa.s established in Salt 
 River Valley (Arizona) some three years ago for the purpose of manufacturing 
 articles trom this wood." 
 
 For excellent illustrations of the general appearance of these trees, the reader is 
 referred to following articles by Professor Toumey : Opuntia fnlgida, Garden and 
 Forest. Vlll, 324, f. 4.5, 189.5; Opuntia arborescena, Garden and Forest, IX, 2, f. 1, 1896. 
 
Opuntia versicolor Kiigelm.' 
 
 Range. — Southern Arizona (foothills and low niounrams). 
 
 Opuntia sponsior (Eiigelm.) Tourney .^ 
 
 KaX(;k.— Sontbeni Arizona. Hange not yet perfectly known. 
 
 Opuntia sponsior neomexicana Toiiniey.- 
 
 J\AXGK. — Sontiiciii Arizona. 
 
 Family KHIZOI^HOKA.CE^E. 
 
 RHIZOPHORA Linn. 
 Rhizophora mangle l>inn. Mangrove. 
 
 Ran<;k.— Southern coast of Florida (Mosciuito Inlet and Cedar Keys to southern 
 islaud.s); Mississippi delta; Texas coast; eastern and western coasts of Mexico; 
 Lower California; from Central America aloufj northern and eastern coast of South 
 America to the limits of the tropics; Bermndas, Bahamas, West Indies; Galapagos 
 Islands. 
 
 Name in use. — \[any:rove (Fla.). 
 
 Family INIYRT^CE^E., 
 ANAMOMIS (iriseb. 
 
 Anamomis dichotonia (Poir.) Sargeut. Naked Stopper. 
 
 Eugenia dichotoma de C. 
 
 Range. — Florida coast (Mosquito Inlet to Cape Canaveral on the east, and on the 
 west Caloosa River to Cape Romano; Key West, Biscayne Bay); West Indies. 
 
 Names in use. — Naked- wood (FIh.); Naked Stopper. 
 
 CHYTRACULIA Browne. 
 
 Chytraculia chytraculia (Linn.) Sudworth. Stopper. 
 
 Calypthanthes (CHYTRACULIA Swart/. 
 Range.— Florida (Lake Worth; Key West, Key Largo; Biscayne Bay); West 
 Indies and southern Mexico. 
 
 Chytraculia chytraculia genuina (Berg.) Sndw. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia ovalis (Berg.) Sudw. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia trichotoma (Berg.) Sudw. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia pauciflora (Berg.) Sudw. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia zuzygium (Linn.) Sudw. 
 
 EUGENIA Liun. 
 Eugenia buxifolia (Swartz) Willd. Gurgeon Stopper. 
 
 Range.— Florida coast (on the east, Cape Canaveral to .southern key; and on the 
 west, Caloosa River to Cape Sable). 
 
 ' In Coulter, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., Ill, 452, 1896. 
 2Bot. Gaz.. XXV, 119, 1898. 
 
99 
 Eugenia monticola (Swartz) de C. White Stopper. 
 
 l^ANGE. — Florida coast St. .lohus Kiver to Key Lai-jLjo, Key West, rpper Metacnmbe 
 Key, Klliotts Key); West Imlies. 
 
 Na:mes in use. — White Stopper (Fla.); Stopper (Fla.). 
 
 Eugenia procera (Swartz) Poir. Red Stopper. 
 
 Ka.xgk. — Florida keys (Key West aii<l Tmbrella Key); Sau Domingo, ("iiba, 
 .laiiiaiea, Santa Cruz, Martinique. 
 
 Names in use. — Red Stopper (Fla.); Spiceberry (Fla.). 
 
 Eugenia garberi Sargent. Garber Stopper. 
 
 Eugenia procera Sargeut. 
 
 Kangk. — Florida (hammoek, tbrec-loniths mile east of montli of Miami Kiver ; ( He 
 Rhodes Key and Elliotts Key; Bahamas (one;, New Providence Island, West Indies 
 (Antigua). 
 
 Familv 0O]MBTlETA^CE..E. 
 
 TERMINALIA Benth. & Hook. 
 
 Terminalia buceras (Browne) Benth. & Hook. Black Olivetree. 
 
 Range. — Sontheru Florida (Elliotts Key); West Indies, coast Caribbean Sea. and 
 Bay of Panama. 
 
 CONOCARPUS Linn. 
 Conocarpus erecta Linn. Florida Buttonvrood. 
 
 Range. — Coast of simtbern Florida (Cape CanaA*eral and Cedar Keys to sDuthern 
 islands West Indies); Central and Sonth America; Galapagos Islands; east coast of 
 Africa. 
 
 Names in use. — Buttonwood (Fla.). 
 Conocarpus erecta arborea de C. 
 Conocarpus erecta procumbens (Linn.) de C. 
 Conocarpus erecta sericea de C. 
 
 LAG-UNCULARIA G^rtn. f. 
 Laguncularia raceuiosa (Linn.) Gii?rtn. f. White Buttonwood- 
 
 Range. — Coast of southern Florida (Cape Canaveral and Cedar Keys to southern 
 islands); West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America, and western Africa. 
 
 Names in use. — White Battonwood (Fla.); White Mangrove (Fla.)j 
 Buttonwood (Fla.). 
 
 Family ^^RA^LIA^CE^E. 
 
 ARALIA Linn. 
 Aralia spinosa Linn. Angelic a- tree. 
 
 Range. — From Pennsylvania (Allegheny Monntains in Clearlield, Cambria. West- 
 moreland, and Fayette counties) to Florida, and to southern Indiana, southeastern 
 Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use. — Angelica- tree, Hercules' Club. 
 
100 
 
 Family COR:^r^CE.^. 
 
 CORNUS Linn. 
 
 Cornus florida Linn. (Flowering) Dogwood, 
 
 Kanuk.— From eastern Massafbuaetts to central Florida, and west through south- 
 ern Ontario, southern Michigan (up to Montcalm County) to southwestern Missouri 
 and Texas (Hrazos River); Mexico (Sierra Madrc Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Flowering- Dogwood (Mass., R. I.. K Y., N. J.,Del., 
 Pa., Va., N. C, S. C, Miss., La., Ark., Mo., 111., Kans., Mioh., Ont., 
 Ohio, Ind.); Dogwood (N. J., Pa., Del., W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., 
 La., Ky., Ohio, Ind., Mich.); Boxwood (Conn., R. I., N. Y., Miss., 
 Mich., Ky., Ind.. Ont.); False Box dogwood (Ky.): New England Box- 
 wood (Tenn.); Flowering Cornel (K. I.); Cornel (Tex.). 
 
 VARIETIES DISTINGUISHED IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Cornus florida pendula Temple. Weeping Dogwood. 
 
 Cornus florida rubra Temple. Red-bract Dogwood. 
 
 Cornus nuttallii And. (Pacific) Dogwood. 
 
 Rangk.— From southern coast of British Columbia (Lower Fraser River and \au- 
 couver Island) through Washington, Oregon, and California (coast ranges to San 
 Bernardino Mountains and western slopes of Sierra Nevada Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Dogwood (Cal., Oreg., Wash.); California Dog- 
 wood (Cal.); Flowering Dogwood (Oreg., Cal.); Western Dogwood. 
 
 Cornus alternifolia Linn. f. Blue Dogwood. 
 
 Range.— From Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (through St. Lawrence River 
 Valley) to Lake Superior (northern shores) and Minnesota; south through the North- 
 ern States (and along the Allegheny Mountains) to northern (Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 Names in use. — Dogwood (Vt., Mass., K. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., 
 Pa., Va., W. Va., N. C, Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., 111., Wis., Minn., 
 Ohio, Ont.); Blue Dogwood (Pa.); Purple Dogwood (Pa.); Umbrella- 
 tree (R.I.) ; Pigeonberry (N. Y.); Alternate leaved Dogwood (Mich.); 
 Green (Jsier (Vt.). 
 
 Wan^ liAJJYnA 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica IMarsli. id n a I^ . ^ack G-um. 
 
 NySSA MUl/riFLORA 
 RaN(;k. — From Maine (Keuuebei- River) to Florida (Kissiflimee iMver and Tampa 
 Bay) and west to southern Ontario, southern Michigan (up to Gratiot County), south- 
 eastern Missouri, and Texas (Hra/.os River). 
 
 Names in use.— Black Gum, (N. J., Pa., Del., Va.. W. Va., N. C, 
 S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., 111., Ind.); Sour (lum (Vt., Mass., 
 E. L, N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., W.Va., S. C, Fla., Tex., Ohio, Ind., 111.) ; 
 Tupelo (Mass., K.L, N.J., Del., S.C, Ala., Fla., Miss., Tex., 111., Ohio); 
 Pepperidge (Vt., Mass., ft. I., N. Y., N. .7., fci. C, Tenn., Mich., Ohio, 
 Ont.); Wild Peartree (Tenn.); Yellow Gumtree (Tenn.); Gum (Md.); 
 Stiukwood (W.Va.); Tupelo Gum (Fla.). 
 
101 
 
 VAKiKTY i>isriN(;risiii:D iv cii.tivatiox. 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica pendula (^ Temple) Sudw. 
 
 Nyssa biflora \\'alt. Water G-um. 
 
 Nyssa Ac^uatica Linn. 
 
 Range. — Maryland (Mont!j;oinery County) to FloriiLi iin<l (•<ntral Alabama. 
 
 Nyssa ogeche Marsh. Sour Tupelo. 
 
 Nyssa capitata ^Yalt. 
 
 Range. — From southern borcleis of South Carolina (near coast and through the 
 Ogeeihee River Valley in Georgia) to northern Florida (Clay County) and western 
 Florida (Washington County). 
 
 Na:mes in use. — Sour Tupelo (S. C, Fla.); Ogeecliee Lime (S. C. 
 Fla.): Gopher Plum (Fhu); Tuojgloj-VVikl Liiyetree; Limetree. 
 Nyssa aquatica Linn. f/rO^H/V/^^MJA^ ^ ^ Cotton G-um. _ 
 
 Nyssa uniflora Wang. i'"*^^ ' 
 
 Range. — Coast region from southern Virginia to northern I'imida. .md thiuugli 
 the Gulf States to Texas (Nueces River); northward through Arkansas, west Ten- 
 nessee and Kentucky, southern and southeastern Missouri to southern Illinois (lowtn- 
 Wabash River). 
 
 Names in use. — Large Tupelo (Ala., La,, Tex.); Tupelo (ium (Ga., 
 Ala., Miss., La.); Sour Gum (Ark., Mo.); Swamp Tupelo (S. C., La.); 
 Cottou Gum (N. C, S. C, Fla.); Tupelo (N. O., S. C); Wild Olivetree 
 (La.); Olivier a graudes feuilles (La.); Olivetree (Miss.). 
 
 Family ERIOA.C^E. 
 
 VACCINIUM Linn. 
 
 Vaccinium arboreum Marsh. Tree Huckleberry. 
 
 Haxge. — From North Carolina to Florida (Hernando County) ami through tlie 
 Gulf States to eastern Texas (Matagorda Bay); northward through Arkansas and 
 Tennessee to southern Illinois and Missouri. 
 
 Names in use. — Farkleberry (N. C, S. C, Fla., Miss., La., Mo.); 
 Sparkleberry (N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla.); Myrtle Berrie-s (La.); Bluet 
 (La.); Tree Huckleberry (S. 0.); Gooseberry (N. 0.). 
 
 «^RBUTUS Linn. 
 
 Arbutus n||nziesiii*arsbf «" Madroiia. 
 
 RaN(;e.— Coast region from British Columbia (islands at Seymour Xarro'.vs) tc 
 California (coast ranges to Santa Lucia Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Madrofia (Cal., Greg.); Madrove (Cal.); Laurel- 
 wood (Oreg.): Madrone-tree; Laurel (Oreg.); Manzanita {(mii^.). 
 
 Arbutus xalapensis H. B. K. Mexican Madrona. 
 
 Arbutus xalapensis var. texana (iray. 
 
 Range. — Texas (Travisand Hays — Rio Blanco River — counties to Eagle and Gua- 
 dalupe mountains): Mexico (Sierra Madre Mountains in Xuevo Leon, to mountfiins 
 near .lalapa). 
 
 Names in use. — Mauzanitaj MadroHa; Madrone-tree; Laurel. 
 
102 
 
 Arbutus arizonica (Gray) Sargent. Arizona Madrona. 
 
 ARI5UTUS XALAi'ENSis var. ARIZONICA Gray. 
 
 Raxge. — Southern Arizona (Santa Catalinaand Santa Rita mountains) ; southward 
 into Mexico (Sierra Madre Mountains in t'hilniahua^ 
 
 ANDROMEDA Linn. 
 
 Andromeda ferruginea Walt. AndromedcL 
 
 Ran<;p:. — Cwist region from South Carolina to Florida (Cedar Keys on west coast) ; 
 Mexico (region of San Luis I'otosi, mountains of Oaxaca, Orizabn, Jitotole, and 
 Talea); West Indies. 
 
 Xame in use. — Titi (Fla.). 
 Andromeda ferruginea arborescens Miclix. 
 Andromeda ferruginea fruticosa Michx. 
 
 OXYDENDRUM de C. 
 Oxydendrum arboreum (Liun.) de C. Sourwood. 
 
 RAXdp:. — From Pennsylvania (Mount Pleasant, in Westmoreland County, and 
 along the Alleghony Mountains) to western Florida and southern Alabama (eastern 
 shores Mobile Bay), westward to southern Indiana, Arkansas (mountains) and west- 
 ern Louisiana. 
 
 Names in use. — Sourwood (W. Va., N. 0., S. C. Ga.. Fla., Ala., 
 Miss., La., Ky., Ohio); Sorrel-tree (Pa., X. C., S. C, Miss., La., Ohio); 
 Sour Gum Bush (Ohio); Sour Gum (W. Va.); Arrow-wood (W. \"a.); 
 Titi (S. C.); Lily of the Valley- tree. 
 
 KALMIA Linn. 
 Kalmia latifolia Linn. Mountain Laurel. 
 
 KAX(iE. — From New liruuswick to Lake Erie (northern shores and mainly along the 
 Appalachian .Mcmntains) to western Florida ; west through the Gulf States to western 
 Louisiana and Arkansas (Red River). 
 
 ]!^^AMES IN USE. — Laurel (N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., X. Y., 
 Pa., Bel., Ya., W. Va., I<f. C, S. C., Miss., La., Mo.); Calico Bush (Vt., 
 E. I., K Y., Pa., Del., N. C, S. C., Ala., Miss., La.); Spoonwood (X. H., 
 Mass., 11. I., Pa., Miss.); Ivy (Conn., Md., Va., :N^. C., S. C, Miss.); 
 Poison Ivy (Tenn., Ala.); Poison Laurel (Ala.); Mountaiu Laurel (Vt., 
 Mass., W. Va., Ky., Tenn.); Sheep Laurel (Pa.); Wood Laurel (Pa.); 
 Small Laurel ( W. Va.) ; Kalmia (Pa.. S. C.) ; Calico tree ( leuu.) ; Calico 
 Flower (Tenn.); Mountain Ivy 'Va.); Big-leaved Ivy (lit. domestic 
 medicine); Ivywood (S. C). 
 
 RHODODENDRON Linu. 
 Rhododendron maximum Linn. G-reat Rhododendron. 
 
 liAN(.i.. — From No\ a Scotia to I>ake Erie (north shores) and southward in New 
 England ami New York (and along the Alh^gheny Mountains) to northern Georgia. 
 
 Names in use. — Great Laurel (N. H., Mass., R. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 N. C, Minn.); Rose Bay (R. L, Pa., N. C, S. C); Bigleaf Laurel (Pa.); 
 Big Laurel (W. Va.); Laurel (R. I., Va., N. C, S. C); Mountain Laurel 
 (Pa., S. C); Rhododendron (R. L, K Y., Pa., Va., S. C); Dwarf Rose 
 Bay-tree (Tenn.): Spoon Hutch (N. H.); Wild Rose Bay and Deer- 
 tongue Laurel (lit. of domestic medicine). 
 
103 
 
 VAKIPniES I>ISTING(ISHKI> IN CULTIVATION. 
 
 Rhododendron maximum roseum ruisli. 
 Rhododendron maximum purpureum Pursb. 
 Rhododendron maximum album ruish. 
 
 Rhododendron cata^vbiense Michx. Cata^vba Rhododendron. 
 
 RANtJi:.— Moiiutaiiis from Virj>iuia and West Virginia to Georgia and Alabama 
 (Lookout Mountain, on Little Liver iu Dekalb Comity). 
 
 Family MIYRSIN^CE^E. 
 ICACOREA Aublet. 
 
 Icacorea paniculata (Nutt.) Sudworth. Marlberry. 
 
 Ardisia pickeringia Nutt. 
 
 Raxge. — Cnast of eoutbern Florida (on the east coast from Mosquito Inlet to 
 southern islands and on the west coast from Caloosa River to Cape Romano); Baha- 
 mas, tuba, and southern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Marlberry (Fla.); Cherry (Fla.). 
 
 JAQUINIA Linn. 
 Jaquinia armillaris Jacq. Joe^vood. 
 
 Range. — Off the coast of southern Florida (Sanibel Islands to southern keys and 
 Everglades) : Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, and northern Brazil. 
 
 Name in use. — Joewood (Fla.). 
 
 Family S^I>OTA.CE^E. 
 
 CHRYSOPHYLLUM Linu. 
 
 Chrysophyllum monopyrenum Swartz. Satinleaf. 
 
 Oheysophyllum ohviforme Lam. 
 
 RANciE. — Coast of southern Florida (on the east coast from Mosquito Inlet to 
 southern keys and on the west coast from Caloosa River to Cape Sable) ; Bahamas 
 and West Indies. 
 
 Name in use.— Satinleaf (Fla.). 
 
 SIDEROXYLON Linu. 
 Sideroxylon mastichodendron Jacq. Mastic. 
 
 Range. — Coast of sonthern Florida (on the east coast from Cape Canaveral to 
 southern keys and on the west coast from Cape Romano to Cape Sable) ; Bahamas 
 and West Indies. 
 
 Najie in use. — Mastic (Fla.); Wild Olive (Fla.). 
 BUMELIA Swartz. 
 
 Bumelia tenax (Linu.) Willd. Tough Bumelia. 
 
 Range. — Coast region North Carolina to Florida (Cape Canaveral and Cedar Keys). 
 
 Names in use, — Black Haw <Fla.); Tough Buckthorn (S. C); Iron- 
 wood (S. C, Fla.). 
 
104 
 Bumelia lanuginosa (Michx.) Pers. Shittimwood. 
 
 RANta:.--Kiom southern (jeorgia and northern Florida through Alabama ( Tennt's- 
 see KMver Valley to coast plain) ; from southern Illinois and southern Missouri through 
 Arkansas and Texas to Mexico (Nuevo Leon). 
 
 Names in use. — Gum Elastic; Shittimwood (Tex.); Black Haw 
 (Fla.). 
 Bumelia lanuginosa rigida Gray. 
 
 Ka.V(;e. — Western Texas to Arizona and south into Mexico (Nuevo Leon). 
 Bumelia lycioides (Linn.) Givrtn. f. Buckthorn Bumelia. 
 
 Kanh;k. — From southern Virginia to Florida (Mosquito Inlet and L'aloosa Kivei) 
 and west to southern Illinois, southern Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas (Kio Concho 
 River). 
 
 Names in use. — Ironwood (Va., S. C, Ga., Fla., Miss., Ky.): South- 
 ern Buckthorn (Miss., La., Tex., 111.); Carolina Buckthorn (X. C); 
 Buckthorn (S. C); Chittimwood (Tex.); Mock Orange (Fla.j. 
 
 Bumelia angustifola Nutt. Saffron Plum. 
 
 Range. — IMorida coast regiou (on the east from Indian River to southern keys, and 
 on the west coast from Cedar Keys to Cape Romano); Texas (Rio Grande Kiver 
 lielow Laredo); Mexico (Nuevo Leon) ; West Indies. 
 
 Xames IN USB. — Saffron Plum (Fla.); Downward Plum (Fla.j; Ants- 
 wood (Fla.). 
 
 DIPHOLIS A. de C. 
 
 Dipholis salicifolia (Linn.) A. de C. Bustic. 
 
 Kan'(;k. — Coast of southeru Florida (Biscayne Bay and a nuniher of southern keys) ; 
 Bahamas and West Indies. 
 
 Names in use. — Bustic (Fla.); Cassada (Fla.). 
 MIMUSOPS Linn. 
 Mimusops sieberi A. de C. Wild Sapodilla. 
 
 Kan<;i:. — ort' the coast of southern Florida (southern keys); I'.ahamas ami \\'est 
 Indies ( ?). 
 
 >'AMES IN USE.— Wild Dilly (Fla.); Wild Sapodilla (Fla.). 
 
 FaixiiW EBEIS^ A.CE^E. 
 
 Diospyros virginiana Linn.'H^fc^ tAJJC ^*^^^^ Persimmon. 
 
 HANciK. — Connecticut v Light-house roinfc. New Haven); New York vLon^- NLind);\ 
 from southern New York (east of Allegheny Mountains) to Florida (Biscayne Bay 
 and Caloosa River); from southern Ohio to .southein Alabama ami west to south- 
 western Iowa, southern Missouri, and eastern Kansas (Franklin. Anderson. Bourbon, 
 Crawford, and Cherokee couuties), Indian Territory and Texas (Colorado River). \ 
 
 Names in use. — Persimmon (Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., \ 
 W. Ya., N. C, S. (\, Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., Tex., Ark., 111., \ 
 Ind., Iowa, Ohio); Date Plum (X. .T.,Tenn.); Plaqueminier (La.); Sim- 
 mon (Fla.); Possumwood (Fla.). 
 
105 
 Diospyros texana Scheele. Mexican Persimmon, 
 
 Kax»jk. — Texas vC'olorado and Rio Conclio rivers) t<> Mcxito (Niuvo Lcim . 
 
 Xames in use. — Mexican Persimmon (Tex.); Black I'ersimmon 
 (Tex.); Cbapote (Tex.). 
 
 Family SYMFLOCA^CE^E. 
 
 Symplocos tinctoria (Linn.) L'Her. [j Sweetleaf. 
 
 Kanoe. — From southern Delaware (peninsula) to Florida; west in tlie Atlantic 
 region to the Bine Ridge Mountains, and through the Gulf States (in Alaltama up to 
 Tennessee River) to western Louisiana and southern Arkansas (border counties). 
 
 jS^ames in use. — Sweetleaf (Del., X. C, S. C, Fla., Ala.); Yellow- 
 wood (N. C, S. C, Ala.); Horse Sugar (Del., Ala.. La.); Florida Laiire? 
 (Fla.). ' 
 
 Family STYRACACE^^. 
 MOHRODENDRON Britton. 
 
 Mohrodendron carolinum (Linn.) Britton. Silverbell-tree. 
 
 Halesia tetraptera Ellis. 
 
 Ranhe. — From West Virginia (mountains) to southern Illinois and south to middle 
 Florida, northern Alabama (Lauderdale, Cullman, and Talladega counties i. and 
 Mississippi through Arkansas and western Louisiana to eastern Texas. 
 
 Xames in use. — Snowdrop-tree (R. L, Pa. (cult.). N. C, S. C, Fla., 
 La.); Silverbell-tree (K. I. (cult.), Ala., Fla., Miss.); Silverbell (Pa., 
 cult.); Wild Olive tree (Tenn.); Bell-tree (Tenn.): Four winged Hale- 
 sia (Ala.); Opossum- wood (Ala.); Eattlebox (Tex.): Calicowood (Tex., 
 111.); Tisswood (Tenn.). 
 Mohrodendron carolinum meehani (Sarg.) noni. nov. 
 
 Meehan Silverbell-tree. 
 
 Ran(tE. — Originated in the nursery of Thomas Meehan & Sons, (xermantown. Pa., 
 and so far kuown only in cultivation. 
 
 Mohrodendron dipterum (Ellis) Britton. Snowdrop-tree, 
 
 Halesia diptera l']llis. 
 
 Range. ^Coast region from South Carolina to northern Florida, and throu>,'h the 
 Gulf States (mainly in coast jilain of Alabama) to Texas: northward through Louisi- 
 ana to central Arkansas. 
 
 Names in use. — Snowdrop^e {II. I., Del. (cult.), S. C, Ala., La., 
 Tex.)-. Silverbell-tree (K. I., Del. (cult.), Miss., Tex.); Cow Licks ^La.). 
 
 Fraxinus cuspidata Torr.' ^ Fringe Ash. 
 
 Ra_xge. — From southwestern Texas (canyon of Rio Grande River) through .southiru 
 New Mexico to Arizona (Grand C'anycni of Colorado River), and southwanl into 
 Mexico (mountains of Cohahuila and Nuevo Leon to Santa Eulalia Mountains in 
 L'liihnahua). 
 
106 
 
 Fraxinus greggii Gray. G-regg Ash. 
 
 ]\A.N(,i:. — Western Texas (from mouth of San Pedro River to Pecos Kiver iiiid 
 southward into Mexico (mountains of Nuevo Leou, Cohahiiila, and Chihuahua i. 
 
 Fraxinus quadrangulata Micbx. Blue Ash. 
 
 1\a.N(;k. — From Miehi^iaii. Illinois, and Iowa southward (ranj^iuj; into southeastern 
 Kansas in Sumner and Cherokee eounties) to northern Alabama (Jackson and Madi- 
 son counties) and to northeastern Arkansas. Hau^e insufticieutly known. 
 
 Name in use. — l>lne Ash (Pa. (cult.), Ala., Ky., Mo., 111., Mk-b.). 
 
 Fraxinus nigra .Marsh, ''^'^"^'"^'m/v^ ^^f^^j/^^^^ * fk Black Ash. 
 Fraxinus sambucifolia Lain, '♦€1*^ *mrc ^J^VCJUL/L 7H*WM 
 
 Range. — From northern shores of Gulf of St. La\tfence and Newfoundland vr> 
 Manitoba (^Lake Winnipeg) and southward to Delaware ^ Newcastle Couutj'), \'ir- 
 jjinia (mountains), southern Illinois, central Missouri, and northwestern Arkan.sas. 
 
 Names in use.— Black Ash (Me., N. H,, Vt., Mass., E, I,, N, Y., N. J,, 
 Pa^, Del., W. Va., Mo., Ohio, Out.. Mich., 111., Miuii.); Hoop Ash (Vt., 
 N. Y.. Del., Ohio, 111., Ind.); Basket Ash (Mass.): Browu Ash (N. H., 
 Tenii.): Swamp Ash (Yt., R. I., N. Y'.); Water Ash (W. Ya., Teiiii., 
 liid.). 
 Fraxinus anomala W ats. D-warf Ash. 
 
 IiAXiiE.— From southwestern Colorado (McElrao River) through southern Utah; 
 southern Nevada (Charleston Mountains). 
 
 Names in use. — Ash (Utah); Dwarf Ash (Ari/., Utah). 
 
 Fraxinus anomala triphylla Jones. Trifoliate Dwarf Ash. 
 
 R.vxciE. — Arizona (type locality "' Pagumpa in the Grand Wash. 4. 000 feet altitude '" ). 
 
 Fraxinus velutina Torr. Leatherleaf Ash. 
 
 Fraxinus pistaciyi:folia Torr. 
 
 Range. — From western Texas (mountains) through southern New Mexico and 
 Arizona to .southern Nevada and southeastern California (Panamiut Mountains and 
 Owens Lake i. 
 
 Name in use. — Ash (Tex., Ariz,.^ Nev.). f J 
 
 Fraxinus americana Linn, iA/<€^ ^^/tTMCTr^^t^* White Ash. 
 
 li'A.Ni;!.— From Nova Scotia aiul Newfoundland to Florida and westward to ( intariu 
 and norlhern Minnesota, eastern Nebraska', Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas 
 (Trinity River). ^' 
 
 Names in use,— White Ash (Me., N, H., Vt., Mass., K. I., Conu., 
 N. Y., N, J., Del., Pa., Va., VY, Va,, N. C, S. C, Ga., Fla., Ala., Mi.ss., 
 La., Tex., Ky., Mo,, 111,, Intl., Iowa, Ivans., Nebr., Mich., Ohio, Out., 
 Minn., N. Dak., Wis.); Ash (Ark., Iowa, Wis., Ill,, Mo,, Minn.); Amer- 
 ican Ash (Iowa); Fran(;-Frene (Quebec); Cane Ash (Ala., Miss., La.), 
 
 Fraxinus americana curtissii (Yasey) Sudwortli. 
 
 Small-fruit "White Ash, 
 Fraxinus americana var, microcarpa Gray, 
 
 Range. — Northern Alabama (Morgan and Mailisou counties) to middle lennessee. 
 
 Fraxinus texensis (Gray) Sar<ient. Texas Ash, 
 
 i-RAXiNus AMERICANA var, TEXENSIS Gray. 
 Range. — Northern, central, and western Texas (from near Dallas to valley of 
 Devils Rive;). 
 
 Name in use. — Mountain Ash (Tex.). 
 
107 
 
 Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. ^{tf;.^^^ ^Hf^^ ^®^ -^sh. 
 Fraxinus pubescens Lam. ^g^Aj^Ct^^/G£/vdt^ - 
 
 Range.— From New Brunswick to uorthern FloridU and westward to southern 
 Ontario, Dakota (Black Hills), eastern Nebraska, northeastern and eastern (border 
 counties) Kansas, to west Tennessee and through northern Alabama (mountain 
 region ni St. Clair and Cullman coiyities). 
 
 Names in use.— Red Ash (Me., N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., N. Y., K J., 
 Pa., Del., W. Va., N. 0., S. C, Fla., Ga., Ala., Miss., La., Ky., Mo., 111., 
 Ivans., Xebr., Mich., Minn., Ont.); Brown Ash (Me.); Black Ash (N. J.); 
 River Ash (R^t., Ont.);*Bastard Ash (Vt.); Ash (Nebr.); Piss Ash 
 
 (^*t.). -^ 3 
 
 Fraxinus profunda Bash. Pumpkin Ash. 
 
 Range.— Western Florida and southern Missouri (New Madrid County) ; Arkansas 
 (near Varner). Range insufficiently known. 
 
 Name in use. — Pumpkin Ash (Ark.). ^ jf/n * • 
 Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh. \/AXc^ ivu ^^AA4AxJL careen Ash. 
 Fraxinus viridis Michx. f. F*A^feew^|^ • 
 
 Range. — From Vermont (Lake Champlain and southward in the Aj^alachian 
 region) to northern Florida; westward to the Saskatchewan River, eastern ranges of 
 the Rocky Mountains and extending into Utah (Wasatch Mountains) and eastern and 
 northern Arizona (niountains), and through eastern Texas (to Colorado River). 
 
 Names in use.— Green Ash (Mass., R. L, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., 
 Del., N. C, S. C, Ala., Miss., La., Tex., Mo., 111., Kaus., Nebr., Mich., 
 Minn., S. Dak., Ohio, Ont., Iowa); Blue Ash (Ark., Iowa); White 
 Ash (Kans., Nebr.); Swamp Ash (Fla., Ala., Tex.); Ash (Ark., Iowa, 
 Nebr.); Water Ash (Iowa). 
 
 Fraxinus berlandieriana A. de C. Berlandier Ash. 
 
 Range. — Western J'exas { banks of Nueces and Rio Blanco rivers and other -treams), 
 but probably established in northeastern Mexico and in the United States only 
 through theagency of man ; indigenous in southern Mexico (mountainsofMichoacan). 
 
 Fraxinus caroliniana Mill. Water Ash. 
 
 Fraxinus platycarpa Michx. 
 
 Range. — Coast region from southern Virginia to Florida (Cape Canaveral and 
 Calnosa River) and in the Gull region (in Alabama up to Tuscaloosa, Baldwin, Clark, 
 and Mobile counties) to Texas CSabine River); northward through western Louisi- 
 ana to southwestern Arkansas 
 
 Names in use.— Water Ash (N. C, S. C., Fla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex.) ; 
 Carolina Ash fPa.. cult.); Poppy Ash (Ala.); Pop Ash (Fla.). 
 
 Fraxinus oregona Nntt. Oregon Ash. 
 
 Ran<.k. — From I'uget Sound (shores) southward through Washington. Oregon 
 and California (coast region to San Francisco Bay; on foothills of Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains to mountains oi San Bernardino and San Diego counties). 
 
 Name in use. — Oregon Ash (Cal., Wash., Oreg.). 
 CHIONANTHUS Linn. 
 Chionanthus virginica Lmn. Fringetree. 
 
 Rangk. — From Pennsylvania (Lancaster and Chester counties), Delaware, West 
 Virginia (.Jackson and Summers counties), and Kentucky (Warren County) to 
 Florida (Tampa Bay) : west through the Gulf States to Texas (Brazos River) and 
 southern Arkansas; eastern Kansas (Allen County). 
 
 Names in use. — Fringetree (R. I. (cult.), N. Y. (cult.), N. J., Pa., 
 Del., D. C, N. C, S. C, Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Mo.); White Fringe 
 
108 
 
 (Mass., K. I., Pa.); American Fringe (W. Va.); White Ash (W. Va.); 
 Old Man's Beard (N. C, S. C, Ahi., Fla.. Miss., La.)} Flowering Ash 
 tS. C); Sunflower-tree (Tenn.). 
 
 OSMANTHUS Laureiro. 
 Osmanthus americanus (Linn.) Benth. «& Hook. Devilwood. 
 
 KANtiK.— t'ojist rej;iou from North Carolina (Cape Fear River) to I'loriila (Kis- 
 sirnmee Rivor and Tampa Bay) and west to eastern Louisiana ; Arkansas ( -' >. 
 
 Names in use. — Devilwood (Ala., Fla.); Wild Olive (Fla.). 
 
 Family B0RR^G1:N^CE^E;. 
 
 CORDIA Linn. 
 
 Cordia sebestena Linn. Geigertree. 
 
 Kaxgk. — Southern I'hirida isUiuds (Key West and othor southcni islands); 
 Bahamas, West Indies, Guiana, New Granada. 
 
 Name in use. — Geigertree (Fla.). 
 Cordia boissieri A. de C. Anacahuita. 
 
 Rangk.— From Texas (Rio Grande River) and southern New Mexico into north- 
 ern Mexico. 
 
 BOURRERIA Browne. 
 
 Bourreria havanensis (lioem. & Sch.) Miers. Strongback. 
 
 Rangk. — Florida keys (Key West, Key Largo, Upper Metacombe, and Klliotts 
 Key); Bahamas and several of the West Indies. 
 
 Names in use. — Strongbark (Fla.); Strongback (Bahama Islands). 
 
 Bourreria havanensis radula (Poir.) Gray. 
 
 Bristle-leaf Strongback. 
 
 EHRBTIA Browne. 
 Ehretia elliptica de C. Anaqua. 
 
 Rangk. — Western Texas (from upper San Marcos River to the Rio Grande River); 
 Mexico (Nuevo Leon and Coahuila to mountains of San Luis I'otosi). 
 
 Names in use. — Knackaway (Tex.); Ana(jua (Tex.). 
 
 Family VERBEN^CE^E. 
 CITHAREXYLUM Linn. 
 
 Citharexylum villosum Jacq. Fiddlewood. 
 
 1i'an(;e. — Southern Florida (from Cape Canaveral to the southern keys). 
 
 Name in use. — Fiddlewood (Fla.). 
 
 AVICENNIA Linn. 
 Avicennia nitida Jacq. Blackwood. 
 
 Range. — Florida coast (from St. Augustine to the southern keys on the cast coast 
 and on the west coast from Cedar Keys to Cape Sable); Louisiana (Mississippi 
 River delta); several of the West Indies and lira/.il. 
 
 Names in use.— Blackwood (Fla.); JBlacktree (Fla.); Black Man- 
 grove (Fla.). 
 
109 
 
 Family SCROPHUL^RI^CE^E. 
 
 PAULOWNIA Sieb. & Zucc. 
 Paulo"wnia tomentosa (Thuub.) Steudel. Paulo-wnia. 
 
 liAXi.K. — .lapaii. Cultivated in the Middle Atlantic and Soutbeni States and niu- 
 niuji Avild in many localities (near Wilmington, Del.; Washington, D. C; Mobile, 
 Ala., etc.). 
 
 Catalpa catalpa (Linn.) Karst. (Common) Catalpa. 
 
 Catalpa bignonioides Walt. 
 
 Range. — Supposed to be indigenous only in southwestern Georgia, western Florida, 
 central Alabama and Mississippi, but widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere 
 east of the Eocky Mountains. 
 
 Names in use. — Catalpa (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., 
 W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., Mo., 111., 
 Kans., Kebr., Iowa, Mich., Wis., Ohio, Minn.); Indian Bean (Mass., 
 R. L, N. Y., X. J., Pa., N. C, III.); Beantree (N. J., Del., Pa., Va., La., 
 .Nebr.); Catawba (W. Va., Ala., Fla., Kans.) ; Cigartree (R. I., N J., Pa., 
 W. Va., Mo., 111., Wis., Iowa); Catawba- tij,ee (Del.); Indian Cigar tree ' t 
 (Pa.); Smoking Bean (R. I. )y Vf ^''^t ljC]^^ ^ ^' 
 Catalpa speciosa Warder.M ' Hardy Catalpa. >^ 
 
 Range. — Through southern Illinois (from the Vermilion River) and Indiana, west- 
 ern Kentucky and Tennessee, southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas; f 
 elsewhere naturalized through cultivation, especially in southern Arkansas, western 
 Louisiana, nnd eastern Texas. 
 
 Names in use. — Hardy Catalpa (111, Iowa, Kans., Mich., cult.); 
 Western Catalpa (Pa. (cult.) Ohio, Kans., Nebr. (cult.) 111.); Catalpa 
 (R. I., N. Y. (cult.) La., 111., Ind., Mo., Wis., Iowa, Nebr., Minn., cult.); 
 Cigartree (Mo., Iowa, cult.); Bois Puant (La.); Indian Bean (Ind.); 
 Shawneewood (Ind.). 
 
 CHILOPSIS Don. 
 
 Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet. Desert Willow. 
 
 Range. — Through southwestern (from near Laredo) and western Texas, southern 
 New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and Nevada, and southern California (San Diego 
 Covinty); northern Mexico. 
 
 Names in use. — Desert Willow (Cal., Tex., N. Mex., Ariz., Utah, 
 Nev.); Texas Flowering Willow (Tex.); Flowering Willow (Tex.). 
 
 CRESCENTIA Linn. 
 
 Crescentia ovata Burm. Black Calabash. 
 
 Crescentia cuci rbitina Linn. 
 
 Range. — Coast of southern Florida (Biscayne Bay, east of mouth of Miami River; 
 also on Little River); West Indies; southern Mexico; Pacilic coast of Panama; 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Names in use. — Black Calabash-tree (Fla.) ; Black Calabash (Fla.). 
 
110 
 
 Family KTJ^IA^CE^E. 
 EXOSTEMA liichard. 
 
 Exostema caribaeum (Jac(i.) Koem. ^^ Schult. Prince^vood. 
 
 K'anck. — Southern Florida keys (abundiint on Key West and Upper Metacoinlie 
 Key); West Indies; sonthern Mexico and west coast of Nicara<4ua. 
 
 Name in use. — Princewood (Fla.). 
 
 PINCKNEYA Michx. 
 Pinckneya pubens Michx. Fevertree. 
 
 IvANiiK. — Coast region from South Carolina to Georgia and Florida inpiMT Apa- 
 laebicola River and tril)ntaries in Florida and (Georgia). Very rare. 
 
 Xames in use. — Georgia Bark (S. C, Fla.) ; Fevertree (Ala.) ; Florida 
 Quimiie Bark (Fla.). 
 
 G-UETTARDA Vent. 
 Gruettarda elliptica Swartz. Guettarda. 
 
 Ran(;i:. — Southern Florida keys (near coast); Bahamas; .Jamaica (coast). 
 
 Name in use. — Naked wood (Fla.). 
 
 Family C^FRIFOLT^CE.^. 
 SAMBUCUS Linn. 
 
 Sambucus mexicana Presl. Mexican Elder. 
 
 Range. — From western Texas (Nueces River) through southern New Mexico and 
 Arizona to southern California ; also in northern California (Plumas County) ; south- 
 ward through Mexico to Central America. 
 
 Names in use. — Elder (N. Mex., Tex.); Elderberry- tree. 
 
 Sambucus callicarpa Greene. Redberry Elder. 
 
 I\an(;e. — California (coast ranges). 
 
 Sambucus glauca Nutt. Pale Elder. 
 
 Ran(;e.— From southern British Columbia (Fraser River) and Vancouver Island 
 to the southern hordirs of California and eastward to the Blue Mountains in Oregon 
 and the Wasatch Mountains in Utah. 
 
 Names in use. — Elder (Cal.,Utab, Oreg.); Elderberry (Cal.); lilaek 
 Elderberry (Utah); Mountain Elder. 
 
 VIBURNUM Linn. 
 Viburnum lentago Linn. Sheepberry. 
 
 Kanh;i;. — From (^uehec (Riviere du Loup) to the Saskatchewan River and south- 
 ward through the Northern States (and along the Allegheny Mountains) to northern 
 Georgia and in western range south to southern Indiana, southwestern Missouri, and 
 eastern Nebraska. 
 
 Names in use. — Sheepberry (Vt., N. H.. Mass., R. I., Couu., N. Y., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., S. C, Ky., 111., Iowa, Mich., Nebr., Minn., N. Dak., Ohio); 
 
Ill 
 
 Naunyberry (Vt., X. T., jMicli., Ohio, Out., Iowa, Minn., N. Dak.) : Kanny 
 Plum (Vt); Black Haw (111., Mo., Minn., N. Dak.); Wild Kaisiu (Me.); 
 Sweetberry (Minn.); Sweet Viburnum (K. I., Tenn.. Nebr.); Viburnum 
 (E. 1.). 
 
 Viburnum prunifoliuxn Linn. Nannyberry. 
 
 Kange. — From Conuecticut (Fairfield County and Lower Hudson River) t» 
 northern Georgia; ^vestward through southern Michigan to eastern Kansas (border 
 counties); Indian Territory. The southern range of this species, to which some 
 authors unite the following species, is iusufificieutly known. 
 
 Names in use.— Black Haw (E. I., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Va., 
 W. Va., N. C, S. C, Ala., Ga., Fla., Miss., La., Tex., Ky., Mo., Kans., 
 111., Ind., Ohio); Sloe(Teun.); Sbeepberry (N. J.); Nannyberry (N. J.); 
 Alisier (La.); Stagbush; Haw (Md., Va.); Sweet Haw. 
 
 Viburnum rufotomentosum Small. Rusty Nannyberry. 
 
 Viburnum prunifolium /i ferrugineum Torrey & Gray. 
 
 Range. — Southern Virginia to Georgia and west to western Texas. Range insuffi- 
 ciently known. 
 

 (\ 
 
 
 
 
 Lj£ieu{«^^ 
 
 
 
 
INDEX OF LATIN NAMES. 
 
 'Accepttii names in heavy-face type; names commonly nsf(. liithfi'to in .small capitals; varieties 
 distinguished in cultivation in italici.] 
 
 ABIES l>uliam., 25. 
 
 Abies amabilis (Loud.) Forb., 2G. 
 
 Abies arizonica Merriam, 26. 
 
 Abies balsamea (Linn.) Mill., 25. 
 
 Abies balxamea argenttfolia Sud\\ ., I'S. 
 
 Abies balsamea brachylepis 'Willk., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea ccerulea Carr., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea heniisphcBrica Sudw., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea hudsonia (Knigbt> Veitch, 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea longifolia (Loud.) Endl.. 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea nudicaulis Carr., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea paucifolia Sudw., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea 2) 'ostrata. (Knij;ht) Carr., 25. 
 
 Abies balsamea versicolor Sudw., 25. 
 
 Abies concolor (Gor(l.) Parry, 26. 
 
 Abies coiicolor angustata Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies concolor lowiana (Murr.) Lemmon, 26. 
 
 Abies concolor pendens (Beissn.) Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies concolor purpurea Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies concolor purpurea compressa Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies coiicolor varia Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies fraseri (Pur.sli) Lindl., 25. 
 
 Abies grandis Lindl., 26. 
 
 Abtes grandis aurifolia Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies grandis crassa Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Xutt., 25. 
 
 Abies lasiocarpa cceridescens (Beissn.) Sudw., 26. 
 
 Abies mag-nlfica Murr., 27. 
 
 Abies magnifica cyanea Sudw., 27. 
 
 A bies magnifica xanthocarpa Lemmon, 27. 
 
 Abies mucronata rar. palustris Raf., 24. 
 
 Abies nobilis Lindl., 27. 
 
 Abies nobilis glavcifolia Sudw., 27. 
 
 Abies nobilis robustifolia Sudw., 27. 
 
 Abies shastensis Lemmon, 27. 
 
 Abie.s tasifolia Lambert, 23. 
 
 Abies taxifolia Poiret, 24. 
 
 Abies venusta (Dougl.) Koch, 26. 
 
 ACACIA Adans.,78. 
 
 Acacia farnesiana (Linn.) Willd., 78. 
 
 /Acacia flexicaulis Bentb., 78. 
 
 Acacia g reggii Gray, 79. 
 
 Acacia wrightii Benth., 78. 
 
 ACER Linn., 90. 
 
 Acer circinatum Pursb., 91. 
 
 Acer D.^svcARprM Ebr., 92. 
 
 Acer glabrum Torr., 91. 
 
 Acer grandidentatum (Xutt.Imss.) in Torr. & 
 
 Gr.,92. 
 Acer macrophyllum Pursli., 90. 
 
 19193— Bull. 17 8 
 
 Acer negundo Linn., 93. 
 
 Acer negiindo angustissimum (Pa.K) Sudw., 93. 
 Acer negundo californicum (T. &. Gr.) Sargent, 93. 
 Acer negundo crispifolium Sudw., 93. 
 Acer negundo variegatum Kuntze, 93. 
 Acer negundo violaceum (Koch) I')ipp.,93. 
 Acer penhsylvanicum Linn., 90. 
 Acer rubrum Linn., 92. 
 
 Acer rubrum drummondii (Hook. Sc Arn.) Sar- 
 gent, 93. 
 Acer rubrum sanguineum (Spach) Pax, 93. 
 Acer saccharinum Linn., 92. 
 Acer saecharinum av,reo-variegatum('S\c)i.)^\u\'^ .. 
 
 92. 
 Acer saccharinum dissectifolium Sndw., 92. 
 Acer saccharinum lutescens (Pax) Sudw., 92. 
 Acer saccharinum novum (Ellw. & Barr.) Sndw. 
 
 92. • 
 
 Acer saccharinum pendulum (Nicb.) Sudw., 92. 
 Acer saccharinum Wang., 91 
 Acer saccharinum "SVang. var. florid.vnum 
 
 Chapm., 91. 
 Acer saccharitnim wierii (Pax) Sudw., 92. 
 Acer saccharum Marsb., 91. 
 
 Acer saccharum barbatum (Miebx.) Trelease, 91. 
 Acer saccharum floridanum (Cbapra.) Small & 
 
 Heller, 91. 
 Acer saccharum grandidentatum (Nutt.) Sudworth, 
 
 92. 
 Acer saccharum leucoderme (Small) Sudworth, 9L 
 Acer saccharum nigrum (Micbx. f.) Britton,91. 
 Acer saccharum nigrum monumentale (Temple) 
 
 Sudw., 91. 
 Acer spicatum Lam., 90. 
 ACERACE.I:, 90. 
 .ESCUIUS Linn., 93. 
 .ffisculus californica (Spach) Xutt., 94. 
 ^scuLUS flava Ait., 94. 
 
 JEscclus FLAVA Ait. var. PUKPURASCENsGray, 94 
 JEsculus glabra Willd., 93. 
 .Esculus octandra M-irsh., 94. 
 .i;sculus octandra hybrida (de C.) Sargent, 94. 
 AIIANTHUS Deaf., 85. 
 Ailanthus glandulosa aucubcejolia Dipp., 85. 
 Ailanthus glandulosa pendulitolia Bipp., 85. 
 Ailanthut glandulosa rubra Dipp., 85. 
 ALNUS Ehrh., 49. 
 AInus acuminata H, B. K., 49. 
 Alnus glutinosa (Linn.) Ga'rtn., 49. 
 Alnus qlutinosa aurea (Koch) Nichol., 49. 
 
 113 
 
114 
 
 Atnus glutinosa incisa Willd., 49. 
 
 Alnus (jlutinosa lariniain (Elir.) 'Willd., 49. 
 
 Alnus glutinosa qwici/nUa Willd., 49. 
 
 Alnvs INCANA var. VIKE!^CE.^•s Wats., 49. 
 
 Alnus maritima (Marsh.) Muehl., 49. 
 
 Alnus oblongifolia Ton-., 49. 
 
 Alnus oregona Nutt., 49. 
 
 AJnus rhombifolja Xutt., 49. 
 
 Alnus tenuifolia Xutt., 49. 
 
 AMELANCHIER Medic, 70. 
 
 Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt., 71. 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis (Linn.) Medic, 70. 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis obovalis (Michx.) B. S. P., 
 
 71. 
 Amelanchier canadensis spicata( Lam.) Sargent, 71. 
 AMYRIS Browne, 84. 
 Amyris maritima Jacq., 84. 
 Amtris sylvatk'a do C, 84. 
 ANACARDIACE.S:, 87. 
 ANAMOMIS Griseb.,98. 
 Anamomis dichotoma (Poir.) Sargent, 98. 
 ANDROMEDA Liun., 102. 
 Andromeda ferruginea Walt., 102. 
 Andromeda ferruginea arborescens Michx., 102. 
 Andromeda ferruginea fruticosa Michx., 102. 
 ANN0NACEiE,6(i. 
 ANNONA Linn., 66. 
 Annona glabra Linn., 66. 
 AQUIF0LIACE.5:, 89. 
 ARALIA Linu., 99. 
 Aralia spinosa Linn., 99. 
 ARALIACEiE, 99. 
 ARBUTUS Liun., 101. 
 Arbutus arizonica jGray) Sargent, 102. 
 Arbutus menziesii I'ursb, 101. 
 Arbutus xalapensis H. B. K., 101. 
 Arbutus xalapensis var. arizunica Gray, 102. 
 Arbutos xalape.nsis var. texana Gray, 101. 
 
 AKDISIA PICKERINt.lA Xutt.. 103. 
 
 ASIMINA Adan.s., 60. 
 
 Asimina triloba (Linn.) I)unal.,66. 
 
 AVICENNIALinn.,10«. 
 
 Avicennia nitida Jaci]., 108. 
 
 BETULALinn.,47. 
 
 Betula lenta Linn., 49. 
 
 Betula lutea Michx. f., 48. 
 
 Betula nigra Liun., 48. 
 
 Betula occidentalis Jiook., 48. 
 
 Betula papyrifera Mar.sh., 48. 
 
 Betula papyrifera minor (Tuck.) AVats. &.Coult., 48. 
 
 Betula populifolia Mar.sh., 47. 
 
 Betula populifolia :v papyrifera Sargent, 47. 
 
 Jietula pojndij'iiUa purpurea, Hort. Am., 48. 
 
 BETULACEiE, 47. 
 
 BIGNONIACE.5:, 109. 
 
 BORRAGINACE.S;, 108. 
 
 BOURRERIA Browne, 108. 
 
 Bourreria havanensis (Roem. & Sch.) Mier.s, 108. 
 
 Bourreria havanensis radula (Poir.) Gray, 108. 
 
 BROUSSONETIA L'Her., 63. 
 
 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent., 63. 
 
 BUMELIA Swartz, 103. 
 
 Bumelia angustifolia Nutt., 104. 
 
 Bumelia lanuginosa (Miihx.) I'ers., 104. 
 
 Bumelia lanuginosa rigida Gray, 104. 
 
 Bumelia lycioides (Linn.) Gi«rtD. f.. 104. 
 
 Bumelia tenax (Liun.) Willd., 103. 
 
 BURSERAJa((i.,85. 
 
 BURSEEA fJlMMIFEKA LiuU., 85. 
 
 Bursera simaruba (Linn.) Sargent, 86. 
 
 BURSERACEffi, 85. 
 
 OACTACEJE, 97. 
 
 Calyptranthes chytraculia Swartz, 98 
 
 CANEllA Browne, 87. 
 
 Canella alba Murr. in Linn., 87. 
 
 Canella winterana (Linn.) Ga»rtn.. 87. 
 
 CANELLACE.a;, 87. 
 
 CANOTIATorr.,«. 
 
 Canotia holacantha Torr., 8,^. 
 
 CAPPARIDACEiE, 67. 
 
 CAPPARIS Linn., 67. 
 
 Capparis jamaicensis Jacq., 67. 
 
 CAPRIFOLIACE.S:, 110. 
 
 CARPINUS Linu., 50. 
 
 Carpinus caroliniana Walt., 50. 
 
 Carya .\lba Nutt., 40. • 
 
 Cakya amara Nutt., 40. 
 
 Carya aquatica Nutt., 40. 
 
 Carya wicuocakp.\ Nutt., 41. 
 
 Carya mykistic.^cfor.mls Nutt., 40. 
 
 Carya oliv^for.mis Nutt., 39. 
 
 Carya poecina Nutt., 41. 
 
 Carta sulcata Nutt., 41. 
 
 Carya tomextosa Nutt., 41. 
 
 CASTANEA Adans., 51. 
 
 Castanea dentata (Marsh.) I5orkh., 51. 
 
 Castanea pumila (Linn.) Mill,, 51, 
 
 Castanea vesca p Americana Michx., 51. 
 
 Castanet, vulgaris y American.a A. de C., 51. 
 
 CASTANOPSIS Spach, 5L 
 
 Castanopsis chrysophylla (Hook.) de C, 51. 
 
 CATAIPA Scop., 109. 
 
 Catalpa biononioides Walt., 109. 
 
 Catalpa catalpa (Linn.) Kar.st., 109. 
 
 Catalpa speciosa Warder, 109. 
 
 CEANOTHUS Linn., 96. 
 
 Ceanothus arboreus Greene, 96. 
 
 Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Each., 06. 
 
 CELASTRACE.5;, 89. 
 
 CELTIS Linn., 61. 
 
 Celtis Georgiana S)iiall. 61. 
 
 Celtis Hellcri ^•//(aH (1. c), 61. 
 
 Celtis mississippiensis I'osc, 62. 
 
 Celtis occidentalis Linii., 61. 
 
 Celtis occidentalis pumila Gr.,6\. 
 
 Celtis occidentalis reticulata (Torr.) Sargent, 62. 
 
 CERCIDIUM Tula.sne, 81. 
 
 Cercidium floridum I5enth., 81. 
 
 Cercidium torreyanum (Wats.) Sargent, 81. 
 
 CERCIS Liun., 79. 
 
 Cercis canadensis Linn., 79. 
 
 Cercis canadi')isis plena Sudw., 80. 
 
 Cercis canadensis pubescens Pursh, 80. 
 
 Cercis reniformis Engelm., 80. 
 
 CEROOCARPUS II. B. K., 69. 
 
 Ccrcocarpus ledifolius Nntt., 69. 
 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius Nntt., 69. 
 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius betuloides (Nutt.) Sar. 
 
 gent, 69. 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus (Gr.) Jones, 69, 
 Cercocarpus parvifolius paucidentatus Wati , 69. 
 CEREUS Mill., 97. 
 
115 
 
 ^ Cereus giganteus Engelm., 97. 
 Cereus schottii En2;eliii., 97. 
 Cereus thurberi Kngelin., 97. 
 CHAMJECYPARIS SpiHh,32. 
 Cliameecyparis lawsoniana (Muri'.) Pari., 33. 
 Chamacyparis lau'soniana alho-spica ((jlord.) 
 
 Beissii., 34. 
 Chamcecypans lawsoniana alvmi Beissu., 33. 
 Chammcyparis lawioniana amabilis (Hort. Kew.) 
 
 Siul-w.,34. 
 Chamcecypans lawsoniana argentea ((lord ) 
 
 Beissn., 34. 
 Chamcecyparis lainoniana argentea dcpaiiperata 
 
 Sudw.,34. 
 Chamcecyparislairsoniana argentea in inuta>>nt\\<;., 
 
 34. 
 Cliamcecyparis lawioniana argentea prostrata 
 
 (Beisan.) Siidw.,34. 
 Chamcecijparis lawsoniana argenteo-variegata 
 
 (Veitch) Bei.s.sn., 33. 
 Chamivcyparis lawsoniana argenteo-variegata no- 
 
 vicia Sudw., 33. 
 Chameveyparis lawsoniana atroviridis Sudw., 33. 
 Chamcecyparis lawsoniana aurea (Gold.) Beissn., 
 
 33. 
 Chamcecyijaris lawsoniana aurea magnifica 
 
 (Beissn.) Sudw., 33. 
 Chaincecyparis lai'soniana aureu-spica Beissn. ,34. 
 Chamiecyparis lairsoniana aureo-variegata 
 
 (Veitcli) Bei.-isn.. 33. 
 ChanHvcypai-is lawsoniana heissneriana Smith 
 
 and Cie.. 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana bowleri (Hort. Kew.) 
 
 Sudw., 34. 
 Chamcfcyparis lawsoniana californica (Hort. 
 
 Kew.) Sudw.. 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lai>'S07iian a casuarin if olia Beissn., 
 
 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lai'sonianacompacta recensSudvr., 
 
 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lau-aonia)i(t crispa Beissu.. 34. 
 Chamcecyjiaris lawsoniana cyanea Sudw.. 33. 
 Chain cecypar is laicsoniana cyanea pendens ^ni{\\ ., 
 
 33. 
 Chamceeyparis latrsoniana darleijensis (Hort. 
 
 Ke-w.) Sudw., 34. 
 Chamcecyjmris lawsoniana erecta ((jord.) Sudw., 
 
 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana erecta glauccscens 
 
 Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lau-soniaiui erecta glaueifolia 
 
 Sudw... 33. 
 Chamceeyparis laivsoniana erecta uiVidi* (Veitcli) 
 
 Beissn., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana Jiliformin (Veitch) 
 
 Beissn., 34. 
 Cham,cecy2)aris lawsoniana jili/onnis globosa 
 
 Bei.«isn.,34. 
 Chamcecypans lawsoniana/orstekiana Beis.sn., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana fragrans (Gord.) 
 
 Beissn.. 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana fragrans argyropsis 
 
 Sudw., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana fragrans cunica 
 
 Beissn., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana fra/eri Beissu., 33. 
 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana gracilis (Gord.) 
 
 Beissn., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniaiia gracilis piisilla Sudw., 
 
 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana intcrtexta (Vritch) 
 
 Beissn., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana laxa ]5ei88ii.,34. 
 Chamceeyparis lairsoniana lutea (Gord.) Beissn., 
 I 33. 
 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana bttea tiavescens n Jord.) 
 I Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana minima (Gord.) Sudw., 
 
 34. 
 Chamceeyparis laivsoniana tnonuinentalis albes- 
 cens Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lairsoniana mo nu mm talis nova 
 Beissn., 33. 
 ; Chamceeyparis lawsoniana nicea Beissn., 33. 
 Chamcfcyparis laivsoniana nritans Sudw., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis laivsoniana imtans alba (Gord.) 
 ' Sudw., .34. 
 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana nutans vera (Beissn.) 
 I Sudw., 34. 
 
 I Chamceeyparis lawson iana orereynderi Beissn .. .'U. 
 ■ Chamceeyparis lairsoniana parra Sudw., 34. 
 1 Chamceeyparis lairsoniana jmrva albo-spicifonnis 
 I Sudw., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis latcsoniana parra albo-variegata 
 ((iord.) Sudw., 34. 
 . Chamceeyparis laivsoniana jiarra Candida Siulw., 
 ! 34. 
 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana parva densa Sudw.. :!4. 
 ! Chamaxyparis laivsoniana })yramidalis jfaveola 
 ] Sudw., 33. 
 
 1 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana pyraniidalis leuco- 
 /(A>/H« Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis laivsoniana pyraniidalis liiteo- 
 I tenuis Sudw., 33. 
 
 1 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana robusta Beissn., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lairsoniana robusta argentifulia 
 
 Sudw., 33. 
 Cliamcecyparis lawsoniana rohntta aurifulia 
 
 Sudw., 33. 
 Cliamcecyparis lansoniana robusta cinerea Sudw., 
 
 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lairsuniuiia rosenthali Beissu., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lairsoniana shawi Beissn., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis laivsoniana silver-queen Beissn., 
 
 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana tortuosa Beissu., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana versicolor Beissn.. 33. 
 Cliamcecyparis lawsoniana ireisscana MopII., 34. 
 Chamceeyparis laws;niaiia ivestermanni Beissn., 
 
 33. 
 Chamceeyparis lawsoniana worlei Beissn., 33. 
 I Chameecyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.) Spach, 3-. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatensis albo-picta Sndw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatensis a rgenteo-variana 
 
 Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatensis aureo-versieolor 
 
 Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatmsi* aureo-ciridis (Hort. 
 
 Kew.) Sudw., 33. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatensis ciof rascens Sudw .. 33. 
 Chamceeyparis nootkatensis cinerascens aureo- 
 discolor Sudw., 33. 
 
116 
 
 Ohamcecyiiaru iioolkatenxit cinerasceiis genuina 
 
 Sudw., 3:;. 
 Chamceeypariii uuotkateimis compacta (Veitcli) 
 
 Heiasn., 33. 
 Chamcecyparit nuotkatensi.i compressa ISeissu., 33. 
 Chamcecyparis 7i<iotkatenii.s nidlformis Boissu., 33. 
 Cliamcpcyparit nootkalensiii pendens Sudw., 33. 
 Chamcvcyparis no<4katen»ls picta Sudw., 33. 
 Ohatncecyjianx iKiotkaten.sis viridifolia Sudw., 33. 
 Chamcecyparis iiootkatentis zanthophylla Sudw., 
 
 33. 
 CHAM.*;cypARis Ni'TKAiiKSKs Spach, 32. 
 
 CHAM.^^CVI>AE1S SIMI^EROinEA Spach, 32. 
 CHAM.i;CYPARIS THYOIDES (L.) B. S. I'., 32. 
 Chainfecyparis thiioldei; atrovirens (Knight) 
 
 Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoidis /astiglata cinereo-folia 
 
 Sudw., 32. 
 ChamcecypaHs thyoidei crocea Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides ericoides (Knight) Sudw., 
 
 32. 
 Chamcecyparin thyoides glauca (Endl.) Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides hoveyi (Veitch) Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides leptoclada (Gord.) Sudw., 
 
 32. 
 Cham,cecyparis thyoides nana (Loiul.) Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides penduliformis Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides pnmila (Carr.) Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyparis thyoides pyramidata (Beissu.) 
 
 Sudw., 32. 
 Chamcecyj>aris thyoides rariegata (Loud.) Sudw., 
 
 32. 
 CHEIRANTHODENRE^, 8ti. 
 CHIIOPSIS Don., 109. 
 Chilopsis linearis (('av.) Sweet, 109. 
 CHIONANTHUS Limi., 107. 
 Chionanthus virginica Linu., 107. 
 CHRYSOBALANUS Linn.. 74. 
 Chrysobalanus icaco Linn., 74. 
 CHRYSOPHYLLUM Linn., 103. 
 Chrysophyllum monopyrenum Swartz, 103. 
 Chkysoi'hyllum olivikohme Lam., 103. 
 CHYTRACULIA Browne, 98. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia (Linn.) Sudworth,98. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia genuina (Berg.) Sudw., 98. 
 Chytraf^ulia chytraculia ovalis (Berg.) .Sudw., 98. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia pauciflora (Berg.) Sudw., 98. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia trichotoma (Berg.) Sudw., 
 
 98. 
 Chytraculia chytraculia zuzygium (Linn.) Sudw., 98. 
 CITHAREXYLUM Linn., 108. 
 Citharexylum villosum Jaccj., 108. 
 CLADRASTIS BaC, 82. 
 Cladrastis lutea (Miclix. f.) Koch, 82. 
 Cladkastis tinctoria Raf.,82. 
 ClIFTONIA Gartii. f.,88. 
 Cliftd.nia i.Kir.sTKiNA Siuis ex Sprang., 88. 
 Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sargent, 88. 
 Cocc<ii.<)ii.\ Fi.oRiDANA Meisn.,63. 
 COCCOLOBIS Browne, 63. 
 Coccolobis laurifolia (.lacq.) Sargent, 63. 
 Coccolobis uvifera (Linn.) Sargent, 63. 
 COIUBRINA Br(.ngn.,96. 
 Colubrina reclinata (L'ller.) Brongu., 96. 
 COMBRETACE.ff:, 99. 
 CONDALIA Cav.,95. 
 COXDALIA FERREA Griseb., 95. 
 
 Condalia obovata Hook., 95. 
 
 CONOCARPUS Linn.. 99. 
 
 Conocarpus erecta Linn., 99. 
 
 Conocarpus erecta arborea de C.. 99. 
 
 Conocarpus erecta procumbens (Linn.) de C,99. 
 
 Conocarpus erecta sericea de C.. 99. 
 
 CORNACE.S:, 100. 
 
 CORDIA Linn., 108. 
 
 Cordia boissieri A. de C, 108. 
 
 Cordia sebestena Liun., 108. 
 
 CORNUS Linn., 100. 
 
 Cornus alternifolia Linn, f., 100. 
 
 Cornus florida Linn.. 100. 
 
 Cornus jlorida pendnla Temple, 100. 
 
 Cornus Jh)rida rubra Temple, 100. 
 
 Cornus nuttallii Aud., 100. 
 
 COTINUS Adan8..87. 
 
 Cotinus cotinoides (Xutt.) Britton, 87. 
 
 CRATAEGUS Linu., 71. 
 
 Crataegus aestivalis (AValt.) Torr. & Gr., 74. 
 
 Crataegus apiifolia (Marsh.) Iblirhx.,74. 
 
 Crataegus brachyacantha Sarg. & Engelm.,71. 
 
 Crataegus coccinea Linn., 72. 
 
 Crataegus cordata (Mill ) Ait., 73. 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli Linn., 71. 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli angustifolia (Elir.) Sudw., 72. 
 
 Crataegus crus-galli berberifolia (Torr. &. Gr.) Sarg., 
 
 72. 
 Crataegus crus-galli fontanesiana (Spach) Wenz., 72. 
 Crataegus crus-galli prunellifolia (Poir.i Sudw., 72. 
 Crataegus crus-galli prunifolia (Marsh.) Torr. & Gr., 
 
 72 
 Crataegus crus-galli salicifolia (Medic.) Ait., 71. 
 Crataegus douglasii Lindl.,71. 
 Crataegus elliptica Ait., 74. 
 Crataegus flava Ait., 74. 
 Crataegus macracantha (Lindl.) Loud., 72. 
 Crataegus mollis (Torr. &. tJr.) .Scheele, 72. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha Linu., 72. 
 Cratceyus oxyacantha apetala Loud., 73. 
 Cratceyus oxyacantha aurea Loud., 73. 
 Cratceyus oxyacantha aurantiaca Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha anriculata Dipp., 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha curtispina Sudw., 72. 
 Cratceyus oxyacantha diversifolia (Poir.) Sudw., 
 
 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha eriocarpa Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha ferox Dipp., 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha jJexuosa Loud., 73. ^ 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha gratanensis (Boias.) Sudw., 
 
 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha incisa Begel, 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha laciniata (Borkh.) de C, 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha leucocarpa I^oud., 73. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha macrocarpa (Hcgetseh.) 
 
 Sudw., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha monogyna (Jacq.) Loud., 72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha multiplex Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha oliveriana (Poir.) Load., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha oxyacanthoides (Thuill.) 
 
 Beich.,72. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha pendula Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha pinnatiloba (Lange.) Siulw. 
 
 72. 
 Crataegus oxyacantha prcecox Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha punicea Loud., 73. 
 
117 
 
 Cratcegui oxyacantha ptaiicea plena Sudw., 73. 
 Cratcegui oxyacaiitha rusea Loinl.,73. 
 Ciatcegvs oxyacantUa ."euipcrflorens Dipp., 73. 
 Cratagus oxyacantha surhi/uUa (Desf.) I)iiip.,72. 
 Ciatcegv.i oxyacantha gplendens (Kocli) Smlw.. 73. 
 CraUfgtis oxyacantha stricla Loud., 73. 
 Cratcegus oxyacantha varirgata (Dipp.) Sudw., 73. 
 Crat.egvs I'ARVIFOLIA Solander in Ait., 74. 
 Cfatsegus punctata Jacq., 73. 
 Cratsegus punctata canescens Britton. 73. 
 ('iata--i:ui imnetata xanthocarpa (iledic) L;iv., 73. 
 Cratte^us saligna Greene, 71. 
 Crateegus spathulata Miclix., 73. 
 Cratsegus tomentosa Linn., 73. 
 Crat.*:gi s TO.ME.NTO.-^A var. mollis Gray. 72. 
 CRAT.Ecfti TOMENTOSA var. PUNCTATA Gray. 73. 
 Crataegus uniflora iluencbh.,74. 
 Crataegus viridis Linn., 74. 
 CRESCENTIA Linn., 109. 
 Crescentia crcuRBiTiNA Linn., 109. 
 Crescentia ovata Burin., 109. 
 CTJPRESSUSLinn.,31. 
 Cupressus arizonica Greene, 32. 
 Cupressus goveniana Gord., 31. 
 Cupressus goveniana attenuata, (Gord.) Carr.,32. 
 Cupiesaus goveniana cornuta Carr., 32. 
 Cvpressus goveniana glaucifolia Sudw., 31. 
 Cupressus goveniana gracilis (S els.) Carr.,32. 
 Cupressus gove7iiana hubcriana Carr., 31. 
 Cupressus goveniana parva Sudw., 31. 
 Cupressus goveniana viridis Carr., 32. 
 Cupressus guadalupessis Sarg., not Wats., 32. 
 Cupressus macnabiana Murr.. 32. 
 Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw., 31. 
 Ciipressusn-'Tcrocarpa angulata Lenim.,31. 
 Cupress^ts macrocarpa crippsii Mast., 31. 
 Cupressus macrocarpa lamhertiana (Carr.) Mast., 
 
 31. 
 CYRIILA Linn., 88. 
 Cyrilla racemiflora Linn., 88. 
 CyRILLACEiE,88. 
 DALEA Willd.,82. 
 Ealea spinosa Gray, 82. 
 DICOTYLEDONES, 39. 
 DIOSPYROSLinn.,104. 
 Diospyrcs texana Scheele, 105. 
 Diospyros virginiana Linn., 104. 
 DIPHOIIS A.deC.,104. 
 Dipholis salicifolia (Linn.) A. de C, 104. 
 DRYPETES Vahl.,86. 
 Drypetes crocea Poit., 86. 
 Drypetes keyensis Urban, 86. 
 Drypetes lateriflora (Swartz) Urban 96. 
 EBENACE.iE, 104. 
 EHRETIA Browne, 108. 
 Ehretia eUiptica de C, 108. 
 ERICACiE, 101. 
 EUGENIA Linn., 98. 
 Eugenia buxifolia (Swartz) Willd., 98 
 Eugenia dichotoma de C, 98. 
 Eugenia garberi Sargent, 99. 
 Eugenia monticola (Swartz) de C. 99. 
 Eugenia pkocera Sargent, 99. 
 Eugenia procera (Swartz) Poir.,99. 
 EUPHORBIACEiE, 86. 
 EVONYMTISLinn.,89. 
 
 Evonymus atropurpureus Jacq 89. 
 
 EXOSTEMA Kichard, 110. 
 
 Exostema caribaeum (Jaiq.) KotMii. A, Scbult., 110. 
 
 EXOTHEA M:.cladyen,94. 
 
 Exothea paniculata (.Tubs.) Radlk.,94. 
 
 EYSENHARDTIA H. B. K., 82. 
 
 Eysenhardtia ortiiocarpa (Gray) Wats.. 82. 
 
 FAGACEiE, 50. 
 
 FAGUS Linn., 50. 
 
 Fagus atropunicea (^larsh.) Sudwortb, 50. 
 
 Fagus ferrugixea Ait.. 50. 
 
 FICDS Linn.. 63. 
 
 Ficus aurea Nutt , 63. 
 
 FlCUS PEDUXCULAT.*. Xutt.,63. 
 
 Ficus populnea Willd., 63. 
 
 FRAXINUS Linn., 105. 
 
 Fraxinus americana Linn., 106. 
 
 Fraxinusamericanacurtissii (Tasey) Sudwortb, 106. 
 
 Fraxinus americana var. microcarpa Gray. 106. 
 
 Fraxixus AMERICANA var. TEXENSis Gray, 106. 
 
 Fraxinus anomala Wats., 106. 
 
 Fraxinus anomala triphylla Jones, 106. 
 
 Fraxinus berlandieriana A. de C, 107. 
 
 Fraxinus carolimana Mill , 107. 
 
 Fraxinus cuspidata Torr., 105. 
 
 Fraxinus greggii Gray, 106. 
 
 Fraxinus lanceolata Borkli., 107. 
 
 Fraxinus nigra Mar.sli., 106. 
 
 Fraxinus oregona Xutt., 107. 
 
 Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsb., 107. 
 
 Fraxinus pistaci^folia Torr., 106. 
 
 Fra.xixus platycarpa Micbs., 107. 
 
 Fraxinus profunda Bnsb, 107. 
 
 Fr.\xinus pubescexs Lam., 107. 
 
 Fraxinus quadra.ngulata Micbx., 106. . 
 
 Fraxixus s.^.mbucifolia Lam., 106. 
 
 Fraxinus texensis (Gray) Sargent, 106. 
 
 Fraxinus velutina Torr., 106. 
 
 Fraxinus viridis Micbx. f., 107. 
 
 Fremoxtia califoenica Torr., 86. 
 
 FREMONTODENDRON CoviUe, 86. 
 
 FremontodendroD californicum(Torr.) Coville,86. 
 
 GLEDITSIALinn,,80. 
 
 Gleditsia aquatica Marsb., 80. 
 
 Gleditsia liUJOTii Keumann, 80. 
 
 Gleditsia monosperma Walt., 80. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos Linn., 80. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos brachycarpos Micbx., 80. 
 
 Gleditsiatriacanthosbtijntii (Neum.) nom. nov., 80. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos var. ixermis Willd., 80. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos Ixvis (Loud.) Sudwortb, 80. 
 
 GORDONIA Ellis, 87. 
 
 Gordonia altamaha (Marsb.) .'^argent, 87. 
 
 Gordonia lasianthus (Linn.) Ellis, 87. 
 
 Gordonia pubescens L'Her.,87. 
 
 GUAJACUMLinn.,83. 
 
 Guajacum sanctum Linn., 83. 
 
 GUETTARDA Vent., 110. 
 
 Guettarda elliptica Swartz, 110. 
 
 GYMINDA Sargent, 90. 
 
 Gyminda grisebachii Sargent, 90. 
 
 Gyminda grisebachii glaucifolia (Griseb.) Snd 
 
 worth, 90. 
 GYMNANTHES Swartz, 86. 
 Gymnanthes lucida Swartz, 86. 
 GYMNOCLADUS Lam.. 81- 
 
118 
 
 Gtmitocladus OANADEirsis Lam., 81. 
 Gymnocladus dioicus (Linn.) Koch,8L 
 GYMNOSPERMiE, 13. 
 Ualesia dipteka Ellis, 105. 
 Halesia tetbaptkha Ellis, 105. 
 HAMAMELIDACE.I:, 68. 
 HAMAMELIS Linn., G8. 
 Hamamelis vir^iniana Linn., 68. 
 HELIETTA Tulasue, 84. 
 Eelietta parvifolia Benth., 84. 
 HETEROMELES Koein.,74. 
 Heteromeles arbutifolia (Poir.) Roem., 74. 
 HICORIA liaf.,39. 
 
 Hicoria aquatica (Micbx. f.) Britton, 40. 
 Hicoria alba (Liun.) Britton, 41. 
 Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton, 41. 
 
 lilCoRIA GLAIiE.\. VILUL^A Sarg., 41. 
 
 Hicoria laciniosa (Micbx. f.) Sargent, 41. 
 
 Hicoria minima (ilarsh.) Britton, 40. 
 
 Hicoria myristicseformis (Miclix. f.) Britton, 40. 
 
 Hicoria odorata (Marsh.) Sargent, 41. 
 
 Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton, 40. 
 
 Hicoria paluda A.slic, 41. 
 
 Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britton, 39. 
 
 Hicoria pecan X alba Trelea.se, 40. 
 
 Hicoria pecan X laciniosa Trelea8e,40. 
 
 Hicoria pecan x minima T release, 40. 
 
 Hicoria villosa (Sars.) Ashe, 41. 
 
 HIPPOCASTANACEJE, 93. 
 
 HIPPOMANE Liuu., 86. 
 
 Hippomane mancinella Linn., 86. 
 
 HYPELATE Browne, 95. 
 
 Hypelate paxiculata Caiub., 94. 
 
 Hj'pelate trifoliata Swartz,95. 
 
 ICACOREA Aublct, 103. 
 
 Icacorea paniculata (Nutt.) Sud worth, 103. 
 
 ICHTHYOMETHIA Browne, 83. 
 
 Ichthyomethia piscipula (Linu.) Kuutze, 83. 
 
 ILEX Linn., 89. 
 
 Hex cassine Linn., 89. 
 
 Ilex ca^SIXE Walt., 89. 
 
 Ilex cassine angustifolia Willd., 89. 
 
 Ilex cassine mytifolia (Walt.) Sargent, 89. 
 
 Ilex dahoox Walt., 89. 
 
 Ilex decidua Walt., 89. 
 
 Hex monticola Gray, 89. 
 
 Ilex opaca Ait., 89. 
 
 Ilex Tomitoria Ait., 89. 
 
 JAGUINIA Linn., 103. 
 
 Jaquinia armillaris Jacq., 103. 
 
 JUGLANDACE.S:, 39. 
 
 JUGLANSLinn.,39. 
 
 Juglans californica Wats., 39. 
 
 Juglans cinerea Linn., 39. 
 
 Juglans nigra Linn., 39. 
 
 Juglans rupestris Engelm., 39. 
 
 JUNIPERUSLinn.,34. , 
 
 Juniperus barbadensis Linn., 35. 
 
 Juniperus californica Carr., 36. 
 
 Juniperus communis Linn., 36. 
 
 Juniperus communis argyrophylla Sndw., 36. 
 
 Juniperus communis cracovia (Koch) Beiasn., 36. 
 
 Juniheriif communis echinoformis (Knight) 
 
 Beissn., 36. 
 Juniperus communit hemisphcerica (Presl.) Pari., 
 
 36. 
 
 Juniperus communis hibemica iLodd.) Gord., 36. 
 Juniperus communis hibemica compressa Carr., 
 
 36. 
 Junijierus communis oblonga (Bieb.) Load., 36. 
 Juniperus communis oblongo-pendula (Loud.) 
 
 Carr., 36. 
 Juniperus communis pendens Sudw., 36. 
 Juniperus communis pygmma (Koch) Sudw., 36. 
 Juniperus communis sibirica (Burgsd.) Rydberg, 
 
 36. 
 Juniperus communis suecica (Mill.) Loud., 36. 
 Juniperus communis vanegata aurea Cstrr., 36. 
 Juniperus flaccida Schl.-. 36. 
 •Juniperna Knigbtii Xelson, '.\'>. 
 Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg., 35. 
 Juniperus occidentalis Hook, 3r>. 
 Juniperus pachyphloea Terr., 36. 
 Juniperus sabinoides (H. B. K.) Sargent, 36. 
 Juniperus scopulorum Sargent, 35. 
 Juniperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemin.,36. 
 Juniperus virginiana Linn., 34. 
 Juniperus virginiaxa authors in part, not L.. 35. 
 Ju7iiperus virginiana albo-spica Beissn., 35. 
 Junipenis virginiana albo-variegata Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana aurea superba Sadw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana aureo-spica Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana aureo-variegata Veitcb., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana tripartita aureo-versicolor 
 
 Sudw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana cannarti (Koch) Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana caroliniana (Marsh.) Willd., 
 
 34. 
 Juniperus virginiana chamberlayni Carr., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana cinerascens dirr., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana dumosa Carr., 35. 
 Jxiniperus virginiana elegantissima Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana glaucescens Sudw. ,35. 
 Juniperus virginiana gracilis (Endl.) Sarg., 34. 
 Juniperus virginiana horizontaliformis Sudw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana interrupta (Wend.) Beissn., 
 
 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana kosteriana Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana nutans Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana pendula Carr., 35. 
 Juniperusvirginianaplumosa alba (Carr.) Beissn., 
 
 35. 
 Junijicrus virginiana plumosa Candida Sndw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana pohjmorpha Beissn., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana pwnila Gord., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana pwnila nivea (Beissn.) 
 
 Sudw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana pyramidiformis Sudw., 34. 
 Juniperus virginiana pyramidiformis glauci/olia 
 
 Sudw., 34. 
 Junipei-us virginiana pyramidiformis viridifolia 
 
 Sudw., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana schoiti Gord., 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana smithi penduliformis Sudw., 
 
 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana triomphe d'angers Beissn., 
 
 35. 
 Juniperus virginiana tripartita Gord., 35. 
 KALMIA Linn., 102. 
 Ealmia latifolia Linn., 102. 
 KCEBERIINIA Zncc, 85. 
 Eoeberlinia spinosa Zucc. 85. 
 
119 
 
 lAGTJNCUlARIA G;¥rtn. f.. 99. 
 
 lagunculana racemosa (Linn.) Giertn. f.. 9'.). 
 
 LARIX Duham., 20. 
 
 Lakix AMERICANA Michx.,'20. 
 
 larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch. '20. 
 
 larixlyaUiiParl.,20. 
 
 larix occidentalis Nutt.,20. 
 
 LAURACE.5:, GG. 
 
 LEGU]VriNOS.ff;, 78. 
 
 LEITNERIACEJE, 42. 
 
 LEITNERIA Chaimi., 42. 
 
 leitneria floridana Chaimi., 42. 
 
 LEUCENA Hooker, 79. 
 
 Leucaena glauca (Liuu.)Benth., 79. 
 
 leucsena pulverulenta (Schlecht.) Bentb..79. 
 
 LIBOCEDRUSEn.il. ,29. 
 
 Libocedrus decurrens Terr., 29. 
 
 Libocidrus decuVretis columnaris Beissn., 29. 
 
 Libocedrug decurrens compacta Beissn., 29. 
 
 Libocedrus decurrens depressa Gord., 29. 
 
 I.ibccf'drus decurrens glaxica Beissn., 29. 
 
 LILIACEJE, ::8. 
 
 LIQUIDAMBAR Linn., 68. 
 
 liquidambar styraciflua Linn., 68. 
 
 IIRIODENDRON Linn., 65. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera Linn., 65. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera aureo-maculata (Art). 
 
 Kew.) Sudw., 66. 
 Liriodendron tulipifera obtusiloba Michx., 66. 
 Liriodendron tulipifera j^enache Elw. & B.. 66. 
 Liiiodendron tulipifera pyramidalis Dipp., 66. 
 lYONOTHAMNUS Gray, 67. 
 Lyonothamnus floribundus Gray, 67. 
 lYSILOMABentli.,78. 
 lysiloma latisiliqua (Linn.) Benth., 78. 
 Maclura aurantiaca Kutt., 63. 
 MAGNOLIA Linn., 64. 
 Magnolia acuminata Linn., 64. 
 Magnolia acuminata cordata (Michx.) Loud., 65. 
 Magnolia foetida (Liuu.) Sargent, 64. 
 yiatjnolia fcetida amiustifoUa (Loud.) Sarg., 64. 
 Magnolia foetida ferruginea (Sims) Sudw.,64. 
 Magnolia foetida lanceolata (Ait.) Sndw., 64. 
 Magnolia fcetida prcecox (Loud.) Sarg., 64. 
 Magnolia fraseri "Walt., 65. 
 Magnolia glauca Linn., 64. 
 Magnolia glauca longifolia Ait., 64. 
 Magnolia glaxtca major Siius, 64. 
 Magnolia graxdiflora Linn., 64. 
 Magnolia macrophylla Michx., 65. 
 Magnolia tripetala Linn , 65. 
 ^^[agn'olia umbrella De.srouss., 65. 
 MAGNOLIACEiE, 64. 
 MELIA Linn.. 85. 
 Melia azedarach Linn., 85. 
 Melia azedarach umbraculifera Sargent, 85. 
 MELIACEiE, 85. 
 MIMUSOPS Linn., 104. 
 Mimusops sieberi A. de C, 104. 
 MOHRODENDRON Britton, 105. 
 Mohrodendron Yiarolinum (Linn.) Britton, 105. 
 Mohrodendron carolinum meehani (Sarg.) nom. nov., 
 
 105. 
 Mohrodendron dipterum (Ellis) Britton, 105. 
 MONOCOTYLEDONES, 37. 
 MORACiE, 62. 
 MORTIS Linn., 62. 
 
 Morus alba Linn., 62. 
 
 Moms alba conKtantinopolitana (Poir.) Loud., 62. 
 
 Morus alba ntacropliiilla (Moretti) Loud., 62. 
 
 Morus alba niiUticaulis (I'arr.) Luud.. 62. 
 
 Morus alba pendula (Dipp.) Sudw.,62. 
 
 Morus alba p;i rami dalis Seriuge, 62. 
 
 Morus alba rosea Loud., 62. 
 
 Morus alba tatarica (Linn.) Loud., 62. 
 
 Morus alba renosa Delile, 62. 
 
 Miirus alha rulgaris tokwa (Sieb.) Bur., 62. 
 
 Morus celtidifolia H. B. K., 62. 
 
 Morus rubra Linn., 62. 
 
 Myginda palle.ns Sniitli fx Sargent, 90. 
 
 MYRICA Linn., 42. 
 
 Myrica californica Chan)., 42. 
 
 Myrica cerifera Linn., 42. 
 
 Myrica inodora Ilartr.,42. 
 
 MYRICAOE.S;,42. 
 
 MYRSINACE.ff;, 103. 
 
 MYRTACE.ff:, 98. 
 
 Nectandra willdenoviana Meisner, 67. 
 
 Negunijo aceroides Moencb.,93. 
 
 Keguxdo CALiFORXicuM Torr. & Gr., 93. 
 
 KEOWASHINGTONIA Sudworth, 38. 
 
 Neowashingtonia filamentosa (Wend.) Sudw., 38. 
 
 NYCTAGINACE.ff:, 04. 
 
 NYSSA Linn., 100. 
 
 Nyssa aquatica Linn., 101. 
 
 Kyssa aquatica Linu., 101. 
 
 Nyssa biflora "Walt., 101. 
 
 Nyssa capitata Walt., 101. 
 
 Ny'.-sa .mcltifloba "Wang., 100. 
 
 Nys&a ogeche Marsh., 101. 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica Marsh., 100. 
 
 Kyssa sylvatica pendcla (Temple) Sudw., 101 
 
 Nyssa uniflora Wang., 101. 
 
 OCOTEA Aublet,67. 
 
 Ocotea catesbyana (Michs.) Sargent, 67. 
 
 OLEACE.E, 105. 
 
 OLNEYA Gray, 83. 
 
 Olneya tesota Gray, 83. 
 
 OPTJNTIAMill.,97. 
 
 Opuntia fulgida Engelni., 97. 
 
 Opuntia fulgida mammillata (Scott) Coult., 97. 
 
 Opuntia sponsior (Engelm.) Toumey,98. 
 
 Opuntia sponsior neomexicana Toumey, 98. 
 
 Opuntia versicolor Engelm., 98. 
 
 OREODOXA "Willd.,38. 
 
 Oreodoxa regia H. B. K., 38. 
 
 OSMANTHUS Laureiro. 108. 
 
 Osmanthus americanus (Linn.) Benth. &. Hook. 
 
 108. 
 OSTRYA Scop., 50. 
 Ostrya knowltoni Coville, 50. 
 Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch., 50. 
 OXYBENDRUM de C, 102. 
 Oxydendrum arboreum (Linn.) de C, 102. 
 PALMACEiE,37. 
 PARKINSONIA Linn., 81. 
 Parkinsonia aculeata Linn., 81. 
 Parkinsonia microphylla Torr., 81. yj 
 
 PaU KIXSDMA TORliEYAXA "^^ ''■^" "' 1^— f^ 
 
 PAUiflWNlA Sub. ic y-uccloM. • /./ 
 
 Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steudel, 109. 
 PERSEA Gaertn. f.,66. 
 Persea borbonia (Linn.) Spreng.,66. 
 
 PEBSEA CAROLINKN8I8 Nees, 66. 
 
120 
 
 Peksea carolinensis var. palustris Chapm.,66. 
 
 Persea pubescens (Pursli) Sargent, 66. 
 
 PICEA Link, 2(1. 
 
 I'icEA ALHA Link, 2L 
 
 Picea breweriana AVats.,22. 
 
 Picea canadensis (Mill.) 15. S. I'., 21. 
 
 J'i>fa canathiLsis acutitxima (Uci».sn.) Siidw.. LI. 
 
 Picea canaUensit avrea (Bfi.ssu.) Suilw., 21. 
 
 Picea canadennt compacta gracilis (Beissn.) 
 
 Siidw.,21. 
 I'icea canadensis compietsa (Beissu.) Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis compresxiformis Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis echino/onii is (Carr.) Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis glauca (Mm-ncli.) Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis nana (Loud.) Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis nana ylaucifolia Sudw., 21. 
 Picea canadensis nutans Sudw., 21. 
 Pirea coluujbiaiia Lemm., 21. 
 Picea engelmanni Engelm., 21. 
 Picea engelmanni argyrophylla Sudw., 21. 
 I'icea engilmann! grisei/olia Sudw., 21. 
 Picea engelmanni niinutifolia Sudw., 21. 
 Picea mariana (Mill.) B. S. P.. 20. 
 Picea mariana albescens Sudw., 20. 
 Picea jnariana argenteovarieyata (Beissu.) Sudw.. 
 
 20. 
 Picea mariana aurescins Sudw., 20. 
 Picea mariana doumetti (Cair.) Beissn.,^. 
 Picea mariana hiimilts Sudw., 20. 
 Picea mariana pumila (Carr.) Sudw.. 20. 
 Picea xifiRA Link, 20. 
 Picea parryana (Andre) Parry, 21. 
 Picea par ryana aryentea (Beissu.) noiu. nov., 22. 
 Picea parryana cyanra uoui.nov., 22. 
 Picea parryana glniica i)endins nom. nov., 22. 
 Picea jiarryana glaucescens nom. nov., 22. 
 PlCE.V PCNGENS Eugeliu., 21. 
 PiC'EA PUNGEXS ARGE.VTEA BeiSSU., 22. 
 
 Picea pcxgens cyanea Sudw., 22. 
 
 Picea puxoens glauca i-exdexs Sudw., 22. 
 
 PKEA PrXGENS GLArCESCE.\> Sndw.,22. 
 
 Picea rubens Sargent, 21. 
 
 Picea. ruhins coernlea (Loud.) nom. nov., 21. 
 
 Picea rubens gracilis (Knight) nom. nov ,21. 
 
 Picra ruhens pendula (Carr.) nom. nov., 21. 
 
 Picea uubra Diet., 21. 
 
 PiCEA RUBRA ciERULEA (Loud.) Forbes, 21. 
 
 Picea rubra (iRAfii.is (Knight) Carr., 21. 
 
 PicE.\ rubra pexdui.a Carr., 21. 
 
 Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Trantv. &, Mayer, 22. 
 
 PINCKNEYA :Michx.. 110. 
 
 Pinckreya pubens Miclix., 110. 
 
 PINACEiE, i:;. 
 
 PINUS Linn., lo. 
 
 Pinus albicaulis Engi-lm., 14. 
 
 Pinus apacheca Lenimon, 16. 
 
 Pinus eristata Engelm., 15. 
 
 Pinus arizonica Engelm., 15. 
 
 Pinus attenuata Lemmon, 17. 
 
 Pinus bs'f'ouriana M\irr., 15. 
 
 Pinus baxksiaxa Lamb., )0 
 
 Pinus cembroides Zucc, 14. 
 
 Pinus chihuahuana Engelm., 16. 
 
 Pinus contorta Loud.. 16. 
 
 Pinus coulteri Lamb., 16. 
 
 Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Sargent, 18. 
 
 PiNVS CtTBENSis Griseb., 19. 
 
 Pinus divarieata (Ait.) Pu Mont de Cour9..19. 
 
 Pinus echinata Mill., 18. 
 
 Pinus edulis Engelm., 14. 
 
 Pinus flexilis Jauies, 14. 
 
 Pinus glabra Walt.. 19. f k 
 
 Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth. 19>-t^Af «tX4^ 
 
 Pixu.s ixops Solander ex Ait.. 18. 
 
 Pixus ixsioNis Douglas in herb. e\ Loudon. 17 
 
 Pinus jeffreyi "Oreg. Com.." 16. 
 
 Pinus lambertiana Dougl.. 14. 
 
 PiNu.s latifolia Sarg., not of authors. 16. 
 
 Pinus mayriana Sudworth, 16. 
 
 PtNUS MITIS Miclix.. 18. 
 
 Pinus monophylla Ton-. & Fn-m., 15. 
 
 Pinus monticola Dougl.. 13. 
 
 Pinus muricata Don., 18. 
 
 Pinus murrayana " Oreg. Com.," 16. 
 
 Pinus palustris Mill., 19. 
 
 I'lXUs PARRYAXA Engelm.. 14. 
 
 Pinus ponderosa Laws., 15. 
 
 Finns ponderosa pindiili/ormis Sudw., 16. 
 
 Pinus ponderosa scopulorum Engelm.. 15. 
 
 Pinus pungens Miclix. 1'.. 18. 
 
 Pinus quadrifolia Pari., 14. 
 
 Pinus radiata Don.. 17. 
 
 Pinus ladiata binnata {Engelm.) Lennn., 17 
 
 Pinus resinosa Ait., 15. « 
 
 Pinus rigida Mill.. 17. 
 
 Pinus sabiniana Dougl., 16. 
 
 Pinus serotina Miclix., 18. 
 
 Pinus strobiformis Enaelm.. 14. 
 
 Pinus strobus Linn., 13. 
 
 Pinus sirobus axii-ea Carr.. 13. 
 
 Pinus strob^lS brevifolia Loud., 13. 
 
 Finns strobus fastigiata (Koch) Beissn., 13 
 
 Pinus strobus gracili/olia Sudw., 13. 
 
 Pinus strobus minima Lei.ssn., 13. 
 
 Pintis strobus nivca (Knight) Carr.. 13. 
 
 Pinus strobus prostrata Hort. Kew, 13. 
 
 Finns strobus nmbracullfi ra Knight, 13. 
 
 Pinus strobus uni/olia nom. nov., 13. 
 
 Finns strobus variegata Carr., 13. 
 
 Finns strobus viridis Carr., 13. 
 
 Finns strobus zebrina Beissn., 13. 
 
 Pinns taxifolia Salisbury, 23. 
 
 Pinus tseda Li'in.. 17. 
 
 Pinus torreyana Parry, 15. 
 
 Pinus tuberculata Gord., 17. 
 
 Pinus virginiana Mill., 18. 
 
 Pi.sciDiA erythrixa Linn.. 83. 
 
 PISONIA Linn.,64. 
 
 Pisonia obtusata Jacq.. 64. 
 
 Pithecolobium brevifolium Benth.,78. 
 
 PiTHECOLOBIUM UNGUIS-CATI Benth.,78. 
 
 PIANERA Gmelin,61. 
 
 Planera aquatica (Walt.) Gmel..61. 
 
 PLATANACE^, 68. 
 
 PLATANUS Linn., 68. 
 
 Platanus occidentalis Linn., 68. 
 
 Platanus racemosa Nutt.,68. 
 
 Platanus wrightii "Wats., 69. 
 
 POLYGOWACEJE, 63. 
 
 POPULUS Linn., 45. 
 
 Popul"" acuminata IJydberg, 46. 
 
 Populus alba Linu., 47. 
 
 Populus alba bolleana Lauche, 47. 
 
 Populus alba canescens (Smith) Loud., 47 
 
121 
 
 PopuluB alba cane.iceiix timbraciill/era Sudw., 47. 
 
 Populus alba ijlobosa Dipp., 47. 
 
 Popuhts alba nivea (Willd.) Loiul.,47. 
 
 P(}piilus alba iivta»s Sudw., 47. 
 
 Fopulus angustifolia James, 46. 
 
 Populus balsamifera Linn., 46. 
 
 Populus balsamifera candicans (Ait.) Gray, 46. 
 
 Populvs balsavti/i'ia intermedia Loud., 46. 
 
 Pojiulim balsami/irci latifolia (Mcpncli.) Loud., 46. 
 
 Pojnilus balsa III i/i'ra vimiiiali.i Loud., 46. 
 
 Populus deltoides Marsh., 46. 
 
 Popvius deltoides atirea (Nicliol.) Sudw.. 47. 
 
 I'lipiihis deltoides crispa {Dip]).) Sudw., 47. 
 
 Pojivlug deltoides rrecta (Sely.s) Sudw., 47. 
 
 Populus fremontii Wats., 47. 
 
 Popuhis freniontii rac. "Wislizeni TraY.5.,47. 
 
 Populus grandidentata Miclix., 45. 
 
 Poj'vlns giaiididintata penduliformis Sudw., 45. 
 
 Populus heterophylla Linu., 45. 
 
 POPI-LVS MONILIFERA Ait., 46. 
 
 Populus nigra Linn., 47. 
 
 Poptdus nigra elegans Bailey, 47. 
 
 I'opvlus nigra italica Du Pioi, 47. 
 
 Populus tremuloides Michx., 45. 
 
 Populus treinuloideg jiendens Sudw., 45. 
 
 Populus trichoearpa Torr. & Gr.,46. 
 
 PROSOPIS Linu., 79. 
 
 Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) de C, 79. 
 
 Prosopis odorata Torr. & Freui., 79. 
 
 Prosopis pubescens Benth.,79. 
 
 PRUNUSLinn.,75. 
 
 Prunus allegheniensis Porter. 75. 
 
 Prunus amencana Marsh., 75. 
 
 Prunus americana lanata Sudworth, 75. 
 
 Prunus angustifolia Marsh., 75. 
 
 Prunus avium Linu., 76. 
 
 Prixus CAPi'Li Cav., 77. 
 
 Prunus caroliniana (Mill.) Ait., 77. 
 
 Prunus cerasus Linn., 76. 
 
 Pruxls chicasa >nchx.,75. 
 
 Prunus demissa (Nutt.) AYalp.,77. 
 
 Prunus emarginata (Dougl.) Walp., 76. 
 
 Prunus emarginata villosa Sudworth, V6. 
 
 Prunis emarginata Tar. mollis Brewer, not 
 
 Torr., 76. 
 Prunus hortulana Bailey, 75. 
 Prunus hortulana mineri Bailey. 75. 
 Prunus ilicifolia (Nutt.) "Walp., 78. 
 Prunus icilifoha integrifolia Sudworth, 78. 
 Prunus inJHcnnda Small. 76. 
 Prunus mahaleb Linn., 76. 
 Prunus nigra Ait., 75. 
 Prunus pennsylvanica Liun. f., 76. 
 Prunus persica (Linn.) Stokes, 78. 
 Prunus salicifolia H. B. K., 77. 
 Prunus serotina Ehrh., 77. 
 Prunus serotina asplenifolia Dipp., 77. 
 Prunus serotina neomontana Sudworth, 77. 
 Prunus serotina pendnliformis Sudw.. 77. 
 Prunus sphaerocarpa Swartz. 77. 
 Prunus subcordata Benth., 75. 
 Prunus umbellata Ell.. 76. 
 Prunus virgimana Liun., 76. 
 Prtmtti virginiana leiicoearpta Wats., 77. 
 Prunus virginiana nayia (Uu Roi) Dipp., 77. 
 Prunus virginiana pendens Sudw., 77. 
 
 PSEUDOPHffiNIX Wendl.. 37. 
 Pseudophoenix Sargentii Weiul . :i7. 
 PSEUDOTSUGA Can., 23. 
 PsEUDOTSrOA DOUfiLA.^Il CaiT., 2;t. 
 Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Torr.) Mavr. 25. 
 Pseudotsuga niucrouata rar. palustris Lemm.. 24. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Laui.) Britton, 23. . 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia argentea (Bei.ssu.) Sudw., 25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia argentea densa Sudw.T25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia brevifolia (Hort. Kew.) 
 
 Sudw., 25. 
 Pieiidotsuga taxifolia compacta (Beissn.) Sudw., 
 
 25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia dumosa (Carr) Sudw.. 25. 
 Pseudot.iuga taxifolia elegans (Beissn.) Sudw., 25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia fastigiata (Knight) Siulw., 
 
 24. 
 I'setidotsuga taxifolia glauca ( Beissn.) Sudw., 24. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia pendula (Engelm.i Sud- 
 worth, 24. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia pendula cairulea Sudw., 24. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia revoluta (Hort. Kew.) 
 
 Sudw., 25; 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia stairi (Beissn.) Sudw.. 25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia .<tt(i ndishiana (Gord.) Sudw., 
 
 25. 
 Pseudotsuga taxifolia variegata (McDon.)tSudw., 
 
 2.5. 
 Pseudot.suga taxifolia var. suberosa Lemm., 24. 
 PTEIEA Linn., 84. 
 Ptelea trifoliata Linn., 84. 
 Ptelea trifoliata avrea Xich., 84. 
 PYRUS Linn.. 69. 
 Pyrus americana (Marsh.) de U., 70. 
 Pyrus angustifolia Ait., 70. 
 
 Pyrus americana microcarpa(Piirsh) Torr. &.tTr.,70 
 Pyrus coronaria Linu., 69. 
 Pyrus ioensis (Wood) Bailey. 70. 
 Pyrus roalus Linn., 70. 
 Pyrus rivi'laris Dougl., 7o. 
 Pyrus sambucifolia Cham, i Schl.. 70. 
 Pyrus soulardi Bailey, 70. 
 aUERCUS Linu., 51. 
 Quercus acuminata (Michx.) Houha. 53. 
 ftuercus agrifolia Xt-e, 55. 
 Guercus alba Linn.. 51. 
 Guercus alba X macrocarpa Engelni.,51. 
 Quercus albaXminor Coulter. 51. 
 Quercus albaXprinus Engelin.,51. 
 Quercus aquatica Walt., 58. 
 Quercus arizonica Sargent, .54. 
 QUERCUS BICOLOK Willd., 53. 
 Quercus brevifolia (Lam.) Sargent, 58. 
 Quercus breviloba (Torr.) Sargent. 54. 
 Quercus breweri Eugelni.,52. 
 Quercus brittoni Davis, 58. 
 Guercus californica (Torr.) Cooji., 57, 
 Quercus catesbaei Michx., 57. 
 Guercus catesbsei,-- brevifolia Sudw., 57. 
 Quercus catesbaei x laurifolia Engelni.. .57. 
 Quercus chapmani Sargent, 52. 
 Quercus chrysolepis Liebra.. 55. 
 Quercus chrysolepis palmeri Engelm., 55. 
 Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia (Kell.) Engelm., 55. 
 QVERCCS CIXEREA Michx.,58. 
 Quercus coccinea Muenchh., 56. 
 
122 
 
 Quercus coccinea 'pumila Sud worth, 56. 
 Quercus densiflora Hook. & Am., 59. 
 Quercus densiflora echinoides (R. Br. Cauipst.) Sar- 
 gent, 59. 
 Quercus digitata (Mar.sh.) Sud worth, 57. 
 Quercus digitata X velutina Sudworth, 57. 
 Quercus douglasii Hook. & Arc, 54. 
 Quercus dumosa Nutt., 54. 
 Quercus dumosa revoluta Sargeut, 54. 
 QuEKcrs DiKANDU ISuckl., 54. 
 Quercus emoryi Torr., 55. 
 Quercus engelmanni Greene, 54. 
 l^)UERCUS F.\LCATA Michx., 57. 
 Quercus gambelii Nutt., 52. 
 Quercus garryana Dongl., 52. 
 (.Quercus geniiiiata .s'moH, 55. 
 Quercus georgiana Curtis, 58. 
 Quercus georgiana ■ marilandica Sargent, 58. 
 Quei-cus heterophylla Michx. f., 59. 
 Quercus hypoleuca Kngelni., 55. 
 (,)rEi(rus iLiciFOLiA Wang., 57. 
 Quercus imbricaria Aliclix., 58. 
 Quercus imbricaria ' palustris Engelm.,59. 
 Quercus laurifolia >[ichx.,58. 
 Quer6us leana Nutt., 59. 
 Quercus lobata iS'6i', 51. 
 Quercu^ lyrata M' alt. ,52. 
 Quercus macrocarpa Michx., 52. 
 Quercus marilandica Muenchh.,58. 
 Quercus marilandica X velutina Bush. ."i8. 
 Quercus michauxii Nutt., .53. 
 Quercus michauxii X macrocarpa Sudworth, 54. 
 Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sargent, 52. 
 Quercus morehus Kell., 56. 
 Quercus myrtifolia Willd., 56. 
 Quercus nigra Linn.. 58. 
 (^LEK< I's NiGKA of autliors, not of L.,58. 
 Quercus oblongifolia Torr., 54. 
 Quercus obtdsiloba Michx., 52. 
 Quercus palustris Muenchh.,57. 
 Quercus phellos Linn., ,59. 
 Quercus phellos X digitata Small, 59. 
 
 Ql'KRCUS I'lIELI-dS , NIGRA Bfitt., 59. 
 
 Quercus phellos X pumila Sudworth, 59. 
 
 QCERCU.S PHELLO.s X Ti.NCTORiA Gray, 59. 
 
 Quercus platanoides (Lam.) Sudworth, 53. 
 
 Quercus prinoides AVilld.,53. 
 
 Quercus prinus Liun.,53. 
 
 Quercus pumila (Marsh.) .Sudworth, 57. 
 
 Quercus reticulata ITumh. & Bonpl.,54. 
 
 Quercus rubra Linn., 50. 
 
 Q ercus rubra runcinata A.deC.,50. 
 
 Quercus sinuata (Lam.) Walt., 57. 
 
 Quercus subimbricaria (de C.) Sudworth, 59. 
 
 Quercus texana F.uckl.,56. 
 
 (,trER(;us TiNCTORiA Bartr., 56. 
 
 Quercus tomentella Engelm.,55. 
 
 Quercus toumeyi Sargent, 54. 
 
 Quercus tridentata (de C.) Engelm., 59. 
 
 Quercus undulata Torr., 54. 
 
 Qr ERCUS UNDULATA a Gambelii Engelm., 52. 
 
 Quercus velutina Lam., 56. 
 
 Quercus vikens Ait., 55. 
 
 Quercus virginiana Mill., 55. 
 
 Quercus wislizeni A. de C, 56. 
 
 REYN0SIAGri8eb.,95. 
 
 Reynosia latifolia Griseb., 9."i. 
 
 RHAMNACEJE, 95. 
 
 RHAMNIDIUM Keissek, 95. 
 
 Rhamnidium ferreum (Vahl) Sargent, 95. 
 
 RHAMNUS Linn., 95. 
 
 Rhamnus caroliniana Walt., 95. 
 
 Rhamnus crocea Nutt., 95. 
 
 Rhamnus crocea insularis (Greene) Sargent, 95. 
 
 Rhamnus pirifolia Greene, 95. 
 
 Rhamnus purshiana de C. 96. 
 
 RHIZOPHORA Linn., 98. 
 
 Rhizophora mangle Linn., 98. 
 
 RHIZOPHORACE.ff;, 98. 
 
 RHODODENDRON Linn., 102. 
 
 Rhododendron catawbiense Michx., 103. 
 
 Rhododendron maximum Linn., 102. 
 
 Rlwdodendron maximu'in album Pursh, 103. 
 
 Rhododendron tnaximum purpureum Pursh, 103. 
 
 Rhododendron maximum ro.ietim Pursh, 103. 
 
 RHUS Linn., 87. 
 
 Rhus copallina Linn., 88. 
 
 Rhus copallina lanceolata Gray, 88. 
 
 Rhus capoUina leucantha (Jacq.) de C.,88. 
 
 llHU.S COTINOIDES Nutt., 87. 
 
 Rhus hirta (Linn.) Sudworth, 87. 
 
 Rhus integrifolia (Nutt.) Benth. (t Hook., 88. 
 
 Rhus metopium Linn., 87. 
 
 Rhus typhixa Linn., 87. 
 
 Rhus venenata de C, 88. 
 Rhus vernix Linn., 88. 
 ROBINIALinn.,82. 
 Rohhiia bella-rosea Nichol., 83. 
 
 Robinia dubia Fouc, 83. 
 
 Robinia neomexicana Gray. 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia Linn., 82. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia ampli/olia Sudw., 82. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia angtisti/olia (hovn\.) Lav., 82. 
 
 Robinia inevdacacia aurea (Koch) Dipi).,83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia argenteo-varieijata (Koch) 
 Sudw., 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia crispa de C, 82. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia decaisneana Carr., 82. 
 
 Robinia pseitdO'Cacia dissecta (Koch) Sarg.,83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia glaucescens Koch, 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia inertnis (Jacq.) Sudw., 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia latisiliqua Loud., 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia monophylla Petz. & Kirchn., 
 82. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia pendula (Ortega) Loud., 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia purpurea Dipp., 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia pyramidalis Petz. & Kirchn., 
 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia spectabilis (I>u Mont Cour.) 
 Koch, 83. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia tortuosa (Hoffm.) de C.,82. 
 
 Robinia viscosa Vent., 83. 
 
 Robinia viscosa albijlora Dipp., 83. 
 
 R0SACE.S:,6!l. 
 
 RUBIACE.iE, 110. 
 
 RUTAOEiE, 84. 
 
 SABAL Adan.s.,37. 
 
 Sabal mexicana Mart., 37. 
 
 Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Roem. &. Sch.,37. 
 
 SALICACEiE, 42. 
 
 SALIX Linn., 42. 
 
 Salix alba Linn., 45. 
 
123 
 
 Salix alba - lucida Rebb, 45 
 
 Salix amygdaloides Anderss., 4."?. 
 
 Salix babylonica Linu., 45. 
 
 Salix bebbiana Sar<;eut, 44. 
 
 Salix bonplandiana H. B. K., 43. 
 
 Salix cordata lutea (Nutt.) Bebb, 44. 
 
 Salix cordata mackenzieana Ilook., 44. 
 
 Salix cordata var. n-estit.a Sargent, ii«t Tursli, 
 
 44. 
 Salix discolor Maebl.. 44. 
 
 Salix discolor eriocephala (Michx.) Ander88^44. 
 Salix discolor prinoides (Pnr.sli) Aiiders8.,44. 
 Salix flavescexs Nutt., 44. 
 Salix fluviatilis Nutt., 43. 
 
 Salix fluviatilis argyrophylla (Nutt.) Sargent, 43. 
 Salix fluviatilis exigua (Nutt.) Sargent, 43. 
 Salix fragilis Linn., 45. 
 Salix hookeriana Barratt, 44. 
 Salix l»vigata Bebb, 43. 
 Salix laevigata angustifolia Bebb, 43. 
 Salix laevigata congesta Bebb, 43. 
 Salix lasiandra Bentb., 43. 
 Salix lasiandra caudata (Nutt.) Sudworth, 43. 
 Salix lasiandra lyalli Sargent, 43. 
 Salix lasiolepis Benth., 44. 
 Salix loxgifolia Mnebl.,43. 
 Salix lucida Miiehl., 43. 
 Salix missouriensis Bebb, 44. 
 Salix nigra Marsh., 42. 
 Salix nigra alba Bebb, 42. 
 Salix nigra ■ amygdaloides Glatf., 42. 
 Salix nigra falcata (Pur.sh) Torr., 42. 
 Salix nuttallii Sargent, 44. 
 
 Salix nuttallii brachystachys (Bentb.) Sargent, 44. 
 Salix occidentalis longipes (Anderss.) Bebb, 43. 
 Salix piperi Bebb, 44. 
 Salix ro.str.\ta, Eich., 44. 
 Salix sessilifolia Nutt., 44. 
 Salix sitchensis Sans., 45. 
 Salix taxifolia H. B. K., 44. 
 Sahx wardi Bebb, 42. 
 SAMBUCUS Linn.. 110. 
 Sambucus callicarpa Greene, 110. 
 Sambucus glauca Nutt., 110. 
 Sambucus mexicana Pres)., 110. 
 SAPINDACE.S;, 94. 
 SAPINDrrSLinn.,94. 
 Sapindus marginatus Willd.,94. 
 Sapindus saponaria Linn., 94. 
 SAPIUM Browne. 86. 
 Sapium sebiferum Roxb., 86. 
 SAP0TACE.5:, 103. 
 SASSAFRAS Nees & Eberni., 67. 
 Sassafras officinale Nees &. Eberm., 67. 
 Sassafras sassafras (Linn.) Karst.,67. 
 SAXIFRAGACEiE, 67. 
 SCHJEFFERIA Jacq., 90. 
 Schaefferia frutescens Jacq., 90. 
 SCROPHULARIACE.S:, 109. 
 Sebastiana lucida Muell., 86. 
 SEaUOIA Endl.,28. 
 Sequoia gigantea Decai.sne, 28. 
 Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl., 28. 
 Sequoia sempervirens adpressa Carr., 29. 
 Sequoia sempervirens albo-sjnca (Gord.) Beissn., 29. 
 Sequoia tempervirens glauca Gord., 29. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens gracilis Carr., 29. 
 Sequoia sempervirens pitta Sudw., 29. 
 Sequoia sempervirens taxifolia Carr., 29. 
 Sequoia -washingtoniana (Winsl.) Sudworth, 28. 
 Sequoia irashingtoniana argentea (Beissn.) Sudw., 
 
 28. 
 Sequoia w ashing toniaiia aurea (Beissn.) Sudw., 28. 
 Sequoia vashingtoniana glauca (Gord.) Sudw., 28. 
 Sequoia ivaMngtoniana glaucescens pyramido- 
 
 compacta Sudw., 28. 
 Sequoia tvashingtoniana holmti (Beissn.) ^udw., 
 
 28. 
 Sequoia washingtoniana pendula (Beissn.) Sudw., 
 
 28. 
 Sequoia washingtoniana pygmcea (Beissn.) Sudw., 
 
 28. 
 Sequoia washingtoniana var^egata (Gord.) Sudw., 
 
 28. 
 Sequoia Wellingtonia Seeman, 28. 
 SIMAROUBACEiE, 85. 
 SIDEROXTLON Linn., 103. 
 Sideroxylon mastichodendron Jacq., 103. 
 SIMAROUBA Aublet,85. 
 Simarouba glauca de C, 85. • 
 SOPHORALinn.,81. 
 Sophora aflSnis Torr. & Gr., 81. 
 Sophora secundiflora (Cav.) de C.,81. 
 Stillinqia sebiferum Michx., 86. 
 STYRACACE.5;, 105. 
 SWIETENIA Jacq.,86. 
 Swietenia mahagoni Jacq., 86. 
 STMPLOCACE.E, 105. 
 SYMPLOCOS Jacq., 105. 
 Symplocos tinctoria (Linn.) L'Her., 105. 
 TAXACE5], 36. 
 TAXODIUMRich.,27. 
 Tasodium distichum (Linn.) Rich., 27. 
 Taxodium distichum denudatum Carr., 27. 
 Taxodium' distichum imbricarium (Nutt.) Sarg., 
 
 27. 
 Taxodium distichum iiitermedium Carr., 28. 
 Taxodium distichum knighti Carr., 27. 
 Taxodixim distichum m^icropJiyllum (Brong.) Henk. 
 
 and Hochst., 28. 
 Taxodium distichum nanum Carr., 28. 
 Taxodium distichum nigrum Gord., 28. 
 Taxodium distichum patens (Ait.) EndL,27. 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum (Forb.) Carr., 27. 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum elegans Beissn., 27. 
 Taxodium distichum pendulum novum Beissn., 27. 
 Taxodium distichum pyramidatum Carr., 27. 
 Taxodium Washingtonianum TTukJow, 28. 
 TAXUSLinu.,37. 
 Taxus brevifolia Nutt., 37. 
 Taxus floridana Nutt., 37. 
 TERMINALIA Benth. & Hook., 99. 
 Terminalia buceras (Browne) Benth. &. Hook., 99. 
 THEACEiE, 87. 
 THRINAX Linu. f., 37. 
 Thrinax microcarpa Sargent, 37. 
 Thrinax parviflora Swartz, 37. 
 THUJA Linn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis Linn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis alba Gord., 31. 
 Thuja occidentalis albo-variegata Beissn., 31. 
 Thuja occidentalis argentea Gord., 31. 
 
124 
 
 Thtija vcci(Untalis atplenifolia Carr., :iO. 
 
 Thuja occidentalig athrotaxoidet Beissn., 30. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis aurea Gord., 30. 
 
 Thuja occideiHalin aureo-rarieijata Beissn., 31. 
 
 Thvja occidentalig bodmeri Beissn.. 30. 
 
 Thtija occidentalis boothi Beissn., 30. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis crietata fiord., 30. 
 
 Thuja occidcntaliii denna Gord., 30. 
 
 Thuja occidentalis denudata Bei.ssn., 30. 
 
 Thuja oceidentaUs ellwangeriana (Gord.) Beissn., 
 
 30. 
 Thvja occidentoU.i fagtigiata J}ei8sn.,30. 
 Thuja occidentalis fastigiata nova Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis JiUcoides Beissn., 30. 
 Thvja occidentalig fniheli Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis ylohosn Gord., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalig globularis Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalingracilig Gord., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis hoveyi Gord., 30. 
 ITiuja occidentalis Vhaveana Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis little-gem Beis.sn., 31. 
 Thvja occidentalis lutca Veitch, 30. 
 Tliuja occidentalis lutea huniilig Siidw., 30 
 Thuja occidentalis parra Siidw., 30. 
 \r' Thuja, occidentalis ijendula Gord., 30. 
 
 Thuja oecidentalis xtendtda glaucescens Sudw., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis recurva pusilla Sudw., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis ncurvata argenteo-variegata 
 
 Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis recurvata Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis rejlcxa (.larr., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis riversi Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis rosenthali Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis silver-queen Beissn., 31. 
 Thuja occidentalis spaethi Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis s)>ihlmanni Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis tatarica Beissn.. 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis theodonensis Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis varia Sudw., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis vervieneana Gord., 30. 
 Thvja occidentalis viridis Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis walthamensis Goi-d., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis wareana Gord., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis wareana globosa Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja occidentalis wareana lutescens Beissn., 30. 
 Thuja plicata Don., 31. 
 
 Thvja plicata argenteo-versicolor Sudw., 31. 
 ThujapHcata atrovirens (Gord.) Sudw.. 31. 
 Thuja plicata aurescens (Beissn.) Sudw., 31. 
 Thvja plicata compacta (Carr.) Beissn., 31. 
 Thuja plicata erecta (Gord.) Sudw., 31. 
 Thuja plicata JIava Sudw., 31. 
 Thuja plicata gracillima (Beissn.) Sudw., 31. 
 Thuja plicata llaveana Gord., 31. 
 Thvja plicata minima Gord., 31. 
 Thuja plicata penduli/orni is Sudw., 31. 
 Thuja plicata putnila (Gord.) Sudw., 31. 
 Thuja plicata variegata Carr., 31. 
 Thuya gigante.^ Nutt.,3i. 
 TILIA Linn., 96. 
 Tilia americana Linn.. 96. 
 
 TiLIA AMERICANA 3 PDBE.SCENS I.Oud., 96. . 
 
 Tilia heterophyllaVent., 97. 
 
 Tilia pubescens Ait., 96. 
 
 Tilia pubescens leptophylla Vent., 97. 
 
 TILIACEiE, 96. 
 
 TORKEYA CALIFOBNICA 'lOrf., 37. 
 TORREYA TAXIFOLIA Am., 36. 
 
 TOXYLON Kal., 63. 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum Kaf ., 63. 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum inerme Andre, 63. 
 
 TSUGA Carr., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis (Linn.) Carr., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis albo-spica (Gord.) Bei-ssn., 22: 
 
 Tsuga canadensis argenteo-variegata Sudw., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis argentifoUa Sudw., •_'2. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis aurea lieissn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis columnaris Beissn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis compacta minima Sudw., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadetisis erecta Sudw., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis globosa Beissn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis gracilis Carr., 22. 
 
 Tsvga canadensis )nacrophijllalieiasn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis tnicrophylla Beissn., 22. 
 
 Tsxiga canadensis milfordensis Niobol., 22. 
 
 Thuga canadensis parvifoUa (Veiteli) Beissn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis paucifolia Sudw., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis pendula Beissn., 22. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis 2>umila Sudw., 22. 
 
 Tsuga heterophylla (RaF.) Sargent, 23. 
 
 Tsuija heterophylla latifolia uoni. nov., 2:i. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr., 23. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana auiliors, not Carr.. 23. 
 
 Tsuga merteniianaargentea(^ii\B?in.)non\.vmT.,2'i. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana hookeriana (Carr.) nom. nov., 23. 
 
 Tsuga mertensiana latifolia Sudw., 23. 
 
 Tsuga pattoniana (JefTr.) Engelni., 23. 
 
 Tsuga pattoniana akgentea Beissn., 23. 
 
 Tsuga pattoniana hookeriana (Carr.) Lem- 
 
 nion, 23. 
 TUMION Raf.,36. 
 
 Tumion californicum (Torr.) Greene, 37. 
 Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene, 36. 
 ULMACE.ff;,GO. 
 ULMUS Linn., 60. 
 Ulmus alata Minlix., 61. 
 TJlmus americana Linn., 60. 
 Ulinns americana pendula Ait., 60, 
 Ulmus crassifolia Nutt., 60. 
 Ul.mus fulva Michx., 60. 
 Ulmus pubescens Walt., 60. 
 Ulmus racemosa Thomas, 60. 
 UMBELLULARIA Xutt.,67. 
 
 Umbellularia californica (Hook. Sc Am.) Nutt., 67. 
 UNGNADIA Eudl., 94. 
 Ungnadia speciosa Endl., 94. 
 VACCINIUM Linn., 101. 
 Vaccinium arboreum Marsh., 101, 
 VAUQUEIINIA Correa ex H. H. K.. 09. 
 Vauquelinia californica (Torr.) Sargent, 6'' 
 A'ax'quei.inia tokbeyi "Wats., 69 
 VERBENACE.S;, 108. 
 VIBURNUM Linn., 110. 
 Viburnum lentago Linn., 110. 
 Viburnum prunifolium Linn., 111. 
 Viburnum prunifolium /3 ferrugineum Torrey i 
 
 Gray, 111. 
 Viburnum rufotomentosum Small, 111. 
 Washingtonia filifera Wendl., 38. 
 Wellingtonia gigantea Lindley, 28. 
 XANTHOXYLUM Linn.. 84. 
 Xanthoxylum clava-herculis Linn., 84. 
 
125 
 
 Xanthoxylum clava-herculis fruticosum Gr<iy, 84. 
 
 Xanthoxylum cribrosum Spreuf^., 84. 
 
 Xanthozylum fa^ara (Linn.) Sargeut, 84. 
 
 Xanthoxylvm ptf.rota H. B. K., 84. 
 
 YUCCA Linn., :i8. 
 
 Yucca aloifolia Linn., 38. 
 
 Yucca arborescens (Torr.) Trelease, ;i8. 
 
 Yucca brevifolia Torr., 38. 
 
 Yucca brevifolia Engelm., 38. 
 
 Yucca constricta Bnckl.. 38. 
 
 Yucca gloriosa Linn., 38 
 
 Yucca glorio.ia plicata Carr., 38. 
 
 Tucca gloriosa lecurri/olia Eugelm., 38. 
 
 Yucca macrocarpa (Torr.) Coville, 38. 
 
 Yucca mohavensis Sargeut, 38. 
 
 Yucca treculeana Carr., 38. 
 
 ZYGIA Browne, 78. 
 
 Zygia brevifolia (Bcnth.) Sudworth, 78. 
 
 Zygia flezicaulis (Beiitli.) Siulworth, 78. 
 
 Zygia unguis-cati (Liun.) .Sud worth, 78. 
 
 ZYGOPHYLLACE.E. 83. 
 
 ji^^L^L^CJ^^yGJL 
 
 
 
 I * 
 
 ^irtcr^ 
 
INDEX OF COMMON NAMES. 
 
 [Acceptetl names in heavy-face type: s3moiiyni8 in roman type.] 
 
 Acaria {Cercidiutn jloridunt), f?l. 
 Acacia (Ruhinia pseudacacia), 82. 
 Ah-wch-bot-kwah, 9L'. 
 Ailanthus, 85. 
 Alaska Cypress, 32. 
 Alaska Ground Cypress, 32. 
 Alaska Pine, 23. 
 Alder (Alnus maritima), 49. 
 Alder {Alnvs rhombi/olia), 49. 
 Alder (Abuis oregona), 49. 
 Alder Buckthorn, 95. 
 Algaroba, 79. 
 Alisier, 111. 
 
 Allegheny Sloe, 75. ' 
 
 Alligator Juniper, 36. 
 Alligator-wood, 68. 
 Almondleaf Willow, 43. 
 Aloe-leaf Yucca, 38. 
 Alpine Fir, 25. 
 Alpine Larch, 20. 
 Alpine Paper Birch, 48. 
 Alpine Spruce, 23. 
 Alpine Western Spruce, 23. 
 Alpine "Vriiite-bark Pine, 14. 
 Alternate-leaved Dogwood, 100. 
 Amabilis Fir, 26. 
 Aniabilis, or Lovely Fir, 26. 
 American Arborvita>, 30. 
 American Ash, 106. 
 American Aspen, 45. 
 American Crab, 69. 
 
 American Crab Apple {Fyrus coronaria), 69. 
 American Crab Apple (Pj/rtt.s- anr/ttstifolia), 70. 
 American Elm, 60. 
 American Fringe, 108. 
 American Holly, 89. 
 American Horse Chestnut, 93. 
 American Lurch 20. 
 American Linden, 96. 
 American Mountain Ash, 70. 
 American !Nettle-tree, 62. 
 Aniericau Planetree, 61. 
 American Poplar, 45. 
 American Smoke-tree, 87. 
 Anacahuita, 108. 
 Anaqua, 108. 
 Andromeda, 102. 
 Angelica-tree, 99. 
 Anthony's Prickle-coue Pine, 18. 
 Antswood, 104. 
 Apache Pine, 16. 
 Apple Ilaw, 74. 
 126 
 
 Arbol de Hierro, 83. 
 
 Arborvitse, 30. 
 
 Arborvitfp (Thuja plicata), 31. 
 
 Arizona Broad-leaf Pine, 16. 
 
 Arizona Cork Fir, 26. 
 
 Arizona Cypress, 32. 
 
 Arizona Five-leaved Lumber Pine, 15. 
 
 Arizona Flexilis Pine, 14. 
 
 Arizona Long-leaf Pine, 16. 
 
 Arizona Madrona, 102. 
 
 Arizona Palm, 38. 
 
 Arizona Pine, 15. 
 
 Arizona Ked-bark Cypress, 32. 
 
 Arizona Spruce, 21. 
 
 Arizona Sycamore, 69. 
 
 Arizona Wliite Oak, 54. 
 
 Arizona White Pine, 14. 
 
 Arizona Yellow Pine, 15. 
 
 Arrow-wood (Evoin/nuts atrop%irpiireus) , 99. 
 
 Arrow-wood (Oxydendruin arboreiim), 102. 
 
 Ash {Xanthoxylum clava-heiculis),8i. 
 
 Ash (Fiaxiniin anomala), 106. 
 
 Ash (Fraxiniii velulina), 100. 
 
 Ash (Fraxinim a}nericana), 106. 
 
 Ash {FraximisptiiDsylvatticu), 107. 
 
 Ash (Fraxinus laiiciolata), 107. 
 
 Ash-leaved Maple, 93. 
 
 Aspen, 45. 
 
 Aspen leaf, 45. 
 
 Asj)en Poplar, 45. 
 
 Atlantic Ked Cedar, 30. 
 
 August Plum, 75. 
 
 Avispillo, 07. 
 
 Ayacabuite Pine, 14. 
 
 Bald Cypress, 27. 
 
 Balm, 46. 
 
 Balm Cottonwood (Cal.),46. 
 
 Balm of Gilead {Ahiex haliiamea).25. 
 
 Balm of Gilead, 46. 
 
 Balm of Gilead {I'oprilu.s bal.caiidicans),iG. 
 
 Balm of Gilead Fir, 25. 
 
 Balsam {Picea enyelmanni), 21. 
 
 Balsam (Pieea parryana), 21. 
 
 Balsam (Abies fra!<eri),2h. 
 
 Balsam (Abies balsamea), 25. 
 
 Balsam (Abies lasiocarpa), 25. 
 
 Balsam (Abies concolor), 26. 
 
 Balsam (Popidus balsamifera). 46. 
 
 Balsam (Popidus bal. candicaiis),it. 
 
 Balsam [Poprdus aiigiutifolia), 46. 
 
 Bals.im Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Balsam Fir, 25. 
 
127 
 
 Balsam Fir {Abies fraseri) , 25. 
 
 lialsani Fir {Abies balgamea),2b. 
 
 Balsam Fir {Abies concolor), 26. 
 
 Balaam Poplar, 46. 
 
 Balsam-tree, 26. 
 
 Banana, 66. 
 
 Banlcsian Pine, 19. 
 
 Banks Palmetto, 37. 
 
 Barberryleaf Cockspiir, 72. 
 
 Baretta, 84. 
 
 Bark Maple, 91. 
 
 Barren Oak, 57. 
 
 Barren Oak {Quercii.s marilandica), 58. 
 
 Barren Scrub Oak, 57. 
 
 Barrens Oak, 58. 
 
 Bartram Oak, 59. 
 
 Bartram's Oak, 59. 
 
 Basket Ash, 106. 
 
 Basket Elm, 60. 
 
 Basket Oak (Qiiercus michauxii), 53. 
 
 Basket Oak (Querais b rev iloba), 54. 
 
 Basswood {Liriodendron tulipi/era),66. 
 Basswood, 96. 
 
 Ba.star(l Acacia, 82. 
 Bastard Ash, 107. 
 
 Bastard Cedar, 29. 
 
 Bastard Elra, 62. 
 
 Bastard Oak, 54. 
 
 Bastard Pine (Pinus tceda), 17. 
 
 Bastard Pine {Pinus serotina), 18. 
 
 Ba.stard Pine {Pinus heterophylla), 19. 
 
 Kastard Pine {Abies concoJor}, 26. 
 
 Battree, 64. 
 
 Baumier, 46. 
 
 Bay {Magnolia glauca), 64. 
 
 Bay (Persea pubescens),^^. 
 
 Bayberry (Myrica cerif era), i2. 
 
 Bayberry {Myrica californica),42. 
 
 Bayberry {Rhatnnus purihiana), 90. 
 
 Bay Galls, 66. 
 
 Bay-tree, 67. 
 
 Beaded Locust, 81. 
 
 Beantree, 109. 
 
 Bearberry (Ilex decidua). 89. 
 
 Bearberry ( Ehamnus purshiana) , 96. 
 
 Bear Oak, 57. 
 
 Bearwood, 96. 
 
 Beaver-tree, 64. 
 
 Bebb Willow, 44. 
 
 Beech, 50. 
 
 Beef- wood, 64. 
 
 Beetree, 96. 
 
 Bell-tree, 105. 
 
 Berlandier Ash, 107. 
 
 Big Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Big-bud, 41. 
 
 Bigcone Douglas Si)ruce, 35. 
 
 Bigcone Pine, 16. 
 
 Bigcone Spruce, 25. 
 
 Big Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 Bigelow WiUow, 44. 
 
 Big Hickory I^^nt, 41. 
 
 Big Laurel {Magnolia faetida), 64. 
 
 Big Laurel (lihododendron maximum), 102 
 
 Bigleaf Laurel, 102. 
 
 Bigleaf Maple, 90. 
 
 Big-leaved Ivy, 102. 
 
 Big Pine {Pinun lamberHana), 14. 
 
 Big Pino {Pinus ponderosa),l&. 
 
 BigShellbark,41. 
 
 Bigtree (J bies nobilis), 27. 
 
 Bigtree, 28. 
 
 IMlsted, 68. 
 
 Birch (Petula nigra), i8. 
 
 Birch {Letula lenta), 49. 
 
 Birchleaf Mahogany, 69. 
 
 Bird Cherry. 76. 
 
 Bishop's Pine, 18. 
 
 Bitter Cherry, 76. 
 
 Bitter Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Bitter Hickory, 40. 
 
 Bitternut (Hickory), 40. 
 
 Bittemut {Hicoria minima), 40. 
 
 Bitternut {Hicoria glabra), 41. 
 
 Bitter Pecan, 40. 
 
 Bitter Pecan Tree, 40. 
 
 Bitter Pig Xut, 40. 
 
 Bitter Walnut, 40. 
 
 Bitter Waternut,40. 
 
 Bitterwood, 85. 
 
 Black Ash {Acer negundo), 9.3. 
 
 Black Ash, 106. 
 
 Black Ash {Frazinits pennsylvanica),Wl. 
 
 Blackbark Pine, 16. 
 
 Black Birch (Betula occidentalis), 48. 
 
 Black Birch (Betula nigra) AS. 
 
 Black Birch {Betula lenta), 49. 
 Black Calabash, 109. 
 
 Mack Calabash-tree, 109. 
 
 Black Cherry, 77. 
 
 Black Cottonwood (Populus heterophylla), 46. 
 
 Black Cottonwood (Populus angusti/olia),46 
 
 Black Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Black Cypress, 27. 
 
 Black Elderberry, 110. 
 
 Black Gum {Abies concolor), 26. 
 
 Black Gum, 100. 
 
 Black Haw, 71. 
 
 Black Haw {Bumelia tenax), 103. 
 
 Black Haw {Bumelia lanuginosa), 104, 
 
 Black Haw {Vibiirnum lentago). 111. 
 
 Black Haw {yiburnurrh prunifolium),!!!. 
 
 Black Hemlock, 23. 
 
 Black Hickory {Hicoria alba),i\. 
 
 Black Hickory {Hicoria glabra), 41. 
 
 Black Ironwood, 95. 
 
 Blackjack (Querctis catesbcei\,bl. 
 
 Black Jack, 58. 
 
 Black Jack Pine, 19 
 
 Black Larch, 20. 
 
 Black Laurel, 87. 
 
 Black Limetree, 96 
 
 Black Lin, 65. 
 
 Black Live Oak, 55. 
 
 Black Locust {Glcditsia triacanthos), 80. 
 
 Black Locust {Robinia pseudacacia),82. 
 
 J5hick Mangrove, 108. 
 
 Black Maple (Acer sacchani7n),91. 
 
 Black Maple, 91. 
 
 Black Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Black Korway Pine, 17. 
 
 Black Oak {Querctts emoryi), 55. 
 
 Black Oak (Quercus rubra), 56. 
 
128 
 
 Black Oak (Querent coccinea), 56. 
 
 Black Oak {Qxiercus velutma),bG. 
 
 Llack Oak (Quercus calif ornica), hi. 
 
 Black Oak {Querctn inarilandica), 58. 
 
 Black Olivetree, 09. 
 
 Black Persimmon, 105. 
 
 Black Pine {Finns Jeffrey i), 16. 
 
 Black Pine (Firms mvrrayana), 16. 
 
 Black Pine (Finus tceda), 17. 
 
 Black Pine (Fintis rigida), 17. 
 
 Black Pine (Finus divaricata) . 1!<. 
 
 Black Poplar, 47. 
 
 Black Slash Pine, 17. 
 
 Black Sloe, 76. 
 
 Black Spruce, "Jd. 
 
 Black Spruce (Ficea canadensis), 21. 
 
 Black Sugar Maple, itl. 
 
 Black Sumach, 88. 
 
 Black Thorn (Cratcegus douglasii), 71. 
 
 Black Thorn (Cratcegus tomentosa),Ti. 
 
 Black Titi. 88. 
 
 Blacktree, 108. 
 
 Black "Walnut, 39. 
 
 Black Willow, 4J. 
 
 Black Willow (Salix Icevignta), 43. 
 
 Black Willow (Salix lasiandra), 43. 
 
 Black Willow (Salix amygdaloides),<Z. 
 
 Black Willow (Salix nuttallii), 4i. 
 
 Blackwood, 108. 
 
 Bleeding Heart, 90. 
 
 Blister Pine, 25. 
 
 Blolly, 64. 
 
 Blue Ash, 106. 
 
 Blue Ash (Fiaxinus laiiceolata), 107. 
 
 Blue Beech, 50. 
 
 Blue Birch, 48. 
 
 J'.lue Blo.ssoni, 96. 
 
 Blue Dogwood, 100. 
 
 Blue Jack, 58. 
 
 Blue Locust, 83. 
 
 Blue Myrtle. 90. 
 
 Blue Oak (Quercus ma.(rocarpa),52. 
 
 Blue Oak (Querciig douglasii), 5i. 
 
 Blue Oak, 54. 
 
 Bhii' Poplai-, 05. 
 
 Blue Spruce (Fieea mariana),2Q. 
 
 Blue Spruce, 21. 
 
 Bluet, 101. 
 
 Bluewood, 95. 
 
 15odock, 63. 
 
 Bog Birch. 95. 
 
 Bog Spruce, 21. 
 
 Bois D'Arc. 63. 
 
 Bois inconnu, 62. 
 
 Bois Puant (Flatanus occidentalis), 68. 
 
 Bois Puant (Catalpa upeciosa), 109. 
 
 Bolandcr's Pine, 16. 
 
 Boleau, 48. 
 
 Bolle Poplar, 47. 
 
 Bonpland Willow, 43. 
 
 Bottom Shellbark,41. 
 
 Bow-wood, o:;. 
 
 Boxelder, 93. 
 
 Box Elder (Acer negundo calif ornicum) ,%i. 
 
 Box Oak, 52. 
 
 Box White Oak, 53. 
 
 Boxwood (Schcpfferiafruteicens), 90. 
 
 Boxwood (Corntisjlorida), 100. 
 
 Brash Oak, 52. 
 
 Brewer's Spruce, 22. 
 
 Bristle-cone Fir, 26. 
 
 Bristle-cone Pine, 15 
 
 Bristle-leaf Strongback, 108. 
 
 Brittle Thatch, 37. 
 
 Brittlewood, 95. 
 
 Britton Oak, 58. 
 
 Broadfruit Yucca, 38. 
 
 Broadleaf Cockspur, 72. 
 
 Broadleaf Locust, 82. 
 
 Bioad-leaf Pine, 16. 
 
 Broad-leaved Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 Broad-leaved Maple, 90. 
 
 Broadpod Locust, 83. 
 
 Broom Hickory, 41. 
 
 Brown Ash (Fraxinus nigra), 106. 
 
 Brown Ash (Fraxinus pe7ini!ilvanica), 107. 
 
 Brown Hickory, 41. 
 
 Brown Piue, 19. 
 
 Buckeye (^sculux glabra), 93. 
 
 Buckeye (JEscvliis ocfandra), 94. 
 
 Buckthorn (lihainnus caroliniana),95. 
 
 Buckthorn (Khamnus ptirshiana), 96. 
 
 Buckthorn (Bumi'lia lycioides), 104. 
 
 Buckthorn Bumelia, 104. 
 
 Buckwheat-tree, 88. 
 
 Bujot Locust, 80. 
 
 Bull Bay, 64. 
 
 Bullnut,41. 
 
 Bull Pine (Finuxjlexilig), 14. 
 
 Bull Pine, 15. 
 
 Bull Pine (Finus pondcrosa scopulormn), 15. 
 
 Bull Pine (Finns jeffreyi), 16. 
 
 Bull Pine (Fimis tceda), 17. 
 
 Bull Pine (Finus serotina), 18. 
 
 Bull Pine (Finns cchinata), 18. 
 
 Bumwood,87. 
 
 Burning Bu.sli, 89. 
 
 Burning-wood, 88. 
 
 Burnwood, 88. 
 
 Burnwoodbark, 88. 
 
 Bur Oak, 52. 
 
 Burriers Oak, 59. 
 
 Bustic, 104. 
 
 Butternut, 39. 
 
 Buttnut, 39. 
 
 Buttonball (I'latanus occidentalis). 68. 
 
 Buttonball (Flatanus racemona), 68. 
 
 Buttouball-tree {Flatanus occidentalis), 68. 
 
 Buttonball-tree (Flatanus racemosa),6B. 
 
 Buttonwood (Platanus race7nosa),68. 
 
 Buttonwood (Laguncularia racemo.'ia), 09. 
 
 Buttonwood (Conocarpus crec<a), 99. 
 
 Button-wood (Flatanus occidentalis), 68. 
 
 Cabbage Palmetto, 37. 
 
 Cabbage-lree, .37. 
 
 Cabeza viejo, 97. 
 
 Cajeput, 67. 
 
 Calico Bush, 102. 
 
 Calico Flower, 102. 
 
 Calico-ireo, 102. 
 
 Calicowood, 105. 
 
 California Bay berry, 43. 
 
129 
 
 California Bay-tree. 67. 
 
 California Black Oak, 57. 
 
 California Boxelder, 93. 
 
 California Buckeye, 94. 
 
 California Cherry, 77. 
 
 California Chestnut Oak, 59. 
 
 California Coffee, 96. 
 
 California Dogwood, 100. 
 
 California False Nutmeg, :!7. 
 
 California Fan Palm, 38. 
 
 California Hemlock Spruce. 23. 
 
 California Holly, 74. 
 
 California Juniper, 36. 
 
 California Laurel, 67. 
 
 California Lilac, 96. 
 
 California Live Oak, 55. 
 
 California Mountain Cypress 32. 
 
 California Myrtle, 42. 
 
 California Xutmeg, 37. 
 
 California Olive, 67. 
 
 California Post Cedar, 29. 
 
 California Red-bark Fir, 27. » 
 
 California Red Fir, 27. 
 
 California Redwood, 28. 
 
 (California) Rock Oak, 54. 
 
 (California) Scrub Oak, 54. 
 
 California Swamp Pine, 18. 
 
 California Sycamore, 68. 
 
 (California) Tanbark Oak, 59. 
 
 California Torreya, 37. 
 
 California V^ahuit (Jitglans ritpestris). 39. 
 
 California Walnut, 39. 
 
 California "Wax Myrtle, 42. 
 
 California White Fir {Abies concolor), 26. 
 
 California White Fir (Abies cone, loaiana), 26. 
 
 California White Oak, 51. 
 
 Californian Sassafras, 67. 
 
 Canada Balsam, 25. 
 
 Canada Horn cone Pine. 19. 
 
 Canada Plum. 75. 
 
 Canadian Hemlock, 22. 
 
 Canadian Judas tree, 80. 
 
 Canadian Red Piue, 15. 
 
 Candleberry, 42. 
 
 Cane Ash, 106. 
 
 Canela, 67. 
 
 Canoe Birch, 48. 
 
 Canoe Cedar. 31. 
 
 Canoe-wood, 66. 
 
 Canon Birch, 48. 
 
 Canotia, 85. 
 
 Canyon Live Oak, 55. 
 
 Canyon Oak, 55. 
 
 Caper tree, 67. 
 
 Carolina Ash, 107. 
 
 Carolina Buckthorn (Rhamnug caroliniana) . 9,") 
 
 Carolina Buckthorn (Biimelia lijcioideii), 104. 
 
 Carolina Hemlock, 23. 
 
 Carolina Pine, 18. 
 
 Carolina Poplar, 47. 
 
 Carolinian Cherry, 77. 
 
 Cascara Buckthorn, 96. 
 
 Cascara Sagrada, 96. 
 
 Cassada, li>4, 
 
 Casseua. 89. 
 
 Cassie. 78. 
 
 19193— Bull. 17 9 
 
 Cassine, 89. 
 
 Cassio-berry Bush, 89, 
 
 Catalpa {Catalpa catalpa), 109. 
 
 Catalpa (Catalpa speciosaj, 108. 
 
 Catawba. 109. 
 
 Catawba Rhododendron, 103. 
 
 Catawba tree, 109. . 
 
 Cat's Claw ('/.yijia niiguis-cali), 7i<. 
 
 Cat's Claw (Acacia wnffhtii).7B. 
 
 Cat's Claw (Acacia greggii). 79. 
 
 Cat Spruce. 21, 
 
 Cedar (Libocedrws d€curieiis),2ti. 
 
 Cedar (Thuja occidentalit) . 30. 
 
 Cedar (Thuja plica(a), 31. 
 
 Cedar (Jiiniperus virginiana). 34. 
 
 Cedar (Junipervs occidentalit). 35. 
 
 Cedar Elm. 60. 
 
 Cedar Pine (I'invs virginiana). IS. 
 
 Cedar Pine (Tiniis glabra), 19. 
 
 Cedre, :i4. 
 
 Chalky Leucsena, 79, 
 
 Chamiso, 74. 
 
 Chapman Oak, 52. 
 
 Chapote, 1U5. 
 
 Checkered-barked Juniper, 36. 
 
 Chek Pine, 19. 
 
 Chene etoili-, 52. 
 
 Ohene Vert, 55. 
 
 Cherry (Icacorea patiiciilata) , 103. 
 
 Cherry Birch (Betiila occide7itali.t),i6. 
 
 Cherry Birch (Betula lenta). 49. 
 
 Cherry Laurel, 77. 
 
 Chestnut (Gastanopsis chrynophi/lla),^!. 
 
 Chestnut, 51. 
 
 Chestnut Oak, 53. 
 
 Chestnut Oak (Queraris acuminata), 53. 
 
 Chestnut Oak (Quercus den»ij1oia),59. 
 
 Chickasaw Plum, 75. 
 
 Chihuahua Pine, 16. 
 
 Chihuahua Toi)-cone Pine, 16. 
 
 Chinaberry, 94. 
 
 China-tree, 85, 
 
 Chinquapin, 51. 
 
 Chinquapin (Castanoptig chrysophylla), 51. 
 
 Chinquapin Oak, 53. 
 
 Chittaniwood, 87. 
 
 Cliittimwood, 104. 
 
 Choke Cherry, 76. 
 
 Choke Cherry (Prunut demissa),n. 
 
 Choke Cherrs' (Prunui serotina), 77. 
 
 Cho-koh-tun'T, 25, 
 
 ChoUa, 97. 
 
 Christmas-berry, 74, 
 
 Cigartree (Catalpa catalpa). 109. 
 
 Cigartree (Catalpa gpeciosa), 109. 
 
 Cigua, 67. 
 
 Cinnamon-bark, 87. 
 
 Cinnamon Oak, 58. 
 
 Cirier, 42. 
 
 Clammy Locust, 83. 
 
 CUffElm, 61. 
 
 Coast Live Oak, 55. 
 
 Coast Nutmeg. 37, 
 
 Coast Redwood. 28, 
 
 Cockspur, 71. 
 
 Cockspur Hawthorn, 71. 
 
130 
 
 Cockspur Thorn, 71. 
 
 Cocoa Plum, 74. 
 
 Coffeebeaii, 81. 
 
 CotlVebean-tree. 81. 
 
 Cofl'tebeiiy, 96. 
 
 Coflfeennt, 81. 
 
 Coffeetree, 81. 
 
 Colorado JJlue Spruce, 21. 
 
 Colorado White Fir, 26. 
 
 (Common) Catalpa, 109. 
 
 (Common) Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Coninion Hickory, 41. 
 
 Coniiiion Sumach, 88. 
 
 Coninion Thorn, 73. 
 
 Common Willow. 43. 
 
 Concolor .Silver Fir, 26. 
 
 Confederate Pintree, 80. 
 
 Connu. 62. 
 
 Coral Bean, 81. 
 
 Conil Sumach, 87. 
 
 Cork-harked Douglas Spruce. 23. 
 
 Corkbark Elm, 61 . 
 
 Cork Elm, 60. 
 
 Cork Eliu ( rimvs alata), 61. 
 
 Corkwood, 42. 
 
 Cork-wood (I'Uonia obtusata). 64. 
 
 Corky Elm ( Ubmti alata). 61. 
 
 Corky White Elm, 61. 
 
 Cornel, 100. 
 
 Cornstalk Pine, 17. 
 
 Cotonier, 68. 
 
 Cotton Gum, 101. 
 
 Cotton-tree {Poptiliis heterophylla). 46. 
 
 Cotton-tree {FopuUis deltoides), 47. 
 
 Cottonwood {Pojnilus hetirophylla) . 16. 
 
 Cottonwood (Populus hahaniifera),if>. 
 
 Cottonwood (Populus angustifolia), 46. 
 
 Cottonwood (Populus tric}wcarpa),i6. 
 
 Cottonwood (Pojniliis deltoides), 40. 
 
 Cottonwood (Populus fremvntii), il. 
 
 Cottonwood (Tilia heterophylla), 'Jl. 
 
 Coulter Pine, 16. 
 
 Coulter's Pine, 16. 
 
 Cow Licks, 105. 
 
 Cow Oak, 53. 
 
 ("rab {Pyrus coronaria), 69. 
 
 Crab .Vpple (Py rug coronaria), tii). 
 
 Crab Apple (Pyrun aifjustifolia), 70. 
 
 Crab or Wild Apple. 70. 
 
 Crabtree, 70. 
 
 Crabwood, 86. 
 
 Crack Willow, 45. 
 
 Creek Maple. 92. 
 
 Creejiing Pine (Pinun albicaulis), 14. 
 
 Crescentleaf Willow, 42. 
 
 Crinkleleaf Locust, 82. 
 
 Crisp-leaf Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 Crisp-leaf Silver Maple, 92. 
 
 Cuban Pine, 19. 
 
 Cucnmber {Mag7iolia acitminata).65. 
 
 Cucumber (Magnolia macrophy'la). 65. 
 
 Cucumber (Magnolia tripetala),Gs. 
 
 Cucumber (Magnolia fraserl). 6."). 
 
 Cucumber-tree, 64. 
 
 Cuciinibertree (Magnolia aeum. cordala), 65. 
 
 Cuciunbertree (Magnolia jnacrophylla).G5. 
 
 Cucumber-tree (Magnolia fraseri), 65. 
 
 Cucumber-tree ( Lirindendrou /ulipi/era).Gr,. 
 
 Curl-leaf Boxelder, 93. 
 
 Curl-leaf Scrub Oak, .54. 
 
 Currant-tree. 71. 
 
 Cu.stard .Aiiple (.isi.nina triloba). 6ii. 
 
 Ciistaid .\pple (Annoua glabra). 66. 
 
 Cutleaf Locust, 83. 
 
 Cutleaf Silver Maple, 92. 
 
 Cut-leaved Maple, 93. 
 
 Cypress (I'inus divaricala). 19. 
 
 (,'ypress (Taxodium dintichvm), 27. 
 
 Cypress (Cupressus macnabiana). 32. 
 
 Dahoon,89. 
 
 Dahoon (Holly), 89. 
 
 Dahoon Holly (Ilex caasine myti/olia),8d. 
 
 Dalea, 82. 
 
 Darling Plum, 95. 
 
 Darlington Oak, 58. 
 
 Date Plum, 104. 
 
 Deciducuis Cypress, 27. 
 
 Deci4uous Holly, 89. 
 
 Deer-tongue Laurel, 102. 
 
 Del Mar Pine, 15. 
 
 Dent-sookwanb-ne, 39. 
 
 Desert Bush, 81. 
 
 Desert Juniper, 36. 
 
 Desert Willow, 109. 
 
 Devils Claw, 79. 
 
 Devil's Claws, 79. 
 
 DevUwood. 108. 
 
 Doctor Gum, 87. 
 
 Dogwood (Rhus vernix), 88. 
 
 Dogwood (Cornus llorida) 100. 
 
 Dogwood (Cornu.t nuttallii). 100. 
 
 Dogwood (Cornus alterni/olia), 100. 
 
 Dotted-fruited Thorn, 73. 
 
 Dotted Haw, 73. 
 
 Double Fir Balsam. 25. 
 
 Double-flower Redbud, 80. 
 
 Double Spruce iPicea uiariana). 20. 
 
 Double Spruce (Picea canaden.ns), 21. 
 
 Double Spruce (Abies frascri), 2b. 
 
 Douglas Fir, 23. 
 
 Douglas Spruce, 23. 
 
 Dougla'^ Spiuce. 23. 
 
 Douglas-tree, 24. 
 
 Down cone Fir, 26. 
 
 Downward Plum, 104. 
 
 Downy Basswood, 96. 
 
 Downy-cone Sub-Alpine Fir, 26. 
 
 Downy Haw, 72. 
 
 Downy Poplar, 46. 
 
 Downy Redbud, 80. 
 
 Downy Yellow Haw, 74. 
 
 Drooping Ailanthus, 85. 
 
 Drooping Juniper, 36. 
 
 Drummond Maple, 93. 
 
 Duck Oak, .58. 
 
 Durand Oak, 54. 
 
 Dura lid's Oak, 54. 
 
 Dwarf Ash, 106. 
 
 Dwarf lUack Oak, 57. 
 
 Dwarf Chestnut Oak. 53. 
 
 Dwarf Chinquapin Oak, 53. 
 
 Dwarf Choke Cherry, 77. 
 
131 
 
 Dwarf Juniper, 36. 
 
 Dwarf Maple, 91. 
 
 l)warf Marine Pine, 18. 
 
 Dwarf Kose Bay-tree. 102. 
 
 Dwarf Sumach, S8. 
 
 Dwarf Walnut. 3i). 
 
 Dyor'.s Oak, 57. 
 
 Ear-leaved Cucumber-tree, 65. 
 
 Ear-leaved Fmbrella-tree, 65. 
 
 Elder iSambiicits mericana), 110. 
 
 Elder (Sambiicug (jlauca). 110. 
 
 Elderberry, 110. 
 
 Elderberry-tree, 110. 
 
 Elderleaf Mountain Ash, 7u. 
 
 Elder-leaved Mountain A.sli.70. 
 
 Elkwood, 65. 
 
 Eliu ( Ulmut: americana),60. 
 
 Elm ( rimug alata), 61. 
 
 Emetic Holly, 89. 
 
 Emory Oak, 55. 
 
 Emory's Oak, 55. 
 
 Encina, 55. 
 
 Engelmann Oak, 54. 
 
 Eugelmann's Oak, 54. 
 
 Engelmann Spruce, 21. 
 
 Eujrelmaun"s Spruce. 21. 
 
 English Hawthorn, 72. 
 
 Entire-leaf Cherry, 78. 
 
 Entireleaf Mahogany, 69. 
 
 Ejdnette Jaune, 20. 
 
 Ejiinette Rouge, 20. 
 
 Erable, 92. 
 
 Erect Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 European Alder, 49. 
 
 Evergreen Buckthorn, 95. 
 
 Evergreen Cas.seua, 89. 
 
 Evergreen Cherry (Pninvx caroliniana). 77. 
 
 Evergreen Cherry (Prvmis ilici/vlia}, 78. 
 
 Evergreen Magnolia, 64. 
 
 Evergreen Oak. 55. 
 
 Evergreen White Oak. 54. 
 
 Exmouth Magnolia. 64. 
 
 Eysenhardtia, 82. 
 
 Fal.se Acacia, 82. 
 
 False Banana, 66. 
 
 False Box-dogwood. 100. 
 
 False Boxwood. 90. 
 
 False Dogwood, 94. 
 
 False Mahogany. 66. 
 
 False Maple, 93. 
 
 Fanleaf Palm, 38. 
 
 Farkleberry, 101. 
 
 Fat Pine, 19. 
 
 Feather-cone Eefl Fir. 27. 
 
 Feather-tree, 69. 
 
 Fernleaf Black Cherry, 77. 
 
 Fetid Buckeye, 93. 
 
 Fetid Shrub, 66. 
 
 Fetid Tew, .36. 
 
 Fevertree, 110. 
 
 Fiddlewood, 108. 
 
 Finger-cone Pine, 14. 
 
 Fir iPseiidotmiya taxi/olia), 23. 
 
 Fir (Abies amabilis), 24. 
 
 Fir Pine, 25. 
 
 Fir-tree. 25. 
 
 Fire ( 'berry, 76. 
 
 Firewood. 88. 
 
 Florida Boxwood, 90. 
 
 Florida Buttonwood, 99. 
 
 Florida Caper, 67. 
 
 Florida Catsclaw, 78. 
 
 Florida Laurel, 105. 
 
 Florida Lcmgleaved Pine, 19. 
 
 Florida Mahogany, 66. 
 
 Florida Maple, 91. 
 
 Fl..n(laralni,37. 
 
 Florida Pine, 19. 
 
 Florida Plum, 86. 
 
 Florida Quinine Bark, 110. 
 
 Florida .Spruce Pine, 18. 
 
 Florida Torreya, 36. 
 
 Florida Yellow Pine, 19. 
 
 Florida Yew, 37. 
 
 Flowering Ash 108. 
 
 Flowering Cornel. 100. 
 
 (Flowering) Dogwood, 100. 
 
 Flowering Dogwood (('unius miltallii) , 100 
 
 Flowciing Willow. 109. 
 
 Foothills Yellow Pine, 15. 
 
 Forked-leaf. 57. 
 
 Forked leaf Black Jack, 57. 
 
 Four-winged Ilalesia, 105. 
 
 Foxtail Pine, 15. 
 
 Foxtail Pine (Pinus tceda), 17. 
 
 Fragrant Crab, 69. 
 
 Franc-Frene, 106. 
 
 Frankincense Pine, 17. 
 
 Franklinia, 87. 
 
 Fraser Fir, 25. 
 
 Fraser Umbrella, 65. 
 
 Fremont Cottonwood, 4T. 
 
 Fremontia, 86. 
 
 Fremonfs Nut Pine, 15. 
 
 Frene-piquant, 84. 
 
 Frijolito, 81. 
 
 Fringe Ash, 105. 
 
 Fringed Spruce, 26. 
 
 Fringetree, 107. 
 
 Gambel Oak, 52. 
 
 ''Gambier Parry'."* Pine," 15. 
 
 Garber Stopper, 99. 
 
 Garden Wild Plum, 74. 
 
 Geigertree, 108. .^^ 
 
 Georgia Bark. 110. 
 
 Georgia Heart Pine, 19. 
 
 Georgia Longleaved Pine, 19. 
 
 Georgia Oak, 58. 
 
 Georgia Pine. 19. 
 
 Georgia Pitch Pine, 19. 
 
 Georgia Yellow Pine, 19. 
 
 Giant Arborvitae, 31. 
 
 Giant Cactus. 97. 
 
 Giant .Sequoia, 28. 
 
 Gigantic Cedar, 31. 
 
 Gigantic or Pacific lied < edar, 31. 
 
 Gigantic Pine, 14. 
 
 Gigantic Ked Cedar, 31. 
 
 Ginger Pine, 33. 
 
 Glaucous Willow, 44. 
 
 Glossyleaf Willow, 43. 
 
 Golden-cu]i Oak. 55. 
 
132 
 
 Golden Fig, 63. 
 
 (idldeii Fir, 27. 
 
 Golden Hoptree, 84. 
 
 Goldenleaf Chinquapin, .'>1. 
 
 Goldenleaf Cotttonwood, 47. 
 
 Goldenleaf locust, 83. 
 
 Gooseberry, 101. 
 
 Goosefoot Maple, 90, 
 
 Goose Plum (Prtinns amencana), 75. 
 
 Goose Plum {Pi'umis hortulana), 75. 
 
 Goose Plum {Prinius hortulana mineri). 75. 
 
 Gopber Plum (Chrysobalanu.i icaca), 74. 
 
 Gopher Plum (\i/s8a ogeche), 101. 
 
 Gopherwood, 82. 
 
 Gowen Cypress, 31. 
 
 Grand or Oregon White Fir, 20. 
 
 Gray Birch (Iietnlai)op%difoUa).i~. 
 
 Gray Birch (Betula occidentalis) , 48. 
 
 Gray Birch (Betula hitea), 48. 
 
 Gray-leaf Pine, 16. 
 
 Gray Pine, {Pinus monophylla), 15. 
 
 Gray Pine, 16. 
 
 Graj- Pine, (Pinus clivaricata), lil. 
 
 Great California Fir, 26. 
 
 Great Laurel, 102. 
 
 Great Laurel Magnolia, 04. 
 
 Great-leaved Magnolia, 65. 
 
 Great Rhododendron, 102. 
 
 Great Silver Fir, 26. , 
 
 Great Sugar I'iue, 14. 
 
 Great Tideland Spruce, 22. 
 
 Great Western Larch, 20. 
 
 Green Ash, 107. 
 
 Greenbark Acacia, 81. 
 
 Green-barked Acacia (Vercidium floridum),8\. 
 
 Green-barked Acacia (Cereidiumtorreyanum),%\. 
 
 Green Haw, 74. 
 
 tlreen Locust, 82. 
 
 (jreen Osier, 100. 
 
 Gregg Ash, 100. 
 
 Guettarda, 110. 
 
 Guiana Plum (Dri/petes lalen'ilora), 86. 
 
 Guiana Plum, 86. 
 
 Gum ( IA(juidambar slyi-aciriua),6S. 
 
 Gum (Nyssa sylvatica), 100. 
 
 Gum Elastic, 104. 
 
 Gum Elemi, 85. 
 
 Gum-tree (Liquidambar vtyranflxia), 68. 
 
 Gumbo tile, 67. 
 
 Gumbo Limbo (Siuiarouha ijlai(ca),85. 
 
 Gumbo Limbo, 85. 
 
 Gurgeon Stopper, 98. 
 
 Gyminda, 90. 
 
 Hackberry, 61. ^ 
 
 Hackberry (Celtis occ. reticulata), 62. 
 
 Hackberry (Celtis missisiippiensiii, 62. 
 
 Hackmatack (Larix laricina), 20. 
 
 Hackmatack (Larix oceidentalis), 20. 
 
 Hack-tree, 62. 
 
 Hacmack, 20. 
 
 Hairy Balm of Gilead, 46. 
 
 Hairy Sumach, 87. 
 
 Hardbark Hickory, 41. 
 
 Hardhack, 50. 
 
 Hard Maple (Acer saccharurn), 91. 
 
 Hard Maple (Acer saccharum nigrum), 91. 
 
 Hard Ma]>le (Acer saccli. grandide)itatum),92. 
 
 Hard Pine (Pinus resinosa). 15. 
 
 Hard Pine (Pinus rigida), 17. 
 
 Hard Pine (Pinus palvstris), 10. 
 
 Hard-shell, 41. 
 
 Hardy Catalpa. 109. 
 
 Haw (CraUfgus douglasii), 71. 
 
 Haw (Cratcegus crus-galli), 71. 
 
 Haw (Cratcegus viridis), 74. 
 
 Haw (Cratcegus jlava), 74. 
 
 Haw (Viburnuni 2)runifolium) . 111. 
 
 Haw Bush, 72 
 
 Hawthorn (Cratcegus douglasii), 71. 
 
 Hawthorn (Cratcegus crus-galli i. 71. 
 
 Hawthorn (Cratcegus coccinea), 72. 
 
 Hawthorn (Crataegus tomentosa). 73. 
 
 Healing Balsam, 25. 
 
 Heart-leaved Cucumber-tree, 65. 
 
 Heart-leaved Thorn, 73. 
 
 Heart Piue, 19. 
 
 Heavy Pine, 15. 
 
 Heavy-wooded Pine, 15. 
 
 He Balsam, 20. 
 
 Hedge, 63. 
 
 Hedge-plant, 63. 
 
 Hedge Thorn, 72. 
 
 He Huckleberry, 88. 
 
 Hemlock, 22. 
 
 Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), 23. 
 
 Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) , 23. 
 
 Hemlock (Pseudotsuga macrucarpa), 25. 
 
 Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga canadensis), 22. 
 
 Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga heterophylla), 23. 
 
 Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga mertensiana),23. 
 
 Henderson's Pine, 16. 
 
 Hercules' Club, 99. 
 
 Hickorj- (Hicoria minima), 40. 
 
 Hickory (Tlicoria ovata),iO. 
 
 Hickory (Hicoria alba),il. 
 
 Hickory Elm, 60. 
 
 Hickory Nut, 41. 
 
 Hickory Oak, 55. 
 
 Hickory Piue, 15. 
 
 Hiokorj' Poplar, 65. 
 
 High-ground Willow Oak, 58. 
 
 Highland Live Oak, 56. 
 
 Highland Oak, 56. 
 
 Hog Haw, 71. 
 
 Hog Nut, 41. 
 
 Hog Plum (Prunus americnna), 75. 
 
 Hog Plum (Prunus angusti/olia), 75. 
 
 Hog Plum (PruHU* umbeUata). 76. 
 
 Hog Plum (Rhus metopium), 87. 
 
 Hog's Haw, 71. 
 
 Holly ( Prunus ilici/olia),7S. 
 
 Holly (Ilex opaca), 89. 
 
 Holly (Ilex decidua), 89. 
 
 Holly Cherry, 78. 
 
 HoUyleaf Cherry, 78. 
 
 Holly-leaved Cherry, 78. 
 
 Hombre vie.jo, 97. 
 
 Honey, 80. 
 
 Honey Locust (Prosopis julifiora),79. 
 
 Honey Locust, 80. 
 
 Honey Locust { Robiiiia psetidacacia), S2. 
 
 Honey Locu.st (Robinia viscosa),S3. 
 
133 
 
 Honey Pod, 79. 
 
 Honty Slnioks, 80. 
 
 H<iiieySlnii'k.s Locu.st, 80. 
 
 Hooker Hemlock, 23. 
 
 Hooker Willow, 44. 
 
 Hoop Ash (Ci'Uisoccide7italis),62. 
 
 Hi>o]> Ash (Fraxinu.iniirra). 106. 
 
 Hoj) llonibeani, 5it. 
 
 Hoptree, 84. 
 
 Hornbeam, 50. 
 
 Hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniaiia), 50. 
 
 Horse-bean, 81. 
 
 Horse Cheatnut, 94. 
 
 Horse Plum {Pntnus nigra). 15. 
 
 Horse Pluui {Prumtti americana), 75. 
 
 Horse Sugar, 105. 
 
 Huajillo, 78. 
 
 Huckleberry Oak, 55. 
 
 Huisache, 78. 
 
 Incense Cedar, 29. 
 
 India-Rubber-tree (Ficiis ai(r«a),63. 
 
 India-Rubber-tree {Fieri k 2}opnlnea), 63. 
 
 Indian Arrow, 90. 
 
 Indian Beau {Cutalpa catalpa), 109. 
 
 Indian Bean (Catalpa spociosa), 109. 
 
 Indiaji Bitters, 65. 
 
 Indian Cherry [A Mela itchier eanadentis), 71. 
 
 Indian Cherry {Hhamnus caroliniana).9b. 
 
 Indian Cigar-tree, 109. 
 
 Indian Physic, 65. 
 
 Indian Pine, 17. 
 
 Indigo Bush, 82. 
 
 Indigo Thorn, 82. 
 
 Inkwood, 94. 
 
 Iowa Crab, 70. 
 
 Iron dak {Quercus minor), 52. 
 
 Iron Oak (Quercus chrysolepi.')), 55. 
 
 Iron Oak {Quercus marilainfica). oB 
 
 Ironwood (Ostrya viifjiniana),50. 
 
 Ironwood {Carpinus caroliniana). 5ii. 
 
 Ironwood {Progopis julijiora), 79. 
 
 Ironwood {Guajacum sancium). 83. 
 
 Ironwood, 88. 
 
 Ironwood (Cliftonia munophylla\. 88. 
 
 Ironwood {Cyrilla racemijlora). 88. 
 
 Ironwood {E.Tothea panicidata). 94. 
 
 Ironwood {Bumelia tenax), 103. 
 
 Ironwood (Bumelia lycioideg). 104. 
 
 Iron "Wood (Olneya tr.wta). 83. 
 
 Islay, 78. 
 
 Ivy, 102. 
 
 Ivywood, 102. 
 
 Jack Oak (Qitemts iitarilaHdica),oS. 
 
 Jack Oak (Quercux imi/ricaria). 59. 
 
 Jack Pine, 19. 
 
 lamaica Dogwood, 83. 
 
 Jasmine, 66. 
 
 Ja.sminier, 66. 
 
 Jefli-ey Pine, 16. 
 
 Jersey Pine, 18. 
 
 Jeru-salem Thorn, 81. 
 
 Joewood, 103. 
 
 Joshua-tree, 38. 
 
 Judas-tree, 80. 
 
 Jnne-berry, 70. 
 
 "Jauiper" (Pinux div(irirata),VJ. 
 
 Juniper (Larix laricina), 20. 
 
 Juniper (Picea mariana), 20. 
 
 Jv.niper (Lihocedrtts decurrens),29. 
 
 Juniper (Cham, fhyoidvs). 32. 
 
 Juniper {.Tunipenia rir<jiniana).'ii. 
 
 Juniper (.Tuniperug Occident alis), 35. 
 
 .Iimiper {Junipcrus .sabinoides),36. 
 
 Juniper {.Tunipcrtm cali/tirnica), 36. 
 
 Juniper {.Ttinijiernt ntahcntix). 36. 
 
 Juniper (.Tuniprrus pachyphlo'a), 36. 
 
 .Juniper iSnsh, 34. 
 
 Juniper Cedar, 36. 
 
 Juniper-tree, 62. 
 
 Kalnna,102. 
 
 Ka neb-tens, 20. 
 
 Kellogg's Oak, 57. 
 
 Kentucky CoiFeetree, 81. 
 
 King^'ut,41. 
 
 Kingstree, 19. 
 
 Knackaway, 108. 
 
 Enobcone Pine, 17. 
 
 Knotty Pine, 16. 
 
 Knowlton Hornbeam, 50. 
 
 Koeberlinia, 85. 
 
 Ko-yen-ta-ka-ah-ta, 66. 
 
 Lanceleaf Alder, 49. 
 
 Lanceleaf Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Lanceleaf Dwarf Sumach, 88. 
 
 Lancewood, G7. 
 
 Langue.s de femmes, 46. 
 
 ■' Larch " {Larix laricina), 'M. 
 
 '•Larch ■■ (Larix lyallii), 20. 
 
 Larch (Larix Occident alis), 20. 
 
 Larch (Abies amabiliii),2G. 
 
 Larch (Abies nobilis), 27. 
 
 Large American Aspen, 4.">. 
 
 Large Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Large-coned Pine, 16. 
 
 Large-flowered Evergreen Magncdia, 64 
 
 largeleaf Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Largeleaf Umbrella, 65. 
 
 Large-leaved Cucumber-tree. 65. 
 
 Large-leaved Limetree, 97. 
 
 Large-leaved Umbrella-tree, 65. 
 
 Large Poplar, 45. 
 
 Largetooth Aspen, 45. 
 
 Large-toothed Aspen, 45. 
 
 Large-tooth Maple, 92. 
 
 Large-toothed Maple, 92. 
 
 Large-toothed Poplar, 45. 
 
 Large Tupelo, 101. 
 
 Large Wliite Birch, 48. 
 
 Laurel I Magnolia foctida), 64. 
 
 Laurel ( Uinbellularia cali/ornica^, 67. 
 
 Laurel (Arbtitri.s menziesii), 101. 
 
 Laurel (.1 rbuttu xalapensis), 101. 
 
 Laurel (h'almia lati/olia), 102. 
 
 Laurel (Rhododendron maximinn), 102. 
 
 Laurel Bay, 64. 
 
 Laurel Cherry, 77. 
 
 Laurel-leaved Magnolia, 64. 
 
 Laurel Oak, 58. 
 
 Laurel Oak {Quercitu imbricaria). 59. 
 
 Laurel-tree, 66. 
 
 Laurelwood, 101. 
 
 Laurier Petit Magnolia, 66. 
 
134 
 
 Laurii ainaude, 77. 
 
 Laury !^^un(l y, 77. 
 
 Law.iitn'.s Cyiiress, 33. 
 
 Lea Oak, r>9. 
 
 Leatherleaf Ash, 106. 
 
 Leatherwood [Ci/nlla iacemif(ira),SX. 
 
 Leather-wood (/■VDCDi^offcni/i-o/i cnli/ornieinn), 8fi. 
 
 Leiu. 90. 
 
 Leucsna, 79. 
 
 Lcvei'wood, 50. 
 
 T.iar. 4fi. 
 
 LilV lit' Mau.7i). 
 
 Lignum-vitse, 83. 
 
 Lily of tin- Vallpytr.'e, 102. 
 
 limber Pine, 14. 
 
 Limber-twig Pine, 14. 
 
 Linictn-e {Tilia ainericana), 96. 
 
 Limetree {Xi/ssa oijeche). 101. 
 
 Lin, 97. 
 
 Linden, 90. 
 
 Linn. 96. 
 
 Liquidamber, 08. 
 
 Little Pignut, 41. 
 
 Little Shagbark. 41. 
 
 Little Sugar Piue (I'lnus lamberlianf), 14. 
 
 Little Sugar Pine (Pinuti moiiticola), 14. 
 
 Little AValuut, 39. 
 
 Live Oak, 55. 
 
 Live Oak ((^uerciix chn/golepis), 55. 
 
 Live Oak {Qitercus v'islizeni),5Q. 
 
 Live Oak {(^uircus i/c/isi/oia), 59. 
 
 Lobb's Arborvitas31. 
 
 Loblolly Bay, 87. 
 
 Loblolly Pine, 17. 
 
 Loblolly Pine {IHnus xerotina), 18. 
 
 Lotu.st {Olediliia triaca7itlio.<i),S0. 
 
 Locust, 82. 
 
 Lotu.st (lioh'uiia )ii'(i-mexicann),H.',. 
 
 Lodgepole Pine, 10. 
 
 I>oiwood, 95. 
 
 Lombardy Poplar, 47. 
 
 Liuii- Pine, 15. 
 
 Longleaf Pine, 19. 
 
 Longleaf Service-tree, 71. 
 
 Longleaf Willow, 43. 
 
 Long-leaved Cucuuiber-tree, 65. 
 
 Long-leaved Magnolia, 65. 
 
 Long-leaved Pine (Pinus pundeyosa), 1.''. 
 
 Long-leaved Pine {V.ponderosa scopiilonnn). 15. 
 
 Long-leaved Pine (Pimis ligida). 17. 
 
 Long-leaved Pine (Piintu jialnttns}, V. 
 
 Long-leaved Pitch I'ine, 19. 
 
 Long leaved Willow, 43. 
 
 Long-leaved Yellow Pine. 19. 
 
 Long Pod, 78. 
 
 Longsohat Pine (Pimcs tceda), 17. 
 
 Longschat Pine (l^intis il(iida), 17. 
 
 Long.shiicks, 17. 
 
 Longspine Haw, "J. 
 
 Longstalk Willow, 4!!. 
 
 Longstraw I'ine (Pinus tteda), 17. 
 
 Long.straw I'ine (Piiins iiaUiitii.i), 19. 
 
 Lovely Fir, 20. 
 
 Lovely Red Fir, 26. 
 
 Low Maple, 90. 
 
 Lowland Fir, 20. 
 
 Lowland Spruce Pine, 19. 
 
 Lyall'8 Larcli, 20. 
 
 Lyall Willow, 43. 
 
 Mackenzie Willow, 44. 
 
 Macnab Cypress, 32. 
 
 MacNab'.^ ('ypre.s.'*, 32. 
 
 Madeira, HO. 
 
 Madrona, 101. 
 
 Madrona (Arbutiisxalajieimi.i). 101. 
 
 Madrone-tree (Arhutux menziexii). 101. 
 
 iLidroue-tree {.irhiitng xalajiensix), 101. 
 
 Madrove, 101. 
 
 Magnificent Fir, 27. 
 
 Magnolia (Magnolia glauca), 64. 
 
 Magnolia {Maffiiolia acumiiiala), 05. 
 
 Magnolia (Magnolia tnpetala),6D. 
 
 Mahaleb Cherry, 76. 
 
 Mahogany (Gymnocladus dioicu*), 81. 
 
 Mahogany, 86. 
 
 Mahogany Kirch, 49. 
 
 Manimotb-tree, 28. 
 
 Manchineel, 86. 
 
 Mangrove, 98. 
 
 Manzanita (Arbutiin menzlesii ),101. 
 
 Manzanita (Arbutun xalapensis), 10]. 
 
 Maple (Acer maciophyllum), 90. 
 
 Maple (Acer glabrinn), 91. 
 
 Maple (Acer saccha rum) , 91. 
 
 Maple (Acerneg. calif ornicxim), 93. 
 
 Marlberry, 103. 
 
 Marsh Pine, 18. 
 
 Mastic, 103. 
 
 Maul Oak, 55. 
 
 May Cherry, 71. 
 
 May Haw, 74. 
 
 Mayr Pine, 10. 
 
 Meadow Pine (Pitiim t(vda), 17. 
 
 Meadow I'ine (Pinuii aerotina), IG. 
 
 Meadow I'iiie {Pinus heterophylla). 10 
 
 Meehan Silverbell-tree, 105. 
 
 Menzies' Spruce, 22. 
 
 Merisier. 48. 
 
 Merisier Rouge, 48. 
 
 Mescrew, 79. 
 
 Mesquite, 79. 
 
 Mexican Cenibra-like Pine, 14. 
 
 Mexican Cherry, 77. 
 
 Mexican ( 'berry-tree, 77. 
 
 Mexican Elder, 110. 
 
 Mexican Madrona, 101. 
 
 Mexican Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Mexican Oak, 55. 
 
 Mexican Palmetto, 37. 
 
 Mexican Persimmon, 105. 
 
 Mexican I'iuon (Pinus qxiadr if olia).l\. 
 
 Mexican Piiion, 14. 
 
 Mexican Walnut, 39. 
 
 Mexican White Pine, 14. 
 
 Mimosa. 70. 
 
 Miner Plum, 75. 
 
 Missouri Willow, 44. 
 
 Mocker Nut (Hickory), 41. 
 
 Mock Olive, 77. 
 
 Mock Orange (Toxylon pomi/erum i, 63. 
 
 Mock Orange (Prunus caroliniana),~~. 
 
 Mock Orange (liumelia liicioides), 104. 
 
135 
 
 Mohave Yucca, 38. 
 
 Mipiitaiiu Black Piue, 15. 
 
 Monterey Cypress, lil. 
 
 Monterey Pine, 17. 
 
 AIiiosi' Kliii, till. 
 
 Moiisf .Maiil.\9U. 
 
 :M<m.sc\vo<>(1.90. 
 
 Morehus Oak, 5G. 
 
 '•Mos'ji in the IJiirning Hush," 90. 
 
 Mo.ssycup Oak, 52. 
 
 M.issycu]) 'SVliite Oak. 52. 
 
 Mountain Alder (Alnng rhombi/oUaj, 49. 
 
 Itloinitaiu Alder (Acer j'eiinmjlranicum) . 90. 
 
 Mountain Ash, 70. 
 
 Mountain Ash {I'yru.i sambzici/oUa),li). 
 
 Mountain Ash (Fraxinus texensis), 106. 
 
 Mountain Asj), 45. 
 
 MiMuiiain I'.aLsam (Abiea balsamea),^. 
 
 Mountain Balsam (Abies la.iiocarpa), 26. 
 
 Mountain Black Cherry, 77. 
 
 Mountain Black Oak, 57. 
 
 Mountain Cedar (Ju7}ijierus sab!iiuides),36. 
 
 Mountain Cedar {.Jin)i]>erux jiach>iphloea\.M. 
 
 Mountain Cherry, 75. 
 
 Mountain Elder, 110. 
 
 Mountain Elm, 61. 
 
 Mountain Evergreen f 'lirrry, 78. 
 
 Mountain Holly, 80. 
 
 Mountain Ivy. 102. 
 
 Mountain Juniper. 30. 
 
 Mountain Larch. 20. 
 
 Mountain Laurel ( Umbi'lliilarid caKfornica), 67. 
 
 Mountain Laurel, 102. 
 
 Mountain Laurel {Rhododendron viaxiimon). 102. 
 
 Mountain Magnolia ( Magnolia acuminata), Gi. 
 
 Mountain Magnolia {Magnolia frasen), 05. 
 
 Mountain Mahogany {Taxus brevifalia). 37. 
 
 Mountain Mahogany {Beftda lenta). 49. 
 
 Mountain Mahogany, 09. 
 
 ISIountaiu Mahogany (CercocarjnixparrifoUux), 69. 
 
 Mountain Mauebineel. 87. 
 
 Mountain Maple, 9u. 
 
 Mountain Maple {Acer i-ircinatwn),i)l. 
 
 Mountain Maple (Acer rilabrrim),'Jl. 
 
 Mountain Oak ( Quercus gambelii), .52. 
 
 Miumtain Oak iQuercws primis),b'i. 
 
 Mountain Pine. 14. 
 
 ^Mountain Sjiruce, 21. 
 
 Mountain Sumach (Pyriis amcricana), 70. 
 
 ilountain Sumach {h'liux copallina). 88. 
 
 Mountain Weymouth Pine, 14. 
 
 Mountain White Oak, 54. 
 
 Mountain Willow, 44. 
 
 Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Murier Sauvage. 62. 
 
 Murray Pine. 16. 
 
 Myrtle (J/i/ricH ceri/eca), 42. 
 
 Myrtle ( J/i// ica calif orniea), 42. 
 
 Myrtle ( rmbi'llularia californica), 07. 
 
 My I lie Benies, 101. 
 
 Myrtle Oak. '.0. 
 
 Myrtle-leaf Dahoon, 89. 
 
 Myrtletree {Mi/rica cen/era), 42. 
 
 Myrtle-tree ( Vmbelliilaria cali/omica), 67. 
 
 Naked seeded .Tunipei', i!'). 
 
 Naked Stopper, 98. 
 
 Kakedwood (Giietf.arda elliptica). 110. 
 
 Naked-wood, 96. 
 
 Naked-wood (.inamoinis dicholonia), 98. 
 
 Nannyberry ( Viburnum lentago). 111. 
 
 Nannyberry, 111. 
 
 Nanny Plum. 111. 
 
 Narrow-cone I'ine, 17. 
 
 Narrowleaf Cockspur, 72. 
 
 Narrowleaf Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Narrowleaf Crab, 70. 
 
 Narrowleaf Dahoon, 89. 
 
 Narrowleaf Willow, 43. 
 
 Narrow-leaved Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 Narrow-leaved Crab. 70. 
 
 Narrow-leaved Crab Apple, 70. 
 
 Narrow-leaved Willow, 43. 
 
 Native Plum, 75. 
 
 Nearly smooth.coue Pine, 17. 
 
 Necklace Poplar, 47. 
 
 Negundo Maple, 93. 
 
 Netleaf Oak, 54. 
 
 Nettle-tree, 62. 
 
 Nevada Nut Piue, 15. 
 
 Newcastle Thorn, 71. 
 
 New England Boxwood, 100. 
 
 New England Hemlock, 22. 
 
 New Jersey Pine, 18. 
 
 New-Mexican Locust, 83. 
 
 New Mexican Pinon, 14. 
 
 Nickertree, 81. 
 
 Nigger Pine, 18. 
 
 Noble Fir, 27. 
 
 Noble or Bracted Red Fir, 27. 
 
 Nootka Cypress, 32. 
 
 N(>otka Sound Cypress, 32. 
 
 North American Red Spruce, 21. 
 
 North Carolina Bay-tree, 05. 
 
 North Carolina Pine, 18. 
 
 North Carolina Pitch Pine. 19. 
 
 North Carolina Tellow Pini', 18. 
 
 North Coast Cypress. 31. 
 
 North Coast Scrub Piue, 16. 
 
 Northern Cork-barked Elm, 01. 
 
 Northern Cork Elm. 61. 
 
 Northern Maple, 9li. 
 
 Northern Pine, 13. 
 
 Norway Piue. 15. 
 
 Noyer Dur, 40. 
 
 Nussbaum Hybrid (Hickory). 40. 
 
 Nutmeg Hickory, 40. 
 
 Nut Pine (Pintii cembroi'les), 14. 
 
 Nut Pine {Pinus quadrifolin), 14. 
 
 Nut Pine {Pinu.i edulis), 14. 
 
 Nut Pine {Pinux inonophiiHa), 15. 
 
 Nut Pine {Pimm coulteri). 16. 
 
 Nuttall Willow, 44. 
 
 Oak (Quercus b/rata), 5 1. 
 
 Oak barked Cedar. 36. 
 
 Oakbark Juniper, 36. 
 
 Oakleaf Cherry. 78. 
 
 Obi.-«i)o Pine 18. 
 
 Odorless Myrtle, 42. 
 
 Oe-eh-nnli k\veha-he, 68. 
 
 Ogeecheo Lime, 101. 
 
 Obeh-yabtah. 51. 
 
 Ohio Buckeye, 93. 
 
136 
 
 Ohio Buckeye (jEscuIud octandra), 94. 
 Oh-nehtah, 22. 
 ()ilXiit,30. 
 Oldlielil 15ir(;h,47. 
 (Ildtield Pine {I'iniis tcfja). 17. 
 Oldficld Pine {Pimis clausa). 18. 
 Oldfield Pine {J'invf echinata), 18. 
 Old Man's Beard. 108. 
 Old-Wife'sShirt-tree, G6. 
 Olivetree, 101. 
 
 Olivier a grandiv*! feiiilles, 101. 
 One-berry. 62. ^ 
 
 One-seed Juniper, 35. 
 One-seeded Juniper, 35. 
 Ooda tP-clia-wnn-nes, 68. 
 Oolinosk-ah, 60. 
 Oo-soo-liatali,30. 
 Opossnm-wood, 1<I5. 
 Oregon Ash, 107. 
 OreiTon Balsam-tree. 25. 
 Orojro" IViirwood. 96. 
 Oregon Cedar, :ir!. 
 Oregon Crab, 70. 
 Oregim Crali Ap))le. 70. 
 Oregon Haple, 00. 
 Oregon Oak, 52. 
 Oregon Pine, 24. 
 Oregon White Fir.E6. 
 Oregon White Oak, 52. 
 Oreodaphne, 67. 
 Ornie gras. 60. 
 Ornie !Maigre, 60. 
 Osage, 63. 
 
 Osage Apple-tree, 63. 
 Osage Orange, 63. 
 Osier AVillow, 43. 
 O-tan-tahrte-weli, 50. 
 Overcup Oak (Qiiercug minor), 52. 
 Overcup Oak, .52. 
 
 Overcup Oak {Qvercus mact-ocarpa).52. 
 Overeup White Oak (Quercus macrocaiya), 52. 
 (Pacific) Dogwood, 100. 
 Pacific Plum, 75. 
 Pacific Post Oak, 52. 
 Pacitic Red Cedar, 31. 
 Pacific Yew, 37. 
 Pale Elder, 110. 
 Pale Gyminda, 90. 
 Pale-leaf Hickory, 41. 
 , Pale-leaf White Fir, 26. 
 Palmer Oak, 55. 
 Palmetto, 37. 
 Palo Blanco, 62. 
 Palo de Hierro, 83. 
 
 Palo Verde {Parkinsonia mlcriri)hylla).8\. 
 Palo Verde, 81. 
 
 Pah> Verde (Cercidiiim rloriduin), si. 
 Papaw, 66. 
 Paper Birch, 48. 
 Paperleaf Alder, 49. 
 Paper Mulberry, 63. 
 Paradi-se Flower, 79. 
 Paradise-tree, 8.j. 
 Parasol Locust, 83. 
 Parsley Haw, 74. 
 Parslev-leaved Haw, 74. 
 
 Parry Xut Pine, 14. 
 
 Parry Pinon, 14. 
 
 Parry's Xut Pine. 14. 
 
 Parry'.s Pine, 14. 
 
 j^arry's Spr uce, 21^ 
 
 Pattern .H Sju lue. 2X 
 
 Paulownia, 109. 
 
 Peach, 78. I 1 
 
 Peach Oak {Que)-cvs jihelloe). 59. V 
 
 Peaeh Oak {Quen-ic< ilriu-^i/lnra), 59. 
 
 Pea-tlower Locust. 82. 
 
 Pear Haw, 73. 
 
 Pear Thorn, 73. 
 
 Pecan (Hickory), 39. 
 
 Pecan Xut, 39. 
 
 Pecan-tree, 39. 
 
 Pecanier, 39. 
 
 Pecanicr -Vmer. 40. 
 
 Pecanier Sauvage, 40. 
 
 Peninsula Black Pine, 16. 
 
 Peninsula Pine, 16. 
 
 Pepperidge, 100. 
 
 Pepper- wood, 84. 
 
 Persimmon, 104. 
 
 Peruve, 70. 
 
 Pigeonberry (Cornvs alfemifolia), 100. 
 
 Pigeon-berry {Amelaiicliler alnifolia),'il. 
 
 Pigeon-berry (Rhavmui. pvrshiana). 96. 
 
 Pigeon Cherry, 76. 
 
 Pigeon Plum, 63. 
 
 Pigeon-wood, 64. 
 
 Pig Hickory, 40. 
 
 Pig Xut (Hicoria minima), ifi. 
 
 Pignut {Hicoria glabra), 41. 
 
 Pignut (Hickory), 41. 
 
 Pig W^alnut, 40. 
 
 Pin Cherry, 76. 
 
 Pin Oak (Quercvs gambelii), 52. 
 
 Pin Oak (Qiierciig aeuminata), 53, 
 
 Pin Oak {Querciix breviloha), 54. 
 
 Pin Oak, 57. 
 
 Pin Tliorn, 71. 
 
 Pine {I'tnuajtexilis), 14. 
 
 Pine {I'icea canadensiK), 21. 
 
 Pink hocust {Sophora affi7u.i),Sl. 
 
 Pink Locust, 82. 
 
 Pinon, 14. 
 
 Pinon (Piniig qiiadrifplia), 14. 
 
 Piiion (Pimis cembroides), 14. 
 
 Pinon {Pinusmonophylla), 17. 
 
 Piiion Pine, 14. 
 
 Pinos, 16. 
 
 Piper Willow, 44. 
 
 Piquant Amourette, 80. 
 
 Pi.ss Ash, 107. 
 
 Pitahaya, 97. 
 
 Pitahaya dulce.97. 
 
 Pitcli Pine (Piims albicaulix). 14. 
 
 Pitch Pine {Pinnt ponderosa). 15. 
 
 Pitch Pine, 17. 
 
 Pitch I'ine {Pinns echinata). 18. 
 
 Pitch Pine {Pinux hcteropliylla), 19. 
 
 Pitch Pine {Pinus palustris), 19. 
 
 Planertree, 61. 
 
 Phine-tree, 68. 
 
 Pla<iueminier, 104. 
 
137 
 
 Platane, 68, 
 
 Pieue, 6i. 
 
 I'liini. 75. 
 
 rimii GniuiU', 70. 
 
 Plumleaf Cockspur, 72. 
 
 Poiiited-leuved Magnolia. 65. 
 
 Poison Ash, 88. 
 
 I'oisoD Dogwood, 88. 
 
 Poison Elder, 88. 
 
 I'oison Ivy, 102. 
 
 Poison Laurel, 102. 
 
 Poi.sou Oak, 88. 
 
 Poison Sumach, 88. 
 
 Poisontree, 88. 
 
 Poi.sonwood (Gijmnanthes lt(cida).S(i. 
 
 Poisonwood, 87. 
 
 Poisonwood {Hhv^ vernix), 88. 
 
 Polecat-tree, 95. 
 
 Polecat-wood, 96. 
 
 Poniette Bleue, 71. 
 
 Fond Apple, 66. 
 
 Pond Pine, 18. 
 
 Poor Pine (Finux echinata). 18. 
 
 Poor Pino (Pinus glabra), 19. 
 
 Pop Ash, 107. 
 
 Poplar (Populus tremuloidis),4o. 
 
 Poplar (Populus grandidentata), 45. 
 
 Poplar {Populus balsa mi/era), ^6. 
 
 Poplar (Liriodendrnn tulipifera),io. 
 
 Poplarleaf Fig, 63. 
 
 Poplar-leaved Birch. 47. 
 
 Popple (Populus ti-emuluides),io. 
 
 Popple (Populus grandidentata), 45. 
 
 Popple (Liriodendron tulipifera), 65. 
 
 Popi)y Ash, 107. 
 
 Pork-wood, 64. 
 
 Fort Orford Cedar, 33. 
 
 Possum Haw, 89. 
 
 Possum Oak, 58. 
 
 Possumwood, 104. 
 
 Post Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), 29. 
 
 Post Cedar (Cham, thy aides), Z2. 
 
 Post Locust, 82. 
 
 Post Oak, 52. 
 
 Poverty Birch, 47. 
 
 Prickle-cone Pine, 18. 
 
 Prickly Ash, 84. 
 
 Prickly cone Pine. 17. 
 
 Prickly Pine (Pinus murrayana). lU 
 
 Prickly Pine (Pinus pungent). 18. 
 
 Piickly Spruce, 21. 
 
 Prickly Thatch, 37. 
 
 Prince Albert's Fir, 23. 
 
 Princes Pine, 19. 
 
 Frincewood, 110. 
 
 Puckerbush,42.' 
 
 Puget Sound Pine. 24. 
 
 Pumpkin Ash, 107. 
 
 Pumpkin-tree, 26. 
 
 Punk Oak, 58. 
 
 Purple Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Purple-coned Sugar Pine. 14. 
 
 Purple Dogwood, 100. 
 
 Purple Haw, 95. 
 
 Purpleleaf Locust, 83. 
 
 Pussv Willow, 44. 
 
 Pyramid Locust, 8.3. 
 
 Pyramidal Tulip-tree, 60 
 
 Quaking Asp, 45. 
 
 Quercitron Oak, 56. 
 
 Quinine-tree, 84. 
 
 Ramshorn, 79. 
 
 Rattlebox, 105. 
 
 Red Alder, 49. 
 
 lied American Larch, 20. 
 
 Red Ash, 107. 
 
 Red-bark Cypress, 32. 
 
 Redbark Pine, 16. 
 
 Red Bay, 66. 
 
 Red Beech, 5ii. 
 
 Redberry Elder, lln. 
 
 Red Bircli,48. 
 
 Red-bract Dogwood, 100. 
 
 Redbud, 79. 
 
 Redbud (Gercis reniformis),%(^. 
 
 Red Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), 29. 
 
 Red Cedar (Thuja plicata),'i\. 
 
 Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiaii<i),3i. 
 
 Red Cherry, 76. 
 
 lied Cypress, 27. 
 
 Red Elm ( Ubnus pubescens), 60. 
 
 Red Elm { Ulmus crassifolia), 60. 
 
 Red Elm (Vlmus alata), 61. 
 
 Red Fir (Pseudotsuga taxi/olia), 23. 
 
 Red Fir (Abies amabilis), 26. 
 
 Red Fir (Abies nobilis), 27. 
 
 Red Fir, 27. 
 
 Red-flowering Lipcust, 83. 
 
 Redfruit Ailanthus, 85. 
 
 Red Gum . 68. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus hrachyacantha), 71. 
 
 Red Haw (CratcBgus crus-galli), 71. 
 
 Red Haw (Crataegus coccinea), 72. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus toinentosn). 73. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus eordata), 73. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus viridis),~i. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus apiifolia),li. 
 
 Red Haw (Cratcegus Jiav a), 74. 
 
 Redheart Hickory, 41. 
 
 Red Hickory (Hicoria alba), il. 
 
 Red Hickory (Hicoria glabra), 41. 
 
 Red Ironwood, 95. 
 
 Red Judas tree, 80. 
 
 Red Juniper, 34. 
 
 Red Larch, 20. 
 
 Red Locust, 82. 
 
 Red Maple, 92. 
 
 Red Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Red Oak, 56. 
 
 Red Oak (Quercus texa7ia),o6. 
 
 Red Oak (Quercus coccinea), 56. 
 
 Red Oak ((j^terc^is digitata), 57. 
 
 Red Pine, 15. 
 
 Red Pine (Pinus ponderosa), 15. 
 
 Red Pine ( Vscudotsuga taxi/olia), 24. 
 
 Red Plum (Prunus nigra). T5. 
 
 Red Plum (Prunus aniericana),'iii. 
 
 Red River .Maple, 93. 
 
 Red Silver Fir. 26. 
 
 Red Spruce, 21. 
 
 Red Stopper, 99. 
 
 Red (or) Sweet Gum, 08. 
 
138 
 
 Red Thorn, 72. 
 
 Reil Thorn-apple, 72. 
 
 lieA Tliorn Bush, 72. 
 
 Rill Titi. 88. 
 
 Red Willow, 43. 
 
 Redwood, 28. 
 
 Redwood (iiwietenia ntahagoni, 86. 
 
 Red-wooded Elui, 60. 
 
 Remarkable Pine. 17. 
 
 Retania.Sl. 
 
 liliododendron, 102. 
 
 Ikidge Beech, 50. 
 
 Ri{{i<l Pine, 17. 
 
 River A.sh, 107. 
 
 River Birch, 48. 
 
 River Birth (Betula lenta), 49. 
 
 River Cottonwood, 46. 
 
 River Hawthorn, 71. 
 
 River Maple, 92. 
 
 River Pine, 18. 
 
 "Roble,"51. 
 
 Rock Cedar, 36. 
 
 Rock Chestnut Oak. 53. 
 
 Rock Elui (Ulmiis pubescent!), 60. 
 
 Rock Elm ( L'lmiig americana) , 60. 
 
 Rock Elm (Ulmvs raceinosa),G(). 
 
 Rock Maple, 91. 
 
 Rock Oak iQuerciis prinus), 53. 
 
 Rock Oak (Quercus acuminata). .'>:!. 
 
 Rock Oak ((Quercus douglasii), ^>i. 
 
 Rock Pine, 15. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Juniper, 3.'). » 
 
 Rocky Mountain Oak, 54. 
 
 Rocky ^loiintaiu Pine, U. 
 
 Rocky Mouutain Scrub Oak, 52. 
 
 Rocky Mountain White Pine, 14. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Yellow Pine. l.'>. 
 
 Rose Acacia, 83. 
 
 Rose Bay, 102. 
 
 Rose-flowering Locust, 83. 
 
 Rosemary Pine, 17. 
 
 Rosemary Pine, 18. 
 
 Rosemary Pine, 19. 
 
 Rouglibarkt'd Poplar. 46. 
 
 Roundtop Poplar, 47. 
 
 Roundwood,70. 
 
 Rowan-berry, 70. 
 
 Royal Palm, 38. 
 
 Rubber-tree, 63. 
 
 Rum Cherry, 77. 
 
 Russian Mulberry, 62. 
 
 Rusty Nannyberry, 111. 
 
 Sabine s Pine, 16. 
 
 Safii-on Plum, 104. 
 
 Saguaro. 97. 
 
 Sabnara, 97. 
 
 Salad-tree, 80. 
 
 Sandbar Willow, 43. 
 
 Sand Jack, 58. 
 
 Sand Pine (Pinun contorta). 16. 
 
 Sand Pine. 18. 
 
 Sand Pine (Pinusclausa). 18. 
 
 Santa Cruz Ironwood, 67. 
 
 Santa Lucia Fir, 26. 
 
 Sapin, 25. 
 
 Saji Pine (Pinun tceda), 17. 
 
 Sap I'inc (I'iniis rigida), I!. 
 
 Sapwood Pine. 16. 
 
 Sargent Palm, 37. 
 
 Sargent s Palm, 37 
 
 "Sarvice,"7I. 
 
 Sassafac. 67. 
 
 Sassafrac, 67. 
 
 Sassafras, 67. 
 
 Satinleaf, 103. 
 
 Satin Walnut, 68. 
 
 Satinwood. 84. 
 
 Savice, 71. 
 
 Savin (Juitijienin virginiatta), 34. 
 
 Savin {Tniiiio)i taxifolium), 36. 
 
 Savin {Taxu.i _rtorida)ia).ZT . 
 
 Saxifrax.67. 
 
 Saxit'rax-tree, l>7. 
 
 Scalybark Hickory, 40. 
 
 Scarlet -fruited Thorn, 72. 
 
 Scarlet Haw, 72. 
 
 Scarlet Haw {Cratcegu.t mollis), 72. 
 
 Scarlet Majde, 92. 
 
 Scarlet Oak, 56. 
 
 Scarlet Thorn, 72. 
 
 Scarlet Thorn-Haw, 72. 
 
 Schott Cactus, 97. 
 
 Schott Yucca, 38. 
 
 Screwbean, 79. 
 
 Screwbean Mesquite, 79. 
 
 Screw-Pod Mesquite, 79. 
 
 Scrub Oak {(Quercus gambeiii), 52. 
 
 Scrub Oak ((ftu'i-cus macrocarpa), 52. 
 
 Scrub Oak {Quercus acuminata), 53. 
 
 Scrub Oak {Qnernis undulata), 54. 
 
 Scrub Oak {Quercus catesbcei). 57. 
 
 Scrub Oak {Quercus pumila). 57. 
 
 Scrub Oak {Quercus tnarilandica). 58. 
 
 Scrub Pine (Pinus albicaulis), 14. 
 
 Scrub Piue {Pinus contorta). 16. 
 
 Scrub Pine, 18. 
 
 Scrub Pine {Pinus clausa). 18. 
 
 Scrub Pine {Pinus divaricata), 19. 
 
 Sea Ash, 84. 
 
 Sea Grape, U:i 
 
 Seaside Alder, 49. 
 
 Seaside Plum, 63. 
 
 Senellier, 74. 
 
 Sequoia {Sequoia u'aslnngtoniana).2S. 
 
 Sequoia {Sequoia .semperviren.'^). 28. 
 
 Serviceberry, 7ii. 
 
 Servicebcrry {Amclanchier alnl/olia), 71. 
 
 Service-tree, 71. 
 
 Sbad-beiry, 71. 
 
 Shad Bu.sh."0. 
 
 Shade Pine, 14. 
 
 Shagbark (Hickory), 4(i. 
 
 Sbagbark, 40. 
 
 Shagbark Walnut, 41. 
 
 Shasta (.'ypre.ss, 32. 
 
 Shasta Fir, 27. 
 
 Shasta Red Fir, 27. 
 
 Sliawniewood. 109. 
 
 She Balsam. 2.'i. 
 
 She Balsam Fir. 25. 
 
 Sheepberry, 1 10. 
 
 Slicepberry ( Virliirnuu) pru}ti/iiliunt). 111. 
 
139 
 
 Sheej) Laurel. 102. 
 Shtllliark ( Hicoria mala), 40. 
 Shellbark 'Hickory), 41. 
 Shellbark i Hicoria laciniosa), 41. 
 Shellbark Hickmy {IHcoria ovata), iO. 
 Shellbark-lref,41. 
 She Pine, 19. 
 She I'itrh l'ine.l9. 
 Shin Oak. 52. 
 
 Shin Oak {(^uerci's ^ainbflii),52. 
 Shin Oak (Qi'crciis breviloba),5i. 
 Shin Oak {Quercn.t undidata), 'A. 
 Shin Oak {Qucreiin hrevi folia), 58. 
 Shingle Oak. 58. 
 Shinglewood, :il. 
 
 Shittiiiiwood (Rhamnitx ii>irshiana),9<u. 
 Shittimwood, 104. 
 Shoepefi Maple, 9-. 
 Shore Pine, Iti. 
 Short- flower Mahogany, 69. 
 Shortleaf Pine, 18. 
 Shortleal" Pine (Finns tcedat, 17. 
 Shortleaved Pine {Pima rir<iiitiana). 18. 
 ShortleaTe<l Pine {Pinus ichinataK IS- 
 Shortleaved Yellow Pine. IS. 
 Short-pod Honey Locust, xo. 
 Shortshat Pine (Ptnw* viifjinianai, 18. 
 Shortshat Pine {Pimis ecldnata), 18. 
 Sbort Shucks, 18. 
 Shrub Oak. 53. 
 Shrnb "Willow, 43. 
 Shrubby Maple, 91. 
 Sierra Brownbark Pine, 15. 
 Sierra Kedbark Pine, 16. 
 Silktop Palmetto. 37. 
 Silky "Willow, 45. 
 Silverbell, 105. 
 SilverbeU-tree, 105. 
 
 Silverbell-tree (Mohrodendron dipterum). 105. 
 Silver Birch {Betula papyri/era). i8. 
 Silver Birch (Betula liifea), 48. 
 Silver Fir {Abies grandis), 26. 
 Silver Fir {Abies concolor), 26. 
 Silverleaf Poplar. 97. 
 Silverleaf "Willow, 44. 
 Silver-leaved Maple, 92. 
 Silver Maple, 92. 
 Silver Oak, 86. 
 Silver Pine, 13. 
 
 Silver Pine {Abies balmmea), 25. 
 Silver Poplar, 47. 
 Silver Spruce. 21. 
 Silver Thatch. 37. 
 
 Silver "Willow {Salix setsili/olia), 44. 
 Silver "Willow {Salix discolor), ■ii. 
 SUvertop Palmetto, 37. 
 Simmon, 104. 
 ' Simpleleaf Locust, 82. 
 Sina, 97. 
 Singleleaf, 15. 
 Single-leaf Pinon, 15. 
 Single Spruce {Picea canadensis), 21. 
 Single Spruce {Abie.'i baltavtea). 25. 
 Sinita. 97. 
 
 Sir Joseph Bank's Pine, 19. 
 Siskiyou Spruce, 22. 
 
 Sitka Cypros»a, 32. 
 
 Sitka Spruce, 22. 
 
 Sitka Willow. 45. 
 
 Skunk Spruce, '.'1. 
 
 Slash Piue {Pi)U'ii timla), 17. 
 
 Slash Pine {Piiiiin echiitata), 18. 
 
 Sla.sb Pine {Pinus heterophylla) , 19. 
 
 Slippery Elm, 60. 
 
 Slippery Elm { Fremontodend ron cali foniicmn) , SS 
 
 Sloe {Pruntis ainericana), 75. 
 
 Sloe {Pntnus uinbellata), 76. 
 
 Sloe ( Virbumuui prnnifoliuin), 111- 
 
 Small-coiied Monterey Pine, 17. 
 
 Small-fruit Mountain Ash, 70. 
 
 Small-fruit "White Ash, 106. 
 
 Small L;iun-1, 102. 
 
 Small-leaf Haw, 74. 
 
 Small-leaf Horse-bean, 81. 
 
 Small-leaf Locust, 82. 
 
 Small-leaved Elm, 61. 
 
 Small Pignut (Hickory), 41. 
 
 Small White Birch, 47. 
 
 Smoke-tree, 87. 
 
 Smoking Bean, 109. 
 
 Smooth-fruited. "White-le,(4ed Limetree, 97. 
 
 Smoothleaf "Willow, 43. 
 
 Smooth-leaved Limetree, 96 
 
 Smooth Sumach, 88. 
 
 Snapping Hazel, 68. 
 
 Snowdrop-tree {Mohrodendron carolininn), 105 
 
 Snowdrop-tree, 105. 
 
 Snowflower-tree, 108. 
 
 Snowy Poplar, 47. 
 
 Soapberry, 94. 
 
 Soapberry {Sapindus )iiargi7iatus), 94. 
 
 Soft Maple {Acerglabriim),91. 
 
 Soft Maple {Acer sacchariiiuin), 92. 
 
 Soft Maple {Acer rtibruni). 92. 
 
 Soft Pine (Pinus strobus), 13. 
 
 Soft Pine {Pinus monticola), 14. 
 
 Soldierwood, 96. 
 
 Soledad Pine, 15. 
 
 Sonora Ironwood, 83. 
 
 Sophora, 81. 
 
 Sorrel- tree, 102. 
 
 Soulard Apple , 70. 
 
 Sour Cherry, 76. 
 
 Sour Gum (A*i/.s'.s« si/lvatica), 100. 
 
 Sour Gum (Xyssa aijuatica), 101. 
 
 Sour Gum (Ori/dendium arhoreum), l(i2. 
 
 Sour Gum Bush, 102. 
 
 Sour Tupelo, 101. 
 
 Sourwood, 102. 
 
 Southern Buckthorn, 1U4. 
 
 Southern BuUace Plum. 76. 
 
 Southei'n Crab Apple. 70. 
 
 Southern Cypress, 27. 
 
 Southern Hard Pine. 19. 
 
 Southern Heart Pine. 19. 
 
 Southern Hemlock, 2:i. 
 
 Southern Mountain Pine. 18. 
 
 Southern Pine. 19. 
 
 Southern Pitcli Pine, 19. 
 
 Southern Prickly .\sh, 84. 
 
 Southern Red Juniper, 35. 
 
 Southern Yellow Pine {Fiiius ponderonat, 15. 
 
140 
 
 Sontbern Yellow Vine {Pinus paliistrU), 19. 
 
 Spanish Bayonet, 38. 
 
 Spanish Bayonet {Tiicca aloifolia), 38. 
 
 Spanish Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Spanish Dagger, 38. 
 
 Spanish Oak (Quercus rubra), 56. 
 
 Spanish Oak {Quercus texana), 56. 
 
 Sjianish Oak (Qtiercus cocetnea), H6. 
 
 Spanish Oak, 57. 
 
 Siianish Water Oak, .17. 
 
 Spanish "Wild Cherry, 78. 
 
 Sparkleberry, 101. 
 
 Spatulate Haw, 73. 
 
 Sjiiceberry, 99. 
 
 Spice-tree, 67. 
 
 Spindle-tree, 90. 
 
 Spoon Hutch, 102. 
 
 Spoonwood, 302. 
 
 Spotted Alder, 68. 
 
 Spotted Locust, 83. 
 
 Spotted Oak {(^lercti* texana), 56. 
 
 SiKitted Oak {Qiieicux Delulimi), 37. 
 
 Spotted Oak (Quercus nigra), 58. 
 
 Siireading-cone Bine, 17. 
 
 Spruce {Picea inariana), 20. 
 
 Spruce (Picacanadeiins), 21. 
 
 Spruce {Picea punijent), 21. 
 
 Spruce {Tstiga canadentis). 22. 
 
 Spruce {Pseudotsuga taxifolia), 23. 
 
 Spruce (var. suberosa Lcmni.), 24. 
 
 Spruce (Pseudotsuga inacrocarpa). 2.5. 
 
 Spruce Bine {Pinus ttrobus), 13. 
 
 Spruce Bine (Pinut balfouriana), 15. 
 
 Spruce Bine {Pimis iinirrayatia), 16. 
 
 Sjiruce Bine {Pinus tceda), 17. 
 
 Spruce Bine (Pi»«» virginiatia), 18. 
 
 Spruce Bine (Pinu.i clauna). 18. 
 
 Spruce Pine, 19. 
 
 Si»ruce Bine (Pinus idiinata), 18. 
 
 Spruce Bine {Pinus glabra), 19. 
 
 Spnu'e Bine (Pinus paluttr is). 19. 
 
 Spruce Bine (Picea inariana). '2'K 
 
 Spruce Bine (Tsvga canadensis), 22. 
 
 Staghush,lll. 
 
 Staghorn Sumach, 87. 
 
 Star-leaved Gum, 68. 
 
 Stave Oak, 51. 
 
 Sting-tongue, .S4. 
 
 Stink Berry, 95. 
 
 Stink ("hcrry,95. 
 
 Stinking Ash, 9-3. 
 
 Slinking I'.uckeye. 93. 
 
 Stinking Cedar {Tumivn taxi/oliuin). 36. 
 
 Stinking Cedar (Tumion cfili/ornicum), 37. 
 
 Stinking Savin, 36. 
 
 Stinkwood {Rhamntts caroliniana),^^. 
 
 Stinkwood (Xi/ssa ."lylratica). 100. 
 
 Stone-seed Mexican Biiion, 14. 
 
 Stoi>i)er {Eugenia monticula). 95. 
 
 Stopper, 98. 
 
 Strawberry Hush,!'!). 
 
 Strawberry-tree, 9ii. 
 
 Striped Dogwood. 90. 
 
 Striped Kaple. 90. 
 
 Strongback, 1(I8. 
 
 Strongbark. 108. 
 
 Stumjitree, 81. 
 
 Sub- Alpine Fir, 25. 
 
 Sugar Ash, 93. 
 
 Sugarberry (Celtis occidenlalis), 62. 
 
 Sugarberry, 62. 
 
 Sugar Maple, 91. 
 
 Sugar Pine, 14. 
 
 Sugar-tree, 91. 
 
 Sumach {Rhus liirta),Sl. 
 
 Sumach ( Rhus copallina), 88. 
 
 Sumach (Rhus vernix). 88. 
 
 Summer Haw (Crattegu.s ellijitica),'i. 
 
 Summer Haw, 74. 
 
 Sun loving Pine, 17. 
 
 Sunny-.slope Bine, 17. 
 
 Swamp Ash (Fraxinus nigra), 106. 
 
 Swamp Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata),h>~. 
 
 Swamp Bay, 66. 
 
 Swamp Birch. 48. 
 
 Swaiii]) Cedar, 32. 
 
 Swamp Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinii.<c),'t:.. 
 
 Swam]) Chestnut Oak (Quercus micliauxiit,5'i 
 
 Swamp Cottonwood, 45. 
 
 Swamp Cypress, 27. 
 
 Swamp Elm, 60. 
 
 Swamp Hickory (Hicoria minima), 40. 
 
 Swamp Hickory {Hieoria a(iuatica),40. 
 
 Swamp Laurel, 64. 
 
 Swamp Laurel Oak, 58. 
 
 Swamp Magnolia, 64. 
 
 Swamp Majjle (Acer saccharin uw), '.l2. 
 
 Swamp ^faple (Acer rubruni), 92. 
 
 Swamp Oak (Quercus lobata), 51. 
 
 Swamp Oak (Quercu.s platanvide.t). .)3. 
 
 Swani]) Oak (Quercus palustris), 57. 
 
 Swamp Bine {Pi7ius tceda). 17. 
 
 Swamp Bine {Pinus muricatu), 18. 
 
 Swamp Bine {Pinus heterophylla), 19. 
 
 Swaiup Boplar, 46. 
 
 Swamp Bost Oak, 53. 
 
 Swamp Bed-Bay, 66. 
 
 Swamp Sassafras. 64. 
 
 Swamj) Spanisli Oak, 57. 
 
 Swamp Sumach, 88. 
 
 Swamp Tupelo, lltl. 
 
 Swam]) Wliite Oak (Qurrcus b/rata), 53. 
 
 Swamp White Oak. 53. 
 
 Swamp White Oak ((Quercus niiehauxii . .13. 
 
 Swamji Willow (Salix i,igra), 42. 
 
 Swamp Willow (Salix di.icolur). 44. 
 
 Swamp Willow Oak, 5ii. 
 
 Sweet I'.ay (2Iagiioliu glauca), 04. 
 
 Sweet Bay (Persea borbanin). (iO. 
 
 Sweet-bet ried Cedar, 36. 
 
 Sweet berry, 111. 
 
 Sweet Birch {lietula occidentalis), 48. 
 
 Sweet Birch, 49. 
 
 Sweet Buckeye. 94. 
 
 Sweet Cherry. 70. 
 
 Sweet Crab, 69. 
 
 .Swect-t'ruited Juniper, 36. 
 
 Sweet Gum, 68. 
 
 Sweet Haw, 111. 
 
 Sweetleaf, 105. 
 
 Sweet Locust, 80. 
 
 Sweet Magnolia, 64. 
 
141 
 
 Sweet-sconted Crab, 69. 
 
 Sweet Vibunmiu. 111. 
 
 Sweet Walnut 41. 
 
 Sweetwoo<l, 67. 
 
 Switcli-luid Hickory, 41. 
 
 SycaiiMire (rianera aquatica), 01. 
 
 Sycamore. 08. 
 
 Sycamore {Platanus racemosat.Gi'. 
 
 Sycamore (Plataniis vrightii). 69. 
 
 Table-mountain Pine. 18. 
 
 Tacamahac. 46. 
 
 Tallow-tree, 86. 
 
 Tamarack {Pin us foiitorta). 10. 
 
 Tamarack (Pinus )nvrrayana). 16. 
 
 Tamarack, 20. 
 
 Tamarack i Larix occidentalis). 20. 
 
 Tamarack {.Larix lifallii), 20. 
 
 Tamarack Pine. 16. 
 
 Taiibaik Oak (<^«enit« j?rmw«), 53. 
 
 Tanliark oak (Quercus velutina),51. 
 
 Tanbark Oak, 59. 
 
 Tan Bay, ST. 
 
 Tear-lilaukt't. 84. 
 
 Texan Ebony, 78. 
 
 Texan Oak. 56. 
 
 Texas Ash, 106. 
 
 Texas Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Texas Catsclaw, 78. 
 
 Texas Flowering "Willow, 109. 
 
 Texas Lnngleaved Pine. 19. 
 
 Texas Redbud, 80. 
 
 Texas White Oak, 54. 
 
 Texa.< Yellow Pine, 19. 
 
 The J.ishua. 38. 
 
 Tliick barked Juniper. 36. 
 
 Thick Shellbark, 41. 
 
 Thick Shellbark Hickory, 41. 
 
 Thinleaf Downy Basswood, 97. 
 
 Thomas Elm, 61. 
 
 Thomson Hagnolia, 64. 
 
 Thorn {Crataegus dmtglani), 71. 
 
 Thorn {Cratcegus crus-galli). 71. 
 
 Thorn (CraUegtts coccinea), 72. 
 
 Thorn (Cratcegus tomentosa),73. 
 
 Thorn {Cratcegus cordata), 73. 
 
 Thorn Apple {Cratcegus douglasii), 71. 
 
 Thorn Apple {CratcBgus crus-galli), 71. 
 
 Thorn Apple {Cratcegus coccinea). T2. 
 
 Thorn Apple (Cratcegus toruentosa), 73. 
 
 Thorn Apple-tree (Cratcegus coccinea). 72. 
 
 Thorn Bush {Cratcegus crus-galli), 71. 
 
 Thorn Bush (Cratcegus coccinea), 72. 
 
 Thorn Locust, 80. 
 
 Thorn Plura (Cratcegus crus-galli), 71. 
 
 Thorn Plum (Crataegus coccinea), 72. 
 
 Thorn Plum (Cra'cegus tomeyitosa), 73. 
 
 Thornless Honey Locust, 80. 
 
 Thornless Locust, 83. 
 
 Thornless Osage Orange, 63. 
 
 Thorn-tree (Cratcegus douglasii), 71. 
 
 Thorn-tree (Gledit.iia triacanthos), 80. 
 
 Thorny Acacia, 80. 
 
 Thorny Loru.st, 80. 
 
 Three-leaved Maple, 93. 
 
 Tliree-thorued Acacia, 80. 
 
 Thurber Cactus. 97. 
 
 Tideland Spruce, 22. 
 
 Tisswood. 105. 
 
 Titi, 88. 
 
 Titi (Andromeda ferruginea), 102. 
 
 Titi (Oxifdendnim arboreum), 102, 
 
 Tollou, 74. 
 
 Toothache-tree, 84. 
 
 Torch Pine, 17. 
 
 Torchwood, 84. 
 
 Tornillo, 79. 
 
 Torrey Pine, 15. 
 
 Torrey's Pine. 15. 
 
 Torrey-tree, 36. 
 
 Tough Buckthorn, 103. 
 
 Tough Bumelia, 103. 
 
 Toumey Oak, 54. 
 
 Toyon, 74. 
 
 Tree Haw, 74. 
 
 Tree Huckleberry, 101, 
 
 Tree Myrtle, 96. 
 
 Tree Palmetto, 37. 
 
 Tree Thorn, 74. 
 
 Tree Yucca, 38. 
 
 Tremble, 45. 
 
 Trembling Aspen, 45. 
 
 Trembling Poplar, 45. 
 
 Trident Oak, 59. 
 
 Trifoliate Dwarf Ash, 106. 
 
 Truckee Pine, 16, 
 
 True Cassena, 89. 
 
 Tuberculated-coned Pine, 17. 
 
 Tack Tuck, 27. 
 
 Tulip Poplar, 65. 
 
 Tulip-tree, 65. 
 
 Tupelo (Xyssa sylvatica), 100. 
 
 Tupelo (Xyssa ogeche), 101. 
 
 Tupelo (Xyssa aquatica), 101. 
 
 Tupelo Gum, 100. 
 
 Turkey Oak, 57. 
 
 Turkey Oak (Quercut brrvi/olia), 58. 
 
 Turpentine Pine, 19. 
 
 Twistbranch Locust, 82. 
 
 Twisted Pine, 16, 
 
 Two-leaved Insular Pine, 17. 
 
 Umbrella China-tree, 85. 
 
 Umbrella-tree, 65. 
 
 Umbrella-tree (Cornus alternifolia), 100. 
 
 Uiia de Gato, 79. 
 
 Upland Hickory, 40. 
 
 Upland Spruce Pine, 18. 
 
 Upland Willow Oak, 58. 
 
 Utah Juniper, 36. 
 
 Valley Mahogany, 69. 
 
 Valley Oak, 51. 
 
 Valparaiso Oak, 55, 
 
 Variegated Silver Maple, 92. 
 
 Variegated Tulip-tree, 66. 
 
 Vauquelinia, 69. 
 
 Vermont Poplar. 47. 
 
 Viburnum, 111. 
 
 Vine Maple, 91. 
 
 Virgilia, 81. 
 
 Virginia Mulberry-tree, 62. 
 
 Virginia Pine, 17. 
 
 Virginia Sumach, 87. 
 
 Virginia Thorn, 23. 
 
142 
 
 Virjjiiii:! Vrllow IMiic, IS. 
 
 Vi(:i'. no. 
 
 AValer Asli. 84. 
 
 "Waliiliniih-ka.s, 67. 
 
 Waahoo, 89. 
 
 Waliiio {Vimvs racetnosa), 60. 
 
 Walioo ( Uhnus alaia), 6] . 
 
 ■\Valioo (Tilta jnibegcens), 96. 
 
 Wahoo (Tiiia hetfrojihylln), 97. 
 
 AVahoo Elm, 61. 
 
 Wait-a bit. 84. 
 
 "Walnut {.Taglans cinerea), :i9. 
 
 "Walnut {Juglaii.i nigra), 39. 
 
 "V\'aliiut (Juglanx rupestris), 39. 
 
 Walnut {.Tuglans calif 01- iiica), :59. 
 
 AValnut (Hicoria ovata), 41. 
 
 "Walnnt-trcp. 39. 
 
 Walter's Pine, 19. 
 
 Ward Willow, 42. 
 
 Washington Haw. 73. 
 
 Washington Palm. 38. 
 
 Wa.shiugton Thorn, 73. 
 
 Water Ash (.leer negundo), 93. 
 
 Water Ash {Fraxinus nigra), 106. 
 
 Water Ash {Fraxinus lanceolata). 107. 
 
 Water Ash, 107. 
 
 Water l{ee<'li (Carpiniis carolinianco.'yO. 
 
 Water Beech {Plntaniig occiitentalif). fig. 
 
 Water IMrch (Betuia occidrntalit), 4S. 
 
 Water Hirch (Betuia nigra), 4S. 
 
 Water lUtternut, 40. 
 
 Water Elm ( Uhnvs americana),60. 
 
 Water Elm ( Vlmug alata), 61. 
 
 Water Elm (Planera aquatica), 61. 
 
 Water Gum, 101. 
 
 Water Hickory, 40. 
 
 Water Lily-tree, 65. 
 
 Water Locust, 80. 
 
 Water Maple (Acer gpicatnm),9\. 
 
 Water Maple (.Icec !iaccharinum).Q2. 
 
 AVater Maple (.leer ri(bruni),92. 
 
 AVater Oak ((^i/ercMS pahtstris). 57. 
 
 Water Oak, 58. 
 
 AVater Oak (Qucrcus laurifnlia). 58. 
 
 AVater Oak (Quercus imbricaria),59. . 
 
 AVater Oak ((^lerciis phdlox), 59. 
 
 AVater Spanish Oak, 57. 
 
 Water Spruce, 20. 
 
 AVater White Oak, 53. 
 
 AVaxberry, 42. 
 
 Wax Myrtle, 42. 
 
 AVax Myrtle (Myrica calif ornica) . 42. 
 
 Weeping American Elm, 60. 
 
 Weeping Black Cherry, 77. 
 
 Weeping Bull Pine, 16. 
 
 Weeping Choke Cherry, 77. 
 
 Weeping Dogwood. 100. 
 
 Weeping Douglas Spruce, 24. 
 
 Weeping largetooth Aspen. 45. 
 
 Weeping Locust, 83. 
 
 AVeeping Oak, 51. 
 
 Weeping Silver Maple. 92. 
 
 Weeping Silver Poplar, 47. 
 
 Weeping Spruce, 22. 
 
 AVeeping Spruce (Tuxiga mertensiana),23. 
 
 Weeping White Poplar, 47. 
 
 Weeping Willow, 45. 
 
 Western Birch, 48. 
 
 Western Black Pine. 16. 
 
 Western Black Willow, 43. 
 
 AVesteru Catalpa, 109. 
 
 AVestern Cedar (Tlivja pliiata),'M. 
 
 Western Ci'ilar (.In nipenm occldentalin), '.'■'>. 
 
 Western Chiniiuai)in, 51. 
 
 Western Choke Cherry, 77. 
 
 AVestern Cotlee, 96. 
 
 Western Dogw ood, 100. 
 
 Western Ilaw, 71. 
 
 AVestern Hawtliorn, 71. 
 
 Western Hemlock, 23. 
 
 Western Heniloik Fir, 23. 
 
 Western Hemlock Spruce, 23. 
 
 Western Juniper, 35. 
 
 Western Larch, 20. 
 
 Western or California Abler. 49. 
 
 Western or Red Abler, 49. 
 
 Western Pitch Pine. 15. 
 
 AVestern Red Cedar (Juniperun (iecidr,ifali.i).3i> 
 
 Western Red Cedar (Juniperun titahentif. 3'i. 
 
 Western Serviceberry, 71. 
 
 Western Sbellbark. 41. 
 
 Western Spruce, 22. 
 
 Western Sugar Maple, 92. 
 
 Western Sumach, 88. 
 
 Western Tamarack, 20. 
 
 AVesteru Walnut, 39. 
 
 Western AVbite Kir, 26. 
 
 Western White Oak, 52. 
 
 Western AVhite Pine (Pimis inonticola). 14. 
 
 AVestern White Pine (Pinusjiexilit), 14. 
 
 Western Tew, 37. 
 
 West India Cherry, 77. 
 
 West Indian Birch, 85. 
 
 AVeynioutli Pine, 13. 
 
 Whalioo ( rimux alata), 61. 
 
 Whaboo (Magnolia fra.ierl), 64. 
 
 WbalK.o (Pti'lca trifoliala),8i. 
 
 AVhisky Cherry. 77- 
 
 AVbistlewood,90. 
 
 White Alder. 49. 
 
 White Ash, 106. 
 
 White Ash (Fraxinun lanceolata), 107. 
 
 White Ash (Chionanthun virgi)iica), 108. 
 
 White Balsam (Abies lagiocarpa), 25. 
 
 White Balsam (Abies concolon. 26. 
 
 AVbitebark, 14. 
 
 White-bark Maple, 91. 
 
 White-bark Pine, 14. 
 
 White Basswood, 97. 
 
 Whit.' Bay, 64. 
 
 White Beech, 50. 
 
 White Birch, 47. 
 
 AVhite Birch (Betuia papyrifera). 48. 
 
 White Buttonwood, 99. 
 
 AVhite Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), 29. 
 
 AVhite Cedar (Thuja occiden talis), 30. 
 
 White Cedar, 32. 
 
 AVhite Cedar (Cupressvs uiaenabiana), 32. 
 
 AVhite Cedar (Cham. Unvxoniana), 33. 
 
 White Cedar (Jvniperus ealifoniica),Z6. 
 
 White Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 AVhite Cypress, 27. 
 
143 
 
 White Dotted Haw, 73. 
 
 White Elm. 60. 
 
 ■\Vliitf Elm {I'liiius nicemosa),6l. 
 
 Wliitf Fir {Abifx lasiocaijia). 2.'>. 
 
 "White Fir. 20. 
 
 White Fir (AbU-g iirandis),-~6. 
 
 White Fir (Abies cu.icolor). 2C. 
 
 White-flower Clammy locust. 8:J. 
 
 White-flowered Dwarf Sumach. 88. 
 
 White FriDge, 107. 
 
 White-fruit Choke Cherry, 77. 
 
 Whitelieart Il-ekory, 41. 
 
 White Hickory (Hicoria minima). M). 
 
 White Hickory (Hicoria ovata),AO. 
 
 White Hickory iHicoriii alba). 41. 
 
 White Hickory (Hicoria glabra), 41. 
 
 White Holly. 8'J. 
 
 White Ironwood. 95. 
 
 White Laurel, 64. 
 
 Whiteleaf Oak, 55. 
 
 White-leaved Oak. 55. 
 
 White Lin(1.96. 
 
 White Locast. 82. 
 
 White Mangrove, 90. 
 
 White Maple (Acer 7nacrophi/lliim),90. 
 
 White Maple (Acer sacchariniim),92. 
 
 White Maple (Acer rubrum),92. 
 
 White Mulherry, 62. 
 
 White Oak, 51. 
 
 White Oak (Qiiercus lobata), 51. 
 
 White Oak (Q^iercug garryana), 52. 
 
 White Oak (Querms gambelii), 52. 
 
 White Oak ( Qiiercus minor), 52. 
 
 White Oak (Qiiemig acuminata). 53. 
 
 White Oak (Quercus breviloba), 54. 
 
 White Oak (Quercus douglasii), 54. 
 
 White Oak (Quercus ohlongifolia), 54. 
 
 White Oak (Querent arizonica),^. 
 
 White Pine, 13. 
 
 White Pine (Pinxis monticola), 13. 
 
 White Pine (Finns jiexilis). 14. 
 
 White Pine (Firms strobi/ornns). 14. 
 
 White Pine (Finns murrayana). 16. 
 
 White Pine (Finu.i glabra). 19. 
 
 White Pine (Ficea engelmanni), 21. 
 
 White Poplar (Populus tremuloides), 45. 
 
 White Poplar (Popiilus grand ! dent ata). 45. 
 
 White Poplar, 47. 
 
 White Poplar (Liriodendroii tulipifera).65. 
 
 White Spruce (Ficea mariana). 20. 
 
 White Spruce, 21. 
 
 White Spruce (Ficea engelmanni), 21. 
 
 White Spruce (Ficea parrpana), 21. 
 
 White-stem Pine, 14. 
 
 White Stopper. 99. 
 
 White Thorn (Crataegus coceinea), 72. 
 
 White Thorn (Crataegus tomentosa), 73. 
 
 White Titi. 88. 
 
 AThite Walnut ( Juglani cinerea), 39. 
 
 White Walnut (Hicoria ovata). 41. 
 
 White Willow (Salix ./fuviatilit), 43. 
 
 White Willow. 45. 
 
 Whitewood (Fopulus deltoicUs). 47. 
 
 Wliitewood (Liriodendron tulipifera), 65. 
 
 Whitewood (Drypete.f lateriflora), 86. 
 
 Whitewood (Drypetes keyensis), 86. 
 
 Whitewood (Vanella tvinterana). 87. 
 Whitewood (IHlia americann), 96. 
 Wickup, 96. 
 Wild Apple, 70. 
 Wild Black Cherry, 77. 
 Wild Cherry (Frunus cniargintita). 70. 
 Wild Cherry (Frunus pennsylvanicu), 70. 
 Wild Cherry (Fruntis virginiana), 76. 
 Wild Cherry (Frunus demissa). 77. 
 Wild Cherry (Frt:nt(.'< tervtiria), 77. 
 Wild Cherry (Frunus iUci/olia), 78. 
 Wild China, 94. 
 I Wild Cinnamon, 87. 
 Wild Coftce, 96. 
 Wild Coffee-bush, 96. 
 Wild Crab. 09. 
 Wild Crab Apple, 70. 
 Wild Date, 38. 
 Wild Dilly. 104. 
 Wild Fig (Ficus aurea), 63. 
 Wild Fig (Ficus impulnea). 63. 
 Wild Goose Plum, 75. 
 Wild Hawthorn, 71. 
 Wild Indian Pear, 71. 
 Wild Lilac, 96. 
 Wild lime, 84. 
 Wild Lime-tree, 101. 
 Wild Linden, 97. 
 
 Wild Olive (Sideroxylon ma.tticlwdendron) , 103. 
 Wild Olive (Osmanthus americanus), 108. 
 Wild Olive-tree (Xy.ssa ai/uatica), 101. 
 Wild Olive-tree (Mohrodendron catolinuin), 105. 
 Wild Orange (Frumis caroliniana), 77. 
 Wild Orange (Xanthoxylum clava-hercvlis), 84. 
 Wild Peach, 77. 
 Wild Peartree, 100. 
 Wild Plum, 75. 
 
 Wild Plum {Frunus nigra), 75. 
 Wild Plum (Frxinus subcordata), 75. 
 Wild Plum (Frunus umbellata). 76. 
 Wild Plum (Frunus emarginatat. 76. 
 Wild Raisin, 111. 
 
 Wild Red Cherry (Frunus angu.flifolia), 75. 
 Wild Red Cherry, 76. 
 Wild Rose Bay, 102. 
 Wild Rubber-tree, 63. 
 Wild Sapodilla, 104. 
 Wild Tamarind, 78. 
 Wild Thorn, 71. 
 Williamson's Spruce. 23. 
 Willow (Salix nigra), 42. 
 Willow (Salix amygdaloides).4J. 
 Willow (Salix Icecigata). 43. 
 Willow (Salix lasiandra).4Z. 
 Willow (Salix jiuriatili.'!), 43. 
 WUlow (Salix sessili/olia). ii. 
 Willow (Salix discolor), 44. 
 Willow (Salix la.tioleiiis). 44. 
 Willow (Salix nnttaUii). 44. 
 Willow Cottonwood, 40. 
 
 Willow Haw, 71. 
 Willowleaf Cherry, 77. 
 
 Willowleaf Cockspur, 71. 
 Wiilowleaved Cottonwood. 46. 
 Willow Oak (Qnercu.f lauri/olia), 58. 
 Willow Oak, 59. 
 
144 
 
 Wine-tree, 70. 
 
 Wing Elm, 61. 
 
 Winf;t(l Elm. 61. 
 
 Wing-rib Mountain Suniacb,88. 
 
 Winter Bloom, 68. 
 
 Witcb Elm, 61. 
 
 Witch Hazel. 08. 
 
 Wood Laurel, 10-J. 
 
 Woolly Larcli,20. 
 
 Woollyleaf Cherry, 76. 
 
 WooUyleaf Plum, 75. 
 
 Taupou (Ilexeasiti)u' wii//i/oJio),89. 
 
 Yaupon (Holly), 89. 
 
 Yellow Asb, 82. 
 
 Yellow-bark, 57. 
 
 Yellow-barked Oak, 57. 
 
 Yellow Basswood, 90. 
 
 Yellow Birch, 48. 
 
 Yellow Buckeye, 94. 
 
 Yellow Buckthorn, 95. 
 
 Yellow Cedar, 32. 
 
 Yellow Cedar (Jiniipenit Ofci(lentali*).3b. 
 
 Yellow Cottonwood, 47. 
 
 YeUow Cucumber-tree, 65. 
 
 Yellow Cj-press, 32. 
 
 Yellow-flowered Cucumber-tree, 65. 
 
 Yellow-flowered Magnolia, 65. 
 
 Yellow Fir (FseudoUuga taxifolia), 24,. 
 
 Yellow Fir (Abies grandit), 20. 
 
 YeUow-fruit Fir, 27. 
 
 Yellow Gum-tree, 100. 
 
 Yellow Haw, 74. 
 
 Yellowfruit Dotted Haw 73. 
 
 Yellow Lo( list (Claiiia.stiii liilea).82. 
 
 Yellow Locu.st [Kobinia i>teiid(iracia).S2. 
 
 Yellow Oak (Quereus oiniTninata). i>'.i. 
 
 Yellow Oak, 56. 
 
 Yellow Pine ( I'inus ponderoia) , 15. 
 
 Yellow Pine {Pintis ponderosa scojivlonim), 15. 
 
 Yellow Pine ( Finns tceda), 17. 
 
 Yellow Pine {Finns rigida), 17. 
 
 Yellow Pine (Finns echinata), IS. 
 
 Yellow Pine (Finns 2>alnxtris), l'.>. 
 
 Yellow Plum (Friinus americanai. 75. 
 
 Yellow Plum (Fnnuts angitsti/oliut.m. 
 
 Yellow Poplar, 65. 
 
 Yellow Spruce, 21. 
 
 Yellow Willow, 44. 
 
 Yellow-wood (Toxi/lon pomi/ernm), 63. 
 
 Yellow-wood, 82. 
 
 Yellow-wood (Xanthoxylum cribrosunn.Bi- 
 
 Yellow-wood (Gotinns cotinoides). 87. 
 
 Yellow-wood (Schcefferiafrulescens), 90. 
 
 Yellow-wood (Rhamnus caroliniana), 9."». 
 
 Yellow-wood (Khamnvs jjurshiana), 96. 
 
 Yellow-wood (Symplocos tinctoria). 105. 
 
 Yew (Cupresxus guadalupensis), 32. 
 
 Yew (Tumion call/ornicum),Z7. 
 
 Yew (Taxvs brevifolit),'il. 
 
 Yew (Taxui _floridana),'i'i. 
 
 Yew Pine, 20. 
 
 Yewleaf Willow, 44. 
 
 Yopon, 89. 
 
 Yucca Cactus, 38. 
 
 Zina, 97 
 
 '^-'g^^. -. ilw^^M^C^ 
 
 y^^uyAJT^^ciouA 
 
 Ji^CuUM 
 
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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. [ 
 
 BU'.LETIN No. 10. 
 
 DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 
 
 TIMBER: 
 
 <i4^ 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY DISCUSSION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS 
 AND PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 
 
 FILIBERT ROTH, 
 
 Special Agent in Charge of Timber Physics. 
 
 UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 
 
 B. E. FERNOW, 
 
 CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRV, 
 
 \ 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1895. 
 
LE'n^ER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Division of Forestry, 
 Washington, D. C, September 15, 1895. 
 
 Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for pubhcation a brief 
 but comprehensive discussion of the characteristics and properties of 
 wood in general and of our American timbers in particular, which it 
 is lioi)ed may be useful to engineers, architects, carpenters, lumbermen, 
 and all wood workers. The paper was prepared by Mr. Filibert Roth, 
 in charge of the investigations in timber physics. 
 
 Although much of the information contained in this bulletin exists 
 in the experience of practical woodworkers and in books in other lan- 
 guages, it has never before been i)ublished in Enghsh in systematic 
 and accessible form and with special application to American timbers. 
 
 Such a i)ublication can not, of course, exhaust any part of this great 
 subject. It is desired that it may be followed by a more elaborate 
 treatise when additional knowledge has been gained through the inves- 
 tigations now in progress. The information it contains is largely based 
 on actual experiment and scientific observation, and will, it is hoped, 
 not only ex])lain the experiences of the practical worker with his mate- 
 rial, but will remove erroneous notions, and thus aid in improving the 
 practice and lead to a more rational use of our forest resources. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 B. E. Fernow, 
 Chief of Division of Forestry, 
 
 Hon. .]. .STEKMNd Morton, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 Characteristics and properties of wood 11 
 
 I. — Structure and appearance 11 
 
 Classes of trees 11 
 
 Wood of coniferous trees 12 
 
 Bark and pith 13 
 
 Sap and heart wood 13 
 
 The annual or yearly ring- 14 
 
 Spring and summer wood : 15 
 
 Anatomical structure 16 
 
 Wood of broad-leaved trees 18 
 
 Minute structure 20 
 
 Different grain of wood 21 
 
 Color and odor 24 
 
 Resonance 24 
 
 II.— Weight of wood 25 
 
 III. — Moisture in wood 29 
 
 IV. — Shrinkage of wood - 32 
 
 V. — Mechanical properties of wood 37 
 
 Stiffness 38 
 
 Cross breaking or bending strength 41 
 
 Tension and compression 43 
 
 Shearing 45 
 
 Influence of weight and moisture on strength 45 
 
 Hardness and shearing across the grain 47 
 
 Cleavability 48 
 
 Flexibility 49 
 
 Toughness 49 
 
 Practical conclusions 50 
 
 VI. — Chemical properties of wood 51 
 
 VII. — Durability and decay 54 
 
 How to distinguish the different kinds of wood : 59 
 
 How to use the key 62 
 
 Key to the more importaut woods of North America 64 
 
 I. — Non-porous woods (includes all coniferous woods) 64 
 
 II. — Ring-porous woods 65 
 
 III. — Diffuse-porous woods 69 
 
 List of the more important woods of the United States 72 
 
 A. — Coniferous woods 72 
 
 B. — Broad-leaved woods (hardwoods) 76 
 
 3 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Paga 
 Fig. 1. A piece of sawn timber cut through along the pith, illustrating its 
 
 structural aggregates 9 
 
 2. Possibilities of cutting timber from a log with reference to position of 
 
 grain 9 
 
 3. Board of pine 15 
 
 4. Wood of spruce 16 
 
 5. Group of fibers from pine wood 17 
 
 6. Block of oak 18 
 
 7. Board of oak 18 
 
 8. Cross section of oak 19 
 
 9. Isolated fibers and cells 20 
 
 10. Cross section of basswood (magnified) 21 
 
 11. Spiral grain 22 
 
 12. Alternating spiral grain in cypress 22 
 
 13. Wavy grain in beech 22 
 
 14. Section of wood showing position of the grain at base of a limb 23 
 
 15. Cross section of a group of wood fibers 25 
 
 16. Isolated fibers 26 
 
 17. Orientation of wood samples 27 
 
 18. Short pieces of wood fiber 32 
 
 19. Isolated cell 32 
 
 20. Warping of wood i 32 
 
 21. Formation of checks 33 
 
 22. Small pith ray iu oak 34 
 
 23. Effects of shrinkage 35 
 
 24. Honeycombed board 36 
 
 25. Bending a beam 39 
 
 26. Specimen iu tension test 43 
 
 27. Straiglit and cross grained wood 43 
 
 28. Etfect of knots and their position 43 
 
 29. Compression endwise 44 
 
 30. Longitudinal shearing 44 
 
 31. Various forms of failure 45 
 
 32. Test iu hardness and shearing across the grain 47 
 
 33. Cleavage 48 
 
 34. " Shelf-fungus on the stem of a pine 55 
 
 35. Fungus threads in pine wood 55 
 
 36. Cells of maple wood attacked by fungus threads 56 
 
 37. Nonporons woods 60 
 
 38. Ring porous woods 61 
 
 39. Dilfnse-porous woods 61 
 
 40. Wood of coffee tree 66 
 
 41. Wood of black, white, and green ash 67 
 
 42. Wood of red oak 68 
 
 43. Wood of chestnut 68 
 
 44. Wood of- hickory 68 
 
 45. Wood of beech, sycamore, and birch 70 
 
 46. Wood of maple 70 
 
 47. ^Voodof elm 71 
 
 48. Wood of walnut 71 
 
 49. Wood of cherry 71 
 
 4 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Wood is now, has ever been, and will continue to be, the inost widely 
 useful material of construction. It has been at the base of all material 
 civilization. In spite of all the substitutes for it in the shape of metal, 
 stone, and other materials, the consumption of wood in civilized coun- 
 tries has never decreased; nay, applications in new directions have 
 increased its use beyond the saving effected by the substitutes. Thus, 
 in England, the per capita consumption has increased in the last fifty 
 years more than double, a fact which is especially notable, as the bulk 
 of the timber used there must be imported, while iron and coal are 
 plentiful in Great Britain. 
 
 In the United States we can only estimate from the partial data fur- 
 nished by census returns. By these we find the per capita consumption 
 to have increased for every decade since 1800 at the rate of from 20 to 
 25 per cent. 
 
 Although wood has been in use so long and so universally, there 
 still exists a remarkable lack of knowledge regarding its nature in 
 detail, not only among laymen, but among those who might be expected 
 to know its properties. As a consequence, the practice is often faulty 
 and wasteful in the manner of its use. Experience has been almost 
 the only teacher, and notions — sometimes right, sometimes wrong — 
 rather than well-substantiated facts lead the wood consumer. Iron, 
 steel, and other metals are much better known in regard to their prop- 
 erties than wood. The reason for this imperfect knowledge lies in 
 the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material, like the metals, but 
 a complicated structure, and so variable that one stick will behave very 
 differently from another stick, although cut from the same tree. Not 
 only does the wood of one species differ from that of another, but the 
 butt cut differs from the top log; theheartwood from the sapwood; the 
 wood of the quickly grown sapling of the abandoned field from that of 
 the slowly grown old monarch of the forest. Even the manner in which 
 the tree was sawed and the condition in which the wood was cut and 
 kept influence its behavior and quality. It is, therefore, extremely 
 difficult to study the material for the purpose of establishing general 
 laws, and it becomes necessary to make a specific inspection of the 
 individual stick which is to be applied to a certain purpose. The 
 selection, not only of the most suitable kinds, but of each stick, for the 
 
 6 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 purpose for whicL it is fit will enter into that improved practice to 
 which we may look both for greater economy and greater efficiency. 
 
 The object of this biilletiii is to record more systematically than has 
 been done hitherto the kuowledge wliich exists and which will help the 
 wood consumer in tlieclioice of his material and in determining whether, 
 and if so why, a given stick will answer his purpose. Such ins[)cction 
 requires, first, a knowledge of the gross structure and appearance, 
 which give indications of quality and behavior, and then, for finer 
 application, a knowledge of the minute anatomical or microscoi>ic 
 structure. The minute structure will often explain the difference in 
 behavior of various kinds of wood, and a knowledge of it is almost 
 indispensable in distinguishing the various kinds. 
 
 In the countries of Europe the kinds of wood used in construction 
 and manufacture are so few that there is but little difficulty in distin- 
 guishing them. In our own country the great variety of woods, and of 
 useful woods at that, often makes the mere distinction of the kind or 
 species of tree most difficult. Thus there are at least eight junes (of 
 the thirty-five native ones) in the market, some of which so closely 
 resemble each other in their minute structure that they can hardly be 
 told apart; and yet they differ in quality and should be used separately, 
 although they are often mixed or confounded in the trade. Of the 
 thirty-six oaks, of which probably not less than six or eight are mar- 
 keted, we can readily recognize bj^ means of their minute anatomy at 
 least two tribes — the white and the black oaks. The distinction of the 
 species is, however, as yet uncertain. The same is true as to the eight 
 kinds of hickory, the six kinds of ash, etc. Before we shall be able to 
 distinguish the wood of these species unfailingly, more study will be 
 necessary. The key given in the present publication, therefore, is by 
 necessity only provisional, requiring further elaboration. It unfortu- 
 nately had to be based largely on external appearances, which are not 
 always reliable. Sometimes, for general practical purposes, this mere 
 appearance, with some minor attributes, such as color, taste, etc., are 
 together sufficient, esi)ecially when the locality is known from which 
 the species came, and in the log pile the determination may by these 
 means be rendered possible when a single detached piece will leav e us 
 doubtful as to the species. In the market the distinctions are often 
 most uncertain, and a promiscuous application of names adds to the 
 confusion. To be sure, there is not nmch virtue in knowing the correct 
 name, except that it assists us in describing the exact kind of material 
 we desire to obtain. Nor is there always much gained in being able to 
 identify the species of wood, but that it predicates certain qualities 
 which are usually found in the species. 
 
 In selecting material, tlien, for special purposes we first determine 
 what species to use as having either one quality which is foremost in 
 our requirements, or several qualities in combination, as shown by 
 actual experience or by experiment. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 The uses of tlie various woods depend ou a variety of conditions. 
 The carpenter and builder, using; large quantities of material and 
 bestowing- ;i miniiimin amount of labor on the greater part of the same, 
 uses those kinds which are abundant, and hence cheap, to be had in 
 large dimensions, light to ship, soft to work and to nail, and fairly still 
 and insect proof-— a combination represented in the conifers. They 
 need not be handsome, hard, tongli, or very strong, and may shrink 
 even after they are in pla<;e. When it comes to hnishing-woods, more 
 stress is laid on color and grain and that tlie wood shall shrink as little 
 as possible. 
 
 The furniture maker, wlio bestows a maximum amount of work on 
 his fhaterial, needs a wood that combines strength, and sometimes 
 toughness, with beauty and hardness, that takes a good polish, keeps 
 joint, and does not easily indent. It must not warp or shrink when once 
 in place, but it need not be light or soft or insect proof or abundant in 
 any one kind, and in large dimensions, nor yet particularly cheap. 
 
 Toughness, strength, and hardness combined are sought by the 
 wagon maker. The carriage builder, cooper, and shingle maker look 
 for straight-grained, easy-splitting woods, and for a long fiber, the 
 absence of disturbing resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc. Dura- 
 bility under exposure to the weather, resistance to indentation, and the 
 holding of spikes are required for a good railroad tie; lasting qualities, 
 elasticity, and proportionate dimensions of length and diameter, for 
 telegraph poles. 
 
 Sometimes in practice it is immaterial whether the stick be of white 
 oak or red oak, and many wood yards make no distinction, in fact do 
 not know any, but the experienced cooper will quickly distinguish, not 
 by name, perhaps, but by quality, the more porous red or black oak 
 from the less porons white species. On the other hand, the very same 
 white oak — Quercus alba., usually a superior article — may furnish so 
 poor material for a handle or a plow beam that a stick of red oak would 
 be preferable. The inspection, then, must be made not only for the 
 species but for the quality, with reference to the purpose for which the 
 stick is to be used. 
 
 That the inspection should have regard to defects and unhealthy 
 condition (often indicated by color) goes without saying, and such 
 inspection is usually practiced. That knots, even the smallest, are 
 defects which for some uses condemn the material altogether needs 
 hardly to be mentioned, but that season checks, even those that have 
 closed by subsequent shrinkage, remain elements of Aveakness is not 
 so readily appreciated. Yet there can not be any doubt of this, since 
 the intimate connection of the wood fibers, once interrupted, is never 
 reestablished. The careful wood user, therefore, is concerned as to the 
 manner in which his material was treated after the felling, for accord- 
 ing to the more or less careful seasoning of it the season checks, not 
 altogether avoidable, are more or less abundant. This is practically 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 recognized by splitting wagon and cooperage stock in the woods and 
 seasoning it partly shaped, and also in making a distinction, often unnec- 
 essarily, between air-dried and kiln-dried material. 
 
 Where strength is required, the weight of the material will give 
 good indications, for it is now pretty well establislied that weight and 
 strength go more or less together. But since weight in the green wood 
 is made uj) of at least three elements, namely, that of the wood fiber 
 itself, that of the water in the cell sjDaces, and that of the water in tlie 
 cell walls, the weight is deceptive unless we know also the moisture 
 condition of the stick or else ascertain the specific weight of the dry 
 wood. That the moisture contents influence considerably the strength 
 of the material is now well prov^en, strength increasing with loss of 
 inoistur?, and hence in practice allowance should be made according to 
 whether the stick is to be used where it will be exposed to the weather 
 or under cover and painted. 
 
 In some woods like the pines and the "ring porous" woods, such as 
 oak, chestnut, and hickory, in which each animal layer or ring is made 
 up of two distinct parts, the loose, porous spring wood and the dense 
 and firm summer wood, the proportion of the latter per square inch of 
 cross wSection — usnally but not always depending on the width of the 
 ring — furnishes a more direct criterion than the weight alone. The 
 color effect of itself gives indications of the Weight, since both weight 
 and color eftect depend on the same feature, namely, quantity of mate 
 rial; hence the larger quantity of dense summer wood on the cross 
 section occasions darker color, which is usually indicative of strength. 
 Color, too, must be consulted to detect incipient decay. Again, the 
 difference in firmness and hardness of the summer wood itself, as tested 
 by the knife or recognized in the difference of color effect by the prac- 
 ticed eye, furnishes another criterion in the selection of the stick. 
 
 Lastly, the manner in which the stick is sawed from the tree has a 
 remarkable influence upon its qualities and behavior, and it should, 
 therefore, either be specially' sawed or selecte<l with a view to its char- 
 acter and to the purpose for which it is to be used. This is a matter 
 fully appreciated among only a few wood users, like the wheelwrights, 
 piano makers, etc., but it needs to be observed much more than it is, 
 even in building. Quarter or rift sawing, i. e., cutting sticks or boards 
 out of the log in such a manner that the annual rings are cut through 
 as nearly as possible radially, has lately been practiced largely for the 
 sake of the beauty of the even grain thus obtained, and also for floor- 
 ing on account of the better wear which the even exposure of the grain 
 (hard bands of summer wood on edge) secures; but it should be much 
 more widely applied to secure greater strength and more uniform 
 seasoning and thus to reduce to some extent the one drawback to wood 
 as a material of construction, that is, its liabilility to "working" 
 (shrinking and swelling). The reason for the superiority of quarter- 
 sawed pieces, as well as the general fact that the manner of sawing 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 out a stick affects the general character and behavior of the same, will 
 appear from the following considerations : 
 
 A square column or beam cut so as to contain the heart or pith of 
 the tree in its center — which, by the way, is tlie weakest part on 
 
 Fig. 1 — A piece of sawn timber cut tbrough along the pith, illustrating its struetunil aggregates. 
 
 account of the many knots which it invariably and necessarily con- 
 tains — consists in the main of five structural aggregates (see fig. 1), 
 namely: (1) In the center a cone of wood fibers with the base in the 
 butt end and the apex in the top end, the base representing the rings 
 of as many years as it took the tree to attain the height of the column; 
 none of the fibers belonging to these rings appear in the top section 
 excepting those of the last ring wliich forms the a])cx of the cone; (2) 
 a hollow cylinder of material surrounding the cone, all fibers of which 
 are found in both sections and con- 
 tinuously through the whole length 
 of the column; all the entire rings at 
 the bottom belong in this cylinder, 
 and undoubtedly form the strongest 
 part of the column ; (3) surrounding 
 this cylinder a jjartial cylindrical 
 envelope of wood fibers, all of which 
 are represented in the top section, 
 but only a part appear at the corners 
 of the bottom ; most of them, there 
 fore, do not run through the whole 
 length, but are cut through at vary- 
 ing lengths, thereby presenting the 
 "bastard faces" on the sides of the 
 column ; (4) a partial envelope whose 
 radial extent is limited by the corners of the basal section, imperfect at 
 both ends; (5) the corners at the top, three-sided pyramids with the 
 base in the top section, the fibers running out at varying lengths. 
 
 Now, it will be readily admitted that each of these '' structural aggre- 
 gates" has a different value in the combined strength ot the whole. If 
 the stick be cut with the center or pith in one side (see fig. 2) all 
 these aggregates will be halved; if the stick be cut out differently, 
 for instance, with the heart entirely out or if it be made longer or 
 
 g h 
 
 Fig. 2.— Possibilities of cutting timber from a 
 log -with reference to position of grain. 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 shorter, or rectangular instead of scjuare, in each ca«e the proportion 
 of each of the aggregates changes, and lience it stands to reason tiiat 
 the strengtli of the column, or beam, or stick, changes acc(ndiug to 
 the manner in which it is cut from the tree. This most evident and 
 important fact has, it seems, escaped our best engineers and experi- 
 menters, who have tested beams without taking account of this disturb- 
 ing element, and it is certainly overlooked most generally by builders 
 and cari)t'nters in their selection of material. 
 
 While it may perhaps not be expected that the sawing at the mill 
 will be done with more care so as to secure the best results in applica- 
 tion, or that the special advantage of quarter sawing will soon be suffi- 
 ciently apprecnited so as to extend its use in such a manner that the 
 greater efficiency of the quarter sawed material will compensate for the 
 greater expense of the operation, wood users may at least be expected 
 to make their selections from the sawed material in the yard, and 
 shai)e it for their particular use with greater care. 
 
 There is no country in which wood is more lavisWy used than in the 
 United States, aiul none in which nature has more bountifully provided 
 for all reasonable re<inirements. In the absence of proper eftbrts to 
 secure reproduction, the most valuable kinds are rapully being deci- 
 mated, and the necessity of alnore rational and careful use of what 
 remains is clearly a])parent. By greater care in selection, however, not 
 only can the duration of the supply be extended, but more satisfactory 
 
 results will accrue from its use. 
 
 B. E. Fernow. 
 Washington, D. C, September 15, 1895. 
 
TIMBER. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIliS OF WOOL). 
 
 I— STRUCTURE AND APPEARANCE. 
 
 The structure of wood allbrds the only reliable means of distinf^uish 
 iug the different kinds. Color, weight, smell, and other appearances, 
 which are often direct or indirect results of structure, may be helpful in 
 this distinction but can not be relied upou entirely. In addition, struc- 
 ture underlies nearly all the technical properties of this imporrant 
 ]iroduct and furnishes an explanation why one piece differs as to these 
 properties from another. 
 
 Structure explains why oak is heavier, stronger, and tougher than 
 pine; why it is harder to saw and ])lane, and why it is so much more 
 difficult to season without injury. From its less porous structure alo)ie, 
 it is evident that a piece of a young and thrifty oak is stronger than the 
 porous wood of an old or stunted tree; or that Georgia or h)ngleaf pine 
 excels white pine in weight and strength. Keeping especially in mind 
 the arrangement and direction of the fibers of wood, it is clear at once 
 why knots and "crossgrains" interfere with the strength of timber. 
 
 It is due to structural peculiarities that "honeycombing" occurs in 
 rapid seasoning, that "checks" or cracks extend radially and follow 
 pith rays, that tangent or " bastard " boards shrink and warp mor e than 
 quartered lumber. These same peculiarities enable cherry and oak to 
 take a better finish than basswood or coarse grained pine. 
 
 Moreover, structure, aided by color, determines the beauty of wood. 
 All the pleasing figures, whether in a hard-pine ceiling, a desk of quar- 
 tered oak, or in the beautiful panels of "curly" or "bird's-eye" maple 
 decorating the saloon of a ship or a palace car, are due to differences 
 in the structure of the wood. Knowing this, the appearance of any 
 particular section can be foretold, and almost unlimited choice and 
 combination are thereby suggested. 
 
 Thus a knowledge of structure not only enables us to distinguish the 
 different woods, Judge as to their qualities, and explain the causes of 
 their beauty, but it also becomes an invaluable aid to the thoughtful 
 worker, guiding him to a more careful selection and a more perfect use 
 of his material. 
 
 CLASSES OF TREES. 
 
 The timber of the United States is furnished by three well-defined 
 classes of trees: the needle-leaved, naked-seeded conifers (pine, cedar, 
 etc.), the dicotyledonous (with two seed leaves), broad-leaved trees (oak, 
 
 11 
 
12 TIMBER. 
 
 poplar, etc.), and to an inferior extent by the monocotyledonous (with 
 one seed leaf), palms, yuccas, and their allies, which last are confined 
 to the most southern parts of the country. 
 
 Broad-leaved trees are also known as deciduous trees, although 
 especially in warm countiies, many of them are evergreen,' while the 
 conifers are commonly termed "evergreens," although the larch, bald 
 cypress, and others shed their leaves every fall, and even the names 
 "broad-leaved'' and " coniferous," though perhaps the most satisfac- 
 tory, are not at all exact, for the conifer ginkgo has broad leaves and 
 bears no cones. 
 
 In the lumber trade, tlie woods of broad-leaved trees are known as 
 "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as pine, .and the coniferous 
 woods are " soft woods," notwithstanding that yew ranks high in hard- 
 ness even when compared to " hardwoods," 
 
 Both in the number of diflerent kinds of trees or species and still 
 more in the im])(>rtance of their ])ro(luct the conifers and broad-leaved 
 trees far excel the palms and their relatives. 
 
 In the manner of growth both conifers and broad-leaved trees behave 
 alike, adding each year a new layer of wood which covers the old wood 
 in all i)arts of the stem and limbs. Thus the trunk continues to grow 
 in thickness throughout the life of the tree by additions (annual 
 rings) whi(;h in temperate climates are, barring accidents, accurate 
 records of the tree. With the palms and their relatives the stem 
 remains generally of the same diameter, the tree of a hundred years 
 being as thick as it was at ten years, the growth of these being only at 
 the top. Even where a peripheral increase takes i)lace, as in the yuc- 
 cas, the wood is not laid on in well defined layers ; the structure remains 
 irregular throughout. 
 
 Though alike in their manner of growth, and therefore similar in 
 their general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved trees difter markedly 
 in the details of their structure and the character of their wood. The 
 wood of all conifers is very simple in its structure, the fibers compos- 
 ing the main part of the wood being all alike and their arrangement 
 regular. The wood of broad-leaved trees is complex in structure; it is 
 made up of several different kinds of cells and fibers and lacks the reg- 
 ularity of arrangement so noticeable in the conifers. This difference is 
 so great that in a study of wood structure it is best to consider the 
 two kinds separately. 
 
 WOOD OF CONIFEROUS TREES. 
 
 Examining a smooth cross section or end ftice of a well-grown log of 
 Georgia pine or Norway i^ine, we distinguish an envelope of reddish, 
 scaly bark, a small whitish pith at the center, and between these the 
 wood in a great number of concentric rings. 
 
 ^ In Ceylon even the cultivated cherry has become an evergreen. 
 
STRUCTURE AND APPEARANCE. 13 
 
 BARK AND PITH. 
 
 The bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near the base, 
 decreases rapidly in thickness from li inches at the stump to one-tenth 
 inch near the toi) of the tree, and forms m general about 10 to 15 per 
 cent of the entire trunk. 
 
 The pith is quite thick, usually one-eighth to one-fifth inch in Norway 
 pine and in the southern species, though much less so in white pine, and 
 is very thin, one-fifteenth to one twenty-fifth inch in cypress, cedar, 
 and larch. 
 
 In woods with a thick pith, this latter is finest at the stump, grows 
 rapidly thicker upward, and becomes thinner again in the crown and 
 limbs, the first 1 to 5 rings adjoining it behaving similarly. 
 
 SAP AXD HEART WOOD. 
 
 A zone of wood next to the bark, 1 to 3 or more inches wide, and 
 containing 30 to 50 or more annual rings, is of lighter color; this is the 
 sapwood, the inner, darker part of the log being the heartwood. In the 
 former many cells are active and store up starch and otherwise assist in 
 the life processes of the tree, although only the last or outer layer of cells 
 the cambium, forms the growing part and the true life of the tree. In 
 the heartwood all cells are lifeless cases, and serve only the mechan- 
 ical function of keeping the tree from breaking under its own great 
 weight, or from being laid low by the winds. 
 
 The darker color of the heartwood is due to infiltration of chemical 
 substances into the cell walls, but the cavities of the cells in jjine are 
 not filled up, as is sometimes believed, nor do their walls grow thicker, 
 nor is their wall any more lignified than in the sapwood. Sapwood 
 varies in width and in the number of rings which it contains, even in 
 different parts of the same tree; the same year's growth which is sap- 
 wood in one part of a disk may be heartwood in another. Sapwood is 
 widest in the main part ot the stem and varies often within considerable 
 limits, and without apparent regularity. Generally it becomes narrower 
 toward the top and in the limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and 
 being least, in a given disk, on the side which has the shortest radius, 
 Sapwood of old and stunted pines is composed of more rings than that 
 of young and thrifty specimens. Thus in a pine 250 years old, a layer 
 of wood or annual ring does not change from sapwood to heartwood 
 until seventy or eighty years after it is formed, while in a tree 100 years 
 old, or less, it remains sapwood only from thirty to sixty years. The 
 width of the sapwood varies considerably for different kinds of pines; 
 it is small for longleaf and white pine, and great for loblolly and Nor- 
 way pines. Occupying the peripheral part of the trunk the proportion 
 which it forms of the entire mass of the stem is always great. Thus 
 even in old trees of longleaf pine the sapwood forms about 40 per 
 cent of the merchantable log, while in the loblolly and in all young 
 trees the bulk of the wood is sapwood. 
 
14 TIMBER. 
 
 THE ANNUAL OR YEAKLY RING. 
 
 The concentric, annual, or yearly rings, which appear on the end 
 face of a log are cross sections of so many thin layers of wood. 
 Each such layer forms an envelope around its inner neighbor, and is 
 in turn covered by the adjoining layer without, so that the whole stem 
 is built uj) of a series of thin hollow cylinders, or rather cones. A new 
 layer of wood is formed each season, covering the entire stem, as well 
 as all the living branches. The thickness of this layer, or the width 
 of the yearly ring, varies greatly in different trees and also in difi'erent 
 parts of the same tree. In a normally grown, thritty pine log the rings 
 are widest near the pith, growing more and more narrow toward the 
 bark. Thus the central 20 rings in a disk of an old longleaf pine may 
 each be one eighth to one-sixth inch (3 to 4 mm.) wide, while the 20 
 rings next to the baric may average only one thirtieth inch (0.7 mm.). 
 In our forest trees rings of one-half inch in width occur only near the 
 center in disks of very thrifty trees of both conifers and hard woods; 
 one-twelfth inch represents good thrifty growth, and the mininuim width 
 of about one two hundredths inch (0,2 mm.) is often seen in stunted 
 spruce and pine. The average width of rings in well-grown old 
 white pine will vary from one-twelfth to one eighteenth inch, while 
 in the slower growing longleaf pine it may be one twenty-fifth to one- 
 thirtieth of an inch. The same layer of wood is widest near the stumj) 
 in very thrifty young trees, especially if grown in the open park, but 
 in old forest trees the same year's growth is wider in the upper part of 
 the tree, being narrowest near the stump and often also near the very 
 tip of the stem. Generally the rings are widest near the center, grow- 
 ing narrower towards bark. In logs from stunted trees the order is 
 often reversed, the interior rings being thin and the outer rings widest. 
 Frequently, too, zones or bands of very narrow rings, representing unfa- 
 vorable periods of growth, disturb the general regularity. Few trees, 
 even among pines, furnish a log with truly circular cross section ; usually 
 it is an oval, and at the stump commonly quite an irregular figure. 
 Moreover, even in very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in 
 the center, and frequently one radius is conspicuously longer than its 
 opposite, the width of some of the rings, if not all, being greater on one 
 side than on the other. This is nearly always so in the limbs, the 
 lower radius exceeding the upper. 
 
 In extreme cases, especially in the limbs, a ring is frequently con- 
 spicuous on one side and almost or entirely lost to view on the other. 
 Where the rings are extremely narrow, the dark portion of ring is 
 olten wanting, the coh)r being cpiite uniform and light. The greater 
 regularity or irregularity of the annual rings has much to do with the 
 technical (jualities of the timber. 
 
ANNUAL RINGS. 
 
 15 
 
 SPMNG AND SUMMER WOOD. 
 
 Examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that each ring is made 
 up of an inner, softer, light-colored, and an outer, or peripheral, lirmer 
 and darker-colored portion. Being formed in the fore i)art of the sea- 
 son, llie inner, light-colored part is termed spring wood, the outer, 
 darker portion being the summer wood of the ring. Since the latter is 
 very heavy and firm, it determines to a large extent the weight and 
 strength of the wood, and as its darker color infiuences tlie shade of 
 color of the entire piece of wood, this color effect becomes a valuable 
 aid in distinguishing heavy and strong from light and soft jjine wood. 
 In most hard i)ines, like the lougleaf, the dark summer wood appears 
 as a distinct band, so that the 
 
 yearly ring is composed of two 
 sharply detined bands — an inner, 
 the spring wood, and an outer, 
 the summer wood. But in some 
 cases, even in hard pines, and 
 normally in the wood of white 
 pines, the spring wood passes 
 gradually into the darker sum- 
 mer wood, so that a sharply de- 
 tined line occurs only where the 
 spring wood of one ring abuts 
 against the summer wood of its 
 neighbor. It is this clearly 
 detined line which enables the 
 eye to distinguish even the very 
 narrow rings in old pines and 
 spruces. In some cases, espe- 
 cially in the trunks of Southern 
 pines, and normally on the lower 
 side of pine limbs, there occur 
 dark bands of wood in the spring wood portion of the riug, giving rise 
 to false rings which mislead in a superficial counting of rings. In the 
 disks cut from limbs these dark bands often occupy the greater part of 
 the ring and appear as '4unes" or sickle-shaped figures. The wood 
 of these dark bands is similar to that of the true summer wood — the 
 cells have thick walls, but usually lack the compressed or flattened 
 form. 
 
 Xormally, the summer wood forms a greater ]uoi)ortion of the riug 
 in the part of the tree formed during the period of thriftiest growth. 
 In an old tree this proportion is very small in the first 2 to ~> rings 
 about the pith, and also in the part next to the bark, the intermediate 
 part showing a greater i)roportion of summer wood. It is also greatest 
 in a disk taken from near the stump and decreases upward in the stem, 
 
 FlG.y. — Board of piue. Cfi, «to8s section; A'.V, radial 
 section: T/S, tangential section ; sc, summer woo;! ; 
 spw, spring wood. 
 
16 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 thus fully accounting for the difference in weight and firmness of the 
 wood of these different parts. In the longleaf pine the summer wood 
 often forms scarcely 10 per cent of the wood in the central 5 rings; 40 
 to 50 i)er cent of the next 100 rings; about 30 per cent in the next 50, 
 and only about 20 per cen t in the 50 rin^s next to the bark. It averages 
 45 per cent of the wood of the stump and only 24 per cent of that of 
 the top. 
 
 Sawing the log into boards, the yearly rings are represented on the 
 board faces of the middle board (radial sections) by narrow, parallel 
 stripes (see fig. 3), an inner, lighter stripe, and its outer, darker neighbor 
 always corresponding to one annual ring. 
 
 On the faces of the boards nearest the slab (tangential or " bastard" 
 boards) the several years' growth should also appear as parallel, but 
 
 much broader stripes. This they do 
 only if the log is short and very perfect. 
 Usually a variety of pleasing patterns 
 is displayed on the boards, depending 
 on the position of the saw 
 cut, and on the regularity 
 of growth of the log. (See 
 tig. 3.) 
 
 Where the cut passes 
 through a prominence (bump 
 or crook) of the log, irregu- 
 lar, concentric circlets and 
 ovals are produced, and on 
 almost all tangent boards, 
 arrow, or V-shaped forms 
 occur. 
 
 ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE. 
 
 nj4"~ 
 
 -frr;" 
 
 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 ^;;,^^,„ 
 
 i '^ 
 
 
 €^i 
 
 ^ E 
 
 H^^ 
 
 vi 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 m' 
 
 B 
 
 i 
 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 HP 
 
 fr 
 
 
 i 
 
 fr 
 
 \ 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 cl 
 
 -t^ 
 
 j« .XlL 
 
 w 
 
 
 JPiG. 4.— Wood of spruce. 1, natural size; 2, small partof 
 ono ring masruified 100 times. The vertical tabes are 
 wood liber-si in this case all '• traclieids." m, medullary 
 or pith ray; n, transverse traclieids of pith ray; a, 6, 
 and c, bordered pita of the tracheids, more enlarged 
 
 Holding a well-smoothed 
 disk, or cross section one- 
 eighth inch thick toward the 
 light, it is readily seen that 
 pine wood is a very porous structure. If viewed with a strong magni- 
 fier, the little tubes, especially in the spring wood of the rings, are easily 
 distinguished and their arrangement in regular straight radial rows is 
 apparent. Scattered through tlie summer wood portion of the rings, 
 numerous irregular grayish dots (the resin ducts) disturb the uniform- 
 ity and regularity of the structure. Magnified 100 times, a piece of 
 spruce, which is similar to pine, presents a picture like that shown in 
 fig. 4. Only short pieces of the tubes or cells of which the wood is 
 composed are represented in the picture. 
 
 The total length of these fibers is one-twentieth to one-fifth inch 
 being smallest near the pith, and is 50 to 100 times as great as their 
 
MINUTE STRUCTURE. 
 
 17 
 
 width (fig. 5). They are tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal, or 
 
 OTOHmrnM 
 
 rounded and thin walled , with large cavity, lumen 
 or internal space in the spring wood, thick walled 
 and flattened radially with the internal space or 
 lumen much reduced in the summer wood. (See 
 riglit-hand portion of fig. 4). This flattening, 
 together with the thicker walls of the cells which 
 reduces the lumen, causes the greater firmness 
 and darker color of the summer wood — there is 
 more material in the same volume. As shown in 
 the figure, the tubes, cells, or "tracheids" are 
 decorated on their walls by circlet-like struc- 
 tures, the " bordered pits," sections of which are 
 seen more magnified at «, b, and c, fig. 4. These 
 pits are in the nature of pores, covered by very 
 thin membranes, and serve as waterways between 
 the cells or tracheids. 
 
 The dark lines on the side of the smaller piece 
 (1, fig. 4) ap{)ear when magnified (in 2, fig. 4) as 
 tiers of 8 to 10 rows of cells, which run radially 
 (parallel to the rows of tubes or tracheids) and 
 are seen as bands on the radial fa,ce and as rows 
 of pores on the tangential face. These bands or 
 tiers of cell rows are the medullary rays or pith 
 rays, and are common to all our lumber woods. 
 In the i)ines and other conifers they aie quite 
 small, but they can readily be seen, even without 
 a magnifier, if a radial surface of split wood (not 
 smoothed) is examined. The entire radial face 
 will be seen almost covered with these tiny struc- 
 tures, which appear as fine but conspicuous cross 
 lines. As shown in fig. 4 the cells of the med- 
 ullary or i)ith rays are smaller and very much 
 shorter than the wood fibers or tracheids and 
 their long axis is at right angles to that of the 
 fibers. In pines and spruces the cells of the 
 upper and lower rows of each tier or pith ray 
 have "bordered" pits like those of the wood 
 fibers or tracheids proper, but the cells of the 
 intermediate rows, and of all rows in the rays of 
 cedars, etc., have only -'simple" pits, i. e., pits 
 levoid of the saucer-like "border" or rim. 
 
 In pine, many of the pith rays are larger than 
 the majority, each containing a whitish line, the 
 horizontal resin duct, which, though much 
 smaller, resembles the vertical ducts seen on the 
 cross section. The larger vertical resin ducts are best observed on 
 3521— No. 10 2 
 
 
18 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 removal of the bark from a fresh piece of white pine, cut in winter, where 
 they appear as conspicuous white lines, extending often for many inches 
 
 up and down the stem. 
 
 Neither the liorizontal nor the vertical resin 
 
 ducts are vessels or cells, but are openings 
 
 ij s T I j j 1 11 between cells, i. e., intercellular spaces, in 
 ' ^-S 1 I i I'l ^ M which the resin accumulates, freelj^ oozing out 
 ,, ;. i fi--'>- '■ .] when the ducts of a fresli piece of sapwood are 
 cut. They are present only in our coniferous 
 woods, and even here they are restricted to 
 pine, spruce, and larch, and are normally ab- 
 sent in tir, cedar, cy])ress, and yew. 
 
 Altogether the structure of coniferous wood 
 is very simple and regular, the bulk being made 
 up of the small fibers called tracheids, the dis- 
 turbing elements of pith rays and resin ducts 
 being insigiiiticant, and hence the great uniform- 
 ity and great technical value of coniferous wood. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Block of oak. C. .V., 
 cross section ; R. S.. radial sec- 
 tion ; T. S., tangential section ; 
 7». r., medullary or pith ray ; a, 
 heigbt, 6, width, and e, length 
 of a pith ray. 
 
 WOOD OF BROAD LEAVED TREES. 
 
 On a cross section of oak, the same arrangement of pith and bark, 
 
 of sapwood and heartwood, ^^ ^. ^, .^ ^ ^ ^.^^^..^ 
 
 and the same disposition of ^<j^^ ^^ ^ ^pl^'^^S?$$^?^^ ^ 
 the wood in well-defined con- '^sTirr;r,iTT:T. n"Ti ;,- ''-'t.- \-y r y^vr:,^\ 
 
 centric or annual rings occurs, 
 but the rings are marked by 
 lines, or rows, of conspicuous 
 pores or openings which oc- 
 cupy tlie greater part of the 
 spring wood of each ring (see 
 tig. 6, also tig. 8) and are, in 
 fact, the hollows of vessels 
 through which the cut has 
 been made. On the radial sec- 
 tion, or quarter-sawed board, 
 the several layers ai)pear as 
 so many i)arallel stripes (see 
 fig. 7); on the tangential 
 section or "bastard" face, 
 l)atterns similar to those men- 
 tioned for pine wood are ob- 
 served. But while the pat- 
 terns in hard pine are marked 
 by the darker summer wood '"' ^ , , 
 
 - 1 ♦• I • Jif!-7.— Board of oak. CS, cross section ; /(".S", radial sec- 
 
 and are composed OI I)laill, tiou: T.S, tanucntial section; r, vessels or pores, cut. 
 alternating stripes of darker through; J^, sllgUt curie in log which appears in aec- 
 
 and lighter wood, the figures ♦'«n««an-^'''- 
 
 in oak (and other broad-leaved woods) are due chiefly to the vessels, 
 
STRUCTURE OF BROAD-LEAVED WOODS. 
 
 19 
 
 those of the spring wood in oak being the most conspicuous (see fig. 7); 
 so that in an oak table the darker, shaded parts are the spring wood, 
 the lighter, unicolored parts the summer wood. 
 
 On closer examination of the smoothed cross section of oak, the 
 spring wood part of the ring is found to be formed, in great part, of 
 pores: large, round, or oval openings made by the cut through long 
 
 
 Fig. 8 A.— Cross section of oak magnified about 5 times. 
 
 vessels. These are separated by a grayish and quite porous tissue 
 (see fig. 8 A), which continues here and there in the form of radial, often 
 branched, patches (not the pith rays) into and through the summer 
 wood to the spring wood of the next ring. The large vessels of the 
 spring wood, occupying C to 10 per cent of the volnme of a log in very 
 good oak, and 25 per cent or more in 
 inferior and narrow-ringed lumber, are a 
 very important feature, since it is evi- 
 dent that the greater their share in the 
 volume, the lighter and weaker the wood. 
 They are smallest near the pith, and grow 
 wider outward; they are wider in the 
 stem than limb and seem to be of indefi- 
 nite length, forming open channels in 
 some cases probably as long as the tree 
 itself. 
 
 Scattered through the radiating gray 
 patches of porous wood are vessels simi- 
 lar to those of the spring wood, but 
 decidedly smaller. These vessels are fig. s b. 
 usually fewer and larger near the spring 
 wood, and smaller and more numerous 
 in the outer portions of the ring. Their number and size can be util- 
 ized to distinguish the oaks classed as white oaks from those classed as 
 black and red oaks; they are fewer and larger in red oaks, smaller but 
 much more numerous in white oaks. The snmmei- wood, except for 
 these radial grayish patches, is dark colored and firm. This firm por- 
 tion, divided into bodies or strands by these patches of porous wood 
 
 Portion of the firm bodies of 
 libers with two cells of a small pith 
 rav ""•• nighlv magnified. 
 
20 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 and also by fine wavy concentric lines of short, thin-walled cells (see 
 fig. 8 A), consists of thick-walled fibers (see dg. 8 B) and is the chief 
 element of strength in oak wood. In good white oak it forms one-half 
 and more of the wood; it cuts like horn, and the cut surface is shiny 
 and of a deep chocolate brown color. In very narrow-ringed wood 
 and in inferior red oak it is usually much reduced in quantity as 
 well as quality. 
 
 The pith rays of the oak, unlike those of coniferous woods, are 
 at least in part very large and conspicuous (see fig. 6, their height 
 indicated by the letter a, and their width by the letter h). The 
 large medullary vays of oak are often twenty and more cells wide 
 and several hundred cell rows in height, wliich amount com- 
 monly to one or more inches. These 
 large rays are consi)icuous on all sec- 
 tions. They appear as long, sharp, 
 grayish lines on the cross section, as 
 short, thick lines, tapering at each 
 end, on the tangential or "bastard" 
 face, and as broad, shiny bands, the 
 ^'mirrors," on the radial section. In 
 addition to these coarse rays, there is 
 also a large number of small pith 
 rays, which can be seen only when 
 magnitied. On the whole, the pith 
 rays form a much larger part of the 
 wood than might be supposed. In 
 specimens of good white oak it has 
 been lound that they formed about 
 16 to 25 per cent of the wood. 
 
 >IINUTK STRUCTUKK. 
 
 If a well-smoothed, thin disk, or 
 cross section of oak (say one-sixteenth 
 inch thick) is held up to the light, it 
 looks very much like a sieve, the 
 pores or vessels appearing as clean- 
 cut holes; the spring wood and gray 
 patches are seen to be (juite i)or- 
 ous, but the firm bodies of fibers 
 between them are dense and opaque. 
 Examined with the magnifier it 
 will be noticed that there is no such regularity of arrangement in 
 straight rows as is conspicuous in the pine; on the contrary, great 
 irregulaiity pi-evails. At the same time, while the pores are as large 
 as \)m holes, the cells of the denser wood, unlike those of pine wood, 
 
 Flu. 9.— Isolated libers and cells, a, lour cells 
 of wood parencbyma; b, two cells from a 
 pith ray; c, a single, joint or cell of a vessel, 
 t!ic openings x leading into its upper and 
 lower neighbors; d, tracheid; e, wood fiber 
 proper. 
 
GRAIN OF WOOD. 21 
 
 are too small to be distinguished. Studied with the microscope, 
 each vessel is found to be a vertical row of a great number of short, 
 wide tubes, joined end to end (tig. 9, c). The porous spring wood and 
 radial gray tracts are partly composed of smaller vessels, but chiefly 
 of tracheids like those of pine, and of shorter cells, the '-wood paren- 
 chyma," resembling the cells of the medullary rays. These latter, as 
 well as the fine concentric lines mentioned as occurring in the summer 
 wood, are composed entirely of short, tube-like parenchyma cells with 
 square or oblique ends (fig. 9, a and h). The wood fibers proper, which 
 form the dark, firm bodies referred to, are very tine, threadlike cells 
 one twenty fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall commonly so thick 
 that scarcely any empty internal space or lumen remains (tigs. 9, e, 
 and 8, B). 
 
 If instead of oak a piece of poplar or basswood (fig. 10) had been 
 used in this study, the structure would have been found to be quite 
 different. The same kinds of cell-elements, vessels, etc., are, to be 
 
 Fig. 10.— Cross section of basswood (maguified). v, vessels; mr, pith rays. 
 
 sure, present, but their combination and arrangement is different, and 
 thus from the great variety of possible combinations results the great 
 variety of structure and, in consequence, of the qualities which distin- 
 guish ttie wood of broad-leaved trees. The sharp distinction of sap- 
 wood and heartwood is wanting; the rings are not so clearly defined, 
 the vessels of the wood are small, very numerous, and rather evenly 
 scattered through the wood of the annual ring, so that the distinction 
 of the ring almost vanishes and the medullary or pith rays, in poplar, 
 can be seen, without being magnified, only on the radial section. 
 
 DIFFERENT GRAIN OF WOOD. 
 
 The terms "fine grained," "coarse grained,'' "straight grained" 
 and "cross grained" are frequently applied in woodworking. In com- 
 mon usage, wood is "coarse grained" if its annual rings are wide, 
 "fine grained" if they are narrow; in the finer wood industries a "fine- 
 grained" wood is capable of high polish while a "coarse-grained" wood 
 
22 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 is not, so that in this latter case the distinption depends chiefly on hard- 
 ness, and ill the Ibinier on an accidental case of slow or rapid growth. 
 Generally the direction of the wood fibers is parallel to the axis of 
 the stem or liiul) in which they occur, the wood is straight grained, but 
 
 Fig. 11.— Spinil grain. Kio. 12. — Alternating spiral tjraiu iu cypress. Side 
 Season checks, after rt-- and end view of same piece. Wlien the bark was 
 
 luoval of hark, indicate at o the grain at thi.s point was straight. From 
 
 thetlirectionof theflber.s that time each year it grew more oblique in one 
 
 or grain. direction, reaching a climax at «, and then turned 
 
 hack in the opposite direction. These alterna- 
 tions were repeated periodically, the hark sliaring 
 in these chauge.s. 
 
 in many cases the course of the fibers is spiral or twisted around the 
 tree as shown in fig. 11, and sometimes (commonly in butts of gum 
 and cypress) the fibers of several layers are oblique in one direction, 
 and those of the next series of layers are oblique in the opposite 
 
 direction, as shown in fig. 12; the wood is 
 cross or twisted grained. Wavy grain in a 
 tangential ])lain as seen on the radial section 
 is illustrated in fig'. 13, which represents an 
 extreme case observed in beech. This same 
 form also occurs on the radial plain, causing' 
 the tangential section to appear wavy or in 
 transverse folds. When wavy grain is tine, 
 i. e., the folds or ridges small but numerous, 
 it gives rise to the "curly" structure fre- 
 quently seen in maple. Ordinarily, neither 
 wavy, spiral, nor alternate grain is visible 
 on the cross section; its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, 
 longitudinal faces in sawed material, so that the only safe guide to 
 their discover}' lies in splitting- the M't^od in the two normal plains. 
 
 Generally the surface of the wood under the bark, and therefore also 
 that of any layer in the interior, is not uniform and smooth, but is 
 
 Fig. 13.— Wavy grain in heech 
 after Niirdlinger. 
 
CURLY" AND "lURDS-EYF/ GRAIN. 
 
 23 
 
 channeled and pitted by numerous de])ressions wliicli differ greatly in 
 size and form. Usually, any one depression or elevation is restricted 
 to one or few annual layers (i. e., seen only in one or few rings) and is 
 then lost, being compensated (tlie surface at the particular spot evened 
 up) by growth. In some woods, however, any deinession or elevation 
 once attained grows from year to year and reaches a maximum 
 size which is maintained for uiany years, sometimes throughout life. 
 
 In maple, where this tendency to preserve 
 any particular contour is very great, the 
 depressions and elevations are usnally small 
 (connnonly less than one-eighth inch), but 
 very numerous. On tangent boards of such 
 wood the sections of these i)its and promi- 
 nences appear as circlets and give rise to the 
 beautiful "bird's-eye" or "landscape" struc- 
 ture. Similar structures in the burls of 
 black ash, maple, etc., are frequently due to 
 the presence of dormant buds, which cause 
 the surface of all the layers through which 
 they pass to be covered by small conical 
 elevations, whose cross sections on the sawed 
 board appear as irregular circlets or islets 
 each with a dark speck, the section of the pith 
 or "trace" of the dormant bud in the center. 
 
 In the wood of many broad leaved trees 
 the wood fibers are much longer when full 
 grown than when they are first formed in the 
 cambium or growing zone. This causes the 
 tips of each fiber to crowd in between the 
 . fibers above and below, and leads to an 
 irregular interlacement of these fibers, 
 which adds to the toughness but reduces the 
 deavability of the wood. 
 
 At the junction of limb and stem the fibers 
 on the upper and lower sides of the limb 
 behave differently. On the lower side they 
 run from the stem into the lind), forming an 
 uninterrupted strand or tissue and a perfect 
 union. On the upper side the fibers bend aside, are not continuous 
 into the limb, and hence the connection is imperfect (fig. 14). 
 
 Owing to this arrangement of the fibers, the cleft made in splitting 
 never runs into the knot, if started on the side above the limb, but is 
 apt to enter tlie knot if started below, a fact well understood in wood 
 craft. When limbs die, decay, and brea.'v off", the remaining stubs are 
 surrounded and may finally be covered by the growth of the trunk, and 
 thus give rise to the annoying '.'dead" or "loose" knots. 
 
 Fig. 14.— Section of wood .showing 
 position of the grain at liase of a 
 limb. 1\ pith of both stem and 
 limb: 1-7, .seven yearly layers of 
 wood ; a, h, knot or ba.sal part of 
 a limb which lived four years, 
 then died and broke off near the 
 stem, leaving the part to the left 
 of a, h, a "sound" knot, the part 
 to the right a "dead" knot, 
 which would soon be entirely 
 covered by the growing .stem. 
 
24 TIMBER. 
 
 COLOR AND ODOR. 
 
 Color, like structure, lends beauty to the wood, aids in its identifica- 
 tion, and is of great value in the determination of its quality. Con- 
 sidering only the heartwood, the black color of the persimmon, the 
 dark brown of the walnut, the light brown of the white oaks, the red- 
 dish brown of the red oaks, the yellowish white of the tulip and poplar, 
 the brownish red of the redwood and cedar, the yellow of the papaw 
 and sumac, are all reliable marks of distinction; and color together 
 with luster and weight are only too often the only features depended 
 upon in practice. Newly formed wood, like that of the outer few rings, 
 has but little color. The sapwood generally is light, and the wood of 
 trees which form no heartwood changes but little, except when stained 
 by forerunners of disease. 
 
 The different tints of colors, whether the brown of oak, the orange 
 brown of pine, the blackish tint of walnut, or the reddish cast of cedar, 
 are due to pigments, while the deeper shade of the summer-wood bands 
 in pine and cedar, or in oak or walnut, is due to the fact that the wood 
 being denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs on a given 
 space, i. e., there is more colored matter per square inch. 
 
 Wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine permitting light to pass 
 through quite freely. This transluceucy affects the luster and bright- 
 ness of lumber. When wood is attacked by fungi it becomes more 
 opaque, loses its brigiitness, and in practice is designated " dead " in 
 distinction to "live" or bright timber. Exposure to air darkens all 
 wood; direct sunlight and occasional moistening hasten this change 
 and cause it to penetrate deeper. Prolonged immersion has the same 
 effect, i)ine wood beco:ning a dark gray while oak changes to a blackish 
 brown. 
 
 Odor, like color, depends on chemical compounds, forming no part of 
 the wood substance itself. Exposure to weather reduces, and often 
 changes the odor, but a piece of dry longleaf pine, cedar, or camphor 
 wood exhales apparently as much odor as ever, when a new surface is 
 exposed. 
 
 Deartwood is more odoriferous than sapwood. Many kinds of wood 
 are distinguished by strong and peculiar odors. This is esi)e('ially the 
 case with camphor, cedar, pine, oak, and mahogany, and the list would 
 comprise every kind of wood in use, were our sense of smell developed 
 in keeping with its importance. Decomposition is usually accompanied 
 by pronounced odors; decaying poplar emits a disagreeable odor, 
 while red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell resembling that of 
 heliotrope. 
 
 RESONANCE. 
 
 If a log or scantling is struck with the ax or hammer, a sound is 
 emitted which varies in i)itch and character with the shai)e and size of 
 the stick, and also with the kind and condition of wood. Not only can 
 
RESONANCE. 25 
 
 sound be produced by a direct blow, but a thin board may be set vibra- 
 ting and be made to give a tone by merely producing a suitable tone 
 in its vicinity. The vibrations of the air, caused by the motion of the 
 strings of the piano, communicate themselves to the board, which 
 vibrates in the same intervals as the string and reeuforces the note. 
 The note which a given piece of wood may emit varies in pitch directly 
 with the elasticity, and indirectly with the weight, of tlie wood. The 
 ability of a properly shaped sounding board to respond freely to all 
 the notes within the range of an instrument, as well as to reflect the 
 character of the notes thus emitted (i. e., whether melodious or not), 
 depends, tirst, on the structure of the wood and next on the uniformity 
 of the same throughout the board. In the manufacture of musical 
 instruments all wood containing defects, knots, cross grain, resinous 
 tracts, alternations of wide and narrow rings, and all wood in which 
 summer and spring wood are strongly contrasted in structure and vari- 
 able in their proportions, is rejected, and only radial sections (quarter 
 sawed, or split) of wood of uniform structure and growth are used. 
 
 The irregularity in structure, due to the presence of relatively large 
 pores and pith rays, excludes almost all our broad-leaved woods from 
 such use, M'hde the number of eligible woods among conifers is limited 
 by the necessity of combining sufticient strength with uniformity in 
 structure, absence of too pronounced bands of summer 
 wood, and relative freedom from resin. 
 
 Spruce is the favored resonance wood; it is used for 
 sounding boards both in pianos and violins, while for the 
 resistant back and sides of the latter, the highly elastic 
 hard maple is used. Preferably resonance wood is not ^,0 i5._cro98 
 bent to assume the final form; the belly of the violin is section of a 
 shaped from a thicker piece, so that every fiber is in the ^{^^^1° 
 original as nearly unstrained condition as possible, and 
 therefore free to vibrate. All wood for musical instruments is, of course, 
 well seasoned, the final drying in kiln or warm room being preceded by 
 careful seasoning at ordinary temperatures often for as many as seven 
 years or more. The improvement of violins, not by age but by long 
 usage, is probably due, not only to the adjustment of the numerous com- 
 ponent parts to each other, but also to a change in the wood itself; years 
 of vibrating enabling any given part to vibrate much more readily. 
 
 II.— WEIGHT OF WOOD. 
 
 A small cross section of wood, as in fig. 15, dropped into water, sinks, 
 showing that the substance of which wood fiber or wood is built up is 
 heavier than water. By immersing the wood successively in heavier 
 licjuids, until we tind a liquid in which it does not siiik, and compar- 
 ing the weight of the same with water, we find that wood substance is 
 about l.G times as heavy as wat^r, and that this is as true of poplar as 
 of oak or pine. 
 
26 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Separating a single cell, as shown in fig. IG, a, drying and then drop- 
 ping it into water, it tloats. The air-lilled ceil cavity or interior reduces 
 its weight, and, like a corked empty bottle, it weighs less than the water- 
 Soon, however, water soaks into the (;ell, when it tills up and sinks. 
 
 31any such cells grown togethe)-, as in a block of wood, sink when 
 all or most of them are filled with water, but will float as long as the 
 majority are empty or only partly tilled. This is why a green, sappy 
 pine pole soon sinks in '' driving" (floating). Its cells are largely tilled 
 before it is thrown in, and but little additional water suffices to make 
 its weight greater than that of the water. 
 
 In a good-sized white pine log, composed chiefly of empty cells (heart- 
 wood), the water requires a very long time to fill up the cells (five years 
 would not suffice to till them all), and therefore the log may float for 
 many months. When the wall of the wood tiber is very thick (tive- 
 eighths or more of the volume), as in tig. 1(>, &, the tiber siidvS whether 
 empty or tilled. This applies to most of the tibers of the dark summer- 
 wood bands in pines, and to the compact fibers of oak or 
 hickory, and many, especially tropical woods, have such 
 thick-walled cells and so little empty or air space that they 
 never float. 
 
 Here^ then, are the two main factors of weight in wood: 
 The amount of cell wall, or wood substance, constant for any 
 given piece, and the amount of water contained in the 
 wood, variable even in the standing tree, and only in part 
 eliminated in drying. 
 
 The weight of the green wood of any species varies chiefly 
 as the second factor, and is entirely misleading if the rela- 
 tive weight of different kinds is sought. Thus some green 
 sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress and gum sink more 
 readily than fresh oak. 
 
 The weight of sa])wood, or the sappy peripheral part of 
 our common lumber woods, is always great, whether cut 
 in winter or summer. It rarely falls much below 45 pounds 
 and commonly exceeds 55 pounds to the cubic foot, even in our lighter 
 wooded si)ecies. 
 
 It follows that the green wood of a sapling is heavier than that of an 
 old tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the u])per part of a tree often 
 heavier than that of the lower part, and the wood near the bark heavier 
 than that nearer the pith, and also that the advantage of drying the 
 wood before shipping is most important in sappy and light kinds. 
 
 Wlien kiln dried, the misleading moisture factor of weight is uni- 
 formly reduced and a fair comparison possible. For the sake of con- 
 venience in comi>arison the weight of wood is expressed either as the 
 weight i)er cubic foot, or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight 
 or density. If an old longleaf i)ine is cut up as shown in tig. 17, the 
 wood of disk No. 1 is heavier than that of disk No. li, the latter heavier 
 
 3 
 
 ■1 so- 
 
 FiG. 10. 
 lated fibers 
 

 WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT PARTS. 27 
 
 tlian that ot" disk No. •>, aud the wood of the top disk is found to be 
 only about three-fourths as heavy as tliat of disk No. 1. 
 
 Similarly, if disk No. li is cut \\\^ as in the figure, the specitic weight 
 
 of tne different pieces is: 
 
 a about 0.52 
 
 6 about 0.64 
 
 c about 0.67 
 
 d, c,f about 0.65 
 
 showing that in this disk, at least, the wood formed during tlie many 
 years' growth, represented in piece «, is much lighter than that of 
 former years. It also shows that the best wood is the middle part, 
 with its large proportion of dark summerwood bands. 
 
 Cutting up all disks iu the same way, it will be found that the ])iece 
 a of the first disk is heavier thau piece a of the fifth, and that piece c 
 of the first disk excels the piece c of all the other disks. This shows 
 that the wood grown during the same number of years is lighter in the 
 upper parts of the stem; and if the disks are smoothed on their radial 
 surfaces and set up one on top of the other in their regular order for 
 sake of comparison, this decrease in weight will be seen to be accom- 
 panied by a decrease in the amount of summer 
 wood. The color effect of the upper disks is 
 conspicuously lighter. 
 
 If our old pine had been cut one hundred and 
 fifty years ago, before the outer, lighter wood 
 was laid on, it is evident that the weight of the 
 wood of any one disk would have been found to 
 increase from the center outward, and no subse- 
 quent decrease could have been observed. 
 
 In a thrifty young pine, then, the wood is 
 heavier from the center outward, and lighter 
 
 . samiiles. 
 
 from below upward ; only the wood laid on m 
 
 old age falls iu weight below the average. The number of brownish 
 
 bands of summer wood are a direct indication of these differences. 
 
 If an old oak is cut up in the same manner, the butt cut is also 
 found heaviest and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, the 
 disk of oak has its firmest wood at the center and each successive piece 
 from the center outward is lighter than its inner neighbor. 
 
 Examining the pieces, this difference is not as readily explained by 
 the appearance of each piece as in the case of pine wood. Neverthe- 
 less, one conspicuous point appears at once, the pores, so very distinct 
 in oak, are very minute iu the wood near the center and thus the wood 
 is far less porous. Studying different trees it is found that, in the ])ines, 
 wood with narrow rings is just as heavy as, and often heavier thau 
 the wood with wider rings, but if the rings are unusually narrow in 
 any part of the disk the wood has a lighter color; that is, there is less 
 summer wood and tlierefore less weight. 
 
 In oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty growth, the rings fairly wide (not 
 less than one-twelfth inch), always form the heaviest wood, while any 
 
 ditcJ 
 
 Fig. 17. — Orientation of wooil 
 
28 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 piece with very narrow rings is light. On the other hand, the weight 
 of a piece of hard maple or birch is quite independent of the width of 
 its rings. 
 
 The bases of limbs (knots) are usually heavy, very heavy in conifers, 
 and also tlu' wood which surrounds them, but generally the wood of the 
 limbs is lighter than that of the stem, and the wood of the roots is the 
 lightest. 
 
 In general, it may be said that none of the native woods in common 
 use in this country are, when dry, as heavy as water, i. e., 02 pounds to 
 the cubic foot. Few exceed 50 pounds, while most of them fall below 40 
 pounds, and much of the pine and other coniferous wood weighs less 
 than 30 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 The weight of the wood is, in itself, nn important quality. Weight 
 assists in distinguishing maple from poplar. Lightness, coupled with 
 great strength and stiffness, recommends wood for a thousand diflferent 
 uses. To a large extent weight predicates the strength of the wood, 
 at least in the same species, so that a heavy piece of oak will exceed in 
 strength a light piece of the same species, and in pine it appears prob- 
 able tliat, weight for weight, the strength of the wood of various pines 
 is nearly equal. 
 
 Weight of kiln-dried ivood of different species. 
 
 
 Approximate. 
 
 , 
 
 Specific 
 weight. 
 
 Weight of— 
 
 
 1 cubic 
 foot. 
 
 1,000 feet 
 of lum- 
 ber. 
 
 (a) Very Iiravy woods : 
 
 Hickory, o'ali, persimmon, osage orange, black locust, hackberry. 
 
 0. 70-0. 80 
 . 60- . 70 
 
 . 50- . 60 
 
 . 40- . 50 
 . 30- . 40 
 
 rounds. 
 
 42-48 
 
 36-42 
 
 30-36 
 
 24-30 
 18-24 
 
 Pounds. 
 3,700 
 
 (6) Heavy woods : 
 
 Asli, elm. (dierry. bircli, maple, beech, walnut, sour gum, coflee 
 
 tree, lioucy locust, best of Soutliern piue, and tamarack 
 
 (c) Wood.s of medium weight: 
 
 Southern pine, i)itch i)ine, tamarack, Dougla.s spruce, western 
 liemlock. swcci gum, .soft ma])b', .sycamore, sassafras, mul- 
 
 3.200 
 2,700 
 2,200 
 
 (d) Liglit wood.s : 
 
 Norway and bull j)ine, red cedar, cypre.ss. liemlock, tlie heavier 
 spruce and tir, redwood, basswood, clu;stnut, butternut, tulip, 
 
 (e) Very liglit woods: 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 For acientific names see list, p. 72. 
 
 Since ordinary lumber contains knots and also more water than is 
 here assumetl, and also since its dimensions either exceed or fall short 
 of perfect measurement, the figures in the table are only approximate. 
 
 Thus^ 1,000 feet, B. M., of longleaf pine weighs: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Rough and greeu 4, 500 
 
 Boards, rough but seasoued 3, 500 
 
 Boards, dressed and seasoned 3, 000 
 
 Flooring, matched, dressed and seasoned 2, 500 
 
 Weatherboardiug beveled aud dressed 1, 500 
 
WHERE AND WHAT IS SAP? 29 
 
 III— MOISTURE IN WOOD. 
 
 Water may occur in wood in three conditions: (1) It forms the 
 greater part (over 00 per cent) of the protoplasmic contents of the 
 living cells; (2) it saturates the walls of. all cells, and (.3) it entirely or 
 at least partly tills the cavities of the lifeless cells, libers, and vessels. 
 In the sapwood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in the heartwood 
 only in the second form, it merely saturates the walls. Of 100 pounds 
 of water associated with 100 pounds of dry wood substance in 200 
 pounds of fresh sapwood of white pine, about 35 pounds are needed to 
 saturate the cell walls, less than 5 pounds are contained in living cells, 
 and the remaining GO pounds partly fill the cavities of the wood fibers. 
 This latter forms the sap as ordinarily understood. It is water brought 
 from the soil, containing small quantities of mineral salts, and in cer- 
 tain species (maple, birch, etc.) it also contains at certain times a small 
 percentage of sugar and other organic matter. These organic sub- 
 stances are the dissolved reserve food, stored during winter in the pith 
 rays, etc., of the wood and bark ; generally but a mere trace of them is 
 to be found. From this it appears that the solids contained in the sap, 
 such as albumen, gum, sugar, etc., can not exercise the influence on 
 the strength of the wood which is so commonly claimed for them. 
 
 The wood next to the bark contains the most water. In the s])ecies 
 which do not form heartwood the decrease toward the pith is gradual, 
 but where this is formed, the change from a more moist to a drier con- 
 dition is usually quite abrupt at the sapwood limit. In longlea. pine, 
 the wood of the outer 1 inch of a disk may contain 50 per cent of water, 
 that of the next, or second inch, only 35 per cent, and that of the heart- 
 wood only 20 per cent. In such a tree the amount of water in any one 
 section varies with the amount of sapwood, and is therefore greater 
 for the upper than the lower cuts, greater for limbs than stems, and 
 greatest of all in the roots. 
 
 Ditt'erent trees, even of the same kind and from the same place, differ as 
 to the amount of water they contain. A thrifty tree contains more water 
 than a stunted one, and a young tree more than an old one, while the wood 
 of all trees varies in its moisture relations wiih the season of the year. 
 
 Contrary to the general belief a tree contains about as much water 
 in winter as in summer. The fact that the bark peels easily in the 
 spring depends on the presence of incomplete, soft tissue found between 
 wood and bark during this season and has little to do with the total 
 amount of water contained in the wood of the stem. 
 
 Even in the living tree a flow of sap from a cut occurs only in cer- 
 tain kinds of trees and under special circumstances; from boards, tim- 
 ber, etc., the water does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but must 
 be evaporated.' 
 
 'The seeming exceptions to this rule are mostly referable to two causes, namely: 
 (a) Clefts or "shakes" will allow water contained in them to How ont. (b) From 
 sound wood, if very sappy, water is forced out whenever the wood ia warmed, just 
 aa water flows from green wood in the stove. 
 
30 TIMBER. 
 
 Tbe rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, the rate of 
 drjiiiji', depoiuls on the size and shape of the piece and on the struc- 
 ture of the wood. An incli board dries niore than four times as fast 
 as a 4-iiich plank and more than twenty times as fast as a 10-inch 
 timber. Wliite pine (bies faster than oak. A verj- moist piece of pine 
 or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four times as much water 
 per square inch from the cross section, but only one-half as much from 
 the tangential, as from the radial section. 
 
 lu a long timber, where the end or cross sections form but a small 
 part of the drying surface, this difference is not so evident. Never- 
 theless, the ends dry and shrink first^ and being opposed in this shrink- 
 ing by the more moist adjoining parts, tkej:_cliecl^_the cracks largely 
 disappearing as seasoning progresses. 
 
 High temperatures are very eflective in evaporating tlie water from 
 wood, no matter how humid the air. A fresh piece of sapwood may 
 lose weight in boding water, and can be dried to quite an extent in 
 hot steam. 
 
 Kept on a shelf in an ordinary dwelling wood still retains 8 to 10 
 per cent of its weight of water, and always contains more water per 
 pound than the surrounding air. Nor is this amount of water constant; 
 the weight of a pan full of shavings varies with the time of day, being 
 on a summer day greatest in the morning and least in the afternoon. 
 
 Desiccating the air witli chemicals will cause the wood to dry, but 
 wood thus dried at 80° F. will still lose water in the kiln. Wood dried 
 at 120° F. loses water still if dried at 200° F., and this again will lose 
 more water if the temperature is raised. So that absolutely dry wood 
 can not be obtained, and chemical destruction sets in before all the 
 water is driven off. 
 
 On removal from the kiln the wood at once takes up water from the 
 air, even in the driest weather. At first the absorption is quite rapid; 
 at the end of a week a short piece of pine, 1.^ inches thick, has regained 
 two-thirds of, and, in a few months, all the moisture which it liad when 
 air dry, 8 to 10 per cent, and also its former dimensions. 
 
 In thin boards all parts soon attain the same degree of dryness; iu 
 heavy timbers the interior remains moister for many months, and even 
 years, than the exterior parts. Finally an equilibrium is reached, and 
 then only the outer parts change with the weather. 
 
 With kiln-dried wood all parts are e(]ually dry, and when exposed 
 the moisture coming from the airmust pass in tlirough the outer i)arts, 
 and thus the order is reversed. Ordinary timber requires months 
 before it is at its best; kiln-dry timber, if properly handled, is prime 
 at once. 
 
 Dry wood, when soaked in water, soon regains its original volume, 
 and in the heartwood portion it may even surpass it; that is to say, 
 swell to a larger dimension than it had when green. With the soaking 
 it continues to increase iu weight, the cell cavities filling with water, 
 
SEASONING WOOD. 31 
 
 and if left many months all pieces sink. Yet even after a year's immer- 
 sion a i)iece of oak 2 by li inches and only inches long still contains 
 air, i. e., it has not taken np all the water it can. By rafting, or pro- 
 longed immersion, wood loses some of its weight, soluble materials 
 being leached out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building 
 material. Immersion and, still more, boiling and steaming reduce the 
 hygroscopicity of wood and, therefore, also the troublesome "working" 
 or shrinking and swelling. 
 
 Exposure in dry air to a temperature of 300^^ F for a short time 
 reduces, but does not destroy, the hygroscopicity and with it the tend- 
 ency to shrink and swell. A piece of red oak, which has been sub- 
 jected to a temperature of over 300° F., still swells in hot vrater and 
 shrinks in the kiln. 
 
 In artificial drying, temperatures of from 158° F. to 180° F. are 
 usually employed. Pine, spruce, cypress, cedar, etc., are dried fresh 
 from the saw, allowing four days for 1-inch boards; hard woods, esjie- 
 ciallyoak, ash, maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are air-seasoned for three to 
 six months, to allow the first shrinkage to take place more gradually, 
 and are then exposed to the above temi^eratures in the kiln for about 
 six to ten days for 1-inch lumber. Freshly cut poplar and cottouwood 
 are often dried directly in kilns. 
 
 By employing lower temperatures, 100° to 120o F., green oak, ash, 
 etc., can be seasoned in dry kilns without danger to the material. 
 Steaming the lumber is commonly resorted to in order to prevent check- 
 ing and ''casehardeuing," but not, as has frequently been asserted, to 
 enable the board to dry. Yard-dried lumber is not dry, and its moist- 
 ure is too unevenly distributed to insure good behavior after manufac- 
 ture. Careful piling of the lumber, both in the yard and kiln, is essen- 
 tial to good drying. Piling boards on edge or standing them on end 
 is believed to hasten drying. This is true only because in cither case 
 the air can circulate more freely around them than when they are piled 
 in the ordinary way. Boards on end dry unequally: the npper half 
 dries much faster than the lower half and horizontal piling is, therefore, 
 preferable. 
 
 Since the proportion of sap and heart wood varies with size, age, 
 species, and individual, the following figures must be regarded as mere 
 approximations: 
 
 Pounds of tvater lost i)i drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln. 
 
 (1) Pines, cedars, spruces, antl firs , 
 
 ;2) Cypress, extremely variable 
 
 ;3) Poplar, cottfinwocifl. bass wood 
 
 (4) Oak. beech, ash, eitu, maple, birch, liickory, chestnut, walnut, and syca- 
 more 
 
 Sapwoodor Heartwood 
 outer part, or interior. 
 
 45-65 
 50-65 
 60-65 
 
 16-25 
 18-60 
 40-60 
 
 The lighter kinds have the mo.st water in the sapwood, thus sycamore has more than hickory. 
 
32 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 rr\ 
 
 IV.— SHRINKAGE OF WOOD. 
 
 When a short piece of wood fiber, such as that shown in fig. 18, JL, is 
 dried it shrinks, its wall j^rows thinner (as indicated by dotted lines), 
 
 its width, a />, the thickness of the 
 liber, becomes smaller, and the 
 cavity or opening larger, but, 
 strange to say, the height or length, 
 b c, ren)ains the same. In a similar 
 piece of fiber with a thinner wall 
 (fig. 18, B) the efiect is the same, 
 but the wall being only half as 
 thick the total change is only about 
 half as great.' 
 
 If sections or pieces of fibers are 
 
 dried and then ])laced on moist 
 
 blotti'ig i)aper, they will 
 
 take up water and swell to 
 
 their original size, though 
 
 the water has been taken 
 
 up only by their walls and 
 
 none has entered into their 
 
 openings or liimina. This 
 
 indicates that the water in the cq,vity or lumen of a fiber has 
 
 nothing to do with its dimensions, and that if the cell walls 
 
 are saturated it makes no ditference in 
 
 the volume of a block of pine wood 
 
 whether the cell cavities are emi)ty as 
 
 in the hcartwood or three fourths filled 
 
 as in the sapwood. 
 
 If an entire fiber, as shown in fig. 19, is dried, 
 tlie wall at its ends a and i, like those of the 
 
 C^^l irS^" sides, grow thinner, and thereby the length of 
 
 w=:>'U==i/W=< the entire cell grows shorter. Since this length 
 IS often a hundred or more times as great as 
 the diameter, the effect of this shrinkage is 
 inappreciable; and if a long board shrinks 
 lengthwise, it is largely due. as we shall see, to 
 (juite another cause. 
 
 A thin cross section of several fibers (see fig. 
 LM), A) like the piece of a single fiber shrinks 
 I&.20.- arjuiigo \%oo( y\\x(i\\ dried, the wall of each fiber becomes thin- 
 ner, and thus each piece smaller, and the piece on the whole necessarily 
 
 FlQ. 18 —Short pieces of ■wood fibers, one thick, 
 the other thiu walled , niaunitied. 
 
 I'lu. 19.— 
 Isolated 
 c.ll. 
 
 ' Though generally true, it must not be supposed that the fibers of all species, or 
 even the tibers of the same tree, shriuk exactly in proportion to the thickness of 
 their walls. 
 
SHRINKAGE AND CHECKS. 
 
 33 
 
 shares this dimiuutioii of size, the distances, a b and c d, each becoming 
 shorter. Where the cells are very similar in size and in the thickness 
 of their walls, as in the case of piece A, fig. 20, a h and c d become 
 shorter by about the same amount; but if the piece is made up of 
 libers, some of which have thin and others thick walls, as piece 7>, fig. 
 lM), then the row of thick-walled cells shrinking much more than the 
 row of thin-walled cells, the piece becomes unevenly shrunk or warped 
 as shown in fig. 20, G. Xot only is the piece warped, but the force 
 which led to this warping continues to strain the interior parts of the 
 piece in different directions. 
 
 Since in all our woods cells with thick walls and cells with thin walls 
 are more or less intermixed, and especially as the spring wood and 
 summer wood nearly always differ from each 
 other in this respect, strains and tendencies 
 to warp are always active when wood dries 
 out, because the summer wood shrinks more 
 than the spring wood, heavier wood in gen- 
 eral more than light wood of the same kind. 
 
 If the piece A^ fig. 20, after drying, is 
 placed edgewise on moist blotting paper, 
 the cells on the underside, at c (7, take up 
 moisture from the paper and swell before 
 the upper cells at a h receive any moisture. 
 This causes the underside of the piece to be- 
 come longer than the upper side and, as in 
 the case of piece C, warping occurs. Soon, 
 however, the moisture penetrates to all the 
 cells and the iiiece straightens out. A thin 
 board behaves exactly like this minute piece, 
 only the process is slower and more easily ob- 
 served. But while a thin board of pine curves 
 laterally, it remains quite straight length- 
 wise, since in this direction both shrinkage 
 and swelling are small. A thin disk or cross 
 section swells, and when moistened on one side warps as rendily in one 
 direction as in another. If a green board is exposed to the sun with 
 one side, warping is produced by removal of water and consequent 
 shrinkage of the upper side, and the course of the process is simply 
 reversed. 
 
 As already stated, wood loses water faster from the end than from 
 the longitudinal faces. Hence the ends shrink at a different rate from 
 the interior parts. 
 
 In a timber, the width A B (fig. 21, X) may have shortened (fig. 21, 
 
 Y), while a short distance from the end c d, the original width is still 
 
 preserved. This should produce a bending of the parts toward the 
 
 center of the piece as shown in exaggeration at Y, but the rigidity of 
 
 3521— No. 10 3 
 
 Fig. 21.— Formation ol' checks. 
 
34 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 the several parts of the timber prevents such bending and the conse 
 queut strain leads to their separation as shown at Z, the end surface 
 of the timber being ''checked." 
 
 As the timber dries out, the line c d becomes sliorter, the parts 1 to <J 
 are allowed to api)roach again, and the checks close up and are no 
 longer visible. 
 
 The faster the drying at the surface, the greater is the difference in 
 the moisture of the different parts, and hence the greater the strains 
 and conseciucntly also the amount of checking. This becomes very 
 evident when IVesh wood is placed in the sun, and still more in a hot kiln. 
 While most of these smaller checks are thus only temporary, closing 
 up again, some large radial checks remain and even grow larger as 
 drying i)rogresses. Their cause is a different one and will presently be 
 explained. 
 The temporary checks not only occur at the ends, but are developed 
 
 on the sides also, only to a much smaller 
 degree. They become especially an- 
 noying on the surface of thick planks 
 of hard woods, and also on peeled logs 
 when exposed to the sun. 
 
 So far we have considered the wood 
 as if made u]) only of parallel libers all 
 placed longitudinally in the log. This, 
 however, is not the case. A large part 
 of the wood is formed by the medul- 
 lary or pith rays. In pine over 15,000 
 of these occur on a square inch of a 
 tangential section, and even in oak the 
 very large rays, which are readily visi- 
 ble to the eye, represent scarcely a 
 hundredth part of the number which 
 the microscoi)e reveals. 
 
 As seen in fig. 22 the cells of these 
 rays have their length at right angles 
 to the direction of the wood fibers. 
 If a large pith ray of white oak is whittled out and allowed to dry it 
 is found to shrink greatly in the direction from c to d (tig. 22), while, as 
 we have stated, the fibers to which the ray is firmly grown in the wood 
 do not shrink in the same direction. Therefore, in the wood, as the 
 cells of the pith ray dry, they pull on the longitudiiuil fibers and try 
 to shorten them, and, being opposed by the rigidity of the fibers, the 
 pith ray is greatly strained. But this is not the only strain it has to 
 bear. Since the fibers from a to b (fig. 22) shrink as much again as the 
 pith ray in this, its longitudinal direction, the fibers t<'nd to shorten 
 the ray, and the latter, in opposing this, prevents the former from 
 
 Fig. 22. — Small pith ray in oak. a.b, wood 
 fibers; c, d. cells of pitli ray. 
 
EFFECT OF TANGENTIAL SHRINKAGE. 
 
 35 
 
 shrinkinti^ as lunch as they otlievwiso would. Tims the structure is 
 subjected to two severe straius at right angles to each other, and herein 
 lies the greatest diftlculty of wood seasoning, for wlienever the wood 
 dries rapidly these fibers have not the chance to "give'' or accommo- 
 date themselves, and hence fibers and pith rays separate and checks 
 result which, whether visible or not, are detrimental in the use of the 
 wood. 
 
 The contraction of the pith rays parallel to the length of the board is 
 jirobably one of the causes of the small amount of longitudinal shrink- 
 age which has been observed in boards.' The smaller shrinkage of the 
 l)ithrays along the radius of the log (the length of the pith ray) oppos- 
 ing the shrinkage of the fibers in this direction becomes one of the 
 causes of the second great trouble in wood seasoning, namely, the dif- 
 ference in the amount of the shrinkage along the radius 
 and that along the rings or tangent. 
 
 This greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due, 
 in part, to the cause just mentioned, but also to the 
 fact that the greatly shrinking bands of summer 
 wood are interrupted, along the radius, by as many 
 bands of porous spring wood, while they are contin- 
 uous in the tangential direction. In this direction, 
 therefore, each such band tends to shrink, as if the 
 entire piece were composed of summer wood, and since 
 the summer wood represents the greater part of the 
 wood substance, this tendency of greater tangential 
 shrinkage prevails. 
 
 The effect of this greater tangential shrinkage 
 affects every phase of woodworking. It leads to per- 
 manent checks, and causes the log to s])lit open on 
 drying. 
 
 Sawed in two, the fiat sides of the log become con 
 vex, as in fig. 23; sawed into a timber, it checks along 
 the median line of the four faces, and if converted 
 int© boards, the latter take on the forms shown in fig. 23, all owing to 
 the greater tangential shrinkage of the wood. 
 
 Brietiy, then, shrinkage of wood is due to the fact that the cell walls 
 grow thinner on drying. The thicker cell walls and therefore the 
 heavier wood shrinks most, while the water in the cell cavities does not 
 influence the volume of the wood. Owing to the great difiereuce of 
 cells in shape, size, and thickness of walls, and still more in their 
 arrangement, shrinkage is not uniform in any kind of wood. This 
 irregularity i)roduces strains, which grow with the difiereuce between 
 
 'In addition to this all fibers having an oblique position, as those at pith rays and 
 knots, also the oblique, tiiporing ends of all fibers contribute to this lonj^itudinal 
 shrinkage, since one component of their normal shrinkage is longitudinal. 
 
 Fig. 23.— Ktlects of 
 shrinkage. 
 
36 TIMBER. 
 
 adjoining^ cells and are j^^reatest at the pitli rays. These strains cause 
 wari)ing- and checking, but exist even wliere no outward signs are visi- 
 ble; they are greater if the wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, 
 but can never be entirely avoided. 
 
 Temporary checks are caused by the more rapid drying of the outer 
 parts of any stick ; permanent checks are due to the greater shrink- 
 age, tangentiall}', along the rings than that along the ra<lius. This, 
 too, is the cause of most of the ordinary [)heiioinena of shrinkage, such 
 as the difference in behavior of entire and quartered logs "bastard" 
 (tangent) and "rift" (radial) boards, etc., and explains many of the 
 idienonieua erroneously attributed to the inlluence of bark, or of the 
 greater shrinkage of outer and inner parts of any log. 
 
 Once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original size by soaking 
 in water, boiling, or steaming. (Soaked pieces, on drying, shrink again 
 as before ; boiled and steamed pieces do the same, but to a slightly less 
 degree. Xeither hygroscopicity, i. e., the capacity of taking up water, 
 nor shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at temperatures below 
 200° F. Bigher temperatures, however, reduce these qualities, but 
 
 nothing short of a coaling heat robs wood 
 of the capacity to shrink and swell. Eajtidly 
 dried in the kiln, the wood of oak and other 
 hard woods "case-harden," that is, the outer 
 part dries and shrinks before the interior 
 Fi«. 24.-' Honeycombed" board. ^^^ ^ chauce to do the sauic, aud thus fin'IUS 
 
 The checks or cracks form along a firm sllcU Or CaSC of shruukeu, COmUlOuly 
 
 the pith rays. chcckcd wood arouud the interior. This shell 
 
 does not prevent the interior from drying, but when this drying oc<urs, 
 the interior is commonly checked along the medullary rays, as shown 
 in fig. 24. In practice this occurrence can be prevented by steaming the 
 lumber in the kiln, and still better by drying the wood in the open air 
 or in a shed belore placing in the kiln. Since oidy the lirst shrinking 
 is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber which has once been air 
 dried (three to six months for 1-inch stutt) may be subjected to kiln heat 
 without any danger. Kept in a bent or warped condition during the 
 first shriidiing, the wood retains the shape to which it was bent and 
 firmly opposes any attempt at subsequent straightening. 
 
 Sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more than heartwoodof the same weight, 
 but very heavy heartwood may shriidc more than lighter sapwood. 
 The amount of water in wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, since in 
 wet wood most of the water is. held in the cavities, where it has no 
 effect on the volume. 
 
 The wood of pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very regular struc- 
 ture, dries and shrinks evenly aud suffers much less in seasoning than 
 the wood of broad leafed trees. Among the latter, oak is the most 
 difficult to dry without injury. Small-sized split ware and "rift" 
 boards season better than ordinary boards and planks. 
 
AMOUNT OF SHRINKAGE. 37 
 
 To avoid "working'' or waipiiijjj and cliecUinj;-, all liigh-^rade stock 
 is carefully seasoned, preferably in a kiln, before manufacture. Thicker 
 pieces may be made of several parts glued together; larger surfaces sue 
 made in i)anels or of smaller .pieces covere<l witli veneer. Uoring is 
 sometimes resorted to to pievent the checking of wooden columns. 
 
 Since repeated swelling increases the injuries due to seasoning, wood 
 should be ])rotected against moisture when once it is dry. 
 
 Since the shrinkage of our woods has never been carefully studied, 
 and since wood, even from the same tree, varies within considerable 
 limits, the figures given in the following table are to be regarded as 
 mere approximations. The shrinkage ah)ng the radius and that along 
 the tangent (parallel to the rings) are not stated separately in the 
 following table, and the figures represent an average of the shrinkage 
 in the two directions. Thus, if the shrinkage of soft pine is given at 
 3 inches i>er hundred, it means that the sum of radial and tangential 
 shrinkage is about (5 inches, of which about 4 inches fall to the tangent 
 and 2 inches to the radius, the ratio between these varying from ,3 to 2, 
 a ratio which practically prevails in most of our woods. 
 
 Since only an insignificant longitudinal shrinkage takes place (being 
 commonly less than 0.1 inch per hundred), the change in volume duiing 
 drying is about equal to the sum of the radial and tangential slnink- 
 age, or twice the amount of linear shrinkage indicated in the table. 
 
 Thus, if the linear average shrinkage of soft pine is 3 inches per 
 hundred, the shrinkage in volume is about 6 cubic inches for each 1(K) 
 cubic inches of fresh wood. 
 
 Approximate shrinkage of a hoard, or set of boards, 100 inches tvide, drying in the open air. 
 
 Shrink- 
 age. 
 
 (1) All light con iters (soft ]>iue, spruce, cedar, cypress) 
 
 (2) Heavy couiters (hard ]iine, tamaiack, yew), lioney locust box elder, wood of old oaks. 
 ('■ii Ash, elm, waluut, ))oplar, niajth-, beech, sycamore, cheiry, black locust 
 
 (4) Bass wood, birch, ebestnut, horse chestmit, blue beech, young locust 
 
 (5) Hickory, young oak, especially red oak .' 
 
 rue hen. 
 :i 
 
 4 
 
 Up to 10 
 
 v.— MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 
 
 Every joist and studding, every rafter, sash, and door, the chair we 
 sit on, the floor we walk on, the wood of the wagon or boat we ride in 
 are all continually tested as to their stiffness and strength, their hard- 
 ness and toughness. Every step from the simple splitting of a shingle 
 or stave to the construction of the most elegant carriage or sideboard 
 involves a knowledge, not only of one, but of several, of the mechanical 
 properties of the material. 
 
 In the shop the fitness of the wood for a given purpose never depends 
 on any one quality alone, but invariably upon a combination of several 
 qualities. A spoke must not only be strong, it must be stiff to hold its 
 
38 TIMBER. 
 
 shape, it must be tou^li to avoid shattering to pieces, and it must also 
 be hard or else its tenons will become loose in their mortises. 
 
 Selecting wood in this way, the woodworker has learned almost all 
 that is at present known about his material, but in many cases the 
 great difficulty which always attends the judgment of complex phe- 
 nomena has led to erroneous conclusions, and not a few well-established 
 beliefs have their origin more in accidental error of observation than 
 in fact. 
 
 The experimenter endeavors to avoid this complexity by testing the 
 wood for each kind of resistance separately; when tested as to their 
 stiffness, the pieces are all shaped, i)laced, and loaded alike. The wood 
 is selected with a detinite object in view; it is green or dry, clear or 
 knotty, straight or crossgrained, according as he wishes to find out the 
 intluence of each of these conditions. If pine ami oak are to be com- 
 pared, the pieces are from the same position in the tree and are tried 
 under exactly the same conditions, and thus the case is simplified. 
 
 But even results thus ai rived at can not be used indiscriminately, and 
 the figures on the strength of oak given in any book must not be sup- 
 posed to apply to all oak, if tested in the given manner. This is due 
 to the fact that a piece of wood is not simply a material but a structure, 
 just as much as a railroad bridge or a balloon frame, and as such varies 
 greatly even in the wood of the same tree, nay, more than that, even in 
 the same year's growth of the same cross section of a log. 
 
 A scantling resists bending; it is stiff. On removal of the load it 
 straightens; it is elastic. A column, a prop, or the spoke of a wagon 
 wheel resists being crushed endwise. So does the upper side of a joist 
 or beam when loaded, while the underside of the beam or of an ax 
 handle suffers in tension. The tenons of a window sash or door tend to 
 break out their mortises, the wood has to resist shearing along the fibers ; 
 the steel edge of the eye tends to cut into the hammer handle, it tries 
 to shear it across tlie grain, and every nail, screw, bore hole, or mortise 
 tends to split the board and tries the wood as to its cleavability, while 
 all "bent" ware, from the wicker basket to the one-piece felly or ship's 
 knee, involves its flexibility. 
 
 STIFFNESS. 
 
 If 100 pounds placed in the middle of a stick 2 by 2 inches and 4 feet 
 long, supported at both ends, bend or "deflect" this stick one-eighth of 
 an inch (in the middle), then 200 pounds will bend it about one-fourth 
 inch, 300 ])ounds three-eighths incii, the deflection varying directly as 
 the load. Soon, however, a point is reached where an additional 100 
 pounds adds more than one-eighth inch to the deflection — the limit of 
 elasticity has been reached. Taking another i)iece from the straight 
 grained and perfectly clear ])lank of the same depth and width, but S 
 feet long, the load of 100 ])ounds will cause it to bend not only one 
 eighth inch, but will deflect it by about 1 inch. Doubling the length 
 
STIFFNESS OF WOOD. 39 
 
 reduces the stiffness eishtfold. Stiffness then decreases as the cube of 
 the lenjj^th. 
 
 Cutting: out a i)iece 2 by 4 inches and 4 feet long-, ]>hu'ing it flatwise 
 so that it is double the width of the ibnner stick and loading- it with 
 100 pounds, we find it bending only one-sixteenth inch; doubling- the 
 width doubles the stiffness. 
 
 Setting the same 2 by 4 inch i)iece on edge, so that it is 2 inches wide 
 and 4 inches deep, the load of 100 jjounds bends it only about one 
 sixty-fourth in(!h: doubling the thickness increases the stiffness about 
 eightfold. 
 
 rt follows that if we double the length and wish to retain the same 
 stiffness we must also double the thickness of the piece. 
 
 A piece of wood is usually stiffer with the annnal rings set vertically 
 than if the rings are i)Iaced horizontally to the load. 
 
 Crossgrained and knotty wood, to be sure, is not as stiff as clear 
 lumber; a knot on the upper side of a joist, which must resist in com- 
 pression, is, however, not so detri- 
 mental as a knot on the lower side, n^ — — r-z — zr^ 
 
 where it is tried in tension. *f'/'"--- -—- — ■ ^^^^^p 
 
 Every large timber which comes ^--- '.11,,,, ^■^'—"m, 
 
 from the central part of the tree con- 
 
 . . , , T 1 /. • , 1 • Fig. 25. — BeiidinL'- :i buam. 
 
 tains knots, and much of its wood is 
 
 cut more or less obliquely across the grain, both conditions rendering 
 
 such material comparatively less stiff" than small clear pieces. 
 
 The same stick of pine, green or wet, is only about two-thirds as 
 stiff as when dry. A heavy piece of longleaf i)ine is stiffer than a light 
 piece; heavy pine in general is stiffer than light pine, but a piece of 
 hickory, although heavier than the pine, may not be as stiff' as the 
 piece of longleaf pine, and a good piece of larch exceeds in stiffness 
 any oak of the same weight. 
 
 In the same tree stiffness varies with the weight, the heavier wood 
 being the stiffer; thus the heavier wood of the butt log is stiffer than 
 that of the top; timber with much of the heavy summer wood is stiffer 
 than timber of the same kind with less summer wood. In old trees (of 
 pine) the center of the tree and the sap are the least stiff; in thrifty 
 young pine the center is the least stiff", but in young second growth 
 hard woods it is the stiffest. 
 
 Since it is desirable, and for many purposes essential, to know before 
 hand that a given piece with a given load will bend only a given 
 amount, the stiffness of wood is usually stated in a uniform manner 
 and under the term "modulus (measure) of elasticity.'' 
 
 If AB, fig. 25, is a piece of wood, and d the deflection produced by a 
 
 weight or load, the elasticity of the wood, as usually stated, is found 
 
 by the formula: 
 
 W P 
 Modulus of elasticity = i-w-?~T, — 
 
 4:D b(P 
 
40 TIMBER. 
 
 where W is tlie weight, / the length, b and d the breadth and depth of 
 the stick, and D the deflection for tlie load W. In the following table 
 the woods are grouped according to their stiffness. The figures are only 
 rough approximations which are based on the data given in Vol. IX of 
 the Tenth Census. The first column contains the above modulus, the 
 second shows how many pounds will produce a deflection of 1 iuch in a 
 stick 1 by 1 by 12 inches, assuming that it could endure such bending 
 within the limits of elasticity, and the third column gives the number 
 of pounds which will bend a stick 2 by 2 inches and 10 feet long through 
 1 inch. 
 
 The stick is assumed to rest on both ends; if it is a cantilever, i. e., 
 fastened at one end and loaded at the other, it bears but half as much 
 load at its end for the same deflection. 
 
 From the third column it is easy to find how many pounds would 
 bend a piece of the same kind of other dimensions. A 2 by 4 incli 
 bears eight, a 2 by 6 iuch twenty seven times as much as the 2 by 2 
 inch; a jriece 8 feet long is about twice as stiff as a 10-foot piece; a 
 piece 12 feet, only about three-fifths, 14 feet one-third, 16 feet two- 
 ninths, 18 feet one-sixth, and 20 feet one-eighth as stifl". 
 
 The number of pounds which will bend any piece of sawed timber 
 by 1 inch may be found by using the formula: 
 
 4 E h(P 
 Necessary weight = — p — 
 
 where E is the figure in the first column, 6, (/, /, breadth, depth, and 
 length of the timber in inches. If the deflection is not to exceed one- 
 half inch, only one-half the load, and if one-fourth iuch, only one-fourth 
 the load, is permissible. 
 
 To allow for normal irregularities in the structure of wood itself, 
 as well as in the aggregate structure of timbers, an allowance is made 
 on the numbers which have been found by experiment; this allowance 
 is called the "factor of safety." Where the selection of the wood is 
 not very perfect, the load is a variable one, and the safety of human life 
 depends on the structure, the factor is usually taken (^uite high, as 
 nuicli as 6 or 10, i. e., only one-sixth or one-tenth of the figures given 
 in the tables is considered safe, and the beam is made six to ten times 
 as heavy as the calculation requii'es. 
 
CROSS-BREAKING STRENGTH. 
 
 41 
 
 Table of stiffness {modulus of elasticiti/) of (hi/ wood. — Ceneral averages. 
 
 Speciea. 
 
 (1) Live oak. good tamarack, longleaf, Cnbaii, and short- 
 Ifal' pine, good Douglas spruce, vestern hemlock, yel- 
 low and cherry birch, hard maple, beech, locust, and Pounds. 
 the best of oak ami hickory 1,680,000 
 
 (21 IJirch, common oak, hickory, white and black spruce, 
 loblolly and ted piue, cypiess, best of ash, elm, and 
 poplar and black walnut 1,400,000 
 
 (3) Maples, cherry, ash. elm, sycamore, sweet gum. butter- 
 
 nut, poplar, basswood, white, sugar and bull pine, 
 
 cedars, scrub pine, hemlock, and tir 1. 100,000 
 
 (4) Box elder, horse chestnut, a number of western soft [ 
 
 pines, inferior grades of hard woods 1, 100, 000 
 
 ^ I 
 
 ' Less than. 
 
 Modulus of 
 elasticity 
 F_ WP 
 
 4 D 6dJ 
 per square 
 incn. 
 
 Approximate weight which 
 deflects by 1 inch apiece— 
 
 1 by 1 inch : 2 by 2 inches 
 
 and 12 and 10 
 
 inches long. I feet long. 
 
 Pound.i. 
 3.900 
 
 3,200 
 
 2,500 
 '2,500 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 CROSS-BREAKING OR ^iENDING STRENGTH, 
 
 When the addition of 100 pounds to the load on onr U by - inch piece 
 begins to add more than one-eighth inch to the deflection, that is, when 
 the stick has been bent beyond its '^'elastic limit." it still requires an 
 increase of 30 to 50 per cent to the load before the stick breaks. The 
 load which is borne before the limit of elasticity is reached indicates 
 the strength of the wood up to this important point; the load which 
 causes it to break represents its absolute strength, or the ''cross-break- 
 ing or bending strength" as it is commonly called. 
 
 In longleaf pine the former (modulus of strength at the elastic limit).' 
 is commonly about three-fourths of the latter. If left loaded for a con- 
 siderable time, a load but little greater than that which brings the 
 stick to its elastic limit will cause it to break, and this load should there- 
 fore not be exceeded. 
 
 Unlike the stifluess, the strength of a timber varies approximately 
 with the squares of the thickness and decreases directly with increas- 
 ing length and not with the cube of this latter dimension. Thus, if our 
 piece 2 by 2 inches and 4 feet long can bear 1,000 pounds before it 
 breaks, a 2 by 4 inch laid flat will break with about 2.000 pounds, and 
 if set edgewise, it requires about 4,000 pounds to break it, while a 
 piece of the same kind of 2 by 2 inches, and double the length (8 feet), 
 breaks with half the original load, or only 500 pounds. 
 
 All conditiohs of the material which influence the stifl'ness also influ- 
 ence the bending strength. Seasoning increases, moisture decreases, 
 the strength: knots and crossgram depress it and both are more 
 dangerous on the lower than on the upper side. But while the conifers 
 with their simple cell structure excel in stifluess, the better hard woods 
 
 'The elastic limit in this case is somewhat of an arbitrary quantity, namely, the 
 point where 100 pounds produces a detiection 50 per cent greater than the preceding 
 100 pounds. 
 
42 TIMRER. 
 
 develop the greater strength in bending. Like elasticity and stiffness, 
 the strength is expressed in a uniform manner by the so-called "modu- 
 lus of rupture," to permit ready estimation of the strength of any 
 given piece. This modulus refers to the resistance which the parts 
 most strained, "the extreme tiber," otter. For reasons above stated 
 in practice a factor of safety is employed, as in all these calculations 
 of resistance. The figures usually tabulated are obtained by the 
 fornuila: 
 
 3 W ^ 
 Strength of extreme fiber = ^^i ,., 
 
 where W is the breaking load, I the length, h and d the breadth and 
 depth of the tested piece of wood. 
 
 The following table presents our common woods grouped as to their 
 strength in bending. The load, as before, is supposed to act altogether 
 in the middle. Column 1 gives the strength of the extreme fiber, as 
 explained above ; column L', the number of pounds which will break a 
 piece 1 by 1 inch and 12 inches long, and column .3, the strength of a 
 stick 2 by 2 inches and 10 feet long, from which the strength of any 
 given piece can readily be estimated, allowing, however, for defects, 
 which increase with the size. Thus, if a good piece of pine 2 by 2 inches 
 and 10 feet long breaks with 400 pounds, a 2 by 4 inch set on edge 
 requires 1,000 pounds, a 2 by 6 inch, 3,000 pounds, a 2 by 8 inch piece 
 6,400 pounds to break it. If a piece 2 by 4 inches and 10 feet long 
 breaks with 1,600 pounds, a 2 by 4 inch and 12 feet long piece breaks 
 with about 1,300 pounds, one 16 feet with 1,000 pounds, etc., and if a 
 factor of safety of 10 is allowed, only one-tenth of the above loads are 
 permissible. 
 
 A board one-half inch by 12 inches and 10 feet long contains as much 
 wood as a 2 by 3 inch of the same length, and if placed edgewise should 
 otter four times as much resistance to breaking. Owing to its small 
 breadth, however, it "twists" when loaded, and in most cases, there- 
 fore, bears less than the 2 by 3 inch. To prevent this twisting, joists 
 are braced, and the depth of timbers is made not to exceed four times 
 their thickness. 
 
 Short deep pieces shear out or split before their strength in bending 
 can fully be called into play. 
 
TENSION. 
 
 48 
 
 Strength in cross-breaking of well-aeasoned, select pieces. 
 
 (1) Robinia (locnst), hard maple, hiclcory, oak, birch, best 
 
 asli and elm, longleat, shortleaf, and Cuban pines, 
 tamarack 
 
 (2) Soft maple, cherry, ash, elm, walnut, interior oak, and 
 
 birch, best piii)hir, Norway, loblolly and i)itch i)ines, 
 
 black an<l w bite sjjruce, hemlock and good cedar 
 
 (H) Tulip, basswood, sycamore, butternut, poplars, white 
 and other soft pines, firs,- and cedars 
 
 Strength of 
 the extreme 
 
 liber 
 SWl 
 •'~ 2 bd' 
 per square 
 
 incli. 
 
 Pounds. 
 13,000 
 
 10,000 
 6,500 
 
 Approximate weight 
 which breaks a stick — 
 
 1 by 1 inch 
 
 and 12 inches 
 
 long. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 720 
 
 550 
 350 
 
 2 by 2 inches 
 
 arid 10 feet 
 
 long. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 440 
 280 
 
 TENSION AND COMPRESSION. 
 
 When a piece of wood is i^iiUed lengthwise, in the manner shown in 
 fi^, 20, part of the fibers ;ire torn asunder or broken, but many are 
 merely pulled or shredded out from between their 
 neighbors. Since fiiilure in tension thus involves 
 lateral adhesion as well as strength of fibers, it is 
 affected not only by the nature and dimensions of the 
 fibers but also by their arrangement. Owing to their 
 transverse position the medullary rays (a large part of 
 all woods) ofier but one-tenth to one-twentieth as much 
 resistance as the main body of fibers and moreover 
 weaken the timber by disturbing the straight course of 
 the fibers and the regularity of the entire structure. 
 
 The resistance is also 
 much affected by the 
 position of the grain. 
 The perfectly cross- 
 grained piece a (fig. 27) 
 sustains but about one-tenth to one- 
 twentieth of the load which is sup- 
 l^orted by the straight-grained piece c, 
 and it is evident that the piece b, 
 which represents the ordinary case of crossgrain, is likewise weakened 
 by the oblique position of the grain. 
 This explains the detrimental i 'flu- 
 ence of a knot on the underside of a 
 board, as in fig. 28. Since the lower 
 side of the board, in bending, is 
 stretched, the upper side being com- 
 pressed, the fibers of the lower side Fig. 28._Etlect of knots and their position. 
 
 are subjected to tension and the wood of the knot, like the piece of 
 crossgrained wood, oft'ers but little resistance. Commonly the defect 
 is greatly increased by a season check in the knot itself, so that the 
 knot affects the strength of the board like a saw cut of equal depth. 
 
 Fig. 26.— Specimen 
 in tension test. 
 
 Fig. 27. — Straight and cross grained wood. 
 
44 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Tested in coinpressioii endwise (fig. 29), the fibers act as so many 
 
 hollow columns lirnily j^rowu together, and when the load becoines too 
 great the piece fails in the manner illustrated in fig. 
 .'Jl. This failure is a very complex phenomenon; in 
 wood like pine the fibers of the plain in which failure 
 occurs become separated into small bodies; they tear 
 apart and cease to behave as one solid body but act 
 as a large number of very small independent pieces. 
 Like the strands of a rope these small bodies ofler 
 but little resistance to compression ; thej^ bend over, 
 and the piece '^ buckles." 
 
 It is evident that a vertical position and a regular 
 arrangement of the fibers increase the resistance 
 
 and that therefore the medullary 
 
 rays and oblique position of fibers 
 
 in crossgrained and knotty timber 
 
 tend to reduce the strength in com- 
 pression. 
 
 From the following table of strength 
 
 in tension and compression it will be 
 
 seen that these two are not always 
 
 proportional, the stiffer conifers excelling in the latter, the t(nigher 
 
 hard woods in the former: 
 
 Fig. 29. — Coiupiessioii 
 endwise. 
 
 Fig. 30. — LonKitudiiial slieariuii. 
 
 lialio of strength in tennion and compretf-siim, slioirin;! the difference between rigid conifers 
 
 and fough hard woodn. 
 
 Hickory 
 
 KIni 
 
 L;ircli 
 
 Loujileaf pinu 
 
 R= 
 
 Katio : 
 
 Tensile 
 
 strength. 
 
 A stick 1 square inch 
 
 in cross section. 
 Weight required to — 
 
 Strength in compression of common American woods in welt-seasoned select pieces. 
 
 [ A pjiroxiniato weight per square iucli of <-ross section requisite to crush a piece of wood endwise.] 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 (1) ]Uack locust, yellow and cberry birch, hard maple, best hickory, longlcaf 
 
 and Cuban pines, and tamarack it, ()()()-f 
 
 (2) Common hickory, oal<, birch, soft maple, walnut, good elm, best ash, 
 
 shortl(!af and loblolly pines, western hemlock, and 1 )ouglas fir 7, (1(1()-f- 
 
 (3) Ash, sycamore, beech, inferior oak, Pacilic white cedar, canoe cedar, Tjaw- 
 
 son's cypress, common rod cedar, cypress, Norway and superior 
 spruces, and fir G, 000+ 
 
 (4) Tulip, basswood, butternut, chestnut, good poplar, white and other com- 
 
 mon soft pines, hemlock, spruce, and fir 5, 000+ 
 
 (5) Soft poplar, white cedar, and some western soft pines, and firs 4, 000+ 
 
VARIOUS FORMS OK FAILURE. 
 
 45 
 
 SHEARING 
 
 When, in a structnie like that shown in tiQ-. .'iO, a weight is pFacedon 
 J and t he tenon T by downward pressure breaks out the piece A B (J D^ 
 
 f 
 
 If^W^. 
 
 116 
 * 1 
 
 a 
 
 ,v440 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 4700 
 
 %*>' 
 
 
 i s 
 i 2 
 3 
 
 »<> 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fig. 31.— Various forms of failure. A and B, compression endwise; C, shearing (the bolt of a stirap 
 Iiassod tlirou;;li the morti.sc and sheared out.tDe endl; D, tension. The lower figure indicates the 
 nunilxTof pounds per square inch which produced the failure in testa hy the Division of Forestry. 
 No. 116 (upper hgure on each piece) is white pine; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are longleaf pine, about one-fifth 
 oatnral size. 
 
46 TIMBER. 
 
 this is said to shear out along the fiber. In the same manner, if the 
 shoulder A B (' I) in fig. 30, is pushed oft" along B I), it is sheared, 
 and if B D and G E are each 1 inch, the surface thus sheared oft' is 
 1 square inch, and the weight necessary to do this re])resents the 
 shearing strength per square inch of the particular kind of wood. This 
 resistance is small when compared to that of tension and compression. 
 In general wet or green wood shears about one-third more easily 
 than dry wood; a surface parallel to the rings (tangent) shears more 
 easily than one parallel to the medullary rays. The lighter conifers 
 and hard woods offer less resistance than the heavier kinds, but the 
 best of pine shears one-third to one half more readily than oak or 
 hickory, indicating that great shearing strength is characteristic of 
 "tough" woods. 
 
 Resistance to shearing along the fiber. 
 
 Per 
 square 
 inch. 
 
 (1) Locust, oak, hickory, elm, maplp, ash, birch 
 
 (2) Sycamore, loiigleaf,' Cuban, and sliort leaf pine, and tamarack 
 
 (3) Tulip, basswood, better class (it iidiilar, Norway, loblolly and white pine, spruce, red cedar. 
 
 (4) Softer poplar, hemlock, white cedar, tir 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 '1,000 
 
 600 
 
 400 
 
 2 400 
 
 ' Over. ' Less than . 
 
 Note Resistance to .shearing, although a most important quality in wood, has not been satisfacto- 
 rily studied. The values iu the above table, taken from various authors, lack a reliable experimental 
 basis and can be considered as only a little better than guesswork. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF WEIGHT AND MOISTURE ON STRENGTH. 
 
 It has been stated that heavy wood is stronger than lighter wood of 
 the same kind, and that seasoning increases all forms of resistance. 
 Let us examine why this is so. 
 
 Since the weight of dry wood depends on the number of fibers and 
 the thickness of their walls, there must be more fibers i)er square inch 
 of cross section in the heavy than in the light piece of the same kiud,^ 
 and it is but natural that the greater number of fibers should also offer 
 greater resistance, i. e., have the greater strength. 
 
 The beneficial influence of drying and consequent shrinking is two- 
 fold: (1 ) In dry wood a greater number of fibers occur per scpune inch, 
 and (2) the wood substance itself, i. e., the cell walls, become firmer. A 
 piece of green longleaf pine, 1 by 1 inch and 2 inches long, is only about 
 0.94 by O.OG inch and 2 inches long when dry; its cross section is 10 per 
 cent smaller than before, but it still contains the same number of fibers. 
 A dry piece 1 by 1 inch, therefore, contains 10 per cent more fibers than 
 a green piece of the same size, and it is but fair to suppose that its 
 resistance or strength is also about 10 per cent greater. 
 
 The influence of the second factor, though unquestionably the more 
 important one, is less readily measured. In 100 cubic inches of wood 
 
 This imperfect assumption is used only for comparison. 
 
HARDNESS OF WOOD. 47 
 
 substance the material of the cell walls takes up about 50 cubic inches 
 of water and thereby swells up, becoining about 150 cubic inches in 
 volume. In keeping with this swelling the substance becomes softer 
 and less resistant. In pine wood this diminution of resistance, accord- 
 ing to experiments, seems to be about 50 per cent, and the strength of 
 the substance therefore is inversely as the degree of saturation or 
 solution. 
 
 HARDNESS AND SHEARING ACROSS THE (iRAIN. 
 
 When the soli<l steel plunger V in fig. 32 descends on the piece of 
 wood ic, the first eflect is to press it into the wood of the upper surface 
 without affecting the interior or lower part. The wood is thus tried 
 with regard to its hardness. If a perforated steel plate is substituted 
 for the solid plate the eflect of the plunger is at first the same, but 
 soon the fibers some dis- 
 tance from the steel are 
 seen to bend, and finally 
 the ijiece of wood fails 
 in shearing across the 
 grain. Hardness and 
 shearing across the grain 
 
 , 1 1 J. 1 mi Fig. 32.— Test in haidufss and sheariDg across the grain. 
 
 are closely related. The 
 
 former is the more important quality, however, since abrasion and 
 indentation, the two failures in hardness, are the common cause of 
 loosening of tenons in the mortise, of the handle in the ax, etc. 
 
 Heavy wood is harder than lighter wood; the wood of the butt, 
 therefore, is harder than that of the top; the darker summer wood 
 harder than the light-colored spring wood. Moisture softens, and sea 
 soning, therefore, hardens wood. 
 
 Placing the rings vertical helps the wood to resist indentation. 
 Though harder wood resists saw and chisel more than softer wood, the 
 working quality of the wood is not always a safe criterion of its hard- 
 ness. 
 
 The following indicates the hardness of our common woods : 
 
 1. Very hard woods requiring over 3,200 pounds per square inch t^> 
 produce an indentation of one twentieth inch : Hickory, hard maple, 
 osage orange, black locust, persimmon, and the best of oak, elm, and 
 hackberry. 
 
 2. Hard woods requiring over 2,400 pounds per S(piare inch to pro- 
 duce an indentation of one-twentieth inch: Oak, elm, ash, cherry, 
 birch, black walnut, beech, blue beech, mulberry, soft mai)le, holly, 
 sour gum, honey locust, coffee tree, and sycamore. 
 
 3. Middling hard woods, requiring over 1,000 pounds per square inch 
 to produce an indentation of one-twentieth inch: The better qualities 
 of Southern and Western hard ])ine, tamarack and Douglas spruce, 
 sweet gum, and the lighter qualities of birch. 
 
48 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 4. Soft woods re(iuiring less than 1,G00 pounds per square inch to 
 produce an indentation of one-twentieth inch: The greater mass of 
 coniferous wood; i)ine, spruce, tir, hemlock, cedar, cypress, and red- 
 wood; i)()phir, tulip, basswood, butternut, chestnut, buckeye, and 
 catali)a, 
 
 CLEAVAI5IL1TY. 
 
 When an ax is struck into a piece of wood as shown in fig. 33 the 
 cleft projects beyond the blade of the ax and the process is not one 
 of cutting, but of tension across the grain, Tlie ax presses on a 
 lever, (( &, while the surface in which the transverse tension takes place 
 is reduced almost to a line across the stick at b. If the wood is very 
 elastic, the cleft runs far ahead of the ax, the lever arm a 6 is long, and 
 the resistance to splitting proportionately small. P^lasticity, therefore, 
 helps splitting, while great shearing strength, a good measure for 
 transverse tension and hardness hinder it. 
 
 Wood splits naturally along two normal planes, 
 the most readily along the radius, because the 
 arrangement of fibers and pith rays is radial, and 
 next along the tangent, or with the annual rings, 
 because the softer spring wood forms continuous 
 ])lanes in this direction. Cleavage along the 
 radius, however, is from 50 to 100 per cent easier, 
 and only in case of cross grain, etc., the cleavage 
 along the ring becomes the easier. In the wood 
 of conifers, wood fibers and pith rays are very reg- 
 ular, the former in i^erfect radial series or rows, 
 and cleavage is, therefore, very easy in this direc- 
 tion. The same is brought about in the oak by the 
 very high pith rays, but where they are thick and low, as in sycamore, 
 and generally in the butt cuts and about knots, they impede cleavage 
 by causing a greater irregularity in the course of the wood fibers. The 
 greater the contrast of spring and summer wood, the easier the cleav- 
 age tangentially or in the direction of the rings. This is e>pecially 
 nuirked in conifers and also in woods like oak, ash, and elm, where the 
 spring wood appears as a continuous series of large pores. Very slow 
 growth intluences tangential cleavage, narrow-ringed oak breaks out 
 and splits less regularly even in a radial direction; in conifers, however, 
 this difference scarcely exists. Weight of wood aflfects the cleavage 
 but little; in heavy wood the entraiu^e of the ax, to be sure, is resisted 
 with more force, but the greater elasticity of the wood, on the other 
 hand, counterbalances this resistance. Irregularities in the course of 
 the fibers, whether spiral growth, crossgrain, or in form of knots, all 
 aid in resisting cleavage. Knotty bolts are split more easily from 
 the upper end, since the cleft then runs around the knots (see p. 23). 
 Moisture softens the wood and reduces lateral adhesion, and therefore 
 wood splits more easily when green than when dry. 
 
 Fig. 33.— Cleavage. 
 
WHAT IS TOUGH WOOD? 49 
 
 FLEXIBILITY. 
 
 Pine is brittle, hickory is flexible; tbe former breaks, the latter 
 bends. Bein<;- tbe opposite of stiffness, want of stittucss would seem to 
 indicate flexibility. This, however, is only partly true; hickory and 
 ash are stiff and yet among the most flexible of woods. Their small 
 dimensions cause shavings and tliin strands of most woods to appear 
 pliable. For this reason the pliable, twisted wicker willow is not a fair 
 measure of the flexibility of the wood of this species. Generally hard 
 woods are more flexible than conifers, wood of the butt surijassing 
 ill this respect that of the main part of the stem, the latter being 
 usually superior to that of the limbs. Moisture softens wood and 
 thereby increases its flexibility. Knots and crossgrain diminish flexi- 
 bility, but the irregular structure of elm, ash, etc. (particularly the 
 arrangement of bodies of extremely firm fibers, like so many strands, 
 among the softer tissue, as well as the interlacement of fibers, due to 
 post-cambial growth), favorably influences the flexibility of these woods. 
 
 TOUGHNESS. 
 
 So far the load by which the exhibition of the various kinds of 
 strength in compression, tension, cross bending, etc., was produced has 
 always been assumed as applied slowly and gradually. When a wagon 
 goes lumbering along a cobble pavement the load on the spokes is not 
 thus applied. Every stone deals the wheel a blow, and a mile's journey 
 means many thousand blows to every wheel rim and spoke. In chop- 
 ping, the ax handle is jarred and a handle made of pine wood, which 
 shears easily along the fiber, would soon be shattered to pieces. Loads 
 thus applied are "shocks," and resistance to this form of loading 
 rei^uires a combination of various kinds of strength possessed only by 
 " tough" woods. Toughness is a familiar word to woodworkers, and 
 yet is rarely defined. Tough wood must be both strong and pliable. 
 Thus a willow is not tough when dry; it is weak and brittle, and re- 
 quires, notwithstanding its small lateral dimensions, to be moistened 
 and twisted or sheared into still smaller strands so that its fibers are sub- 
 jected almost exclusively to tension, if great deflection and great 
 strength are to be combined (handles of wicker baskets). Hickory is 
 both strong and pliable; in the dimensions of a willow twig it can be 
 used almost like a rope. The term "tough," therefore, is properly 
 ai)plied to woods like hickory and elm and improperly to willow. 
 
 Judging from the behavior of elm and hickory, wood may be pro- 
 nounced "tough" if it offers great resistance to — 
 
 (1) Longitudinal shearing over 1,000 pounds per square inch, 
 
 (2) Tension over 16,000 pounds per square inch, 
 
 and permits, when tested dry, of an aggregate <listortioii in compres- 
 sion and tension amounting to not less than 3 per cent. 
 
 3521— i^o. 10 i 
 
50 TIMBER. 
 
 For instance, of a piece of diy hickory {H. alha) we may expect — 
 
 Strength in shearing pounds.. 1, 2(X) 
 
 Strength in tension <lo 25, 000 
 
 Distortion in tension per cent . . 2. 03 
 
 Distortion in compression do 1.55 
 
 Total distortion do 3. 58 
 
 PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 From the foregoing considerations a few vahiable facts, mostly famil- 
 iar to tho thoughtful woodworker, may be deduced: 
 
 In framing, where light and stiff timber is wanted, the conifers 
 excel ; where heavy but steady loads are to be supported, the heavier 
 conifers, hard pine, spruce, Douglas spruce, etc., answer as well as 
 hard woods, which are costlier and heavier for the same amount of stiff- 
 ness. On the other hand, if small dimensions must be used, and espe- 
 cially if mo\ing loads are to be sustained, hard woods are safest, and 
 in all cases where the load is applied in form of "shocks" or jars, only 
 the tougher hard woods should be employed. The heavier wood sur- 
 passes the lighter of the same species in all kinds of strength, so that 
 the weight of dry wood and the structural features indicative of weight 
 may be used as safe signs in selecting timber for strength. 
 
 In limping wood it is better, though more wasteful, to split than to 
 saw, because it insures straight grain and enables a more perfect sea- 
 soning. 
 
 For so iced stocJc the method of "rift" or "quarter" sawing, which has 
 so rapidly gained favor during the last decade, deserves every encour- 
 agement. It permits of better selection and of more advantageous 
 disposition of tl«e wood; rift-sawed lumber is stronger, wears better, 
 seasons well, and is least subject to "working" or warping. 
 
 All hardwood material which chccls or warps badly during seasoning 
 should be reduced to the smallest practicable size before drying, to 
 avoid the injuries involved in this process; and wood once seasoned 
 should never again be exposed to the weather, since all injuries due to 
 seasoning are thereby aggravated. Seasoning increases the strength 
 of wood in every respect, and it is therefore of great importance to pro- 
 tect wooden structures, bearing heavy weights, against moisture. 
 
 Knota, like crossgrain and other defects, reduce the strength of 
 timber. Where choice exists, the knotiyiside of the joist should be 
 placed uppermost,!, e., should be used in compression,. 
 
 Season checl's in timber are always a source of weakness; they are 
 more injurious on the vertical than on the horizontal faces of a stringer 
 or joist, and their-effect continues even when they have closed up, as 
 many do, and are no longer visible. 
 
 Rafted timber, Jdlii dried or steamed hnnher are, as far as our present 
 knowledge extends, as strong as other kinds, and wherever any of these 
 
COMPOSITION OF WOOD. 51 
 
 processes aids in a more imiform or perfect seasoning, it increases the 
 strength ot the material. 
 
 PiujLlLliled"' for turpentine is as strong' as "unbled." 
 Time of fell in <j, whether season of the year or ]»liase of the moon, does 
 not intluence strength, except that su^imer- feHeil hardwood rarely sea- 
 sons as perfectly as that felled in the fall, and to this extent an indirect 
 iiifluem-e may be observed, as well as by the fact that fung i and insects 
 ihave a JiSltei: opportunity for developing. 
 
 Warm countries and sunny exposures generally produce heavier and 
 stronger timber, and conditions favorable to the growth of the species 
 also improve its quality. But exceptions occur; neither fast nor slow 
 growth is an nifallibJii sign of strong wood, and it is the character of 
 the annual ring, rather than its width, and particularly the proportion 
 of summer wood, which determines the quality of the material. 
 
 VI.— CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD. 
 
 Wood dried at 300° F. is composed of over 91) per cent of organic and 
 less than 1 per cent of inorganic matter; the latter remains as ashes 
 when wood is burned. 
 
 Wood consists of a skeleton of cellulose, permeated by a mixture of 
 other organic substances, collectively designated by the name of liguin, 
 and particles of mineral matter or ashes. 
 
 Cellulose is the common substance of which plant cells form their 
 cases or walls; in tiax, the entire fiber is almost pure cellulose, but the 
 amount of cellulose obtained from wood, by the common processes, 
 rarely exceeds one-half of its dry weight. Cellulose is identical in 
 composition with starch, but unlike the latter it resists alcoholic fer- 
 mentation, though the plants themselves, as well as decay-producing 
 fungi, are able to reconvert it into starch, from which it seems origi- 
 nally derived, and also to change it into various forms of sugar.^ Lig- 
 nin is as yet a chemical puzzle. Th^ substances forming it are carbo- 
 hydrates like cellulose itself, but of slightly different proportions and 
 distinguished by greater solubility in acids, and by other chemical 
 properties. 
 
 In 100 ])ounds of wood (dried at 300° F.) and of cellulose the follow- 
 ing proportions are found : 
 
 I W^ood. Cellulose. 
 
 Carbon ... 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen... 
 
 Poundi. Pounds. 
 40 4i.4 
 
 6 6.1 
 
 44 49.3 
 
 I Chemists have succeeded in prodncing reconversion into grape sugar, and though 
 the methods thus far employed are expensive, it is to he expected that in the near 
 future wood will hecome the principal !\ource of both vinegar and alcohol. 
 
52 TIMBER. 
 
 This composition of wood is fairly uniform for different species. 
 
 At ordinary temperatures wood is a very stable compound: both in 
 air ami under water it remains the same for centuries, and oidy when 
 living organisms attack it with their strong solvents and convertants do 
 change and decay set in. 
 
 Lleated to 300° F, wood gives off (mly water, though some slight 
 chemical changes are noticeable even at this temperature. If the heat 
 is increased, gases of pungent odor and taste are evolved, and if the * 
 temi>erature is suthciently raised, the gases are ignited, forming the 
 Hanie of the fire, while the remaining solid i)art glows like an ignited 
 charc(»al, giving much heat, but no flame. The amount of heat pro- 
 duced by wood varies. If first dried at 300° F., 100 pounds of i)()plar 
 wood should give as much heat as 100 jjounds of hickory. In the 
 natural state, however, this is not the case. , 
 
 The beneficial effect of thorough seasoning for firewood appears from 
 the following consideration: 
 
 One hundred pounds of wood as sold in the wood yards contains in 
 round numbers 25 pounds of water, 74 pounds of wood, and 1 pound 
 of ashes. 
 
 The 74 ])ounds of wood are composed of ^7 pounds of carbon, 4.4 
 pounds of hydrogen, and 32 pounds of oxygen. 
 
 In burning (which is a i)rocess of oxidation) 4 i)ounds of hydrogen 
 ,j.i are already combined with 32 pounds of oxygen and there are only tlie 
 37 pounds of carbon and 0.4 pounds of hydrogen available in heat pro 
 ;luction. Thus only about one-half the weight of the wood substance 
 itsell is heat producing while every pound of water combined in the 
 Xf{1\jA wood requires about 000 units of heat to evaporate it, and thus diniin 
 ishes the value of the Avood as fuel. TTence under the most favorable 
 circumstances 100 i)ounds of green wood {iJO per cent moisture) fur- 
 nishes about 150,000 units ' of heat ; 100 pounds of half dry (30 per cent 
 moisture) about 230,0(H) units: loO pounds of air dry (20 per cent mois- 
 ture) about 280,000 units; lOo hundred pounds of air dry (10 per cent 
 moisture) about 320,000 units: 100 pounds of kiln-dry (2 per cent mois- 
 ture) about 350,000 units. 
 
 In the ordinary stove or other snuill apparatus the evil effect of 
 moisture in the wood is very much increased since combustion is mate- 
 rially interfered with. 
 
 One hundred pounds of ordinary charcoal furnishes 700,000 units of 
 heat but the same quantity of charcoal produced at a tenijjerature of 
 2,000° F. furnishes nearly 800,000 units of heat. 
 
 Conifers and the lighter hard woods produce more flame, while the 
 heavy hard woods furnish a good bed of live coal and exceed the former 
 by 25 to 30 per cent in ])ro(hjction of heat with ordinary appliances. 
 
 'A unit of heat in this rase is tlif imioinit of heat wiiich raises the teuiperature 
 of 1 pound of water by 1.8 ' F. or 1^ C 
 
DRY DISTILLATION AND CHARCOAL. 53 
 
 Heated in a dosed ohainber or covered with earth, as in charcoal 
 pits, the wood is prevented from bnrning and a variety of changes 
 occur, depending- on the rate of heating. If the temperature is raised 
 gradually so that tlie wood is heated sev^eral hours before a temperature 
 of (KMP F. is reached the process is called dry distillation. I n this proc- 
 ess the wood is destroyed. It forms at first "red" or '' blown" coal, 
 still resembling wood, and finally charcoal proper. This coal is darker, 
 heavier, conducts heat and electricity better, requires a greater heat to 
 ignite, and ])roduces more heat in burning the higher the temperature 
 under which it is formed. q,yp ,'■ 
 
 One hundred pouiuls of wood (dried at 300° F.) leaves only about 30 ^ 
 pounds of charcoal. In common ])ractice much less charcoal jj^ to ^^^ m .u 
 per cent) is produced. In this change from wood to coal the volume is "^ '" 
 diiuinished by about one-half, so that a cord of wood which contains^ (> 7 
 about 100 cubic feet of wood solid would be converted into 50 cubic 
 feet at best. 
 
 Of the 70 pounds of gaseous products which 100 pounds of wood 
 lose, during coaling, in being heated up to 700^ F., about 63 ])oundsL' 
 become volatile before the temperature of 550° P. is reached. 
 
 If condensed in a cooler, about three-fourths of the G3 pounds of 
 volatile matter first evolved is found to be wood vinegar, from which 
 about 4 pounds of pure acetic acid, the only source of perfectly pure 
 vinegar, is obtained. Besides acetic acid, the liquid contains wood 
 spirits and a quantity of various allied substances. 
 
 After the first stage of dry distillation, a large part of the i)roducts 
 developed can not be liquefied in the ordinary cooler. They are gases 
 like the illuminating gas, mostly belonging to the marsh gas series; 
 they lack oxygen and thus show that the available oxygen has been 
 nearly exhausted in the preceding part of the process. Products of 
 the later stages are tars and heavy oils, volatile ordy at high tem- 
 peratures. Here also belong the substances known collectively as wood 
 creosote, employed as antiseptics in wood impregnation. 
 
 Warmed in dilute nitric acid with a little chlorate of potash, the cells 
 of a piece of wood may be separated, each cell remains intact, l)ut its 
 wall is reduced in thickness and material; thelignin substances being- 
 dissolved out, onlj' the cellulose is left. In commercial cellulose manu- 
 facture, soda, sulphates, and of late chiefly sulphites are substituted 
 for the nitric acid. The wood is chipped, boiled in the respective solu- 
 tion under high pressures, the residue is washed, and the remaining 
 cellulose bleached and ready for use. As a matter of economy the 
 residual liquid is evaporated and the soda used over again. 
 
 When resinous wood, ''fat pine," " lightwood," such as the- knots 
 and stumps of longleaf, pitch, and other pines, is heated in a kiln or 
 retort, the resins ooze out, are collected, and in distillation with steam 
 yield turpentine and rosin. The resins and their components vary with 
 the species; the balsam of fir js limpid, its turpentine remains clear on 
 
54 TIMBER. 
 
 exposure; the resin of piues is very viscid, their turpentines readily 
 oxidize and darken when brought in contact witli air. Kesiiis are 
 gathered more commonly either from cracks, such as "wind" and ''ring- 
 .shakes," as in the case of larch and fir (Venetian turpentine), or else 
 from wounds made es]){'cially for this purpose, as in the case of naval 
 stores gathered from pines. This latter process is known as "bleed- 
 ing," "tapping," or "orcharding," and is at present the principal 
 method of obtaining turpentines and rosins. 
 
 On burning resinous wood, wood tar, etc., in a smoldering tire, soot 
 is deposited on the walls and partitions of the specially constructed 
 soot pit. It is then collected, but must be freed of various products of 
 dry distillation, by carefully heating to red heat before it becomes the 
 lampblack used in printers' ink and otherwise much employed in the 
 arts. 
 
 Many kinds of wood and the bark of most trees contain tannin. To 
 serve in tanning the bark must contain at least 3 per cent of tannin: 
 the kinds mostly used vary from 5 to 15 per cent, and even the best 
 probably never furnish over 20 per cent in the average. The use of 
 tan bark involves considerable disadvantages. It is difficult to dry and 
 preserve, very liable to mold, bulky, and therefore expensive to ship 
 and store, and very variable in the amount of tannin which it contains. 
 
 To avoid these difficulties the tannic compounds are, in recent times, 
 leached out of the finely ground bark and wood, condensed by evapo 
 ration, and shipped as extracts containing 80 to 90 per cent of tannin. 
 
 The nmnutacture of pulp as well as the production of fiber capable 
 of being spun and woven, are also technological uses of wood, which 
 rely ])artly upon chemical reactions. 
 
 VII.— DURABILITY AND DECAY. 
 
 All wood is equally durable under certain conditions. Kept dry or 
 submerged, it lasts indefinitely. Pieces of pine have been unearthed 
 in Illinois which have lain buried GO or more feet deep for many cen- 
 turies. Deposits of sound logs of oak, buried for unknown ages, have 
 been unearthed in Bavaria: i)arts of the piles of the lake dwellers, 
 driven more than two thousand years ago, are still intact. 
 
 On the radial section of a piece of pine timber, with one of the 
 shelf like, fungus growths, as shown in fig. 34, both bark and wood 
 are seen to be att'ected. A small ])article of the half-decayed wood i)ie- 
 sents pictures like that of fig. Ao. Slender, branching thieads are 
 seen to attach themselves closely to the walls of the cells, and to juerce 
 these in all directions. Thus these little threads of fungus mycelium 
 soon form a perfect network in the wood, and as they increase in num- 
 ber they dissolve the walls, and convert the wood substance and cell 
 contents into sugar like food for their own consumption. In some cases 
 it is the woody cell wall alone that is attacked. In other cases they 
 
CAUSES OF DECAY. 
 
 ^5 
 
 couflne themselves to eating up the starch found in the cells, as shown 
 
 in lig. .'>fi, and nieiely leave a stain (bluing of lumber). In all cases 
 
 of decay we tiud the vegetative bodies, these sh'iuler threads of fungi, 
 
 res4)ousible for the mischief. These fine threads 
 
 are the vegetative body of the fungus, the little 
 
 shelf is its fruiting body, on which it produces 
 
 myriads of little spores (the seeds of fungi). 
 
 Some fungi attack only conifers, others hard 
 
 woods; many are confined to one species of tree 
 
 and perhaps no one attacks all kinds of wood. 
 
 One kind produces "red rot," others "bluing." 
 
 In one case the decayed tracts are tubular, 
 and in the direction of 
 the fibers the wood is 
 "peggy." In other cases 
 no particular shapes are 
 discernible. 
 
 Cutting off a disk of 
 loblolly pine, washing it, 
 and then laying it in a 
 clean, shady place in the 
 sawmill, its sapwood will 
 be found stained in a few 
 days. Nor is this mis- 
 chief confined to the sur- 
 face ; it penetrates the sapwood of the entire disk. 
 From this it appears that the spores must have 
 been in the air about the mill, and also that their 
 germination and the growth of the threads or 
 mycelium is exceedinglj^ rapid. (Watching the 
 progress of mold on a j^iece of bread teaches the 
 same thing.) Placing a fresh piece of sapAvood 
 on ice, another into a dry kiln, and soaking a few 
 others in solutions of corrosive sublimate (mer- 
 curic chloride) and other similar salts, we learn 
 that the fungus growth is retarded by cold, pre- 
 vented and killed by temperatures over 150^ F., 
 and that salts of mercury, etc., have the same 
 effect. The fact that seasoned pieces if exposed 
 are not so readily atta(;ke(l by fungi shows that 
 the moisture in air-dry wood is insufficient for 
 fungus growth. 
 
 From this it appears that warmth, preferably 
 
 between 60° and 100° F., combined with abundance of moisture (but 
 
 not immersion), is the most imj>ortant condition favoring decay, and 
 
 that the defense lies in the proper regulation or avoidance of these 
 
 Fig. ?4.— ''Shelf " fungus on the 
 st«mofapine. (Hartig.) a, 
 sound -wood; b, resinous 
 "light" wood; c, partly de- 
 cayed wood or punk ; d, layer 
 of living spore tubes; c, old 
 lilled up spore tubes;/, fluted 
 upper surface of the fruiting 
 body of the fungus, which 
 gets its food through a great 
 number of flue threads (the 
 mycelium), its vegetative tis- 
 sue penetrating the wood and 
 causing its decay. 
 
 Fig. 35.— Fungus threads in 
 pine wood. (Hartig.) a, 
 cell wall of the wood fibers; 
 b, bordered pits of these 
 fibers; c, thread of myce- 
 linmof thefungus; d, holes 
 in the cell walls made by 
 the fungus threads, which 
 gradually dissolve the 
 walls as shown at e, and 
 thus break down the wood 
 structure. 
 
56 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 conditions, or else in the use of poisonous salts, which prevent the prop- 
 agation of fungi. 
 
 It is also ap[)aieat, therefore, why wood decays faster in Alabama 
 than in Wisconsin, faster in the swamps than on the plains, and why 
 the i)resenee of large quantities of decaying wood about the yard, 
 constanrly producing fresh supplies of spores, stimulates decay. Cov- 
 ering with tar or impregnating 
 with creosote, salts of mercury, 
 copper, etc., enables even sap- 
 wood to last under the most try- 
 ing conditions. Contact with the 
 groun<l assures most favorable 
 moisture conditioiis for fungus 
 growth, and the higher tempera- 
 tures near the surface of the 
 ground, together with the ever- 
 present supply of spores, cause 
 rot in a post to start at the sur- 
 face more readily than 30 inches 
 below. 
 
 The use of means to prevent 
 decay is therefore desirable where 
 timber is placed in positions favor- 
 able to fungus growth, as in rail- 
 way ties; and all joists and timber 
 in contact with damp brick walls, 
 as also all building material whose 
 I)erfect seasoning is prevented by 
 the absence of proper circulation 
 of air, should be specially pro- 
 tected. In the former cases it is 
 economy to apply preservative 
 processes; in the latter a sanitary 
 necessity. Wood covered with 
 paint, etc., before it is perfectly 
 seasoned, falls a prey to ''dry 
 rot;" the fungus finds abundance 
 of moisture, and the protection 
 intended for the wood protects its 
 
 Fio. 3G.— Cells of maple wood attacked by fungus 
 threads (Nectria cinnabarina Mayer). Sectiou 
 of three wood fibers showing the threads of the 
 fungus branching in their cavities and consum- 
 ing the starch store. I m these cells, o, interior 
 or cavity of cells; b, threads of the fungus; c, 
 partly <lostroyed starch grains ; rf, dead jiortions 
 of tlie fungus thread together with dc'bris; e, 
 holes bored by the fungus tli rough t lie cell walls; 
 /S, starch grains just being attacked. 
 
 enemy, the fungus. Since char- 
 coal resists the solvents of fungi, charring the outer parts of posts 
 makes, if well done, namely, so as not to open checks into the interior 
 of the wood, a very tine protection. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, only the second great factor of decay, 
 i. e., the moisture condition, can be controlled. 
 
HOW TO INCREASE DURABILITY. 57 
 
 Perfect seasoning, preferably kiln-dryinj;-, before using, and protec- 
 tion against the entrance of moisture by tar, ])aints, and otlier covers, 
 when put in place, i>rolong the life of wooden stru(;tures. Where such 
 a covering is too expensive, good ventilation at least is necessary. 
 Contact surfaces, where timber rests on timber or brick, should in all 
 cases be especially i)rotected. 
 
 Different si)ecies differ in their resistance to decay. Cedar is more 
 durable than pine and oak better than beech, but in most cases the con- 
 ditions of warmth and moisture in particular locations have so much 
 to do with durability that often an oak post outlasts one of cedar, even 
 in the same line of fence, and predictions of durability become mere 
 guesswork. 
 
 Containing r.iore ready-made food, and informs acceptable to a great 
 number of different kinds of fungi, the sapwood is more subject to 
 decay than the heartwood, doubly so where the latter is protected by 
 resinous substances, as in pine and cedar. Several months of immer 
 sion improves the durability of sapwood, but only impregnation with 
 preservative salts seems to render it perfectly secure. Once attacked 
 by fungi, wood becomes predisposed to further decay. 
 
 Wood cut in the fall is more durable than that cut in summer, only 
 because the low temperature of the winter season prevents the attack 
 of tlie fungi, and the wood is thus given a fair chance to dry. Usually 
 summer-felled wood, on account of prevalent high temperature and 
 exposure to sun, checks more than winter-felled wood, and since all 
 season checks favor the entrance of both moisture and fungus, they 
 facilitate destruction. Where summer felled wood is worked up at 
 once and protected by kiln-drying no difference exists. The phases of 
 the moon have no influence whatever on durability. 
 
 In sawing timber much of the wood is bastard cut; at these places 
 water enters much more readily, and for this reason split and 
 hewn timber and ties generally resist decay perhai)s better than if 
 sawed. 
 
 The attacks of beetles, as well as those of the shipworm, can not here 
 be considered ; like chisel or saw they are mechanical injuries against 
 which none of our woods are proof. 
 
 Range of durability in railroad ties. 
 
 Years. Years. 
 
 White oak and chestnut oak 8 
 
 Chestnut 8 
 
 Black h)cust 10 
 
 Redwood 12 
 
 Cypress and red cedar 10 
 
 Tamarack 7 to 8 
 
 Cherry, black walnut, locust 7| Lougleaf pine 6 
 
 Elm 6to7 j Hemlock 4 to 6 
 
 Red and black oaks 4 to 5 i Spruce 5 
 
 Ash, beech, maple 4 | 
 
 The durability of wood, exposed to the changes of the weather, and 
 where painting, after thorough seasoning, is impracticable, is increased 
 
58 TIMBER. 
 
 by impregnating it with various salts or other chemicals, which prevent 
 the fungus from feeding on the wood. The wood is first steamed, to 
 open the pores and remove the hardened surface (-oatiug of sap and 
 dirt, and a liquid solution of the j)reservative material is then injected 
 with the assistance of heat and pressure. 
 
 The most efficient fluids used on a large scale are bichloride of zinc 
 and (leovsote, or both combined. The "life" of railroad ties is thereby 
 increased to twice and three times its natural duration. 
 
HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERHNT KINDS OF WOOD 
 
 By B. Fj. Fkrnow and Fiuhkrt Roth. 
 
 The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods becomes 
 familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish 
 tliem through this familiarity, without usually being- able to state the 
 points of distinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is 
 not familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, 
 and it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well 
 acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will make 
 him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may distin- 
 guish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or between 
 maple and birch, which are characteristically different ; but when it 
 comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or oak or 
 ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is such that 
 but few practitioners can be relied ui)ou to do it. Hence, in the market 
 we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately. 
 
 To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge 
 of the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides tbat of 
 the often variable differences in their appearance. These structural 
 differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a 
 magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination. In some 
 cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we would make 
 absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines, where even our 
 knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to 
 make a sure identification. 
 
 In the following key an attempt has been made — the first, so far as we 
 know, in English literature — to give a synoptical view of the distinctive 
 features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found 
 in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the 
 distinction has been carried in most instances no further than to genera 
 or classes of woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accom- 
 plished without elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as 
 l)ossible, reliance has been placed only on such characteristics as can 
 be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in 
 order to make the key useful to the largest number. Recourse has 
 also been taken for the same reason to the less reliable and more varia- 
 ble general external appearance, color, taste, smell, weight, etc. 
 
 The user of the key must, however, realize that external ai^pearance, 
 such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very dif- 
 ficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and 
 
 69 
 
60 TIMBER. 
 
 describincT shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, 
 wheu rehitive, and not accurately measured, while weight and hard- 
 ness can perhaps be more readily approximated. Whether any feature 
 is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat on 
 individual eyesight, ()i)inion, or i)ractice. In some cases the resemblance 
 of different species is so close that only one other expedient will make 
 distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the region from which the 
 wood has come. We know, for instance, that no longlcaf pine grows 
 in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Alabama, and we 
 can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitie of the West and the 
 arbor vita? of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality from 
 which the si^ecimen comes. With all these limitations properly api)reci 
 ated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the 
 woods which are more commonly met with. 
 
 The features which have been utilized in tho key and with wliich — 
 their names as well as their appearance — therefore, the reader must I'amil- 
 iarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as 
 they aj)pear in cross section. They are: 
 
 (1) Sapwood and heartwood (see p. 13), the former being the wood 
 from the outer and the latter from the inner i)art of the tree. In some 
 
 Fig. 37. — "Xon-porous" wouils. ^1, fir; B, "hard" piuc; C, soft piue; ar, auuual ring; o. «., outer 
 edge of ring : i. e, inner edge of ring ; *. w., summer wood ; sp. tv, spring wood ; rd, resin ducts. 
 
 cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart- 
 wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since 
 one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has 
 sapwood or heartwood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsat- 
 isfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can 
 be relied upon. If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure 
 must be examined; in such cases reference has been made to the pres- 
 ence or absence of tracheids in i)ith rays and the structure of their 
 walls, especially projections and spirals. 
 
 (2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 14. 
 (See also figs. 37-39.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by 
 means of such marking a classification of three great groui>s of wood 
 is possible. 
 
 (3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior 
 (first formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part 
 
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES. 
 
 61 
 
 of the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one 
 merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the 
 manner in which the pores appear distributed in either. 
 
 Fig. 38. — "Ring-porou3 " woods — white oak and hickory, a.r., annual ring; su. w., summer wood ; 
 gp.u'.. spring wood; v, ves.sels or pores; c. I., "concentric" lines; r<, darker tracts of hard libers form- 
 ing the tirm part of oak wood ; pr, pith rays. 
 
 (4) Pores, which are vessels cut through, appearing as holes in cross 
 section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or indentations. 
 (See I). 19 and figs. 38 and 39.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, 
 so called, hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, 
 and indistinct, when they cease to be visible individually by the naked 
 eye) and manner of distribution in the ring being of much importance, 
 and especially in the summer wood, where they appear singly, in gToups, 
 or short broken lines, in continuous concentric, often wavy, lines, or in 
 radial branching lines. 
 
 (5) Eesin ducts (see p. 16 and fig. 37), which appear very much like 
 pores in cross section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored 
 dots, but much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, 
 and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an 
 important distinction in these woods. 
 
 ar( \ 
 
 I Beech I Sycamore I Birch 
 
 Fig. 39.— "Dififuse-poroua " woods, ar, annual ring: pr, pith rays which are "broafl" at a, "fine" at 
 
 6, "indistinct" at d. 
 
 (6) Pith rays (see p. 17 and figs. 38 and 39), which in cross section appear 
 as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bauds of varying 
 breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They 
 are most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the 
 
62 TIMBER. 
 
 broad-leaved woods. In coniferous woods they are iisnally so fine and 
 closely i)a(;ked tliat to the casual observer they do not appear. Their 
 breadth and their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishinji 
 marks, being styled flue, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and 
 indistinct when no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye. 
 
 (7) Concentric lines, appearing in the sunnner wood of certain species 
 more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much 
 finer and not consisting of pores. (See tig. .'i8.) 
 
 Of microscopic features, the following only have been leferred to: 
 
 (8) Tracheids, a description of whidi is to be found on page 20. 
 
 (9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits 
 in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining 
 tracheids. 
 
 For standards of weiglit, consult table on page 28; for standards of 
 hardness, table on page 47. 
 
 Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross sec- 
 tion of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, some- 
 times only shades, and often only general color effects appear. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE KEY. 
 
 Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the dis- 
 tinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some 
 practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to 
 vary much, and when the key is based on such meager generaitdata as the 
 present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small 
 sain])le collection of woods, ac(;urately named. Small, polished tablets 
 are of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, 
 if possible, to include i)ith and bark, and of sufhcient width to permit 
 ready inspection of the cross section. By examining these with the 
 aid of the key, beginning with the better-known woods, one will soon 
 learn to see the features described and to form an idea of the relative 
 standards which the maker of the key had in mind. To aid in this, 
 the accompanying illustrations will be of advantage. When the reader 
 becomes familiar with the key, the work of identifying any given piece 
 will be comparatively easy. The material to be examined must, of 
 course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened; all cuts should 
 be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and smooth, for 
 a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful cut may 
 be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections may 
 be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a i)iece ot 
 thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they 
 may be examined bj^ holding them toward the light. 
 
 Finding, on examination with the magnitier, that it contains pores, 
 we know it is not coniferous or nonporous. Finding no pores col- 
 lected in the spring-wood i)ortion of the annual ring, but all scat- 
 tered (difJ'used) through the ring, we turn at once to the class of " Dif- 
 
HOW TO DISTINGUISH WOODS. 63 
 
 fuse-porous woods." We now uote the size and niamier in wliicli the 
 pores are distributed through the ring. Finding them very small and 
 neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the 
 si)ring wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note 
 the pith rays, and tiudii;g them neither broad nor conspicuous, but dif- 
 ficult to distinguish, even with tlie magnifier, we at once exclude the 
 wood from the first two sections of this group and i)lace it in the third, 
 which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Findnig the wood 
 very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster, we 
 are further assured that our determination is correct. We may now 
 turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the 
 occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood. 
 
 Sometimes our jirogress is not so easy; we may waver in what group 
 or section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each 
 of the doubtful roads until we reach a point Avhere we find ourselves 
 entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may 
 anticipate some of the later-mentioned features and finding them apply 
 to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought 
 to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. In 
 many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to dib- 
 tinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes is 
 at once decisive. Thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and 
 the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat 
 indefinite criteria given in the key. 
 
KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 [The numbers preceding names refer to the List of Woods foUowmf; llie Key.] 
 
 I Non-porous -woods — Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross section, even 
 with niaiitiitier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands of snmmer 
 .vood ((ijr. 37). 
 
 II. Ring-porous "woods. — Pores nunierons, nsiially visible on cross section with 
 ont niiij;;nifier. Annual rinjjs distinct by ." zone of large jK)res collected in the s])ring 
 wood, alternatinii' witli the denser sniunier wood {l\<i. 38). 
 
 III. Diffuse-porous woods. ^ — Pores nnnieions, usually not plainly visible on cross 
 section without uiagiiilier. Annual rings distinct by a line Hue of denser summer 
 wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered through annual ring, no zone of 
 collected pores in spring wood (fig. 39). 
 
 NoTK. — The above described three groups are exogenous, i. e., they grow by add« 
 ing annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the endog< 
 euous woods, like yuccas and i»alms, which do not grow by such additions. 
 
 I. — NO^-POROL>i WOODS. 
 
 (IiK'kules all coniferous woods.) 
 A. Resin ducts wanting.' 
 
 1. No distinct heartwood. 
 
 a. Color etiect yellowLsh white; summer wood darker yellowish (nndei 
 
 microscope pith ray without tracheids) (Nos. 9-13) FiR.s. 
 
 /). Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith ray with tracheids), 
 
 (Nos. 14 and 15) Hkmlock. 
 
 2. Heartwood present, color decidedly different in kind from sapwood. 
 
 a. Heartwood light orange red; sapwood, pale lemon; wood, heavy and 
 hard (No. 38) Yew. 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTE.S FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP. 
 
 Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the resit 
 ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. 
 Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heartwood color of the 
 latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts. 
 
 In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery char- 
 acter of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree 
 
 Microscopically the white i)iiic can bo distinguished I)y having usually only one 
 largo pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the pareuchyma cells 
 of the i)ith ray communicating with tiie tracheid. 
 
 The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination. The 
 following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the log or liimbei 
 pile, those usually found iu the market: 
 
 The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, distinguishes 
 the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from th(? hard pines (all others in the 
 market), which may also be recoguizeil by the gradual change of spring wood into 
 snmmer wood. This change iu hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood 
 appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad band. 
 
 ' To discover tlio resin ducts a very smooth surface is necpssary. since rrsiu ducts are frequently 
 si'en only with ditticulty, apiiearing on the cross section .-is fine whiter or darker s))ots normally scat- 
 tered singly, rarelj' in proups, usually in the suramer wood of the annual rinjr. They arc often niurh 
 more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tanjrcntinl sections, aiiiicaring there as tine lines or 
 dots of o)ien gVructure of different color or as iudontations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction. 
 64 
 
KEY TO CONIFEROUS WOODS. 65 
 
 6. Heartwood pnr{)lish to brownish red; sapwood yellowish ■white; wood' 
 
 soft to medium hard light, usually with aromatic odor .(No, 6) Rku cedar, 
 c, Heartwood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sapwood light 
 orange to dark amber, very soft and liglit, no odor; pith rays very dis- 
 tinct, specially pronounced on radial section (No. 7) Redwood. 
 
 3. Heartwood present, color only dilferent in shade from sapwood, dingy- 
 yellowish brown. 
 
 fl. Odorless and tasteless (No. 8) Bald cyprkss, 
 
 h. Wood with mild nsinous odor, but tasteless (Nos. 1-4) WniTK cedar. 
 
 c. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste "wheu freshly 
 
 cut (No. 5) Incense cedar. 
 
 B. Resin ducts present. 
 
 1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous, / 
 
 (Nos, 33-36) Spruce.' 
 
 2, Distinct heartwood present. -7 
 
 a. Resin ducts nun)erous, evenlj" scattered through the ring. 
 
 a'. Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual ; annual ring 
 distinguished by a tine line of dense summer-wood cells; color, white 
 to yellowish red; wood soft and light (Nos. 18-21) Soft pines.' 
 
 b'. Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt; 
 broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from light to deep 
 
 orange; wood medium hard and heavy (Nos. 22-32) Hard pjnes.' 
 
 i. Resin ducts not numerous nor ev^euly distributed. 
 
 a'. Color of heartwood orange-reddish, sapwood yellowish (same as hard 
 pine); resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to 30, forming 
 lines on the cross section (tracheids with spirals), 
 
 (No. 37) Douglas spruce. 
 
 i'. Color Q^ heartwood light russet brown; of sapwood yellowish 
 brown ; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids without 
 sj)iral8) (Nos. 16 and 17) Tamarack. 
 
 The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can be dis- 
 tinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more rarely, be 
 confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition of the annual 
 ring, weight, and hardness. 
 
 The lougleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually very regu- 
 lar and narrow ringed, showing little sapwood, and differing in this respect from the 
 shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have wider rings and more sapwood, 
 the latter excelling in that respect. 
 
 The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, pro- 
 posed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial 
 section of the spring wood of any ring: 
 Section I. W^alls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections. 
 
 a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells 
 
 of the pith ray. — Group 1. Represented in this country only by/', reainosa. 
 h. Three to six simple pits to each ti-achcid, on the walls of the cells of the 
 pith ray. — Group 2. P. taeda, j^i^lustris, etc., including most of our "hard'- 
 and "yellow" pines. 
 Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections. 
 a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the 
 
 pith ray. — Group 3. P. strobus, lambertlana, and other true white pines. 
 6. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. 
 Group 4. P. parnjana, and other nut pines, including also /'. halfouriana. 
 
 P 
 
 Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguisbable at the limit. 
 
 3521— No. 10 5 
 
66 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 II.— RTIVK-POBOErS VTOODS. 
 
 [Some of Group I) and codar elm imperfectly ring-porous.] 
 
 A. Pores in the suuimer wood iiiiimte, scattered singly or in groups, or in fihort 
 broken lines, the course of which is never radial. 
 
 1. Pith rays minute, s( arcely distinct. 
 
 a. Wood heavy and hard; jiores in the summer wood not in clusters. 
 
 a' Color of radial section not yellow (Nos. 39-44) Ash. 
 
 6.' Color of radial section light yellow ; l»y which, together with its hardness 
 and wciglit, this species is easily recognized. . (Xo. 103) Osaoe oraxgk. 
 6. Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30, 
 
 (No. 56) Catalpa. 
 
 2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; jjores in summer wood usually single or in 
 short lines; color of heartwood reddish hrown; of sapwood yellowish white; 
 peculiar odor on fresh section (No. Ill) Sassafras. 
 
 3. Pith rays fine, but distinct. 
 
 a. Very heavy and hard; heartwood yellowish brown. (No. 77) Black Locust. 
 
 b. Heavy; medium hard to hard. 
 
 a.' Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 
 8; heartwood light orange brown (No. 83) Ki:i) jiulbkrry. 
 
 6.' Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heartwood 
 cherry red (No. 61) Coffee tree. 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINX'TIOXS IN THE GROUP. 
 
 Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hard- 
 ness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also 
 shows the pith rays conspicuously. 
 
 Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. 
 The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousuess of the pith rays, especially on 
 radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by 
 the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color. 
 
 Fi(i.40.— Wood of ((.lit'.- Ii.c 
 
 The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, cm casual observation, appear to 
 resemble one another ou account of the pronounced zone of jioroas spring wood. 
 The sharply delincd largo pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy 
 lines of pores in the suunner wood, appearing as conspicuous finely -feathered hatch- 
 iugs ou tangential section, distinguish the eluis; while the ashes differ from tlie 
 bickory by the very conspicuously deliued zone of spring- wood pores, which in 
 hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the 
 more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid iu ready recognition. The smooth, 
 fadial surface of split hickory will i-eadily separate it from the rest. 
 
KEY TO RING-POROUS WOODS. 67 
 
 4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without uiaj^nificr. Color of heart- 
 wood red ; of sapwood |)alo lemon (No. IS) IIonky l.ocrsT. 
 
 13. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in contirntric wavy and sometimes branc-h- 
 ing lines, appearing as liuely-feathered hatchings on tangential section. 
 
 1. Pith rays line, hut very distinct; color greenish white. Heartwood absent 
 orimperlcctly developed (No. 70) IIackukkuy. 
 
 2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heartwood reddish brown ; sapwood grayish 
 to reddish white ... (Nos.62-6fi) Ki.ms. 
 
 C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded 
 
 radial arrangement somewhat obscured). 
 
 1. Pith rays very minute, hardly Aisible ( Xos. oS-GO) CiiKSTNirr. 
 
 2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous (Nos. 84-102) Oak. 
 
 D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, 
 
 isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the spring 
 wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse- porous woods of 
 groups A and B may seem to belong here.) 
 
 1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinet, or nearly so, as the very fine 
 pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heartwood light reddish 
 brown (Nos. 71-75) Hickouy. 
 
 2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge 
 in summer wood; sapwood white; heartwood blackish, 
 
 (No. 10.5) Persimmon. 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP. 
 
 Fig. 41.— -1, lilack asli; B, white ash ; V, green ash. 
 
 The difierent species of ash may be identified as follows: 
 
 1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines. 
 
 a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the 
 ring (No 39) White ash. 
 
 b. The lines (juite long and conspicuous iii most parts of the summer 
 w 1 (No. 4:;) (ii.-KEX asm. 
 
 2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so. 
 
 a. Heartwood reddish brown and very firm (No. 40) Red ash. 
 
 b. Heartwood grayish brown, and much more porous.. (No. 41) Black ash. 
 
68 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 ADDiTioxAr. NOTKS — Continued. 
 
 In the oaks, two groups ciiu be readily distinguished by the manner in which the 
 pores are distributed in the summer wood. In the white oaks the pores are very 
 fine aud numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood, while in the 
 black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. 'I'lic live 
 oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but arc much less 
 porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard. 
 
 Fig. 42.— Wood of red oak. (For wliitu oak .see fig. 38.) 
 
 pgQ°o.Q(?o|;'ooo|oooo^ 
 
 Fi'-.. !;).- 
 
 ood (ifc'.ii'slinit. 
 
 FlQ. 44.— Wood ol' hickory. 
 
ANALYTICAL KEY. 69 
 
 III — DIFFimE.POICOIX U'OODN. 
 
 [A few iiitlisliiiftly rinij:-i(ori>iis woods of (iroup II, 1), atiil cedar cliii may sc<tii to liiloii^; lieri'.] 
 
 A. Ton's varyinji in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby 
 giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-j)oioii8 arrangement. 
 
 1. Heavy anil hard; color of heartwood (especially on longitudinal section) 
 chocolate lirowu (No. lit!) Ui.ack wai.nct. 
 
 2. Light and soft; color of heartwood liglit reddi>h brown. (No. 55) IUttkknmt. 
 
 B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a 
 lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby apjiear- 
 iug sometimes ring ]>orous; wood hard, heartwood vincis reddish; pith rays very 
 tine, but very distinct. (See also the sometinu-s in<listinct ring-i)orous cedar elm, 
 and occasit)nally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric 
 wavy lines of jiores in the summer wood) (No. 57) Chekky. 
 
 C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in 
 the spring wood and evenly distributed. 
 
 1. Broad pith rays present. 
 
 a. All or most ])ith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tan- 
 gential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split, 
 
 (Nos. 112 and 113) Sycamore. 
 h. Only part of the pith rays broad. 
 
 a'. Broad pith rays well delined, (juite numerous; wood reddisii-white 
 
 to reddish (No. 47) Bkech. 
 
 &'. Broad ])ith rays not sharply deliued, made up of many small rays, 
 not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery of sec- 
 tion, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and 
 the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave por- 
 tions. Wood white, not reddish (No. 52) BLUE beech. 
 
 2. No broad pith rays jtresent. 
 
 a. Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct. 
 «'. Wood hard. 
 
 a" . Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer 
 
 wood (Nos. 79-S2) Maple. 
 
 h" . Color white, without reddish tinge (No. 76) Holly. 
 
 b'. Wood soft to very soft. 
 
 a" . Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the s)iace between pith rajs. 
 a'" . Color yellowish white, often a with greenish tinge in heart- 
 wood (No. 115) TULII* I'OI'LAU, 
 
 (No. 116) Cucu.mbek tree, 
 h" . Color of sapwood grayish, of heartwood light to dark red- 
 dish brown (No. 61)) Sweet gu.m. 
 
 h" . Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space 
 between pith rays; heartwood brownisli white to very light brown, 
 
 (Nos. 45 and 46) Basswood. 
 h. Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly 
 visible. 
 
 a' . Pores indistinct to the naked eye. 
 
 a'. Color uniform ])ale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on 
 
 the radial section (Nos. 53 and .54 ) Bl'ckeye. 
 
 h". Sapwood yellowish gray, heartwood grayish brown; pith rays 
 
 conspicuous on the radial section (Nos. 67-68) Soru gum. 
 
 h'. Pores scarcely distinct, butmostly visible as grayish specks on the cross 
 section; sapwood whitish, heartwood reddish (Nos. 48-51) Birch. 
 
 D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnilier. 
 
 1. Wood very soft, white, or in Ishades of brown, usually with a silky luster, 
 
 (Nos. 105-110) Cottonwood (poplar.) 
 
70 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 ADDITIOXAI, N(»Ti:S lOK DIS riN( Tl( iNS IX TIIK (iR()TTl>. 
 
 Cherry and birch are soinntiiiies coiiioiiiKU'd, tlif liiuli pith rays on the cherry on 
 radial sections readily distiiignishes it; (listinct i)ores on hirch and spring wood 
 zone in cherry as well as the darker vinons-brown c<dor of the latter will prove 
 helpful. 
 
 Two groups of birches can be readily distinguishe<l, thougli specific distinction 
 is not always possil)Ic. 
 
 1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores ratlier few and not more abnndant in the 
 spriuir wood; wood heavy, usually darker, 
 
 (No. 48) CnKUUY macu and (No. 49) yki.low luucn. 
 
 2. Pith rays barely distinct, i)orcs more numerous and commonly forming a 
 more porous spring-wood zone; wood of medium weight, 
 
 (No. 51) Canok on PAi'KU r.iKCH 
 
 ^T! 
 
 ari 
 
 Lljj- ^* 
 
 Beech I Sycamore p Birch. 
 
 Fio. 45. — Wood of bcicli, sycamore, ami bircli. 
 
 The sjjecies of maple may be distinguished as fidlows: 
 
 1. ^lost of the pith rays broader than the jxiics and very conspicuous, 
 
 (No. 79) Sugar mapi.e. 
 
 2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous. 
 
 a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly 
 
 spotted on cro.ss section (No. 80) Hed mai-i.e. 
 
 h. Wood of medium weiglit and hardness, usually light colored, 
 
 (No.82) SiLVKU MAI'I.E. 
 
 FlO. 4G.— "Wooil of luaplo. 
 
 Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box elder the 
 pores are finer and more numerous than in soft mai)le. 
 
ANALYTICAL KEY. 
 
 7i 
 
 ADDiTiONAi. NOTKs — coutinued. 
 
 The various species of elm may l)o distinguished as follows: 
 
 1. Pores of spring wood form a hroad baud of several rows; easy splitting, 
 dark browu heart (No. 64) Red klm. 
 
 2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so. 
 
 rt. Pores of spring wood large, (■ons])icuonsly so (No. ()2) Wihtk ki.m. 
 
 h. Pores of spring wood small to minute. 
 
 a'. Lines of pores in sununer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate 
 spaces, giving rise to very romjjaet grain (No. 03) l\OCK elm. 
 
 h'. Lines of jtores broad. ( oinnionly as wide as the intermediate spaces, 
 
 (No. GG) WlXGEP ELM. 
 
 c. Pores in spring wood indistimt, and therefore hardly a ring-porous 
 wood (No. 65) Cedau elm. 
 
 Fig. 47.— Wood of elm. a, red elm; t, white elm; c, winged elm. 
 
 ^:c.l. 
 
 Ifpl 
 
 M 
 
 jTo C 
 
 S8 
 
 . 6-' "^ ii — 
 
 - 1 
 
 '4o 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 ,.p.r. 
 
 > su.w. 
 
 } sp.w. 
 
 I'm. 4S.— Waluut. y>. r.. pith rays; c. I., con 
 centric hues; v, vessels or pores; m. w., 
 summer wood ; sp. tv., spring wood. 
 
 1''1G. -lU.— Wood ol' cherry. 
 
LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES. 
 
 [Arranged alpliabetically.] 
 
 A.— co.'vifekoij.s woods. 
 
 Woods of simp]e and. iinif(n-m structure, generally lifflit, soft but stiff; abnndant 
 in siiitalile dimensions and forming by far the greatest part of all tlie lumber used. 
 CEDAR. — Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; sap and beartwood distinct 
 the former lighter, the latter a dull, grayish brown, or red. The wood seasons 
 rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very durable. Used like soft pine, 
 but owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small sizes used for 
 posts, ties, etc' Cedars usually occur scattered, but they form, in certain local- 
 ities, forests of considerable extent. 
 
 a. White cedars. — Heartwood a light grayish brown. 
 
 1. White cedar (TJniija occidfittaliii) (Arborvitie) : Scattered along streams and 
 lakes, frequently covering extensive swamps; rarely large enough fur lumber, 
 but commonly used for posts, ties, etc. Maine to ^Slinne.sota and northward. 
 
 2. Canoh cedar ( Thuya tji(jantea){r(id cedar of the West) : In Oregon and Washing- 
 ton a very large tree, covering extensive swamps; in the mountains luiich 
 smaller, skirting the water courses; an important lumber tree. Washington 
 to northern California and eastward to Montana. 
 
 3. WniTK CKDAii{Cha7n(vcyparis thyoides): Medium-sized tree, wood very light and 
 soft. Along the coast from Elaine to Mississippi. 
 
 4. White cedar {Chama'cyparis Iawso7iiana) (Port Orford cedar, Oregon cedar, 
 Lawson's cypress, ginger pine): A very large tree, extensively cut for lumber; 
 heavier and stronger than the ])receding. Along the coast line of Oregon. 
 
 5. White cedar {Lihocedrun deciirrcns) (incense cedar): A large tree, abundantly 
 scattered among pine and fir; wood fine grained. Cascades and Siena Nevada 
 of Oregon and California. 
 
 b. Red cedars. — Ilcartwood red. 
 
 6. Red cedar (Junipa-Hs vhwjiniiiiia) (Savin juniper): Similar to white cedar, but 
 of somewhat finer texture. Used in cabinetwork in cooi»erage, for veneers, and 
 especially for lead pencils, for which purjiose alone several million feet are 
 cut each year. A small to medium sized tree scattered through the forests, 
 or, in the West, sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar brakes). The red 
 cedar is the most widely distributed conifer of the United States, occurring 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Florida to Minnesota, but attains 
 a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, and more esjiecially the Gulf, 
 States. 
 
 7. Redwohd (^^equoic sciitperrire)iH): Wood in its quality and uses like white cedar; 
 the narrow sapwood whitish ; the heartwood light red, soon turning to brownish 
 red when exposed. A very large tree, limited to the coast ranges of California, 
 and forming considerable forests, which are rapidly being converted into lumber. 
 
 CYPRESS. 
 S. Cypress {Taxodimn dislichum) (bald cypress; black, white, and red cypress): 
 Wood in appearance, quality, and uses similar to white cedar. '"Black 
 
 ' Since almo.st all kiiuLs of woods are used for fuel and cliarcoal, and iu the construction of fences. 
 Bheds, barns, etc., the enunicratiou of these uses has been omitted in this list. 
 
 72 
 
LIST OF CONIFEROUS WOODS. 73 
 
 cypross" and "white cypress" aro heavy and li<;ht forms of the fiamo species. 
 Tlie cypress is a largt* deciduous tree, occupying much of the swamp and over- 
 How hind ah)uj;- the coast and rivers of the Southern States. 
 FIR.— Tliis name is freiiuently api)lied to wood and to trcios which are not lir; most 
 connuonly to spruce, hut also, especially in English markets, to ])ine. It reseni- 
 hlcs spruce, hut is easily distinguished froui it, as well as from jtine and larch, hy 
 the ahsenee of resin ducts. Quality, uses, and hahits similar to spruce. 
 9. H.M.SAM fir {Abies Ixtlsamea): A medium-sized tree scattered throughout the 
 northern pineries; cut, in luniher operations whenever of sufficient size, and 
 sold with pine or spruce. Minnesota to Maine and northward. 
 10. White fik (Abies grandis and Abies concolor) : Medium to very large sized tree, 
 forming an important part of most of the Western mountain forests, and fur- 
 nishing much of the lumher of the respective regions. The former occurs from 
 Vancouver to central California and eastward to Montana; the latter from 
 Oregon to Arizona and eastward to Colorado and Xow Mexico. 
 ,11. White kik {Abies amabiUs) : Good sized tree, often forming extensive mountain 
 forests. Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon. 
 
 12. Red fir {Abies vobil is) {not to he confounded with Douglas fir; see No. 37): 
 Large to very large tree, forming with ./. amabilis extensive forests on the 
 slope of the mountains hetweeu 3,000 and 4,000 feet elevation. Cascade Moun- 
 tains of Oregon. 
 
 13. Red fir {Abies magnifica): Very large tree, forming forests about the base of 
 Mount Shasta. Sierra Nevada of California, from Mount Shasta southward. 
 
 HEMLOCK. — Lightto medium weight, soft, stiff butbrittle, commonly crossgrained, 
 rough and splintery ; sapwood and heartwood not well defined ; the wood of a light, 
 reddish-gray color, free from resin ducts, moderately durable, shrinks and warps 
 considerably, wears rough, retains nails firmly. Used principally for dimension 
 stuff' and timbers. Hemlocks are medium to large sized trees, commonly scattered 
 among broad-leaved trees and conifers, but often forming forests of almost pure 
 growth. 
 
 14. Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis): Medium-sized tree, furnishes almost all the 
 hemlock of the Eastern market. Maine to Wisconsin; also following the Alle- 
 ghanies southward to Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 15. Hemlock {Tsuga meriensiana): Large-sized tree, wood claimed to be heavier 
 and harder than the Eastern form and of superior quality. Washington to 
 California and eastward to Montana. 
 
 LARCH OR TAMARACK. — Wood like the best of hard pine, both in appearance, 
 quality, and uses, and owing to its great durability, somewhat preferred in ship- 
 building, for telegraph poles, and railroad ties. In its structure it resembles 
 spruce. The larches are deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable areas, 
 but usually scattered among other conifers. 
 
 16. Tamar.\ck {Larix americana) (Hackmatack): Medium-sized tree, often cov- 
 ering swamps, in Avhich case it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine to Minne- 
 sota, and southward to Pennsylvania. 
 
 17. Tamarack {L. occidcntalis): Large-sized trees, scattered, locally abundant. 
 Washington and Oregon to Montana. 
 
 PINE. — Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" pine, such as white june; of 
 medium Aveight to heavy and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which longlcaf or 
 Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, of even texture, 
 and more or less resinous. The sapwood is j^ello wish white ; the heartwood, o/ange 
 brown. Pine shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without much injury; it 
 works easily; is never too hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory) ; it is mostly quite 
 durable, and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring insects. The 
 heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks 
 and checks. Pine is used more ex^tensively than any other kind of wood. It is 
 
74 TIMBER. 
 
 tbe principal wood in common carpentry, as well as in all heavy construction, 
 bridges, trestles, etc. It is also used in almost every other wood industry, for 
 spars, masts, planks, and timbers in shipbuildiujj;, in car and wagon citustruction, 
 in cooperage, for crates and boxes, in furniture work, for toys and patterns, rail- 
 way ties, water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are usually large trees with few 
 braucbes, the straight, cylindrical, useful stem forniiug by far the greatest part 
 of the tree; they occur gregariously, forming vast forests, a fact which greatly 
 facilitates their exploitation. Of the many special terms applied to pine as 
 lumber, denoting sometimes ditferj-nces in quality, the following deserve attention: 
 " White ])ine," " pumpkin i)ine," -'soft pine," in tbe Eastern markets refer to 
 the wood of the white pine (Piniis strobiis), and on the Pacific Coast to that 
 of the sugar pine ( I'iniix lambertiana). 
 "Yellow pine" is applied in the trade to all the Southern lumber pines; in the 
 Northeast it is also apjilied to the i)it(h ])ine (P. rif/ida); in the West it refers 
 mostly to bull pine (P. ponderosa). 
 "Yellow longleaf pine," "Georgia pine," chiefly used in advertisement, refers 
 
 to longleaf pine (P. palusiris). 
 " Hard jiine" is a common term in carpentry, and applies to everything except 
 
 white i»ine. 
 " Pitch pine" includes all Southern pines and also the true pitch pine (P. i-if/ida), 
 but is mostly applied, especially in foreign markets, to the wood of the long- 
 leaf pine (P. paliiHtris). 
 For tlie great variety of confusing local names ai»plied to the Southern pines in 
 their homes, part of which have been adopted in the markets of the Atlantic sea- 
 board, see rejjort of Chit;!' of Division of Forestry for 1891, page 212, etc., and also 
 the list below : 
 
 a. Soft pines. 
 
 18. White pine {I'inns utrobua): Large to very large sized tree; for the last fifty 
 years the most important timber tree of the Union, furnishing the best quality 
 of soft pine. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New England, along the Alle- 
 ghanies to Georgia. 
 
 19. SuGAK Pixp; (Pinus lamhcr liana): A very large tree, together with Abies con- 
 color, forming extensive forests; important lumber tree. Oregon and California. 
 
 20. White pi.ve {Pinus inonticola): A large tree, at home in Montana, Idaho, and 
 the Pacific States; most common and loyally used in northern Idaho. 
 
 21. White pine {Pinus Jlcxilis): A small tree, forming mountain forests of consid- 
 erable extent and locally used; Eastern Kocky Mountain slopes; Montana to 
 New Mexico. 
 
 b. Hard pines. 
 
 22. Longleaf pine {Pinus pahtstris) (Georgia pine, yellow pine, long straw pine, 
 etc.) : Large tree; forms extensive forests and furnishes the hardest and strong- 
 est pine lumber in the market. Coast region from North Carolina to Texas. 
 
 23. Bull pine {Pinus ponderosa) (yellow pine): Medium to very large sized tree, 
 forming extensive forests in Pacific and Kocky Mountain regions; furnishes 
 most of the hard pine of the West; sapwood wide; wood very variable. 
 
 24. Loblolly I'IXE {Pinus twda) (slash pine, old field i>ine, rosemary jjine, sap 
 pine, short straw pine, etc.): Large-sized tree, forms extensive forests; wider- 
 ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood than the longleaf pine, but 
 the two often confounded. This is the common lumber jjino from Virginia to 
 South Carolina, and is found extensively in Arkansas and Texas. Southern 
 States; Virginia to Texas and Arkansas. 
 
 %. Norway i'iSK{Pinusrcsinosa): l^arge-sized tree, never forming forests, usually 
 scattered or in small groves, togctlmr with white pine; largely sap wood and hence 
 not durable. Minnesota to Michigan; also in New England to Pennsylvania. 
 
LIST OP CONIFEROUS WOODS. 75 
 
 26. SiioRTLEAF PINE (Pinus cchinala) (slash piue, Carolina pine, yollow pine, old 
 lield pine, etc.): Keseniblcs loblolly pine; olten apjiroaihes in its wood (lie Nor- 
 way pine. The eoninion linnher jjine of Missonri and Arkiinsas. North (';irolina 
 to Texas and Mi.ssonri. 
 V 27. CUB.VN PINK {I'hiits ciihensis) (slash pine, swamp piue, bastard pine, meadow 
 pine): Resembles louj^leaf piue, but commonly has wider sa])wood and coarser 
 grain; does uot enter the markets to any great extent. Aloug the coast from 
 South Carolina to Louisiana. 
 
 28. Htll pine (Finns Jeff reyi) (black i)iue): Large-sized tree, wood resembling 
 bull piue (P. ])ondero8a} ; used locally iu California, replacing P. ponderom at 
 high altitudes. 
 
 The following are small to medium sized jjiues, uot commonly olfered as lumber 
 in the market; used locally for timber, ties, etc. : 
 
 29. I?LACK PINE {Pinus mnrrdi/ana) (lodge-pole pine, tamarack): Rocky Mountains 
 and Pacitic regions. 
 
 30. Pitch pine (Pinns ri(jida): Along the coast from New York to Georgia and 
 along the mountains to Kentucky. 
 
 31. Jersey pine (Pinus inops) (scrub pine): As before. 
 
 32. Gray pine (Pinus banksiana) (scrub pine): Maine, Vermont, and Michigan to 
 Minnesota. 
 
 REDWOOD. (See Cedar.) 
 
 SPRUCE. — Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, moderately strong, less resin-' 
 ous than pine; has no distinct heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used like soft 
 pine, but also employed as resonance wood and i^referred for paper pulp. Spruces, 
 like pines, form extensive forest^^; they are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, 
 and bear more shade, but iisually reciuire a more hiuuid climate. "Black'' and 
 "white spruce," as applied by lumbermeu, u.sually refer to narrow and wide 
 ringed forms of the black spruce (Picea nigra). 
 
 33. Black spruce (Picea nigra): Medium-sized tree, forms extensive forests in 
 northeastern United States and iu British America; occurs scattered or in 
 groves, especially in low lands throughout the Northern pineries. Important 
 lumber tree iu Eastern United States. Maine to Minnesota, British America, 
 and'on the Alleghauies to North Carolina. 
 
 34. White spruce (Picea aZi<a) : Generally associated with the preceding; most 
 abundant along streams and lakes, grows largest iu Montana and forms the 
 most important tree of the subarctic forest of British America. Northern 
 United States, froiu Maine to Minnesota, aLso from Montana to Pacitic, British 
 America. 
 
 35. White spruce (Picea engelmanni) : Medium to large sized tree, forming exten- 
 sive forests at elevations from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above .sea level; resembles 
 the preceding, but occupies a different statiou. A very important timber tree in 
 the central :ind southern parts of the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mo-intains from 
 Mexico to Montana. 
 
 36. Tide-land spruce (Picea sitchensis) : A large-sized tree, forming an extensive 
 coast-belt forest. Aloug the seacoast from Alaska to Central California. 
 
 BASTARD SPRUCE. — Spruce or fir iu name but resembling hard piue or larch in 
 the appearance, quality, and uses of its wood. 
 
 37. Douglas spruce (Pscudotsuga douglasii) (yellow fir, red fir, Oregon pine): One 
 of the most important trees of the Western United States; grows very larj^e in 
 the Pacilic States, to fair size in all parts of the mouutains, in Cclor.ido up to 
 about 10,000 feet above sea level; forms extensive forests, often of pur«^ growth. 
 Wood very variable, usually coarsegrained and heavy, with very pronounced 
 summer wood, hard and strong ("red" fir), but often fine-grained :>ud light 
 ("yellow" fir). It replaces hard piue and is especially suited to he" vy con- 
 struction. From the plains to- the Pacific Ocean; from Mexico to British 
 America. 
 
76 TIMBER. 
 
 TAMARACK. (See Larch.) 
 
 YEW. — Wood lieavy, hard, extremely stirt' and strong, of line textnre with a ])ale 
 yellow sapwood, and an orange red heart; seasons well and is quite durable. Yew 
 is extensively iised for archery, bows, turner's ware, etc. The yews form no 
 forests, but occur scattered with other conifers. 
 
 38. Yew (Taxus brevifolia) : A small to medium sized tree of the Pacific region. 
 
 B BROAD-I^EAVKD M'OOD!!i (H.\KD\VOODS). 
 
 Woods of complex and very variable structure and therefore differing widely in 
 quality, behavior, and consequently in upplicability to the arts. 
 
 ASH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stilt', quite tough, not durable in Conta('t with 
 soil, straight grained, rough on the split surface and coarse in texture. The wood 
 shrinks moderately, seasons withlittle injury, stands well and takes a good poli.sh. 
 In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, stairways, panels, etc. ; it is used in 
 shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, carriages, etc., in the manufac- 
 ture of farm implements, machinery, and especially of furniture of all kinds, and 
 also for harness work; for barrels, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops, clothespins, 
 and toys. The trees of the several species of ash are rapid growers, of small to 
 medium height with stout trunks; they form no forests, but occur scattered in 
 almost all our broad-leaved forests. 
 
 39. White ash (Fraxhuts americana) : Medium, sometimes large sized tree, liasin 
 of the Ohio, but found from Maine to Minnesota and Texas. 
 
 40. Ked a.su (Fraxhiiis j>«&c'.sce«.s) : Small-sized tree. North Atlantic States, but 
 extends to the Mississippi. 
 
 41. Black ASH {Fraxlnus samhucifolia) (hoop ash, grouiu^ ash) : Medium-sized tree, 
 verj' common. Maine to Minnesota, and southward to Virginia and Arkansas. 
 
 42. Blue ash ( Fraxinns quadrangnhita) : Small to medium sized. Indiana and Illi- 
 nois; occurs from Michigan to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 
 
 43. Green ash [Fyaxinus viridis): Small-sized tree. New York to the Kocky 
 Mountains, and southward to Florida and Arizona. 
 
 44. Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregana): Medium-sized tree. Western Washington 
 to California. 
 
 ASPEN. (See Poplar.) 
 BASSAVOOD. 
 
 45. B.vsswoOD (Tilia americana) (lime tree, American linden, liu, bee tree): 
 Wood light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, and wliite to light brown 
 color. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands well: it is 
 used in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture and wooden ware, both 
 turned and carved, in cooperage, for toys, also for paneling of car and carriage 
 bodies. Medium to large sized tree, common in all Northern broad-leaved for- 
 ests; found throughout the Eastern United States. 
 
 46. White basswood( Jiiia heterophylla) : A small-sized tree most abundant in 
 the Alleghany region. 
 
 BEECH. 
 
 47. Beech (Fagus ferruginen): Wood heavy, iiard, stiff, strong, of rather coarse 
 texture, white to light brown, not durable in the ground, and subject to the 
 inroads of boring insects; it shrinks and cheeks considerably in drying, works 
 and stands well and takes a good polish. Used for furniture, in turnery, for 
 handles, lasts, etc. Abroad it is very extensively employed by the carpenter, 
 millwright, and wagon nuiker, in turnery as well as wood carving. The beech 
 is a medium-sized tree, common, sometimtjs forming forest; most abundant in 
 the Ohio and Mississippi basin, but found from Maine to Wisconsin and south- 
 ward to Florida. 
 
 BIRCH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; sapwood whitish, heartwood 
 in shades of brown with red and yellow; very handsome, with satiny luster, 
 equaling cherry. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands 
 
LIST OP BROAD-LEAVED WOODS. 77 
 
 well and takes a good ])olish, but is not durable, if exposed. Birch is tised for 
 tinisbing lumber in building, in tbo uiauufacture of furniture, in wood turnery 
 for spools, boxes, wooden shoes, etc., for shoe lasts and pegs, for wagon bubs, ox 
 yokes, etc., also in wood carving. The birches are niediuni-sized trees, form 
 extensive forests northward and occur 8cattere<l in all broad-leaved forests of 
 the Easteru United States. 
 
 48. Chkkry hircii (Betula lenta) (black birch, sweet liirch, niabogany Itirch): 
 Medium-sized tree; very common. Maine to Michigan and to reiinessee. 
 
 49. ^Ki.i.ow Hiiun (/>e/MZ« /w/ca) (gray birch) : Medium-sized tree; common. Maine 
 to Minnesota and southward to Tennessee. 
 
 50. Red bujch {Hetula nUjra) (river birch): Small to medium sized tree; very 
 common; lighter and less valuable than the preceding. New Kiiglaiid to Texas 
 and Missouri. 
 
 51. Canoe birch (/ielida papifrifera) (white birch, jiajx-r l)irch) : Generally a small 
 tree; common, forming forests; wood of good (luality but lighter. All along 
 the northern boundary of United States and northward, from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacific. 
 
 BLACK WALNUT. {See Walnut.) 
 BLUE BEECH. 
 
 52.* Blue beech {Carpinus caroliniana) (hornbeam, water beech, ironwood) : Wood 
 very heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture and white color; 
 not durable in the ground; shrinks and checks greatly, but works and stands 
 well. Used chiefly in turnery for tool handles, etc. Abroad, much vised by 
 mill and wheel wrights. A small tree, largest in the Southwest, but found in 
 nearly all parts of the Easteru United States. 
 BOIS D'ARC. (5ee Osage ORANGE.) 
 
 BUCKEYE— HORSE CHESTNUT.— Wool light, soft, not strong, often quite 
 tough, of line and uuiform texture and creamy white color. It shrinks consid- 
 erably, but works and stands well. Used for wooden ware, artificial limbs, paper 
 pulp, and locally also for building lumber. Small-sized trees, scattered. 
 53. Ohio BUCKEYK (^sctt^Ms glabra) (fetid buckeye): Allegbanies, Pennsylvania 
 
 to Indian Territorj^ 
 .54. Sweet buckeye { JEsculus fiava) : Alleghanies, Peunsylvania to Texas. 
 BUTTERNUT. 
 
 55. Butternut {Jiifilans cinerea) (white walnut): Wood very similar to black 
 walnut, but light, quite soft, not strong and of light brown color. Used chielly 
 for iinishing lumber, cabinetwork, and cooperage. Medium-sized tree, largest 
 and most common in the Ohio basin; Maine to Minnesota and southward to 
 Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 CAT ALP A. 
 
 56. Catalpa (Ca ;«//>« speciosa): Wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, durable, of 
 coarse texture and brown color; used forties and posts, but well suited for a 
 great variety of uses. Medium-sized tree; lower basin of the Ohio River, locally 
 common. Extensively planted, and therefore promising to become of some 
 importance. 
 
 CHERRY. 
 
 57. Cherry (Prunus serotina): Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; .sap 
 wood yellowish white, heartwood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks con- 
 siderably in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish, and is much 
 esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative finishing lum- 
 ber for buildings, cars, and boats, also lor furniture and in turnery. It is 
 becoming too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally well suited. 
 The lumber-furnisliiiig cherry of this country, the wild black cherry (I'ritnua 
 serotina), is a small to medium sized tree, scattered tiirougli many of the 
 broad-leaved woods of the western slope of tbe Alleghanies, but found from 
 Michigan to Florida and west to Texas. Other speciea of this genus as well 
 
78 TIMBER. 
 
 as tbe bawtborne (Cratwgus) and wild apple (Pyrus) arc not coininouly offered 
 in tbe market. Tbeir wood is of tbe same cbaracter as cberry, often oven 
 finer, but in small dimensions. 
 CHESTNUT. 
 5S. t'liESTXUT (Castanca vulgarix var. americana): Wood ligbt, moderately soft, 
 stiii', not strong, of coarse texture; the sajtwood ligbt, the heartwood darker 
 brown. It shrinks and checks considerably in dryiug, works easily, stands 
 well, and is very durable. I'sed in cabinetwork. cooi)erage, for railway ties, 
 telegra])h poles, and locally in heavy construction. Medium-sized tree, very 
 common in the Allegbanies, occurs from Maine to Michigan and southward to 
 Alabama. 
 
 59. Chinquapin (Castanea pumi'ta): A small-sized tree, with wood slightly heavier 
 but otherwise similar to tbe preceding; most common in Arkansas, but with 
 nearly the same range as the chestnut. 
 
 60. CiiiNQr.vPlx (Caslanopsis eln-jisojyhyUa): A medium-sized tree of tbe western 
 ranges of California and Oregon. 
 
 COFFEE TREE. 
 
 61. ('oifi:k thkk (Ut/mnocladiis canadensis) (coft'ee nut) : Wood heavy, bard, strong, 
 very stiff, of coarse texture, durable; the sapwood yellow, the heart wood red- 
 dish brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; works and stands 
 well and takes a good polish. It is used to a limited extent in cabinetwork. 
 A medium to large sized tree; not common. Pennsylvania to Minnesota and 
 Arkansas. 
 
 COTTONWOOD. (See PovhAK.) 
 
 CUCUMBER TREE. (5ee Tulip.) 
 
 ELM. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moderately durable in contact with 
 tbe soil; conmionly crossgrained, difticult to split and shape, warps, and checks 
 considerably in drying, but stands well if jiroperly haiulled. The broad sapwood 
 whitLsh, heart brown, both with shades of gray and red; on split surl'ace rough; 
 texture coarse to tine; capable of high polish. Elm is used in the construction of 
 cars, wagons, etc., in boat and ship l)uilding, for agricultural implements and 
 machinery; in rough cooperage, saddlery and harness work, but particxilarly in 
 the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where the beautiful bgures, especially 
 those of the tangential or bastard section, are .just beginning to be duly api)re- 
 ciated. The elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, with 
 stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but are found scattered in all the 
 broad-leaved woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable portion of 
 the arborescent growth. 
 
 62. Whitk Elm {Ulmns americana) (Ainerican elm, water elm): Medium to 
 large sized tree, common. Maine tx) INIinnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 
 
 63. Rock klm (Ulmns racemosa) (cork elm, hickory elm, white elm, cliff elm): 
 Medium to large sized tree. Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, south- 
 ward to Kentucky. 
 
 64. Red klm {Ulmnx fulra) (sli])i)erv elm, moose elm): Small-sized tree, found 
 chieHy along watercourses. X(;w Vf)rk to Minnesota, and southward to Florida 
 and Texas. 
 
 65. Ckuak klm (Ulsnus crassi/olia): Small-sized tree, <|nite common. Arkansas 
 and Texas. 
 
 66. Wi.N'GKi) KLM {rimits alata) (Wahoo): Small-sized tree, locally quite common. 
 Arkansas, Mi-ssouri, and eastern Virginia. 
 
 GUM. — This general term refers to two kinds of wood usually distinguished as sweet 
 or red gum, and sour, black, or tupelo gum, the former being a relative of the 
 witch-hazel, the latter belonging to the dogwood family. 
 
 67. TUPKLO {Xi/ssa sylralica) (sour gum. black gum) : Maine to Michigan, and south- 
 ward to Florida and Texas. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of line texture, 
 
LIST OF BROAD-LEAVED WOODS. 79 
 
 frequently crossgrained, of yellowish or grayish white color, hard to split and 
 work, troublesome in seasoning, warps and checks considerably, and is not 
 durable if exposed; used lor wagon liiibs, wooden ware, handles, wooden shoes, 
 etc. Medium to large sized trees, with straight, clear trunks; locally (juite 
 abundant, but never forming forests of pure growth. 
 
 68. TrrioLO CUM (.Vi/ssrt uniflora) (cotton gum): Lower Mississippi basin, north- 
 ward to Illinois and eastward to Virginia, otherwise like preceding species. 
 
 69. SwEKTGiM {Liqiiidambar sturacijliia) (red gum, li<iuidambar, bilsted): Wood 
 rather heavy, rather soft, (juite stiff and strong, tough, conunonly crossgrained, 
 of iine texture; the broad sapwood whitish, the heartwood reddish bniwn; the 
 wood shrinks and warps considerably, but does not check badly, stands well 
 when fully seasoned, and takes good polish. Sweet gum is used in carpentry, 
 in the manufacture of furniture, for cut veneer, for wooden i)lates, plaques, 
 baskets, etc., also for wagon hubs, hat blocks, etc. A large-sized tree, very abun- 
 dant, often the principal tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the Lower 
 Mississippi Valley; occurs from New York to Texas and from Indiana to Florida. 
 
 HACKBERRY. 
 
 70. Hacki5E1u:v (Celtis occidentalts) (sugar berry): The handsome wood heavy, 
 hard, strong, quite tough, of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellowish 
 white color; shrinks moderately, wor' s well, and takes a good polish. So far 
 but little used in the manufacture of furniture. Medium to large sized tree, 
 locally quite common, largest in the Lower Mississippi Valley; occurs in nearly 
 all parts of the Eastern United States. 
 
 HICKORY.— Wood very heavy, hard, and strong, proverbially tough, of rather 
 coarse texture, smooth .aud of straight grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart 
 reddish nut brown. It dries slowly, shrinks and checks considerably ; is not dura- 
 ble iu the ground, or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always subject 
 to the inroads of boring insects. Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but 
 is also extensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool 
 handles, timber pins, for harness v.ork, aud cooperage. The hickories are tall 
 trees with slender stems, never form forests, occasionally small groves, but usually 
 occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. The follow- 
 ing species all contribute more or less to the hickory of the markets: 
 
 71. Shagbark hickouy (Ricoria orafa) (shellbark hickory): A medium to large 
 sized tree, quite common; the favorite among hickories; best developed in the 
 Ohio and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas. Minnesota to Florida. 
 
 72. MocKKP.xrT hickory {Hicoria aJha) (black hickory, bull and black nut, big 
 bud, and white-heart hickory): A medium to large sized tree, with the same 
 range as the foregoing; common, especially in the South. 
 
 73. PiGXUT HICKORY (Hicorla glabra) (brown hickory, black hickory, switch-bud 
 hickory): Medium to largo sized tree, abundant; all Eastern United States. 
 
 74. Bitter XCT HICKORY ( Hicoria minima) (,fiwami> hickory): A medium-sized tree, 
 favoring wet localities, with the same range as the preceding. 
 
 75. Pecax (Hicoria pecan) (Illinois nut): A large tree, very connuon in the fertile 
 bottoms of the Western streams. Indiana to Nebraska and southward to Lousi- 
 ana and Texas. 
 
 HOLLY. 
 
 76. IIoi.iA' {Ilex opaca): Wo(id of medium v/eight, hard, strong, tough, of fine 
 texture and white color; works and stands well, used for cabinetwork aud 
 turnery. A small tree, most abundant in the Lower Mississippi Valley and 
 Gulf States, but occurring eastward to Massachusetts and north t(» Indiaiiii. 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT. {Sec Hickeye.) 
 IRONWOOD. (See Blue BEECH.) 
 
80 TIMBER. 
 
 LOCUST. — Tliis name applies to both of the following: 
 
 77. Black l^ncvsr (Robinia i)sendn(acia) (black locust, yellow locust) : Wood very 
 heavy, hard, strong, and tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact with 
 the soil, shrinks ccuisiderably and puffers in seasoning; the very narrow sap- 
 wood yellowish, tin; heartwood brown, witii siiades of red and green. Used 
 for wagon hubs, tree nails or )»ius, but espet-ially for ties, posts, etc. Abroad it 
 is much used for furniture and f.irin iniplcuienis and also in turnery. Small to 
 medium sized tree, at home iii the .\llcgliaiiies, extensively planted, especially 
 in the West. 
 
 78. Ho.N'EY LOCUST (GleditschUi liiacanthofi) (black locu.st, sweet locust, three- 
 thomed acacia): Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of coarse texture, susc«'p- 
 tibleof a good polish, the narrow sapwood yellow, the heartwood brownish red. 
 So far, but little appreciated except for fencing and fuel; used to some extent 
 for wagon hubs and in rough construction. A medium-sized tree, fouml from 
 Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and southward to Florida and Texas; locally quite 
 abuudant. 
 
 MAGNOLIA (See Tulip.) 
 
 MAPLE. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine texture, frequently 
 wav\ -grained, this giving rise to " curly" and "blister" figures; not durable in the 
 ground or otherwise exposed. Maple i;: creamy white, with Suiides of light brown 
 in the heart; shrinks moderately, seasons, works and stands well, wears smoothly, 
 and takes a fine polish. The wood is used for ceiling, flooring, paneling, stair- 
 way, and other finishing lumber in house, ship, and car construction; it is used for 
 the keels of boats and ships, in the manufacture of implements and machinery, but 
 especially for furniture, where entire chamlier sets of maple rival those of oak. 
 Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks, for shoe pegs, for piano 
 actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill j)rinting, tool handles, in wood 
 carving, turnery, and scroll work. The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly 
 rapid growth; sometimes form forests and frequently constitute a large proportion 
 of the arborescent growth. 
 
 79. SiT..\K MAPLE (Acer sacchanim) (hard maple, rock maple): Medium to large 
 sized tree, very common, forms considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, abun- 
 dant, with l)irch, in parts of the pineries; southward to northern Florida; most 
 abundant in the region of the Great Lakes. 
 
 60. Red maple (Acer 7'uhrum) (swamp or water maple): Medium-sized tree. 
 Like the preceding, but scattered ahmg water courses and other moist iocaliies 
 
 81. Silver MAPLE (Acer saccharinum) (soft maple, silver maple): Medium-sized, 
 common; wood lighter, softer, inferior to hard maple, and usually oftered in 
 small quantities and held separate in the market, ^'alley of the Ohio, but 
 occurs from Maine, to Dakota and southward to Florida. 
 
 82. Broad-leafed mavlv^ (Acer ^nacrophi/Hum): Medium-sized tree, forms consid- 
 erable forests, and like the preceding has a lighter, softer, and less valuable 
 wood. Pacific Coast. 
 
 MULBERRY. 
 
 83. Red mulberry (Moms rubra) : Wood moderately heavy, hard, strong, rather 
 tough, of coarse texture, durable; sajjwood whitish, heart yellow to orange 
 brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; works and stands well- 
 Used in cooperage and locally in shipbuilding and in the manufacture of farm 
 implements. A small-sized tree, common in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, 
 but widely distributed in the Eastern United States. 
 
 OAK — Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very strong and tough? 
 porous, and of coarse texture; the sapwood whitish, the heart "oak" brown to 
 reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giving trouble in seasoning, but 
 stands well, is durable, and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used' 
 for many purposes: in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in common carpentry, 
 
LIST OF BROAD-LEAVED WOODS. 81 
 
 in furniture, car, and wagon work, cooperage, turnery, and even in wood carving; 
 also in tlie manufacture of all kinds of farm implements, wooden mill machinery, 
 for piles and wharves, railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium to large sized trees, 
 forming the predominant part of a largo portion of our broad-leaved forests, so 
 that these'are generally ''oak forests" though they always contain a considerable 
 proportion of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds, white, red, and live 
 oak, are distinguished and kept separate in the market. Of the two principal 
 kinds white oak is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and more durable. Red oak, 
 is usually of coarser texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and even 
 more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry and furniture work, 
 red oak brings about the same pric6 at present as whi , oak. The red oaks every- 
 where accompany the white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented 
 by several species in any given locality. Live oak, once largely employed in 
 shipbuilding, possesses all tiie good (pialities (excei)t that of size) of Avhite oak, 
 even to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest, and most durable 
 building timbers of this country ; in structure it resembles the red oaks, but is 
 much less porous. 
 
 84. White oak (Que7-cus alba) : Medium to large sized tree, common in the East- 
 ern States, Ohio and Mississippi valleys; occurs throughout Eastern United 
 States. 
 
 85. Bur oak {Quercus macrocarpa) (mossy-cup oak, over-cup oak): Large-sized 
 tree, locally abundant, common. Bottoms ^\est of Mississippi; range farther 
 ■west than preceding. 
 
 86. Swamp white oak {(Quercus bicolor): Large-sized tree, common. ^lost abun- 
 dant in the Lake States, but with range as in white oak. 
 
 87. Yellow oak (Quercus iirinoidcs) (chestnut oak, chinciuapin oak): Medium- 
 sized tree. Southern Alleghanies, eastward to Massachusetts. 
 
 88. Basket oak {Quercus micltauxii) (cow oak): Large-sized tree, locally abun- 
 dant; lower Mississippi and eastward to Delaware. 
 
 89. Over-cup oak (Quercus hjrata) (swamp white oak, swamp i)ost oak): Medium 
 to large sized tree, rather restricted ; ranges as in the preceding. 
 
 90. Post oak {Quercus obtusiloia) (iron oak): Medium to large sized tree. 
 Arkansas to Texas, eastward to New England and northward to Michigan. 
 
 91. Whitk OAK {Quercus (luraiidii): Medium to small sized tree. Texas, eastward 
 to Alabama. 
 
 92. White OAK ( ^«erc/<s garrijana): Medium to large sized tree. Washington to 
 California. 
 
 93. White oak (Quercus lobata): Medium to large-sized tree ; largest oak on the 
 Pacitic Coast; California. 
 
 94. Red OAK (Quercus rubra) (black oak): Medium to large sized tree; common 
 in all parts of its range. Maine to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf. 
 
 95. Black OAK (Quercus tinctoria), (yellow oak): Medium to large sized tree; very 
 common in the Southern States, but occurring north as far as Minnesota, and 
 eastward to Maine. 
 
 96. Spanish oak (Quercus falcafa), (red oak): Medium sized tree, common in the 
 South Atlantic and Gulf region, but found from Texas to New York, and north 
 to Missouri and Kentucky. 
 
 97. ^CARLKT OAK (Quercus cocrinea): Medium to large sized tree; best developed in 
 the lower basin of the Ohio, but found from Maine to Missouri, and from Minne- 
 sota to Florida. 
 
 98. Pin oak (Quercus j)alustris) (swamp Spanish oak, Avateroak): Medium to 
 large sized tree, common along borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas to 
 Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 
 
 99. Willow oak (Quercus phelloa) (peach oak): Small to medium sized tree. 
 New York to Texas, and northward to Kentucky. 
 
 3521— No. 10 6 
 
82 TIMBER. 
 
 100. Water oak (Quercus aquafica) (duck oak, possum oak, punk oak): Medium 
 to large sized tree, of extremely rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward 
 to Delaware, and northward to Missouri and Kentucky. 
 
 101. Live OAK ((?Merci/8 virens): Small-sized tree, scattered along the coast from 
 Virginia to Texas. 
 
 102. Live oak (Quercus chryxolepix) . (maul oak, Valparaiso oak): Medium-sizfil 
 tree; California. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE. 
 
 103. Osa(;e or.ANiii: {Madura auranliaca) (Hois d'Arc): Wood very heavy, ex- 
 ceedingly bard, strong, not tough, of modenitelj' coarse texture, and very dura 
 ble; sapwood yellow, heart brown on the end, yellow on longitudinal faces, 
 soon turning grayish brown if exposed; it shrinks considerably in drying, but 
 once dry it stands unusually well. Formerly much used for wheel stock in the 
 dry regions of Texas; otherwise employed for posts, railw'ay ties, etc. Seems 
 too little appreciated; it is well suited for turned ware and especially for wood 
 carving. A small-sized tree, of fairly rapid growth, scattered through the rich 
 bottoms of Arkansas and Texas. 
 
 PERSIMMON. 
 
 104. Peksi.mmon (Diospi/ros viryiniana): Wood very heavy and hard, strong and 
 tough; resembles hickory, but is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream 
 color, the heart black ; used in turnery for shuttles, plane stocks, shoe lasts, etc. 
 Small to medium sized tree, common and best developed in the ]>ower Ohio 
 \'alley,but occurs Irom New York to Texas and Missouri. 
 
 POPLAR AND COTTONWOOD (See also Tulip wood).— Wood light, very soft, 
 not strong, of fine texture and whitish, grayish to yellowish color, usually with 
 a satiny luster. The wood shrinks moderately (some crossgrained forms warp 
 excessively), but checks little; is easily worked, but is not durable. Used as 
 building and furniture lumber, in cooperage for sugar and flour barrels, for 
 crates and boxes (especially cracker boxes), for wooden ware and paper pulp. 
 
 105. Cottonwood (Populus monilifera) : Large sized tree; Ibrms considerable forests 
 along many of the Western streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of 
 the market. Mississippi Valley and west; New England to the Kocky Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 106. Balsam (Populus bahamifera) (balm of (Jilead): Medium to large sized tree; 
 common all along the northern l)ouiulary of the United States. 
 
 107. Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa): The largest deciduous tree of 
 Washington; very common. Northern Eocky Mountains and Pacific region. 
 
 108. Cottonwood (Populus fremonlil v&t. tcislizeni): Medium to large sized tree, 
 common. Texas to California. 
 
 109. Poplar (Populus (jrandidentata): Medium-sized tree, chiefly used for jtulj). 
 Maine to Minnesota and southward along the Alleghanies. 
 
 110. ASPKN (Populus tremuloides) : Small to medium sized tree, often forming 
 extensive forests and covering burued areas. Maine to Washington and north- 
 ward, south in the Western mountains to California and New Mexico. 
 
 SOUR GUM. (SeeGvM.) 
 RED GUM. (^ceGuM.) 
 SASSAFRAS. 
 
 111. Sa.ssafkas (Sassafras sassafras): Wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, of 
 coarse texture, durable; sapwood yellow, heart orange brown. Used in coop- 
 erage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium-sized tree, largest in the Lower Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, from New England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida. 
 
 SWEET GUM. (5ceGuM.) 
 SYCAMORE. 
 
 112. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) (button wood, button-ball tree, water 
 beech): Wood moderately heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually 
 crossgrained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown color; the wood is 
 
LIST OF RROAJ>LEAVED WOODS. S3 
 
 hard to split and work, shrinks iiiodcratelj-, warps and checks conjiderably, but 
 stands well. It is used extensively for drawers, backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinet- 
 work, for tobacco boxes, in cooperage, and' also for linishing lumber, wlicre it has 
 too long been nndcrrated. A largo tree, of rapid growtli, common and largest 
 in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the Eastern 
 United States. The California species — 
 
 113. I'hiiaiuis raccmoDU resembles in its wood the Eastern form. 
 TULIP WOOD. 
 
 114. Tulip tree (Liriodendron tnlipifera) (yellow poplar, white wood): Wood 
 quite variable in weight, usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of tine texture, 
 and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without much 
 injury; works and stands remarkably well. T'sed for siding, for paneling and 
 finishing lumber in house, car, and ship building, for sideboards and panels of 
 wagons and carriages; also in the manufacture of furniture, implements and 
 machinery, for ]>ump logs, and almost every kind of common wooden ware, I>oxes, 
 shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal wood for the carver and toy man. A large tree, 
 docs not form forests, but is quite common, especially iu the Ohio Basin ; occurs 
 from New England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 
 
 115. CUCUMBEK TUEE (.]fagnolia acuminata) : A medium-sized tree, most common in 
 the Southern AUeghanies, but distributed from New York to Arkansas, southward 
 to Alabama and northward to Illinois. Kesembling, and probably confounded 
 with, tulip wood iu the markets. 
 
 TUPELO. (See Gum.) 
 WALNUT. 
 
 116. Black walxut {Juglans nigra): Wood heavy, hard, strong, of coarse texture; 
 the narrow sapw )od whitish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood shrinks 
 moderately in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish, is quite hand- 
 some, and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country. 
 Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, has become too costly for ordinary uses, 
 and is to-day employed largely as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinetwork; 
 also in turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with stout trunk, 
 of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant throughout the Alleghany 
 region, occurring from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to Florida. 
 
 WHITE WALNUT. (See Buttehxut.) 
 
 WHITE WOOD. (-See Tulip, and also Basswood.) 
 
 YELLOW POPLAR. (SeeTui.iP.) 
 
IISTDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Acetic acifl from wood vinegar 53 
 
 Age, inllnence on stiffness 39 
 
 Annual rings as means of distinction 60 
 
 in oak 18 
 
 manner of formation in conifers 14 
 
 record of age 12 
 
 regularity 14 
 
 *' Bastard '' face, explanation 16, 20 
 
 greater shrinkage 35 
 
 Bending. (.See Flexibility and Cross-breaking.) 
 
 Bird's-eye grain 23 
 
 Bled pine as strong as unbled 51 
 
 Bluing a cause of decay .55 
 
 Broad-leaved woods, definition 12 
 
 structuie 18-23 
 
 Casehardeuing 31, 36 
 
 Cellulose 1 51, 53 
 
 Charcoal 53 
 
 Checking 34,35,86 
 
 influence of time of felling 57 
 
 Chemical properties 51-54 
 
 Classification of trees 11, 12 
 
 Cleavability 48 
 
 Climate, influence on weight and strength 51 
 
 Color of heartwood, causes 13 
 
 as means of distinction 60 
 
 Composition of wood, cheuiical 52 
 
 Compression, table of difl'erent species 44 
 
 Coniferous woods, definition 12 
 
 sap and heart 13 
 
 anatomical structure 16 
 
 ConsHmption of wood per capita 5 
 
 Creosote, how obtained 53 
 
 Cross-breaking strength 41-43 
 
 table of different species 43 
 
 Crossgrain 22 
 
 influence on bending strength 41 
 
 Curly grain 22 
 
 "Dead," as applied to wood 24 
 
 Decaj", causes 55 
 
 prevention 56, 57 
 
 Diffuse-porous, definition 64 
 
 Distillation of wood 52,53 
 
 Distinguishing features of wood 59 
 
 Dormant buds in burls '- 23 
 
 85 
 
86 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Drying wood 30 
 
 Dry kilns, behavior ol wood 30, 31 
 
 Durability 54-58 
 
 list of species 57 
 
 Elasticity, modulus 39 
 
 inlluence on splitting - 48 
 
 Extreme liber 42 
 
 Eactor of safety 40 
 
 Felling time, influence 51,57 
 
 Flexibility 49 
 
 Fuel value 52 
 
 Fungus producing decay, described 55, 56 
 
 Grain of wood 21-23 
 
 limbs 23 
 
 Growtli, manner 12 
 
 Hardness 47 
 
 Hardwoods, definition 12 
 
 Heartwood, definition 13 
 
 Heating power 52 
 
 Heat, ell'ect of high temperature (sec also Distillation) 80, 31, 36 
 
 Hickory, cause of toughness 50 
 
 Honeycombing 11, 36 
 
 Identification of woods, how to proceed 62 
 
 Ignorance regarding woods, reasons 5 
 
 Immersion, effect 24, 30, 31. 36, 50 
 
 Impregnating against decay 56, 58 
 
 Inspection , 6, 7, 8 
 
 Kiln drying, influence on durability 57 
 
 Kilns. {See Dry kilns.) 
 
 Knots 23 
 
 effect of their position 41, 44 
 
 influence on bending strength 41 
 
 cleavability - 48 
 
 flexibility 49 
 
 Lampblack 54 
 
 "Light" wood 53 
 
 Lignin 51 
 
 "Live" timber 24 
 
 Lunes in limbs 15 
 
 Manner of sawing affects strength and other qualities 8, 9 
 
 Mechanical properties 37-51 
 
 influence in application, practical conclusions 50 
 
 Medullary rays. (See Pith rays.) 
 
 Mirrors 20 
 
 Modulus of rupture 42 
 
 Moisture 29-31 
 
 during the seasons 29 
 
 varies in tree 29 
 
 eflect on .shearing 46 
 
 influence on stillness 39 
 
 bending strength 41 
 
 strength 8, 46 
 
 cleavability 48 
 
 flexibility 49 
 
INDEX. 87 
 
 Page. 
 
 Non-porons woods, definition 64 
 
 Odor . 24 
 
 Piling or stacking 31 
 
 Pine, bled, as strong as nn'ded 51 
 
 Pitb rays in conifers 17 
 
 of broad-leaved trees 20 
 
 proportion, in pine 34 
 
 cause of checking 34 
 
 Pits bordered 17 
 
 Pores, description 18 
 
 their importance 19 
 
 afiecting weight and strength 27 
 
 used lu distinguishing woods 61, 64 
 
 Pulp 54 
 
 Kesin ducts 16, 18 
 
 Resonance 24 
 
 Rift-sawed boards, behavior in seasonitfg 36 
 
 Riug-porons woods, definition 64 
 
 Rosin 53, 54 
 
 Sapwood of conifers 13 
 
 shrinks more than heartwood 36 
 
 Sawing, manner afi'ects strength .^ 8, 9 
 
 Seasoning, rate 30 
 
 methods 31 
 
 influence on bending strength 41 
 
 hardness 47 
 
 Shearing 45, 46 
 
 table of difl^'erent species '. 46 
 
 across grain 47 
 
 Shocks, resistance 49 
 
 Shrinkage fully discussed 30, 32-37 
 
 tangential, influence of summer wood and spring wood 35 
 
 sap and heart wood 36 
 
 table for difi'erent species 37 
 
 conifers and broad-leaved trees 36 
 
 Soaking, eftects , 21,30,31,36,50 
 
 Soot ■■ 54 
 
 Specific gravity (see also Weight ) 25 
 
 Spring wood, definition 15 
 
 structure in coniferous wood 17 
 
 oak 19,21 
 
 Stiffness 38-41 
 
 table of different species 41 
 
 Strength of wood. (See Mechanical properties.) 
 
 Structural aggregates of a stick 9 
 
 Structure of coniferous wood 12-18 
 
 use of its knowledge H 
 
 of wood of ))road-leaved trees 18-23 
 
 anatomical, of conifers Ifi 
 
 broad-leaved trees 20, 21 
 
 Summer wood, definition ^'^ 
 
 color 1 ' 
 
 proportion in different parts of tree 15, 16 
 
 of coniferous wood . . .' - 17 
 
 oak 19.^1 
 
88 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Swelling by immersion 36 
 
 influence on strength 47 
 
 Tannin 54 
 
 Tar 53 
 
 Tension 43 
 
 table of different species 44 
 
 Testing timber 38 
 
 Tongbu.ss 46,49 
 
 Tracbeiils 17 
 
 Trees, classification 11, 12 
 
 Turpentine 53 
 
 Venetian 54 
 
 Use of -wood. (See List of woods, p. 72.) 
 
 Vessels in spring wood, proportion 19 
 
 Warping 36 
 
 Water in wood, table (see also Moisture and .Sliriukage) 31 
 
 Weight 25-28 
 
 different species, table 28 
 
 distribution in tree 26, 27 
 
 influence on cleavability 48 
 
 .'^tifl'ness 39 
 
 strength 46 
 
 spring wood, how aflected by moisture 8, 26 
 
 Wood pulp 54 
 
 spirits 53 
 
 vinegar 53 
 
 " Working " 31, 37 
 
 o 
 
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 BUREAU OF FORESTRY-BULLETIN Nu. Bl. 
 
 GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester. 
 
 mm nn in mimw m mm^. 
 
 PREPARED IN COOPERATION WITH 
 
 THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
 1905. 
 
USTRATION. 
 
 Page. 
 Plate I. Forest regions of the United States 29 
 
 2 
 
LETTER OF TRAXSMITTAL. 
 
 United States Department of Ackiculture, 
 
 Bureau of Forestry, 
 Was/dngfrm, D. C, May 15, 1905. 
 Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 
 •'Terms used in Forestry- and Lo*iging," prepared in cooperation with 
 the Society of American Foresters, and to recommend its ]iublication 
 as Bulletin No. 61 of the Bureau of Forestry. 
 
 The publication of this bulletin in its present form would have been 
 impossible without the coop.M'ation of many lumbermen, and of prac- 
 tically all the trained foresters in the United States. 
 Verv respectfull}^ 
 
 GiFFORD PiNCHOT, 
 
 Forester. 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 8 
 
TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The terms in forestry which form a part of this bulletin comprise 
 the English forest terminolog-y used in this country, and the more 
 important German and French equivalents. Many entirely new terms, 
 and modifications of terms already in use, are included to meet the 
 specific needs of American forestr3^ The Bureau of Forestry will 
 follow this terminology^ closely in all branches of its work, and it is 
 hoped that foresters generally in the United States will still further 
 standardize it b}^ use. 
 
 The terms in logging comprise those commonly employed in work 
 in the woods. Words and phrases which are merel}^ slang, those 
 whose use is so limited as to be of no practical importance, and those 
 of wide application which are in standard dictionaries, have been 
 omitted. No terms used in the mill or to describe its product, or relat- 
 ing to tie making, turpentining, the production of maple sugar, and 
 other industries which are not essentially a part of the lumberman's 
 work, are included. A list of such terms is now in preparation and 
 will appear in another edition of this bulletin. 
 
 Suggestions for the correction or enlargement of the present list 
 are invited, and ma}'^ be sent to the Forester. 
 
 TERMS i:n^ forestry. 
 
 [Terms recommended for use are defined. Terms not recommended are inserted as synonyms.] 
 
 Absolute forest land. Land fit only for forest growth. 
 
 Syn. : absolute forest soil. G., Holzboden. F., sol forestier. 
 Absolute forest soil. See Absolute forest land. 
 Absolute form fiictor. See Form factor. 
 
 Accident yield. Trees which are cut on account of accident, as, for example, dam- 
 age by wind, snow, insects, or fire. 
 
 G., Vorgriffnutzung, Calamitiitsnutzung. F., Produits accidentels. 
 Accretion, n. Increase in diameter or height; distinguished from increment, increase 
 
 in volume. 
 Accretion borer. An instrument for determining the growth in diameter of stand- 
 ing trees. It consists of a hollow auger, which, when bored into a tree, extracts a 
 section showing the annual rings. 
 
 Syn.: increment borer, increment gauge. G., Zuwachsbohrer. F., sonde de 
 Pressler. 
 
 5 
 
6 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Accretion cutting. See Accretion thinning. 
 
 Accretion tliinning. A thinning made specitically to increase the rate of growth 
 in (liaiiH'ter of the trees which are left standing. See Thinning. 
 
 Svn.: accretion cutting, (i., Lichtungshieb. F., coup d'isolenient. 
 Acid Inuiius. See Sour humus. 
 Actual merchantable lengrtli. .SV^ Used length. 
 .Vctual merchantable volume. See Used volume. 
 
 Advance srrowth, //. Young trees which have sprung up in accidental openings in 
 the forest, or under the forest cover l)efore reproduction (!uttings are begun. See 
 Volunteer growth. 
 G., Vorwuchs. F., semis pr^existant. 
 After-5rr«»wtll, n. Young trees which have sprung up as the result of reproduction 
 cuttings. 
 
 G., Nachwuchs. F., repeuplement naturel. 
 Age class. All trees in a stand whose ages are within given limits. 
 
 G., Altersklasse. F., classe d'^ge. 
 All-aged forest. See Many-aged forest. 
 
 Annual rinsj;. The layer of wood produced by the diameter growth of a tree in one 
 year, as seen on a cross section. See False ring. 
 G., Jahrring, Jahresschicht. F., couche annuelle, couche d'accroissement. 
 
 .Vnnual working. See Working. 
 Arithmetical mean sample tree. See Sample tree. 
 Artificial I'orni factor. See Form factor. 
 Artificial reproduction. See Reproduction. 
 
 Aspect, ;;. The direction toward which a slope faces. The eight main points of 
 the compass, N., NE., E., SE., S., SW., W., NW., are distinguished in forest 
 description. 
 
 Syn. : exposure. G., Lage. F., exposition. 
 Back Are. A fire started purposely some distance ahead of a lire which is to be 
 fought. The back fire is intended to bum only against the wind, so that when the 
 two fires meet, both n^iust go out for lack of fuel. 
 
 Syn.: counter fire. G., Gegenfeuer. F., contre feu. 
 Ball planting. A method of transplanting young trees with balls or lumps of earth 
 around the roots. 
 
 G., Ballenpflanzung. F., plantation en motte. 
 Bark blazer. See Scratcher. 
 Bark gouge. See Scratcher. 
 
 Basal area. The area of a cross section of a tree, or the sum of such areas. 
 Blank, n. An opening in the forest where, from any cause, very few or no trees are 
 growing. 
 
 G., Blosse. F., vide. 
 Block, n. The unit of management treated in a working plan. A block contains 
 always two, but usually many more, compartments. 
 G., Block. F., serie d'exploitation. 
 Board foot. The contents of a board 1 foot square and 1 inch thick. The common 
 
 unit of measure for logs and lumber in the United States. 
 Board measure. The standard of lumber measurement, the unit of which is the 
 board foot. 
 Syn.: board scale. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 7 
 
 Board rule. A graduated stick f(ir detennininj!; the eontents of boards. The num- 
 ber of board feet in boards of given widths and lengths is shown upon the stick. 
 
 Board scale. See Board measure. 
 
 Bole, n. St'e Stem. 
 
 Breast liisrli. n. At or Iiaving a iieightof 4^ feet above the ground. 
 
 Burn, )i. An area over which fire has run to the noticeable injury of the forest. 
 
 Caliper, n. An instrument for measuring the diameter of trees or logs, usually con- 
 si.>iting of a graduated l)eam to which is attached one fixed and one sliding arm. 
 G., Kluppe. F., compas forestier. 
 
 Canopy, v. See Crown cover. 
 
 Class sample tree. See Sample tree. 
 
 Clean cuttinsj:. 1. The cutting of the entire stand. 
 
 Syn.: clear cutting. G., Kahlschlag. F., coupe blanche, coupe a blanc etoc. 
 2. An area upon which the entire stand has been cut. 
 
 Clean cutting method. A method of conservative lumbering in which the entire 
 stand is cut at one time and reproduction is secured by sowing or planting. See 
 Forest management. 
 
 G., Kahlschlagwirtschaft. F., methode par coupe unique. 
 
 Cleaning, n A thinning made in a stand which has not reached the small-pole 
 stage. Its main object is to remove trees of undesirable form and species. See 
 Thinning. 
 
 G., Reinigungshieb. F., nettoiement. 
 
 Clear cutting. See Clean cutting. 
 
 Clear length. In silvics, that portion of the stem of a tree free from branches. In 
 forest measurements the meaning of the term varies with the species measured 
 and the purpose of the measurements. For example, clear length is in some cases 
 used to designate that portion of the stem entirely free from branches, in others 
 that portion free from dead branches, or from growing branches of a given size. 
 Syn.: clear trunk. G., Stamm. F., tige. "^ 
 
 Clear trunk. See Clear length. 
 
 Closed, a. See Crown density. 
 
 Combined cropping. The combination of forest and field crops on the same area. 
 G., Waldfeldbau. F., culture agricole et sylvicole combinee. 
 
 Communal forest. See Town forest. 
 
 Compartment, /;. The unit of area treated in the working i)lan. The size and the 
 shape of compartments are determined mainly by topograi)hic features. 
 G., Abteilung, Jagen. F., parcelle, division, compartiment. 
 If a compartment contains a stand varying greatly in composition, age, or needs, 
 it may be divided into two or more suhcoinpartmeutt, which may be either 
 temporary or permanent. 
 
 Compartment line. The boundary of a compartment. It may be marked by a 
 road, a ride, or a natural feature, such as a stream or the crest of a ridge. In 
 Europe, when other demarcation is wanting, clean cuttings upon narrow strips 
 are made to mark the boundaries of a compartment. These are known as rides 
 (G., Schneisse. F., laie). A ride which separates two cutting series, and thus runs 
 parallel to the prevailing wind direction, is called a major ride (G., Wirtschafts- 
 streifen. F., laie sommiere), while one which completes the demarcation of a 
 compartment is known as a minor ride (G., Nebenschneisse. F., layon). 
 
 Compartment system. See Stand method. 
 
8 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Composite forest. A forest in which both seedlings and sprouts occur in consider- 
 able ninuber. It may be either pure or mixed. 
 Syn. : mixed seedhng and sprout forest. 
 Composite system. One of the three great systems of forest mana{,ement. Under 
 it reproductinii is secured by both sprouts and seedUngs. .S'e*' Forest management. 
 Conservative lumbering. Practical forestry; any method of hnnbering which per- 
 
 jjctuates the forest by use. 
 Conversion, n. A chiuge from one system or metht)d of forest management to 
 another, as fnjni the sprout system to the seed system. 
 ()., Ul)erfuhrung, Umwandlung. F., conversion. 
 Conversion period. The period during which the cliange from one system or 
 
 method of forest management to another is effected. 
 Coppice, coppice forest. See Sprout forest. 
 Coppice metliod. See Sprout method. 
 Coppice slioot. >See Sprout. 
 Coppice system. See Sprout system. 
 Coppice >vith standards. See Reserve sprout forest. 
 Connter lire. See Back fire. 
 
 Crown, )i. In silvics, the upper part of a tree, including the living branches with 
 their foliage. In forest measurements the use of the term varies with the kind 
 of tree and the purpose of the measurements. For example, crown may be used 
 to designate the whole leaf and branch system, or that portion of it above a dead 
 or a growing branch of a given size. In tree description the crown is described as 
 long or short, broad or narrow, compact or ragged, conical or flat. 
 G., Krone. F., cime. 
 Crown canopy. See Crown cover. 
 
 Crown class. All trees in a stand occupying a similar position in the crown cover. 
 DomiiKtnl, intermediate, overtopped, and mppresKed trees each constitute a crown 
 class. 
 Crown cover. The canopy formed by the crowns of all the trees in a forest, or, in 
 an irregular forest, by the crowns of all trees in a sp«3citied crown class. 
 
 Syn.: canopy, crown canopy, leaf canopy. G., Kronendach, Beschirmung. 
 F., convert, voute foliacee. 
 Crown density. The density of the crowns of the trees in a forest; it is usually 
 measured by the extent to which the ground is shaded. 
 G., Beschirmungsdichte. F., dpaisseur du couvert. 
 
 The degrees of crown density in a forest are expressed by the following terms: 
 Closed. When the crowns form an uninterrupted cover and permit little or no 
 sunlight to reach the ground, (i., geschlossen. F., plein. 
 
 Dense. When three-fourths or more of the ground is shaded. G.^-dicht. F., 
 dense. 
 
 Thin. When three-fourths to one-half of the ground is shaded by the crowns. 
 G., licht. F., clair. 
 
 Open. When less than one- half the ground is shaded by the crowms. G., 
 liickig. F., entrecoupe. 
 
 Park forest is forest in which shade occurs only in isolated patches, under single 
 trees or small groups. 
 Crown Hre. See Forest lire. 
 Crown forest. See National forest. 
 Cruiser's bark blazer. See Scratcher. 
 
TEEMS IN FORESTRY. 9 
 
 Cull, r. To take out of a forest by selection a portion of the trees. 
 
 Culled forest. Forest from which cuttings by selection have removed a portion of 
 the trees. 
 
 Current annual increment. The volume of wood produt^eil in a given year by the 
 growth of a tree or stand. 
 
 Cut over, to. To cut most or all of the merchantable timber in a forest. 
 
 Cut-over forest. Forest in which most or all of the merchantable timVjer has been 
 cut. 
 
 Cutting- area. The area over which cuttings are to be or have been made. 
 G., Schlag. F., coupe. 
 
 Cutting' height. The height above the ground at which a tree is to be cut. See 
 Stump height. 
 
 Cutting- limit. See Diameter limit. 
 
 Cutting- series. A block or a part of a block containing even-aged stands whose 
 ages differ uniformly within given limits and which are to be cut in turn, the cut- 
 tings usually following a given direction. A perfect cutting series seldom exists, 
 except under the clean-cutting method followed by artificial reproduction, or 
 under the sprout method. 
 G., Hiebszug. F., suite des coupes. 
 
 Deaden, v. To kill a standing tree by girdling it. 
 G., ringeln. F., ceinturer. 
 
 Deadening, n. An area upon which the trees have been deadened. 
 
 Dense, a. See Crown density. 
 
 Diameter breasthigh. The diameter of a tree at 4j feet above the ground. 
 
 Diameter class. All trees in a stand whose diameters are within prescribed limits. 
 
 G., Starkeklasse. F., cat^gorie de grosseur. 
 Diameter growth. The increase in diameter of a tree. . 
 
 G., Dickenwachstum. F., croissance en diametre. 
 Diameter limit. The diameter, usually breasthigh, which defines the size to which 
 trees are to be measured or used for any given purpose. 
 Syn. : cutting limit. 
 Diameter tape. A tape for ascertaining the diameter of trees, so graduated that the 
 
 diameter corresponding to the girth of a tree is read directly from the tape. 
 Dibble, ». A tool for making holes for planting seeds or young trees. 
 
 G., Setzpfahl. F., plan^on. 
 Dibble in, to. To plant seeds or young trees in holes made with a dibble. 
 Direct returns. See Forest products. 
 
 Dominant, a. Having the crown free to light on all sides because of greater height. 
 See Crown class. 
 
 G., herrschend. F., dominant. 
 Drill planting. See Row planting. 
 Dry prnning. /SV Pruning. 
 
 Dry topped. Having a dead or a partially defoliated crown, or discolored foliage, as 
 the result of injury or disease. 
 
 Syn.: stagheaded. G., gipfeldiirr. F., couronn6. 
 DuflF, n. See Litter. 
 Even-aged forest. See Regular forest. 
 Expectation value. See Forest expectation value. 
 29273— No. 61—05 2 
 
10 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 ExiK'rinioiit area. A forest area of known size upon which successive measure- 
 ments or other detailed studies are made for the determination of the growth and 
 behavior of the stand, or upon which experiments are coiKhicted to ascertain the 
 effect of methods of treatment upon the forest. See. Vahiation area. 
 
 Syn. : permanent sample plot, permanent sample area. G., Probefliiehe, Ver- 
 suchsfliiche. F., surface d'experience, place d'essai. 
 
 Exposure. See Aspect. 
 
 Factor of shape. See Form factor. 
 
 Factors of the locality. See Locality. 
 
 Fail spot. A place where natural or artiticial reproduction has failed. 
 
 False riiitf. The layer of wood, less than a full season's growth, and seldom 
 extending around the stem, which is formed whenever the diameter growth of a 
 tree is interrupted and begins again during the same growing season. 
 G., Scheinring. F., fausse couche d'accroissement. 
 
 Federal forest. See National forest. 
 
 Federal forest reserAe. See National forest reserve. 
 
 Final cutting. See Stand method. 
 
 Final yield. All material derived from rej)roduction cuttings or clean cuttings. 
 It is usually the chief crop, and marks the end of the rotation. See Intermediate 
 yield. 
 
 G., Haul)arkeitsiuitzung, Abtriebsnutzung. F., produit principal. 
 
 Financial rotation. Sec Rotation. 
 Fire lane. See Fire line. 
 
 Fire line. A strij) kept clear of inflammable material as a protection against the 
 spread of forest lire. 
 Syn.: fire lane, fire trai'e. G., Feuergestell. F., tranchee garde-feu. 
 
 Fire trace. See Fire line. 
 
 First growth. 1. Natural forest in which no cuttings have been made. See 
 Second growth. 
 
 Syn.: old growth, virgin forest. G., Urwald. F., foret vierge. 
 
 2. Trees grown before lumbering or severe fire entered the forest; belonging to 
 the original stand. 
 
 Forest, r. To establish a forest, either by natural or artificial means. 
 
 Forest, n. An area whose principal crop is trees. A forest includes both the forest 
 cover and the soil beneath it. 
 
 (;., Wald, Forst. F., foret. 
 
 A forest judged by the character of the stand may be timberland or }rnorHand. 
 These constitute the two great classes of forest, between which it is possible to draw 
 a practical but not an absolute distinction. 
 
 Timberland may be broadly defined as that class of forest which contains in 
 commercial quantities trees of sufficient size and of the required kind to furnish 
 saw logs, pulp wood, ties, poles, or wood for similar uses. 
 
 Woodland may be broadly defined as forest which contains trees fit for firewood 
 or fencing, but none or very few trees which are suitable for the uses enumerated 
 above. 
 
 A timber trail is a l)ody of timberland, usually of large area. 
 
 A woodlot is a forest of small area in which the wood is used mainly for fuel, 
 fencing, and other farm purposes. 
 Forestation. See Forest extension. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 11 
 
 Forest capital. The capital which a forest represents. It consists of the forest 
 land, or fixed capital, and the stand. 
 G., Waldkapital. F., capita! forestier. 
 
 Forest cover. All trees and other plants in a forest. 
 
 Forester, ». One who practices forestry as a profession. 
 
 Forest expectation value. The present net value of all future returns expected 
 from the forest capital. It is determined by discounting to the present time, at 
 compound interest, all returns and expenses anticipated. 
 G., Erwartungsvvert. F., valeur d'avenir. 
 
 Forest extension. The establishment of forest upon areas where it is at present 
 absent or insufhcient. 
 Syn. : forestation. 
 
 Forest finance. See Forest management. 
 
 Forest fire. A fire in timberland or woodland. A forest fire may be a ground fire, 
 a surface ^fire, a stand fire, or a crown fire. A grouud fire is one which burns in the 
 forest floor and does not appear above the ground. When a fire runs over the 
 surface or burns the undergrowth, it is a surface fire. AVhen a surface fire spreads 
 from the undergrowth to the stand, igniting the trees, it becomes a stand fire. 
 Under certain conditions the crowns of the trees may be ignited, causing a 
 crovm fire. 
 
 Forest floor. The deposit of vegetable matter on the ground in a forest. Litter 
 includes the upper, but slightly decomposed portion of the forest floor; humus, the 
 portion in which decomposition is well advanced. 
 
 Forest grown. Grown in the forest from self-sown seed. 
 
 Forest humus. See Mild humus. 
 
 Forest influences. All effects resulting from the presence of the forest, upon health, 
 climate (including wind, rainfall, temperature, etc.), stream flow, and economic 
 conditions. 
 Syn. : indirect effects. 
 
 Forest managrenienjt. The practical application of the principles of forestry to a 
 forest area. See Forestry. 
 
 Forest management includes Forest mensuration, or the determination of the 
 present and future product of the forest (G., Holzmesskunde. F., cubage) ; Forest 
 organization, or the preparation of working plans and planting plans, detailed and 
 comprehensive schemes for the establishment and best use of the forest (G., For- 
 st?inrichtung. F., amenagement); and Forest, finance, or the determination of the 
 money returns from forestry (G., Forstflnanzen. F., finance forestiere). 
 
 Three great systems of forest management are distinguished: The seed system, 
 the sprout system , and the composite systetn. The seed system includes the stand 
 method, group method, strip method, patch method, strip stand ntetliod, group seed 
 method, .scattered seed method, single tree method, reserve seed nuihod, clean cutting 
 method. The sprout system includes the sprout method. The composite system 
 includes the reserve sprout method. 
 
 Forest mensuration. See Forest management. 
 
 Forest nursery. An area upon which young trees are grown for forest planting. 
 G., Baumschule, Saatkamp. F., pepiniere. 
 
 Forest organization. See Forest management. 
 
12 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Forest plantation. Forest prowtli, established by setting out young trees or by 
 sowing seed, which has not reached the small pole stage. 
 
 G., Pfianzuniz, Kultur. F., plantation. 
 
 A fdrest plantation, made by setting out young trees, whicli has passed the small 
 pole stage, is called a planted forest. A sown forest plantation which has passed 
 the small pole stage is called a soivn forest. 
 Forest policy. The principles which govern the administration of the forest for its 
 best permanent use. See Forestry. 
 
 G., Forstpolitik. F., politique forestie re. 
 Forest products. All usable material yielded by the forest. 
 
 Syn.: direct returns. 
 
 The following classes are distinguished: 
 
 Major products include all wood harvested for any purpose. 
 
 G., Hauptnutzung. F., produits principaux. 
 
 Minor products include all forest products except wood. 
 
 G., Nebennutzung. F., menus produits. 
 
 Forest protection. The safeguarding of the forest against any damage not caused 
 by its own growth. See Forestry. 
 
 G., Forstschutz. F., protection des for^ts. 
 
 Forestral, a. Pertaining to forestry. 
 
 Forest replacement. The restoration of forest growth on denuded areas. 
 G., Wiederaufforstung. F., reboisement. 
 
 Forestry, n. The science and art of making the best permanent use of the forest. 
 
 G., Forstwirtschaft, Forstwesen, Forstwissenschaft. F., science forestiere, for- 
 esterie. 
 
 The main branches of forestry are Forest polici^, Sihicultiire, Forest management, 
 Forest protection, and Forest utilization. 
 
 Forest type. A forest or a part of a forest possessing distinctive characteristics of 
 composition or habit of growth. 
 
 Forest utilization. The most profitable use of forest products. See Forestry. 
 G., Forstbenutzung. F., exploitation des bois. 
 
 Form class. All trees in a stand so similar in form that the same form factor is 
 applicable in determining their actual volume. 
 Syn.: form factor class. 
 
 Form factor. The ratio, expressed decimally, between the volume of a tree, or por- 
 tion of a tree, and of a cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume of 
 this cylinder multiplied by the form factor gives the actual volume of the tree or 
 portion of the tree. 
 
 Syn.: factor of shape. G., Formzahl. F., coefficient de forme. 
 
 Three kinds of form factors are distinguished, according to the portion of the 
 tree to which they refer: 
 
 A Tree form factor is used for determining the actual volume of the whole tree; a 
 Stem form factor for determining the volume of the stem; and a Timber form factor 
 for determining the merchantable contents of stem, crown, or both. 
 
 A form factor is called absolute when the diameter of the tree is measured at any 
 convenient height, the form factor referring only to that portion of the tree above 
 the point at which the diameter is measured; normal, when the diameter is meas- 
 ured at a height in constant ratio to the total height of the tree; and artificial, when 
 the breasthigh diameter is measured. 
 
 Form factor class. See Form class. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 13 
 
 Future yield. The amount of wood which given trees upon a given area will con- 
 tain after a given period. 
 
 Future yield table. A tabular statement of future yield. 
 
 (ireen pruning'. See Pruning. 
 
 (jround cover. All small plants growing in a forest, except young trees; such as 
 ferns, mosses, grasses, and weeds. See Underbrush. 
 G., Bodendecke. F., couverture du sol. 
 
 (j round fire. See Forest fire. 
 
 (ironp method. A method of conservative lumbering in which groups of young 
 trees which have sprung up in openings caused by logging, insect damage, wind- 
 fall, snowbreak, or other agency, are taken as starting points for ^he future forest; 
 or if these are insufficient, small openings are purposely made. Reproduction by 
 self-sown seed from the mature stand at the edges of these groups is secured by 
 careful cuttings, which extend the groups until they join. See Forest management. 
 Syn. : group system, shelterwood group system. G., Horst und gruppenweise 
 Verjiingung, Gruppenwirtschaft. 
 
 Group mixture. A mixed forest in which trees of the same species occur in groups 
 not large enough to be considered pure stands. 
 
 Group seed method. A method of conservative lumbering in which the forest is 
 reproduced after a single cutting, by leaving in groups seed trees of the kind desired. 
 fSee Forest management. 
 
 Group system. See Group method. 
 
 Growing' stock. See Stand. 
 
 Habit, 91. See Silvics. 
 
 Harden off, to. To prepare seedlings in the seedbed for transplanting by gradually 
 exposing them to wind and sunlight. 
 
 Heel in, to. To store young trees for planting by laying them against the side of a 
 trench and covering the roots with earth. 
 
 Heigrht class. All trees in a stand whose heights are within prescribed limits. 
 G., Hohenklasse. F., classe de hauteur. 
 
 Height growth. The increase in height of a tree. 
 G., Huhenwuchs. F., croissance en hauteur. 
 
 Height measure. An instrument for measuring the height of a tree. 
 Syn. : hypsometer. G., Hohenmesser. F., dendrometre. 
 
 High forest. See Seed forest. 
 
 High forest compartment system. See Stand method. 
 
 High or seedling forest system. See Seed system. 
 
 High pole. See Pole. 
 
 Hill planting. See Mound planting. 
 
 Humus, //. That portion of the forest floor in which decomposition is well advanced. 
 Syn.: mold. G. and F., Humus. 
 
 Hypsometer, h. See Height measure. 
 
 Improvement cutting. See Improvement thinning. 
 
 Improvement thinning. Usually the first thinning ma<le when a forest is put 
 imder management, to prepare it for the application of a regular system. See 
 Thinning. 
 
 Syn.: improvement cutting, preliminary thinning. G., Verbesserungshieb. F., 
 coupe d' amelioration. 
 
 Income rotation. See Rotation. 
 
14 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Increment, n. The volume or value of wood produced during a given period by 
 the growth of a tree or of a stand. See Accretion. 
 Syn. : volume growth. G., Zuwachs. F., accroisement. 
 Three kinds of increment are distinguished: 
 Volume increment is the increase in volume of a tree or stand. 
 Quality increment is the increase in value per unit of volume. 
 
 Price increment is the increment resulting from an increase in the prii'e of forest 
 products independent of quality increment. 
 Increment borer. See Accretion borer. 
 Increment graug'e. See Accretion borer. 
 
 Index, (I. The highest average actually found upon a given locality. The term 
 index apj)lied to stand, diameter growth, height growth, increment, and present 
 and future yield is the equivalent of normal, when normal is used to describe the 
 assumed standard based upon actual measurement. 
 Syn.: normal. G. and F., normal. 
 Index forest. That forest which in density, volume, and increment reaches the 
 highest average which has been found upon a given locality. Measurements of 
 such a forest provide a standard for comparison with other forests of the same age 
 and composition, grown under similar conditions. 
 Syn.: normal forest. 
 Indirect effects. See Forest influences. 
 Intermediate, a. Having the crown shaded on the sides, but free to light at the 
 
 toj). See Crown class. 
 Intermediate yield. All material from thinnings or from any cutting not intended 
 to invite or assist reproduction. See Final yield. 
 G., Zwischennutzung. F., produits interm^diaires. 
 Intermittent Working'. See Working. 
 Intolerant, a. Incapable of enduring heavy shade. 
 
 Syn.: light demanding. G., lichtbediirftig. F., ii temperament robuste. 
 Irreg'ular forest. Forest in which the trees differ considerably in age. 
 
 Syn.: uneven-aged forest. G., ungleichalterigerBestand. F., peuplementm614. 
 Larg-e pole. See Pole. 
 Large-pole forest. A forest of large poles. 
 Large sapling. See Sapling. 
 Large-sapling forest. A forest of large saplings. 
 Leaf canopy. /S^t; Crown cover. 
 Leaf cover. See Litter. 
 Leaf litter. See Litter. 
 
 Lift, r. To pry up seedlings in the seedbed, so that they may be pulled up l)y liand 
 for transjilanting. 
 
 Light demanding. See Intolerant. 
 
 Light screen. See Shade frame. 
 
 Line out, to. To transplant seedlings from the seedbed to rows in the forest nursery. 
 G., verschulen. F., repiquer. 
 
 Litter, n. That portion o{ the forest floor which is not in an advanced state of 
 decomposition. 
 
 Syn.: leaf litter, leaf cover, duff. G., Streu. F., litiere. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 15 
 
 Locality, ?). An area, onnsidored with reference to forest-producing power; the 
 fnctdrx of the localitii are the altitude, soil, slope, aspect, and other local conditions 
 influencing forest growth. 
 
 Syn.: site. G., Standort. F., station. 
 
 Locality class. All localities with similar forest-producing power. 
 
 Syu.: quality of locality. G., Standortsgiite, Standortsbonitiit, Bonitiit. F., 
 (jualite de la station. 
 
 Log' rule. 1. A tabular statement of the amount of lumber which can be sawed 
 from logs of given lengths and diameters. 
 
 2. A graduated stick for measuring the diameters of logs. The immljer of board 
 feet in logs of given diameters and lengths is shown upon the stick. 
 
 Syn. : log scale, scale rule. 
 
 Log: scale. See Log rule. 
 
 Lower story. See Two-storied forest. 
 
 Low i)ole. See Pole. 
 
 Major products. See Forest products. 
 
 Major ride. See Compartment line. 
 
 Maiiy-ag"ed forest. A forest through all parts of which many different age classes of 
 trees tend to distribute themselves. When all age classes are thus distributed, the 
 forest is nil-aged. These two terms replace selection forest, many-aged being substi- 
 tuted for imperfect selection, and all-aged for perfect or ideal selection. 
 
 Marking' hatchet. A hatchet for uiai king trees. A raised die is cut on the head 
 for stamping the face of the blaze. 
 
 Mature forest. Forest so old that growth in height is practically at an end and 
 diameter growth is decreasing. 
 
 Mean annual increment. The total increment of a tree or stand divided ])y its 
 age in years. 
 
 Merchantable length. The total length of that portion of the stem which can be 
 used under given conditions. 
 Syn.: possible merchantable length. 
 
 Merchantable volume. The total volume of that portion of the tree which can be 
 used under given conditions. 
 
 Syn. : possible merchantalile volume. 
 
 Method of successive thinning's. See Stand method. 
 
 Mild humus. Humus in a condition favorable to forest growth. 
 
 Syn.: forest humus. Ant. : sour humus. G., milder Humus. F., terreau forestier. 
 
 Minor i>rodncts. See Forest products. 
 Minor ride. See Compartment line. 
 
 Mixed forest. Forest composed of trees of two or more species. 
 G., gemi.schter Bestand. F., peuj^lement melange. 
 
 Mixed seedling' and sprout forest. See Composite forest. 
 
 Mold, 11. See Humus. 
 
 Mother tree, n. See Seed tree. 
 
 Mound planting. A method of planting on wet ground, in which the seeds or 
 
 young trees are planted on mounds, ridges, or hills. 
 Syn.: hill planting, ridge planting. G., Hiigelpflanzung. F., plantation en 
 
 buttes. 
 
16 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 National forest. A forest w hich is the pruperty oi the United States. 
 Syn. : federal forest. 
 
 Forest belonging to the National Government is in €»., Staatswald; F., foret 
 domaniale, and in the British dependencies, Crown forest. 
 
 National forest reserre. A tract of land set apart from the public domain l)y proc- 
 lamation of the President under section 24 of the act of March 3, 1801, or created 
 by .^jpccial act of Congress, and administered under laws of the United States passed 
 for that purpose, in order "to imjirove and i)rotect the forest within the reserva- 
 tion, or for the purpose of securing favoral)le conditions of waterflows and to furnish 
 a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the 
 United States." 
 
 Syn.: Federal forest reserve. 
 
 National park. A tract of Government land withdrawn by special act of Congress 
 from settlement, occupancy, or sale, under the laws of the United States, for the 
 benefit and enjoyment of the people. ; 
 
 Natural pruning. See Pruning. ,^ 
 
 Natural reprodnction. .See Reproduction. •,,, 
 
 Normal, a. See Index. 
 
 Normal forest. See Index forest. .^ 
 
 Normal form factor. See Form factor. ^^, 
 
 Nurse, n. A tree which fosters the growth of another in youth. 
 G., Schutzholz. F., essence d'abri. 
 
 Nursery grown. Grown in a forest nursery. 
 
 01<l-field growth. See Volunteer growth. 
 
 Old growtli. See First growth. 
 
 Open, a. See Crown density. 
 
 Overmature forest. Forest in which, as the result of age, growtli has almost 
 entirely ceased, and decay and deterioration have l)egun. 
 
 Overtopped, (f. Having the crown shaded from above, although a side or sides 
 may be free to light. See Crown class. 
 
 Overwood, n. See Two-storied forest. 
 
 Park forest. See Crown density. 
 
 Partial section analysis. See Tree analysis. 
 
 Partial stump analysis. See Tree analysis. 
 
 Patch nietliod. The clean cutting of small patches to invite reproduction by self- 
 sown seed from the surrounding forest. See Forest management. 
 G., Kesselhieb, Locherhieb. F., coupes par troupes. 
 
 Patcli sowing. Sowing forest seed in spots. See Seed spot. 
 G.. Pliitzesaat, Plattensaat. F., semis par places. 
 
 Periodic annual increment. The total increment for the i>eriod, divided by the 
 number of years in the period. See Periodic increment. 
 
 Periodic increment. The volume of wood produced by the growth of a tree or 
 stand in a specified number of years. 
 
 Periodic working. See Working. 
 
 Permanent sample area. See Experiment area. 
 
 Permanent sample plot. See Experiment area. 
 
 Physical rotation. See Rotation. 
 
 Pit planting. See Trench planting. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 17 
 
 Planted forest. See Forest plantation. 
 
 Planting plan. A detailed scheme for forest planting on a given area. 
 
 Planting- site. An area which is to be artificially stocked with forest fjrowth. 
 
 Plot survey. See Valuation survey. 
 
 Pole, n. A tree from 4 to 12 inches in diameter breasthigh. See Tree class. 
 
 G., Stange. F., perche. 
 
 A small pole is a tree from 4 to 8 inches in diameter breasthigh. 
 
 Syn. : low pole. 
 
 A large pole is a tree from 8 to 12 inches in diameter breasthigh. 
 
 Syn.: high pole. 
 
 Pollard, r. To invite the production of shoots at the top of a tree by cutting back 
 the crown. 
 
 G., kopfen. F., eteter, ecimer. 
 
 Pollard, n. A tree whose crown has been cut back to invite the production of 
 shoots. 
 
 G., Kopfholz. F., tetard. 
 
 Possible merchantable length. See Merchantable length. 
 
 Possible merchantable volume. See Merchantable volume. 
 
 Preliminary examination. A reconnoissance of a forest to determine whether the 
 
 preparation of a working plan for its management is advisable, or a reconnoissance 
 
 to determine the advisability of forest planting. 
 Preliminary thinning. See Improvement thinning. 
 Preparatory cuttings. See Stand method. 
 Preparatory stage. See Stand method. 
 Present yield. The amount of wood at present contained in given trees upon a 
 
 given area. 
 
 G., Vorrath. F., materiel debout, materiel sur pied. 
 
 Present yield table. A tabular statement of the amount of wood at present con- 
 tained in given trees upon a given area. 
 
 Price increment. See Increment. 
 
 Private forest. A forest which is the property of an individual, corporation, com- 
 pany, or private institution. G., Privatwald. F., foret particuliere. 
 
 Protection forest. A forest whose chief value is to regulate stream flow, prevent 
 erosion, bold shifting sand, or exert any other indirect beneficial effect. 
 G., Schutzwald, Bannwald. F., foret de protection. 
 
 Pruning., n. The removal of l)ranches from standing trees by natural or artificial 
 means. 
 
 G., Aufiistung. F., elagage. 
 
 The clearing of the stem through the death and fall of l)ranches for want of light 
 is known as natural priming. (G., Astreinigung. F., elagage naturel. ) When 
 living branches are removed by cutting them close to the stem the operation is 
 known as green pruning (G., Griiniistung. F., elagage de branches vivantes); when 
 it is confined to dead branches, as dry pruning (G., Trockeniistung. F., Elagage 
 de branches mortes). 
 
 Puddle, '■. To dip the roots of young trees in thin nuid. 
 
 Puddle, n. A mixture of soil or mold and water, forming tliiii mud, in which the 
 roots of young trees are dipped to retard drying out during transplanting. 
 
 29273— No. 61—05 3 
 
18 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AXD LOGGING. 
 
 Pure forest. Forest composed of trees of one species. In practice, a forest in 
 which 80 per cent of the trees are of one species. 
 G., reiner Bestanti. F., peuplement pur. 
 IJiiality increment. See Increment. 
 finality of locality. See LocaHty class. 
 
 Quincunx planting. A method of planting in which young trees are set iii the 
 center and at each corner of succes.«ive squares. 
 
 G., Fiinfverband, Kreuzpflanzung. F., plantation en (luinconce. 
 Reforest, v. See Restock. 
 Reireneration, n. See Reproduction. 
 Regeneration cutting. See Reproduction cutting. 
 Regular forest. Forest in which the trees are approximately of the .-a.-.c age. 
 
 Syn.: even-aged forest. G., gleichalteriger Bestand. F., peuplement uniform. 
 Removal cuttings. See Stand method. 
 Removal stage. See Stand method. 
 
 Reproduction, n. 1. The process by which a forest is renewed. 
 Syn.: regeneratiijn. G., Verjiingung. F., regeneration. 
 
 Natural rcprodu(iio)i is the renewal of a forest by self-sown seeds or by sprouts. 
 G., natiirliche Verjiingung. F., regeneration naturelle. 
 Artificial reproduction is the renewal of a forest by sowing or plant iiv. 
 G., kunstliche Verjiingung. F., regeneration artificielle. 
 2. Seedlings or saplings from sprouts or from self-sown seed. 
 Reproduction cutting. Any cutting intended to invite or assist reproduction. 
 
 Syn.: regeneration cutting. G., Verjiingungshieb. F., coupe de regeneration. 
 
 Reproduction period. The space of time required for the renewal of a stand. 
 
 Reserve seed method. That method of conservative lumbering in which, in a stand 
 
 which is being reproduced by self-sown seed, a number of trees are left uncut for a 
 
 period, usually a second rotation, after the stand itself is reproduced. See Forest 
 
 management. 
 
 Syn.: system of high forest with standards. G., Ueberhaltbetrieb. F., traite- 
 ment en futaie avec reserve sur coupe definitive. 
 Reserve sprout forest. Two-storied forest, in which sprouts form the lower and 
 seedlings, or selected, healthy sprouts, the upper story. 
 
 Syn.: coppice with standards, standard coppice, stored coppice. G., ^littel- 
 wald. F., taillis compose, taillis sous futaie. 
 Reserve sprout method. That method of conservative lumbering in which an 
 overwood composed of seedling trees, or selected sprouts, is maintained above a 
 stand of sprouts. See Forest management. 
 
 Syn.: istandard coppice system. G., Mittelwaldbetrieb. F., regime du taillis 
 compost. 
 Restock, V. To renew a forest, either by natural or artificial means. 
 
 Syn.: reforest. G., aufforsten. F., reboiser. 
 Ride, n. See Compartment line. 
 Ridge planting. See Mound planting. 
 
 Rock, n. In forest description rock refers to those'characteristics of the underlying 
 formation which affect the forest; as, for example, its outcrop, composition, and 
 the rajiidity of its disintegration. 
 Rock in, to. To plant young trees in openings in the ground made by prying or 
 rocking a spade back and forth. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY, 19 
 
 Root collar. That plai'e at the base of a tree where the swelling which is the 
 direct result of the rainitications of the roots begins. 
 G., Wurzelhals. F., collet. 
 Root sucker. See Sprout. 
 
 Rotation, n. The period represented by the age of a forest, or a part of a forest, at 
 the time when it is cut, or intended to be cut. 
 G., IJmtrieb, Umtriebszeit. F., revolution. 
 The folU)wing classes of rotation are distinguished: 
 
 Fiuaitrial rotation, under which a forest yields the highest net interest on itc 
 capital value, calculating at compound interest. 
 
 Income rotation, under which a forest yields the highest net return, calculating 
 without interest. 
 
 S}'n. : rotation of the liighest income. 
 
 Silrical rotation, the rotation most favorable to the natural rei)roductinn of the 
 forest under a given method. 
 
 Syn.: physical rotation, silvicultural rotation. 
 
 Technical rotation, under which a forest yields the material most suitable for a 
 certain purpose. 
 
 Volume rotation, under which a forest yields the greatest quantity of material. 
 Syn. : rotation of the greatest volume. 
 Rotation of the greatest volume. See Rotation. 
 Rotation of the hig^hest income. See Rotation. 
 
 Row planting. A method of planting in which the young trees are placed in rows, 
 the distance between the rows being greater than the distance between the young 
 trees in the rows. In planting seeds or seedlings in the forest nursery this method 
 is known as drill planting. 
 
 G., Reihenpflanzung. F., plantation en lignes. 
 Sample area. See Valuation area; Experiment area. 
 Sample plot. See Valuation area; Experiment area. 
 
 Sample tree. A tree which in diameter, height, and volume is representative of a 
 tree class. 
 
 G., Probestamm. F., tige d'experience. 
 
 A cla^s sample tree is a tree which in diameter, height, and volume represents 
 the average of sevei'al tree classes. 
 Syn. : arithmetical mean sample tree. 
 
 Sapling, n. A tree 3 feet or over in height, and less than 4 inches in diameter 
 breasthigh. See Tree class. 
 
 A small sapling is a sapling from 3 to 10 feet in height. 
 A large sapling is a sapling 10 feet or over in height. 
 
 Scald, n. See Sun scald. 
 
 Scale rule. See Log rule. 
 
 Scattered seed method. That method of conservative lumbering in which repro- 
 duction is provided for by leaving, after a single cutting, scattered seed trees of the 
 kind desired. See Forest management. 
 
 Scratcher, n. An instrument used for marking trees. It usually consists of a hook- 
 like gouge fastened to a flat, elliptical iron hoop, with wooden handle plates on 
 the opposite side from the gouge. 
 
 Syn.: bark blazer, bark gouge, crui-ser's bark l)lazer, tree scribe. G., Risser. 
 F., griff e. 
 
 Screen, n. See Shade frame. 
 
20 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Second growth. Forest growth which comes up naturally after cutting, fire, or 
 
 other disturbing cause. See First growth. 
 Section analysis. See Tree analysis. 
 
 Seedbed, n. A specially prepared area, usually in the forest nursery, for the rais- 
 ing of seedlings. 
 
 G., Saatbeet. F., couche de semis. 
 Seed cnttinars. <S'ee Stand method. 
 Seed forest. A forest composed wholly or mainly of trees grown from seed. 
 
 Syn.: high forest. G., Hochwald, Samenwald. F., futaic, haute futaie. 
 Seeding' stage. See Stand method. 
 Seedling, n. 1. A tree grown from seed. 
 
 G., Kernwuchs. F., brin de semence. 
 
 2. A tree grown from seed which has not reached a height of 3 feet. See Tree 
 class. 
 
 G., Siimlinj;, Keiuiling. F., jeune brin. 
 
 Seed spot. A small area, usually in a burn or in an opening in the forest, which is 
 sown with tree seed. 
 
 Seed system. One of the three great systems of forest management. I'mler it 
 reproduction is obtained from seed. See Forest management. 
 Syn.: high or seedling forest system. G., Hochwaldbetrieb, Samenholzbetrieb. 
 F., r(?gime de la futaie. 
 
 Seed tree, n. Any tree which bears seed; specifically, a tree which provides the 
 seed for natural reproduction. 
 
 Syn.: mother tree. G., Mutterbaum, Samenbaum. F., porte-graine, .semencier. 
 
 Seed year. A year in which a given species of tree bears seed; specifically, a year 
 in which a given species bears seed al)un(lantly. 
 G., Samenjahr. F. , annee de semence. 
 
 Selection Coresl. Sir Many-aged forest. 
 
 Selection method or system. See Single tree method. 
 
 Self-so>vn seed. Strictlj', disseminated without the intervention of iiunian or ani- 
 mal agency; in common practice, seed sown by any agency other tlian man. 
 
 Semimatnre forest. Forest in which rapid growth in height has culminated, but 
 diameter growth has not begun to fall off. 
 
 Severance cutting. The cutting of all trees upon a narrow strip before natural 
 pruning has far advanced, in order that the trees bordering this strip may, as the 
 result of partial exposure, become wind-firm through the development of strong 
 roots. Thus severance cuttings are made to strengthen the trees on the edge of a 
 stand which will later be entirely exposed through the removal of the stand which 
 now pnjtects it. 
 
 (J., Loshieb. F., essartement dc protection. 
 
 Shade-bearing, a. See Tolerant. 
 
 Sliiide-enduring, a. Set Tolerant. 
 
 Shade frame. A frame for the partial shading of a .seedbed. It consists of a cover 
 of laths, l)rush, or cloth, supported on ])osts and arranged so that light can be 
 admitted as de.sired. 
 
 Syn.: light screen, screen. 
 
 vShaft, tt. See Stem. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 21 
 
 Sholtei'belt, ». Natural or artificial forest maintained as a protection from wind or 
 snow. 
 
 Syn. : shelterwood, wind mantle. G., Waldmantel, Schut/.niantel. F., rideau. 
 
 A narrow shelterbelt in which true forest conditions do not exist, is a windbreak 
 when maintained as a protection against wind, and a xnorcbreak when maintained 
 as a jirotection against snow. 
 Shelterwood, /(. See Shelterbelt. 
 
 Shelterwood compartment system. See Stand method. 
 Shi'ltorwood arroup system. See Group method. 
 Shelterwood selection system. See Single ti'ee method. 
 Shoot, n. See Sprout. 
 Silvical, «. Pertaining to silvics. 
 Silvioal rotation. See Rotation. 
 Silvies, 11. 1. The science which treats of the life of trees in the fore.st. 
 
 2. The habit or behavior of a tree in the forest. 
 
 Syn.: habit, silvicultural characteristics. 
 
 Silvicultural characteristics. See Silvics. 
 
 Silvicultural rotation. See Rotation. 
 
 Silviculture, u. The art of producing and tending a forest; the application of the 
 knowledge of silvics in the treatment of a forest. See Forestry. 
 G.,Waldbau, Holzzucht. F., sylviculture. 
 
 Sin§:le tree method. That method of conservative lumbering in which reproduc- 
 tion from self-sown seed under the shelter of the old stand is invited by the 
 cutting of single trees. This cutting may be made throughout the forest, as in 
 some woodlots, or in definite portions of the forest in turn. See Forest management. 
 Syn.: selection method, selection system, shelterwood selection system. G., 
 Pltinterbetrieb, Pliinterwirtschaft, Femelbetrieb. F., jardinage, regime de la 
 futaie jardinee. 
 
 Single tree mixture. A mixture in which trees of different species occur singly. 
 
 Site, n. See Locality. 
 
 Slope, n. The gradient of the land surface. In forest description the following 
 terms are used to define the slope, each of which has its equivalent in percentages 
 of the horizontal distance and in degrees: 
 
 Level = 0-5%= .0- 3.0° 
 
 Gentle = .5-15^=3.0-8.5° 
 
 Moderate = lb- 30%= 8.5-16.5° 
 
 Steep = 30-509^ = 16.5-26.5° 
 
 Very steep = 50-100 % = 26.5-45.0° 
 
 Precipitous=over 100%=over 45.0° 
 
 Small pole. See Pole. 
 
 Small-pole forest. A forest of small poles. 
 
 Small sapling. See Sapling. 
 
 Small-sapling: forest. A forest of small saplings. 
 
 Snow break, ?i. 1. The breaking of trees by snow. 
 G., Schneebruch. F., bris de neige. 
 
 2. An area on which trees have been l)roken by snow. 
 
 3. )See Shelterbelt. 
 
22 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Soil, n. In forest description the origin, composition, depth, and moisture of the 
 forest soil are considered under soil. Its depth is defined by the following; terms, 
 each of which has its equivalent in inches: 
 
 Very shallow=less than 6 inches. 
 Shallow =6 to 12 inches. 
 
 Moderate =12 to 24 inches. 
 Deep =24 to 36 inches. 
 
 Very deep =over 36 inches. 
 The moisture of the soil is defined by the following terms: 
 Wet: when water drips from a piece held in the hand without pressing. 
 MoiM: when water drips from a piece pressed in the hand. 
 
 Freifli: when iio water drips from a piece pressed in the hand, though it is 
 unmistakably present. 
 
 Dry: when there is little or no trace of water. 
 
 Very dry: when the soil is parched. Such soils are usually caked and very hard, 
 sand being an exception. 
 Sour hiiiniis. Humus harmful to forest growth owing to the presence of liumii- or 
 similar acids produced by decomposition under excess of moisture and lack of air. 
 Syn.: acid humus. Ant.: mild humus. G., sauerer Humus. F., humus tour- 
 beux. 
 Sown forest. See Forest plantation. 
 Sprout, n. A tree which has grown from a stump or root. 
 
 Syn.: coppice shoot, root sucker, stool shoot, stump shoot. G., Stockausschlag. 
 F., rejet de souche. 
 
 A shoot is a sprout which has not reached a height of 3 feet. See Tree class. 
 Sprout forest. A forest consisting w^holly or mainly of sprouts. 
 
 Syn.: coppice, coppice forest. G., Niederwald. F., taillis. 
 Sprout method. That method of conservative lumbering in which reproduction is 
 obtained by si)routs. See Forest management. 
 
 Syn.: coppice method or system. G., Niederwaldbetrieb. F., regime du taillis 
 simple. 
 Sprout system. One of the three great systems of forest management, in wliich 
 reproduction is secured by sprouts. See Forest management. 
 
 Syn.: coppice system. G., Stockaussclilagbetriel), Niederwaldl)t'tricb. F., re- 
 gime du taillis simple. 
 Square plautiug. A method of planting in which the distance between the rowe 
 is equal to the distance between the young trees in the rows. 
 (t., Quadratpflanzung. F., plantation en carre. 
 Staglieaded, a. See Dry topped. 
 Stand, n. All growing trees, in a forest or in part of a forest. 
 
 Syn.: growing stock. G., Bestand. F., peuplement. 
 Standard, n. A tree from 1 to 2 feet in diameter breasthigh. See Tree class. 
 Standard coppice. See Reserve sprout forest. 
 Standard coppice system. See Reserve sprout method. 
 
 Standard-forest, n. A forest of standards. G., Baiunholz. F. , futaie, haute futaie. 
 Stand class. All stands of similar density, height, and volume for a given age or 
 diameter and a given locality class. The index stand may constitute the first stand 
 class. 
 
 G., Beetandesgiite. F., (jualite du i)euplement. 
 Stand Are. See Forest fire. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 23 
 
 Stand method. That method of conservative lumbering in which repro(hu;tion is 
 securt'd from self-sown seed by means of successive cuttings made throughout the 
 mature stand, thus leading to the production of a new stand approximately even 
 aged. These successive cuttings encourage seed production, create conditions 
 favorable to the growth of seedlings, and gradually remove the remaining trees of 
 the mature stand as the young growth develops. See Forest management. 
 
 Syn. : compartment system, high forest compartment system, methoti of suc- 
 cessive thinnings, shelterwood compartment system. G., schlagweise Verjiingung. 
 F., regime de la futaie reguliere. 
 
 The series of cuttings, which vary in number and duration according to the 
 degree of difhculty with which reproduction is effected, is divided into the follow- 
 ing four kinds: 
 
 Preparatory cuttings fit the stand for its reproductioi) by the removal of dead, 
 dying, or defective trees, and prepare the ground for the germination of seeds. 
 
 G., Vorbereitungsschlag. F., coupe preparatoire. 
 
 A stand in which one or more preparatory cuttings have been made is in the 
 preparatory stage. 
 
 Seed cuttings encourage seed production by the further opening of the stand, and 
 admit light in quantity favorable for the development of young growth. 
 
 G., Besamungsschlag. F., coupe d'ensemencement. 
 
 A stand in which one or more seed cuttings have been made is in the seeding 
 stage. 
 
 Removal cuttings gradually remove the mature stanvl which would otherwise 
 retard the development of the young trees. 
 
 G., Lichtschlag. F., coupe claire. 
 
 A stand in which one or more removal cuttings have been made is in the removal 
 stage. 
 
 The jinal cutting is the last of the removal cuttings, in which all of the old stand 
 still remaining is cut. 
 
 G., Abtriebsschlag, Endhieb. F., coupe definitive. 
 
 Stand table. A tabular statement of the number of trees of each species and diameter 
 class upon a given area. 
 
 State forest. A forest which is the property of a State. 
 
 Stem, n. The trunk of a tree. The stem may extend to the top of the tree, as in 
 some conifers, or it may be lost in the ramification of the crown, as in most broad- 
 leaf trees. In tree description the stem is described as long or short, straight or 
 crooked, cylindrical or tapering, smooth or knotty. 
 Syn.: bole, shaft, trunk. G., Stamm. F., tronc. 
 
 Stem analysis. See Tree analysis. 
 
 Stem density. The extent to which the total number of trees in a given forest 
 approaches the total number which the index forest of the same age and composi^ 
 tion contains. It is ordinarily expressed as a decimal, 1 being taken as the numer- 
 ical equivalent of the stem density of the index forest. 
 
 G., Bestockungsdichte, Bestandesdichte. F., consistance du peuplement. 
 
 Stem form factor. See Form factor. 
 
 Stool, n. See Stump. 
 
 Stool shoot. See Sprout. 
 
 Stored coppice. See Reserve sprout forest. 
 
 Stratify, v. To preserve tree seeds by spreading them in layers alternating with 
 layers of earth or sand. 
 
24 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Strip metliod. That method of conservative hiniberin^ in which reproduction is 
 secured on clean-cut strips l)y self-sown seed from the adjoining forest. See Forest 
 management. 
 G., Coulissenhieb. F., coupe par bandes alternes. 
 
 Strip stand method. A modification of the stand method in which reproduction 
 cuttings are not made simultaneously throughout the stand, but the stand is 
 treated in narrow strips at such intervals that reproduction cuttings are generally 
 going on in three strips at one time, one strij) being in the removal stage, one in 
 the seeding stage, and one in the preparatory stage. See Forest management. 
 
 Strip survey. See Valuation survey. 
 
 Stub. n. That portion of the stem left standing when a tree is accidentally broken 
 off. 
 
 Stump, n. That portion of the stem below the cut made in felling a tree. 
 Syn.: stool. G., Stock. F., souche. 
 
 Stump age. The age of a tree as determined )jy the number of annual rings upon 
 the face of the stump, without allowance for the period required for the growth of 
 the tree to the height of the stump. 
 
 Stump analysis. See Tree analysis. 
 
 Stump height. The distance from the ground to the top of the stump, or from the 
 root collar when the ground level has been disturbed. On a slope the average dis- 
 tance is taken as the stump height. »SV*' Cutting height. 
 
 Stump shoot. See Sprout. 
 Subcompartment, n. See Compartment. 
 
 Sun scald. An injury to tlie cambium caused by sudden exposure of a tree to 
 strong sunlight. 
 Syn.: scald. G., Sonnenbrand. F., brulure, coups de soleil. 
 
 Suppressed, a. Having growth more or less seriously retarded by shade. See Crown 
 class. 
 G., nnterdriickt. F., domine. 
 
 Surface fire. See Forest fire. 
 
 Sustained working. See Working. 
 
 Sustained yield. See Working. 
 
 System of high forest Avith standards. See Reserve seed method. 
 
 Technical rotation. See Rotation. 
 
 Thicket, n. A stand of saplings. 
 G., Dickicht. F., fourr«J. 
 
 Thin, a. See Crown density. 
 
 Thinning, ». The removal of a portion of the trees with the object of improving 
 the stand without inviting natural reproduction. The following kinds of thin- 
 nings are distinguished: cleaning, improrement thimnng, accretion thinning. 
 G., Durchforstung. F., coupe d'eclaircie. 
 
 Timber form factor. See Form factor. 
 
 Timberland, n. See Forest. 
 
 Timber tract. See Forest. 
 
 Tolerance, n. The capacity of a tree to endure shade. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 25 
 
 Tolorant, a. Capable of enduring more or lese heavy shade. 
 
 Syn.: ssliade-bearing, shade-enduring. G., Schattenertragend. F., a tempera- 
 ment dehcat. 
 
 Total increment. The total volume of wood produced l)y the growth of a tree or 
 stand up to the time it is cut. 
 
 Town forest. A forest whieh is the property of a city, town, or village. 
 
 Syn.: communal forest. (J., Gemeindewald. F., foret communale. 
 Transplant, r. 1. To take up a young tree and set it out again in another place. 
 
 2. To transfer seedlings from the seedbed to another j)lace in the forest nursery, 
 or from the latter to the planting site. 
 
 G., verpflanzen, verschulen. F. , transplanter. 
 
 Transplant, n. A seedling which has been transjilanted once or several times. 
 G., Schulpfianze. F., plant repique. 
 
 Trap tree. A tree deadened or felled at a time when destructive bark beetles will 
 be attracted to it and enter the bark. After they have entered, the bark is peeled 
 and exposed to the sun, burned, or buried, as the case may require, to destroy the 
 insect. 
 
 G., Fangbaum. F., arbre-piege. 
 
 Tree analysis. A series of measurements and observations upon a felled tree to 
 determine its growth and life history. 
 
 Syn. : stem analysis. G., Stammanalyse. F., analyse de tige. 
 
 Tree analyses vary with their purpose, and may include all or a part of the fol- 
 lowing, or may require additions to meet special needs. The usual measure- 
 ments comprise the length of each section, the diameter inside and outside the 
 bark, the total age, the age and width of the sapwood, the diameter growth at 
 given periods on the upper end of each section, the diameter breasthigh, the 
 total height, and the clear, used, and merchantal)le lengths. The observations 
 determine the class, form, and condition of the tree. 
 
 Although a tree analysis may include many combinations of the above measure- 
 ments, two important classes are distinguished: 
 
 A stump analysis includes measurements of the diameter growth at given periods 
 upon the stump only, no matter what other measurements it may comprise. 
 
 A section analysis includes measurements of the diameter growth at given periods 
 upon more than one section. 
 
 When, in a stump or section analysis, the measurement of the diameter growth 
 at given periods covers only a portion of the total diameter growth, the analysis 
 is a. partial stump analysis or a. partial section analysis. 
 
 Tree class. All trees of approximatelj' the same size. The following tree classes are 
 distinguished: seedling, shoot, small sapling, large sapling, small pole, large pole, stand- 
 ard, veteran. 
 
 Tree form factor. See Form factor. 
 
 Tree scribe. See Scratcher. 
 
 Trench planting. A method of planting on dry groimd, in which the seeds of 
 young trees are set in pits or trenches. 
 Syn. : pit planting. 
 
 Triangular planting'. A method of planting in which the unit of arrangement is 
 an equilateral triangle, at each apex oi which young trees are placed. 
 G., Dreieckverband. F., plantation en triangle. 
 
 Trunk, n. See Stem. 
 
 29273— No. 61—05 1 
 
20 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGTNG. 
 
 T« (►-storiod forest. Cdinprising on the naiiie area two clasi^es, which vary consider^ 
 
 u1j1\- ill height, composed of trees of (Hfferent species. The term is not applicable to 
 
 forest under reproduction, in which the appearance of two stories is the temporary 
 
 result of an incomplete process, but to those forests of which the two stories of 
 
 growth are a natural and permanent feature. 
 G., zweihiebig. F., a double etage. 
 In a two-storied forest the taller trees form the orerwuod, or upper Mory. (i., Ober- 
 
 holz, Oberstand. F., 6tage superieur du peujjlement. The shorter trees form the 
 
 nnderv'ood, or loirei' stori/. G., Unterholz, Unterstand. F., sousetage. 
 TJinlerbrush, /). All large, woody plants, such as witch-hobble, laurel, striped 
 
 maple, and devil's club, which grow in a forest, but do not make trees. See Ground 
 
 cover. 
 rndergrowth, n. The ground cover, underl)rnsh, and young trees below the large 
 
 sapling stage. 
 Underplaiit, v. To plant young trees under an existing stand. 
 Underwood, /*. See two-storied forest. 
 I'lieven-aiircd forest. Sec Irregular forest. 
 l'l)per st<u\v. See Two-storied forest. 
 I'sed I(>ni|:tli. The sum of the lengths of logs cut from a tree. 
 
 Syn.: actual menihantable length. 
 Used volume. The sum of the volumes of logs cut from a tree. 
 
 Syn.: actual merchantable volume. 
 Valuation area. A forest area of known size upon which measurements or other 
 
 detailed studies are made for the determination of the stand or yield. See Kxperi 
 
 nient area. 
 
 .Syn.: sample area, sample plot. G., Probefiache, Versuchsflache. F. , surface 
 
 d'experience, place d'essai. 
 Valuation survey. The measurement or other detailed study of the stand ujjon a 
 
 valuation or experiment area. 
 Two kinds of valuation survey are distinguished: 
 
 1. The .strip surrri/ comprises the measurement of a stand, or a given portion of 
 it, upon strips usually 1 chain wide. 
 
 2. The j>lot swcrc// comprises the measurement of the stand, or a given portion of 
 it, upon isolated plots not in the form of strips. 
 
 Veteran, n. A tree over 2 feet in diameter breasthigh. See Tree class. 
 Veteran forest. A forest of veterans. 
 
 (t., Altholz. F., vieille futaie. 
 Vira:iii forest. >S'fe First growth. 
 V(duiiie growth. See Increment. 
 Volume increment. *%« Increment. 
 Volume rotation. See Rotation. 
 
 Tolunie table. A tabular statement of the volume of trees in board feet (jr other 
 units upon the basis of their diameter breasthigh, their diameter breasthigh and 
 height, their age, or their age and height. 
 G., Mas.sentafel. F., tarif de cubage. 
 Volunteer growth. Young trees which have sprung up in the open, as white pine 
 in old fields, or cherry ami aspen in burns. See Advance growth. 
 Syn. : old-field growth. 
 '>Veed tree. A tree of a species which has little or no value. 
 G., Unholz. F., morts-bois. 
 
TERMS IN FORESTRY. 27 
 
 Windbreak, /;. 1. The breaking of trees hy \viii<l. 
 
 2. .Sfc Shelterbelt. 
 
 3. See Windfall. 
 
 Windfall, 1. A tree thrown l)y wind. 
 
 2. An area on which the trees have been thrown l)y wind. 
 Syn. windbreak. G., Windbrnrh. F., volis. 
 Wind-firm, a. Able to withstand heavy wind. 
 
 G., t^turnifest, windfe^t. F., resistant an vent. 
 Wind niautlo. See Shelterbelt. 
 Woodland, n. See Forest. 
 Woodlot, n. See Forest. 
 
 "Work, V. To harvest the final yield under a working plan. 
 Working, u. The harvesting of the final yield under a working plan. 
 G., Betrieb. F., exploitation. 
 
 Working is a.^iiiud when cuttings are made each year; jteriodic when they are 
 made after uniform periods of two or more years; and ititermittent when they are 
 made at irregular intervals. Sustained annual, periodic, or intermittent workings 
 are those under which the amount of wood cut is so regulated that the productive 
 capacity of the forest does not decrease, but produces a sustained yield (G., Xach- 
 haltsbetrieb. F., exploitation a rendementsoutenu), which likewise may be annual, 
 periodic, or intermittent. 
 "Working area. The total forest area managed under a working plan. 
 
 8yn.: working circle. G., Wirtschaftseinheit. F., unite d'exploitation. 
 Working- circle. See "Working area. 
 
 W^orking plan. A detailed and comprehensive scheme for the best permanent use 
 
 of a forest. 
 
 G., AVirtschaftsplan. F., plan d'exploitation. 
 Working plan renewal. The preparation of a new working plan for a given tract, 
 
 when the present working plan has been carried out, or changed conditions require 
 
 its revision. 
 
 Yield, n. The amount of wood at present upon, or which after a given period will 
 be upon, a given area. See Present yield; Future yield; Accident yield; Inter- 
 mediate yield; Final yield; "Working. 
 G., Ertrag. F., rendement. 
 
 Yield table. See Present yield table; Future yield table. 
 
Bui fl Buteai of Forrstr.. U. S. Deut. of A rjcul-ur 
 
 Plate I. 
 
loggm:n^g terms. 
 
 [Letters in parentheses following rtefinitions indicate tin- forest regions (see map) in which the 
 terms as defined are used. 
 
 (Gen.)=General = In all forest regions of the United States. 
 (C. H. F. )=Central Hardwood Forest. 
 (N. F.) = Northern Forest. 
 
 (App.)=Appalachian Forest. 
 (L. S.)=Lake States Forest. 
 (N.W.)=North Woods. 
 (S. F.)=Southern Forest. 
 (R. M. F.)=Rocky Mountain Forest. 
 (P. C. F.)= Pacific Coast Forest. 
 In a few instances very local terms are ascribed to a State instead of to a forest region.] 
 
 Alder grab. The stem of an alder, or other small tree, which is bent over and 
 
 plugged into a hole bored in a boom stick, or secured in some other way, to hold a 
 
 boom or logs inshore. (N. F. ) 
 Alligator,?!. 1. A boat used in handling floating logs. It can be moved overland 
 
 from one body of water to another by its own power, usually applied through drum 
 
 and cable. (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 2. A device, often made from the fork of a tree, on which the front end of a log 
 
 is placed to facilitate skidding on swampy ground. (S. F. ) 
 Anchor line. A line attached to a small buoy and to one fluke of an anchor used 
 
 in towing a raft of logs. It is employed to free the anchor when fast to rocks or 
 
 snags. (N. F. ) 
 
 Apron,/!. 1. A platform projecting downstream from the sluiceway of a dam to 
 
 launch well into the stream logs which pass through the sluiceway. (Gen.) 
 2. A platform built of timbers at the foot of a slide, which guides in the desired 
 
 direction logs leaving the slide. (Gen.) 
 Ark, 7j. See Wanigan. 
 Back line. See Haul back. 
 
 Ballhooter, ». One who rolls logs down a hillside. (App. ) 
 Bank, r. See Bank up, to. 
 Bank, n. 1. See 'Landing. 
 
 2. The logs cut or skidded in one day above the required amount and held over 
 
 by the saw crew or skidders, to be reported when the required daily number is 
 
 not reached. (N. F.) 
 
 Banking ground. See Landing. 
 Bank up, to. To pile up logs on a landing. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : bank. 
 
 Barker, n. One who peels bark in gathering tanbark. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: peeler, spudder. 
 
 Barking iron. See Spud. 
 
 29 
 
30 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Bark mark. A symbol chopped into the side of a lo<r to iiulieate its ownership; 
 
 when used with the end mark it serves as an additional means of identification. 
 
 (Gen.) Sei' ]\Iark. 
 Syn.: side mark. (N. F.) 
 Bark marker. One who cuts the hark mark on logs. (Gen.) 
 Barn boss. One who has charge of the stables in a logging camp. (Gen. ) 
 
 8yn.: feeder. (N. W.) 
 Batteu, n. A log less than 11 inches in diameter at the small end. (Maine. ) 
 Battery, )i. Two or more donkey engines f(jr dragging logs, set at intervals on a 
 
 long .skid road. (P. C. F.) 
 Beaver, n. See Swamper. 
 
 Bet'ket, /(. A large liook used in loading logs on cars by means of tackle. ( P. C. F. ) 
 Bod a tree, to. To level up the i>ath in which a tree is to fall, so that it may not 
 
 be shattered. (P. C. F.) 
 Bicycle, n. A traveling block, used on a cable in steam skidding. (S. F. ) 
 Bigness scale. ^Set' Full scale. 
 Big Wheels. Sre Logging wheels. 
 Binder, n. A springy pole used to tighten a binding chain. (Gen. ) 
 
 Syn.: jim binder. 
 Binding cliain. A chain used to bind together a load of logs. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: wrapper cliain. (N. F. ) 
 Binding logs. Logs placed on the top of the chain binding a load, in order to take 
 
 up the slack. (Gen.) 
 Birl, ('. To cause a floating log to rotate rapidly by treading upon it. (Gen.) 
 Bitcli chain. A short, heavy chain with hook and ring, used to fasten the lower 
 
 end of a gin pole to a sled or car when loading logs. (N. F. ) 
 Blaze, V. To mark, by cutting into trees, the course of a boundary, road, trail, or 
 
 the like. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: spot. (N. W.) 
 Block, n. &(' Brail. 
 Blow down. See Windfall. 
 Blue jay. See Road monkey. 
 Bluing', )L The result of fungus attack, \ which turns the sapwocd of certain trees 
 
 V)lue. (Gen.) 
 Bob, n. See Dray. 
 B<»bber, n. See Deadhead. 
 Bob lt»gs, to. To transport logs on a lioli or dray. (N. V.) 
 
 Body wood. Cord wood cut from those portions of the stems of trees which are 
 
 clear of branches. (N. F. ) 
 Bolster, ;/. See Bunk. 
 Boom, 11. L(jgs or tind)ers fastened together end to end and used to hold floating 
 
 logs. The term sometimes includes the logs inclosed, as a boom of logs. (Gen.) 
 Boomage, n. Toll for use of a boom. (Gen.) 
 Boom buoy. See Boom stay. 
 
 Boom chain. A short chain which fastens boom sticks end to end. (Gen.) 
 Boom company. A corporation engaged in handling floating logs, and owning 
 
 booms and booming privileges. (N. F. ) 
 
LOGGIXG TERMS. 31 
 
 Boom i)iii. A wooden pint; used to fasten to boom sticks the chain, rope, or withe 
 
 which holds them together. (Gen.) 
 Boom rat. One who works on a boom. (N. F. ) 
 Boom stay. A heavy weight used to anchor booms in deep water; its position 
 
 is indicated by ii pole or tioat attaclied to it. (X. F. ) 
 Syn. : boom buoy. 
 Boom stick. A timber which forms part of a boom. (Gen.) 
 Bottle butted, ,9-r Swell butted. 
 Bottom sill. See Mudsill. 
 Brail, r. To fasten logs in brails. 
 Brail, n. A section of a log raft, six of which make an average tow. (L. S. ) 
 
 yyn.: block. (S. F.) 
 Brake sled. A logging sled so constructed that, when the pole team holds back, a 
 
 heavy iron on the side of each runner of the forward sled is forced into the 
 
 roadbed. (X. F.) 
 Brand, it. See Mark. 
 Break out. to. 1. To start a sled whose runners are frozen to the ground. (N. 
 
 W., L. S.) 
 2. To open a logging road after heavy snowfall. (X. W., L. S.) 
 Breastwork log. See Fender skid. 
 Briar, ». A crosscut saw. (Gen.) 
 Bridle, a. A device for controlling the speed of logs on a skid road. It consists of 
 
 a short rope with two hooks at one end, which are driven into the first log of the 
 
 turn; at the other end is a clamp which runs over the cable. (P. C. F. ) 
 Bridle man. One who follows a turn of logs down the skid road and tends the 
 
 "bridle." (P. C. F.) 
 Broad leaf, a. See Hardwood. 
 Brow skid. The chief beam in a frame to which tackle for loading logs on cars is 
 
 fastened. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn.: draw skid, lead log. 
 Brush a road, to. To cover with brush the mudholes and swampy places in a 
 
 logging road, to make it solid. (X. F.) 
 Brush snow fence. A snowbreak to protect a logging road; used most commonly 
 
 on wide marshes. It consists of lirusli which is set upright in the ground before 
 
 it freezes. (X. F. ) 
 Bruiting crew. A crew which rolls logs down slopes too steep for teams. (App. ) 
 Buck, c. 1. To saw felled trees into logs. (P. C. F.) 
 
 2. To bring or carry, as to buck water or wood. (Gen.) 
 Bucker, ?). 1. One who saws felled trees into logs. (P. C. F. ) Syn. : cross cutter. 
 
 2. One who brings or carries. See Buck. 
 Buckwheat, r. See Hang up, to. 
 Buckwheater. ». A novice at lumbering. (Gen.) 
 Bull chain. 1. A very heavy chain, to which a number of siiort chains, with 
 
 hooks on one end and dogs on the other, are attached. It is used to draw logs 
 
 from the mill pond up the gangway. (Gen.) 
 2. See Jack chain. 
 Bull cook. See Chore Ijov. 
 
32 TERMS USED IX FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Bull donkey. A large donkey engine which, by drum and cable, drags logs from 
 
 the place where they are yarded to a landing. (P. C. F. ) 
 Bully, n. A common name for the foreman or boss of a logging camp. (N. F. ) 
 Buinmor, d. A small truck with two low wheels and a long pole, used in skidding 
 
 logs. (N. F.,S. F.) 
 Syn. : drag cart, skidder. 
 Bunch load, to. To encircle several logs with a chain and load them at once, by 
 
 steam or horsepower. ( N. F. ) 
 Bunch logs, to. To collect logs in one place for loading. (Gen.) 
 Bunk, '•. To place upon the bunks, as to "bunk a log." (Gen.) 
 Bunk, /(. 1 . The heavy timber upon which the logs rest on a logging sled. (N. F. ) 
 Syn.: bolster. 
 
 2. The cross beam on a log car or truck, on which the logs rest. (Gen.) 
 
 3. A log car or truck. (S. F., P. C. F.) 
 Bunk chain. See Toggle chain. 
 
 Bunk hook. The hook attached to the end of the bunk on a logging car, which 
 
 may be raised to hold the logs in place or lowered to release them. (Gen. ) 
 Bunk load. A load of logs not over one log deep; i. e., in which every log rests on 
 
 the bunks. (Gen.) 
 Bunk spikes. Sharp spikes set upright in the Inmks of a logging sled to hold the 
 
 logs in place. (N. F. ) 
 Bush a road, to. To mark the route of a logging road across a marsh or the ice 
 
 by setting up bushes. (N. F. ) 
 Butt, n. The base of a tree, or the big end of a log. (Gen.) 
 Butt cut. 1. The first log above the stump. ((Jen.) 
 Syn.: butt log. (Gen.) 
 2. In gathering tanbark, the section of bark taken from tlie butt of a tree before 
 
 felling it for further peeling. (N. F. ) 
 Butt hook. The hook by which the cable is attached to the tatikle on the logs. 
 
 [V. C. F.) ■ 
 
 Butt log. See Butt cut. 
 
 Butt off", to. 1. To cut a piece from the end of a logon account of a defect. 'Gen. '\ 
 Syn.: long butt, to. (P. C. F., App. ) 
 2. To square the end of a log. (N. F. ) 
 Buttress, n. A wall or abutment built along a stream to prevent the logs in a tlrive 
 
 from cutting the bank or jamming. (Gen. ) 
 Butt team. In a logging team of four or more, the pair nearest the load. (Gen.) 
 Caiup inspector. A lazy lumberjack, who goes from one logging camp to another, 
 
 working only a short time in each. (N. F. ) 
 Cannon a log, to. In loading logs by steam or horse power, to send up a log so 
 
 that it swings crosswise, instead of parallel to the load. (N. F. ) 
 Cant dog. See Cant hook. 
 Cant hook. A tool like a peavey, but having a toe ring and lip at the end instead of 
 
 a pike. *SVe Peavey. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : cant dog. 
 Cap, n. A cone of sheet iron or steel, with a hole in the end through which a chain 
 
 passes, which is fitted over the end of a log before snaking it, to prevent catching 
 
 on stumps, roots, or other obstacles, in steam skidding. (S. F. ) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 33 
 
 Catamaran, n. A small raft carrying a windlass and grapple, used to recover sunken 
 logs. (Gen. ) 
 Syn. : sinker boat (Gen.), monitor, pontoon (P. C. F. ). 
 Catch boom. A boom fastened across stream to catch and hold floating logs. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 €atfaee, n. A partly healetl over fire scar on the stem of a tree. (P. C. F.) 
 Catpicce, n. A small stick in which holes are made at regular intervals, placed on 
 the top of uprights firmly set in floating booms. The uprights are fitted to enter 
 the holes in the catpiece, so as to narrow or widen the space between the booms 
 at the entrance to a sluiceway or sorting jack. The catpiece is held by the uprights 
 high enough above water to allow logs to float freely under it. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Cattyman, n. An expert river driver. (N. F. ) 
 
 Center jam. A jam formed on an obstacle in the middle of a stream, and which 
 does not reach either shore. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: stream jam. 
 Chain g-rapples. See Grapples. 
 Chain tender. See Sled tender. 
 Check, n. A longitudinal crack in timber caused by too rapid seasoning. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : season check. 
 Cheese block. See Chock block. 
 Chock block. A small wedge or block used to prevent a log from rolling. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: cheese l)lock. (P. C. F.) 
 Choker, n. A noose of wire rope by which a log is dragged. (P. C. F. ) 
 Choker man. The member of a yarding crew who fastens the choker on the logs. 
 
 (P. C. F.) 
 Chopper, n. See Faller. 
 
 Chore boy. One who cleans up the sleeping quarters and stable in a logging camp, 
 cuts firewood, builds fires, and carries water. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: bull cook, flunkey, shanty boss. 
 Chunk, r. To clear the ground, with engine or horses, of obstructions whicih can 
 
 not be removed by hand. (P. C. F. ) 
 Chunk up, to. To collect and pile for burning the slash left after logging. (N. W., 
 
 L. S.) 
 Churn butted. *S'ee Swell butted. 
 Chute, n. See Slide. 
 
 Coal off, to. To cut a forest clean for charcoal wood. (N. F.) 
 Commissary, ». A general store for supplying lumbermen. (App.,S. F. ) See Van. 
 Conk, 11. 1. The decay in the wood of trees caused by a fungus. (N. F., P. C. F. ) 
 
 2. The visible fruiting organ of a tree fungus. (N. F., P. C. F. ) 
 Conky, a. Affected ])y conk. (N. F., P. C. F. ) 
 
 Cook camp. The building used as kitchen and dining room in a logging camp. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn. : cook house, cook shanty. 
 Cookee, n. Assistant cook and dishwasher in a logging camp. (Gen.) 
 Cook house. See Cook camp. 
 Cook shanty. See Cook camp. 
 
 Corkscrew,?;. A geared logging locomotive. (P. C. F. ) 
 Syn.: stem- winder. (App. ) 
 
34 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 roriicr binds. Four stout chains, used on logging sleds, to bind the two outside 
 
 logs of the lower tier to the bunks, and thus give a firm bottom to the load. ( N. F. ) 
 Corner man. In building a camp or barn of logs, one who notches the logs so that 
 
 tht'v will tit closely and make a square corner. (N. F.) 
 Coupling: grab. See Grapples. 
 Crab, n. A small raft bearing a windlass and anchor, used to move log rafts upstream 
 
 or across a lake. (N. F., S. F.) 
 Cradle, n. A framework of timbers in which ocean-going rafts of logs are built. 
 
 (P. C. F.) 
 Cradle knolls. Small knolls which require grading in the construction of logging 
 
 roads. (N. W., L. S.) 
 Crazy oliain. The short chain used to hold up that tongue of a si)rinkler sled which 
 
 is not in use. (N. F. ) 
 Crib, n. Specifically, a raft of logs; loosely applied to a boom of logs. (N. F. ) 
 Crib lojjs, to. To surround floating logs with a boom and draw them by a windlass 
 
 on a raft (a crab), or to tow them with a steamboat. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Cross chains. Chains connecting the front and rear sleds of a logging sled. (N. F. ) 
 Cross cutter. See Bucker. 
 
 Cross liaul. The cleared space in which a team moves in cross hauling. (N. F. ) 
 Cross haul, to. To load cars or sleds with logs by horsepower and crotch or load- 
 ing chain. (Gen.) 
 Crotch, r. To cut notches on opposite sides of a log near the end, into which dogs 
 
 are fastened. (P. C. F. ) 
 Crotch, n. See Dray. 
 
 Crotcli chain. A tackle for loading logs on sleds, cars, or skidways by cross haul- 
 ing. (Gen.) 
 Crotch tong'ue. Two pieces of wood, in the form of a V, joining the front and rear 
 
 sleds of a logging sled. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Cruise, v. To estimate the amount and value of standing timber. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : estimate, value. 
 Cruiser, n. One who cruises. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: estimator, land looker, valuer. 
 Cull, 11. Logs which are rejected, or parts of logs deducted in measurement on 
 
 account of defects. (Gen. ) 
 Cut, n. A season's output of logs. (Gen. ) 
 Cut a log, to. To move one end of a log forward or backward, so that the log will 
 
 roll in the desired direction. (Gen. ) 
 Cut off. An artificial channel l)y which the course of a stream is straightened, to 
 
 facilitate log driving. (N. F. ) 
 Deacon seat. The bench in front of the sleeping bunks in a logging camji. (N. F. ) 
 Deadener, n. A heavy log or timber, with spikes set in the butt end, so fastened 
 
 in a log slide that the logs passing under it come in contact with the spikes and 
 
 have their speed retarded. (Gen.) 
 Deadhead, )f. A sunken or partly sunken log. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: sinker (Gen.), bobber (N. F. ). 
 Deadman, ti. A fallen tree on the shore, or a timber to which the hawser of a 
 
 boo'u is attached. (N. F., P. C. F.) 
 Deadwater. See Stillwater. 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 35 
 
 Decker, n. One who rolls logs upon a skid way or log deck. (Gen. ) 
 
 Deckiug: cliain. See Loading chain. 
 
 Deck up, to. To pile logs upon a skidway. (Gen.) 
 
 Deer foot. A V-shapeil iron catch on the side of a logging car, in which the bind- 
 ing chain is fastened. (Gen.) 
 
 Dehorn, v. To saw off the ends of logs hearing the owner's mark and put on a new 
 mark. (Kentucky.) 
 
 Dingle, n. The roofed-over space between the kitchen and the sleeping quarters 
 in a logging camp, commonly used as a storeroom. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Dinkey, n. A small logging locomotive. (App., S. F. ) 
 
 Dog, n. A short, heavy piece of steel, bent and pointed at one end and with an eye 
 or ring at the other. It is used for many purposes in logging, and is sometimes so 
 shaped that a blow directly against the line of draft will loosen it. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: tail hook. (P. C. F.) 
 
 Dog' boat. See Eigging sled. 
 
 Dogger, u. One who attaches the dogs or hooks to a log before it is steam skidded. 
 (S^F./P. C. F.) 
 
 Dog hook. 1. The strong hook on the end of a dogwarp. (N. F.) 
 
 2. A hook on the end of a haul-up chain of a size to permit its being hooked 
 into a link of the chain when the latter is looped around a log or other object. 
 (P. C. F.) 
 
 Dogs, n. See Skidding tong8. 
 
 Dogwarp, n. A rope with a strong hook on the end, which is used in breaking 
 dangerous jams on falls and rapids and in moving logs from other difficult posi- 
 tions. (N. F. ) 
 
 Dog wedge. An iron wedge with a ring in the butt, which is driven into the end 
 of a log and a chain hitched in the ring for skidding the log by horsepower; also 
 used in gathering up logs on a drive by running a rope through the rings and pull- 
 ing a number of logs at a time through marshes or partially submerged meadows 
 to the channel. ( N. F. ) 
 
 Dolly, n. See Upright roller. 
 
 Dolphin, ». A cluster of piles to which a boom is secured. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Donkey, n. A portable steam engine, equipped with drum and cable, used in steam 
 logging. See Eoad donkey ; Yarding donkey ; Bull donkey ; Spool donkey. ( P. C. F. ) 
 
 Donkey sled. The heavy sled-like frame upon which a donkey engine is fastened. 
 (P. C. F.) 
 
 Dote, n. The general term used by lumbermen to denote decay or rot in timber. 
 (Gen.) 
 
 Doty, a. Decayed. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : dozy. 
 Double couplers. Two coupling gral)s joined by a short cable, used for fa.stening 
 logs together. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn. : four paws. 
 Double header. A place from which it is possible to haul a full load of logs to the 
 landing, and where partial loads are topped out or finished to the full hauling 
 capacity of teams. (X. W., L. S. ) 
 Down-hill clevis. A brake on a logging sled, consisting of a clevis encircling the 
 runner, to the bottom of which a heavy square piece of iron is welded. (N. F. ) 
 Dozy, a. See Doty. 
 
36 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Drag cart. See Bummer. 
 
 X^viiZ in. to. See Dray in, to. 
 
 Urair r(»a(i. See Dray road; Gutter r^ad. 
 
 Drag- sled. See Dray. 
 
 Draw liook. See Gooseneck. 
 
 Dra>v skid. See Brow nkid. 
 
 Dray, ». A single sled used in dragging logs. One end of the log rest.« upon the 
 
 sled. (N. F.) 
 Syn.: bob, crotch, drag sled, go-devil, lizard, scoot, skidding sled, slooj), travois. 
 Dray in, to. To drag logs from the i)lace where they are cut directly to the skid- 
 way or landing. (N. F. ) 
 Syn. : drag in, to. 
 Dray road. A narrow road, cut wide enougli to allow the passage of a team and 
 
 dray. (N. F.) 
 Syn. : drag road. 
 Drive, r. To float logs or timbers from the forest to the mill or shipping point. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn. : float. 
 Drive, */. 1. A body of logs or timbers in ])rocess of being floated from the forest 
 
 to the mill or shipping point. (Gen. ) 
 
 2. That part of logging which consists in floating logs or timbers. (Gen.) 
 Drum los'S, to. To haul logs by drum and cable out of a hollow or cove. (App.) 
 Dry-ki, /(. Trees killed by flooding. (N. F.) 
 Dry pick, to. As applied to a jam, to remove logs singly wliilc the water is cut off. 
 
 (N. F.) ■ ' 
 
 Dry roll, to. In saciking the rear, to roll stranded logs into the bed of the stream 
 
 from which the water has been cut off preparatory to flooding. (N. F. ) 
 Dry rot. Decay in timber without apparent moisture. (Gen.) 
 Dry slide. See Slide. 
 Dry sloop, to. To sl(jop logs on bare ground when the sloj>e is so steep that it 
 
 would be dangerous to sloop on snow. (N. F. ) 
 Diidler, n. See Dudley. 
 Dudley, n. An engine for hauling logs, which propels itself and drags its load by 
 
 levolving a large spool around which are several turns of a cable lixed at each end 
 
 of the track. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn.: dudler. 
 Diiflle, n. The personal belongings of a woodsman or lund)erjack which he takes 
 
 into the woods. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: dunnage. (N. W. ) 
 Dump Iiook. A levered chain grab hook attacihed to the evener to which a team is 
 
 hitched in loading logs. A movement of the lever releases the hook from the 
 
 logging chain without stopping the team. (N. F. ) 
 l>iim]> logs, to. To roll logs over a bluff, or from a logging car or sled into the water. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Dunnage, /(. Sec Duttle. 
 Dust a dam, to. To fill up with earth or gravel the craiiks or small holes between 
 
 planks in the gate of a splash dam. (N. W. ) 
 Dutchman, n. A short stick placed transversely between the outer logs of a load 
 
 to divert the load toward the middle and so keep any logs from falling off. ( N. F. ) 
 
LOGGING TEKMS. 37 
 
 Eiul mark. See Mark. 
 Ksiimato, r. See Cruise. 
 Estimator, ?i. See Cruiser. 
 Face log:. See Head log. 
 
 Faller, ». One who fells trees. (Gen.) aSpc Head faller; Second faller. 
 
 Syn.: sawyer (Gen.), chopi)er (App. ). 
 Falling ax. An ax with a long helve and a long, narrow bit, designed especially 
 for felling trees. (Gen. ) 
 
 Falling wedge. A wedge used to throw a tree in the desired direction, by driving 
 it into the saw kerf. (Gen.) 
 
 Feeder, /*. See Barn boss. 
 Fender boom. See Shear boom. 
 
 Fender skid. A skid placed on the lower side of a skidding trail on a slope to hold 
 the log on the trail while being skidded. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: breastwork log, glancer, shear skid. 
 Fid hook. A slender, flat hook used to keep another hook from slipping on a chain, 
 
 (N. W., L. S.) 
 Flier, 71. One who files the crosscut saws in the woods. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : saw fitter. 
 
 Fitter, n. 1. One who notches the tree for felling and after it is felled marks the 
 log lengths into which it is to be cut. (N. F. ) 
 
 2. One who cuts limbs from felled trees and rings and slits the bark preparatory 
 to peeling tanbark. (N. F. ) 
 
 Float, V. See Drive. 
 
 Float road. A channel cleared in a swamp and used to float cypress logs from the 
 
 woods to the boom at the river or mill. (S. F.) 
 Flood, V. See Splash. 
 Flood dam. See Splash dam. 
 Flnme, /•. To transport logs or timbers by a flume. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : sluice. 
 Flume, /(. An inclined trough in which water runs, used in transporting logs or 
 timbers. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : sluice, water slide, wet slide. 
 Flunkey, n. 1. An assistant, usually either to the engineer of a donkey engine or 
 to the cook in a logging camp. (P. C. F. ) 
 2. See Chore boy. 
 Flying drive. A drive the main portion of which is put through with the utmost 
 
 dispatch, without stopping to pick rear. (N. F. ) 
 Fly roll way. A skid way or landing on a steep slope, from which the logs are 
 
 released at once by removing the brace which holds them. (N. F. ) 
 Fore-and-aft road. A skid road made of logs placed parallel to its direction, mak- 
 ing the road resemble a chute. (P. C. F. ) 
 Syn.: stringer road. 
 Four paws. See Double couplers. 
 Frog, 71. 1. The junction of two branches of a flume. ( P. C. F. ) 
 
 2. A timber placed at the mouth of a slide to direct the discharge of tlie logs. 
 (Gen.) Syn.: throw out. 
 Full scale. Measurement of logs, in which no reduction ia made for defects. 
 (Gen). 
 Syn.: bigness scale. (N. F.) 
 
38 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Gaiigrway, n. The incline plane up which logs are moved from the water into a 
 sawmill. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : jack ladder, log jack, log way, slip. 
 Uap stick. The pole placed across the entrance of a sorting jack to close it, when 
 
 not in use. (Gen.) 
 iiee throw. A heavy, wooden lever, with a curved iron point, used to 1)reak out 
 logging sleds. (N. F. ) 
 Syn. : starting bar. 
 Oiii pole. A pole secured by guy ropes, to the top of which tackle for loading logs 
 
 is fastened. (Gen. ) 
 (irlaiiccr, n. See Fender skid. 
 (Tlanciiig boom. See Shear boom. 
 
 Glisse skids. Freshly peeled skids up which logs are slid instead of rolled when 
 being loaded. (N. F.') 
 Syn. : slip skids. 
 (Jo-back road. A road upon which unloaded logging sleds can return to the skid- 
 wavs for reloading, without meeting the loaded sleds en route to the landing. 
 (N.F.) 
 Syn. : short roatl. 
 Go-devil. See Dray. 
 
 Gooseneck, n. 1. A wooden bar used to couple" two logging trucks. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: rooster. (P. C. F.) 
 
 2. The point of draft on a logging sled; it consists of a curved iron hook ])olted 
 to the roll. (N. F.) 
 
 Syn.: draw hook. 
 
 3. A curved iron driven into the bottom of a slide to check the speed of descend- 
 ing logs. ( App. ) 
 
 Goosepen. A large hole burned in a standing tree. (P. C. F. ) 
 Grab hook. A hook having a narrow throat, adapted to grasp any link of a chain. 
 (Gen. ) 
 
 Grab link. See Slip grab. 
 Grabs, //. See Skidding tongs. 
 
 Grab skipper. A short iron pry or hammer, used to remove the skidding tongs 
 from a log. (App., S. F.) 
 
 Grapples, n. 1. Two small iron dogs joined by a short chain, and used to couple 
 logs end to end when skidding on mountains, so that several logs may be skidded 
 by one horse at the same time. ( N. F. ) 
 
 Syn.: chain grapples, coupling grab. (P. C. F.) 
 2. See Skidding tongs. 
 
 Gravel a dam, to. To cover with gravel or earth the upstream side of the timber 
 work of a dam, to make it water tight. (N. F. ) 
 
 Greaser, n. See Road monkey. 
 
 Grips, n. See Skidding tongs. 
 
 Ground loader. See Send-up man. 
 
 Grouser, n. A large and long stick of squared timber sharpened at the lower end 
 and placed in the bow of a steam logging boat; it takes the place of an anchor in 
 shallow water, and can be raised or lowered l)y steam power. (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 (lUard a hill, to. To keep a logging road on a steep decline in condition for use. 
 
 (N.F.) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 39 
 
 Giin, V. To aim a tree in felling it. In the case of very large, brittle trees, such as 
 redwood, a sighting device (gunning stick) is used. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn.: point, swing. (Gen.) 
 (Tiiiiiiiiig: stick. See Gun. 
 Gnttermaii. See Swamper. 
 <iutter road. The path followed in skidding logs. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: drag road, runway, skidding trail, snaking trail. 
 Handbarrow. Two strong, light poles held in position by rung.s, upon which l)ark 
 or wood is carried by two men. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Syn. : ranking bar. 
 Hand pike. A piked lever, usually 6 to 8 feet long, for handling floating logs. ( (ien. ) 
 Hand skidder. One who accompanies a log as it is being dragged and places short 
 
 skids beneath it. (P. C. F.) 
 Hang the boom, to. To put the boom in place. (Gen. ) 
 
 Hang up, to. 1. To fell a tree so that it catches against another instead of falling to 
 the ground. (Gen. ) 
 
 Syn.: lodge (Gen.), buckwheat (App. ) 
 
 2. As applied to river driving, to discontinue; thus a drive may be " hung up" 
 for lack of water or for some other reason. 
 Hardwood, a. As applied to trees and logs, broadleafed, belonging to the dicoty- 
 ledons. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: broadleaf. 
 Hardwood, n. A broadleafed, or dicotyledonous, tree. (Gen.) 
 Haul, n. In logging, the distance and route over which teams must go between two 
 
 given points, as between the yard or skidway and the landing. (Gen.) 
 Haul back. A small wire rope, traveling between the donkey engine and a pulley 
 set near the logs to be dragged, used to return the cable. (P. C. F. ) 
 Syn.: back line, pull back, trip line. 
 Haul up. A light chain and hook by which a horse may be hitched to a cable in 
 
 order to move it where desired. (P. C. F. ) 
 Hay road. &<? Tote road. 
 Hay wire outfit. A contemptuous term for loggers with poor logging equipment. 
 
 (N. F.) 
 Head block. The log placed under the front end of the skids in a skidway to raise 
 
 them to the desired height. (N. F. ) 
 Head driver. An expert river driver who. during the drive, is stationed at a point 
 where a jam is feared. Head drivers usually work in pairs. (N. F. ) 
 Syn.: log watch (N. F.), jam cracker (P. C. F. ) 
 Head faller. The chief of a crew of fallers. (P. C. F.) 
 Head log. 1. The front bottom log on a skidway. (N. F.) 
 Syn. : face log. 
 
 2. The front log in a turn. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn. : lead log. 
 Head push. See Straw boss. 
 Headquarters, n. In logging, the distributing point for supplies, equipment, and 
 
 mail; not usually the executive or administrative center. (Gen. ) 
 Head tree. Jn steam skidding, the tree to which the cable upon whii-h the traveler 
 runs is attached. (S. F. ) 
 
40 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Hcadworks, ». A j^latform or raft, with windlass or ranstan, whicli is attached to 
 the front of a log raft or V>ooni oi logs, for warping, kedging, or winding it through 
 lakes and still water, liy haml or horse power. (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 Helper, 71. See Second taller. 
 
 Hoist, n. See Loading tripod. 
 
 Holdintr boom. See Storage l)ooni. 
 
 Hook tender. The foreman of a yarding crew; specifically, one who directs the 
 attaching of the cable to a turn of logs. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Horse dam. A temporary dam made by placing large logs across a stream, in order 
 to raise the Avater behind it, so as to float the rear. (N. F.) 
 
 Horse logs, to. In river driving, to drag stranded logs back to the stream by the 
 use of peaveys. (N. F. ) 
 
 Hovel, n. A stable for logging teams. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Ice a road, to. To sininkle water on a logging road so that a coating of ice may 
 form, thus facilitating the hauling of logs. (N. F. ) 
 
 Ice guards. Heavy timbers fastened fan shaped about a cluster of boom piles at an 
 angle of approximately 30 degrees to the surface of the water. They prevent the 
 destruction of the boom by ice, through forcing it to mount the guards and be 
 broken up. (N. F. ) 
 
 Jack cliniii. An endless spiked chain, whicti moves logs from one point to another, 
 usually from the mill pond into the sawmill. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: bull chain. (P. C. F.) 
 Jack ladder. See Gangway. 
 
 Jackpot, ;(. 1. A contemptuous expression applied to an unskillful piece of work 
 in logging. (N. F.) 
 2. An irregular pile of logs. (App. ) 
 Jam, n. A stoppage or congestion of logs in a stream, due to an obstruction or to 
 low water. (Gen.) 
 
 Jam cracker. See Head driver. 
 
 Jammer, n. An improved form of gin, mouTited on a movable framework, and used 
 
 to load logs on sleds and cars by horsepower. (N. F. ) 
 Jam, to break a. To start in motion logs which have jammed. (Gen.) 
 Jay Iia^vk, to. To strip one 4-foot length of bark from a tanbark oak, leaving the 
 
 tree standing. (P. C. F.) 
 Jiboo, r. To remove a dog from a log. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Jigger, v. To pull a log by horsepower over a level place in a slide. (Gen. ) 
 
 Syn. : lazy haul, to. 
 Jim binder. See Binder. 
 Jobber, n. A logging contractor or subcontractor. (Gen.) 
 
 Jobber's sun. A term applied to the moon in a jobber's or contractor's logging 
 camp, on account of the early and late hours of commencing and ending work. 
 (X. \V., L. S.) " 
 
 Jumper, n. A sled shod with wood, used lor hauling supplies over bare ground 
 
 into a logging camp. ( X. F. ) 
 Syn.: tote sled. 
 Katydid, n. See Logging wheels. 
 Key log. In river driving, a log which is so caught or wedged that a jam is formed 
 
 and held. (Gen.) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 41 
 
 Kilhigf, n. A short, stout pole used as a lever or brace to direct the fall of a tree. 
 (N. W.) 
 
 Knot, '•. See Limb. 
 
 Knot bumper. See Limber. 
 
 Knotter, n. See Limber. 
 
 Laker, «. A loj; driver expert at handliiit; logs on lakes. (N. F. ) 
 
 Landing-, u. 1. A place to which logs are hauled or skidded preparatory to trans- 
 portation by water or rail. A rough and tumble landing is one in which no attempt 
 is made to pile the logs regularly. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: bank, banking ground, log dump, roUway, yard. 
 
 2. A platform, usually at the foot of a skid road, where logs are collected and 
 loaded on cars. A Ihjldniug Inndbuj is one having such an incline that the logs 
 may roll upon the cars without assistance. (Gen.) 
 
 Landing' man. One who unloads logging sleds at the landing. (N. F. ) 
 
 Landing, to break a. To roll a pile of logs from a landing or bank into the water. 
 (Gen.) 
 
 Land looker. See Cruiser. 
 
 Lap, »., or Lapwood, ti. Tops left in the woods in logging. (Gen.) 
 
 Lash pole. A cross pole which holds logs together in a raft. (Gen. ) 
 
 Lazy hanl, to. See Jigger. 
 
 Lead, n. A snatch block with a hook or loop for fastening it to convenient station- 
 ary objects, used for guiding the cable by which logs are dragged. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Lead line. A wire I'ope, with an eye at each end, used to anchor the snatch block 
 in setting a lead. (P. C. F.) 
 
 Lead log. See Brow skid; Head log. 
 
 Lightning landing. See Landing. 
 
 Limb, V. To remove the limbs from a felled tree. 
 Syn.: knot. (P. C. F.) 
 
 Limber,?;. One who cuts the limbs from felled trees. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: knotter (P. C. F. ), knot bumper (App. ). 
 
 Line horse. The horse which drags the cable from the yarding engine to the log to 
 
 which the cable is to be attached. (P. C. F. ) 
 Lizard, n. See Dray. 
 Loader,)/. 1. One who loads logs on sleds or cars. (Gen.) 
 
 2. See Steam loader. 
 Loading cliain. A'iong chain used in loading or piling logs with horses. (N. F. ) 
 
 Syn. : decking chain. 
 Loading jack, A platformed framework upon which logs are hoisteil from the 
 
 water for loading upon cars. (N. F. ) 
 Loading tripod. Three long timbers joined at their tops in the shape of a tripod, 
 
 for holding a pulley block in proper position to load logs on cars from a lake or 
 
 stream. ( L. S. ) 
 Syn. : hoist. 
 Lock down. A strip of tough wood, with holes in the ends, which is laid across a 
 
 raft of logs. Rafting pins are driven through the holes into the logs, thus holding 
 
 the raft together. (N. F.) 
 Lodge, to. See Hang up, to. 
 Logan, n. See Pokelogan. 
 
42 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Log deck. The platform upon a loading jack. (Gen.) 
 Log diilii]). See Landing. 
 Log fixer. See Ros.«er. 
 Logger, n. One engaged in logging. 
 
 Logging sled. The heavy double sled used to haul logs from the skidway or yard 
 to the landing. (N. F. ) 
 
 Syn. : twin sleds, two sleds, wagon sled. 
 Logging-sled road. A road, leading from the skidway to the landing. (X. F. ) 
 Logging wheels. A pair of wheels, usually about 10 feet in diameter, for trans- 
 porting logs. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: big wheels, katydid, timber wheels. 
 
 Log jack. See Gangway. 
 
 Log scale. The contents of a log, or of a number of logs considered ctjllectively. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Log, to. To cut logs and deliver them at a place from which they can be transported 
 
 by water or rail, or, less frequently, at the mill. (Gen.) 
 Log watcli. See Head driver. 
 Logway, n. See Gangway. 
 Long butt, to. See Butt off, to. 
 Loose-tongued sloop. See Swing dingle. 
 Lubber lift, to. To raise the end of a log by means of a pry, and through the use 
 
 of weight instead of strength. (N. F. ) 
 Lug liooks. A pair of tongs attached to the middle uf a short bar, and useil by two 
 
 men to carry small logs. (Gen. ) 
 Lumber, r. To log, or to manufacture logs into lumber, or both. (Gen.) 
 Lumberjack, n. One who works in a logging camp. (Gen.) 
 Lumberman, n. One engaged in lumbering. (Gen.) 
 Mark, n. A letter or sign indicating ownership, which is stamped on the ends of 
 
 logs. (Gen.) *S'ee Bark mark. 
 Syn.: brand, end mark. 
 Mark caller. In sorting logs, one who stands at the lower end of the .-sorting jack 
 
 and calls the different marks, so that the logs maybe guided into tlie proper chan- 
 nels or pockets. (Gen. ) 
 Marker, 71. One who puts the mark on the end of logs. (Gen.) 
 Market, n. A log 19 inches in diameter at the .small end and i:^> feet long. (New 
 
 York.) 
 
 Syn. : standard. 
 Marking hammer. A hammer Ijearing a raised device which is stamped on logs, to 
 
 indicate ownership. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : marking iron. 
 Marking iron. See Marking hammer. 
 Match, V. See Mate. 
 Mate, v. To place together in a raft logs of similar size. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: match. 
 Mill pond. The pond near a sawmill in which logs to be sawn are held. (Gen.) 
 Monitor. See Catamaran. 
 
 Moss, r. To fill with moss the crevices between the logs in a logging camp. (N. F. ) 
 Mud, r. To (ill with soft clay the crevices between the logs in a logging camp. (N. F.) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 43 
 
 Mudboiit, n. A low sled with wide runners, used for hauling logs in swamps. 
 
 (S. F., N. F.) 
 
 Mudsill, n. The bed piece or bottom timber of a dam which is placed across the 
 stream, usually resting on rocks or in mud. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : bottom sill. 
 Nick, 91. See Undercut. 
 
 Nose, V. To round off the end of a log in order to make it drag or slip more easily. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn. : snipe. 
 
 Notch, V. To make an undercut in a tree preparatory to felling it. (Gen. ) 
 
 Syn.: undercut. 
 Notch, n. See Undercut. 
 Peaker, n. 1. A load of logs narrowing sharply toward the top, and thus shaped 
 
 like an inverted V. (Gen.) 
 2. The top log of a load. (Gen. ) 
 Peavey, n. A stout lever 5 to 7 feet long, fitted at the larger end with a metal 
 
 socket and pike and a curved steel hook which works on a bolt; used in handling 
 
 logs, especially in driving. A peavey differs from a cant hook in having a pike 
 
 instead of a toe ring and lip at the end. (Gen. ) 
 Pecky, a. A term applied to an unsoundness most common in bald cypress. (S. F. ) 
 
 Syn.: peggy. 
 Peeler, n. See Barker. 
 Peg'g^y, a. See Pecky. 
 Pickaroon, n. A piked pole fitted with a curved hook, used in holding boats to 
 
 jams in driving, and for pulling logs from brush and eddies out into the current. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Pick the rear, to. See Sack the rear, to. 
 Pier dam. A pier built from the shore, usually slanting downstream, to narrow 
 
 and deepen the channel, to guide logs past an obstruction, or to throw all the water 
 
 on one side of an island. ( N. F. ) 
 Syn.: wing dam. 
 Pig, n. See Rigging sled. 
 Pig tail. An iron device driven into trees or stumps to support a wire or svuall 
 
 rope. (P. C. F.) 
 Pike pole. A piked pole, 12 to 20 feet long, used in river driving. (Gen.) 
 Pitch pocket. A cavity in wood filled with resin. (P. C. F., R. M. F. ) 
 Pitch streak. A seam or shake filled with resin. (Gen.) 
 Plug and knock down. A device for fastening boom sticks together, in the absence 
 
 of chains. It consists of a withe secured by wooden plugs in holes bored in the 
 
 booms. (N. F. ) 
 Pocket boom. A boom in which logs are held after they are sorted. (Gen.) 
 Point, r. See Gun. 
 Pokelogau, n. A bay or pocket into which logs may float off during a drive. 
 
 (N. W., L. S.) 
 Syn: logan. 
 Pond man. One who collects logs in the mill pond and floats them to the gangway. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Pontoon. See Catamaran. 
 
44 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Prize logs. Logs which come to the sorting jack without marks denoting owner- 
 
 ship. (N. F.) 
 Pull back. See Haul back. 
 Pjill boat. A flatboat, carrying a steam skiddor or a donkey, used in logging 
 
 cypress. (S. F. ) 
 Pull the briar, to. To use a crosscut saw. (N. F. ) 
 Put in, to. In logging, to deliver logs at the landing. (Gen.) 
 (^uickwater, d. That part of a stream which lias fall enough to create a decided 
 
 current. (Gen.) 
 Ant. : Stillwater. 
 
 Kafter dam. A dam in which long timbers are set on the upstream side at an angle 
 of 20 to 40 degrees to the water surface. The pressure of the water against the 
 timbers holds the dam solidly against the stream bed. (N. F. ) 
 Syn.: self-loading dam, slant dam. 
 
 Ram i»ike. A tree broken off by wind and with a splintered end on the portion 
 left standing. (N. F.) 
 
 Rank, r. To haul and pile regularly, as, to rank bark or cord wood. (Gen.) 
 
 Ranking bar. See Handbarrow. 
 
 Ranking jumper. A wood-shod sled upon which tanbark is hauled. (N. F. ) 
 
 Rave, n. A piece of iron or wood which secures the beam to the runners of a logging 
 sled. (N. W.,L. S.) 
 
 Rear, n. The upstream end of a drive; the logs may be either stranded or tioating. 
 
 "Floating rear" comprises those logs which may l)e floated back into the current; 
 
 "dry rear," those which must be dragged or rolled back. (Gen.) 
 Receiving boom. See Storage boom. 
 
 Ride, /). The side of a log upon which it rests when being dragged. (Gen.) 
 Ride a log, to. To stand on a floating log. (Gen.) 
 Rigging, n. The cables, blocks, and hooks used in skidding logs bv steam power. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 
 Rigging sled. A sled used to haul liooks and blocks on a skid road. (P. C. F. ) 
 Syn. : dog boat, pig. 
 
 Rigging slinger. 1. A member of a yarding crew, whose chief duty is to place 
 chokers or grabs on logs. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 2. One who attaches the rigging to trees, in steam skidding. (S. F. ) 
 Ring, n. A section of tanbark, usually 4 feet long. (N. F. ) 
 
 Ring rot. Decay in a log, which follows the annual rings more' or less closely. 
 (Gen.) 
 
 Rise, n. The difference in diameter, or taper, between two points in a log. (Gen.) 
 River boss. The foreman in charge of a log drive. (N. F. ) 
 River driver. One who works on a log drive. (Gen.) 
 
 River rat. A log driver who.se work is chiefly on the river; contrasted with Laker. 
 
 (N. F.) 
 
 Road donkey. A donkey engine mounted on a heavy sled, which drags logs along 
 a skid road bv winding a cable on a drum. It has a second drum for the haul-back. 
 (P.C.F.) 
 
 Road gang. That portion of the crew of a logging camp who cut out logging roads 
 and keep them in repair. (N. F. ) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 45 
 
 Road monkey. One whose duty is to keep a logging road in proper condition. 
 . (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 Syn.: bine jay, greaser. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Roll, n. The crossbar of a logging sled into which the tongue is set. (X. W., L. S. ) 
 Syn.: roller. 
 
 Roller, n. See Roll; Upright roller. 
 
 Rolling: (lam. A dam for raising the water in a shallow stream. It has no sluice- 
 ways, but a smooth top of timber over which, under a sufficient head of water, 
 logs may slide or roll. (Gen. ) 
 
 •Roll the boom, to. To roll a boom of logs along the shore of a lake against which 
 it is held by wind, by the use of a c^ble operated by a steamboat or kedge. The 
 cable is attached to the outer side of the boom, hauled up, then attached again, 
 thus propelling the boom by revolving it against the shore when it would be 
 impossible to tow it. (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 Rollway, n. See Landing. 
 
 Rooster, n. See Gooseneck. 
 
 Rosser. n. One who barks and smooths the ride of a log in order that it may slide 
 more easily. (N. F.) 
 Syn.: log fixer (P. C. F. ), slipper, scalper (App. ). 
 
 Rong'Ii and tumble landing:. See Landing. 
 
 Round timber. Pine trees which have not been turpentined. (S. F. ) 
 
 Round turn, A space at the head of a logging-sled road, in which the sled may be 
 turned round without unhitching the team. (N. F. ) 
 
 Runner chain. A chain bound loosely around the forward end of the runners of a 
 logging sled as a brake. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Runner dog. A curved iron attached to a runner of the hind sled of a logging sled, 
 which holds the loaded sled on steep hills by being forced into the bed of the road 
 by any backward movement. (N. F. ) 
 
 Runway. See Gutter road. 
 
 Rutter, n. A form of plow for cutting ruts in a logging road for the runners of the 
 sleds to run in. (X. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Sack the rear, to. To follow a drive and roll in logs which have lodged or grounded. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn. : pick the rear, to. 
 
 Sack the slide, to. To return to a slide logs which have jumped out. (Gen.) 
 
 Saddle, n. The depression cut in a transverse skid in a skid road to guide the logs 
 which pass over it. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Saddlebag", v. As applied to a boom, to catch on an obstruction and double around 
 it. (Gen.) 
 
 Sampson, n. An appliance for loosening or starting logs by horsepower. It usually 
 consists of a strong, heavy timber and a chain terminating in a heavy swamp 
 hook. The timber is placed upright beside the piece to be moved, the chain 
 fastened around it, and the hook inserted low down on the opposite side. Lever- 
 age is then applied bv a team hitched to the upper end of the upright timber. 
 (X. F.) 
 
 Sampson a tree, to. To direct the fall of a tree by means of a lever and pole. 
 (N. F.) 
 
 Sap stain. Discoloration of the sapwood. (Gen.) 
 
 Saw fitter. See Filer. 
 
46 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Sawyer, ». See Faller. 
 
 Scale book. A book es^pecially designed for recording the contents of scaled logs. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Scaler,??. One who determines the volume of logs. (Gen.) 
 Scalper, n. See Rosser. 
 Scoot, 71. See Dray. 
 Season check. See Check. 
 
 Second faller. The subordinate in a crew of fallers. (P. C. F. ) 
 Syn.: helper. (N. F. ) 
 
 Self-loadinfi: dam. .S'r*' Rafter dam. 
 
 Send-np man. That member of a loading crew who guides the logs up the skids. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn.: ground loader. (N. F. ) 
 Send up, to. In loading, to raise logs up skids with cant hooks, or >>y steam or 
 
 horsepower. (Gen.) 
 Setting, n. The temporary station of a portaVjle sawmill, a yarding engine, or other 
 
 machine used in logging. (Gen.) 
 Shake, n. A crack in timber, due to frost or wind. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : Windshake. 
 Shanty boat. See Wanigan. 
 Shanty boss. See Chore boy. 
 Shear boom. A })ooni so secured that it guides floating logs in the desired direction. 
 
 (N. F.) 
 Syn.: fender boom, glancing boom. 
 Shear skid. See Fender skid. 
 
 Shoot a jam, to. To loosen a log jam with dynamite. (Gen.) 
 Shore hold. The attachment of the hawser of a raft of logs to an object on the 
 
 shore. (N. W., L. S.) 
 Short road. See (lO-back road. 
 
 Shot holes. Holes made in wood by boring insects. (App. ) 
 Side jam. A jam which has formed on one side of a stream, usually where the logs 
 
 are forced to the shore at a bend by the current, or where the water is shallow or 
 
 there are partially submerged rocks. (N. F.) 
 Side mark. See Bark mark. 
 Side winder. A tree knocked down unexpectedly by the falling of another. 
 
 (Gen.) 
 Signal man. One who transmits orders from the foreman of a yarding crew to the 
 
 engineer of the yarding donkey. ( P. C. F. ) 
 Single out, to. To float logs, usually cypress, one at a time, from the woods to the 
 
 float road. (S. F.) 
 Sinker, 71. See Deadhead. 
 Sinker boat. See Catamaran. 
 
 Skid, V. 1. To draw logs from the stump to the skidway, landing, or mill. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: snake, twitch. 
 
 2. As applied to a road, to reenforce by placing logs or poles across it. (Gen.) 
 Skid, 11. A log or pole, commonly used in pairs, upon which logs are handled or 
 
 piled (Gen.); or the log or pole laid transversely in a skid road (P. C. F. ). 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 47 
 
 Skidder, ?!. 1. One who skids logs. (Gen.) 
 
 2. A sleam engine, usually operating from a railroad track, which skids logs by 
 means of a cable. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn. : steam skidder. 
 
 3. The foreman of a crew which construct.* skid roads. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 4. Sir Bummer. 
 
 Skidding chain. A heavy chain used in skidding logs. (Gen.) 
 Skidding: hooks. .SVv Skidding tongs. 
 Skiddins: sled. See Dray. 
 
 Skidding: toii^s. A pair of hook.s attached by links to a ring and used for skidding 
 logs. (Gen.) 
 
 8yn. : grips, grapples, grabs, skidding hooks. 
 Skidding trail. See Gutter road. 
 
 Skid grease. A heavy oil applied to skids to lessen the friction of logs dragged over 
 
 them. (P. (\ F.) 
 Skid road. 1. A road or trail leading from the stump to the skidway or landing. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn.: travois road. (N. F. ) 
 
 2. A road over which logs are dragged, having heavy transverse skids par- 
 tially sunk in the ground, usually at intervals of about 5 feet. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Skid up, to. 1. To level or reenforce a logging road by the use of skids. (Gen.) 
 
 2. To collect logs and pile them on a skidway. (Gen. ) 
 Skidway, ». Two skids laid parallel at right angles to a road, usually raised above 
 the ground at the end nearest the road. Logs are usually piled upon a skidway 
 as they are brought from the stump for loading upon sleds, wagons, or cars. 
 (Gen.) 
 Skidway, to break a. To roll piled logs off a skidway. (Gen.) 
 Sky hooker. See Top loader. 
 Slack water. In river driving, the temporary slackening of the current caused by 
 
 the formation of a jam. (Gen. ) 
 Slant dam. See Rafter dam. 
 
 Slash,?;. 1. The debris left after logging, wind, or fire. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: slashing. 
 
 2. Forest land which has been logged off and upon which the limbs and tops 
 remain, or which is deep in debris as the result of fire or wind. (Gen. ) 
 Slashing, u. See Slash. 
 
 Sled tender. 1. One who assists in loading and unloading logs or skidding with 
 dray. (X. F.) 
 
 Syn. : chain tender. 
 
 2. A member of the hauling crew who accompanies the turn of logs to the 
 landing, unhooks the grabs, and sees that they are returned to the yarding engine. 
 (P. C. F.) 
 Slide, n. A trough built of logs or timber, used to transport logs down a slope. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn.: chute, dry slide, slip. 
 Slide tender. One who keeps a slide in repair. (Gen.) 
 
 Slip, n. 1. See Slide. 
 2. See Gangway. 
 
48 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND L(XJGING. 
 
 Slip grah. A pear-shaped link attadietl liy a swivel to a skidding evener or wliiffle- 
 tree, throngh which the skidding chain is passed. The chain runs freely when 
 the slip grab is held sideways, but catches when the grab is straight. (N. F.) 
 Syn.: grab link. 
 
 Slipper, n. See Rosser. 
 
 Slip skids. See Glisse skids. 
 
 Sloop, n. See Dray. 
 
 Sloop log's, to; To haul logs down steep slopes on a dray or sloop equipped with a 
 tongue. (N. F. ) 
 
 Slou§rh pig'. Usually a second-rate river driver who is assigned to picking logs out 
 of sloughs in advance of the rear. ('N. F.) 
 
 Sluice, V. 1. See Flume. 
 
 2. To float logs through the sluiceway of a splash dam. (N. F. ) 
 
 3. ^See Splash. 
 Sluice, n. See Flume. 
 
 Sluice g-ate. The gate closing a sluiceway in a splash dam. (Gen.) 
 
 Sluiceway, n. The opening in a splash dam through which logs pass. (Gen.) 
 
 Suake, r. See Skid. 
 
 Snaking trail. See Gutter road. 
 
 Snatch team. See Tow team. 
 
 Snib, r. In river driving, to be carried aw-ay purposely, but ostensibly by accident, 
 
 on the first portion of a jam that moves; to ride away from work under guise of 
 
 being accidentally carried off. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Snipe, r. See Nose. 
 
 Sniper, n. One who noses logs before they are skidded. (Gen.) 
 
 Snow a road, to. To cover bare spots in a logging road with snow, to facilitate the 
 
 passage of sleds. (N. F.) 
 Snow slide. A temjjorary slide on a steep slope, made by dragging a large log 
 
 through deep snow which is soft or thawing; when frozen solidly, it may be used 
 
 to slide logs to a point where they can l)e reached by sleds. (N. W.) 
 Snub, V. To check, usually by means of a snub line, the speed of logging sleds or 
 
 logs on steep slopes, or of a log raft. (Gen.) 
 Softwood, a. As applied to trees and logs, needle-leafed, coniferous. (Gen.) 
 Softwood, n. A needle-leafed, or coniferous, tree. (Gen.) 
 Solid jam. 1. In river driving, a jam formed solidly and extending from bank ^o 
 
 bank of a stream. (N. F. ) 
 2. A drive is said to be " in a solid jam " when the stream is full of logs from 
 
 the point to which the rear is cleared to the mill, sorting jack, or storage ]>oom. 
 
 (N. F.) 
 Sorting boom. A strong lioom used to guide logs into the sorting jack, to both 
 
 sides of which it is usually attached. (Gen. ) 
 Sorting gap. See Sorting jack. 
 Sorting jack. A raft, seiured in a stream, through an opening in which logs pass 
 
 to be sorted by their marks and diverted into pocket booms or the downstream 
 
 channel. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : sorting gap. 
 Spanish windlass. A device for moving heavy objects in logging. It consists of a 
 
 rope or chain, within a turn of which a lever is inserted and power gained by 
 
 twisting. (N. F. ) 
 Syn.: twister. 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 49 
 
 Spiked skid. A skid in wiiich spike.s are inserted in order to keej) logs from sliding 
 back when being loaded or piled. (Gen. ) 
 
 Splash, V. To drive logs by releasing a head of water ectntined by a splash dam. 
 (Gen). 
 Syn. : flood, sluice. 
 
 Splash hoards. Boards placed temporarily on top of a rolling dam to heighten the 
 dam, and thus to increase the head of water available for river driving. (N. F. ) 
 
 Splash dam. A dam built to store a head of water for driving logs. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: flood dam. (Gen.) 
 
 Split roof. A roof of a logging camp or barn made by laying strips split from 
 straight-grained timber. The strips run from the ridge pole to the edves, and 
 break the joints with other strips, as in a shingle roof. (N. F. ) 
 
 Spool donkey. A donkey engine for winding cable, equipped with a spool or cap- 
 stan, instead of a drum. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Spool tender. One who guides the cable on a spool donkey. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 Spot, i\ See Blaze. 
 
 Spring board. A short board, shod at one end with an iron calk, which is in- 
 serted in a notch cut in a tree, on which the faller stands while felling the tree. 
 (P. C. F., S. F.) 
 
 Spring pole. 1. A springy pole attached to the tongue of a logging sled and pass- 
 ing over the roll and under the beam, for holding the weight of the tongue off 
 the horses' necks. (N. F. ) 
 
 2. A device for steadying a crosscut saw, so that one man can use it instead of 
 two. (P. C. F.) 
 
 Sprinkler, n. A large wooden tank from which water is sprinkled over logging 
 roads during freezing weather in order to ice the surface. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Syn. : tank. 
 
 Sprinkler sleds. The sleds upon which the sprinkler is mounted. They consist 
 of two sleds whose runners turn up at each end, fastened together by cross chains, 
 and each having a pole, in order that the sprinkler may be hauled in either 
 direction without turning around. (N. F. ) 
 
 Spud, n. A tool for removing bark. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : barking iron. 
 
 Spudder, n. See Barker. 
 
 Stag, V. To cut off trousers at the knee, or boots at the ankle. (N. F., P. C. F. ) 
 
 Standard, n. See Market. 
 
 Starting bar. See Gee throw. 
 
 Stay boom. A boom fastened to a main boom and attached upstream to the shore 
 to give added strength to the main boom. (Gen.) 
 
 Steam liauler. A geared locomotive used to haul loaded logging sleds over an ice 
 road. It is equipped with a spiked metal belt which runs over sprocket wheels 
 replacing the driving wheels, and is guided by a sled, turned by a steering wheel, 
 upon which the front end rests. (N. F. ) 
 
 Steam jammer. See Steam loader. 
 
 Steam loader. A machine operated by steam and used for loading logs upon cars. 
 (Gen.) 
 Syn. : loader, steam jammer. 
 
 Steam skidder. See Skidder. 
 
 Stem winder. See Corkscrew. 
 
50 TERMS USED TN FORESTRY AND LOGOING. 
 
 Stillwater. That part of a stream haviuK such sliglit fall that no current is appar- 
 ent. Ant.: quickwater. ((Jen.) 
 Syn.: deadwater. 
 Stock lo8:s, to. To deliver logs from stump to mill or railroad. (S. F. ) 
 Storage boom. A strong boom used to hold logs in storage at a sawmill. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: holding boom, receiving boom. 
 Straw boss, n. A subforeman in a logging camp. (N. W., L. S.) 
 
 Syn. : head push. 
 Stream jam. See Center jam. 
 Stringer road. See Fore-and-aft road. 
 Stumpage, 7i. The value of timber as it stands uncut in the woods; or, in a general 
 
 sense, the standing timber itself. ((Jen.) 
 Swamp, V. To clear the ground of underbrush, fallen trees, and other obstructions 
 
 preparatory to constructing a logging road or opening out a gutter road. (Gen. ) 
 Swamper,}). One who swamps. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: beaver, gutterman. (N. F. ) 
 Swamp hook. A large, single hook on the end of a chain, used in handling logs, 
 
 most commonly in skidding. (Gen.) 
 Sway bar. 1. A strong bar or pole, two of which couple and hold in position the 
 front and rear sleds of a logging sled. (N. F. ) 
 
 2. The bar used to couple two logging cars. (Gen. ) 
 Swell butted. As applied to a tree, greatly enlarged at the base. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: bottle butted, churn butted. 
 Swing, V. See Gun. 
 
 Swing dingle. A single sled with wood-shod runners and a tongue with lateral 
 play, used in hauling logs down steep slopes on bare ground. (N. F. ) 
 Syn. : loose-tongued sloop. 
 Swing team. In a logging team of six, the pair between the leaders and the butt 
 
 team. (P. C. F.) 
 Tail chain. A heavy chain bound around the trailing end of logs, as a brake, in 
 
 slooping on steep slopes. (N. W. ) 
 Taildown, to. To roll logs on a skidway to a point on the skids where tbey can be 
 
 quickly reached by the loading crew. (N. F. ) 
 Tail hold. 1. A means of obtaining increased power in moving a log by tackle. 
 The cal)le is passed through a block attached to the log and the end fastened to a 
 stationary object, so that hauling on the other end gives twice the power wliicii 
 would be attained by direct attachment of the cable to the log. (P. C. F. ) 
 
 2. The attachment of the rear end of a donkey sled, usually to a tree or stump. 
 (P. C. F.) 
 Tail hook. See Dog. 
 
 Tally board. A thin, smooth board used by a scaler to record the number or vol- 
 ume of logs. (Gen.) 
 Tally man. One who records or tallies the measurements of logs as they are called 
 
 by the scaler. (N. F. ) 
 Tank, n. See Sprinkler. 
 Tank conductor. One who has charge of the crew which operates a sprinkler or 
 
 tank, and who regulates the flow of water, in icing logging roads. (N. F. ) 
 Tank heater. A sheet-iron cylinder extending through a tank or sprinkler, in 
 which a lire is kept to prevent the water in the tank from freezing while icing 
 logging roads in extremely cold weather. (N. F. ) 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 51 
 
 Tanking. The act of hauling water in a tank, to ice a logging road. (N. F.) 
 Tee, n. A strip of iron about 6 inches long with a hole in the center, to which a 
 
 short chain is attached; it is passed through a hole in a gate plank, turned cross- 
 wise, and so used to hold the plank when tripped in a splash dam. (N. W.) 
 Throw, r. See Wedge a tree, to. 
 Throw line. See Trip line. 
 Throw out. See Frog. 
 Tide, n. A freshet. In the Appalachian region logs are rolled into a stream and a 
 
 "tide" awaited to carry them to the boom. (App.) 
 Timber wheels. See Logging wheels. 
 Toe ring. The heavy ring or ferrule on the end of a cant hook. It has a lip on 
 
 the lower edge to prevent slipping when a log is grasped. (Gen. ) 
 Tog'gle chain. A short chain with a ring at one end and a toggle hook and ring at 
 
 the other, fastened to the sway bar or bunk of a logging sled, and used to regulate 
 
 the length of a binding chain. (N. F. ) 
 Syn. : bunk chain. 
 Toggle hook. A grab hook with a long shank, used on a toggle chain. (N. F.) 
 Tonging, v. Handling logs with skidding tongs. (N. F.) 
 Top chains. Chains used to secure the upper tiers of a load of logs after the capacity 
 
 of the regular binding chains has been filled. (Gen.) 
 Top load. A load of logs piled more than one tier high, as distinguished from a 
 
 bunk load. (Gen.) 
 Top loader. That member of a loading crew who stands on the top of a load and 
 
 places logs as they are sent up. (Gen. ) 
 Syn.: sky hooker. (N. F.) 
 Tote, V. To haul supplies to a logging camp. (N. F.) 
 Tote road. A road used for hauling supplies to a logging camp. (N. F.) 
 
 Syn. : hay road. 
 Tote sled. See Jumper. 
 Tow team. An extra team stationed at an incline in a logging road to assist the 
 
 regular teams in ascending with loaded sleds. (N. F. ) 
 Syn.: snatch team. 
 Trailers, n. Several logging sleds hitched behind one another and pulled by 4 to 8 
 
 horses driven by one man, thus saving teamster's wages. (N. F. ) 
 Tram, n. See Tramway. 
 Tramway, u. A light or temporary railroad for the transportation qf logs, often 
 
 with wooden rails and operated by horsepower. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : tram. 
 Travois, n. See Dray. 
 Travois road. See Skid road. 
 Trip, V. See Wedge a tree, to. 
 Trip, n. See Turn. 
 
 Trip a dam, to. To remove the plank which closes a splash dam. (N. F. ) 
 Trip line. 1. A light rope attached to a dog hook, used to free the latter when 
 
 employed in breaking a jam, a skidway, or a load. (N. F. ) 
 Syn. : throw line. 
 2. See Haul back. 
 Tripsin, n. A timber placed across the bottom of the sluiceway in a splash dam, 
 
 against which rest the planks by which the dam is closed. (C-ren.) 
 
52 TERMS USED IN FORESTRY AND LOGGING. 
 
 Trouarli roof. A roof on a logging cainp or Imrn, made of small logs split length- 
 wise, hollowed into troughs and laid from ridge pole to eaves. The joint? of the 
 
 lower tier are covered by inverted troughs. (N. F. ) 
 Turkey, n. A bag containing a lumberjack's outfit. To "histe the turkey" is to 
 
 take one's personal belongings and leave camp. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Turn, n. 1. A single trip and return made by one team in hauling logs — e. g., a 
 
 four-turn road is a road the length of which will permit of only four round trips 
 
 per day. (N. F.) 
 Syn. : trip. (Gen.) 
 
 2. Two or more logs coupled together end to end for hauling. (P. C. F.) 
 Turnout, n. A short side road from a logging-sled road, to allow loaded sleds to 
 
 pass. (N. W., L. S.) 
 Twin sleds. See Logging sled. 
 Twister, n. See Spanish windlass. 
 Twitch, V. See Skid. 
 Two sleds. See Logging sled. 
 Undercut, v. See Notch. 
 Undercut, /*. The notch cut in a tree to determine the direction in which the tree 
 
 is to fall, and to prevent splitting. (Gen.) 
 Syn.: notch (Gen.), nick (S. F. ). 
 Undercutter, n. A skilled woodman who chops the undercut in trees so that they 
 
 shall fall in the proper direction. (Gen. ) 
 Union drive. A drive of logs belonging to several owners, who share the expense 
 
 pro rata. (N. F. ) 
 Upriglit roller. A flanged roller placed upright at a bend in a skid road to direct 
 
 the cable. (P. C. F.) 
 Syn.: roller, dolly. 
 Value, ''. See Cruise. 
 Valuer, n. See Cruiser. 
 Van, n. The small store in a logging camp in which clothing, tobacco, and medicine 
 
 are kept to supply the crew. (N. W., L. S. ) See Commissary. 
 Wag'on sled. See Logging sled. 
 Wanigan, u. A houseboat used as sleeping quarters or as kitchen and dining room 
 
 by river drivers. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 
 Syn.: ark (X. F.), shanty boat (S. F.). 
 Water ladder. Pole guides up and down which a barrel slides in filling a sprinkler 
 
 by horsepower. (N. W., L. S. ) 
 Water slide. See Flume. 
 Wedge a tree, to. To topple over with wedges a tree that is being felled. (Gen.) 
 
 Syn.: throw, trip. 
 Wet slide. See Flume. 
 >Vliiflletree neekyoke. A heavy logging neckyoke, to the ends of which short 
 
 whillietrees are attached by rings. From the ends of the whiffletrees wide straps 
 
 run to the breeching, thus giving the team added power in holding back loads on 
 
 steep slopes. (N. F. ) 
 White water man. A log driver who is expert in breaking jams on rapids or 
 
 falls. (N. F.) 
 Widow maker. A broken limb hanging loose in the top of a tree, which in its fall 
 
 may injure a man below (N. F. ), or a breaking cable (P. C. F. ). 
 
LOGGING TERMS. 53 
 
 WijErwaiii. to make a. In felling trees, to lodge several in piirh a way that they 
 
 ■ support each other. ( N. F. ) 
 
 Windfall, ». An area upon which the trees have been thrown by wind; also, a 
 
 single tree thrown l)y wind. (Gen.) 
 Syn. : blow down, wind slash. (N. F.) 
 Windshake, n. See Shake. 
 Wind slash. See Windfall. 
 Winir dam. See Pier dam. 
 Winjf jam. A jam which is formed against an obstacle in the stream and slants 
 
 upstream until the upper end rests solidly against one shore, with an open channel 
 
 for the passage of logs on the opposite side. (N. F.) 
 Woodpecker, n. A poor chopper. (Gen.) 
 Wrapper chain. See Binding chain. 
 Yard, n. See Landing. 
 Yardiag donkey. A donkey engine mounted upon a heavy sled, used in yarding 
 
 logs by drum and cable. (P. C. F.) 
 

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