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 ELEMENTS OF BCTAWT: 
 
 OR 
 
 OUTLINES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 
 ^ilSIiLIl'S* 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY rORTY PLATES. 
 
 BY BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON, M. D. 
 
 President of the Philadelphia Linnean and Medical Societies; one of ths 
 
 Vice-Presidents of the American Philosophical Society; Member of 
 
 the Imperial Society of Naturalists at Moscow in Russia; and 
 
 Professor of Materia Medica, Natural History and 
 
 Botany, in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 THE THIRD EDITION, 
 
 CORRECTED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ROBERT DESILYER, 
 J\"o. 110 Walnut Street. 
 
 1827. 
 
DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, TO WIT- 
 
 Be it Remembered, That on the thirteenth day of Febru- 
 CaftfegE' ary, in the thirty-sixth year of the Independence of the United 
 1& States of America, A. D. 1812, Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. 
 imJ of the said district, hath deposited in this office, the title of a 
 jS^ book, the righ*t whereof he claims as author, in the words fol- 
 lowing, to wit: 
 
 *• Elements of Botany: or Outlines of the Natural History of Vegetables. 
 Illustrated by forty plates. By Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. President 
 of the Philadelphia Linnean and Medical Societies; one of the Vice- 
 Presidents of the American Philosophical Society; Member of the Im- 
 perial Society of Naturalists at Moscow in Russia; and Professor of Ma- 
 teria Medica, Natural History and Botany, in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. The third edition, corrected and greatly enlarged. In two 
 volumes. Vol. I." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, 
 " an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
 maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies 
 during the times therein mentioned." And also to the Act, entitled, "An 
 Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, "an Act for the encouragement of 
 learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors 
 and proprietors of such copies during the time therein mentioned," and 
 extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and 
 etching historical and other prints." 
 
 D. CALDWELL, 
 
 Clerk of the District of Pennsvlvania. 
 
 L 
 
TO THE 
 
 STUDENTS OF MEDICINE, 
 IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA; 
 
 AND TO THE 
 
 LOVERS AND CULTIVATORS 
 
 OF 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, 
 IN EVERY PART OF THE UNITED-STATES, 
 
 THESE 
 
 ELEMENTS of BOTANY 
 
 ARE VERY RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 BY 
 
 BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON. 
 
 Philadel/ihia, February 28tA, 1803. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 The Lectures on Materia Medic a, anci 
 those on Natural History*, commence, ■ anniu 
 ally, in the first week of November, and terminate 
 \n the first week of March, 
 
 ? These are two distinct Course.-; of Lecture*, 
 
 
 yiwwjM l aa-nm h miuiy — m 
 
 * 
 
 
0B 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 IN the year 1789, the Trustees of the College of 
 Philadelphia instituted a Professorship of Natu- 
 ral History and Botany. I was honoured with 
 the appointment of teaching these branches of science, 
 the first of which had never before been taught in the 
 Institution*. Upon the union of the College with the 
 University of Pennsylvania, in the year 1791, my for- 
 mer appointment was confirmed by the trustees of the 
 united institution; and in the year 1796, I received a 
 new mark of the attention of the trustees, by their ap- 
 pointing me to fill the chair of Materia Medic a, 
 which was rendered vacant by the resignation of the 
 professor of that branch of medical science. 
 
 The different branches of Natural History, parti- 
 cularly Zoology and Botany, have been my favourite 
 studies, from a very early period of my life. The hap- 
 piest hours of near sixteen years of cares, of difficulties, 
 or of sickness, have been devoted to the cultivation of 
 these interesting sciences. During this long period, 
 J have never ceased to look forward, as I still look for- 
 ward, with an ardent satisfaction, to the time, when 
 Natural History shall be taught as an indispensible 
 branch of science, in our university; when it shall 
 
 * Several courses of lectures on Botany had formerly been delivered, in the 
 College of Philadelphia, bj Dr. Adam Kuan, one of the pupils of the great Lmnxus. 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 cease to "yield its laurels to languages which are wither- 
 ed ordead, and to studies, thatare useless or ignoble*." 
 
 That period has not yet arrived. I have, however, 
 the satisfaction of observing, that these sciences are 
 making some, nay even great, advances among us; and 
 I still flatter myself, that the directors of our principal 
 American universities, or other seminaries of learning, 
 but, in particular, the Trustees of the University of 
 Pennsylvania (in which all the branches of me- 
 dical SCIENCE ARE TAUGHT MUCH MORE EXTEN- 
 SIVELY THAN IN ANY OTHER PART OF THE UnITED- 
 
 States), will see the propriety, and even necessity, of 
 giving more substantial encouragement for the exten- 
 sion of Natural History among us. 
 
 It was with the view of contributing something to 
 this desirable end, that I undertook the arduous task 
 of composing these Elements of Botany: a task 
 certainly arduous for one who is engaged in the prac- 
 tice of an anxious and difficult profession ; occupied for 
 near seven months of the year in the duties of teaching 
 in the University, and, withal, subject to repeated at- 
 tacks of a violent and dangerous disease. The work 
 is now presented to the public. I cannot but be some- 
 what solicitous about it: I cannot " dismiss it with 
 frigid tranquillityt : " but I will not tremble for its fate. 
 Should the work confer no reputation upon me, I am 
 still young enough to hope, that reputation may be ob- 
 tained by future efforts. 
 
 * See Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania. Part I. Int. p. viii. 
 j- Dr. Johnson. 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 I have divided this work into three parts. In the 
 First Part, I have given a pretty extensive delinea- 
 tion of the plant, beginning with the root, and 
 ending with the various organs of the fructification. 
 The terminology, or nomenclature, of all these parts is 
 amply detailed ; indeed, I fear much more amply than 
 may seem agreeable to some of my readers. But as 
 one of the great objects of the botanist is the correct or 
 discriminative description of plants, and as such a de- 
 scription cannot be given without the use of an appro- 
 priate language (such as the modern botanical language, 
 unquestionably, is), I shall offer no apology for my hav- 
 ing taken up so much time in the mere description of 
 the various parts of the vegetable. If those, whose ob- 
 ject is a more superficial acquaintance with the study 
 of plants, should feel somewhat fatigued, in pursuing 
 me through such a laboured range of words, I am per- 
 suaded, on the other hand, that some of my readers 
 will feel a regret, that this terminology is not still more 
 extensive. 
 
 But, in this first part of the work, I have not con- 
 fined myself entirely to the technical portion of my sub- 
 ject. Various circumstances relative to the physiology, 
 the economy, the uses, &c, of vegetables, are, like- 
 wise, introduced. And although some of these circum- 
 stances might, perhaps, with more propriety, have been 
 reserved for the second part, I flatter myself they will 
 not appear entirely out of place, where I have introdu- 
 ced them. lam, at least, persuaded, that they will serve 
 to amuse and relieve the reader, in the midst of that 
 fatigue, and, possibly, disgust, which the learning of a 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 new language is too well calculated to excite. The 
 classical reader will not, I think, be displeased at my 
 frequent references to passages in the works of the Ro- 
 man writers, particularly their poets. I have introdu- 
 ced these passages*, because they often serve to illus- 
 trate my subject, and because they cannot fail to enliven 
 it. Although I am of opinion, that, in many of the 
 American seminaries of learning, the study of the lan- 
 guages of ancient Greece and Rome, has occupied too 
 large a share of the time and attention of youth, to the 
 exclusion of more important studies, I am far from co- 
 inciding in sentiment with certain American writers, 
 who have laboured to effect the complete banishment of 
 these languages from our schools. An entire neglect 
 of the Latin language, in particular, will emphatically 
 mark the era of the decline of genuine taste, among a 
 people. 
 
 The study of Vegetable Physiology has long 
 been one of my most favourite pursuits. I have always 
 considered it as the richest portion of Botany. I be- 
 lieve its practical tendency, is highly important. It was 
 originally my intention to have given, in the Second 
 Part of these Elements, a general view of the principal 
 subjects in the physiology of vegetables. But I soon 
 found, that this scheme must be deserted, as I had gra- 
 dually drawn myself into an extent of discussion (with 
 respect to the subjects that are involved in the first and 
 third parts of the work), which I had but little contem- 
 plated!. This must serve as my apology for the deficien- 
 
 * Not only in the First but also in the Third Part. 
 
 f My original proposals were to furnish a volume of, at least, two hundred and 
 eighty pages, with eighteen plates, It is unnecessary to say, how much the work 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 cies and imperfections of the second part of the work. To 
 supply, in some measure, these deficiencies and imperfec- 
 tions, I design to publish a Supplement to these Elements, 
 in which the physiology of vegetables will be principally 
 considered. I cannot pretend to fix upon the precise time 
 at which this supplement shall appear. But, should the 
 state of my health permit me to devote the necessary atten- 
 tion to the subject, I may hope to publish it in the course 
 of the ensuing summer or autumn. It will consist of about 
 one hundred and sixty pages, and will be illustrated by a 
 few necessary plates. 
 
 In the Third, and last, part of this work, I have prin- 
 cipally confined myself to an exposition of the Sexual 
 Method of Linnasus; to the natural orders (as they are 
 called) of the same author, and have given notices con- 
 cerning the natural and artificial methods of other botanists, 
 from the time of Cassalpinus to the present day*. Much 
 of originality, or even of innovation, will hardly be expect- 
 ed in this part of the work. It will readily be observed, 
 however, that I have taken some liberties with the Lin- 
 nean arrangement of certain genera, particularly in the 
 class Gynandria, where I have followed the disposition 
 of the learned Mr. Swartz, one of the most distinguished 
 botanists of Europe. 
 
 If in the discussion of the subjects which are involv- 
 ed in the third part of the work, the reader meet with any 
 thing strictly new, it is principally in what regards the 
 
 has been extended beyond the limits of this plan. For particular reasons, I think 
 it proper to add, that the whole of the first, and the greater portion of the third, 
 part of the work were printed off, before any of the pages of the second part 
 ■were committed to the press. 
 
 * See Appendix. 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 ology of Vegetables* , I had not an opportunity of seeing 
 any part, until I had printed off a great part of my work. 
 Many other works, as well nomenelalural as physiological, 
 which would have been of great sen ice to me, have never 
 reached me. However, in the Supplement which I propose 
 to publish, I shall endeavour to avail myself extensively of 
 these various helps. 
 
 For some of the imperfections of this work, I may, 
 perhaps, claim the indulgence of the public, on a ground, 
 which, to me at least, is interesting. A very infirm state 
 of health, which would, perhaps, rob any one (however 
 ardent in the pursuit of science) of a portion of his zeal; 
 and would, necessarily, abridge the hours of his intellec- 
 tual labours, has long been, and continues to be, my com- 
 panion. With respect to this very work, I may complain, 
 almost without a metaphor, in the words of Linnzeus (there 
 is even no necessity to change the name of the disease) : 
 " At dira arthritis, vix incepto opere, ita una cum corpo- 
 " ris viribus mentem et animum fregit, ut in ipsa herba 
 " fere suffocatum fuissetf." 
 
 * Pbj siologle Vegetale; contenant une description des organes des plantes, 
 et une exposition des phenol acne s produits par leur organization. Par Jean Se- 
 nebier. A Geneve. 
 
 j Philosophia Botanica, Sec. Praefalio— Viennae: 1783. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE former edition of this work, though written 
 under many disadvantages, has, upon the whole, been fa- 
 vourably received by the public. It has been republished 
 in Britain, and has met with some nattering marks of at- 
 tention on the continent of Europe. Among my own coun- 
 trymen, for whom it was especially composed, it has not 
 been neglected. It has, indeed, if I mistake not, been the 
 principal Elementary work on Botany that has been in the 
 hands of my pupils, and the students of this interesting and 
 amiable branch of natural history, in almost every part of 
 the United- States, since the year 1803. . 
 
 Anew edition of the work is now presented to the 
 public. This edition is much more extensive than the 
 former; and though still very imperfect, and deformed, I 
 fear, by many errors, I may venture to assert, that it is 
 greatly amended, in many respects; and in all respects 
 more worthy of the attention of the students and lovers of 
 Botany, and especially of the young botanists of my own 
 country. 
 
 It may not be improper to mention, in this place, the 
 principal points of difference between the present and the 
 former edition. 
 
xiv PREFACE. 
 
 Th e first part of the work, which forms the great mass 
 of the first volume*, remains pretty much in the same 
 state in which it originally came from the press. Several 
 additions, however, have been made to the body of this 
 part: some errors have been corrected. Some notes, chiefly 
 illustrative of the text, are added; and these, from their mis- 
 cellaneous nature, will, I hope, be deemed acceptable to 
 the curious reader. The}' may serve to enliven the subject, 
 and convey to him some idea of the manner in which I 
 treat the science of botany, in my public lectures. 
 
 The two platesf representing the principal forms of 
 Leaves, both simple and compound, and also plates xxxiv 
 and xxxv, which are attached to this volume, are entirely 
 new additions. They are accompanied by a copious ex- 
 planation: and the explanations of the other plates, though 
 not wholly new, are more lull than in the former edition. 
 
 But the most important addition to the first volume, 
 the plates of the leaves perhaps excepted, is the copious 
 Index, which terminates the volume. This index will, I 
 am persuaded, be deemed a valuable supplement to my 
 work: for the want of it was much complained of by the 
 purchasers of the first edition. It is principally intended as 
 an index, or catalogue, of the terminology, or technical 
 terms, that are made use of in every part of the work. In 
 this respect, if I do not mistake, it is so extensive and 
 complete, that it may supply the want of some of those 
 mere botanical dictionaries, which 1 have referred to, in 
 the body of the work. 
 
 * The first edition of the work was generally comprized in one volume, but 
 was sometimes formed into two. The present, from its increased size, is neces- 
 sarily distributed into two volumes. 
 
 f Plates xxxii, xxxiii. 
 
PREFACE. xv 
 
 This index also contains a list of all the Natural Orders, 
 or assortments, of plants that are mentioned, either inciden- 
 tally or more particularly, in the two volumes: but it con- 
 tains no references to individual plants. It embraces, also, 
 references to many of the principal miscellaneous subjects 
 of my work. But, I repeat it, I wish it to be considered 
 chiefly as an index of technical terms. 
 
 The second part, though still small in comparison of 
 either the first or the third parts, is somewhat corrected, 
 and considerably enlarged. In particular, it contains a sec- 
 tion, of some length, on the Generative functions of the 
 stamens and the pistils; including observations on the irrL 
 table movements of these sexual organs, &c, &x. I have, 
 also, added a short section on the chief Principles contain- 
 ed in \egetablcs; and, at the end of the part, a smau body 
 of notes. — I should have greatly enlarged this portion of 
 the work, had I not been unwilling to increase, beyond 
 certain limits, the size of the volume; and were it not still 
 my intention to publish, at some future period, a small 
 volume on the Ph y s i o l o g y of vegetables, somewhat upon 
 the plan which I have mentioned in the Preface to the first 
 edition-. 
 
 But it is in the third and last part of this work, that the 
 reader will find the most important corrections and addi- 
 tions. Indeed, throughout the whole of this portion of the 
 volume, additions and corrections have been made. Many 
 of the genera are now disposed of very differently from 
 what they were in the former edition. In many instances, 
 I have, also, added remarks on the anomalies of the sta- 
 mens, in regard to number, insertion, &c: and these re- 
 
 * Sec page ix 
 
xvi PREFACE. 
 
 marks, especially when I speak of the North- American 
 plants, will, perhaps, be considered as a morceau of some 
 value to systematic botanists. 
 
 All the observations on the Algae, Fungi, Palmae, &c, 
 &c, after page 168, and between this and the Appendix, 
 are new additions. To the appendix itself, I have made 
 some additions: as well as to the explanations of some of the 
 thirty plates, which were included in the first edition of the 
 Elements. The new plates, of which mention in presently 
 to be made, are of course accompanied by new explana- 
 tory matter. 
 
 The volume is terminated by an Index of the princi- 
 pal vegetables which are mentioned in the work, and espe- 
 cially in the third part. In this index, both the scientific 
 and English and provincial names of the plants are given: 
 and although this catalogue is less extensive than I could 
 wish it were, it cannot fail to be of essential use to the 
 student in aiding him in his investigations into the posi- 
 tion or arrangement of many of the plants, concerning 
 which he may wish to obtain information. 
 
 The first edition of this work contained thirty plates: 
 the present is enriched by ten additional plates. Some of 
 these will, I flatter myself, be found valuable and impor- 
 tant; or at least of great use to the young student of bota- 
 ny. They are all original plates, and some of them after 
 drawings done by artists of the first character. Such, in 
 particular, are plates xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxvi. 
 
 Besides the addition of these ten new plates, impor- 
 tant additions have been made to some of those which ac- 
 companied the first edition of the work. Such additions will 
 
PREFACE. xvii 
 
 •*■* 
 be found in plates v,xiv, xx, xxi,xxvi, and xxx: and others 
 
 of the plates, to which no additions, properly so called, have 
 
 been made, have been, in some measure, improved by the 
 
 hand of the engraver. Plate i, in particular, is materially 
 
 improved. 
 
 ***** * 
 
 It now only remains for me to request a candid ex- 
 amination of this work by the public; and especially by 
 those to whom the number and variety of my professional 
 engagements, and of my literary pursuits, may not be 
 known. It is a fact, that the work, originally begun and 
 written in sickness, has been carried on to its present im- 
 proved and enlarged state, in the intervals between my 
 laborious attentions to the duties of my profession as a 
 physician, and those as a lecturer on three great branches 
 of science in the University; on Materia Medic a, Bo- 
 tany, and Zoology; and while I have been occupied in 
 attending to the printing of several other works, much more 
 original in their nature, and from which I venture to pro- 
 mise myself a more solid reputation: viz. two distinct 
 Florae, one of six of the states of the American Union*; 
 one of the state of Virginiaf: a work on the Geography of 
 the North- American trees and shrubs; an elementary work" 
 on Zoology; and, lastly, a volume on the original, the migra- 
 tions, the religious and political institutions, the languages, 
 &.c, of the Indians of North- America; besides some me- 
 moirs on minor or more individual subjects. All these 
 works are actually, at this time, in the press: and some of 
 them are nearly finished. 
 
 * Prodromus of a Flora of die states of New-York, JSfew-Jefsey*, Pern - 
 \ania, Delaware, .Maryland, and Virginia: illustrated by plates 
 
 f Flora Virgimca, &c 
 
xviii PREFACE. 
 
 To my Pupils, whether those who have been under m> 
 immediate direction, or those with whom I have had merely 
 intercourse in my capacity of a public professor, I offer no 
 formal apologies for the imperfections of this work. Most 
 of my Eleves have manifested a disposition to view my 
 literary labours with tenderness and candour: and from 
 many, — very many, — of them I have received acts of 
 kindness, of friendship, and almost filial affection, which 
 have constituted not a little of my happiness; and the re- 
 membrance of which, — if memory remain, — will not fail 
 to cheer and solace me in the most gloomy walks to which 
 I may be destined, in the remainder of my life. 
 
 March 37th. 1811. 
 
ELEMENTS of BOTANY. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
** But not alike to every mortal eye 
 
 " Is this great scene unveil'd. For since the claims 
 
 " Of social life, to different labours urge 
 
 " The active powers of man ; with wise intent 
 
 " The hand of Nature on peculiar minds 
 
 " Imprints a different bias, and to each 
 
 " Decrees its province in the common toil. 
 
 " To some she taught the fabric of the sphere, 
 
 " The changeful moon, the circuit of the stars, 
 
 " The golden zones of heaven: to some she gave 
 
 " To weigh the moment of eternal things, 
 
 " Of time, and space, and fate's unbroken chain, 
 
 " And will's quick impulse: others by the hand 
 
 " She led o'er vales and mountains, to explore 
 
 " What healing virtue swells the tender veins 
 
 " Of herbs and flowers; or what the beams of mors 
 
 " Draw forth, distilling from the clifted rind 
 
 " In balmy tears. But some to higher hopes 
 
 " Were destin'd." 
 
 THE PLEASURES OF IMAGINATION. 
 Book I. 1. 79—97- 
 
ELEMENTS of BOTANY. 
 
 " Nee dubitamus, multa esse, qux & nos pr!eterierint. Homines enim 
 sumus & occupati officiis." C. PLINI1 SECUNDI 
 
 Naturalis Historic Lib. I. 
 
 JLlNNiEUS has made a general division of the 
 plant, or vegetable, into three parts, viz. the Radix, 
 the Herb a, and the Fructificatio. Of each of these 
 parts, and of their various subordinate divisions, I 
 shall speak in the order in which I have mentioned them. 
 I prefer this order in treating my subject., as being more 
 natural, or at least more facile and more simple, than 
 that of those writers who begin their delineation of ve- 
 getables with an account of the fructification. In the 
 very commencement of my subject, at least, I follow 
 the "Swedish Sage"*. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 OF THE ROOT. 
 
 Th e Radix, or Root, is the lower part of the vege- 
 table, which is generafly attached to the earth, from 
 which it derives various nutritious principles, which it 
 
 * See bis Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 37. 
 
4 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 conveys to every part of the plant. It supports the 
 Herba and the Fructificatio. 
 
 The root consists of two parts, which are denomi- 
 nated Caudex* and lladicula\. By the term caudex, 
 Linnaeus means the stock, or main body of the root; 
 and by the term radicula, the stringy or fibrous part of 
 the root, which, in the greater number of vegetables, 
 terminates the main root, and is supposed to be that 
 part of the root which is especially concerned in ab- 
 sorbing nourishment from the earth. 
 
 In the language of Linnaeus, the caudex is either 
 descending or ascending. The caudex descendens, or 
 descending caudex, strikes gradually downward into 
 the ground, and puts forth radicles, or small fibres, which 
 are generally regarded as the principal and really essen- 
 tial part of every root. The caudex ascendens, or as- 
 cending caudex, is that part of the root which gradually 
 raises itself above the ground, serving frequently the 
 place of a trunk or stem, and produces the herb. It is the 
 descending caudex only which entirely corresponds to 
 the term radix, or root, as it is employed by other bo- 
 tanists. The term caudex ascendens corresponds, in 
 some measure, to the caudex of Malpighi, and other 
 naturalists, who, following the authority of classical wri- 
 ters, designate by this name, the stem, trunk, or bole of 
 a tree. 
 
 The distinction of Linnaeus is, at least, ingenious. 
 It is founded upon this fact, that trees and shrubs, when 
 
 • Caudex, from c&do, to cut down. 
 
 \ Radicula, strictly speaking, a little root. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 5 
 
 they are inverted, put forth leaves from the descending 1 
 caudex, or proper root; and radicles, or roots, from the 
 ascending caudex, or stem. Accordingly, the Swedish 
 naturalist considers trees and shrubs " as roots above 
 ground*." 
 
 In a philosophical analysis of the vegetable, this 
 may, perhaps, be a just view of the subject: but it is not 
 probable, that the distinction of the great naturalist will 
 ever be generally admitted by the bulk of mankind ; not 
 even by those who are somewhat accustomed to specu- 
 late upon the nature of plants. We have so long been in 
 the habit of regarding as the root, only that part of the 
 vegetable which is buried under, or is immediately in 
 connection with, the earthf, that it will be a difficult mat- 
 ter to bring ourselves to think, that the stem or bole of a 
 tree can, with strict propriety, be considered as a part of 
 its root. 
 
 The botanists have described various species of 
 roots. I shall treat of the principal of them, under the 
 following heads : viz. 1. of Roots, in respect to former 
 shape : 2. of Roots, in respect to their direction, or man- 
 ner of growth : 3. of Roots, in respect to their duration: 
 and, lastly, I shall add some miscellaneous circumstan- 
 ces, concerning the natural history of roots, reserving, 
 however, the completion of the subject for the second 
 and third parts of these Elements. 
 
 * " Arbores Fruticesque omnes itaque sunt Radices supra terram. Ergo Arbor 
 " verticaliter inverse, e caudice descendente, fert Folia, ex adsendente Radiculas." 
 Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 39. 
 
 t To this idea, however, there are exceptions, which I shall not omit to notice. 
 
6 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 5. I. 
 
 Of Roots, in respect to their form, or shape. 
 
 Roots, with respect to their form or shape, may 
 principally be referred to the following species, or per- 
 haps more properly varieties: viz. 1. Radix fibrosa'. 
 2. Radix fusif or mis : 3. Radix tuberosa: 4. Radix 
 pramorsa: 5. Radix granulata; and, 6. Radix bul- 
 bosa. 
 
 1. The radix fibrosa, or fibrous root, consists entire- 
 ly, or principally, of a number of fibrous radicles, each of 
 which is more slender than the base of the trunk or stem, 
 to which it is attached. The greater number of the 
 Gramina, or Grasses, such as the Wheat, the Rye, the 
 Oat, the Barley, the Rice, &c. furnish us with the best 
 examples of this form of root. In the grasses, the fibres 
 proceed from a small knot at the base of the stem. This 
 kind of root, consisting of very slender fibres, is some- 
 times denominated Radix capillacea*\ or the hairy root. 
 
 The term fibrous root comprehends a very great 
 number of roots, which, as being more slender than the 
 base of the stem or bole, may, with propriety, be arrang- 
 ed under this head. Such are the roots of the greater 
 number of trees and shrubs. 
 
 2. The radix fusiformis, called in English fusiform 
 or spindle-shaped rootf, is a species of root, which ta- 
 
 * From Capilhis, a hair. 
 
 t The fusiform-root is best known, in main parts of the United-States, by the 
 name of" tap-root." There can, I believe, be little doubt, that the earlier settlers 
 
. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 7 
 
 pers from above downwards to a point, more or less 
 slender. The radicles, strings, or fibres, are commonly 
 disposed over the whole surface of the stock, or principal 
 root. We have examples of this species of root in the 
 Carrot, the Parsnip, the Hemlock, the Radish, Horse- 
 radish, and many others. Cultivation frequently changes 
 the spindle-shaped root into a round, knobbed, or tuber- 
 ous root. This has been particularly observed in some 
 of the umbelliferous plants. 
 
 3. The radix tuberosa, tuberous or knobbed root, is a 
 hard, solid and fleshy root, which, in general, is thicker 
 than the base of the stem to which it is attached. It con- 
 sists either of one knob, as in the common Turnip, or of 
 many such knobs collected, by means of a number of slen- 
 der strings or filaments, into a bunch, as in the Paeony, 
 Sun-flower, Drop-wort, Potatoe, and many others. The 
 radicles, or fibrous strings, are dispersed over every 
 part of the tuberous root; whereas in the bulbous roots, 
 afterwards to be mentioned, the radicles are entirely con- 
 fined to the bottom of the root. 
 
 Some of the tuberous roots, such as those of the 
 Arum, Orchis, Moschatelline, and others, emit their ra- 
 dicles at the top, from a knot formed between the stem 
 and the thicker part of the root. Such roots have been 
 called Radices comosa*, from a fancied resemblance of 
 the fibres, which I have mentioned, to a bunch of hair. 
 
 4. The radix praemorsa, for which there is no very 
 appropriate English name, is a species of root, which 
 
 of the then British colonies introduced this word from England. It is, however, 
 curious, and may not be improper to observe, that tap-pee is the name for the root of 
 any vegetable in the language of several of our Indian tribes. 
 * From Coma, a bush or head of hair. 
 
8 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 does not taper, but ends (abruptly) blunt, and thus ap- 
 pears as though it were bitten off short at the end. 
 Hence, perhaps, it might, not improperly, be called the 
 bitten root. The Scabiosa, or Scabious, the Plantago, 
 or Plantain, the Valeriana, or Valerian, and some other 
 plants, furnish us with examples of this form of root. 
 
 5. The radix granulata, or granulate root, consists 
 of several little tubers, or fleshy knobs, which some- 
 what resemble grains of corn. The Saxifraga granula- 
 ta, or White Saxifrage, of the English, exhibits one of 
 the best examples of this kind of root. 
 
 6. The radix bulbosa, or bulbous root, is the last 
 species of root which I have mentioned. This form of 
 root, which Linnaeus calls Bulbus, is, perhaps, more pro- 
 perly speaking, a large bud, situated under ground. It en- 
 closes and protects the future plant, several generations* 
 of which lie enveloped in it, until they are unfolded by 
 the action of water, or other fit alimentary stimulus. 
 Linnaeus calls this part, as he also does the true buds of 
 trees and shrubs, the Hybernaculum, or winter-quarters 
 of the plant. He does not consider the bulbus as a spe- 
 cies of root. Many respectable botanists have implicitly 
 adopted the Linnaean opinion on this head. 
 
 The bulbus consists of two parts, viz. the bulbus, 
 properly so called, and the radicula, or radicle. This 
 last is considered, by Linnaeus, as a true root, or fibrous 
 appendage, arising from the lower part of the bulb, by 
 which it is attached to the earth, in which it grows. 
 
 * This subject will be particularly attended to in treating of the generation of 
 vegetables. See Part II. At present, however, it may not be improper to observe, 
 that in the bulb of the Hyacinth four distinct generations of future plants have 
 been observed 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 9 
 
 These radicles may, it is thought, be considered as so 
 many absorbing vessels, by which the various alimen- 
 tary matters of the plant are conveyed, through the bulb, 
 to every part of the stem, leaves, flowers, &c. Actual 
 experiments, however, show, that the radicles, or cy- 
 lindrical fibres, of certain bulbous-rooted plants, such 
 as the Hyacinth, are by no means necessary to the full 
 growth and perfection of these plants. This has been 
 proved by the Marquis de S. Simon, in his work on 
 Hyacinths*. This writer considers the radicles rather 
 as exhaling, than as absorbing organs; and asserts, that 
 it is the middle part of the bulb which is endued with 
 the absorbing power. 
 
 Four different kinds of bulbs are described by Lin- 
 naeus : viz. 1. Bidbus squamosus : 2. Bulbus solidus: 
 5. Bulbus tunicatus; and, 4. Bulbus articulatus. 
 
 1. The bulbus squamosus, which in English we 
 may call a squamose or scaly bulb, consists of a num- 
 ber of imbricated lamellae, thin plates, or scales, which 
 are laid over each other, somewhat in the manner of 
 tiles upon a house. Different species of Lilies furnish us 
 with examples of this beautiful kind of bulb. 
 
 2. The bulbus solidus, or solid bulb, consists of one 
 solid and fleshy substance. The Tulip is said, by Lin- 
 naeus, and many of his followers, to supply us with an 
 instance of this kind of bulb. I cannot, however, consi- 
 der the bulb of the Tulip as a solid bulb. Carefully ex- 
 amined, it evidently appears to be a true coated bulb. 
 Professor Ludwig has adduced the common Crocus, or 
 
 % 
 
 Printed, at Amsterdam, in 176^ 
 C 
 
10 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Saffron, as an example of the solid bulb. But even this, 
 upon minute examination, appears to consist of a num- 
 ber of tunics, or coats, some of which (the exterior ones) 
 spontaneously separate from one another ; and the inter- 
 nal ones, though thicker, may, with ease, be separated. 
 Indeed, some respectable writers have doubted, whether 
 a true solid bulb, in the Linnaean sense of the word, does 
 exist. 
 
 3. The bulbus tunicatus, the tunicated or coated 
 bulb, consists of a number of tunics, or coats, which are 
 regularly laid over each other. The common Onion, the 
 Amaryllis, and many^ther plants, furnish instances of this 
 species of bulb. The coats of this kind of bulb are some- 
 times very thick and succulent, insomuch that they are 
 sufficient to make the plant vegetate, without the aid of 
 earth or water. Thus,we often observe the officinal Squill, 
 as it lies in the shops of the apothecaries, protruding 
 both vigorous stems and flowers. 
 
 4. The bulbus articulatus, the articulated or joint- 
 ed bulb, consists of lamellae, that are linked or chained 
 togther,as in the Lathraea Squamaria, or Tooth- wort, the 
 Adoxa Moschatellina, or Tuberous Moschatel, and the 
 Martynia. 
 
 5. Linnaeus also makes mention of a Bulbus du- 
 pl'icatus. This name is applied to certain roots, which 
 have two bulbs connected together. Some species of 
 Or chides furnish us with the best examples of this kind of 
 root. Such is the Ophrys, which is called, in some parts 
 of the United-States, by the ridiculous name of " Adam 
 and Eve." Where two bulbs are thus united together, 
 it is commonly observed, that one of them is light, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 1 1 
 
 empty, and swims upon the surface of the water; whilst 
 the other, which is solid, sinks by reason of its weight. 
 From the former, the plant of the present year has pro- 
 ceeded, whilst the latter contains the bud of the future 
 rear*. 4R* 
 
 Lin njeus, it has been observed, does not consider as a 
 true root any of the species of bulb, which I have mention- 
 ted. He views them as large buds situated under ground, 
 protecting the embryo from the severity of the winter, 
 and from other injurious causes. That the bulb does, 
 like a true bud, actually enclose the tender embryo, I 
 shall not attempt to denyf. But Lcannot convince my- 
 self, that this is a sufficient reason for asserting, that the 
 bulb is not, in reality, a species of root. Lin njeus is not 
 always consistent. He has no hesitation in consi- 
 dering the tuber, or knob, of the Potatoe, as a true root: 
 yet who does not know, that this tuber, as well as the 
 bulbus, in the Linnaean sense of the word, encloses and 
 protects the tender embryo? Linnaeus informs us, that 
 in the hollow stem of the Osmunda, near its root, is con- 
 tained the embryo-plant, that is to be born the following 
 year. Why does he not consider this " caulis cavus," 
 or hollow stem, as a true hybernaculum, or bulb, or bud? 
 
 * For representations of different species*f roots, see, in this work, particularly 
 Plates II. and III. and also some of the individual plates illustrative of the sexual 
 system of Linnxus. 
 
 t Yet I believe it would have been difficult for Linnaeus to have demonstrated 
 the pre-existence of the embryo, in all the different species of bulb. Who has seen 
 the embryo, in some of the articulated bulbs ? It must exist there, it will be answer- 
 ed, because the bulb shoots into a new plant, in every essential respect similar to 
 the parent plant. Then the leaf of the Aloe, the leaf of the Orange, and the leaves 
 cf many other plants, are bulbs, or buds-, for they, when committed to the ground, 
 produc#new plants, similar to their parents. 
 t 
 
12 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Besides, the observations of the Marquis de S. Simon, 
 whom I have already mentioned, compel us to entertain 
 doubts concerning" some of the Linnsean notions respect- 
 ing the bulb. The Swedish naturalist says, the radicles, 
 or small fibres, which are attached to the bulb, are the 
 only part entitled to the name of a true root. But it ap- 
 pears highly probable, that all these fibres do not act the 
 part of absorbing organs, or vessels : some of them, at 
 least, appear to be exhalents. Certain it is, that the ra- 
 dicles are not necessary to the nutriment of the plant, 
 through the medium of the bulb. Some of the most 
 vigorous blossoms are often protruded from bulbs, the 
 radicles of which hav ( e fallen ofF, almost immediately after 
 their appearance. 
 
 In the study of plants, it is a matter of essential im- 
 portance to attend to the structure of the bulb, or bul- 
 bous root. These bulbs frequently afford excellent 
 marks for distinguishing one species of plant from ano- 
 ther of the same genus. Thus, the different species of 
 the genus Scilla, or Squill, can hardly be distinguished 
 from each other, except by the circumstance of their 
 bulbs, which are coated, solid (at least, deemed solid), 
 and scaly. 
 
 Here, under the head of the bulbous roots, it might 
 not be improper to take notice of the Bulbus cauli?ius y 
 or stem-bulb, and other similar productions, which, 
 both in their structure and office, are very nearly allied 
 to the bulb of which I have already treated. I shall, 
 however, reserve the consideration of these stem-bulbs, 
 &.c. until I come to speak of the Hybernaculum, or win- 
 ter-quarters of the plant. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 13 
 
 Plants that are furnished with bulbs, or bulbous 
 roots, have received the name of Bulbosce, or Bulbous 
 plants. These bulbosse constitute one of the classes in 
 the method of Andreas Csesalpinus. Bulbosee and Bul- 
 bosis affines are the names of the twenty-fourth and 
 twenty-fifth classes in the Methodus PropriaofMr. Ray, 
 the immortal English naturalist. Linnaeus's ninth and 
 tenth orders, Spatbacea, and Coronarite, in his attempt 
 towards a natural method, embrace many of the finest 
 vegetables that are furnished with bulbous roots. Such, 
 among others, are the Hasmanthus, Amaryllis, Pancra- 
 tium, Narcissus, Galanthus, Crinum, Colchicum, Alli- 
 um, Polianthes, Ornithogalum, Scilla, Hyacinthus, 
 Hypoxis, Lilium, and Tulipa. 
 
 5 . ii. 
 
 Of Roots, in respect to their direction, or 
 manner of growth. 
 
 Roots, with respect to their direction, or manner of 
 growth, are very different from one anotker. 
 
 1. Some roots are perpendicular, or run directly 
 downwards into the earth. These constitute what Lin- 
 naeus calls the Radix perpendicularis , or perpendicu- 
 lar root. This term is generally applied to a particular 
 kind of root, which descends, in one straight fibre, that 
 gradually tapers from above downwards, and whose 
 greatest diameter does not exceed that of the base of the 
 stem. The Carrot, Parsnip, and other spindle-shaped 
 roots, as we have called them, are also examples of the 
 perpendicular root. Some of the perpendicular roots 
 
14 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 strike but a little way into the ground, such as the Da- 
 tura, or Thorn-apple: some pierce deep, as the Horse- 
 radish^ the Phytolacca, or Poke, and others. 
 
 2. The Radix horizontalis, or horizontal root, ex- 
 tends itself under the surface of the ground, nearly in a ho- 
 rizontal direction. The Iris,the May-apple *,the Hop, the 
 Cinquefoil, and many other plants furnish us with ex- 
 amples of this direction of the root. Some of the horizon- 
 tal roots run very near to the surface of the earth ; such as 
 the Woodbine and the wild Anemone : others run lower 
 down, as the Triticum repens, or Couch-grass. The 
 horizontal root is sometimes called level or transverse- 
 root. According to the greater or less severity of the 
 climate, the perpendicular and horizontal roots (of the 
 same species) will often be found to pierce the earth 
 more or less remote from its surface. The root, as well 
 as every other part of the plant, accommodates itself, in 
 some measure, to the climate in which it grows. 
 
 3. The Radix repens, or creeping root, is, by 
 Linnaeus, distinguished from the horizontal root, to 
 which, however, it is nearly allied. While the latter 
 species of root is extended under the earth, in a trans- 
 verse direction, the former is observed to creep hori- 
 zontally, in every direction, putting forth fibres, as it 
 proceeds. The Mentha, or Mint, furnishes us with an ■ 
 example of this kind of root. 
 
 4. The roots of some plants have a two-fold direc- 
 tion. Thus in the Primula, or Primrose, the stock, or 
 main root, runs level, whilst the radicles, or fibres, 
 strike perpendicularly downwards into the earfh. 
 
 * Podophyllum peltatum. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 15 
 
 5. Some roots are entire, that is not branched. These 
 constitute what Linnajus denominates the Radix sim- 
 plex, or simple root. Other roots are subdivided, or 
 branched. These are the Radix ramosa, or branched 
 root. The Radix ramosissima is a root which is greatly 
 subdivided, or branches to a considerable degree. — The 
 Podophyllum diphyllum, which I have called Jeffersonia 
 binata, furnishes a good example of this last kind of 
 root. 
 
 MIL n 
 
 Of Roots, in respect to their duration. 
 
 The period of the duration or existence of roots is 
 very different. Some roots subsist for only one year; 
 some for two, and some for many years. Those which 
 subsist during only one year are denominated annuals : 
 those which subsist for two years are called biennials, 
 and those which subsist for many years are called peren- 
 nials. It is only among the herbaceous* vegetables, that 
 we have examples of annual and biennial roots. But the 
 roots of both herbs and trees are perennials. 
 
 1. Annual pfents, as I have already observed, exist 
 only one year. Afthe completion of about this period, 
 the root and the stem perish, and the individual dies, to 
 rise no more from a root. It is perpetuated, however, by 
 its seed. — Gleditschhas compared the annual plants with 
 
 * Herbaceous vegetables are those which have succulent stalks, or stems, thar 
 perish down to the root every year. 
 
16 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 insects. The annual plant, as well as the insect, having 
 undergone various metamorphoses, arrives at maturity, 
 performs the office of generation ; after which the male 
 quickly perishes, the female surviving some time longer, 
 to nourish and deposit the seed. 
 
 2. Biennial plants renew their stems only twice, 
 after which the root perishes, the plant being perpetua- 
 ted by its seed. Biennial are much less numerous than 
 annual or perennial vegetables. 
 
 3. Perennial plants are such as subsist, by means 
 of their roots or stems, for more than two years. 
 Some of the vegetables of this class preserve both their 
 roots and stems for many years ; such are the numerous 
 species of trees, the roots of which have been denomina- 
 ted Radices fruticosa*. The stems of other perennial 
 plants perish to the ground, the stem being annually re- 
 paired out of the root. 
 
 Climate and cultivation exert a manifest effect 
 upon the term of duration of the roots of vegetables. 
 When transplanted into cold climates, many of the pe- 
 rennial plants become annuals, and the species is perpe- 
 tuated by seed. Thus, in its native warm climate, the 
 Ricinus communis, or Castor-oil plant, has a shrubby 
 stem, and is a perennial; but in cold climates, both the 
 root and the stem perish, and the vegetable is continued 
 by its seed* 
 
 The effects of culture, in influencing the term of ex- 
 istence of the roots of vegetables, are much less under- 
 
 * Radices fruticosx , or shrubby roots, from Frittex, a shrub- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 17 
 
 stood, than the effects of climate. It is certain, however, 
 that, in many instances, culture does prolong the life of 
 annual plants. 
 
 $. IV. 
 
 Miscellaneous circumstances relative to the 
 natural history of roots. 
 
 I. The roots of the greater number of vegetables are 
 hid below the surface of the earth, and from its bosom 
 they derive a large part of their nourishment and growth. 
 But there are many vegetables which are not thus neces- 
 sarily attached to the earth. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, 
 the Dodder, the Hypocistis, and many others, do not 
 emit their radicles into the soil, but migrate, if I may use 
 the phrase, in search of nourishment elsewhere. They 
 attach themselves to other plants, which they use as 
 fulcres or props, and from which, it is highly probable, 
 they derive some of their nourishment. Such plants are 
 denominated Plantce Parasitica, or Parasitic Plants. 
 This term was, long ago, employed by the celebrated 
 Malpighi. Linnasus makes much use of it, and he has 
 not forgotten, in his employment of it, to glance severe- 
 ly at the close-clasping habits of some botanists, his con- 
 temporaries, and ro|)iring rivals after glory. 
 
 The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Tillandsia, and many 
 others, attach themselves to the branches of trees. The 
 Asarum Hypocistis shows a preference to the roots of 
 plants, particularly, it is said, the Cistus, or Rock-rose; 
 whilst different species of Cuscuta, or Dodder, cling to 
 the stems of a great variety of plants. 
 
 D 
 
18 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Th e parasitic plants attach themselves to other 
 plants in various different ways. The seed of the Dod- 
 der having been deposited in the ground, there makes 
 its first effort towards vegetation. It protrudes a stem, 
 which seizes upon the first plant in its vicinity, to which 
 it closely adheres. It is imagined that it derives its nou- 
 rishment, by means of certain glandular organs, from 
 the supporting plant. It is observed, however, that the 
 lower part of the stem of the parasitic plant soon dries 
 up T the root perishes, and the parasite lives upon its 
 fulcre, or support. Perhaps, however, it is not certain, 
 that it derives any essential part of its nourishment from 
 the juices of the plant to which it attaches itself. It is 
 highly probable, that, in many instances, parasitic plants 
 injure their supporters, more by emitting from their 
 bodies some noxious fluid, than by absorbing whole- 
 some fluids from the supports*. 
 
 The Misletoe, the VanUla, the Tillandsia, and the 
 Hypocistis are never found upon the earth: they appear 
 to have been originally produced upon the vegetables 
 by which they are supported. The two first mentioned 
 parasitic plants extend their roots under the bark, and 
 even pierce the body of the wood. The Tillandsia usne- 
 oides, which is well known in North- America by the 
 names of Long-Moss, and Spanish-Beard, is much more 
 loosely attached to the trees of the forest. This parasite 
 is so abundant in the southern parts of the United- States, 
 and in New- Spain, that it even communicates a melan- 
 choly darkness to extensive woods. 
 
 * The Cuscuta Americana, or American Dodder, grows very abundantly in 
 Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United-States. It clings to a great number 
 of species of plants, and I am not certain, that it is found more frequently upon 
 one species than upon another. This plant is known by two very different names, 
 viz. Love-vine, and Devils-gutts. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 19 
 
 2. The roots of many mosses attach themselves to the 
 firm barks of trees, whilst the lichens cling to the hard- 
 est stones. Some species seem especially attached to 
 stones of a calcareous nature; whilst others form a 
 beautiful plating, as it were, upon the surface of whins, 
 sand-stones, and never-dying granites. It has not yet 
 been determined, with absolute certainty, from whence 
 these latter mentioned vegetables derive their nutriment. 
 It cannot be from the stony substances to which they 
 are attached. It is probable, that they are nourished 
 entirely by the atmosphere, and by water and other ex- 
 traneous bodies which the atmosphere contains. 
 
 3. Some plants swim upon the water, and even per- 
 form pretty extensive migrations. Different species of 
 Lemna*, or Duck-meat, swim upon the surface of the 
 standing waters of Europe and North-America, and 
 when not disturbed will cover the whole surface. Such 
 plants cannot, with propriety, be said to be fixed to a 
 certain spot. They are, indeed, furnished with radicles, 
 or roots, but these hang loose in the water, from which, 
 it is probable, they derive their principal nourishment. 
 But the Fuci, or Sea- wreck, an extensive tribe of plants, 
 perform migrations of hundreds of miles upon the ocean, 
 where the eye of the navigator is often enlivened with 
 extensive fields, which are principally composed of these 
 vegetables. 
 
 4. Of the many thousand species of plants that are 
 now known to the botanists, by far the greater number 
 are, unquestionably, furnished with roots. Some plants, 
 however, are said to be wholly destitute of roots. Such are 
 the different species of the genus Tremella, which have 
 
 * Lemna gibba, L. minor, L.trisulca, and L.polyrbiza. 
 
20 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 so many of the habitudes of animals, that, by certain 
 writers, they have been considered as belonging more 
 properly to the animal than to the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 5. According to Linnaeus, the root is made up of 
 Medulla, or Pith; Lignum, or Wood; Liber, or Inner 
 Bark; and Cortex, or Outer Bark. These several parts 
 will be more particularly mentioned, when I treat of the 
 anatomy of vegetables*. 
 
 6. Linnjeus, ever fond of analogies, compares the 
 roots of plants to the absorbing lacteal vessels in animals. 
 The earth he calls the stomach of plantsf. The propriety 
 of these terms will be attended to in the section on vege- 
 table Digestion, in Part II. Meanwhile, the student 
 ought not to be misled by the specious language of the 
 illustrious Swede. 
 
 Section II. 
 OF THE HERB. 
 
 The Herb a, or Herb, is the second general part of 
 the plant which I have mentioned. By Linnaeus, it is 
 denned to be thatfpart of the vegetable, which arises 
 from the root, is terminated by the Fructification, and 
 comprehends the Trunk, the Leaves, the Fulcres, and 
 the Hybernacle. 
 
 » See Part II. 
 
 f " Pl&ntarum Ventrical us est Terra, Vasa Chylifera Radix" Philo- 
 soj)hia Botanica, &c. p. 93. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 21 
 
 *I. 
 
 The Truncus, or Trunk, is the body, or main stem 
 of the vegetable, whether it be a tree, a shrub, or an 
 herbaceous plant. It supports the leaves and the fruc- 
 tification. Linnaeus enumerates six species of trunk: 
 these are, 1. the Caulis. 2. the Culmus. 3. the Scapus. 
 
 4. the Pedunciilns. 5. the Petiolus, and 6. the Frons. 
 
 ■ 
 
 1. The Caulis*, stem, or stalk, is the body of an 
 herb or tree, supporting branches, leaves, and fructifi- 
 cation. " To this description, says Dr. Milne, may be 
 " added another circumstance, that caulis is an univer- 
 " sal trunk; that is, proceeds immediately from the 
 " root, whilst the foot-stalks of the flower and leaf, 
 44 which Linnaeus likewise denominates trunks, are 
 44 partial; that is, proceed from an universal trunk, or 
 44 its branches." The caulis is the most common 
 species of trunk, strictly so called. 
 
 The stems or trunks of the grasses, the palms, the 
 ferns, and the fungous plants, are distinguished by par- 
 ticular appellations, which will be noticed in their pro- 
 per places. 
 
 I have said, that the caulis is the stem or trunk of 
 a vegetable, whether herb or tree. It is to be observed, 
 however, that formerly the term caulis was applied to 
 herbs only. The term truncus, which was employed to 
 denote the stem, or trunk, or bole of a tree, is now em- 
 
 * Caulis, from the Greek xxvXag. Dr. Martyn observes, that the " English 
 " Kale, and Cole (in Colewort aud Coleseed), come from caulis, as well as 
 " Cauliflower vulgarly Collyflower : but immediately from the Low-Dutch Kool." 
 
 
22 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ployed as a generic name, of which the terms caulis, 
 culmus, &c. are species. 
 
 The caulis, or stem, is either simple or compound. 
 
 " Simple stems are such as do not divide, but 
 " proceed in a continued series towards their summits. 
 14 Compound stems are subdivided into ramuli, or small 
 " branches, and diminish as they ascend, so as frequently 
 t; to lose the appearance of a stem altogether." 
 
 I. Linnjeus enumerates the following species or va- 
 rieties of the caulis simplex, or simple stem: viz. 1. cau- 
 lis nudus, a naked stem, or a stem devoid of leaves and 
 hair. 2. caulis foliatus, a leafy stem, or stem covered 
 with leaves. 3. caulis flex uosus, a. fluxuose stem, or stem 
 which takes a different direction at every joint. 4. caulis 
 volubilis, a twining stem, or stem which ascends, in a 
 spiral direction, round the branch or stem of some other 
 plant, or round some prop. 5. caulis reclinatus, a recli- 
 ning stem, bending in an arch towards the earth. 6. cau- 
 lis procumbens, a procumbent stem, lying along the 
 ground, but not putting forth roots. 7. caulis repens, a 
 creeping stem, or stem running along the ground, and 
 striking root at certain distances. 8. caulis sarmen- 
 tosus, or sarmentose 6tem;a slender stem, almost naked, 
 or having only leaves in bunches, at the joints or knots, 
 where it strikes root. 9. caulis parasiticus, or parasiti- 
 cal stem ; a stem which does not grow immediately from 
 the ground, but depends for its support upon sor^e other 
 vegetable. 10. caulis teres, a columnar stem, or stem 
 without angles. 11. caulis anceps, or ancipital stem; a 
 two-edged stem, compressed and forming two oppo- 
 site angles. 12. caulis triquetcr, or three-sided stem, 
 having three plane or flat sides. 13. caulis trian- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 23 
 
 gularis, or triangular stem, with three angles. 14. c an- 
 ils trigonus, or three-cornered stem, having also three 
 angles, with the sides concave or convex. 15. caulis 
 sulcatus, or furrowed, grooved, or fluted stem; a stem 
 marked, its whole length, with grooves, or channels. 
 16. caulis striatus, a striated or streaked stem; a stem 
 marked, its whole length, with superficial or slight 
 grooves, or channels. 17. caulis glaber, a smooth stem. 
 18. caulis scaber, a scabrous or rugged stem, some- 
 thing like shagreen. 19. caulis mllosus, a villose stem; 
 a stem covered with down or soft hairs: and 20. caulis 
 hispidus, a hispid stem, covered with bristley-like 
 arms, or minute prickles. 
 
 2. Of simple branching stems, Linnaeus enume- 
 rates the following kinds, viz. 1. caulis adscendens, 
 or ascending stem; a stem whose branches grow, at 
 first, in a horizontal direction, and rfhen gradually 
 curve upwards. 2. caulis diffusus, or diffused stem; 
 a stem furnished with spreading branches. 3. cau- 
 lis distichus* , a distich, or two-ranked stem; a stem 
 with the branches horizontal, and produced in two 
 rows: or, in other words, it is a stem whose branches 
 proceed from only two sides of the stem. 4. cau- 
 lis brachiatus\, or bracheate stem; a stem having 
 branches, stretched out like arms, in pairs, and all nearly 
 horizontal, each pair being at right angles with the next. 
 5. caulis ramosissimus, a stem very much branched: 
 the branches disposed without any regular order. 6. 
 caulis fulcratus%, or fulcrated stem. This species of 
 
 * Distkhus, from hi twice, and jf^oj, a rank, or row 
 t Brachiatus, from Brachium, the arm. 
 } Fulcratus, from Fulcrum, a prop. 
 
24 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 stem is supported by the branches, which descend to the 
 root; as in the Fig-tree, and the Rhizophora,or Sea-man- 
 grove. 7. caulis prolifer, a proliferous stem, that puts 
 forth branches only from the centre of the summit : as 
 in the Pine, Fir, Cedar, &c. 8. caulis simplicissimus , 
 the most simple stem, having Very few branches, and 
 proceeding in a straight line to the top, as in the La- 
 thraea Squamaria. 
 
 3. Of the caulis compositus, or compound stem, the 
 following species are mentioned by Linnaeus, viz. 1. 
 caulis dichotomus* , a dichotomus stem, or stem which 
 continually and regularly divides by pairs, from the top 
 to the bottom. This is instanced in the Viscum, or 
 Misletoe, the Valeriana Locusta, called Corn-sallad,the 
 Chironia angularis, or American Centaury, and others. 
 2. caulis subdhisuSy a stem divided into branches irre- 
 gularly, or without order. 3. caulis articulatus y a joint- 
 ed stem, having knots or joints situated at certain dis- 
 tances. 
 
 II. The Culmus, which may very properly be trans- 
 lated, Culm, but which is also called the Straw or 
 Haulmf, is defined, by Linnaeus, to be the proper trunk 
 of the gramina, or grasses, elevating the leaves, the 
 flower, and the fruit. " The word Straw being com- 
 
 * Dichotomus from S"<5, twice, and Ttf**a, to cut : or from $ikx and rtpcvw, 
 to divide by pairs. 
 
 n 
 
 t Haum, or Haume, is the older English spelling adopted from the Saxon 
 Thus, old Tusser uses the word : 
 
 " In champion countrie a pleasure they take 
 " To mow up their Haume for to brew and to bake : 
 «' The haume is the straw of the wheat or thene, 
 «' Which once being reaped, they mow by and by." 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 25 
 
 <l monly appropriated to the dry stalk of corn, I prefer 
 *' using the Latin culm*." 
 
 This species of stem is generally tubular, or hollow, 
 and has very frequently knots or joints distributed, at 
 certain intervals, through its whole length. Most of the 
 grasses have a round and cylindrical stem, as in the 
 Wheat, the Rye, the Oat, and many others. Some spe- 
 cies of grasses, however, have a triangular culm. We 
 have instances of this in several species of Schoenus, 
 Scirpus, Cyperus, &c. 
 
 I have said, that the culm is very frequently inter- 
 rupted by knots or joints; as in the Wheat, Indian-corn, 
 or Maize, &c. This is the culmus articulatus, or jointed 
 culm. But the culms of some species of grasses are en- 
 tirely destitute of such knots. These are the culmus 
 enodis, or knotless culm. The interval, or space, con- 
 tained between every two joints of a jointed culm is 
 called Internodium, and Articulus culmi. To avoid all 
 ambiguity, it may not be improper to anglicize the Latin 
 word internodium, by using the word Internode, as a 
 learned veteranf in the science of Botany has done. 
 
 In the greater number of grasses, the culm is gar- 
 nished with leaves, as in the Wheat, Rye, Indian-corn, 
 &c. In some species, the culm is entirely naked, that is 
 destitute of leaves. This is the case in certain species 
 of Cyperus, or Cypress- grass. The culms of the great- 
 er number of the grasses of the temperate countries are 
 entire,' that is not branched. In the Indies, however, 
 many of the grasses have branched culms. The culm 
 sometimes consists of a number of scales, which lie over 
 
 * Professor Martyn. \ Professor Martvn. 
 
26 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 each other, in the manner of tiles upon a house. The 
 culm of an Asiatic species of grass* is said to at- 
 tain to the height of sixty or an hundred feet. Even 
 within the limits of the United- States, one speciesf of 
 Arundo, or Reed, whose stem is a culm, grows to the 
 height of thirty feet. 
 
 Plants that are furnished with the particular spe- 
 cies of stem which I have been speaking of, are known 
 among botanists by the name of Plant*? Cnlmiferes, or 
 Ci-lmiferous plants. By Linnaeus they are denominated 
 Gramina, or Grasses. Mr. Jussieu calls them Gra- 
 mine a. Of this very extensive and interesting family of 
 vegetables, I shall take more particular notice, in a future 
 part of this work. 
 
 3. The ScapusJ, or Scape, as Dr. Martyn translates 
 the word, is a species of stem, or trunk, which supports 
 the fructification, but not the leaves. The scape, like 
 the caulis, is an universal stem, in which respect it dif- 
 fers from the pedunculus, or peduncle. The scape pro- 
 ceeds immediately from the root, whereas the peduncle 
 proceeds always from the stem, or branches of the stem. 
 The scape also differs from the caulis apbyllus y or 
 leafless stem, because although the scape is naked, that 
 is without leaves, it has, nevertheless, always radical or 
 bottom leaves : but the naked stem is entirely destitute 
 of leaves. — Dr. Milne observes, that in the Species 
 Plantarum of Linnaeus, " the term Scapus is generally 
 " preceded by the superfluous word naked \ an addition 
 
 * Panicum arborescens, a native of Ceylon. 
 
 t Arundo gigantea of Walter. 
 
 \ Scapus, originally from <rwif\ta , to lean upon ; but more immediately from 
 the classical Latin word, Scapus, the uprjght stem of an herb ; the shaft of a 
 column, 8cc. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 27 
 
 M which is apt to mislead the unexperienced botanist, as 
 " seeming to imply, that nakedness is not an essential 
 " part in the description of this species of stalk." 
 
 After denning the scape to be a species of stem 
 which supports the fructification, but not the leaves, it 
 does, certainly, seem wholly unnecessary to inform us, 
 that the scape is leafless. It must, however, be observ- 
 ed, that in some plants*, what is called the scape is not 
 wholly leafless. 
 
 The following, among many other plants, furnish us 
 with examples of the scape: viz. the Narcissus, the Py- 
 rola, or Winter- green, the Convallaria majalis,or Lily of 
 the valley, the Hyacinthus, or Hyacinth, the Dionaea 
 Muscipula,the Sarracenia purpurea, the Hypoxis erecta, 
 and the Sagittaria sagittifoliaf. 
 
 4. The Frons, or Frond, is the sixth species of trunk 
 enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it to be a kind of 
 trunk or stem, which has the branch united with the leaf, 
 and frequently with the fructification. In other words, it 
 is a stem, " in which the leaves are confounded with the 
 " stem and branches, and frequently with the flower and 
 fruit." Linnaeus restricts this species of stem to the 
 Ferns and Palms, two vast families of plants, of which I 
 am afterwards to make more particular mention. 
 
 Some respectable writers do not agree with Linnzeus 
 in considering the frond, as a species of trunk. It does 
 not, indeed, appear in what very essential circumstance 
 the frond does differ from a true compound leaf. Its two 
 sides are very distinct from each other, in which respect, 
 
 * Tussilago alpina, &c. 
 
 t See, in this work, the figures of the four last mentioned plants. 
 
28 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 it agrees with almost all known leaves: but differs from 
 the other species of real stems, the two sides of which 
 are no way different from each other. It must be observ- 
 ed, however, that the upper and under surfaces of the 
 petiolus, and pedunculus, which the Swedish natural- 
 ist considers as species of trunk, are often, like the upper 
 and under surfaces of the leaves, and frons, distinct, in 
 their appearance, from one another. I think, upon the 
 whole, that we should do no injury to the science of 
 plants, were we to exclude, entirely, the frond from the 
 list of stems. 
 
 5. The Stipes*, or Stipe, is the seventh and last 
 species of trunk enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it 
 to be the base of the frond, last mentioned, and he re- 
 stricts it to the Ferns, Palms, and Fungous plants. The 
 stem of the last-mentioned family of plants (compre- 
 hending the numerous species of mushrooms, &c.) is 
 called by Dr. Withering, the Pillar. 
 
 The term stipes, or stipe, is also put by Linnaeus, 
 for the thread, or slender stem, or foot-stalk, which, in 
 many of the compound flowers, belonging to the class of 
 Syngenesia, elevates the feather-like or hairy crown 
 (called Pappus), with which the seeds are furnished, 
 and connects it with the seed. This appearance is suffi- 
 ciently conspicuous in the common Lettuce, the Dande- 
 lion (Leontodon Taraxacum), the Colts-foot (Tussi- 
 lago), and many other plants. 
 
 Of the Pedunculus and Petiolus (known among 
 English botanists by the names of Peduncle and Peti- 
 ole), I shall treat particularly under the head of Ful- 
 cra, or Fulcres. 
 
 * Stipes, originally from $<■'*<>(, a stake. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 29 
 
 |. II. 
 
 The Folium, or Leaf, is the next part of the herba, 
 that demands our attention. 
 
 It seems hardly necessary to attempt a definition of 
 leaves: so familiar are these parts to the senses of all 
 mankind. That it is not easy to succeed in our attempt 
 after a definition of these parts, I infer from the very 
 lame distinctions which have been given by celebrated 
 writers. Thus, Linnaeus defines the leaf to be " the 
 organ of motion in a vegetable :" " Organum motus 
 plantas." But these words convey no manner of idea of 
 the form or structure of the leaf. They only tell us, 
 what the Swedish naturalist deemed to be the true use 
 of leaves in the vegetable economy. Professor Ludwig 
 defines leaves to be fibrous and cellular processes of the 
 plant, which are of various figures, but generally extend- 
 ed into a plain membranaceeous, or skinny substance*. 
 Miller's definition of the leaf, might serve as a definition 
 of almost every other part of the plant. 
 
 Reserving the consideration of some interesting 
 particulars in the history of leaves, to the Second Part 
 of this work, I shall now proceed to treat of leaves, un- 
 der the following heads: viz. 1. of leaves in regard to 
 their nomenclature: II. of the anatomical structure of 
 leaves: III. of the uses of leaves in the vegetable econo- 
 my; and, IV. and lastly of certain miscellaneous circum- 
 stances, in the natural history of leaves. 
 
 * Ludwig, as quoted by Milne. 
 
30 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 A. I. Of the Nomenclature of Leaves. 
 
 Leaves, considered in respect to their nomenclatu- 
 ral history, may be treated of under the three following 
 heads, viz. 1. of Simple Leaves: 2. of Compound 
 Leaves: and, 3. of Leaves according to their Deter- 
 mination. 
 
 1. The Folium Simplex, or Simple Leaf, is that 
 species of leaf, which consists of only one, undivided 
 portion, situated upon a petiole, or foot-stalk. In other 
 words, the simple leaf is a leaf whose petiole is termi- 
 nated by a single expansion, the divisions of which, 
 however deep they may be, do not reach to the middle 
 rib. " To understand this, let it be observed, that the 
 44 middle rib of every leaf is the principal prolongation 
 44 of the foot- stalk ; which, to form the membranaceous 
 41 expansion, called the leaf, runs out — into a number of 
 44 ramifications, that inosculating and crossing each 
 44 other mutually, form the cortical net" of the leaf. 
 44 When these ramifications of the foot- stalk are so con- 
 44 nected, as to form one entire expansion, the leaf is 
 44 said to be simple; but when the middle rib becomes, 
 44 in fact, a foot-stalk, and many different expansions, 
 44 instead of one, proceed from the common foot-stalk, 
 44 the leaf is said to be compound." The middle rib 
 of a leaf, whether it be simple, or compound, is deno- 
 minated by Linnaeus, costa. Of this more particular 
 mention will be made, hereafter. 
 
 The forms of the simple leaf are almost innume- 
 rable. I shall here mention the greater number of those 
 which are noticed by Linnaeus, in his Philosophia Bo- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 31 
 
 tanica*. They are the following, viz. 1. folium orblcu- 
 latum, an orbicular, or circular leaf. 2. folium subrotun- 
 dum, a leaf nearly round. 3. folium ovatum, an ovate, 
 or egg-shaped leaf. 4. folium ovale, an oval leaf. 5. fo- 
 lium parabolicum, a parabolic leaf. 6. folium spatula- 
 tum, a spatulate, or spatula-shaped leaf. 7. folium cu- 
 neiforme, a cuneiform, or wedge-shaped leaf. 8. folium 
 oblongum, an oblong leaf. 9. folium lanceolatum, a lan- 
 ceolate leaf. 10. folium lineare, a linear leaf, as the 
 leaves of the grasses. 11. folium acerosum, or acerose 
 leaf; a leaf which is linear and permanent, as in the Pine, 
 Yew, and many other evergreen trees. 12. folium subu- 
 latum, a subulate leaf; linear at the bottom, but gradu- 
 ally tapering towards the end. 13. folium triangular e, 
 a triangular leaf. 14. folium quadr angular e, a quadran- 
 gular leaf. 15. folium quinquangulare, a five-cornered 
 leaf. 16. folium deltoides, a deltoid leaf. 17. folium rotun- 
 dum, around leaf. 18. folium reniforme, a reniform or 
 kidney-shaped leaf. 19. folium cordatum, a cordate or 
 heart-shaped leaf. 20. folium lunulatum\ shaped like a 
 crescent. 21. folium sagittatum, a sagittate leaf; a leaf 
 shaped like the head of an arrowf. 22. folium hastatum, 
 a hastate leaf; a leaf resembling the head of a halbert. 
 23. folium pandurceforme, a guitar- shaped leaf; as in 
 Convolvulus panduratus, called Wild-Potatoe, &c. 24. 
 folium fissum, a cleft-leaf; a leaf divided by linear sinuses, 
 with straight margins. (According to the number of 
 these divisions, the leaf is called, bifid, trifid, quadrifid, 
 
 * It is far, however, from being my intention to attempt any thing like ifull de- 
 finition or description of each kind of leaf. For the most satisfactory explanation 
 of the Linnxan terms of leaves, &c. I must particularly refer the reader to Pro- 
 fessor Martyn's work (The Language of Botany, c3*c), which I sooften mention in 
 the course of these Elements, and which I always mention with pleasure. 
 
 \ As in Sagittaria sagittifolia, of which see the figure in this work. 
 
32 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 quinquefid, multifid, bifidum, trifidum, quadrijidum, 
 quinquefidum, multifidum, &cj. 25. folium lobatum, 
 a lobate or lobed leaf. 26. folium palmatum, a palmate 
 or hand-shaped leaf. 27. folium pinnatifidum, a pinna- 
 tifid leaf. 28. folium lyratrum, a lyrate, or lyre-shaped 
 leaf. 29. folium laciniatum, a laciniate, or jagged leaf. 
 30. folium sinuatum, a sinuate leaf. 31. folium parti '- 
 turn, or parted leaf; a leaf divided almost down to the 
 base. (According to the number of the divisions, the 
 parted leaf is called bipartite, or two -par ted; tripartite, 
 or three-parted, &c. &x. bipartitum, tripartitum, qua- 
 dripartitum, quinquepartilum, multipartitum ) . 32. 
 folium integrum, an entire leaf. 33. folium truncatum, 
 a truncate leaf; ending in a transverse line, so that it 
 seems as if the tip of the leaf had been cut off: beauti- 
 fully illustrated in the Liriodendron Tulipifera, or Tu- 
 lip-tree, of North- America. 34. folium pr amor sum, a 
 leaf ending very obtusely, with unequal notches*. 35. 
 folium retusum, a retuse leaf; ending in a blunt sinus. 
 36. folium emarginatum, a leaf notched at the end. 37. 
 folium obtusum, an obtuse or blunt leaf. 38. folium acu- 
 tum, an acute leaf, ending in an acute angle. 39. folium 
 acuminatum, an acuminate or sharp-pointed leaf; ending 
 in a subulate or awl-shaped point. 40.foliu?n cirrhosum, 
 a cirrose leaf; terminating in a tendril. 41. folium spi- 
 nosum, a spiny or thorny leaf. 42. folium dentatum, a 
 toothed leaf. 43. folium serratum, a serrate leaf, toothed 
 like a saw. 44. folium crenatu?n, a crenate leaf; having 
 the edge cut with angular or circular incisures, not in- 
 clining towards either extremity. 45. folium repandum, 
 a repand leaf; having its rim terminated by angles, with 
 
 * See radix prsmorsa, p. 7 k 8- # 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 33 
 
 sinuses between them. 46. folium cartilagineum, a 
 cartilaginous lecif. 47. folium ciliatum*, a ciliate leaf; 
 having the edge guarded by parallel bristles longitudi- 
 nally. 48. folium lacerum, a lacerated leaf; with the 
 edge variously cut, as if it were torn. 49. folium ero- 
 sum, an erose or gnawed leaf; as if gnawed by insects. 
 SO. folium inttgerrimum, absolutely entire; the mar- 
 gin or edge not in the least cut or notched. 51. folium 
 viscidum, a viscid leaf; covered with a tenacious juice. 
 52. folium tomentosum, atomentose, downy or cottony 
 leaf. 53. folium lanatum, a woolly leaf; covered with 
 a substance resembling a spider's web. 54. folium 
 pilosum, a hairy leaf; having the surface covered with 
 long, and distinct hairs. 55. folium bispidum, a hispid 
 leaf (see caulis hispidus). 56. folium scabrum, a sca- 
 brous or rugged leaf (see caulis scaber). 57. folium 
 aculeatum, a prickly leaf; armed with prickles*. 58. 
 folium striatum, a striated or streaked leaf. 59. folium 
 papillosum, a papillose leaf; having the surface cover- 
 ed with fleshy dots. 60. folium punctatum, a dotted 
 leaf. 61. folium nitidum, a. glittering or glossy leaf. 
 
 62. folium plicatum, a plaited Leaf; folded like a fan. 
 
 63. folium undulatnm, a waved leaf; w T ith the surface 
 rising and falling in waves, or obtusely. 64. folium 
 crispum, a curled leaf. 65. folium rugosum, a wrink- 
 led leaf. 66. folium concavum, a concave leaf; or leaf 
 with the edge standing above the disk. 67. folium ve- 
 nosum, a veined leaf; a leaf whose vessels branch, or 
 variously divide over the surface. (When a leaf has no 
 perceptible vessels, it is called folium avenium, a vein- 
 less leaf). 68. folium nervosum, a nerved leaf; having 
 vessels quite simple and unbranched, extending from 
 
 From Cilia, the eye-lashes. 
 
34 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 the base towards the apex, or tip. 69. folium colora- 
 tion, a coloured leaf ; of any other colour than green. 
 70. folium glabrum, a smooth leaf. 71. folium teres, 
 a columnar leaf; a leaf without angles. 72. folium tu- 
 bulosum, a tubulous or hollow leaf, as in the Onion; 
 and most singularly in the Sarracenia purpurea*. 73. 
 folium carnosum, a fleshy leaf: full of pulp within, as 
 in Sedum, and many other succulent leaves. 74. fo- 
 lium compressum, a compressed or flatted leaf. 75. 
 folium planum, a plane or flat leaf; having the two 
 surfaces parallel. 76. folium gibbum, a gibbous leaf; 
 having both surfaces convex, owing to the abundance of 
 pulp. 77. folium convexum, a convex leaf; with the 
 edge more contracted than the disk. 78. folium depres- 
 sum, a depressed leaf; hollow in the middle, having the 
 disk more depressed than the sides. 79. folium canali- 
 culatum, a channelled leaf; hollowed above with a deep 
 longitudinal groove, convex underneath. 80. folium 
 ensiforme, a sword-shaped leaf; tapering from the base 
 towards the point. 81. folium acinaciforme , an acina- 
 ciform leaf; fleshy and compressed, resembling a sabre, 
 faulchion or scymitar. 82. folium dolabriforme, a dola- 
 briforme, axe, or hatchet shaped leaf. 83. folium lin- 
 guiforme, a tongue-shaped leaf; " linear and fleshy, 
 blunt at the end, convex underneath, and having 
 usually a cartilaginous border." 84. folium anceps, an 
 ancipital leaf; having two prominent longitudinal angles, 
 with a convex disk. 85. folium triquetrum, a three- 
 sided leaf (see caulis triqueter.) 86. folium sulcatum, a 
 furrowed, grooved or fluted leaf (see caulis sulcatus.) 
 87. folium carinatum, a carinated leaf; having upon 
 the back a longitudinal prominency, like the keel of a 
 
 * See Plate I. 
 
\ 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 35 
 
 vessel. 88. folium membranaceum, a membranaceous 
 leaf; having no perceptible pulpy matter between the 
 two surfaces. 
 
 II. " Compound leaves are such whose footstalk is 
 44 terminated by several expansions; in other words, 
 44 whose divisions extend to the common footstalk, 
 44 which not running into the membranaceous part of 
 44 the leaf, supports the several lobes, or lesser leaves, 
 44 called foliola, of which the compound leaf consists.' ' 
 
 The foliola, or leaflets, as Dr. Martyn translates the 
 word, are true simple leaves, the forms of which are, 
 like those of the simple leaves already treated of, very 
 numerous. These leaflets are sometimes furnished with 
 particular footstalks; sometimes they are destitute of 
 such footstalks, but are seated upon the middle rib of 
 the compound leaf. The former leaflet is denominated 
 foliolum petiolatum, a petioled leaflet ; the latteryb/io- 
 lum sessile, a sessile leaflet. 
 
 In the compound leaves, of which I am speaking, the 
 central longitudinal fibre, or part to which the leaflets are 
 attached, is denominated the costa, or rib. I have alrea- 
 dy observed, that the central fibre of the leaves, whether 
 simple or compound, is known by the same name. This 
 part of the leaf is by some writers denominated a nerve. 
 This term ought not to be admitted in an accurate botani- 
 cal language, since there is no reason to believe that any 
 peculiar sensibility, the attribute of nervous matter, re- 
 sides in the central fibre. It has also been called a vein. 
 To this term there is less objection than to the former, 
 since it is demonstrated, as I shall afterwards show, that 
 a fluid circulates or moves through every part of the leaf, 
 
36 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 along the course of the middle rib, and of the branches, 
 which it sends out. Professor Ludwig has proposed to 
 call by the name of nerve, the prominent division of the 
 rib of the leaf; and by the name of vein, the pellucid 
 part of the rib*. I think, however, that no manner of ad- 
 vantage is gained by this nice distinction. 
 
 Compound leaver are distinguished by Linnaeus, 
 into, 1. compound leaves, properly so called. 2. leaves 
 twice compounded; and, 3. leaves that are more than 
 twice compounded- 
 
 A. The folium compositum, or compound leaf pro- 
 perly so called, is a leaf only once compounded, and ad- 
 mits of the following species or varieties, which I shall 
 mention in the order in which they occur in the Philo- 
 sophia Botanica. 1. folium articulatum, a jointed leaf; 
 •when one leaflet grows from the top of another. 2. foli- 
 um digit atum, a digitate leaf; when a simple or undi- 
 vided footstalk connects several distinct leaflets at the 
 end of it; as in different species of iEsculus, or Horse- 
 chesnutf. 3. folium binatum, a binate leaf; having a 
 simple petiole connecting two leaflets at the top of it; as 
 in Jeffersonia binata, &c. 4. folium ternatum, a ternate 
 leaf; having three leaflets on one petiole; as in Trefoil, 
 Strawberry, &c. 5. folium quinatum, a quinate leaf; 
 having five leaflets on one petiole. (Linnaeus considers 
 the binate, the ternate and the quinate leaves as species 
 of the digitate leaf). 6. folium pinnatum, a pinnate leaf; 
 composed of a number of leaflets, arranged, like wings, 
 along both sides of the middle rib. Of this beautiful 
 
 * Institutiones, &c. p. 26. 
 
 t See the plate of iEsculus spirata, in this work. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 37 
 
 kind of leaf, we have many examples, but the finest oc- 
 cur in the leguminous plants, as they are called; as in 
 different species of Robinia, Cassia, &c. &c. &c* 
 
 To this general head of the pinnate leaf, Linnaeus 
 refers various species or varieties, such as 1. folium 
 pinnatum cum imparl; unequally pinnate, when the 
 wings composed of leaflets are germinated by a single 
 leaflet; as in Robinia viscosa. 2. folium pinnatum cir- 
 rhosum; cirrhosely pinnate; terminated by a tendril. 3. 
 folium pinnatum abruptum; abruptly pinnate; neither 
 terminated by a leaflet nor by a tendril. 4. folium pin- 
 matum opposite; oppositely pinnate ; having the leaflets 
 placed opposite to each other, in pairs, as in Cassia ma- 
 rilandica. 5. folium pinnatum alter natim; alternately 
 pinnate; the leaflets ranged alternately along the common 
 petiole. 6. folium pinnatum interrupted interruptedly 
 pinnate; having smaller leaflets interposed between the 
 principal ones. 7 '. folium pinnatum articulate; jointed- 
 ly pinnate ; when the common footstalk is articulated, or 
 jointed. 8. folium pinnatum decursive; decursively 
 pinnate ; when the leaflets run into one another along the 
 common petiole. 9. folium conjugatum, a conjugate 
 leaf; having only one pair of leaflets. 
 
 B. T 'he folium compositum decomposition:, or de- 
 compound leaf, is so called, when the primary petiole 
 is so divided that each part forms a compound leaf: in 
 other words, the footstalk, instead of supporting small 
 lobes, or leaflets, on the top, or on each side, bears par- 
 tial footsalks, from which proceed the leaflets on both 
 sides. To this head, Linnaeus refers the following spe- 
 
 • See the plates of Robinia viscosa and Cassia marilandica. 
 
38 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 cies of leaves, viz. 1. folium bigeminatum, or bigemi- 
 nate leaf; having a dichotomous or forked petiole, with 
 several leaflets at the extremity of each division. 2. foli- 
 um biternatum, a biternate or doubly-ternate leaf; when 
 the petiole has three ternate leaflets; as in Epimedium. 3. 
 folium bipinnatum, a doubly- winged leaf, or frond; 
 when the common petiole has on each side of it pinnate 
 leaves*. 4. folium pedatum; apedateleaf; when a bifid 
 or forked petiole connects several leaflets on the inside 
 only : as in Passiflora, Arum, Helleborus foetidus, &c. 
 
 C. The folium compositum supradeco?npositum % 
 or supradecompound leaf, is a species of compound leaf, 
 in which the petiole, being several times divided, con- 
 nects many leaflets, each part forming a decompound 
 leaf: as in Pimpinella glauca, Ranunculus rutaefolius, 
 &c. To this head Linnaeus refers the following species, 
 viz. 1. folium triternatum, a triternateor triply-three- 
 fold leaf; when the petiole has three biternate leaves. 2. 
 folium tripinnatum, a tripinnate, or three times pinnate- 
 leaf; when the petiole has bipinnate leaves ranged on 
 each side of it; as in the Pteris aquilina, and other ferns. 
 3. folium tergeminum, a tergeminate or thrice-double 
 leaf; " when a forked petiole is subdivided, having two 
 " leaflets at the extremity of each subdivision; and also 
 " two other leaflets at the division of the common 
 " petiolef ." 
 
 III. The Determination or Disposition of leaves, 
 whether they be simple or compound, comprehends the 
 following particulars, viz. #, the locus, or place of the 
 
 • As in Athamanta Libanotis, many Ferns^c. 
 
 f Professor Martyn. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 39 
 
 leaf, b, its situs, or situation, c its insertio, or insertion, 
 and d its directio, or direction. 
 
 a. By the place of a leaf, botanists mean the particu- 
 lar part where it is attached to the plant. Under this 
 head, Linnaeus enumerates the following species of 
 leaves, viz. 1. folium seminale, the seed-leaf; the pri- 
 mary leaves of the plant; being the cotyledons or lobes 
 of a seed expanded, and in a vegetating state*. 2. folium 
 radicale, a root-leaf; proceeding immediately from 
 the root, and not adhering to the stemf. 3. folium 
 caulinum, a cauline leaf; growing immediately on the 
 stem, without the intervention of branches. 4. folium 
 rameum, a branch-leaf; growing on, or proceeding from, 
 a branch. 5. folium axillare^n axillary leaf; growing at 
 the angle which is formed by the branch with the stem. 
 6. folium for ale, a floral leaf; immediately attending the 
 flower, and never appearing but with it. This last must 
 not be confounded with the bractea, or bracte. 
 
 b. The situation of leaves respects their position in 
 regard to themselves. Under this head, Linnaeus enu- 
 merates the following species of leaves, viz. I. folia 
 stellata, or stellate leaves; when more leaves than two 
 surround the stem in a whorl, " or radiate from the stem 
 " like the spokes of a wheel;' ' exemplified in the Mede- 
 ola verticillata, and Cucubalus stellatusj. Such leaves 
 are also called verticillate leaves. 2. folia terna,quaterna, 
 quina, senate, three-fold leaves, four-fold leaves, five- 
 fold leaves, six-fold leaves: different species or varieties 
 
 * See Plate V' 
 
 t See the plates of Dionxa Muscipula and Hypoxi* erecta. 
 
 ^ See the figures of these two vegetable.* 
 
40 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 of stellate leaves, when the leaves grow, in a whorl, three 
 together, four, five, and six together. 3. folia oppositely 
 opposite leaves; growing in pairs, each pair decussated, 
 or crossing that above and below it*." 4. folia altcrna^- 
 ternate leaves; coming out one after or above another, in 
 a regular succession, or gradation; as in Ludvigia alter- 
 nifoliaf. The term alternate is opposed to the opposite. 
 5. folia sparsa, scattered leaves; neither opposite nor 
 alternate, nor in any regular order : as in several species 
 of Lily. 6. folia conferta, crowded or clustered leaves; 
 leaves so copious as to occupy the whole of the branches, 
 hardly having any naked space between : as in the An- 
 tirrhinum Linaria, called in Pennsylvania, Ransted- 
 weed. 7. folia imbricata, imbricate leaves; lying over 
 each other in the manner of tiles upon a house. 8. folia 
 fasciculata, fascicled leaves; growing in bundles or 
 bunches from the same point; as in the Larch-tree. 9. 
 folia disticha, two ranked leaves; leaves respecting 
 only two sidesof the branch, though inserted on all parts 
 of it : as in the Fir, and Lonicera Diervilla. 
 
 c. By the insertion of the leaves, is meant the man- 
 ner in which they are attached to the plant. To this head, 
 Linneeus refers the following species of leaves, viz. 1. 
 folium peltatum, a peltate, or target- shaped leaf; having 
 the footstalk inserted into the disk of the leaf, instead of 
 the edge or base, which is the more common mode of 
 insertion : as in different species of Nymphsea, such as 
 the Nymphsea Nelumbo, Nymphsea odorata, &c. in the 
 Tropaeolum,or Indian-cress, which is mentioned in Part 
 
 * See the figures of Collinsoiua canadensis, Veronica, Rhexia mariatia, 
 Gerardia flava, and other plants represented in this work. 
 
 t See the figure. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 4r 
 
 Second; in the Geranium peltatum, and the Podophyllum 
 peltatum, or May-apple. 2. folium petiolatum, a peti- 
 olate or petioled leaf ; growing on a petiole or foot- 
 stalk, which is usually inserted into its base: as in the 
 greater number of leaves. The term is opposed to sessile. 
 
 3. folium sessile, a sessile leaf; a leaf which is immedi- 
 ately connected with the stem or branch, without the 
 intervention of a footstalk; as in Rhexia virginica*. 
 
 4. folium decurrens, a decurrent leaf; a sessile leaf, with 
 its base extending downwards along the trunk, or 
 stem: as in Symphytum, or Comfrey,Carduus, or This- 
 tle, &c. 5. folium amplexicaule, a stem-clasping-leaf, 
 embracing, clasping, or surrounding the stem by its 
 base (N. B. some leaves go only half round the stem: 
 these are denominated folia semi-amplexicaulia, or 
 half-stem-clasping leaves). 6. folium perfoliatum, a 
 perfoliate or perforated leaf; having the base of the leaf 
 entirely surrounding the stem transversely; so that the 
 stem appears to have been driven through the middle 
 of the leaf: as in Bupleurum rotundifolium, Eupatori- 
 um perfoliatum, or Thorough- wort, &c. 7. folium con- 
 natum, a connate leaf; when two opposite leaves are 
 so united at their bases as to appear as though they 
 were one leaf: exemplified in the Garden Honeysuckle, 
 &c. 8. folium vaginans, a sheathing leaff; when a leaf 
 invests the stem or branch by its base, in form of a tube : 
 as in many Grasses, Polygonum, Rumex, &c. 
 
 d. With respect to their direction, leaves are as 
 follows, viz. 1. folium adversum y an adverse leaf; when 
 the upper side is turned to the south: as in Amomum. 
 2. folium obliquum, an oblique leaf, having the base di- 
 
 * Seethe figure. f « A glove-like leaf." Milne. 
 
 G 
 
42 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 rected towards the sky, and the apex, or point, towards 
 the horizon: as in Protea and Fritillaria. 3. folium in- 
 fiexum, an inflex or inflected leaf; bent upwards, at the 
 end, towards the stem. 4. folium adpressum, an appres- 
 sed leaf; when the disk approaches so near to the stem, 
 as to seem as if it was pressed to it by violence. 5. fo- 
 lium erectum, an erect or upright leaf; when it makes 
 with the stem an angle so acute as to be close to it. 6.fo- 
 Hum patens, a spreading leaf; forming an acute angle 
 with the stem or branch upon which it is placed; be- 
 tween the erect and horizontal position. 7. folium hori- 
 zontale, a horizontal leaf; making a right angle with the 
 stem, the upper disk being turned towards the heavens. 
 8. folium reclinatum, a reclined leaf; bent downwards, 
 so that the point of the leaf is lower than the base. 9. 
 folium revolutum, a revolute leaf; having the edges roll- 
 ed back, or towards the lower surface; as in Rosemary, 
 Kalmia glauca, &c. 10. folium dependens; a leaf hang- 
 ing down, or pointing directly to the ground. 1 1, folium 
 radicans, a rooting leaf; a leaf shooting forth radicles, or 
 roots; as in some aquatic plants. (This term is also ap- 
 plied to those leaves which being planted in the ground, 
 there strike root and vegetate : such are the solid and 
 fleshy leaves of several of the Liliaceous plants, the Aloe, 
 Squill, &c. also the leaf of the Orange, and many other 
 vegetables.) 12. folium natans, a floating leaf; a leaf 
 which lies or floats upon the surface of the water ; as in 
 Nymphsea, Potamogeton, Trapa natans, &c. and 13, 
 and, lastly, the folium demersum, or demerse leaf; call- 
 ed also a drowned or sunk leaf; a leaf which grows be- 
 low the surface of the water : this is exemplified in Val- 
 lisneria spiralis and Vallisneria americana, especially 
 the male plants; and in many other aquatic plants. — 
 Some plants are constantly placed below the surface of 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 43 
 
 the water, whilst others withdraw themselves to the 
 bottom of the water, in which they grow, in order to 
 avoid the rigour of the winter- season. 
 
 In treating of the anatomical structure, and of the 
 physiological functions of the leaves, I shall have parti- 
 cular occasion to observe, that between the upper and 
 under surfaces of leaves there is a very essential differ- 
 ence. At present, it will be sufficient to remark, that, in 
 the greater number of leaves, the nerves or veins, as they 
 have been called, are much more in relief upon the un- 
 der than upon the upper surface ; and that, in general, 
 the upper surface is of a deeper green than the under 
 surfaee. The whole surface of a leaf is denominated by 
 Linnaeus, Discus, or the Disk. The upper surface is 
 called Discus supinus; the under Discus promts, the up- 
 per and under disk. Pagina superior, and Pagina infe- 
 rior are also the names of the two disks, or surfaces. The 
 apex, tip or end of the leaf, is the upper extremity, far- 
 thest removed from the base or insertion. 
 
 Ludwig and some other writers have distinguished 
 leaves into primary and accessary. The primary leaves 
 are those of which I have already treated: the accessary 
 leaves are those which Linnaeus denominates stipules and 
 bractea, and of which I am to treat particularly under 
 the head of Fulcres. 
 
 A knowledge of the leaves of plants is of the ut- 
 most importance in the study of Botany. In the investi- 
 gation of the species of vegetables, there are no parts, 
 which furnish us with such elegant characters or marks 
 
44 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 as do the leaves. Nature seems to have taken delight in 
 giving to the leaves, forms almost innumerable*. With- 
 out being acquainted with the principal and more deter- 
 minate of these forms, it is impossible to make an ex- 
 tensive progress in the attainment of botanical know- 
 ledge. It is from the leaves, that some of the most emi- 
 nent botanists, particularly Mr. Ray, Adrian Van 
 Royen, and Linnaeus, have taken the greater number of 
 their specific names or characters of plants. The last- 
 mentioned writer lays it down as an axiom, that the 
 leaves exhibit the most elegant natural differencesf. 
 He allows, that good marks of distinction are aiforded 
 by the root, and the trunk, of which I have already treat- 
 ed, and also by the various other parts of the plant, of 
 which, as yet, no particular notice has been taken. 
 
 As, however, the leaves of plants are subject to great 
 variation, in respect to their forms and substance, and 
 even in respect to their situation, so I cannot but think, 
 that many botanists have laid too implicit a dependence 
 upon their characters drawn from the leaves. Even 
 Linnaeus may, with strict propriety, be included in the, 
 list of these botanists. It is certain, that soil, climate, 
 elevation above the level of the sea, and other circum- 
 stances, considerably vary the aspect of the leaves of 
 vegetables. How different, in many instances, are the 
 leaves of the same species of plant, when growing in a 
 northern and more southern climate ? How different the 
 same species when confined to the valley or the plain; 
 
 * " Natura in nulla parte magis fuit polymorpha, quam in foliis, quorum 
 " itaque species numerosissimx, studiose aTyronibus addiscendx." Philosophia 
 Botanica, &c. p. 218. 
 
 f " Folia elegantissimas naturalissimas differentia* exhibent." Philosophia 
 Botanica, &c. p. 218. . , 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 45 
 
 or elevated, far above the level of the sea, upon the sides 
 or summits of lofty mountains? How different the same 
 species when growing in a dry and in a wet situation ? 
 
 Linnaeus observes, that opposite and alternate 
 leaves generally indicate very different plants, with the 
 exception of such genera as contain some species that 
 have opposite, and others alternate leaves*. But neither 
 should too much dependence be placed upon this cir- 
 cumstance, in imposing specific names, or in drawing 
 the characters of plants. Not unfrequently, the same 
 individual has opposite leaves below, and alternate 
 leaves above ; or opposite above, and alternate below. 
 This, indeed, is admitted by Linnaeus, who gives a small 
 list of plants, the exceptions to his general axiomf. 
 But a much more extensive list might be given. I can- 
 not, in this place, attempt to enter into the investiga- 
 tion of the subject. I may observe, however, that after 
 a pretty extensive examination of plants, I am per- 
 suaded, that the leaves are much less constantly opposite 
 or alternate, even in the same species, than many writers 
 have imagined %. 
 
 In the year 1751, the celebrated nosologist, Francis 
 Boissier Sauvages, published his Methodus foliorum 
 seu plant es flora Monspeliensis juxta foliorum ordinem. 
 In this work, Sauvages has attempted an arrangement 
 of plants, from the situation or position of their leaves. 
 But no succeeding botanist, that I know, has implicitly 
 adopted the method of the French writer. Nor is it pro- 
 bable, that a method founded upon such principles will 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 102. f Ibid. p. 103. 
 
 i Sw the explanation of the figure of Ludvigia alterniTolifr. 
 
46 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ever be adopted by genuine botanists, in pursuit of de- 
 terminate characters, or in search of nature's scheme. 
 Innumerable natural families of plants, such as the Ge- 
 rania, Saxifragse, Ranunculi, Veronicae, not to mention 
 the treasures which the great continent of New-Holland 
 is pouring upon us, forbid such an arrangement. An 
 arrangement of vegetables founded upon the resem- 
 blances or differences of their leaves, will be even much 
 more abominable, than the arrangements of those natu- 
 ralists who have associated together quadrupeds, and 
 other mammalia, from the affinities of their teeth and 
 claws. 
 
 B. ll. Of the Anatomical Structure of Leaves. 
 
 The anatomical structure of leaves is the subject 
 which next claims our attention. It must be evident, 
 however, that this is not the place to discuss this sub- 
 ject, in all its parts. I have not yet treated of the ge- 
 neral anatomy of the plant; of the spiral and other ves- 
 sels which enter into the composition of almost every 
 part of the plant. I cannot, therefore, at present, at- 
 tempt any thing further than a very superficial view of 
 the structure of leaves. My attention will necessarily 
 be again turned to this subject, in various parts of this 
 work. 
 
 When the leaf of a plant is torn in a horizontal di- 
 rection, we observe exteriorly a membrane, which is 
 generally thin, and almost pellucid. This membrane 
 has been called the epidermis, or scarf-skin, of the leaf. 
 It has, with more propriety, been denominated the cor- 
 tex, or bark of the leaf. This bark does not adhere to 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 47 
 
 the subjacent parts with equal firmness in all plants ; 
 nor, even on the two surfaces of the leaves, in the same 
 plant. It possesses this singular property, that when 
 you tear it off, it quickly folds itself inwards; but 
 when it is dry, it is twisted in a contrary direction. 
 This circumstance has induced some writers* to ima- 
 gine, that the leaf contains two distinct systems of ves- 
 sels. The pili, or hairs, which cover the surfaces of 
 many leaves, appear to be seated in the bark. It is this 
 part also, that is so frequently marked with white and 
 other spots, in diseased plants. Sometimes, at least, as 
 in the Cyclamen, or Sow-bread, the disease is not deep- 
 er situated than the bark : in some plants, however, it 
 extends further, even into the parenchymatous portion 
 of the leaf. 
 
 The bark of the leaf appears to be composed of an 
 epidermis, properly so called, and a thicker substance, 
 which, for distinction sake, might be denominated the 
 cutis, or skin. It is the opinion of some physiologists, 
 that this compound leaf-bark is a continuation of the 
 outer and inner barks of the stem and branches, to which 
 the leaf is attached: a supposition which seems extreme- 
 ly plausible, since the leaf appears to be, in fact, no- 
 thing but a kind of fiat or compressed petiole, as is easi- 
 ly discovered by macerating a leaf and petiole in water. 
 Now, the petiole can, in many plants, be shown to be 
 composed of the outer and inner barks, the wood, and 
 the medullary substance of the common trunk or stem. 
 
 The bark of the leaf is furnished with a number of 
 glandular-like bodies, which are of different forms and 
 
 * Mr. De Sausrare, at least. 
 
48 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 sizes in different, and even in the same, species of vege- 
 table. The late learned Mr. Horace Benedict De Saus- 
 sure has endeavoured to show, in an express work* 
 on the bark of the leaves and petals of plants, that these 
 organs are real glands, which perform the office of ani- 
 mal glands; the secretion and the preparation of the 
 juices of the leaf. It is known, that these cortical glands 
 are found upon both disks or surfaces of the leaves of 
 the herbaceous vegetables: but it has been assertedf, 
 that in the arborescent vegetables they are exclusively 
 confined to the under surface. This, when it is consi- 
 dered, that between trees or shrubs and the herbaceous 
 vegetables, nature has not placed any decided distinc- 
 tion, seems not at all probable. But Mr. De Saussure 
 has shown, that these glands exist upon the upper sur- 
 face of the leaves of the Juniper. 
 
 The cortical glands adhere to the beautiful net- 
 work of which I am presently to give an account, and 
 are surrounded by a fibre, or small vessel. Between 
 the gland and the vessel, there is, however, an interval. 
 The shape of the gland is that of an oval oblong : the 
 surrounding vessel is of an eliptical form. There is an 
 evident communication between the vessels of the cor- 
 tical net and this circumambient vessel. Mr. De Saus- 
 sure also observed a small and slender vessel proceed- 
 ing from the extremity of the gland, and communica- 
 ting with the circumambient vessel of the gland. This 
 beautiful structure of the bark of the leaf occasions us 
 to regret, that hitherto, we have attained to so little cer- 
 tain knowledge concerning the real uses of the glandu- 
 
 * Observations sur l'ecorce des feuilles et petales. A Geneve: 1762. 
 t By Mr. Bonnet. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 49 
 
 lar-like structure. Meanwhile, there seems to be little 
 reason to doubt, that the glands are a necessary part of 
 the vascular system, which is next to be mentioned. 
 
 Under the bark of the leaf, we meet with a beauti- 
 ful net- work of vessels, which, whether they be arteries, 
 veins, or absorbing lymphatics, are evidently a continu- 
 ation of the vessels of the common stem, and petiole. 
 This net- work is known by the name of the cortical net 
 of the leaf. It is the rete corticis of Mr. De Saussure. 
 It is composed of a great number of vessels, which, by 
 crossing each other, and often anastamosing (for the lan- 
 guage of the animal anatomists may, with strict propri- 
 ety, be extended to vegetables), form the net-like ap- 
 pearance, of which I am speaking. The forms of the 
 areas between the thread-like vessels composing the net 
 are very different in different vegetables; and even in 
 different parts of the same vegetable. These areas are 
 more regular upon the upper than upon the under side 
 of the leaf, and they are narrower and longer towards 
 the petiole, or foot- stem of the leaf, than towards the 
 middle and anterior part. Each area is commonly made 
 up of six threads, so as sometimes to give to it an hex- 
 agonal form. More generally, however, the areas are 
 formed by right lines. 
 
 The fibres or threads of the cortical net are, un- 
 questionably, vessels. They are transparent, and it is 
 highly probable are a true system of absorbents, fur- 
 nished with their proper glands. In the leaves of many 
 plants, they are sufficiently distinct, without the aid of 
 colouring injections: but they are seen to the greatest 
 advantage, in many other plants, by immersing a com- 
 mon stem with a number of leaves, or a single leaf with 
 
 H 
 
50 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 its petiole, in the diluted juice of the Phytolacca decan- 
 dra : or in a solution of the sulphat of iron, and then 
 transferring them to a decoction of galls. In the form- 
 er case, the cortical net assumes a fine purple colour; 
 in the latter it is as distinctly seen, being of a dark brown 
 or ink colour. 
 
 In the leaves of the Maple, the cortical net is simple; 
 in those of the Holly, it is double; and it appears to be 
 triple in the leaves of the Orange*. 
 
 Under the cortical net, and in the areal interstices 
 between the vascular fibres, we meet with another sub- 
 stance, which has received the name of the parenchyma, 
 the pulp, or pith of the leaf. This substance is of a ten- 
 der and cellular nature, but is by no means inorganic, 
 or destitute of vessels. On the contrary, it appears to be 
 distinctly composed of larger vessels than those which 
 compose the cortical net; at the same time that the 
 areal interstices are larger than those of the net. It is 
 this pulpy substance which is so frequently, consumed 
 by the armies of insects, which spread their hateful ra- 
 vages through the gardens, the fields, and the forests of 
 our earth. Leaving entirely, or in a great measure, un- 
 touched, the net-like work which has been mentioned, 
 we often observe the leaves of a tree reduced, by cater- 
 pillars, and various other species of insects, to the ap- 
 pearance of mere dead skeletons. It is by macerating, 
 for a considerable time, in water, the leaves of plants, 
 and thus reducing the parenchymatous part to a more 
 tender pulp, and afterwards expressing it out, that we 
 form those beautiful preparations of leaves, which are so 
 well calculated to show the fabric of the cortical net. 
 
 * Professor Ludvvig. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 51 
 
 Such are the observations which I have to offer, in 
 this part of my work, on the subject of the anatomical 
 structure of leaves. I am sensible how imperfect I have 
 left the subject. But the limits allotted to these Ele- 
 ments, do not permit me to dwell extensively upon any 
 one of the various questions, which it is my duty to 
 examine. 
 
 C. III. Of the Uses of the Leaves. 
 
 A subject more pleasing than any of those which 
 I have hitherto touched upon, now presents itself to my 
 view. I am to inquire into the uses of the leaves in 
 the vegetable economy. This is a question of conside- 
 rable difficulty. It has exercised the pens of some of 
 the happiest talents, during the period of near two cen- 
 turies. I exceedingly regret, that I shall be obliged to 
 leave the subject involved in obscurity and doubt. 
 
 There is, I believe, no part or organ of the vege- 
 table body, concerning the uses of which physiologists 
 have been more divided in opinion, than respecting the 
 leaves. It is not my intention, in the following concise 
 view of the uses of these organs, to detail the opinion or 
 hypothesis of every author on the subject. It is proper, 
 however, that I should notice a few of the principal 
 opinions, before I particularly attend to that one, which 
 seems especially entitled to our examination. 
 
 The leaves have been considered as the perspiratory 
 organs of the vegetable*. But Dr. Hales made an expe- 
 
 * J- S. Guettard, and many other writers 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 riment which renders it very improbable, that the leaves 
 are merely perspiratory organs. This learned writer 
 having cut off some branches of trees with apples upon 
 them, and then stripped off the leaves, found that one 
 apple perspired or exhaled about the same quantity 
 of fluid as two of the leaves, the surfaces of which 
 were nearly equal to the surface of the apple*. This 
 simple experiment proved, that both the fruit, and 
 the leaves perspired : it, certainly, gave no ground for 
 asserting, that the leaves are exclusively the organs of 
 perspiration. 
 
 By some writers, the leaves have been deemed the 
 organs destined for the excretion of excrementitious jui- 
 ces. Dr. Hales, however, has shown, that in moist wea- 
 ther the leaves do not perspire at all. It has also been 
 observed, that " as the vapour exhaled from vegeta- 
 " bles has no taste," this idea is not more probable 
 than that which considers the leaves as perspiratory 
 organst- This, to me, does not appear to be very satis- 
 factory reasoning. Certainly, a fluid which, to our or- 
 gans, has no perceptible taste, may be noxious to, and 
 therefore proper to be thrown out of, the body of the 
 vegetable. But the fluid perspired by the leaves of many 
 vegetables is by no means entirely tasteless; and we 
 well know, that it is often a fluid which exerts a very 
 decided, and even powerful, effect upon our organs of 
 smell. These circumstances do not, however, invalidate 
 the opinion, that the leaves are pulmonary organs. On 
 the contrary, they even give additional weight to that 
 opinion. 
 
 • Statical Essays, &c Vol. I. p. 30. 
 f Dr. Darwin. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 53 
 
 Some writers* are of opinion, that the leaves absorb 
 a large quantity of nutriment, which is conveyed to 
 every part of the plant. As the leaves are so abundantly 
 supplied with vessels, which appear to be absorbents; 
 and as the leaves of many vegetables when entirely de- 
 tached from the parent grow extremely well, we can 
 hardly doubt, that they are, in some measure, the organs 
 of nutrition to the plant. 
 
 Some ingenious philosophers have supposed, that 
 the leaves acquire the electrical fluid from the atmos- 
 phere; whilst others, with perhaps as much propriety, 
 have imagined, that these organs derive a certain phlo- 
 gistic or inflammable principle from the light of the sun; 
 because the leaves of so many vegetables are observed 
 to present their upper disk or surface to the light. With 
 respect to these two hypotheses, a very ingenious philo- 
 sopher! has observed, first, " that no electricity is shewn 
 " by experiments to descend through the stems of trees, 
 " except in thunder-storms; and that if the final cause 
 *' of vegetable leaves had been to conduct electricity 
 " from the air, they ought to have been gilded leaves 
 " with metallic stems": secondly, " that if the final 
 " cause of vegetable leaves had been to absorb light, 
 " they ought to have been black and not green; as by 
 f Dr. Franklin's experiment, who laid shreds of various 
 " colours on snow in the sun-shine, the black sunk 
 V much deeper than any other colour, and consequent- 
 " ly absorbed much more light J." We shall afterwards, 
 
 * Hales, Lars Kullin, Dr. Adam Hunter, Dr. Priestley, Sec 
 
 t Dr. Darwin. 
 
 | Phytologia, &c. Sect. iv. 
 
54 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 however, have occasion to show, that light is essentially- 
 necessary to the just nourishment and complete health 
 of the greater number of plants. 
 
 It has been supposed*, that the leaves are a kind of 
 stomach or digestive organ to the plant; that the nutri- 
 tious juices, which arc absorbed by the roots, are con- 
 veyed to the leaves, where they undergo a more com- 
 plete assimilatfon, which better befits them for the nu- 
 trition of the plant. But the function of vegetable diges- 
 tion is by no means exclusively confined to the leaves; 
 and it has not been proved, that these beautiful organs 
 do, in fact, perform any very essential change in the ob- 
 vious or intimate properties of the fluids or other mat- 
 ters, which are originally taken up by the roots. We are 
 certain, that the leaves are incapable of essentially alter- 
 ing the taste, smell, colour and other properties of many 
 of the bodies which their vessels absorb : and it would 
 be rather unphilosophical to contend, that they are the 
 digestive organs of the plant, unless we were able to 
 prove (what has not yet been proved), that the nutri- 
 tious matters which are conveyed from the root to the 
 leaves, are again returned by the leaves to the stem, and 
 other parts of the body. 
 
 More probable than any of the opinions, that I 
 have mentioned, is that which ascribes to the leaves a 
 kind of respiratory function. This opinion, which was 
 early adopted by some of the ingenious philosophers to 
 whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the 
 phvsiology of vegetables, very naturally resulted from 
 a few simple, but conclusive experiments. Mr. Papin 
 
 * By Gustavus Bonde, Professor Ludwig, Sir John Hill, &c 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 55 
 
 found, that a plant which he had put into an exhausted 
 receiver, lived a long time, provided only the leaves 
 were permitted to receive the influence of the air. But 
 when the whole plant was put into the receiver, with- 
 out the precaution just mentioned, it died very soon. 
 Hence, it was sufficiently evident, that the leaves ab- 
 sorbed or inspired air. Moreover, it had long been 
 known, that the leaves of vegetables were destroyed by 
 anointing their upper surface with oil. This seemed so 
 analogous to the effect of oil in killing insects, to which 
 it was applied, that it was naturally inferred, that the oil 
 operated by stopping air-vessels in the leaves, as well as 
 in the insects. About the year 1746, Lars Kullin, a 
 Swedish writer, endeavoured to prove, that the leaves 
 of trees absorb the external air, and that they afterwards 
 exhale both air and water. 
 
 L i n n je u s has very expressly denominated the leaves, 
 the lungs of vegetables*. I am not able, however, to 
 discover, that the prince of naturalists had advanced 
 one step further, in the knowledge of the functions of 
 the leaves, than many of his contemporaries, and even 
 his predecessors. To the great loss of natural science, 
 both Linnaeus and Haller were taken from their labours 
 in this world, soon afterf the commencement of that 
 brilliant era of the xvm century, when Priest ley, and 
 other illustrious men, turned their attention to the rela- 
 tive relations which subsist between the atmosphere and 
 vegetables. Had the Swede and the Swiss philosophers 
 
 * " Folia in motu constituta & perspirantia hoc modo pulmonibus respon- 
 " dent ; in se tamen re ipsa musculi analoga sunt, licet non uti in animalibus 
 " cauda afiixa, cum motus voluntarius in his dari nequeat." Philosophia Botanica. 
 fcc. p. 93. 
 
 t Haller died in 1777. and Linnaeus on the eleventh of January, 1778. 
 
56 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 lived a few years longer, they would, in all probability, 
 have essentially changed some of their opinions, res- 
 pecting the functions of plants and animals. 
 
 The learned and ingenious Dr. Erasmus Darwin has 
 taken much pains to prove, that the leaves are not only 
 the lungs of vegetables, but that the office of these leaves 
 is extremely similar to that of the lungs of man, and 
 many other animals. The following is the substance of 
 the author's arguments and speculations on the subject. 
 
 1. The leaves "consist of an artery, which carries the 
 44 sap to the extreme surface of the upper side of the 
 44 leaf, and there exposes it under a thin moist pellicle 
 44 to the action of the air; and of veins, which there 
 44 collect and return it to the foot-stalk of the leaf, like 
 44 the pulmonary system of animals. 2. In this organ 
 44 the pellucid sap is changed to a coloured blood, like 
 44 the chyle in passing through the lungs of animals. 
 44 3. The leaves of aquatic plants are furnished with a 
 44 larger surface, and with points like the gills of aquatic, 
 44 animals. 4. The upper sides of aerial leaves repel 
 44 moisture, like the larynx of animals. 5. Leaves are 
 44 killed by smearing them with oil, which in the same 
 44 manner destroys insects, by stopping their spiracula, 
 44 or the air-holes to their lungs. 6. Leaves have muscles 
 44 appropriated to turn them to the light, which is neces- 
 44 sary to their respiration — 7. To this may be added an 
 44 experiment of Mr. Papin, related by M. Duhamel*. 
 44 He put an intire plant into the exhausted receiver of 
 44 an air-pump, and it soon perished; but on keeping the 
 44 whole plant in this vacuum, except the leaves, which 
 
 * La Physique de* Avbres, &c. Premiere Partie. p. 169, 170 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 57 
 
 •* were exposed to the air, it continued to live a long 
 '* time, which he adds is a proof that the leaves are the 
 M organs of respiration*." 
 
 I have little hesitation in believing, that the leaves 
 are somehow essentially concerned in the function of 
 vegetable respiration. But I think it is far from being 
 satisfactorily proved, that there exists in the leaf, a two- 
 fold system of vessels, answering to the pulmonary ar- 
 tery and the veins of man, and other animals. I do not, 
 however, deny, that such a system does exist in the 
 structure of the leaf. I even think it probable that it 
 does. I cannot, however, consider as decided the ex- 
 periments which Dr. Darwin has adduced, in support of 
 his opinion. I have made similar experiments with lac- 
 tescent and other vegetable leaves, immersing them in 
 colouring matters, such as the juice of the Phytolacca, 
 or Poke, decoction of galls, solution of the sulphats of 
 iron, and copper, &x. In making these experiments, it 
 was easy to perceive, that a system of vessels, which runs 
 between the bark and the wood of the stem, enters the 
 petiole, its continuation the middle rib, and is finallv 
 _ beautifully spread upon the disks or surfaces of the leaf. 
 But I have not been able to convince myself, that the 
 colouring matter is exclusively diffused, in the first in- 
 stance, upon the upper disk. In some of my plants, in- 
 deed, the colouring matter was most distinctly perceiv- 
 ed upon the superior surface of the leaf, as in Dr. Dar- 
 win' s experiments with Euphorbia helioscopia, Picris, 
 and Senecio bicolor. In other plants, however, it was 
 sufficiently evident, that the colouring matter, after pass- 
 ing through the petiole, moved more especially along the 
 
 • Phytol~$;;a. Sec. Seet. iv 
 
58 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 lower side of the middle rib, and from this was carried 
 through the vascular net of the leaf, nearer to the lower 
 than to the upper surface of the leaf. These experiments 
 were so frequently repeated (under a favourite impres- 
 sion too, that there is in plants, as well as in animals, a 
 true circulation), that I cannot imagine, that I have been 
 deceived in my observation. 
 
 It must be confessed, however, that the upper sur- 
 face of the leaves of vegetables, does seem admirably 
 adapted for exposing the vegetable blood to the action 
 of the atmosphere; and it is highly probable, 
 
 THAT FROM THE INFLUENCE AND ABSORPTION OF 
 AIR, OR ONE OF THE COMPONENT PARTS OF THE 
 ATMOSPHERIC MASS, THE JUICES OF THE LEAVES DO 
 UNDERGO SOME VERY ESSENTIAL AND INDISPENSI- 
 
 ble change. Perhaps, the blood of the leaf is oxy- 
 genated, or derives from the atmosphere, or from the 
 water, in which it grows, a portion of vital air ; much 
 in the same manner that the blood of man and other 
 land-animals is oxygenated by the vital air, which exerts 
 its effects upon this fluid, through the medium of the 
 lungs. The blood of man and many other animals does, 
 unquestionably, derive its lively crimson color from the 
 contact and absorption of vital air. It is even probable, 
 that this vital air (so necessary to the maintainance of 
 animal life) is the great source or foundation of the ir- 
 ritability of the system; since in the beautiful experi- 
 ment of Charles Frederick Wolf, the attribute of irrita- 
 bility was first observed, in the incubated chick, at the 
 very moment that the blood acquired its red colour*. 
 Dr. Darwin, indeed, seems to have no doubts, that in 
 
 * Ttieoria Generarionis. 1759. 4to. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 59 
 
 the lactescent plants, with which he made his experi- 
 ments, the milky fluid, after having been exposed to the 
 atmosphere, upon the upper surface of the leaves, was 
 evidently of a much whiter colour on the under surface. 
 In the former case, as we have seen, he supposes the 
 blood was carried, by an artery, from the petiole to the 
 extremity of the leaf; and in the latter case, returned by 
 a system of veins, corresponding to the pulmonary 
 veins, from the extremity to the petiole. I have already, 
 however, mentioned the experiments, which have com- 
 pelled me to entertain some doubts as to the reality of 
 a circulation in the leaves of plants. It is, certainly, too 
 soon to speak decidedly on this subject. Many more 
 experiments must be made, before the cautious philo- 
 sopher will think himself excusable in implicitly admit- 
 ting, or absolutely rejecting, the experiments of Darwin. 
 
 Whatever may be the precise function of the 
 leaves in the vegetable economy, it is generally agreed 
 among botanists, that a different office belongs to the 
 upper and to the under sides of these organs. Thus, 
 Dr. Darwin asserts, that it is the upper surface only, 
 that respires. He justly remarks, that this surface, in 
 many plants "strongly repels moisture," as in cabbage- 
 leaves, where the particles of rain that lie over them, 
 without touching them, have the appearance of globules 
 of quicksilver. It appears, likewise, from actual expe- 
 riments, that the leaves of many plants,.when they were 
 laid with their upper surfaces upon the water, withered 
 almost as soon as in the dry air, though the same leaves, 
 when they were placed with their under surfaces upon 
 the water, continued green many days. These experi- 
 ments, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bonnet, in- 
 contestibly proved, that with respect to the plants which 
 
60 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 were the subjects of his experiments, there was an es- 
 sential difference as to the absorbing capacity of the two 
 surfaces of the leaves: the upper surface absorbing much 
 less than the under surface. 
 
 Mr. Bonnet has also showqg by a number of well- 
 conducted experiments, that the tipper surface or disk 
 of the leaves of many plants, exhaled much less than the 
 under surface. He put the stalks of many leaves, fresh 
 plucked, into glass tubes filled with water, having pre- 
 viously covered with oil or varnish the upper surfaces of 
 some, and the under surfaces of others. Our ingenious 
 philosopher uniformly observed, by the sinking of the 
 water in the tubes, that the exhalation from the under 
 surfaces, was more than double what it was from the up- 
 per surfaces. In a supplement to his great work*, on 
 the uses of the leaves, Bonnet has further observed, that 
 the inferior surface of the leaves of some aquatic plants 
 is much better adapted for the purpose of absorption than 
 the superior surface. He made his experiments with the 
 leaves of a species of Nympheea, or Water-Lily. It 
 must not be forgotten, however, in this inquiry, that 
 Saussure has discovered upon the upper surface of the 
 leaves of some vegetables, a system of vessels, which ap- 
 peared to that judicious author to be the same as the 
 absorbing system of the lower surfaces of other leavesf. 
 Upon the whole, there seems to be little reason to doubt, 
 that both the upper and the under surfaces of the leaves 
 of vegetables arc furnished with their absorbing vessels ; 
 and it is highly probable, that, in many plants, air is ab- 
 
 • Recherches sur J'usage des feuilles dans les plantes, &c. A Gottingtie 
 S L< ide : 1754. 4to. 
 
 \ Ste pa^e 48. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 61 
 
 sorbed as well by the latter as by the former of these 
 surfaces. 
 
 In concluding this subject of the uses of leaves, I 
 must be permitted to observe, that some late philoso- 
 phers have, in my opinion, too narrowly restricted the 
 utility of the leaves ttt a single office. I cannot help 
 thinking, that the office of the leaves, is a varied and a 
 complex one. This, indeed, I have already intimated. 
 Dr. Hales was of the same opinion, a long time ago. 
 In his Statical Essays, a work which will be read and 
 admired by a distant posterity, the amiable author does 
 not hesitate to consider the leaves as the vegetable or- 
 gans of nutrition, respiration, perspiration, and excre- 
 tion. The experiments of Hales render it probable, that 
 thus various are the functions of the leaves. I am per- 
 suaded, that future experiments will decidedly prove, 
 that the leaves are not merely the lungs and perspiratory 
 organs of the vegetable. 
 
 D. IV. Miscellaneous Circumstances relative to the 
 Natural History of Leaves. 
 
 I. More than twenty-five thousand species of ve- 
 getables are now known to the botanists; and of this 
 number a very large proportion is furnished with leaves. 
 None of the trees, strictly so called, are destitute of these 
 beautiful parts. Some vegetables, however, are leaf- 
 less. Such are the two species of Ephedra*, or Shrub- 
 by Horse-tail, and the great family of Fungous plants. 
 These last have many of the habitudes of animals, and 
 
 * Ephedra distachva, and Ephedra monnstachya. The first species is a na- 
 •".v« L .f the sou'h of France, and of Spain : the buer n a native of Siberia. 
 
62 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 even the circumstance of their being leafless vegetables 
 is one in the series of their relations to that vast empire 
 of organized bodies. 
 
 2. The leaves of certain vegetables acquire a very 
 great size. It is curious, too, to remark, that it is only in 
 the hot or hottest portions of the globe, that we find the 
 largest leaves. I believe that the cold climates, and even 
 those which are moderately warm, do not furnish us 
 with any instances of very large-leaved trees. It does 
 seem, that the magnitude of the leaves of certain species 
 of trees, increases as we approach the line*. In the cold 
 climates, we find no Palms, with leaves so large as to be 
 capable of sheltering whole families from the inclemency 
 of the weatherf. Why should we doubt (when a vast 
 system of benevolence is so conspicuous in this earth), 
 that in giving to the vegetables of hot climates such ca- 
 pacious leaves, the Author of the universe had consult- 
 ed the health, the comforts, and the pleasures of the hu- 
 man inhabitants, destined to live beneath the scorching 
 rays of the sun? But man is not the only animal that de- 
 rives advantages from the large-spreading leaves of tro- 
 pical trees. The birds and many other animals are equal- 
 ly benefitted. Destitute of this shelter, many species 
 would be nearly incapable of subsisting in the countries 
 in which they reside; and, in particular, they would be 
 incapable (unless their instinctive operations were es- 
 sentially varied) of rearing their young. 
 
 * The amiable Bernardin De Saint Pierre. 
 
 ■\ One of the largest leaves that are known to us is fhat of the Talipot (Corvpha 
 umbraculifera?), a native of Ceylon. Robert Knox assures us, that a single leaf is 
 capable of covering from fifteen to twenty persons. He considers the Talipot as 
 one of the greatest blessings that Providence has bestowed upon the inhabitants 
 of a country, which is parched by the sun, and inundated by the rains, for six 
 month* in the vear. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. S3 
 
 3. The precise time of the year and month in which 
 any given species of vegetable unfolds its first leaves is 
 denominated, by Linneeus, Frondescentia*. To this 
 subject, the Swedish naturalist has paid much attention. 
 He made a great number of observations, in eighteen dif- 
 ferent provinces of his native country, situated between 
 the sixtieth and seventieth degree of north latitude, 
 in the years 1750, 1751, and 1752. It was his object 
 to discover, which species of trees begin to open their 
 buds, and unfold their leaves, at the most proper time for 
 the sowing of Barley. The result of his inquiries was, 
 that the Birch-tree (Betula Alnus) gave the most proper 
 indication for this purpose. He justly imagined, that in 
 every province of Europe, there exist other trees, which 
 will, in like manner, indicate the proper time for sowing 
 grains of different kinds, and also esculent herbs. This 
 is, certainly, a subject worthy of the attention of natu- 
 ralists, whose inquiries are directed to utility. Much 
 important information would result from an extensive 
 investigation of the subject. The agricultural rules of 
 savage nations are frequently founded, in a great measure, 
 upon the frondescence, together with the time of flow- 
 ering, of different vegetables, indigenous in their coun- 
 tries. Thus, the Indians, in different parts of North* 
 America, are of opinion, that the best time for planting 
 the Maize, or Indian-corn, is when the leaves of the 
 White-Oak f first make their appearance; or rather, as> 
 they express it, when the leaves of this common tree 
 are of the size of a ^squirrel's ears. I shall have occa- 
 
 * From Frons, a leaf. 
 
 t Quercus alba.. 
 
 | Sciurus cinereus, the most common species of Squirrel m North- America 
 
64 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 sion to touch again on this subject, when treating of 
 the Calendariam Flora^ or Calender of Flora*. 
 
 4. By the term Defoliauo\, or Defoliation, Lin- 
 naeus means the season of the year at which the vege- 
 tables of any particular country shed their leaves. Thus, 
 this term is directly opposed to that of frondescentia. 
 With respect to the defoliation of vegetables, it is pro- 
 per to observe, that the same species does not always 
 drop its leaves at the same time, even in the same dis- 
 trict of a country; but, in particular, that the same 
 species sheds its leaves at very different periods, in dif- 
 ferent countries. In both instances, the difference of 
 the time of defoliation seems to depend, principally, 
 upon a difference of season, or of climate. Extreme 
 heat and extreme cold are both observed to be favour- 
 able to the fall of the leaf. In the hot summers, the 
 leaves of many plants lose their verdure, and fall a full 
 month earlier than they do in milder seasons. 
 
 5. The fall of the leaf is almost always preceded by a 
 very essential change in its colour. Yellow, red, and 
 brown are the most common colours of the dying leaf. 
 About the close of September (sooner or later according 
 to the season), the forest-trees in Pennsylvania, and other 
 middle parts of the United-States, begin to lose their 
 verdure. The leaves assume new colours, particularly 
 yellow and red, or crimson. Nothing can be more pic- 
 turesque than an American forest, at this season. The 
 beauties of the scenery will be described by some future 
 
 • See Part II. 
 
 + From de, ?.rd Folium, a leaf. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. C5 
 
 Thompson; or exhibited on canvass by the pencil of an 
 American Salvator Rosa. It will be sufficient for me to 
 observe, that the leaves of almost all the species of Jug- 
 Ian s (Walnuts and Hickery) and Maple, assume different 
 shades of yellow; whilst those of Nyssa integrifolia, call- 
 ed Gum, the Laurus Sassafras, the Cornus florida, or 
 Dogwood, and others, are clothed in a livery of crimson, 
 or red. 
 
 6. Some vegetables do not drop their leaves at all, 
 during the whole year. Their verdure is not, in the 
 least, injured by the changes of the weather. The 
 Fir, the Juniper, the Yew, the Cypress, the Kalmia?, 
 and many others, belong to this class of Evergreens, as 
 they are very emphatically called. In general, the leaves 
 of the evergreens are harder and less succulent than 
 those of deciduous vegetables. It is observable, also, that 
 their surfaces are covered by a very thin, parchment- 
 like cortex, or bark. It is found, that they perspire 
 less than the leaves of deciduous vegetables. Some 
 writers have, accordingly, conjectured, that the sem- 
 pervirent quality of these vegetables is owing to the 
 smallness of their perspiration. Dr. Arbuthnot imagin- 
 ed, that the verdurous quality was owing to the leaves 
 containing more juices than can be exhaled by the sun. 
 The celebrated Dr. Grew supposed, that a thick epi- 
 dermis, dense cellular substance, and few trachea?, 
 or spiral-vessels, are the true cause of the perpe- 
 tual verdure of these vegetables. Duhamel thought, 
 that this state of the vegetable depended upon a hard 
 knot, at the base of the leaves. Others, again, have 
 supposed, that a gummy matter, residing within the ve- 
 getables, is the cause of the lasting verdure. But if this 
 were the case, we should find,that Cherry-trees, Plumb- 
 ic 
 
66 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 trees, Peach-trees, and other vegetables that abound in 
 gum, would be evergreens also. Perhaps, none of 
 these explanations of the cause of the evergreen quali- 
 ty of leaves is wholly satisfactory. The circumstance 
 seems principally referrible to climate. The same 
 species is a perdifoil, or drops its leaves, in one cli- 
 mate, and preserves them in another. Thus, the 
 Passion-flower* of America, and the Jasmine of Ma- 
 labarf , are evergreens in their native climates, but 
 become perdifoils when they are transplanted into Bri- 
 tain, and other northern parts of Europe. On the other 
 hand, many of the perdifoils of cold climates, when trans- 
 plantedto warmer climates, become evergreens. Thus, 
 the Quince-tree is a perdifoil in northern countries, but 
 becomes an evergreen when transplanted to the south 
 of France, the island of Minorca, and other southern cli- 
 mates. I am assured, that the Currant-bushes which 
 were sent from Britain, where they are deciduous, to the 
 Island of St. Hellena, became, in a short time, ever- 
 greens, but ceased to bear fruit. Professor Thun- 
 berg informs us, that the Oak (Quercus Robur), the 
 White Poplar (Populus alba), and other trees which 
 were imported from Europe to the Cape of Good- 
 Hope, " shed their leaves in the winter, as they do 
 M in their native places, whereas the African trees 
 " do not part with theirs. It is not long, however, 
 " (continues our author), before they recover their 
 " leaves again. This circumstance is singular enough: 
 " first, because the cold here (at the Cape of Good-Hope) 
 " in winter is not more severe than it is in Sweden in 
 "the autumn; and in the second place, because they 
 
 * Passiflora coerulea. 
 
 t Jasminum grandiflorum. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 67 
 
 " shed their leaves to the southward of the equator at 
 " the very time that they put them forth to the north- 
 " ward of it*." 
 
 7. Mr. Bruce informs us, that all the leaves of the 
 trees in Abyssinia, are very highly varnished, and of a 
 tough, leather-like texture, which enables them to sup- 
 port the constant and violent rains, under which these 
 trees are producedf. This is a wise provision of na- 
 ture. But in what, the highest or the lowest object, is 
 not thy wisdom, Nature, conspicuous ? 
 
 §. III. 
 
 I am now to speak of the Fulcra, the third general 
 part of the herb mentioned by Linnaeus. 
 
 The fulcra, or fulcres,are definedby the Swedish na~ 
 turalist to be helps of the plant, for its more commodi- 
 ous sustentation, or support. Of these fulcres, Linnaeus, 
 at different times, enumerated a very different number. 
 In the Fundamenta Botanica, published in 1736, they 
 were six in number, and stood in the following order, 
 viz. Bractea, Cirrhus, Spina, Aculeus, Stipirfa, and 
 Glandula. In a subsequent edition of the same work, 
 Linnaeus enumerated nine fulcres, the three additional 
 to those just mentioned, being the Scapus, the Petiolus, 
 and the Pedunculus, which our author had formerly con- 
 sidered as species of trunks. In his immortal work, the 
 Philosophia Botanic a, published in 1750, we find but 
 
 * Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, &.c. Vol. I, p. 104. English trans- 
 lation. London: 1796. 
 
 t Travels, &c. Appendix, p. 151, 152. Quarto edition. 
 
68 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 seven species enumerated: viz. Stipula, Brae tea, Spi- 
 na, Aculeus, Cirrhus, Glandula, and Pilus. In the 
 Termini Botanici, published in the Amoenitates Aca-' 
 demise*, by John Elmgren, one of the pupils of the 
 great naturalist, and in the Delineatio Plants, which is 
 prefixed to the second volume of the Sy sterna Nature, 
 the fulcres were to experience one more revolution. In 
 these works, the terms Aculeus and Spina give way to 
 the general term of Anna; and Pilus is supplanted by 
 the less delicate, and less determinate, term Pubes, by 
 which Linnaeus means every species of pubescence, or 
 hairy appearance, on the surface of plants. Glandula also 
 is swallowed up in Pubes, and the partial trunks, Petio- 
 lus and Pedunculus, are again to appear among the 
 fulcres. The list now stood as follows, viz. Petiolus, 
 Stipula, Cirrhus, Pubes, Anna, Bracteee, Peduncu- 
 lus]. 
 
 I find it not a little difficult to satisfy my mind, 
 as to the parts of the plant which ought to be introdu- 
 ced under this general head of fulcres. I do not think 
 the science of Botany would loose much of its value, by 
 
 * Vol. VI. Disserfatio cxtti. 
 
 f Perhaps, no man of real celebrity in science was so much in the habit of 
 making essential alterations, in the different editions of his works, as Linnxus 
 was. Mr. Pennant, speaking of the Swedish naturalist's arrangement of the 
 mammalia has, with delicate severity, used the following words : " The variations 
 " in his different systems may have arisen from the new and continual discoveries 
 *• that are made in the animal kingdom ,• from his sincere intention of giving his 
 " systems additional improvements ; and perhaps from a failing (unknown, Indeed, 
 " to many of his accusers), a diffidence in the abilities he had exerted in his prior 
 •' performances. Hut it must be allowed, that the naturalist ran too great a hazard 
 " in imitating his present guise ; for in another year he might put on a new form, 
 " and have left the complying philosopher amazed at the metamorphosis." 
 
 History (>f Quadrupeds. Preface. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 69 
 
 the entire abolition of the term. Certain it is, that 
 several of the articles enumerated by Linnaeus cannot, 
 with any degree of propriety, be considered as props, 
 for the more commodious sustentation of the plant. 
 Upon what principle, can we denominate the spina, the 
 aculeus, the glandula, and the pilus, species of props ? 
 Perhaps, bractea and stipula have not a much higher 
 claim to this title. But I dare not think of abolishing a 
 term, sanctioned by the authority of so many able bota- 
 nists; though one* of the most distinguished of them 
 has confessed, that the term is rather " forced." I shall 
 treat, under the head of fulcres, of the following parts of 
 the plant: viz. 1. Petiolus. 2. Pedunculus. 3. Cirrus. 
 4. Stipula. 5. Bractea. 6. Spina. 7. Aculeus. 8. Glan- 
 dula. 9. Pilus. 
 
 I. The Petiolusf, or Petiole, called also the Leaf- 
 stalk, or Foot- stalk, is a fulcre supporting the leaf. I 
 have had frequent occasion to make mention of this part, 
 in the preceding pages. I have observed, that Linnaeus, 
 at different times, considered it as a species of trunk. 
 But if the name fulcre must be retained, I think we may 
 be glad to have an opportunity of referring to this head, 
 both the petiole and peduncle. I am aware, that this is 
 not the language of all botanists. Thus, Dr. Milne is of 
 opinion, that neither the petiole nor the peduncle have 
 been, with propriety, enumerated among the fulcres, 
 " with which (says this often judicious writer) they 
 " have no connection" J. 
 
 * Dr. James Edward Smith. 
 
 t By the Roman writers, the term petiolus was employed to denote the foet- 
 stallc of the fruit. In this sense, it is used by Columella. 
 
 \ A Botanical Dictionary, &c. article Fulcra. 
 
70 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 In the generality of plants, the petiole is nearly of 
 the same colour as the leaf, to which it belongs. Indeed, 
 it appears to be nothing but the leaf in a compressed 
 state. The evolution of the leaf from the petiole is very 
 distinctly observed in the Sallisburia adiantifolia, or 
 Gingko*. The petiole of many plants is nearly cylindri- 
 cal : it is, however, more commonly somewhat com- 
 pressed, its upper surface, at least, being flatted; the 
 under round or convex. *' By this configuration, the 
 u footstalks of compound leaves are generally, with ac- 
 " curacy, distinguished from the young branches, with 
 " which beginners are very apt to confound themf." 
 
 In the greater number of vegetables, the leaves and 
 the fructification are supported by distinct footstalks. 
 In a few plants, however, the same footstalk supports 
 both the leaf and the flower, or the fruit. This is the 
 case in Turnera ulmifolia, and in Hibiscus Moscheutos, 
 or Syrian Mallow. 
 
 The petiole sometimes supplies us with very ele- 
 gant marks for discriminating the different species of a 
 genus. The petiolus alatus, or winged petiole, is a spe- 
 cies of leaf-foot-stalk, which has a thin membrane or 
 border, on each side of it. This little character distin- 
 guishes the Orange (Citrus Aurantium), from the Le- 
 mon (Citrus Medica). In the latter species,the petiole is 
 linear, that is nearly of the same breadth its whole 
 length. This is the pe tiolus linearis of Linnaeus. 
 
 * The Maiden-hair-tree, a native of Japan. 
 + Milne. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 71 
 
 •2. The Pedunculus*, or Peduncle, is a partial stem, 
 or trunk, which supports the fructification, without the 
 leaves. I think it most proper to treat of it, in this place, 
 among the number of fulcres. Professor Martyn pro- 
 perly calls it " the fulcre of the fructification." 
 
 Various species or varieties of the peduncle are 
 enumerated by Linnaeus. The principal of them are 
 now r to be mentioned. 
 
 a. With respect to its place of origin, a peduncle 
 is, 1. radicalism a root peduncle; proceeding immediately 
 from the root. 2. caulinus, a stem peduncle; proceeding 
 from the stem. 3. rameus, a branch peduncle; proceed- 
 ing from a branch. 4. petiolaris, petiolary; proceeding 
 from the petiole. 5. cirrhiferus, or tendril bearing. 6. 
 terminalis, terminating, or proceeding from the top of 
 the stem. 7. axillaris, axillary, proceeding from the 
 axil, or angle, which is made by the leaf and the stem, 
 or the branch and stem. 8. oppositifolins, opposite to a 
 leaf. 9. lateriflorus, having the flower on the side of it. 
 10. interfoliaceus, among the leaves: perhaps, intrafo- 
 liaceus, within the leaf. 11. extrafoliaceus, without, or 
 on the outside of the leaf. 12. suprafoliaceus; inserted 
 into the stem, higher than the leaf, or than its petiole. 
 
 b. With respect to their situation, peduncles may 
 be, 1. oppositi, opposite to each other, or, 2. alterni, 
 alternate. 3. spar si, scattered, without any regular 
 order. 4. verticillati, in whorls. 
 
 * Mr. Ray, and other of the older botanists use Pediculus, instead of Pedun- 
 culus. The former is, certainly, the more classical name. It is sanctioned by 
 Plmy, Ac naturalist, and other good writers. 
 
72 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 c. With respect to their number, peduncles may 
 be, 1. solitarily solitary, or single. 2. geminati, double, 
 two together, or in pairs. 
 
 In the umbellula, umbellule, or rundlet, of which 
 particular mention is afterwards to be made, several equal 
 peduncles proceed or diverge from the same centre, or 
 point. 
 
 The peduncle, according to the number of flowers 
 which it bears, is denominated, 1. uniflorus. 2. biflorus. 
 3. triflorus, &c. 4. multiflorus: that is, one, two, three- 
 flowered, and many-flowered. 
 
 d. With respect to its direction, a peduncle may be, 
 1. appressus, pressed close to the stem. 2. e rectus, 
 upright. 3. patens, spreading. 4. cernuus, drooping, or 
 pointing to the ground. 5. resupinatus, upside down. 
 6. declinatus, bowed, or curved downwards. 7. nutans, 
 nodding, or curved downwards, more so than in the last 
 mentioned, but less so than in the drooping peduncle. 
 8.. adscendens, rising gradually. 9.flaccidus, weak or 
 feeble, bending with the weight of the flower, which it 
 supports. 10. pendulus, loose, tending downward with 
 the leaf. 11. strictus, stiff and straight. 12. flex uosus, 
 bending readily, in different directions. 13. r etr of r actus, 
 bent backwards, as if broken. 
 
 e. With respect to its measure, a peduncle is, 1. 
 brevis, short. 2. brcvissimus, very short. 3. longus, 
 long. 4. lofigissimus, very long. 
 
 f. With respect to its structure, a peduncle is, 1. 
 teres, round, cylindrical, or perhaps rather columnar. 2. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 73 
 
 triqueter, three-sided. 3. tetragonus, four-cornered. 4. 
 filiformis, like a thread; or of the same thickness in all 
 its parts. 5. attenuatus, tapering gradually towards the 
 top. 6. incrassatus, growing gradually thicker towards 
 the top. 7. clavatus, club-shaped; or thick at the end. 
 8. nudus, naked. 9. squarnosus, scaly. 10. foliatus, 
 leafy. 11. bracteatus, furnished with bractese, or brac- 
 tes. \2.geniculatus, kneed, or bent at the joints; and, 
 13. articulatus, jointed. 
 
 3. The Cirrus*, or Tendril, called also Clasper, is a 
 fine spiral string, or fibre, proceeding from different 
 parts of the plant, and by means of which it fastens itself 
 to some other plant or body. The term cirrus is syno- 
 nimous to the terms Capreolus, Clavicula, and Viticu- 
 lus of the older botanists. 
 
 Various species of tendrils are mentioned by Lin- 
 najus. These I shall notice under two heads: first, ac- 
 cording to their place of origin, or situation: secondly, 
 according to their form, or the number of leaves which 
 they support. 
 
 I. To the first head, we refer the following : viz. 1. 
 cirrus axillaris, when the tendril proceeds from the 
 axil, or angle formed by a branch with the stem, or by a 
 leaf with a branch. 2. cirrus foliar is, procedmg from the 
 leaf; as in the Pisum Ochrus, or Winged- Pea. 3. cirrus 
 
 * Linnatus writes the word Cirrhus, which is less proper, not sanctioned, 
 as far as I know, by any good or classical writer. Martial, Phaedrus, Pliny, &c 
 write it cirrus. The Latin word signifies a tuft, or lock of hair curled, a curl or 
 frizzle, &c. The Greek original of the word is so doubtful, that I shall not notice 
 the discordant opinions of authors on the subject. 
 • L 
 
74 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 petiolaris, proceeding from the petiole, or footstalk of 
 the leaf. 4. cirrus peduncularis, from the peduncle. 
 
 2. To the second head belong the following, viz. 1. 
 cirrus simplex, a simple or undivided tendril. 2. cirrus 
 irijidus, a three-cleft tendril; a tendril divided into three 
 parts. 3. cirrus multijidus, many-cleft, or often divided. 
 4. cirrus dipbyllus, a two-leaved tendril ; furnished 
 with two leaves. 5. cirrus tetrapbyllus, a four-leaved 
 tendril; haying four leaves. 6. cirrus poly phyllus, a 
 many-leaved tendril; having many leaves. 7. cirrus con- 
 volutus, a convoluted tendril; twisted into rings, or spi- 
 rals. 8. cirrus rcvolutus, arevolute tendril; when a spire 
 of the screw having made half a revolution, turns back 
 in a contrary direction*. 
 
 Tendrils are a very important appendage to many 
 vegetables. The Solanum Dulcamara, Bignonia radi- 
 cans, called Trumpet-flower, and some species of He- 
 dera, or Ivy, emit tendrils, which serve the place of roots, 
 planting themselves into the bark of trees, or in the walls 
 of buildings. In the Cucumber, and other cucurbitaceous 
 plants, the tendrils serve both for sustentation, and for * 
 shade. By means of these parts, the trunks of the plants 
 are bound, as it were, together, and prevented from be- 
 ing atthe sport of the winds. "The same claspers serve 
 " likewise for shade: so that a natural arbour is formed 
 " by the branches of the Cucumber, in the same man- 
 " ner as an artificial one is made by tangling together 
 " the twigs of trees; for the branches, by the linking of 
 li their claspers, being couched' together, the tender 
 
 * For a representation of the cirrus, or tendril, sec the plate of Passiflora 
 incarnata, in this work. ^ 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 75 
 
 u fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower, made of their 
 4i own leaves*." 
 
 Many of the papilionaceous or pea-blossom plants 
 have twining tendrils, which wind to the right and back 
 again. 
 
 Many extensive families of plants are entirely des- 
 titute of tendrils. 
 
 Philips has given a kind of instinctive perception to 
 some of the tendril-vegetables, as appears from the fol- 
 lowing lines in his poem, entitled Cyder. 
 
 " The Gourd, 
 
 " And thirsty Cucumber, when they perceive 
 
 " Th' approaching Olive, with resentment fly 
 
 " Her fatty fibres, and with Tendrils creep 
 
 " Diverse, detesting contact." — Book 1. 1. 257 — 261. 
 
 I shall afterwardsf have occasion to observe, that 
 it is among some of the vegetables that are furnished 
 with tendrils, that we discover the most remarkable in- 
 stances of that property, which has been called the per- 
 ceptivity, or instinctive intelligence, of plants. 
 
 4. The StipulaJ, or Stipule, is defined by Linnaeus to 
 be a scale, or small leaf, situated on each side of the 
 base of the petiole and peduncle, or footstalks of the 
 leaves and flowers, at their first appearance, and are de- 
 signed for the purpose of sustentation, or support. Lin- 
 
 # 
 
 * Milne. t See Parr II. 
 
 \ Stipula, the diminutive of Stipa, tow ; originally froni ff]vir», which also 
 wignifies tow. 
 
76 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 nous's pupil, Elmgren, whose paper I have already 
 referred to, restricts the term stipule to the petiole only. 
 
 The celebrated Malpighi, who may justly be stiled 
 one of the fathers of vegetable physiology, was,I believe, 
 the first person who gave to the public any observa- 
 tions concerning the number, the figure, and the situa- 
 tion of this part of the plant. Linnzeus, borrowing the 
 hint, has greatly improved upon the observations of the 
 illustrious Italian naturalist. In particular, he has made 
 much important use of the stipule in discriminating the 
 different species of a genus, or family of plants. 
 
 Stipules are very conspicuous in the Tamarind, 
 the Rose, the Cassia, the Melianthus', or Honey-flower, 
 the Apricot, the Peach, the Bird-Cherry, the Magnolia, 
 and many species of Pea-bloom flowers, &c. Perhaps, 
 in no plant are they more beautifully conspicuous than 
 in the Liriodendr.on, or Tulip-tree. In this and in some 
 other vegetables, stipules may, with some propriety, be 
 said to be fulcrcs, or support?. They enclose, protect, 
 and cherish the young leaves, until they have acquired 
 a larger growth, and greater strength. But, in many 
 plants, the stipules appear to have nothing to do in the 
 business of giving support. 
 
 In the greater number of plants, that are furnished 
 with stipule, there are two of these scales or leaves, at- 
 tached to the stem, one on each side of the footstalk. 
 These are, the stipultz ^geminte , or stipules in pairs. In 
 the African Melianthus, and in the Kuscus, or butcher's 
 broom, there is only a single stipule, 'which in the first 
 mentioned plant is placed on the inside, and in the latter 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 77 
 
 on the outside, of the stalk. Sueh stipules arc called by 
 Linnaeus, solitarice, solitary. In some plants, the sti- 
 pules grow upon, or are inserted into, the sides. These 
 are the stipulce later ales, or lateral stipules. Stipule ex- 
 trafoliacete, or extrafoliaceous stipules, are those which 
 grow on the outside of the leaves, or below them; as in 
 Betula, Tilia, and many of the Diadelphous, or Pea- 
 bloom*flowers. This term is opposed to stipule intra- 
 foliacece, or intrafoliaceous stipules; stipules that grow 
 above, or within the leaves. Stipulce oppositifoliae, or 
 oppositifolious stipules, are such as are placed opposite 
 to the leaf. 
 
 In point of duration, some stipules fall off before 
 the leaves. These are the, 1. stipulce caducce, or cadu- 
 cous stipules. We have examples of them in the com- 
 mon Cherry-tree, the Almond, the Poplar, the Elm, the 
 Oak, the Beech, the Horn-Beam, the Birch, the Alder, 
 the Fig, the Mulberry, and many others. Other stipules 
 are deciduous: these Linnaeus denominates, 2; stipulce 
 deciduce, or deciduous stipules: they are those which fall 
 off with the flower. 3. stipulce persistentcs, or permanent 
 stipules, are those which continue until the fall of the 
 leaves; as in the Rose, the Rasberry, the Cinquefoil, the 
 Tormentil, the Avens, the Pea-bloom-flowers, and 
 many others. 
 
 Ti^e terms sessile, adnatc, decurrent, sheathing, su- 
 bulate, lanceolate, sagittate, lunate, erect, spreading, re- 
 flex, very entire, serrate, ciliatc, toothed, cleft, very 
 short, middling short, long, &c. &c. are applied to sti- 
 pules, as well as to leaves. For the explanation of these 
 various terms, I must refer the reader to the terminology 
 of leaves, in the preceding pages. 
 
78 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 5. The Bractea*, Bracte, or Floral- leaf, is a leaf which, 
 in general, differs from the true leaves both in shape and 
 in colour, and is commonly situated on the peduncle, 
 and often so near to the corolla as to be mistaken for the 
 calyx. This is the case in Hellebore, Nigella, Bartsia, 
 Peganum, and others. 
 
 The following, among other plants, furnish us with 
 the most remarkable instances of the bracte, viz. the 
 Tilia, or Lime-tree, Melampyrum, or Cow- wheat, Bart- 
 sia coccineaf , some species of Fumaria, or Fumitory, 
 the Monarda didyma, or Oswego-tea, Polygala, or 
 Milk-wort, Ononis, or Rest-harrow, Anthyllis, or La- 
 dy's finger, Glycine frutescens, or Carolina Kidney- 
 bean-tree, &c. &c. 
 
 In general, the bracte is of the same duration as 
 the common or true leaves of the plant. This circum- 
 stance is worthy of attention, as it will, in some instan- 
 ces, enable us to distinguish the bracte from the peri- 
 anth, or flower- cup, which last almost always withers 
 when the fruit has ripened, if not, indeed, before. 
 
 By not attending to this observation, the young or 
 inexperienced botanist may very readily commit essen- 
 tial mistakes, in ascertaining the genera of certain plants; 
 
 * Bractea, in Latin, has the following significations, viz. a thin leaf, or plate 
 of gold, silver, or any other metal; a tinsel, a spangle, a chip or thin piece of 
 wood ; a weather-cock upon the summit of steeples, turrets, Sec. Hence it appears, 
 that Linnxus has not discovered much taste in applying this name to the floral 
 leaf. With respect to the English word, bracte, I should substitute in its place, flo- 
 ral-leaves, were it not that this term is frequently employed by Linnams, to denote 
 leaves which are situated near the flower, when they differ from the other leaves, 
 though they are not, strictly speaking, bractes. 
 
 f See Plate IV. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 79 
 
 such as Hellebore, Fennel-flower, Passion-flower, and 
 others, which are furnished with bractes,but are destitute 
 of calyx : at least according to the ideas of Linnaeus res- 
 pecting the calyx ; for I shall afterwards have occasion 
 to observe, that Jussieu, Adanson, and other eminent 
 botanists, often give the name of calyx, to that part which 
 Linnaeus calls the corolla, or petals. 
 
 a. Bractes are either, 1. virides, green, or, 2. 
 coloratcs, coloured. They are green in Hypoxis erecta, 
 and beautifully coloured in Bartsia coccinea*. 
 
 b. In point of duration, they are either, 1. deciduce^ 
 deciduous. 2. cadncce, caducous. 5. persistentes, perma- 
 nent. These terms have already been explained. 
 
 c. In point of number, bractes are either, 1. una y 
 one. 2. dua, two. 3. plures, more than two. The fol- 
 lowing, among other plants, have, in general, but one 
 bracte: viz. Chondrillajuncea,Aristolochia Pistolochia, 
 andEricaDabceciu. The following plants have two brac- 
 tes: viz. Campanula alpina, Commelina Zanonia, Rosa 
 canina, Royena villosa, Ruellia ringens, Cineraria sibi- 
 rica, and Hypoxis erectaf. Erica calycina, and Atrac- 
 tylis cancellata have three bractes. Corymbium scab- 
 rum has four or five. Cunila pulegioides, Stipa spinifex, 
 Bartsia coccinea, and many others, have several bractes. 
 
 d. In respect to size and height, bractes are, 1. 
 shorter than the calyx, as in Justicia hyssopifolia, and 
 Ruellia ringens. 2. longer than the calyx, as in Salvia 
 
 ■ See Plate IV. 
 
 t See Plate XIII. Fig. I. Hypoxis has often more than turo bractes. 
 
80 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Sclarea, Ruellia repens,and Stipa spinifex. 3. larger than 
 the calyx, and placed under it, as in Royena villosa. 4. 
 shorter than the flower, as in Salvia sylvestris, Fumaria 
 nobilis, and Minuartia campestris. 5. of equal length 
 with the flower, in Fumaria bulbosa, Hypoxis erecta, 
 Ornithogalum comosum ; and, 6. longer than the flower, 
 as in Ribes alpina, and Minuartia montana. 7. Cunila 
 pulegioides, called, in the United- States, Penny-Royal, 
 &c. besides a number of smaller bractes, has two that 
 are larger than the flower, placed on each side of the 
 footstalk. 
 
 *£*. Iisr some plants, such as Crown- Imperial, Laven- 
 der, certain species of Sage, Bartsia coccinea, and a few 
 others, the stem is terminated by a number of very large 
 and conspicuous bractes, which are denominated Coma*, 
 and Bractea comosg, from their resemblance to a bush 
 or bunch of hair. 
 
 In discriminating the species of plants, bractes, par- 
 ticularly those of the bushy kind just mentioned, are of 
 essential consequence. 
 
 The real use of the bracte, in the vegetable econo- 
 my, does not appear to be completely ascertained. In 
 many vegetables, indeed, this part is so very inconside- 
 rable in size, and so similar to minute squamae or scales, 
 which, in other parts ofthe plant, have not seemed tp me- 
 rit any attention, and have not received a name, that it 
 appears that such minute bractes are of no very indis- 
 pensihle consequence. But in other plants, the bracte is 
 a part large, conspicuous, and seems to answer some im- 
 
 * Coma, from Ko/hyi, a head of hair. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 81 
 
 portant purpose. Dr. Darwin conjectures, that the brac- 
 tes, or floral leaves, " supply an organ of respiration to 
 44 the calyx and pericarp of the flower-bud." All the 
 different kinds of bractes, according to this multifarious 
 genius, " serve the office of lungs, for the purpose of ex- 
 ' posing the vegetable blood to the influence of the air, 
 ' and of preparing it for the secretion, or production 
 4 and nourishment of the vegetable uterus, or pericarp, 
 4 and of the seeds produced and retained in it, frequent- 
 4 ly before their impregnation, and always after it." 
 
 Dr. Darwin observes, that in many plants, "brac- 
 4 tes do not appear till after the corol and nectaries, with 
 4 the anthers and stigmas, drop off; that is, not till after 
 4 the seed is impregnated, as in Colchicum autumnale, 
 4 Crocus, Hamamelis, and in some fruit-trees. The 
 4 production of the vegetable uterus, or pericarp, with 
 4 the unimpregnated seeds included in it, is (our author 
 asserts) 4 ' in these plants accomplished or evolved, 
 4 like the bractes themselves, with the corol and sexu- 
 4 al organs, by the sap-juice, forced up in the umbili- 
 4 cal vessels from some previously prepared reservoir, 
 4 without the necessity of any exposition to the air in 
 4 leaves or lungs, which are not yet formed, though it 
 4 may acquire oxygenation in the fine arteries of the 
 4 embryon buds, which are supposed to surround the 
 4 horizontal air-vessels, observed in the bark of trees. 
 
 44 As soon as the seeds become impregnated, the 
 44 corol and nectaries with the sexual organs fall off, and 
 44 the pericarp and its contained seeds are then nourish- 
 44 ed by the blood, which is aerated or oxygenated in 
 44 the bractes, or floral leaves. Thus the flower of the 
 44 Colchicum appears in autumn without any green 
 
 M 
 
82 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 " leaves, and the pericarp with its impregnated seeds, 
 " rises out of the ground, inthe ensuing spring, on astern 
 44 surrounded with bractes, and with other green leaves 
 44 below them, which produce new bulbs in their 
 44 bosoms." 
 
 Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that the blood which 
 supplies nourishment to the pericarp and the seeds 
 which it contains, 44 does not seem to require so much 
 44 oxygenation as that which supplies nutriment to the 
 44 embryon buds; whence (he remarks) the floral leaves 
 44 are, in general, much less than the root-leaves in 
 44 many plants, and than the common green leaves of al- 
 44 most all vegetables*." 
 
 6. The Spina, Spine, or Thorn, is a sharp process 
 from the ligneous, or woody part of the plant, and is said 
 to serve for its defence. We have instances of this in 
 many plants, such as Prunus, Crataegus, Gleditsia, &c. 
 
 Spines are protruded from the stem and branches, 
 as in Buck-thorn, Pear, Plum, and Orange trees; from 
 the petioles, as in Robinia Pseud-Acacia, called Locust 
 in the United- States; from the leaves themselves, as in 
 Aloe ; Agave americana, or American Aloe ; Yucca fila- 
 mentosa, or Adam's needle; Holly; Manchineel (Hippo- 
 mane Mancinella), Butcher's-broom, &c. from the rjfcs 
 of the leaves, as in several species of Nightshade : from 
 the calyx, as in Thistle; from the seed-vessel, or peri- 
 carp, as in Datura Stramonium, or Thorn-apple, &c. &c. 
 
 Thorns are either terminating, that is placed at the 
 end of a branch or leaf; or axillary, proceeding from the 
 
 * Phytologia, &c Sect. IV. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 83 
 
 angle which is formed by a branch or leaf with the stem. 
 The first is the spina terminalis, and the last, the spi- 
 na axillaris, of Linnaeus. 
 
 Thorns are either simple, as in the greater number 
 of thorny plants ; double as in Horned Acacia; or triple, 
 as in the Honey-locust of the United- States, which, on 
 account of the number of its thorns, is called Gleditsia 
 triacanthos. It must not, however, be supposed, that the 
 number of thorns, growing together, in the same spe- 
 cies, is always the same: for in the Gleditsia, although the 
 number is, in general, three, there is sometimes only 
 one; sometimes there are two, sometimes five or six. 
 
 7. The Aculeus*, or Prickle, is a sharp process 
 from a plant, arising from the bark only, and not from 
 the wood. In this respect, it differs essentially from 
 the spina, or thorn, which is a prolongation of the 
 woody part of the vegetable, to which it belongs. The 
 difference of the origin of these two species of armature 
 is very apparent, from the facility with which the prickle 
 is detached, the bark merely coming away with it, and 
 not the wood; whereas the thorn is not removed, with- 
 out, at the same time, removing a portion of the wood. 
 Owing to this difference of origin, prickles are less rigid 
 than thorns. 
 
 The Rose, the Raspberry, the Berberry, the Aralia 
 spinosa, called Angelica-tree; the Currant, and other 
 bushes or vegetables, furnish us with familiar examples 
 of the prickle. 
 
 * Aculeus, from Acus, a needle. 
 
84 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Prickles are either, 1. recti, straight; as in the 
 Solanum indicum. 2. incurm, bent inwards; as in Mi- 
 mosa cineraria. 3. recurvi, recurved, or bent outwards. 
 4. tomentosi, downy; or covered with a silver- white 
 wooly appearance ; as in Solanum sanctum. 5. acerosi, 
 chaffy ; as in Solanum tomentosum. 6. geminati, double; 
 or two growing together; as in Euphorbia canariensis, 
 and in Euphorbia officinarum. 
 
 Prickles, when divided, are named, /urea, forks, 
 or forked prickles; and are called bifid, trifid, &c. from 
 the number of their divisions. 
 
 We appear to be rather better acquainted with the 
 final intention of nature in forming thorns and prickles, 
 than some of the other parts of vegetables. These 
 two species of armature seem to have been bestowed 
 upon vegetables, in some measure, for the purposes of 
 defence, against the injuries of animals. But that this is 
 the sole use of the prickle and the thorn, many circum- 
 stances are calculated to render doubtful. Numerous 
 vegetables, upon which various species of animals com- 
 mit great ravages, are destitute both of spines and 
 prickles; and, on the other hand, there are not a few in- 
 stances of vegetables, which are carefully guarded with 
 "^Yiese armatures, although their poisonous or other qua- 
 lity is sufficient to secure them from injuries. 
 
 Culture exerts a decided effect upon both the 
 spines and prickles of vegetables. The branches of the 
 Pear, the Orange, the Citron, the Lemon, the Medlar, 
 the Hawthorn, the Gooseberry-bush, not to mention 
 others, when taken under the fostering care of the gar- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 85 
 
 dener, often lose their spines. This shows how great 
 are the effects of culture upon vegetables: perhaps, it 
 even shows, that the spine and the prickle were intend- 
 ed for the purpose which has been mentioned; since ve- 
 getables so frequently lose their armature, when they are 
 transferred to the soil that is tilled by man, who will 
 guard, with interested attention, these plants from the 
 depredations of animals. 
 
 8. The Glandula, Gland, or Glandule, is said to be a 
 kind of secretory or excretory vessel, which is found 
 upon the surface of many vegetables. In his Philosophia 
 Botanica, Linnaeus defines it to be a papilla excreting a 
 fluid or humour*. In the Delineatio Plantts, he defines 
 it a fulcre secreting a liquorf . This last definition is un- 
 meaning, and intolerable. 
 
 Glands are found upon almost every part of the 
 surface of different plants. They assume a great variety 
 of appearances. Sometimes, they resemble a blister or 
 bladder, as in St. John's-wort; sometimes a number of 
 scales, as in many Ferns; sometimes small grains, not 
 unlike those of Millet, as in Fir-tree ; sometimes a small 
 cup, as in the Apricot-tree. In many instances, glands 
 are furnished with their proper footstalks : often they are 
 situated upon the leaves of plants, without any foot- 
 stalks. 
 
 In the following plants, glands are situated on the 
 petioles, or footstalks of the leaves, viz. Ricinus com- 
 munis, Cassava, Passion-flower, different species of Cas- 
 
 * •' Papilla humorem excernens." 
 t '• Fulcrum secernens humorem." 
 
86 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 sia*, and Robinia. They are seated on the indented or 
 sawed edges of the leaves in the Willow-tree. In the Al- 
 mond-tree, the Gourd, the Gelder-Rose, and the Bird- 
 Cherry, they proceed from the base of the leaf. In the 
 Urena, Tamarisk, Bastard Ricinus, and others, they 
 spring from its back; whilst in the Butter- wort, and 
 Sundew, they come out from its upper surface. 
 
 In some plants, as in Mountain Ebonyf, and Apri- 
 cot-tree, the glands are situated upon the tender stipules 
 or scales, which surround the young foot-stalks of the 
 flower and the leaves. Such glands are called by Lin- 
 naeus, glandula stipulares> or stipular glands. 
 
 In other plants, as in the Currant-tree, Fig-wort, 
 Viscous Campion, Sec. &c. the glands are slender, like 
 hairs: hence they are called glandula capillar es, or ca- 
 pillary glands. 
 
 A glandular appearance is frequently observed 
 between the stamens of certain plants, particularly those 
 which belong to the xvth class, Tetradynamia, of the 
 Sexual System J. 
 
 Although Linnaeus has been pleased to denomi- 
 nate the parts of which I have been speaking, glands, 
 it is by no means certain, that they do, in reality, per- 
 form a glandular office. On the contrary, there are 
 good reasons for suspecting, that many of the glandular, 
 in the Linnaean sense of the word, are no ways concern- 
 ed in the function of secretion. 
 
 * See the figures of Cassia marilandica, and Passiflora incarnata. 
 t Bauhinia aculeata. \ See Plate XIX. Fig. III. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 87 
 
 These parts, whatever may be their uses, are of 
 great importance in discriminating the species of certain 
 genera of plants. Thus, the Almond and the Peach are 
 two distinct species of one genus, the Amygdalus ; but 
 it is hardly possible to distinguish the two species, with- 
 out calling in the aid of the glands. In the Almond, 
 these are situated at the base of the leaves, upon the 
 serratures; but the Peach is destitute of the glandular 
 structure. 
 
 To this general head of glands, Linnaeus seems to 
 refer the following, viz. 1. Folliculi, follicles, or ves- 
 sels distended with air, such as are observable at the 
 roots of the Utricularia, or Water-Milfoil, and on the 
 leaves of the Aldrovanda*. He might, with as much pro- 
 priety, have added, the much larger bags, or vesicles, 
 which are found upon various species of Fuci, or Sea- 
 wreck. In these last, the air has been examined, and 
 found to be much purer than atmospheric air. 2. Utri- 
 eidi, or utricles, which are said to be filled with a se- 
 creted liquor; though, I believe, it cannot be proved, 
 that it is, in all plants, a secreted liquor. The Nepen- 
 thes destillatoria, a native of Ceylon, furnishes us with a 
 very remarkable example of what Linnaeus calls the 
 utriculus. The extremity of the leaf of this plant termi- 
 nates in a filiform process, and this, again, in a cylin- 
 der, which is closed at the end by an opercle, or lid, 
 so as to retain water. Different species of the genus 
 Sarracenia have hollow leaves, which retain, for a consi- 
 derable time, the water that has been received into them, 
 from the rain, dew, &cf. But I cannot think, that 
 
 * Aldrovanda vesiculosa, a native of the marches, or standing waters j of 
 India and of Italy. 
 
 t See Plate I. 
 
88 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 there is any manner of propriety in considering as glands, 
 the curious structure of these two plants. 
 
 9.1 am now to give some account of the last species of 
 fulcre enumerated by Linnaeus. This is the Pilus, or 
 Pubes. This is a general term, comprehending various 
 species of pubescence, hairiness, or shagginess upon a 
 plant; or, in other words, " whatever clothes it with any 
 " hairy or villous substance." 
 
 The following species of pubescence are enumera- 
 ted by the Swedish naturalist: viz. Pili, Hairs. 2. La- 
 na, Wool; or close curled hairs. 3. Barb a, Beard; or 
 parallel hairs. 4. Tomentum, Flocks; or interwoven vil- 
 lous hairs, scarcely conspicuous. 5. Striga, stiflish 
 flattish hairs. 6. Seta, Bristles; or stiffish roundish hairs. 
 7. Hami, Hooks; sharp crooked points. 8. Glochides, 
 Barbs; straight toothed points, or pointed hairs. 
 
 I cannot pretend to enter into a full investigation 
 of the history or appearances of all these various species 
 or varieties of pubescence. The subject, however, is 
 too important, in the study of plants, to be dismissed 
 without some further notice. 
 
 Perhaps, there are very few plants entirely desti- 
 tute of some kind of hairy covering, or pubescence. It 
 is true, indeed, that to the naked eye, the leaves or other 
 parts of many vegetables appear to be absolutely smooth: 
 but, even in these, the microscope discovers various lit- 
 tle hairs, or other species of pubescence. It is especi- 
 ally upon the young stalks or stems of plants, that this 
 minute covering is discoverable. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 89 
 
 The hairs which are distributed over the surface of 
 vegetables assume a considerable variety of forms. 
 Thus, in the leguminous plants, they are generally cy- 
 lindrical : in the malvaceous plants, they terminate in a 
 point: in the Agrimonia, or Agrimony, they are shaped 
 like a fish-hook: in Nettle, they are subulate, or awl- 
 shaped, and jointed; and in some of the Syngenesious 
 plants, that are furnished with hollow, or funnel-shaped 
 florets, they terminate in two crooked joints. 
 
 As early as the year 1682, the celebrated Dr. Nehe- 
 miah Grew, and in 1686 Marcellus Malpighi, had paid 
 some attention to the different kinds of hairs which con- 
 stitute a downy covering upon the surfaces of vegeta- 
 bles. But it was not until the year 1745, that the subject 
 was handled in the masterly manner it deserved. In that 
 year, Mr. J. Stephen Guettard, a very ingenious and 
 learned French naturalist, began to publish his observa- 
 tions upon the hairs and glands of plants. These obser- 
 vations he continued during several succeeding years. 
 The author has even established a botanical method dedu- 
 ced from the form, the situation, and other circumstances 
 of the hairy and other glandular appearances, on the sur- 
 face of plants. He has shown, what perhaps, would hardly 
 have been suspected, that these appearances are, in ge- 
 neral, constant and uniform in all the plants of the same 
 family, or genus. Hence, he has observed, that they 
 constitute good generic, but not specific, characters. 
 
 A minute investigation of the subject of vegetable 
 pubescence would be more worthy of our attention, if 
 we were acquainted with the actual use of this kind of 
 covering. But upon this subject, little certain can be 
 said. It seems very probable, that the pubescence of 
 
 N 
 
90 , ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 plants serves various useful purposes. I am inclined to 
 think, that many of the hairs which cover the different 
 parts of plants are exhaling and absorbing lymphatic-ves- 
 sels. Some seem to have been designed, in a great mea- 
 sure, for the purpose of preserving the parts where they 
 are lodged, from the effects of friction; whilst others may 
 form a kind of covering, like the furs, hairs, bristles, 
 &x. of animals, for protection from cold, and other inju- 
 rious causes. 
 
 LiNNiEus asserts, that an experienced botanist will 
 often find it easy to determine, from an inspection of 
 plants, whether they belong to Africa, Asia, America, 
 or the Alpine countries; though he may not be able to 
 say, by what feature, in the general physiognomy, he has 
 made the distinction. The Swedish naturalist, how- 
 ever, speaks of the American plants as being verdant, and 
 smooth*. I do not doubt, that to the vegetables of ex- 
 tensive tracts of the three portions of the world which 
 Linnaeus has mentioned, a kind of national physiognomy 
 often belongs : as we observe, that even the human inha- 
 bitants of such countries have a set of features exclusively 
 belonging to them. Thus, an Anglo-American may, very 
 generally, be distinguished from an Englishman. But I 
 suspect, that there is much more difficulty than Linnse- 
 us seems to have imagined, in deciding, with certainty, 
 from the mere fades, or aspect, of vegetables, upon the 
 native countries of those vegetables. How, indeed, can 
 this be doubted, when it is considered, that the very same 
 
 * " Primo intuitu distinguit sxpius excrcitatus Botanicus plantas Africa?, 
 " Asus, America;, Alpiumque, sed Hon facile diceict ipse, ex qua nora. Nescio, 
 " qux fades torva, sicca, cbscura Afris,- quae superba, exaltata Asiaticis; 
 " qu;e/<f?«, glabra Amehicanis; qua; coarctata, indurata Alpinis ? Philosophia 
 Botanica, kc p. 117, US, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 91 
 
 species of vegetables are common to two, and even three, 
 quarters of the globe? Thus, the northern parts of 
 North- America, and the northern parts of Europe, pos- 
 sess a considerable number of vegetables in common 
 with each other. Many species are common to Siberia, 
 Kamtchatka, Japan, &c. and to the north of America. 
 A considerable number are common to the United- States 
 and to Hindoostan; and even a few are common to the 
 Cape of Good-Hope and North- America. 
 
 That the American plants are peculiarly smooth, I 
 am far from being convinced. Linnaeus might have 
 found, in our woods, very many species covered over 
 with all the various kinds of pubes, pubescentia, or pi- 
 lus, which he has mentioned*. I cannot but suspect, that 
 the great naturalist, misled by the phantom of a false 
 analogy, conceived the plants of America very smooth, 
 partly, at least, because the man of America has been 
 so generally deemed, and by Linnasusf , among other 
 writers, beardless, and smooth-skinned. But we now 
 know, that the Indians of America are not more smooth 
 than are the Japanese, the Chinese, the Koriaks, and 
 many other nations or hordes of Asia J. 
 
 * Such, not to mention many others, are Rhus typhinum, Epigxa repens, 
 Spirtea tomentosa, Sida Abutilon, many of the Oaks, Walnuts, or Hickeries, 
 and a very considerable number of species in the great class of Syngenesia. 
 
 f Sy sterna Naturae. Tom. I. p. 29. 
 
 | See New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America. Pre- 
 liminary Discourse, p. 55, and Appendix, p. 32. 
 
92 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 $. IV. 
 
 " Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd, 
 " In Buds imprison'd, or in Bulbs intomb'd." 
 
 The Botanic Garden. Part I. 
 
 Canto 1. 1. 459, 460. 
 
 I am now to speak of that part of the vegetable 
 which Linnaeus has denominated the Hybernaculum, or 
 Winter-quarters of the plant. Professor Martyn calls it 
 the Hybernacle. 
 
 The hybernaculum is defined by the Swedish natu- 
 ralist to be a part of the plant which encloses the embryo- 
 herb, protecting it from external injuries. In his lan- 
 guage, it is either a bulbus, or agemma. 
 
 I. Of the bulbus, or bulb, I have already made very 
 particular mention*. I have given my reasons for consi- . 
 dering it as a species of root. At present, I am to take 
 no farther notice of it, but am to confine myself to the 
 consideration of the Gemma, or bud. Previously, how- 
 ever, to my doing this, it will be proper to give some 
 account of the bulbus caulinus, and other similar pro- 
 ductions, to which I have alluded in a former part of the 
 workf- Consistently with my view of the subject, I 
 could not, with propriety, treat of those productions, 
 under the head of roots. 
 
 The bulbus caulinus, or stem-bulb, is a small spe- 
 cies of bulb, or hybernacle, which is situated immedi- 
 
 • See page 8— 13. f See page 12. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 93 
 
 ately upon the stem or stalk of certain plants, having no 
 immediate connection with the root. In the Dentaria*,or 
 Tooth-wort, the Saxifraga, or Saxifragef, the Lilium 
 bulbiferum, or Bulbiferous Lily, and many other plants, 
 we find small bulbs in the wings of the leaves, that is 
 at the place where the leaf is united to the stem. If, 
 after the stalks have decayed, these bulbs be taken off, 
 and planted, they will soon take root, and vegetate. It 
 is evident, therefore, that these productions are the re- 
 positories of an embryo or miniature-plant; and, there- 
 fore, they may, with strict propriety, be considered as a 
 species of hybernacle. 
 
 In some of the alliaceous plants, or plants of the 
 Onion and Garlick kind, bulbs, very similar to those 
 which I have just mentioned, are produced at the ori- 
 gin of the umbel of flowers, between the peduncles, or 
 footstalks of the flowers. Such alliaceous plants are fre- 
 quently called bulbiferous plants. The individual bulbs 
 are well known among gardeners, and in common lan- 
 guage, by the name of" cloves J." 
 
 The structure of these cauline and umbel-bulbs ap- 
 pears to be very similar to that of the true root-bulbs, 
 of which I have given an account. 
 
 Bulbous granules, or productions, are very common 
 in many species of Lichen, belonging to the xxivth 
 class of the Sexual System. But, in these Lichens, the 
 bulbs are situated without the axils of the leaves. 
 
 * Denraria bulbifera. J Saxifraga bulbifera, and S. cermia 
 
 \ See Plate III. 
 
94 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 In many plants, we observe an appearance, which, 
 from its general affinity to that of the true bulbous gra- 
 nules, deserves to be mentioned, in this place. Some 
 species of Poa, and other grasses, shoot out from their 
 flowers, bulbous-like processes, which falling to the 
 ground, there take root, and vegetate into plants simi- 
 lar to the parent*. Such plants are called viviparous 
 plants. In the Tangekolli, a plant of Senegal, which 
 is particularly mentioned by Mr. Adanson, the seeds 
 germinate in the fruit or capsule, forming bulbs, or 
 suckers, even before the fruit has arrived at maturity. 
 The Agave vivipara, of East-Florida, exhibits a very si- 
 milar appearance. After the flowers of this fine vege- 
 table have fallen off", the seeds often vegetate, and even 
 arrive to a pretty considerable size, their leaves being 
 sometimes three or four inches long, whilst the new 
 offspring is still attached to the parent tree. The branch- 
 es of the Agave frequently appear alive with the young 
 plants. These falling to the ground, there take root, and 
 grow and flower. To this vegetable, a celebrated bota- 
 nist, Paul Herman, gave the very appropriate name of 
 Sobolifera\. The appearance exhibited by the Tange- 
 kolli and Agave, may, not unaptly, be compared to that 
 of a Polypus, with a numerous progeny sprouting from 
 various parts of her body. 
 
 Under this head of stem-bulbs, I may, with propri- 
 ety, mention the fleshy and succulent leaves of various 
 species of plants, particularly those of the liliaceous or- 
 der, such as the Aloe, the Squill, and others; and also 
 
 ' See Plate III. 
 
 t Aloe Americana Sobolifera. — Horti Academici Lugduno-Batavi Catalogus, 
 &c. p. 16—18 . pi. 2. _ 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 95 
 
 the leaves of some species of Arum, or Cuckow-Pint. 
 . These, if they be carefully planted in the ground, will, 
 in due time, emit radicles, or fibres, and vegetate. 
 Hence, it is evident, that there would be some propri- 
 ety in denominating such leaves, hybernacles. Perhaps, 
 the leaves of all plants contain the miniature-embryons 
 of millions of plants, which are never brought into 
 open view. 
 
 The bulbous granules, whether they be situated in 
 the wings of the leaves, or other parts of the stalk, fur- 
 nish the botanist with excellent marks for the discrimi- 
 nation of different species of plants, in the genera Orni- 
 thogalum, Dentaria, Polygonum, Saxifraga, Lilium, 
 Allium, &x. Different species of these genera receive 
 their specific names, bulbifera, or bulbiferum, and vhi- 
 para, or mmparum, from the bulbs which are found 
 upon them*. 
 
 2. The hybernacle which more particularly claims 
 our attention is the Gemma, or Bud. This is defined by 
 Linnzeus to be a species of hybernacle sitting upon the 
 ascending caudex, or stem, and branches, and composed 
 of stipules, or petioles, or the rudiments of leaves, or 
 cortical scales. In fact, every bud is to be considered as 
 an epitome, or compendium, of one or more plants simi- 
 lar to the parent plant. In other words, the bud, as Lof- 
 ling observes, is nothing else than the plant or vegetable 
 straitened from a defect of the powers of vegetationf. 
 
 * Dentaria bulbifera, SaNifraga bulbifera, Dioscorea bulbifera, Lilium 
 bulbiferum, Polygonum viviparum. 
 
 f " Gemma enim nihil alkld est, nisi hcrba ccarctata a dejecta vis vege- 
 
 •• tuiitis," Scr 
 
96 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 The term hybernaculum,by which the naturalist of Swe- 
 den has designated the bulb and the bud, is very happi- 
 ly applied. 
 
 Mr. Ray is said to have been the first person who 
 gave to the bud, of which I am speaking, the name of 
 gemma. Before the time of that illustrious naturalist, 
 one of the greatest ornaments of his country, the bud, 
 we are told, had been denominated germen. It is admit- 
 ted, indeed, that the term gemma was used before Ray's 
 time, to signify a particular species of bud, viz. that 
 which contains a flower; and some of the ancient authors 
 appear to have carefully distinguished it from the ger- 
 men, or bud, which contained leaves' and wood. Pliny, 
 whose merits are much greater than some writers will 
 allow them to be, seems to mark the distinction between 
 the gemma, and the germen, in very precise terms. The 
 following are the words of the Roman naturalist: " Ger- 
 " men autem est id, quod ex ipsis surculis arborum pri- 
 " mo vere exit, ex quo deinde folium producitur: nam 
 " gemma proprie est floris, quanquam utrumque con- 
 " fundatur*." 
 
 Notwithstanding the very precise observation 
 of Pliny, I think there are good reasons for supposing, 
 that some of the purest of the Roman classical writers, 
 used the term gemma, to express every kind of bud, 
 without any regard to its individual contents. Thus, 
 when Virgil, in the following lines, speaks of the buds of 
 the Vine, under the name of "gemmae," he, doubtless, 
 means the leaf and flower-buds of that vegetablef : 
 
 * Naturalis Historic Lib. 
 
 t Ovid, too, as we shall afterwards see, calls the buds of the Vine, " genwnrf." 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 97 
 
 ** Muscosi fontes, et somno mollior herba, 
 M Et quae vos rara viridis tegit arbutus umbra, 
 " Solstitium pecori defendite: jam venit aestas 
 " Torrida : jam Iceto turgent in Palmite gemmae" 
 
 Eclog. VII. 1. 45 — 48. 
 
 With respect to the word germen, although it ap- 
 pears, that this term was also used to denote a bud, it 
 would seem, that it was more generally employed to de- 
 note a branch, or young twig, or sprout of a tree. 
 In the following lines, Virgil, in describing the opera- 
 tion of vegetable inoculation, or budding, seems evi- 
 dently to call by the name of " germen'* the cion, or 
 bud, which is made use of in this process: 
 
 " Nee modus inserere, atque oculos imponere, simplex: 
 " Nam qua se medio trudunt de cortice gemmae, 
 " Et tenues rumpunt tunicas, angustus in ipso 
 " Fit nodo sinus : hue aliena ex arbore germen 
 •' Includunt, udoque docent inolescere libro." 
 
 Georgic. Lib. 11.1. 73—7/. 
 
 " Experienc'd art by varying culture knows 
 
 u To graft the cion, or the bud enclose. 
 
 M Where the swoln gem, in vernal vigour bold, 
 
 " Bursts through the bark, and breaks each yielding fold, 
 
 " Slit the mid knot, and, in the wound confin'd, 
 
 " Teach the strange bud to wed the bleeding rind." 
 
 Sotheby. 
 
 Buds assume different forms in different vegetables. 
 In general, however, they may be said to be small and 
 rounded, or conical, bodies, sometimes ending in a 
 point. But the form of the bud is often so different in the 
 different species of the same genus, as to afford to the 
 botanist a good mark of distinction, in the winter-sea- 
 
 o 
 
98 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 son, when the leaves and other parts, upon which the 
 specific characters are more generally founded, cannot 
 be seen. Thus, in many species of Willow, and in 
 Rhamnus, or Buckthorn, the specific marks are often 
 taken from the form of the buds. 
 
 In general, buds are placed at the extremity of the 
 young and tender vegetable shoots, and along the course 
 of the branches. They are fixed, by a short foot-stalk, 
 upon a species of brackets, which are the remainder of 
 the leaves, in the axils of which the buds of the present 
 were formed the preceding year. Sometimes, we ob- 
 serve only one bud in a place : sometimes two are to- 
 gether, and these are either opposite or alternate : whilst, 
 sometimes they are collected, in greater numbers, in 
 whirls, or rings. 
 
 The construction of buds is at once beautiful and 
 intricate. On the exterior surface of these vegetable 
 cradles, we observe a number of scales, which are more 
 or less hard, hollowed like a spoon, and laid over each 
 other, in the manner of tiles upon the roof of a house. 
 These scales are often beset with hairs, and other spe- 
 cies of pubescence, and are fixed into the inner plates 
 of the bark of the stem and branches, from which bark 
 they seem to proceed. We cannot be at a loss to de- 
 termine the use of these bud-scales. They serve to 
 defend from cold, and other injuries, the tender and de- 
 licate embryon-plants,that are contained within the bud. 
 The scales are often sealed, as it were, or connected to 
 each other, and to the embryon within, by means of a 
 thick, clammy juice, which in the buds of many vege- 
 tables, such as the Populus balsamifera, or Tacamahaca- 
 tree, is of a resinous nature, and highly odoriferous. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 99 
 
 It is probable, that in some plants, this viscous matter 
 may be useful by preventing an excess of perspiration 
 from the bud. When the internal parts of the bud have 
 expanded and unfolded, the scales, being no longer use- 
 ful, fall off. 
 
 The following observations of Ledermuller, an in- 
 genious German naturalist, are well calculated to show 
 the delicate and careful structure of the bud. In the win- 
 ter-season, he separated from a Horse-Chesnut (iEscu- 
 lus Hippocastanum), a bud not exceeding in size a com- 
 mon pea. He found the bud to be covered externally with 
 seventeen scales, anointed with a viscid fluid. Having 
 carefully separated these scales, the whole bud, covered 
 with a lanugo, or down, was brought into view. On re- 
 moving the down, he found the bud surrounded with 
 four branch-leaves, and covering a spike of flowers. In 
 this spike, our author very distinctly counted sixty- 
 eight flowers! By the assistance of a microscope, even 
 the pollen, or fecundating powder of the stamens, was 
 observable. Some of it was opaque, and some transpa- 
 rent. 
 
 Three different species of buds are enumerated by 
 the botanists. These are, 1. a bud containing a flower; 
 2. a bud containing a leaf or leaves; and 3. a bud con- 
 taining both flowers and leaves. 
 
 I. The first species of bud that I have mentioned, is 
 denominated gemma florifera, or the flower-bud. This 
 contains the rudiments of one, or several, or many flow- 
 ers, without leaves, folded over each other, and sur- 
 rounded with scales. To this species of bud, the French 
 have given the name of " bouton afleur, ou au fruit." 
 
100 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 It is often found at the extremity of the small branches 
 of certain trees, which branches are shorter, more rough, 
 and less beset with leaves, than the other branches. It is 
 also observable, that this flower-bud is, in general, thick- 
 er, shorter, more square, and less pointed than the other 
 kinds, which are next to be mentioned. It commonly 
 terminates obtusely. This is the gemma jioralis of 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 This species of bud is particularly mentioned by 
 Pliny, who calls it oculus gemma. It is the bud which 
 is employed in that species of grafting, which is called 
 inoculation, or budding. 
 
 2. The second species of bud is the gemma foli if era, 
 or leaf-bud. It contains the rudiments of several leaves, 
 without flowers. This kind of bud is commonly more 
 pointed than the first species. In some vegetables, how- 
 ever, as the Hazle-nut, it is nearly round; and in the 
 iEsculus Hippocastanum, or Horse-Chesnut, it is very 
 thick. Linnaeus calls this species of bud, gemma foli- 
 aris. 
 
 3. The third species of bud is the gemma foliifero- 
 florifera, or flower and leaf bud. This is the most com- 
 mon species of bud. In general, it is smaller than either 
 of the two preceding buds, and produces, as the name 
 imports, both flowers and leaves. Linnaeus denomi- 
 nates this bud, gemma communis. 
 
 In this species of bud, however, the flowers, which 
 are mixed with the leaves, are not always of the same 
 kind. Sometimes, the bud protrudes, 1. male-flowers 
 with leaves, as in the Pine, and Fir-tree : 2. female-flow- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 101 
 
 ers and leaves, as in the Hazle-nut, and Carpinus, or 
 Horn-beam. 3. hermaphrodite flowers, and leaves, as 
 in the Elm-tree, Cornus, or Cornel-tree, Daphne, or 
 Mezereon, and the Almond-tree. 
 
 Those buds which are evolved into leaves only, 
 are called barren-buds. Those, which contain both 
 leaves and flowers, are denominated fertile. These terms 
 are very properly applied. It is observed, that from the 
 size or bulk of the bud, we can often foretel, whether it 
 contains merely leaves, or flowers and leaves together. 
 
 The final object or ultimate end of the Great 
 Creator of the Universe, in forming buds, must 
 now, be sufliciently obvious. They are the protecting 
 domes, the cradles, of tender embryons, which, in due 
 time, are to burst from their enclosures, expose them- 
 selves to the light of the day, and spread eternal beauties 
 over this earth. 
 
 " Vere nitent Terrse, vere remissus ager, 
 
 " Nunc Herbs, rupta tellure, cacumina tollunt, 
 
 " Nunc tumido Gemmas cortice palmes agit." 
 
 Ovid. Fast. IV. 1. 126. 
 
 Such being the use of the parts which I am consi- 
 dering, we are not to wonder, that the greater number 
 of the trees and shrubs of cold climates are furnished 
 with buds. In such climates, the protection which buds 
 afford is wanted. Lofling has observed, that the Fran- 
 gula, a species of Rhamnus, or Buck-thorn, is the only 
 native tree of Sweden which is destitute of buds*. And 
 
 * See his excellent paper, entitled " Gemmae Arborum," in the Amoenitates 
 Academicae. Vol. II. Dissertatio XXIV. 
 
102 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 how beautifully does this vegetable demonstrate the of- 
 fice of the bud ! The Frangula requires not the protect- 
 ing aid of these w inter- quarters : for " it grows under 
 trees, in the marshy forests, where it is defended, along 
 with other plants, from the severity of the winter*." 
 
 On the other hand, it ought not to excite our sur- 
 prize, that buds are so seldom found upon the vegetables 
 of warm climates: I mean those climates where an in- 
 tensely cold winter is unknown. For in many countries, 
 as in those of the northern and middle states of the Ame- 
 rican Union, although the summers are extremely warm, 
 the winters are also intensely cold. In climates which 
 enjoy an uniform series of mild or warm seasons, the ten- 
 der shoots of vegetables do not stand in need of the pro- 
 tection of buds. The following list, from Lolling, will 
 show what vegetables, among others, are destitute of 
 buds: viz. Citron, Change, Lemon, Cassava, Mock- 
 Orange, Blad- Apple, Shrubby Swallow- wort, the Shrub- 
 by Geraniumsf, Berry-bearing- Alder, Christ's Thorn, 
 Syrian Mallow, Adansonia or Baobab, Justicia, Wild 
 Senna, the Acacias and Mimosas, Coral-tree, Stinking 
 Bean Trefoil, Oleander, Tamarisk, Heath, Barbadoes- 
 Cherry, Tree-Mallow, the Shrubby Nightshades J, Gui- 
 nea Henweed, Cypress, Lignum Vitae, and Savin. 
 
 * " Frangula est unica arbor indigena Suecioc, qux gemmis caret, sed habitat 
 " ilia sub arboribus, in nemoribus paludosis, cum alus plantis a sevitia hjemis 
 " defensa." 
 
 f Geranium fulgidum, G. inquinans, G. papilionaceum, G. betulinum, 
 G. scabrum, G. cucullatum, G. gibbosum, G. carnosum, G. peltatum, G. aceto- 
 sum, G. zonale, G. vitifolium,&.c. &c. of Linnxus. 
 
 J Solanum verbascifolium, S. guineense, S. Pseudo-Capsicum, S. diphyllum, 
 S. bonariense, S. pimpinellifolium, S. sanctum, S. tomentosum, S. bahamense, &c. 
 of Linnaeus. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 103 
 
 Some of the vegetables, in this list, are large trees, 
 such are the Adansonia, several of the Mimosas, &c. 
 whilst others are smaller, but furnished with ligneous 
 or woody stems, and belong to the families of shrubs and 
 under-shrubs, as they are denominated by the English 
 writers. 
 
 True or complete buds are never produced upon 
 the annual plants, or those whose root and stem perish 
 after the term of a year*. In these annual plants, how- 
 ever, small branches, like minute feathers, are protruded 
 from the axils of the leaves. These feather-like proces- 
 ses, which seem to supply the place of the buds, wither 
 without undergoing a more complete evolution or ex- 
 pansion, if the plants to which they belong are scandent, 
 that is climb, and are destitute of lateral branches. 
 But, in many other annual plants, these feather-like bo- 
 dies, or small branches, grow into plants, similar to the 
 parents. 
 
 In the trees of warm and hot countries, an appear- 
 ance similar to that which I have described, is observed 
 to obtain. In these trees, several of which are enumera- 
 ted in the preceding list of budless vegetables, aplumu- 
 la, or small feather, emits branches, without, however, 
 any scaly covering: for, as I have already observed, this 
 covering is not wanted, where there is no severity of 
 climate to injure the tender shoot. The scaly covering 
 essentially belongs to completely formed buds. " When 
 " we, therefore, speak of trees having buds, that are 
 " naked or without scales, our meaning is the same as 
 " if we had said, that they have no buds at allf." 
 
 • Sre pages 15, 16. f Milne. 
 
104 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Mr. Ray and Pontedera, have instituted a division 
 of vegetables into herbs, or herbaceous vegetables, and 
 trees, founding the distinction upon the absence or the 
 presence of the gemmae, or buds. The herbs they have 
 distinguished by the name of plants wanting buds : the 
 trees by that of vegetables bearing buds. 
 
 This division of the English and Italian naturalists, 
 however, is certainly erroneous, and is calculated to in- 
 troduce much confusion into the science of vegetables. 
 It might not be improper, indeed, to adopt such a dis- 
 tinction in the history of the plants of one country, not 
 very extensive, or not enjoying very different climates. 
 But it ought not to be adopted in the history of the plants 
 of the whole globe ; since it plainly appears, that the 
 greater number of the trees of warm climates are desti- 
 tute of buds, or at least of that scaly appearance, which 
 seems to belong essentially to buds; and, hence, such 
 trees, some of which are very large and stately, ought, 
 upon the principles of the two authors whom I have 
 mentioned, to be thrown into the same class or series as 
 the humble, herbaceous plants. Father Plumier disco- 
 vered much judgment in associating together the trees 
 and the herbaceous plants; though his illustrious coun- 
 tryman, Tournefort, had kept them asunder. 
 
 With respect to the origin of buds, two different 
 opinions have been entertained by botanists. Pontedera 
 a very learned Italian botanist, imagined, that the buds 
 derive their origin from the ligneous, or woody fibrillae. 
 This opinion has not, so far as I know, been adopted by 
 any succeeding naturalist. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, 105 
 
 It is much more probable, that the buds derive their 
 origin from the medulla, or pith of the vegetable. It is 
 certain, that the pith is essentially necessary to the exist- 
 ence and growth of the buds. But this subject will come 
 more naturally to be treated of, when examining the ana- 
 tomical structure of vegetables*. 
 
 As every vegetable-bud contains the primordium, 
 or embryon of a plant, and if separated from its parent, 
 and nurtured with care, would produce a plant specifi- 
 cally the same as the supporting stock, we are led to re- 
 flect upon the unbounded fertility of Nature, who seems 
 to have taken delight in forming (I would say to the ex- 
 tent of her power, if to the power of Nature there were 
 any limits), living, organized existences. Linnaeus has 
 made a calculation, by which it appears, that ten thou- 
 sand buds, or, in other words, ten thousand herbs, may 
 be produced from a single trunk, not exceeding a span 
 in diameter. What an infinity of plants, then, might be 
 raised from some of the most stupendous trees, such as 
 the Adansonia of Africa, or the Liriodendron, Platanus, 
 and others of North- America! But the fertility of nature, 
 in the formation of buds, is infinitely greater than even 
 philosophers themselves have, in general, imagined. 
 Millions of buds lie latent in the tree, and 
 never meet the light of the DAY. The embryon 
 punctum is not evolved into notice, from a deficiency 
 of those stimulating agents, which, if they be not the 
 sole capse of life, are, at least, essentially necessary to 
 bring the phenomena of life into view. 
 
 In treating of the seed, I shall hint at the compara- 
 tive fertility of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. 
 
 * See Part II. 
 
106 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF THE FRUCTIFICATION. 
 
 We now enter upon the consideration of the third 
 great general division of the vegetable, which is named 
 the Fructificatio*, or Fructification. This is 
 beautifully defined by Linnaeus, to be a " temporary 
 " part of vegetables, dedicated to the business of gene - 
 " ration, terminating the existence of the old, and begin- 
 ning the era of the new, vegetablef." 
 
 The essence of the fructification consists in the flow- 
 er and the fruit. These two parts, according to the Sex- 
 ualists (or those who admit of the existence of two dis- 
 tinct sexes in vegetables), are connected in the same 
 manner, as generation and birth are connected together 
 in animals. For although the fruit does not swell and 
 come to perfection, until after the flower has decayed, 
 or fallen, it seems to be sufficiently established as a fact, 
 by the experiments of many learned men, that the pri- 
 mordia, or earliest rudiments, of the fruit, pre-exist in 
 the flower. But this subject will be particularly attended 
 to, in a future part of this work. 
 
 When perfect, the fructification consists of the fol- 
 lowing seven parts: viz. 1. the Calyx. 2. the Corolla. 
 3. the Stamen. 4. the Pistillum. 5. the Pericarpyim. 6. 
 the Semen. 7. the Receptaculum. Of these, the four 
 
 * Fructificatio, from Fructus, fruit, and/ado, to make. 
 
 f " Fructificatio Vegetabilium pars temporaria, Generationi dicata, anti- 
 quum terminans, novum incipiens." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 52. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 107 
 
 first belong to the flower, properly so called ; the two next 
 to the fruit, and the last is common to both. 
 
 ,. I. 
 
 I begin with the Calyx*. This is defined by Lin- 
 nseus the " outer bark of the plant, present in the fruc- 
 tification." The calyx is frequently denominated, by 
 English writers on botany, the empalement and flow- 
 er-cup. It seems more proper, however, to adopt the 
 Latin word; since the word flower-cup, if used, ought 
 certainly to be restricted entirely to one particular 
 species of calyx, the perianthium, or perianth; whereas 
 the term calyx is a generic phrase, comprehending, as 
 we shall presently see, various parts, very distinct in 
 their appearances, and perhaps, in their office. 
 
 LinnjEus enumerates seven different kinds of ca- 
 lyx: viz. 1. the Perianthium. 2. the Involucrum. 3. 
 the Amentum. 4. the Spatha. 5. the Glurna. 6. the 
 Calyptra: and 7. the Foha. 
 
 1. The Perianthiumf, or Perianth, is the most com- 
 mon species of calyx. It is placed most contiguous to 
 the fructification; or, in other words, immediately under 
 the flower, which, in many plants, is contained in the 
 perianth, as in a cup. On this account, this species of 
 calyx has been denominated the flower-cup. It is also 
 called the Empalement. 
 
 * Calyx, from x«At/|, and originally from kxXvvIh, to cover: not, as some 
 writers have supposed, from xctXtZ,, a cup. 
 
 t Perianthium, from ?ri§<, around ; and «»£»;, a flower. 
 
108 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Various species of perianthium are enumerated by 
 Linnaeus. Of these it is necessary that I should take 
 particular notice. 
 
 A. The Perianthium fructificationis, or perianth 
 of the fructification, includes both the stamens and the 
 germ; that is, the male and female organs of generation. 
 This is the most common species of perianth. It is ex- 
 emplified in Nicotiana, and various other plants, which 
 are figured in these Elements. 
 
 B. The Perianthium jloris, or perianth of the 
 flower, contains the stamens, but not the germ. This 
 species of perianth is exemplified in Epilobium, Gau- 
 ra*, and all those other vegetables which have the germ, 
 or seed-bud, placed below the receptacle of the flower. 
 
 C. The Perianthium fructus, or perianth of the 
 fruit, contains the germ, but not the stamens. This is 
 exemplified in the females of many of the plants of the 
 two classes Monoecia and Dioeciaf. 
 
 LinnuEa, Clove-tree, Morina, and several other ve- 
 getables, have two perianths, which very well illustrate 
 the two last mentioned terms. In these vegetables, one 
 of the perianths is appropriated to the flower, whilst the 
 other belongs to the fruit. 
 
 a. With respect to the number of the leaves, or 
 pieces, of which it is composed, the perianth has re- 
 ceived the following names: viz. 1. perianthium mono- 
 
 * See Plate XVI. Fig. 2. 
 f Sea Plate XXIX. Fig. 2. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 109 
 
 phyllum; a one-leafed perianth, composed of only one 
 leaf; as in Tobacco, Thorn- Apple, Primrose, and many 
 other plants. 2. perianthium diphyllum, a two-leaved 
 perianth, consisting of two leaves; as in the Poppy, 
 Claytonia, Fumatory. 3. perianthium triphyllum, a 
 three-leaved perianth; consisting of three leaves, as in 
 Dock, Magnolia, Tulip-tree, Annona, or Papaw, Po- 
 dophyllum peltatum, or May-apple, &c. 4. perianthi- 
 um tetraphyllum, a four-leaved perianth, consisting of 
 four leaves; as in Water-Lily, Heath, the plants of the 
 class Tetradynamia. 5. perianthium pentapbyllum,2L 
 five-leaved perianth, consisting of five leaves; as in Ra- 
 nunculus, Glass- wort, Beet, Flax, and a great number 
 of those plants the flowers of which have more than one 
 petal. 6. perianthium hexaphyllum, a six-leaved peri- 
 anth, consisting of six leaves; as in Lions-leaf, Berberry, 
 Hillia parasitica, Sec. 7. perianthium heptaphyllum, a 
 seven-leaved perianth; consisting of seven leaves; as in 
 Trientalis, or Winter-green. 8. perianthium octophyl- 
 lum, an eight-leaved perianth, consisting of eight leaves, 
 as in Mimusops, and Diapensia. 9. perianthium deca- 
 phyllum, a ten-leaved perianth; consisting of ten leaves; 
 as in Galax. 10. perianthium polyphyllum, a many- 
 leaved perianth; consisting of many leaves, or more than 
 ten. 
 
 b. A oNE-leaved perianth is either, 1. integrum, en- 
 tire; that is undivided, as in Genipa and Olax. 2. bifi- 
 dum, two-cleft; cut into two segments or divisions, as 
 in Tuberous Moschatel, Purslane, Sec. 3. trifidum, 
 three-cleft; cut into three segments, or divisions; as in 
 Hermannia and Cliffortia. 4. tetrajidum, four-cleft; 
 cut into four segments or divisions; as in Galium, and 
 Elephant's head. 5. quinquejidum, quinquefid, or five- 
 
110 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 cleft; as in Tobacco, and the greater number of flowers 
 that are furnished with a calyx of one leaf. 6. sexfidum, 
 six-cleft, or cut into six segments; as in Ginora ame- 
 ricana. 7. octofidum, eight-cleft; as in Tormentil. 8. 
 decemfidum, ten-cleft; as in Cinquefoil, and Herb-Ben- 
 net: and, 9. duodecemfidum, twelve-cleft; as in Purple 
 Loosestrife, and Water- Purslane. 
 
 c. In respect to figure, a perianth is either, 1. tubu- 
 losum, tubular; or running in the form of a tube. 2. pa- 
 tens, spreading. 3. reflexum, reflex, or bent back; as in 
 Asclepias, and Leontodon. 4. inflatum, inflated, hol- 
 low, or puffed up like a bladder; as in Physalis, called 
 Ground-Cherry. 5. globosum, globose, or globular. 6. 
 clavatum, club-shaped; as in Silene. 7. erectum, erect 
 or upright. 
 
 d. In regard to the proportion which it bears to the 
 corolla, the perianth is, 1. abbreviatum, abbreviated, or 
 shorter than the tube of the corolla; as in Tobacco*, 
 and most other plants. 2. longum, long; longer than the 
 tube of the corolla. 3. mediocre, middle-sized; about 
 the length of the tube of the corolla. 
 
 e. At its top, the perianth is, 1. obtusum, obtuse. 
 2. acutum, acute. 3. spinosum, spinous or thorny. 4. 
 aculeatum, prickly. 5. acuminatum, acuminate. 
 
 f. The perianth is, 1. tequale, equal, having all the 
 segments of the same size. 2. inaquale, unequal; when 
 some of the segments are smaller than others. 3. labia- 
 tum, lipped; when the segments are irregular, and 
 formed into two lips. 
 
 * See Plate XI. Fig. 1. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 1 1 1 
 
 g. The perianth, with respect to its margin, is, 1. 
 integer rimum, very entire. 2. serratum, serrated. 3. 
 ciliatum, ciliate. 
 
 i>. The perianth has received a variety of names, 
 according to its surface. But these names have already 
 been explained, in treating of the terminology of leaves*. 
 
 i. The situation of the perianth, with respect to the 
 germen, is, 1. superum, superior; when the germen is 
 under the lower part of the perianth. 2. inferum, in- 
 ferior; when the germ is above the base of the perianth. 
 
 k. In respect to its duration, the perianth is either, 
 1. caducum, caducous, or falling off before the complete 
 opening of the flower; as in the Poppy and the Barren- 
 wort. 2. deciduum, deciduous, or falling off with the 
 flower, that is the petals, the stamens, and the style; as 
 in Berberry and the Cross-shaped flowers. 3. persistens, 
 permanent; or continuing until the fruit has attained to 
 maturity; as in the lip and masqued flowers, and several 
 others. 
 
 /. 1. In respect to its composition, the calyx sometimes 
 consists of a number of leaves, which are laid over each 
 other, like tiles, or scales. This is the perianthium im- 
 bricatum, or imbricate calyx. Hawk-weed, Sow-This- 
 tle, and many other Syngenesious plants, furnish us with 
 beautiful instances of this species of calyxf. 2. Some- 
 times, the scales of the calyx spread wide, and are diffu- 
 
 * See pages 33, 34. 
 
 t See the Plate of Silphium terebinth inaceum. 
 
112 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 sed on all sides, and not closely laid over each other, as 
 in the preceding species. This last is the peri anthium 
 squarrosum, or squarrose calyx; of which we have ex- 
 amples in Thistle, Onopordum, Conyza, &c*. 3. In 
 some plants, as in the Pink, Coreopsis, and others, the 
 base of the calyx, which is simple, is surrounded, exter- 
 nally, by a series of distinct leaves, which are shorter 
 than its own. To this species of calyx, Linnaeus has 
 given the name of calyx ductus, and Vaillant, calyx ca- 
 lyculatus, an increased calyx, caliculate, or calycled 
 calyx. 4. The peri anthium scariosum, or scariose peri- 
 anth, is a species of calyx, which is tough, thin and se- 
 mi-transparent; as in Statice Armeria,or Thrift, Centau- 
 rea glastifolia, &c. 5. The peri anthium turbinatum, tur- 
 binate, or top-shaped perianth, is inversely conical, and 
 shaped like a boy's top, or a pear. The Grislea secunda 
 and Memecylon capitellatum exhibit instances of this 
 species of perianth. 
 
 m. The perianthium is either, 1. proprium, proper, 
 that is belonging to one flower; or, 2. commune, com- 
 mon, belonging to several flowers, collected together. 
 
 n. Some flowers, such as the Amaryllis, the Tulip, the 
 Lilyf, and many others of the liliaceous plants; also the 
 MedeolaJ, are said to be destitute of the perianth. But 
 I shall afterwards have occasion to observe, that what the 
 Swedish naturalist names, in these flowers, the corolla is 
 deemed the calyx, by some other eminent botanists. 
 
 * See the Plate of Helianthus divaricatus. 
 t See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. 
 J See Plate XIV. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 113 
 
 In the greater number of plants, the perianth is sin- 
 gle. In Morina, Sarracenia* and some of the plants of 
 the Mallow-family, as Althaea, Alcea, Malva, Lavatera, 
 Gossypium, Hibiscus, Sec. it is double. 
 
 Several circumstances relative to the perianth are 
 necessarily delayed, until I shall have entered on the con- 
 sideration of the corolla. Of the real and supposed uses 
 of the perianth, I shall treat, after having finished the 
 history of the various species of calyx. I have already 
 mentioned the marks, or characters, by which the peri- 
 anth may be distinguished from the bractef. 
 
 2. The second species of calyx, which I have men- 
 tioned, is the Iniiolucrum%. This is called by Dr. Mar- 
 ty n, Involucre. It is chiefly restricted by Linnaeus to the 
 umbelliferous flowers, and is defined, by this writer, 
 a calyx remote from the flower**. 
 
 This species of calyx is placed below the common 
 receptacle, which, in the umbelliferous plants, is a num- 
 ber of footstalks, which all proceed from one common 
 point or centre, and rise to the same height. Each of the 
 footstalks is terminated by an umbel, which is similar, in 
 its form and structure, to the large umbel, and is com- 
 monly, like it, furnished with an involucre. When a ca- 
 lyx of this kind is placed under the universal umbel, it 
 is called, by Linnaeus, iwoolucrum universale, an univer- 
 sal involucre. When it is placed under the smaller or 
 
 * See Plate I. t See pages 7S, 79. 
 
 t Imolucrum, from involvo, to wrap up. 
 •* " Calyx Umbi'llx a Hore remotus." 
 
 0. 
 
1 14 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 partial umbel, it is denominated involucrum partiale, a 
 partial involucre. This is sometimes termed, iwuolu- 
 cellum, or involucret. Dr Withering calls it the Par- 
 tial Fence. 
 
 In most of the umbelliferous flowers, such as the 
 Hemlock, Fennel, Anise, and in other plants, not strict- 
 ly umbelliferous, as the Cornus florida, or Dogwood, 
 and other species of this genus, there is, besides the two 
 involucres, a proper perianth, which is situated under 
 each of the florets, or smaller flowers, of which the umbel 
 is composed. 
 
 The involucre is composed of one or more leaves. 
 When composed of one, it is denominated iwoolucrum 
 monophyllum, a one-leafed involucre, as in Bupleurum: v 
 when of two leaves, involucrum diphyllum, a two-leafed 
 involucre, as in Euphorbia: when of three, involucrum 
 triphyllum, as in Butomus and Alisma: when of four, 
 involucrum te trap by Hum-, as in Cornus: when of five, 
 iwaolucrum pentaphyllum\ as in Daucus; and when 
 of six, irmolucrum hexaphyllum\ as in Haemanthus. 
 
 The partial involucre, or involucret, consists either 
 of two leaves, as in Artedia; of five, as in Hare's ear; 
 or of many, as in Bishop's- weed, and Fennel-Giant. 
 
 The involucrum dimidiatum, dimidiate, or half- 
 leaved involucre, is an involucre which is deficient on 
 one side; as in iEthusa, or Fools Parsley. 
 
 It is difficult to say, in what very essential circum- 
 stance the involucre of those plants which are not um- 
 belliferous, such as Cornus, or Dogwood, some species 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 115 
 
 of Anemone, &c. differs from the bractea, or bracte. 
 It would seem, indeed, that Linnzeus's principal reason 
 for separating the involucre from the bracte was this, 
 that he might make use of the former part in drawing 
 his generic characters of the umbelliferse. 
 
 3. The Amentum*, or Ament, called also Catkin, 
 is a species of calyx, which consists of a great number 
 of chaffy scales, that are dispersed along a slender thread, 
 or receptacle. On account of its supposed resemblance 
 to a cat's tail (though it bears as close a resemblance 
 to the tails of many other animals as to that of the cat), 
 it has received one of its English names, viz. catkin. 
 The French call it Chaton; and many botanists have de- 
 nominated it Catulus. The term amentum was used by 
 the great Tournefort, before it was employed by Lin- 
 nasus. The term is perfectly synonimous to the terms 
 julus and nucamentum, which are employed by some 
 botanists. 
 
 LiNN,fl3us defines the ament to be a composition of 
 a calyx, and a common receptacle. The squama?, or 
 scales, which form this species of calyx, are mixed al- 
 ternately with the flowers, and resemble the chaff in an 
 ear of cornf. 
 
 The ament occurs very frequently in the xxist and 
 xxi id classes of the Sexual System, the classes Monoe- 
 cia and Dioecia, the particular characters of which are 
 
 * The term amentum, as used by the Roman writers, signifies a thong, a loop, 
 a strap, or lash, to hold a sling, spear, or javelin by. 
 
 t For a fine representation of the ament, see the figure of Betula populifolia 
 in this work. 
 
116 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 afterwards to be explained*. In this place, however, it 
 is proper to observe, that in the first mentioned class, 
 the ament supports both male and female flowers, on the 
 same root, or individual. This is the case in the Horn- 
 beam, Walnuts, and Hickeries, Chesnut, Chinquepin, 
 and many others. In the class Dioecia, the ament sup- 
 ports male and female flowers, on distinct roots, or indi- 
 viduals. This is the case in the Willows, Poplars, and 
 many others. 
 
 It not unfrequently happens, that in plants of the 
 class Monoecia, the male and female flowers are mixed 
 together, or situated very close to each other; whilst 
 in other plants, they are situated at a considerable dis- 
 tance from each other; but, in both instances, upon the 
 same root, or individual. 
 
 In the latter case, the ament frequently supports flow- 
 ers of one sex, and a calyx of the perianth-kind supports 
 those of another sex. Thus, in the Corylus, or Hazle, 
 the male and female flowers are placed remote from each 
 other, upon the same root, or individual. The male 
 flowers form an ament, whilst the females are inclosed 
 in a perianth. 
 
 In the class Dioecia, there are some plants, such as 
 Pistachia-nut, Juniper-tree, and Ephedra, or Shrubby 
 Horse-tail, the male flowers of which are formed into an 
 ament; whilst the female flowers are surrounded with a 
 perianth. 
 
 In general, those flowers, whether they be male, or 
 female, or both, which are supported by an ament, are 
 
 * See Part III. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 117 
 
 destitute of the petals, or painted leaves. The Oak, the 
 Beech, the Hazel, the Cypress, the Pistachia-nut, and 
 several others, are illustrative of this observation. 
 
 4. The Spatha*, or Spathe, is a particular species of 
 calyx, which opens, or bursts longitudinally, in form of 
 a sheath, and produces a stem which supports one or 
 more flowers. 
 
 The spatha consists either of one piece, as in the 
 Narcissus, Snow-Drop, and the greater number of plants 
 that are furnished with this species of calyx. 2. of two 
 pieces, as in the Stratiotes, or Water- soldier; or, 3. of 
 a number of scales, which are laid over each other like 
 tiles; as in Musa, or Plantain-tree. The first species of 
 spathe is called by Linnaeus, spatha univahis y a one 
 valved spatha; the second, spatha bivahis, a two- 
 valved spathe; and the last, spatha imbricata, an im? 
 bricate spathe. 
 
 The spatha dimidiata, or halved spathe, is a spathe 
 which invests the fructification only on the inner side. 
 
 According to the number of flowers, which it pro- 
 duces, the spathe has received different names, such as 
 1. spatha unijlora, a one-flowered spathe. 2. spatha bi- 
 Jiora, a two-flowered spathe. 3. spatha multijlora, a 
 many -flowered spathe. 
 
 Linnaeus, in his Fragments of a Natural Method^ 
 has established an order of plants, to which he has given 
 
 * Spatha, in the Latin language, has various significations, such as a two- 
 handed, or bastard sword, a spatula, the branch of a Palm-tree, &c. &c. 
 
118 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 the name ofSpathacea. This order embraces a number 
 of very fine vegetables, some of which have already been 
 mentioned, in a former part of this work*. I shall here 
 give the list of all the genera that were known to Lin- 
 naeus. They are all furnished with that particular spe- 
 cies of calyx which I have been considering. Allium, 
 Amaryllis, Bulbocodium, Colchicum, Crinum, Galan- 
 thus, Gethyllis, Haemanthus, Leucojum, Tulbagia, 
 Narcissus, Pancratium. The Massonia of Thunberg, 
 the Cyrtanthus of the younger Linnaeus, and the Aga- 
 panthus of L'Heritier, also belong to this order. 
 
 Of some of these plants, I shall take further notice 
 in speaking of the plants of the class Hexandriaf. At 
 least three of the genera, viz. Allium, Amaryllis, and 
 Pancratium, are indigenous to the United- States. 
 
 5. The Gluma:}:, or Glume, is a species of calyx re- 
 stricted to the gramina, or grasses. It is formed of 
 valves, and embraces the seed. This species of calyx, 
 which is also called the Husk or Chaff, is frequently ter- 
 minated by a stiff-pointed prickle, called the awn, or 
 beard. 
 
 a. The glume has received different names, according 
 to the number of flowers which it supports: such as, 1. 
 gluma uniflora, a one-flowered glume. 2. gluma bi- 
 flora, a two-flowered glume. 3. gluma triflora, a three- 
 flowered glume. 4. gluma multifiora,2i many-flowered 
 glume. 
 
 * See page 13. 
 f See Part III. 
 \ Gluma, from glubo, to bark, or take the bark from a tree. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 119 
 
 b. Various appellations have also been given to the 
 glume, according to the number of its valves: viz. 1. 
 gluma univahis, an univalvular, or one-valved glume. 
 
 2. gluma bhahis, or bivalvular glume; consisting of 
 two scales. This is the most common species of glume. 
 
 3. gluma multhahis, a multivalve, or many-valved 
 glume; having more than two scales, or valves. 
 
 c. The glume is, 1. color ata, coloured; of any co- 
 lour but green, which is the general colour of this spe- 
 cies of calyx. 2. glabra, smooth. 3. hispida, hispid; 
 shaggy or rough with hairs. 
 
 d. The glume is either, 1. aristata, awned; having 
 an awn. 2. mutica, awnless; blunt, or without any point 
 at the end. 
 
 The Arista, or awn, is a slender and sharp process, 
 which issues from the glume of many grasses. In En- 
 glish, this part is commonly called the Beard. But this 
 latter term ought not to be applied to the awn, since 
 it is systematically appropriated to a particular species 
 of pubescence*. 
 
 To the awn, as well as to the glume itself, various 
 names have been applied, such as the following: viz. 1. 
 terminalis, terminating, fixed to the top of the glume. 
 2. dor salts, dorsal; placed on the back, or outside of the 
 glume. 3. recta, straight; issuing from the glume in a 
 perpendicular direction. 4. tortilis, twisted, or coiled 
 like a rope. 5. recurvata, recurved; or bent back; and, 
 6. geniculata, geniculate; or bent like the knee-joint. 
 
 * See page 88 
 
120 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Plants that are furnished with the species of stem 
 which we have called the culm*, and with the glume, 
 in place of a calyx, are known among botanists by the 
 name of Plants Culmifera:, or Culmiferous plants. By 
 Linnaeus they are denominated Gramina, or grasses. 
 Wachendorff calls them Glumosa. The greater num- 
 ber of these grasses are furnished with hermaphodite 
 flowers, and belong to the third class of the Sexual Sys- 
 tem. Some important species belong to the other clas- 
 ses, particularly to the sixth class, where we find the 
 Oryza, or Rice; and to the twenty-first class, to which 
 belongs the Zea Mays, or Indian-corn, &c. Some spe- 
 cies belong to the twenty-third class. Haller and 
 Scheuchzer affirm, that in many of the grasses, they have 
 found but two stamens. This is denied by Linnaeus. 
 But the authority of Haller ought not to be questioned. 
 
 Linnaeus, perhaps without the best foundation, 
 considered the grasses as the most simple of all plants, 
 in regard to their structure. He has also observed, that 
 very few of these vegetables have any taste; that many of 
 them are insipid, like the 01era,or pot-herbs; that a very 
 small proportion are fragrant ; and that none of them are 
 poisonous^. 
 
 Many of the grasses, however, have a very agree- 
 able sweetish taste; some of them possess an astringent 
 quality; and in this very interesting class, there are some 
 very fragrant plants, such, not to mention others, as the 
 Seneca- grass of the United- States. This has a most 
 agreeable smell, very similar to that of the pod of the 
 
 * See page 24 — 26. f Horti Ultrajectani Index. 1747- 
 
 \ Praelectiones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum. p. 137. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 121 
 
 Vanilla. It is much esteemed by the Senecas, and other 
 Indian tribes. From the Senecas, it receives its name. 
 
 That none of the grasses are poisonous, is not con- 
 sonant to the observations of other botanists. The Lo- 
 lium temulentum, or Darnel, is commonly esteemed a 
 noxious species of grass. This is the plant which Virgil, 
 in the following lines, calls infelix, or unhappy. 
 
 " Prima Ceres ferro mortales vertere terram 
 " Instituit: cum jam glandes atque arbuta sacrse 
 " Deficerent sylvse, et victum Dodona negaret. 
 " Mox et frumentis labor additus : ut mala culmos 
 M Esset robigo, segnisque horreret in arvis 
 " Carduus: intereunt segetes: subit aspera sylva, 
 " Lappseque tribulique : interque nitentia culta 
 " Infelix Lolium, et steriles dominantur avenae." 
 
 Georgic. Lib. I. 1. 147 — 154. 
 
 " First pitying Ceres taught the famish'd swain 
 " With iron shares to turn the stubborn plain, 
 u What time the arbute fail'd, and fail'd the food 
 " Shower'd from the oak along Dodona's wood. 
 " New cares the corn pursu'd: here mildew fed, 
 " There thistles rear'd aloft their horrent head : 
 " The harvest perishes ; with prickles crown'd, 
 " The bur and caltrop bristle all around : 
 " Their baleful growth wild-oats and Darnel rear, 
 " And tow'r in triumph o'er the golden ear !" 
 
 SOTHEBT. 
 
 The Darnel is, unquestionably, a noxious plant. 
 Actual experiments, however, seem to show, that it 
 is much less poisonous than has been generally imagi- 
 ned. Manetti* observes, that this grain may be eaten, 
 
 • Delle specie di\ erse di frumento e di pane, &c.&c. Firenze: 1765. 
 
 R 
 
122 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 with impunity, provided there be mixed with its meal, a 
 larger proportion of the meal of other cere alia, or grains; 
 and the compound mass be subjected to a second, but 
 gentler, baking; care, at the same time, being taken, not 
 to eat the bread too warm. He applies the same obser- 
 vations to the Bromus secalinus, or Field Brome-grass. 
 
 Upon the whole, the grasses constitute one of the 
 most natural families of plants with which we are ac- 
 quainted. It will be a happy era in Botany (the era is, 
 unquestionably, remote), when the labours of learned 
 men shall have disposed of all, or the greater number 
 of plants, into classes or orders as unexceptionable, and 
 as agreeable to the scheme of Nature, as is the order of 
 Gramina. 
 
 6. The Calyptra*, or Calyptre, is said to be the ca- 
 lyx of the mosses, covering the anther, or male organ, 
 of this family of vegetables, like a hood, monks' cawl, 
 or extinguisher. But, the calyptre cannot, I think, be 
 considered as a real calyx. It is, moreover, to be ob- 
 served, that the part, which Linnaeus calls the anther of 
 the mosses, is known to be the capsule, or pericarp, of 
 these vegetables. 
 
 The calyptre is either, 1. recta> straight; equal on 
 every side; or, 2. obliqua^ oblique, bent on one sidef. 
 
 7. The Volva, or Ruffle^:, as Dr. Withering calls it, 
 is defined to be the membranaceous calyx of a fungus 
 
 * Calyptra, from %ctXv7rlM, io cover. 
 
 t See Plate XXX. \ See Plate XXX, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 123 
 
 plant. It is also called the Curtain. This ought not to be 
 considered as a species of calyx, and is, to all appear- 
 ance, a part of very little consequence in the vegetable 
 economy. 
 
 The volva is said to be, 1. approximata, approxi- 
 mating; when it is placed upon the stem of the fungus, 
 near the cap. 2. remota, remote; when it is at a distance 
 from the cap. 
 
 In order to convey to the reader some idea of the re- 
 lative proportionlhat obtains, in respect of number, be- 
 tween the several species of calyx which I have enume- 
 rated, it will not be amiss to notice the following obser- 
 vations, by Dr. Alston, of Edinburgh. In the year 1753, 
 that learned, but acrimonious opposer of the Sexual 
 System of Linnaeus, published his Tyrocinium Botani- 
 cum. At this period, the Genera Plant arum of Lin- 
 naeus, contained only 1021 genera, or families of plants. 
 Of these, according to the professor, 673 have for their 
 calyx a perianth: 72, a spathe: 75, an involucre: 29, a 
 glume: 18 an ament: and, 3, acalyptre. Of the volva, 
 or ruffle, Alston has taken no notice; nor ought he to be 
 blamed for the omission: for this imaginary calyx is 
 never once named by Linnaeus, in drawing the charac- 
 ters of the genera of Fungous plants, which were, at that 
 time enumerated, in the Genera Plant arum. Dr. Alston 
 also remarked, that about 110 genera were entirely des- 
 titute of the calyx ; that 25 have both a perianth and an 
 involucre; and a few both a perianth and a spathe. 
 
 Since the time of Alston, the accessions to Botany 
 have been immense. But I have not leisure to pursue 
 the subject of the relative proportion of the different spc- 
 
124 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 cies of calyx, in the many thousand species of plants that 
 are now known. I shall only observe, in this place, that 
 within the last twenty or thirty years, Botany has been 
 enriched with a very great proportion of plants, that are 
 furnished with two of the species of calyx ; I mean the 
 glume and the calyptre. 
 
 In his attempt to establish the analogy between the 
 animal and the vegetable kingdoms, Linnaeus has desig- 
 nated the calyx by the name of thalamus jloris, or the 
 conjugal bed*. But this poetical language seems but ill 
 adapted to the grave dignity of science. I may add, that 
 the Swedish naturalist would have used a less exception- 
 able phrase, had he considered the perianth merely, as 
 the conjugal bed. With no manner of propriety can this 
 term be extended to the spatha, the volva, and calyptra. 
 
 Dr. Grew has observed, that the design of the em- 
 palement, or perianth, is to enclose, secure, and support 
 the other parts of the flower; to be their security before 
 its opening, by intercepting all extremities of weather; 
 and afterwards to be their support, by containing all the 
 parts in their due, and most graceful posture. Hence, 
 continues this celebrated vegetable physiologist, we 
 have the reason why the calyx is frequently various, and 
 sometimes wanting. Some flowers have none, as Tulips; 
 because having a fat and firm leaf, or petal, and each leaf 
 likewise standing upon a broad and strong basis, they 
 are thus sufficient to themselves. Carnations, on the con- 
 trary, have not only an empalement, but that, for greater 
 support., of one leaf: for, otherwise, the foot of each leaf 
 
 • " Cat yx e. - gocs' Tbaldintts, Corolla Juleum," he. PhUosophia Bota- 
 nic*, he. p. 9-2- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 125 
 
 or petal, being very long and slender, most of them 
 would be apt to break out of compass. In the same flow- 
 er, the top of the empalement is indented, that the in- 
 dentments may protect the petals; by being lapped over 
 them before their expansion, and afterwards may sup- 
 port and prop them up, by being spread under them*. 
 
 There can, perhaps, be little doubt, that the calyx, 
 or more specifically speaking, the perianth, is of essen- 
 tial use, as Dr. Grew asserts, in giving security or pro- 
 tection to the petals , and other parts of the flower. In 
 many plants, the"" calyx likewise serves the office of a pe- 
 ricarp, or seed-vessel; as in the plants of the order Gym- 
 nospermia, in the class Didynamia. But these, I am 
 inclined to think, cannot be the only uses of the perianth. 
 It is probable, that this part is concerned in the great 
 business of vegetable respiration. This opinion, which 
 has been suggested by some ingenious writers, will ap- 
 pear more probable from the view which will afterwards 
 be given of the uses of the corolla, and the near relations 
 of this part of the fructification to the perianth. With 
 respect to the involucrum, I have already hinted at the 
 affinity which this species of calyx bears to the bractef. 
 There seems to be as good reason to consider the invo- 
 lucre of many plants, a pulmonary system, as to consi- 
 der the bracte in this light J. 
 
 Of Linnaeus's opinion concerning the origin of the 
 calyx, viz. that it is a continuation of the cortex, or outer 
 bark, of the vegetable, I shall take more particular notice 
 afterwards. 
 
 * Grew, as quoted by Milne f See pagei 114, 115 
 
 4 See page 80—82. 
 
126 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 K II. 
 
 The Corolla*, which some English writers have de- 
 nominated the Corol, is the second of the seven parts of 
 fructification already enumerated. Linnaeus defines it 
 " the liber or inner bark of the plant present in the fruc- 
 tificationf." I shall afterwards examine the propriety of 
 this anatomical definition. 
 
 Some writers have translated the term corolla by 
 Blossom. But Dr. Martyn has observed, that " blossom 
 " has a more contracted signification in English, being 
 " usually applied to the flowers of fruit-trees." I may 
 add, that in the United- States, the term blossom, though 
 it is by no means exclusively restricted to the flowers of 
 fruit-trees, is generally employed to denote the whole of 
 the flower, including the calyx (at least the perianth), the 
 corolla properly so called, and the male and female 
 organs. 
 
 The petals of the corolla are frequently called, both 
 in common language, and in the writings of poets and 
 philosophers, " the leaves of the flower." Thus Thomp- 
 son calls the petals of the Helianthus, or Sun- flower, 
 "yellow leaves." " and all yonder stars innume- 
 " rable, with their dependencies, says an ami- 
 able philosopher^, may perhaps compose but the 
 
 LEAF OF A FLOWER IN THE CREATOR'S GARDEN." 
 
 • Corolla, in the Latin, literally signifies, a little crown, or garland ; a chaplet, 
 a coronet. 
 
 f Liber plants in Flore prsesens." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 52. 
 
 $ The late Mr. David Rittenhouse. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 127 
 
 But this language is not sufficiently precise and spe- 
 cific for the purpose of science. To avoid all ambiguity, 
 I shall retain, without any alteration, the Latin word Co- 
 rolla, which ought, I think, to be preferred to Dr. Dar- 
 win's word Corol. The segments of the Corolla, I shall 
 continue to call Petals. 
 
 The corolla, according to Linnaeus, consists of two 
 parts, viz. the Petalum, or Petal, and the Nectarium, 
 or Nectary. The last, however, is not always a part of 
 the corolla; and, therefore, at present, I shall take no 
 further notice of it. 
 
 It is said, that, in general, the corolla may be distin- 
 guished from the perianth, by the fineness of its texture, 
 and the gayness of its colours; the perianth, or calyx, 
 being usually rougher, and thicker, and of a green co- 
 lour. But to this rule there are many exceptions. Thus, 
 in Bartsia*, the perianth is coloured, even more so than 
 the corolla. The perianth of Fuschia coccinea is a bright 
 scarlet: the corolla, indigo coloured. The perianth of 
 Dombeya lappaceaf, before the opening of the flower, is 
 of a crimson colour. It afterwards becomes green. The 
 corolla is of a brownish-violet colour. Moreover, the 
 corolla of Daphne Laureola is green. The calyx is 
 painted. The perianth and the corolla of Bignonia ra- 
 dicans (Trumpet-flower), are both of the same colour. 
 It is necessary, then, to have recourse to other marks, by 
 which these two parts of the fructification may be accu- 
 rately discriminated from each other. 
 
 * See Plate IV. 
 
 f See a figure and description of this plant, in the Stirpes Navte of L'Heritiex. 
 
 "Fuse. II. p. 33. 34. pi. xvix 
 
128 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Linnaeus makes the distinction between the corolla 
 and the perianth to consist in this circumstance, that 
 the former has its segments, or petals, disposed alter- 
 nately with the stamens; whereas the perianth has its 
 parts, or leaflets, arranged opposite to the stamens. 
 '* This rule, says Dr. Milne, " determines with preci- 
 " sion, in such flowers as want either the calix,or petals. 
 " Thus, in Pellitory, Wild Orach, and Nettle, one of the 
 44 two covers is wanting. Which is it? Am I to infer 
 " that the single cover present is the corolla, because the 
 " finer and more principal part? Nothing would be more 
 " erroneous than such an inference; many flowers, as 
 " Water- Purslane, Ruellia, and Bell-flower, which ge- 
 '' nerally have both covers, are found occasionally to 
 " lose the petals, but never the calix. How then, am I 
 44 to proceed? Apply the rule mentioned above. I do so, 
 " and finding the divisions of the only cover that is pre- 
 44 sent, to stand opposite to the stamina, I conclude that 
 44 cover to be the calix. 
 
 44 That the rule just mentioned, is founded in the 
 C4 natural situation of the parts in question, will appear, 
 44 by examining any number of complete flowers in the 
 44 fourth and fifth classes of Linnseus's Sexual Method. 
 44 In the former of these classes, the number four, in 
 M the other, the number five, is predominant; and, as 
 44 both covers are present, the opposition and alterna- 
 44 tion alluded to, becomes distinctly visible*." 
 
 Notwithstanding what has been said, there is, 
 on many occasions, a great difficulty in distinguishing 
 
 * Milne's Botanical Dictionary. &c. art. Corolla. See, also, Philosophia Bo- 
 tanica, &c. p. 57, 58. $. 90. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 129 
 
 the corolla from the perianth. Linnaeus himself con- 
 fesses, that Nature does not seem to have placed any 
 absolute limits between the calyx and the corolla*. 
 This, I think, must be admitted as a well-founded po- 
 sition; especially if it be not true, that the calyx is exclu- 
 sively derived from the outer, and the corolla from the 
 inner, bark. 
 
 The learned Mr. A. L. De Jussieu, defines the co- 
 rolla to be that cover of the flower, " which is surround- 
 " ed by the calyx, or very rarely naked; is a continu- 
 " ation of the liber, or inner bark, and not of the cor- 
 " tex or outer bark, of the peduncle; is not permanent, 
 " but commonly falls oft' with the stamens; which in- 
 " volves or crowns the fruit, but never grows fast to it; 
 " and which almost always has its segments, or divisions, 
 M ranged alternately with the stamens." From this view 
 of the subject, the painted petals of the Narcissus are 
 regarded by Jussieu, as a true perianth; as, indeed, 
 Tournefortf had taught a long time ago; and by the same 
 rule, the Hyacinth, and other liliaceous plants very near- 
 ly allied to the Narcissus, are furnished with a perianth, 
 but are destitute of the corolla^:. 
 
 Mr . Ada n son, a botanist of great learning, has also 
 observed, that in the liliaceous plants, what is called by 
 Linnaeus the corolla, is, in reality, a perianth, according 
 to the very principles of the Swedish naturalist. 
 
 * " Limites inter Calycem &. Corollam absolutos, naturam non posuisse ; 
 " patet ex Daphnide, ubi connata ambo, & margine omnino unita, veiuti folium 
 Buxi." Philosophia Botanica, Sec. p. 58. fy. 90. 
 
 t Isagoge in Rem Herbariam. p. 72. 
 
 | Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita, 8cc. Introductio. 
 p. xiil. ParisiU : 1789. 
 
 S 
 
130 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Linnaeus has not only acknowledged the difficulty 
 of distinguishing the calyx from the corolla, but in his 
 different works, he has confounded these two parts with 
 each other. Thus, in his Genera Plant arum, that part 
 which he names the corolla of Rhamnus, he denominates 
 the calyx in the Systema Vegetabilium. Again, in his 
 Genera, he calls the cover of Polygonum a calyx, or pe- 
 rianth; but in the Systema Vegetabilium, he calls it the 
 corolla. Other instances, of a like kind, might be point- 
 ed out. I may add, that Linnaeus calls the cover of Phy- 
 tolacca*, the corolla. But this cover is, unquestionably, 
 a calyx, if any regard be due to the Linnaean rule of the 
 relative disposition of the stamens, and the parts of the 
 cover. 
 
 Sensible of the great difficulty which not unfre- 
 quently occurs in distinguishing the corolla from the 
 calyx, the late learned Nat. Jos. De Necker, has calledf 
 both the corolla and the calyx by one name, viz. Peri- 
 gynanda%, a name derived from the Greek, and signifies 
 the envelope, the cover, or wrapper of the stamens, and 
 the pistils. Our author distinguishes the perigynanda, 
 when there are two covers, into the outer and the inner. 
 The inner answers to the corolla, and the outer to the 
 calyx of Linnaeus. 
 
 He d wig, who is generally supposed to have dispro- 
 ved the ideas of Linnaeus, concerning the origin of the 
 calyx and corolla, from the outer and the inner bark of 
 
 • See Plate XVII. Fig. 4. A. B. 
 
 f In his Corollarium ad Philosophiam Botanicam Linnxi spectans, &c. Sec. 
 in his Phytozoologie Philosophique, &.c. and other works. 
 
 \ Perigynanda, from mfi, around, y«»»j, a woman, and «»np a man. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 131 
 
 the stem, denotes both the calyx and the corolla, by the 
 name of Perigonii/m*. When there are two coverings 
 (the calyx and corolla of Linnaeus), he designates one 
 by the name of the ?;7?fr?ztf/perigonium,and the other by 
 the name of the external \)er\gomum. When there are 
 three covers, as is the case in Morina, several malvace- 
 ous plants, &c. he calls the third one, the intermediate 
 perigonium. 
 
 I have said, that "the corolla, according to Lin- 
 " nseus, consists of two parts, viz. the Pet alum, or Pe- 
 " tal, and the Nectarium, or Nectary." 
 
 The petal constitutes the principal part of the co- 
 rolla. It surrounds both the stamens and the pistils, or 
 the male and female organs of generation. It consists of 
 one or more pieces. 
 
 According to the number of its petals, the corolla 
 has received the following names. 1. corolla monopetala, 
 one-petalled, or monopetalous, consisting of only one 
 petal; as in Convolvulusf , Tobaccof , and many others. 
 2. corolla dipetala, dipetalous, or two-petalled; as 
 in Commelina**, Circaea, and others. 3. corolla tripe- 
 tala, three-petalled; consisting of three distinct petals; 
 as in Sagittariaft> Alisma, &c. 4. corolla tetrapctala, 
 tetrapetalous, or four-petalled; as in the plants of the 
 class Tetradynamia. 5. corolla pentapctala, or five- 
 petalled; consisting of five distinct petals; as in Marsh- 
 
 * Perigonium, from Ti£i, aboiU, and yavoj, seed. 
 
 t See Plate XI. Fig. 3. J See Plate XI. Fig. 1. 
 
 ** See Plate X. Fig. 1 . ft See Plate XVIII. 
 
152 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Marygold, the Umbellata, he. 6. corolla hexapeta- 
 la y hexapetalous; or six-petalled; consisting of six 
 petals; as in Lily, Tulip, Amaryllis, Pancratium, &c. 
 7. corolla polypetala, polypetalous, consisting of many 
 petals. (This term is sometimes used by Linnaeus, in 
 opposition to the term monopetalous. By many writers, 
 it has been put for a corolla of more than six petals). 
 Of the polypetalous plants, some have nine petals, as the 
 Liriodendron; and some an indefinite number, as Wa- 
 ter-Lily, and Globe-Ranunculus. 
 
 When the corolla consists of only one piece, as in 
 the monopetalous corolla, the whole corolla, in the Lin- 
 naean sense of the word, is a petal. 
 
 A flower which has no petals, or corolla, is termed 
 by the botanists, apetalus, or apetalusflos, an apetalous 
 flower. This term was adopted by Linnaeus, from Tour- 
 nefort. It is equivalent to the term imperftctus, or im- 
 perfect, of Rivinus, Knaut, and Pontedera: the term 
 stamineus of Ray; the incompletus of Vaillant; and the 
 capillaceus of some other botanists. 
 
 The existence of apetalous flowers has been denied 
 by Christian KnautJ. But we well know, that there are 
 not a few vegetables whose flowers are entirely destitute 
 of the petals. If the notions of Mr. Jussieu and some 
 other botanists, concerning the calyx and the corolla, be 
 admitted as just, it must then be granted, that very 
 many plants, and some of them the most beautiful with 
 which we are acquainted, are strictly, apetalous. 
 
 \ In his Methodus Phmarum genuina. Hal!?e : 1716- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 133 
 
 The number of petals of which a corolla consists is 
 determined from the base of the corolla. The rule of 
 Rivinus is to reckon as many petals, as the parts into 
 which the flower, when it falls, resolves itself. This cri- 
 terion will, in most instances, be found very exact. But, 
 in some instances, it is found to be insufficient for our 
 purpose. For the corolla of the Vaccinium Oxycoccos, 
 or Cranberry, is unquestionably, only one-petalled; but 
 this flower, upon falling, resolves itself into four distinct 
 leaves. From the difficulty that occurs, in some instan- 
 ces of determining, whether a corolla consists of one or 
 more petals, we find that Tournefort reckons the corolla 
 of the Mallow-tribe of plants, monopetalous; whilst 
 Linnaeus considers it as pentapetalous. 
 
 a. Different names are assigned to different parts of 
 the corolla. Such are the following. 1. The tubus, or 
 tube, is the lower part of a monopetalous corolla ; as in To- 
 bacco, &c. 2. The unguis, or claw, is the lower part of a 
 many-petalled corolla, by which it is fixed to the recep- 
 tacle; as in Lily, &c. 3. The limbus, or limb, is the 
 border, or upper dilated part, of a monopetalous corolla. 
 4. The lamina, or border, the upper, spreading part of a 
 many-petalled corolla. (Linnaeus has not uniformly used 
 the term limbus, in one sense: for he sometimes em- 
 ploys it for the dilated part of a many-petalled corolla). 
 
 b. In regard to its divisions, the corolla is, 1. bifida, 
 bifid, or two-cleft; when each petal is divided into two; 
 as in Chickweed,and Enchanters-Nightshade^ 2. trifida, 
 three-cleft; w r hen each petal is divided into three parts; as 
 inHolosteum,andHypecoum. 3. tetrafida, four-cleft; as 
 in Cucubalus*. 4. quinquefida, nvc-cleft; as in Basard- 
 
 * See Plate XVII. Fig. 3. 
 
134 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Rocket. 5. multijida, many- cleft; as in Convolvulus 
 Soldanella. (This term is equivalent to the term laci- 
 niatus flos of Tournefort.) 6. bipartita, two-parted; 
 simple, but divided almost down to the base. 7. tripar- 
 tita, three-parted, simple, but divided into three parts, 
 almost down to the base. 8. laciniata, laciniated; divi- 
 ded into segments. 
 
 c. In respect to equality, the corolla is, 1. regular is, 
 regular; equal in the figure, size, and proportion of the 
 parts; as in Privet, Lilac, Jasmin, &c. 2. irregularis, 
 irregular; when the parts of the limb differ in figure, 
 magnitude, or proportion; as in Aconite, Lupin, and 
 Dead-Nettie. 3. intequalis, unequal; having the parts 
 corresponding, not in size, but in proportion ; as in Bu- 
 tomus umbellatus*. 4. cequalis, equal; when the petals 
 are of the same size and figure; as in Primula, Limo- 
 sella, &c. (There does not appear to be any essential dif- 
 ference between the ternis tequalis and regularis: and, 
 perhaps, as Dr. Martyn observes, the term regular ex- 
 presses the idea better). 5. difformis, difform, anoma- 
 lous, or irregular; when the petals, or their segments, 
 are of different forms. 
 
 d. In respect to figure, the corolla is, 1. globosa, glo- 
 bose, globular, or spherical; round like a ball; as in 
 Trollius, or Globe-Ranunculus. 2. campanulata, cam- 
 panulate, bell-shaped, or bell-formed; swelling or bel- 
 lying out, without any tube; as in the Campanula, 
 Convolvulusf, Atropa, and many others. (This term is, 
 
 * See Plate XVI. Fig. 3. According to Jussieu, the cover of Butomusis a 
 Cftlyx, or perianth. 
 
 \ See Plate XI. Fig. 3. 
 
// 
 
 ELEiMENTS OF BOTANY. 135 
 
 in strict propriety, applied to the monopetalous corol- 
 las only: yet, sometimes, it is extended also to flow 
 that are polypetalous. 3. infundibuliformis, funnel-sha- 
 ped; having a conical border rising from a tube; as in 
 Lithospcrmum, Stramonium, Henbane, Tobacco*, and 
 many others. 4. hypocrateriformis, salver-shaped; ri- 
 sing from a tube with a flat border; as in some of the 
 plants called Asperifolics; in Diapensia, Aretia, Andro- 
 sace, Hottonia, Phlox, Samolus, &c. 5. rotata, wheel- 
 shaped; spreading flat without any tube; as in Borago, 
 Veronicaf, PhysalisJ, Verbascum, and others. 6. cya- 
 f/6zybrmz\?, cyathiform, glass -shaped, or cup-shaped; cy- 
 lindrical, but widening a little at the top. 7. urceolata, 
 pitcher-shaped; bellying-out like a pitcher. 8. ringens, 
 ringent, irregular, gaping with two distinct lips; a one- 
 petalled corolla, the border of which is commonly di- 
 vided into two parts, to which the botanists have given 
 the names of upper and lower lip. The former is some- 
 times called the galea, or helmet: the latter, the barb a, 
 or beard. The opening between the two lips is named 
 rictus, or the gap: the opening of the tube, faux, the 
 throat or jaws: the prominent swelling in the throat, 
 palatum, or the palate; and the upper part of the tube, 
 collum, or the neck. Most of the flowers in the xivth 
 class of the Sexual System, Didynamia, are furnished 
 with this species of corolla**. 9.personata, personate, 
 or masked : said, by Linnaeus, to be a species of ringent 
 corolla, but closed between the lips by the palate. " But 
 " surely (as Dr. Marty n observes), ringent, or gaping 
 
 • See Plate XI. Fig. 1. 
 t See Plate IX. Fig 2. 
 \ See Plate XI. Fig. 2. 
 "• See Plate XIX. Fig. 1. 
 
156 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 tk with the lips closed, is a contradiction in terms. It 
 " would be better to define it, a species of labiate co- 
 \ 4 rolla, which has the lip closed." 10. cruciata or cruci- 
 formis, cruciform or cross-shaped; consisting of four 
 equal petals, which spread out in form of a cross. This 
 species of corolla is exemplified in most of the plants of 
 Linnaeus's xvth class, Tetr adynamia* . 11. papiliona- 
 cea, papilionaceous, or Butterfly- shaped; irregular, and 
 most commonly consisting of four petals, to which Lin- 
 naeus has given three different names : viz. the carina,the 
 °u ex ilium, and the alae. The carina, or keel, is the 
 lower petal, which is shaped somewhat like a boat; the 
 vexillum, or standard, is the upper petal, which spreads 
 and rises upwards; and the alae, or wings, are the two 
 lateral petals, which stand singly, being separated by 
 the keel. 12. rosacea, rosaceous, or rose-like; consist- 
 ing of four or more regular petals, which are inserted 
 into the receptacle, by a short and broad claw; as in the 
 Wild- Rose. (To plants which are furnished with this 
 species of corolla, Tournefort has given the name of 
 Rosacei. They constitute his sixth class.) 13. undulata, 
 waved or undulated ; the surface rising and falling in 
 waves, or obtusely, not in angles ; as in Gloriosa super- 
 ba, and Gloriosa simplex. 14. plicata plaited; or fold- 
 ed like a fan; as in Convolvulus. 15. rcuoluta, revolute, 
 rolled back or downwards; having the petals rolled back; 
 as in Asparagus, Medeolaf, and LiliumJ. 16. torta, 
 twisted; as in Nerium, Asclepias, Vinca, &c. 
 
 e. In respect to its margin, the corolla is, 1. crenata, 
 crenate; as in Linum, Dianthus chinensis, &c. 2. ser- 
 
 * See Plate XIX. Fig. 3. f See Plate XIV. 
 
 $ See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 137 
 
 rata, serrate; as inTilia, Alisma, &c. 3. ciliata, ciliate; 
 as in Rue, Menyanthes, Tropoeolum, Gentiana ciliata, 
 &c. (These terms have already been explained, under 
 the head of the nomenclature of leaves)*. 
 
 f. In respect to its surface, the corolla is, 1. mllosa, 
 villose. 2. tomentosa, tomentose. 3. sericea, silky, or 
 covered with very soft hairs, pressed close to the sur- 
 face. 4. pilosa, hairy. 5. barb at a, bearded; as in Dian- 
 thus barbatus. 6.imberbis, beardless: opposed to beard- 
 ed. 7. cristata, crested; furnished with an appendage, 
 like a crest or tuft; as in Polygala, Iris cristata, &c. 
 
 g. In respect to its proportion, the corolla is, 1. longis- 
 sima, very long; several times longer than the calyx; as 
 in Lobelia longiflora, &c. 2. bremssima, very short; not 
 as long as the calyx; as in Sagina procumbens, &c. 
 
 h. In respect to its situation, the corolla is, 1. su- 
 per a, superior; having its receptacle above the germ. 
 2. infer a, inferior; having its receptacle below the germ. 
 
 i. In point of duration, the corolla is, 1. caduca, ca- 
 ducous; continuing only until the expansion of the flow- 
 er, and then falling off; as in Herb-Christopher, and 
 Meadow-Rue. 2. decidua, deciduous; when the petals 
 fall off with the rest of the flower. 3. persistens, perma- 
 nent; continuing until the fruit has attained to maturity; 
 as in Water-Lily. 4. marcescens, withering or shrivel- 
 ling; withering on the stalk, without dropping; as in 
 Campanula, Orchis, Cucumber, Gourd, Bryony, &c. 
 
 * See pages 32, 33. 
 
138 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 In some plants, even of the same species, the corolla 
 is very caducous, or transitory; in others, it is more per- 
 manent. We are not acquainted with all the circumstan- 
 stances which thus essentially vary the longevity of the 
 corolla. It is, however, a well known fact, that double- 
 flowers, in general, last much longer than single ones. 
 Thus, in single Poppies, the corolla falls off in a few 
 hours, whilst in double ones it lasts for several days*. 
 The double blossoms of the Cherry last much longer 
 than the single blossoms of the same tree. It would, 
 indeed, seem to be a general law of nature, that a longer 
 duration of life is conceded to those vegetables, as well 
 as animals, which are prohibited by their structure, or 
 other circumstances, from the function of generation. 
 In double blossoms, the organs of generation being obli- 
 terated, impregnation cannot take place; but in single 
 blossoms, the parts being perfect, there is no obstacle 
 to the generative act. In like manner, we find that the 
 mule, which (in general at least) is not fertile, lives longer 
 than the horse or the ass, by which he is begotten; and 
 it has, long since, been observed, that the term of life of 
 the locust and other species of insects, as well as of va- 
 rious species of birds, may be very considerably protrac- 
 ted, by prohibiting them from all intercourse with their 
 respective females. 
 
 k. In respect to its composition, the corolla is, 1. com- 
 posita, compound; consisting of several florets, included 
 within a common perianth, and sitting upon a common 
 receptacle; as in the plants of the class Syngenesia. 2. 
 ligulata, ligulate, or strap-shaped; when the florets 
 have their corollets flat, spreading out towards the end, 
 
 
 * Dr. James Edward Smith. £f \ 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 139 
 
 with the base only tubular; as in the plants of the first 
 order of Syngenesia*. 3. tubulata, tubulous; when all 
 the corollets of the florets are tubular, and nearly equal. 
 4. radiata, radiate, consisting of a disk, in which the 
 corollets or florets are tubular and also regular; and 
 of a ray, in which the florets are irregular, and common- 
 ly ligulate. 
 
 /. In regard to its colour, the corolla of different vege- 
 tables assumes almost every known colour. 
 
 Linn-AEus, ever in pursuit of analogies, has distin- 
 guished the corolla by the name oiauleum floris, or pa- 
 lace in which the nuptials of the plant are celebrated. 
 But this species of language teaches us nothing very de- 
 terminate concerning the uses of the corolla. Our author 
 has also observed, that the corolla serves as wings to waft 
 the flower about, and thus to assist in the business of 
 impregnation. 
 
 It seems highly probable, that one use, among 
 others, of the corolla, is that of sheltering and defending 
 the stamens and other important parts, which are situa- 
 ted within this beautiful structure. But it is by no means 
 probable, that this is the only use of the corolla. 
 
 Sprengel observes, that the corolla is "an attrac- 
 " tion to insects, and a convenient seat or bed for them 
 " while extracting the honey, and promoting the im- 
 " pregnation of the flowerf." But who will seriously 
 believe, that Nature has exerted so much care and skill 
 in the construction of the beautiful petals of flowers, 
 
 * See Plate XXII. 
 
 t Sprengel, as quoted by Dr. J. E. Smith. 
 
140 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 merely to form a palace for insects, whilst they are aid- 
 ing in a work, which, in innumerable instances, is fully 
 accomplished without the least of insectile aid? 
 
 Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that the corolla forms a 
 pulmonary system " totally independent of the green 
 " foliage," and that this respiratory system belongs to 
 the sexual or amatorial parts of the fructification only! 
 He asserts, that each petal is furnished with an artery, 
 " which conveys the vegetable blood to its extremities, 
 " exposing it to the light and air under a delicate moist 
 M membrane, covering the internal surface of the petal, 
 " where it often changes its colour, as is beautifully 
 u seen in some party-coloured Poppies, though it is 
 " probable (he observes) that some of the iridescent 
 " colours of flowers may be owing to the different de- 
 " grees of tenuity of the exterior membrane of the pe- 
 " tal, refracting the light like soap-bubbles. 
 
 " The vegetable blood (continues our learned au- 
 " thor) is then collected at the corol-arteries, and re- 
 " turned by correspondent veins, exactly as in the green 
 " foliage, for the sustenance of the anthers, and stigmas, 
 " and for the important secretions of honey, wax, essen- 
 " tial oil, and the prolific dust of the anthers, and thus 
 " constitutes a pulmonary organ." 
 
 In support of this opinion, Dr. Darwin has adduced 
 several very ingenious arguments, for the full exposition 
 of which, I must refer to his Phytologia*, a work re- 
 plete with learning, and marked, in every page, with the 
 genius of the British Lucretius. It must be con* 
 
 * Sect. IV. . « 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 141 
 
 fessed, however, that much of mere hypothesis is attach- 
 ed to Darwin's observations, concerning the uses of the 
 parts of vegetables. He has too frequently assumed as 
 points completely established, points that are still invol- 
 ved in great uncertainty. Thus, a fundamental part of 
 this author's reasoning concerning the use of the corolla 
 is the assumption of the fact, that in this part of the fruc- 
 tification, there is a two-fold system of vessels, corres- 
 ponding to the pulmonary artery and veins of animals. 
 Now, many experiments, which I have made, compel 
 me to entertain some doubts relative to the existence of 
 an arterial and venal system in the corolla. What I have 
 already said concerning the leaves*, may, with equal 
 propriety, be extended to the corolla. I have often suc- 
 ceeded in colouring this part of the plant, with the juice 
 of the Phytolacca, and other colouring matters : but I 
 have not been able to convince myself, that the colour- 
 ing matter is exclusively carried, in the first instance, 
 along the upper surface of the corolla; and I never could 
 decidedly perceive, that it was returned by a venous 
 system, on the under side of the petals. I do not mean, 
 however, to deny the existence of arteries and veins in 
 the corolla. I wish to proceed with cauticn. 
 
 Many experiments remain to be made, before the 
 uses of the corolla can be completely demonstrated, to 
 the satisfaction of naturalists and philosophers. I am 
 disposed, in the meanwhile, to believe, that both this 
 part and the calyx are essentially concerned in the office 
 of vegetable respiration. Indeed, as nature does not 
 seem to have drawn any certain line of discrimination 
 between the calyx and the corolla, it must, perhaps, be 
 
 $ 
 
 * See pages 57 — 59. 
 
142 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 admitted, that both of these parts perform the same 
 office, whatever that office may be. 
 
 I have already particularly mentioned the curious 
 fact of the longer duration of the double flowers, than 
 of single flowers, in the same species of plant. The in- 
 genious Dr. Smith thinks it probable, that this circum- 
 stance, "combined with other observations," may "lead 
 " to a discovery of the real use of the corolla of plants, 
 " and the share it has in the impregnation*." I shall 
 not pretend to determine, how far there may be a solid 
 foundation for this idea. But the fact itself is very inte- 
 resting, and will be again reverted to, in the sections on 
 vegetable life and generation! . 
 
 The importance of the corolla, as an organ essenti- 
 ally concerned in the business of respiration, or in that 
 of impregnation, is, perhaps, somewhat diminished by 
 the following fact. Many plants, in certain situations 
 of climate, heat, &c. are observed to drop all, or the 
 greater number of, their petals ; and yet their seeds ripen, 
 and come to full perfection. Such flowers are called 
 mutilated flowers (miitilus flosj , and their mutilation 
 has generally been ascribed to the agency of heat. This 
 is, doubtless, a frequent cause of the falling of the petals 
 of plants. But it cannot be the only cause: for some of 
 the plants which are natives of warm and temperate cli- 
 mates, are observed to drop their petals in cold climates. 
 Indeed, Linnaeus has asserted, that the falling of the pe- 
 tals is generally owing to a deficiency of the requisite 
 
 * Philosophical Transactions, for 1788. See, also, Tracts relating to Natural 
 History, p. 177, 178. London : 1798. 
 
 t See Part II. «* • J 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 143 
 
 heat*. He mentions the following plants as instances of 
 Jlores mutilati: viz. Ipomoea hepaticaefolia, Campanu- 
 la Pentagonia, Ruellia clandestina, Violse (Violets of 
 various species), Tussilago Anandria, and Lychnis 
 apetala. To this list may be added the following plants, 
 viz. Campanula perfoliata, Salvia verbenaca, Silene por- 
 tensis, Cistus salicifolius, Cistus guttatus, Lamium 
 amplexicaule, and many others. 
 
 The learned Mr. Adanson informs us, that the fol- 
 lowing plants lose their petals at Paris, viz. Glaux ma- 
 ritima, Peplis, and Ammannia. 
 
 In investigating the characters of vegetables, a 
 knowledge of the various forms and appearances that are 
 assumed by the calyx and the corolla, is indispensibly 
 necessary. As this subject will be more particularly 
 treated of in a future part of this workf, it is the less 
 necessary to dwell upon it in this place. 
 
 In drawing the generic characters of vegetables, the 
 different species of calyx and corolla are constantly at- 
 tended to by Linnaeus, and all other modern botanists. 
 In many instances, these parts even afford excellent 
 marks for the discrimination of the species. 
 
 Neither the calyx nor the corolla are ever essenti- 
 ally regarded by Linnaeus in the classical or ordinal cha- 
 racters of his Sexual System. It is to be observed, how- 
 ever, that this illustrious naturalist has founded a method 
 of plants exclusively upon the form and other circum- 
 stances of the calyx. To this method, which he publish- 
 
 * Philosophia Botaoica^&c P- 79, 8o- \ .119- 
 t See Part III 
 
144 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ed in 1737, he has given the name of metbodus calycina. 
 The method of Magnol, a Professor, at Montpelier, can 
 hardly be called a method founded on the calyx. Lin- 
 naeus, however, mentions Magnol, along with himself, 
 among the Calycist^e, or those botanists who have 
 founded their classes upon the calyx. 
 
 With respect to the corolla, many botanists have 
 founded the classes, or primary divisions, of their sys- 
 tems, entirely upon the regularity, the figure, the num- 
 ber, and other circumstances of the petals. The most 
 celebrated systems of this kind, are those of Augustus 
 Quirinus Rivinus, and Joseph Pitton Tournefort. 
 
 The method of Rivinus proceeds upon the circum- 
 stance of the regularity and the number of the petals. 
 That of Tournefort is founded upon the figure and regu- 
 larity of the petal. Both of these methods are now uni- 
 versally neglected. They have given way, in the revolu- 
 tions of science, to the more difficult Sexual System of 
 Linnaeus. But genuine botanists will continue to re- 
 gard, with some attention, the arrangements of these 
 CorollistjE, as Linnaeus is pleased to denominate 
 them*. System is a slippery thing. The time may again 
 arrive, when the method of Tournefort will maintain a 
 station, if not as elevated as it once did, at least much 
 more elevated than it does at present. The Sexual 
 System of LinnjEus cannot be immortal. It 
 will, at some future period, be deserted for 
 a system more agreeable to the scheme or in- 
 tentions, of nature. 
 
 * Linnaeus has given this name (which, it is evident, is derived from the 
 •word corolla), to those systematic botanists, who have distributed vegetables ac- 
 cording to the regularity, the figure, and other circumstances, of the corolla. Sorae 
 of the most eminent botanists have been Corollistx. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 145 
 
 §. III. 
 
 It has already been observed, that the corolla, ac- 
 cording to Linnaeus, consists of two parts, the Petal, 
 and the Nectarium, or the Nectary*. Of this last-men- 
 tioned part I am now to give some account. 
 
 Linnjeus defines the nectary " the melliferous part 
 " of the vegetable, peculiar to the flower." According 
 to our author, it secretes or contains a peculiar fluid, the 
 honey of the plant, which constitutes the principal food 
 of bees, and various other species of insects. 
 
 The Swedish naturalist assumes to himself the ho- 
 nour of having first recognized this part in the vege- 
 table structure. " Nectarium (says he) ne nomine 
 " notum erat, antequam idem determinavimust. ,, But 
 it is certain, that both Tournefort and Sebastian Vail- 
 lanthad noticed the nectary in certain species of plants; 
 the first of these celebrated men before the birth of Lin- 
 naeus, and the last when the Swede was not more than 
 ten years old. In 1694, Tournefort observed the nectary 
 in the Passion-flower, the Asclepias,or Swallow- wort, and 
 some other plants; and in 1718, Vaillant, who was both 
 a man of genius and an able botanist, noticed it, and re- 
 garded it as a part depending upon the corolla, or petals; 
 but which did not, in his opinion, merit any particular 
 appellation. 
 
 •Seepages 127, 131. 
 
 t Philosophia Botanica^ &c. p. 125. \. 181. 
 
 U 
 
146 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 To the part of which I am speaking, the English 
 writers have given different names. By some*, it has 
 been called the "honey-cup." But this name can- 
 not, with propriety, be applied to every species of nec- 
 tarium, since, in many plants, this part bears no resem- 
 blance whatever to a cup, or vessel of any kind. To the 
 term nectary, as a generic term equivalent to the Latin 
 nectariumf, there is less objection, especially as the 
 word nectar, applied to a sweet or honied liquor, is so fa- 
 miliar in the English language; as are also, the words 
 " nectared," " nectareous," and" nectarine. " Thus,in 
 the following lines, the greatest of the English poets 
 uses the word " nectared." 
 
 " How charming is divine philosophy ! 
 
 " Not harsh and crabbed, as dull fools suppose, 
 
 " But musical as is Apollo's lute, 
 
 a And a perpetual feast of nectar 'd sweets, 
 
 " Where no crude surfeit reigns." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 a. The nectary assumes a variety of forms, in different 
 species of vegetables. Thus, 1. in many flowers, it is 
 shaped like a horn, or the spur of a cock. This is the 
 nectarium calcaratum, corniculatum, or cornutum, the 
 spurred, spur-shaped, or horned nectary; of which we 
 have examples in the following vegetables, viz. Vale- 
 rian, Water-Milfoil, Butter-wort, Calves-snout, Lark- 
 spur, Violet, Fumatory, Balsam, and Orchis. 2. The 
 nectarium scrotiforme, or purse-like nectary, is some- 
 what globular, with a depressed line in the middle. 3. 
 vectarium ovatwn, or ovate nectary. 4. nectarium tur~ 
 
 * Dr. Darwin, &.C. 
 
 f " Those who prefer the Latin termination, use nectaria in the plural, 
 " which is not English. Why do they not uszjilamenta, stigmata, &c ?" Profes- 
 sor Martyn. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 147 
 
 binatum, or turbinate nectary; and, 5. nectarium cari- 
 natum, or keeled nectary. This kind of nectary, being 
 entirely distinct from the petals, is denominated necta- 
 rium proprium, or proper nectary. 
 
 b. In some plants, the nectary is really apart of the 
 corolla, since it lies within the substance of the petals. 
 The following plants are instances of this kind of nec- 
 tary, viz. Fritillaria, Lilium, Swertia, Iris, Hermannia, 
 Uvularia, Hydrophyllum, Myosurus, Ranunculus, Bro- 
 melia,Erythronium, Berberis,and the wonderful Vallis- 
 neria. This is what Linnaeus calls nectarium petalli- 
 num, or petalline nectary. 
 
 c. In many plants, the nectary is placed in a series or 
 row, within the petals, or corolla, and yet is entirely 
 unconnected with their substance. A nectary of this 
 kind is said, by Linnaeus, to crown the corolla. The 
 following plants, among many others, furnish examples 
 of this kind of nectary, viz. Passiflora*, Narcissus, 
 Pancratium, Olax, Lychnis, Silene, Stapelia, Asclepias, 
 Cynanchum, Nepenthes, Cherleria, Clusia, Hamamelis, 
 Diosma. 
 
 d. In the following plants, the nectary is situated 
 upon, and makes a part of, the calyx, instead of the 
 corolla: viz. Tropaeolum, Monotropa, Biscutella, and 
 Malpighia. This is the nectarium calycinum, or caly- 
 cine nectary. 
 
 e. In some plants, the nectary is situated upon the 
 anthers, or summits of the stamens. Hence one of these 
 
 ♦ See Plate XXV. 
 
148 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 plants, the Bastard flower-fence of the English, has re- 
 ceived the generic name of Adenanthera. 
 
 f. The nectary of many plants is placed upon the fila- 
 ments. This is the case in Laurus, Dictamnus, Zygo- 
 phyllum, Commelina*, Mirabilis, Plumbago, Campa- 
 nula, Roella, and others. 
 
 g. In the following plants, the nectary is placed upon 
 the germ, or seed-bud: viz. Hyacinth, Flowering- Rush, 
 Stock July-flower, and Rocket. This is the nectarium 
 pistillaceum, or pistillaceous nectary. 
 
 Jb. In Honey-flower, Orpine, Buck-wheat, Collinsonia, 
 or Horse-weed; Lathraea, Navel-wort, Mercury, Clutia, 
 Kiggelaria, Sea-side Laurel, and several others, the nec- 
 tary is placed upon, or attached to, the common recep- 
 tacle. This is the nectarium receptaculaceum, or recep- 
 tacular nectary. 
 
 i. Linnjeus considers, as a true nectarium, the 
 tube, or lower part, of the monopetalous or one-petalled 
 flowers, such as Datura, Nicotiana, &c. because, in ge- 
 neral, this part contains, and probably forms, a sweet or 
 honied liquor, which constitutes one of the alimentary 
 articles of bees, phalaenae, and other insects. 
 
 k. In many plants, such as Ginger, Turmerick, Re- 
 seda, Grewia, Nettle, Bastard Orpine, Vanilla, Wil- 
 low, &c. the nectary is of a singular construction, and 
 cannot, with propriety, be referred to any of the prece- 
 ding heads. 
 
 * See Plate X. Fig. 1. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. H9 
 
 LinnJEus affirms, that those plants which have their 
 nectary distinct from the petals, that is, not lodged 
 within the substance of the petals, are generally poison- 
 ous. The following plants are adduced as examples of 
 this observation: viz. Monkshood, Hellebore, Colum- 
 bine, Fennel-flower, Parnassia, Barren-wort, Oleander, 
 Marvel of Peru, Bean- Caper, Succulent Swallow- wort, 
 Fraxinella, and Honey-flower. 
 
 Some of these plants are, indeed, poisonous, such as 
 Monkshood, Oleander, Hellebore, &c. But, I am in- 
 clined to think, that the observation of Linnaeus is not 
 of much practical importance; since it is certain, that 
 some of the plants which he has introduced into the list 
 are by no means highly deleterious; and their honey 
 does not seem to contain any noxious quality. F. A. 
 Cartheuser, a long time ago, denied the truth of the Lin- 
 nsean position. S. A. Spielmann asserts, that there is 
 nothing poisonous in the flowers of the Aconitum, or 
 Monkshood*. Certain it is, that bees extract the honey 
 of this plant, as they do also from the nectaries of Aqui- 
 legia vulgaris, and Aquilegia canadensis, or Common, 
 and Canadian Columbine. It must, however, be admit- 
 ted, that we cannot safely infer the innocent nature of a 
 vegetable, because bees extract, and receive no injury 
 from, the honey of such vegetable. 
 
 It has always appeared to me, that the Swedish na- 
 turalist has been less happy, and has discovered less 
 talent and precision in 1 his history of the nectary, than 
 in his account of most of the other parts of the vege- 
 table. Notwithstanding his assertion, that the nectary 
 
 * De Aconito. Argcntorati : 1769. 8vo. 4 
 
150 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 is a part of the corolla, it is certain, that all flowers are 
 not provided with this organ or appendage, and in many 
 plants which are provided with it, there is no immedi- 
 ate connection whatever between it and the corolla. 
 44 Linnaeus (to use the words of a very sensible botanist) 
 14 might, with equal propriety, have termed it (the nec- 
 44 tary) a part or appendage of the stamina, calix, or poin- 
 44 tal, as the appearance in question is confined to no par- 
 44 ticular part of the flower, but is as various in point of 
 44 situation, as of form. The truth is, the term nectarium 
 44 is exceedingly vague; and, if any determinate mean- 
 44 ing can be affixed to it, is expressive of all the singu- 
 44 larities which are observed in the different parts of 
 44 flowers*." 
 
 Dr. Smith observes, that 44 Linnaeus called every 
 44 thing, not calyx, petals, or organs of propagation, 
 44 nectariumf." It may be added, that what the Swe- 
 dish naturalist calls nectaria, some other writers have 
 thought proper to denominate petals. Thus, Vail- 
 lant denominated the nectaries of the Nigella and Aqui- 
 legia, petals. The coloured leaves of these plants, which 
 are now regarded as petals, the French botanist called 
 the calyx, or flower-cup. G. C. Oeder follows Vaillant, 
 in considering the nectaries of many of the plants of the 
 class Polyandria, as petals. Moenich calls these spur- 
 red or horned nectaries, of which I am speaking, para- 
 petala. Linnaeus has, moreover, sometimes called the 
 abortive or infertile stamens of certain plants, nectaria. 
 In this respect, Mr. L'Heritier has also erred, particu- 
 larly in drawing the generic character of Erodium. 
 
 * Milne's Botanical Dictionary, &c. article Nectarium. 
 f Syllabus, kc. p. 23. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 151 
 
 Upon the whole, the term nectarium is an extremely- 
 vague one. I cannot help agreeing with Mr. De Jussieu, 
 that the term should be rejected from the science of Bo- 
 tany. It is greatly to be wished, that some person, pos- 
 sessed of the requisite talents, would undertake the 
 investigation of the subject of the various species of 
 nectaries, and arrange these parts under some more ap- 
 propriate names. 
 
 Necker restricts the term nectarium, to those glan- 
 dular bodies which occupy the base of the stamens, and 
 secrete a honied liquor. He admits, that there are 
 other parts of vegetables which furnish a honied liquor 
 in flowers, but these, he says, are of no consequence in 
 determining the characters of plantsf. 
 
 In investigating the genera of plants, a knowledge 
 of the various species of nectarium is of very essential, 
 and indeed, indispensible, consequence. Thus, the es- 
 sence of the genus Ranunculus, consists in its nectary, 
 which is a small prominence that is situated at the un- 
 guis, or claw, of each petal of this plant. But this subject 
 will be particularly attended to, in Part Third of this 
 work. 
 
 ':* «V» *1* *l* 'T* M* 1* T»i 
 
 \^ \U \U SLL sk. 
 
 The chemical analysis of the honey of the necta- 
 ries, has been very little attended to. What has been 
 done, leads us to believe, that this secreted juice (in 
 many plants at least), contains nothing distinct from su- 
 
 t Corollarium, &c p. 13, 14. 
 
152 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 gar or honey. F. A. Cartheuser examined the honey of 
 the nectaria of different plants, particularly that of the 
 Melianthus, or Honey-Flower. He says the honey of 
 this plant is a true honey. Some authors inform us, 
 that the honey of the Melianthus is a stomachic. This 
 would seem to show, that it contains some foreign qua- 
 lity, distinct from mere sugar or honey. 
 
 There is often, however, combined with the honey 
 of plants, a noxious property. This is frequently the pro- 
 perty of the plant which secretes the honey. The tube 
 of the flower of the Agave americana contains a great 
 deal of a watery, honey-like fluid, which is sweet, and of 
 an acid nature. This fluid is purgative, and emetic, 
 when exhibited in the dose of two table-spoonfuls. 
 The nectar of some plants is entirely refused by the 
 bees. Thus, bees do not touch the honey of the Fri- 
 tillaria, or Crown-Imperial*. Yet I do not know that 
 any experiments have shown, that this honey is noxious 
 to animals. The Fritillaria is, indeed, a poisonous plant. 
 But we are told, that the Willow-wren runs up the 
 stem of this fine vegetable, and sips the honey. We 
 know that the honey which is procured from certain 
 vegetables is poisonous. The Greekf and RomanJ na- 
 turalists speak of a poisonous honey; and we are ac- 
 quainted with some of the plants from which this honey 
 is procured. In North- America, an intoxicating and de- 
 leterious honey is procured from the flowers of the 
 Kalmia angustifolia, and other vegetables. In the 
 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society**, 
 
 * J. Duverney, Linnaeus, &c. 
 
 t Xenophon, Dioscorides, Diodorus Siculus, &c. 
 
 | Pliny. •« Vol. V. No. VII. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 153 
 
 I have inserted a memoir on the " Poisonous and Inju- 
 rious Honey of North-America.'* To this memoir I 
 beg leave to refer the reader. 
 
 It has been observed, that thenectar of plants," tempts 
 insects to assist the impregnation*." This is, no doubt, 
 the case. But it may well be questioned, whether 
 this is the final end, or intention of nature, in furnishing 
 plants with the nectary fluid. We find that the nectar 
 of some plants is altogether untouched by insects. 
 Such as Fritillaria. Besides, in very many plants, which 
 abound in nectar, the styles, from their proportion, or 
 situation, are readily, nay necessarily, impregnated, 
 without any insectile assistance. In Fritillaria, the aid of 
 insects cannot be wanted. I presume, that the business 
 of vegetable impregnation would proceed very well, 
 even were the whole world of insects entirely annihi- 
 lated. So little necessary dependence, in this respect at 
 least, is there between the great worlds of animals and 
 vegetables. So feeble, so visionary, is the theory of those 
 philosophers, who have imagined, that Nature has con- 
 nected together, in necessary dependence, her innume- 
 rable productions, like links in a chain of man's con- 
 struction! 
 
 The botanists have found no small difficulty in de- 
 termining the real use of the nectaries, and of the honied 
 liquor which they contain. Julius Pontedera imagined, 
 that the honey of plants is equivalent to the liquor amnii, 
 or liquor of the amnion, in pregnant animals, and that it 
 
 enters the fertile or impregnated seedsf. Here it might 
 
 * 
 
 * Dr. I. E. Smith. 
 
 t Amhologia, «eiule Floris Natura, Sec. Patav'u: 1720. 4to. 
 
 X 
 
154 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 be observed, that the importance of the liquor amnii, as 
 an agent in the nutrition of the fetus, is not admitted by 
 the generality of the modern physiologists*. It is, how- 
 ever, of more importance, to observe, that the hypothe- 
 sis of Pontedera is rendered improbable by this circum- 
 stance, that the nectary, and the honey which it contains, 
 are found in many male flowers, such as those of the 
 Willow and the Nettle, where there are no seeds to be 
 impregnated. Perhaps, however, this does not decidedly 
 show, that the nectareous fluid is useless in giving ferti- 
 lity to the seed. It is certain, that nature, intent upon a 
 specific object, or end, sometimes bestows upon the dif- 
 ferent sexes of a species, the same organs. Thus, she 
 concedes to the males and females of certain animals, the 
 secretory organs, which we call mammae, or breasts. In 
 both sexes, these organs sometimes secrete a peculiar 
 fluid, called milk. Yet, this secretion can be required in 
 one of the sexes only. 
 
 But actual experiments have shown, that the nectary 
 is not essentially necessary to the fertility of the seed. 
 We have seen, that in many plants, the nectaries are 
 distinct from the corolla. The Aconitum, or Monks- 
 hood, is one of these plants. The nectaries of this plant 
 were removed ; but the seeds were as effectually ripened, 
 as though the operation had not been performedf. 
 
 Ludwig supposed that the office of the nectary is to 
 excrete those juices of the plant which are too thick, or 
 
 * Of late, however, Dr. Darwin has endeavoured to show, that the liquor 
 amnii is of real importance, in the nutrition of the fetus. See his Zoonomia, 
 ■Jkc. Vol. I. Sect. XXXVIII. 
 
 f F. A. Ca-rtheuser. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 155 
 
 gross*. But neither is this a very satisfactory explana- 
 tion of the use of the organ. 
 
 Boehmer supposes, that the true nectaries secrete a 
 juice which is necessary to the nutriment of the plantf. 
 
 Dr. Darwin has proposed a new and very ingeni- 
 ous idea concerning the use of the nectary of vegetables. 
 " The nectary, or honey-cup, he says, is evidently an 
 *' appendage to the corol, and is the reservoir of the 
 *' honey, which is secreted by an appropriate gland from 
 
 " the blood, after its oxygenation in the corol" 
 
 " and is absorbed for nutriment by the sexual parts of 
 " the flower." It is the opinion of this writer, that this 
 saccharine secretion serves as food to the anthers, and 
 stigmas. Let us see upon what grounds this idea pro- 
 ceeds. In many tribes of insects, as in the silk-worm, 
 moths, butterflies, &c. the male and female parents die 
 assoonastheeggs are impregnated andexcluded, the eggs 
 remaining to be perfected and hatched at some future 
 period. In vegetables we observe nearly the same phe- 
 nomenon. In this family of animated objects, the stamens 
 and pistils fall off and die, as soon as the seeds are impreg- 
 nated, and along with these genital parts, the petals and 
 honey-cups. It is observed, that the insects which I have 
 mentioned, so soon as they acquire the passion and the 
 apparatus for the reproduction of their species, lose the 
 power of feeding upon leaves, as they did before, and be- 
 come nourished by honey alone. 
 
 " Hence (continues our author) we acquire a strong 
 " analogy for the use of the nectary, or secretion ofho- 
 
 * Institutiones Regni Vegetabilis, &c. 1757- Svo. 
 
 f Dissertatiolnauguralisde Nectariis Florum. Wittemberg : 175S. 4co. 
 
156 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 " ney, in the vegetable economy; which is, that the male 
 " parts of flowers, and the female parts, as soon as 
 " they leave their fetus-state, expanding their petals 
 " (which constitute their lungs*) become sensible to the 
 44 passion, and gain the apparatus, for the reproduction 
 " of their species; and are fed and nourished with ho- 
 " ney like the insects above described; and that hence 
 44 the nectary begins its office of producing honey, and 
 44 dies or ceases to produce honey, at the same time with 
 " the birth and death of the anthers, and the stigmas; 
 t* which, whether existing in the same or in different 
 44 flowers, are separate and distinct animated beings. 
 
 44 Pre vious to this time, the anthers with their fila- 
 44 ments, and the stigmas with their syles, are in their 
 44 fetus-state sustained in some plants by their umbilical 
 4 4 vessels, like the unexpanded leaf-buds, as in Colchicum 
 44 autumnale, and Daphne Mezereon; and in other plants 
 44 by the bractes, or floral-leaves, as in Rhubarb, which 
 44 are expanded long before the opening of the flower ; the 
 44 seeds at the same time existing in the vegetable womb 
 44 yet unimpregnated, and the dust yet unripe in the cells 
 44 of the anthers. After this period, the petals become ex- 
 
 44 panded," 4C the umbilical vessels, which before 
 
 44 nourished the anthers and the stigmas, coalesce, or 
 44 cease to nourish them; and they acquire blood more 
 44 oxygenated by the air, obtain the passion and power 
 44 of reproduction, are sensible to heat, and light, and 
 44 moisture, and to mechanic stimulus, and become, in 
 44 reality, insects fed with honey; similar in every res- 
 44 pect except that all of them yet known but the male 
 
 * See page 140, 141. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 157 
 
 " flowers of Vallisneria*, continue attached to the plant, 
 44 on which they are produced. 
 
 44 So water insects (continues our author), as the 
 44 gnat, and amphibious animals, as the tad-pole, ac- 
 44 quire new aerial lungs, when they leave their infant 
 44 state for that of puberty. And the numerous tribes of 
 44 caterpillars are fed upon the common juices of vege- 
 44 tables found in their leaves, till they acquire the organs 
 44 of reproduction; and then they feed on honey, all I be- 
 44 lieve except the silk-worm, which in this country 
 44 (Britain) takes no nourishment after it becomes a but- 
 44 terfly. And the larva or maggot of the bee, accord - 
 44 ing to the observations of Mr. Hunter, is fed with 
 44 raw vegetable matter, called bee-bread, which is col- 
 44 lected from the anthers of flowers, and laid up in cells 
 44 for that purpose, till the maggot becomes a winged bee, 
 44 acquires greater sensibility, and is fed with honey f." 
 
 Such is Dr. Darwin's hypothesis concerning the 
 use of the nectar, or honied liquor of plants. The hypo- 
 thesis is certainly ingenious, and is entitled to the at- 
 tention of naturalists. But it is merely in the light of an 
 hypothesis that it ought to be viewed. And yet it has 
 already been adopted by some writers, particularly by 
 the ingenious female author of a work entitled Botanical 
 Dialogues'^.. Future experiments will show how far the 
 opinion of the English philosopher is founded upon a 
 
 * We are now acquainted with two species of Vallisneria, the V. spiralis, 
 and V. Americana. Of this last species, which is a native of many parts of North- 
 America, growing abundantly in the river Delaware, fkc. &c. I have given % 
 particular account, in a memoir read before the American Philosophical Society, 
 on the 6th of February, 1801. 
 
 f Phytologia, &c. Sect. VII. See, also, Sect. VI 
 | London : 1797. SVo. 
 
158 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 solid basis. I must confess, that very powerful objec- 
 tions to the hypothesis present themselves to my mind. 
 Certainly, all plants are not furnished with the organs 
 called nectaries, particularly with those speeies of necta- 
 ries which are known to secrete or contain a honied 
 fluid. Moreover, we have seen, that the nectaries of cer- 
 tain species of plants may be entirely removed, without 
 obviously affecting, in any degree, the health or fertility 
 of the plant. When we consider, however, the highly 
 nutritious nature of sugar, honey, and other saccharine 
 matters, it would seem not improbable, that the nectar is 
 really conceded to plants to assist in giving nutriment 
 or strength to them. This opinion is, at least, more phi- 
 losophical, than that of those writers, who have imagi- 
 ned, that plants are furnished with nectar merely as an 
 alimentary article for insects, or as an incitement for 
 them to give their aid, in ensuring the fertility of plants. 
 
 5. IV. 
 
 The Stamen, which some English writers have 
 called the Chive, is defined, by Linnaeus, " an organ for 
 the preparation of the pollen:" " Viscus pro Pollinis 
 praeparatione*." 
 
 The stamens, in most flowers, are placed round the 
 seed-bud, and consist, according to Linnaeus, of three 
 parts, the Filamentum, the Anthera, and the Pollen. In 
 reality, however, the stamen consists of only two parts, 
 the filamentum, and the anther, the pollen being merely 
 a matter secreted by, or contained in, the anther. 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, &.c. p. 53. §• 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 159 
 
 A.I shall first speak of the Filamentum. This, which 
 receives its name from the Latin word, filum, a thread, 
 is the more slender, or thread-like part of the stamen 
 which supports the anther, and connects it with the 
 flower. The term filament is equivalent to the term sta- 
 men, as employed by Tournefort, and other botanists. 
 
 a. The filaments, in respect to number, are very 
 different, in different vegetables. Some plants have but 
 one filament, some two, three, &c. &c. whilst some have 
 from twenty to a thousand. 
 
 b. In point of figure, the filament is, 1. capillar e, 
 capillary; long and fine like a hair. 2. planum, flat; 
 having the two surfaces parallel. 3. cuneiforme, cunei- 
 form; or wedge-shaped. 4. spirale, spiral; ascending in 
 a spiral line. 5. subulatum, subulate, or awl-shaped. 6. 
 e marginatum, emarginate. 7. rejlexum, reflected. 8. 
 laciniatum, laciniated. 9. dentatum, toothed. 10. muti- 
 latum, mutilated; with the rudiment only of a filament. 
 11. castratum, castrated; elevating a barren anther, or 
 none at all; as in some species of Geranium. 
 
 c. In point of insertion, the filaments are, 1. calyci 
 opposita, opposite to the leaflets or segments of the 
 calyx. 2. calyci alterna, alternate with the calyx; placed 
 alternately with the leaflets of the calyx. 3. corollina, 
 inserted into the corolla. 4. calycina, calycine; inserted 
 into the calyx. 5. rectptaculacea, receptacular; inserted 
 into the receptacle. 6. nectarina, nectarine; inserted on 
 the nectary. 7. stylo insert a; inserted on the style; as 
 in the plants of the class Gynandria. 
 
160 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 d. In point of proportion, the filaments are, 1. aqua- 
 lia, equal; all of the same length. 2. inaqualia, unequal; 
 some larger than others. 3. connata, connate; conjoined 
 into one body, so as to form a tube at the base; as in the 
 plants of the class Monadelphia 4. longissima, very 
 long; longer than the corolla. 5. brevisszma, very short; 
 much shorter than the corolla. 6. longitudine corolla, 
 of the same length as the corolla. 7. longitudine calycis, 
 of the same length as the calyx. 
 
 e. In respect to its surface, the filament is, 1. pilo- 
 suJii, hairy. 2. mllosum, villous. 3. hirsutum, hirsute. 
 
 f. In respect to its structure, the filament is, 1. 
 membranaceum, membranous. 2. nectariferum, necta- 
 riferous. 
 
 g. In respect to its direction, the filament is, 1. erec- 
 tion, erect. 2. patens, spreading. 3. patentiusculum, 
 somewhat spreading. 4. patentissimum, very much 
 spreading. 5. arcuatum, bowed; bent in the form of a 
 bow. 6. connivens, converging; approaching the other 
 filaments with the point. 7. reflexum, reflected. 8. decli- 
 natum, declined. 9. inflexum, inflected. \Q. flaccidum, 
 flaccid. 11. assurge?is, assurgent. 12. ascendens, as- 
 cending. 13. recurvum, recurved. 14. incurimm, incur- 
 ved. 
 
 In assimilating the animal and the vegetable king- 
 doms, Linnaeus has been pleased to denominate the fila- 
 ments, '* vasa spermatica," or the spermatic vessels. 
 We shall afterwards have occasion to inquire, how far 
 there is any foundation for this opinion; and, also, with 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 161 
 
 what propriety, the anthers are denominated the "testes" 
 of the plant. 
 
 B. The Anther is the second part of the stamen. 
 This is the part which Ray denominated the Apex, and 
 Malpighi, Capsula staminis. Dr. Grew, and others of 
 the older botanists,called it the Summit, Semet, Pendent, 
 or Tip. " I prefer Anther to Anthera, in English; be- 
 44 cause we thus avoid any dissention between the learn- 
 44 ed and unlearned, respecting the pronunciation of the 
 44 penultima, and the formation of the plural*." 
 
 Li n n je u s defines the anther to be a part of the flow- 
 er, big with pollen, or farina, which it emits or explodes 
 when ripef. The anther may be defined, a capsule or 
 vessel, destined to produce or contain a substance whose 
 office is the impregnation of the germ, or female organ. 
 It commonly forms a part of the stamen, and is usually 
 placed upon the top of the filament. But it must not 
 be forgotten, that in many plants, the anther exists 
 without any filament to support it. 
 
 a. The number of the anthers is very different in dif- 
 ferent plants. The generality of plants have a single an- 
 ther to each filament. This is the case with most of the 
 plants that are figured in these Elements. To this gene- 
 ral rule, however, there are many exceptions: viz. 1. 
 Mercurialis, or Mercury, and Ranunculus have two an- 
 thers to each filament. This is what Linnaeus denomi- 
 nates, anthera didyma, or twin anther. 2. Fumaria has 
 
 * Professor Martyn. 
 
 f " Anthera pars floris gravida Polline, quod matura dimittit." Philosophi* 
 Botanica, &c p. 53. \. S6. 
 
 Y 
 
162 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, 
 
 three anthers to each filament. 3. Bryonia has five anthers 
 to three filaments. Here a single anther is affixed to one 
 of the filaments, and theremainingfour anthers are equal- 
 ly divided between the other two filaments. 4. In the The- 
 obroma, or Chocolate-nut, there are five anthers to each 
 filament. 5. The Pea, the Bean, Vetch, Trefoil, Liquo- 
 rice, and many other flowers of the class of Diadelphia, 
 have, in general, ten anthers to two filaments; or, more 
 properly speaking, to two sets of united stamens. 6. In 
 the Gucurbita, or Gourd, there is one anther common to 
 three filaments. 7. In the Dandelion, Feverfew? Ground- 
 sel, and other really compound flowers, of the class of 
 Syngcnesia, one anther is common to five filaments: or, 
 to speak more properly, five anthers, which are united 
 into a cylinder, are placed upon five distinct and sepa- 
 rate filaments. 8. In some plants, some of the filaments 
 are terminated by anthers, whilst others are naked, or 
 destitute of these parts. Thus, the two genera Chelonc 
 and Martynia, are furnished with four complete sta- 
 mens; together with the rudiment of a fifth filament, 
 which is destitute of the anther. Verbena has four fila- 
 ments, only two of which are antheriferous. The Big- 
 nonia Catalpa of Linnaeus has two perfect stamens, or 
 btamens with anthers; and three filaments, which want 
 the anthers. Other irregularities of this kind will be no- 
 ticed, in the progress of this work. 
 
 b. In point of figure, the anther is, 1. oblonga, ob- 
 long. 2. globosa, globular. 3. sagittata, sagittate. 4. 
 angulata, angular. 5. cornuta, horned. 6. bicornis, two- 
 horned. 7. linearis, linear. 8. acuta, acute. 9. acutius- 
 cula, rather acute. 10. cor data, cordate. 11. cvata, 
 ovate. 12. hastata, hastate. 13. biloba, two-lobed. 14. 
 reniformis, reniform. 15. bifida, bifid. 16. bipartita. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 163 
 
 two-parted. 17. aristata, awned; ending in an awn. 18. 
 setifer, bristle-bearing; ending in a bristle. 19. rostrata, 
 rostrate, or beaked; ending in a filiform beak. 20. trun- 
 cata, truncated. 21. obtusa, obtuse. 22. emarginata, 
 emarginate. 23. acuminata, acuminate. 24. furcata, 
 forked; divided at the end, and diverging. 
 
 c. In point of direction, the anther is, I. erect a, erect. 
 2. rigida, rigid. 3. patens, spreading. 4. assurgens, 
 assurgent. 5. inflexa, inflected. 6. nutans, nodding. 7. 
 declinata, declined. 8. pendula, pendulous. 9. incurva, 
 incurved. 10. connivens, converging. 11. spiraliter con- 
 torta, twisted spirally. 
 
 J. In point of insertion, the anther is, 1. sessilis, 
 sessile. 2. versatilis, versatile; incumbent, but freely 
 moveable. 3. adnata, adnate. 4. distinct a, distinct; not 
 cohering with other anthers. 5. connate, connate; when 
 several anthers are conjoined into one. 6. cylindracece, 
 cylindrical; formed into a cylinder, or equal tube. 7. tu- 
 bulate, tubular; coalescing so as to form a tube; as in 
 the compound flowers of the class of Syngenesia. 8. 
 coherentes, cohering at the base, apex, &c. 9. incum- 
 bens, incumbent; fixed by the middle upon the filament.. 
 10. lateralis, lateral; connected by the whole side to the 
 filament. 
 
 e. In respectto substance, the anther is, 1. niembrana- 
 cea, membranous. I.depressa, depressed. 3. compressa, 
 compressed. 4. convexa, convex. 5. plana, flat. 6. sul- 
 cata, furrowed. 7. transversim sulcata, transversely 
 furrowed. 8. longitudinaliter sulcata, longitudinally 
 furrowed. 9. subulata, subulate. 10. bilamellata, bila- 
 .mellated; with two membranous plates. 
 
164 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 f. In respect to measure, the anther is, Y.filamentis 
 brevior, shorter than the filaments. 2. corolla brevior, 
 shorter than the corolla. 3. longitudine filamenti, of the 
 same length as the filament. 4. longior filamentis, longer 
 than the filaments. 5. aquales, equal; of the same size 
 as one another. 6. longissima, very long; much longer 
 than the filament. 7. bremssima, very short; much short- 
 er than the filament. 
 
 g. In respect to its place, the anther is, 1. tecta, 
 covered; concealed by a scale of the arch, as in the As- 
 perifolia, or Rough-leaved plants. 2. inclusa, enclosed; 
 situated within the throat of the corolla. 3. ?mda y naked; 
 neither covered nor enclosed. 
 
 h. In respect to its cells and aperture, the anther is, 
 1. unilocularis, one-celled. 2. bilocularis, two-celled. 
 3. trilocularis, three -celled. 4. bivahis, two-valved. 5. 
 didyma, didymous; gibbous outwardly, Avith two pro- 
 tuberances. 6. stcrilis, barren; not forming pollen, or 
 fecundating matter. 7. deflorata, deflorate; having ejec- 
 ted, or excluded the pollen. 8. fozcunda, fertile, with 
 pollen. 9. apice dehiscens, opening at the top. 10. latere 
 dehiscens, opening at the side. 
 
 Linnjeus denominates the bursting of the anthers, 
 Dchisccntia*. 
 
 i. In respect to situation, 1. the anthers are gene- 
 rally situated upon the tops of the filaments. 2. In some 
 plants, however, the anthers are fixed to the middle or 
 sides of the filaments. 3. In many plants, having no fila- 
 ments, the anthers adhere to the stigma, or summit of 
 
 * Debiscentia, from debisco, to gape, or open wide. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 165 
 
 the female organ. 4. In other plants, also destitute of 
 filaments, the anthers are fixed to the receptacle. 5. In 
 some, they are situated upon the nectary. 
 
 C. The Pollen, which Linnaeus is pleased to call 
 the third part of the stamen, is the farina, or prolific 
 powder, which is contained in the anthers of flowers, 
 and which, according to the Swedish naturalist, after 
 being moistened with a liquor which is peculiar to, 
 and lodged upon, the stigma, or summit of the female 
 organ, bursts like a bladder, and gives out, elastically, a 
 substance which is imperceptible to the naked eye. This 
 substance Linnaeus calls Fomlla, or aura semmalis. 
 
 Necker defines the pollen, a collection of minute 
 inflammable globules, in which the " lympha fcecun- 
 dans," or fecundating fluid, is contained*. The pollen 
 of some plants, is, certainly, inflammable; but in the 
 pollen of many other plants we discover nothing of an 
 inflammable quality. In many plants, such as Veratrum 
 luteumf, &.c. the pollen has a peculiar and powerful 
 smell, very similar to that of certain animal secretions. 
 
 The pollen of vegetables is of various colours, but 
 most commonly of the different shades of yellow, orange, 
 red, and purple. It is beautifully conspicuous upon the 
 anthers, or summits, of some flowers, particularly the 
 Tulip, the Lily, &x. When completely matured, and 
 fit for performing the important ofiice, for which it is 
 destined, it is readily removed from the anthers, by the 
 application of the finger, or other moist body. 
 
 * Corollaruim, &c. p. 14. t Mchnthium dioicum ! of Walter. 
 
166 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 To the naked or unarmed eye, the pollen appears to 
 be a mere inorganic farina, or powder. But when it is 
 subjected to the aid of the microscope, it is found to put 
 on a great variety of forms, in different species of vege- 
 tables. These forms, it is asserted, frequently predomi- 
 nate, not only through the different species of a genus, 
 but even through the different genera of a natural family, 
 or order. Thus, in Helianthus, or Sunflower, the polle- 
 jiiferous particles assume the appearance of prickly 
 balls, or burs. In the Geranium sanguineum, or Bloody 
 Cranesbill, they are like perforated globules of fire; in 
 the Mallows, they resemble wheels furnished with teeth; 
 in the Ricinus communis, or Palma Christi, they are 
 shaped like grains of Wheat; in the Viola tricolor, or 
 Pansies, they are angulated; in the Turkey- Wheat*, 
 they are flat and smooth; in the Borage, like a thin leaf, 
 rolled up; in the Narcissus, reniform, or kidney-shaped; 
 and in the Symphitum, or Comfrey, like double or 
 twin globulesf. It is unnecessary to pursue this subject 
 through numerous other vegetables, the pollen of which 
 has been particularly examined, through good glasses, 
 by many ingenious naturalists. 
 
 Tuberville Needham, and other writers have 
 shown, that the pollen of vegetables upon being put into 
 water, immediately bursts, and scatters its fovilla, or 
 fecundating aura, abroad. 
 
 The great importance of the pollen, which Linnseus 
 has called the " genitura" of the plant," will be very 
 particularly considered, in treating of the generation of 
 vegetables. 
 
 * Kt * * $ 
 
 * Zca Mays, or Indian -com. f J. G. Walilbom 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 167 
 
 As the nectar of vegetables is an article of great im- 
 portance in the nourishment of bees and other insects, 
 so also the powder of the anthers constitutes one of the 
 alimentary articles of bees. These industrious insects 
 visit the flowers of an immense variety of plants, quaff- 
 ing the nectar, and carrying away, upon their thighs, 
 great quantities of the pollen. This they lay up, in the 
 cells of their combs, as food for the young bees, whilst 
 in their larva, or maggot-state. To the pollen, thus sto- 
 red up, the name of " bee-bread" has been given, both 
 in Britain and in the United-States. This, as has been 
 already observed*, is " raw vegetable matter," or pollen 
 so little altered that it retains its peculiar taste and smell, 
 in the cells of the comb. Thus, we can often tell, by an 
 examination of the bee-bread, from what particular spe- 
 cies of plants it has been procured. By thus depriving 
 vegetables of their pollen, there can be little doubt that 
 bees, in many instances, essentially diminish the fertility 
 of plantsf. This, perhaps, is more especially the case 
 with respect to many of the plants of the class Dioecia: 
 for here, the male and female organs of generation being 
 situated upon distinct individuals, and frequently at a 
 considerable distance from each other, the chances of 
 impregnation are necessarily fewer than in the plants of 
 the hermaphrodite classes, where the males and females 
 are situated, in close vicinity, within the same calyx, 
 or corolla. On the other hand, however, it is the opinion 
 of many writers, thai bees are no mean agents in fa- 
 
 * See page 157. 
 
 t It has been observed, in Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United- 
 States, that the bees rob certain species of plants, particularly the Polygonum 
 Fagopyrum, or Buck-wheat, of such immense quantities of pollen, that great 
 numbers of the little insects are drowned in crossing our creeks, andrivers, owing 
 Tithe too heavy load*; of the powder, which they attempt to carry to their hi vea 
 
16a ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 vouring the impregnation of vegetables. We shall after- 
 wards see, that the naturalists of the school of Linnaeus 
 have frequently been under the necessity of availing 
 themselves of the agency of bees, to explain some of the 
 difficulties which still obstruct the beautiful doctrine of 
 vegetable generation*. 
 
 By robbing plants of their pollen, do not bees con- 
 tribute not a little to that vast variety of double blos- 
 soms, with which our gardens are stocked and beauti- 
 fied ? Some facts, and some plausible reasoning, might 
 be urged in support of this conjecture. 
 
 To the pollen of vegetables and the labours of the 
 bees mankind are indebted for a very important arti- 
 cle, I mean wax, or bees-wax. The celebrated R. A. F. 
 de Reaumur, a long time agof, asserted, that the pollen 
 of vegetables, after undergoing the digestive process in 
 the stomach of the bee, was converted into wax. This 
 opinion has lately been confirmed by the inquiries of 
 Mr. John Hunter %. 
 
 With respect to the analysis of the pollen and of 
 wax, much still remains to be done by the chemists to 
 complete this subject. Experiments, however, seem to 
 render it probable, that the basis of both of these mat- 
 ters is a fat oil, which, combining with oxygen, passes 
 to the state of a resin. If the nitric or muriatic acids 
 be digested, for a considerable time, upon a fixed oil, 
 this passes to the state of a matter intimately resein- 
 
 • See Part III. 
 f In the year 1740. 
 
 $ Philosophical Transactions, for the year 1792. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 169 
 
 bling wax. It remains to be proved, what is the precise 
 nature of the matter by which the pollen is converted 
 into wax, in the stomach of the bee. 
 
 Experiments will, in all probability, show, that 
 the pollen of plants (of many plants, at least) contains a 
 very large portion of oxygen. An anonymous author*, 
 many years ago, asserted, that the pollen of plants (by 
 giving out its phlogiston, as he supposed) brought the 
 calx of iron to the state of a metal. 
 
 Tingry discovered, that the pollen contains vola- 
 tile oils, and different essential oils, that are soluble in 
 spirit of wine. > 
 
 The powerful odour and the taste of the pollen of 
 many plants would lead us to believe, that this prolific 
 matter possesses very active qualities, with respect 
 to the human and other animal bodies ; and it is not im- 
 probable, that it might be advantageously employed in 
 the treatment of some of our diseases. If I do not greatly 
 mistake, the pollen of some of the cerealia is employed 
 as a medicine, in certain diseases, in some parts of 
 Poland. 
 
 In the study of Botany, it is a point of the utmost 
 importance to be intimately acquainted with every cir- 
 cumstance relative to the stamens, by which I mean the 
 male organs, taken in the aggregate, and consisting of 
 the filaments, the anthers, and the pollen. Without an 
 intimate acquaintance with the natural history of these 
 truly important parts in the vegetable economy, we shall 
 
 * See Bibliotheca Botanica, &c Auctore A. Haltero. Tom. ii. p. 199 
 
 Z 
 
170 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 be incapable of understanding that wonderful function, 
 by which the world of vegetables has been thus far pre- 
 served from destruction; and by which it will, doubtless, 
 be perpetuated (with the occasional loss of some species, 
 in future, as heretofore, so long as our globe shall exist), 
 to serve as the sustenance of man and other animals, and 
 for innumerable other purposes. Nor does the utility of 
 an acquaintance with the stamens terminate here. Upon 
 these organs of the vegetable, the great Linnaeus has 
 constructed the most essential parts of his Sexual Sys- 
 tem: the classes, or primary divisions, and many of the 
 orders, or secondary divisions. The twenty-four classes 
 of this celebrated system, are founded upon the circum- 
 stances of the number, the place of insertion, the pro- 
 portion, the connection, the disposition, or the absence, 
 of the stamens. Hence, it is obvious, that we cannot 
 understand the system of the Swedish naturalist, with- 
 out a thorough acquaintance with the sexual organs*. 
 
 *. V. 
 
 The Pistillum is the fourth part of the fructification 
 enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it, " a viscus or 
 " organ adhering to the fruit, for the reception of the 
 " pollen:" " Viscus fructui adhaerens pro Pollinis re- 
 " ceptionef". 
 
 The pistillum, to which the English botanists have 
 given'the name of Pistil and Pointal, is the female part 
 of the vegetable, wfyich assumes the appearance of a 
 
 • « 4 
 
 * See Part II. for a particular investigation of the physiology of the stamens { 
 Tmd Part III. for an exposition of the Linnaean System, 
 f Philosophic Botanica, &c. p. 53. §. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 171 
 
 column, or set of columns, and is commonly situated in 
 the centre of the flower, within the stamens. When 
 perfect, it consists of three parts, the Germen, the Sty- 
 lus, and the Stigma. 
 
 A. The Germen, which is called by the English bo- 
 tanists the Germ, Ovary, or Seed-bud, is the rudiment 
 of the fruit, yet in an embryo- state. It constitutes the 
 lower part, or base of the pistil, and supports the style 
 and the stigma. 
 
 a. The germ varies in respect to number in differ- 
 ent plants. Some plants have but one germ, some two, 
 three, &c. &c. whilst some have many. 
 
 b. In point of figure, the germ is, 1. subrotundum, 
 roundish. 2. ouatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4. 
 turbinatum, turbinate. 5. conicum, conical; in the form 
 of a cone* 6. linear e, linear. 7. cor datum, cordate* 8« 
 obcordatum, obcordate. 9. globosum, globular. 10. fis- 
 jwtw, cleft. 11. bifidum, bifid. 12. trijidum, trifid. 13. 
 partitum, parted. 14. bipartitum, two-parted. 15. an- 
 gulatum, angular. 16. triangulares triangular. 17. didy- 
 mum, didymous. 18. compressum, compressed. 19. 
 acutum, acute. 20. rostratum, beaked. 21. subulatum, 
 subulate. 
 
 c. In respect to its surface, the germ is, 1. scabrum, 
 rough. 2. villosum, villous. 3. imbricatum, imbricated. 
 
 d. In regard to its place, the germ is, 1. superum, 
 superior; that is, included in the corolla, or the calyx. 
 
172 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 2. inferum, inferior; placed beneath the corolla, or 
 
 the calyx*. 
 
 e. In respect to its insertion, the germ is, 1. sessile, 
 sessile. 2. pedicellatum, pedicelled; standing on a pedi- 
 cel, or footstalk. 3. seta insidens, sitting on a bristle. 
 
 f. In regard to its measure, the germ is 1. mini- 
 mum, very small in proportion to the corolla. 2. lon- 
 gitudine staminum, as long as the stamens. 3. longi- 
 tudine calycis, as long as the calyx. 4. longitudine 
 nectarii, as long as the nectary. 
 
 Pursuing his favourite subject of the analogies 
 which subsist between animals and vegetables, Lin- 
 naeus has denominated the germ, the ovarium, or uterus 
 of plants. To this language, I shall offer no objection. 
 We shall afterwards see, that in the germ are contained 
 the embryo-seed of the plant, which pre-exist in this 
 organ (as do the ova in the ovaria of many, if not all, 
 animals), and after receiving the influence of the pollen, 
 or powder of the stamens, are rendered fertile, and thus 
 befitted for the important business of the perpetuation 
 of the species. 
 
 B. The Stylusf, or Style, is the middle portion of 
 the pistil, which, in many plants, connects the stigma 
 with the germ. I say, in many plants, for the style is 
 not present in all plants, and is not essentially necessary 
 to the generation of the plant. In this respect, it is upon 
 a footing with the filament. 
 
 * See page 137. 
 
 t Stylus, from cr\vX«^ a column. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 173 
 
 a. The style, as well as the germ, varies in res- 
 pect to number, in different plants. Some plants have 
 but one style, some two, three, &c. &c. whilst some 
 are furnished with many, of these organs. In general, 
 the number of the styles is equal to that of the germs, or 
 ovaries, each germ being furnished with its particular 
 style. This is the structure of the compound flowers, 
 the cone-bearing plants, the Rose, the Ranunculus, the 
 Liriodendron, or Tulip-tree, and many others. 1. To 
 this general rule, however, there are exceptions; that 
 is, there are vegetables, which have more than one 
 style to a single germ, or seed-bud. 2. There are 
 other plants, such as the Asperifolice, and most of the 
 Lip-flowers, which have a single style common to many 
 germs. 3. In other plants, again, the style, at its origin, 
 is single, but soon branches out into as many ramifica- 
 tions, as there are divisions, or cells, in the cavity of 
 the germ. We discover this structure in the plants of 
 the two families of Geranium and Mallow, and many 
 of their relations, principally belonging to the class 
 Monadelphia of the Sexual System. 
 
 b. In point of proportion, the style is, 1. longissi- 
 mus, very long, with respect to the stamens. 2. bre- 
 vissimus, very short. 3. longitudine staminum, as 
 long as the stamens. 4. crassitie staminum, as thick 
 as the stamens. 5. crassus, thick with respect to the 
 stamens. 6. tenuis, slender with respect to the stamens. 
 
 c. In respect to its division, the style is, 1. simplex, 
 simple; not divided. 2. bifidus, bifid. 3. trrfidus, 
 trifid. 4. bipartitus, two parted. 
 
 d. In respect to its figure, the style is, 1. teres, co- 
 lumnar. 2. cylindricus, cylindrical. 3. capillar is, 
 
174 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 capillary. 4. clavatus, club-shaped. 5. subulatus, subu- 
 late. 6. alatuSy winged. 7. tetragonus, four-cornered. 8. 
 ensiformis, ensiform. 9. pubescens, pubescent; cover- 
 ed with pubescence. 10. villosus, villous. 
 
 e. In respect to its direction, the style assumes 
 most if not all the directions which have been noticed 
 in treating of the filaments*. 
 
 f. In respect to its situation, 1. the style, in the 
 greater number of plants, is in apice germinis> placed 
 on the top of the germ. 2. ad latus germinis y at the 
 side of the germ : that is, the styles, which are nume- 
 rous, proceed from within the side of their correspond- 
 ing germs. This structure is observable in the Rose, 
 the Raspberry, the Strawberry, the Cinquefoil, the Tor- 
 mentil, and other plants belonging to the order Polygi- 
 nia in the xnth class, or Icosandria, of the sexual 
 system. 
 
 g. In point of duration, the style is, 1. persist ens , 
 permanent ; remaining until the fruit be ripe ; as in the 
 plants of the class Tetr adynamia. 2. deciduus, deci- 
 duous; falling off with the other parts of the flower ; as 
 in the greater number of vegetables. 
 
 We have seen, that Linnaeus denominates the germ, 
 the' ovarium, or uterus of plants. With respect to the 
 style, he has been pleased to call this part, the vagina 
 or fallopian tubef. If it could be demonstrated, that 
 
 * See page 160. g. 
 
 •}■ " Fil amenta Vasa Spermatica ; antherae Testes, pollen Genitura, 
 » stigma Vulva, stylus Vagina, germen Ovarium," &c. Philosophia Bota- 
 nica, &c. p. 92. $. 146. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 175 
 
 the style, in all plants, is really tubular, or hollow, there 
 would, I think, be but one serious objection to the em- 
 ployment of the word vagina, in the manner it is appli- 
 ed by Linnaeus. 'And it must be confessed, that in 
 very many plants the style is unequivocally tubular : 
 that is, there is an open or uninterrupted cavity leading 
 from the stigma (which is next to be considered) to the 
 ovary, or germ. In many other plants, however, no such 
 duct has been discovered, even when the style has been 
 examined by a powerful magnifier. But it does not 
 follow from hence, that no such duct does exist. It may 
 be too small to fall under the cognizance of our senses ; 
 or it may be visible only at a particular period, viz. 
 when the stigma has received the influence of the pol- 
 len ; or, in other words, at the moment of impregnation. 
 Linnaeus has shown, that in many plants the stigma is 
 dilated at the moment it receives the pollen; but after- 
 wards closes, so that no cavity is to be perceived. In 
 treating of the generation and of the irritability of 
 plants*, I shall resume the consideration of this sub- 
 ject. Meanwhile, I must not pass by unnoticed the 
 observation of Linnaeusf, respecting the Gratiola, or 
 Hedge -hyssop. " Gratiola, oestro venereo agitata, pis- 
 " tillum stigmate hiat, rapacis instar draconis, nil nisi 
 " masculinum pulverem affectans ; at satiata rictum 
 " claudit," &c. 
 
 C. The Stigma is the third and last portion of the 
 pistillum. It is the summit or top of this female part 
 of the plant, and is destined to receive the influence of 
 the pollen, and transmit it to the germ. In the Latin 
 
 * See Part II. 
 
 t See the admirable paper, entitled Sponsalia Plantarvm, p. 90," in the first 
 vol. of the Amoenitates Academic*. 
 
176 KLEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 language, the word stigma has several significations, 
 none of which are agreeable to the senses in which it is 
 employed by Linnaeus. I wonder, with Professor Mar- 
 tyn, why the Swede did not make use of the more clas- 
 sical and appropriate word, fibula*. Dr. Grew called 
 the stigma, the knob, or button; and Dr. Withering the 
 Summit. 
 
 a. The number of the stigmas is very different in 
 different vegetables. Some plants have only one stigma; 
 some two, some three, some four, some five, &c. 
 
 b. In respect to division, the stigma is, 1. simplex \ 
 simple. 2. fissum, cleft. 3. bifidum, two-cleft. 4. 
 trifidum, three-cleft, &c. &c. 5. partitum, parted. 
 6. bipartitum, two-parted, &c. 7. lobatum, lobed. 
 8. bilobum, two-lobed, &c. &c. 
 
 c. In respect to figure, the stigma is, 1. capitatum, 
 capitate ; approaching in its form, at the top, to the 
 shape of a globe. 2. globosum, globular. 3. urceola- 
 tum, urceolate ; pitcher-shaped. 4. ovatum, ovate. 5. 
 obtasum, obtuse. 6. truncatum, truncated. 7. oblique 
 depressum, obliquely depressed. 8. emarginatum, 
 emarginate. 9. planum, flat. 10. reniforme, reniform. 
 11. orbiculatum, orbicular. 12. peltatum, peltate f. 
 13. coroni forme, crown-shaped. 14. cruciforme, cruci- 
 form ; in the form of a cross. 15. stellatum, stellate. 
 16. canaliculatum, channelled. - 17. concavum, con- 
 cave. 18. umbilicatum, umbilicate ; concave, and or- 
 bicular. 19. plicatum, plaited. 20. radiatum, radi- 
 
 * Fibula , a button, a clasp, a buckle, &c.&c. 
 t See Plate 1. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 177 
 
 ate ; marked with striated rays, which diverge from the 
 centre. 21. angulatum, angular. 22. striatum, stri- 
 ated. 23. plumosum, feathery. 24. pubescens, pube- 
 scent. 25. fliforme, filiform. 26. capillare, capillary. 
 27. convolutum, convolute. 28. revolutum, revolute. 
 29. flexum sinistrorsum, bent to the left. 30. flexum 
 dextrorsum, bent to the right. 31. barbatum, he&vded. 
 32. imberbe, beardless. 
 
 d. In respect to measure, the stigma is, 1. longu 
 tudine sty/i, as long as the style, &c. 
 
 e. In respect to expansion, the stigma is, 1. flm- 
 briato-crispum, fimbriate-curled, or fringed. 2. folia- 
 eeu?n y foliaceous, or like a leaf. 3. cucullatum, cowled. 
 
 f. In respect to its duration, the stigma is, 1. per- 
 sistens, permanent ; remaining until the fruit be mature ; 
 as in Sarracenia*, Podophyllum!, and others. 2. 
 marcescens, shrivelling, remaining, but becoming with- 
 ered ; as in the greater number of plants. 
 
 I have already % mentioned the analogical name by 
 which Linnasus has thought proper to designate the 
 stigma. For that name there is, I think, as much, 
 and even more, foundation, than for some others which 
 the burning imagination of the northern naturalist has 
 imposed, not only upon the organa sexualia, but upon 
 other parts of the plant. It is, perhaps, to be regret- 
 ted, that Linnaeus so frequently indulges in the use of 
 terms which might, without any real injury to his writ- 
 
 • See Plate i. t See Plate xvm. 
 
 J See pa^e 174. Note. 
 
178 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ings, have been dispensed with. It would have been 
 well had he recollected the words of Cicero, "Nihil 
 " obsccenum, nihil turpe dictu". But Philosophy must 
 not be too squeamish ; and when I read the least chaste 
 writings of Linnaeus, I will not say with the poet : 
 
 " No pardon vile obscenity should find, 
 
 " Though wit and art conspire to move your mind". 
 
 Pope. 
 
 A knowledge of the pistil, by which I mean the 
 female organ, taken in the aggregate, as consisting of 
 the germ, the style, and the stigma, is of no less con- 
 sequence in the study of Botany, than is a knowledge 
 of the stamens. In a physiological point of view, each 
 set of these sexual organs is entitled to an equal portion 
 of our attention. They are equally concerned in the 
 business of the perpetuation of the species. The pollen 
 of the anthers would have been secreted or formed in 
 vain, were there no stigma, or germen to receive and 
 preserve its vivifick influence. 
 
 As the classes, or primary divisions, of the sexual 
 system of Linnaeus, are founded upon the stamens, or 
 male organs cf generation, so many of the orders, or 
 secondary divisions, are founded upon the pistils, or 
 female organs, which I have been considering. All the 
 orders of the first thirteen classes of this system are 
 constructed exclusively upon the circumstance of the 
 number of the pistils. This circumstance will necessa- 
 rily claim our attention in the third part of these Ele- 
 ments ; as will, likewise, the importance of the pistil 
 as a generic and even specifick feature, in the descrip- 
 tion of vegetables. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY- 179 
 
 J. VI. 
 
 The Pericarpium * is the fifth part of the fructifi- 
 cation enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it " a 
 " viscus, or organ, gravid (big) with seeds {that is a 
 " vessel producing seeds), which it lets drop, when 
 " they are ripe". " Viscus gravidum seminibus, quae 
 u maturadimittitt , '. He has also called it the " Ova- 
 " rium foecundatumf", or " impregnated germ or 
 " ovary". 
 
 By the English botanists, it is denominated, the 
 Pericarp, Seed-vessel, or Seed-case. Each of these 
 terms may be employed; for each is just and significant. 
 I shall however more generally make use of the word 
 pericarp, as being most agreeable to the prevailing 
 English botanical nomenclature which is adopted in 
 these Elements. Dr. Johnson's definition of the word, 
 in his Dictionary, is extremely lame, and exception- 
 able. He says the pericarp is " a pellicle or thin mem- 
 " brane encompassing the fruit or grain of a plant, or 
 " that part of a fruit that envelopes the seed". 
 
 The pericarp is the developed germ, ovary, or 
 seed-bud : that is, the germ fecundated, swollen, and 
 arrived at maturity, after having received the influence 
 of the pollen, or fecundating powder. Linnaeus has, 
 therefore, very properly compared this part of the fruc- 
 tification to the fecundated ovary in animals. It is cer- 
 tain, that, in general, the vegetable germ is not evolved 
 
 * From WEg.. around or about, and kxpt:os, fruit, or seed, 
 t Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 53. $.86. 
 
 \ Ibid. p. 92. (j. 146. " Pericarpium Ovarium facundatum, unde ovaproduoit 
 foecunda". 
 
180 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 into a true pericarp, if the pollen has been prevented 
 from having access to the stigma*. 
 
 The pericarp is an organ of great importance. 
 Hence, like all the truly important parts of vegetables, 
 and of animals, it is very generally present. Its use is 
 obvious ; to keep and preserve the seeds until they are 
 ripe ; to serve as " the guard of the seedf ", and then 
 to commit them to the bosom of the earth, or to the air, 
 and waters. 
 
 Some plants are destitute of the pericarp. This 
 is the case in the Asperifoliae, or Rough-leaved plants, 
 in the Verticillate plants, and in the Compound-flowers. 
 In these families of vegetables, the place of the pericarp 
 is supplied by the calyx, which encloses the seed, and 
 accompanies them to perfection $ ; or by the receptacle, 
 of which I am afterwards to speak more particularly. 
 I cannot pretend to state, in this place, the proportion 
 of plants that are destitute of the pericarp, compared to 
 those which are furnished with this viscus. It may, 
 however, be proper to observe, that the compound- 
 flowers form a very extensive family, in most countries 
 (particularly, perhaps, in North- America) ; and that 
 many of the genera belonging to the other orders which 
 I have mentioned, embrace a great number of species. 
 
 LinNjEus enumerates eight different species of pe- 
 ricarp, viz. l.the Capsula, 2. the Siliqua, 3. the Le- 
 gumen, 4. the Folliculus, 5. the Drupa, 6. the Pomum, 
 7. the JBacca, and, 8. the Strobilus. 
 
 * See Part II. f M r- John Ray. \ See page 125. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 181 
 
 1. The Capsula*, or first species of pericarp 
 which I have mentioned, is called by the English bo- 
 tanists, Capsule, little chest, or casket. It is a mem- 
 branaceous, hollow pericarp, which spontaneously 
 opens or splits in some determinate manner, or different- 
 ly in different vegetables : " Pericarpium cavum, de- 
 " terminate dehiscensf". Dr. GreAv distinguishes all 
 the dr)' seed-vessels, whether they be capsules (in the 
 Linnasan sense of the word) or pods, by the name of 
 " seed-cases", or " membranous uteri", in opposition 
 to the pericarps of a pulpy kind, such as the fruit of the 
 Apple, the Quince, the Cherry, the Gooseberry, and 
 others ; these last he nominates fruits. This distinction 
 of the great English philosophical naturalist is more 
 agreeable to the prevailing ideas with regard to all the 
 various kinds of pericarp, than the distinction of Lin- 
 naeus, and the botanists of his school. Nevertheless, 
 the term pericarp, as a generic term, may, with great 
 propriety, be employed. 
 
 a. In respect to its figure and substance, the cap- 
 sula is, 1. turbinate!, turbinate- 2- iujfata, inflated. 
 3. gfobosa, globular. 4- dldyma, twin, or didymous. 
 5. scrotiformis, purse-like; elevated with \\\o protube- 
 rances. 6- cyl'indracca, cylindrical. 7 colunmaris, co- 
 lumnar ; cylindrical and capitate. 8. ovata, ovate. 9. 
 subrotunda, roundish. 10. oblonga, oblong. 11- ob- 
 cordata, obcordate ; inversely cordate. 12- obtusa, ob- 
 tuse. 13. acutninata, acuminate- 14- ventricosa., ven- 
 ■tricose ; oblong and very convex- 15- cempressa, com- 
 pressed. 16- membranacea, membranous- 17- elastica, 
 
 * Capsula, in Latin, signifies, a little coffer, or chett, or C"snev. 
 t Philosophia Botanica, Sec. p. 53 \- 86. 
 
182 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 elastic- 18 -triquetral triquetrous- 19- tetragona, four-cor- 
 nered*. 20. trisu/ca, three-furrowed. 21. triloba, three- 
 lobed- 22. quinquedendata, five-toothed. 23. coronata, 
 crowned ; the extremity furnished with leaflets, digest- 
 ed into a crown. 24. circumscissa, cut round ; or 
 bursting all round horizontally, like a snuff-box ; as in 
 Anagallis- 25. articulata, jointed ; intercepted by 
 joints. 26. coriacea, coriaceous ; resembling leather ; 
 as in iEsculusf. 27. carnosa, fleshy ; resembling flesh ; 
 as in Pontederia. 28- lignosa, woody ; of a woody 
 texture ; as in Cedrela- 
 
 Capsules, in splitting or opening, are divided 
 externally into one or more pieces, to which Linnaeus 
 has given the name of Vaface and Vahula;%, or Valves. 
 The valve is the outer coat, shell, or covering of a cap- 
 sule, or any other species of pericarp, or the several 
 pieces which compose it- It is rather the door, or open- 
 ing, by which the seeds of the capsule are to go out, or 
 escape. 
 
 According to the number of its valves, the cap- 
 sule is, 1. bhahis, bivalve, or two-valved ; splitting 
 into two parts or pieces ; as in Celandine, and in all the 
 siliques and legumes- 2- trhafois, trivalve, or three- 
 valved ; opening with three valves ; as in Violet, JEs- 
 culus, Cistus Helianthemum, and others. 3. quadri- 
 vafais, quadrivalve ; or four-valved ; opening with four 
 valves ; as in Ludvigia, Oenothera, &c. 4. quinque- 
 vahis, quinquevalve, or five-valved ; opening with five 
 
 * See Plate x. f See Plate xv. u. e. 
 
 \ From the Latin vafoiC, doors or gates, which open and shut on both sides ; 
 folding-doors. Linnaeus does not make any distinction between valva and val- 
 
 vula. 
 
 1 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 183 
 
 valves, as in Hottonia, Flax, Lime-tree (Tilia), Syrian- 
 Mallow (Hibiscus), and Cotton (Gossypium). 
 
 The internal divisions of the capsule are denomi- 
 nated Lo ad anient a* , or Cells. Theseare the chambers 
 appropriated for the reception of the seeds. According 
 to the number of these cells, the capsule is, 1. unilocu- 
 laris, unilocular, or one-celled ; as in the Primrose. 2. 
 bilocularis, bilocular, or two-celled ; as in the Henbane, 
 Tobacco, and Thorn-apple, or James-town- weed. 3. 
 trilocidaris, trilocular, or three-celled ; as in the Lily, 
 the Hyacinth, &c 4. mult'ilocularis, multilocular, or 
 many-celled ; as in the different kinds of Nymphaea 
 and Nelumbium, which are known by the names of Wa- 
 ter Lily. 
 
 The capsule has received different names, accord- 
 ing to the number of the seeds which it contains. Thus, 
 we have, 1. capsida dicocca, a dicoccous or two-grained 
 capsule ; consisting of two cohering grains or cells, 
 with one seed in each. 2. tricocca, tricoccous or three- 
 grained ; swelling out in three protuberances, internally 
 divided into three cells, with one seed in each ; as in the 
 genus Euphorbia, or Spurge. 3. pentacocca, penta- 
 coccous, or five-grained ; swelling out in five protube- 
 rances, or having five united cells, each containing one 
 seed. 
 
 The partitions by which the capsule is internally 
 divided into cells, are called by Linnaeus Dissepimenta ; 
 each of these partitions, dissepimentum : l< a wall sepa- 
 rating a pericarp internally into cells". Dr. Marty n 
 
 * Lxulamentum, in Latin, signifies a case, a drawer, a bag, &c- 
 
184 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 calls this part of the plant, the partition : but I think it 
 better to use the word Dissepiment. 
 
 The dissepiment is either, 1. parallel, dissepimen- 
 tum parallelling or, 2. contrary*. The former ap- 
 proaches in breadth and its transverse diameter to the 
 valves ; as in Lunaria and Draba. The latter is nar- 
 rower than the valves ; or, as Linnaeus more fully ex- 
 presses it in the Dclincatio Plants, narrower, when the 
 valves, by being queezed or contracted, become con- 
 cave, ( c< Angustius iibi valvulae coarctatae evadunt 
 concavae)"* This is exemplified in Biscuteila and 
 Thlaspi. Linnaeus borrowed these two terms from 
 Tournefort : he observes, that they are to be under- 
 stood with some allowance as to the manner in which 
 they are employed- This is candidly observed- " I 
 " should ha^e conceived (says Dr. Marty n) a parallel 
 *" partition in a siliqua or pod to have been in the direc- 
 11 tion of the valves — a contrary or transverse one, at 
 V right angles with the valves". By some English 
 writers on Botany, the name of transverse dissepiment 
 is given to the dissepiment called by Linnaeus con- 
 trary. 
 
 The Columella^ is the central pillar in a capsule. 
 It is the part which connects the several internal parti- 
 tions with the seed : " Pars connectens parietes internos 
 " cum seminibus J" It takes its rise from the recepta- 
 cle, and has the seed fixed to it, all round. 
 
 * Dissepimentum contrarium- 
 f Columella, m Latin, signifies a little pillar, a tomfi-stone, or pillar of in- 
 scription. 
 
 | Philoscphia Botanica, 8cc. p. 53. ^. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 185 
 
 Representations of different kinds of capsules 
 are given in this work *. 
 
 2. The Siliqua, Silique, or Pod, is a two-valved 
 pericarp, having the seed fixed along both sutures. 
 The proper silique is bilocular, or two-celled, being 
 furnished with a partition which runs the whole length 
 of this kind of pericarp. It is to be observed, however, 
 that some pericarps which have the same form, take the 
 name of siliqua, although they have no partition, and, 
 of course, are unilocular, or one-celled ; as in Fumitory 
 (Fumaria), and Celandine, or Cheledonium. 
 
 LiNNisus, after Ray, has distinguished the silique 
 into the siliqua, properly so called, and the silicula, or 
 silicic. These two pericarps do not essentially differ 
 from each other : they differ only in form and size. 
 The first-mentioned species is much longer than it is 
 broad : we have examples of this kind of pericarp in 
 the following vegetables, viz. Mustard, Radish, 
 Wall-flower (Cheiranthus), Water-cresses, Bignonia 
 longissima, and many others. The silicle is almost 
 round, or at least makes a much nearer approach to the 
 orbicular form ; as in the Lunaria (called Honesty and 
 Satin-flower), in Alyssum (Mad- wort), Thlaspi (Shep- 
 herd's Purse), Iberis (Candy-tuft), and others. This 
 difference in the form and shape of the silique and sili- 
 cle, is assumed by Linnaeus as the foundation of the two 
 orders into which he has distributed the plants of the 
 xvth class of his system. 
 
 * See Plates iv, vni, x, xi, xix, xxv, xv, &c. &c. 
 
186 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 a. In regard to its figure, the species of pericarp 
 of which I have been speaking (whether silique or si- 
 licle) is, 1. compressa, compressed. 2. torosa, torose ; 
 swelling out into knobs, like the veins and muscles. 3. 
 torulosa, swelling as above, but in a smaller degree. 4. 
 articulata, jointed ; intercepted with tight joints *. 
 
 3. The Legumen, or Legume, is a pericarp of 
 two valves, in which the seeds are fixed along one of 
 the sutures only. By this circumstance, it differs from 
 the last mentioned species of pericarp, in which we 
 have seen the seeds are fixed to both sutures. The old 
 English word for the legume was codf, and the pericarp 
 ot the Pea, which is a true legume, is still called a Peas- 
 cod. " Pod (as Dr. Martyn observes) is used both for 
 " the legume and the silique indifferently : but they are 
 " so distinct, that they ought not to have the same ap- 
 " pellation. It seems better, therefore (the same inge- 
 nious writer remarks), " to anglicize the Latin terms : 
 " and with respect to this, it is become sufficiently fami- 
 " liar to the English ear|". In the United- States, it 
 may, however, be observed, that the word cod is much 
 less generally applied to the legume, or any other spe- 
 cies of pericarp. 
 
 a. In regard to its figure, its substance, &x. the le^ 
 gume is, 1- subrotundum, roundish. 2. overturn, ovate. 
 3. oblor.^um, oblong. 4 line arc, linear. 5- rhombeum, 
 rhombed, or rhomb-shaped. 6- rhomboidale, rhomboi- 
 
 * See Plate xxvi. 
 f Thus May, in the following lines : 
 
 " Thy corn thou there may'st safely sow, 
 <* Where in full cods last year rich pease did grow". 
 \ The Language of Botany, &c. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 187 
 
 dal ; of a rhomboid form. 7- lunulatum, crescent- 
 shaped. 8. muticum, awnless ; without a point. 9. 
 obtusion, obtuse. 10. acuminatum, acuminate- 11. 
 spina mucronatum, mucronate with a thorn. 12. <venoso- 
 reticulatum, venose-reticulated ; the veins disposed so 
 as to form a net- work. 13. c ve?wso-'uaricosum, venoso- 
 varicose ; the veins dilated so as to form varices- 14. 
 striatum, striated- 15. i)iilosum, villose- 16. tubercu- 
 latum, tubercled ; covered with cartilaginous points. 
 17. scabrum, rough. 18- planum, flat. 19- membrana- 
 ccum, membranous. 20. joliaceum, foliaceous. 21- 
 diaphanum, diaphanous. 22- coriaceum, coriaceous. 
 23. gibbum, gibbous. 24. teres, columnar. 25. tcreti- 
 asculum, somewhat columnar. 26. cylindraceum, cy- 
 lindrical. 27. alatum, winged. 28- angulis membra- 
 7iaceis, with membranous angles. 29« compressum, 
 compressed ; as in Gleditsia triacanthos, called Honey - 
 Locust- 30. nodosum, knotty; elevated in knots. 31. 
 inflatum, inflated. 52- turgidum, turgid ; swollen, as 
 in Ononis, and Crotallaria sagittalis (called in the 
 United-States, Rattle, and Rattle-Box). N. B. The 
 turgid and the inflated legume are thought, by some 
 writers, to be no ways different : " but in the latter (as 
 Dr. Martyn observes) " I apprehend the pericarp to be 
 " in substance, as well as in form, somewhat like a 
 " blown bladder ; whereas in the former it is merely 
 " more swelled out, and has a wider cavity than usual". 
 We have a good example of the legumen inflatum in 
 Colutea, or Bladder-Senna. 33. torosum, torose, or 
 necklace-form ; gibbous, with protuberances disposed 
 linearly. 34- farctum, stuffed ; full of a pulpy or fleshy 
 substance. 35. pulposum, pulpy; filled with pulp. 56. 
 carnosum, fleshy; filled with a fleshy substance- 37. 
 
188 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 lignosum, woody. 38. subulatum, subulate. 39.falca- 
 tum, falcate, or sickle-shaped ; compressed, subulate, 
 and curved. 40- sessile ; sessile. 41. pedicellatum, pe- 
 dicelled ; elevated on a pedicel. 42- rectum, straight ; 
 without a bend- 43. strictum, stiff and straight. 44. 
 rigidum, rigid. 45- ascendens, ascending, with an 
 ascending point- 46- incurvatum, incurved- 47- arcu- 
 atum, bowed ; bent like a bow- 48- inflexum, inflected. 
 49. reflexum, reflected- 50. rcoolutum, revolute. 
 
 b. In regard to its measure, the legume is, 1. 
 longissimum, very long, with respect to the corolla. 2. 
 longum, long. 3- maximum, very large, as in Gledit- 
 sia. 4- minimum, very small ; as in the different kinds 
 of Clover (Trifolium)- 4- latissimum, very broad. 
 
 c. In regard to its structure, the legume is, 1. 
 articulatum, jointed. 2. uniloculars, unilocular. 3. 
 biloculare, bilocular. 4. isthmis interceptum, divided 
 transversely, within, into different cells. 
 
 Plants that are furnished with the legume, as a 
 pericarp, are known by the name of Leguminosce, or 
 Leguminous Plants. The greater number of these ve- 
 getables are arranged by Linnaeus under his xvnth 
 class, or Diadelphia. Of these plants particular men- 
 tion will be made in treating of the artificial and natural 
 arrangements of vegetables *. It may here be observed, 
 that Dr. Arbuthnot and some other English writers have 
 confounded the siliquose and leguminous plants with each 
 other. Dr. Johnson does not seem to have had correct 
 ideas on the subject \. This, however, is the more 
 
 * See Part III. 
 f See his Dictionary. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 180 
 
 excuseable, since the ancients themselves, as Linnasus 
 observes, confounded under one name, the pericarps of the 
 Tetradynamous and Diadelphous plants : that is, the 
 silique and legume. Thus, Columella denominates the 
 pods of Beans, " siliquse. Virgil uses sil'iqua in the 
 same sense, in the following lines : 
 
 " Semina vidi equidem multos medicare serentes ; 
 " Et nitro prius et nigra perfunderc amurca, 
 " Grandior ut fetus siliquis fallacibus esset". 
 
 Grorgic. Lib. i. 1. 193-195. 
 
 " Though steep'd in nitrous juice and oily lees, 
 " And seeth'd o'er gentle fires by slow degrees, 
 u Oft have I seen the temper'd seeds deceive, 
 < l And o'er the treach'rous fiod the peasant grieve". 
 
 SOTHEBY. 
 
 We are certain, from a passage in Pliny, that 
 Virgil is speaking of Beans, and of course, that the 
 word siliquis is properly translated by pod. But the 
 word legumen very frequently occurs in the writings of 
 the Roman authors. In these it seems to imply every 
 species of pulse, such as Beans, Pease, &c. Thus 
 Virgil : 
 
 " Alternis idem tonsas cessare novales, 
 
 " Et segnem patiere situ durescere campuin. ' 
 
 •* Aut ibi flava seres, mutato sidere, farra, 
 
 " Unde prius lxtum siliqua quassante legumen. 
 
 " Aut tenues fetus vicix, tristisque lupini 
 
 '« Sustuieris fragiles calamos silvamque sonantem". 
 
 Geokgic. Lib. 1. 1.71-76. 
 
 *' Alternate fallows rest th' exhausted earth, 
 
 " And gradual fit the soil for future birth ; 
 
 il Or sow with golden corn the furrow'd clod, 
 
 " W here the bean harvest burst the shatter'd pod, 
 
190 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 11 Or the light vetch and bitter lupine grew, 
 " Bow'd to the gale, and rattled as it blew". 
 
 SOTHEBY. 
 
 Even Linnaeus himself has sometimes confound- 
 ed the terms silioua and lesrumen. Thus in his Prce- 
 
 x o 
 
 lectiones in Or dines Naturales Plant arum ^ he calls the 
 pericarp of the Lomentaceee* a. " siliqua" : but at a sub- 
 sequent period, he denominated it a legumen. 
 
 For representations of the Legume, see Plate 
 
 XXI. 
 
 4. The Folliculusf, or Follicle, is a one-valved 
 pericarp, which opens longitudinally only on one side, 
 and having its seed loose within it, that is not bound to 
 the suture. In the writings of Linnaeus, the terms fol- 
 liculus and conceptaculum (conceptacle) are entirely sy- 
 nonymous. The latter term occurs in the Philosophia 
 JBotanica, the former in the Delineatio Plant a, and in 
 the early and late editions of the Genera Plantarum. 
 
 We have examples of this species of pericarp in 
 the genera Nerium, Stapelia, Cynanchum, Periploca, 
 Apocynum, Asclepias, Embothrium, and others. 
 
 5. The Drupa, or Drupe, is a species of pericarp 
 which is destitute of valves, and contains a nut or stone 
 within which there is a kernel. The drupe is mostly a 
 moist and succulent fruit, as in the Plum, the Cherry, 
 the Apricot, the Peach, and the Olive : but sometimes, 
 it is dry, as in the Almond. To these two species of 
 
 * See Part III. Class x. Decandiua. 
 t Folliculus, in Latin, signifies a little leather bag, a husk of Wheat, or 
 •ther grain. — See page 87. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 191 
 
 drupa have been given the names of 1. succulenta, succu- 
 lent, or juicy ; containing a fluid, and, 2. sicca, dry, or 
 juiceless ; opposed to the preceding term. 
 
 The term drupa is sanctioned by classical autho- 
 rity. It is employed by Pliny, who uses the word for 
 the fruit of the Olive*. The term is synonymous to 
 Tournefort's " fructus mollis ossiculo", or, soft fruit 
 with a stone. It is, also, equivalent to the term Prunus, 
 as employed by other botanists. The nut, or stone, 
 which in the drupe is surrounded by the soft, pulpy 
 flesh, is a kind of woody cup, which commonly con- 
 tains a single kernel, called Nucleus. The hard shell 
 thus enveloping the kernel, is denominated Putamen. 
 
 As Linnaeus is not always consistent, so the reader 
 will not be surprized to find, that the definition which 
 has just been given of the drupe, does not apply to 
 every pericarp designated by this name in the Genera 
 Plantarum. For not, again, to mention the Almond, 
 Linnaeus calls the pericarp of the Elm (Ulmus) a drupe, 
 although its substance is like parchment, and its seed 
 are not contained within a stone. 
 
 Beside the vegetables which I have mentioned, 
 the following indigenous plants furnish good examples 
 of the drupe, viz. the Sour-Gum and Sour-Olive of the 
 United- States (Nyssa integrifolia and N. denticulata) ; 
 different species of Laurus, such as Sassafras (Laurus 
 Sassafras), Spice-wood ^Laurus Benzoin), and others. 
 
 The term drupe gave name to an order, Drupacex, 
 in the former editions of Linnaeus's Fragments of a na~- 
 
 " Lib. xv. cap. Tit. 
 
192 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 tural method. This order (the thirty-eight) compre- 
 hended the Almond, the Peach, the Plumb, the Apri- 
 cot, the Cherry, and the Bird- seed : but they were af- 
 terwards referred to the order Pomaces, some account 
 of which is given in the last part of this work*. 
 
 6. The Pomum, or Pomef , or Apple J, is a pulpy 
 pericarp, without valves, but containing a membranous 
 capsule^, with a number of cells or cavities, for the 
 lodgment of the seeds. This species of pericarp has 
 no external opening or valve. At the end opposite to 
 the peduncle, or footstalk supporting the pome, there is 
 frequently a small cavity, to which the gardeners have 
 given the name of the eye of the fruit. 
 
 The Apple, the Pear, the Quince, the Gourd, 
 the Cucumber, the Melon, and many others, furnish 
 us with instances of this species of pericarp. Several 
 of these plants belong to Linnzeus's order Pomacese, just 
 mentioned. 
 
 a. In regard to its figure, the pomum is, 1. ob- 
 longam, oblong. 2. ovatu???, ovate* 3. globosum y glo- 
 bular. 4. subrotimdwn, roundish ; not to mention 
 many other forms ; for the form of fruits is immensely 
 varied by climate, and by soil. 
 
 b. With respect to its cells, this species of peri- 
 carp is triloculare, three-celled, &c 
 
 * See Class XII. Icosandria. 
 
 t Dr. Mart) n. \ Dr. I.E. Smith. 
 
 \ " Pericarpium farctum evalve, Capsulam coatijiens". 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 193 
 
 7. The Bacca, or Berry, is a succulent or pulpy pe- 
 ricarp, without valves, and containing naked seeds, or 
 seeds which have no other covering. The seeds, in this 
 species of pericarp, are sometimes dispersed promiscu- 
 ously through the pulpy substance, as in the Water- 
 Lily : but they are more generally placed upon recepta- 
 cles, or foot- stalks, within the pulp ; as in the Currant, 
 the Gooseberry, the Raspberry, the Hydrastis, called 
 in the United- States, Yellow-root, and many others. 
 To the former kind of seed, Linnaeus has given the 
 name of semlna ?iiclulantia, or nestling seed. 
 
 a. The berry assumes a considerable variety of forms. 
 It is, however, very frequently round, or oval, and is 
 often furnished with an umbilicus, or small cavity, at 
 the end opposite to the foot-stalk, as is the case in the 
 Apple, and other species of the pomum. This species 
 of berry is called, by Linnaeus, bacca umbilicata> 
 
 b. According to the number of seeds which it con- 
 tains, the bacca is, 1. monosperma, one-seeded ; con- 
 taining a single seed ; as in Plinia, &c. 2. disperma, 
 two-seeded ; containing two seeds ; as in Chiococca. 
 3. polysperma, many-seeded ; containing several seeds ; 
 as in the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), Wither- 
 ingia, May-apple (Podophyllum peltatum), and others. 
 
 In the use of the term bacca, or berry, Linnaeus 
 is sometimes as inconsistent as in the use of the term 
 drupe. Thus, he calls the pericarp of Lesser-Burdock 
 (Xanthium) a berry : but it is dry, and contains within 
 it a nut, which is furnished with two cells ! Again, he 
 calls the pericarp of Capsicum, a berry. But this has 
 
 c c 
 
194 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 no pulp, and is hollow within. The following pericarps, 
 though, certainly, very different from each other, are 
 all denominated by Linnaeus, berries, viz. Sumach 
 (Rhus), Nightshade (Solatium), Sow-bread (Cycla- 
 men), Medlar (Mespilus), Orange and Lemon (Citrus 
 Aurantium and C. medica), Yew (Taxus), and Pine- 
 apple, or Bromelia. 
 
 c. The berry is said to be proper, or improper. The 
 former is formed of the pericarp, or seed-vessel. The 
 latter is formed of any of the other parts of the fructifi- 
 cation. Thus, in the Mulberry, the Rose, the Blite 
 (Blitum), and Myrtle-leaved Sumach (Rhus Coriaria), 
 the large, fleshy, and succulent calyx becomes a berry. 
 In the Strawberry and Cashew-nut (Anacardium), it is 
 formed from the receptacle : in the Raspberry and Ado- 
 nis, of a seed : in the Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis) of the 
 nectary : in the Garden Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba) 
 of the tube of the corolla, which hardens and shuts, 
 for the purpose. 
 
 Certain fruits, such as Mulberry, Raspberry, 
 Blackberry, not to mention many others, which are ge- 
 nerally regarded as berries, have, with more propriety, 
 been denominated Compound and Spurious Berries : 
 for in these, each of the component parts, which are 
 called acini, or granules, may, very properly, be consi- 
 dered as a distinct berry, containing a single seed, im- 
 mersed in the pulpy matter. 
 
 The berry does not spontaneously gap or burst, as 
 do the four first species of pericarp which I have men- 
 tioned, viz. the capsule, the silique and silicle, the le- 
 gume, and the follicle, or conceptacle. Birds and other 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 195 
 
 species of animals, as we shall afterwards see, are very 
 instrumental in the dissemination or dispersion of va- 
 rious kinds of berries. " Finis Baccae, says Linnaeus, 
 " ut semina ab animalibus serantur : e. arr. Viscum*". 
 
 For representations of different kinds of berry, 
 see, in this work, Plates i, ix, xiv, xvin. 
 
 8, The Strobilusf, or Strobile, is the last species 
 of pericarp enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it, a 
 pericarp formed from an anient by the induration of the 
 scales. This is the definition as given in the Termini 
 Botanici. In the Delineatio Plants, it is thus expres- 
 sed, " Strobilus imbricatus amenti coarctati". That 
 is, the strobile is made up of scales that are imbricate, 
 or lie over each other, from an anient contracted or 
 squeezed together, in this state of maturity. " This 
 " term includes (as Dr. Martyn observes) not only 
 " the cone of former writers, but also some other 
 " fruits, which recede considerably in structure from 
 " that sort of pericarp ; as that of Magnolia", Tulip-tree 
 (Liriodendron), and others. It must be evident, there- 
 fore, that it is improper to translate strobilus by cone, as 
 has been done by some writers. 
 
 The strobile assumes a variety of forms in different 
 vegetables. 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, &.c. p. 75. $. llo. 
 
 f Strobilus has very different significations in the Latin language ; it signifies 
 a wild Pine-tree, a Pine-apple, an Artichoke, and, also, a whirl-wind. 
 
196 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Although Linnaeus, in the later editions of his 
 works, has discarded the term cone, and adopted that 
 of strobile, he has, nevertheless, retained an order of 
 vegetables, which he calls Cojiiferce, or Cone-bearing, 
 of which notice will be taken in a subsequent part of the 
 work*. To this order belong the Fir, the Pine, the 
 Cypress, the Thuja, and others. 
 
 Beside the eight species of pericarp above men- 
 tioned, four other species are enumerated by Professor 
 Scopoli, of Pavia. These are the Theca, the Grana- 
 tum, the Cysta, and the Scrinum* Of each of these, it 
 is proper that I should take some notice. 
 
 9. The Thecaf sde fined to be a double involucre 
 of the seed, the exterior covering bursting open; the in- 
 terior one, which is either pulpy, membranaceous, hairy, 
 or woolly or brittle, envolving the seed. " Fructus 
 li cum involucro duplici ; exterius, dehiscens, interius, 
 " pulposum, membranaceum, pilosum, lanatum aut 
 " fragile, semina obvolvensj". We have examples of 
 this species of pericarp in the Euonymus, or Spindle- 
 tree, and in the Celastrus, or Staff-tree, and several 
 others. Linnaeus was not unacquainted with this spe- 
 cies of pericarp. He did not, however, consider it as a 
 pericarp, but as the proper and exterior coat or covering 
 of the seed|j, which falls off spontaneously, or encloses 
 the seed partially. I think, however, that the theca 
 may very properly be considered as a species of pericarp. 
 In this opinion, I follow not only the learned Scopoli 
 
 * See Part iij. Class xxi. Monoecia. 
 
 t Theca, in Latin, signifies a sheath or case, also a box or bag, and the 
 husk of corn. 
 
 % Necker. See his Corollarium, &c. p. 28. (J Arillus. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 197 
 
 himself, but also Giseke, and some other writers. By 
 some English botanists, the theca has been denominated 
 the Case- 
 
 10. The Granatum*, or Gran ate, is also a double 
 involucre ; one of the covers being of a corky or coria- 
 ceous texture, the other succulent. In this species of 
 pericarp, however, of which we have the most familiar 
 instance in the Punica Granatum, or Pomegranate, 
 neither of the involucres, or covers, splits or opens. 
 
 11. The Cystaf, or Cyst, consists of three covers, 
 one of which is membranaceous, another succulent or 
 fleshy, and the third and most interior also membrana- 
 ceous or brittle. Neither of these covers splits or opens. 
 " Cysta, fructus minime dehiscens e germine oriens, 
 " triplici involucre Exterius, membranaceum, fragi- 
 " leve semina involvens". The Berberis, or Barberry, 
 supplies an example of this species of pericarp. 
 
 12. The ScrinumJ, or Serine, is also composed of 
 three covers, viz. nn exterior one, which is of a woody 
 texture, and does not split at all ; a middle one, which 
 is pulpy, and an interior one, which is membranaceous, 
 envelopes the seed, and spontaneously splits, or opens : 
 " Fructus ex involucre triplici compositum. Exterius, 
 " lignosum minime dehiscens, medium pulposum, in- 
 " terius sponte dehiscens, membranaceum, semina fo- 
 " vens". 
 
 * Granatum is used by Pliny (Lib. xx. cap. xiv.) as the name of the Punica 
 Granatum, or Pomegranate -tree. 
 
 t Cysta, or rather Cbta, signifies, in Latin, a basket, or chest for books, 
 money, See. 
 
 | Scrinum, or scrinium, signifies a casket or coffer, an escritore, a book- 
 case, &c. 
 
 ^ Necker. Corollarium, &c. p. 17, 18. 
 
198 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 I do not know that names for all of these four spe- 
 cies of pericarp have been as yet introduced into the 
 English botanical nomenclature. I think we may use 
 the following, viz. Theca (without any alteration), the 
 Granate (sufficiently distinct from the compound stone 
 called granite), the Cyst, and the Serine. 
 
 §. VII. 
 
 The Semen, or Seed, is the sixth part, and the 
 " end and aim", of the fructification- It is defined by 
 Linnaeus, the deciduous part of a vegetable, containing 
 the rudiments of a new or other vegetable of the same 
 species, and fertilized by the aspersion or sprinkling of 
 the pollen, or fecundating powder : " pars vegetabilis 
 " decidua, novi rudimentum, Pollinis irrigatione vivi- 
 " ficatum*". 
 
 The parts of a seed, properly so called, are enu- 
 merated by the Swedish naturalist, as follows ; viz. 1- 
 the Corculum- 2. the Cotyledon. 3. the Hilum- 4. 
 the Arillus. 5. the- Coronula, and, 6. the Ala. Of 
 each of these parts I shall give some account, though not 
 in the precise order in which I have mentioned them. 
 I shall, also, take notice of some other parts of the seed, 
 unnoticed by Linnaeus ; for since his time the subject 
 has excited much more attention than he has devoted 
 to it. 
 
 A. I begin with the Hilunrf. This part, which 
 is frequently called the Eye, is an external cicatrix, 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, ike. p 54. ^. 86. 
 
 | The word hilum, in the Latin language, signifies the little black of a Bean, 
 and, also, a very nothing. In this sense it is used by Cicero and by Lucretius. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 199 
 
 mark or scar of the umbilical chord of some seeds, 
 where they adhere to the pericarp. In other words, it 
 is the scar formed by the breaking off or separation of 
 the stalk to which it was affixed, and by which it re- 
 ceived its nourishment, whilst in the pericarp, or vege- 
 table womb. In the Delineatio Plafitce, Linnaeus deno- 
 minates the hilum, " cicatrix umbilicalis", and in his 
 Philosophia Botanica he thus defines it : " Cicatrix ex- 
 " terna seminis ab ejusdem affixione in fructu*". This 
 part of the seed is more or less conspicuous in different 
 seeds. In the following, it is very large and conspi- 
 cuous, viz. the Garden-Beanf (Vicia Faba), in 
 the Cardiospermum, or Heart-seed ; and in the Sta- 
 phylea trifolia, or Bladder-nut. 
 
 B. Besides the hilum, we observe, in various 
 species of seeds, particularly when in their green state, 
 a very minute foramen, or hole, of which I think Lin- 
 naeus has taken no notice. This aperture is perceptible, 
 even without the assistance of a glass, in the full-grown 
 Garden-Bean. In this species of seed, it is situated at 
 the end of the hilum, and immediately at the point of 
 the radicle, which is presently to be mentioned j:. 
 
 It is uncertain whether this foramen be present in 
 all seeds. Some writers II have supposed, that it is. 
 Possibly, it is constant in all seeds- We cannot doubt 
 that it exists in many in which neither the armed or un- 
 armed eye has detected it. It is so minute, that it may 
 readily escape our notice, especially in small seeds, when 
 they are perfectly ripe and dry. 
 
 * Page 54. \. 86. 
 
 f See Plate v. Fig. A. 1. Fig, 1). X. 
 
 % See Plate v. Fig. A. A. 
 
 || Mr. Curtis. 
 
200 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 The use of this foramen is unknown to us. Dr. 
 Grew, who was acquainted with it, supposed, that the 
 moisture, which the Bean absorbs, when it is commit- 
 ted to the earth, and by which it becomes distended, 
 finds a passage through this aperture. The late Mr. 
 Curtis made an experiment to ascertain the truth of this 
 opinion. He covered the aperture in six Peas (Pisum 
 sativum), with a strong spirit varnish, and placed them 
 in a pot of moist earth, along with six other Pease, 
 which were of the same weight. The following day, 
 he took them out of the pot, and upon weighing them, 
 he found, that the varnished were nearly as heavy as the 
 unvarnished seed, and that there was but little difference 
 in the size of the Pease thus treated. From this expe- 
 riment, the ingenious experimenter concludes, " that 
 " the moisture which the Pea absorbs, enters the Co- 
 " tyledons by some other channel than the aperture, 
 " most probably the whole surface of the husk is perme- 
 " able*". I think it probable, that the whole surface 
 of the husk is really permeable : but it must be ob- 
 served, that Mr. Curtis's experiment is not conclusive. 
 His Pease were not left for a sufficient time in the earth, 
 and it does appear, that the seed in which the foramina 
 were not varnished had absorbed, in the course of about 
 one day, more moisture than the others. 
 
 C. By the Arillus, Arilf, or TunicJ, Linnaeus, as I 
 have already observed, means a particular covering of the 
 seed, to which other writers have given the name of pe- 
 ricarp. I shall not employ arillus, m the Linnsean sense 
 of the word, but shall speak of the coverings of the seed 
 under other names. 
 
 * A Companion to the Botanical Maga/.ine, &x. p. 6. 
 t Dr. Martyn. \ Dr. I. E. Smith. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 201 
 
 By some writers*, the exterior covering of the 
 seed is denominated the Cutis, or Husk. Gaertnerf, 
 who has devoted more attention to the seed than any- 
 other writer, divides the Proper integuments of seeds 
 ( Integumenta seminum propria), into the Testa, or 
 Shell, and the Membrana interna, or Internal Membrane. 
 These are the coats which invest the nucleus (kernel) ; 
 they do not separate, except under germination, and 
 even then, not spontaneously : they are burst irregularly 
 by the swelling of the cotyledons. 
 
 1. When the seed is furnished with two proper 
 coats, the shell is the outer one : when there is only one 
 coat, this is accounted the shell ; and when there are 
 more than two coverings, the second from the nucleus 
 is named the shell. 
 
 The shell is deemed an essential part of the seed, 
 because the kernel, which originally was wholly fluid, 
 could not have been formed unless a coat had been 
 placed round it. This integument is never wanting. 
 
 a. In regard to its consistence, &c. the testa is, 1. 
 membranacea, membranous. 2. pellucida, pellucid ; as 
 in Rice (Oryza). 3. opaca, opaque; dry and almost 
 friable ; as in Messerchmidia. 4. chartacea, paper-like, 
 and somewhat elastic and very tough ; as in the Indian- 
 corn (Zea Mays). 5. coriacea, coriaceous ; thicker 
 than the preceding. 6. spongiosa, fungosa, and suberosa, 
 spongy, fungous, or cork-like ; formed of a porous 
 substance. 7. carnosa, fleshy. 8. Crustacea, crusta- 
 
 £. 
 
 * Curtis, &c. 
 t See his great and classical work, De Fructibus & Seminibus Plantarum. 
 Stutgardis: 1783, & Tubing* : 1791. 
 
 D d 
 
202 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ceous ; thin, and not capable of being softened by- 
 water, or cut by a knife, but easily broken by the fingers; 
 as in the Palms. 9- ossea and lapidea, differing from 
 the preceding, only in thickness and hardness- 
 
 b. The testa is, 1. bilociilaris, or two-celled ; as 
 in Sapindus. 2. Most generally, however, it is unilo- 
 cularis, unilocular, or one-celled, containing a single 
 kernel* 
 
 2- The internal membrane is generally present, 
 but is, nevertheless, often wanting. This integument 
 always closely invests the kernel, but readily secedes 
 from the shell. It is, 1- membranacca, or membranous ; 
 or, 2. subspoiigiosa, somewhat spongy- The former is 
 the most common- 
 
 The Chalaza is situated in the internal mem- 
 brane. This is a part of the seed of which the learned 
 Gaertner has taken particular notice. It is a small deep- 
 coloured areola, or a small spongy Qr callous tubercle 
 on the outer surface of the internal membrane of the 
 seed ; it is found in many but not in all seeds, and is 
 either placed near the external umbilicus, or diametri- 
 cally opposite to it. The latter situation is the most 
 common. 
 
 3- The Accidental integuments, as Gaertner calls 
 them, are superadded to the testa, or shell, of the seed, 
 and either wholly or partially cover it in such a manner, 
 that they may be easily removed. 
 
 The first of these accidental coverings is called by 
 Gaertner, the epidermis^ or cuticle. It is a thin pellicle, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 203 
 
 which invests the whole seed, and never spontaneously 
 separates from it. 
 
 The epidermis is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 
 2. mucilaginosa, mucilaginous. This is only observed, 
 when seeds, by being thrown into water, have their sur- 
 face softened and resolved into a jelly, or mucilage. 
 This is very observable in the seed of the Quince 
 (Pyrus Cydonia), and in those of the Siliquose plants. 
 
 Gartner retains the term arillus, or aril, as one of 
 the accidental integuments, which covers the seed, 
 either wholly or partially, adhering only to the navel. 
 Of the aril, I have already spoken under the head of pe- 
 ricarp, and have nothing further to say concerning it, in 
 this place. 
 
 D. The Nucleus, or Kernel, is the part which fillsthe 
 internal cavity of the various integuments which have 
 been mentioned. It is of an almond-fleshy substance*, 
 and generally composed of four distinct parts, viz. 1. 
 the Albumen. 2. the Vitcllus. 3. the Cotyledon ; and, 
 4. the Embryo. Of these I shall treat in the order in 
 which I have mentioned them. 
 
 1- The Albumen, or White of the Seed, is that 
 part of the kernel which invests the cotyledons, and is 
 thought to afford the same support to the germinating 
 embryo, that the white of the egg does to the chick. 
 Both in respect to its consistence and colour, the albu- 
 men, in many seeds, greatly resembles the white of a 
 boiled egg. It is not deemed an essential part of the 
 
 * That is retaining the impression of the nail. Gaertner calls it amygdalino- 
 canwsum. 
 
204 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 seed. It is wanting in many seeds, but, upon the whole, 
 appears to be present in a majority of the many seeds 
 which were examined, with a truly scientific patience, 
 by Gaertner. It is present in the plants of the following 
 natural orders, viz. the Grasses, the Palms, the Lili- 
 aceous plants, the Umbelliferse, the Coniferas, and the 
 Multisiliquae, not to mention some others. The albumen 
 is wanting in the seeds of the Compositae, the Verticil- 
 latae, the Siliquosae, the Cucurbitaceae, and the Asperi- 
 foliae* In the Leguminous plants, a very great number 
 of the genera are destitute of albumen, whilst a few are 
 supplied with it. Among the plants of the class Mona- 
 delphia, there is a greater number of genera with albu- 
 minous than with exalbuminous seeds. 
 
 Although the albumen is thus wanting in many 
 seeds, it must be admitted, when present, to be a sub- 
 stance of considerable importance. It supports and de- 
 fends the embryo, whilst this essential part is imprison- 
 ed in the seed, and serves for the first nutriment of the 
 embryo, when it begins to germinate. It has no con- 
 nection with the embryo, whether it surround, or is 
 surrounded by, the embryo : it is always so distinct, as 
 to be very readily detached from it. 
 
 The part of the kernel of which I am speaking, 
 was not unknown to Dr. Grew, who gave it the name 
 which it now retains. Gleichen calls it the " seminal 
 placenta", whilst Meese and Boehmer designate it 
 by the name of cotyledon. Linnaeus asserted, that the 
 vegetable es^g is destitute of albuminous matter, and 
 that it is of no use in the seed. He would have said, 
 with more truth, as Gaertner observes, that albumen is 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 205 
 
 not found in all seed. Moreover, some seeds have but 
 a very small quantity of this substance. 
 
 2. The Vitellus, or Yolk, is placed between the 
 embryo and the albumen, and is different both from the 
 cotyledons and the albumen. It is so closely connected 
 with the embryo, that it cannot be detached from it, 
 without injuring the substance of the latter. It is never 
 carried without the shell of the seed, whilst this is ger- 
 minating, nor does it become a seminal leaf, as the co- 
 tyledons do, but is entirely exhausted by the seminal 
 plant and converted into its nourishment ; in both which 
 respects it resembles the albumen. In albuminous 
 seeds, or seeds furnished with albumen, the vitellus oc- 
 cupies the middle place between it and the embryo, in 
 such a manner, that it can be easily separated from the 
 albumen, without any injury to its form. It is evident, 
 therefore, that it has some affinity with the cotyledons, 
 and also with the albumen. Of all the internal parts of 
 tue seed, the vitellus is the most uncommon. 
 
 In the seeds of what are commonly called the more 
 imperfect plants, such as the Fuci, the Mosses, and the 
 Ferns, the vitellus presents itself in its most simple form 
 and fabric. In these plants, the whole kernel is a pure 
 vitellus, which is formed of mere herbaceous or almond- 
 flesh, and exactly adapted to the cavity of its shell. 
 Even here, although the diagnosis of it is difficult, it 
 cannot, in the opinion of Gaertner, be referred to the al- 
 bumen, because it does not contain within itself a dis- 
 tinct embryo, but is perfectly solid. Moreover, near 
 the umbilicus of the seed, the vitellus has growing to 
 it, a " germinating cicatricle", which is not separable 
 
206 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 from the remaining substance of the kernel, nor even 
 distinguishable from it, except by its paler colour, and 
 more medullary consistence ; as we observe in the seeds 
 of Lycopodium. Nor can the substance in question be 
 considered as a solid cotyledon, because in the germi- 
 nating seeds of the Mosses, we plainly observe cotyledo- 
 nous leaflets, arisingbelow it from the seed; and it is seen 
 adhering to these new and true cotyledons, a long time 
 after their appearance, and the seminal plant consuming 
 and destroying it. The vitellus, from all these circum- 
 stances, appears to be of an intermediate nature, between 
 the albuminous and cotyledonous matter. 
 
 In other vegetables, as in Ruppia and Zamia, the 
 fabric of the vitellus is more evident. In the first of 
 these plants, it is very like to a fleshy albumen, and in 
 Zamia, it is still more like albuminous matter. In Zos- 
 tera, Ceratophyllum, and others, the vitellus approaches 
 nearer to the form of a true cotyledon, being formed of 
 a white almond-flesh, and divided into two lobes. In 
 Ceratophyllum and Nelumbo, indeed, there is but little 
 perceptible difference between the vitellus and the coty- 
 ledons. Upon the whole, however, the vitellus, in the 
 opinion of Gsertner, constitutes a distinct kind of 
 
 viscus*. 
 
 « 
 
 3. As the texture of the albumen is much more 
 simple than that of the vitellus, so the fabric of this last- 
 
 * In describing the different paits of the seed, such as the albumen, the vi- 
 tellus, &c, I frequently employ, with but little alteration, the words of Gartner, 
 in his extensive history of these parts. Candour requires me to make this acknow- 
 ledgment ; and whilst I make it, I must not omit to refer the reader, who is 
 anxious for more minute information concerning the history of the seed, to the 
 learned and ingenious work of the German botanist. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 207 
 
 mentioned part is less perfect than that of the cotyledons, 
 which now claim our attention. 
 
 The cotyledons* are organized parts of the kernel, 
 simple or divided, which together with the radicle and 
 plumule form the body of the embryo, which is next to 
 be treated of, and by the germination of the seed, are 
 commonly converted into the first leaflets of the new 
 plant, which, in general, are different from the succeed- 
 ing leaves. This is the definition of Gsertner. Lin- 
 nasusdefines them to be the lateral body of the seed, bibu- 
 lous or imbibing moisture, and caducous, or falling off 
 quickly: "corpus lateraleseminis,bibulum,caducumj-". 
 Professor Giseke defines it " folium primum germi- 
 " nantis seminis"J : the first leaf of the germinating 
 seed. But this is rather a definition of the seed-leaf. 
 In English, the part of which I am speaking, is com- 
 monly called the Seed-Lobe, " when we speak of it as 
 ** a portion of the seed, in a quiescent state — and the 
 " seed-leaf, when the seed is in a growing state K f \ 
 
 From different writers, the cotyledons have receiv- 
 ed different names. Jungius, in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, denominated them Vahtf seminis, or Valves of 
 the seed. Gleichen called them Lobiseminales, or Seed- 
 lobes : whilst by others, they have been called Foliola 
 seminalia, or Seminal-leaflets. Linnaeus adopted the 
 name of cotyledon, which is used by Gasrtner, and 
 most of the other modern writers on botany ; and which, 
 indeed, seems preferable to any of the other appellations. 
 In English, we shall avoid all ambiguity by employing 
 
 • From y.orvXn, a cavity. 
 
 t Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 54. (j. 86. \ Termini BotanicL 
 
 1^ Professor Martyn. 
 
208 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 the Latin word, cotyledon, only using, in the plural, 
 cotyledons. 
 
 The cotyledons seem to derive their original from 
 the embryo, of which they always constitute an integral 
 part. In particular, the simple or undivided cotyledons 
 are supposed to be formed by the mere extension of the 
 corcle*, or first medullary point of the seed, and are 
 nothing else than the scape of the embryo more or less 
 distinct from its radicle ; as in the Palms, the Grasses, 
 and the Liliaceous plants. On the other hand, however, 
 the double or conjugate cotyledons are formed by the 
 fissures, which divide the part of the corcle, opposite to 
 the radicle, into two lobules, which are generally 
 equal. 
 
 a. In regard to its fabric, the cotyledon is gene- 
 rally composed of three distinct parts, viz. epidermis, 
 or cuticle, parenchyma, and tracheae, or vessels. 1. The 
 cuticle invests the whole surface of the cotyledons, and, 
 in the opinion of Gsertner, serves them partly as a filtre, 
 through which the liquor of the amnion passes, and 
 partly hinders them from coalescing with the neighbour- 
 ing bodies. 2. The parenchyma proceeds from the in- 
 ternal bark of the embryo, and is formed of cellular tex- 
 ture, in the interstices of which are deposited a thick 
 oil, and other inspissated liquors. This parenchyma 
 alone forms nearly the whole mass of the cotyledons, 
 and is commonly of an herbaceous, almond, or some- 
 what coriaceous consistence, and principally serves the 
 purpose of depurating and containing the nutritious 
 juices. 3. The tracheae, or vessels, are dispersed 
 
 • See what is afterward* said ou the Embryo. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 209 
 
 through the whole cellular texture of the cotyledons, 
 and connect them intimately with the contained 
 embryo*. They seem to arise from the fleshy sub- 
 stance of the embryo, immediately below the origin of 
 the plumule, and terminate with their fine extremities 
 in the parenchyma, or the surface of the cotyledons. 
 It is supposedf, that they are of use to the seminal plant 
 by performing the two-fold office of exhaling and absorb- 
 ing vessels. Whatever may be their precise use, it is 
 probable, that they perform for the seed, an office simi- 
 lar to that which is performed by the apparently- same 
 system of vessels, which are so conspicuous in the leaves 
 and other parts of vegetables^. The tracheae are, at 
 all times, conspicuous in the thinner cotyledons ; and 
 in the thicker ones, they are rendered obvious to the 
 senses by germination, and different coloured fluids, 
 which they greedily absorb. We cannot doubt, that 
 this absorption depends upon a living principle (irritabi- 
 lity), inherent in the vessels of which I am speaking : 
 for the absorption, or propulsion of fluids, is observed 
 to be considerably increased by the application of various 
 stimulating agents, such as camphor, nitre, &c. 
 
 b. The number of the cotyledons is different in 
 different seeds ; upon the whole, however, the number 
 of these parts is more constant than that of any other 
 part of the fructification. Hence, as we shall afterwards 
 see, some eminent botanists have founded their methods 
 of vegetables principally upon the number of the coty- 
 ledons. 
 
 * See Plate v. Fig. F. f By Gartner, and others. 
 
 \ See page 49, &c, and, also, Part II. 
 
 E e 
 
210 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 A seed, in the language of the botanists, is, 1. 
 Acotyledonons. 2. Monocotyledonous- 3. Dicotyledonous- 
 ox, 4. Polycotylcdonous. 
 
 1. The seeds which are destitute of cotyledons are 
 named Acotyledonous seeds, and the plants which arise 
 from such seeds, Acotyledonous plants. The acotyle- 
 donous seed has no conspicuous or distinct embryo, but 
 contains within itself only a punctum saliens, or mere 
 germinating cicatricle ; or a certain simple primordium 
 of a radicle, implanted in the kernel, and which is se- 
 veral times larger than itself; as in Ruppia, Zostera, 
 Zamia, the Fuci, the Mosses, the Ferns, and the Fun- 
 gous plants. 
 
 A plant is named acotyledonous, which, without 
 any preceding vestige of a true leaflet, arises from the 
 earth, a frond of different species, but perfectly similar 
 to the parent plant. Plants of this kind are seldom 
 propagated from seed, but more commonly spring from 
 simple or fruit-like ( 'carpomorpbi* J , buds, as is the 
 case with respect to the Fungous plants, the Lichens, 
 the Confervae, and some of the Algaef . 
 
 Linn^usJ, Adanson, Jussieu, Gaertner, and other 
 able botanists, have no hesitation in asserting, that there 
 are seeds, which are acotyledonous, or destitute of co- 
 tyledons. On the other hand, however, Dr. Hedwig, 
 of Leipsic, of whom it has been said, that he was 
 " born to abolish Cryptogamy", asserts, that there are 
 no seeds whatever destitute of cotyledons ; that the 
 
 * Gaertner. f See Part III. Class xxiv. Cryptogamia. 
 
 | " Musci et adfines (says Linnaeus) solis Cotyledonibus destituuntur". Phi- 
 lesophia Botanica, &c. p. 89. \. 136. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. fHl 
 
 powder of the Mosses (a tribe of plants which the bo- 
 tanists, whom I have mentioned, arrange under the 
 head of Acoiyledones) is the genuine seed of these plants, 
 which are furnished with their proper cotyledonous 
 matter, as in other plants. " Pulvisculus (these are his 
 words) " igitur Muscorum intra capitula contentus, 
 " verum eorum est semen, quod, veluti aliorum vege- 
 " tabilium semina, sua tunica, cotyledone uno et ultra, 
 " et plantulae rudimento instruitur*". Notwithstand- 
 ing, however, the truly ingenious and meritorious la- 
 bours of this author, it still, I think, remains to be 
 ascertained, whether the Mosses are really furnished 
 with cotyledons, or not. Meanwhile, I follow the au- 
 thors above mentioned, in retaining a head or class of 
 acotyledonous seeds. 
 
 2. The Monocotyledonous seeds are such as have only 
 one cotyledon, or lobe, in the seed- A seed of this kind 
 contains with it a very entire embryo, without any per- 
 ceptible chink, and is either entirely free, or at least 
 loose from the rest of the kernel, at the extremity oppo- 
 site to its radicle. 
 
 Monocotyledonous are much more numerous 
 than acotyledonous, plants. To the former head, are 
 referred the great natural families of the Grasses, the 
 Palms, the Scitaminessf , the Liliaceous, and many 
 other, plants. Gaertner observes, that these seeds are of 
 two kinds, viz. 1. the true monocotyledonous, having 
 the embryo formed from its first production, of one in- 
 
 * D. Joannis Hedwigii, &c. Fundamentum Historiae Naturalis Muscorum 
 Frondosorum, &c. Part II. p. 55. Lipsiae : 1783. 
 
 t See Part III. Class I. Monamdeia. 
 
212 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 dividual body, and so composed of a medullary and cor- 
 tical substance, that in every transverse section of the 
 embryo, the double substance appears both distinct, and 
 very entire : and, 2. false monocotyledonous (psendo- 
 monocotyledoneaj, containing, as well as the former, a 
 solid and undivided embryo, but at its first production, 
 parted into distinct lobules, and afterwards, from the 
 lobules being united at maturity, transformed into a 
 solid and individual body ; as in Tropceolum, Paullinia, 
 and others. 
 
 G^ertner also divides the monocotyledonous 
 plants into true and spurious' The true monocotyle- 
 donous plants observe one and the same mode of germi- 
 nating and of growing, and, consequently, have the 
 same habit of external form. To this head we refer the 
 Grasses, the Cyperoidege, the Liliaceous plants, the 
 great family of Orchides, the Scitamineae, the Palms, 
 and others. The spurious monocotyledonous plants only 
 agree in the mode of germinating with one another, and 
 with the former ; whilst, in regard to their other qua- 
 lities, they differ in almost every point ; as in Nelum- 
 bium, Trapa, Ceratophyllum, Cuscuta, Orobanche, 
 and others. Hence, a plant is generally named mono- 
 cotyledonous, which springs from the shell (testa) of 
 the seed, with a single true leaflet, or with a single 
 filiform shoot, or turio. 
 
 The monocotyledonous plant which arises from 
 the shell with a leaflet, is denominated phyllophorus, or 
 leaf-bearing (phyllopbora) ; and that which arises with 
 a filiform shoot is called turioniferous, or shoot-bearing 
 (turionifera). These last are either completely destitute 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 213 
 
 of leaves (apbylla) ; as in Cuscuta and Melocatus ; or 
 they are bulbiferous {bulbifene), when the embryo of the 
 seed is first elongated into a fleshy staff, then the outer 
 extremity of it is enlarged into a bulbous globule ; and 
 from this globule arises the first leaflet. 
 
 3. The seeds which are furnished with two cotyle- 
 dons, are denominated Dicotyledonous, and are by far 
 the most frequent. They cherish within them an em- 
 bryo, separating spontaneously into two lobes, or, at 
 least, divided by a conspicuous chink, in the extremity- 
 opposite to the radicle. 
 
 The dicotyledonous seeds are, in general, very rea- 
 dily distinguished from the others, besause, in by far the 
 greaterpartof them, the cotyledons are manifestly distinct 
 from each other, as in the Garden-Bean, and many 
 others*. In some of the seeds of this class, however, 
 the diagnosis, as it is called, is attended with some dif- 
 ficulty. This difficulty occurs, when the cotyledons, 
 now arrived at maturity, have coalesced into one undi- 
 vided body ; or, again, when in the more minute em- 
 bryos, the chink of the division is so very small, that it 
 cannot be properly distinguished, even when the eye is 
 assisted by a magnifying glass. In the former case, it is 
 advised to cut the seed before its complete maturity, 
 or the mature kernel is to be determined and referred to 
 its proper class, agreeably to the signs, already men- 
 tioned, when speaking of the false monocotyledonous 
 seedf. In the latter case, it is useful, in many in- 
 
 * See Plate v. Fig. F. 
 
 f All the false monocotyledonous seeds, according to Gaertner, properly be- 
 long to other classes, and most of them are dicotyledonous. 
 
214 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 stances, to throw the doubtful embryo into a coloured 
 liquor, very readily diffusible, such as that of the Phy- 
 tolacca, or Poke, that this liquor may be received 
 within the chink, and thus render it more conspicuous 
 to the eye. If, notwithstanding these precautions, we 
 cannot satisfy our minds, then the seed is to be referred 
 to the head of monocotyledonous seeds, even though 
 we are certain, that it has originated from a genuine di- 
 cotyledonous plant. 
 
 The greater number of dicotyledonous plants arise 
 from the earth with two seminal leaflets [folia seminalia*), 
 but sometimes they leave their cotyledonous lobes hidden 
 beneath the surface of the earth, and rise, to meet the 
 light and air, with their plumule only. This difference 
 has given occasion to distinguish the dicotyledonous 
 seeds into, 1. epigean, and, 2. hypogean. 
 
 The epigean (epigcece) cotyledons are always the 
 forerunners of the appearance of the new plant, and 
 either resemble thick herbaceous lobes, as in the Kid- 
 ney-Bean, and other Leguminous plants ; or they re- 
 semble true leaves, in general, however different from 
 those which are to follow, as in the Compound-flowers, 
 and others ; and they spontaneously fall off, after the 
 plumule has unfolded itself. 
 
 The hypogean [hypogozcd) cotyledons are only to be 
 met with, in some of the exalbuminous seeds formerly 
 mentioned!, the testa, or shell, of which they very 
 exactly fill, and never throw it off. They, therefore, 
 always consist of thick and fleshy lobes, and these are 
 
 * See Plate v. Fig. H. and Fig. O. f See page 204. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 215 
 
 either united, as in the Horse-Chesnut (^Esculus Hip- 
 pocastanum), &c. or they are distinct, as in the Wal- 
 nuts and Hickeries (Juglans), and others. These, for 
 the most part, even before germination, cherish in their 
 bosom, a manifest plumule, which, of itself, is capable 
 of evolution. 
 
 4. The Polycotyledonous seeds are those which 
 have more than two cotyledons ; or, in other words, 
 those in which the embryo is divided into more than 
 two lobes. In general, they are easily distinguished 
 from the other seeds, already mentioned. The cotyle- 
 dons are found to be more than two in various plants. 
 Thus, there are three cotyledons in the Hemlock Spruce- 
 Fir (Pinus canadensis); fourinRhizophoragymnorrhiza, 
 and in Avicennia ; five in the Common Pine (Pinus syl- 
 vestris) ; six in the Garden-cress (Lepidium sativum), 
 and ten, twelve, or more, in the different species of 
 Pine. In all these plants, the lobes are observed to be 
 perfectly equal, except in Canarium and Lepidium. 
 They are, likewise, distinct in all, except Hernandia, 
 the cotyledonous kernel of which is solid, and only 
 many-parted, internally, by indistinct streaks. But 
 polycotyledonous plants do not arise exclusively from 
 these seeds ; they are actually known to arise from aco- 
 tyledonous seeds, as from Mnium hygrometricum, 
 from Bryum trichodes and B. argenteum, and from va- 
 rious Fuci. Moreover, true dicotyledonous seeds 
 sometimes counterfeit the polycotyledonous, namely 
 when the nucleus, or kernel, owing to the abundance 
 of nutriment, is divided into various irregular lobes, as 
 in Mangifera domestica ; or into minute bractes, which 
 do not cohere with each other, as in the Shaddock (Ci- 
 
216 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 trus decumana) : but this structure is, unquestionably, 
 monstrous, and cannot deceive the botanist who is well 
 versed in inquiries of this nature. 
 
 David MEESEwas of opinion, that there are no seeds 
 furnished with more than two cotyledons* ; and Mr. Adan- 
 son asserts, that the polycotyledonous seeds only differ 
 from those which are dicotyledonous, in this, that the 
 lobes of the former are again deeply divided, and that 
 their lobes are, in reality, only two in number. The 
 opinion of the French botanist has been implicitly 
 adopted by maiij succeeding botanists, among whom I 
 may mention the learned Mr. de Jussieuf . It is certain, 
 however, that there are seeds entitled to the appellation 
 of polycotyledonous seeds. This is evident from the 
 unequal number of the lobes, as a ternary and quinary 
 one, in some species of Pine- The polycotyledonous 
 plants, however, are, on all hands, acknowledged to 
 be but few in number. 
 
 ******** 
 ***** 
 
 As the number of cotyledons is upon "the whole 
 pretty constant, and rarely varies in the same family, 
 so many botanists have founded their methods of plants 
 chiefly upon the number of these parts. Thus, Ray, 
 
 * Plantarum Rudimenta, &c. &c. 1763. 4°. 
 t Genera Plantarum, kc. p. 415. Mr. Curtis (A Companion, &c. p. 20. J po- 
 sitively asserts, that the seed of the Pine has only one cotyledon, and that what 
 have been taken for the cotyledons " was, in fact, the plumule expanded into a 
 " considerable number cf narrow leaves". 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 217 
 
 Boerhaave, Heister, Meese, Adanson*, and others, have 
 assumed the number of the cotyledons as the basis of their 
 systems, and have divided the vegetables of which they 
 treat generally into Acotyledonous, Monocotyledonous, 
 Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous. This division 
 is, likewise, the foundation of the celebrated, and, in 
 many respects, natural method of Mr- de Jussieu, to 
 which 1 shall have frequent occasion to refer, in the last 
 part of this work. This distribution, however, does 
 not afford classes of vegetables sufficiently natural for 
 the purpose of the botanist : and is, moreover, liable 
 to considerable difficulties. We cannot learn, with ab- 
 solute certainty, the true number of the cotyledons, 
 unless when we have an opportunity of inspecting the 
 seed in a germinating state ; nor will the fabric of the 
 embryo, in every case, enable us to form a safe judg- 
 ment of the number of the future cotyledons ; for it is 
 found, as has been already observed, that sometimes, 
 as in the Mosses, a polycotyledonous plant proceeds from 
 an acotyledonous seed ; that from a monocotyledonous 
 plant occasionally proceed plants which are closely allied 
 to the dicotyledonous plants, as in Dodder (Cuscuta), 
 and in Melocactus. Lastly, it is certain, that from a seed 
 which is manifestly dicotyledonous, there may spring 
 plants which are attended by only one cotyledonous 
 leaflet ; as in the genera Nelumbium and Trapa. Upon 
 the whole, while it will readily be admitted, that al- 
 though the number, the fabric, and physiology of the 
 cotyledons are points which ought never to be neglected 
 by the genuine botanist, it is highly improbable, that a 
 
 * Tins trnly learned botanist has founrled two systems on the cotyledons, the 
 one on die number, and the other on the form, of these parts. 
 
 F f 
 
218 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 methodical distribution of plants from the number or 
 form of these parts of the seed, will ever be generally 
 received. 
 
 c. In general, when there are two or more coty- 
 ledons in a seed, they are equal, or of the same size, 
 &c. : in some instances, however, we do observe a dif- 
 ference both in regard to the size and thickness of the 
 cotyledons. But germination finally abolishes the dif- 
 ference ; and it is observed, that the cotyledons of the 
 same seed, when evolved, are both very generally equal 
 and very similar, to each other. 
 
 d. The size of the cotyledons is various in differ- 
 ent vegetables. Most of the exalbuminous seeds have 
 very large cotyledons ; as in the Compound-flowers, the 
 Verticillate plants, &c. On the contrary, in the Umbel- 
 liferae, the Stellate, and some other natural families, the 
 cotyledons are smaller. That is, in the first case, they 
 either fill the whole of the shell of the seed ; so that, 
 when it is opened, we observe nothing but the cotyle- 
 dons and the radicle ; or, in the second case, they are 
 nearly of the length and breadth of the seed-shell, but 
 owing to their albuminous matter, do not completely fill 
 it ; or, lastly, they are sometimes hardly discernible, 
 even by means of a glass : as in Heath (Erica \ Colum- 
 bine (Aquilegia), Ranunculus, and others. Gartner 
 enumerates four heads of sizes of the cotyledons, viz. 
 very large (maxima J , middle sized (mediocresj* small 
 fparvtej, and minute (minutes). 
 
 e. The absolute situation of the cotyledons is sup- 
 posed to be always in the highest part of the radicle, 
 although this be inverted, or those be turned to the side 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 219 
 
 of the radicle, or rolled about it. But the relative situ- 
 ation respects the situation which the cotyledons hold 
 among themselves, or in respect to the external re- 
 gions of the seed. 
 
 Cotyledons, with respect to each other, are, 1« 
 cont'igiitf, contiguous ; their internal surfaces touching 
 mutually in every point ; as in by far the greater num- 
 ber of known vegetables. 2- opposite, opposite ; their 
 internal surfaces mutually respecting each other; but, by 
 reason of the inflected margins, either not able to touch 
 each other at all, or not in all points ; as in Meadow r 
 Crane's-bill (Geranium pratense), Coldenia, and others. 
 3. collaterales, collateral ; when one cotyledon is placed 
 at the side of the other, in the same vertical plane, so 
 that it is only at their internal margins that they can mu- 
 tually respect or touch each other ; as in the Miseletoe 
 (Viscum album), Menispermum Coculus, and, in some 
 measure, in Cachrys. 4. dhergentes, diverging ; 
 joined at the base, but taking a contrary direction at the 
 apex ; as in Nutmeg (Myristica), and Menispermum 
 fenestratum. 5. <vertici!/ata,', verticillate ; placed in a 
 circle, about a common point, so that they mutually 
 touch each other ; as in Pine, and Rhizophora- 
 
 Cotyledons, with respect to the external regions 
 of the seed, are, 1. incumbcntes, incumbent ; when one 
 of the cotyledons respects the back, and the other the 
 belly of the seed, so that the plane of mutual contact is 
 parallel with the axis of the fruitjjlas in Henbane (Hy- 
 oscyamus), Campion (Cucubalus), &c. 2. accumbentes, 
 accumbent ; when one respects the right and the other 
 the left side of the seed, and the margins are turned to 
 
220 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 the back and belly of it, so that the plane of contact is 
 contrary to the axis ; as in the Leguminous plants, and 
 others. 3. transfer sales, transverse ; which have an 
 oblique, or irregular situation in the seed, as in Myr- 
 sine, and Lathraea, &c. 
 
 /.Almost all the known cotyledons have a continu- 
 ity of substance, and a perfect equality of surface : yet 
 some variations from these rules do occur. Thus, 
 some cotyledons are, 1. dentate, toothed, or serrated 
 in the margin ; as in the Lime-tree (Tilia). 2. partita, 
 parted ; their foliaceous plates more or less deeply di- 
 vided into equal parts. 3. rimosce, or anfractuose, 
 chinky ; having their thick lobes divided by chinks, and 
 deep furrows into various irregular lobes, cohering with 
 each other, and not separated by an intervening mem- 
 brane ; as in Beech (Fagus), &c. 4. ruminate, rumi- 
 nate ; like the preceding, except that the chinks are 
 principally placed in the external surface ; and separated 
 by intervening membranous plates ; as in the Chesnut 
 (Fagus Castanea). 5. lobate, lobed ; when each pri- 
 mary lobe is again divided into other smaller lobes, on 
 the exterior surface only ; as in the Walnut. 6. 
 fenestrate, windowed ; pierced with many round holes ; 
 as in a species of Menispermum, called, on account of 
 this very singular structure, M. fenestratum. 
 
 g. Very often the figure of the cotyledons is not dif- 
 ferent from that of the whole embryo, especially in the 
 monocotyledonous and various other seeds : but, in 
 most seeds, it is worthy of a separate consideration, 
 and either according to the straightness or curvature of 
 the plane of contact, or according to the circumcesure 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 221 
 
 of the cotyledons. Thus, the cotyledons are, 1. recta, 
 straight ; when the internal surfaces, or plane of mutual 
 contact, as well with respect to their length or breadth, 
 hardly deviate from the right line. 2. arcuata, bowed ; 
 generally narrow, and always longer than they are broad: 
 the axis, also, is curved in all, but the breadth of the 
 surfaces is always straight and flat. 3. reniformes, 
 reniform ; the nearest to straight, as in the Leguminous 
 plants. 4. falcata, sickle-shaped, 5. uncinata &? se- 
 micircular es, hooked and semicircular. 6. cochleata, 
 cochleate ; which make one or two spiral turns ; as in 
 Cistus. 7. wmiculares, vermicular ; bowed in an ir- 
 regular manner , as in Scprpiurus vermiculata- 8.Jiex- 
 iwsa, flexuose. 9. carinata, keeled ; the axis project- 
 ing into an angle, but the flattish sides bent either for- 
 wards or backwards ; as in Privet (Ligustrum). 10. 
 conni'oentes or subconduplicata ; converging, or some- 
 what conduplicate : these, from their situation, are op- 
 posite, and their sides are inflected in such a manner 
 that the half of one plate is received within the duplica- 
 tive of the other ; as in Meadow Cranesbill and Colde- 
 nia. 11. repanda. repand ; the plates being curved in 
 contrary directions, only near the margin, but, in the 
 middle, are sufficiently flat, and are marked with a round 
 angle ; as in Tilia, Buckwheat (Polygonum Fagopy- 
 rum), &c. 12. plicata, plaited ; plaited like a ruffle 
 into contiguous vertical or transverse wrinkles, as in 
 Sebestena, &c. 13. lacunosa, pitted ; having their in- 
 ternal surfaces marked with rude and thick folds ; as in 
 Beech, ike. 14. voluta, volute; differing from all the 
 preceding, because their foliaceous and very broad plates 
 are rolled in various ways about a globe, or cylinder, 
 
222 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY 
 
 or each other, and curved in all directions *. 15. con- 
 volutee, convolute ; strictly so called. 16- cylindrica, 
 cylindrical ; simply rolled into a hollow cylinder ; as in 
 Pisonia. 17. spirales, spiral; the foliaceous plates 
 rolled, in a spiral direction, about the radicle or plu- 
 mule ; as in the Pomegranate (Punica), Myrobalanus, 
 &c 18. duplicato-convoluta, doubly-convolute ; having 
 both margins reflected spirally into the middle of the in- 
 ternal surface ; as in the Nelumbo- 19. vaginantes, 
 sheathing ; the outer plate cylindrically convolute, and 
 embracing the internal, doubly convolute ; as in Au- 
 bletia, Rivinia, &c. 20. contortuplicata, writhed, or con- 
 tortuplicate ; plaited and convolute in an almost inextri- 
 cable manner ; as in Mallow (Malva), Cotton (Gossy- 
 pium), Convolvulus, and others j\ 
 
 " The proper figure of the cotyledons, which is 
 " defined by the limits of the circumference of the mar- 
 " gins alone, and is equally common to the straight and 
 " curved cotyledons, has exactly the same modifica- 
 " tions" that the true leaves (formerly considered J) 
 have, being, like them, linear, lanceolate, oblong, 
 ovate, cordate, &c, except, that the margins of the co- 
 
 * To this head are referred cotyledons that are, 1. concavx, concave, or spoon- 
 shaped (coch/eariformesj ; as in Myristica officinalis. 2. conglobates, conglobate ; 
 formed into a sphere, which is smooth on the outside, but plaited within in various 
 ways ; as in Cabbage (Brassica), &c. 
 
 \ It is not er.nected, that students in botany, much less those who merely 
 pursue plants as an object of pleasure, are to become thoroughly acquainted with 
 this extensive and very difficult nomenclature of the cotyledons. In a work, how- 
 ever, such as the present, it would have been improper to have omitted this ter- 
 minology, which we owe to the persevering industry and nice discrimination of the 
 learned Gsertner. 
 
 * See pages 31, &c. &c. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 223 
 
 tyledons are very rarely toothed or incised, and hardly 
 ever irregular. As true leaves, so likewise the cotyle- 
 dons have a different form in the different species of one 
 natural genus, or family. Thus, in the Tartarian Ma- 
 ple (Acer tataricum), the cotyledons are gibbously flex- 
 uose, whilst in the Red-Maple (Acer rubrum), they are 
 spiral, &c. Thus, again, in the Mountain-Dock, or 
 Sorrel (Rumex digynus) they are quite straight, but in 
 Bloody-Dock (Rumex sanguineus) and in Blunt-leaved 
 Dock (Rumex obtusifolius), they are slightly curved, 
 &c &c. It is to be observed, however, that these dif- 
 ferences, which are so very frequent in the true leaves, 
 very rarely occur in the cotyledons. Indeed, it is very 
 common for all the cotyledons of one genus or family, 
 and even of two natural classes, to be very similar, and 
 absolutely of the same form ; as in the Umbelliferous 
 plants, and others- This circumstance must show the 
 necessity, or at least the propriety, of carefully studying 
 the history of the cotyledons, in every attempt towards 
 a natural arrangement of vegetables. Indeed, without a 
 minute attention to the cotyledons, we shall never pos- 
 sess, what it is a matter of so much consequence to pos- 
 sess, A Philosophical History of the vegeta- 
 ble Kingdom. 
 
 h. The most common colour of the cotyledons is a 
 pure milky white. Yellow-coloured cotyledons are not 
 uncommon, especially in the ripe seeds of siliques and 
 legumes. Some cotyledons are of a dark or grass-green 
 colour*. In the seeds of the two genera Sonchus and 
 
 * When, besides this colour, cotyledons have, likewise, a foliaceous figure, 
 the seeds are said to be germinating fgerniinantiaj, as in Nelumbo. 
 
224 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Scorzonera, the cotyledonous matter is of a livid or 
 leaden colour ; and in the seeds of Bidens and Zinnia, 
 it is of a purplish colour. But these colours are unu- 
 sual, and they are all, by the great process of germina- 
 tion, converted into green ; though sometimes into a 
 fine-blood colour, as in some species of Amaranthus, 
 &c. 
 
 I. In regard to their odour and tastes, it is certain 
 that, in general, the cotyledons have but little or no 
 odour ; or, at least, not a sweet or aromatic odour. 
 For although the fruits of Cinnamon (Laurus Cinnamo- 
 mum), and Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) possess a very 
 fragrant smell, yet this is entirely lost in the complete- 
 ly-matured cotyledons. In some seeds, the taste of the 
 cotyledonous matter is bitter, as in Quassia excelsa ; in 
 others, it is acrid : but very generally it is insipid and 
 mealy, or sweetish, as in the recent kernels of the 
 Almond (Amygdalus communis), the Filbert (Corylus 
 Avellana), and different species of Walnut andHickery, 
 such as Juglans regia, J. nigra, Shell-bark Htekery (Ju- 
 glans alba ovata*;, and others. 
 
 IV. The Embryo is the most noble and essential part of 
 a fertile seed. It is the part which exclusively forms 
 the nova progenies, or new plant, and to which all the 
 other parts are added, for its temporary use only- To 
 this part Linnaeus, after Andreas Csesalpinus, gave the 
 name of Corcuhim, or the little heart- Dr. Martyn calls 
 it Corcle- Some writers have named it plumula semi- 
 
 * Of Marshall. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 225 
 
 fia/is*, or the seminal plumule. Adanson and Gaertner 
 designate it by the name of embryo, a term which I do 
 not hesitate to adopt in preference to either of the others, 
 which I have mentionedf. 
 
 According to Gaertner, the embryo derives its 
 origin from the medullary point (panctum medullare%), 
 produced by fecundation ; and, this point, he thinks, 
 might more properly be named the corcle of the seed, 
 " because in it alone resides the fountain of all vegeta- 
 " ble life, and from it alone proceeds the whole vascular 
 " system of the embryo". In some cases, the corcle is 
 so little augmented, that, even in the matured seed, it is 
 either altogether imperceptible, or it appears only like a 
 paler point or dot, which Gaertner names the cicatricle 
 (cicatricula), and which has nothing of the embryo 
 but the principle of life (or the capacity of being roused 
 to the possession of life), and the faculty of germinat- 
 ing. In other cases, the medullary point gradually 
 passes into a columnar radicle, which projects above 
 the kernel at its free apex, and at its base grows firmly 
 to the same. Lastly, in other cases, the corcle, on all 
 sides loose, grows at both of its extremities, from one 
 of which it puts forth the radicle, and from the other the 
 newly-organized parts, which are named cotyledon and 
 plumule. Hence, there arises a four-fold difference of 
 the embryo, from the increase of the corcle within the 
 seed, viz. 1. impcrfectus, imperfect ; an embryo, which, 
 to use the words of Gaertner, is " merely potential", 
 
 * Professor Ludwig calls it Plantula semina'.is. 
 
 t See Plite v. Hg. C. 3. 4. Fig. F. 1. 1. 2. 3. Fig. G 1. Fig. H. 1. 2. Fig. 
 L. 1. Fig.N. Fig. O. 
 i See Mg 
 
 G g 
 
226 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 as being formed from the germinating cicatricle alone. 
 2. incompletes, incomplete; formed of a simple, fixed 
 radicle alone. 3. perfectus, perfect ; constructed of a 
 free radicle and plumule. 4. completus, complete ; com- 
 posed of a radicle, cotyledon, and plumule. 
 
 The consistence of the embryo in all is soft and 
 herbaceous, fleshy, except in Rhizophora, the radicle 
 of which is converted, at maturity, into an almost woody 
 hardness. The internal fabric of the embryo is very 
 simple, being formed from the medulla alone, and sur- 
 rounded by its proper bark, in the more simple em- 
 bryos. But in other embryos, vessels are observable. 
 These vessels arise from the lobules of the plumule or 
 cotyledons by an insensible beginning, and gradually 
 anastamosing or uniting with each other, they run 
 through the whole substance of the embryo, and finish 
 in its outermost radicle. This vascular structure is 
 beautifully conspicuous in the embryo of the Persim- 
 mon (Diospyrosvirginiana), when it is viewed through a 
 magnifying glass*. The external fabric is generally 
 owing to three distinct parts, which are peculiar to the 
 embryo, and denominated the Plumule, the Scape, 
 and the Radicle. Of these parts I shall speak, sepa- 
 rately, afterwards. 
 
 a. In regard to the figure of the embryo, it is to 
 be observed, that this arises principally from the cotyle- 
 dons, joined to the radicle, especially in the solid or 
 true monocotyledonous embryos, which are almost en- 
 tirely made up of the cotyledon alone, and frequently 
 
 * See Plate v. Fig. O. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 227 
 
 have a peculiar form, which is not to be met with in 
 others. 
 
 a. The solid or true monocotyledonous embryo is, 
 1. trochkaris, pulley-like ; consisting of a short cylin- 
 der narrowed in the middle, or as if composed of two 
 globules ; as in Commelina, &c. 2. pyramidalis, py- 
 ramidal ; rising from a broad radical base into an acute 
 point, which is either longer, or shorter, orcylindraceo- 
 acuminate. 3. fungiformis, fungiform ; from a narrow 
 radical base, enlarged into a thick head or pileus ; as in 
 Carex, &c. 4. patelliformis, patelliform ; from a very 
 minute radical tubercle, extenuated into a round saucer ; 
 as in Flagellaria. 
 
 £. The dicotyledonous and the remaining monoco- 
 tyledonous embryos are, 1. recti, straight. 2. crassi, 
 thick. 3. foliacei, foliaceous. 4. curvi, curved. 5. 
 arcuati, bowed. 6.falcati, sickle-shaped. 7. unclna- 
 ti, uncinate. 8. cyclici, cyclical. 9. condup/icati, con- 
 duplicate ; having the radicle accumbent on the sides or 
 chink of the cotyledons, or having generally the extre- 
 mities either not at all separated, or at least only separat- 
 ed by a narrow space ; as in Hemp (Cannabis), and 
 various Leguminous and Siliquose plants. 10- spirales, 
 spiral. 11. g/wmonici, gnomonic, orlikeadial; hav- 
 ing the scape inflected at a right angle ; or having the 
 radicle joined at an obtuse angle with the cotyledons. 
 12. serpentini& sigmoidei, serpentine and sigmoid; hav- 
 ing the axis bent in a contrary direction near the two 
 extremities, or irregularly curved throughout its whole 
 length ; as in Lily (Lilium), and Tulbagia, &c. 
 
228 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 b. In regard to their situation, embryos are, 1. cen- 
 trales, central; either filling the whole cavity of the shell, 
 or placed only in its axis, and within the albumen ; as in 
 the greater number of seeds, particularly in the Um- 
 belliferous plants. 2- exce?itrici, excentric ; placed, 
 indeed, within the albumen, but without the axis of 
 the seed, yet so that they cannot touch the walls of the 
 shell ; as in Coffee (Coffea), and Asparagus. 3. pe- 
 ripherici, peripherical ; accumbent on the walls of the 
 shell throughout their whole length, and, consequently, 
 placed both without the axis and without the albumen ; 
 as in the Grasses, Pisonia, &x. 
 
 c. The size of the embryo varies in different vege- 
 tables, very considerably, but admits of the four de- 
 grees of measures which were mentioned in treating of 
 the cotyledons*. Indeed, as the cotyledons alone de- 
 fine the figure, so they generally define likewise, the 
 size of the embryo ; and, not unfrequcntly, an embryo 
 which, of itself, is very small, is observed to become 
 very large, by the accession of cotyledonous matter ; 
 as in Scytalia sinensis. Thus, from the bulk alone of 
 the cotyledons, we have embryos of the following 
 heads of sizes, viz. 1. maximi, very large ; as very ge- 
 nerally in the Cucurbitaceous plants, the Compound- 
 flowers, the Verticillate plants, the Siliquose, and 
 other, plants. 2. mediocres, middle sized ; as in the 
 Nightshades (Sokmum), and other Luridae, &c. 3. 
 pari)i, small ; m various Umbelliferas, the Stellated 
 plants, &c. 4. minuti, minute, in most of the mono- 
 
 * See page 218. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 229 
 
 cotyledonous plants, such as the Orchidese, the Cype- 
 roideae, Multisiliquae, and others*. 
 
 (/.The number of the embryos is very universally 
 one. Sometimes, however, the number is increased by 
 superfetation. Gasrtner once observed two embryos in 
 the seed of the Pinus Cembra ; both were in the same 
 cavity of the albumen, but one of them was inverted, 
 the other, as is the usual case in the plants of this genus, 
 was erect. It appears from the descriptions and engrav- 
 ings of some botanists, that a plurality of embryos 
 does sometimes take place in the seeds of Misletoe 
 (Viscum). It is, I think, highly probable that such a 
 plurality of embryos does occur with respect to many 
 other plants ; since we know, with certainty, that su- 
 perfetation may and does take place in the vegetable world, 
 as well as in some families of animals. 
 
 e. In regard to its proper parts, the embryo, as I 
 have already observed, consists of three parts, viz. 1. 
 the Plumula, 2. the Scapus, and, 3. the Radicula. I 
 shall now speak, at large, of these in the order in which 
 I have mentioned them. 
 
 1. The Plumula, or Plumule, so called from its 
 supposed resemblance to a little feather, is the upper 
 part of the embryo, which (when the seed, after having 
 been placed in a proper situation, and has begun to ve- 
 getate) rises upwards, forming all that part of the vege- 
 table which appears above ground. Gaertner defines it 
 " the first bud of the new plant, arising from the scape 
 
 Of all these natural families of plants, and of many others, explanations 
 are given in the course of this work. See, particularly, Part III. 
 
230 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 " of the embryo imprisoned in the seed, and ready to 
 " pass afterward into true leaves of the plant". Dr. 
 Grew called this part the Plume*. The English name 
 plumule seems preferable, especially as it is literally 
 the import of the Latin word plumula, which almost 
 all botanists have adopted. Linnaeus defines it "the 
 " ascending scaly part of the corcle : " pars corculi 
 " squamosa adscendensf." 
 
 Many embryos are destitute of the plumule. This 
 part is very constantly wanting in all the monocotyledo- 
 nous seeds, except, perhaps, a few of the Grasses. 
 It is, likewise, very often absent from the dicotyledo- 
 nous seeds ; or, at least, it is entirely concealed with- 
 in the scape. Gaertner denominates these concealed 
 plumules, immerse, or immersed. On the other hand, 
 the plumula emersa, or emersed plumules, of the 
 same writer, are always conspicuous, and the radicles 
 are placed in the vertex, yet in such a manner as to re- 
 main between the lobes of the cotyledons, and not to 
 come into view except by removing these parts from 
 each other ; owing to the narrowness' of the place, 
 these kinds of plumules are always compressed, and 
 have conduplicate leaflets, which are either simple or 
 compound. 
 
 The simple plumule (simplex plumula J, has ses- 
 sile leaflets in opposite pairs : these leaflets are, 1. te- 
 reti- acuminata, cylindrical-acuminate. 2. lineari-ob- 
 longa, linear-oblong. 3. lanceolata, lanceolate. 4. 
 ov at l o- acuminata , ovate-acuminate. 5. convoluto-pel- 
 
 * Dr. Darwin and other writers have adopted this name. 
 ■\ Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 54. ^. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 231 
 
 tata, convolute-peltate ; as in Tropaaolum. 6. spiralis, 
 spiral ; as in Gyrocarpus Jacquini. 
 
 The compound plumule (composita plumulaj, on 
 the other hand, supports more than one leaflet upon a 
 common petiole, and these are, 1. conjugal a, conjugate ; 
 either two-paired, or bijugous (bijuga) ; as in Ara- 
 chidna, or many-paired ( 'multijuga ) ', as in Juglans, 
 &c- 2. digit at a, digitate ; this is very uncommon, 
 but occurs in the Horse-Chesnut (iEsculus Hippocas- 
 tanum), and in Lupin (Lupinus). 3. coacervata, 
 heaped together ; as in Lathyrus, Vicia, and others. 
 These, Gaertner acknowledges, seem properly to be- 
 long to the many-paired ; but they may be designated 
 by another name, since the leaflets are so closely 
 crowded, and perhaps intermixed with the stipules, 
 that from the minuteness of the parts, they cannot be 
 easily distinguished from each other*. 
 
 2. The Scapus, or Scape, is much more frequent- 
 ly wanting in vegetables than is the plumule- Indeed, 
 the greater number of embryos are scapeless, or desti- 
 tute of this part. Gaertner, however, thinks proper to 
 denominate those embryos caulescent, which are fur- 
 nished with a very long radicle ; especially a radicle 
 which grows somewhat thicker downwards ; as in Ces- 
 trum, and Persimmon (Diospyros virginianaj") ; or 
 those in which the cotyledons are separated by a slender 
 stripe from the somewhat swollen capitate radicle ; as 
 in Misletoe, Barberry, &c. The same learned writer 
 
 * For representations of the plumule, see Plate v. Fig. F. 2. Fig. G. I. Fig. 
 H. 1. Fig. N. Fig. O. 
 
 t See Plate v. Fig. N. and Fig. O. 
 
232 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 admits, that, in the greater number of embryos, certain 
 limits between the end of the stem, or scape, and the 
 beginning of the radicle, are not given ; and that a 
 great portion of almost all those scapes, v/hilst the bu- 
 siness of germination is proceeding, descends into the 
 earth, and is .there evolved into a real radicle, or root. 
 Consequently, every part of the embryo, that is placed 
 beneath the cotyledons, may, with propriety, be enu- 
 merated among the radicles. 
 
 LiNN-ffius and most other writers make no mention 
 of the scape, but divide the embryo (corculum) into 
 two parts only, viz. the plumule, and the radicle. 
 But although the scape be frequently wanting, there 
 does seem to be a propriety in designating by this sepa- 
 rate name, a part of the embryo- 
 
 3. The Radicula, or Radicle, is by far the most 
 constant part not only of the embryo, but of the whole 
 kernel : for we find it in those seeds which have no 
 other vestige of the embryo. The name of radicle was 
 given to this part of the seed by Dr. Grew, and has 
 been retained by Ludwig, G*ertner, and the greater 
 number of the modern botanists. Linnaeus, however, 
 thought proper to designate this part of the embryo by 
 the name of Rostcllum> and defines it " the simple de- 
 " scending part of the corcle :" " pars corculi simplex 
 " descendens*". 
 
 In almost all the seeds which have, hitherto, been 
 examined, we find only a single radicle ( radicula soli- 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, &.c. p. 54. \. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 233 
 
 t aria J to each embryo. This is the observation of 
 Gaertner, who examined the seeds of 1054 plants, be- 
 longing to distinct genera. Some embryos, however, he 
 admits, are furnished with more radicles than one. Thus, 
 three, four, or six together of such radicles (radicula- 
 tern<s, quaterrus, sense J, properly formed and distinct 
 from each other, are found in the seeds of Rye (Secale), 
 Wheat (Triticum), and Barley (Hordeum), " but in no 
 " other seeds hitherto known*". It is probable, how- 
 ever, that the radicle is less constantly solitary than 
 Gsertner imagined. The fibres, or roots, of this part of 
 the embryo may, in numerous instances, be distinct, 
 but, owing to their minuteness, and cohesion by means 
 of mucilaginous or glutinous matter, they may seem to 
 constitute only a single, undivided body. I think, I 
 have, in one instance, distinctly observed several radicles 
 to a single embryo of the Persimmon. 
 
 a- In regard to its figure, the radicle is, 1. puncticu- 
 larhy puncticular ; appearing like a mere white point in 
 a kernel, which, in every other respect, is solid; as in the 
 Mosses, and other more imperfect plants. In all other 
 cases, the radicle projects. 2. tub axillaris, tubercular; 
 but little different from a thicker solid dot or point; as 
 in Pepper (Piper), and Flagellaria. 3. conica, conical; 
 arising from the cotyledons with a broad base, and end- 
 ing quickly in a point ; as in Enchanter's-Nightshade 
 (Circasa), and many other plants. 4. tcret'iuscida, 
 roundish. 5. filiformis, filiform. 6. cylindrical cy- 
 lindrical. 7. fiisiformis, vcl clavata, fusiform, or club- 
 
 ' Gjertner. 
 
 h h 
 
234 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 shaped ; as in Coffee, various Leguminous plants, &c; 
 8. capitata, capitate ; as in Zinnia, Viscum, and Ber- 
 beris. 9. ovato-g/obosa, ovate-globular ; as in Cassy- 
 ta, and in all the minute and globular embryos ; for in 
 these the radicle forms the principal part of the embryo, 
 as in Sundew (Drosera), and others. 10. recta, straight; 
 as is the case with most short radicles. 11. curva, 
 curved ; as in most of the long radicles. 
 
 b. In regard to its length, the radicle is, 1. longis- 
 sima, very long ; that is, longer than the cotyledons ; 
 as in Rhizophora, Anguillaria, and others. 2. 'aqualis, 
 equal : that is, as long as the cotyledons ; instanced in 
 most of the Umbelliferous plants, and others. 3. brcvis 
 &? brevissima, short and very short ; that is, shorter than 
 the cotyledons : instanced in all the monocotyledonous 
 plants, such as the Verticillata?, &x. in the Persimmon*, 
 &c. 
 
 c. The proper situation of the radicle always seems 
 to be at the base of the embryo ; but the relative situa- 
 tion has a reference to the other internal parts of the 
 seed ; and, in an especial manner, to the receptacle of 
 the fruit and seed. 
 
 As to the other internal parts of the seed, and 
 especially with regard to the albumen, the situation of 
 the radicle suffers exactly the same modifications, which 
 the embryo itself does: hence radicles aje, 1. central. 
 2. excentric. 3. pcriphcrical. But, from their combi- 
 nation with the cotyledons, a new relation arises amongst 
 these parts, and thence the radicle becomes, 1. directa, 
 
 * See Plate v. Fi S N. and Fig. O. 
 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 235 
 
 direct ; continuing to run out in one line with the axis 
 of the cotyledons, whether it be straight or curved ; and 
 at the base of the cotyledons does not suddenly take any 
 other course, as in the straight, sickle-shaped, hooked, 
 bowed, and cochleate embryos. 2. hiclinata, inclined ; 
 the axis being joined, at a right or obtuse angle, with 
 the axis of the cotyledons. 3. reflex a, reflected; sud- 
 denly recurved near the base of the cotyledons, towards 
 their other extremity, and is either accumbent on their 
 sides or chink ; as in the conduplicate embryos, especi- 
 ally of the Siliquose and Leguminous plants. 4. invo- 
 hita, involute ; constituting the axis of the embryo, 
 about which the cotyledons are so rolled, as to conceal 
 a very large part of the radicle ; as in Ayenia, Pome- 
 granate (Punica), and others. 
 
 As to the proper receptacle of the fruit or seed, 
 which is a relation of situation of great consequence to 
 be attended to, the radicle is, 1. supera s- ascendens, su- 
 perior or ascending, respecting the apex of the fruit 
 with its point. Those radicles are denominated simply 
 superior, which tend directly upwards, and rise from 
 the highest part of the seed ; as in the Umbelliferae, 
 Asperifoliae, and others. Those are named ascending, 
 which arise from the base or side of the seed, and tend 
 upwards at their apex ; as in Hemp, Corrigiola, &c. 
 2. hi/era s. descenckns, inferior or descending, respect- 
 ing the base or peduncle of the fruit with its apex. 
 A radicle is strictly named inferior, which, rising from 
 the bottom of the seed, tends directly downwards ; as 
 in the Compound-flowers, the Ycrticillate plants, and 
 others ; and it is named descending, when, rising from 
 the highest part of the embryo, it tends towards the base 
 
236 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 with its apex ; as in Meesia, Marvel of Peru (Mirabi- 
 lis), and others. 3. ccntripetce, centripetal ; either ab- 
 solutely or relatively such. In a simple fruit, the former 
 respect the axis, or common receptacle of the seed with 
 their apex ; as in Tulip (Tulipa), Tobacco, and others. 
 In a conjugate or many-capsuled fruit, the latter are, 
 indeed, turned to the common axis, but in partial peri- 
 carps only respect the internal side ; as in Helicteres, 
 Monkshood (Aconitum), Larkspur (Delphinium), and 
 others. 4. The centrifuge, or centrifugal radicles, are, 
 un'ilaterales, unilateral, or one-sided ; all respecting one 
 side of the pericarp; or, in a naked seed, the circum- 
 ference of its horizontal plane ; as in Beet (Beta), 
 Goosefoot (Chenopodium), and others : bllaterales, 
 bilateral, or two-sided ; turned to two directly opposite 
 regions of the pericarp ; as in Bog-Bean (Menyanthes 
 trifoliata, &c), the Siliquose plants, and others : 
 mult Hater ales, multilateral, or many-sided ; directing 
 their points to different places, or to every surface of the 
 dissepiments and internal parietes, or walls ; as in 
 Cistus Helianthemum, the Cucurbitaceous plants, and 
 others : vaga, vague ; which have not the same cer- 
 tain situation in all seeds, but are directed with their 
 points towards different parts ; as in Ginger (Zingiber), 
 Water-Lily (Nymphsea), and others. 
 
 Such are the various modifications to which the 
 tender embryo is liable. It continues " imprisoned with* 
 " in its seed", and remains (to use the happy expression 
 of Gasrtner) " in a profound sleep", until it is awakened 
 by the approaching germination, and meets the light 
 and air to grow into a plant, similar to its parent. But, 
 even in its encumbered or involved state, the embryo 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 237 
 
 possesses life, which, however, is not obviously active, 
 and by no means of equal duration in all. Or, if we 
 deny to the quiescent and slumbering seed, an inherent 
 principle of life (whatever that may be), we must, at 
 least, admit that its embryon, and other, parts are en- 
 dowed with a peculiar (and, as yet, incomprehensible) 
 capacity for receiving life, from the agency of heat, 
 water, air, and other stimuli*. 
 
 Having finished the consideration of the various 
 parts of the kernel (I mean the more technical history 
 of these parts, for several important points in their na- 
 tural history remain to be discussed), I proceed, in the 
 next place, to treat of some other parts of the seed, in 
 general. These parts are, 1- the Pappus. 2. the Coma. 
 3. the Cauda. 4. the Ala : and, 5. the Crista. 
 
 All these are, by Gaertner, denominated accessary 
 parts of the fruits and seeds (" partes fructuum atque 
 seminum accessorise"), because they may be present or 
 absent, without injury to the structure of the seed. It 
 would, perhaps, have been better to have treated of 
 these accessary parts, along with the testa, and other 
 integuments of the seed ; but, upon the whole, I have 
 thought it more proper to treat of them, in this place, 
 after the consideration of the kernel, especially as the 
 principal of these parts are chiefly instrumental in the 
 propagation of the ripe seed- 
 
 1« The Pappusf, or Aigrette, is a sort of feathery or 
 hairy crown, with which many seeds, especially those 
 
 * See page 105. 
 t In the Latin language, this word has the following significations, viz. a. 
 grand-sire, an old man, thistle-down, and several others. In this last sense, it is 
 employed by Lucretius (Lib. iii. 1. 337). 
 
238 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 of the Compound-flowers, are furnished, evidently 
 intended for the great business of the dissemination or 
 dispersion of the seed, to a considerable distance. 
 
 The word pappus is commonly translated Down* : 
 " but hence, as Dr. Martyn observes) arises a confusion 
 " between this and the lanugo or tomentum on the surface 
 qf leaves, Sec", which, both in Britain and the United- 
 States, is generally called down. Some writers translate 
 this word by Feather, but there are objections to this 
 word. The French call it aigrette. " The ladies have 
 " adopted that term : why may not we ?" 
 
 Linnaeus explains the pappus to be "a leathery 
 " or hairy flying crown to the seed :" " Corona (semi- 
 " nis) pennacea, pilosave volitansf ". 
 
 Different kinds of pappus are enumerated by the 
 botanists : Thus we have, 1. pappus sessllis y a sessile 
 aigrette ; or a down placed immediately upon the seed, 
 in the form of a crown ; as iii Hawkweed (Hieracium), 
 in Goats-Beard (Tragopogon), and others. 2. the 
 pappus stiphatus, or stipitate aigrette, is supported on a 
 thread, called the stipe J, and elevated by it considera- 
 bly above the vertex of the seed ; as in Common Dan- 
 delion (Leontodon Taraxacum), and many others. 
 
 The pappus is likewise, 1. capillaris^ or capillary, 
 and, 2- phmiosus, or feathery. The capillary aigrette, 
 
 * Thus Sandys : 
 
 " Like scatter'd down, by howling Eurus blown 
 " By rapid whirlwinds from his mansion thrown". 
 
 See, also, the lines from Thomson, in page 241. 
 
 f See Philosophia Botanica, 8cc. p. 54. §. 86. 
 
 X See page 28. 
 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 239 
 
 or pappus, is simple, having the hairs undivided* ; as in 
 Silk- Cotton-tree (Bombax pentandrum), Groundsel (Se- 
 necio), Golden-rod (Solidago), and various other Com- 
 pound-flowers. The feather)- aigrette, on the contrary, 
 is not simple, but branched, like a feather ; having, in 
 other words, setaceous or chaffy rays, with lateral hairs, 
 which are always capillary. 
 
 Other species of pappus are enumerated, such 
 as, 1. aristatus, awned ; having one, two, three, and, 
 sometimes more, short rigid rays, often hooked back- 
 wards ; as in Bidens. 2. stel/atus, stellate ; consisting 
 of five filiform and attenuated and spreading rays ; as in 
 Geropogon. 3. spitiosus, thorny ; having acinular and 
 pungent rays ; as in Zinnia. 4. sctaceus, differing from 
 capillary (above mentioned) only in the greater rigidity, 
 and more numerous teeth ; as in Chrysocoma. 5. ciliatus, 
 ciliate ; between setaceous and feathery. 6« lanatus, 
 woolly ; in which the vertex of the seed is crowned with 
 a white ring, formed of a very short and dense wool ; as 
 in Cineraria glauca. 
 
 b. In regard to its duration, the pappus is. 1. peris- 
 te?is y permament ; continuing with the seed ; and, of 
 course, this species of aigrette is peculiarly favourable 
 to the dispersion of seeds. 2. caducus, s. fiuxilis\ ca- 
 ducous, or very temporary : this is less common than 
 the other, and is principally given to the larger and hea- 
 vier seeds, as those of Thistle (Carduus), Cotton- 
 Thistle (Onopordum), and others : it is, however, 
 found in the smaller seeds also, as in those of Sou - 
 
 * Although the capillary pappus is very slender, like a human liair, it is. never- 
 theless, marked with very minute teeth, whicharcsonietiir.es nearer, sometimes, 
 more remote 1'rom each other. 
 
240 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Thistle (Sonchus), Lettuce (Lactuca), and others. By 
 some writers, this last-mentioned kind of aigrette is de- 
 nominated/7<2j&/>z/.y decidzius, or deciduous aigrette. 
 
 A knowledge of the aigrette is of essential conse- 
 quence in the study of botany. Linnaeus very generally 
 employs the many varieties which obtain in this minute 
 and delicately-organized part of the plant, in discrimi- 
 nating the different genera of the plants of his class 
 Syngenesia. Gasrtner has, certainly, very unjustly de- 
 nied Linnasus's attention to the pappus. Vaillant, a 
 long time ago, always attended to this part of the fruc- 
 tification in drawing the characters of his genera ; and 
 it is certain, that he examined and defined it, with un- 
 common care : " Whence (says Gaertnen his genera are 
 " much preferable to those established by Linnaeus". 
 
 The aigrette, as I have already observed, is evi- 
 dently intended for the great business of the dissemina- 
 tion or dispersion of the seeds- This is, indeed, one of 
 the wonderful contrivances employed by the liberal hand 
 of nature for distributing her vegetable productions over 
 the surface of the earth. There can be little doubt, 
 that many species of plants, particularly among the 
 Compound-flowers, owing to their being supplied with 
 the aigrette, are now the common inhabitants of many 
 parts of the world, in which, originally, they were 
 unknown. 
 
 Thomson (who has very happily been called the 
 Naturalist's Poet) has so beautifully, and at the same 
 time so philosophically, alluded to the dispersion of 
 plants by means of the apparatus which I am consider- 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 241 
 
 ing, that I cannot refrain from concluding this account 
 of the aigrette, with his lines on the subject : 
 
 A fresher gale 
 
 " Begins to wave the wood, and stir the stream, 
 " Sweeping with shadowy gusts the fields of corn ; 
 " While the quail clamours for his running mate. 
 " Wide o'er the thistly lawn, as swells the breeze, 
 " A whit'ning shower of vegetable down 
 " Amusive floats. The kind impartial care 
 " Of Nature nought disdains : thoughtful to feed 
 " Her lowest sons, and clothe the coming year, 
 " From field to field the feather'd seeds she wings". 
 
 Summer. 1. 1639-1648. 
 
 2. The Coma is very nearly related to the pappus ; 
 for, like it, it is formed of hairs which are placed upon 
 the vertex of the seed, and collected into a bundle. 
 According to Gartner, it differs from a pappus, because 
 in the coma, the hairs derive their origin from the shell 
 of the seed, and not from the proper calyx of the 
 flower ; and because all the comate seeds are furnished 
 with a true pericarp ; as in Willow-herb (Epilobium), 
 and others. These, therefore, according to the same 
 botanist, are improperly considered as pappous seeds. 
 
 3. The Cauda, or Tail, resembles a slender stipe, 
 proceeding from the vertex of the seed, hairy from the 
 base to the apex, and, in the naked seeds, produced 
 from the persisting style of the ovary ; but in the cover- 
 ed seeds, from the testa, or shell. In both these cases, 
 the cauda is much longer than the seed ; as in Virgin's 
 Bower (Clematis), in Pasque-flower (Anemone Pul- 
 satilla), &c. 
 
242 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 The hairy tail, which proceeds from the base of 
 the ovary, as in Cat-tail (Typha), and Plane-tree, or 
 Button-wood (Platanus occidentalis) is to be account- 
 ed a mere and simple peduncle of the fruit. 
 
 4. The Ala, or Wing, is a broad flexible and 
 membranous expansion, fixed to the vertex, back, or 
 sides of certain fruits and seeds, and thus facilitating 
 their dispersion. When it occupies the vertex a/id 
 back, it is especially denominated awing : but when it 
 surrounds the sides, it is called a Margin ( Margo ). 
 Linnaeus thus defines the wing : " Ala, membrana, qua 
 " volitante disseminatur, affixa semini*". 
 
 Seeds that are furnished with wings are, 1. unia- 
 lata, one-winged; as in Mahagoni (Swietenia), and 
 others. 2. trialata, three-winged ; as in Moringa. 
 To this head may, also, be referred the seeds of 
 Rhubarb (Rheum), and Buck-wheat. 3. quadrialata, 
 four-winged. I believe we have not, hitherto, disco- 
 vered any examples of four-winged seeds, except in the 
 genus Combretum. 
 
 A membranous margin f Margo membranaceus J is 
 not uncommon in seeds, and occurs very differently form- 
 ed. Thus, it is, 1. planus &? integer, flat and entire ; 
 as in Allamanda, and others- 2. apice & bast emarginatus, 
 emarginate, at the base and apex ; as in Lilac (Syringa), 
 &c. 3. cymbiformis, boat-shaped ; as in Marigold (Ca- 
 lendula), &c. 4. bullatus, bullate ; appearing like 
 blisters ; as in Cynoglossum omphalodes. 5. in dorsum 
 reflexus, reflected upon the back, and forming spurious 
 cells, as in Arctotis, &c. 
 
 * Philosojihia Botanica, &c. p. 54. \. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 243 
 
 The preceding terminology applies principally to 
 seeds. But pericarps, also, are furnished with the ala, 
 or wing. Such pericarps have received the following 
 names, viz. 1. monopterygia, one-winged ; being fur- 
 nished with only one wing ; as in Ash (Fraxinus), and 
 others. 2. dipterygia, two-winged ; as in the conjugate 
 fruit of Maple (Acer), and in Halesia diptera, an Ame- 
 rican vegetable. 3. tripterygia, three-winged ; as in 
 Begonia, &c. 4. tetraptera, four-winged ; as in the 
 beautiful Halesia tetraptera, and in Tetragonia. 5. 
 pentaptera^ polyptera^ five-winged, and many- winged ; 
 as in Guaiacum, and in Crown- Imperial (Fritillaria), 
 and others- 
 
 The membranous margin is not uncommon in some 
 of the more compressed pericarps ; as in Shepherds- 
 purse (Thlaspi), and others : but in seeds it is much 
 more common. 
 
 5. The Crista, or Crest, is very nearly allied to 
 the w r ing, but is narrower, less flexible, and formed of 
 a coriaceous or cork-like matter, and always placed on 
 the back of fruits. 
 
 The crista has received different names. Thus, it 
 is, 1. sen-ata, serrated. 2. laciniata, laciniated- 3. 
 dentibus incisa, toothed. 4. crispata, curled ; as in 
 Daucus, and others. 
 
 Besides the preceding, Gaertner has enumerated 
 other, accessary parts of fruits and seeds : such as, 1- 
 Rostrum, a Beak ; generally proceeding from the perist- 
 ing style, as in Stone-crop (Sedum), Hellebore (Helle- 
 borus), and others. 2. Costa fc? Juga, Ribs and Ridges ; 
 
244 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 elevated, rounded, or muricated furrows, placed on the 
 back of seeds or pericarps, and separated from each 
 other, by flattish intermediate spaces ; as in Horn- 
 Beam (Carpinus), the Umbelliferous plants, and others. 
 3- Strophiola, Strophioles ; these are fungous, glandular 
 or callous epiphyses, generally of an oblong form, and 
 to be found only upon the ventral side of the seed ; as in 
 Wild-Ginger, or Asarabacca (Asarum canadense), and 
 others. 4. Spina, or Thorns- 5. Glochides, Barbs. 
 6. Verruca, or Warts. 7. Squama, Scales. 8. 
 Pubes, Pubescence. 9. Pruina, Hoariness, and 
 others. 
 
 Most of these accessary parts of the seed, and pe- 
 ricarp, have already been mentioned, in treating of the 
 different kinds of fulcres, as Linnaeus calls them*. It 
 is unnecessary, therefore, to say any thing further on the 
 subject, in this place. 
 
 Beside the semen, or seed, properly so called, two 
 other terms are referred to this general head, by Lin- 
 naeus : these are, 1- the JVux, and, 2. the Propago- 
 
 1. The Nux, or Nut, is a seed covered with a 
 shell. Linnaeus thus defines it, " Semen tectum epi- 
 " dermide osseof". Gasrtner defines it " a hard con- 
 " ceptacle, either not opening at all, or, if it do open, 
 "never separating into more than two valves". 
 The following account of the nut is principally taken 
 from this truly meritorious author. 
 
 The nut has an affinity, on the one hand, with 
 capsules, and on the other hand, with drupes. Sometimes, 
 
 * See pages 82-91. f Delineatio Plantae. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 245 
 
 it is even referred to the naked seeds. From the capsule, 
 it differs in the total want of valves, and in the base 
 often having a scraped or filed appearance to some 
 distance. From the drupe, it differs in the manifest na- 
 kedness of the putamen, or shell ; or if there be a rind, 
 in the incomplete opening at the apex. Lastly, it differs 
 from the naked seeds in the remarkable thickness of the 
 putamen ; the easy separation of it from the kernel, 
 and the manifest umbilical vessels, placed within the 
 cavity of the putamen ; as in Cotton-grass (Eriophorum), 
 many of the Asperifolias, &c 
 
 a. In regard to its integuments, the nut is, 1. nuda, 
 naked. (By far the greater number of nuts are naked, 
 or, at least, clothed with a cuticle which is hardly dis- 
 cernible). 2. glabra, smooth. 3. splendens, shining. 
 4. rugosa, wrinkled. 5- subpubescens, somewhat pube- 
 scent. 6. corticata, corticated ; covered with a rind 
 f cortex J : this rind is either membranous, and fre- 
 quently extended into a wing, or ribs, as in Pine, 
 Houndstongue (Cynoglossum), and others ; or coria- 
 ceous and thick, as in Juglans. The latter are nearly 
 allied to dry drupes. 7. involucrata, involucred. Nuts 
 are more generally supplied with an involucre than any 
 other species of pericarps ; as in Chesnut, Beech, Yew, 
 Juniper, Hazel, Oak, and others*. 
 
 b. In regard to its consistence, the nut is, 1. sicca, 
 dry. 2. Jirma, firm. 3- dura, hard. 4. coriacea, 
 coriaceous ; as in Chesnut, and others. 5. Crustacea^ 
 crustaceous ; as in many of the Rough-leaved plants. 
 
 * Several of the seeds here denominated nuts, are referred by Linnaeus, to 
 ot)ier heads See page 194, &c. 
 
246 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 6. cavernoso-coriacea, cavernose-coriaceous ; as in Ca- 
 shew ( Anacardium), and in Acajuba. 7. ossea, bony ; 
 as in Walnut, Hazel, &c. 8. lapidea, stony ; as in My- 
 osotis, and others. 
 
 c. In the nut, there is no spontaneous opening before 
 the germination of the seed ; nor does the number of the 
 valves, in any instance yet known, exceed two. The 
 English Walnut (Juglans regia) alone has a manifest 
 suture. Trapa alone opens with a hole at the vertex. 
 Many of the nuts open at the base, or at their insertion, 
 with a round aperture, or chink ; as in Lycopsis arven- 
 sis (Small Bugloss), and others. 
 
 d. In regard to its internal fabric, the nut is, 1. 
 simplicissima, very simple. 2. unilocular is , unilocular, 
 or one-celled ; as in by far the greater number of nuts. 
 3. bilocularis, bilocular, or two-celled ; as in Cerinthe 
 and Trapa. Very few nuts are two-celled- 4. trilocu- 
 laris, trilocular, or three-celled ; as in Beech and Oak. 
 5. semiquadrilocularisy half- four-celled ; as in Chesnut, 
 
 From this view of the subject, it is evident, that 
 nut is a pretty comprehensive term, embracing a consi- 
 derable variety of seeds, such as those of the Chesnut, 
 Beech, Chinquepin, Walnut and Hickery, Hazel, Oak,* 
 Juniper, Yew, Oil-nutf, and others. 
 
 2. Prop ago is the name of the seed of the Mosses. 
 It is thus denned by Linnaeus : " Semen Musci decor- 
 
 * The cup of the acorn is denominated, by late writers, cupula. 
 t A new Pentandrous genus of plants, allied to Nerium. It is a native of 
 Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other parts of the United-States. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 247 
 
 " ticatum, detectum 1750*". The Swedish naturalist 
 supposed, that these seed differed from other seeds in 
 having a naked corcle (embryo), without bark or cotyle- 
 dons. He informs us, that he made this discovery in 
 1750. A few years after this period, David Meese as- 
 serted, that the seed of the Mosses are furnished with 
 their proper cotyledons. The industrious Hedwig, as 
 has already been observed f, also asserts, that the seed 
 of this great family of plants are, like those of other 
 plants, supplied with cotyledons. Gsertner admits the 
 existence of acotyledonous plants, and refers to this head 
 the MossesJ. By this author, the propago is consider- 
 ed as a species of gemma, or bud, perfectly simple, 
 and destitute of true leaflets, assuming different forms, 
 sometimes entirely naked, and sometimes shut up in a 
 bark-like case ; which, at length, separates sponta- 
 neously from its parent, and is scattered like a seed. 
 The bulb-like granules (" grana bulbiformia") of G. 
 C. Oeder§ are referred to this head. 
 
 I resume the consideration of the seed, in general. 
 
 a. In regard to the number of the seeds, this is a 
 very variable circumstance in different vegetables : 1. 
 Some plants have only a single seed[|. This is the case 
 with the Sea-Pink (Statice Armeria), and Bistort (Poly- 
 gonum Bistorta). 2. Some have two seeds, as Wood- 
 roof**and the Umbelliferous plants. 3. Some have three, 
 as Spurge (Euphorbia). 4. Some have four, as the 
 
 * Philosophia Botanica, 8tc. p. 54. \. 86. " Propagines Muscorum sunt scmina 
 " destituta tunica & cotyledonilms adeoque nudi corculi Plumula, obi Rostdluni 
 «« infigitur calyci plants". Ibid. p. 57. \- 88. 
 
 t Seepages 210, 211. 
 
 \ See page 210. See, also, Part III. Class xxtv. Cryptogamia. 
 
 i. Elementa Botanica;, &c. Pars prior, p. 35. Hafnia: • 1764. 
 
 || That is, in each pericarp. ** Asperula cdoraU. 
 
248 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 greater number of the Lip-flowers of Tournefort, and the 
 Rough-leaved plants of Ray. 5. Some have many seeds, 
 as Ranunculus, Anemone, Poppy, Lobelia, Ludvigia, 
 Gerardia, and others. 
 
 The fertility of nature in the production of seeds 
 is almost incredible, and is a circumstance well calcu- 
 lated to display the unbounded liberality of nature and 
 the immense quantity of life that may spring from a so- 
 litary embryo. A single stalk of Indian-Corn (Zea Mays) 
 produced in one summer 2000 seeds : in the same pe- 
 riod, a plant of Elecampane (Inula Helenium) produced 
 3000 seeds: the Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) 
 4000 : the Poppy, 32.000. A single spike of Cats-Tail 
 (Typha) produced 10,000 seeds, and upwards. A sin- 
 gle capsule of the Tobacco was found to contain 1000, 
 and one of the White-Poppy (Papaver somniferum), 
 8000, seeds. Each capsule of the Vanilla contains from 
 10,000 to 15,000, seed ! Mr. Ray informs us, from 
 actual experiments made by himself, that 10 12 Tobacco- 
 seeds are equal in weight to one grain; and that the 
 weight of the whole quantity of seed in a single stalk 
 of Tobacco, is such, that the number of seeds, accord- 
 ing to the above-mentioned proportion, must be 560,000. 
 The samelearned naturalistestimates the annual produce 
 of a single stalk of Spleen- wort ( Asplenium) to be up- 
 wards of one million of seed. Dr. Woodward has cal- 
 culated, that a single Thistle seed will produce at the 
 first crop, 24,000 seed ; and, consequently, five hundred 
 and seventy-six millions of seeds, at the second crop!! 
 Well might Virgil say, that the Thistle becomes 
 " dreadful in the corn-fields*". 
 
 * See page 121., for the quotation from the Georgics. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 249 
 
 Our admiration cannot but be excited by this fer- 
 tility. Yet it is more wonderful, as has been observed*, 
 that in some plants such a prodigious number of ovules 
 can be fecundated by very few stamens ; and that in 
 other plants, even a very moderate quantity of ovules 
 cannot be fecundated by a numerous set of stamens- It 
 is worth observing, in this place, that very generally 
 plants which are distinguished for the number of their 
 seeds, are those which have the fewest stamens, or an- 
 thers. Thus Vanilla has but one anther, and the To- 
 bacco five ; whilst, on the other hand, among the Poly- 
 androus plants (most of which have many stamens), 
 there are not a few vegetables, which are scarcely 
 equal to the fecundation of a single ovulef . These facts 
 must lead us to believe, that the fecundation of seeds is 
 owing more to the quality or peculiar virtue of the 
 pollen, than to the mere quantity of this fecundating 
 powder. Thus, I have found, that the pericarp of the 
 Crown-Imperial (Fritillaria imperialis) swelled as com- 
 pletely from the influence of only one anther, as from 
 the whole number, which is six, of those male organs 
 of generation, in this vegetable. These facts must, 
 likewise, show us (and it is a circumstance fortunate for 
 mankind), that every vegetable ovule is not destined by 
 nature, to give rise to a future progeny. The same re- 
 mark, unquestionably, applies to the animal, as well 
 as to the vegetable, world. Millions of embryos pre- 
 exist, but never are evolved into active life- 
 
 * By Gartner. 
 
 f It mils', however, be remembered, that the Poppy is, at once, remarkable 
 for the number of its stamens and its seed ; and that among the Or chides, many 
 of which have only a single anther, there are not a few individuals, which very 
 rarely do furnish us with proline!; seed. 
 
 K k 
 
250 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 As the number of the seeds is so extremely varia- 
 ble in vegetables, it must be evident, that genera con- 
 structed merely from this quality of the fructification, 
 must be artificial and precarious. Thus, GlecRtsia tria- 
 canthos (Honey-Locust) has a legume with several seed; 
 whilst another species (Gleditsia monospermy.) has only 
 a single seed in its legume- Many other instances, of a 
 like kind, might be mentioned. Nay, even in the same 
 species, the number of the seed is often indefinite. Thus, 
 in Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), we find the fruit 
 with one seed, with two, three, four, five, six, seven, 
 and eight seed- It must be confessed, however, that in 
 many families and natural genera of vegetables, the 
 number of the seeds is pretty constant and invariable. 
 
 b. In regard to its figure, the seed is, 1. subro- 
 tundum, roundish- 2. overturn, ovate. 3. oblongum, 
 oblong. 4. scobiforme, scobiform, or saw-dust-like ; 
 resembling saw-dust. 5- jiliforme, filiform. 6. turbina- 
 tum, turbinate. 7- clavaium, club-shaped. 8. angula- 
 tion, angular. 9. cylinclraceum, cylindrical. 10. trique- 
 tru?n, triquetrous. 11. accrosum, acerose. 12. teres, 
 columnar. 13. cllipticum, elliptical. 14. lunulatum, 
 crescent-shaped. 15. cordatum, cordate. 16. reniforme, 
 reniform. 17. orbiculatum, orbicular. 18. globosum, 
 globular. 19. an I/a turn, arilled ; furnished with an aril*. 
 20. planum, flat. 21. bine planum, inde rotundum, 'flat 
 en one*side, and round on the other. 22. bine rotundum, 
 inde angulatum, round on one side, angular on the other. 
 23. compression, compressed. 24. gibbum, gibbous. 
 
 25. angulii ; wiemhrayaceis, with membranous angles. 
 
 26. acuminatum, acuminate. 27. obtusum, obtuse. 28. 
 
 * Sec page 196, &c. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 251 
 
 rostratum, rostrate. 29- erectum, erect. 30- margini- 
 bus membranaceis, with membranous margins. 31. 
 emarginatum, emarginate. 32. caudatum, tailed ; ter- 
 minated by a naked or feathery filament- S3, carina turn, 
 keeled. 34. squamatum, scaly. 
 
 c. Seeds, it is hardly necessary to observe, vary re- 
 markably in size. It may, however, be remarked, that 
 Gaertner has established four heads of sizes of the seed, 
 viz. 1. magnum, large; not smaller than a walnut, or- 
 which exceeds a geometrical inch ; whether it be ex- 
 tended in thickness, as in Lontarus maldivica* and 
 Cocoa nut (Cocoa) ; or in length, as in Rhizophora. 
 2. medium, middle-sized ; between an inch and two 
 linesf ; neither larger than a Hazel-nut nor smaller than 
 a Millet-seed. 3. parvum, small ; exceeding half a line; 
 but not greater than two lines, contained within the li- 
 mits of the seeds of Bell-flower (Campanula), or a 
 Poppy- 4. minutnm, s. exile ; minute ; smaller than 
 the preceding, and often like dust or powder, as in 
 Chara, in the Ferns, in the Mosses, &c- 
 
 d. In regard to its surface, the seed is, 1. glabrum, 
 smooth ; having no conspicuous inequalities or splendor 
 on its surface ; as in Radish, Cabbage, and others. 
 2. lavigatum, polished, smooth and shining ; as in 
 Amaranthus, Sapota, &c. 3. lucidum, s. splendens, lucid 
 or shining ; the surface shining, but not perfectly 
 smooth ; as in Corn-Gromwell (Lithospermum arvense), 
 &c. 4. striatum, striated ; having either longitudinal 
 
 * The pericarp of this plant (which is a berry) is frequently a foot and a half 
 in thickness. 
 
 t The line is the twelfth part of an inch. 
 
252 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 streaks, as in Hemlock and other Umbelliferae, or 
 transverse or oblique streaks; as in Exacum; or radiat- 
 ed ones, as in Tradescantia- 5. sulcatum, furrowed ; 
 marked with thick streaks, either simple or branched ; 
 as in Fool's Parsley, (iEthusa Cynapium), Ipecacu- 
 anha (Psychotria), and Pimpinella agrimonoides*. 6. 
 cancellatum, latticed ; having the longitudinal streaks, 
 or furrows, decussated by transverse and generally nar- 
 rower ones ; as in Glaucium, Argemone, Onopordum, 
 &c- 7- reiiculatum, reticulated ; differing from the 
 former in the irregularity only of the streaks ; as in 
 Pennywort (Hydrocotyle), &c. 8. scrobiculatum, scro- 
 biculate ; marked with rather large pits, distant or con- 
 tiguous ; as in Euphorbia Tithymalus. 9. punctatum, 
 dotted, or punctate ; either excavate-punctate fexca- 
 vato-pu?ictatum J, or tieva.ie-'punctattfele'vato-punctatum J, 
 with the dots disposed in series, or irregular. Such 
 seeds are common in the Luridae, and other natural 
 families. 11. apiculatum, apiculate ; rough, with very 
 short and frequently capitate bristles ; as in Drosera. 
 12. tuberculatum, tubercled ; rough with thicker ele- 
 vated dots, or tubercles ; as in Hydrocarpum. 13. 
 papillosum, papillous ; covered with flexible scales, or 
 fleshy tubercles ; as in Eryngo (Eryngium), and in 
 Codon. 14. vermiculatum, vermiculate ; marked with 
 elevated serpentine streaks, or a species of foreign 
 letters ; as in Balsam-apple (Momordica), &c. 15. 
 marginatum, marginate ; either thickened at the mar- 
 gin ; as in Cucurbita, or extenuated at the margin 
 | 
 
 * To this head belong the following, viz. 1. costatum, ribbed, and, 2. the 
 malgndinaceutn, molendinaceous, or mill-stone-like, seed, so named from the ,'. 
 thickness or breadth of the dorsal furrows ; as in Caucalis, &c. 
 
« 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 253 
 
 (marginaceo-extcmiatumj, as in Allamanda. 16- ru- 
 gowm, wrinkled ; rough with tubercles, streaks, and 
 pits irregularly intermixed ; as in Aconitum, &c. 
 
 e. In regard to their colour, there is a very consi- 
 derable variety in the seeds of plants- This is the more 
 remarkable, because the seed is the only part of the 
 vegetable which, without having received the free ac- 
 cess of light, is decorated with fine colours- It is, 
 moreover, to be observed, that the colours of seeds 
 are such as rarely occur in the coloured parts of 
 flowers, but, on the contrary, the most generally pre- 
 vailing colours of the flower are extremely uncommon 
 in seeds. 
 
 The following are the principal colours of differ- 
 ent seeds, viz. 1. meunum, honey-coloured. 2. rufe- 
 scc7is, reddish- 3- heholum, pale-red. (These three 
 are the most common colours of seeds, and the least 
 common in flowers)- 4- ocbraccum, ochrey. 5. fcrrugi- 
 neum, rusty. 6. castancum, chesnut-coloured. (These, 
 after reddish, arc the most frequent colours of seeds, 
 and are hardly ever observed in flowers). 7. nigrum, 
 atrum £s? anthracimim, black and different varieties of 
 black. These are colours nearly peculiar to seeds ; for 
 we have no instances of flowers entirely black, though 
 there are some that have black spots- I may add, that 
 we have many instances of black or blackish pericarps ; 
 as in Podalyria australis, Cassia marilandica, and 
 others. 8. fuscum, brown. 9- testaceum, tile-colour- 
 ed- 10 spadiccum, bay. (These are common in the 
 seeds and bark, but very unusual in flowers). 11. 
 album , white, 12- /acteum, milky. 13. pfaeum, 
 
254 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 snowy« (These are more frequently to be met with in 
 flowers than in matured seeds : yet seeds, before matu- 
 rity, are, very generally, white. 14- rubrum, cocci- 
 neum, &? rut Hum, red, scarlet or crimson, and fiery : 
 these colours are very common in flowers, but much 
 rarer in seeds. In Gloriosa, however, in Abrus preca- 
 torius, and in others, we meet with fine scarlet and 
 other red seeds. 15. roseum, rosy. This is a very 
 frequent colour in flowers, but very rarely observed in 
 seed. In Pomegranate, however, we have an instance 
 of it. 16. cceruleum, blue. Blue seeds are extremely 
 rare, but they do occur in Croton cyanospermum, and 
 in a variety of Kidney-Bean (Phaseolus vulga- 
 ris). 17. subcoerulea, or somewhat blue, and plumbeo- 
 lhesce?itia, lead-livid, seeds are met with in Zingiber, 
 and some other plants. 18. viride, green. (Although 
 green is so predominant a colour in the vegetable world, 
 it is extremely uncommon in seeds- In some plants, 
 however, as in Adonis vernalis, and in Yellow-Balsam, 
 or Touch-me-not (Impatiens noli me tangere*) grass- 
 green seeds do occur. Yellowish-green flutesccnti- 
 virldiaj seeds occur in different species of Bird'sfoot- 
 Trefoil (Lotus), and others. 19. variegatum, varie- 
 gated ; as in Lathyrus, Phaseolus, &c. 
 
 All the preceding colours, not to mention others, 
 are assumed by seeds, when they are ripe. Colour is, 
 therefore, very generally considered as a proof *of the 
 maturity of seeds. It is to be observed, however, that 
 the seeds of many vegetables remain colourless, during 
 the whole term of their life. Moreover, the colour 
 
 « * Balsamina Noli tangere of Gartner. 
 
 » • 
 
 « 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 255 
 
 frequently varies from the influence of culture, and by 
 age is often changed from a paler to a darker, becom- 
 ing, from straw-coloured, reddish ; from reddish, 
 rust-coloured ; and, from rust-coloured, brown. 
 " Hence (as Gsertner observes) colour can neither be 
 " taken for a certain sign of maturity, nor for a dis- 
 " tinctive specifick mark: but it serves to distinguish a 
 " seed from the neighbouring parts, and especially from 
 " Pyrenes*". Our author considers that coat as the 
 proper outermost integument of the seed, which is dis- 
 tinguished, by its peculiar colour, from the neighbour- 
 ing coats. 
 
 f. In regard to its consistence, the seed is, 1. ex- 
 succum, juiceless. 2. duriuscidum, hardish. 3. amygda- 
 lino -car no sum, almond-fleshy ; a seed retaining the im- 
 pression of the nail. 4. fungosum s. suberosum, fun- 
 gous, or cork-like ; a seed which can be opened by 
 scratching. 5. coriaceum, coriaceous ; which can be cut 
 with a knife. 6. crustaceum, crustaceous; which can 
 be broken by the fingers. 7. nuc anient aceum s. osseum, 
 nucamentaceous or bony, which can hardly be broken 
 
 in pieces between the teeth. 8. baccatum, berried. 
 
 « 
 
 g. For particular information concerning the situa- 
 tion of the seed, I must refer the reader to the work of 
 Gaertner- I shall only observe, that the situation of 
 these parts is of great consequence in defining the limits 
 of the genera of plants ; and is of the highest import- 
 ance in a philosophical view of the seed ; for Gaertner 
 
 * Pyrenes, according to Gasrtner, are nothing but partial putamens, or the 
 bony coats of single cells, often again divided into partial chambers, entirely se- 
 parated from the neighbou/ing ones which resemble them. But for more minute 
 information concerning these parts of the pericarp, I must refer the curious reader 
 to Gartner's work, Dc Fruetibttt, Scc.&c. 
 
256 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 has shown, that the situation of the seed is the most 
 constant of all its extrinsic qualities- This botanist 
 determines the situation, partly from the figure, partly 
 from the insertion of the seed, and, in part, from the 
 direction of the radicle of the embryo. 
 
 As Linnaeus has denominated the pericarpium, the 
 " ovarium fcecundatum", or fecundated ovary, so he 
 denominates the seed, the " egg of plants*". To 
 these analogical terms, there can be no particular objec- 
 tions. 
 
 A knowledge of the pericarp and seed is of the 
 utmost importance in the study of botany : I mean in 
 the methodical distribution of plants, and in investigat- 
 ing their affinities to each other. In a philosophical 
 and physiological point of view, the dignity of these 
 parts will be immediately seen and acknowledged. Y,c 
 shall afterwards see, that Linnaeus almost always attends 
 to these parts of the fructification in drawing the gene- 
 rick character of vegetables. By other botanists, the 
 fruit has been deemed of still more importance. Thus, 
 Rivinus has founded the orders of his system upon the 
 fruit. The great Tournefort has done the same. Ca- 
 mclli constructed a method upo:»i thecal ves of the fruit : 
 and although Linnaeus has declared, that in determining 
 the genera of plants, the flower ought to be greatly 
 preferred to the fruit, his opinion on this subjfect has 
 not received the sanction of all the botanists since his 
 time. Thus, Gaertner is of opinion, that for the pur- 
 pose I have mentioned, the two parts in question are 
 
 * See Philosophia Botanica, &.c. p. 92 \. 146. " Omne vivum ex ovo ; per 
 " consequefis etiam vegetabilia ; quorum Seniina esse Ova, docet eorum Finis, so- 
 " bclem parent ibus conformem producens". Ibid. p. 88. \. 184.* 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 257 
 
 nearly equally entitled to attention, " for Nature (he 
 observes) " has made flowers and fruits equal in dig- 
 '■ nity". This is, unquestionably, the case. 
 
 Several important circumstances in the history 
 of the seed are necessarily delayed to the Second Part 
 of this work. This, however, appears to be the most 
 proper place to speak of the Dissemination, Dis- 
 persion, or Migration of Seeds, and of their 
 Germination. 
 
 A. I. Of the Migration of Seeds. 
 
 Nature has employed various modes for effecting 
 the diffusion of the seeds of vegetables over the surface 
 of the earth. The principal of these modes are the fol- 
 lowing, viz. 
 
 1. Rivers, and other running waters. The 
 seeds of many vegetables are carried along by rivers, 
 and torrents, and the ocean, and are frequently con- 
 veyed to the distance of many hundred, or thousand, 
 miles from the countries in which they were originally 
 placed. In this manner, many of the plants of Ger- 
 many are conveyed to the shores of the sea in Sweden ; 
 various plants of Spain and France are carried to the 
 shores of Britain ; and the plants of Africa and Asia 
 are often conveyed to the shores of Italy- Sir Hans 
 Sloane has given an account of four kinds of fruits, 
 
 LI 
 
258 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 which are frequently thrown, by the sea, upon the 
 coasts of the islands of the northern parts of Scotland. 
 These seeds, or fruits, were Mimosa scandens ; Horse- 
 eye-bean (Dolichospruriens), Ash-coloured Nickar-tree 
 (Guilandina Bonduc), and the " Fructus orbicularis 
 sulcis nervisque distinctus*" of Caspar Bauhin. All 
 these are American vegetables f, and three of them 
 were known by Sloane to be natives of Jamaica. 
 These and several other kinds of seeds, which are, 
 likewise, found abundantly upon the coast of Norway, 
 were thought by our author to have been brought by 
 currents, through the Gulph of Florida, into the 
 North-American ocean. Dr. Tonning has mentioned 
 several other seeds which are annually thrown upon the 
 coasts of Norway : such as those of Cashew-nut (Ana- 
 cardium occidentale), Bottle-gourd (Cucurbita lagena- 
 ria), Dog- wood-tree (Piscidia Erythrina), and Cocoa- 
 nut (Cocos butyracea). These are often in so recent a 
 state, that they would, unquestionably, vegetate, were 
 the climate favourable to their growth and existence. 
 And, doubtless, they are frequently carried to coun- 
 tries in which they do vegetate as well as in the coun- 
 tries where they were originally placed, by the hand of 
 the Creator. 
 
 Dr. Darwin observes, that the fact of the emi- 
 gration of these seed is " truly wonderful, and cannot be 
 " accounted for but by the existence of under currents 
 " in the depths of the ocean ; or from vortexes of water 
 " passing from one country to another through caverns 
 
 * Strychnos colubrina ? of Linnaeus. 
 
 t They are, likewise, natives of the East-Indies. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 259 
 
 " of the earth". It does not, however, I think, seem 
 necessary to adopt this conjecture of the English poet ; 
 but I can, with great pleasure refer my readers to his 
 pretty lines on the voyage of Cassia from the " brine- 
 u less tides" of Lake- Ontario, to the coasts of Nor- 
 way*. 
 
 2. Winds. I have already taken notice of the 
 dispersion of plants by means of the winds f. It is 
 hardly necessary to say any thing further on the subject, 
 in this place. I may observe, however, that the vege-. 
 tables which are carried by the wind, are either winged 
 as in Fir-tree (Pinus Abies), in Trumpet-flower, 
 (Bignonia radicans), Tulip-tree (Liriodendron Tulipi- 
 fera), Arbor vitas (Thuya occidentalis), and some of 
 the Umbelliferae, not to mention many others : or they 
 are furnished with an aigrette, as in the plants formerly 
 enumerated, when treating of this parti ; or they are 
 placed within a winged calyx, or pericarp ; as in Statice 
 Armeria, Ash, Maple, Elm, Log- wood, Woad (Isatis); 
 or, lastly, they are contained within a swelled calyx or 
 seed-vessel ; as in Ground-cherry (Physalis viscosa, 
 &c), Melilot (Trifolium Melilotus), Bladder-nut (Sta- 
 phylea trifolia^ Bladder-sena (Colutea arborescens), 
 Heart-seed (Cardiospermum), and many others. — With 
 respect to all these vegetables, it is certain, that, owing 
 to the peculiar structure of their pericarps or seeds, they 
 are very extensively diffused over the surface of the 
 earth; and in this way, there can be no doubt, that 
 we are to explain the circumstance of many of these ve- 
 
 * The Loves of the Plants. Canro iii. 1. 411 418. 
 f See pages 242, &c. 1 See pages 239-241. 
 
26© ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 getables being found in remote and opposite parts of 
 the globe, as in North- America and Asia. Thus, the 
 Erigeron canadense, or Canadian Flea-bane, which 
 was brought to Europe, in the seventeenth century, has 
 spread over a great part of that continent ; and the 
 Common-Dandelion is often seen growing upon the 
 highest towers of towns and cities. This last-mention- 
 ed vegetable is not, I think, a native of North- Ame- 
 rica, but it has already been carried to very distant parts 
 of the continent, and, in a few years, will be as exten- 
 sively diffused as any of our vegetables. 
 
 3. Birds and other animals are no mean agents in 
 the dissemination of vegetables. Birds, in particular, 
 are greatly instrumental in this business. They swallow 
 the seeds, which they discharge entire, and thus scatter 
 them, with their excrements, over the face of the earth. 
 In this manner, the seeds of Common-Misletoe, and 
 those of some species of Loranthus, are deposited in 
 the crevices of the barks of vegetables, where they 
 grow, and continue to receive their nourishment. In 
 the United- States, the former of these vegetables is 
 very frequently found growing, as a parasite, to the 
 branches of the Sour-Gum (Nyssa integrifolia), the 
 Apple-tree, and others. Different species of Turdus, 
 or Thrush, are especially concerned in its diffusion. 
 Loranthus americanus, which is a native of the West- 
 Indies, is deposited upon the branches of the most 
 lofty trees, particularly Coccoloba grandifolia ; where it 
 is most firmly fixed, and, unquestionably, receives its 
 nourishment from the supporting vegetable*. Rum- 
 
 • Professor N. J. Jacqiiin. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 261 
 
 phius assures us, that a particular species of Pigeon is 
 very instrumental in disseminating the true Nutmeg 
 in the East-India islands. It is in this way, that 
 the Poke (Phytolacca decandra), the berries of 
 which are eaten by the Robin (Turdus migratorius), 
 the Thrush (Turdus rufus), the Wild-Pigeon (Co- 
 lumba migratoria), and many others, appears to have 
 been so extensively diffused through North- America. 
 The Rev. Mr. Robinson, in his Natural History of 
 Westmoreland and Cumberland, has very particularly 
 mentioned a thick grove of Oak-trees, which were 
 known to have sprung from the acorns that had been 
 planted by a great number of crows, about twenty-five 
 years before. Of the North- American birds, that are 
 known to us, no one, I believe, is more instrumental 
 in planting groves of Oaks, and other trees, than the 
 Crested- Crow, or Jay-bird (Corvus cristatus), which is 
 extremely provident in laying up great stores of acorns, 
 and other seeds, in the holes of fence-posts, and other 
 similar places. There seems to be little doubt, that 
 the very regular growth of many of our forest-trees 
 along the courses of fences, is to be ascribed, in part, 
 to the agency of this and other species of birds, as 
 well as some species of quadrupeds. 
 
 Besides the birds, many other animals have been 
 greatly instrumental in the dispersion of the seeds of ve- 
 getables. Squirrels, Rats, and other animals, suffer 
 many of the seeds which they have devoured to escape, 
 and thus disseminate them. Our Indians are of opi- 
 nion, that the squirrels plant all the timber of the 
 country. This I do not suppose ; but it is certain, 
 that they contribute not a little to this end, by deposit- 
 
262 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 ing in the earth, for food, store-houses of various kinds 
 of nuts and seeds, such as those of the Chesnut, Oaks 
 of different kinds, Walnuts and Hickery-nuts, the 
 seeds of the Common Dogwood (Cornus fiorida), and 
 many others. Immense numbers of these seeds, even 
 though there were not a great destruction of the squir- 
 rels, would vegetate, and grow to a good size- But 
 as there is annually a prodigious destruction of these 
 quadrupeds, whole forests cannot but spring from the 
 stores which they have laid up. It has, indeed, been 
 asserted*, that the Striped Dormouse, or Ground- Squir- 
 rel (Sciurus striatus), previously to depositing, in the 
 earth, its winter food, takes the precaution of depriving 
 iC each kernel of its germe, that it may not sprout". 
 Were this assertion founded in truth, it would consti- 
 tute one of the most interesting facts in the history of 
 animal instinct, or reason. But, although the little 
 quadruped of which I am speaking, may, on many oc- 
 casions, deprive the kernel of its germ, or embryo 
 (not, I presume, to prevent its growth, but because the 
 embryo, in almost all seeds, has a very delicate and 
 agreeable taste), it is certain, that, in the greater num- 
 ber of instances, no such mutilation of the seed is ac- 
 complished, and that, therefore, innumerable seeds, that 
 have been planted by animals, may, and actually do, 
 grow into trees, and other vegetables. 
 
 Animals contribute to the dispersion of seeds in 
 still another way. The seeds of many plants attach 
 themselves to animals, especially quadrupeds, by means 
 of hooks, crotchets, or hairs, which are either affixed 
 
 # By my very respectable friend, the late Dr. Jeremy Belknap, of Boston. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 263 
 
 to the seeds themselves ; as in Hounds-tongue (Cyno- 
 glossum), Mouse-ear (Myosotis), Vervain, Water- 
 Hemp- Ag-rimony (Bidens-, and many others ; to their 
 calyx, as in Burdock (Arctium Lappa), Agrimony, 
 Rhexia, Dock (Rumex), Nettle, Pelletory (Parieta- 
 ria), Linnaea, &c- &c. ; or to the pericarp, or seed- 
 vessel, as in Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza), Enchanter's Night- 
 shade (Circasa), Cleavers (Galium Aparine), Trium- 
 fetta Bartramia, Martynia, Pea- Vines (Hedysara, of 
 various species), not to mention many others. — In this 
 manner, there can be no doubt, that many seeds are 
 very extensively diffused over vast tracts of country. 
 Thus, there are good reasons to believe, that neither 
 Common Hounds-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), nor 
 Burdock, are natives of the United-States : but both of 
 these plants, which appear to have spread in the manner I 
 have mentioned, are now to be seen in many of the 
 most remote parts of the Union. 
 
 The very incorruptible nature of, the seeds of 
 plants, is a circumstance highly favourable to their mi- 
 gration*. We have seen, that the seeds of Misletoe, 
 Loranthus, Poke, and others, vegetate very well, after 
 they have been subjected to the digestive power of birds. 
 Nay, it is a fact, that some seeds, when carried to a dis- 
 tance from their native countries, have generally refused 
 to vegetate, until they have been passed through the ali- 
 mentary canal of birds. In Britain, this was found to 
 be the case with the seeds of the Common Magnolia, or 
 Beaver-tree (Magnolia glauca). This fact will excite 
 less surprize, when it is recollected, how extremely te- 
 
 * J- J- Plenck. Physiologia et Pathologia Plantarum, p. 92. Viennae : 
 1794. 8vo. 
 
264 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 nacious seeds are of the vital principle ; or, in other 
 words, how difficult it is to prevent seeds from living. 
 Thus, the late illustrious Spallanzani discovered, that 
 there are certain kinds of seeds, which do not refuse to 
 vegetate, even after having undergone the operation of 
 boiling in water ; and Duhamel mentions an instance 
 of seeds germinating after they had experienced, in a 
 stove, a heat of 235 degrees by the scale of Farenheit. 
 Spallanzani even found, that the seed of mould, which 
 is a true vegetable, survive a heat infinitely greater than 
 this. We are, morever, well assured, that the seeds of 
 certain species of plants, after having been preserved in 
 the cabinets of the curious, for whole centuries, have 
 vegetated very readily, when committed to the earth, 
 or when simply irrigated with water. 
 
 4. Many seeds are dispersed to a considerable* 
 distance by means of an elastic force, which resides in 
 some part of the fructification. In the Oat, and in the 
 greater number of the Ferns, this elasticity is resident 
 in the calyx. In Centaurea Crupina, it resides in the 
 pappus, or aigrette ; whilst, in many others, such as 
 Geranium, Herb-Bennet (Geum urbanum), Fraxinella 
 (Dictamnus albus), Touch-me-not (Impatiens), Cu- 
 cumber (Cucumis), Wild-Cucumber (Momordica), 
 Horse-tail (Equisetum), and many others, it resides in 
 the capsule. The pericarp of Impatiens consists of one 
 cell with five divisions, each of which, when the seed 
 are ripe, upon being touched, suddenly folds itself into 
 a spiral form, leaps from the stem, and scatters, by 
 virtue of this elastic property, its seed to a great distance. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 265 
 
 Dr. Darwin has mentioned this phenomenon, in his 
 learned and charming poem, The Loves of the Plants : 
 
 " With fierce distracted eye Impatiens stands, 
 " Swells her pale cheeks, and brandishes her hands, 
 " With rage and hate the astonish 'd groves alarms, 
 " And hurls her infants from her frantic arms". 
 
 Canto hi. 1. 131-134. 
 
 The pericarp of the Geranium, and the beard of 
 the Wild-Oat (Avena fatua), are twisted, doubtless, 
 for a similar purpose, and, being extremely sensible to 
 the changes of the atmosphere, readily dislodge their 
 seeds on wet days, when the earth is best fitted to re- 
 ceive them. Advantage has been taken of this property 
 of the pericarp of the Geranium, of which an inge- 
 nious and neat hygrometer has been constructed*. 
 The Wild-Oat, called " Walking-Oat", is now fami- 
 liarly known to every body. The awn (arista) of the 
 Barley is furnished with stiff points, which are all 
 turned towards the point of it, like the teeth of a saw. 
 As this long awn lies upon the ground, it extends itself, 
 during the prevalence of the moist night-air, and pushes 
 forwards the grain of Barley which it adheres to. In 
 the day-time, it shortens as it dries, " and as these 
 " points prevent it from receding, it draws up its pointed 
 " end ; and thus, creeping like a worm, will travel many 
 feet from the parent stemf". Surely, these facts may, 
 with some propriety, be mentioned as instances of the 
 migration of the seeds of plants. 
 
 * Sec Dr. Wiihering's Botanical Arrangement, 8cc. Vol. III. p.597 Jc 593. 
 f Daryrin. 
 
 M m 
 
266 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 I proceed, in the next place, to treat 
 
 B. II. Of the Germination of the Seed. 
 
 The seed, after having been impregnated by the 
 animating pollen, or fecundating powder, of the an- 
 thers*, is, at no great distance of time, in a fit state 
 to germinate. Some seeds, indeed, begin to vegetate 
 long before they are detached from the pericarp, or vege- 
 table womb, in which they have received their exist- 
 ence, and passed through some of the tranquil stages 
 of their life. This is the case with the Tangekolli and 
 Agave, formerly mentioned f. Mr. Baker assures us 
 that upon dissecting a seed of Trembling-grass (Briza) 
 he plainly discovered, by the assistance of the micro- 
 scope, a perfect plant furnished with roots, sending 
 forth two branches, from each of which there proceeded 
 several leaves, or blades, of grass J. In the Persimmon, 
 the germination of the seed commences long before the 
 fall of the fruit, and even before the fleshy part of it is 
 quite matured : for in the unripe fruit we plainly discern, 
 even with the naked eye, the two beautiful leaves of the 
 embryo, that are afterwards to form the upper part of 
 the tree§. " So in the animal kingdom (as Dr. Darwin 
 observes), " the young of some birds are much more 
 " mature at their birth than those of others. The 
 " chickens of pheasants, quails, and partridges, can use 
 
 * Sec pages 165, 166, See. ; and Part II. t See page 94. 
 
 \ In the seeds of the Nymphaea Nelumbo, and in those of the Tulip-tree, 
 the embryo-leaflets are so similar to those of the adult vegetables, that Linnaeus, 
 merely from an examination of these leaflets, was enabled to discover to what 
 vegetables the seeds belonged. See Amoenitates Academicae, Sic. Vol. VI. 
 Dissertatiocxx. 
 
 ^ See Plate v. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 267 
 
 " their eyes, run after their mothers, and peck their 
 " food, almost as soon as they leave the shell ; but those 
 " of the linnet, thrush, and blackbird, continue many 
 " days totally blind, and can only open their callow 
 " mouths for the offered morsel*". 
 
 In the greater number of vegetables, however, 
 there is no germination of the seed, exterior to its shell, 
 until after the opening of the pericarp, and the fall of 
 the seed. The germination is then accomplished by 
 different circumstances, which are more or less neces- 
 sary to this great function of vegetable life. These cir- 
 cumstances are Earth, Air, Water, and Heat. Of 
 each of these, and of some other supposed agents in the 
 business of germination, I shall speak, in a very brief 
 manner, in the order in which I have mentioned them. 
 
 1. Although earth is not essentially necessary to 
 the germination of the seed, it is extremely useful, 
 affording a proper situation, a maternal bosom, for this 
 vegetable egg, where it can repose, fix itself, and re- 
 ceive the influence of the various agents, which are 
 more indispensibly necessary to the evolution of its 
 parts- I do not deny, that earths of certain kinds, may 
 be actually absorbed by, and serve as aliment to, 
 the growing seeds of vegetables. I even think it pro- 
 bable that this is the case. But this is one of those 
 points, in vegetable physiology, which has not yet been 
 satisfactorily decided by experiments. 
 
 Innumerable facts, however, might be adduced 
 to show, that earth is not absolutely necessary to the 
 
 * Phytologia, &c. Sect. ix. 
 
268 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 germination of seeds. We have seen, that the seeds of 
 various parasitic plants vegetate very well in the chinks 
 of the bark of other vegetables. Some seeds vegetate 
 upon the most barren rocks, where they can hardly be 
 said to have a particle of earth. But, what is more to 
 our purpose, the seeds of many plants vegetate in the 
 water, and continue, during the whole course of their 
 lives, very completely detached from the earth*. More- 
 over, seeds of various kinds germinate very readily and 
 rapidly, upon cotton, wool, feathers, sponges, cut 
 paper, and other similar matters, provided they be kept 
 constantly moistened, with water, and exposed to the 
 proper quantity and species of air. 
 
 Seeds never vegetate in a very dry earth. The 
 greater number of them will vegetate in any kind of 
 earth, provided it be moist. Even in moist earth, when 
 they are buried at a great distance below the surface, 
 they remain in a profound sleep, and make no visible 
 effort to vegetate, until they are brought much nearer to 
 the surface. They are always later in coming up, in 
 proportion as they are planted deep in the ground. Bi- 
 erkander, a Swedish writer, has instituted some curious 
 experiments relative to the germination of seeds, of va- 
 rious kinds, at different depths under ground. He 
 found, that the seeds of Flax would never germinate 
 when they had been buried lower than a certain depth, 
 in the earth. He, also, found, that the seeds of this 
 plant would not vegetate in sand . 
 
 * See page 19. See, also, Part III. Class x.xiv. Cryptocamia, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 2G9 
 
 2. The vast influence of air upon the vegetation 
 of the seed might be shown by many facts. Seeds do 
 not vegetate in vacuo, or, if they do vegetate, their 
 growth is precarious and feeble. The celebrated che- 
 mist William Homberg, towards the close of the xvnth 
 century, made a number of experiments with different 
 seeds placed under the receiver of the air-pump. He 
 observed, that the seeds of Lettuce, Purslane, and 
 Cresses, do sometimes come up in vacuo, but that the 
 number of them is small, and that the leaflets that made 
 their appearance, perished soon after. Boyle, Mus- 
 schenbroek, and Boerhaave concluded, from their ex- 
 periments, that the access of air is indispensibly neces- 
 sary to the germination of the seed. Pease, however, 
 are said to grow in vacuo« 
 
 It is, no doubt, owing to the want of air, that seeds 
 which are planted very deeply in the ground, refuse to 
 germinate. But they vegetate very readily when the 
 ground has been ploughed or turned up, and the seeds, 
 in this way, are more immediately exposed to the con- 
 tact of the atmosphere. The seeds of Black-Oats, after 
 having lain deeply buried in the soil of Scotland, for 
 half a century, have grown vigorously as soon as they 
 were raised near enough to the surface to receive the in- 
 fluence of the air. It is well known, that manv seeds do 
 not readily germinate, if soon after the}- have been 
 planted, rains have fallen. In this case, a kind of crust 
 is frequently formed upon the earth, which prevents the 
 access of air- 
 
 Different seeds seem to require very different 
 quantities of air, in order to further their germination. 
 
270 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 On this subject, indeed, our knowledge is not very pre- 
 cise. The acorns of some species of North- American 
 Oaks vegetate much quicker when merely laid upon the 
 surface of the earth than when buried at some depth be- 
 low- The seeds of the Long-leaved Pine (Pinus pa- 
 lustris) vegetate very readily upon the surface of the 
 naked sand, without the least covering of earth ; and the 
 nuts of different American species of iEsculus, orHorse- 
 Chesnut, such as the Buck-eye (iEsculus flava), grow 
 as well, if not better, upon, than beneath, the surface 
 of their most proper soils. 
 
 In order that seeds may readily germinate, it is 
 not only necessary, that they be exposed to the influ- 
 ence of the air, but that the air be pure, or, at least, as 
 pure as that of the atmosphere. The experiments of 
 Mr. Achard and many other philosophers have plainly 
 proved, that these vegetable ova will not germinate in 
 azotic gas (or phlogisticated air), in carbonic acid-gas 
 (fixed air), nor in hydrogen gas (inflammable air). The 
 Abbe Spallanzani, however, has shown, that the seeds 
 of various species of plants do vegetate very well in con- 
 fined or stagnant air, provided there be a plenty of this 
 air*. The same remark applies to the eggs of many 
 species of insects, and other animals, notwithstanding 
 the assertions of the great Boerhaave, and other writers, 
 to the contrary. 
 
 Unquestionably, however, pure air is peculi- 
 arly favourable to the germination of the seed. Thus, 
 
 * Experiments and Observations upon animals and vegetables confined in 
 stagnant air. English Translation. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 271 
 
 Huber, who has devoted much attention to this inte- 
 resting subject, has shown, that seeds which had refus- 
 ed to vegetate in azotic gas, did vegetate when to this 
 gas he added a small portion of oxygen gas*. He has like- 
 wise shown, that the first developement of seeds is more 
 rapid in this gas than in the common air. It would, in- 
 deed, seem that it is oxygen gas alone that gives to 
 seeds their first determination to germinate ; just as the 
 same gas seems to be the first exciting cause of the move- 
 ments of the irritable fibre of the embryo-chick, in coof* 
 It is not improbable, that many of the seeds of the plains 
 and vallies, when carried to the summits of high moun- 
 tains, refuse to vegetate there, in some measure, from 
 the circumstance of their having in the elevated regions 
 of the atmosphere, a smaller quantity of oxygen gas 
 than in the climate below. 
 
 The very ingenious F. A.Humboldt has shown, that 
 Pease and French Beans that had been sowed in sand, 
 and watered with water to which was added oxygenated 
 muriatic acid, grew much more quickly than those 
 which were irrigated with water alone. The same 
 seeds perished when they were watered with water to 
 which was added the simple muriatic acid : which plain- 
 ly proved, that it was the oxygen of the acid, and not 
 the acid itself, which had so greatly disposed the 
 seeds to germinate. When the seeds of the Garden- 
 cress (Lepidium sativum) were watered with the diluted 
 oxygenated muriatic acid, they exhibited their leaflets 
 
 * According to the modern chemists, the atmosphere of our globe is com- 
 posed of azotic gas and oxygen gas, in the proportion of about seventy-three 
 parts of the former and twenty-seven parts of the latter. The carbonic acid 
 gas (or fixed air), is deemed an accidental part of the atmosphere. 
 
 f See page 58. 
 
272 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 at the end of six hours : but the same seeds were only 
 thus far advanced in germination, at the expiration of 
 thirty-six hours, when they had been watered with 
 common water. At Vienna, where Professor Jacquin 
 and others have paid much attention to this curious and 
 really important subject, it was found, that certain old 
 seeds, which had always refused to vegetate, were 
 brought to vegetate by irrigating the earth in which they 
 were planted, with water, to which was added the 
 oxygenated muriatic acid. This was found to be par- 
 ticularly the case with the seeds of Dodonaea angusti- 
 folia, and Mimosa scandens. 
 
 Mr. Humboldt has, also, shown, that seeds 
 which were planted in the calces of metals (which 
 are all compound bodies consisting of the regu- 
 line matter, or metal, and oxygen), such as the oxy- 
 des of lead, called red-lead, and lytharge, if they be 
 irrigated with water, will more readily vegetate than 
 when committed to the earth ; and that they will not ve- 
 getate when planted in the powder of the same metals, 
 not in the state of oxydes. 
 
 These various facts, the discovery of which may 
 be said to constitute an important era in the science of 
 Vegetable Physiology, prove, in the most satisfac- 
 tory manner, that oxygen gas, or vital air, is absolutely 
 necessary to the complete developement of the embryo 
 of the seed. It is proper, however, to observe, that 
 the purest oxygen gas, and even common air entirely 
 freed from its carbonic acid, are less proper for the 
 germination of the seed, than oxygen gas to which is 
 added a portion of azotic gas ; or than the atmospheric 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 273 
 
 air in union with a pittance of carbonic acid gas. It, 
 moreover, appears, that common atmospheric air is bet- 
 ter adapted to the germination of the seed, but particu- 
 larly to the progress of the plant, after it has acquired 
 more size and strength, than is oxygen gas. These 
 facts are calculated to show the great affinity of animal 
 and vegetable life : nor are they without their value in 
 a practical point of view. 
 
 It is highly probable, that the seed, as well as the 
 more adult plant, is capable of decomposing the carbo- 
 nic acid, that may be offered to it, detaching the oxygen 
 of this acid from its radical or base, which is carbon*. 
 
 As air is so indispensible an agent in forwarding 
 the germination of the seed, it must be obvious, that 
 where we wish to prevent seeds from vegetating, we 
 should carefully seclude them from the air, especially 
 a warm and moist air f, by covering them, and keeping 
 them in a cold and dry place. In this manner, they 
 
 * Chaptal and some other chemists have asserted, that plants live in azotic 
 gas, " and freely vegetate in it". My colleague Dr. James Woodhouse informs 
 me, that, in a solitary instance, a single seed of Water-Melon had germinated 
 very well in this gas. We are certain, however, that almost universally the gas 
 in question is highly unfavourable to the germination of the seed, and to its fu- 
 ture progressive growth. 
 
 f Some seeds, we are told, keep best when they are exposed to the air, 
 whilst others have their determination to germinate preserved by a total exclu- 
 sion from the air. Mr. Miller informs us, that the seeds of Paisley, Onion, 
 Lettuce, and other vegetables, that were kept in vials hermetically sealed, for a 
 whole year, did not germinate, while those of the same age, hung up, in bags, in 
 a dry room, vegetated freely. For much valuable information concerning the best 
 method of preserving seeds, I must refer the reader to Mr. Ellis's Directions for 
 bringing over Plants and Seeds, iS"c. See, also, Mr. Curtis's Companion to tie 
 Botanical Magazine, &c. pages 27-33. 
 
 N n 
 
274 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 may be preserved for ages. There can be no doubt, 
 moreover, that the seed will be preserved for a much 
 longer time in an air less pure than in one more pure. 
 Accordingly, it is the practice of many who keep seeds 
 for curiosity, to put them in glass vessels, with a little 
 sulphur, or camphor, and well corked. From what 
 will presently be observed, it would appear probable, 
 that the preservation of seed will be still further effected 
 by keeping them more in the light, than in dark situa- 
 tions. 
 
 3. Water is another of the indispensible agents 
 in forwarding the vegetation of the seed. No seeds 
 will germinate if they be placed in a situation where 
 the air is perfectly dry. Hence seeds which are kept 
 perfectly dry in the cabinets of the curious, and in si- 
 milar situations, never vegetate, but the same seeds 
 begin to sprout in a very short time, when they are ir- 
 rigated with water. The seeds of aquatic plants will 
 not vegetate unless in water, or in a very moist soil. 
 But the seeds of many of the land-plants perish if they 
 be kept too moist. Each seems to require a certain de- 
 terminate quantity of water to further its germination. 
 In general, those seeds which have a loose testa, or 
 shell, require more water for their germination than 
 those whose shell is more close. 
 
 4. A cert a in degree of heat is indispensibly ne- 
 cessary to the germination of the seed. During the se- 
 vere weather of the winter-season, the seeds which 
 have been placed in the earth do not germinate, but re- 
 main inactive in a state perhaps very similar to the tor- 
 pid condition of many animals ; but on the coming on 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 275 
 
 of spring, the " penetrative sun"*- rouses the em- 
 bryo, from its slumber, into active life. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell upon this subject, for 
 the agency of heat, in the business of germination, is 
 familiar to every one. I shall only add, that from the 
 influence of heat upon the seed, we learn, that the period 
 of its germination is not a determinate law, in respect 
 to time. The same seed which, in an ordinary degree 
 of heat, requires six hours to germinate, may be brought 
 to this state, in three hours, by exposing it to a greater 
 degree of heat. In this respect, as well as many others, 
 there is a great affinity between the seeds of plunts, and 
 the eggs of birds. This observation may, I believe, be 
 extended to the eggs of some of the amphibious animals, 
 such as the serpents. 
 
 5. Although the influence of light upon plants 
 that have made their appearance above the earth is ex- 
 tremely great, and indipensibly necessary to the healthy 
 state of the vegetable f ; it is certain, from actual ex- 
 periments, that light is not necessary to the first germi- 
 nation of the seed. Mr. Fourcroy and other writers 
 have, indeed, asserted, that light is necessary to this 
 function of the vegetable egg. But the contrary has 
 been shown by numerous experiments, as those of 
 Curtis, Ingen-housz, and other writers. Nay, it has 
 been ascertained, that seeds, which have never felt the 
 influence of the solar light vegetate more quickly than 
 those which have received its influence. Many plants, 
 originating from seeds, grow and come to perfection in 
 the darkest mines, and in other similar situations. 
 
 * Thomson. t Sec Part **• 
 
276 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Dr. Ingen-Housz and Mr. Senebier have both 
 shown, that seeds which were planted in the dark vege- 
 tated sooner than those which were planted in the light. 
 The Abbe Bertholon has opposed this idea. This res- 
 pectable writer supposed, that the seeds w r ould actually 
 vegetate quicker in the light than in darkness, provided 
 they could, in both instances, be exposed to the same 
 quantity of water. To determine this point with cer- 
 tainty, Mr. Senebier made the following experiment. 
 He placed Peas, Beans, and French-Beans (Haricots), 
 upon sponges which were equally wetted, and enclosed 
 them in vessels of a given size. He exposed some of 
 them to the light of the sun, and by them others in 
 cases of tin plates, painted of a deep red colour. They 
 were all exposed to the same degree of heat. The 
 water which might evaporate from the sponges was pre- 
 vented from escaping, so that, upon this ground, there 
 could be no source of deception. The germination pro- 
 ceeded much more rapidly in the darkened cases than in 
 those which were exposed to the influence of the light. 
 
 The very different effects of light upon the seed 
 and upon the more evolved and adult vegetable, is one 
 of the various circumstances which seem to render it 
 highly probable, that light and heat are fluids essentially 
 distinct from each other*, however frequently they may 
 be combined together. 
 
 6. Electricity deserves to be mentioned, in this 
 place. It must be remarked, however, that authors are 
 much divided in opinion concerning the real effects of 
 
 * See the fine experiments of Dr. Herschel, and other writers. See, also, 
 Darwin's Phytologia, 8cc. Sect. xm. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 277 
 
 this fluid upon the germination of the seed. Dr. Dar- 
 win observes, that " the influence of positive or vitreous 
 " electricity in forwarding the germination of plants and 
 " their growth seems to be pretty well established *". 
 Mr. D'Ormey is said to have found various seeds to 
 vegetate sooner and to grow taller when they were put 
 upon his*insulated table, and supplied with electricity. 
 Mr. Bilsborrow's experiments, which are recorded by 
 Dr. Darwin, seem to prove, that Mustard- seed which 
 were subjected to positive or vitreous electricity, and to 
 negative or resinous electricity, vegetated much sooner 
 than seeds which were not electrised, " but otherwise 
 " exposed to the same circumstances". The Abbe 
 Bertholon, whom I have already mentioned, is of opi- 
 nion, that both natural and artificial electricity encrease 
 the germination of the seed, and the future growth of 
 the plant. Dr. Ingen-housz, from his experiments, was 
 obliged to deduce a very opposite conclusion ; and Mr. 
 Senebier, in a very late publication, concludes, that the 
 influence of the electrical fluid is, " at least, doubt- 
 fulf. 
 
 7. There are, doubtless, many other agents which 
 exert an effect more or less decided on the germination 
 of the seed. It is probable, that most of the various 
 manures which increase the living powers of the more 
 adult plant, exert a similar effect up the embryo within 
 its shell. But the very different effects of light upon the 
 seed and upon the evolved plant, should teach us the 
 propriety' of treating this subject with caution. Mean- 
 
 * Phytologia, Sec. Sect. xm. 
 
 t " Je ne dirai rien de 1' Electricite puisque son influence est au moins don- 
 teuse". Physiologie Vegetale, &c. Tom. 3. p. 3 C J9. 
 
278 ELEMENTS CF BOTANY. 
 
 while, I think it may be confidently asserted, that various 
 stimulants, such as nitre (nitrate of potash), common 
 salt (muriate of soda), green- vitriol (sulphate of iron), 
 blue-vitriol (sulphate of copper), gypsum or plaster of 
 Paris (sulphate of lime), charcoal, and many others, if 
 they be applied in their proper dose, exert a considerable 
 effect in hastening the germination of the seed. 
 
 * % * * 
 
 The time at which different species of seeds, after 
 having been committed to the earth, begin to vegetate, 
 is exceedingly various. Thus, Millet (Milium), and 
 Wheat, vegetate in one day ; Kidney-Bean, Mustard, 
 and Spinach (Spinacia), in three days ; Lettuce and 
 Fennel (AnethumFceniculum), in four days ; Cucum- 
 ber, Gourd, and others, in five days ; Beet and Rad- 
 ish, in six days; Barley in seven days; Orache (Atri- 
 plex), in eight days ; Cabbage, in ten days ; Beans 
 (Faba), from fifteen to twenty days ; Onion, from nine- 
 teen to twenty days ; and Parsley (Apium Petroseli- 
 nuni), from forty to fifty days. — Of the common 
 garden-seeds, I believe there are none which take a 
 shorter time to vegetate than several of the Tetradyna- 
 mous plants, such as Mustard, und Turnip ; nor any, 
 I think, a longer time than Parsley. The long torpidi- 
 ty of the last-mentioned seed has given rise to a vulgar 
 proverb, in Britain, " that Parsley-seed goes nine times 
 " to the Devil, before it comes up". 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 279 
 
 The seeds of many vegetables take a whole year 
 to vegetate. Such are the Peach, the Almond, the 
 Walnut, the Chesnut, the Peony (Pseonia officinalis), 
 different species of Canna, or Indian-Reed, and others. 
 Other seeds require two years before they vegetate : 
 such are the Common Dogwood (Cornus florida), and 
 other species of the genus : the Common Pappaw, or 
 Custard-apple (Annona triloba), and the Filbert (Co- 
 rylus avellana). Some seeds, even under circumstances 
 favourable to their growth, remain a much longer time 
 in the earth before they vegetate. But, with respect to 
 these seeds, the period of their germination may be 
 greatly advanced by different means, which are familiar 
 to the gardeners. Thus, several of the hard-shelled 
 seeds, particularly the nuts, which require one or more 
 years to vegetate, can be brought to vegetate much 
 earlier, simply by rendering their shells thinner, by a 
 file, or other similar means. The seeds of the Pappaw, 
 which I have already mentioned, may, in this manner, 
 be brought to germinate in a few days. Some writers, 
 however, are of opinion, that this method of treating 
 the harder putamens is not adviseable. Mr. Miller ad- 
 vises us to put such seeds between two tiles, with a suf- 
 ficient quantity of earth, and to place them in a fresh 
 hot-bed, that they may open spontaneously. 
 
 It is uncertain how long seeds may exist without 
 loosing their vegetative property. There are good rea- 
 sons, however, to believe, that the life of certain kinds 
 of seeds may be protracted far beyond that of any other 
 part of the vegetable, or than the life of any species of 
 animal. It is true, indeed, that the Mosses which have 
 been kept for near two hundred years, in herbaria of 
 
280 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 the botanists, have seemed to revive by the simple pro- 
 cess of irrigating them with water*. Perhaps, the 
 Wheel-animal (Rotifer), which, in this' respect, is 
 nearly allied to the Mosses and to seeds, might be pre- 
 served for as great a length of time in the sand of tiles 
 and sewers f, where it is not permitted to receive the in- 
 fluence of moisture. But, with respect to seeds, it is 
 certain, that when excluded from the influence of the 
 air, and kept from moisture, they may exist for centu- 
 ries. The phenomenon, so familiar to Americans, of 
 the successive appearance and growth of different species 
 of timber in the same tract of country, is greatly in fa- 
 vour of this idea. I have little hesitation in supposing, 
 that different kinds of seeds, if imbedded in stone or 
 dry earth, and removed far from the influence of air and 
 moisture, might be made to retain their vegetative qua- 
 lity for a thousand years. But, after all, it is not cer- 
 tain, that this singular immortality, upon earth, is the 
 exclusive privilege of the seed. "Life is a proper- 
 ty WE DO NOT UNDERSTAND J". And WE NEVER 
 SHALL UNDERSTAND IT, IF WE ATTEMPT TO CON- 
 STRUCT SYSTEMS, BEFORE WE KNOW HOW OR WHERE 
 
 to collect facts. " Life, however feeble and ob- 
 " scure, is always life ; between it and death, there is 
 " a distance as great as between entity and non-en- 
 " tity $». 
 
 * Speaking of the Mosses, Dr. Haller has the following words : " Im- 
 " mortalitatis pene aemulo privilegio haec eadem folia gaudent ; quae post centenos, 
 " & ducentos forte annos, sola in aqua maceratione, in pristinum vigorem res- 
 *' titui possint, quod experimentum in nonnullis C Bauhini Muscis feci". Al- 
 berti v. Haller Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Helvetiae Inchoata. Tom. m, 
 p. 18. Bernae: 1768. 
 
 t See the wonderful observations of Lewenhoek, Baker, Roffredi, Spal- 
 lanzani, Fontana, kc. &c. 
 
 % John Hunter. 4 Spallanzani. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 281 
 
 I shall terminate these observations on the seed 
 by observing, that in the germination of this egg, the 
 plumule constantly mounts upwards to meet the air, 
 whilst the radicle shoots downward, to its mother earth. 
 The mechanical philosophers have attempted an expla- 
 nation of this singular phenomenon. But their inge- 
 nuity, as might be expected, has been fruitlessly em- 
 ployed. I am not certain, that Br. Darwin has thrown 
 much light upon the subject. He observes, that "the 
 " plumula is stimulated by the air into action, and 
 " elongates itself, where it is thus most' excited; and 
 " the radicle is stimulated by moisture, and elongates 
 " itself thus, where it is most excited, whence one of 
 " them grows upwards in quest of its adapted object, 
 "and the other downward*". But I do not think 
 there is much difference between this species of lan- 
 guage, and that of those writers who have ascribed the 
 ascent of the plumule and the descent of the radicle to 
 " a mysterious instinct", or to " a sort of affectation". 
 The time may possibly arrive, when these movements 
 of the embryo in its germinating state, will be deemed 
 instances of " determinate instinct", as much as the 
 first movements of certain species of birds, when they 
 have escaped from their egg ; as much so as the instinct 
 which impels the duckling to seek the water, or the chick 
 of the American Pheasant (Tetrao Cupido), to seek the 
 wood, though neither of them have been hatched under 
 females of their own kind j\ 
 
 * Phytologia, 8cc. Feet. ix. 
 
 t Mr. Dodartplan ed, in a pot, six acorns, with the point:; o£ flieir em- 
 bryos upwards, in as perpendicular a direction as he could. At tile ead of two 
 
 months, upon removing; the earth, he found that all the radicles had made an 
 angle to reach downward, " as if (to ULe the words of Father Hegr.ault) 
 " they had been sensible of the botanist's fraud". 
 
 o o 
 
282 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 $. VIII. 
 
 The Receptaculum*, or Receptacle, is the seventh 
 and last part of the fructification enumerated by Linnaeus. 
 He defines it, " the base by which the other parts of the 
 " fructification are connected". " Basis qua partes 
 " fructificationis connectunturf". To this part of the 
 fructification Dr. Boerhaave gave the name of Placenta, 
 and the ingenious Sebastian Vaillant that of Thalamus. 
 
 The following species of receptacle are enumerat- 
 ed by Linnaeus : viz. 1. Receptaculum Proprium. 2. 
 R. commune. 3. Umbella. 4. Cyma : and, 5. Spadix. 
 In this place, I am to speak of only the two-first men- 
 tioned receptacles. Of the three last, I shall treat 
 under a separate head, viz. that of inflorescence, or the 
 mode of flowering. 
 
 A. The receptaculum proprium, proper or peculiar 
 receptacle, appertains to one fructification only. Of 
 this kind is the receptacle of all the simple flowers. 
 This species of receptacle has received different names 
 from the particular parts of the fructification which it 
 supports and connects. Thus, 
 
 1. The receptaculum fructificationis, or receptacle 
 of the fructification, is common both to the flower and 
 the fruit ; or, in other words, embraces the corolla and 
 the germ. 
 
 2. The receptaculum fioris, or receptacle of the 
 flower. Here, the receptacle supports the parts of the 
 
 * Receptaculum, from Becipio, to receive. 
 f Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 54- §. 86. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 283 
 
 flower only. In these cases, the germen, or seed-bud, 
 which is placed below the receptacle of the flower, has 
 a proper base of its own. The last mentioned species 
 of receptacle is denominated 
 
 3. Receptaculum fructus, or receptacle of the fruit. 
 We have examples of it in Gaura, Oenothera, and 
 others*. 
 
 4. Receptaculum seminum, or receptacle of the seed. 
 This is the base to which the seeds are fastened, within 
 their enclosure, or pericarp. This species of recepta- 
 cle is denominated, by some botanists, placenta, because 
 it is the common receptacle of the vasa umbilicalia, or 
 umbilical vessels, through which nourishment is con- 
 veyed to the seeds. It has t no definite form, except 
 when the common receptacle is absent. It arises often 
 from the receptacle of the fruit, or from the mother- pe- 
 ricarp itself. — This species of receptacle assumes a va- 
 riety of forms, of which it is not my intention to take 
 notice, in this place. I shall content myself with ob- 
 serving, that when it* is of a filiform or thread shape, 
 it is called funiculus umbilicalis, or the navel-cord. 
 The form of this cord is very frequently that of a slender 
 thread. In the Leguminous plants, however, it resem- 
 bles a fungous peduncle \. In Date (Phoenix), and 
 Lontarus, it better deserves the name of a cord, being 
 composed of several fibres, and thicker than a quill. 
 The cord is often simple : but in a few vegetables, it is 
 divided into two branches (rarely into more) at the ex- 
 tremity, nearest to the seed. ' Of these branches, some- 
 
 * See Fla e xvi. 
 , t See Plate xxi. 
 
284 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 times only one bears a seed, and the other serves the 
 purpose of a fulcre, as in some species of Vicia and 
 rus. Sometimes, both of the branches have a 
 proper seed ; to them, as in Tulip-tree. In Mag- 
 
 nolia 'and some other plants), two seeds hang from one 
 individual cord, of a cotton-like substance. 
 
 By means of the cord, the seed coheres intimately 
 with its pericarp, until the nutritious vessels being 
 I at maturity, the cord is broken, and the seeds 
 being thus set at liberty, are scattered upon the earth, 
 or other places, from which they draw their future nou- 
 rishment, in the manner we have seen-;'-. 
 
 B. The receptaculum commune, or common recep- 
 tacle, connects several florets or distinct fructifications, 
 so that if any one of them be removed, an irregularity 
 is occasioned. We have instances of this species of 
 receptacle in the Compound-flowers, and also in the 
 Umbel, Cyme, Spadix, and Rachis, which are after- 
 wards to be mentioned f. 
 
 The receptacle is, 1. punctatum, dotted or punc- 
 tate ; sprinkled with hollow points, or dots : as in Le- 
 ontodon, Cacalia, Ethulia, Chrysanthemum, and 
 others. 2. pilosum, hairy ; having hairs between the 
 florets, as In Carduus, &c. 3- paleaceum, paleaceous 
 or chaffy ; the florets being separated by intermediate 
 scalers, resembling chaff; as in Teasel (Dipsacus), 
 Scabious (Scabiosi.), &c. 4. nudum, naked; neither 
 dotted, hairy, nor paleaceous ; as in Leontodon, Lac- 
 tuca, Sonchus, &c. &c, 5- planum, flat. 6. convex- 
 
 * Sec pages 2GC\ Sec. f Sec Plates xxui k xxiv. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 285 
 
 urn, convex. 7. conicum, conical, columnar ; attenu- 
 ated towards the apex. 8- subulatum, subulate. 9. 
 aheolatum, alveolate, or honey-combed ; divided into 
 open cells, like an honey-comb, with a seed lodged in 
 each cell ; as in Cotton-Thistle (Onopordum), and 
 others. 
 
 In drawing the generic characters of plants, the re- 
 ceptacle is a part which ought always to be attended to. 
 It is seldom omitted by Linnaeus, in his Genera Plan- 
 tarum. In discriminating the genera of the class Syn- 
 genesia, it is a character of very great importance. 
 
 I have now finished the consideration of all the 
 seven parts of the fructification enumerated by Linnaeus. 
 I shall conclude the first part of these Elements with 
 some account of the lnfloresccntia, or Inflorescence of 
 vegetables, and the Calendavium Flora. 
 
 5. IX. 
 
 By the term Inflorescentia, Linnaeus means the 
 various modes in which flowers are fastened to the plant, 
 by means of the peduncle*; This is what Ludwig, 
 and many other botanists have denominated Modus 
 Florendi. These modes arc thirteen in number, viz. 1. 
 Spadix. 2. Cyma. 3. Umbclla- 4. Spica- 5- Amen- 
 tum. 6. Strobilus. 7. Corymbus. 8. Racemus. 9. 
 Pankula. 10. Thyrsus- 11. Fasciculus. 12. Capitu- 
 lum : and, 13. VcrtlciUus. The three first of these 
 
 * " Intlorescen'tia est modus quo fiores pedunculo plantac annectimtur, 
 " quern Modum Florendi dixere antecessoreb". Philosophia Botanica, ike. p. 112, 
 S- 163. 
 
286 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 have already been mentioned under the head of recepta- 
 cle, but are to be more particularly noticed in this 
 place. 
 
 1. The Spadix is the receptacle of the Palms and 
 some other plants, and proceeds from that species of 
 calyx which is called spatha, or spathe*. It is either 
 branched (ramosus), as in the Palms ; or simple f sim- 
 plex J, as in Indian-Turnip (Arum triphyllum), Pole- 
 cat-weed, or Skunk-Cabbage (Dracontium foetidum), 
 and others. 
 
 The simple or unbranched spadix admits of some 
 variety. Thus, in Calla, Dracontium, Pothos, and 
 Golden-club (Orontium aquaticum), the florets cover 
 it on all sides. In Indian-Turnip, they are disposed on 
 the lower parts only, and in Grass-wrack (Zostera ma- 
 rina), on one side only. 
 
 According to the number of flowers which it 
 supports, the spadix has received the following names, 
 viz. 1. uniflorus, one-flowered. 2. biflorus, two-flower- 
 ed. 3. multijloruS) many-flowered. 
 
 2. The Cymaf, or Cyme. This is defined by 
 Linnaeus to be an aggregate flower composed of several 
 florets sitting on a receptacle, producing all the primary 
 peduncles from the same point, but having the partial 
 peduncles scattered or irregular ; all fastigiate, or form- 
 ing a fiat surface at top. We have instances of the cyme 
 in Guelder-Rose or Snow-Ball (Viburnum Opulus), in 
 
 * See pages 117 8c 118. 
 
 f Cyma signifies properly a sprout or tender shoot, particularly of the Cab- 
 bage. In these senses, the term is used by Pliny, and Columella, 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 287 
 
 Ophiorhiza, and various species of Cornel or Dogwood, 
 such as Cornus sanguinea, Cornus sericea, &c. &c 
 
 The cyma is either, 1. bracteata, bracteate ; fur- 
 nished with bractes : or, 2. nuda, naked ; without 
 bractes. 
 
 Flowers which are disposed in a cyme, are called 
 cymose flowers ; cymosus Jlos- In the former editions 
 of Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, place 
 was given to an order, Cymosce, consisting of Honey- 
 suckle, Morinda, Loranthus, and a few other genera. 
 In later editions of the work, most of these genera were 
 removed to the order Aggregatae *. 
 
 3. Th e Umbella, or Umbel, is a receptacle stretched 
 out into filiform proportioned peduncles from the same 
 centre. I have already given some account of this spe- 
 cies of receptacle, or mode of flowering, when treating 
 of the involucrum, or involucre f. Several circum- 
 stances, however, respecting the umbel are to be noticed 
 in this place. 
 
 a. The umbel is either, \- simplex, simple, or un- 
 divided ; as in Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium). 2. 
 composita, compound ; each peduncle bearing another 
 little umbel, or umbellule. In this case, the first or 
 larger set of rays, constitute the universal umbel 
 ( umbella universalis) ; while the second or su- 
 
 * See Part III. 
 t Seepages 113 4i 114. See, also, Part III. Class v. Pkktandiua.. 
 
288 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 bordinate set of peduncles constitute the partial umbel 
 fumbella partialis J. 3. prolifera, proliferous, superde- 
 compound, or more than decompound. 
 
 b. The umbella is also, 1. concava, concave. 2. 
 fastigiata, fastigiate ; or rising gradually like the roof 
 of a house. 3. convcxa, convex. 4. crccta, erect. 5. 
 nutans, nodding. 6- terminalis, terminal. 7. axillaris , 
 axillary ; and, 8. oppositifolia, oppositifolious. 
 
 Flowers which grow in the manner of an umbel, 
 are denominated Umbellati, Umbellate, or Umbelled 
 flowers. By many writers, they are denominated Um- 
 belliferce, or Umbelliferous plants. 
 
 Umbellate is the name of the twenty- second order 
 in Linnceus's Fragments ; and of the forty-fifth in his 
 natural orders. The greater number of these plants 
 belong to the second order of the fifth class of the sexual 
 system. Ray, Jussieu, and other writers, have called 
 these plants, Umbelliferae, and Caesalpinus, Ferulacea. 
 I shall, in a more proper place, give a list of the princi- 
 pal genera of this great natural family *. 
 
 ^ 
 
 4. The Spicaf, or Spike, is a species of inflorescence 
 in which sessile flowers, or flowers without peduncles, 
 are (scatteringly) alternate on a common simple pedun- 
 cle. We have examples of this mode of inflorescence 
 in an ear of Wheat, Rye, or Barley, and many other 
 
 * See Part III. Class v. Pentandria. 
 
 f From spes, hope : from ain^v, to extend ; or from (rrrxyvs j:ol. for <rlai)Q>fy 
 whence Spicus, Spica, and a^b/cwm, " for (as Dr. Martyn observesj it is used in 
 " all the three genders", these terms signify an ear of corn. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 289 
 
 Grasses ; and in Lavender (Lavendula), Mullein 
 (Verbascum), Agrimony, and many other plants. 
 
 The flowers of a spike are situated immediately 
 upon the stalk, without any partial peduncles, or foot- 
 stalks, as has already been observed. This circum- 
 stance distinguishes the mode of inflorescence of which 
 I am speaking, from the raceme, which is presently to 
 be mentioned. Often, however, in a spike, along with 
 the sessile flowers, we find flowers that are pedunculat- 
 ed ; as in some species of Cyperus, &c. 
 
 The spica is, 1. seamda*, single-rowed or one- 
 ranked f ; that is all turned towards one side, or direct- 
 ed or inclined the same way. We have an instance of this 
 in American Cock's foot-grass (Dactylis cynosurioides). 
 2. disticba, two-ranked or rowed; all the flowers point- 
 ing two ways ; and, consequently, opposed to secunda. 
 This is instanced in Bog-Rush (Schoenus), &c. 3. 
 tetrasticha, four-ranked. 4. hexasticha^ six-ranked. 
 
 The Spicula^ Spicule, or Spikelet, is a partial 
 spike, or a subdivision of a true spike. This occurs 
 in some of the Grasses, as Darnel, &c. 
 
 The filiform receptacle which connects the florets 
 longitudinally into a spike, is denominated Rachis %. 
 " Receptaculum filiforme flosculos longitudinaliter an- 
 " nectens in spicam §". It has received the name of 
 
 * " We have no proper English term for this. One-ranked tends to mis- 
 " lead, because a plant may have more ranks or rows of flowers than one di- 
 »' rected to the same point of the horizon, or nearly so". Professor Martyn. 
 •j- Darwin. 
 
 \ ^sxyjs, the back-bone, or spine. \ Delineatio Plantje. 
 
 pp 
 
290 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 rachis, from its bearing some resemblance, when it is 
 naked or deprived of the florets, to the spine. "We 
 have good examples of this species of receptacle in dif- 
 ferent species of Panic-grass, such as Panicum crus 
 corvi, P. crus galli ; in Darnel (Lolium), and in many- 
 other Grasses. 
 
 5. Of the Ament and Strobilus, I have already taken 
 particular notice, when treating of the various species 
 of calyx *, and of pericarp f . I shall only observe, 
 in his place, that the ament is more properly referred 
 to the head of inflorescence than that of calyx J. 
 
 6. The Corymbus, or Corymb $,■ is said by Lin- 
 nceus, to be " made up of a spike, whilst each flower 
 " is furnished with its proper footstalk, or peduncle, in 
 " an elevated proportioned situation". Linnasus's defi- 
 nition is not very intelligible, and hence different bota- 
 nists have given a different interpretation of the words. 
 In this species of inflorescence, the smaller or partial 
 flower-stalks are produced along the common stalk, on 
 both sides, and although they are of unequal lengths, 
 they rise to the same height, so as to form at the top, a 
 flat and even surface. 
 
 We have examples of this mode of flowering in the 
 following, among other, vegetables, viz. Nine-bark or 
 Seven-bark (Spiraea opulifolia, Scurvy-grass (Cochlea- 
 
 *' See pages 115-117. See, also, Plate xxvu. ^ 
 t See pages 195 & 19C\ 
 
 \ The Strobile gives name to a particular species of spike (spica strobili- 
 /ormis J, or strobile-shaped spike, of which we have an example in Justicia 
 Ecbolium. 
 
 fj Professor Martyn. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 291 
 
 ria officinalis), Gold of Pleasure (Myagrum sativum), 
 and other Tetradynamous plants. 
 
 The corymb differs from the umbel in this circum- 
 stance, that in the former the numerous partial foot- 
 stalks take their origin from different parts of the com- 
 mon stalk ; whilst in the latter, as we have already 
 seen, all the peduncles proceed from a common centre. 
 The corymb, it has been observed, is a mean between 
 the umbel and the raceme. Like them, its flowers are 
 furnished with their proper footstalks, which rise gra- 
 dually from the bottom to the top, as do those of the 
 raceme, and are extended to the same height, as are 
 those of the umbel. 
 
 The term corymbus is sanctioned by classical au- 
 thority. Pliny uses it for a cluster of Ivy-berries. 
 " Hederae racemis in orbem circumactis, qui vocantur 
 " corymbi *". Columella puts it for the head of an 
 Artichoke, or Thistle : 
 
 " Haec modo purpureo surgit glamerata corymbof". 
 
 7. RacemusJ, Raceme, or Cluster, is the name of 
 the eighth species of inflorescence enumerated by Lin- 
 naeus. It is a species of flowering in which the flowers, 
 placed along a common footstalk, are furnished with 
 short proper footstalks that proceed as lateral branches 
 from the common stalk. 
 
 The raceme and the spike are nearly allied to each 
 other : for in both, the flowers are placed along a com- 
 
 • Naturalis Historix Lib. xvt. cap. xxxiv. 
 
 f De Re Rustica, &c. Lib. x. De cultu Hortorum, 1. 237. 
 
 J From « a £ ? pxyos y acinus racime- 
 
292 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 mon footstalk, or receptacle ; but in the spike, as we 
 have seen, the flowers are sessile, whereas in the ra- 
 ceme they are pedunculated. In general, too, the 
 flowers are less abundant in the spike than in the raceme. 
 But to this, there are many exceptions. I have already 
 noticed the essential difference between the raceme and 
 the corymb. 
 
 The racemus is, 1. simplex, simple ; or, 2. com- 
 positus, compound- 3. unilateralism one-sided ; having 
 all the flowers growing on one side of the peduncle ; as 
 in Serrated Winter-green (Pyrola secunda). 4. secwida, 
 all bent or directed the same way. 5. pedatus, pedate. 
 6. conjugatus, conjugate. 7. erectus, erect. 8. laxus, 
 loose. 9. dependens, hanging down and pointing to the 
 ground. 10. nudus, naked. 11. foliatus, leafy. 
 
 We have good and familiar examples of the ra- 
 ceme in the Vine, the Currant, the Poke, different spe- 
 cies of Primus, or Plumb, such as the common Wild- 
 Cherry (Primus virginiana), &c. 
 
 In the Latin language, racemus signifies a cluster 
 or bunch of Grapes, Ivy-berries, &c. Thus Pliny : 
 Hederae " est minor acinus, sparsior racemus *"• 
 
 8. Paniculaf, or Panicle, is the name of the eight 
 species of inflorescence. In this, the flowers or fruits 
 are scattered on peduncles, variously subdivided. In 
 other words, it i a kind of branching or diffused spike, 
 
 • Lib. xvi. cap. xxxiv. 
 
 •}■ From ittXDixX) coma, a bush or head of hair (see page 80), &c. ; or ra- 
 ther from panus, the woof about the quill in the shuttle. Pliny, in one place 
 (Lib. xvi. cap. xxxvi) uses this word to designate the down upon Reeds. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 293 
 
 composed of a number of small spikes, which are fixed 
 along a common receptacle, or footstalk. We have in- 
 stances of this form of inflorescence in Oats, Panic- 
 grass, and many other plants. 
 
 The following are the principal species or varieties 
 of panicula enumerated by the botanists, viz. 1. panicula 
 congesta, a heaped panicle ; having a great abundance 
 of flowers. 2. p> densa, a dense or close panicle (This 
 is an higher degree of the above ; or, in other words, 
 a panicle which has the flowers both close and abundant). 
 3. p> spicata, a spiked panicle ; approaching in form to 
 a spike ; as in Phleum crinitum, and other Grasses, 
 which are called Spiked Grasses. 4. p. contracta, a con- 
 tracted panicle ; a greater degree of the foregoing. 5. 
 p. coarctata, a squeezed panicle ; having the peduncles 
 extremely near to each other. 6. p. patens, a spreading 
 panicle ; having the peduncles spreading out so as to 
 form an acute angle with the stem. 7- p- diffusa, a dif- 
 fused panicle ; having the peduncles spreading out more 
 and more irregularly. 8. p> dharicata, a divaricating 
 panicle ; spreading out still more, at an obtuse angle 
 with the stem. 
 
 9. The Thyrsus*, or Thyrse, is a mode of inflo- 
 rescence very nearly allied to the panicle, being, in fact, 
 a panicle contracted into an ovate, or egg-shaped form. 
 In the thyrse, the lower footstalks, which are longer, ex- 
 tend horizontally, whilst the upper ones are shorter, and 
 rise up vertically. We have instances of this beautiful 
 species of inflorescence in Lilac (Syringa vulgaris), in 
 Butter-bur (Tussilago Petasites), and other plants. 
 
 * The Greek ^v^crost from Svv, impeiujeror, erumpo, to burst forth. 
 
294 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 10. The Fasciculus *, or Fascicle, is a species of 
 inflorescence, in which several upright, parallel, fastigi- 
 ate, approximating flowers, are collected together f ; as 
 in Sweet- William (Dianthus barbatus), and others. 
 
 11. The Capitulum J, or Head, isthat species of in- 
 florescence; in which several flowers form a kind of ball, 
 or head, at the extremity or summits of the foot- stalk ; 
 as in Globe-amaranthus, or Bachelor's Buttons (Gom- 
 phrena globosa), and others. 
 
 The capitulum is, 1. globosum, globular or round; 
 as in Gomphrena globosa. 2. dimidiatum, halved ; he- 
 mispherical, or resembling half a head ; as in Lippia 
 hemisphaerica. 3. ovatum, ovate; or egg-shaped; as 
 in Lippia ovata. 4. hispidum, hispid, or bristly ; as in 
 Field-Basil (Clinopodium vulgare). 5. foliosum, leafy ; 
 intermixed with leaves. 6. nudum, naked ; having no 
 leaves : of course opposed to the leafy. 7- peduncula- 
 tum, peduncled, or furnished with little footstalks ; as in 
 Teucrium capitatum. 8« sessile, sessile ; having no 
 short footstalks ; as in Teucrium pumilum. 9. py- 
 ramidatum, pyramidal ; shaped like a pyramid ; as in 
 Lippia americana. 10. subrotundum, subrotund, or 
 roundish ; as in Selago fruticosa. 
 
 12. The Verticillus $ is the thirteenth and last spe- 
 cies of inflorescence enumerated by Linnaeus- It is 
 
 * Diminutive, from fastis, a bundle. 
 
 t Colligit (says Linnaeus) flores erectos, parallelos, fastigiatos, approxi- 
 mates". 
 
 X Capitulum, in Latin, signifies a littk head, the top, or chapeter of a pil- 
 lar, &c. 
 
 y From verto, to turn. 
 
♦ 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 295 
 
 called in English the Whirl or Whorl *. It is made up 
 of many subsessile flowers, which surround the stem, 
 in the form of a ring. We have instances of this inflo- 
 rescence in Penny-Royal (Mentha Pulegium), Hore- 
 hound (Marrubium vulgare), Callicarpa americana f, 
 and many other plants. This species of inflorescence, 
 indeed, gives name to an extensive natural family of 
 plants, which are particularly mentioned in the course 
 of this work J. 
 
 The verticillus is, 1. sessilis, sessile, without pe- 
 duncles. 2. pediinculatuS) peduncled ; with peduncles. 
 
 3. nudus, naked; without involucre, bracte, or bristle. 
 
 4. bracteatusy bracted ; furnished with bractes. 5. 
 involucratuSy involucred ; furnished with an involucre. 
 6. confertus, crowded. 7. dista?is, distant. 8. remo- 
 tus, remote. 
 
 13. I have now given some account of all the va- 
 rious species of inflorescence that are enumerated by 
 Linnaeus. But I must not close this subject, without 
 observing, that in some plants the flowers grow upon 
 the leaves. This is the case in the genus Ruscus, or 
 Butcher's broom. Linnaeus does not designate this 
 species of inflorescence (for such it seems entitled to be 
 called) by any particular name ; but in Ruscus, he calls 
 it " leaf-bearing". A similar mode of flowering oc- 
 curs in Osyris japonica ; a native of Japan. Professor 
 
 * It is most commonly written whorl ; but whirl seems the more proper or- 
 thography ; " since (as Martyn observes) it must be derived from the verb f 
 •abirl, which signiiies to turn rapidly". 
 
 f See Plate x. Fig. o. 
 
 \ See Part in. Class xjv. Didykawia.. 
 
296 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Thunberg *, who observed it in this vegetable, speaks 
 of it as a very rare species of structure in the vegetable 
 world. 
 
 Calendarium Flor^:. 
 
 " Poma dat Autumnus, Formosa est messibus ^Estas, 
 " Ver prabet flores". 
 
 Ovid. 
 
 The Calendarium Flora, or Calendar of Flora, 
 should contain an exact register of the respective times 
 in which plants of any given province or climate, ger- 
 minate t> expand J, and shed their leaves §, and also 
 flowers, and ripen and disperse their seeds I!. It should 
 also contain a register of the states or changes of the 
 weather, as they are indicated by the thermometer, the 
 barometer, hygrometer, &c ; with remarks concerning 
 the appearances of electrical or other phenomena ; such 
 as lightning, the aurora borealis, earthquakes, lam- 
 pades, and other atmospheric meteors, &c To these 
 may be added notices concerning the appearance and 
 disappearance of different species of birds ; the seasons 
 of their amours, their incubations, &c. ; together with 
 remarks concerning the appearances, the depredations, 
 &c, of insects, and other animals. These last-men- 
 tioned circumstances do not, indeed, form a necessary 
 
 * Flora Japonica, 8cc. p. 31. 
 
 •j" See pages 266, &c. &.c. 
 
 ^ See pages 63 & 64. 
 
 ^ See pages 64 & 65. 
 
 || " Calendafia Flora quotannls conficienda sunt in quavis Provincia, secun- 
 »' dum Frondescentiam, Efflorescentiam, Fructescentiam, Defoliationem, ob- 
 " servato simul Climate ; at inde constet diversitas Rcgionum inter se". Pbi- 
 losophia Botanica, &c. p. 276. ^. 335. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 297 
 
 part of a Calendarium Florae, but they are of service 
 in a variety of ways. 
 
 There is, undoubtedly, a very remarkable coin- 
 cidence between the vegetation of some plants and the 
 arrival of certain birds of passage. Linnaeus has ob- 
 served, that the Wood- Anemone (Anemone nemorosa) 
 blows in Sweden on the arrival of the Common Swallow 
 (Hirundo urbica), and that the Marsh- Mary gold (Caltha 
 palustris), blows when the Cuckow (Cuculus canorus) 
 sings*. Nearly the same coincidence was remarked in 
 England by Mr. Stillingfleet. Dr. Darwin observes, 
 that the " word Coccux in Greek signifies both a young 
 " fig and a cuckow, which is supposed to have arisen 
 " from the coincidence of their appearance in Greece t"» 
 Many instances of a similar coincidence might be point- 
 ed out between the flowering of certain North- American 
 vegetables and the arrival of particular species of birds 
 Thus, it is observed, that the Wood-cock (Scolopax 
 Gallinago) commonly visits the neighbourhood of Phi- 
 ladelphia, when the American Elm (Ulmus americana) 
 is in full blossom ; that is between the 8th and the 18th 
 of March. Many of our Indians consider the coming 
 of the Goat-sucker, or Whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus 
 virginianus), as the truest harbinger of spring. Ac- 
 cordingly, upon the arrival of this bird, they begin to 
 plant the ground, with great assiduity. 
 
 • Amoenitates Academicx. Vol. iv. Dissertatio lxvii. 
 t Botanic Garden. Part II. Canto i. Note. 
 
 <Lq 
 
293 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Although Calendar ia Flora have never been very 
 minutely attended to, except among civilized nations, 
 it is a fact, that the time of leafing, flowering, fruiting, 
 &c, of vegetables, are circumstances which greatly in- 
 terest the people in the savage state of society. Thus, 
 among our Indians, some of the months are designated 
 by circumstances derived from the state of vegetation 
 in their country. These people have a " Strawberry- 
 month", a "Mulberry month", &c. Othersof the months 
 have received their names from the time of the flowering 
 of particular vegetables, especially the Common Dog- 
 wood (Cornus florida), which contributes so much to 
 beautify our forests with its fine large white involucres, 
 early in the spring. The Chikkasah and Choktah In- 
 dians call the Spring-season, Otoolpha, from Oolpba, 
 the name in their language for a bud, or to shoot out.' 
 TheCheerake-Indiansdenominate the autumn, Oolekboste., 
 " the fall of the leaf". Some of the more northern 
 tribes say, that the proper time to plant the Indian-corn 
 is when the Wild-Plumb (Primus canadensis) blooms- 
 Some of the tribes plant their corn when the leaves of 
 the White Oak (Quercus alba) have attained the size of 
 a squirrels ears. It would be easy to mention many 
 other circumstances of this kind, all calculated to show, 
 that "the agricultural rules of savage nations arc fre- 
 " quently founded, in a great measure, upon the fron- 
 " descencc, together with the time of flowering of dif- 
 " ferent vegetables, indigenous in their countries*". 
 
 Nor are the Indians inattentive, in their calendars, 
 to a great variety of circumstances, derived from the 
 
 * Sec p"ge 63. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 299 
 
 animal kingdom. Thus, the Carolina-Indians called 
 one of their months " the Herring-month", from the 
 time of the arrival of this species of fish in the rivers of 
 their country. Some of the more northern Indians call 
 August the " Sturgeon-month", because during this 
 month, they catch a great abundance of sturgeons (A- 
 cipenser). To November, they give the name of the 
 " Beaver-month", because very generally in this month, 
 these animals, having collected a sufficient store of win- 
 ter-provisions, take shelter in their houses. Extending 
 their observations to still smaller objects, the Indians 
 call March " the Worm-month or Moon", because at 
 this season many species of minute animals (principally 
 insects) leave their retreats in the bark of trees, in 
 wood, &c, where they have passed the winter-season, in 
 a state of great inaction or torpidity. Many other ex- 
 amples of the like kind, might be mentioned. But this 
 is not the proper place to dwell upon the subject. 
 
 The following lines from Virgil, are calculated to 
 show, that the Romans had paid great attention to the 
 appearance of certain birds of passage, as a guide to 
 them in their agricultural rules : 
 
 " Nee tibi tarn prudens quisquam persuadeat auctor 
 
 " Tellurem borea rigidam spirante moveri : 
 
 " Rura gelu turn claudit hiems, nee semine jaeto 
 
 '* Concretam patitur radicem affigere terra. 
 
 " Optima vinetis satio, quum vere rubenti 
 
 " Candida venit avis longis invisa colubris ; 
 
 " Prima vel autumni sub IHgora, quum rapidus sol 
 
 " Nondum biemem contlngit equis, jam prxterit icstas". 
 
 GEoncic. Lib. ii. I. 315-322. 
 
300 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 " Dare not to plant when wint'ry Boreas blows, 
 
 " Leave sullen earth in undisturb'd repose : 
 
 " Shrunk are her frozen pores, and, clos'd with cold, 
 
 « Forbid the root to pierce th' unyielding mould. 
 
 " Wait, till, returning on the gale of Spring, 
 
 « The snake-fed bird * unfolds his silver wing, 
 
 »' Or the slope sun his flying axle speeds, 
 
 " And, ere bleak Winter, Autumn chills the meads." 
 
 Sothebt. 
 
 Calendaria Floras, if they be properly kept, 
 form some of the most interesting notices in the natural 
 history of a country. They form, next to the living, 
 the best, picture of the country. They show us, in the 
 most beautiful and impressive manner, the relations of 
 the vegetable and the animal kingdoms to each other, 
 and to the various agents by which they are surrounded, 
 and by which they are affected. They enable us to 
 compare together the climates of different countries or 
 places, which are included within nearly the same lati- 
 tudes, such as Florida and Palestine, Philadelphia and 
 Pekin, New-York and Rome, not to mention many 
 others. In the hands of future ages, they will be deem- 
 ed among the most precious monuments of natural his- 
 tory that can be bequeathed by an inquisitive and en- 
 lightened people. For, to apply the observation to the 
 countries of the United- States: if our climates have (as 
 is by many asserted) already undergone considerable 
 changes t, our winters in particular becoming much 
 more mild and open, will it be doubted, that a great al- 
 
 * The Stork. 
 
 f Whether, however, this change has actually taken place in the United- 
 States, is, in my opinion, a very doubtful point I shall not omit to examine 
 this question in my " Comparative estimate of the climates of Nor.h-America 
 and of Asia, within the same parallels of la'.itude". 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 301 
 
 teration is to take place in respect to the periods of the 
 germination, the frondescence, the flowering, the de- 
 foliation, &c, of many of our vegetables? And as the 
 migrations of birds are essentially governed by the state 
 of the climate, which governs vegetation, and the 
 changes of insects, will it be doubted, that the seasons 
 of the movements of our birds may, at some future pe- 
 riod, be essentially varied from their present ones? 
 
 One of the most complete specimens of a Calendarium 
 Flora, is that by A. M. Berger, in the Amoenltates Acade- 
 mic*. Since the first appearance of this specimen, several 
 calendars, upon the same, or nearly the same, plan, have 
 been published in many of the countries of Europe. Of 
 these I must particularly notice, The Xaturalisf s Calen- 
 dar\, by the late Rev. Gilbert White, of Selborne, in Hamp- 
 shire (England). This is a very interesting morcel of the 
 kind, which I would recommend to the perusal of those who 
 may wish to amuse themselves in similar essays. — We 
 have, also, a valuable calendar, entitled " Indications of 
 Spring," by another English writer, Robert Marsham, Esq. 
 F. R. S. It contains the author's observations made during 
 near half a centun-J. This calendar proves, that there is a 
 much greater analogy between the climate on the east coast 
 of Britain, in the county of Norfolk, and that of Philadelphia, 
 in regard to the leafing and flowering of certain vegetables, 
 the first appearance of Swallows and other birds, &c, &c, 
 than might be imagined. — My friend, the late Professor 
 Walker $, of Edinburgh, kept a Calendar at Moffat, in 
 
 * Vol. IV. Dissertatio lxvii. f London: 1795. 
 
 i Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxxix. For 1789. Part ii. art. xiii. 
 
 $ I cannot omit this opportunity of paying- a tribute of grateful respect to the 
 memory of this excellent man. During my residence in Edinburgh, I received 
 many marks of kindness and attention from him Never, indeed, can I forget the 
 
 n C 
 
302 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 Scotland, during the year 1779. In this calendar, he re- 
 marked, that the North- American native plants vtrnated 
 sooner than the indigenous trees of the island. He observed, 
 that the Pear-tree (Pyrus communis) blossoms at Moffat 
 nearly a month earlier than it does at Upsal, in Sweden. I 
 find, that the difference of the time of flowering of this 
 tree, at Philadelphia and Upsal (about twenty degrees of 
 latitude) is nearly thirty-five days. 
 
 I have published a specimen of a Calendarium Flora?, 
 adapted to the vicinity of Philadelphia*. I have, also, col- 
 lected materials for a much more complete work of this 
 kind, which it is my intention to publish, on some future 
 occasion. 
 
 hours, invaluable to me, which I passed in the company, and at the hospitable 
 board, of the Reverend Dr. Walker. In him, more than in any other man I have 
 known, were united an extensive acquaintance with natural history, and that in- 
 nocent and almost infantine simplicity of manners, which so frequently charac- 
 terize real genius, and the pure enthusiasm of love for the study of nature. 
 Though I never attended the lectures of Dr. Walker, yet I may, with great pro- 
 priety, consider him in the light of a Preceptor, as- well as a Friend. All our con- 
 versations related to subjects of natural science: and while I, at that time a mere 
 uninstructed tiro in natural history, could do little more than communicate an 
 occasional fact, nothing could be more instructive than the various converse of 
 the learned and amiable Professor. 
 
 * See Fragments of the Natural History of Pcnns\ !\ ania. Part I. pages 1-10 
 Philadelphia: 1799. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 303 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 TO THE ARTICLE CALENDARIUM FLORA. 
 
 The following specimen of the Calendar of one of the more 
 cultivated of the Indian tvihes of the great tract of country now within 
 the limits of the United-States, will not he deemed incurious or un- 
 important. 
 
 The Onondagos, one of the Six-Nations, whose chief residence 
 ever since the arrival of the Europeans in this country, has been 
 in the state of New-York, divide the year into twelve months, and 
 begin their year with December*. The names of the months are as 
 follow: viz. 
 
 Che-t6-re. December: "the cool month." 
 
 CiiK-Tu-KK-Ko-xAHt. January: " the cold month." 
 
 * The Onondaga year does, certainly, consist of twelve months; and these 
 months, I am pretty certain, are lunar'. In the language of l^iis U-ibe of the Con- 
 federacy, a month is called IVeiglmeeta, which is die name the Oneidas, who are 
 close neighbours of die Onondagos, and who speak a near dialect of die same 
 language, give to the Moon- — I do not mean, however, to assert, that die Indian 
 months, which I have mentioned, exactly correspond to the months of our calen- 
 dar.— On the subject of the manner of dividing time among the Indians (as well 
 the rude as more cultivated) of North-America, I have collected some important 
 information, which I shall communicate to die public, at a future period. At pre- 
 sent, I shall only observe, that from die neat and simple Calendar of the Onon- 
 dagos, it is easy to perceive, that they were more of an agricultural people than 
 many of the other American tribes; than those, perhaps, who had a " Herring- 
 month," a " Sturgeon-month," and a " Reaver-month," in their enumeration of 
 the year. See page 299. And the Six-Nations, of whom the Onondagos formed a 
 part, and a noble part, were, it is known, much more attached to the cultivation 
 of the earth, tiian the Dclawarcs, and many other tribes. — From this Calendar, it 
 is also natural to infer, that the Onondagos have, for a very considerable length 
 of time, — for several centuries at least, — been settled nearly in die same tract of 
 countrv, or upon die same parallel of latitude, — in which they now reside. If, as 
 I suppose, they came from the south-west, diey must have altered, and accom- 
 modated, their calendar to the more northern regions of which they took pos- 
 session. — The Mexicans, we arc informed, made a considerable change in their 
 calendar, when, migrating from the northern Atzlan, they seated themselves in 
 the milder and more southern, and more happy clime, of Anahuac. 
 
 f The moaning of Konah seems to be, " in reality," or " in great earnest." 
 
304 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 TlS-SAH. 
 TlS-9AH-K0-NAH. 
 
 k.one-la-toch-ah. 
 
 k.one-la-toch-ko-nah. 
 
 Ee-set-ah. 
 
 Ee-ra-ko-nah. 
 hus-hess-ko-hah. 
 
 KoS-HESS-KO-HAH. 
 
 Kan-tah-haA 
 Kan-tah-hah-ko-nah. 
 
 February: " the snow is beginning to pass 
 away." 
 
 March: " the snow is now gone in reality;" 
 or is fast going. 
 
 April: " the Bud-month;" or the trees begin 
 to leaf. — Frondescentia. — Set; p. 63. 
 
 May: " the Leaf-month;" the leaves being 
 fully out. 
 
 June: " the Corn-month;" the Mays, or In- 
 dian-corn, being come up; and fit for the 
 first dressing. 
 
 July: " the Corn is up in full," and fit to re- 
 ceive its second dressing. 
 
 August: "the Corn is making its heads;" or 
 ears. 
 
 September: the month when "the car is full," 
 or fit for boiling. 
 
 October: the month when "vegetation begins 
 to fall away;" being affected by the frost. 
 — It may be called the month of Defo- 
 liation. — See pages 64 and 65. 
 
 November: the month when the "vegetation 
 is chiefly fallen down;" having been killed 
 by the frost. — Evergreens (see page 65), 
 of which the number of species in the 
 country of the Six-Nntions, is very con- 
 siderable, — such as Pinus, Larix, Abies, 
 Thuja, Cupressus, not to mention the 
 smaller, but yet conspicuous, Tuxus, 
 Rhododendron, Kalmia, and many oth- 
 ers, — arc, doubtless, intended to be ex- 
 cepted from the observation, which is 
 exclusively restricted to deciduous vege- 
 tables, and chiefly those of an arbores- 
 cent stature. 
 
ADDITIONAL 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 TO THE FIRST PART. 
 
 Page 18. " IT is highly probable, that, in many instances, 
 parasitic plants injure their supporters, more by emitting from 
 their bodies some noxious fluid, than by absorbing wholesome 
 fluids from the supports." Actual experiments, however, made 
 with some of the parasitic plants, have very satisfactorily proved, 
 that these plants derive a considerable portion of their nourish- 
 ment from the vegetables which support them. The stem, the 
 leaves, &c, of the Missletoe may be beautifully coloured by di- 
 luted Poke juice, and other colouring matters, through the medi- 
 um of the branches of the Apple, the Gum (Nyssa), or other 
 tree, from which the parasite proceeds. In this experiment, the 
 Missletoe is not brought into immediate contact with the colour- 
 ing juice: it becomes painted, if I may use the expression, by the 
 juice which, having been previously absorbed by the stock, is 
 from this taken up by the radicles of the parasite, which are 
 intimately intermixed with the woody part of the supporting 
 vegetable. 
 
 The Tillandsia usneoides, or Long-Moss, is only found, in 
 a vigorous state, upon living vegetables; and it is never seen 
 alive upon trees which have been dead more than one season. 
 This fact plainly shows, that the Tillandsia derives a large share 
 of its nutriment from the vegetables upon which it grows. 
 
 There can be very little doubt, however, that some parasitic 
 plants derive a large, if not the principal, part of their nourish- 
 
306 NOTES. 
 
 ment from the atmosphere. This is, probably, the case with the 
 wonderful Aerides odorata, of which Father Loureiro has given 
 an account. This vegetable, which Willdenow calls Epidendrum 
 flos aeris, is a native of the woods of Cochinchina and of China. 
 It adheres to the trees, bv means of a great number of long, lin- 
 ear, radical bulbs, from which it might be conceived to derive its 
 nourishment, if Loureiro did not inform us, that when brought 
 out of the woods, and hung up in the house, without having any 
 connection with the earth or water, it continues, in this situation, 
 during many years, to grow, to flower, and to germinate, exhal- 
 ing a delightful odour. I shall quote the author's own words, as 
 the book in which the fact is related, is probably in the hands of 
 but few of my countrymen. " Mirabilis hujus plant* proprietas 
 est, quod ex sylvis domum delata, et in aere libero suspensa, ab- 
 sque ullo pabulo vegetabili terreo, vel aqueo in multos annos du- 
 ret, crescat, floreat, et germinet. Yix crederem, nisi diuturna 
 experientia comprobassem*." 
 
 Page 24. To the terminology of caulis, I beg leave to add, 
 caulis jloriferus, a flower-bearing stem. We have a fine example 
 of this in the beautiful Cercis canadensis, or Canadian Salad-tree*' 
 called also Shad-blossom. The trunk, as well as branches, is co- 
 vered over with tufts of the rose-coloured blossoms: a circum- 
 stance which adds much to the beauty of the tree, especially as 
 its leaves do not make their appearance until the flowers have 
 begun to fade or disappear. 
 
 Pages 25, 26. " The culm sometimes consists of a number of 
 scales, which lie over each other, in the manner of tiles upon a 
 house." — I think it has not yet been ascertained what culm, if 
 any such exist, Linnaeus here alludes to. A admits imbricatus is 
 unknown to the botanists. It is possible, that Linnauis had his 
 eye upon some figure of the stem of a Palm. 
 
 Pages 26, 27. Linn^us has observed, that the " scapus is only 
 
 * Flora Cochinchiiiensis: sistens plantas in regno Cochinchina nascentes, &c- 
 labore ac studio Joannis dc Loureiro, &c. torn. ii. p. 525. Ulyssipone: 1790. 4to- 
 
NOTES. 307 
 
 a species of pcdunculus." " The term, says Dr. Smith, might 
 therefore be spared, were it not found very commodious in con- 
 structing neat specific definitions of plants. If abolished, Pedun- 
 culus radicalism or radical flower-stalk, should be substituted*." 
 
 I cannot agree in sentiment with Linnaeus and Dr. Smith. 
 The term scapus cannot well be spared: its origin emphatically 
 distinguishes it from the pedunculus, with which, in describing 
 plants, it ought never to be confounded. 
 
 A physiological circumstance concerning the scape de- 
 serves to be mentioned here. The Swedish naturalist thought, 
 w that a plant could not be increased by its scapus." But Dr. 
 Smith " has had scaly buds form even on the flower-stalk (sca- 
 pus) of Lachenalia tricolor, Curt, Mag. t. 82., whilst lying for 
 many weeks between papers to dry, which, on being put into the 
 ground, have become perfect plants, though of slow growth." 
 Introduction, &c. page 112. Is the true pedunculus capable of 
 continuing a plant? I have not determined the point by actual 
 experiment: but I have little doubt, that the peduncles of many 
 plants, as well as the scape of Lachenalia, is capable of forming 
 buds, or bulbs (propagines), from which a plant similar to the 
 parent, may be evolved. 
 
 Page 28. Willdenow has totally omitted from in his list of 
 stems, or trunks. I think this is right. He retains stipes: and he 
 thinks proper to consider the pedunculus and the petiolus as spe- 
 cies of stems. So does Smith. — The first of these writers restricts 
 the term caulis to the herbaceous vegetables: and he employs 
 truncus to designate the stem of the trees and shrubs. His trun- 
 cus is two-fold: viz. 1. truncus arbor eus, that has a crown of 
 branches at top: and 2. t. fruticosus, that has branches also be- 
 low. I am not confident that this distinction is of much conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Mr. Willdenow adds two species of stem to the list: viz. 
 Surculus, and Seta* 
 
 ' Introduction, 8cc. page 1 
 
308 NOTES. 
 
 1. The Surculus, or Shoot, is the stem which bears the leaves 
 of the mosses. This is either, 1. simplex, simple; having no 
 branches, as in Polytrichum: see our Plate xxxi. 2. ra?nosus, 
 branched; dividing into branches, as in Mnium androgynum. 3. 
 ramis defiexis, with hanging branches; when the stem is branch- 
 ed, but all the branches hang down, as in Sphagnum palustre. 4. 
 decumbetiSj decumbent; that lies on the ground. 5. repens, creep- 
 ing: and, 6. erectus, upright. 
 
 2. The Seta, or Bristle, is that species of stem, which in the 
 mosses supports only the fructification, without leavesf. It is 
 always simple, and never branched, as in the preceding species. 
 The seta is sometimes, \..solitaria, solitary. 2. aggregata, ag- 
 gregate; or crowded. 3. terminalis, terminal; on the point: or, 4. 
 axillaris, vel lateralis, on the side. 
 
 Pages 40, 41. For as in different species of Xymphaea, ike, 
 ending or Map-apple, read, as in the majestic Neluinbo lutea, 
 which adorns some of the wet meadows in the vicinitv of Phila- 
 delphia; in the Tropaeolum, or Indian-cress; in the Geranium 
 peltatum; the Podophyllum peltatum, or May-apple; the Hydro- 
 peltis purpurea (See Plate xxxii. Fig. 12.) the Diphylleia cvmosa, 
 figured by Michaux, Flor. bor. amcr. torn. i. tab. 19, 20., and in 
 many others. 2*. A leaf is said to be ccntio-peltate, yi/i///;z ctntro- 
 peltatum, when the foot-stalk is inserted directly, or nearlv, in 
 the centre of the leaf, as in the Nelumbo and Ilydropeltis, just 
 mentioned. 
 
 Page 41. For as in many Grasses, Polygonum, Ilumex, &c, 
 read as in many Grasses, in Polygonum, and not a few of the 
 plants belonging to the family of the Orchidesi:. 
 
 \ It may be said to be the scapus of the mosses. See Plates xxx and xxxi. 
 
 i Among the number of fulcra, or props, Mr. Willdenow enumerates the 
 Vagina, or Sheath: this he defines "the prolongation of a leaf, which >olls it- 
 self round the sicm, and thus forms a cylinder, to tbe opening- of which the leaf 
 is attached, as in Polygonum, and all the Grasses." Principles, &.c. page 49. 
 
NOTES. 309 
 
 Page 51. One of the earliest opinions which seem to have 
 been advanced by the naturalists concerning the uses of the 
 leaves of vegetables, is that of Andreas Caesalpitius. In his 
 work Be Planlis, first published in 1583, this celebrated man, 
 to whom both natural history and medicine are indebted for 
 the discovery or promulgation of many important truths, im- 
 agined, that the leaves were merely a kind of clothing, or a 
 protection of the vegetable against the influence of cold and 
 wet. The Italian philosopher supposed, that the solar influence 
 being weakened in its passage through the leaves, was thus 
 prevented from acting with so much violence as it otherwise 
 would, upon the fruit and young buds. "Accordingly, he ob- 
 serves, many trees lose their leaves in autumn, when their 
 fruits are perfected, and their buds hardened, while such as 
 retain the fruit long, keep also their leaves; even till a new 
 crop is pWduced, and longer, as in the Fir, the Arbutus, and 
 the Bay. It is reported, he adds, that in hot climates, where 
 there is almost perpetually a burning sun, scarcely any trees 
 lose their leaves, because they require them for shade." 
 
 There is, unquestionably, some foundation for these ob- 
 servations; and in particular, I think, for that part of the the- 
 ory which ascribes to the leaves a protecting power from the 
 influence of the sun's rays. It would not however, if I mistake 
 not, be difficult to mention a considerable number of trees 
 which lose their leaves even in, or near, the torrid zone. On 
 the other hand, many trees and shrubs drop their leaves be- 
 fore the winter season, though their fruit is not yet perfected; 
 and consequently it is exposed to all the rigours of a cold cli- 
 mate. This is the case with many North-American Oaks, with 
 the Franklinia Americana, the Gordonia Lasianthus, Hama- 
 melis Communis, and many others, which "require an entire 
 year to bring their fruits to perfection.* 
 
 * Some vegetables bear tbe loss of their leaves, by whatever means ef- 
 fected, tolerably well. This is especially the case with the White Mulberry 
 (Morus alba), the leaves of which may be repeatedly plucked by the hand, 
 in the coufse of the same year: and we often see, in Pennsylvania, a third, 
 and sometimes a fourth, crop of leaves upon our Elms, in consequence of 
 the depredations of the pernicious little coleopterous insect, which proves 
 so destructive to them in our streets, gardens, &c. . S S 
 
310 NOTES. 
 
 Page 52. The quantity of perspirable matter which is thrown 
 off from some plants, and especially, perhaps, from their leaves, 
 is almost incredible. If we may belieye Dr. Hales, the great 
 annual Sunflower (Helianthus anmius), that magnificent vege- 
 table, which was cultivated by the Indians of America, from 
 Peru to the great lakes of Canada; — if we may depend upon 
 Hales, the Sunflower, perspires about seventeen times as fast 
 as the. human skin, in its ordinary functions of perspiration. 
 Another vegetable remarkable for the rapidity and greatness of 
 its perspiration, is the beautiful Hydrangea Hortensia, now so 
 common in the United States, where it stands even the rigours 
 of our winters: in Pennsylvania ut least. Some species of Rose 
 also perspire very largely.* But it has been thought, that hard- 
 ly any plant performs the function of perspiration so extensively 
 as the Cornus mascula, or -Cornelian Cherry. According to Du 
 Ilamel, the quantity of fluid which is evaporated by theleaves of 
 this vegetable, in twenty-seven hours, is almost equal to twice 
 the weight of the whole plant.f Is the perspiration of the North 
 American species (which are numerous) of the genus Cornus, 
 peculiarly great? 
 
 The matter of perspiration of plants, is very various in dif- 
 ferent genera and species. Sometimes, it may be considered as 
 a mere insipid water. We have seen this perspiration in the 
 "Weeping Willows (Salix babvlonica) of Philadelphia t to such 
 a degree, that the brick pavements have been wetted by fhem, 
 as though by a shower of rain. The leaves of Orange-trees 
 sometimes perspire a saccharine matter, and so do some Sola- 
 naceous plants. Cistus creticus, of the Greek-islands, perspires 
 a resinous matter, the Labdauum of the shops4 which is col- 
 lected by beating the shrub by means of leather straps.§ Dic- 
 tamnus albus, called Fraxinella, exhales an inflammable Vapour, 
 which catches fire when a taper is applied to it* 
 
 * Rosa. 
 
 f Pliisique des Arbres, &c. torn. i. p. 1-15. 
 
 * See Part III. page 69. * 
 
 § See Tournefort's Voyage to the Levant. English translation, vol. i. p. 
 79—82. London: 1741. 
 
NOTES. 311 
 
 i The leaves, as well as the fruit of many vegetables, perspire, 
 or perhaps more properly secrete, a waxy matter, which may 
 easily be discovered upon their surface. The fine glaucous co- 
 vering of many Plumbs, and other fruits, is certainly of this 
 nature. 
 
 The perspiration of plants, like that of animals, is influenced 
 by a variety ol circumstances, a few only of which I shall men- 
 tion here: viz v different conditions of the atmosphere; not only 
 in regard to heat and cold, dryness and^noisture, but also, if I 
 mistake not, a greater or lesser degree of electricity. Plants 
 perspire more or less, according to their state of vigour, as wef 
 daily observe in the management of our flower-pots. Lastly, 
 the perspiration of plants is essentially increased by subjecting 
 them to the influence of stimulating agents, such as camphor, 
 nitre, and the. like, as I have had particular occasion to observe 
 in regard to the Liriodendron Tulipifcra, &c — See Transac- 
 tions of the American Philosophical Society, vol.. 4. 
 
 It is a circumstance not unworthy of being mentioned, in an 
 history of the real and supposed uses of - the leaves, that many 
 savage nations seem to consider these organs as the hairs of 
 vegetables; at least of trees and shrubs. The Muskohge, or 
 Creek-Indians, call the leaf Ito-esse, which is literally " the 
 hair of the tree:" and nearly the same idea prevails among 
 certain Indians of South America, and the West India islands. 
 Thus the Caraibees gave the same name, viz. Toubanna, to a 
 leaf and a feather. 
 
 Page 65. The various colours which the leaves of vegetables 
 assume in the autumn, prior to their fall, have been supposed by 
 some eminent chemists, to depend upon the absorption of oxy- 
 gen. How far is this hypothesis well founded? Are the autumnal 
 colours of the same species of vegetable, inhabiting different 
 portions of the. globe, in nearly the same parallel of latitude, 
 the same? Laurus Sassafras is said to inhabit Cochinchina; 
 Juglans nigra and Bignonia Catalpa, Japan. 
 
 Tage 66. It has been very justly observed, that some vege- 
 
Sl£ NOTES. 
 
 tables are by their very nature, or the structure of their parts., 
 perdifoils, or deciduous. This is the case with the two species of 
 Platanus, or Plane-tree, that are now known to us. Thus in the 
 Platanus occidentalis, one of the most majestic and common of 
 the North American trees, the buds are concealed in the end of 
 the petiole, and as they increase in size, they unavoidably force 
 off the leaf, the petiole of which is now dilated at its origin, as- 
 suming a funnel-like appearance. In this funnel or cavity, the 
 bud was concealed. This Platanus (called in the United States 
 Button-wood, or B. tfte* Sycamore, and Water-Beach) is by 
 ^his structure of its buds, absolutely a perdifoil. The leaves fall 
 off in the latter end of October, at which' time we sometimes 
 find the cavity at the end of the petiole, large enough to admit 
 the end of the little finger: and it is almost impossible to see a 
 single leaf remaining upon any of these trees in the winter- 
 season. The same structure of the petiole occurs in other vege- 
 tables, which, for the same reason, are perdifoils;; such as the 
 Virgilia, or Yellow-wood, a tree of Tennessee, and other 
 western parts of North America. In different species of Rhus, 
 or Sumach, the fall of .the leaf is not so determinate, though 
 here also the nascent bud presses upon the petiole. But in the 
 Sumach, the pressure of the bud is oblique; and consequently 
 the petiole is not so readily forced off. 
 
 Page 85. According to Mr. Willdenow, the thorn " arises 
 most generally from an incompletely evolved bud, which has 
 began to form itself, but wanting a proper supply of nourish- 
 ment, remains otdy in form of a very short, sharp, and bare 
 twig. It is, like the woody stem of a tree or shrub, formed of 
 the air and adducent vessels, which have grown completely 
 hard. It therefore remains fixed, though the bark be taken off." 
 Principles, &c. p. 270, 271. We often see one or more leaves 
 proceeding from a firm and rigid thorn; which, in process of 
 time, becomes a flowering branch. Some plants, however, hard- 
 ly ever part with their thorn entirely: such as Buckthorn. And 
 I have not yet learned, that the rigid thorn of Gleditsia tria- 
 canthos ever becomes a frondose stem. Cultivation never con- 
 verts a prickle into a shoot. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES 
 
 ANNEXED TO THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 . WITH 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. 1. THE principal figure on this plate may serve to il- 
 lustrate the xmth class, or Polyandria, and the first order of the 
 class, or Monogynia. It is the figure of the Sarracenia purpurea, 
 or Purple Side-Saddle-flower: known also by the names of Hol- 
 low-leaved Lavendar, Water Brash, &c. I have already made 
 mention of this very singular plant in former parts of these Ele- 
 ments, see pages 34, 87, 88. [A. Represents one of the hollow 
 leaves, (folium tubulosum, or as Willdenow calls it, ascidiwn), 
 cut off at the end. B. The scape (scapus), supporting the flower, 
 C. D. E. F. This is an anterior view of the flower. C. E. Two 
 of the five petals. D. One of the leaves of the superior perianth 
 (perianthium superius). F. The peltate or target-shaped stigma 
 (stigma peltatuni). G. One of the leaves of the superior perianth. 
 H. The inferior perianth, which consists of only three leaves 
 (perianthium inferius, triphyllum), whereas the superior peri- 
 anth is pentaphyllous, or consists of five leaves (pentaphyllum). 
 I. A scape supporting the parts of the flower K. L. M. — K. The 
 receptacle (receptaculum). L. The germ (germen). M. The pel- 
 tate stigma. 
 
 The plant is represented nearly of its natural size; though 
 we often see specimens considerably larger, and not a few some- 
 
 T t 
 
314 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 what smaller. The drawing is correct, and will convey a satis- 
 factory idea o£.the plant, which is, on many accounts, one of the 
 most interesting in North- America. 
 
 All the leaves of the Sarracenia purpurea are radical (folia 
 radicalia), and hollow, each forming a kind of funnel, or rather 
 bottle, the form of which will be better understood by an inspec- 
 tion of the plate, than by the most studied description. The 
 young leaves are quite closed at the top, and it is only as they 
 advance in size and age, that they become pervious. The inside 
 of the leaf is generally beset with innumerable fine processes, or 
 seta?, the points of which look downzvards: but these seta? are 
 principally observed about the upper constricted part of each 
 leaf, which may be called its neck, and which is distinctly visible 
 in the two principal leaves, on the right and left of the drawing. 
 The use of these setae will afterwards be hinted at. 
 
 The Sarracenia purpurea is never found in uniformly dry 
 ground, but almost always in boggy ground, and sometimes in 
 ponds of water of some depth. In this latter situation, we some- 
 times find it with its roots hanging loose in the water, entirely 
 unconnected with the ground. 
 
 Wherever Ave find the plant, its leaves (the older ones) al- 
 most constantly present to us two interesting phenomena: They 
 contain a quantity of water, — and this even in the dryest weather, 
 when neither rains nor visible dews have fallen; — and a number 
 of insect9, generally small, and almost always dead. It is these 
 two circumstances which render the Sarracenia an object of cu- 
 riosity among botanists, and especially among the physiological 
 botanists. 
 
 What is the use of this structure of which I have been 
 speaking? "Why have the leaves been formed hollow? And why 
 do we so generallv find insects in them? I shall not pretend to 
 give satisfactory answers to these questions; but the subject is 
 two curious not to demand the offering of a conjecture. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 315 
 
 I formerly imagined, that as the Sarracenia is destined to 
 grow in wet places, which, however, are liable, at times, to be- 
 come dearly dry, so the hollow leaves, or ascidia, are intended 
 to serve as reservoirs (Jiy dries) of water, that the plant may not 
 suffer from a deficiency of its favourite and most indispensible 
 aliment, in the hotter weather, or when there has been a long- 
 continued drought*. But various circumstances induce me to re- 
 linquish this idea: for the younger leaves, to whose growth and 
 health water must be peculiarly necessarv, are, as I have already 
 said, impervious, and contain no water: and, again, the plant 
 when it grows in the water, — that is in situations not liable to 
 become dry, — and where of course it cannot stand in need of the 
 apparatus of reservoirs; I say the ascidia, even in this situation, 
 always contain a portion of water. These circums'tances alone 
 would almost induce me to relinquish my former theory: and I 
 mav add, that the Sarracenia purpurea is much less frequently 
 found in grounds, even occasionly dry, than I had imagined. I 
 have not yet made the experiment, but the experiment would I 
 think show, that our plant would flourish very well, were we to 
 close the openings of the ascidia, and completely prevent them 
 from receiving any supply of water from external sources. 
 
 Mr. Catesby seems to have formed to himself an hypothesis 
 of the use of the hollow leaves of the Sarracenia. Speaking of 
 Sarracenia purpurea, he says, u The hollow of these leaves, as 
 well as of the other kind (Sarracenia flava), always retain some 
 water; and seem to serve as an asylum or secure retreat for nu- 
 merous insects, from frogs and other animals, which feed on 
 themt." 
 
 As the insects which are observed in the hollow leaves, or 
 bottles, of these plants, are very generally found dead, we can 
 scarcely call them " secure retreats." Not are the leaves too 
 
 ■ This appears to have been the opinion of Lmnxus. 
 
 f The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and (lie Bahama Islands, &c 
 Vol. ii. page 70. tab. 70. 
 
316 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 small to prevent some of the smaller frogs, should they think 
 proper, from making their way into them. Indeed, if I do not 
 mistake, the American tree-frog (Hyla americana) is not unfre- 
 quently found in these leaves. 
 
 But the following fact plainly proves, that the insects that 
 have taken up their residence in the ascidia are by no means 
 safely protected from the attacks of certain animals. 
 
 Sarracenia variolaris of Michaux (Flor. bor. amer. torn. i. 
 p. 310.) is furnished with tubular leaves, like the other species 
 of the genus. The leaves of this species, which is a native of the 
 swamps of Georgia and Carolina, contain great numbers of in- 
 sects. The fact is not unknown to various species of birds, espe- 
 cially to the Brown Thrush, or French Mocking-Bird (Turdus 
 rufus), and other birds belonging to this and other genera of the 
 order of the passeres. It is common to see numbers of these 
 birds collecting about the Sarracenia, with no other blown view 
 than to procure the imprisoned insects. They pick holes in the 
 leaves, and then slit them for some distance, and thus readily 
 obtain their prey. They cannot obtain their prey through the 
 mouths of the ascidia*. 
 
 This fact is well attested. Nor will it be deemed one of the 
 least interesting in the history of the instincts of the class of birds! 
 Although I have not, hitherto, learned, with any certainty, that 
 birds in like manner frequent and dissect the leaves of other spe- 
 cies of Sarracenia, besides Sarracenia variolaris, I have no doubt 
 that all the other species of the genus, are in like manner visited 
 and treated: and when we consider the great capacity of the 
 leaves of Sarracenia flava, S. purpurea, &c, and the multitude 
 of insects which they often contain, we may, with great propriety, 
 call them store-houses of the food of birds. 
 
 * In like manner bees which cannot procure the honey through the mouths 
 of various tubular corollas, slit the tubes, and thus obtain the honey. This is the 
 case with Azalea nudiflora, A. viscosa, Stc. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 317 
 
 Future observations will, no doubt, show us, that different 
 species of Nepenthes, the Aquarium sitiens, and other similar 
 plants, are, in like manner, subservient to the nourishment and 
 support of birds. But I do not mean to insinuate, that these 
 various plants were furnished with hollow leaves, merely to 
 satiate the appetite of birds: and yet I could as soon believe 
 this, as agree, with a certain learned botanist, from whom I am 
 often compelled to differ in sentiment, that the nectar of plants 
 is of no other use to them, than in so far as it may tempt insects 
 to assist the impregnation of plants*. 
 
 The same author seems to fancy, that he has discovered the 
 final cause of this singular construction in the leaves of our 
 Sarracenia. As the subject is certainly very curious, I shall de- 
 vote some attention to it, reserving, however, a more ample in- 
 vestigation for a monographia of the genus Sarracenia. 
 
 After observing, that " Linnaeus conceived this plant to be 
 allied in constitution to Nymphaea, and consequently to require 
 a more than ordinaiy supply of water, which its leaves were 
 calculated to catch, and to retain, so as to enable it to live without 
 being immersed in a river or pond;" and after observing, that 
 " the consideration of some other species renders this hypothesis 
 very doubtful;" Sarracenia flava, and more especially Sarracenia 
 adunca, Exot. Bot. t. 53, being " so constructed that rain is 
 nearly excluded from the hollow of their leaves, and yet that 
 part retains water, which seems to be secreted by the base of 
 each leaf," — what then (says the respectable President of the 
 English Linnean Society) is the purpose of this unusual con- 
 trivance? An observation communicated to me two years ago, 
 in the botanic garden at Liverpool, seems to unravel the mystery. 
 An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind, as far as 1 could 
 learn from description, was seen by one of the gardeners to drag 
 
 * See page 153. — The same author says, " There can be no doubt, — ! ! no 
 doubt ! ! — " that the sole use of the honey with respect to the plant, is to tempt 
 " insects, who in procuring it fertilize the flower, by disturbing the dust of the 
 ■ stamens, and even carry that substance from die barren to the fertile bios- 
 " soms." Introduction, Ike. page 270. 
 
318 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 several large flies to the Sarracenia adunca, and, with some dif- 
 ficulty, forcing them under the lid or cover of its leaf, to deposit 
 them in the tubular part, which was half filled with water. All 
 the leaves, on being examined, were found crammed with dead 
 or drowning flies. The S. purpurea is usually observed to be 
 stored with putrefying insects, whose scent is perceptible as 
 we pass the plant in a garden; for the margin of its leaves is 
 beset with inverted hairs, which, like the wires of a mouse-trap, 
 render it very difficult for any unfortunate fly, that has fallen into 
 the watery tube, to crawl out again. Probably the air evolved by 
 these dead flies may be beneficial to vegetation, and, as far as the 
 plant is concerned, its curious construction may be designed to 
 entrap them, while the water is designed to tempt as well as to 
 retain them. The Sphex or Ichneumon, an insect of prey, stores 
 them up unquestionably for the food of itself or its progeny, pro- ■ 
 bably depositing its eggs in their carcases, as others of the same 
 tribe lay their eggs in various caterpillars, which they sometimes 
 bury afterwards in the ground. Thus a double purpose is answer- 
 ed; nor is it the least curious circumstance of the whole, that an 
 European insect should find out an American plant in a hot- 
 house, in order to fulfil that purpose. 
 
 " If the above explanation of the Sarracenia be admitted, 
 that of the Nepenthes will not be difficult. Each leaf of this plant 
 terminates in a sort of close-shut tube, like a tankard, holding an 
 ounce or two of water, certainly secreted through the footstalk 
 of the leaf, whose spiral-coated vessels are uncommonly large 
 and numerous. The lid of this tube either opens spontaneously, 
 or is easily lifted up by insects and small worms, who are sup- 
 posed to resort to these leaves in search of a purer beverage 
 than the surrounding swamps afford. Rumphius, who has de- 
 scribed and figured the plant, says, " various little worms and 
 insects crawl into the orifice, and die in the tube, except a cer- 
 tain small sqiiilla, or shrimp, with a protuberant back, sometimes 
 met with, which lives there*." — T have no doubt that this shrimp 
 feeds on the other insects and worms, and that the same purposes 
 
 * Sec, also, Pennant's Outlines of the Globe, See. Vol i. page 236. plate 9. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES 319 
 
 are answered in this instance as in the Sarraceniae. Probably the 
 leaves of Dionsea muscipula*, as well as of the Droserae, Engl. 
 hot. U 867 — 869, catch insects for a similar reasonf." 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Fig. 1. The bulb (fatbits, s. radix bidbosci) of the beauti- 
 ful Atamasco-Lily (Amaryllis Atamasco), a native of the south- 
 ern parts of the L T nited-States. A. The bulb. B. B. Two 
 offsets or suckers, from the lower end of the bulb. C. The ra- 
 dicle (radkuld), which in the opinion of many writers is the 
 only true root portion. Fig. 2. A tranverse section of the 
 same bulb, intended to show its tunicated or coated structure, 
 a. a. b. b. Two eyes, or places, from which proceed the flow- 
 ers, c. The radicle. Fig. 3. The root of the Fumaria Cucul- 
 laria, commonly called Dutchman's Breeches. A. A. Two 
 bulbs, b. b. Small succulent scales, protecting the lower parts 
 of the bulbs, each of which is capable of becoming a perfect plant. 
 This figure may be said to represent the grumose root (radix 
 grumosci). Fig. 4. The fusiform root (radix fuaiformis) of the 
 Wild-Carrot (Daucus Carota). A. A. The main body of the 
 root, or descending caudex, in the language of Linnseus. B. B. 
 Mark the commencement of the ascending caudex, or stem. 
 Fig. 5. The stem and root of a species of Orchis. The root 
 may be called a palmated root (radix palmetto). A. The prin- 
 cipal body of it. B. B. The smaller succulent portions. C. The 
 ascending caudex. 
 
 Fig. 6. The Cymbidium hyemale of Willdenowf, com- 
 monly called, in some parts of the United-States, Adam and 
 Eve. A. B. The two principal bulbs, constituting what Lin- 
 
 * Sec Plate vii, in vol. ii. 
 
 f An Introduction to Physiological and Systematical Botany. ByJarae 
 waid Smith, M. L). F. R. S. &c. 8tc.— Page l'JJ— 198. London: 1807 
 - Ophiys byemalis. Sec page 10. 
 
320 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 naeus calls the bulbus duplicatus, s. testiaclatus. C. C. The 
 smaller more fibrous-like portions of the root. D. The ra- 
 dicle. E. The plicated or folded leaf (folium plication). 
 Fig. 7. The root and a portion of the stem of the beautiful Li- 
 modorum tuberosum of Linnaeus (Cymbidium pule helium of 
 Swartz), which grows abundantly in the neighbourhood of Phi- 
 ladelphia. A. A. The radicle. B. C. Two small suckers. 
 Fig. 8. The scaly bulb (bulbus squamosus) of the Lilium super- 
 bum. A. The radicle. B. The scaly portion. Fig. 9. The 
 root, &c, of the Devil's Bit, or Veratrum luteum of Linnaeus 
 (Melanthium dioicum? of Walter.) It is a good example of 
 the premorse, or abrupt root (radix prcemorsd). A. The ex- 
 tremity of the root, which appears as if it had been off. B. The 
 radicles. C. Portions of the leaves, which are all radical (folia 
 radicalia), in this plant. Fig. 10. The granulated root (radix 
 granulatd) of the White Saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata). A. A. 
 Granules of the root attached to the fibres, or radicles. Fig. 11. 
 The horizontal root (radix horizontalis) of the May-apple (Po- 
 dophyllum peltatum). A. The ascending, caudex, or a portion 
 of the stem. B. B. b. b. The main body of the root, as it creeps, 
 or spreads, in an horizontal direction, under the ground. C. C. C. 
 Fibres proceeding from the main root. — See Plate xvm. 
 
 All the plants that are referred to in this plate are natives 
 of the United-States, with the exception of the White Saxifra- 
 ge, in Fig. 10. This is a native of many countries in Europe. 
 
 PLATE in. 
 
 Fig. 1. The root of Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa Moscha- 
 tellina. A. A shoot proceeding from the i - oot. B. Continua- 
 tion of the same. This is a species of tuberous root. See 
 Part 1. page 7. — Fig. 2. Creeping Crowfoot (Ranunculus re- 
 pens). A. A. The stem. B. B. radicles proceeding from the 
 bosom of the leaves. Fig. 3. Common Pilewort (Ranunculus 
 Ficaria). A. A. The stem. B. Bulbs in the axils (axillae) of the 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 320* 
 
 leaves. Fig. 4. The Common Onion (Allium Cepa). A. Bulbs in 
 the umbel of flowers. — See Part 1. page 93. — Fig. 5. A branch 
 of the Cardamine pratensis. A. A. Radicles shooting out from 
 the leaves. Fig. 6. A species of Sheeps Fescue-grass, intended 
 to show one of the modes by which plants increase. A. A vivi- 
 parous shoot proceeding from the flower. — See Part 1. page 94. 
 — Fig. 7. The strobile (strobihis) of the American* Larch (Pinus 
 pendula of Aiton). Fig. 8. A view of the inner side of one of 
 the scales, which compose the strobile, with the seed attached 
 to it. Fig. 9. A single, detached seed, with its wing, or ala. 
 
 Among the bulb-bearing plants of the United States, I may 
 mention a very common plant, growing in marshy situations, 
 and easily procured by the student in the vicinity of Philadel- 
 phia, &c, where it flowers in June and July. I mean the Lysi- 
 machia bulbifera of Curtis, Bot. mag. n. 104, the L. stricta of 
 other writers.f The bulbs, which are placed in the axils of the 
 leaves, are attenuated at both ends, and are often near half an 
 inch long. By these gcmmcn vivaces, the plant is readily prop- 
 agated. , 
 
 A stiw. more interesting bulbiferous plant, is a beautiful 
 species of Begonia, from China, which 1 have had, in my 
 green-house, for some years. The short egg-shaped bulbs are 
 axillary, and smooth and shining. Even in the green-house, 
 the leaves, stem, and root, perish; but in the winter, and espe- 
 cially in the early spring, the surface of the pot, is found 
 covered over with the bulbs, which rapidly vegetate, even upon 
 the surface of the earth. 
 
 * Larix (americana) foliis brevioribus: strobills parvis, ovoideo-subjrlo- 
 bosis; squamis paucioribus. Michaux, Flora, Jioreali-Jmericana. torn. ii. 203. 
 
 | Viscum (tcrrestre) caule berbaceo tetragono brachiato, foliis lanceola- 
 tis. Linn. Sp. pi. ii. p. 1452. Linnxus, who bad no opportunin of se :ing the 
 fructification of this common American plant, bas thrown out a suspicion 
 that it might be a species of Lovanthus! 
 
521* EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Bryophyllum calycinum of Salisbury (Farad. Lond. } 
 Cotyledon rhizophylla of Roxburgh), a native of India, vege- 
 tates principally by the little bulbs, which are placed in the 
 crenatures of the very succulent leaves. These bulbs are not 
 to be discovered by the naked eye, though by laying the leal 
 upon the earth, the new plant is observed to proceed only from 
 the crena. By placing the leaf between blotting paper, and 
 keeping it there for some time, the bulbs are disengaged, and 
 are easily seen. The plant is very tender, and must be kept 
 (in Pennsylvania), during the winter, in a hot house. But 
 during the summer season, even in the open air, it vegetates 
 with great rapidity, even upon the most arid gravel walks. 
 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 321 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 This plate is entirely appropriated to the beautiful American 
 Painted-cup (Bartsia coccinea), which grows abundantly in Penn- 
 sylvania, and many other parts of the United-States. A. A. A. 
 
 A. A. A. The large and crimson coloured bractes (bractex), 
 which are much more painted than the corolla, or the calyx. 
 
 B. B. B. The perianth. C. A perianth. D. d. The corolla. E. A 
 portion of a corolla turned downwards, to show the four stamens 
 and the stvle. F. The four stamens, two of which are longer 
 than the other two, G. The pistil. H. The pericarp, wh'.ch is a 
 capsule, two locular or celled [capsula hihcularis ) and two valved 
 (bivahiti). I. The capsule opened, with the contained seed. 
 
 This Plate may serve to illustrate the class of Didynamia, 
 and the order of x\ngiospermia. — See Part I. pages 78 — 82. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 A. B. C. D. F. Representations of the Common Garden-Bean 
 (Vicia Fabaj. A. The bean, covered with its husk {cutis). 1. The 
 hilum, scar, or eye. 2. 3. The umbilical cord funis umbilicalis) 
 by which the bean was attached to the scar, and to the legume, 
 or pod. 4. The small foramen or hole, through which a part, at 
 least, of the fluid seems to enter the bean. See page 200.' B. The 
 bean deprived of its husk. 1. The radicle. C. One half the bean, 
 or a single cotyledon. 1. The husk. 2. Vesst Is. 3. 4. The eml ryo. 
 D. The husk. 1. Showes where it is thickest. 2. Shows in v. hat 
 manner the embryo is contained within the duplicature o the 
 husk. F. The two cotyledons, showing the vascular structure 
 upon their surface. 1. 1. 2. 3. The embryo or corcule. 2. The 
 plumule (plwnuln). 3. The ndidt(radicula). E. One half of a dry 
 
 * This foramen in vegetables, has lately received the name of ndenpyle, 
 
 from Mr. Tupin, an ingenious French botanist, and most accomplished painter 
 
 of plants. 
 
 S S 
 
322 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Bean. 1. The radicle. 2. The duplicature. 3. 3. The cotyledons. 
 G. One of the lobes or cotyledons of the Kidney-Bean. 1. The 
 embryo. H. The same when further advanced in growth. 1. The 
 seminal leaves (folia seminaliaj, or plumule developed into 
 leaves. 2. The radicle. I. A Kidney-Bean. i. Thehilum. K. The 
 kernel (nucleus) of the Filbert-nut (Corylus Avellana). L. One of 
 the lobes of the same. i. The embyro. M. The seed of the Com- 
 mon Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). N. One of the lobes of 
 the same, with the embryo of its natural size. O. A magnified 
 view of the same embryo, exhibiting the beautiful vascular struc- 
 ture of the plumule. See Part 1. pages 231, 233, &c. 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 This plate contains representations of a number of the prin- 
 cipal forms of Simple leaves, drawn for this work by an eminent 
 artist*, from actual specimens, no imaginary forms being ad- 
 mitied. The greater number of the vegetables whose leaves are 
 h^ie represented, are natives of the United-States: all those, in- 
 deed, of whose native country nothing is said. 
 
 Fig. 1. Folium linear e: Aster linearifolius. 2.Jbl. subulatum: 
 Phascum subulatum. 2>.fol. lanceolatum: Polygonum Persicaria. 
 4. fol. ellipticum: Magnolia glauca, common Magnolia, or Beaver- 
 tree. S.fol. obovatum: Arbutus Uva ursi. 6.fol. cuneiforme: Quer- 
 cus nigra. N. B. This is the true Black- Oak, or Black- Jack, of 
 the United-States, and must not be confounded with Quercus 
 tinctoria, which is also called Black-Oak. — 7. fol. spathulatum: 
 Polygala lutea. 8. fol. am turn: Solidago odora. 9. fol. acumina- 
 tum: Cornus alterna, sen alternifolia. lO.fol.setaceo-acuminatum: 
 Quercus Phellos, or Willow-leaved Oak. 11. folium orbiculatum: 
 Glycine tomentosa. 12. fol. peltatum: Hydropeltis purpurea of 
 Michaux: see page 308 of this work; and Ixodia palustris of 
 Solander. 13. fol. perfoliatum: Uvularia perfolia". 14. fol. conna- 
 
 * Mr. Rcdoute, of Paris. 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 323 
 
 turn: Eupatorium connatum of Michaux: Eupatorium perfora- 
 tum of Linnaeus, \5.fol. amplexicaule: Conyza amplexicaulis; a 
 native of the East-Indies. 16. fol. auriculation: Magnolia auri- 
 culata. 17. fol. cor datum: Pontederia cordata. IS. fol. obcorda- 
 tum: Oxalis acetosella. 19. fol. emarginatum: Astragalus emar- 
 ginatus; a native of the East. 20. fol. reniforme: Asarum cana- 
 dense. 21. fol. sagittatum: Polygonum sagittatum, called Tear- 
 thumb, and Turkey-seed. 22. fol. hastatum: Polygonum hastatum. 
 23. fol. deltoides: Populus nigra. 24. fol. rhombeum: Sidarhom- 
 bifolia. 25. fol. dentation: Populus grandidentata. 26. fol. serra- 
 tum: Fagus Castanea. 27. fol. duplicato-serratum: Betula nigra, 
 Linn. 28. fol. crenatum: Quercus Prinus, monticola. — This is 
 the Chesnut-oak of Pennsylvania. — 29. fol. repandum: Hydroco- 
 
 tyle SO. fol. undulation: Asclepias obtusifolia. 31. fol. 
 
 laciniatum: Rudbeckia laciniata. 32. fol. simiatum: Argemone 
 mexicana. N. B. I must consider this as one of the indigenous 
 plants of the United-States. — 33. fol. pandu ration: Convolvulus 
 Imperati; a native of Egypt, Italy, &c. 34. fol. ly ration: Scnecio 
 lyratus. 35. fol. runcination: Leontodon Taraxacum, or Common 
 Dandelion. See page 260. I now incline to consider this as truly 
 indigenous in North- America. — 36. fol. lobatum: Liriodendron 
 Tulipifera, or Tulip-tree; called also Poplar, Canoe-wood, &c, 
 &c. — 37 '. fol. palmatum: Viola palmata. 38. fol. trilobatum: Ane- 
 mone Hepatica. 39. fol. palmato-lobatum: Liquidambar Styra- 
 ciflua, called Sweet-Gum, Bilstead, &c. See Catesby, Carol, p. 65. 
 t. 65. 40. fol. multipartitum: Crysocoma corona. 41. fol. pinna'- 
 turn: Proserpinaca palustris. 
 
 i 
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 This plate is wholly devoted to the forms of Compound and 
 doubly-compound Leaves. The figures were done expressly for 
 this work, by Mr. Redoute. 
 
 Fig. 1. Foliwn conjugation, velbinatum: Zygophvllum Faba- 
 go; a native of Syria, Mauritania, Siberia, &c. 2. fol. tematum: 
 
324 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Trifblium pratense, or Red-Clover, now very extensively natu- 
 ralized in the United-States. 3. fol. ternatum: foliis duplicato- 
 serratis: Spiraea trifoliata, or Indian Physic; see part III. page 
 59. — 4-. fol. quaternatum: Zornia tetraphylla. 5. fol. digitatum: 
 Aesculus Pavia. See explan. of plate xv. fig. 3 — 6. folium digi- 
 tatum; foliohs septenis: Lupinus perennis, or Perennial Lupin, an 
 extremely common plant in the vicinity of Philadelphia. 7.fol.pe- 
 dahnn: Helleborus foetidus: See Part III. page 71. 8. fol. peda- 
 tum; foliis compositis: Adiantum pedatum; called Maiden-hair, 
 and Mow -hair. An extremely common, as well as beautiful, plant 
 within the limits of the Botanical Excursions, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Philadelphia. — 9. fol. impari-pinnatum: Juglans to- 
 mentosa, vel squamosa- This is the true Shell-bark Hickory. — 
 10. fol. abnipti-pinnatwn: Tamarindus indica; a native of the 
 East and AVest Indies, of Egypt, and Arabia. 11. fol. Qirrhoso- 
 pinnatum: Pisum sativum, or Common Pea; extensively cultiva- 
 ted in the United-States. 12 fol pinnatum; foliolis bijugis: Cas- 
 sia Absus; a native of India and of Egypt. 13. fol. bipinnahtm: 
 Mimosa farnesiana. 14. fol. btpinnatum: Melia Azedarach, now 
 naturalized in many parts of the United-States. See Part HI. 
 page 47. — 15. fol. tripinnatum: Conium maculatum, or Common 
 Hemlock. Common in many parts of the United-States; but if 
 indigenous uncertain. 
 
 ADDITIONAL EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. 2. The American Cranberry, or Vaccinium macrocar- 
 pon of Aiton: the Oxycoccos palustris of Persoon. The leaves 
 are alternate {folia alternd): the corolla is campanulate, or bell- 
 shaped {corolla campanulata), and consists of one petal (See Part 
 I. page 133-), the segments of which are reflected. The stamens 
 are generally eight in number; the germ inferior, or placed be- 
 low the corolla (germen inferum): the fruit, a berry (bacca). 
 
 This plant and the Sarracenia purpurea frequently grow to- 
 gether, in boggy ground. 
 
l'h.lc 111 
 


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 \ V 
 
 "-C* 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 In this Index, the figures ii and ill signify Parts Second and Third of the Element 
 in the second volume. All the other figures refer to Part First 
 
 Abruptum, folium, 37 
 
 absorbents, 53, 60, 209 
 
 Acaules, iii. 165 
 
 accumbentes, catyledones, 219 
 
 acerosum, folium, &c. 31, 250 
 
 acinaciforme, folium, 34 
 
 acinaciform leaf, 34 
 
 acini, 194 
 
 Acotyledones, . 210, 211 
 
 acuminatum, folium, &c. 32, 250 
 
 aculeatum, folium, 33 
 
 aculeus 67, 68, 69, 83 
 
 acutiuscula, anthera, 162 
 
 acuta, acutum, 32, 162 
 
 adeps arbor um, ii. 14 
 
 adnata (adnate), anthera, 163 
 
 adpressum, folium, 42 
 
 adversum, folium, 41 
 
 aerophores, vasseaux, ii. 29 
 
 xqualis, 134. iii. 113 
 
 affinity of animals and vegetables, 15, 
 16, 20, 270, 273, 275. ii. 3, 4, 29 
 agamia, iii 160 
 
 age of trees, ii. 18, 19. iii. 97 
 
 Aggregate, 287. iii. 15 
 
 agricultural rules of savage nations, 
 
 63, 297, 298 
 aigrette, 237—341, 259 
 
 air, — its comport ion . '. 1 
 
 air-pump, 56 
 
 air-vessels, 
 
 55. ii. 28 
 
 ala, 
 
 198 
 
 alatus, petiolus, &c. 
 
 70, 174 
 
 alx, 
 
 136 
 
 albidus, 
 
 
 albumen, 
 
 203, 204 
 
 alburnum, 
 
 ii. 14 
 
 Algae, 
 
 210 
 
 Algues, les, 
 
 iii. 165 
 
 alterna, folia, 
 
 40 
 
 alveolatum, alveolate, 
 
 285 
 
 amatorial parts of die fructification, 
 
 140 
 Amentacex, iii. 137 
 amentum (ament), 115, 290 
 American plants, peculiarity of, 90,91 
 ammoniac, or volatil alkali, iii. 88 
 amplexicaule, folium, 41 
 amplexicaulia — semi (folia), 41 
 ampulla, 87 
 analysis of plants, iii. 88 
 anceps, caulis, &c. 22, 34 
 ancipital leaf, 34 
 androgynous, iii. 131, 151 
 anfractuosx, 220 
 angulata, angulatum, 162, 177 
 angulis membraneis, 187 
 Angiospermia, iii. 73, 74 
 annual plants, 15, 103 
 anthera (airther), 3 61—165 
 difl'. i 161 
 
anthodium,, 
 
 anthracinum, 
 
 apetalus flos, 
 
 apex, 
 
 aphrodisiacks, 
 
 apiculatum (apiculate), 
 
 Apoeinese, 
 
 apothecium, 
 
 apotheosis of botanists, 
 
 appendages, 
 
 appressus, 
 
 approximata, 
 
 aphyllae, 
 
 aphyllus, caulis, 
 
 aquatie plants, 
 
 Aralix, 
 
 arcuatam, 
 
 ardor urinae, 
 
 aril, 
 
 arillatum, 
 
 arillus, aril, 
 
 arista, 
 
 aristata, 
 
 arma, 
 
 armature, 
 
 articulate, 
 
 articulatum, folium, 
 
 articulatus, bulbus, 
 
 articulus culmi, 
 
 ascendens, 
 
 ascidium, 
 
 ascidiformes, bracteae, 
 
 Aspei'ifoli<e, 135, 164, 
 
 asperum, 
 
 Aspermse, 
 
 assurgens, anthera, &c- 
 
 astronomy, 
 
 atmospheric -air, 
 
 Atripliccs, 
 
 atrum, 
 
 attenuatus, pedunculus, 
 
 aubier, 
 
 auleum floris, 
 
 aura seminalis, 
 
 253 
 
 $ 132 
 
 161 
 
 iii. 129 
 
 252 
 
 iii. 22 
 
 iii. 171, 172 
 
 iii. 80, 81 
 
 20 
 
 72 
 
 123 
 
 213 
 
 26 
 
 19, 156 
 
 iii. 156 
 
 160 
 
 iii. 87 
 
 203 
 
 250 
 
 198, 200, 203 
 
 119, 265 
 
 119, 163 
 
 68 
 
 83,84 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 160 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 173, 180, 204, 
 
 235. iii. 21 
 
 iii. 167 
 
 160, 163 
 
 iii. 149 
 
 87 
 
 iii. 39 
 
 253 
 
 73 
 
 ii. 14 
 
 139 
 
 165 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 aurora borealis, 296 
 
 autumn, picture of a North-American, 
 
 64,65 
 avenium, folium, 33 
 
 awn, 119, 265 
 
 axil of the leaves 93 
 
 axillare, folium, 39 
 
 axillaris, spina, 71, 288 
 
 azotic gas, 270 — 273 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacca, 193—195 
 
 baccatum, 255 
 
 bacciferae, 
 
 barba, 88, 135 
 
 barbata, 137 
 
 barbatum) 177 
 
 barbs, 88, 244 
 
 bark, 20, 46—50 
 
 bear of North-America, its instinctive 
 knowledge, iii. 130 
 
 beardless, 177 
 
 bee-bread, 157, 167 
 
 benevolence of Providence, 62 
 
 berry, 193—195 
 
 Bicornes, iii. 36, 45, 47. 109 
 
 16 
 iii. 37 
 
 133, 162 
 171, 173 
 
 72, 117, 118, 286 
 
 38 
 
 231 
 
 163 
 
 236 
 
 162 
 
 164, 246 
 
 36 
 
 134, 162 
 
 biennial plants, 
 
 biennis, 
 
 bifida, corolla, &c, 
 
 bifidum, bifidus, 
 
 biflora, biflorus, 
 
 bigeminatum, folium, 
 
 bijuga, 
 
 bilamellata, 
 
 bilaterales, 
 
 biloba, 
 
 bilocularis, 
 
 binatum folium, 
 
 bipartita, corolla, &c, 
 
 birds, 62, 260, 261, 296, 297, 300, 301 
 
 biternatum, folium, 38 
 
 bivalvis, 117, 164 
 
 black -drying plants, iii. 80 
 
 bladder, 87 
 
 blea, . ii. 11, 16 
 
INDEX. 
 
 blood of plants, 
 
 56,81 
 
 carinat x, 
 
 221 
 
 Borragines, 
 
 iii. 21 
 
 carinatum, folium, &c-, 34, 
 
 , 147, 251 
 
 bottle, 
 
 87 
 
 carnea subtantia, 
 
 ii- 16 
 
 brachium, brachiatus, 
 
 23 
 
 carnosa, 
 
 182, 201 
 
 bracte, 
 
 39 
 
 carnosum, folium, 
 
 34 
 
 bractea, 39, 78—82 
 
 carpomorphi, 
 
 210 
 
 bracteatus, pedunculus, 
 
 73 
 
 cartilagineum, folium, 
 
 33 
 
 brevis, brevissima, 
 
 137, 234 
 
 Caryophyllei, 
 
 iii. 12, 46 
 
 brevissimus, 
 
 173 
 
 case, casket, 
 
 181, 197 
 
 Brotherhood, oue, class of, 
 
 iii. 90, 134 
 
 castaneum, 
 
 253 
 
 bulbifera, bulbiferum, 
 
 95 
 
 castratum, filamentum, 
 
 159 
 
 bulbosa, 
 
 8 
 
 cataplasms, 
 
 iii. 89 
 
 Bulbosae (bulbous plants), 
 
 13 
 
 cathartic, 
 
 iii. 37 
 
 Bulbosis affines, 
 
 13 
 
 catkin, 
 
 115 
 
 bulbus, 
 
 8—13 
 
 cauda, 
 
 237, 241 
 
 bulbus caulinus, 
 
 92 
 
 caudatum, 
 
 251 
 
 bullatus, 
 
 242 
 
 caudex, 
 
 4,95 
 
 button, 
 
 176 
 
 caulinum, folium, 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 caulinus, pedunculus, 
 
 71 
 
 C. 
 
 
 caidis, 21 — 
 
 24, 33, 34 
 
 Cacti, 
 
 iii. 57 
 
 cavernoso coriacea, 
 
 246 
 
 caduca, corolla, 
 
 137 
 
 cavus, caidis, 
 
 11 
 
 caducse, bractex, 
 
 79 
 
 centrifugae, 
 
 236 
 
 caducum, periantliium, 
 
 111 
 
 centripetal^, (centripetal), 
 
 235 
 
 calcar, 
 
 
 cerealia, 
 
 169 
 
 calcaratum, 
 
 146 
 
 Ceres, 
 
 121 
 
 calendarium florx, 64 
 
 , 296—304 
 
 cernuus, 
 
 72 
 
 Calycanthemae, 
 
 iii. 35 
 
 chain of nature, 
 
 153 
 
 calycina methodus, 
 
 144 
 
 chaff, 
 
 118 
 
 calycistx, 
 
 144 
 
 chalaza, 
 
 202 
 
 calyptra, 
 
 107, 122 
 
 chartacea, 
 
 201 
 
 calyx, 
 
 107, 127 
 
 cliaton, 
 
 115 
 
 canaliculatum, 
 
 34, 176 
 
 chive, 
 
 158 
 
 cancellatum, 
 
 252 
 
 chocolate, its good and bad 
 
 qualities, 
 
 capacity for receiving life, 
 
 227 
 
 &c iii 
 
 . 110, 130 
 
 Capillares, 
 
 iii. 165 
 
 cholera morbus, 
 
 iii. 99 
 
 capillari s, capillare, 
 
 173, 177 
 
 chronological view of plants, 
 
 ii. 68 
 
 capitatum, stigma, 
 
 176 
 
 chyle, 
 
 56 
 
 capitulum, 
 
 285, 294 
 
 chymifera, vasa, 
 
 ii. 29 
 
 Capparides, 
 
 iii. 66 
 
 cicatricle, germinating, 
 
 210, 225 
 
 capreolus, 
 
 73 
 
 cicatricula, 
 
 225 
 
 eapsula, 
 
 180—184 
 
 cicatrix, 
 
 199 
 
 capsula, staminis, 
 
 161 
 
 Cichoracex, 
 
 iii. 121 
 
 carbonic acid, 
 
 171 
 
 ciliata, ciliatum, corolla, 
 
 33, 137 
 
 carina, 
 
 136 
 
 c'diatus, pappus, 
 
 239 
 

 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Cinarocephalae, 
 
 
 iii. 121 
 
 connivens, 
 
 160 
 
 cion, 
 
 
 87 
 
 coutiguae, 
 
 219 
 
 circles, ligneous, 
 
 
 ii. 16 
 
 contortuplicatae, 
 
 222 
 
 circumscissa, 
 
 
 182 
 
 contracta, panicula, 
 
 293 
 
 cirrhiferus, pedunculus, 
 
 71 
 
 convexa, 
 
 288 
 
 cirrhosum, folium, 
 
 
 32,37 
 
 convex-leaf, 
 
 43 
 
 cirrhus, 67 
 
 ', 68, 6S 
 
 », 73, 74 
 
 convexum, folium, 
 
 34 
 
 Cisti, 
 
 
 iii. 66 
 
 convolutum, stigma. 
 
 177 
 
 claspers, 
 
 
 73,74 
 
 convoluto-peltata, 
 
 231 
 
 clavata, 
 
 
 233 
 
 convolutus, cirrhus, 
 
 74 
 
 clavatum, 
 
 
 250 
 
 copper, sulphat of, 
 
 57 
 
 clavatus, 
 
 
 174 
 
 corcle, 
 
 225, 247 
 
 clavicula, 
 
 
 73 
 
 corculum, 
 
 198, 224 
 
 cleft-leaf, &c. 
 
 
 31, 176 
 
 cordatum, folium, 
 
 31,171 
 
 climate, 16, 66, 
 
 296, 300. ii. 13 
 
 cord (navel), 
 
 283 
 
 cloves, 
 
 
 93 
 
 coriacea, 
 
 201 
 
 cluster, 
 
 291, 292 
 
 coriaceum (coriaceous), 
 
 187, 255 
 
 coacervata, 
 
 
 231 
 
 cork-like, 
 
 201 
 
 Coadunatae, 
 
 
 iii. 67 
 
 cornutum, 
 
 146 
 
 coarctata, 
 
 
 293 
 
 corol, 
 
 31, 126, 127 
 
 coccineum, 
 
 
 254 
 
 corollina, 
 
 159 
 
 coccux, 
 
 
 297 
 
 corollistae, 
 
 144 
 
 cochleariformes, 
 
 
 222 
 
 corona, 
 
 ii. 23 
 
 cochleatx, 
 
 
 221 
 
 corona, seminis, 
 
 238 
 
 coiled, 
 
 
 119 
 
 Coronariae, 
 
 13. iii. 28 
 
 coloratum, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 coronifoi'me, 
 
 176 
 
 colours of the leaves of 
 
 vetables, 64, 65 
 
 coronula, 
 
 198 
 
 columella, 
 
 
 184 
 
 cortex, 
 
 20, 46, 125 
 
 columna, 
 
 
 iii. 95 
 
 cortical glands, 
 
 48 
 
 Columniferae, 
 
 iii. 52 
 
 , 66, 95 
 
 cortical net, 
 
 30, 40, 50 
 
 coma, 
 
 7, 
 
 80, 241 
 
 corticata, 
 
 245 
 
 comosae, bractex, &c. 
 
 
 7,80 
 
 corymbus (corymb), 
 
 290, 291 
 
 Compositae, 180, 204. 
 
 iii. 121 
 
 Coryophylleje, 
 
 iii. 46 
 
 compressum, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 costa, 
 
 30, 35 
 
 concavum, folium, &c. 
 
 
 33, 176 
 
 costs, 
 
 243 
 
 condiments, 
 
 iii 
 
 . 19, 89 
 
 costatum, 
 
 252 
 
 cone, 
 
 
 195 
 
 cotyledon, 
 
 198 
 
 confcrta, folia, &c. 
 
 
 40, 295 
 
 cowled, 
 
 177 
 
 conicum, 
 
 
 171 
 
 crassi, 
 
 227 
 
 Coniferae, 
 
 196, 
 
 iii . 137 
 
 crassus, stylus, 
 
 173 
 
 Confervae, 
 
 
 210 
 
 crenata, corolla, 
 
 163 
 
 conjugal bed, 
 
 
 124 
 
 crenatum, folium, 
 
 32 
 
 conjugatum, folium, 
 
 
 37 
 
 crescent-shaped, 
 
 31 
 
 connata, 
 
 
 160 
 
 crescent-shaped leak 
 
 31 
 
 connstum folium, 
 
 
 41 
 
 crispata. 
 
 245 
 
INDEX. 
 
 cri spurn, folium, 
 
 crista, 
 
 cristata, 
 
 Cross-shaped flowers, 
 
 crown-shaped, 
 
 cruciata, corolla, 
 
 cruciforme, (cruciform), 
 
 Crustacea, 
 
 crustaceum, 
 
 cryptogamy, 
 
 crvptomania, 
 
 cucullatum, stigma, 
 
 cucullus, 
 
 Cucurbitaceae, 
 
 Cucurbitaceous plants, 
 
 culm, 
 
 Culmifera;, 
 
 culmus, 
 
 culture (its effects), 
 
 cuneiforme, folium, &c. 
 
 cup of the flower, 
 
 curled leaf, 
 
 curtain of plants, 
 
 curva, radicula, 
 
 cuspidatum, 
 
 cuticula, 
 
 cutis, 
 
 cyathiformi9, 
 
 cyclici, 
 
 cylindracea, cylindricous, 
 
 cylindrical leaf, 
 
 cyma, cyme, 
 
 Cymosae, 
 
 C\peroideae, 
 
 cyphella, 
 
 cysta, (cyst), 
 
 33 
 237, 243 
 137 
 111 
 176 
 136 
 176 
 201 
 255 
 210 
 iii. 162 
 177 
 
 204. iii. 137 
 
 228, 236 
 
 21—26, 120 
 
 26, 120 
 
 21—26, 306 
 
 16, 17, 84, 85 
 
 31, 159 
 
 107 
 
 33 
 
 123 
 
 234 
 
 ii. 6 
 
 47, 201 
 
 135 
 
 227 
 
 173, 181 
 
 282, 284, 287 
 
 287. iii. 
 
 212. iii. 229 
 
 iii. 172 
 
 196, 197 
 
 D. 
 
 Decandria, iii. 41 
 
 decaphyllum, 
 decemfidum, 
 decidua, deciduae, 
 deciduum, deciduous, 
 
 47, 92, &c. 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 79, 137 
 
 111, 240, 304 
 
 decompositum, folium, 
 
 decurrens, folium, 
 
 decursive, 
 
 deflorata (deflorate), 
 
 defoliatio (defoliation), 
 
 dehiscens, 
 
 dehiscentia, 
 
 delineatio plant*, 
 
 deltoides, folium, 
 
 demersum, folium, 
 
 dcnsa, dense, 
 
 dentatum, folium, &c, 
 
 dentibus incisa, 
 
 depauperata, 
 
 dependens, folium, racemus, 
 
 deprcssum, folium, &c., 
 
 descendens caudex, 
 
 dextrorsum, 
 
 Diadelphia, 162, 188. iii. 99, &c. 
 
 diagnosis, 205 
 
 diametral insertions, 
 
 dichotomus, caulis, 
 
 dicocca (dicoccous), 
 
 Dicotyledones, 
 
 didyma, 
 
 didymum, 
 
 Didynamia, 125, 135. iii. 13, 72—82 
 
 diffbrmes, Tetrapetali, iii. 102 
 
 diffbrmis, corolla, 134 
 
 diffusa, 293 
 
 diftusus, caulis, 23 
 
 digitatum, folium, 36 
 
 Digynia, iii. 4, et passim. 
 
 dimidiatum, involucrum, &c 114, 294 
 
 Dioecia,108, 115, 116, 167.iii- 139—150 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 37 
 
 164 
 
 64?65, 304 
 
 164 
 
 164 
 
 85, 190, 199 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 293 
 
 32, 159 
 
 243 
 
 42, 292 
 
 34, 176 
 
 4 
 
 177 
 
 ii. 24 
 
 24 
 
 183 
 
 210, 213—215 
 
 164, 181 
 
 171 
 
 declinatum, (declined), 160 
 
 declinatus, 72 
 
 decomposition ofve^tables, iii. 88 
 
 dipetala (dipetalous), 
 
 diphyllum, 
 
 dipterygia, 
 
 dipyrena, 
 
 directa (direct), 
 
 diiectio, 
 
 discus, 
 
 discus pronus, 
 
 supinus. 
 dispcrma, 
 dissemination '('seeds. 
 
 131 
 
 243 
 
 234 
 39 
 43 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 257 
 

 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 dissepimentum, 
 
 
 183, 184 
 
 Epiphyllosphermac, 
 
 iii. 165 
 
 dfstans, 
 
 
 295 
 
 equitans g-emma 
 
 
 disticha, folia, 
 
 
 40 
 
 erectum, folium, &c. 
 
 42, 292 
 
 distichus, caulis, 
 
 
 23 
 
 erectus, 
 
 72 
 
 distincta, 
 
 
 163 
 
 Ericae, 
 
 iii. 36, 37 
 
 divaricata, 
 
 
 293 
 
 erosum, (erose), folium, 
 
 33 
 
 divergentes, 
 
 
 219 
 
 esculent class, 
 
 iii. 58 
 
 Dodona, 
 
 
 121 
 
 essential character, 
 
 iii. 75 
 
 dolabriforme, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 Euphorbia, 
 
 iii. 52 
 
 dorsal, dorsalis, 
 
 
 119 
 
 evalve, pericarpium, 
 
 
 dorsum, 
 
 
 242 
 
 evergreens, 
 
 65,66,304 
 
 double flowers, 
 
 
 138, 142 
 
 exaltata, 
 
 90 
 
 drooping, 
 
 
 72 
 
 excentric, excentrici, 
 
 228 
 
 dropsy, 
 
 ii 
 
 i. 89, 105 
 
 excretions of plants, 
 
 ii. 31 
 
 Drupaeeae, 
 
 
 191 
 
 exile, 
 
 251 
 
 drupa, drupe, 
 
 180, 
 
 190, 191 
 
 exsucca, 
 
 
 duae, 
 
 
 79 
 
 extrafoliaceus, pedunculus, 
 
 71 
 
 Dumosae, 
 
 
 iii. 24 
 
 
 
 duodecemfidum, 
 
 
 110 
 
 F. 
 
 
 duplicato-convolutae, 
 
 
 222 
 
 Facies, 
 
 90. iii. 37 
 
 duplicatus, bulbus, 
 
 
 10 
 
 Falcatae, 
 
 221 
 
 dura, nux, 
 
 
 245 
 
 falcati, 
 
 227 
 
 duration of roots, &c. 
 
 , 15- 
 
 ■17. iii. 97 
 
 falcatum, 
 
 188 
 
 duriusculum, 
 
 
 255 
 
 fall of the leaf, 64—67, 298, 304 
 
 
 
 
 farina, 165, 166. 
 
 ii. 35, &c. 
 
 E. 
 
 
 
 farctum, 
 
 187 
 
 Earth, 
 
 
 267, 268 
 
 fasciculus, 
 
 285, 294 
 
 earthquakes, 
 
 
 296 
 
 fascis, 
 
 294 
 
 edulium, 
 
 
 iii. 6 
 
 fasciculatus, 
 
 40 
 
 egg of plants, 
 
 
 256 
 
 fastigiatus (fastigiate), 
 
 
 electricity, 
 
 53, 
 
 276, 277 
 
 faux, 
 
 135 
 
 ele vato — punctatum , 
 
 
 252 
 
 favosum, 
 
 
 ellipticum, 
 
 
 250 
 
 fecula, 
 
 iii. 106 
 
 (■marginatum, folium, 
 
 &c. 
 
 32, 176 
 
 fecundating aura. 
 
 166 
 
 emarginatus (basi), 
 
 
 242 
 
 fecundating powder, 
 
 179, 249 
 
 embryo, 
 
 203, 
 
 , 204, &c 
 
 fenestrate, 
 
 220 
 
 emetics, 
 
 152. 
 
 iii. 52, 53 
 
 Ferns, 27, 28, 205 
 
 empalement, 
 
 107, 
 
 124, 125 
 
 Ferns, in stone, 
 
 iii. 167 
 
 enodis, culmus, 
 
 
 25 
 
 ferrugineum, 
 
 253 
 
 Ensatae, 
 
 
 iii. 12 
 
 Ferulaceae, 
 
 288 
 
 ensatum, 
 
 
 
 fetus state, 
 
 156 
 
 ensiforme, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 fibrosa, radix, 
 
 6 
 
 envelope, 
 
 
 130 
 
 fibula, 
 
 176 
 
 epidermis, 
 
 46, 47 : 
 
 , 202, 203 
 
 fiddle-shaped leaf, 
 
 31 
 
 epigoeae, 
 
 
 214 
 
 fil amentum (filament), 
 
 158—161 
 
INDEX. 
 
 iii. 160, 165, 166, 167 
 233 
 
 EHices, 
 iiliformis, 
 
 filum, 159 
 fimbriatum, 
 
 finis ultimus Botanices, iii. 25 
 
 firma, nux, 245 
 
 fish, iii. 107 
 
 fissum, germen, 171 
 
 fissum, folium, stigma, 31, 176 
 fistulosus, 
 
 flaccidum, - 160 
 
 flaxidus, pedunculis, 72 
 
 flexuosus, caulis, &c. 22, 72 
 
 flocks, 88 
 flora, calendar of, 64, 296 — 302 
 
 florale, folium, 39 
 
 floralis, gemma, 100 
 
 floral leaves, 82 
 
 flora of China, iii. 90 
 
 florifera, 99 
 
 floriferus, caulis, 306 
 
 flosculosi, iii. 113 
 
 flos, cymosus, 287 
 
 flower-cup, 78 
 
 fluxilis, 239 
 
 folia, 35 
 
 foliacei (foliaceous), 227 
 
 foliaris, 173 
 foliatus, caulis, 8cc. 22, 73, 292 
 
 foliifera, 100 
 
 firtiifero-florifera, 100 
 
 foliola seminalia, 207 
 
 foliolum, foliola, 35 
 
 foliorum methodus, 45 
 
 foliosa, 289 
 
 fuliosum, 294 
 
 folium, 29—42 
 
 folliculus, (follicle), 87, 190 
 
 Fougeres, iii- 165 
 
 foot-stalk, 85 
 
 forks, 84 
 fovea, 
 
 fovilla, 165, 166 
 frondesceiuia (frondescence), 63, 304 
 frons C frond ), 
 
 fructificatio (fructification), 3, 4,20,106 
 fructus, 106 
 
 frutices, 5 
 
 fruticosx, 16 
 
 Fuci, 19, 87, 205, 210 
 
 fugax, 
 
 fulcra (fulcres), 28, 67—91 
 
 fulcratus, caulis, 23 
 
 Fungi (Fungous plants), 28,201.iii.l6l 
 
 fungiformis, 
 
 fungosum, 
 
 funiculus umbilicalis, 
 
 furcx, 
 
 f areata, 
 
 fuscum, 
 
 fusiformis (fusiform), 
 
 G. 
 
 Galbulus, 
 
 galea, 
 galls, 
 
 gap. 
 
 gaping corolla, 
 
 gamboge, 
 gas, azotic, 
 
 carbonic acid, 
 
 hydrogen, 
 
 oxygen, 
 
 geminse, 
 
 geminati, 
 
 gemma, 
 
 gemma communis, 
 
 floralis, 
 
 foliifera, 
 
 foliierfero — florifera, 
 
 geniculatus, pedunculus, 
 
 genitura of plants, 
 
 germen, 
 
 germinantia, 
 
 germination, 
 
 gibbum, folium, &c. 
 
 gills of aquatic animals, 
 
 girdling, 
 
 glaber, caulis, 
 
 glabra, 
 
 227 
 255 
 283 
 84 
 163 
 253 
 6,233 
 
 135 
 
 57 
 
 135 
 
 135 
 
 iii. 69, HI 
 
 270 
 
 270 
 
 271 
 
 76 
 
 72 
 
 -100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 73 
 
 166 
 
 92- 
 
 96,97,171,17- 
 
 223 
 
 266—281 
 
 34, 250 
 
 50 
 
 Li. 12 
 
 \- 
 

 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 g-labrum, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 heart-shaped, 
 
 31 
 
 glandula, gland, or glandule, 
 
 68, 85 
 
 heat, 
 
 267, 274, 275 
 
 glandulae, capillarcs, 
 
 
 86 
 86 
 
 helvolum, 
 Heptandria, 
 
 253 
 iii. 30,33,91,92 
 
 
 
 glandulosum, 
 
 
 
 herba, 
 
 3, 4, 20 
 
 glaucus, 
 
 
 
 herbaceus^ 
 
 
 globosa, giobosum, 
 
 in, 
 
 176, 181 
 
 herbaria, 
 
 279 
 
 giobosum, pomum, 
 
 
 192 
 
 herbs, 
 
 15 
 
 glochides, 
 
 
 88,244 
 
 herring-month, 
 
 299 
 
 glomerata, 
 
 
 
 Hesperidex, 
 
 iii. 57 
 
 glossy leaf, 
 
 
 33 
 
 Hesperides, 
 
 iii. 57 
 
 gluma (glume), 
 
 107, 
 
 118,120 
 
 Hesperus, 
 
 iii. 57 
 
 Glumosa:, 
 
 
 120 
 
 hexagonus, 
 
 
 glutinosus, 
 
 
 
 Hexandria, 
 
 iii. 26, 30, 101 
 
 gnomonici, 
 
 
 227 
 
 hexaphyllum, 
 
 114 
 
 gongylus, iii. 
 
 
 173 
 
 hexasticha, spica, 
 
 289 
 
 gout, 
 
 iii. 59, 89 
 
 hilum, 
 
 198, 199 
 
 gracile, 
 
 
 
 hirsutum, 
 
 160 
 
 grafting, 
 
 
 100 
 
 hirtus, 
 
 
 Gramina, 
 
 6, 24, 26, 122 
 
 hispida, hispid, 
 
 li"9 
 
 Gramineac, 
 
 
 26 
 
 hispidum, folium, &c. 
 
 33, 294 
 
 grana bulbiformia, 
 
 
 247 
 
 hispidus caulis, 
 
 23,33 
 
 granatum, 
 
 : 
 
 196, 197 
 
 hoariness, 
 
 244 
 
 granite, 
 
 
 19 
 
 hoi us, 
 
 iii. 39 
 
 granulata, radix, 
 
 
 6,8 
 
 hooks, 
 
 88 
 
 granules, 
 
 
 194 
 
 honey of plants, 
 
 151—158 
 
 Grasses, 
 
 6, 24, 25 
 
 , 26, 41 
 
 honey-cup, 
 
 146, 155 
 
 Grinning flowers, 
 
 
 iii. 75 
 
 hollow-leaf, 
 
 34 
 
 Gruinales, 
 
 iii 
 
 i. 44, 95 
 
 Holoracex, 
 
 iii. 39 
 
 Gymnospermia, 
 
 
 125 
 
 honey -combed, 
 
 285 
 
 Gynandria, 
 
 159 
 
 . iii. 124 
 
 hooded, 
 horizontale, folium, 
 
 42 
 
 H. 
 
 
 
 horti sicci, 
 
 iii 80 
 
 Habit of plants, 
 
 
 iii. 98 
 
 humifusus, 
 
 
 habitus, 
 
 
 
 husk, 
 
 118, 201 
 
 hairs, 
 
 47, 
 
 88—91 
 
 hyalinus, 
 
 
 lialbert-shaped, 
 
 
 31 
 
 hybernacle, 
 
 20, 92, 95 
 
 hami, 
 
 
 88 
 
 hybernaculum, 
 
 8,92 
 
 hastate leaf, 
 
 
 31 
 
 Hvdrocharides, 
 
 iii. 145 
 
 hastatum, folium, 
 
 
 31 
 
 hydrogene, 
 
 iii. 88 
 
 hatchet-shaped leaf, 
 
 
 
 liydrogen gas, 
 
 270 
 
 Haulm, haum, haume, 
 
 
 24 
 
 hygrometer, 
 
 265 
 
 head, 
 
 
 294 
 
 Hyperion, 
 
 iii. 110 
 
 health, choice of a situation for 
 
 ', iii. 78 
 
 hypocrateriformis, corolla, 135 
 
 heart of plants, 
 
 
 
 hypogoeae, 
 
 214 
 

 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 
 involucrala, 
 
 J45. 
 
 Icosandria, 
 
 174. 
 
 iii. 5C 
 
 1—60 
 
 involucre, 
 
 113, 114 
 
 imberbis, corolla, 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 involucret, 
 
 114 
 
 imbricatum, periantliium, 
 
 
 111 
 
 involucrum, 
 
 107, 114, 118 
 
 imbricata, folia, 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 partiale, 
 
 114 
 
 immersse, 
 imperfectus, 
 
 
 
 205 
 225 
 
 • i 
 
 113 
 50,57 
 
 
 
 iron, sulpbat of, 
 
 impregnation, 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 irregularis, corolla, 
 
 134 
 
 incanus, 
 
 
 
 
 i ratability, 58, 209. ii. 3. iii. 158 
 
 incisa, 
 
 
 
 243 
 
 iathmis intcrceptum, 
 
 188 
 
 inclinata, 
 
 
 
 235 
 
 
 
 iucompletus, flos, &c. 3 
 
 
 132 
 
 ,226 
 
 J- 
 
 
 incrassatus, 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Jagged, 
 
 163 
 
 incubation, 
 
 
 
 296 
 
 Japanese, 
 
 91 
 
 incumbens, anthera, 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 Japan, 
 
 91 
 
 incumbentes, 
 
 
 
 219 
 
 jaws, 
 
 135 
 
 incurvatum (incurved), 
 
 
 188 
 
 jointed, joints, 
 
 25 
 
 incurvum, 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 julus, 
 
 113 
 
 Indians, 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 American, 
 
 63, 
 
 , 297- 
 
 -299 
 
 K. 
 
 Keel, 
 
 136 
 
 
 indusium, 
 
 
 iii 
 
 ,172 
 
 keeled leaf, 
 
 34, 35 
 
 inequale, folium, 
 
 
 
 
 kernel, 
 
 203, 207, 211 
 
 inner bark, 
 
 
 
 ii. 9 
 
 kidney-shaped, 
 
 31 
 
 inerme, 
 
 
 
 
 kneed, 
 
 73 
 
 infera, corolla, &c, 
 
 
 137, 
 
 235 
 
 knob, 
 
 176 
 
 inferum, germen, 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 inflammable air, 
 
 270. iii. 88 
 
 h. 
 
 
 inflatum, perianthium, 
 
 &c., 
 
 110, 
 
 187 
 
 Labellum, 
 
 
 inflexum, folium, &c, 
 
 
 43, 
 
 160 
 
 Labiati, 
 
 iii- 77 
 
 inflorescence, inflorescentia, 
 
 
 285 
 
 labiatum perianthium, 
 
 110 
 
 infundibuliformis, corolla, 
 
 
 135 
 
 labium, 
 
 
 injections, colouring, 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 lacemus arillus, 
 
 
 insects, 16, 50, 56, 
 
 157, 158. iii. 70 
 
 lacera ligula, 
 
 
 insertio, 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 lacerum, fohum, 
 
 33 
 
 instinct, 
 
 281. iii. 
 
 130 
 
 lacinia, 
 
 
 integer, 
 
 
 
 342 
 
 laciniata (laciniuted), 
 
 134, 243 
 
 integerrimum, folium, 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 laciniatum, filamentum, 
 
 159 
 
 integrum, folium, 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 folium, 
 
 32 
 
 integumenta seminum 
 
 propria, 
 
 201 
 
 laciniatus flos, 
 
 134 
 
 interfoliaceus, 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 lactescent leaves, 
 
 57 
 
 internodium, 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 lacteum, 
 
 253 
 
 intrafoliacex, stipulse, 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 lacteum, semen, 
 
 2jj 
 
 intrafoliaceus, 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 lacunosx, cotvlcdones, 
 
 221 
 
 Inundate, 
 
 
 iii 
 
 .36 
 
 lacuuosum, folium, 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ixta, 
 
 
 90 
 
 light, 
 
 275—277 
 
 laevigatum, 
 
 
 251 
 
 lignosa, capsula, 
 
 
 laevis, 
 
 
 
 lignosum, legumen, 
 
 
 lamella, 
 
 
 
 lignosus, caulis, 
 
 
 lamina, corollrf, 
 
 
 133 
 
 lignum, 
 
 2d 
 
 lampades, 
 
 
 296 
 
 ligula, 
 
 
 lana, 
 
 
 
 ligulata (ligulate), corolla, iii. 120 
 
 lanatum, folium, 
 
 
 33 
 
 lilaccinus, 
 
 
 lanatus, pappus, 
 
 
 239 
 
 lileacea, corolla, 
 
 
 lanceolata plumula, 
 
 
 230 
 
 Lilia, 
 
 
 lanceolatum, folium, 
 
 
 31 
 
 Liliaceae, 
 
 129 
 
 lanugo, 
 
 99 
 
 ,238 
 
 Liliaceous plants, 
 
 204, 211, 212 
 
 lapidea, mix, 
 
 
 246 
 
 limbus (limb), 
 
 133 
 
 laterale, stigma, 
 
 
 
 linea, 
 
 
 laterales, stipulx, 
 
 
 77 
 
 lineare, folium, 8tc, 
 
 31, 171, 186 
 
 lateralis, anthera, 
 
 
 163 
 
 linearis, anthera, 
 
 70, 162 
 
 bulbus, 
 
 pcdunculus, 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 lineatum, folium, 
 
 
 ■ secta, 
 
 
 
 linguiformc, folium, 
 linidus, 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liquor amnii, 
 
 153, 154 
 
 
 
 latcra dehisccns, anthera, 
 
 
 
 lirella, 
 
 iii. 172 
 
 laterifolius, pedunculus, 
 
 
 n 
 
 lobatac (lobed), 
 
 220 
 
 lateritius, 
 
 
 
 lobatum, folium, 
 
 32 
 
 latticed, 
 
 
 252 
 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 larva, 
 
 
 167 
 
 lobi seminales, 
 
 207 
 
 larynx, 
 
 
 56 
 
 lobus, 
 
 
 laxus, caidis, 
 
 
 167 
 
 loculamcnta, 
 
 183 
 
 — — — racemus, 
 
 
 292 
 
 locus, 
 
 38 
 
 utriculus, 
 
 
 
 locusta, 
 
 
 lead, oxydes of, 
 
 
 272 
 
 Lomentaceae, 
 
 190. iii. 44 
 
 leaf, 
 
 
 20 
 
 lomentum, 
 
 iii. 44 
 
 leafing-, 
 
 
 301 
 
 longissima, 
 
 160, 164, 234 
 
 leafless, 
 
 
 27 
 
 longissimus, 
 
 72 
 
 leathery-leaf, 
 
 
 
 longitudinaliter sulcata, 
 
 163 
 
 legumen, 1 80, 
 
 186- 
 
 -190 
 
 longus pcdunculus, 
 
 72 
 
 Lcguminosa:, 188. iiij 
 
 ,102, 
 
 103 
 
 lucidum, 
 
 251 
 
 lepra, 
 
 ii. 
 
 
 lunatum, folium, 
 
 
 lcris, 
 
 
 
 lungs of plants, 
 
 55—59, 81 
 
 liber, 
 
 
 20 
 
 lunulatum, folium, 
 
 31 
 
 libera anthera 
 
 
 
 
 187 
 
 250 
 
 iii. 22 
 
 liberum, filamentum, 
 Lichens, 19, 93. iii 
 
 
 
 
 .171, 
 
 , 8ic 
 
 Lurid x, 
 
 lid, 
 
 
 87 
 
 lutcsccnti-viridia, 
 
 254 
 
 life of plants, 
 
 267, 
 
 280 
 
 lympha, 
 
 165 
 
INDEX. 
 
 lymphatica, vasa, ii. 26, 27 
 
 lymphatiques, vaisseaux, ii. 22 
 
 lyratum, folium, 32 
 
 lythrarge, 272 
 
 M. 
 
 Maculatus, 
 
 Magnolix, iii. 67 
 
 Magrioliers, les, iii. 67 
 
 magnum, 251 
 
 Malvaceous plants, 89. iii. 95 
 
 many-celled, 183 
 
 marcescens, corolla, 137 
 
 marginaceo-extenuatum, 253 
 
 marginibus membranaceis, 251 
 
 margo, margin, 242 
 
 Marriages, clandestine, iii. 16(J 
 
 Materia medica, iii. 6, 9, et passim, 
 
 maximx, cotyledones, 218 
 
 maximum, legumen, 188 
 mechanical operation of medicines, 
 
 iii. 105 
 
 mediocre, 110 
 
 mediocres, 218, 228 
 
 medium, 251 
 
 medulla, 20, 105 
 
 medullaria, vasa, ii. 29 
 
 melinum, 253 
 
 membvana interna, 201 
 
 membranacea, 202 
 
 membranaceum, legumen, 187 
 
 membranaceum, folium, , 135 
 
 membranaceus, 242 
 
 meteors, atmospheric, 296 
 methods of plants, append. 2—16 
 
 methodus calycina, 144 
 
 methodus foliorum, 45 
 
 micropyle, 199, 200 
 
 migration of seeds, 257 — 265 
 
 milk of plants, iii. 122 
 
 milky, 253 
 
 minuti, 22S 
 
 minutum, 251 
 
 Miscellanea:, iii. 162 
 
 modus florendv, 285 
 
 Monadelphia, 160. iii. 90—99 
 
 Monandria, iii. 4, 125, et passim. 
 
 Monocotyledoncs, plants, 210, 211, 
 
 212, 217 
 monocotyledonous seeds, 211 
 
 Monoecia, 115, 116 
 
 Monogamia, iii. 112, 116—119 
 
 Monogamy, iii. 112 
 
 Monogynia, iii. 4, 26, et passim, 
 
 monoici flores, 
 
 monopetala, corolla, 131 
 
 monoptervgia, 243 
 
 monosperma, bacea, &c, 193 
 
 Mosses, 191, 205, 280. iii. 161, 163, 
 
 164, 167 
 mould, seed of, 264 
 
 mucilaginosa, 203 
 
 mucronatum, folium, 
 mulberry-month, 298 
 
 multifidus, cirrhus, 74 
 
 multiflora, gluma, US 
 
 multiflorus, pedunculus, &c, 72, 286 
 multijuga, plumula, 231 
 
 multilateralcs, 236 
 
 multilatum, 159 
 
 midtilocularis, 183 
 
 multipartitum, folium, 32 
 
 Multisiliqux, 229. iii. 66 
 
 multivalvis, gluma, 119 
 
 mutilati flores, 143 
 
 mutilus flos, 142 
 
 Myrti, iii. 110 
 
 X. 
 
 Naiades, 
 Naked-flowers, 
 
 leaf, 
 
 napiformis, radix, 
 narcotics, 
 natans, foUum, 
 natural character, 
 
 systems. 
 
 Nature, 
 
 ncccssaria polygamia, 
 
 MS, 
 
 iii. 52 
 
 iii. 106, 123 
 42 
 
 117, 278 
 
 67, loS 
 
INDEX. 
 
 nectared, ncclareous, nectarine, 146 
 
 numerus, 
 
 
 nectariferae, squamae, 
 
 151 
 
 nut, 
 
 ■2 14, 245, 246 
 
 nectariferi, pori, 
 
 
 nutans, pedunulis, 
 
 72 
 
 ncctarium, 127, 131, 
 nectarium calvcinum, 
 
 1-15—158 
 147 
 
 
 
 nutriehtia vasa. 
 
 
 calcaratum, 
 
 146 
 
 nux, 
 
 244, 245, 246 
 
 
 147 
 146 
 146 
 
 
 
 
 O. 
 
 Obcordatum, folium, 
 
 
 ■ comutum, 
 
 32,323 
 
 
 146 
 
 obliqua, 
 
 
 
 
 
 147 
 
 obliqua, radix, 
 
 
 
 
 
 148 
 
 obliquum, folium, 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 147 
 
 oblonga, anthera, 
 
 181 
 
 
 
 
 148 
 
 146 
 
 radix, 
 
 oblongum, folium, 
 
 
 - scrotiformc, 
 
 31 
 
 turbinatum, 
 
 146 
 
 
 171 
 
 
 nectary, 
 
 154 
 
 
 
 
 
 needle-shaped leaf, 
 
 
 obtusa, anthera, &c, 
 
 163, 181 
 
 nervosum, folium, 
 
 33 
 
 obtuse, angulatus caulisi 
 
 
 nestling seed, 
 
 193 
 
 obtusum folium, &c, 
 
 32, 110, 187 
 
 nicked leaf, 
 
 
 obovatum, folium, 
 
 322 
 
 nidulantia, semina, 
 niger, 
 
 193 
 253 
 
 nm ft 
 
 
 obvoluta, gemma, 
 
 nitidum, folium, 
 
 33 
 
 ochraceum, 
 
 25S 
 
 niticlus, 
 
 
 ochrea, ochrey, 
 
 253 
 
 nisus formativus, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Octandria, iii. 33—37, 92, 101, 127, &c. 
 
 nodosi pili, 
 
 
 octofidum, 
 
 110 
 
 nodosum, legumen, 
 
 187 
 
 octofidum, perianthium, 
 
 110 
 
 nodosus, caulis, 
 
 
 octophyllum, perianthium, 109 
 
 ■'■' culmus, 
 
 
 odours of flowers, ike, 
 
 169. iii. 37 
 
 nomenclature of leaves, 
 
 30 — 43 
 
 oil, its effects on leaves, 
 
 55,56 
 
 notched leaf, 
 
 32 
 
 Oneidas (Indians), 
 
 iii. 9 
 
 nucamentaceum, 
 
 255 
 
 Onondagos (Indians), their calendar, 
 
 nucamentum, 
 
 115 
 
 
 300 
 
 nucleus, 
 
 203, 204 
 
 operculum, expl. pi. vol. ii. 37 
 
 nuda, arista, 
 
 
 opposita calyci, 
 
 159 
 
 nudum, capituluin, 
 
 
 opposita, folia, &c, 
 
 40, 159 
 
 folium, &.c, 
 
 284 
 
 oppositae, cotyledones, 
 
 219 
 
 
 
 opposite leaves, 
 
 45 
 
 
 nudus caulis, 
 
 22 
 
 oppositi pedunculi, 
 
 71 
 
 - culmus, 
 
 
 oppositi, rami, 
 
 
 flos, &c, 
 
 295 
 
 orbicular, or circular, leaf, 31 
 
 ■ racemus, 
 
 292 
 
 orbiculatum, folium, &c, 
 
 31, 250 
 
 ■ stipes, 
 
 
 Orchidea;, 
 
 iii. 128 
 
 nullum peristoma. 
 
 
 drchidea, corolla, 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 orders, iii. 3, Sec. 
 
 orclines naturales, iii. 6, &c. 
 
 organs of respiration, 57 
 
 organs, sexual, 158 — 178 
 
 organum motus plants, 29 
 
 osseum, 255 
 
 outer-bark, 20. ii. 7, 8 
 
 oval leaf, Si 
 
 ovale, folium, 31 
 
 ovata, 181 
 
 ovate leaf, 31 
 ovatum, amentum, 
 
 ovatum, folium, &c, 31, 186, 192 
 ovatus sti'obilus, 
 
 P. 
 
 300 
 
 Palestine, climate of, 
 Palmse, iii. 
 
 palmata, radix, explan. pi. 
 
 palmate, or hand-shaped leaf, 32 
 
 palmatum, folium, 32 
 
 Palms, 27, 28, 62. iii. 142, 161 
 
 pandurxforme, folium, 31 
 
 panicle, 292, 293 
 
 panicula, 285, 292, 293 
 
 coarctata, 293 
 
 congesta, 293 
 
 contracta, 293 
 
 densa, 293 
 
 . diffusa, 293 
 
 ————— divaricata, 293 
 
 patens, 293 
 
 spicata, 293 
 
 Papaveraceae, iii- 66 
 
 papilionacea, corolla, 136 
 
 Papilionacea:, iii. 44, 103, 106, 136 
 papilionaceous, or butterfly-shaped, 
 
 136 
 papillosum, 33, 252 
 
 pappus, 28, 236 
 
 parabolicum, folium, 31 
 
 parapetala, 150 
 
 parasitic plants, 17.. 18, 260, 305 
 
 parasiticus, caulis, 22 
 
 partiale, mvolucrurn 3 . 114 
 
 partits, 220 
 
 partitum, folium, gcrmen, 32, 171 
 
 patelliformis, 227 
 
 patens, anthera, filamentum, &c, 72, 
 160, 163 
 
 patentissimum, 163 
 
 patentiusculum, 160, 163 
 
 pedatum, folium, 38 
 
 pedatus, racenms, 292 
 
 pedicel, 188 
 
 pedicellatum, pedicelled, 172, 188 
 pedunculus, 67—69, 71 — 73 
 
 pellucida, testa, 201 
 pelta, iii. e.vpl. tab. 38 
 peltatum, folium, &c, 40, 41, 176, 308 
 
 pendula, antliera, 163 
 
 pendulous, 163 
 
 pendidus, pedunculus, 72 
 
 pentacocca, capsula, 183 
 
 pepo, 192 
 
 perdifoils, 66 
 
 perfectus, embryo, 226 
 
 periantluforme, involucrum, 115 
 
 perianthium, perianth, 107, &c. 
 
 aquale, HO 
 
 bifidum, 108 
 
 ciliatum, 111 
 
 floris, 108 
 
 • fructificationis, 108 
 
 fructus, 108 
 
 inferum, 111 
 
 inatquale, 110 
 
 — — — — imbricatum, 111 
 
 inflatum, HO 
 
 globosum, 110 
 
 hexaphvllum, 109 
 
 labiatum, 110 
 
 perichxtium, 122 
 
 peridium, iii. 
 
 perigonium, 131 
 
 pei-igynanda, 130 
 
 peripherici, 228 
 peristoma, or peristomium, 
 
 cxpl. plates, Vol. ii. 38 
 
 perpendicular root, 3 3 
 
INDEX. 
 
 perpcndicularis, radix. 13 
 
 pcrsistens, perianthium, stigma, 111, 
 
 174 
 persistenles, stipule, 77 
 
 personal names, iii. 81 
 
 personata, corolla, 135 
 
 Personate, iii. 76 
 
 petal, 126—128, 132, 133, 136 
 
 petallinum, nectarium, 147 
 
 petalum, 127, 131 
 
 petiolaris, pedunculus, 71 
 
 petiolate leaf, 41 
 
 petiolatum, folium, 41 
 
 petiole, 28, 69, 70 
 
 pctiolus, 28, 67—70 
 
 Philadelphia, latitude, climate, &c, of, 
 300—302 
 Phycei, iii. 173 
 
 phyllopliora, 212 
 
 pileus, iii. 
 
 pilosum, folium, receptaculum, 33, 284 
 pilus, 69, 88, 91 
 
 Pilze, iii. 175 
 
 pinnate leaf, 36, 37 
 
 pinnatifidum, folium, 32 
 
 pinnatum, folium, 36 
 
 p'mnatum, abruptum, folium, 37 
 
 alternating 37 
 
 articulate, 37 
 
 cirrhosum, 37 
 
 cum impari, 37 
 
 decursive, 37 
 
 ! interrupte, 37 
 
 opposite, 37 
 
 Piperita, iii. 33 
 
 pistil, 170, 178. ii. 35. iii. 7, 148, 154 
 pistillaceous nectary, 148 
 
 pisullaceum, nectarium, 148 
 
 pistillum, 170, 175. ii. 35 
 
 placenta, 282, 283 
 
 plaited, leaf, stigma, 33, 176 
 
 plana, anthera, 163 
 
 plants culmiferx, 26 
 
 lactescentes, iii. 122, 123 
 
 tinctorix, iii. 71, 105 
 
 plants, passim 
 
 perception of, 75 
 
 physiology of, preface, viii, ix, 
 
 &c— 272. ii. 3, 4 
 
 planum, folium, legumen, &c. 34, 159, 
 
 187, 284 
 
 plaster of paris (gypsum, or sidphat of 
 
 lime) hastens the germination of 
 
 the seed, 278 
 
 plicata, corolla, 136 
 
 plicatx, cotvledones, 221 
 
 plicatum, folium, stigma, 133, 176 
 plumheo-livescentia, semina, 254 
 
 plumosum, stigma, 177 
 
 plumosus, pappus, 238 
 
 plumula, 229—231, 321 
 
 seminalis, 224, 225 
 
 plumule, 222—231, 321 
 
 plures, bracteae, 79 
 
 pod, 184, 185, 189. iii. 82, 83 
 
 pointal, 170 
 
 poisonous honey, 149, 152, 153 
 
 poisonous plants, 149. iii. 22, 45, 62, 
 79, 106, 122, 123 
 pollen, 158, 16l, 165—170, 172, 175, 
 
 178, 179, 180, 198, 249- ii. 35, &c. . 
 
 iii. 148. 
 polleniferous, 166 
 
 Polyadelphia, iii. 108 — 111 
 
 Polyandria, 150. iii. 49, 50, 54, 55, 
 60—72, 94, 109, &c 
 Polyandrous plants, 54, &c. 
 
 polycotyledonous seeds, 215, 216 
 
 Polygamia, iii. 150—159 
 
 aequalis, iii. 112, 113 
 
 ■ friistranea, iii. 112, 114 
 
 necessaria, iii. 112, 115 
 
 segregata, iii. 112, 116 
 
 superflua, iii. 112, 114 
 
 florum, iii. 112 
 
 polygamies, iii. 150 
 
 polygamy of flowers, iii. 112 
 
 polyginia, 174. iii. 21, 28, 56, 65 
 
 Polygonese, iii. 39 
 
 polyphyllum, perianthiunu 109" 
 
INDEX. 
 
 polyphyllus, cirrus, 74 
 
 polyptera, 243 
 
 polysperma, bacca, 193 
 
 Pomaceae, 192. iii. 58 
 
 pome, 192 
 
 Pomiferx, Append. 7 
 
 pomum, 180, 192. iii. 58 
 
 Pot-herbs, 120 
 
 prxmorsa, radix, 7, 8, 32 
 
 prxmorsum, folium, 32 
 
 primordium, 105, 210 
 
 prolifer, caulis, ■ 24 
 
 proliferous, 24 
 
 pronus, discus, 43 
 
 propago, 244, 246, 247. iii. 173 
 
 proportion, 160. iii. 3, 26, &c. 
 
 propria, intcgumenta, seminum, 201 
 proprium, nectarium, 147 
 
 perianthium , 1 12 
 
 ■■ receptaculum, 282 
 
 Protex, iii. 16 
 
 pruina, 244 
 
 pseudo-monototyledonous, 212 
 
 pubes, 88, 244 
 
 pubescens, pubescent, 174 
 
 pulposum, pulpy, legumcn, 187 
 
 pulvis sternutatorius, m. 52 
 
 pulvisculus, 211 
 
 pumpion, 192 
 
 punctatum, folium, 33 
 
 punctum medullare, 225 
 
 saliens, 210 
 
 putamen, 191, 245. iii. 66 
 
 Putamineze, iii. 66 
 
 progenies nova, 224 
 
 pyramidal, pyramidalis, embryo, 227 
 pyrainidatum, capitulum, 294 
 
 pyrenes, 255 
 
 pyxidula, iii. expl. plates, 37 
 
 pyxidide, iii. expl. plates, 37 
 
 Quadrangularc, folium , 31 
 
 quadrifid leaf, 31, 32 
 
 quadvifidum, folium, 32 
 
 quaterna, folia, 
 
 
 59 
 
 quina, folia, 
 
 
 39 
 
 quinate leaf, . 
 
 
 36 
 
 quinatum, folium, 
 
 
 36 
 
 quinquefid leaf, 
 
 
 32 
 
 quinquefidum, folium, 
 
 
 32 
 
 quinquangulare, folium, 
 
 
 31 
 
 quinqucpartitum, folium 
 
 i 
 
 Zo 
 
 R. 
 
 
 
 Raceme, 
 
 291, 
 
 292 
 
 racemosus, 
 
 
 
 racemus, 
 
 285, 291, 
 
 ,292 
 
 rachis, 
 
 289, 
 
 290 
 
 radiata, radiate, corolla, 
 
 139. iii, 
 
 113 
 
 radiatus, flos, 
 
 
 
 radices comosx, 
 
 
 7 
 
 radicle, 
 
 
 8 
 
 radicula, 
 
 
 4,8 
 
 radix, 
 
 
 3 
 
 capillacea, 
 
 
 6 
 
 — — bulbosa, 
 
 
 6,8 
 
 ——■ fibrosa, 
 
 
 6 
 
 fusiformis, 
 
 
 6,7 
 
 gvanulata, 
 
 
 6,8 
 
 horizontalis, 
 
 
 14 
 
 perpendicularis, 
 
 
 13 
 
 ■ ■ - prsemorsa, 
 
 
 6,7 
 
 — — repens, 
 
 
 14 
 
 tubcrosa, 
 
 
 6,7 
 
 rameus, pedunculus, 
 
 
 71 
 
 ramis deflexis, 
 
 
 308 
 
 ramosa, radix, 
 
 
 15 
 
 ramosissima, radix, 
 
 
 15 
 
 ramosissimus, caulis, 
 
 
 23 
 
 Ranunculacere, 
 
 iii. 67 
 
 reclinatus, caulis, 
 
 
 22 
 
 receptaculaceum, nectai 
 
 •ium, 
 
 148 
 
 receptaculum, commune, 284- ill- 119- 
 
 reclinatum, fohum, 42 
 
 reclined leaf, 42 
 
 recta, arista, 119 
 
 rccurvata, arista, 119 
 
 reflexum, filamentum, 160 
 
 repandx, cotyledones. 22-1 
 
INDEX. 
 
 resupinatus, pedunculus, 
 
 72 
 
 semet, 
 
 161 
 
 rete corticis, 
 
 49 
 
 semi-amplexicaula, folia, 
 
 41 
 
 revolute leaf, 
 
 42 
 
 semicirculares, cotyledones, 221 
 
 revolutum, folium, 
 
 42 
 
 sena, folia, 
 
 39 
 
 revolutus, cirrus, 
 
 74 
 
 serratum, perianthium, 
 
 111 
 
 Rhoeadea:, 
 
 iii. 66 
 
 sericea, corolla, 
 
 137 
 
 rictus, 
 
 135 
 
 sessile, 
 
 294 
 
 rimosx, 
 
 220 
 
 sessilis, 
 
 295 
 
 ringens, corolla, 
 
 135 
 
 setaceus, 
 
 239 
 
 Ringentes, 
 
 in. 76 
 
 setae insidens, 
 
 172 
 
 J'OOt, 
 
 3—20 
 
 Siliculosa, iii. 
 
 82, 83, &c. 
 
 rosacea, corolla, 
 
 136. iii. 56 
 
 Siliculosac, 
 
 iii. 84 
 
 rosaceous, or rose-like, , 
 
 136 
 
 siliqua, 
 
 180, 185 
 
 roseum, 
 
 254 
 
 Siliquosa, iii- 
 
 82, 83, &c. 
 
 rostellum, 
 
 232 
 
 Siliquosx, 
 
 iii. 84, 85 
 
 rostra ta, 
 
 163 
 
 six-ranked, 
 
 289 
 
 rostratum, 
 
 171 
 
 solitaria, radicula, 
 
 232, 233 
 
 rotata, corolla, 
 
 135 
 
 sparsi, pedunculi. 
 
 71 
 
 Rubiacea:, 
 
 iii. 16 
 
 spatlia, 
 
 117 
 
 rubrum, 
 
 254 
 
 — — — bivalvis, 
 
 117 
 
 ruffle, 
 
 122, 123 
 
 biflora, 
 
 117 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 11/ 
 
 rugosum, 
 
 
 
 rugosum, folium, 
 
 33 
 
 multiflora, 
 
 117 
 
 ruminate, 
 rutilum, 
 
 220 
 254 
 
 
 117 
 
 dimidiata, 
 
 117 
 
 
 
 Spatbacex, 13 ; 
 
 , 118. iii. 28 
 
 S. 
 
 
 spathe, 
 
 117, &c 
 
 Sagittata, anthera, 
 
 162 
 
 spica, or spike, 
 
 288, 289 
 
 sagittate, 
 
 162 
 
 spicate Filices, 
 
 iii. 162 
 
 Saimentaceae, 
 
 iii. 29, 36 
 
 spina;, 
 
 244 
 
 sarmentosus, caulis, 
 
 22 
 
 spina, spine, 
 
 69, 82—85 
 
 scabrum, germen, &c, 
 
 33, 171 
 
 spinosum, folium, perianth] 
 
 urn, 32, 110 
 
 scales, 
 
 25 
 
 spmosus, 
 
 239 
 
 scaly bulb, &c, 
 
 9,73 
 
 splendens, semen, 
 
 251 
 
 scariose, 
 
 112 
 
 spirales, cotyledones, &.C., 
 
 222, 227 
 
 scariosum, pei'lanthium, 
 
 112 
 
 squamose bulb, 
 
 9 
 
 sritamentum, 
 
 iii. 6 
 
 squamosus, bulbus, pedunculus, 9, 72 
 
 Scitaminese, 
 
 211. iii. 6 
 
 squarrosum, perianthium, 
 
 112 
 
 scitum edulium, 
 
 iii. 6 
 
 Stellate, 
 
 iii. 16 
 
 serine, 
 
 196, 197 
 
 stellata, folia, 
 
 39 
 
 scrinum, 
 
 196, 197 
 
 stellate leaves, 
 
 39 
 
 scrobiform, 
 
 250 
 
 stellate, stellatum, stigma, 
 
 176 
 
 scrobiforme, semen, 
 
 250 
 
 Stellated plants, 
 
 228 
 
 Scrophularise, 
 
 iii. 78, 79 
 
 stellatus, pappus, 
 
 239 
 
 sccunda, spica, 
 
 289 
 
 sterilis, anthera, 
 
 164 
 
INDEX. 
 
 9parsl, pedunculi, 
 
 
 71 
 
 sulphate of iron, 
 
 278 
 
 spiral, spirale, filamentum, 
 
 
 159 
 
 lime, 
 
 278 
 
 9plcndens, nux, 
 
 
 245 
 
 sulphur, 274. iii. 88 
 
 sh:'Strorsum, 
 
 
 177 
 
 supera, s. ascendens, 
 
 235 
 
 squu natum, semell, 
 
 
 251 
 
 corolla, 
 
 137 
 
 stiff i id straight, 
 
 
 72 
 
 superior, pagina, &c, 
 
 43, 137 
 
 stipe, 
 
 
 28 
 
 superum, germen, 
 
 171 
 
 stipes, 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 111 
 
 
 stipitatu . pappus, 
 
 
 238 
 
 supinus, discus, 
 
 43 
 
 stipula, stipule, 
 
 75—77 
 
 suprafoliaceus, pedunculus, 
 
 71 
 
 stipulae c. trafoliacesc, 
 
 
 77 
 
 summit, 
 
 161 
 
 
 
 77 
 76 
 
 Syngenesia, 28, 163. iii. 
 
 112—124 
 
 gcminz, 
 
 
 ■ latevaies, 
 
 
 77 
 
 T. 
 
 
 — — — oppositifolis, 
 
 
 77 
 
 Tail, 
 
 241, 242 
 
 ■ solitarke, 
 
 
 77 
 
 tecta, anthcra i 
 
 164 
 
 deck! <x, 
 
 
 77 
 
 tendril, 73- 
 
 -75. iii. 85 
 
 fioirltlinloo 
 
 
 77 
 
 tenuis, stylus, 
 
 173 
 
 
 ■ caducae 
 
 
 77 
 
 teres, caulis, 
 
 22 
 
 striatum, foliunr., 
 
 
 33 
 
 folium, 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 251 
 23 
 
 teretiuscula, radicula, 
 teretiusculum, 
 
 233 
 187 
 
 striatus, caulis, 
 
 
 strictum, 
 
 
 183 
 
 tei-geminum, folium, 
 
 38 
 
 strictus, pedunculus, 
 
 
 72 
 
 terminalis, spina, &c, S3 
 
 , 119, 288 
 
 strigje, 
 
 
 88 
 
 ternatum, folium, 
 
 36 
 
 strobile, 
 
 195, 
 
 , 196 
 
 terra japonica, 
 
 iii. 158 
 
 strobilus, 
 
 
 195 
 
 testa, or shell, 
 
 201, 202 
 
 stylo inserta, filamenta, 
 
 
 159 
 
 bilocularis, 
 
 202 
 
 subcomilea, semina, 
 
 
 254 
 
 chartacea, 
 
 201 
 
 subconduplicatx, cotyledon es, 
 
 221 
 
 coriacea, 
 
 201 
 
 subpubescens, nux, 
 
 
 245 
 
 carnosa, 
 
 201 
 
 subrotunda, capsida, 
 
 
 181 
 
 Crustacea, 
 
 201 
 
 subrotundum, foliam, &c. 
 
 31, 
 
 294 
 
 — — fungosa, 
 
 201 
 
 subspongiosa, membrana interna, 
 
 202 
 
 lapidea, 
 
 202 
 
 subulate, 
 
 31; 
 
 ,285 
 
 membranacea. 
 
 201 
 
 subulatum, folium, receptaculum, 
 
 , 31, 
 
 ossea, 
 
 20 J 
 
 
 
 285 
 
 pellucida, 
 
 201 
 
 succus communis, 
 
 ii. 26 
 
 spongiosa, 
 
 201 
 
 proprius, 
 
 ii. 2S 
 
 suberosa, 
 
 201 
 
 sulcata, anthcra, 
 
 
 163 
 
 unilocularis, 
 
 
 longitudinalitcr, 
 
 
 163 
 
 testaceum, 
 
 253 
 
 + i«nnoi-^»»o'TT. 
 
 
 163 
 
 testes of plants, 
 
 161 
 
 
 sulcatum, folium, 
 
 
 34 
 
 testiculatus, bulbus, 
 
 
 sulcatus, caulis, 
 
 
 2o 
 
 Tetradynamia, 136, 1T4. : 
 
 iii. 82—90 
 
 sulphate of copper. 
 
 
 
 tetrafida, 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 tetrafidum, 109 
 
 tetragona, capsula, 182 
 
 tetragonus, stylus, 174 
 Tetrandria, iii. 13—17, 141, &c. 
 
 Tetrapetali difformes, iii. 102 
 
 irregulares, iii. 102 
 
 tetraphyllum, 114 
 
 telraphyllus, cirrus, 74 
 
 tetraptcra, 243 
 
 tetrasticha, 289 
 
 thalamus, 282 
 
 floris, 124 
 
 thcca, 196—198 
 
 thermometer of Farenheit, 264 
 
 thorny, 239 
 
 three-grained, 183 
 
 thyrse, 293 
 
 thyrsus, 285, 293 
 
 tinctoriae plantrc, iii. 71, 105 
 
 tomentosa, corolla, 137 
 
 tomentose leaf, 33 
 
 tomentosi, aculei, 84 
 
 tomentosum, folium, 33 
 
 tomentosus, 
 
 tomentum, 
 
 torosa, torose, 
 
 torosum, 
 
 torta, corolla, 
 
 tortilis, arista, 
 
 torulosa, 
 
 torva, 
 
 88, 238 
 186 
 187 
 136. iii. 22 
 119 
 186 
 90 
 
 trachea:, 208, 209. ii. 26, 28, 29 
 
 trachees, ii. 29 
 
 transversim sulcata, anthera, 163 
 
 trialata, semina, 242 
 
 triangular leaf, 31 
 
 triangulate, folium, &e., 31, 171 
 
 Tricocca:, iii. 52, 145 
 
 tricocca, capsula, 183 
 
 tricoccous, 183 
 
 trifida, corolla, 133 
 
 trifidum, 109 
 
 trifidus, cirrus, 74 
 
 trifiora, gluma, 118 
 
 trig-onus, caulis, 23 
 
 Trihilata:, 
 triloba, 
 trilocularis, 
 tripetala, corolla, 
 Tripe taloidex, 
 
 iii. 44 
 182. iii. 68 
 
 246 I 
 13* 
 ii 9 
 
 triphyllum, 109, 114. ir 130 
 
 tripinnatum, folium, 38 
 
 triptei-ygia, 243 
 triqueter, caulis, 
 
 triquetrum, 34 
 
 folium, 34 
 
 triternatum, folium, 38 
 
 truncata, anthera, 163 
 
 truncatum, folium, 32 
 
 tube, 133 
 
 tubercularis, radicula, 233 
 tuberculatum, tubercled, J :gumen, 187 
 
 tubulata, corolla,- 'ii. 120 
 
 tubulosum, folium, . 34 
 
 tubulous, or hollow le."> , 34 
 
 tubus, corollx, 133 
 
 tunic, 200 
 
 tunicated, or coated, bulb, 9, 10 
 
 tunicatus, bulbus, 9, 1 
 
 turbinata, 181 
 
 turbinate, 171 
 
 turbinatum, germen, 171 
 
 turgidum, legumen, 187 
 
 turio, 212 
 
 turionifera, planta, 212 
 
 twisted corolla, 136 
 
 U. 
 
 Umbel, 
 
 umbella, 
 
 — — — — axillaris, axillary, 
 
 concava, 
 
 composita, 
 
 convcxa. 
 
 erecta, 
 
 fastigiata, 
 
 ■ oppositifolia, 
 
 simplex, 
 
 terminalis, 
 
 universalis, 
 
 287, 288 
 287, 288 
 288 
 288 
 287 
 288 
 288 
 288 
 288 
 287 
 288 
 288 
 
'**; 
 
 * - 
 
 m 
 
 InH 
 
 '• 
 
 ■T 
 
 av