^ fT M M TTTF r ? n "i i i T,rnm sSSbtoS^,, RADFORD'S CHITECTURIA DRAWING Complete Guide toWork of Arc hitect's Office DrawingtoScale-Tracing Detailing — Lettering Rendering-Designii^ Classic Orders JS=asr?t?^ worn cr^'^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/radfordsarchitecOOradf Radford's Architectural Drawing Complete Guide to Work of Architect's Office Drawing to Scale — Tracing — Detailing — Lettering — Rendering — Designing — Classic Orders of Architecture A COMPLETE AND THOEOUGH COUESE, CLEAELY WEITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTEATED; SUITED ALIKE TO INDIVIDUAL STUDY AND CLASS INSTEUCTION Prepared under the Supervision of WILLIAM A. RADFORD President of the Radford Architectural Company, Editor-in-Chief of "Rad- ford's Cyclopedia of Construction," "American Carpenter and Build- er," "Radford's Details of Building Construction," etc. Assisted by LOEING H. PEOVINE, B. S. Instructor in Architectural Engineering, Department of Architecture, University of Illinois and ALFEED S. JOHNSON, A.M., Ph.D. Editor in Charge Cyclopedia Department Radford Architectural Company A Companion Volume to 'BRADFORD'S MECHANICAL DRAWING THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY Chicago, lU. Copyright, 1912 BY THE EADFOED ARCHITECTUBAL COMPANY Preface All that stands between thousands of practical carpenters and builders in this country and a greater success is the lack of facility in architectural drafting. Ambitious men, both young and old, are turning to architecture — the draw- ing of plans — as their big opportunity for advancement. ''Radford's Architectural Drafting" has been specially written and illustrated to help these men to reach this goal. It is practical, clear, direct. It goes straight to the point, telling the learner what he wants and needs to know with- out fuss, flurry, or theoretical nonsense. It is complete. It is arranged in logical order for satisfactory individual study. The importance of neat drafting and lettering on plans can not be overestimated. Architects rate their draftsmen according to the way they do their work ; and the architects are themselves judged by the way their drawings go out. Careless drafting and amateurish lettering have more than once lost for an otherwise good man a desirable job or a nice commission. This book, together with its companion volume, "Rad- ford's Mechanical Drawing," has been prepared to furnish ambitious men — whether apprentices or experienced build- ers, students in school or young draftsmen in offices — a practical, thorough, and satisfactory course in draftsman- ship, drawing, sketching, rendering, and designing. One who is already in the work can well begin with this Volume 2, the more advanced drafting and designing work as done in the best architects' offices. Others should start with Volume 1 and master the foundation principles of mechani- cal drafting, the use of the drafting instruments, etc., before proceeding with the architectural course. Table of Contents — Volume I Mechanical Drafting Page 1 The Draftsman's Outfit — Instruments and Materials — Testing Instruments — Use of Instruments — Drawing to Scale — Pencil- ing and Inking— Geometrical Constructions — Approximations — Projection (Orthographic, Oblique, Isometric, etc.) — Planes of Projection — Ground Line — Quadrants — Plans and Elevations — Direction of Oblique Lines ; Slope — Profile Plane — Auxiliary Planes of Projection — Intersection and Development — Non- Developable Figures — Intersection of Planes — Of Plane and Curved Surface — Of Plane and Cylinder— Of Solids — Visibility of Lines of Intersection — Development of Prism, Pyramid, etc. — Intersection of Cylinder and Prism — Of Curved Surfaces — Approximate Developments — Problems in Drafting for Con- struction (Finding Miters, Developing Mouldings, etc.) — Picto- rial Drawing — Perspective Projection — Isometric Drawing — Non-Isometric Lines — Isometrics of Cylinders, Cones, etc. — Oblique Projection. Working Drawings Page 145 Qualifications of the Draftsman — Detail Drawings — Assembly Drawings — I'reliminary Sketches — Requirements of Good Draw- ings — Explanatory Notes — Conventional Lines — Shade Lines — Blue-Prints — Tracing — Dimensioning — Extension Lines — Over- All Dimensions- — Finished Surfaces — Sections — Cross-Hatching — Conventional Representations of Materials — Lettering of Drawings — Spacing — Drawings for Building Construction — Working Plans (Basement. First Floor, etc.) — Structural Drafting — Solid and Built-Up Members — Rivets and Bolts — Reading Drawings. Index Page 186A Table of Contents — ^Volume II Architectural Drafting .... Page 187 General Requirements — Negotiating with Owner — Scale of Drawings — Changes in Plans — Preliminary Sketches — Per- spective Sketches — Competition Drawings — Working Drawings (General and Detail) — Scale and Full-Sized Drawings — The Plan — Layout of Rooms, etc. — The Elevation — Use of the Orders — Characteristics of Types of Buildings (Residence, Library, Schoolhouse. Office Building, Warehouse, etc.) — Colonial Architecture — General Composition — Treatment of Elevations — Location of Openings — Scale Details — The Section — Full-Sizing — Reproducing Drawings (Blue-Printing, White- Printing, Hectograph I'rocess, etc.) — Tracing Cloth — Architec- tural Forms — Conventional Symbols (Drain and Sewer Pipe, Lighting, Heating, etc.) — Sizes of Furniture — Materials of Construction- — Shades and Shadows — Direction of Light — Shadows of Points, Lines, etc. — Details of Construction — Cornice — Floors^Lath and Plaster — Flashing and Counter- Flashing — Doors — Porches — Fireplaces— Stairs — Windows, etc. Sketching; Pen and Ink Rendering; Wash Draw iNG Page 298 I'rinciples of Sketching — Pencils and Paper — Method— Laying Out a Drawing — Rendering (in Pencil, in Ink, in Water-Color) — Wash Drawings. Orders of Architecture; Architectural Lettering Page 317 Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders — Entablature, Column, Pedestal — Architrave, Frieze. Cornice — Column Details — Units of Measurement — Classic Mouldings — Forms and Proportions of Letters — Spacing — Titles and Inscriptions — Types of Letters for Various Uses. Index Page 343 •3 ^jTi ::fm -/,,. ^..'ij.j--.- /><%^ /i-^^%-^ "?(;r -. .,v^>.^^.-.*.=.- ... v.^^-^^^^aSB^-^- %i ?^ Q <; >^ w 0H o w w w Architectural Drafting It would be a commonplace to insist on the advantage to all property owners and to all classes of workers engaged in building construc- tion, of a knowledge of the principles of archi- tectural design. It is equally important that they should know how to read and interpret intelligently the working drawings that are the guides to the details of actual construction, and, if need be, to make these drawings themselves. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS The first impression given by a set of draw- ings applies as well in Architectiu'e as in any other line of work. So often we hear it said, "It certainly makes a good impression." Apply- ing this same principle to architecture, let us consider a few general requirements in order to finish a set of plans in ^he best manner, and also have them appeal to a person not familiar with architectural work. The drawings should be complete in every respect. They should be fully dimensioned with plain figures; all material plainly marked by arrows; each room named, for the sake of reference; and the various parts of the work 187 188 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING carefully explained by explanatory notes. Make these notes clear, concise, and with no mistaking the part to which they refer. While the title of each page may be lettered in a more elaborate letter, make all explanatory notes plainly let- tered. Drawings in general have but few notes of explanation. Make it a rule to explain fully all the questionable portions of a building. This applies to the plans, as well as the eleva- tions, sections, and details. In the arrange- ment of notes, if there are those that do not refer to an};^ particular portion of the drawing, place these notes over the sheet, to make it well balanced. Do not try to crowd them into one corner of the sheet or along one edge. Place them where they will make the drawing as a whole look the best. Architectural drawings should have some character to them; the lines should be firm and straight, making them a full, even thickness. Very often good drawings are spoiled by the lines, being very poor and also too faint. Use a good, heavy line, and make it look as if it was there for a purpose. One way in which a drawing can be made attractive and "snappy," as you will hear archi- tects say, is to overrun all corners and inter- sections of lines, slightly. In mechanical draft- ing other than the work of the architects, it is always required to stop the lines at the corners, making the drawing exact and very mechan- ical in appearance. The architect, however, is AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 189 •^Hl-Hi-^^f^^ u n L ^ Q iv/NO Doom /J -6 x2a: r L I ti-.: -. - HI -. 1 i-.v.-p: :--■ DE.N Si •---vdl - ^t^T"^?*.- G a 1 — rig. 1. Part Plan, Showing Method of Ovemuming Comers. 190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING allowed some liberties in his work. He will resort to methods, to improve the looks of his di'awings, which would not be pei*missible in other work. Referring to Fig. 1, it will be seen that the corners and intersections are emphasized by the overrunning of the lines. This does not mean long lines past the corners, but just enough to show a sharp intersection. A little practice will soon enable a draftsman to do this w^ork skil- fully, and once this method is adopted it will be used on all future work, as there is no com- parison in the general attractive appearance of two drawings, in one of which this method is used, and in the other the strict mechanical method is adhered to. The actual time con- sumed in getting out a drawing is less with the method described than with the true mechan- ical drawing, in which it is necessary to start and stop at exactly a certain point. In mechan- ical drawing, it is frequently necessary, after two lines at an angle have been drawn, to go over the first line in order to continue it a short distance to the exact corner. Very often, a few minutes spent on careful lettering, indicating materials, and an additional explanatory note, will be the winning feature of a set of drawings. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon alwaj^s being on time, whether in office work or in getting out drawings. When a time is set for the completion of any drawing, or a time AECHITECTUKAL DKAFTING 191 of meeting arranged, have your work ready at that time, and keep yoiu* appointment exactly as arranged. Before setting a time of comple- tion, be sui'e you are giving yourself time to do the work completely, and then see to it that your work is ready at that time. The architect's services usually consist in preparing the necessary studies or preliminary sketches, working drawings, specifications, and large-scale and full-size details, together with a general supervision of the work. For this service, there is usually a price based upon a minimum percentage of the completed work. This percentage varies in different States and localities, from 3i/> to 7 per cent. As the work progresses, or different sets of drawings are completed, payments are made. If we consider the architect receiving five per cent commission, one-fifth the entire fee is due upon the com- pletion of the preliminary sketches, two-fifths upon the completion of the working di^awings and specifications, the balance being paid as the work progresses. This percentage is based on the total cost of the buildings. These prices are those adopted by the Chicago Ai'chitects' Busi- ness Association. Should work on the di'awings be abandoned, a charge should be made for services for the amount of work done. This will give an idea as to the general prices charged, and the usual times of payment. It does not pay to do work at a small percent- age, for the work on the drawings and specifi- 192 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING cations will necessarily have to be inferior and incomplete. The scales at which drawings are usually made are % in., 1/4 i^v V2 i^-> % ^-y % i^-> ^V2 in., and 3 in., to the foot. These are convenient for all parties concerned. We see that by using the first three scales we can use the regular divisions on a rule, without having an architect's scale. The last scales are also convenient for the same reason. Take, for instance, a detail drawn at 3-inch scale; then we see that 1^4 i^^^ equals one inch, and an ordinary rule can be used to advantage. On the actual construction work, the foreman always uses his two-foot rule for scaling the drawings ; and if the above scales are used, they are easily read from an ordinary rule. A complete set of drawings should include a smn^ey, or City Engineer's plan, of the lot, on which the outline of the building is marked; a foundation plan; a plan for each floor; a roof plan; an elevation of each side of the house; all necessary %-inch scale detail sections; all necessary elevations of interior finish; large- scale details of the window-frames and sash and interior trim; and any other details of unusual construction. After the contract is let, then get out full-sized details. Should any changes be necessary after the drawings are completed, secure the owner's written order for such changes. If everything ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 193 is in writing, there can be no cause for dispute, especially in the matter of changes. METHOD OF GETTING OUT DRAWINGS The prospective client, by appointment or otherwise, meets the architect in his office. The general scheme is talked over, and the various subjects are discussed, such as the lot, location, size, etc.; the amount to be put into the build- ing, or the cost; the time of beginning and completion; the owner's general idea of the requirements; and the architect's fee. A time is set for the getting-out of the preliminary sketches. All of this information is arranged, and entered in a book for future reference. At the appointed time, the client appears again, and the preliminary sketches are talked over, changed, and revised, and any new infor- mation is noted. After another visit or two by the client, the sketches are accepted. The working drawings are begun, usually made at %-inch or 14-inch scale. These drawings are carefully inspected by the head draftsman, num- bered, dated, and signed. These drawings are then reproduced by some method— usually blue-printed— bound, and sent to the contractors for bids or proposals on the work. After the contract has been let, the full- sized drawings are made. 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS Architectural drawings may be classified as follows : Preliminary Drawings Working Drawings Sketches Perspective Sketches Competition Drawings General Detail 'Scale Details Pull-Size Details Preliminary Drawings Preliminary drawings are small studies of the proposed new work, freehand or otherwise, at a small scale, finished in an attractive man- ner. There are three classes of preliminary drawings — namely. Sketches, Perspectives, and Competitive Sketches. Preliminary Sketches. In architectural work, no matter whether you are an architect dealing with an owner or client, or a draftsman getting out working drawings, it is always better to make a preliminary sketch of the arrangement, detail, etc., as it saves time and much erasing and changing on the scale drawings. By pre- liminary sketches we mean the sketching free- hand on paper to show exactly just how you will draw it with the T-square and triangles. Let us consider the architect dealing with a client. The first thing is an arrangement of the COLONIAL EXTRAXCE TO HOUSE AT HOPKIXTON, MASS. AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 195 rooms, or the plan is fii'st studied. For this work, tracing paper will be found very easy to work with and very convenient. The use of a sheet of co-ordinate paper under the tracing paper will be found very convenient. The squares on the co-ordinate paper will serve as a guide in drawing straight lines; and also the squares as ruled on this paper can be used as a scale — one square representing one unit, as a foot or an inch. Very often the owner of the proposed new building will have some scheme or arrangement of rooms that he would like; therefore, try to have him give you a rough sketch of such arrangement; even a drawing with single lines for walls, and cross-lines indicating windows, will be very helpful. A drawing as shown in Mg. 2 is just what you want from your client. Having received either this sketch or a list of the requirements, you are ready to start your preliminary sketches. Spread down the co-ordi- nate paper, and over this lay a sheet of tracing paper. These may be held down with thumb- tacks or weights of some sort placed on opposite ends. Assume each square of the paper to represent some unit, as one inch, or one foot, or ten feet; and lay out first the property lines. Then commence on the building proper. Make no attempt at trying to make exact lines; let these sketches be more of freehand drawing. Mark off the approximate sizes of rooms by rectangles, and try the various arrangements, 196 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING -^ — ^ ^CjutXuu^ J ^^AxJrS^CiFtsxr Fig. 2. A Single-Line Sketch Submitted, from which the Archi- tect *€ts an Idea of the Arrangement. AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 197 endeavoring to secure an ideal arrangement. Make no attempt at trying to show double lines for wall lines; let it be a free and eas}^ sketch of single lines. Don't be satisfied with one arrangement of the given requirements. Over this first sketch lay another sheet of tracing paper. Perhaps you can use some parts of the first sketch, and revise other parts. Study your problem, and be fully acquainted with the requirements. After completing this second arrangement, try to imagine difficulties that this arrangement would present, and how they might be remedied. Make another sketch; don't be satisfied until you have made half a dozen different sketches. After having considered all the possible arrange- ments of the requirements, then take the sketches, spread them all out before you, and see if you have solved the problem. Now commence with a clean sheet of tracing paper over the co-ordinate paper, and make fin- ished sketches; that is, lay out the wall lines carefulh", put in the windows and doors, letter the rooms, and get these drawings into shape to submit them to the client. Make them so that he will understand clearly the arrangement you have sketched. For filling in the walls to indicate the walls and the windows, it will help the appearance to color the walls on the back side of the paper with the pencil. This gives a subdued color to 198 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING the walls, and increases the clearness of the plan or drawing. Prepare small sketches of possible treatment of the elevations, and submit these also with the plan. These will now do for you to submit to your client (see Fig. 3). Be very sure that you have studied the problem thoroughly, and be prepared to answer all questions your client will probably ask. The client will very soon form an opinion of your ability by the way you handle his work. When these first preliminary sketches are ready, notify your client, unless you have had a previous time of meeting set. If this be the case, then be sure to have your work ready for him at the appointed time. Remember, your client is a busy business man, a man who is always used to keeping his appointments, and expects everyone to keep theirs. After these first sketches have been sub- mitted, and carefull}^ gone over, make an ap- pointment for the next meeting, at which time you will have the final preliminary sketches ready. There will always be changes and addi- tions on these sketches; and the fewer times the client has to be consulted, the better im- pression you will make. Therefore, after this first meeting, understand thoroughlj^ your client's objections and changes, ask questions to make sure you do understand, and go back to vour office determined to make the revisions ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 199 r»(?5T Floor Piw9K Fig. 3. First Sketch Ready to Suljmit to Owner. Original drawn at scale of %" = I'-O", all freehand and drawn on co-ordinate paper. 200 ARCHITECTUHAL DRAFTING and that the next sketches submitted will be approved. For the next sketches, it is very often more satisfactory to use the T-square and triangles, and a scale, and make small, sketchy drawings. Tack down your tracing paper, and lay out to a small scale the general arrangement (Fig. 4). Every little detail need not be attempted on these sketches; but make them straight-line drawings, using more care in the finishing of such drawings. Make all plans necessary, show- ing the arrangement on all floors ; also an eleva- tion. Make them attractive, and letter com- pletely. The next meeting with your client should be the last one so far as the sketches are concerned. Have him look over all your sketches closely; go over them with him, pointing out the changes, telling him the advantages to be gained by this or that arrangement, and convince him that you know your business. He will finally see things yoiir way, and he will tell you to go ahead with the work. If you see he is satisfied with the arrangement as shown him on the sketches, secure if possible his initials of approval (in ink) on each sheet. Don't ask Mm to "sign these sketches," as if you were an owner and he a lease-holder. If there is anything a busi- ness man hesitates to do, it is to sign his name to a paper of any kind. Use a little tact, tell him that you want him to be perfectly satisfied; and in order for him to be sure he is going to ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING . 201 m Porch riQ3T ruooQ Plan Fig. 4. Final Preliminary Drawing. Drawn with T-square and triangles to scale. 202 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING get the arrangement that suited him, he can O. K. the sketches that he approves, and thereby have a check on the working drawings so that they will be sure to be what he wants. On the other hand, you are protecting yourself by this signature. Very often your client may forget that he ordered this or that change in your sketches; he might in some cases refuse to pay you yoiu" agreed commission, because you did not do this or that thing which he ordered. If you have his signature on the sketches, and you have followed these sketches exactly, you will not fear the outcome should the case go to law for settlement. The same general method of procedure will apply if you are a draftsman getting out scale details. Get out freehand sketches on tracing paper, several of them; decide which is the best method before making the regular scale details. If you are a new man in an office, submit your best sketch for the construction to the head draftsman, and let him see that you are studying your work, endeavoring to get the best method. Learn to make your sketches clear and well executed. This comes only by practice in sketching. Much time and money can be saved on the cost of getting out the drawings if only you learn to make these sketches well and complete, so that when you are ready to make the final drawings, you can start and know definitely just what they will include. AKCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 203 It will be found very convenient to use a soft pencil. Never use a hard pencil on your drawings, no matter whether they are the sketches or scale drawings. It is very necessary for a draftsman to know how^ to make preliminary sketches. Very often a new draftsman's ability along architectural lines is tested by these preliminary sketches, their make-up, the method of getting them out, and the time taken to get them ready. If a firm finds out that you can make attractive and yet practical preliminar}^ sketches, you will soon find out that you will not be required to serve your time at tracing drawings or details, as most draftsmen have to do upon entering a new office. Perspective Sketches. A perspective is a representation of a building or object as it ap- pears from a fixed point. These sketches are usu- ally drawn at a small scale, either freehand or mechanically. The lines should be lightly drawn or sketched, as strong lines will be objection- able in the rendering or coloring of the drawing. The rendering may be in pencil, ink, water- color, or sometimes in crayon, and prepared upon almost any kind of paper (see Fig. 5). Competition Drawings. These are more or less preliminary sketches. As a general thing it is only occasionally that a firm enters a com- petition; but if it should, let the draftsman show that he knows how to prepare such drawings. By competition drawings, we mean drawings that are submitted in a competition. The firms 204 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING may be imdted to submit competition designs, in which case it is called a closed competition; or the requirements may be published in some Fig. 5. A Freehand Perspective Sketch. architectural paper, and anyone may submit drawings, in which case it is called an open competition. The drawings submitted for the open competition are more of the nature of sketches than in the closed competition. Usu- ally, in the closed competition, each firm invited to submit drawings will be paid for their work even though unsuccessful in being the winner. There is generally a sum paid for such drawings. Thus, in a closed competition, an architect is paid for his time and can afford to get out a better class of drawings. These are usually drawn on regular drawing paper, carefully laid out to scale, and all inked in. The sheet is then water-colored and made as attractive as possible ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 205 in this manner. In other words, these drawings are laid out as carefully, except at a much smaller scale, as working drawings; only the important dimensions are put on. In the open competition, the work is usually done on tracing paper. The plans are laid out at a small scale, made very sketchy, and the pencil is allowed much freedom in the lines. With this sort of drawing, it is necessary to study the requirements, make sketches, and decide for yourself which answers the require- ments the best. There will be no client to criti- cise yoiu" work, but you will have to do this for yourself and submit your sketches as final sketches to the client. The first-floor plan is laid out, and the surrounding premises are also laid out. Trees and shrubbery also are put on; and walks, drives, and gardens are shown. Since this is on tracing paper, very little water-color is used. Use the pencil to show everything, and upon your ability to use jouv pencil — and a soft one, too — will depend much of the success of yom* drawings. After these sketches have been made, they are lettered and titled attrac- tively, and then mounted on cardboard. This mounting is usually done by pasting the corners only, and not attempting to paste the whole drawing. Ordinarily, a border of some sort is placed around the card, and any other finishing touches that will make the drawing attract attention are added. Thus we see that competi- 206 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING tion drawings are only preliminary sketches finished a little better than for the ordinary class of work. Should you be successful in the competition, the method of getting out the working drawings, scale details, and other drawings, is the same as for any other work. The chances are that you will rarely have a chance to get out competition drawings; but should the opportunity come, grasp it, and do your best. Working Drawings By working drawings we mean drawings complete in every respect, with dimensions, sizes of rooms, etc. In other w^ords, they are the drawings giving all the necessary informa- tion to completely build the structure as drawn. This division of drawings may be divided into general and detail drawings, the latter being subdivided into scale and full-size. The architect who is mindful of his client's welfare will furnish a complete set of drawings. The clearest, simplest, and most exact working drawing is the best. Some architects feel that working drawings do not require the best work. The making of good, clear, complete drawings cannot be emphasized too strongly. The Plan. In the plan we see an arrange- ment of the rooms for the different floors that approaches the ideal as nearly as possible. The plan should present the conveniences of arrange- AECHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 207 ment. In the following description we shall consider the plan of a residence, as it will clearly set forth the logical arrangement of parts. The description, as noted, will be limited to residence w^ork, since this class of building is likely to afford a student his first opportunity for inde- pendent, original work. The same reasoning could be extended and applied to any class of building. Usually the first-floor plan is worked out first, as it is the most important, since the greater part of the day is spent in this portion of the house. The upper floors, being used almost entirely for bed- rooms or minor rooms, can be worked out to conform to the outline of the first-floor plan. The basement usually is devoted to the heating apparatus and its accessories, the laundry, store- rooms, and such. Therefore, the first-floor plan will govern the outline of the basement walls; and the basement rooms will be arranged inside the basement walls, as determined by the first- floor plan. In residence work we see two classifica- tions—the city house and the country house. The city house gets its sunlight from the front and rear, being usually built in between adjacent houses where there is no chance of sunlight from the sides. A country house gets its ligh't from all fom^ sides; that is, it is built in a part of town where the lots are of sufficient width to give plenty of light and air. The city house 208 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING usually has a lot 20 to 30 feet wide, and it is a question of the best arrangement for light as well as comfort. The country house usually has a lot 50 to 60 feet wide; and it is not un- common to see a house built on two lots, giving all the more room. Let us, therefore, consider the first-floor plan. Upon entering a residence, we usually step into a vestibule. This room, while small and inferior, yet is one of the most important rooms in the house. The vestibule should be well lighted, which can be done by means of glass in the front door, by side lights along the sides of the door, by a transom, and by glass in the door leading into the living room. The vestibule should be provided if possible with a closet (it need not be large), in which a person's every- day hats and wraps may be kept, also all rub- bers and umbrellas. It is very evident that this will be the first need upon entering a home — a place to dispose of one's coat, hat, etc., before entering the home proper. It is all the more urgent in a mild, rainy climate. In case a closet cannot be provided, there should be a seat with a hinged cover, and a stand for umbrellas, with the usual furniture for holding the coats and hats. This room, as already said, need not be large, as usually not more than two people are ever in the room at the same time. In some residences there is no vestibule, but it is almost a necessity in the best class of work. AECHITECTURAL DEAFTIXG 209 From the vestibule, we now come to the reception room. This room is usually large, with but little fui'niture. The main stairway leads up from one side of this room and is made quite ornamental. The other side is usually open, or separated by columns or grill-work from the living room. At one end of the reception room, one frequently sees a fireplace, more or less elaborate. Turning now to the living room, let us study the requirements of this room. Here is the room the famih^ will spend most of the time in. Often one end is set apart for a nook or library. There should be a large open room with a fire- place of brick or stone or tile or other suitable material, ornamental or plain, or the mantel may be of wood. Provide plenty of windows, especially on the sunny side of the house. Nothing will dispel gloomy feelings or worry quicker than plenty of surdight and fresh air. For the nook, if there is one, build in shelves for books, put in a seat with a hinged cover, also a fireplace. In this room, the quiet hours of the day are spent; therefore make it comfortable and convenient. A very convenient arrangement is to place a seat on one side, with bookshelves on the other; also a few shelves at one end or above the seat, for cmTent books or periodicals. Provide a plate-rail around this nook, for the placing of china, ornaments, or bric-a-brac. Opening from the living room we usually 210 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING find the dining room, separated by sliding doors. This room should be more or less private, but by means of double doors it may be thrown open when desired. In the dining room, build in a sideboard, and provide a small shelf or two for pretty china, vases, or ornaments. Back of these shelves a mirror is usually set. A French beveled-plate mirror is used in the best work. There should be the "counter," or the main shelf, projecting from two to six inches beyond the shelves and drawers below. Below the counter, provide a long drawer that will take a table-cloth as folded when laundered. A drawer for silver is also directly under the counter. Below this, there may be either drawers for other table linen, or shelves enclosed by glass doors for displaying china or cut glass. This sideboard should be made an attractive feature of the room. There might also be an- other case of shelves and drawers for additional table linen and dishes. There should be a plate- rail aroimd the room, on which to hang cups or to place china or ornaments. This room should have, if possible, an east exposure, since the first meal of the day should be served in a bright, cheery atmosphere. It will be necessary to have a serving pantry between the dining room and kitchen. There should be double-acting doors. This greatly facilitates the carrying of dishes from one room to another. In this pantr should be a wide shelf or counter which will be used in the prep- AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 211 aration of the meal. Above are shelves with sliding doors, and below are drawers for differ- ent articles of food. Provide always plenty of drawers and shelf room. In a small room, sliding doors will be found much more con- venient than swing doors, as they are much more easily handled and take up much less room in opening and closing. If possible, there should be built in this room a refi-igerator. If not here, place it in the kitchen. This refrigerator should be provided with an outside door through which the ice may be replenished from the outside, thereby doing away with the ice man coming in at all hours and in bad weather tracking mud into the house. The kitchen, while in the rear of the house, requires careful thought. The housekeeper usually spends the greater part of the morning here; therefore give this room, if possible, an east exposure. Make the windows low enough so that a person sitting can see out. For the kitchen table and sink, have a window near. This will not only be an aid to better light, but will give the housekeeper a chance to see out through the window. Place a sink as near the pantry and dining room as possible; also, as mentioned above, so as to be near outside light. In the kitchen will be found a cooking range or gas stove, or both. Place these, if possible, where they will get a cross-draft; in other words, place them between a door and a window, or between windows, so that the odor during 212 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING the preparation of a meal will be carried away. Of course there is necessary a flue for the range, and there should also be one for the gas stove to carry off the odors of the gas and the ovens. The kitchen table should be convenient to the stoves. There should be built-in shelves and cupboards for the kitchen-ware and the pots and kettles. Either in the serving pantry or some- where in the kitchen, provide a tilting bin for the flour. This can be very easily done by making the bin pivoted at the outside corners, to allow the bin to tilt out. Hooks or pivots for swinging a barrel of sugar would also be a great convenience. Do not make the kitchen large; make it small, comjjact, and convenient, to save the housekeeper all unnecessary steps. There will also be necessary rear stairs, one to the basement and one to the attic. These stairs should be about 3 feet 6 inches wide, as boxes, furniture, etc., are all taken up or down these stairs ; so do not make them too small. Having decided upon a satisfactory arrange- ment of the lower floor, we now consider the upper floors. These are devoted to the bed- rooms and other rooms where more privacy is desired, such as the sewing room, the study, or the nursery. As has been said, the first-floor plan determines the outline of the second-floor plan. The number of bedrooms is determined by the size of the famil}'. There will be required also a guest room and a servant's room. As to the requirements of a bedroom, make ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 213 ample-sized rooms. The usual articles of furni- ture will be the bed, a dresser, a chiffonier, a small table, and sometimes a writing desk or an additional table of some sort. Provide plenty of closet room, with a window, if possible, in it. In the closet should be a number of shelves, a hook strip around the three sides. The closet should be finished, so far as plaster and inside finish are concerned, as well as the other rooms. The question of closets is important; therefore, consider them an essential part of every house. On the second floor provide a bathroom con- venient to all rooms, yet far enough away from the main hall to be private. The bathroom is usually crowded into any remaining space that may be left after bedrooms have been consid- K m i Fig. 6. Layout of a Very Small Bathroom. ered. This, however, is not a satisfactory way of doing, since the bathroom should be as con- venient in arrangement as any other room. In the bathroom the usual necessary fixtures are a bathtub, a lavatory or wash-bowl, and a water- closet. In more expensive homes a foot-bath and a sitz bath are provided; sometimes a shower bath also. There should be ample room for the placing of these fixtm'es, with plenty of 214 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING room around them. In Fig. 6 is shown the smallest room that can accommodate the neces- sary fixtures. While this will serve in the cheapest houses, yet the arrangements shown in Figs. 7 and 8 are much better. Should more fixtures be added, the room 1© rig. 7. Fig. 8. Two Plans of Conmnodious Bathrooms. should also be made larger to accommodate them. There will also be required a medicine chest, usually built into the wall directly above the lavatory, or these can be bought at furnitm-e stores, ready to hang on the wall. There should always be a mirror in the door of this chest. Provide a built-in closet with swing doors for the upper half and drawers for the lower half. The finish of this room, as well as the shape of the mouldings, should be such that the dust will not easily settle on them, and that they may be frequently washed to remove any accumulation of dust. In most homes, the two main floors are all that are required for living rooms. The attic is usually low, and can be fitted up with store- Eh 02 P ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 215 rooms. The construction of the roof should be such that soot and dirt cannot come through. This is ordinarily accomplished b}^ using build- ing paper under the shingles or roof covering. There should be an attic stairs, convenient and easy of ascent. For the basement, the furnace will require a part of the space, together with a coal room. This coal room should be built dust-tight, and have a window convenient to a driveway for the unloading of coal. The size of coal room for different classes of coal, is indicated below under the heading ''Dimensions." There should be a laundry with laundry tubs, or a room where the family washing may be done. The remaining space in the basement may be divided to suit the owner's wishes; sometimes a work-room, a store-room, a drying room, a shop, msLj be placed here. It is very essential to have a concrete floor over the entire basement. This will do away with a great deal of dirt and dust that otherwise would be carried from the basement all over the house. There should be an outside entrance, as well as an entrance from the kitchen or serving room. Thus we see the usual requirements for the different rooms of the house. The essential rooms have been considered. In addition to these, if the price will warrant it, there may be other rooms and conveniences, such as a den or study, additional store-rooms, an extra guest 216 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING room, a nursery, a pantry off the kitchen for storing the supplies of the kitchen. A clothes- chute would be very convenient also. This chute is a vertical shaft connecting the bathroom with the laundry in the basement. There is a door into this chute at the bathroom, and one on the first floor. It should be lined with wood, with the pieces placed vertically to offer no obstruc- tions to the passage of clothes. The purpose is evident, being a means of conveying the soiled linen from the second and first floors to the base- ment, and thereby saving carrying them from all over the house in a basket to the basement. In summing up this portion of the work, let the draftsman put in all conveniences in the way of cupboards, shelves, and drawers wherever there is a space, corner, or portion of a wall. In this way you make a favorable impression upon the housekeeper, and if this is done, the *' battle is more than half won." Fig. 9 is a first-floor plan, showing the arrangement, the dimensions, and all necessary information to give the builder a complete understanding of the work. The Elevation. Having considered briefly the general methods used in the drawing of architectural plans, we shall now consider the elevations. By elevations we mean the different "views" of the building. These should show exactly the appearance of the building when completed. Use of the Orders. It will be assumed that AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTIXG 217 the reader is familiar with the Orders of Archi- tecture (see below under heading "Orders of Architectm-e"), and that he knows the names of the various parts of an Order. From a study of the Orders, we see that each one has three main divisions, the entablature, the column, and the pedestal. These are in turn divided into parts, the entablature consisting of the cornice, the frieze, and the architrave; the column has a capital, a shaft, and a base or plinth; and the pedestal, a cap, a die, and a base. Generally speaking, an elevation — especially the principal one — shows these component parts of an Order. They may not be classically correct in proportions, but the parts are more or less prominent, and should be used as a basis for design of all classes of work. Let us take a residence for an example. Study an elevation of a good type of this class of building. We see that the basement wall up to the first-floor line corresponds to the pedestal of the coliunn, a strong, massive part to support the building above. This pedestal is usually capped by a projecting coiu'se we call a water- table — that is, a board or strip projecting from the face of a wall to turn the water from the side of the building away from the foundation. This corresponds to the base or plinth of the column. Above the water-table, the part of the house extending to above the top story windows coiTesponds to the shaft of the column. Very often this coliunn effect is emphasized by means 318 AKCHITECTUKAL DKAFl^lNG zic _ lO'-lf f io'- CUT STONE. CONCQElTEi TEQRA COTTA F/a.s WOOOEN PAfiTlTlON - LATMEiO AND PLA^TSlREDi flG. 6. ^diddiddI ^: Pl-ASTEREiO. F/G. 7- F/G. 8. BQ/CK WALL- Fa/?Q£D, L-/\THKD AND PLA3TCR£D. F/G. S. £>OUD Pi. ASTER PART- IT/ON - PLASTER£.D. Plate A. Conventional Sjrtnbols for Bepresenting Materials on Ar< chitectural Drawings. 246 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING by varying the texture of the line and also by different forms of dotting. Fig. 2 — We use alternating lines — solid and dashes — at 45 degrees to re^Dresent rubble stone such as is found in most basements. Fig. 3 — We use solid lines running at 45 degrees to each other and in opposite directions, to represent cut-stone work such as sills for windows and doors, chimney caps, and any kind of finished or dressed stone. Fig. 4 represents concrete. This sjTnbol is composed of small, wavy lines, with occasional triangular shapes to represent the stone. This symbol may be used to represent the concrete such as would be used in a solid wall or reinforced concrete for floors and other similar constructions. Fig. 5 illustrates the method of showing terra-cotta. This is the same as for brick, with the lines running in the opposite direction. For representing an interior partition of a frame building, the method shown in Fig. 6 is perhaps the most satisfactory. Plaster is repre- sented by parallel lines to opposite sides of the wall. Very often, in fireproof buildings, partitions are built of hollow tile and plastered on both sides. Fig. 7 illustrates the method of indicating such a partition. Where a brick wall is furred on the inside and then plastered, we use the ordinary symbol for ,-^-^ -^ri ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 247 the brick wall, and show the plaster away from the wall, as in Fig. 8. Very often, instead of using the partition as shown in Fig. 7, it will be built up solid of plaster 2 inches thick with a layer of expanded metal imbedded. This partition is shown in Fig. 9. It will be found a very satisfactory partition, requiring less floor space, and equal in every way to any other fireproof partition. On the basement plan, various lines of pipe should be shown. There should be a porous tile drain, in damp soils, all around the outside of the basement walls, at the footing Une. Such drains are constructed of porous farm tile, laid with butt joints and no cementing of any kind. The tile being porous, the water in the soil perco- lates through the walls of the tile, and is carried away. These drains are indicated as shown in Plate B. For the sewer connections inside the build- ing, and extending at least six feet outside the basement wall, the pipe should be cast-iron and have calked joints. Such pipes are shown on the basement plan as in Plate B. Connected to this cast-iron pipe outside the basement wall, a nitrified tile drain should be used, with cemented joints. Such pipe is also shown in Plate B. All these pipe lines should be shown in black on the drawing. There are certain lines used in a drawing for reference, such as axis lines — that is, when a room or building is sjTnmetrically arranged 248 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAINING P0Q0U3 TILE. DQA/AJ3, /QO/y P/PE DQA/N3. V/T/3/rJ^D 3EWEP P/PE. The Aeov£i Should 3e 3/-fowN With 3j-AC K l/N£5. AXi3 LfNB3 (R£d). BUILDING LINES (Q£D). DOTTED JLIA/E3 /^O/Q GENEQAL U3E. /S'-o" DJMEN3/ON L/N^3 (Usually Ped WfTH BLAC/f AQfSOW^). Plate B. Conventional Methods of Eepresentmg Drain and Sewer Pipe, Axis Lines, Building Lines, Dimension Lines, etc. ARCHITECTURAL DRAmNG 24? around a center line. In order to make such axis lines distinct from general lines, they are usually made as shown in Plate B. When there are offsets or projections on a wall, such work is measured from certain lines established as building lines (see Plate B). Usually the outside wall line of the first story is taken as this reference line; and the basement wall line, the second-story line, the eave line, etc., are all measured as projecting from this line. All dimension lines are to be noted as shown on this same plate, in which the arrow-heads are black, the connecting line is red, and the figures are in black, always above this line. This is the best practice, though sometimes dimen- sions are placed in the center of the line, the line being stopped to allow the figures to be inserted. This method takes more time and is not so practical, since the dimension line is broken and in some cases there might be a dispute as to just how much the dimension is intended to include. For lighting, there are standard symbols adopted by the National Electrical Contractors ' Association of the United States. These are published on a card convenient for reference, and copies may be had by applying to the Secretary. Another form of symbols has been adopted by the Boston Society of Architects, copies of which may also be had on application. The latter sym- bols are shown on Plate C These are given for convenience in laying out plans, and are not 250 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING This Specificafion is bosad upon tht. us* of tht. follovvinif aifmboU Qnd of such ofhtrs as moi^ Be used and eKplaine.d on tht Plan ELECTRIC GAS COMBINATION CEILING OUTLE.T ■^* WALL OUTLET 2. L/^Atj w \¥ \^' FLOOR OUTLET I Lighir B 3A3E OUTLET ja. 3WITCH hs- Go'lTed L/'na. jhotivt Sitvitch Con'f'r-ol. PU3H BUTTON DANK OF BUTTON 5 E£°l B£:ll ANNUNCIATOR CABINET r^ SPEAKING tube: |— ^ MOUSE TELEPHONE, r^ PUBLIC TELEPHONE HEIGHTS Of= 3TOP/ES - TOP TO TOP /•»■' FT IN. 5''" F7. IN Z."" FT IN. 6^" FT- in IC" FT- IN 3"° FT list. 7"' FT. /A- BT ^ TM 1/2 r- FT //v. FT IN. FT IN. FT Hi. HEIGHTS OF CENTER OF WALL OUTLETS. Un/tjf or/tar-tv/je .»pae/'//t^. L/V//VC ASaOMS- 3-&" OFFICES- S"- O" CHAM BERS- 3-0" COfZQ/DOaS' G'-J" HEIGHT OF 2WITCHES-Un/ets other ^,se. ^pvcifi*.d - 4-'-0' Plate C. Standard Symbols for Eepresenting Fixtures, Electric Outlets, etc. Adopted by the Boston Society of Architects. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 251 intended to be complete in every respect. It is essential to show the location of the light outlets in all rooms; also whether they are to be gas, or electric, or a combination of both. Push- buttons, bells, and telephones are also indicated. If these locations are not shown, the contractor for this work will naturally place them in a posi- c 75 * Fig. 17. Conventional Symbols for Heating Apparatus. A— Steam or Hot-Water Radiator; B— Hot-Air Register. tion requiring the least amount of pipe, wire, etc. Therefore show all of these fixtures, and there can then be no dispute as to the true intent of the plans and specifications. For the heating, about all that is necessary is to show the location of the registers or radiators, marking the number of square feet of radiation on each radiator. The usual method is shown in Fig. 17 (A) for steam or hot water, and in Fig. 17 (B) for hot air. The specifications should s E:C2 Puooas rig. 18. Conventional Representation of Flues for Air Supply and Ventilation. 252 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING describe the kind of heat, and go into detail about pipe, fittings, etc. In hospitals, public buildings, and school- houses, where there are a number of occupants in each room, it will be necessary to furnish a fresh-air supply, also a vent flue. These are all figured, and should be located conveniently. Pig. 19. Sketch Plan Showing Arrangement of Pumiture. The method of figuring the correct location for such work will be considered under "Heating and Ventilating." The conventional method of showing flues for air supply and ventilation is shown in Fig. 18. For furniture, certain conventional forms are used, and shown on all plans. The furniture of the bedrooms and bathrooms is usually laid out on the plans, since these are usually made as ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 253 small as practicable; therefore the furniture and fittings are laid out to make sure that there will be room to get them all in. This applies to the cheaper classes of houses, for in the larger and more expensive residences the rooms are always amply large to accommodate all the fur- niture and fittings desirable. In Fig. 19, a bath- room and bedrooms are laid out, the fm-niture being indicated by numbers, (1) representing the lavatory or wash-bowl, (2) the closet, (3) the bathtub, (4) the bed, (5) the chiffonier, (6) the di-esser, and (7) a table or writing desk. See also Fig. 20. Sometimes a client has furniture he wishes to put into a new home. It will be found very convenient to get the dimensions of such furni- tuiT, and cut out pieces of cardboard the exact sizes of this furniture according to the scale of the plan. Then lay them on the plan as drawn, and see how they will fit wall spaces, nooks, etc. By this method, pieces can be arranged, and it will very soon be shown whether or not the rooms will accommodate the fm-niture. This will be found very convenient in all classes of work (see Fig. 20). Below are given the dimensions of some of the common pieces of furniture. These sizes will vary somewhat, but in general they will be accurate enough in laying out work. Dining Tables — 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. wide, and to extend to 10 ft. to 12 ft. by extra leaves, and 2 ft. 5 in. high. Writing Tables— 2 ft. 6 in. high. 254 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING rig. 20. Plan Showing Method of Laying Out Furniture and Bugs. Carving Tables— 3 ft. high. Ordinary Tables — 2 ft. 6 in. high. Beds, Single — 3 ft. 6 in. wide ; Beds, Three-quarter — 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. wide; Beds, Double — 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. wide. All beds should be 6 ft. 8 in. long inside. Dressers — 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. by 3 ft. 5 in. Couches — 2 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft. 8 in. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 255 Chiffoniers— 2 ft. by 3 ft., and 4 ft. 6 in. high. Sideboards vary according to design, 4 ft. to 6 ft. long, and from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 2 in. deep. Pianos, Upright, vary, being usually 3 ft. 3 in. by 6 ft. 6 in. long, and 4 ft. to 4 ft. 9 in. high. Bookcases — 10 in. to 16 in. deep, any length and height. Chairs and Seats — Usually 17 in. high at front, 16 in. at back, and the seat is usually 17 in. high by 16 in. inside ; the back, from 1 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. 8 in. high, slightly inclined at the top. For plumbing fixtures, consult any plumbing cata- logue. The washstand varies, 18 in. deep by 2 ft. long being about the minimum. The bathtub varies from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. long, about 1 ft. 11 in. high above the floor, and 2 ft. wide across the rim. Closets are about 1 ft. 4 in. wide, and about 2 ft. from the wall. Ranges — 26 in. to 30 in. by 36 in. by 42 in. Ranges, Gas — 26 in. by 34 in. Lunch Counters — Height, 3 ft. 3 in. Stool, 2 ft. 2 in. Couuter projects 9 in. and is 2 ft. 2 in. wide. Foot-rest, 7 in. high and 9 in. from counter. Urinals — 26 in. to 30 in., center to center. Rugs— 4 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. up to 11 ft. 3 in. by 15 ft. The above dimensions are only general, but will be of assistance in laying out the furnitui'e of a house. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION There will be found a great variety of materi- als for the construction of buildings, now^adays. In some localities, one material wdll be used more than others; for instance, in the vicinity 256 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING Fig. 21. Elevation of a Porch. See also Figs. 22 and 23. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 357 Slate Roopimg Fig. 22. Porch of Fig. 21 Fig. 23. Porch of Fig. 21 Detailed for Stone Construction. Detailed for Wood Construction. 258 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING of a stone quarry, stone will usually be cheaper than anything else — even in some cases cheaper than wood. Should your client be interested in a brick concern, brick would undoubtedly be used. In a locality where timber is cheap, that material would be largely employed. For the cheaper class of work, we find wood to be the cheapest material, although, within the past ten years or so, wood has advanced in price at a great rate. The kind of wood used will vary with each locality. In some sections — espe- cially the South — yellow pine will be used; in our Western States, fir and local varieties will be selected. An architect in a new locality, therefore, should become familiar with the local woods used, and should govern his Avork, such as spans of beams, interior finish, etc., by these conditions. The use of terra-cotta for the facing of masonry walls, for ornamental courses, cor- nices, and window-sills, is quite common. Since this is a product made of clay, properly mixed, moulded, and burned, it can be treated as plainly or as elaborately as the design of the building warrants. Terra-cotta, of course, is used only with masonry, such as brick, stone, or concrete. Fig. 21 shows the elevation of a porch, and Fig. 22 shows this porch detailed for stone con- struction; while Fig. 23 shows the same porch detailed for wood. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 359 SHADES AND SHADOWS In order to prepare sketches and make them attractive, a brief treatment of Shades and Shadows will be taken up, the main general rules and principles being explained, which may be applied to ordinary architectural drawing. By the use of shades and shadows, very im- portant effects are produced. The general pro- portions of the cornice, for example, are empha- sized by using shadows. The relative amount of window area to wall area is clearly shown by the use of shadows. The Light is always assumed as coming over the left shoulder of the person looking at the drawing, and at an angle as explained later. This assumption is always made, being merely a conventional or customary way of considering rig. 24. Fig. 25. Illustrating Conventional Method of Considering Eays of Light in Architectural Drafting. the light. The idea intended is to produce the same effect on a drawing that the sun in this one position would produce on the building. While the sun would actually produce a shadow on one side of the building at one time, and on another side at another time, in architectural 260 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING drawing this variation is not shown. No matter what elevation or side of the building is being considered, the light is always from the same direction. Thus we see that in Figs. 24 and 25 the sun really would make one side always in shadow, but we do not so consider it. In Fig. 24 we see the side A is in sunlight, and the side B is in shade. Looking now at Fig. 25, we see side B in sunlight, and C, which was the rear end, now in shade. This is the conventional method of considering the rays of light for architectural drawings. No matter what elevations or draw- ings are considered, or how many of the same building on the same sheet, the direction of the rays of light is fixed. Perhaps it will make the understanding of this subject clearer if we define the terms shade and shadow. That portion of a building or drawing is said to be in "shade" which is turned away from the assumed rays of light; or, it receives no rays of light, in contrast to the sides which are in light or upon which the light falls. If a body is placed between the light and a plane upon which the rays might fall, such a body will prevent a portion of the rays from striking the plane, thereby causing a shadow upon the plane. All rays of light are assumed as parallel and considered as straight lines. The rays of light are assumed as coming over the left shoulder, or sloping downward and ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 261 backward. This is the diagonal of a cube. The projections of this diagonal in the vertical plane and in a horizontal plane ai'e at 45 degrees, while the true angle of the diagonal with the plane is slightly less than 35 degrees 16 minutes. If we assume the side of the cube as 1, then the true length of this diagonal is nearly one and three- quarters. In Fig. 26, we see the cube and the diagonal di'awn as a heavy line with an arrow- Pt«nc ef5hAdo«v Tig. 26, Drawing Showing As- sumed Direction of Liglit. e» Pbif— =^, *, I ;^ M O O Q W CJ I— I H .„ ,.>P, ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 263 If the Line is parallel to the plane, the shadow will be equal in length and parallel to the line itself. See Fig. 30 for an elevation, and Fig. 31 for the plan of the line and plane. If the line in space is not a straight line, then the shadow of the line may be found by casting the shadows of any number of points on the line, and connecting these. The greater the munber of points of shadows cast, the greater will be the accui'acy of the work. In Fig. 32 Plane of Shadow 'Angle 'n Space. ^ D plan «rf Angle EutvAxioN Plan rig. 32. Pig. 33. Shadow of an Irregular Shape which is Parallel to Plane of Shadow. we see the shadow of an angle or L-shape cast on the iDlane of projection; Fig. 33 shows the plan of the angle. The shadow of a straight line perpendicular to the plane upon which the shadow falls, is a straight line at 45 degrees, no matter what the outline of the surface is upon which the shadow falls (see Figs. 34, 35, and 36). The shadow of a straight line parallel to the plane upon which the shadow falls, is an irregu- 264 AECHITECTURAL DEAFTING lar line giving the true outline of the surface (see Fig. 37). The shadow of a perpendicular line on a roof is therefore a line which gives the true slope of the roof, since the line is parallel to the plane, and therefore casts a shadow the true shape of the surface upon which it falls. Plan* of s^ado«v p^^^^ ^ shado^^ Line in Spacvc' P*»ONT Elevatiom .Side. Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Shadow of a lane "which is Perpendicular to lane of Shadow. tNY»\v.\v»v>\; Fig. 36. Showing Shadow of a Line Perpendicular to Plane of Shadow. Fig. 37. Showing Shadow of a Line Parallel to Plane of Shadow on a Moulded Surface. The shadow of a straight line inclined to the plane upon which the shadow falls, is a straight ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING • p'/ane. of ShaeJowy 265 RL.A,N Fig. 38 Shadow of a Line Inclined to Plane of Shadow. ^fanz of- Sh a cfo w > i F'LAN £L.S,VATiOAJ Fig. 39. Shadows of a Square and a Circle Parallel to Plane of Shadow. 266 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING line connecting the shadows of the ends of the line (see Fig. 38). As in the case of a line parallel to the plane upon which the shadow falls, the shadow is equal in length and parallel to the line, so it is with surfaces — the square, rectangle, octagon, etc. If parallel to the plane of shadows, the shadow Fig. 40. Shadows of a Square and Circle Perpendicular to Plane of Shadow. will be equal in size and shape to the figure (see Fig. 39). A square perpendicular to the plane of shadow will cast a diamond-shaped shadow, for two of the lines are parallel to the plane, and two are perpendicular to the plane (see Fig. 40). ARCHITECTURAL DEAFTIN^G 267 Having stated a few principles of casting shadows, these will be applied to a few common examples. Take an example of a brick projecting from a wall (Fig. 41). We apply the principles as J 1 I J '^ £^L^VAT/ON Pig. 41. Shadows of Projections from Plane of Shadow. Ilk K 1-- X TTT^ T ' |K ' I 1 GL£VATldN 1 1 ' 1 i 1 1 PLAN Fig. 42. Illustrating Principles of Shadows. stated, to each edge of the brick. The top, bot- tom, and side faces of the brick are perpendicu- 268 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING lar to the plane, therefore the shadows will be rectangular in shape. Figs. 42 and 43 show a further application of the foregoing principles. £L£V/\T/ON 3£CTfOA/ Fig. 43. Illustrating Principles of Shadows. Plate D shows the shadows as cast upon an Order of architecture, illustrating also how much clearer the drawing is when it has the shadows Avorked out on it. The above principles will give a general understanding of the subject. DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION It is essential to know the usual method of detailing different portions of the building. For the clear understanding of some of the impor- tant parts of a building, there have been pre- pared some typical details. The reader, having become familiar with the details shown, can adapt them to any sort of building. Cornice. The cornice is the projection at the top of the building, made more or less elaborate. There are several kinds of cornices — the box cornice, as shown in Fig. 44, and the open cor- nice, as shown in Fig. 45 (a and b). Referring AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 269 to Fig. 44, there is the crown-mould A, the fascia B; the planceer or soffit C; the lookout D; the ■2-£lfi ^\0' JOIJTi 16- GC 'LATH I FLAJTeS'*' Fig. 44. Box Cornice. brackets E ; the dentil course F. Not all cornices have all these parts. The plainer ones may be without the brackets E and the dentils F; or 270 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING more elaborate cornices may have more mem- bers. The closed cornice always has the gutter built into the upper members ; the open cornice Fig. 45a. Open Cornice. has a hanging gutter, as shown in Fig. 45 (a or b). The gutter, in the best work, is made of cop- per; in ordinary work, of galvanized iron; and in the cheapest class of work, tin is used. The durability of these materials is in the order named, the copper wearing usually the life of the building. Galvanized and tin gutters have to be kept well painted; but even with good care, the life of these two materials is limited. One important feature of a good gutter is AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTIXG 271 to have the metal run well up under the roofing material, and out over the crown-mould. This keeps any water from overflowing up under the roof if the gutter becomes choked with ice or leaves. The gutter should be well pitched or graded to the outlets. The gutter outlets are in turn connected to leaders or down-spouts. These down-spouts are made, usually, of the CALV IR-ONO^TTE ^--/AC'PLAT^ Fig. 45b. Type of Open Cornice Known as Close-Eave Cornice. same material as the gutter. The shape of the down-spouts may be either round or rectangu- lar; a very common form is made of corrugated iron, either round or rectangular. The gutter, especially if a hanging gutter, must be securely fastened to the roof at intervals of two or three feet, by means of some sort of hanger. The down-spouts must be securely fastened to the wall by some approved method. Floor Construction. The floor construction does not vary much (see Fig. 46). In this figure 272 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING we have the usual construction and method of support at the second or upper floor line. The joists must be of ample size, not only to carry ^yyyyy^yyyyyyy^. 2Ai2-ie-oc Fig. 46. Common Floor Construction at Second-Floor Line. the load safely, but to be stiff enough not to sag or vibrate under a load, since this would crack the plastering or the ceiling below. On the joists is laid an under-floor, usually of boards % inch thick, laid diagonally at 45 degrees with the joists, and spiked with two nails on every ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 373 joist. The flooring laid in this manner braces the building, and resists any tendency to twist. In the best construction, we use some sort of deafening material between the upper and under floor, to deaden sound. The upper floor is of maple, oak, or yellow pine of matched or tongued-and-grooved boards, with the boards parallel to one side of the room. This floor is blind-nailed; that is, the nails are driven in at the intersection of the tongue and the vertical edge, as shown in Fig. 47. This keeps all nail- Fig. 47. Section Showing Blind-Nailing. heads hidden from view. The upper floor should be thoroughly kiln-dried — that is, dried arti- ficiall}^ to drive out the greater part of the moisture, so that when it is finally laid, it will not dry out in the building and open up ugly cracks. For this reason the finished floor should not be laid until the plastering is thoroughly drj^ The under side of the joists is lathed and plastered. Around openings, chimneys, or stair-wells, the joists are supported at the ends by means of a header, or a joist running at right angles to them, to which they are securely 274 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING spiked; or they may rest on top of a ribbon or %-inch board let into the studding, the con- struction being similar to the support for the ceiling joists as shown in Fig. 44. At the first-floor line, we have to build a sill upon the basement wall; this sill forms a sup- port for the joist, and also gives a nailing for the studding. The method is clearly shown in Fig. 48. Lath and Plaster. The interior finish of almost all residence work is lath and plaster. The walls, if of wood, and the ceiling, are lathed with good, sound lath, free from blue sap or bark, and of white pine or spruce. They should be spaced at least 1/4 i^^h apart, and the plaster pressed firmly onto them so as to make sure that there will be a good key for holding the plaster. All lath on vertical walls should be put on horizontally, and there should not be a vertical joint of more than 18 inches between any series of laths. Under no consideration should lath be put on a vertical wall other than horizontally. In hot weather, it will be well to wet the lath before applying the plaster, as then they will not absorb so much water from the plaster. Plaster is usually put on in three coats for woodwork, and in two coats for brickwork. The first coat consists of slaked lime, sand, and long, clean cattle hair or fiber, this hair or fiber being used to make the plaster hold together better. The first or scratch coat is applied and ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 275 ^^^/^^//yyyyyyyy P^TTC:.pi_INt.3->HOW FSjiT-iofM Of-t ^X?" Fig. 48. Floor Construction at First-Floor Line. pressed well into the spaces between the lath. It is this plaster getting in between the lath and falling over onto the lath, which forms the key or clinch for the plaster. This coat is then scratched with the trowel all over, in all direc- tions. This scratching roughens up the surface, and makes a better surface for the second coat to adhere to. The second or brown coat is a mixture of lime 2116 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING putty, sand, and a little hair or fiber, and is applied after the scratch coat has partially dried. This brown coat is brought out to a true line for all walls and ceilings, and corners are made true and sharp. There are placed around all openings and back of all chair rails, base- boards, etc., small strips % inch thick for three- coat work, and % inch thick for two-coat work, by 1% inches wide. These are called grounds, and serve as a guide for the plaster (see Figs. 71 and 72). The third coat, sometimes called the white or skim coat, is a mixture of lime putty and white sand, with a little plaster of Paris. This is a thin, white coat, put on and rubbed down until hard, giving a hard white sm^face. Sometimes marble dust is added, which makes it harder and gives a little more polish to the sui'face. If a sand finish is desired, instead of the white coat as above described, the third coat is mixed with lime putty and coarse sand. Flashing and Counter- Flashing. By flashing and counter-flashing is meant metal protection for the intersection of surfaces, to keep out the weather. Take an example of a chimney going through a roof. Some means must be provided to prevent snow and water from coming in through the space between the vertical side of the chimney and the roof. This is accomplished by using sheet metal — either copper, galvanized iron, or tin — and fastening it under the roof covering, turning it up against the chimney, as shown in Figs. 49 and 50, the piece marked A. AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 277 To prevent the water running down the side of the chimney, a cover-piece, called the counter- flashing, is fastened into a mortar joint of the brickwork, and turned down over the flashing. The counter-flashing should extend to within two inches of the bottom of the flashing. This same method of protection applies to joining a roof to a vertical wall, the protection at the outside of a window-frame, or any other place needing similar protection. ^-u^ B- Counter Flashing A - Plash I Nq rSH/NJGLES L Pig. 49. Section Showing Flashing and Coanter-Flashing. Shrinkage. A word might be said about shrinkage. All lumber, when exposed to heat, will shrink, owing to the moistm-e drying out. In all wooden construction, all parts should be carefully framed together to reduce the shrink- age to a minimum. One conunon error in framing is shoT\Ti in Fig. 51. The gii'der rests upon the post below, and the post from above rests upon the girder. We can see at a glance 378 AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING Fig. 50. Flashing and Counter-Flashing around a Chimney. what happens when the girder commences to dry out. It will shrink, causing the post above to settle, which will affect the part of the build- ing carried in this way. Fig. 52 shows a much better way of framing these posts. The post above rests directly on the post below; and the Tig. 51. Erroneous Method. Fig. 52. Correct Method. Framing of Posts and Girders to Counteract Effects of Shrinkage. u CO w[ 17/ ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 279 girder is carried by the steel plate as shown, or by means of a cast-iron post-cap. By this means the shrinkage in the gu'der does not affect the Fig. 53. Section of Solid Door. construction above. Carry out this same idea in all framing. When one partition comes over another, carry it on the cap of the partition below, and not on top of the floor construction. Doors. Doors are of two kinds — the stock door and the built-up door. The stock door is made solid, with a simple bevel called an 0. Gr. (or Ogee). The stock doors are usually V/g inches, 1% inches, and 1% inches thick (see Fig. 53). The built-up door has a core of %-inch pieces of pine glued together; this is covered with thin sheets of wood % inch thick, called Fig. 54. Typical Section of a Built-Up Door. veneer, which is firmly glued to the core. The veneer is made of wood to match the interior finish of a residence. Fig. 54 shows a typical section of a built-up door; and Fig. 55 shows elevations of different 280 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING doors, with the names of the various parts of a door. All openings, either door or window, should have the rough framing doubled around them. At the bottom of the door we have the threshold, which is a raised piece, usually of oak or some other hard wood. This gives a chance for the door to swing clear of the carpet or rugs. For different details of door trim, etc., see Fig. 56. TOP RAIL 1 J u 2 4 ill J Ill J tt UJ J 1- ^- 1- Ml ' — j) <0 ODLE. RA L -J r— ^ IJ Z < Q. BOTTOM R/ \\\. rig. 55. Types of Paneled Doors. The door is hung in a wooden frame which is securely fastened to the framing of the house. The inside and outside casing covers the space between the door frame and the rough framing. See Fig. 56 for a section through a door. Porch Construction. In Fig. 57 (also Fig. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 281 Fig. 56, Sections of Front Door and Side Lights. 282 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Fig. 57. Part Elevation and Section Showing Method of Porch Construction. ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 283 \mF^ ■ ISM ■1>U'^» ^ ■S-.VX.V.,--..N ^\.N^ -2.-O5.-Jf- ii 3I5ICK HE^XOTM P^t:i concrete. «N\\N COMMON BftlCK ^S FACE BCICK PLAN Fig. 58. A Typical Fireplace Construction. 284 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFIIXG 23), we see a part elevation and a section show- ing the method of porch construction. The floor construction will be the same as for ordinary floor construction, except that only one thick- ness of flooring is used, and the boards must run at right angles to the house, and have a slight pitch away from the building. This allows the water to drain away from the building. In the best construction, the flooring is put together with white lead, thus insuring a perfectly tight joint to keep the water from soaking in at the joints, and thus causing the floor to rot. Fireplaces. Fig. 58 shows a typical fireplace construction. The flues are all dotted on the FOR 9-6- FOB 3'-0' STftAIGHT STAIE FOB 6-6"CEILING HEIGHT IIHA — ~ -ntiuri I urvu^m -f- JOB 6 -a- 0000 HrtGHTUNOEa rig. 59. A Simple, Straight Stair. elevation. There should be an ash- chute from each fireplace connected to an ash-pit in the basement. There should be a damper in the throat of the fireplace to regulate the draft. All fireplaces should be lined with firebrick. Stairs. For stair construction, see Figs. 59 to 65 inclusive. The simplest stairway is the one that has no turns in it, or the one shown in Fig. 59. As laid out, this stair is for an 8 ft. 6 ABCHITECTU-RAL DRAFTUSTG 285 m. ceiling. Should the ceiling be higher, other risers may be added. In Fig. 65 are shown the customary details. The riser is known as the vertical portion, and the tread as the horizontal portion. The main supports are usually 2 by 10-inch or 2 by i^-inch, notched to fit the treads and risers, and are .stairs with 'one landing, dbawn f-or lO'O" CEILING. TAIC \A/ILL filVt MEAD R.OOn FOR PASS- AGE UNOEB LANDING. Fig 60. Fig. 61. Types of Stairs with One Landing. m w !■!■■ r' OPCM L m5T FLOOR PLAN 5K0N0 FLOOR PLAN^ rig. 62. Pig. 63. Combination Front and Back Stairs. caUed carriages. The balusters are the upright spindles or ornamental pieces supporting the hand-rail. ^ Various heights of riser to tread have been tried, but the one found most satisfactory is to make the riser from 7 inches to 7% inches. The usual rule for figuring the treads and risers is 286 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Fig. 64, Elevation of Stairway, Giving Necessary Information. AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 287 to make the simi of a tread and riser equal to 17 inches or 171/2 inches. From this we see that the higher the riser, the narrower will be the tread. If we make the riser ly^ inches, then the tread should not exceed 10 inches. The width of tread is exclusive of the nosing, which is usually 11/2 inches. Fig. 65. Section through Stairs, Showing Customary Details. Stone stairs, or stairs without a nosing, will have to be wider. For figimng the number of risers, divide the height from floor line to floor line (in inches), by the height of one riser; the result will be the number of risers. Fig. 60 shows a stairway with a landing Fig. 61 is another foiTQ of stair with a landing. Fig. 62 is a combination front and back 288 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING stairs. There are separate stairs up to the land- ing; then the back stair joins the main staii'. Fig. 62 is the first-floor plan, and Fig. 63 the second-floor plan, of the same stairs. Fig. 66. Single-Light Window. Fig. 67. Two-Light Window. Where possible, put a coat closet under the stairs. This space cannot be utilized for any- thing but a basement stair or a closet. Usually there is a basement stair in the rear of the house. Fig. 64 shows an elevation of the stairway, giving all necessary information. ^ ^ # Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Types of Window Construction. Windows. There are various types of win- dows used in the construction of buildings. The plainest is the single-light window shown in Fig. 66. This is either pivoted, hinged, or fixed to slide. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 289 The windows are usually designated accord- ing to the number of panes of glass they contain, Fig. 67, for example, being a two-light window. Very often a large glass space is divided into smaller areas by means of horizontal and verti- cal strips called muntins, as shown in Fig. 68. The lower sash slides up, while the upper one is usually fixed in place; this upper sash is called a transom. When windows are grouped in twos or threes, they are separated by means of vertical divisions. These divisions are called mullions. The weights of the sash usually travel in these (see Fig. 69). The sash is usually the movable frame that contains the glass. A double-hung window is one in which the sash are counterbalanced by iron weights so that the sash will slide easily up and down in grooves in the frame. The sash of a window may be hinged to open Hke doors, in which case the window is called a casement window. If the sash are hung on pivots, either vertically or horizontally, we speak of the win- dow as a pivoted window. Referring to Fig. 68, A is the lower rail of the sash, usually from 2i/2 to 3 inches wide; B is the meeting rail, from 1 to 2 inches wide; C is the stile, usually 2 inches wide; D is the upper rail, of the same width as the stile; E indicates the muntins, which divide the sash into small areas; F is the transom bar, or the 290 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Fig. 70. Typical Detail of Plank-Framed Basement Window. fixed bar between the transom G and the double- hung sash below. The usual thicknesses of sash are li/s inches for small windows, to 1%, l')4, and sometimes 2^ inches, depending upon the size of sash. The larger the window, the heavier the sash must necessarily be. In Fig. 70 we have a plank-framed window. This is the same kind of frame required for the AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTIXG 291 casement window as shown in Fig. 76. Fig. 70 is the t^-pical detail for cellar window construc- tion. The windows usually have a single sash which may be divided by muntins into smaller HETAU F-UKRlNd-;^*- CfcMtNT FLA3TtR MtTAL LATH JHEr-ATHlNQ- ^»^?^M '^///y/// : ES ^^w# - ^ J v/ZiMS ^ U Fig. 71. Double-Hung Window, Outside of Building Plastered. lights. Notice the projection on the bottom rail, which serves as a di'ip for all water coming fi'om the glass. Such windows are usually hung at the side or top. Fig. 70 is detailed for a 892 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING ME-ETINC KAIL m •ICtNTtTeLlNt- MuLLiori mim JbiLL Fig. 72. Double-Hung Window for a Brick Wall. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 293 JOUTH tLtVATfON SOUTH ELEVATION Fig. 73. Part Section Showing Details of Bay Window Con- struction. Malp- Elevation JtCTIOM Fig. 74. Details for a Dormer or Roof Window. 294 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 293 CEMENT •PXA5TEjr nriTAL t-ATH Fig. 76. Details of Casement Window. 298 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING brick wall, although the same detail will apply to a frame wall. In Fig. 71 we have the details and dimen- sions for a double-hung window in a frame wall, the exterior of the wall being plastered. In Fig. 72 we have the details for a double-hung win- dow in a brick wall. Notice that there is very- little difference in construction. The parts of the construction are named for the sake of clearness, A being the sash, B the inside stop, C the pulley stile, D the parting strip, E the outside casing, F the brick mould or staff-head, G the back lining, H the sub-jamb, J the inside casing, K the stool, L the apron, M the ground, and N the sill. In Fig. 73 we have the construction for a bay window, showing the boxes, sash, etc. Fig. 74 shows the details for a dormer or roof window. Fig. 75 shows the construction for a pro- jecting bay window, the sash being hung to swing out. We have shown a half exterior view, a half interior view, and a section. Fig. 76 shows the details of a casement win- dow in which the head, muUion, and sill, with all adjoining construction, are shown. Notice the grounds or guide for the plaster work, as spoken of under "Lath and Plaster.'' Fig. 77 shows the interior elevation of the door and window trim, with a large-scale draw- ing of the exact profiles of this trim. The trim, and in fact all interior woodwork, are fastened ARCniTECTURAL DRAFTING 397 BAit Fig. 77. Details of Window and Door Trim. 298 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING to the grounds, which are set to serve as guides for the plasterer, and which should be placed back of all interior finish. The base shown is the finish at the floor-line. The base is nailed to grounds ; and the quarter-round mould at the floor is nailed to the floor, to cover the crack at the joining of the base and floor-line. SKETCHING In all architectural work, the art of sketch- ing is important. To be able to show one 's ideas clearly and artistically, or to reproduce some form or object in a pleasing manner, is indeed an essential qualification for the draftsman as well as the architect. Some have a natural ability to sketch, which lacks but the pencil and paj)er to give a true expression of the idea of the mind; while others acquire the art of sketching only by diligent study and persistent practice. Many instances have proven the fact that one may have ability, but that it needs developing, just as in the case of the mathema- tician, who becomes an expert in the higher mathematics by a gradual training from the simpler problems on up through more complex ones. Because one has not ability that is appar- ent at the outset, is no criterion whereby we may judge of his ability along any particular line. Learn to sketch, as it is a valuable asset for the architect. Fundamental Principle. To the beginner, AECHITECTUEAL DRAFIING 299 the object usually presents itself as made up of small portions, and ordinarily he will make an attempt to show all the small details, over- looking the main mass or body of the object. The first thing is to be able to see the object as it really is, as it would really appear to the best advantage when sketched roughly and quickly. Learn to look at the general grouping of the different portions, and their relation to one another. The beginner attempts to draw the object as he sees it at close range, while the experienced person draws it as it appears at a distance. The tendency of the beginner is to represent everj^hing with hard, sharp, and exact lines which are known from actual knowl- edge of the object to exist, although they do not really appear so. Learn to study the gen- eral proportions as expressed by the shadows, rather than by the exact outlines bounding each surface. Studying an object for sketching is really a study of the shadows. In all sketching, the proportion is the fundamental principle. Having correctly represented the proportions, then represent the object by means of the shad- ows as cast upon the object, and let the details be merely an after consideration. Learn to see the object correctly, and the representation by lines will come by practice. Pencils and Paper. The pencil is present on all occasions; therefore it is used a great deal in sketching. Pencils may be obtained in all degrees of hardness and softness. Drawing 300 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING pencils are usually denoted by H, HH, etc., for hard pencils, up to 8H, which is a very hard lead; the soft pencils are denoted b}^ B, BB, etc., up to 4B for very soft pencils. An inter- mediate grade known as an HB is between the hard leads commencing with H and the soft leads commencing with B. This is a very con- venient grade to use for all kinds of work. A good drawing pencil should contain no grit. As a general rule, the larger the drawing, the softer the pencil, since the lead in the soft pencils is larger than that in the hard pencils. Therefore, it is rather difficult to make a small drawing with a really soft pencil. As stated above, the most satisfactory pencil for all- around work is the medium grade or the HB pencil. The pencil should never be sharpened to a point. Cut away the wood, leaving the lead its full size; and by a few strokes on a piece of scratch paper, wear off the sharp edge, until you have a line the full thickness of the lead. Hold the pencil comfortably between the fingers, not in a cramped position, but free and easy. The length of line, the position on the paper, and the width and intensity of the lines will determine just which movements of the fingers, wrist, or ami are the best suited to the work. In all work, avoid bending over the drawing; sit upright so that the drawing may be all seen at a glance, The paper should ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 801 always be at right angles to the line of sight, to insure the best work. The paper should have a somewhat rough texture for the best work, although some very pleasing sketches have been made upon smooth paper. Never use a glazed paper. The smooth paper requires greater care in its use, it being harder to erase anything successfully. A good grade of tracing paper makes a very good paper for sketches with a medium-soft pencil. Method. Begin sketching by drawing paral- lel lines horizontally; then make them vertical; then slanting lines— endeavoring all the time to make them all of the same width and intensity. After exercises in the drawing of straight lines, try circles and ellipses. Then sketch familiar household articles. From these, let the student take up more difficult work, learning to see objects as they actually appear to the eye, and not as they are really known to exist. Referring to Plates E and F, notice the method used for indicating surfaces. Instead of covering the side of the building with long, mechanical, parallel lines, the lines are made short, and broad, and break joint so as to give an uneven surface. The eaves are all repre- sented by the shadow they produce, there being no definite line for the edge of the roof. For the corners of the buHding, there is not a hard, sharp line, but a broken, irregular line. The 302 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING doors and windows are all represented by the shadows they cast. It will be noticed that the shadow is the thing to reproduce. If the shadows are shown in their true relative proportions, in intensity and size, we are reasonably sure of a satisfac- tory sketch. For such work, the object is Iff^ Fig. 78. A Quickly-Made Preliminary Sketch. usually outlined with a light line, to get the proper lines and proportions; in other words, just enough lines are given to show the proper relation of dimensions. Having outlined the object, then commence with the soft, broad pencil, and indicate the texture and shadows by varying intensities of lines. AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 303 Practice will give you the best training for developing the art of sketching. It is not enough to study work already done, analyzing lines and surfaces. Actual work and practice in drawing and sketching will do more for you than any mere study of sketches. Learn to make preliminary sketches quickly, and yet indicate general proportions and out- lines (see Fig. 78). This sketch was made in about five minutes' time, while the architect was talking to his client. Some of the finer points of the original pencil sketch are neces- sarily lost in the pen-and-ink reproduction from which the cut was engraved. The figure repre- sents a possible treatment for a boiler house. This is a good example of a preliminary sketch, there being no particular time spent in the drawing and very few straight lines used, yet, when the sketch is studied, we can see the gen- eral effect that such a building would produce in sunlight. Make your sketches have some ''snap" to them. Let each line be firm, starting and stop- ping in a way that shows it to be there for a definite purpose. Use plenty of free and easy lines, and also black lines. Do away with sharp lines, and never use hard pencils for this work. For the purpose of laying out drawing, either for pencil, pen and ink, or pen-and-ink render- ing, a sketch will be shown to illustrate clearly the quickest and most satisfactory method. See Fig. 79, where the sketches are all rather 304 AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING mn /v- -J I Jig. 79. Sheet of Drawings Laid Out with a Sense of Proportioa ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 305 rough or uneven, but the general drawing shows the effect of proportions. The lines, instead of being long and continuous, are made up of short lines almost joining. PEN-AND-INK RENDERING Finished drawings may be colored or ren- dered in a number of ways. The method of pen-and-ink rendering is very often used. It is indeed an accomplishment to be able to render in pen and ink successfully. This usually comes only from long and patient work in practicing. A drawing may also be rendered in pencil, or colored by means of water- colors. For pen-and-ink rendering, any black ink will do. A good grade of India ink is very satisfactory and convenient. There was a time when all drawing inks were made by grinding a stick of India ink in water on a stone bed; but now prepared inks are used almost entirely. The pens should be fairly large, and have a medium point; the tendency of beginners is to use too fine a point. Any good-quality tracing paper may be used. The outline of the work may be made upon scratch paper; and, by placing the tracing paper over it, the ink rendering can be made directly over the outline. Papers with soft sur- faces should be avoided, since the ink will have a tendency to spread, the points of the pen will often catch and spatter ink, and erasing is 306 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING ORDER SHADOWS CAST TPOX AX OKDEK OF AKCHITECTURE. PLATE D — Architectural Drafting. ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 307 almost impossible. Good bristol board makes a satisfactory surface to work upon. All liues should be fii^m and uniform, and series of parallel lines should give an even textiu-e or appearance to a surface. Avoid the stiff, hail' lines, which are too fine to give any character to the work. In making ink lines, while the general dii^ection of the line may be straight, yet a line slightly wavy, or a line such as would be made by the trembling of the hand, is not objectionable. Use care in drawing lines to make them as unifoim as possible, and exercise care in the starting and stopping of lines. Lines should naturally be a little heavier at the ending than at the beginning. Eeferring to Fig. 80, we see in this draw- ing, the general method of rendering a building in pen and ink. The window-panes, instead of being hard, sharp lines, are made by a series of parallel lines representing the shadow. Notice the treatment of the roof, the shadow of the cornice, and the general lines of the building. Fig. 81 shows the use of parallel lines en- tirely for the textui'e of the wall, and also for the shadows. Fig. 82 shows a very attractive drawing. Study the foliage around the house; see how it has been represented by lines, sometimes straight and sometimes curved. The distance to the background is obtained by the quality 309 310 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING of the line; the further away the background, the lighter the line. Study the lines represent- ing the wall and roof surfaces. Notice that the lines in general are not straight, but are more or less irregular. The shadows in Figs. 81 and 82 are composed of entirely different kinds of lines. Probably the best and easiest method is by the use of vertical lines. Notice, generally speaking, that there are no long lines. If it is necessary to make such a line, let it be represented by a series of short lines, with their ends almost touching. The tendency of the beginner is to make the rendering all too light. Put in some black, somewhere, as it makes the drawing more in contrast, and emphasizes other portions of the work. Plate G is a good example of a sketch ren- dered in pen and ink. WASH DRAWINGS Water- colors or India ink for coloring draw- ings, are used for the best work, almost entirely. By means of color or by the use of India ink for a monotone, the shades and shadows can be emphasized and the drawing made much more attractive. The usual method of proce- dure is to have the paper upon which the draw- ing is to be made, stretched tight upon a board; then cast the shadows, marking the outlines faintly Avith a hard pencil; then clean the drawing with a soft eraser; finally, have all /•"'' '>'\.i b"^ ¥'' 7 f'iac W ^:, /rt. \ \ ^■"■V^'5>! ^^ *■' J^ «* .iKt^j *-t \ ^, ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 311 materials ready for appljdng the washes, and then start the color work. Materials. The usual materials for wash drawings are: the colors or the India ink; a number of brushes (one a bristle brush and the others soft camel-hair or Japanese brushes); plenty of receptacles for holding the color in its various shades, also one large receptacle for clean water. Porcelain or china dishes made especially for this work may be purchased from any dealer in artists' materials. In addition to the above, a soft sponge and a number of blotters will be necessary. The paper should have a rough finish, as this takes the color or wash much better than paper with a smooth or glazed sur- face. Hot-pressed and cold-pressed papers of good quahty are largely used for this work. The cold-pressed is a little rougher than the hot- pressed and is perhaps more frequently used. A good tracing paper may be used if the color is applied thick and in spots, or where no attempt at a true wash drawing is made. Care will have to be exercised in the use of tracing paper, as too much water will spoil the work. As mentioned above, the paper upon which the drawing is made has to be stretched tight on the drawing board. This may be done after the drawing has been made, although it will be found much more convenient to stretch the paper first, and then make the drawing. To stretch the paper, it should be thoroughly wetted aU over, and kept wet until it is firmly 312 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING fastened in place; this wetting causes the paper to expand. On the four edges of the paper, for about an inch back from the edge all around, place glue or drawing-board paste. The paper, being expanded by the water, should now be fastened or pressed down onto the board, work- ing opposite edges at the same time. Do not attempt to stretch the paper perfectly tight. Be careful to see that the edges of the paper are in contact with the board, and run the back edge of a pocket-knife all around, to insure the glue or paste on the edge of the paper coming into contact with the board. After the paper is thus stretched, take all sur- plus water off by means of a sponge, and dry the paper as much as possible with the sponge. Allow the paper to stand until thoroughly dry, when it will be found that the paper has shrunken tight and smooth, giving a good sur- face for the drawing, and the rendering will be much easier because the paper is held firmly in place. Be very careful to see that the paper is stuck to the board all along each of the four edges, before allowing the paper to dry. After the drawing has been made, the shadows are cast with light pencil lines. Clean the drawing with a soft eraser, either of kneaded rubber or of ''sponge" rubber. These erasers remove the general surface dirt without affecting the lines materially. The use of an India ink wash will be described, although the same treatment will be ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTmG 313 true of colors. The drawing should, of course, be inked very carefully before any tinting is started. The erasing of lines should be done very carefully as the surface of the paper, if rubbed too hard, will be abraded— so that when colors are applied they will soak in instead of remaining on the surface. The drawing may be very carefully washed after the inking is com- pleted, with a soft sponge; this removes surplus ink and leaves the lines more subdued. Method of Applying Wash. Having the drawing all ready to render, a few principles must be followed to insm-e the best results. Have your water, color, brushes, blotters, and sponge, all handy; have plenty of clean water convenient; for heavy or dark shades, apply sev- eral washes of a lighter value, instead of putting the heavy color on all at once. Having once started the wash, carry it on continuously, without allowing it to dry; any mistakes can be remedied after the wash is com- pleted, but the wash should never be interrupted to rectify mistakes. Lighten the wash by the gradual addition of clean water; be careful to take the color from the top of the dish, to avoid getting the sediment. Always take about the same amount on the brush, and do not allow the brush to become too dry before adding more, as this will dry much quicker on the paper, and the addition of more will cause a streaked or mottled effect. Having reached the bottom of the drawing, 314 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING take up any standing water or color with a blotter, as it will make a bad appearance if this is all allowed to stand and dry. The board should be tilted slightly, so that the wash will have a tendency to move do^vnward; and it should be left in this position until the color is diy. Do not attempt to patch or add color to any portion of the drawing that has commenced to dry. Having put into a saucer enough of the ink for the drawing, apply the brush to the sm^face of the ink, soaking up a brushful. If the draw- ing is of any considerable size, a wide, flat brush of camel's hair can be used to better advantage than a pointed brush. The pointed brush, how- ever, will be the one most used on ordinarj^-sized drawings. With the brush filled with the ink, apply to the upper edge of the drawing, carrying it across the top and gradually working it down- ward, adding more ink as the brush becomes drier. Since all work is darker at the top and gradually shades lighter, as the wash is carried down the sheet, add a little clean w^atcr each time, until, at the bottom or last application of the brush, it should contain almost clear water. This shading from darker at the top to lighter at the bottom is a conventional w^ay of rendering plans. Plate H (lower figure), shows a plan rendered in this way, the darker effect being ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 315 obtained by a series of light washes and not by a single wash. The brush is held in much the same way as a pencil, the hand being entii-ely free from' the paper, or perhaps at times resting on the little finger. In case of any blotches or other objection- able portions, these can be remedied with a little care. Take the sponge and dip it into clear water. Sop the portion thoroughly, allowing enough time for the water to soak into the color; then apply a clean blotter, and soak up the water. Be very cai-eful not to rub the blotter over the sm^face. If very carefully done, the trouble can be remedied, and the di'awing will scarcely show the spot. Be careful, in aU work, not to aUow dust or hairs from the brushes to remain on the di-aw- ing. These may be removed with a toothpick, by slightly moistening the end of the toothpick in the mouth and cai^efuQy lifting the objects off the di-awing. For Lines that have overrun after the wash has become dry, take the bristle brush, moisten it in clean water, and rub gently over the color outside the line. When the water has soaked into the color, use the blotter. The trouble can be remedied by one or two such treatments. The methods of procedm-e described above concern the application of flat washes. It will take considerable practice to render well. The beginner is advised to make several 316 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING sheets of such work as described above, before attempting a plan or elevation. Use the washes on the elevations to show shadows, or the por- tions in shade. See Plate H (upper figure), which shows an elevation rendered in the conventional way. Water-colors are applied or "floated on" in the same manner as the India ink washes. Re- member that in the use of colors you will have to be very careful to have a dish and a brush for each color, as the least particle of color in the clear water Avill sometimes change the color of some other dish if the two are used. Clean color boxes, brushes, and water are the first requisites of good rendering in color. Colors may be obtained either in tubes, sim- ilar to oil paints, or in pans, which are small dishes of color. These should all be kept in a water-color box. There are usually two palettes or lids to this box, on which the colors may be mixed. If there is to be any quantity of color used, these palettes will not be large enough, and the dishes should be used. In the use of either color or India ink, apply enough color to give the drawing some char- acter; make it "snap;" do not commit the oft- repeated offense of having your drawing look "sickly" or have a washed-out appearance. Attack the problem of rendering, with determi- nation; put on the colors as colors, and not as if you were afraid of spoiling something. ReH, blue, and yellow are commonly called ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 317 the three primary colors, and in combination will give the intervening tints or colors of the prism. Thus blue and yellow will give green; red and yellow will give orange, and red and blue will give violet or purple, the tints varying according as one or the other color predominates in the combination. ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE In the study of architectural history, we turn to the Greeks and Romans for a great many fundamental principles of design. We see that they had proportions for everything. Adopting some unit, the building Avas designed and erected with this as a imit. They had certain arrangements of a cornice, a column, and a base which have been handed down for ages. All of the parts had certain relations to one an- other in size. This combination we have called an Order. We have four Orders which are used in archi- tecture — the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, and Cor- inthian. (See Figs. 83 to 86.) A fifth Order— the so-called Composite Order — combines fea- tures of the others. It will be noticed that all the ornamentation on the mouldings has been omitted for the sake of clearness in revealing the important propor- tions. Each Order has the three main divisions — the entablature, column, and pedestal. In our architectural design, the base or pedestal is 318 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING t, -CORNICC ^ ■ ARCMITI^AVe 5 • CAP- Z ■ BASE. I - PUINTH Pig. 83. The Tuscan Order. AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 318 usually omitted. As will be seen from the drawings, the entablature has three divisions — the cornice, frieze, and architrave; the column is divided into the cap, shaft, and base; the pedestal, into the cap, die, and base. The entablature varies from 1% to 2i/4 times the diameter of the column. The cornice pro- jects from the face of the column a distance equal to the height of the cornice in all cases except in the Doric Order. The frieze is a flat band or surface, sometimes ornamented. The architrave may be made of a single band, or it may be divided into a number of bands. The column has a capital or top, varying from a plain cushion to the elaborate cap of the Corinthian and Composite Orders. The shaft, in some Orders, is perfectly plain, while in others it is fluted. All columns have a taper at the top. The shaft is carried up straight for one-third the height; and from this point it tapers. This tapering is called entasis. The shaft rests on a base which consists of a torus and a plinth, or a series of toruses called an Attic base. The diameter of the column at the straight portion is used as the unit of measurement for all other parts. Fig. 83 shows the Tuscan Order, with the principal proportions. This is the simplest Order, being perfectly plain. It is used a great deal for porches, or for lower stories where there are a series of Orders above. 320 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING Fig. 84. The Doric Order. ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 331 Fig. 85. The Ionic Order. 322 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING Fig. 84 shows the Doric Order. This has a great deal of oriiament, both on the soffit of the corona (the projecting, crowning member of the cornice), and on the mouldings. In most modern designs, we see this Order modified more or less. There are two types of cornices used with the Doric Order — one with the mutules (project- ing flat blocks ornamented on the under sur- face) ; and the other with the dentils (a course of small cubes in the bed-moulding). The general profile of the cornice is different in the two types. The shaft is very often fluted. Fig. 85 shows the Ionic Order, with the prin- cipal proportions. The cornice may have brackets called modillions, or it may have the dentils. The capital for the column varies, the left-hand half showing the cushion capital, and the right half shows the volute turned at 45 degrees, thus giving all faces alike. The shaft is fluted, and the mouldings are usually ornamented. Fig. 86 shows the Corinthian Order. The main difference from the other Orders is the capital, which is highly ornamented by means of acanthus leaves. This Order is probably the most dignified, and is also the most expensive. Sometimes the shaft is fluted. The mouldings are all greatly ornamented. There is a variation of the Corinthian Order, called the Composite Order, already re- ferred to. The chief difference is in the volutes ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 323 Fig. 86. The Corinthian Order. Ov/OLO OBSOWTEL 'elliptical OVOLO CAVtTTO ToauS OB BEAD FILLET OR UISTEL CONfit T^ 5^ ^ 3/4- ROUND BtAK MOULDING 5PLAV-FACE, BEVEL OP CMAMPeO SUNK <«NO RAlJB0^il.<-6T 5COTIA THUMB MOULOINCi CYMA EECTA CVMA REVfRSA QUIRKED CYMA Fig. 87. Common Torms of Classic Mouldings. 324 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 325 of the capital, they being much larger and tui'ned out the same way as in the true Corinthian. All of these Orders are modified to a greater or less degree in all applications of them, each architect making changes to conform to general styles he is using on the building. The propor- tions, however, cannot be varied much without spoiling the general effect of the Order. Fig. 87 gives some of the common forms of mouldings, with the corresponding names. ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING Good lettering is an essential requisite of a good set of plans. A di^awing poorly executed but lettered attractively and well, will look a great deal better than one which is well drawn but which is poorly lettered. Therefore, at the start, let it be said that a draftsman needs to be a good letterer as well as a good draftsman. We find lettering used with the earliest art of the Egyptians. These ancient people ex- pressed their thoughts by means of s^Tobols, more or less geometrical in outline. These in- scriptions we find in the oldest of our Bibhcal writings ; they were worked in stone and wi'itten on their papyrus. The forms used are called hieroglyphics, and students of ancient languages have been able to translate these strange characters. The Greeks and Romans had characters very 326 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING similar to ours. We have copied their forms, and use them to-day for, our letters. Some of the inscriptions on the ancient Greek and Roman temples are splendid examples of letter- ing, as to both form and spacing. The first principle to remember is that good lettering comes from freehand work, and not a mechanical product. The tendency of the begin- ner, especially, is to make all letters by means of straight edges and drawing instruments. The difference in the two methods is evident when we compare work of the two kinds. The printed letter such as is used for newspaper headlines, and the title as executed on a set of drawings, show very clearly that the former is too mechanical and stiff, while the latter, if well executed, is much the more attractive. Then again, freehand lettering can be adjusted to the general type of the drawing. After the graceful ease and ready adapta- bility of freehand work, the next requisite in good achitectural lettering is simplicity. The simpler the letter, the easier made, and the better the general effect. Examples illustrating this can be seen in the effect of highly orna- mental letters in newspaper advertising. Learn to make the titles the same as a free- hand sketch. Make plenty of strokes of the pencil; get the general shape of the letters, and the spacing. Do not attempt to make each letter with one stroke of the pencil. After having made the title with several out- ■A.-w o g z > F ^ ^x =3 J *^*^ ^ \ AECHITECTUIUL DKAFPIXG 327 lines, then go over this, and the final lettering can be done from this sketch of the letters. Get the general proportions and shapes first, to- gether with the spacing, before trying to get a finished title. Develop the title as a whole, and let the small details of each letter be the last thing attempted. The effect of the spacing of letters upon the general appearance of the title, will be seen from the accompanying illustrations of ex- amples. Study the available space for the title; ■■BEER Fig. 88. Forms and Proportions of Letters. and make the size, style, and spacing of the letters to suit the conditions. The guide lines, with perhaps a few lines limiting the edges of the letters, are the only mechanical lines that should be used. It will be well to consider some of the letter forms, in order to understand just how they are made to look the best. See Fig. 88. The A is made wide enough at the bottom to give the appearance of stability. The cross-line should always be below the center, for, if exactly on the center, the upper portion appears too small for the base. The B should have the upper half 328 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING smaller than the lower, both as to the width and the cross-line. It appears over-balanced if the upper half is made exactly like the lower half. The C should have the upper projection of the curve a little less than the lower. E should be smaller above the center line than below. The cross-line of F, H, and R should be the same. G should be similar to C in the greater projec- tion of the lower part of the curve. P, because it has no lower portion, should be made a little larger than one-half the height. S should have the upper half the smaller. X and Y usually have their intersection on the center line. By keeping these facts in mind, the appear- ance of the letters will be much improved. For different styles of titles, where certain types of letters are used, the above rules will be modified; but for general work they should be followed. Single-line letters are used almost entirely in lettering plans and drawings. Spacing of Letters. As to the spacing, there is no set rule for standard dimensions ; but a few rules may be given as a guide. Letters which have vertical and parallel sides coming together, are spaced the greatest distance apart. Take H and B, for example; these require the largest space. In. case of a curve, as an O or a C, with an N or an H, the spacing will be about two- thirds of that for the H and the N. This same rule will hold for the curve of a D with an N or M or any letter with a vertical line. AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 329 If two curves come together — as, for ex- ample, a C and a G, or a B and a C — the space is slightly less than for N and 0. If A and V come together, make the lower point of the A come directly under the upper point of the V ; there should be no vertical space between these letters. A or V, with O or B, will have about the same spacing as two curves, such as B and C or C and 0. While the above rules are only general, yet they will serve as a guide. When marks of punctuation are used, the spacing will have to be increased over that of the regular arrangement. The spacing between words depends upon the style of letter used and the available space. Increasing the spacing will make the words more prominent. In doing all letter work, it should first be penciled completely, before any inking is done. It is much easier to erase and make changes while the title is still in pencil than after it is inked. The ink will emphasize all irregularities. The tendency of the beginner is to use too fine a pen. A new pen is always hard to work with, since it makes a thin hair line. Sometimes a new pen can be made to work more easily, by heating the point with a match. This will render it more flexible, although the pen will not last so long. Be very careful to make the same thickness of line for all parts of the letters, and for all letters of the title. It will require practice to be able to use the pen satisfactorily. 330 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING The inks can be any of the ready-mixed India inks. These are very satisfactory, and are much more convenient than giinding the ink from an India ink stick. Since the prepared inks evaporate and therefore thicken when ex- posed to the air, the cork of the bottle should always be at once replaced after filling the pen. Some grades of black writing ink may be used, although the India ink is much more satisfactory. Almost all of the drawing papers will take ink. Tracing paper and tracing cloth are used a great deal. Bristol board is used where letter- ing is employed, as for an inscription, or where it is not a part of a drawing. In lettering, first rule the guide-lines in pencil; then pencil the letters, and then ink. There is no rule for holding the pen; be sure to learn to have a free and easy stroke. By practice, learn to have a uniform line ; and have confidence in your ability before you start. Usually the beginner is a little backward when starting the lettering on a sheet. By practicing vertical lines, inclined lines, and curves, one gradually learns the use of the pen. It should be noted that the strokes are all downward; and a curve, as for O, is made up of a series of strokes. There will be difficulty in getting straight lines and curves of the same size. In penciling, always use a soft pencil, one free from grit. Make the lines as light as pos- sible, so that thev can be erased with as little AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 331 pressure as possible. Keep the paper as free from erased lines as possible, as the erasing tends to destroj^ the general sui'face of the paper, and makes it much more difficult to ink properly upon it. Should a mistake be made, after the ink has become thoroughly dry, use an ordinary pencil eraser, and rub gently in all directions. Stop at short intervals to allow the eraser to cool, as it will smear the ink if it becomes too hot from rubbing. After the eras- ing, take some smooth, hard surface — be sure it is clean — and rub gently over the erased surface to give a smooth finish to the paper. Some think that a regular ink eraser is necessary to remove the ink; but the pencil eraser will do the work better and leave the surface of the paper in much better condition. The work of erasing will be slow and tedious, but it should be care- fully done. The size of letter will depend upon the space, if the space is limited. Otherwise the letter should be made to correspond to the size of the drawing, a large, full-size drawing requiring a large letter, while a quarter-inch scale drawing will require a small letter. By a careful study of proportions, one can make a drawing look the best. Poor judgment in this respect will often spoil a well-drawn plan. Titles are put on every sheet of a set of draw- ings. Each drawing on the sheet must have a single-line title; and each sheet must have a title complete, giving th€ nsbme of the work, the 332 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING client's name, the location, the scale, and some- tunes the date. For the convenience of the architect, he usually places in one corner his name, the number of the sheet, the job number, the initials of the different men who made the drawing, and the date. This gives him his record for filing the set of drawings. Choose a style of letter that will be clear and simple. Wliile the architect has more liberty in the choice and spacing of letters than the engineer, yet the fundamental principle is clear- ness. Capitals are used almost entirely for titles, and small letters for notes of all kinds. TnE'^ADfOKD A -rLh \TECTURAV_ Cc i Z 3 4' 5 6 7 8 8 lO II 12 13 w- lis l« 17 IS 19 20 £• 22 23 £<» 2S iC eT 2» CHICAGO IlLLlMOlS I 2 3 4. t>' 6 •/ 8) 9 10 II 12 13 I* (VI* T |CH)TKTU]^ALC(p' \\ LLIN0I5' tt Z-i ZZ 21 20 19 18 17 tfc ! T DrORD A2tniTCCTURALC0- o • Illimois- I rig. 89. Method of Centering a Title. In laying out a title, there is usually a cer- tain space it will have to occupy; therefore the title must be centered about a vertical center line through this space. The method of center- ing a title is showna in Fig. 89. Decide upon the wording, and write out each line as it is to be copied. Upon a piece of scratch-paper, spell out ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 333 the letters in each line, numbering each letter in order, and also the spaces between the letters. The center of each line is then evident. Lay out the center line of the space to be occupied on the drawing, and, after drawing the guide-lines, start at the center line, and com- mence sketching in the letters, first to the right, as shown in the third line. Fig. 89. Thus the right half of the title is sketched first. Now take a piece of paper, and lay off to the left the same distance as the right half extends to the right. This gives us a starting point for the left half. This part may be worked either from the left to the right, or, as shown in the fifth line, the letters may be placed in the order as •Interior Deltails- •Rlsidlnce: • ^oI^ Hom - A- 5-P5Zaplr- - AUDAMV - - - yVELW YOJZK- •Ja^.M-WhITE. S. 5tTH JTe-mpll- • ASiOCI ATEID AtSCHITELCTS • -VyEBANA - luHNOlS* Fig. 90. Airangement of a Title Showing Symmetry but not Mechanical Stiffness. numbered. A little experience will enable one to lay out a title quickly and accurately in this manner. Having the general arrangement in pencil, go over it carefully, and make the letters, properly spaced and in good outline. The title is then ready for inking. In all titles, let the composition or spacing be such that while the title as a whole shall be symmetrical, its general 3g4 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING /j^cniTCcrucAL ■ LXlTTLR^ TlTLn^°-OHLn.T5- a bode f^ hi i klron • oparsi'uww^Yz:- ADCDnrGhij KLMN0PQR5T -UVWXYZ- '-Scale 7 incK^ 1 foof- Fig. 91. Easily-Made Letters for General Drawingi ARCHITECTURAL DRAFPIXG 335 AKHlTtCTDLM LLTTLRJ abcdcf^hijklran opcjn/luvwxyz A §00 d Icticr for Inv/criptioDi' and General nolcj-. A Di^nifio4 letter- khCDLYGWK LMNOPQUTV VWXYZ — •FRONT ILLVATION- Fig. 92. A Dignified Type of Letter for Inscriptions. General Notes, etc. 336 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING AECHITCCTURAL LETTERS A3 CD^raHIJKLMNO ABCBEF^GHIJKL MMOPaRSTVV — WXYZ - - EIURVATION - Pig. 93. Showing Double-Line Letters Used Largely for General Titles. ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTOTG 337 A P /^ T— I I T*?* r T'l TO A 1 LLTTLR^ APCDnrq/-\!jK. V V/XYZ ' ACJ^^^'P LrTTLK r^'-^K Fig. 91 Letters Suitabl* for Large-Scale and Full-Sized Dfttails. 1 ., z I & at IL (j z (? lU h h u ~i u > J u d i. U o E O L -J n < J QJ 1- ^ dj to h o o J u ^ ^ >5 ^ ^ 'O 5^ .0 - -^ ) bo o o > s ^ ^ s 6^^ o CQ a> .a OQ m 338 DE>ieTX uF A COUET HuUst FOR A SMALL CITY ELETATIOX AXD PLAX EEXDEEED IX WASH. PLATE H — Akchitectural Dkattixg. AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 339 ARCHITECTURAL LLTTZRJ A CrOODJTYLL or LLTTZR^'- rULL 51ZL DLTAILJ- <^hc4e/^hfjk.fmr)opejrs{- u V vjxyz. - /Z2>45C7&eO- DLTAIU or£,00K CASZ - NOTL- M.U all aoor^ to slide. — =-* Fig. 96. A Good Form of Slanting Letter for Large Work and Full-Sized Details. 340 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING outline shall not be inclosed by straight lines. A line, for example, connecting the ends of the different lines of a title should not be straight, but irregular, as shown in Fig. 90. Try to avoid making the lines exactly the same length. Where the same general title is to be used on a number of drawings of a set, it is very con- venient to make the title in pencil on a piece of paper, and trace it through the tracing cloth for the finished drawing. This saves a great deal of time, and gives a uniform title for every sheet. The styles of letters mostly in use by archi- tects are shown in Figs. 91 to 96. Fig. 91 presents an easy substantial title, quickly made, and very clear. This form of letter will be found very satisfactory for general di^awings. Fig. 92 shows a type of letter largely used. It has a dignified appearance, is suitable espe- cially for inscriptions on tablets or buildings, and is quickly and easily made. Fig. 93 shows a form of double-line letter, very quickly made ; this letter is used largely for general titles. Fig. 94 shows a good style of letter to use on full-sized details and large-scale details. It is made by several strokes of the pen. Long lines are hard to make; therefore the long lines are made up of a series of short lines. Wlien well done, it makes a very attractive form of letter to use. The figure is small, and the true values ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 341 of the broken lines do not show up as they do on large work. Fig. 95 is a sheet showing the relative sizes of letters to use on a drawing. The small letters may be made either slanting or vertical. It is much easier to make a slanting line than a vertical line. Irregularities show less in slant- ing letters than in vertical letters, and for this reason some architects use a slanting letter entirely. The vertical letter, however, is much more dignified, and, when well done, is more satisfactory. Fig. 96 is a good form of slanting letter for full-size detailing and large work. It is as true of drafting as it is of every other branch of worthy human endeavor. Experience is the one great and indispensable teacher. Just as we learn to sing by singing, and to build houses by building them, so we learn to draw by drawing; and it is only by persistent practice on the part of the draftsman that the highest proficiency can be acquired. INDEX Architectural Drafting A PAGE Aligraphy 240 Apron 296 Architecture, Colonial 2l9 Architectural Drafting 187 Architectural Drawings 194 Architectural Forms 244 Architectural Lettering 325 Architrave 217 B Back -Lining 296 Balusters 285 Base 217 Bay Window 296 Blue-Printing 238 Box Cornice 268 Brackets 269 Brick Moulds 296 Buildings, Types of 220 Building Lines 249 Built-Up Doors 279 O Cap 217 Capital 217 Carriages 285 Casing Inside 296 Outside 296 Casement Windows 289 Colonial Architecture 219 Colors, Primary 317 Column 217 Competition Drawings 203 Composite Order 317 Composition of a Building Construction Details of 268 Floor 271 Materials of 25& Corinthian Order 317 Cornice 217, 268 Box 268 Open 268 PAGE Counter-Flashing 276 Crown-Mould 269 D Deadening Material 273 Dentil Course 269 Details of Construction 268 Die 217 Dimension Lines 249 Doric Order 317 Dormer Windows 296 Doors 279 Built-Up 279 Stock 279 Double-Hung Windows 289 Drawings Architectural 194 Competition 203 Eeproducing 238 Wash 310 Working 206 E Elevation, The 216 Elevations, Treatment of... 221 Entablature 217 F Fascia 269 Fireplaces 284 Flashing and Counter- Flashing 276 Floor Construction 271 Deadening Material 273 Under-Floor 272 Flue, Vent 252 Forms, Architectural 244 Fresh- Air Supply 252 Frieze 217 G Ground, The 296 Gutter 270 IXDEX 34:i H PAGE Header 273 Hectograph Process 240 I India-Ink 310 Ionic Order 317 J Joists 272 L Lath and Plaster 274 Lettering Architectural 325 Spacing 328 Library 220 Lines Building 249 Dimension 249 Lining, Back 296 Lookout 269 M Materials of Construction. . . 255 Muntins 289 O Office Building 220 Open Cornice 268 Openings, Location of 226 Orders, Use of the 216 Orders of Architecture 317 P Parting Strip 296 Pedestal 217 Pen and Ink Rendering 305 Perspective Sketches 203 Pivoted Windows 289 Plan, The 206 Planceer 269 Plank-Framed Windows 290 Plaster 274 Plinth 217 Porch Construction 280 Preliminary Sketches 194 Primary Colors 3i 7 B I'AGE Pulley Stile 296 Rendering, Pen and Ink. . . . 305 Reproducing Drawings 238 Riser 285 Roof Windows 296 S Sash 289 Scale Details 227 Sehoolhouse 220 Section, The 22'i Shades and Shadows 259 Shadows, Shades and 259 Shaft 217 Shrinkage 277 Sill ...\ 296 Single-Light Windows 28? Sketches Perspective 203 Preliminary 194 Sketching . .' 298 Fundamental Principles... 298 Method 301 Soffit '^69 Staff-Head 296 Stairs 284 Stile, Pulley 296 Stock Doors 279 Stool 296 Strip, Parting 296 Sub-Jamb 296 Symbols, Architectural 244 T Threshold 280 Tracing Cloth 243 Transom 289 Tread 285 Treatment of Elevations. . . . 221 Tuscan Order 317 Types of Buildings 220 U Under- Floor , 272 Use of the Orders 216 V Veneer 279 :>A4 IxNDEX W PAGE PACK Bay 296 Warehouse 221 Casement 289 Wash Drawings 310 Dduble-Hunj; 2S9 Metliod 310 Pivoted 289 Water-Tahle 217 Plank- Franit'd 290 Watei-Colors iU);!, 310 Kouf 296 White-Priiitiii- 2:S9 Single-Lioht 288 Windows 288, -^ii Working Drawings 20(j MODEL HOUSE DESIGNS SUPPLEMENT— PART 11 A Collection of Forty-one Well-planned, Modern, and Distinc- tive Residence Designs Prepared by a Corps of Skilled Licensed Architects Any one of these designs may be adopted with the certainty that it is in the best architectural style, and will make an attractive, convenient, successful dwelling Model House Designs Supplement — Part I, Containing Forty-two Well-planned Residences, will be found in •Radford's Drafting," Vol. I THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPAJNY 1827-33 Prairie Ave., Chicago ^Ifcmtr tf) a> X u u o a Vm o 0) > en 3 u X u +J ^ v o 14H u^ CM ^ ■<*■ d X h^ bJ3 S C - t^ S X ^ « S = r: ^ '^ s ~ oT ^ -g ^ -t^ S = =- ^ S So X rr o O - .i ^ — OX •5 s a--- 0) o C • l-H J2 ;^ ^ C = S CJ - O OD = ? 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CM r5 S ^1 O c V ba •-t-l '= S •/- © C/3 ■^ ,__ ^ C3 (U CO — o "^ -i-i ( ] J2 c — " o ■M o ■- C/2 rt -M C &i a: .2 S CO o c v: 'Z iXl ^ 51 5s " C CO 0) b/) a> « 1— ) O! r^ (U CM Q X •+J 'd r: -^ — • "i ■" ^ a '- -4^ CS = « r^ c &, t^ OQ 5 .x p: 3 w O -M C) ^ ^ M (-< 03 ^ m c =4-1 - p^ « S 9 CO M [/, b^ ^- fl A. (M t« ^^3 €0- c« O i\ 7i CS 11 id cS i2 o ^ 5 o 4> 53 54 CO o C/3 Q bX) C X ^ g c o C/2 CQ "73 &D c3 ~ cc 15 « S ,C o S >^ 'i +J u. 02 , r? n -^^ rn f-> o "^ vi o f-l o so 1 ;^ N O M ~f ^ ^ .^ ■^ •+J _2 K O i:- cS o o a: 3 rt (k 3^ .:;• ft '4H — ■z. = -^ =4-1 o o 03 C 03 =4-^ o -1^ s o -1-3 7, ^ o 5 o o Is t- X P5 03 3 ;-^ ^_; y. - -t^ o .— . -w o - -tf & o crj >i o c m h^l CS izi o CO o e©^ c fi cS o Hh CS rrJ T3 s s 56 OS 00 VO o o :: c r^ be CV) • 1-H ^ C/5 JH P 4) N CO •4-3 C3 s o o o T3 03 m ;:^ -^ Ti es n «t-i rs IS '73 o -«-> CIS »^ -1-3 m ^ c6 CD tC Ol 1-1 o o .^ r» -1-1 C - aj rt .^^ o "^ =4-1 S f- ^ .^ C3 O ^ •-- r o . 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CS X! C3 -tj -i-s -4J o ^r cd ou C O "rri o g 00 a •l-> o *^ M « OD P. o .2 Si CO "en Pi a vr n >. Ph eS fl >i TT C5 t- w fee « .a o PQ -M fl '*-• 'T •" g TO O 6 S ^ Fh 71 72 V CJ Si O a ■— r o 00 JS o _5 5 = -? s o to vo o .S 4-* C O nd soc'O rear, t wall s o 0) A) ITS iz; <4H 00 5 O ^ P s -^ =^ .2 CM •-" «4-( ^ .^ -M •t-i CO 5 bX) C 3 plan; plans eleva u ffi ^ '^ o 3 P i-J = ct p ? QQ «t-i -t^' 2 r: ^ Z' o r; Ji O ;;. r. O 2 C - = ■- C O _. O '-' O > " +j +i -tJ +s +a q o s ^ ^ 02 C3 2 C C3 r^ (N ^ 00 CO 73 V x: u O o p^ c bn ^ I-H bJO <& -tJ fl -*J ^ ^ -ji q CS 03 OJ •!-• o o a< It ra bJD o o '^ a 'El a .2 'S o IB H M Pm 03 «a 0) o o o CM €«■ a 03 -^3 > be cc M ■ ; o3 a « O O CIS Ph a 03 ^ C8 •♦J -t^ Ph m . .s a >H .rH , 1 a 3h a > a Oh S o o » 3 O W +i ^ >> o p ^ tf-i =tH ^ l-l u CO CO in vo 6 c CO a; P CO V V o CO Xi ■M ■73 11 i B £ c s o C3 > C!3 x O aT S •0 0", o -. J3 'J' 'V ^ -*— .— c P3 z. o :c O O T c & lr p^ S o »-< 3. s "r es f. t-l X -*^ N (2 77 r *^"^^l(^' 78 OB U ji u u O > 09 V ca LO C O^ "* O 4> ON (D B O CO CO >H X -»^ U O I « o O a< rs . o B 4-1 >. ai X o cd "3 B JJ rs o ? ■1^ ^ X S o • •^ r, © eS H tE -4J o ^ X s B ii !=- > X = C n o B X -^ ^ S o K ^ >H o o as x r^ z. M P4 'i ^ 00 r-( s ^ o ^ PM o €«^ i) O _g o 5*^ o X -4J -r X ~ K ^ ■■^ it zi B bl >> 5 03 X S (S ~ Z >y w s -^ = ^ 79 80 1 ■ 5 O cx 1 O "" =3 .2 O to -5 • I— 1 Q C 73 N CO = c O O eS S •r -u r. s +j c > 02 -1^ CD 1= (» « -M — o K t-i >> U M PS ^ 00 ^ o b (I4 m^ o &. O 'an =1-1 o X bo X n . \ OS o >> a o bT 5C X -f-> 10 ^ -. c ^ 1-1 -1^ ^ OJ " ^ a o >^ V Ph &, K '5 ■5 'S w 'fH ^ p .- p. 93 -c ^ ca & n^ a; PQ ^ -r 81 82 v « Ul 00 rg X •imJ b/5 o^ C 4^ o h4 ^n a^ EA O — X o O OS 5= & c; X . .^ . .^ -^ 5 *^ X _CS .H (- „ E ^ "S X ? — ^ ^ ■4^ ^ -*^ >-. eS "o <— ■^ X s O x o si X X c H M i _5 ^ ^ -^ ,^ K r X Hh "^ r^ 5c ,- x ~ ~ O 5 ^ t:: i: ■^ x' X b X E T- r _= "tr 5 c = 'Z, _■*; t-> p C. — .«_ & o O X 5= 5: 3 >^ ^ X CiG -^' 2 ■:- GO 83 Index to House Plan Supplement — Part II — Estimated Cost — Price of Plans Design. Page. From About To About and Specifications LM105-D 66 $2,500 $2,800 $12.00 2544-D 68 3,500 4,000 15.00 5127 64 2,275 2,425 10.00 6501 18 2,825 3,225 18.00 6502 48 3,800 4,200 24.00 6503 54 6,500 6,900 30.00 6504 2 3,000 3,400 22.00 6505 60 4,900 5,200 26.00 6506 46 2,800 3,200 20.00 6507 16 6,000 6,200 28.00 ()508 72 3,125 3,325 22.00 6509 10 2,800 3,200 16.00 6510 4 3,800 4,200 18.00 6511 44 5,200 5,600 26.00 6512 32 3,150 3,550 16.00 6513 22 2,200 2,400 16.00 6514 34 5,600 5,800 28.00 6515 6 4,675 4,975 18.00 6516 3G 2,875 3,275 20.00 6517 8 4,800 5,200 26.00 6518 56 3,800 4,200 22.00 6519 28 2,625 3,025 16.00 6520 30 4,100 4,500 24.00 6521 20 4,400 4,800 24.00 6522 58 6,000 6,200 28.00 6523 38 2,700 3,100 16.00 6524 26 6,000 6,400 28.00 6525 40 6,400 6,800 30.00 6526 14 2,475 2,875 18.00 6527 74 7,500 8,000 24.00 6528 50 4,200 4,600 24.00 6529 24 4,250 4,650 26.00 6530 42 5,000 5,500 20.00 6531 62 6,600 7,000 30.00 6532 52 3,200 3,600 20.00 6533 76 3,200 3,475 22.00 6534 12 6,200 6,600 30.00 9507 80 3,200 3,800 IS.OO 9509 82 3.200 3,800 18.00 9510 78 2,800 3,400 18.00 9520 70 3,075 3,475 22.00 84 Plans and Specifications at Low Cost WE ILLUSTRATE IN THIS BOOK the perspective view and floor plans ot 41 Mod- ern Residences. In drawing tiese plans special effort has been made to provide for the most economical construction, thereby giving the home builder and contractor the benefit of the saving of many dollars. $200.00 PLANS FOE ONLY $20.00— This department has for its foundation the best equipped architectural establishment ever maintained for the purpose of furnishing the public with complete working jjlans and specifications at the remarkable low price of only $10.00 to $30.00 per set. Every plan we illustrate has been designed by a licensed architect, who stands at the head of his pro- fession in this particular class of work. WHAT WE GIVE YOU— The first ques- tion you will ask is, ' ' What do we get in these complete working plans and specifica- tions? Of what do they consist? Are they the cheap printed plans on tissue paper with- out details or specifications?" We do not blame you for wishing to know what you will get for your money. BLUE PRINTED WORKING PLANS— The plans we send out are the regular blue printed plans, drawn one-quarter inch scale to the foot, showing all the elevations, floor plans and necessary interior details. We use the very best grade of blue-printing paper; every line and figure showing perfect and distinct. FOUNDATION AND CELLAR PLANS— This sheet shows the shape and size of all the walls, piers, footings, posts, etc., and of what materials they are constructed; shows the location of all windows, doors, chimneys, ash-pits, partitions, and the like. The differ- ent wall sections are given, showing their construction and measurements from all the different pjoints. FLOOR PLANS— These plans show the shape and size of all rooms, halls and closets; the location and size of all doors and win- dows; the position of all plumbing fixtures, gas lights, registers, pantry work, etc., and all the measurements that are necessary are given. ELEVATIONS— A front, right, left and rear elevation are furnished with all the plans. These drawings are complete and ac- curate in every respect. They show the shape, size and location of all doors, windows, porches, cornices, towers, bays, and the like; in fact, give you an exact scale picture of the house as it should be at completion. Full wall sections are given, showing the construc- tion from foundation to roof, the height of stories between the joists, height of plates, pitch of roof, etc. ROOF PLAN— This plan is furnished where the roof construction is at all in- tricate. It shows the location of all hips, valleys, ridges, decks, etc. All the above drawings are made to scale one-quarter inch to the foot. DETAILS— All necessary details of the interior work, such as door and window cas- ings and trim, base, stools, picture moulding, doors, newel posts, balusters, rails, etc., ac- company each set of plans. Part is shown in full size, while some of the larger work, such as stair construction, is drawn to a scale of one and one-half inch to the foot. SPECIFICATIONS— The specifications are tyjiewritten on Lakeside Bond Linen paper. They consist of twenty-two pages of closely typewritten matter, giving full instructions for carrying out the work. All necessary di- rections are given in the clearest and most explicit manner, so that there can be no possibility of a misunderstanding. BASIS OF CONTRACT— The working plans and specifications we furnish can be made the basis of contract between the home builder and the contractor. This will pre- vent mistakes, whieh cost money, and they will prevent disputes which are unforeseen and never settled satisfactorily to both par- 85 jes. When no plans are used the contractor is often obliged to do some work he did not figure on, and the home builder does not get as much for his money as he expected, simply because there was no basis on which to work and upon which to base the contract. NO MISUNDERSTANDING CAN ARISE when a set of our plans and specifications is before the contractor and the home builder, showing the interior and exterior construc- tion of the house as agreed upon in the con- tract. Many advantages may be claimed for the complete plans and specifications. They are time savers, and, therefore, money savers. Workmen will not have to wait for instruc- tions when a set of plans is left on the job. They will prevent mistakes in cutting lum ber, in placing door and window frames, and in many other places where the contractor is not on the work and the men have received onl}' partial or indefinite instructions. Thej' also give instructions for the working of all material to the best advantage. OUR LIBERAL PRICES— Many have marveled at our ability to furnish such ex- cellent and complete working plans and specifications at such low prices. We do not wonder at this, because we charge but .$10.00 to .$.30.00 for a more complete set of work- ing plans and specifications than you would receive if ordered in the ordinary manner, and when drawn especially for you, at a cost of from $75.00 to $200.00. On account of our large business and unusual equipment, and owing to the fact that we divide the cost of these plans among so many, it is pos sihle for us to sell them at these low prices. The margin of profit is very small, but it enables us to sell thousands of sets of plans, which save many times their cost to both the owner and the contractor in erecting even the smallest dwelling. OUR GUARANTEE— Perhaps there are many who feel that they are running some risk in ordering plans at a distance. We wish to assure our customers that there is no risk whatever. If, upon receipt of these plans, you do not find them exactly as rep- resented, if you do not find them complete and accurate in every respect, if you do not find them as well prepared as those furnished by any architect in the country, or any that you have ever seen, we will refund your money upon the return of the plans from you in perfect condition. All of our plans are prepared by architects standing at the head of their profession, and the standard of their work is the very highest. We could not afford to make this guarantee if we were not positive that we were furnishing the best plans put out in this country, even though our price is not more than one-sev- enth to one-tenth of the price usually charged. ESTIMATED COST— It is impossible for anyone to estimate the cost of a building and have the figures hold good in all sec- tions of the country. We do not claim to be able to do it. The estimated cost of the houses we illustrate is based on the most favorable conditions in all respects, and in- cludes everything but the plumbing and heating. We are not familiar with your local conditions, and, should we claim to know the exact cost of a building in your locality, a child would know that our state- ment was false. We leave this matter in the hands of the reliable contractors, for they, and they alone, know your local conditions. IMMEDIATE DELIVERY GUARAN- TEED — Our equipment and facilities arc such that we can send out the same day wo receive order the complete plans and speci- fications for any house we illustrate. De- livery is made by express whenever possi- ble, otherwise plans and specifications are forwarded by mail. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 86 IT SHOWS YOU HOW To Accomplish More — How to Make More — How to Save Money, Time and Labor — How You Can Equip Yourself For Better Building and Bigger Contracts A year's subscription to the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER, "the World's Greatest Building Paper," is a wise investment for any Contractor, Builder, Carpenter or Woodworker — an investment _ that will return remarkable dividends of reliable, practical informa'ion — that will give full value in every number. American Carpenter and Builder Endorsed ^A AAO Well-pleased By Nearly ^WjWVr Subscribers The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER covers the building industry thoroughly, its many departments being complete in descriptions and illustrations. Not only are the time-tried and approved methods of construction shown, but also all other features that enter into building, such as heating, plumbing, ventilating, art glass, painting, builders' hardware, water supply, lighting, decoration, etc. Original and Up-to-Date Plans for Builders Every issue of the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains per- spective views, floor plans and details of modern and moderate-cost residences, schoolhouses, farm buildings, bungalows, cement houses, f^ats and other public and private structures. These house plans are all original, complete and absolutely correct. They are reproduced so clearly that they can be used to work from "on the job" if desired. Largest — Best Illustrated — Leads in Every Way The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains more pages of read- ing matter each month than any other building publication. Its contents are better and more practical, and intended for men who make iheir living by building. Its departments cover a wider range of subjects, it has a greater number, better and larger illustrations than any publication in its field. It has the best writers and contributors. Its contents are copyrighted and exclusive. It has the largest and most interesting correspondence department. There are from 148 to 172 pages in every number of the AMERICAN CARPEN- TER AND BUILDER. There are from 250 to 300 advertisers using its columns every month (ro'r more than any other building publication) to tell its readers of new materials, machinery, tools, equipment and supplies for their work. In addition to the vast amount of reliable and practical information in its reading columns the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER is a valuable, indispensable, correct Up-to-Date Trade Directory That every contractor, buildei, carpenter, woodworker, architect and draftsman needs in order to keep posted on new developments, new methods, new ways, new machiner}% new tools. Nowhere else can such a vast variety of useful knowledge relating to the building industry be bought at so low a price. Subscriptions, $2,00 a year. Sample Copy Sent on Request THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111. DETAILS of Building Construction Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build ing Construction" is a complete manual ol buildins practice, as applied to carpentry, construction and the use of millwork. It is a remarkable collection of full-page plates, accurately drawn and reproduced to exact scale, showing clearly every detail of modern building construction and finisli. These plates make plain the framing and construction of residences of every type. The drawings show both the arranfgement of the room and all the interior trim, includ- ing built-in features, fully detailed. General Synopsis of Contents PART I. Details of Construction and Finish 38 Full Page Plates, showing complete details of iiiterioi- trim with sjn-cial "built-in" features for every room and part of a modern residence. PART II. Details of Frame and Masonry Construction 44 Full Page Plates, presenting a graded series of 197 figures detailing completely every point in irame, brick and stone construction. ! 200 Pages — 9x12 inchei PART III. Details of Miscellaneous Building PART IV. "The Handy Man's Friend" 57 Full Page Plates— A veritable Treasure How to Make a Thousand and One Useful Tlouse of jiractical and reliable information Things for carpenters and builders— especially those gt Pages, packed full of practical helps for workmg m the country— working drawuigs and fioine all the virions nieces of work that the details which solve completely every building carpfnter and thl '•^4ndy-.T;^ln-about-tl Ye- pioblem. house" is called upon to do. Details and work- ing drawings with brief explanatory text. A Big, Brand-New Up-to-the-Minute Book Every part of a building and every kind of a building is shown in Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Building Construction." All dimensions, angles, curves, measurements and joints are made so plain and are so well illustrated that the "man on the job" will have no troul:)le or difficulty in doing the work. It has all been figured out for him by men who have made a lifelong study and success of architecture and building. This is tlie day of "built in"' space- and labor-saving features in the home. Carpenters are called upon to plan and Ijuild buffets and sideboards for the dining room, kitchen cal)inets, cases and cupboards for the kitchen and pantry, bookcases for the living room and library, wardrobes and linen closets for the chambers, fire- places with wood mantels, window seats, etc. Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build- ing Construction" is a regular gold mine of new and attractive designs and practical ideas from which the carpenter or the architect or the builder can draw for all or anv of these. In every case complete details are presented — all accurately drawn to scale — so that the work can 1)e gotten out directly from the Portfolio, if need be, without redrawing. Two Hundred Pages of Illustrations F.acli plate and drawing is accompanied 1))' descri])ti\o text, pointing out the special features and making every part perfectly clear and easily understood. Bound in cloth with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO, 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, III. BUNGALOW^ BOOK 208 Brand-New Designs This handsomely bound book, size 8x11 inches, 224 pages, con- tains perspective views and floor plans of 208 Buno^alows suitable for anv climate and for every material. The illustrations show the Bunga- lows exactly as they will appear when built and the floor plans show the size and arrangement of the rooms, windows, closets, plumbing and interior details. The estimated cost of construction of the Bunga- lows shown ranges from $500.00 to $5,000.00 each. Best Ideas in Bungalow Archi- tecture In this big book is condensed the best thought on Bungalow construc- tion. The home builder and con- tractor will find here every style of Bungalow that has proved itself worthy of being classed with that form of architecture. Freak ideas that serve no good purpose, but are an item of large expense, have been carefully excluded from this collection. Largest Bungalow Book Ever Published "Artistic Bungalows" is the largest and most complete work of its kind ever published. In its 208 Bungalow designs are many that will appeal to every taste. Economy of construction, as Avell as beauty and harmony of design, has been carefully kept in mind. Convenience of interior arrange- ment, light, and closet room have all been considered. Plans Are Guaranteed to Be Correct The plans for every Bungalow shown in this book were drawn by licensed architects, men who have made a life study of home construction and who know the economy of planning buildings that allow of the use of the standard sizes of lumber and material. Wide Range of Style and Materials Every floor plan shown in this large collection is guaranteed to be abso- lutely correct from an architectural standpoint. "Pet ideas" that involve needless expense, waste, or possibility of mistake have not been considered. Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111. FRAMING House Framing, Barn Framing, Roof Framing "Framing" is the largest book of its kind ever published. It consists of 356 pages, size 6x9 inches, and printed from large, clear type on a high-grade book paper. More than 100 pages of illustrated details make it most valuable. This large new book, "Framing," is written so that any reader can understand every page, every term used and every detail shown. It is entirely free from technicalities, and yet its pages are meaty with instruc- tions to all classes of builders, from the youngest apprentice to the journeyman, as well as the practical builder and the largest contractor. Practical information is the key- note of "Framing." By practical, wc mean information that can be suc- cessfully applied to the everyday work of the average carpenter, builder and contractor, as well as the more intricate forms of framing that come less often, but about which it is necessary to be fully posted. The book presents problems as they have been worked out by well-known aroliitccts and the man on the job. General Synopsis of Contents Part I. Framing for all Types of Houses Chapter 1. Ordinary Frame Houses — Fram- ing complete, from foundation to roof Chapter 2. Roof Framing Simplified Chai)ter 3. Stair Building Simjilificd Chapter 4. Cement Plastered and English Half-Timber Hou.so.s Chapter 5. Wood Framing for brick veneer houses Chapter 6. Wood Framing for stone and brick houses Part II. Barn Framing Complete Chapter 1. Heavy Timber Barns Chapter 2. Plank Framing Chapter 3. Balloon or Self-Supporting Con- struction Part III. Framing of Factories, Stores and Public Buildings Chapter 1. Mill Construction Chapter 2. ^Vood Trusses of all kinds Chapter 3. Architectural Framing as in churches, gymnasiums, halls, etc. Part !V. Miscellaneous Framing Cliaplei- I. ScatToliling and Shoring Chapter L'. Wooden Biiilgos Chapter .'). False Work for Concrete Part V. Useful Tables and Data Part VI. Dictionary of Terms and Index All terms used in framing, building con- struction and arcliitectui"e defined and e.xplained, with cross reference to full discussion in body of book A Big, Practical, Up-to-the-Minute Book for the Architect, Drafts- man, Construction Man, Contractor, Builder and Carpenter Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, IlL BRICK HOUSES And How to Build Them This book is a complete and clear maiuril of brick construction, designs and details. It tells what every builder should know of the classification and measurements of brickwork, together with archi- tects' drawings of framing for brick houses and the use of brick veneer. Up-to-Date and Approved Methods This book also tells of the mis- cellaneous uses of brick, including ornamental brick and tile work, chimney and flue construction, brick fireplaces, brick sewers, cis- terns and flush tanks, etc. It tells the carpenter and builder every- thing he should know to undertake brickwork and how to make a suc- cess of every job in which brick is used. It is so clearly illustrated by details that there can be no un- certainty in any builder's mind as to each successive step to be taken. Money-Maker and Business-Getter for Builders This book will be a money-maker and business-p-etter for builders. Brick houses are in demand. Many thousands of dollars are being spent by brick manufacturers in advertising so as to create a demand for their product. This has stimulated a desire on the part of those intending to build to insist upon brick instead of other materials. Every builder should learn all he can about the many varieties of brick and the multitude of ways it can be used in order to meet this demand. In addition to designs of many beautiful, attractive, medium priced houses this book also contains fully worked-out detail drawings, as well as prices and estimating data. Beautiful Designs Shown Over sixty designs of the very best modern architectural work are presented in this book. These designs are of attractive, substantial, homelike brick houses of many types — designs that will appeal to home lovers and the man or woman who is investing the savings of a lifetime in a home. This book will give any builder all the information he needs to figure on a job and then carry it out in the most ap- proved manner. In all sections of the country the demand for brick houses is grow- ing. Builders are finding out they must post up on brick construction. They are being asked its cost, durability, economy and hundreds of similar questions. They can find the answers by studying the pages of this book. Size 8xir inches, 236 pages. Bound in cloth with handsome art cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111. EiA[5)F(o)lAl§)' AND HOW TO BUILD THEM STEEL SQUARE And Its Uses "Steel Square and Its Uses," by Win. A. Radford, consists of two volumes and are brand new books. They are written in plain, everyday lany^uage and the text and illustrations can be easily understood and followed. Information of value tliat has appeared in former works appears in these books, together with a vast amount of absolutely new, practical, every- day information, such as is nec- essary for every progressive and successful carpenter to know. Vast Amount of Prac- tical Information This up-to-date and practical work on the application of the steel square treats of the laying 'of the rafters, finding the length of jacks, securing bevels, laying' out hopper bevels, show- ing how to use the steel square as a calculating macliine, and liow to measure solids, surfaces and distances. While the text and descriptive matter are so accurate and easy of compre- hension that they could be understood witliout even the assistance of the illustrations, nevertheless the book has been thoroughly and profusely illustrated with diagrams and drawings. Over 300 Illustrations Practical and instructive illustrations to the number of more than 300 are shown in these books. The illustrations are not technical, mathematical designs nor geometrical problems, but are the thoroughly practical illustrations of a thoroughly practical text. Special Chapters on Stair Building Special chapters are devoted to that part of stair building to which the steel square can be applied. Other chapters discuss tlie adjustal)le fence, roof framing, hip roof framing, hoppers and hopper bevels, combination squares, key to the steel square, possibilities of the steel square, polygons and miters, pitches and roof framing aud miscellaneous rules and examples. A Department of Questions and Answers Incorporated in Volump 2 is one of the most useful. Interesting and instructive deiiai tnients ever iirosented in a worl< of tliis cliaraoter. It consists of numerous (luestions wiiicli liave l)een sent tlie editors by practical carjienteis all over the country, together with clear and easily understood answers. These questions come up in every carpenter's work freiiuently and the solutions of the problems given will prove a valuable aid to tlie readers of "Steel Square and Its Uses." Books Are Absolutely Up-to-Date These books are absolutely new and up-to- date. Each volume measures 6x9 inclies and contains over 300 pages, being the largest books on the steel square ever published. They are bound in cloth, with attractive cover designs, handsomely stamped. Price per volume, postage prepaid, $1.00. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO« 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111. CEMENT HOUSES And How to Build Them In "Cement Houses ai-d How to Build Them," a book of 160 pages, all types and designs of houses are shown, ranging in price from $750 to $4,000. The plans were all drawn by licensed architects and are guar- anteed to be absolutely correct in every detail. This Large Book Contains Illustrated Details of Cement Construc- tion; Standard Specifications for Ce- ment; Standard Specifications for Con- crete Blocks; X'aluable Information Con- cerning Waterproofing, Coloring. Ag- gregates. Proportioning, Mixing, Paving, Reinforcing and Monolithic Work, Foundations, Walls, Partitions, Steps, Stairs, Floors, Sidewalks, .Sewer Pipe, Tile. Cement Shingles, Chimneys, Porches, Tanks and Cisterns, Expanded Metal Meshing, Metal Lath, Establish- ing a Concrete Block Business, Cement, Plaster and Stucco Work; Concrete on the Farm; Cement Brick: How to Over- com.e Concrete Troubles; Causes of Cement Failures; Freezing; How to Select Proper Aggregates; Applying Stucco to Old Walls; Examples of Strength; Tension and Compression; Placing Reinforcing Rods; Adhesion; Dimensions " for Beams; \'ibrations; Miscellaneous Information of Every Kind. 176 pages, size 8x11, Over 200 illustrations, with perspective views and floor plans of eighty-seven cement plaster and concrete block houses, finest ever designed All houses illustrated with fine half-tone cuts, printed on enameled paper. The illustrations show the houses exactly as they will look when built, and give a very clear idea of their appearance. All the floor plans are shown, giving the location and dimensions of all rooms, closets, porches, etc., with detailed information as to both interior and exterior. The houses illustrated range from the small to the medium large in size, such as will appeal to the average man or woman who intends to build a home. Keep Posted on New Developments In these days of timber and cement houses, brick and cement houses, and other combinations of materials, the builder and contractor who wants to be ready to do work on all kinds of residence construction should study the latest methods and most practical and economical ways of doing his work. He should be prepared to accept contracts on any type of construction, be able to estimate accurately and understand all details. New and odd ways of combining frame, stucco, concrete blocks and veneered brick are constantly being employed, and the builder who does not have the advantage of practical experience on this unusual work is under a serious handicap, Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo, THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111. Stores and Flat Buildings d RADFORirs SIORES C HAT BUILDINGS This book is entirely diflferent from any hook of Architectural Plans ever published, as it is composed of perspec- tive views and plans desifrned both for city and country buildings. Nothing like it has ever before been within the reach of any one desiring to build for himself or others. Only Book of Its Kind "Stores and Flat Buildings" is actually the first and only book of its kind ever published. In other plan books designs are shown for single residences to be constructed on separate lots, but in this book are given ideas for the man who wants to have his store on the first floor and live above it, or rent the upper flooi" or floors. These designs combine busi- ness and residence structures, and also give the Latest Ideas and Designs in Flat Buildings of two, four, six ana nine apartments. In nearly all good sized towns and villages small flat build- ings, combined with stores or entirely for residence purposes, are becoming more and more popular, and are prov- ing very popular. In the suburbs of large cities small flats or apartments are being built more than any other type of construction. The owner usually lives in one of the apartments and rents the others, thus helping him to take care of his investment. For Country and City In addition to the designs for stores, comlMned stores and flat buildings and separate flat buildings, this book also illustrates small bank buildings, lodge halls and double houses suitable for the small towns and villages as well as the larger cities. In many small towns there is a demand for suitable places of gathering for societies and lodges, and in numerous cases the contractor and builder, having had no experience in this line of work, believes it necessary to apply to an architect in a larger place to get correct plans drawn especially to order. The contractor and builder, with this book on hand, can take care of this work himself and secure correct and guaranteed plans at a trifling cost, plans that have been built from and found satisfactory in every particular. The same is true of bank buildings, of which a good selection is shown. An Up-to-Date Book for Builders This book shows many popular designs of the kind of building shown by its title, suitable for diflferent building materials, such as frame, brick, stone, cement, plaster and stucco, and cement block. An estimate of cost, based on favorable con- ditions, is shown under each design. .An expert knowledge of the material thai goes into buildings of this character is back of every design shown. "Radford's Stores and Flat Buildings" is printed on high-grade super-calendered paper from artistic half-tones and etchings. It is bound in silk cloth, with an illumi- nated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo per copv. THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111.