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■ ' '" ' '•- ' AN IMPROVED AND ENLARGED EDITION 
 
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 YOUNG CARPENTERS ASSISTANT; 
 
 A COMPLETE 
 j 
 
 SYSTEM OF ARCHITECTURE 
 
 fOR 
 
 ' / CARPENTERS, JOINERS, AND WORKMEN IN GENERAL, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 » STYLE OF BUILDING IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED, WITH SEVERAL ADDITIONAL AttTlCLES, AND FORTY EIGHT NEW DESIGNS, CHIEFLlf 
 V > • OF FULL SIZE WORKING DRAWINGS OF MODERN FINISH, IN DETAIL, 
 
 ' PARTICULARLY ADAPTED FOR COUNTRY USE. 
 
 BY JOHN HAVILAND, ARCHITECT. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY M'CARTY & DAVIS— 171 MARKET STREET. 
 
 1833. 
 
9 »• • 
 
 « • 
 
 Entered, according to the act of congress, in the year 1833, by M'Carty.& Davis, 
 in the clerk's office of the district court of the eastern district of Poiinsvlvania. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE IMPROVED EDITION. 
 
 In offering to the Public a new Edition of the Young Carpenter's Assistant, it 
 will be proper to make a few general remarks on the original object of the author, 
 and the nature of the improvements which are now effected. When this work was 
 first published, nothing on Architecture had previously appeared in this Country. 
 All foreign authors adapted their examples and observations almost entirely to the 
 style of Building in their respective countries, which in many instances differed 
 materially from ours. Hence, to the American Student, a work embracing the 
 practical and theoretical knowledge of Architecture, adapted to the peculiar circum- 
 stances of this country, had become a great desideratum ; in supplying of which, 
 none succeeded better than the Young Carpenter's Assistant. 
 
 The rapidity with which every Science is advancing in this country, sufficiently 
 indicates the great improvements necessarily made in the most important of all 
 subjects, as it regards our health and convenience, — the proper construction and 
 building of our houses. Whence, the original work, published now sixteen years 
 ago, must consequently be found considerably deficient in information and examples, 
 and a new edition has been in great demand. 
 
 For the rcvisal and correction of this new edition of the Young Carpenter's 
 Assistant, the Publisher is indebted to the care and professional knowledge of Mr. 
 John Haviland, Architect, whose great practical experience so pre-eminently enables 
 him to adapt the work to the present time, and to impart much additional informa- 
 tion and valuable matter on each subject. 
 
 A series of forty-eight New Designs and beautiful Specimens, chiefly of full 
 size, accompanied with their Working-Drawings, and parts explanatory of the Modern 
 Finish, in detail, have been introduced by Mr. Haviland for the immediate applica- 
 tion of the Practical Carpenter and Builder. They are calculated to instruct him 
 either in the designing or execution of Dwelling-Houses, Banks, Prisons, Doors, 
 Windows, Railing, Skirting, Cornices, and Marble Mantles. The whole is particu- 
 larly adapted for country use ; and, as nothing has been omitted which can tend 
 to his information, it is presumed that this will be rendered the most complete and 
 useful book to the young workman. 
 
 Philadelphia, July, 1833. 
 
 3 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Having been for some time past in the practice of teaching the Rudiments of 
 Architecture, I have experienced mucli inconvenience, for want of suitable books on 
 the subject. All that have yet appeared, have been written by foreign authors, who 
 have adapted their examples and observations almost entirely to the style of build- 
 ing in their respective countries, which in many instances differs very materially 
 from ours. Hence the American Student of Architecture has been taxed with the 
 purchase of books, two-thirds of the contents of which were, to liim, unnecessary ; 
 when, at the same time, in a large and expensive volume of this kind, he has not 
 always been able to fmd the information wanted. 
 
 Nothing on Architecture has heretofore appeared in this Country, where the field 
 for improvement in every useful art and science is, perhaps, more extensive than in 
 any other. Why there has not, appears to mc matter of surprise, whilst we have 
 among us men of talents, full}' acquainted with the subject ; some of whom are also 
 men of leisure. Perhaps they have not viewed the subject in the same light, or 
 given to it the same degree of importance, that I have. For my part, I can con- 
 ceive of kw objects of more consequence, in a new and improving country like our 
 own, as it regards our health and convenience, or as it may gratify the fancy, than 
 the proper construction and building of our houses : whence I conclude it a matter 
 of interest, not only meriting the attention of every Carpenter, but of every man 
 who has time and inclination to devote to the study, and more especially such as 
 may have occasion to build. 
 
 Under the influence of these impressions, and at the solicitation of some of my 
 friends, I have been induced to this undertaking. How far I have succeeded, I 
 leave to those who are capable of judging. No doubt they will discover in it some 
 imperfections ; yet surely it will not be considered as arrogance in mc to conclude 
 it better adapted to the peculiar circumstances of this Country, tluui any foreign 
 production of the kind. I have not, from prejudice, omitted any thing useful con- 
 tained in the books already published on the subject : neither have I, on account 
 of their authority, or from partiality, retained any thing I apprehended useless to the 
 young Carpenter of the United States. The proportion of the four Orders I have 
 taken from Paul's Works, with but little variation ; and, for some of the Geometrical 
 Problems, I am indebted to Peter Nicholson, whose Works are held in deserved 
 estimation. In stairs, and framing roofs, I have given the most recent improvements 
 of this Country ; and have endeavored, through the whole, to adapt the explanations 
 to the capacities of Learners ; which accounts for a minuteness that may possibly 
 appear tedious to those who need no instruction. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1805. 
 4 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2009 with funding from 
 
 NCSU Libraries 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/improvedenlargedOObidd 
 
PLATE 1. 
 
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THE 
 
 YOUJVG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 AS this work is intended for the Student in Architecture, it seems requisite to 
 give some directions, respecting the necessary instruments for drawing, &c. 
 
 Fio-. A, Plate 1, is a representation of a draught-board, to which the paper used 
 in drawing is to be fixed. This board is composed of a frame of mahogany or 
 other hard wood (the outside edges of which should be exactly straight and square) 
 with a panel about half the thickness of the frame, to be let in from the back, and 
 to lie in a rabbit in the frame ; there to be secured l)y small wooden buttons. Fig. 
 B is a section of the board, a and 6 are the buttons by which the panel is kept in 
 its place. Eight or ten of these may be necessary. The panel should be clamped, 
 to remedy any disadvantage attending the shrinking of the wood. It would not be 
 amiss, before making the draught-board, to ascertain the size of the paper to be 
 used, and make the panel about 2 inches less each way than the sheet. In apply- 
 ing this board to use, lay the paper on a table, and moisten one side of it with a 
 wet sponge ; place the board upside down near it ; take out the panel and lay it on 
 the paper, one inch of ^^ hich will extend beyond the panel all round ; take hold of 
 the edges of the paper, and lift them both into the frame ; fasten the buttons and 
 dry the paper by the fire ; when it will be smooth as a drum-head. 
 
 Fig. C is the T square, the blade of which should be long enough to reach nearly 
 across the draught-board, and should not exceed three-sixteenths of an inch in 
 thickness. Similar in form to this a bevel may be made, with the blade movable 
 on a centre in the stock. The application of these, in drawing parallel lines on the 
 draught-board, is so obvious that I need not describe it. 
 
 In choosing a case of mathematical instruments, attention should be paid to its 
 containing the scales of equal parts on the thin ivory or box-rule ; as, in drawing the 
 four Orders of Architecture, they are all proportioned by such a scale ; which indeed 
 is the case with almost all Architectural drawings ; and with a little attention the 
 Student will generally be able to find a scale ready made, with greater accuracy 
 than he would be able to make one himself The case should also contain a bow- 
 pen or compass, a useful instrument for drawing very small circles. With these, a 
 small piece of gum elastic for rubbing out black-lead lines, a stick of Indian ink, 
 twocamels'-hair pencils, one large, the other small, and a black-lead pencil, will con- 
 stitute the instruments necessary in learning Architectural drawing. It may be 
 proper to observe, that no kind of ink should be used except Indian ink. For draw- 
 ing lines, this should be dissolved some time before it is to be used ; but for shading, 
 it Is best to drop a little water oii a plate or saucer, and rub the stick of ink in it till 
 it is of a proper shade. 
 
 5 B 
 
6 THE YOUNG CARPENTER-S ASSISTANT. 
 
 I shall now proceed to explain some of the most useful geometrical problems, 
 which every Carpenter ought to be acquainted with. 
 
 To raise a perpendicular or plumb-line, from a given point on a 
 
 straight line : 
 
 Let n I), fig. E, be the line, and c the point given, from which the perpendicular is 
 to be drawn. Take any space with the compasses at random, asci; with that 
 space set ofl' c a and c b ; then place one foot of the compasses in a, and extend the 
 other beyond r, and describe a small part of a circle, as at d ; then, with the same 
 extent of compasses, place one foot in i, and make a part of a circle to cross the 
 other at d ; through the intersection of these circles, a line drawn to e, will be per- 
 pendicular or plumb. 
 
 From any given point over a right line, to let fall a line which will be 
 perpendicular to that right line : 
 
 Let c, fig. F, be the point given ; and a b the right line. With one foot of the 
 compasses in c, extend the other foot so as to describe the arc or part of a circle a 
 b; place one foot of the compasses at the intersection of this arc with the right line 
 at 6, and extend them so as to describe a small arc at d ; with the same extent of 
 the compasses place one foot in the intersection at «, and cross the arc at d ; draw 
 a line from r, through the intersection of the arc at 6?, and it will be perpendicular 
 to the right line a b. 
 
 D 
 
 On the end of a right line, to draw a line which will be perpendicular, 
 or at right angles with that right line : 
 
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 Let a i, fig. G, be the right line ; at some point over this line, as at (/, place one 
 foot of the compasses, and extend the other to the end of the line at i, and describe 
 the circle at « be; through the intersection at o, and the centre at d^ draw the line 
 a d c ; from c draAv the line c b, which will be perpendicular to the line o b. 
 
 To describe a square, whose sides shall all be equal to a given right line : 
 
 Let a b, fig. H, be the line given ; with one foot of the compasses on a describe 
 the arc/r b ; then with one foot in b describe ace; divide the space c b into two 
 parts at d ; with the extent c d in the compasses set off c/and c e; connect af,f 
 e, and e b, and the square will be complete. 
 
 To lay off a square with a ten-foot rod : 
 
 Let a b, fig. 1, be the given line ; with eight feet of the rod from b make a mark 
 at a ; with six feet from b describe an arc at c ; and with ten feet from a cross the 
 arc at c ; draw the line from the intersection at c to b, and it will be square with 
 the line a b. 
 
PLulTE 2. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 7 
 
 Three points (not in a right hne) or a small part of a circle, being given to find 
 a centre which will describe a circle to pass through the point or complete the 
 circle : 
 
 Let a b c, fig. K, be the three points or part of a circle given ; to find the centre 
 of which, place the foot of the compasses in a and describe an arc at d and c ; with 
 the same extent place the foot of the compasses in b, and cross the arcs of rf and c; 
 and at the same time describe arcs at c and/; then with the same extent of the 
 compasses and one foot in c cross the arc at c and/; draw lines through the inter- 
 sections of the arcs at d and o to ^ ; and through the intersections e and /to g ; 
 the intersections of these lines at g is the centre by which a circle may be drawn 
 to pass through the points a b c. 
 
 To describe an Ellipsis mathematically to any given length and breadth : 
 
 Let A C, fig. A, Plate 2, be the transverse, and B D the conjugate diameters ; 
 take half of B D and set it in from C to o ; divide what remains from o to 3 into 
 three equal parts : set one of these parts from o to a ; make the distance from 3 to 
 b equal to the distance from 3 to a ; with the extent a b in the compasses describe 
 the arcs db c and d a c; these four points are the centre by which the Ellipsis is 
 drawn, and the dotted lines passing through them and touching the Ellipsis mark 
 how much of it is drawn by each centre. 
 
 To describe an Ellipsis with a trammel : 
 
 A B C D, fig. B, represents the trammel, being two strips crossing each other at 
 right angles and halved together. In the middle of these strips is a groove ; a d is 
 the tramel-rod, on which are blocks made movable like gauge-heads, with a pin 
 to each small enough to slide along the groove ; at J is a pencil ; fix the block or 
 pin c so far from d as to be equal to half the conjugate diameter, and the block or 
 pin b so far from d as to be equal to hajf the transverse diameter; place the pins in 
 the groove of the trammel, and on sliding them along the pencil at d they will 
 describe an Ellipsis. 
 
 An Ellipsis being given, to find the centre and two axes thereof: 
 
 Let A B C D, fig. C, be the Ellipsis ; draw a line at random, as a b ; through 
 another part of the Ellipsis draw d c parallel to a b ; through the middle of each of 
 these draw ef, on the middle of which is the centre of the Ellipsis ; on vvhich, with 
 an extent of the compasses of less than half the transverse and more than half the 
 conjugate diameters, describe the circle intersecting the Ellipsis in g h i and k ; 
 through the middle o( g h and i k draw the line A C, which is the transverse diame- 
 ter ; bisect or divide this at right angles, and it will give tl;e conjugate diameter. 
 
 To describe a regular Polygon of any number of sides, the length of 
 
 one side being given : 
 
 Let a b, fig. D, be the side given ; on one end, as b, with any convenient radius or 
 extent of compasses describe a semicircle ; divide the round of this into as many 
 
8 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 parts as the Polygon is to have sides ; leave out two of these parts, and with (he 
 length a b in the compasses set off from b to c, then from c to d, then d to r. When 
 this is done, place the compasses on a, set off af, ihenfg, connect g and c, and the 
 Polygon is completed. 
 
 PLATE 3. 
 
 To describe an Octagon within a square, fig. 1 : 
 
 Draw the diagonal a b, and with the extent b d draw the arc c dc : then will c / be 
 the quantity to lay off from each corner of the square ; or, if it is a piece of wood, 
 to set the gauge for the quantity to be taken off from each corner. 
 
 To describe a segment of a circle of large radius with a trammel, fig. 2: 
 
 Let a i be the chord, and d c the height of the segment ; lay a strip with a straight 
 edge from h to c, and then another from c to c parallel to a b ; fasten them together 
 and brace them with a lath ; fix pins in the points a c and b, and slide the frame or 
 trammel along these pins, and the angle of it will describe the segment required. 
 
 To draw a segment of a circle by intersecting lines, fig. 3 : 
 
 Let a b be the length or chord of the segment, and c d the height ; draw the chord- 
 line d i, at right angles to which draw be; through d and parallel to a b, draw/d e ; 
 divide f e and a b into any even number of parts, say 10, connect those divisions by 
 the line 1 1,2 2, 3 3, «kc. ; draw h b perpendicular to a b, and divide it into 5 parts ; 
 from the centre d draw lines to these divisions, and where these lines cross the lines 
 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, &c., are the points through which to trace the segment. 
 
 To di-aw the arches of a groin, so that they shall intersect or mitre truly together 
 over a straight line, from a given arch of any form, fig. 4 : 
 
 A is the plan to be covered, P» the arch of one side, which is here a semicircle ; 
 draw the chord-line a b, which divide into any number of parts ; from tlie centre 
 draw lines through those parts, touching the arch ; draw b c perpendicular to the 
 base-line, and from the crown of the arch at a, draw lines througli the points of in- 
 tersection of the former lines with the arch-line, to the perpendicular line b c ; lay 
 off the width of one of the other arches, as A r at C, being the width of one end of 
 the plan A ; set up the height of the middle of the arch the same as B ; draw the 
 two chord-lines (t b, and a c ; divide them into the same number of parts as a i in B ; 
 transfer the perpendicular line b c from B to C, draw lines from the middle of the 
 base through the divisions on the chord-line, and from the top of the arch to the 
 divisions on the perpendicular line, through the intersection of these lines, the arch- 
 
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THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 9 
 
 line required may be traced : D is the form of the groin or diagonal bracket traced 
 in the same manner. This method may be applied to arches of any form, whether 
 Elliptical, Circular, or Gothic. 
 
 To divide a right line into any number of equal parts, fig. 5 : 
 
 Let A B be the right line given, to be divided into eight parts ; from one end of 
 it, as at A, drawing a line making an acute angle, as the line A a ; from the other 
 end of the line, at B, draw another line parallel to A a, as B 6 ; set ofi' on these two 
 lines, beginning at A and B, the number of divisions required, without regard to 
 their turning out to the length of the line, as 1, 2, 3, 4, iSic. connect these by the 
 lines 1 7, 2 6, &c. and where these lines cross the line A B is the point of division 
 required. 
 
 PLATE 4 
 
 REPRESENTS A FEW 
 
 MOUI^DINGS, 
 
 The centres for drawing which, being all represented, are perhaps sufficiently 
 clear. 
 
 The Consol, or Key, should be in height equal to twice its width at bottom. 
 
 The Vase and Baluster are to show the manner of drawing compound circular 
 lines ; the meeting of the dotted lines showing the centre. The Student will observe, 
 that when it is required to draw two or more circular lines of different radii, which 
 are to appear smooth round, the two centres, and the place of meeting of the difler- 
 ent circles, should always be in a right line. 
 
 PLATE 5. 
 
 Fig. A shows the method of enlarging a draught of a cornice. 
 
 Let the line a b be the height to which it is required to enlarge the cornice. 
 Wherever this line crosses the different members of the draught, mark it, and these 
 marks will give the height of the different members of the enlarged cornice. 
 
 To find the projection, enlarged in proportion : 
 
 From the point c, directly over the front of the wall, draw the line c rf at right 
 angles or square with the line a b, on this line square over the projection of the dif- 
 ferent members of the draught, and that will give the projection required. 
 
 C 
 
10 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Fig. B is the method of contracting a draught. 
 
 Let a h be equal to the Iieight of the cornice required ; from h draw the hne b c, 
 and, where that crosses the difl'erent members of the draugiit, draw lines perpen- 
 dicular to cross a h, which will be the height proportioned. 
 
 To find the projection, contracted in proportion : 
 
 From c draw the line c a at right angles or square with h c, then draw down the 
 projection of the draught on this line, and from this line carry them square out to 
 the line d e, which will be the projection contracted in proportion to a b. 
 
 These two cornices, with figures C and D, may serve as examples for the Student 
 to apply to frontispieces, &c. ; and the other three, E, F, and G, are examples of 
 Stucco cornice in the present fashion ; of which G may serve where the story is low, 
 and but little room over the window. 
 
 PLATE 6. 
 
 Fig. A shows the manner of finding the form of a raking cornice, which will 
 mitre with a level one ; and the return at top for an open pediment. 
 
 Let a be the level cornice ; from the face of this, nearly at equal distances apart 
 on the face, draw lines parallel to the rake; then draw the level lines 1 1, 2 2, &c. 
 from the face of the cornice a to the perpendicular line de; Ath.^ f g at b square 
 with the rake, and make 1 1,2 2, &c. at h equal to 1 1,2 2, &c. at a ; and trace the 
 cornice through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c ; which will be the form of the cornice 
 required. The return at top is set oft' in the same manner from the perpendicular 
 line h ?, excepting that the projections at a are taken on the raking line. 
 
 Fig. B is the method of finding the sweep of a cornice, which will bend 
 round a circular wall and stand on a spring. 
 
 Let a be a plan of the wall, d the centre of it, and b the cornice drawn to its 
 proper spring. Draw the line c e touching the face of the cornice, and continued 
 till it intersects a line drawn perpendicular from the centre d ; the intersection at c 
 will be the centre from which to draw the cornice. 
 
 Fig. C is the method of drawing a cornice, to bend round the inside of a 
 room ; which, being done by the same rule as the former, needs no further ex- 
 planation. 
 
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THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 11 
 
 TO PROPORTION THE FOUR ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 THE TUSCAN ORDER* 
 
 PLATE 7. 
 
 When this Order is to stand on a Pedestal, the whole height must be divided into 
 five parts, one of which is the Pedestal, one-fifth of the remainder is the Entablature, 
 the other four-fifths are the length of the Column, including the Base and Capital : 
 This divided into seven parts, one of them is the diameter of the Column just above 
 its base ; this diameter, being divided into sixty parts or minutes, is the scale by 
 w hich all the mouldings are proportioned, both in height and projection. A refer- 
 ence to fig. 1 will explain the proportions. Fig. 2 shows the proportion of the 
 mouldings; the heights, by the scale of 60 minutes, being set down on the 
 outside list, marked at top with the letter H, and the projections measuring from 
 the perpendicular line of the shaft of the Column, and the front of the Pedestal, in 
 the other list marked P. The Column in this Order is diminished to 45 minutes at 
 its upper end. 
 
 THE DORIC ORDER.t 
 
 PLATE 8. 
 
 The general proportions of this Order are the same as the Tuscan, excepting that 
 the diameter of the Column is one-eighth of its length. The Column in this Order 
 is diminished at its upper end to 50 minutes ; the width of the triglyphs in the frize 
 is 30 minutes ;' the distance from the middle of one triglyph to the middle of the next, 
 75 minutes ; this should be attended to in using this Order and those that follow, in 
 Porticos, Colonnades, &c.; as a triglyph or modillion must always stand exactly over 
 the middle of the Column. The distance between the centres of modillions in 'this 
 
 * Of tlie Tuscan there arc no examples of Antiquity remaining, excepting the Trajan and Antonine 
 Columns at Rome, whicii are generally reckoned of this Order, being nearer in their proportions and 
 mouldings to it, than to any other. It is supposed to receive its name from Tuscany, being more used there 
 than elsewhere. 
 
 t Doric, so called from Dorus, who, according to Vitruvius, built a Temple dedicated to Juno in the City 
 of Argos, wherein the proportions of this Order were used, and whicli were afterwards adopted by the CJities 
 of Achaia. 
 
 The ornaments of this Order clearly evince it to have been the first invented of all the Orders of Archi- 
 tecture. In many instances the Columns were very short in proportion to their thickness, and without 
 bases ; and between the triglyphs there is generally placed a bull's skull. The Architrave is sometimes 
 made much wider than Jiere" represented, with only one facia ; but I have preferred these proportions, as 
 handsomer. 
 
12 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Order is so great, that the Columns cannot be coupled, as they frequently arc 
 in other Orders ; the flutes of the triglyphs arc 5 minutes wide each, and sunk 
 2 and a half minutes. The plancers and underside of the modillion arc repre- 
 sented in Plate 13, and the method of drawing the scotia of the base is shown in 
 Plate IG. 
 
 THE IONIC ORDER* 
 
 PLATE 9. 
 
 One-fifth of the whole height of this Order is given to the Pedestal ; one-sixth 
 of the remainder is the Entablature ; and, the Column being divided into 9 parts, 
 one of them is the diameter. The Column in this Order is diminished to 50 
 minutes at its upper end; the distance from centre to centre of the modillions is 31 
 minutes. 
 
 PLATE 10. 
 
 To drcnv the Volute. 
 
 Divide the whole height of the volute, as in fig. 1, into 8 parts; in the fourth of 
 these from the bottom draw a circle equal to one of those parts, within which 
 make the square a b c d, which, for a clearer explanation, is transferred to fig. 2, on 
 a larger scale, in the same position that the small one is in the volute ; divide the 
 square into 4 parts by the line 1 3 and 2 4 ; divide each of these lines into 6 parts, 
 and number them as is there represented. To draw the volute, place one foot of the 
 compasses on 1 in the eye of the volute, extend the other to 1 on the top of the volute, 
 and draw round to 2 on the edge of the volute ; then place the one foot on 2 in the 
 square or eye, and draw the other round to 3, and so on taking each centre in nu- 
 merical order till it is all drawn. To find the centre for the inside of the list, set in 
 from each centre one-fourth of the distance from that to the next one, as is represent- 
 ed in fig. 2 ; for the width of the list at top take one-sixteenth of the whole height, 
 being 1 and a half minutes ; to draw that part of the volute from 1 to o, set the com- 
 passes at the bottom of the square. 
 
 Fig. 3 explains the manner of drawing the scotia of the Attic Base. Divide the 
 height of the scotia into 3 parts, at the distance of one of these parts from the top 
 draw the line a h c, on which /> and c are the centres for drawing the scotia, and the 
 line o 6 c is the limit of each quarter. 
 
 * Ionic, from Ion, the Son of Xuthus, who, building a Temple to Diana, invented this Order. The Ancients 
 generally made their Capitals in this (~)rder flat, and to face only one way ; but, the angular Capital being 
 thought by many more convenient, I have here given that. 
 
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 1) 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 13 
 
 Fig. 4 is the Ionic Modillion ; to draw which divide the bottom or projection into 
 six parts, as 1, 2, 3, &c. two and a half of these divisions up over a is the centre of 
 from a lob ; under 2 one and a half divisions down, is the centre of from h to c ; 
 and at two is the centre of from c to d ; the line e f from one centre to the other 
 marks the limits of each arc. Here I will take the liberty of remarking, that when 
 circles of different radii unite, and are required to appear smooth round, the two 
 centres and place of meeting should always be on one line, as may appear in the two 
 last examples. 
 
 Fig. 5 is the Ionic Capital on an enlarged scale, with a plan by which a clearer 
 idea may be had of angular volutes. 
 
 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.* 
 
 PLATE 11. 
 
 The general proportions of this Order are, one-fifth of the entire height for 
 the Pedestal, one-sixth of the remainder for the Entablature, and one-tenth of the 
 height of the Column is the diameter. The column diminishes to 50 minutes at 
 its neck ; the Modillions are 1 1 and a half minutes wide, and 35 minutes from cen- 
 tre to centre of each ; the dentils are 3 and a half minutes wide, and the space 
 between each two-thirds of a dentil. For an enlarged Capital and Modillion, see 
 next Plate. 
 
 PLATE 12. 
 
 Fig. A is the Corinthian Capital ; the height being figured from the scale of 
 minutes is plain to inspection. To find the place for each leaf, draAv a semicircle, 
 as a 4 6, equal to the diameter of the neck of the Column ; divide the round of this 
 into 8 parts, and from each of these draw lines through the Capital ; these lines 
 mark the place of each stock, or middle of each leaf. It may not be improper to 
 remark, that the inner break in the abacus or upper moulding of the Capital should 
 not have as much projection as the outer one, as at d. If the real appearance of the 
 
 * The following origin of the Corinthian Order is given by Vitinu ius : 
 
 ' A marriageable young lady of Corinth fell ill and died. After the interment, her nurse collected together 
 sundry ornaments with which she used to be pleased; and putting them into a basket, placed it near her 
 tomb; and, lest it should be injured by the weather, she covered it ^\■ith a tile, it happened the basket was 
 placed on the root of an Acanthus, which in the spring shot forth its leaves ; these running up the sides of the 
 basket, naturally formed a kind of Volute, in the turn given by the tile to the leaves. Happily Calimachus, 
 a most ingenious Sculptor, passing that way, was struck with the beauty, elegance, and novelty of the basket 
 surrounded by the Acanthus leaves ; and, according to this idea or example, he afterwards made Columns for 
 the Corinthiaiis, ordaining the proportions such as constitute the Corinthian Order.' 
 
 [Rtidiments of Ancient Architecture.] 
 
 D 
 
U THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 moulding at d were given, it would be very near a straight perpendicular line ; but, 
 as that would not look well, a little liberty is taken to improve the appearance. 
 
 Fiff. B is the same subject shaded, for the assistance of Students. 
 
 Fio-. C is the Corinthian Modillion, the parts being figured from the scale of min- 
 utes ; fig. D is the eye of the Modillion on an enlarged scale ; the centres are num- 
 bered, each centre serving for one-quarter of a circle, and these quarters are num- 
 bered in the Modillion. 
 
 PLATE 13. 
 
 In this Plate is represented the Plancers of the Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric 
 Orders, at an external angle. The student may observe the Modillions in all cases 
 correspond with the Column; and in the Doric Order they are enriched with drops, 
 the shape of which is represented by the drops of the triglyphs. 
 
 PLATE 14. 
 
 Of diminishing Columns. 
 
 Columns are sometimes diminished from the bottom, and sometimes the diminish- 
 ing commences at one-third of the height from the base. 
 
 Fig. A represents a Column with the lower third-part undiminished. 
 
 Divide the upper two-thirds into any number of equal parts, say 5, as at 1 2 3 4 
 5 ; a i at top is equal to the full thickness below ; set in on each side from a and b 
 half the difference between the size of the Column at top and that at bottom, as a c 
 and /) d ; divide each of these into the same number of parts that the upper two- 
 thirds of the Column is ; draw lines from c and/ to each of those parts, and where 
 these lines cross the divisions, 1 2 3 and 1, will be the points through which to draw 
 the edge of the Column. 
 
 When Columns are made of plank glued up, the planks nuist each be diminished 
 before gluing, in the same manner as if they were each a complete Column. 
 
 Fig. B is a representation of a Column fluted. 
 
 Draw a semicircle on each end of the Column ; divide the round of this into 12 
 parts, and each of these again into 8 parts ; 6 of these go to a flute, and 2 to a 
 fillet. Observe, that a flute will always be exactly in the middle of the Column. 
 
 Fig. C is a fluted Column, shaded, to show the effect. 
 
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THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 15 
 
 Door (from the Saxon dor), tlie gate of a house, or the passage into an edifice, 
 apartment, &c. 
 
 The construction of doors naturally divides itself into two branches, viz. the form- 
 ation and proportion of the aperture, or opening, which in outer walls belong to 
 the mason or bricklayer, and forming of the gate or leaf, by which the entrance is 
 to be secured, together with its appurtenances, which appertain to the Carpenter's 
 department. 
 
 The proportion of the aperture must always be according to the size and intention 
 of the building, and should be attended to above every other consideration : in gene- 
 ral, the dimensions may be in the ratio of one to two for large doors, and from 
 three to seven in those of less size. 
 
 Entrances are of two kinds ; doors and gates. 
 
 The former are used only for the passage of persons on foot ; the latter admit 
 horsemen and carriages. Doors are used for churches, public edifices, dwelling- 
 houses, and apartments ; gates serve as inlets to cities, fortresses, parks, gardens, &c. 
 Apertures of gates, being always wide, are usually arched ; while the figure of doors 
 is generally a parallelogram. 
 
 Public buildings, palaces, and noblemen's mansions, where a great concourse of 
 company may be expected, should have doors of much greater dimensions than those 
 of other buildings ; from six to twelve feet may be taken for the width of the outer 
 entrance, and from four to six feet for those in the interior : in private houses, the 
 latter, if they have but one leaf, should never be more than three feet and a half in 
 breadth, nor less than that of the windows. In all cases their height should be pro- 
 portioned to that of the story in which they are placed, except whei-e they are used 
 for laving two apartments into one ; in which case they will be of a height less than 
 double their width. 
 
 Vitruvius, in his fourth book, has prescribed rules for Attic, Ionic, and Doric doors, 
 all of which have their apertures wider at the bottom than at the top ; examples of 
 this shape may be seen in the ruins of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, and 
 the temple of Vesta at Tivoli, and in other Greek and Roman remains. These doors 
 possess the advantage of shutting themselves, to which tiiey probably owe their in- 
 vention ; and they may be conveniently adopted in modern houses, as they rise in 
 opening and will clear a carpet, though, when shut, they go close down upon the 
 floor. 
 
 The principal entrance to a building of any magnitude should be in the centre, as 
 productive of the greater symmetry of appearance, and as communicating more 
 readily with the various apartments of the interior. In the principal rooms, the door 
 should be two feet, at least, from the return of the wall, to admit of furniture being 
 placed close up in the corner. 
 
 The lintels of exterior doors should always range with those of the windows. 
 Apertures placed in blank arcades, are usually placed at the same height as the 
 springing of the arches: when they have dressings, the head of the architrave, or 
 cornice, is generally on the level of the impost. 
 
10 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 The decorations of a doorway commonly consist either of an architrave sur- 
 rounding it, with or without a cornice, or with a complete entablature ; consoles are 
 sometimes introduced, Hanking the architrave jambs, and supporting the ends of the 
 cornice. When the architrave jambs arc flanked with pilasters, whether of the orders, 
 or of some emblematical form, the projections of their bases and capitals are always 
 less than those of the surrounding- architrave, and the architrave over the capitals 
 is similar to that over the door itself. Doors are sometimes decorated with one of 
 the five orders, and, in very considerable buildings, the entrance is adorned with a 
 Portico, so as to resemble an ancient Grecian temple. In embellishing the piers of 
 gates, or outer doors, it should be remembered, as a general rule, that as the pier is 
 itself only an inferior building, it should never be richer than the front of the liou?e. 
 As, where the front of the latter is ornamented with Doric columns, the Ionic should 
 not be found in the piers ; and it would be better to omit columns altogether, than 
 use the Tuscan order for piers in any case. If the Ionic or Corinthian orders be 
 used in the front of the house, the Doric or Ionic may be with propriety introduced 
 in the piers. Niches are almost always inti'oduced into piers, for which reason the 
 columns do better on pedestals, because the continued mortising from their cap 
 forms an agreeable ornament under the niche. 
 
 The wooden closure by which the apertures are opened or closed, come within the 
 province of the Carpenter ; these are properly the doors, and arc either framed, bat- 
 tened, or ledged, as hereafter described. In ordinary and even in good houses, frequent- 
 ly the doors are of pine ; in first-rate mansions they are often of mahogany, solid or 
 veneered, and sometimes of wainscot, especially where the building is of the antique 
 style. Apartments reserved for the reception of money, plate, jewels, &c. are usu- 
 ally secured with iron doors ; and in the descriptions of ancient temples, we read of 
 doors of ivory, brass, silver, and gold. 
 
 Batten doors, though formerly much in use, are now confined to buildings in the 
 pointed style of architecture. They consist of boards glued together to the size of 
 the aperture, with styles, rails, and munnions, made of battens nailed upon them, so 
 as to give the appearance of a frame door. This may be done, either on the one or 
 both sides; and the door is accordingly denominated single or double battened. The 
 vertical joints should be hid by the munnions of the framing, and the latter, instead 
 of being glued, should be bolted through to a framing behind, which will make them 
 very strong. The large gates and doors of ancient British edifices are thus con- 
 structed. The practice of imitating the framing of Grecian and Roman doors, is 
 not, however, to be recommended in modern times, especially if no bolts be used ; 
 for the stuff, though never so well seasoned, will be subject to the influence of the 
 atmosphere, and shrink or swell as the air is dry or damp. It is scarcely necessary 
 to remark that this evil will be enhanced in proportion as the wood is less season- 
 ed. Framed doors, which are cither single, folding, double, or double margin, are 
 employed in all description of building, and consist of styles, rails, panels, and in 
 most cases, of munnions also. The framing includes all parts but the panels, and is 
 held together with mortises and tenons. The styles are the vertical parts of the fram- 
 ing at the sides. The rails are the horizontal pieces into the styles. Munnions are parts 
 of the framing tenoned into rails. The panels fill up the whole left in putting the 
 framing together; and are let into grooves cut in the internal edges of the styles, 
 rails, and munnions. Doors are generally framed into rectangular compartments : 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 17 
 
 though other forms, as circles, ellipses, lozenges, &c. may be adopted, according to 
 the will of the proprietor, or taste of the builder. Framed doors are either square 
 or moulded ; the former are used only in common houses. Mouldings are of various 
 forms, some confined within the framing, and others projecting beyond it. The 
 mouldings and form of the panels of the door, generally regulate those of the win- 
 dow-shutters. Folding doors, or doors of communication, are made in two breadths 
 and have a pair of styles to each leaf. 
 
 Double-doors are contrived to close against each other in opposite directions, the 
 one opening outwards, and the other going inwards, in order to keep the apartments 
 warm : the inner door being generally covered with green baize. 
 
 Double-margin doors, are single doors, with a broad piece running vertically down 
 the middle, called the staff-style, imitating the two internal styles of folding doors 
 when shut. 
 
 Whatever kind of door be adopted, it should, for the sake of uniformity, be used 
 in all the apartments of the same story. 
 
 Architrave of a door, a collection of members surrounding the aperture of a sec- 
 tion similar to the architrave of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman Orders. The 
 head or lintel is called the traverse, and the sides the jambs. Vitruvius calls the 
 jambs the antepagmenta, and the head or traverse the supercilium. In the remains 
 of the edifices at Balbec and Palmyra, and in the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, 
 the architrave jambs are often flanked with consoles, which gives an apparent sup- 
 port to the cornice, and the cornice frequently rests upon the traverse, without the 
 intervention of frieze ; but the flank pilaster under the consoles is scarcely to be 
 met with among the ancient ruins, though practised by the modern Italians, and 
 represented in their works. This is however an improvement, as it diminishes the 
 apparent weight of the top, by spreading out the lower part. The proportion of the 
 architrave to the aperture, in ancient edifices, is very various : the usual proportion 
 given by the moderns, is from one-seventh to one-sixth part of the opening. When 
 the architrave jambs are flanked with pilasters and consoles, the breadth may be one- 
 seventh of that aperture, and the breadth of the pilaster two thirds of that of the 
 architrave ; but when it is unaccompanied with these ornaments, it ought not to be 
 less than the sixth part of the aperture. 
 
 In the ruins of Roman and Grecian buildings, the architrave rests upon the flooi-, 
 and has no flanking consoles : but in the ruins of Balbec they arc supported by 
 phnths. 
 
 When there is too much surface of naked wall on each side of the architrave 
 jambs, the sides of the architrave may be flanked with pilasters, and consoles, in 
 order to reduce the naked, and proportion it to the dressing of the front. The dress- 
 ing of an aperture may be heightened by adding a cornice, or a cornice and frieze, 
 as the space above will admit : and if the space above requires further diminution, 
 the altitude of the dressing may be still further increased, by surmounting the 
 cornice with a pediment. 
 
 When the material of the architrave is stone, the jambs are either built in heights 
 corresponding to the course of the naked of the wall, or if stone can be procured 
 each jamb is made of one entire piece, or sometimes in two or three, according to 
 the difficulty of raising them from the quarry. 
 
 When they are coursed with the work, every alternate stone should be a bond- 
 
 E 
 
18 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 stone, and, if the jambs are in one height, or not couri^cd, every alternate stone 
 in the altitude of ti'.e naked, adjoining each architrave jamb, should be a bond-stone : 
 the fewer pieces the architrave jamb consists of, the more beautiful will the work 
 appear ; therefore one is preferable to several. 
 
 In the arcades of ancient buildings, the jambs are seldom or never moulded as an 
 architrave, but the arch is frequently ornamented with members of an architrave 
 section : these members are called the archivolt, which always rests upon imposts. 
 The imposts project in most cases from the naked of the wall, and in a few cases 
 from the capital of pilasters upon the jambs. 
 
 Architrave in Carpentry, is one constructed of wood. Architraves may be worked 
 out of a solid piece of wood ; but this, however, would be attended with a waste of 
 both stuff and time. The best method is to glue it up in two or more longitudinal 
 pieces, as may be judged proper for the combination of its parts. 
 
 Jib-doors are used to preserve the uniformity of a room, or to save the expense of 
 a corresponding door. 
 
 Doors ought to be made of clear good stuff, firmly put together, the mitres or 
 scribings brought together with the greatest exactness, and the whole of their sur- 
 faces perfectly smooth, particularly those made for the best apartments of good 
 houses. In order to effect this, the whole of the work ought to be set out and tried 
 up with particular care ; saws and other tools should be in good order ; the mortis- 
 ing, tenoning, plowing, and sticking of the mouldings, ought to be correctly to the 
 gauge hues ; these being strictly attemled to, the work will of necessity, when put 
 together, close with certainty ; but if otherwise, the workman nmst expect a great 
 deal of trouble in paring the different parts before the work can be made to appear 
 in any degree passable: this will also occasion a want of firmness in the work, par- 
 ticularly if the tenons and mortises are obliged to be pared. 
 
 In bead and flush doors, the best way is to mitre the work square, afterwards put 
 in the panels, and smooth the whole off together, then marking the panels at the 
 parts of the priming, they agree to take the door to pieces, and work the beads on 
 the styles, rails, and mountings. If the doors are double margin, that is represent- 
 ing a pair of folding doors, the staff style, which imitates the meeting-styles, must 
 be entered to the top and bottom rails of the door, by forking the ends into notches 
 cut in the top and bottom rails. We shall here make a few observations upon, and 
 give some rules for, hanging of doors, so as to clear the ground or carpet. 
 
 Firat. Raise the floor under the door as much as may be necessary, according 
 to the thickness of the carpet, &c. 
 
 Secondly. Make the knuckle of the bottom hinge to project beyond the perpen- 
 dicular of the top hinge about the one-eighth of an inch : this will throw the door off 
 the floor. 
 
 Note. The centre of the top hinge must project a little beyond the surface of the 
 door, if the hinge is let equally into the door and into the jamb ; otherwise, if the 
 centre lie in the surface of the door, it ought to be placed at the very top, which is 
 seldom done, except when hung with centres. 
 
 Thirdly. Fix the jamb, on which the door hangs, out of the plumb line, so that 
 the top of the jamb may incline to the opposite jamb about one-eighth part of an inch: 
 this will contribute to the effect of clearing the door from the floor. 
 
DOOR. 
 PLATE 15. 
 
 Desu/ijeu f:mvir>: iy JJjai'Uuiid. 
 
 Jnt'?tfs 
 
 Srale. 
 
 J^eer 
 
DOOK. 
 PLATE Id. 
 
 .v/ y dratrn- h^ J.Bi^i&uul. 
 
 En^nwcd h Jyktger. 
 
 Scale. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 19 
 
 Fourthly. Make the door, when shut, to project at the bottom towards the inside 
 of the room, about one-eighth of an inch, which may be effected by giving the rebate 
 the quantity of inchnation requisite. 
 
 Note. Although any of the above methods, properly applied, will make a door 
 swing sufficiently clear of the floor, yet as each one separately will require to be 
 done in so great a degree as to offend the eye, I do not recommend if in nice work, 
 but would rather advise a combination of them all, to be used thus : 
 
 Raise the floor about one-eighth of an inch under the door ; make the jamb on 
 which the door hangs incline to the opposite jamb about one quarter of an inch ; 
 make each rebate that stops the door project at the bottom one-eighth of an inch to 
 that side of the room on which the door opens. Now these several methods practised 
 in the above small degrees, which will not bte perceptible, will throw the door suffi- 
 ciently out of the level, when opened to a square ; that is, it will be at least half an 
 inch, when the height of the door is double its width. 
 
 Fifthly. An invention has been introduced called rising hinges, which are made 
 of a spiral groove winding round the knuckle ; this construction of hinge requires 
 that the door should be bevelled at the top next to the ledge or door-catch, as much 
 as the hinge rises in one quarter of its revolution. 
 
 Sixthly. This may also be effected by adopting a door in the form of the antique 
 doors ; that is, the bottom to be wider than the top, the jambs having the same incli- 
 nation. 
 
 PLATE 15. 
 
 A design for a single door, in proportion with a house from eighteen to twenty- 
 three feet front, in the modern style of finish. The proportions of its several parts 
 can be ascertained by referring to the annexed scale of feet and inches. 
 
 PLATE 16. 
 
 A design for an external folding door, calculated for a double house, drawn to a 
 scale of inches and feet. 
 
 PLATE 17. 
 
 Two designs for the dressings of internal doors. The Fig. 1 is adapted for the 
 parlor and drawing-room floors; and the example Fig. 2 most appropriate for the 
 chamber rooms. The doors may be arranged with three, four, or five panels, to corre- 
 spond with the bold or light style of its adjoining features ; and the folding doors of 
 the same room would look better to be finished with the additional height of a panel 
 ranged with those of the single doors. 
 
20 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE 18, 19. 
 
 Ten designs for the pilasters of parlor and chamber doors, drawn full size. 
 
 PLATE 20. 
 
 Five designs for the architraves of internal and external doors, showing their pro- 
 files, full size. 
 
 PLATE 21. 
 
 In this Plate are given the lines of a pitch pediment frontispiece. In this the 
 column is made ten diameters in height. This is on a supposition that the door is 
 for a town house with a narrow front ; in which case the true proportion of the 
 Orders may be dispensed with, and regard had to the general proportion of the build- 
 ing ; but in country houses, where the front may be well proportioned, the nearer 
 we adhere to the Orders, the better will be the appearance in general. In fixing 
 on the size of a door for the front of a house, it is better to make it rather too 
 large than too small, as few things will make a house look meaner, than a contract- 
 ed front door ; and, where it will admit of it, the door should be as wide as half its 
 height. 
 
 PLATE 22. 
 
 In this Plate, the foregoing subject is shaded. I will here observe, that the light 
 should always come from the left side, and at an angle of forty-five degrees, or on a 
 mitre both horizontally and vertically, by which the shadows of projecting moulding, 
 &c. will be always equal to their projections. This will be better understood, by 
 examining the Plate. 
 
 As in geometrical drawings, the relief or projection of the object can only be shown 
 by the shading, the Student should make it his business to understand the efiects of 
 light and shade. In those parts that stand forward, or project, the shade should be 
 strong, and the part receiving the light should be bright ; and, as the distance in- 
 creases, both lights and shades should be weaker. All moulding, whether swelling 
 or coving, will have both a stronger light and shade, than plane surfaces exposed to 
 an equal degree of light ; and all surfaces on the same plane, not in a shadow, should 
 have the same tint or degree of shade. 
 
DOOK. 
 
 PLATE 17. 
 
 Fitj.l. 
 
 Fill. :•'. 
 
 Siiiiife 
 
 Ill «iii|;;::| ■'"; " 
 
 J *:i4iSlKltJOUIf 
 
 Jjcstonai'i dr^u*i A. 'f^^mJoTu^. 
 
DO OK. 
 PLATE 18. 
 
 Fill. o. 
 
 Jy:Sh/nr;t ^i' ^it/ii'/l by JMuvU.ifUl . 
 
 Fi<j. A 
 
 
nooK . 
 
 ^V/. 7. 
 
 Iw. 8. 
 
 ncsumd J-arcofn br JBa^iZaiiJ 
 
1)0(»K. 
 
 PLATE 20. 
 
 Fi,/. i>. 
 
 Fid- J. 
 
 Fi,!. 4. 
 
 Fill. 5. 
 
 Tn-si{"u'd it drawn by ■/^oyiiotui. 
 
PL. ATE 21. 
 
 « .<- 6 3 ,. 
 
 I . I 
 
 JV- / L !■: 
 
PLATK :>■,>. 
 
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 ii:A«m/i> 
 
PLATE ■■>::. 
 
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FLATE ^4. 
 
 jr. linnijj /(. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 21 
 
 PLATE 23. 
 
 In this Plate is given a flat pediment frontispiece. The observations made on the 
 preceding example, with respect to general proportions, Mill apply to this. 
 
 After tiie Student lias fixed on the size of his door, he will draw the arch, and 
 divide the half-round of that into six parts ; one of which is the width of the key 
 at bottom, and two of them will be its height, which is also the top of the col- 
 umns. He may then find the diameter, and make a scale for proportioning the 
 mouldings. 
 
 PLATE 24, 
 
 Is the foregoing, shaded. 
 
 Wr^ 
 
 Windows (from the Danish vindue, or the Welsh wynt-dor, a passage for the 
 wind), those apertures in walls through which light is transmitted to the interior of 
 the building. Windows are generally of a rectangular form, the sides or jambs being 
 vertical, and the bottom and lintel horizontal. Semicircular windows have a very ele- 
 gant effect, particularly in circular buildings, as was generally the practice of the Ro- 
 mans ; but those that are finished with segments, or semi-ellipses, are not so beautiful ; 
 and much less so are such as are constructed of entire circles or ellipses, for which 
 few or no precedents are to be found in the buildings of the ancients. Windows must 
 be proportioned in height and width to the principal rooms. The dressings of win- 
 dows are the sill, and the insisting architrave, surrounding the upper part, crowned 
 by a cornice and frieze. The breadth of the architrave may be one-sixth of that of 
 the aperture ; the frieze the same ; the height of the cornice will depend upon the 
 number of mouldings ; if very few, it may be of less height than the cornice, Win- 
 dows should be so placed with respect to the principal rooms, or dining and drawing 
 rooms, as to be equally distant from each end of the apartment, and equidistantly 
 distributed in the principal front, of one size, with their edges or sides in the same 
 vertical lines. This adjustment will frequently be attended with difficulties ; and to 
 accommodate the principle, an alteration of the proportions, in a small degree, will 
 sometimes be necessary. In houses of the middle class, where economy is an equal 
 consideration with elegance or beauty, the windows frequently reach as high as the 
 cornice, or even so high as to cut the cornice, wholly, or in part ; a mutilation that 
 destroys the beauty of the finishing. In such cases, it would be better to have more 
 lofty stories or lower windows. In large edifices, where proportions are considered, 
 the spaces above the windows are more ample, and allow a more elegant finish, with 
 a greater repose for the eye. 
 
 F 
 
22 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Windows ought to be made vertically one above the other, and not too near the 
 angles of the building ; and in large edifices where the m alls are thick, their jambs 
 ought to be splayed or bevelled, for a more full distril)ution of light. Lofty w indows, 
 descending to the floor, or nearly so, with a projecting balcony in front of the build- 
 ing, defended by a railing of cast or wrought iron, are both healthy and agreeable. 
 
 Sky-lisJits, in cold climates like ours, are productive of many inconveniences, as 
 they admit of cold air, damps, rain, and snow, and thereby waste the heat generated 
 in the house. They ought therefore never to be admitted, except for stairs and halls : 
 v.hen this admission is necessary, their apertures should increase in dimensions, so 
 as not to hinder the passage of the rays. 
 
 Sash (from the French chassis, a frame) a chequered frame for holding the squares 
 of glass or windows, and so formed as to be let up and down by means of pulle3's. 
 
 Sashes are either single or double hung. 
 
 Sash-Frame, the wooden frame in which the sas-hes are fitted for the convenience 
 of sliding up or down, or side-ways, as the nature of the apartment to be lighted may 
 require. When one or both sashes are to be moved vertically, they are commonly 
 equipoised by weights ; and the weights are made to run in vertical trunk?, or cases, 
 formed in the sides of the frames, which are therefore said to be cased ; but when 
 the sides are not made hollow for weights, the frame is said to be solid. In a sash- 
 frame, the under side of the head is most commonly disposed in the same surface as 
 the soffit, or intrados, of the stone or brick head of the window on the outside ; con- 
 sequently, it partakes of the shape of the head of the window, whether straight or 
 circular. In a cased sash-frame, each case consists of four pieces ; the inside piece, 
 on each side, or that next the aperture, is most commonly disposed in the same plane 
 with the jamb of the stone, or side of the aperture, on the outside, the tw o sides 
 forming parallel : these two pieces are called Pu/lei/-Picces, from their containing 
 pulleys, over which the ropes pass, by which the sashes and weights are suspended. The 
 other three parts of each trunk are called linings ; that parallel to the pulley-piece, 
 and next to the jamb, on either side, is called the back lining; the one next the out- 
 side, and parallel to the face of the wall, is the outside lining ; and the remaining one, 
 next to the inside of the room, is denominated the inside lining. The best made 
 sash-frames have the pulley-pieces tongued into the outside and inside linings : the 
 back lining is generally tongued into the outside, and nailed to the edge of the inside 
 lining : on each pulley-piece two channels, of equal breadth, for the edges of the 
 sashes to run in, are formed by nailing a slip of wood round the inner margin of the 
 pulley-piece, and suflering the outside lining to project within it; between which a 
 narrow slip is inserted in a groove, left in the middle of the intervening space. As 
 the edge of this slip is generally rounded, it is called the parting bead ; and the inner 
 slip, for the same reason, is termed the inside bead; while the edge of the outer 
 lining is called the outside head. Within the case, there is also a vertical slip, sus- 
 pended from the head, and passing longitudinally through the middle of the hollow 
 space, for separating the two weights, which is therefore called the parting slip. The 
 head, sill, and inside linings, have generally each a groove next to the inside of the 
 room ; the groove in the head and sill is commonly three-eighths of an inch from the 
 edge next to the opening ; that in the head is for inserting the edge of the soffit, and 
 that in the sill for receiving the edge of the capping bead, upon the upper edge of 
 the back. The grooves, in the inside lining, are for the edges of the back lining of 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 23 
 
 the boxing ; the distance of these grooves from the inner edge of the inside Hning, 
 depends upon the depth of the boxing and the distance of each line of hinges from 
 the inner edge of the inside hning, or of that next to the opening. The hne of 
 hinges is generally about the eighth of an inch from the inner edge of the inside 
 lining ; so that the shutters, soffit, and capping bead, may have tiieir terminating 
 edges with the sash-frame of the same margin all round ; that is, at the same dis- 
 tance as the inner edge of the sash-frame : this, however, is not positively neces- 
 sary ; but may be varied at the discretion of the architect, or workman. 
 
 The line of hinges being determined, the depth of the boxing is found by adding 
 to the thickness of the wall, that of the inside finishing, whether of plaster alone, or 
 of lath and plaster (the former requiring about an inch, and the latter two and a 
 quarter inches) ; and subtracting from the sum, the thickness of the sash-frame, and 
 its distance from the outside of the wall ; then, if the remainder be equal to, or exceed 
 half the distance of the hinge-line, such half distance is the breadth of both the box- 
 ing and the shutter: it must, however, be observed, that the outer edge of the 
 shutter must not be rebated, as that would prevent the edges of the lathing coming 
 close to the architrave, or margin style, which forms the side of the boxing, opposite 
 to the inner lining of the sash-frame, when each shutter consists of one piece only ; 
 to remedy this, each shutter must consist of two folds, viz. a front part, and back 
 flap ; and the breadth of the boxing must be contracted, either by introducing a 
 margin style at the edge of each boxing, or, if one was necessary before, by making 
 it broader: then the thickness of the two folds will be the neat distance of the 
 groove from the line of hinges. If, on the other hand, the remainder before men- 
 tioned be less than the half distance of the hinsfe lines, it is the breadth of the boxing : 
 divide the half distance between the hinge lines, by the breadth of the boxing, and 
 the quotient will give the number of folds ; and if there be a remainder, there must 
 be one fold more than is shown by the quotient. 
 
 The aggregate, or sum of all the folds, is the neat depth of the boxing: but, in 
 order to make the folds clear each other, and the back of the boxing, add the 
 eighth or tenth part of an inch for each fold. Thus, suppose the wall to be of 
 eighteen-inch brick-work, and the finishing, within, to be lath and plaster ; suppose, 
 also, the breadth of the window to be four feet, the sash-frame six inches thick, 
 and its distance from the wall four inches : then 20i inches is the thickness of the 
 wall and finishing ; the thickness of the sash-frame, and its distance fi'om the face of 
 the wall, are together 10 inches: this, taken from 20] inches, gives lOj inches for 
 a remainder, which is the breadth both of the boxing and of the shutter, because 
 lOf inches are less than 24 inches, the half distance between the lines of hinges: 
 IOt is contained twice in 24 inches, with a remainder ; there are, therefore, three 
 folds, viz. a front fold and two back flaps : suppose the front fold to be lA inch 
 thick, each back 1 j inch thick ; then li + li + 1| = 4 inched ; and because there are 
 three folds, add 3-10 of an inch more, and the depth of the boxing v.ill be 4J inches. 
 
24 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE 25. 
 
 A design for a dormer window. 
 
 PLATE 26. 
 
 A desiorn for a single window with its external shutters, showing the manner of 
 finishing the panels, &c. on both sides. 
 
 PLATE 27. 
 
 Five designs for sash window bars, full size : — 
 Fig. 1. Gothic astragal and hollow bar. 
 Fig. 2. Simple metal bar, for shop fronts. 
 Fig. 3. Quirked astragal and hollow bar. 
 Fig. 4. Cima recta and square bar. 
 Fig. 5. Quarter round and square bar. 
 Fig. 6. Section of the meeting bar, with a small proportion of the style fixed 
 
 to each. 
 Fig. 7, shows the method of joining the intersecting bars, with the method of 
 
 doweling them together. 
 Fig. 8, the elevation of the intersection, showing a part of each branch or bar. 
 
 PLATE 28. 
 
 A design for a Venetian window : the panel and pilaster represented in the lower 
 front, show the interior finish, and are of course omitted on the external side. 
 
 PLATE 29, 
 
 Is a dormer window. The circular part of the sash is Gothic ; in drawing which, 
 the compasses should be kept at the same extent as in drawing the arch, and the 
 centre carried out on the top of the impost. If fluting or dentils are used for dor- 
 mers, they should be larger in their proportions than in common work ; and the pitch 
 of the pediment may be rather steeper than in frontispieces, as the height will take 
 otr something from the pitch. 
 
window: 
 
 PLATE 25. 
 
 Design^. ^ ^atrn kjJ.3cJ>Uand. 
 
 EnffTcofedfy JYiiMj' 
 
WINDOW 
 
 I'LATE '*(•». 
 
 Si;Utf. 
 
n</. 1. 
 
 WINDOW. 
 PLATE ?7. 
 
 Fill. 1'. 
 
 Fin .■!. 
 
 Fui. -/. 
 
 Fiy. 5. 
 
 iiTP 
 I 
 
 
 
 ^__. -.-■. ; 
 
 
 J^</. c>. 
 
 Fit/. 7. 
 
 Fit/, o. 
 
 J)csigrud jddrGMn- iy J.Bay i/tnu^ 
 
4 
 
WINDOW. 
 
 PLATE 'J6'. 
 
 
 t'>.f'-.iv.\i /y J.yca^e>- 
 
 Scale. 
 
-PLATE J'). 
 
 ■Sett/v if'-Z^rrt 
 
 o /:■ ./ffrAi^ 
 
 -''''III'"! T""! 1 
 
riATE ,{0. 
 
 --vp 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 26 
 
 PLATE 30, 
 
 Is a Venetian window of the Ionic order. In giving a design for a window of this 
 kind, the size of the glass should be made to correspond with the entablature, so 
 that it will be equal in height to one or two lights ; and the sashes in the side- 
 window, to range with the middle one. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The four Orders of Architecture have been selected from such of the remains of 
 ancient buildings, as are supposed to be the most beautiful ; and Palladio has been 
 generally allowed to have been the best judge among the moderns, who have given 
 the proportions of the remains of Antiquity. The proportions in this book are 
 pretty nearly the same as his. The differences are principally these : There being 
 no remains of Antiquity in the Tuscan Order with an entablature, and Palladio 
 having given a very poor one ; succeeding Moderns have given that Order an entabla- 
 ture near the proportion of the others, which I have adopted. The Doric Order has 
 no example of a Pedestal among the Ancients ; and in the most admired buildings 
 of Antiquity, in that Order, the Columns have no base; and I believe there is no 
 example remaining of the Ionic Order having modillions, but dentils only ; though, of 
 late, modillions have been as frequently applied as dentils. In the foregoing 
 examples, I have given to the Tuscan and Doric Order one-fifth of the height, exclusive 
 of the Pedestal, for the entablature ; the Ionic and Corinthian each have one-sixth. 
 In situations where there are one or more Orders over another, this proportion in 
 the upper should be altered ; the richer Order always being uppermost. The Ionic 
 and Corinthian may then have one-fifth, for the entablature. These proportions are 
 all for small buildings ; but if the buildings are large, exceeding 40 feet in height, the 
 entablature should increase proportionally. If one Order only is used, the Tuscan 
 and Doric may have one-fourth ; Ionic and Corinthian, one-fifth ; and if several 
 Orders are used, the Ionic and Corinthian may have each one-fourth of the height 
 of the Order, exclusive of the Pedestal, for the height of the entablature. 
 
 ©Mamsf^T^^i®©: 
 
 As the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, to whom architecture is so much 
 indebted in other respects, lived in warm climates, where fires in the apartments were 
 seldom or never necessary, they have thrown but few lights on this branch of archi- 
 tecture : amongst the antiquities of Italy, I do not recollect any remains of chimney- 
 pieces. Palladio, indeed, mentions two, the one at Baise, and the other near Civita- 
 
 G 
 
S6 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Vecchia, which stood in the middle of the rooms, and consisted of columns support- 
 ing architraves, whereon were placed the pyramids, or funnels, through which the 
 smoke was conveyed, much after the manner of the fire-place in the Rotunda of 
 Ranelagh Gardens. Scammozzi takes notice of three sorts of chimney-pieces used 
 in Italy in his time. One of these he calls the Roman, the aperture of which is 
 surrounded only with a clumsy architrave: another he calls the Venetian, which is 
 likewise adorned with an architrave, upon which are placed a frieze and cornice, and 
 on the sides thereof are pilasters with consoles ; the third sort he calls a padiglione. 
 This last he particularly recommends when the walls are thin, it being not hollowed 
 into the wall, as both the other sorts are, but composed of a projecting entablature, 
 supported by consoles, termini, or caryatides, on which the pyramid is placed. This 
 sort of chimney-piece is still very common in Italy ; the Dutch are very fond of it ; 
 and we find it in many of our old English country-houses. Neither the Italians nor 
 the French, nor indeed any of the continental nations, have ever excelled in the com- 
 positions of chimney-pieces. I believe we may justly consider Inigo Jones as the first 
 that arrived at any great degree of perfection in this material branch of the art. 
 Others of our English architects have, since his time, wrought upon his ideas, or fur- 
 nished good inventions of their own ; and England being at present possessed of many 
 ingenious and very able sculptors, one of whom devotes himself to the execution of 
 magnificent chimney-pieces, now happily much in vogue, it may be said, that in this 
 particular we surpass all other nations, not only in point of expense, but likewise in 
 taste of design, and excellence of workmanship. Scammozzi mentions a chimney- 
 piece in one of the public buildings at Venice, executed from his design, as a most 
 uncommon piece of magnificence, having cost upwards of a thousand crowns. 
 
 The size of the chimney must depend upon the dimensions of the room wherein 
 it is placed. In the smallest apartments, the width of the aperture is never made 
 less than from three feet, to three feet six inches : in rooms from twenty to twenty- 
 four feet square, or of equal superficial dimensions, it may be four feet wide ; in 
 those of twenty-five to thirty, from four to four and a half; and in such as exceed 
 these dimensions, the aperture may be extended to five, or five feet six inches ; but 
 should the room be extremely large, (as is frequently the case in halls, galleries, and 
 saloons,) and one chimney of these last dimensions will neither afford sulliciont heat 
 to warm the room, nor sufficient space around it for the company, it will be much 
 more convenient, and far handsomer, to have two chimney-pieces of a moderate size, 
 than a single one exceedingly large, all the parts of which would appear clumsy and 
 disproportioned to the other decorations of the room. 
 
 The chimney should always be situated so as to be immediately seen by those who 
 enter, that they^ may not have the persons already in the room, who are generally 
 seated about the fire, to search for. The middle of the side partition wall is the 
 properest place in halls, saloons, and other rooms of passage, to wliich the principal 
 entrance is commonly in the middle of the front, or of the back wall ; but, in draw- 
 ing-rooms, dressing-rooms, and the like, the middle of the back wall is the best 
 situation, the chimney being then farthest removed from the doors of communication. 
 The case is the same with respect to galleries and libraries, where doors of entrance 
 are generally either at one or at both ends. In bed-chambers, the chimney is always 
 placed in the middle of one of the side partition Malls; and in closets, or other very 
 small places, it is, to save room, sometimes placed in one corner. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 87 
 
 Whenever two chimneys are introduced in the same room, they must be regularly 
 placed, either directly facing each other, if in different walls, or at equal distances 
 from the centre of the wall in which they both are placed. The Italians frequently 
 put their chimneys in the front walls, between the windows, for the benefit of look- 
 ing out while sitting by the fire : but this must be avoided, for by so doing, that side 
 of the room becomes crowded with ornaments, and the other sides are left too bare ; 
 the front walls are much weakened by the funnels ; and the chimney shafts at the top 
 of the building, which must necessarily be carried higher than the ridges of the roofs, 
 have, from their great length, a very disagreeable effect, and are very liable to be 
 blown down. 
 
 In large buildings, when the walls are of a considerable thickness, the funnels are 
 carried up in the thickness of the walls, but in small ones this cannot be done; the 
 flues and chimney-pieces must necessarily advance forward into the rooms, which, 
 when the break is considerable, has a very bad effect : and therefore, when room can 
 be spared, it will always be best, either in show or state apartments, to make niches 
 or arched recesses on each side ; and in lodging-rooms, presses, or closets, either 
 covered with the paper, or finished in any manner suited to the rest oi' the room. 
 By these means, the cornice, or entablature of the room, may be carried round with- 
 out breaks, the ceiling be perfectly regular, and the chimney-piece have no more 
 apparent projection than may be necessary to give to its ornaments their proper 
 relief. 
 
 The proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces, of a moderate size, is gene- 
 rally near a square ; in small ones a trifle higher, and in large ones somewhat lower. 
 Their ornaments consist of architraves, friezes, cornices, columns, pilasters, termini, 
 caryatides, consoles, and all kinds of ornaments of sculpture, representing animal or 
 vegetable productions of nature ; likewise vases, patera?, trophies of various kinds, 
 and instruments or symbols of religion, arts, arms, letters, and commerce. In design- 
 ing them, regard must be had to the nature of the place where they are to be em- 
 ployed. Such as are intended for halls, guard-rooms, saloons, galleries, and other 
 considerable places, must be composed of large parts, fe\v in number, of distinct and 
 simple forms, and having a bold relief; but chimney-pieces tor drawing-rooms, dress- 
 ing-rooms, bed-chambers, and such like, may be of a more delicate and complicated 
 composition. The workmanship of all chimney-pieces must be perfectly well fin- 
 ished, like afl other objects liable to a close inspection : and the ornaments, figures, 
 and profiles, both in form, proportion, and quantity, must be suited to the other parts 
 of the room, and be allusive to the uses for which it is intended. All nudities, and 
 indecent representations, must be avoided, both in chimney-pieces and in every other 
 ornament of apartments to which children, ladies, and other modest, grave persons 
 have constant recourse; together with all representations capable of exciting horror, 
 grief, disgust, or any gloomy, unpleasant sensations. 
 
 Chimney-pieces are made either of stone, marble, or of a mixture of these, with 
 wood, scagliola, or moula, or some other unfragile substances. Those of marble are 
 most costly, but they are also most elegant, and the only ones used in highly finished 
 apartments, where they are made either of white or variegated marbles, sometimes 
 inlaid and decorated with the materials just mentioned. All their ornaments, figures, 
 or profiles, are to be made of the pure v. hite sort ; but their friezes, etablets, panels, 
 shafts of columns, and other plain parts, may be of particolored marbles, such as 
 
28 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the yellow of Sienna, the brocatello of Spain, the jasper of Sicily, and many other 
 modern as well as antique marbles. Festoons of flowers, trophies, and foliages, frets, 
 and other such decorations, cut in white statuary marble, and fixed on grounds of 
 these, have a very good effect. But these should never be more than two or at the 
 most three different sorts of colors in the same chimney-piece ; all brilliant, and 
 harmonizing with each other. 
 
 PLATE 31. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A design for a console mantle 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 A design for column mantle. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Profile of fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Profile of fig. 2. 
 
 The roses in the square of the console, and feet on the frieze of the column, ex- 
 ample, may be made of cast metal, such as brass or iron ; and inserted in the aper- 
 ture, if the mantles are made of marble ; if of wood, the whole, including the en- 
 richment case, should be formed out of the same material. 
 
 PLATE 32. 
 
 Elevations and profiles, full size, of two roseates for the blocks of pilaster and 
 architraves. 
 
 Fig. 3. Profile of fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 4. Profile of fig. 2. 
 
 PLATE 33, & 34, 
 
 Are four examples of Mantles. In ornamenting a Mantle, the young Carpenter 
 would do well to endeavor at an imitation of something natural, and not to cover 
 his work with unmeaning holes and cuttings of a gouge. 
 
 Mantles and all other Architectural objects should always have a due proportion 
 of plain surfaces, as a contrast of the ornamented parts. With strict propriety, the 
 faces of Architraves should never be fluted or carved. It very rarely occurs among 
 the beautiful remains of Antiquity, whose Artists seem to have understood true 
 taste much better than those of the present day, or their works would not have 
 excited the admiration of so many ages. The use of composition ornaments, on 
 Mantles, if judiciously chosen and placed, may have a very good effect ; but care 
 should be taken, not to overload the work with them ; and that there be a proper 
 connexion between the ornaments on different parts. 
 
CHT^rXRV PTi:t ES. 
 
 
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 m"" ■!'■' 
 
 H 
 
 ml , ,11 ,,ii' 11 
 
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 2:n)iV'"Vfd h\' ./ l?/ttyer 
 
 Feet $ 
 
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PLATE Jo. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 29 
 
 PLATE 35. 
 
 Of Intercoluviniation. 
 
 This Plate represents two Porticos ; one Doric, and the other Corinthian. It is 
 necessar)^ in all Orders where there are modillions, that the column should be 
 exactly under a inodillion. The Doric Order does not admit of the columns being 
 coupled, as they are in the Corinthian ; the space from centre to centre of the mo- 
 dillions or triglyphs being but 75 minutes, when two columns, with the bases touching, 
 would be 80 minutes from centre to centre. The examples in the Plate are both 
 of small Porticos ; and, to admit of a convenient space between the columns, the 
 intercolumniation, or space between the columns, is greater than it should be when 
 the Porticos are large, and a graceful appearance is required. To admit of a free 
 passage to the door, the middle columns are placed further apart than the others; 
 though this is sometimes dispensed with, and the spaces made uniform. 
 
 PLATE 36. 
 
 Of Roofs. 
 
 This Plate gives three examples of framing for principal rafters for Roofs. In 
 designing these, the material for the covering should be considered ; whether it would 
 require a strong frame and steep pitch, as tile or slate, or whether shingles, or any 
 kind of metal is to be used. Both the strength of framing, and the pitch of the 
 examples, in the Plate, are calculated for shingles. 
 
 It is a considerable improvement in framing principal rafters, to keep them below 
 the purlins, and to let the jack-rafters lie on the purlins ; the Roof, besides being 
 much stiffer, being easier regulated, or kept straight on the top ; and the feet of the 
 rafters are brought so far from the end of the girder as to be much stronger in their 
 footing ; the dotted lines, at the foot of the rafter, show the shape of the tenon, which 
 should be about half the thickness of the rafter, and the ends to fit hard in the mor- 
 tise. A screw-bolt, to go through the girder up into the post, is a better way of 
 supporting the girder than a strap ; the nut is let into the post in the same manner 
 that a bedstead screw is. 
 
 The customary pitch for Roofs, which are covered with shingles, is, one-third of 
 the span for the height ; and to find the length of the rafter, take half the span and 
 square it, and the whole height and square that ; add the square of these two 
 together, and from that sum extract the square root, which will be the length of the 
 rafter. 
 
 H 
 
30 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Suppose a Roof to span 45 feet, to rise one-third, or 15 feet. 
 Half of 45 is 22.5 The height 15 
 
 22.5 15 
 
 112 5 75 
 
 450 15 
 
 450 
 
 Square of half-span 506.25 
 Square of the height 225. 
 
 Square of the height 225 
 
 731.25(27.0 feet, length of rafter. 
 4 
 
 47)331 
 329 
 
 540)2 25 
 
 PLATE 37. 
 
 Of Domes. 
 
 A is the section and B is the half-plan of the framing for a Dome to have a vaulted 
 ceiling and an opening for a sky-light. This frame is taken from P. Nicholson, and 
 to me appears to be abundantly too strong. If we consider that the purlins form a 
 number of bands round a roof of this form, which must burst before the roof falls 
 in, we will find that we have little else to do but to connect the ends of the purlins 
 so as to form hoops round the Dome, and it is impossible for the roof to fall in, 
 wliile the hoops are entire. 
 
 PLATE 38. 
 
 Dome of hoards and plank. 
 
 Fig. A is the section of a Dome made with thin boards and small pieces of plank. 
 The principle of this form of roof consists in placing a number of hoops one above 
 the other, and of such sizes as, when properly placed, will form the contour of the 
 Dome. These hoops are here formed by pieces of plank, represented by fig. D at 
 the bottom of the Plate ; near each end of this is a pretty long mortise ; the position 
 
FLATE .n 
 
I'l.ATt: :!!i. 
 
 |ilfl» 
 
 tiMruaf>Je 
 
I'LATE :!!>. 
 
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 ;^yu iU4^.j 
 
 Pi'</ r. 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 31 
 
 of these is shown in the section A hy d d d. Fig. C is one of the ribs or rafters 
 with a mortise in the middle of it long enough to receive two of fig. D, and at 
 each end a sliding mortise of half that length, represented in section A hy c c c. 
 When these are to be put together, the wall-plate (which should be of two thick- 
 nesses of boards, and made to break joint) should be first laid, and then a piece of 
 the rafter, fig. C, should be fixed upright in its proper place and secured by a tenon 
 at the lower end, which must go through the Plate. It should be observed, that the 
 rafters are of two thicknesses, which should break joint ; of course, one of the first 
 pieces should be but half the length of fig. C. When one set of the rafters are fixed 
 all round, the pieces, fig. D, which form the hoops, or which I shall call the purlins, 
 are fixed in them, and secured by wooden keys, which are driven, one on each side of 
 the rafter, through the mortise. By driving these keys, more or less, the hoop may 
 be lengthened or contracted, so as to bring it to the exact form or contour of the 
 Dome. After the first set of purlins are fixed and properly keyed, another set of 
 rafters are placed, and then another set of purhns, until the Dome is complete. 
 
 The figure in the Plate, for the sake of making its parts more clear, has been 
 drawn considerably out of proportion, the materials being much too large, and a 
 much greater number of purlins would be proper. This principle of covering may 
 be extended to a great span, and when the rafters come too close together, at the 
 top, every other one may be left out. 
 
 PLATE 39. 
 
 Hip-Roofs. 
 
 Fig. A is a square plan, to be covered with a Hip-Roof. To find the length of 
 the hip-rafter, draw the diagonals « b and c d, which will bisect each other at right 
 angles at e; make e/ equal to the height of the roof, and draw a f, which will be 
 the length of the hip-rafter. To find the bevel of the back, draw i k at right angles 
 with a e, to cut it in any point, as h, place one foot of the compasses in Ji and extend 
 the other to the back of the rafter af, and describe a semicircle to cut the base-line 
 a e at ^; then draw g i and g k, which will be the backing of the hip, as is shown 
 by the level at B. But the best way of working it is by the side-bevel at C, which 
 is made by drawing / k parallel to a e. 
 
 Fig. B is an oblong rectangular plan, to be covered with a ridge in the middle. 
 Make c d on the ridge equal to half the width a h, and draw a d ; at right angles to 
 which make d e equal to the height of the roof, and draw a e, which will be the 
 length of the hip-rafters. As these may also answer for sky-lights, and the hip- 
 rafters of those are sometimes mitred together, the bevel for the mitre is here given. 
 
 Fig. C is the same plan as the foregoing, to be covered Avithout any ridge. Draw 
 two diagonal lines to cross each other in the centre ate; draw c/ equal to the 
 height of the Roof and at right angles with a c, and draw a /the hip-rafter. To 
 find the backing, draw m b at right angles with a c, and proceed as in the former 
 cases, when the two bevels D and E will be found by making their stocks parallel to 
 
32 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the base-line a c. At F is given the bevel for mitring hips for sky-lights, found by 
 drawing o p a.t right lines with the diagonal or base-hne. 
 
 Fig. D is an octangular plan. The hips are found in the same manner as the 
 preceding. By making the height a b at right angles to one of the base-lines, the 
 bevel is shown at E. - 
 
 Fig. E is the plan whose sides are parallel, but the ends out of square. To fiod 
 the hips, on each end, as a diameter, draw a semicircle, and from the two cenjfes 
 draw the ridge ; where the semicircles cross this, will be the points to draw the wise- 
 lines for the hips. The bevels F and G are found as before directed. 
 
 PLATE 40. 
 
 Centres for Arches. 
 
 In making centres, the manner in which the framing is strained should be well 
 understood, as frequently a piece of timber which is intended to form a tie, and 
 framed to answer the end of one, will, by an alteration of the pressure on the centre, 
 in turning the arch, become a strut ; and so vice versa, a strut become a tie ; and 
 joints, which it was expected would be pressed hard, have become open, and required 
 strapping to secure them. 
 
 Fig. A will explain a simple trussing for a centre. It is alwaj's expected that 
 the abutments for the arch are sufficient for the centre ; and that a tie beam across 
 the bottom is useless. Supposing the footing a and b are secure, any two pieces of 
 timber, as a c and c b, connected at c like rafters, and footing at a and b, will bear 
 any pressure at c, both acting as struts ; and, unless they bend, the centre will not 
 vary its shape at the point c. The same may be said of a d and d b, and also of a e 
 and e b. 
 
 It is on this principle the centre, fig. B, is drawn, a and b being the abutments, 
 and c d and e corresponding with the same letters in fig. A, the pieces/^ /* and i 
 are both ties and struts ; and the joining of k and / into h should be made like 
 the footing of rafters, as /i is a tie for them while it forms a strut in a line with 
 m and n to bear the pressure on the centre at c. In this frame the scantling is 
 all short. If timber could be procured long enough to reach the length of the 
 three pieces m h and n, it would be better to make it in one piece, and halve all 
 the joints ; the posts op and y might then be in two thicknesses, and notched out 
 to receive the frame between them, r and s arc the striking-wedges by which the 
 centre is lowered, after the arch is turned ; t and u the blocking by which it is sup- 
 ported. 
 
 It is of considerable importance, in making centres for large arches, that the prin- 
 ciple of equilibration or balancing of arches should be understood. By this is meant, 
 that the line of the arch should be of such a curve, as to have no tendency in any 
 part either to rise or fall. This curve is found by taking a chain of equal weight 
 throughout, and suspending it from two points placed as far apart as the arch is to 
 span, and allowed to sag till it touches a third point, placed equidistant from the 
 others, and so far from a right line connecting them as the arch is to rise ; the chain 
 
PLA TE 40. 
 
 D 
 
 
 
I '[.ATE 11. 
 
 t 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
PLATE 4'2. 
 
 Sca.lt • ^ f^ct jp 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 33 
 
 will then describe the true curve of an arch, which, supposing the materials to be 
 all equal in weight, M'ill have no tendency to rise or fall in one part more than in 
 another. This is called the Catenarian Curve, and is represented by fig. C, a and b 
 being the points of suspension of the chain and the span of the arch, and c d the 
 rise of the arch. It frequently happens that the arch is loaded more in one part 
 than another, as in a bridge filling up over the haunches to level the road. To 
 counterbalance this, and preserve the equilibration of the arch, draw a section of 
 the filling up, but with the drawing turned with the upper edge downwards, as d ef, 
 fig. C; divide along this any number of equal parts, as at 1, 2, 3, &c., and sus- 
 pend to the chain a c b pieces of chain, of the same make from the points g h i k, 
 &c., so as they may fall over the divisions 1 2 3, &c. These chains being cut so 
 as to just reach the line of the road, d e f, will represent the filling in over the 
 haunches, and will make the chain a c b the form of an arch that will be equally 
 balanced. 
 
 In fig. D, I have given a curve which will be pretty near the Catenarian ; but 
 drawn from centres with compasses. « is the centre of the small part at top, and b 
 and c the centres of the other parts. 
 
 PLATE 41. 
 
 Of Stairs. 
 
 Fig. a is the plan of an open Newel Stairs, with two quarter-paces ; and B 
 is an elevation of the same ; C being that part which is between the two quarter- 
 paces. 
 
 To draw the Ramp of the Rail. 
 
 When a section of the steps is drawn, place the newel posts in their places, making, 
 them fair with the front edge of the steps, and draw the hand-rail, making it 2 feet 
 from the top of the steps to the top of the rail. Lay off the balusters, and let the 
 mitre or key of the rail come on the first baluster. This gives the height of the first 
 newel post. Make the othpr posts all the same height ; continue the line of the bot- 
 tom of the rail up till it strikes the edge of the newel post at a, fig. B ; place one foot 
 of the compasses on a, as a centre, and extend the other to b at the top of the rail 
 on the post, and draw the arc b c ; then draw c d square with the top of the rail till 
 it meets the level of the rail on the post continued, asb d ; then will d be the centre 
 for sweeping the Ramp. 
 
 PLATE 42. 
 
 A is the plan, and B the section or elevation, of a circular or geometrical 
 Stairs. In drawing the plan, I have made the circular steps to come beyond 
 the centre of the circular part the width of one square step. By that means the 
 
 I 
 
34 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ends of the circular steps are made wider, and the difference in the rake of the 
 hand-rail, between the square and circular steps, is not so great as it otherwise 
 would be. 
 
 Fig. C shows the manner of drawing a bracket, for the ends of the circular steps, 
 which shall correspond with oae made for a square step, C is the square-step 
 bracket. Draw any number of parallel lines across this, as 1 2, and those par- 
 allel to it ; then, from the point c, draw c d at any angle, and equal in length 
 to the circular bracket ; draw ordinates from the lines in C, as 2 3, and those parallel 
 to it, touching the line c d; continue those lines at right angles with r rf, as 3 4, 
 and those parallel to it ; take the distance of the ordinates, from tke line e r to 
 the edges of the bracket C, and mark them on the corresponding line in the short 
 bracket, from the line d c, and through those points trace the form of the circular 
 bracket. 
 
 PLATE 43. 
 
 To draw the scroll for a Hand-rail. 
 
 Make a circle three inches and a half in diameter, as a b c d, fig. A ; within this 
 make a square, equal to one-third the diameter of the circle, as efg h; divide this 
 into 36 small squares, as is represented in fig. B on its full size, and laid in the same 
 position as in A, and with the centres numbered by which the scroll is drawn ; place 
 one foot of the compasses on 1 in the square, and extend them to c, and draw round 
 to 1 on the edge of the Rail ; then set the compasses in 2 in the square, and extend- 
 ing them to 1 draw round to 2 on the edge, and so on till the whole is drawn round 
 to 6. To draw the outside of the Rail, set in its thickness from 6 to 12, and go back 
 by the same numbers, and the scroll will be complete. 
 
 To draw the Curtail-step. 
 
 At i k, in fig. A, place the thickness of a baluster, and set out to / the projection 
 of the nosing ; with the same centres, used for drawing the scroll, draw this round 
 till it meets the nosing at the end of the step, drawn with the same projection. The 
 thickness of the balusters, being set off, may be drawn round in the scroll, and they 
 may be spaced off, making them the same distance apart that the other balusters 
 are. 
 
 To draw the Face-mould. 
 
 Draw the pitch-boar^ / k I, fig. A, making the base k I cut the scroll as near its 
 centre or widest part as possible. Draw ordinates or parallel lines, as m 7i, op, q r, 
 &c. across the scroll ; draw the line i I, in fig. C, and make the spaces I w x y, &:c. 
 in fig. C, agree with the spaces / lo x y, &c. on the line / /, in fig. A ; draw lines 
 through those points, in fig. C, at right angles with / /, as m n o p, &c. Take the 
 distances from the line k I to the edge of the scroll at A, and transfer them to C, as 
 m n, p, &c. taking to the edge of the rail, both inside and outside. Through these 
 points the Face-mould C may be traced with a steady hand ; continue the line of the 
 
^^^TE -l^i^ 
 
^^.A TR 44. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ■ M ! i 
 
PLATE 45 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 35 
 
 pitch-board in A up till it strikes the riser of the second step, as from 8 to 7, and set 
 that space off at C from 8 to 7; at Avhich place square over a strong mark, the use 
 of which will be explained hereafter. 
 
 To draw the Falling-mould. 
 
 Draw the pitch-board at D ; take off one-sixth from the bottom, and draw the line 
 116s; take the distance from 1 1 to 6 in A, and set it from 11 to 6 in D ; make the 
 distance from 6 to s in D equal to the distances round the rail from 6 to s in A (being 
 any distance beyond the first quarter) by tracing round with a small space in the 
 compasses ; divide the rake of the rail on the pitch-board, and the level of it out to 
 s, into any equal number of parts ; and, by drawing intersecting lines, the top of the 
 rail is given. 
 
 The Falling-mould for the outside is drawn in the same manner ; excepting the 
 distance from 12 to 9 is taken from the outside of the rail from 12 to 9, fig. A. 
 
 In applying these to use, the mark at 7 on C should be made to correspond with 
 the edge a 6 of the pitch-board in the Falling-moulds D and E. 
 
 PLATE 44. 
 
 In this Plate are given two more examples of scrolls of different sizes ; B and D 
 contain the centres for drawing, both figured. It may be well here to observe, that, 
 in drawing the scroll, a line should be drawn from the centre about to be used 
 through the one used last, out to the edge of the scroll. This shows where to com- 
 mence the sweep for that quarter. The dotted lines in A and C will make this 
 clearer. 
 
 PLATE 45. 
 
 To draw the Moulds for an Elliptical Stair. 
 
 The plan of the rail being drawn, and the ends of the steps being all of equal 
 width on the rail, it should be divided round into as many equal parts as there are 
 steps ; then take the tread of any number of steps, suppose 8, and let h h fig. H be 
 the tread of 8 steps ; on the perpendicular h m set up the height of 8 risers, and 
 draw the line m h which will be the under edge of the falling Mould. The Student 
 will observe, that this falling Mould will be a straight line, excepting a little turn at 
 the landing. Next mark the plan of the rail into as many parts as there are to be 
 pieces in the rail (in this there are three), then draw a chord-line to the joints, as at 
 E C and G ; also draw lines parallel to the chords to touch the convex sides of the 
 rail, Bishh; from every joint draw perpendiculars to their respective chords. Now, the 
 tread of the middle piece at C being just 8 steps, and the section H being for the 
 
36 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 same number, set up A m n in B equal to h m n in H, and make i A in B equal in 
 hei<^ht to i /i in H ; then draw n i and draw the ordinates 1 «, 1 2 6, 1 3 c, &c. con- 
 tinued till they touch the line n i ; prick off the ordinates on the face-mould from 
 the plan C agreeably to the figuring, and trace the Mould through those points, and 
 it will be complete. 
 
 The Moulds for D, and F, being only for 6 steps each, the tread of 6 steps should 
 be set off from i^ to H in fig. H, and the height H A: / set up from the chord-lines at 
 D and F. As for the rest, it is the same as B. 
 
 PLATE 46. 
 
 To draw the Moulds for glueing Hand-rails in Veneers. 
 
 Draw a plan of the rail, as A, on which mark the steps. The twisted part of the 
 rail, which is to be veneered, should reach over one of the square steps, both at top 
 and bottom ; make a 6 in fig. B equal to stretch out of the outside or greatest circle 
 in fig. A, and a c equal to the height of the rises ; again, rf e is the compass of the 
 lesser circle, set in the middle between a and b ; and d f \s the height of the steps 
 the same as before ; therefore the triangle a b c is the pitch-board for the inside 
 falling Mould, and 6 m o at bottom and i A c at top are the pitch-boards of two com- 
 mon steps ; which lines, when intersected, will give the under line of the inside falling 
 Mould. In the same manner df e, with the two common steps k g f at the top and 
 e I n Sit the bottom, will give the under line of the outside falling Mould. The top 
 lines are only drawn parallel of the under side to the thickness of the rail. 
 
 In applying them to practice, draw a line t p to touch the Mould in two places. 
 This will represent the edge of the plank. Next square over several lines, as p q, 
 where the Moulds intersect, and at / a r, square over on the plank-lines corresponding 
 with these, and mark oft^ from the edge of the plank the distances p q and / s on one 
 side, and t r on the other ; make the Moulds agree with these points, each one on 
 its proper side, and mark ofi' the rail. The plank, being of a sufficient thickness to 
 allow for the saw-curfs, will, when cut out, and twisted, become square, and of the 
 proper size. 
 
 PLATE 47. 
 
 In this Plate is shown the manner of drawing the section of an eave. After the 
 form of the cornice is fixed on, a section of it should be drawn, either by a proper 
 scale, or to its full size, and then the joist should be drawn with its lower edge on 
 the plancre. From the top of the cornice draw the pitch of the roof, and from that 
 set down the lath, rafters, &c. and it will show the proper place for the raising-piece. 
 
PL A TE 46. 
 
I I n 
 
 11 11 
 
 n , a 
 
 O^ 
 
 n I I 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
 i\ 
 
rLATK /.'A 
 
 ^<St # 
 
 1^ 
 
 J J 
 
 ^" 1 
 
 
 h=li 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^i 
 
 !— ^ 
 
 
 F^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 llllii 
 
 J 
 
 - (7' 
 
 \ 
 
 > 
 
 f 
 
 -r-%r 
 
 ■J 
 
 -Cl. 
 
 L^ 
 
 L 1_ 
 
 n 
 
 e H B Bl i 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 37 
 
 To proportion the Cornice to the height of the Building. 
 
 Divide the whole height into nineteen parts ; one of these will be the height of the 
 Cornice. This is a general rule, which may be varied to suit circumstances ; as in a 
 very high building, a steeple, for instance, it would be too much ; and in a very low 
 one, it would be rather too little ; and, as every thing is in some degree regulated by 
 fashion, this should be attended to. The present fashion would be something smaller 
 than the above proportion. 
 
 PLATE 48. 
 
 Drawing Plans and Elevations. 
 
 In this Plate is given a Plan and Elevation of a small house. The Student, in 
 drawing a Plan, will suppose the building to be raised just above the principal floor, 
 and the wall made level all round ; and draw his plan to resemble it as near as 
 possible ; placing the partitions, doors, and windows in their proper places. The 
 stairs should be drawn for the whole story, to show where the landing for the next 
 story will be. In drawing the ground-plan, it will considerably enliven the drawing 
 to give the appearance of a shadow on one side of the wall, by drawing one line 
 thicker than the other. To do this, he will suppose the light to come from the left 
 hand upper corner of the drawing, and make the lines on the right hand and lower 
 side of the walls and partitions thick, and the other sides thin lines. This will be 
 better understood by closely inspecting the Plans that follow. 
 
 PLATE 49, 
 
 Is a design for a large building. The dotted lines A B, C D, and E F show the 
 place on the ground-plan, through which the sections in the three following Plates 
 are drawn ; the letters on the sections corresponding with the letters on the plans. 
 
 The plan in this Plate is for the principal story or first floor, 
 and may be disposed of as follows. 
 
 n Portico. 
 
 h Hall. This is an octagon with the ceiling vaulted, and includes in its height the 
 mezanine, or small story between the two principal ones. See section of Plate 38. 
 
 c Vestibule. This is lighted from a sky-light, and at the second story has a 
 gallery which gives a communication with the different rooms. See section of Plate 38. 
 
 d Stairs. 
 
 e Saloon. This room includes in its height the mezanine, and has a music gallery. 
 See section of Plate 40. 
 
 y Dining-room, with a recess for a sideboard. 
 
 g Library. 
 
 h Breakfast-parlor. 
 
 / Back-stairs. 
 
 K 
 
38 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE 50, 
 
 Contains a section of the same building as the foregoing, with the plan for 
 
 tlie cellar or basement story. 
 
 In drawing a section, the Student will pay strict attention that it agrees in all its 
 parts with the plans for the different stories, and that the section represents the 
 building, as it were, cut through from top to bottom, on the line of the plan, from which 
 it is taken. A little liberty indeed may be taken with stairs, as, when the section 
 cuts through them, to represent half of them would not be as clear as if all were 
 shown. 
 
 The plan of this Plate may be disposed of as follows, viz. 
 
 a Maid-servants' room. The small stair gives a communication with the mezanine, 
 and chamber over the library. 
 b House-keeper's room, 
 c Servants' hall. 
 d Back-stairs. 
 e Kitchen. 
 
 f Men-servants' room. 
 g h and i Beer and Wine-cellars, &c. 
 
 PLATE 51. 
 
 The same building continued. The plan is for the mezanine, or small story 
 between the two principal stories. Of this, a b c and d are the upper parts of the 
 saloon, stairs, vestibule, and hall ; the others are small rooms for servants, &c. 
 
 Mezanine stories, or, as they are sometimes called, mezetti, are of use in a large 
 building, where souie of the rooms are so large as to require more height than com- 
 mon rooms, to be well proportioned ; the mezanine being thrown into the height of 
 the large rooms. And they also afford convenient chambers for servants, more 
 particularly those whose business it is to attend on the Master and Mistress, by 
 affording a room immediately under the chambers occupied by them, with a private 
 stairs for communication. Were it not for this, in very large buildings, the Servants 
 would frequently be unavoidably lodged at a considerable distance from the Heads 
 of the Family. 
 
 PLATE 52. 
 
 The same continued. The plan is for the second story, in which 
 
 a is the vestibule, with a gallery of communication from the stairs to the different 
 rooms. 
 
 b and c two chambers, with each an antichamber or dressing-room. The rest are 
 private chambers ; except d and e, which are stairs. 
 
rLATK CO. 
 
FLA TK 51. 
 
PLATE y->. 
 
 
SKIRTINi;. 
 
 PL A TE Xi. 
 
 tiyl 
 
 Fig. J. 
 
 Fiff. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 DtSKjncd ,t.b\iiyn ^fi,f ?/.■>■:■'■ i^^i 
 
STUCCO CUKNKKS. 
 PLATE 54. 
 
 Dttigmd I'dmurn hy JJJiiyilund 
 
KAILINC;. 
 
HAILING, 
 PLATE 50. 
 
 fill 1. 
 
 n,i.z 
 
 liy.j. 
 
 
 r 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 0/f,t^'U<t A Ji;ur?t !// ..'. Ha*'/^'i^l.i 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 39 
 
 In these plans, it has been more my object to throw as great a variety into a 
 small compass, as was readily practicable, than to give eligible plans for the Builder ; 
 thereby aiming at instruction for the Student, which indeed has been my object 
 throughout this Work. 
 
 PLATE 53. 
 
 Five designs for the mouldings of washboards or skirtings, the narrow boards 
 round the margin of a floor, forming a plinth for the base of the dado, or simply a 
 plinth for the room itself should there be no dado. 
 
 The skirting is either scribed close to the floor, or let into it by a groove : in the 
 former case, a fillet is put at the back of the skirting to keep it firm. 
 
 PLATE 54. 
 
 Four profiles for ceilings of rooms, from the simple to the more enriched finish. 
 A the line of ceiUng ; B the vertical surface of the wall. 
 
 PLATE 55. 
 
 Three designs for wooden rails, for balconies, piazzas, garden fences, &c. 
 
 PLATE 56. 
 
 Three designs for iron ditto. 
 
 PLATE 57. 
 
 Plan and elevation of a design for a church of moderate dimensions ; being 50 by 75 
 feet, exclusive of front steps and vestry-room. A the porch raised 6 rises high. B the 
 vestibule, and staircase leading to the gallery. C the vestibule and staircase to the 
 gallery on the right. D the grating through which the warm air passes into the church 
 from a furnace underneath. E the centre aisle. FF the centre aisles. G the commu- 
 
40 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 nion table and chancel. H the pulpit and reading desk. I the stairs to pulpit. K 
 the vestry-room and library, the school-room for children of both sexes. Session 
 and prayer meeting and lecture rooms are disposed in the basement, with an internal 
 communication to them under the staircase B and C internally. The principal floor 
 contains sixty-six pews ; each pew is calculated to accommodate six persons, making 
 in all three hundred and seventy-six ; besides fiftj^ in the public seats of the side aisles. 
 The gallery contains about two hundred, including the portion occupied by the chil- 
 dren and orchestra. 
 
 Prison, an edifice erected for the confinement of debtors and criminals, until they 
 be discharged or convicted. The principal properties in the construction of a prison 
 are those of strength and convenience. Strength is of tlie utmost consequence, in order 
 to prevent the escape of the prisoners ; and convenience, to promote their health ; 
 to have the apartments of their due size and arrangement, according to the diflerent 
 species of criminals, and to be handy in respect to the keeper. 
 
 Howard, in speaking of the situation of prisoners, says, " a county gaol, and 
 indeed every prison, should be built on a spot that is airy, and, if possible, near a river 
 or brook. I have commonly found prisons situate near a river the cleanest and most 
 health)'. They generally have not (and, indeed, could not well have) subterraneous 
 dungeons, which have been so fatal to thousands ; and by their nearness to running 
 water, another evil, almost as noxious, is prevented — that is, the stench of sewers. 
 
 " 1 said a gaol should be near a stream ; but I must annex this caution, that it be 
 not so near as that either the house or yard shall be within the reach of floods. 
 
 " If it be not practicable to build near a stream, then an eminence should be chosen; 
 for, as the wall around a prison should be so high as greatly to obstruct a free cir- 
 culation of air, this inconvenience should be lessened by rising ground ; and the 
 prison should not be surmounted by other buildings, nor built in the middle of a town 
 or city. 
 
 " That part of the building which is detached from the walls, and contains the men- 
 felons' ward, may be square or rectangular, raised on arcades, that it may be more 
 airy, and have under it a dry walk in wet weathei'. These wards over arcades are 
 also best for safety ; for I have found that escapes have been most commonly effect- 
 ed by undermining cells and dungeons. If felons should find any other means to 
 break out of this raised ward, they will still be stopped by the wall of the court, 
 which is the principal security ; and the walls of the wards need not then be of that 
 great thickness they are generally built ; whereby the access of light and air is 
 impeded. 
 
 " I wish to have so many small rooms, or cabins, that each criminal may sleep 
 alone. These rooms to be ten feet high to the crown of the arch, and have double 
 doors, one of them iron latticed, for the circulation of air. If it be difiicult to pre- 
 vent their being together in the day-time, they shoifld, by all means, be separated by 
 night. Solitude and silence arc favorable to reflection ; and may, possibly, lead them 
 to repentance. Privacy and hours of thoughtfulncss are necessary for those who 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 41 
 
 must soon leave the world ; (yet how contrary to this is our practice ! Keepers have 
 assured me, that they have made 5 £. a day after the condemnation of their pris- 
 oners.) In the Old Newgate there were liftecn cells for persons in this situation, 
 which are still left standing, and are annexed to the new building. 
 
 " The separation I am pleading for, especially at night, would prevent escapes, or 
 make them very difficult ; for that is the time in which they are generally planned, 
 and eflected: this also would prevent their robbing one another in the night. Another 
 reason for separation is, that it would free gaolers from a difficulty of which I have 
 heard them complain : they hardly know where to keep criminals admitted to be evi- 
 dence for the king : these would be murdered by their accomplices, if put among them ; 
 and in more than one prison, I have seen them, for that reason, put in the women's 
 ward. 
 
 " Where there arc opposite windows, they should have shutters ; but these should 
 be open all day. In the men-felons' ward the windows should be six feet from the 
 floor ; there should be no glass ; nor should the prisoners be allowed to stop them 
 with straw, &c. 
 
 " The women-felons' ward should be quite distinct from that of the men ; and the 
 young criminals from old and hardened offenders. Each of these three classes should 
 also have their day-room, or kitchen, with a fire-place ; and their court and offices 
 all separate. 
 
 " Every court should be paved with flags, or flat stones, for the more convenient 
 washing it; and have a good pump, or water laid in; both, if possible: and the pump 
 and pipes should be repaired as soon as they need it ; otherwise the gaols will soon 
 be offensive and unwholesome ; as I have always found them to be in such cases. 
 A small stream constantly running in the court is very desirable. In a room, or shed, 
 near the pump or pipe, there should be a commodious bath, with steps, (as there is 
 in some country hospitals,) to wash prisoners that come in dirty, and to induce them 
 afterwards to the frequent use of it. It should be filled every morning, and let off in 
 the evening through sewers into the drains. There should also be a copper in the 
 shed, to heat a quantity of water sufficient to warm that in the bath, for those that 
 are sickly. There should also lie an oven; nothing so etTectually destroys vermin 
 in clothes and bedding, nor purifies so thoroughly when tainted with infection, as 
 being a few hours in an oven moderately heated. 
 
 " The infirmary, or sick w ards, should be the most airy part of the court, quite 
 detached from the rest of the gaol, and raised on arcades. These rooms should 
 never be without cribs, beds, and bedding. In the middle of the floor of each room 
 there should be a grate of twelve or fourteen inches square, for a current of air ; 
 covered with a shutter or hatch. The sewers, or vaults, of all prisons, should be in 
 the courts, and not in the passages, and (like those in the cottages) close boarded 
 between the seats up to the ceiling, the boards projecting ten inches before each 
 seat. 
 
 " The infirmary and sheds will not render the court unsafe, provided the walls have 
 parapets or small chevaux-dc-frize. 
 
 " Debtors and felons should have wards totally separate : the peace, the cleanli- 
 ness, the health, and morals, of debtors, cannot be secured otherwise. 
 
 " The ward for men debtors should also be over arcades, and placed on one side 
 of the gaoler's house. This house should be in or near the middle of the gaol, with 
 
42 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 windows looking into the felons' and the debtors' courts. This would be a check on 
 the prisoners, to keep them in order ; and would engage tiie gaoler to be attentive 
 to cleanliness, and constant washing, to prevent his own apartments from being 
 offensive. 
 
 " A chapel is necessary in a gaol. I have chosen for it what seems to me a proper 
 situation. It should have a gallery, for women ; for the latter should be out of sight 
 of all the other prisoners ; and the rest may be separated below. Bibles and prayer- 
 books should be chained at convenient distances on each side ; those who tear or 
 otherwise damage them, should be punished." 
 
 ^SOTl*® 111*1 ASiT, 
 
 A Penitentiary House is a place for the reception of criminals whose crimes are 
 not so heinous as to meet severer punishment than solitary confinement and hard 
 labor ; and where means are practised to reclaim the vicious. 
 
 PLATE 58. 
 
 Plan and Elevation of a Design for a County Gaol. 
 
 A, the porch and entrance. B, the lobby. C, entrance to the debtors' ward. D, 
 entrance to the felons' ward. E, stairs to the apartments of the felons' keepers. F, 
 stairs to the apartments of the debtors' keepers and infirmary. G, steps to the do- 
 mestics' yard baths, and privies of the debtors. H, steps to the yard of the felons' 
 domestics. I, yard of the domestics and keeper of felons' department. K, location 
 of the felons' baths and privies. L, baths and privies of the debtors' ward. M, yard 
 of the debtors' domestics. N, office of the debtors' ward. O, office of felons' ward. 
 P, felons' cells. Q, passage of the felons' cells. R, passage of the debtors' ward. S, 
 debtors' rooms. T, yard containing the privies and baths of the debtors. U, yard 
 containing the privies and baths for the felons. V, exercising yard and work-shops 
 of felons. W, exercising yard of debtors. 
 
 This building is designed to be erected three stories high. The front part occupied 
 for the infirmary and sleeping-rooms of the keepers ; the basement of the front, the 
 cooking offices, and the basement of the gaol departments, to be open and arched, for 
 the exercise of prisoners in wet weather, as well as to prevent excavation. The 
 yard may be extended to any desired dimension, and the plan otherwise extended 
 longitudinally, without interfering with the convenience and desired properties, so as 
 to accommodate from fifty to two hundred prisoners. The proportion of the several 
 rooms and other features of the design may be ascertained by referring to the scale 
 to which it is drawn. 
 

 <H-t- 
 
 '«] U J .-J L 
 
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THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 43 
 
 House, a habitation, or a building constructed for sheltering a man's person and 
 goods from the inclemencies of the weather, and the injuries of ill-disposed persons. 
 Houses differ in magnitude, being of two or three and four stories ; in the materials 
 of which they consist, as wood, brick, or stone ; and in the purposes for which they 
 are designed, as a manor-house, farm-house, cottage, &c. 
 
 Ancient Rome consisted of 48,000 houses, all insulated or detached from each 
 other. 
 
 It is a thing principally to be aimed at, in the site or situation of a country-house, 
 or seat, that it have wood and water near it. 
 
 It is far better to have a house defended by trees than hills ; for trees yield a cool- 
 ing, refreshing, sweet, and healthy air and shade, during the heat of the summer, 
 and very much break the cold winds and tempests from every point in the winter. 
 The hills, according to their situation, defend only from certain windt< ; inid if they 
 are on the north side of the house, as they defend from the cold air m winter, so 
 they also deprive you of the cool refreshing breezes, which are commonly blown 
 thence, in the summer. And if the hills are situate on the south side, they then prove 
 also very inconvenient. A house should not be too low seated, since this precludes 
 the convenience of cellars. If you cannot avoid building on low grounds, set the 
 first floor above the ground, the higher, to supply what you want to sink in your 
 cellar in the ground ; for in such low and moist grounds, it conduces much to the 
 dryness and healthiness of the air, to have cellars under the house, so that the floors 
 be good and ceiled underneath. Houses built too high, in places obvious to the 
 winds, and not well defended by hills or trees, require more materials to build them, 
 and more also of reparations to maintain them ; and they are not so commodious to 
 the inhabitants as the lower built houses, which may be built at a much easier rate, 
 and also as complete and beautiful as the other. In houses not above two stories 
 with the ground-room, and not exceeding twenty feet to the wall plate, and upon a 
 good foundation, the length of two bricks, or eighteen inches for the heading course, 
 will be sufficient for the ground-work of any common structure, and six or seven 
 courses above the earth to a water-table, where the thickness of the walls abated, 
 or taken in, on either side the thickness of brick, najjely, two inches and a 
 quarter. 
 
 For large and high houses, or buildings of three, and four, or five stories, with the 
 garrets, the walls of such edifices ought to be from the foundation to the first 
 water-table, the heading courses of brick, or twenty-eight inches at least; and at 
 every story a water-table, or taking in the inside for the girders and joints to rest 
 upon, laid into the middle, or one quarter of the wall at least, for the "better bond. 
 But as for the innermost or partition wall, a half brick will be sufticicntly thick ; and 
 for the upper stories, nine inches or a brick's length will suffice. 
 
 We cannot multiply rules for the different parts of a house ; since these must be 
 modified by a variety of circumstances, in which the skill and judgment of the archi- 
 tect must direct : but we shall conclude this article with expressing a wish that con- 
 trivers of buildings would avail themselves more of an important modern discovery 
 in natural history, viz. the superior levity of infectious and unwholesome air. The 
 
44 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 upper sashes in most houses are too frequently immovable ; in consequence of which, 
 no part of the foul air above the*level of the lowest rail of the other sash's greatest 
 rise can escape by the window ; and if it escapes by the doors, it is generally for 
 want of a vent in the highest part of the roof, merely to accumulate in the upper 
 story of the house, and add to the infection which the great quantities of old furni- 
 ture usually stored up there arc of themselves apt to create. Thus the chief advantage 
 to be expected from lofty rooms is in a measure lost, whereas, were the upper sashes 
 contrived so as to draw down, all the air might be easily changed, and that almost 
 insensibly, by letting them down an inch or two. The upper sash might be often 
 let down entirely, with less danger or inconvenience from cold, than the lower, thrown 
 up the tenth part of an inch : though the doing of the former would be infinitely the 
 most beneficial. It is perhaps on this principle that we are to account for the good 
 health enjoyed by the poor who live crowded in damp cellars, and often with great 
 numbers of rabbits, poultry, and even swine, about them. These cellars are open to 
 the street, with doors reaching from the floor to the very ceiling, but never so close 
 at bottom or at top as to prevent a free circulation of air ; in consequence of which, 
 that vivified fluid, as fast as it is spoiled by passing through the lungs of the inhabit- 
 ants and their stock, or is infected by their insensible perspiration, excrements, &c. 
 is driven out, and replaced by the fresh air. 
 
 PLATE 59. 
 
 Plmi and Elevation of a Design for a County Town House. 
 
 A, the porch. B, vestibule. C, saloon. D, best staircase. E, dining-room. F, 
 drawino^-room. G, library and study. H, private domestic staircase. I, china closet. 
 K, parlor or breakfast room. L, conservatory. M, servants' piazza. N, family 
 piazza. 
 
 PLATE 60. 
 
 Plan and Elevation of a design for a Country Bank thirty feet wide, by fifty feet 
 in length. • 
 
 A, the private entrance to the dwelling part of the Building, to be occupied by one 
 of its officers : the stairs communicate to a kitchen, parlor, and pantries, under the 
 rear of the banking-room and vaults. B C, also to a drawing-room and chambers 
 over the second floor, and domestic chamber of the roof. B, the note and specie 
 vault. C, the vault for the books and other valuable papers, and records. D, double 
 iron doors, formed on the most approved principles. E, niches for book-cases, &c. 
 F, a table. G, the counter, and location of the note-desk. H, the receiving teller's 
 desk. I, the paying teller's desk. K, the grate which admits the warm air frjora 
 a furnace below. L L, long tables, with drawers. M, the space or jiassage'of 
 access for business, to the several officers. N, president's room. O, cashier's room. 
 P, entrance, Q, steps to the entrance. R R, two descending sets of steps leading 
 to offices under the president's and cashier's rooms, as well as to the director's room 
 in the rear. It is here designed to form the floor and ceiling of the first floor fire- 
 
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THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 45 
 
 proof, of brickwork ; the banking room M to be grooved, and all the other rooms to 
 be with barrel or cylindrical arches, and the roof covered with slate. 
 
 This building should be insulated at least twenty feet on either side, at S S, so as 
 to afford sufficient light to the main room M, and secure from fire of the neighboring 
 houses. A Bank has recently been executed by Mr. John Haviland, Architect, of 
 Philadelphia, the author of this work, at Pottsville, Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, 
 and every feature of the front (not excepting the moulded cornices) formed of cast 
 iron, in imitation of marble ; and it is believed to be the first and only example of 
 this material being employed in the wholey«caf?e. The iron plates are cast in lengths 
 and form corresponding with the size and jointing of the stone-work, backed in with 
 masonry two feet thick, and secured to the same by wrought iron ties, two and three 
 to each plate : when finished, the whole was well painted and sanded with white sand, 
 which gave the surface a very beautiful and uniform texture of stone, free from gloss 
 and at the same time prevented its rusting. It is very much to be regretted that 
 this valuable material is not more frequently used, as a substitute for the more perish- 
 able ones of wood, and expensive one of marble, or cut free-stone. Iron is not 
 only more fire-proof, durable, and stronger, than wood, but also more economical 
 and favorable to embellishment, than the marble or cut free-stone. When duplicates 
 are required, the labor of carved and moulded work in one pattern, answers for all. 
 
 The following Plates I have been induced to give, as containing four difl^erent 
 varieties in Architecture. Of these, it is difficult to say which is the most perfect. 
 
 PLATE 61, 
 
 Contains a draft of the Frame of the Bridge constructed, by a Company incor- 
 porated for that purpose, over the Schuylkill, at the west end of High or Market- 
 street ; with a section of the Bed of that River. 
 
 The westernmost pier of this Bridge is sunk in a depth of water, unexampled in 
 Hydraulic Architecture, in any part of the world ; the top of the rock on which it 
 stands being 41 feet 9 inches below common high tides. Both piers were built within 
 Coflfer-dams. The dam for the western pier was of origyial and peculiar construction : 
 the design furnished by William Weston, Esq. of Gainsborough, in England, a 
 celebrated Hydraulic Engineer. An idea of its magnitude may be formed, when it 
 is known that 800,000 feet of timber (board measure) were unavoidably employed 
 in and about it. It was executed, under the orders of the Building Committee of the 
 Board, consisting of the President and four, and sometimes five, Directors (to whom 
 the master^workmen express great obligations) by Samuel Robinson, of ttyg* city. 
 Every disadvantage to which such difficult undertakings are subject (the rock being, 
 in sundry parts, nearly bare, and aflbrding no footing for the piles) opposed the 
 progress of this. So that it could not be ready for the commencement of the masonry, 
 until the 25th of December, when the first stone was laid ; and the work continued, 
 in a severe winter, to the height then proposed. 
 
 The stone-work was done by Thomas Vickers, under the orders, and with the 
 advice and constant attention, of the same Committee ; assisted, on emergencies, 
 by all the Members of the Board, and the Treasurer, who was eminently useful on 
 every occasion. The masonry is executed on a plan suggested to the mason, uncom- 
 
 m M 
 
46 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 mon, if not new. The walls of the Abutments and Wings a.xe perpendicular, without 
 buttresses ; and supported by interior offsets. These are found completely competent 
 to support the pressure of the filling, without haltering or contreforts. The Abutments 
 are 18 feet thick: the Wing-walls, 9 feet at the foundations; retiring, by offsets, 
 till at the parapets they are only 18 inches. The eastern abutment and wing-walls 
 are founded on a rock. Those on the western side, are built on piles. There are 
 upwards of 7500 tons of Masonry in the western pier. Many of the stones, com- 
 posing both piers, weigh from 3 to 12 tons. A number of massive chains are 
 stretched, in various positions, across the piers. These are worked in with the 
 masonry ; the exterior whereof is clamped, and finished in the most substantial 
 and workmanlike manner. 
 
 The Frame of the superstructure was designed and erected by Timothy Palmer, 
 of Newburyport, in Massachusetts. It is a masterly piece of workmanship ; com- 
 bining, in its principles, that of King-posts and Braces with that of a Stone arch. 
 Half of each post, w ith the brace between them, w ill form the vousseur of an arch ; 
 and lines through the middle of each post would describe the radii, or joints. The 
 letters a h c, &c, in the draught, refer to the same letters below ; where the manner 
 of connecting the timbers together, is shown on a larger scale. The position of the 
 letters is the same, with respect to each piece, in both places. Two of these, a and 
 6, are double, or in two thicknesses. There are 3 sections of the Frame, similar to 
 the one represented. That in the middle divides the space into two equal parts ; so 
 that those passing, in opposite directions, are prevented from interfering with each 
 other. The Platform for travelling rises only 8 feet from a horizontal line ; and the 
 Top or Cap-pieces, are parallel to this. Of the sections, the middle one has the 
 most pressure ; owing to the weight of transportation hieing thrown nearer to that 
 section than towards the sides ; to which the footways prevent its approach. These 
 footways are 5 feet in width ; elevated above the carriage-ways, and neatly protected 
 by posts and chains. T. Palmer is the original inventor of this kind of Wooden- 
 bridge Architecture. He permitted, with much candor, considerable alterations in 
 the plan, on which he had erected several Bridges in New England. These were 
 accommodatory to the intended Cover, and were so much approved by him, that he 
 considers the Schuylkill Bridge superstructure the most perfect of any he has built. 
 
 After the erection of the Frame, the Editor was employed by the President and 
 Directors to perform the workmanship of the covering, agreeably to a design fur- 
 nished by them to him. This design of the Cover being original, it is more surprising 
 that it has not many faults, than that few, if any, can be found ; especially, as an 
 accommodation to the Frame created unavoidable difficulties. The Editor was per- 
 mitted to make some additions, with the approbation of the Building Committee. He 
 feels Itself grateful for the assistance he has had ; and in participating with those 
 who preceded him, in the approbation of the work, by the Board and their Committee. 
 At their suggestion, the under-work of the side covering is done in imitation of 
 masonry, by sprinkling the work with stone-dust on the painting, while fresh. The 
 smalting or sprinkling was performed with so much ease and cheapness, that it is 
 hoped it will introduce a like mode of ornamenting and protecting the surface 
 of wooden elevations, of other descriptions, where protection and ornament are 
 required. 
 
 Commodious Wharves, on each side of the river, have been made by the Com- 
 pany ; not only to protect the foundations of the abutments and wings, but with a 
 
 /* 
 
THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 47 
 
 view to profit. They co-operate with the other improvements, to give a new and 
 interesting front to our city. 
 
 It is a peculiar and interesting fact, that (except the vahiable assistance rendered 
 in its commencement by W. Weston, who was then about returning to England) no 
 scientific Engineer has been employed, in any part of this great undertaking. Neither 
 the Board, nor their Committee, who have been constantly and actively engaged in all 
 stages of the Work, profess a scientific knowledge of Hydraulic Architecture ; 
 thouorh they have now gained much practical experience. Yet difficulties have been 
 encountered, and overcome, which would have called forth the talents, and practical 
 knowledge, of the ablest Engineer. The Mechanics and W^orkmen (T. Palmer and 
 his Assistants excepted) had, from the beginning of the undertaking, new and 
 unknown branches of their business to learn. Even T. Palmer is self-tmigld in the 
 art of Wooden-bridge building ; though he has carried it to such high perfection. 
 It is, however, believed that this Bridge, in all its parts, both of masonry and wood- 
 work, will not suffer by a comparison with one, so composed, in any part of the 
 world. Its workmanship and materials will stand the test of the most rigid scrutiny. 
 Both the plan and its execution reflect credit upon those concerned in the enter- 
 prise. So far as I have information, this is now the oi\\y*covered wooden Bridge, in 
 any country, except, perhaps, one over the Limmat, built by the same Swiss car- 
 penter who erected that of Schaufl'hausen, since destroyed. I have frequently seen 
 and carefully inspected the draughts of this much-celebrated Bridge, and I am con- 
 fident that any intelligent and candid Architect, on examining the principles of both, 
 would give a decided preference to the Schuylkill Bridge. The design is more 
 simple, its strength is greater, its parts are better combined and more assistant to 
 each other, and there is no useless timber, or unnecessary complexity, in any part. 
 
 What I have just observed, as to those engaged in the direction or execution of the 
 work of the Schuylkill Bridge, is not intended as adulatory, or disparaging, to any 
 persons. But I have an ardent hope that others, in similar undertakings, will be 
 animated by their successful example ; when laboring under the same, or greater 
 disadvantages, arising from the want of experienced and scientific Professors of 
 Architecture ; although, where these can be had, for great undertakings, they ought, 
 undoubtedly, to be employed. 
 
 As a well-wisher to all public improvements, as a mechanic, and one employed to 
 close this eminently useful erection, I think it my duty to mention, and feel a 
 sensible satisfaction in adding to the foregoing account ; 
 
 That I have experienced the important advantages of ready and beneficial advice ; 
 clear, prompt, and explicit orders ; and timely and ample supplies. Not a moment 
 has been lost by delay and hesitation in directions, want of provision of materials, 
 or deficiency, in punctuality of payment. This has been constantly the case, through 
 the whole progress of the business, as the workmen, preceding me in its more 
 difficult stages, have testified. Though heavj' expenditures have been inevitably 
 required, the greatest attention to economy has been practised. 
 
 No interested or personal motives induce me to mention these circumstances. 
 They are exemplary ; and essential to insure the completion of any extensive enter- 
 prise. To them, I am persuaded, is to be chiefly attributed, the success of this 
 arduous work. From inattention, or incapacity in these indispensable requisites, 
 many public as well as private undertakings in all countries have failed ; and Com- 
 munities, and the individuals employed in them, have been involved in disappointment 
 and distress ; if not in irretriemj)le ruin. 
 
48 THE YOUNG CARPENTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 The Bridge was six years in building, and cost about 300,000 dollars, including 
 the cash-moiety of the purchase of the site ; for which 40,000 dolls, were paid to 
 the City Corporation ; half in cash, and half in Bridge-shares. 
 
 fl. in. 
 
 Length of the Bridge 550 00 
 
 Abutments and wing-walls 750 00 
 
 Total length 1300 00 
 
 Span of small arches, each 150 00 
 
 Ditto of middle arch 194 10 
 
 AVidth of the Bridge 42 00 
 
 Curvature of the middle arch 12 00 
 
 Ditto of small arches 10 00 
 
 Amount of toll, when the work began, for the year 1799, arising from the Floating-bridge - -$5,000 
 Present amount of toll on an average (1805) the rates of toll in several instances being lower 
 
 than over the old Floating-bridge 13,600 
 
 Tolls received for the year 1832 ♦ 22,049 29 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 Curvature or rise of the carriage-way or road 8 00 
 
 Height in the clear over carriage-way - - 13 00 
 Ditto from the surface of the river to the 
 
 carriage-way 31 00 
 
 Thickness of the pier 20 00 
 
 Length of ditto 62 00 
 
 Depth of water to the rock at the western pier 41 9 
 
 Ditto at the eastern pier 21 00 
 
 PLATE 62. 
 
 •■ The Bank of Pennsylvania. 
 
 This beautiful Building is entirely of Marble, and is a neat specimen of the Ionic 
 Order, taken from an ancient Greek Temple. The design was given by, and the 
 building erected under the superintendence of, Benjamin H. Latrobe. The front 
 extends 51 feet in width, and the whole building, including the Porticos front and 
 back, is 125 feet in depth. This building was three years in hand, and was finished 
 in the year 1799. 
 
 PLATE 63. 
 
 The Girard Bank. 
 
 This superb Building is an elegant specimen of the Corinthian Order ; the propor- 
 tions taken from a Roman Temple, called the Maison Quarree, at Nismes, in the 
 south of France. The front extends 94 feet by 72 deep, exclusive of the Portico. 
 The design was given by Samuel Blodget, of this city, and was built about the 
 year 1795. 
 
 PLATE 64, 
 
 Contains an elevation of the Steeple of Christ Church, in Second street, which, 
 for the justness of its proportions, simplicity and symmetry of its parts, is allowed 
 by good judges to be equal if not superior in beauty to any Steeple, of the spire kind, 
 either in Europe or America. It was erected in the year 1755, by Robert Smith, 
 who some time after took out the sills of the wooden part, which had begun to decay, 
 and replaced them by others. 
 
 The superstructure of this Steeple is composed of three distinct well-proportioned 
 parts of Architecture; the first story, with its small Pediments and Attics, forming 
 one ; the octagonal part, with its ogee-formed Dome, being the second ; and the spire 
 and its pedest^al, the third. These three parts are very dissimilar ; no one having 
 anything in it that is common to the others ; and yet they agree very well with each 
 other, forming one complete and consistent whole. 
 
PLATE ai'. 
 
 Ji 
 
PLATK 03. 
 
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURK 
 
 ABA— BAL 
 A. 
 
 ABACUS, the upper member of a column, which 
 serves as a covering to the capital ; to the Tuscan, 
 Doric, and Ionic, *it is square ; to the modern Ionic 
 and Corinthian, each side is arched, or cut inwards, 
 and is decorated in the centre with a flower or 
 other ornament. 
 
 Acanthus, a plant, whose leaves form an ornament 
 in the Corinthian capital, and ai-e said to have 
 originally given rise to that order. 
 
 AcROTERiA, a kind of base, placed on the angles of 
 pediments, usually for the support of statues, &c. 
 
 Alae, Aisles ; also passages in theatres, houses, &c. 
 also in rooms, &c. the space between the walls and 
 the columns. 
 
 Amphitheatre, a place for exhibiting shows, very 
 spacious, of a round or oval figure, with many 
 seats rising on every side. The area in the middle 
 was called Arena, because it was covered with 
 sand, or sawdust, to prevent slipping, and to absorb 
 blood. 
 
 Annulet, a small square moulding;, which serves to 
 crown or accompany a larger, and to separate the 
 flutings in columns. 
 
 Ant^, a species of pilasters on the extremity of a 
 wall, usually having no diminution ; nor do the 
 mouldings of their capitals or bases always resem- 
 ble those of the columns. 
 
 AauEDUCT, an artificial canal, built for the convey- 
 ance of water from one place to another, either 
 running under ground, or rising above it. 
 
 Arch, part of a circle or ellipsis. 
 
 Architrave, the lowest principal member of an en- 
 tablature, lying immediately upon the abacus of the 
 capital. 
 
 Astragal, a small round moulding with two an- 
 nulets. 
 
 Attic Base, Ionic base. 
 
 B. 
 Baluster, a small column, or pillar, of wood, stone, 
 &c. used on terraces or tops of buildings for orna- 
 ment, and to support railing, and, when continued, 
 form a balustrade. 
 Banister, an improper name for baluster. 
 49 N 
 
 BAN— CAU 
 
 Band, a general term for a low, flat, or square 
 member. 
 
 Base, the lower and projecting part of a column and 
 pedestal, on which the shaft is placed, 
 
 Butment, or Abutment, supporters, or props, on or 
 against which the feet of arches rest. 
 
 Buttress, a kind of butment, built sometimes arch- 
 wise, as in Gothic buildings ; a mass of stone 
 or brick work, serving to prop or support buildings, 
 walls, &c. on the outside, where their great height, 
 or weight, requires additional strength. 
 
 C. 
 
 Capital, the uppermost member of a column, which 
 is a crown or head thereto, placed immediately 
 over the shaft, and under the architrave. No 
 column is complete without a capital, which has a 
 distinguishing character for each order. Tuscan 
 and Doric capitals consist of mouldings ; Ionic 
 and Corinthian capitals, of leaves and other orna- 
 ments. 
 
 Cartouch, an ornament in sculpture representing a 
 scroll of paper, &c. 
 
 Caryatides, a kind of order in Architecture, in 
 which a female figure is applied instead of a pil- 
 lar ; the origin of which is thus handed down by 
 Vitruvius : The inhabitants of Caria, a city of 
 Peloponessus, made a league with the Persians 
 against their own nation ; but, the Persians being 
 worsted, they were afterwards besieged by the 
 victorious party, their city taken and reduced to 
 ashes, the men put to the sword, and the women 
 carried away captives. To perpetuate the memory 
 of this victory, the Conquerors caused public edifices 
 to be erected, in which, as a mark of degradation 
 and servility, the figures of the Captives were used 
 instead of columns, thus handing down to posterity 
 their servility and punishment. When figures of 
 the male sex arc used, they are called Persians or 
 Perses. 
 
 Cavetto, a concave moulding of one-quarter of a 
 circle. 
 
 Caulicoli, the little twists or volutes under the flower 
 on the abacus, in the Corinthian capital, represent 
 
50 
 
 TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 CEL— COR 
 
 the twisted tops of the acanthus stalks ; are called 
 also Helices. 
 Cell, in an ancient temple, is the inclosed space within 
 
 the walls. 
 Centering, or Centre, the support of an arch while 
 
 the Masons are building it. 
 Cincture, a ring, list, or fillet, at the top and bottom 
 
 of the shaft of the column. 
 Circus, a large building for exhibiting equestrian ex- 
 ercises in. 
 Coffer-dam, a large frame constructed for the pur- 
 pose of erecting works on the bottom of deep 
 waters ; the Coffer-dam being water-tight, and sur- 
 rounding the place intended to work on, is emptied 
 of the water, and leaves the bottom bare. 
 Collar-beam, timbers placed across a roof from the 
 
 middle of one rafter to another. 
 CoLLARiN, or Collari.no, the neck or frieze of a Tus- 
 can or Doric capital. 
 Colonnade, a series or continuation of columns. 
 Column, a round pillar used in Architecture, to adorn 
 or support. Columns arc of four kinds ; the Tus- 
 cati, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each of which 
 has its particular proportion. The term includes 
 the base and the capital. 
 Conge, a small moulding which serves to separate 
 
 larger ones ; called also List or Annulet. 
 Console, an ornament cut on the key-stone of arches, 
 with a projection, capable of supporting, busts, 
 vases, &c. 
 Contour, the outline of a figure, or piece of Archi- 
 tecture. 
 Coping of a wall, the top or covering made sloping 
 
 to throw off water. 
 CoRBF.iLLE, carved work, representing a basket with 
 fruits or flowers, serving as a finish to some other 
 ornament. It sometimes is applied to the vase of 
 the Corinthian capital, the word originally meaning 
 a basket. 
 Corinthian order, one of the n)ur orders of Archi- 
 tecture. 
 Cornice, the upper assemblage of members in an 
 entablature, commencing at the frieze. Each order 
 has its particular cornice, with suitable enrichments. 
 To the Tuscan it is quite plain ; to the Doric are 
 added gutta; or bells in the sojit ; the Ionic has 
 plain niodillions ; the Corinthian is much enriched, 
 and has niodillions. 
 Corona, a large Hat and strong member in a cornice ; 
 Ctdled also the Drip or Larnwr. Its use is to screen 
 the under part of the work, and, from its shape, to 
 prevent the water running down the column. It 
 has always a large projection, to answer its pro- 
 posed use. 
 Corridor, a gallery or passage in large buildings, 
 which leads to distinct apartments. 
 
 CUP— FRO 
 
 Cupola, a round roof or dome, in the form of an in- 
 verted cup. 
 
 Cyma, Cima or Cymatium, a species of moulding, 
 which is generally the upper one to an entablature. 
 There are two sorts of Ibis moulding, the cyma 
 recta and cyma revcrsa, which is commonly called 
 an ogee. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dentil, an ornament resembling teeth, used in 
 
 Ionic and Corinthian cornices. 
 Die, the square or naked piece in a pedestal, that part 
 
 which is between the base and the capital. 
 Dome, a spherical roof. See Cupola. 
 Doric order, one of the four orders of Architecture. 
 Drops, or Guttce, in the Doric entablature, are small 
 
 inverted pyramids or cones, immediately under the 
 
 triglyph. 
 
 E. 
 
 Echinus, is properly the egg and anchor ornament, 
 peculiar to the Ionic capital. It is sometimes used 
 for the whole member, instead of ovalo. 
 
 Entablature, an ornament or assemblage of parts, 
 supported by a column or pilaster over the capital. 
 Each order of columns has a peculiar entablature, 
 divided into three principal parts ; the architrave, 
 which is divided into two or more yas«o, and rests 
 upon the capital. 'Yhe frieze is next, and may be 
 plain or ornamented. The cornice is the top or 
 crowning part. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facade, the front view or elevation of a building. 
 
 Fascia, a flat member in the entablature of an order, 
 representing a band or broad fillet in an architrave. 
 If divided, these divisions are called the first fascia, 
 the second fascia, &c. 
 
 Fillet. See Annulet. 
 
 Flutings, the hollows or channels, which are cut 
 perpendicularly in columns by way of ornament, 
 and which should always both begin and end in the 
 shaft, near the extremity of the aiwphyges ; though 
 there arc examples to the contrary. When flutings 
 are used, the capital should be enriched. 
 
 Foliage, an assemblage of leaves. 
 
 Fret, an ornament laid on jjlain narrow surfaces, 
 formed by one or more fillets running along in a 
 zigzag direction ; generally in right angles, and 
 keeping a S])ace between each fillet equal in width 
 to the fillet itself. 
 
 Frize, or Frieze, the middle member ofan entablature; 
 having the architrave below, and the cornice 
 above. 
 
 Frontispiece, sometimes signifies the whole face or 
 aspect of a building ; but is more properly applied 
 to the decorated entrance of a house. 
 
TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 51 
 
 c 
 
 FUS— MOU 
 
 Fust, the shaft of a column, or that part which is 
 between the base and the capital. 
 
 G. 
 
 GlKDERS, large pieces of timber in flooring, laid from 
 one wall to another, when the distance is too great 
 for common joists. 
 
 Glyphs, the perpendicular channels cut in the tri- 
 glyphs of the Doric frieze. 
 
 Gothic, a peculiar style of Architecture, distinct 
 from the Grecian or Roman, derived from the 
 Goths, or rather from the Saracens. 
 
 Gcilloches, ornaments made by circular fillets cross- 
 ing and recrossing each other, generally encom- 
 passing a patera or flower. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hastmer-beam : when the ceiling of a large building 
 is vaulted, the tie-beam of the roof is broken in the 
 middle, and raised to admit of the curvature of the 
 ceiling ; the middle of the beam being secured to 
 the collar-beam, it is then called a hammer-beam. 
 
 I. 
 
 Impost, a facia or small cornice which crowns a pier 
 or pilaster, and from which an arch springs. 
 
 Insulated, standing alone, or detached from any 
 contiguous building, &c. 
 
 Intercohimniation, the space between two columns. 
 
 Ionic order, one of the four orders of Architecture. 
 
 K. 
 
 Key-stone, the highest stone of an arch ; to which a 
 projection is usually given, and which is sometimes 
 cut in ornaments. 
 
 King-post, the middle upright post in a set of princi- 
 pal rafters in large roofs ; being supported by the 
 rafters, it supports the middle of the beam, and 
 keeps it from sagging. 
 
 Lacunaria, panels or coffers in ceilings, or in the 
 soflits of cornices, &c. 
 
 M. 
 
 Metope, the interval or square space between the 
 triglyphs in the Doric frieze. 
 
 Mezzanine, or Mezzetti, small or low stories between 
 principal ones, used as servants' apartments. 
 
 Minute, an architectonic measure ; the lower diame- 
 ter of a column divided into sixty parts, each part 
 is a minute. 
 
 MoDiLLioN, an ornament resembling a bracket, in 
 
 ■ the Ionic and Corinthian cornices. 
 
 Mouldings, those parts which project beyond the 
 base or perpendicular face of a wall, column, &c. 
 intended only for ornament, whether round, flat, I 
 
 MUT— PR! 
 
 or curved. The regular mouldings are 1st, the 
 list or annulet ; 2d, the astragal or head ; ."Jd, the 
 cyma reversa, or ogee ; 4th, the cyma recta ; 5th, 
 the cavttto, or hollow ; 6th, the ovolo, or quarter- 
 round ; 7th, the scolia ; 8th, the torus. 
 
 MuTULus, an ornament in the Doric cornice, answering 
 to a modillion in the Ionic and Corinthian entabla- 
 tures. 
 
 N. 
 
 Niche, a cavity or hollow in a wall for statues, &c. 
 
 O 
 
 Obelisk, a tall pyramid. 
 
 Ogee, a cyma reversa. 
 
 Order, in Architecture, a column entire, consisting 
 
 of base, shaft, and capital, with an entablature. 
 Ova, or omm. See Echinus. 
 OvoLO, a moulding which projects one-quarter of a 
 
 circle ; called also a quarter-round. 
 
 Pedestal, a square body on which columns, &c. are 
 placed. 
 
 Pediment, a low triangular ornament in the front of 
 buildings, and over doors, windows, &c. 
 
 Pier, a kind of pilaster or buttress, to support, 
 strengthen, or ornament. The pier of a bridge, is 
 the foot or support of the arch. The wall between 
 windows or doors. Also, square pillars of stone or 
 brick, to which gates are hung. 
 
 Perystylium, a range of columns or colonnade, 
 within a court or building like a cloister. 
 
 Piazza, a continued archway or vaulting, under 
 which to walk, &c. 
 
 Pilaster, a square pillar or column, usually placed 
 against a wall. 
 
 Pillar. This word is generally used in Architecture, 
 in common with Column ; though, strictly speaking, 
 they are different : thus, the supporters in Gothic 
 Architecture are pillars ; but can never be properly 
 termed columns, varying in shape and every par- 
 ticular from the latter. 
 
 Planceer, a reversed plan of a cornice or other 
 moulding ; or a view of the same from below. 
 
 Plat-band, any flat square moulding with little pro- 
 jection. The different fascias of an architrave are 
 called plat-bands ; the same is applied to the list 
 between flulings, &c. 
 
 Plinth, the lower member of a base. 
 
 Portico, a continued range of columns covered at 
 top, to shelter from the weather ; also, a common 
 name to buildings which have covered walks sup- 
 ported by pillars. 
 
 Prince-post, a post placed upright, in framing of 
 principal rafters, between the king-post and the 
 end of the tie-boam, giving additional support to the 
 tie-beam. 
 
52 
 
 TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PRI— SOF 
 
 Pbincipal rafters. Large roofs are supported by 
 sets of framing placed at from 8 to 10 feet apart: 
 these frames are generally composed of tie-beams, 
 king-posts, prince-posts, braces or trusses, and 
 rafters. 
 
 Profile, the outline or contour of any building, &c. 
 
 PiTRLiNEs, square pieces of timber laid from one set 
 of principal rafters to another ; on these are laid 
 the jack-rafters or small rafters to receive the 
 covering. 
 
 Pyramid, a structure which, from a square, triangu- 
 lar, or other base, rises gradually to a point. 
 
 Q. 
 Quarter-round, a moulding. See Ovolo. 
 Quoins, stones or other materials, put in the angles 
 of buildings, to strengthen them. 
 
 R. 
 
 Relievo, signifies the projection of any carved orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Rotunda, a building which is round, both within and 
 without. 
 
 Rustic. The term is applied to those stones in a 
 building which are hatched or picked in holes, re- 
 sembling ajiatural rough appearance. 
 S. 
 
 Saloon, a lofty, vaulted, spacious hall or apartment. 
 
 Scotia, a hollow moulding used in bases to columns. 
 
 Section of a building, represents it as if cut per- 
 pendicularly trom the roof downwards, and serves 
 to show the internal decorations and distribution. 
 
 Shaft, the trunk or body of a column, between the 
 base and the capital. 
 
 Soffit, the under part or ceiling of a cornice, which 
 is usually ornamented. The under part of the 
 corona is called the soffit. The word is also applied 
 to the ceiling of an arch, the under side of an 
 architrave, &c. 
 
 TEN— ZOC 
 
 T^NiA, the upper member of the Doric architrave ; a 
 kind of listel. 
 
 Tie-beams, large timbers forming the base-line of a 
 set of principal rafters. 
 
 Torus, or Tore, a large semicircular moulding, used 
 in the base of columns. 
 
 Transom, a piece placed over a door, when there is 
 to be an opening for light immediately over the door. 
 When the opening over is circular, it is generally 
 called an impost. 
 
 Triglyph, an ornament peculiar to the Doric frieze. 
 
 Truss, or Brace, pieces of timber used in framing, to 
 support the middle of any great span. 
 
 Tuscan order, one of the four orders of Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Tympanum, the flat surface or space within a pedi- 
 ment. 
 
 Vase, the body of a Corinthian capital ; also, an or- 
 nament used in Architecture, &c. 
 
 Vault, an arched roof, the stones or materials of 
 which are so placed as to support each other. 
 
 Volute, the scroll or spiral horn, used in Ionic 
 capitals. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wall-plate, a piece of timber laid on the top of a 
 wall, on which are laid the joists and framing of the 
 roof. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZocLE, or Soccolo, a low square member, which 
 serves to elevate a statue, vase, &c. ; also, when a 
 range of columns is erected on one continued high 
 plinth, it is called a Zocle. It differs from a pedes- 
 tal, being without base or cornice. 
 
^Sbj 
 
tfs/^' 
 
fr. 
 
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