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REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS 
 
 OF BOTANY IN SECONDARY 
 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 BY 
 
 H. S. PEPOON, B.S., M.D. 
 
 INSTRUCTOR IN BOTANY, LAKE VIEW HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO 
 
 )... ■ '^^ll.l', 
 
 
 V 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
 
Copyright, 1912 
 By H. S. PEPOON 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 912.1 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
 PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In the judgment of the author the study of plants ought 
 to begin with the seed plants, as these forms are more or 
 less familiar to the student and, therefore, appeal to him 
 as something not altogether strange. They have a further 
 hold upon him because many of the forms studied have 
 close association with his everyday life. 
 
 The first part of the manual, therefore, deals with the 
 general subject of the seed plants, treating of them under 
 the great divisional headings of Seeds, Boots, Sterns, Leaves, 
 Flowers, and Fruits. There is undoubtedly more material 
 for study than can be covered in a half year, with a labora- 
 tory time of four hours a week, but it is believed the teacher 
 should have abundant subject matter from which to select 
 a course that will be applicable to the conditions prevailing 
 in his school. 
 
 There is much diversity of opinion, and consequently of 
 practice, among those teaching botany as to the initial 
 subject for the fall semester. Some begin with leaves, 
 some with seeds, some with fall flowers and fruits, some 
 with the algae (as pleurococcus). This order of beginning 
 is based upon the assumption that the study of seed plants 
 (Part I of this manual) is taken up during the second or 
 spring semester (the most logical procedure in the opinion 
 of the author). The study of plants, as stated above, ought 
 to begin with these familiar forms, hence an ideal course 
 in botany would start in February and end in January of 
 the following year, the spore plants following the seed 
 plants (i.e. from the known to the unknown). 
 
iv REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 A manual, of course, cannot begin the fall work in all 
 these ways, and so the latter has been chosen as represent- 
 ing a reasonable method of introducing the pupil to the 
 study. Those who differ may easily start at the appro- 
 priate part of the manual that to them seems most judi- 
 cious. 
 
 It has impressed itself more and more on the author 
 that a thoroughly logical method of procedure in a well- 
 rounded out course in botany is to occupy ten months or 
 two semesters with the seed plants, spending as much time 
 as possible under each division above named upon the 
 practical application from day to day in the laboratory of 
 facts and principles gathered. 
 
 In this daily class work it is possible to produce illustra- 
 tions from the experience of each pupil — through observa- 
 tion, experiment, and everyday contact — that will lead 
 him to axjpreciate the intimate relation of botanical science 
 in some of its varied forms to the welfare of men. In this 
 work there are suggestive leadings that may help members 
 of the class to see that along lines of work having founda- 
 tion in a knowledge of plants and their activities is the 
 possible selection of their life callings. It is believed enough 
 suggestive work has been outlined, if properly elaborated, 
 to easily fulfill this end. This, however, is a matter for 
 the individual teacher to decide for himself, or to adjust 
 to the requirements of boards of education. In any case, 
 practical work should include a considerable experience in 
 the determination of flowers by means of analytical keys 
 and appropriate floras. 
 
 To the course as above ideally outlined there may be 
 added a third semester of botanical work on the evolution 
 of spore plants and the study of principles of ecology. 
 This is a. course of some difliculty, as it deals so largely 
 with microscopic forms and, therefore, requires for its best 
 acquirement a foundation knowledge gained by the seed 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 plant study, because here the great plant activities may be 
 more easily experimented with and comprehended than in 
 the far less conspicuous and much more unfamiliar spore 
 plants, varied in form and habitat. All the essentials of 
 ecology may be further elucidated — essentials supposedly 
 first hinted at, at the least, under their appropriate seed 
 plant headings. 
 
 It is not expected that this manual will please every one, 
 for seldom do two botanists agree on any two things con- 
 secutively; but the hope is expressed that there is gathered 
 here work suitable and of sufficient merit to warrant its 
 use by all who, willing to overlook many minor details of 
 disagreement, find the main ideas and scope of the work 
 commendable and worthy of attempt, and that botanical 
 truth may be so presented that the student will be taught 
 to love plants for their own value. 
 
 It is to be definitely understood that many forms equally 
 valuable might have been selected as " representative " and 
 some may have been unwisely omitted, but the endeavor 
 has been to select such materials as were most accessible 
 and at the same time reasonably characteristic of the vari- 
 ous groups. 
 
 The author desires, here, to express his appreciation of 
 the assistance given in the selection and treatment of the 
 subject matter by his colleagues among the teachers of 
 biology in the Chicago high schools, and to Mr. Mason 
 AVarner of Chicago for many helpful suggestions in con- 
 nection with manuscript and proof. 
 
 II. S. PEPOON 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. A DETAILED STUDY OF SEED PLANTS, 
 WITH APPLIED OR EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 I. A Study of Seeds and Seed Problems ... 1 
 
 II. A Study of Seedlings 7 
 
 III. The Root 10 
 
 IV. Study of Stems 17 
 
 V. Leaves . . . . . . • . . . 32 
 
 VI. The Study of Flowers ....... 45 
 
 VII. Study of Fruits. (Various Fruits) .... 80 
 
 PART II. OPTIONAL PRELIMINARY STUDIES 
 
 I. Suggestions ......... 82 
 
 II. Fall Flowers 83 
 
 III. A Study of Fall Fruits . . . . ,. .90 
 
 PART III. A SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM 
 IN DETAIL 
 
 I. The Alg^ 93 
 
 IL The Fungi 115 
 
 III. The Moss Plants ........ 130 
 
 IV. The Fern Plants 137 
 
 V. The Seed Plants 147 
 
 VL Simple Classification of Plants 156 
 
 Review Tables 158 
 
 Index 159 
 
 vii 
 
REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 PART I 
 
 A DETAILED STUDY OF SEED PLANTS, WITH 
 APPLIED OR EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 
 
 SECTION I. A STUDY OF SEEDS AND SEED PROBLEMS 
 1. The Beax Seed. A Dicotyledox 
 
 General statement. Seeds of navy, red, kidney, and lima 
 beans, dry and soaked overnight, are to be carefnlly com- 
 pared, and the size, form, color, and external markings of 
 each observed. The difference in size, caused by the soak- 
 ing in water, is to be particularly considered. How has the 
 seed been increased in volume ? What similar familiar facts 
 are of common occurrence in tlie home kitchen ? How does 
 the water gain entrance to the seeds ? When a seed is 
 planted, what corresponding occurrence takes place ? 
 
 External features. Examine the bean for three external 
 markings on the concave margin. The large central one is 
 the scar (hilam). Examine its surface with a lens. What 
 caused this scar ? Look closely with the lens near either end 
 of the scar. What do you find, and how do the two features 
 differ from each other ? One is the pore (microjvjle), and 
 the other is the blister (raphe or chalaza). These names are 
 truly descriptive, and pores and blisters are easily distin- 
 guished. 
 
 nonnn library 
 
 N. C. State College 
 
2 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Seed coat. With a pin, needle, knife, or even with the 
 finger nail, very carefully cut or tear the skin {seed coat or 
 testa) the whole length of the convex margin ; remove and 
 study. Observe its firmness. Examine the skin, and the 
 part removed from it, and find which one bears the three 
 marks named under "External Features." Pass a pin into 
 the pore and discover in what structure it appears, on tlie 
 inside. Look at the seed proper and find a structure that 
 " fits " into this depression. Keep this point in mind when 
 you study sprouting seeds. 
 
 The seed proper. Examine the seed you have removed from 
 the seed coat. Carefully separate the large halves (cotyle- 
 dons or seed leaves) until they break apart. The little 
 structure lying between the cotyledons and fastened to each 
 is the little plant. This with a lens may easily be seen to 
 consist of a little stem (hyjyocotyl) and a pair of tiny leaves 
 (plumule). Observe that the cotyledons are attached to the 
 larger upper end of the hypocotyl (points where leaves are 
 attached to a stem are nodes) ; with the lens find a small, 
 short, stemlike part connecting this point with the plumule 
 (the embryo stem). The cotyledons and the little plant 
 connecting them (all there is in a bean seed) is the embryo. 
 
 Drawings. 1. Draw a seed, side, hilum, margin, and end 
 views. 2. Draw the seed with the cotyledons separated 
 and their concave margins next to each other, with the little 
 plant in place. 3. Draw the little plant (x4). 4. Draw 
 three cross sections at different points. 
 
 Other work. Experiments. Seeds that may be easily sep- 
 arated (on soaking) into similar halves are Dicotyledons, 
 (two cotyledons). What is the purpose of the large cotyle- 
 dons ? What other seeds do you know that have the two 
 cotyledons ? Try this experiment : Scrape some of the 
 soaked bean and apply weak iodine solution to the scrap- 
 ings and observe the change of color. This shows what sub- 
 stance in the bean? (Test in the same way some corn- 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 3 
 
 starch with the weak iodine, and you see a deep blue purple 
 color, tlie characteristic reaction when iodine is added to 
 anything containing starch.) Such a large accumulation of 
 starch is called food storage. What is this food stored for ? 
 Name ten large seeds that have a similar storage. 
 
 2. The Corn — A Monocotyledon 
 
 Statement. Kernels of large yellow corn, soaked for 
 twenty-four hours, are to be preferred, although any kind of 
 field corn will answer. 
 
 External features. A corn " seed " will be found to have 
 two broad faces, two narrower margins, a blunt and a coni- 
 cal end. Compare the faces and observe that one has an 
 oblong lighter area called the embryo, occupying the central 
 part of 1?his face near the conical end. 
 
 Seed coat. With a sharp knife, determine whether or 
 not the corn has a seed coat similar to that found in the 
 bean. Break off the conical end and observe the dark 
 oblong scar concealed in the grain within this end. This is 
 called the funiculus. What purpose has this pointed end 
 and what structure had the same use in the bean ? 
 
 Internal features. With a sharp knife make four sec- 
 tional cuts through the corn, viz. : (1) A cross section near 
 the blunt end and outside of the embryo. (2) A cross sec- 
 tion through the embryo, near the middle of the kernel. 
 (3) A long section midway between the two margins and 
 perpendicular to the embryo face. (4) A long section 
 parallel to the embryo face and about one-third of the dis- 
 tance through tlie seed from this face. 
 
 Appearance with iodine. After examining each section 
 stain them with weak iodine and study the various parts 
 that now appear much more distinctly. The part unstained 
 in the different sections is the embryo, which may be seen 
 to consist of an outer scutellum or cotyledon and a central 
 
4 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 axis, the little plant, having the same parts as in the bean ; 
 that part nearest to the pointed end of the seed being the 
 hypocotyl. The stained part is the endosperm. What sub- 
 stance does it contain? About how much of the seed does 
 it occupy? What, in purpose or use to the plant, does it 
 correspond to in the bean? Observe in all these operations 
 that the corn seed cannot be split into halves, as can the 
 bean and all other dicotyledonous seeds. All such undivid- 
 able seeds are monocotyledoyious. Name other kinds, if pos- 
 sible, having this feature. 
 
 Drawings. Make enlarged drawings showing the face 
 views, a marginal view, and all of the above sections, care- 
 fully labeled. 
 
 3. Pine Seeds 
 
 Where procured. The seeds of any available species of 
 pine may be used. Pinon " nuts *' may be found iu fruit 
 stores in large cities. Other conifer seeds may be substi- 
 tuted, but pine seeds are larger and therefore better. 
 
 External features. Soak a number of seeds for several 
 hours. Examine one for any external features. What part 
 is occupied by the seed proper and what part by the broad 
 and thin wing 9 What use has the wing? Throw a seed 
 up into the air and watch closely as it falls. What 
 would happen if a strong wind were blowing on the falling 
 seed? 
 
 Sections. With a sharp knife, make some long sections 
 of the soaked seeds. Observe the seed coat on the outside 
 and a thin papery layer next within (the nucellus remnant). 
 The mass of the seed is the endosperm. What color is it ? 
 Embedded in this is the young plant or embryo. Examine 
 this very carefully (m) and find the long stem, hypocotyl, 
 and a cluster of tiny structures near the blunt end (upper) 
 of the seed, the many cotyledons. The plumule is hidden 
 from view. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 5 
 
 Drawings. Draw the seed, side and face views, and a 
 long section (m) to show the internal parts. 
 
 4. Comparative Seed Study 
 
 Other work. Make a table showing a number of different 
 seeds, using the following form : — 
 
 Name of 
 Seed 
 
 Dk.vwincs 
 
 OK Seed 
 
 Mono or 
 
 Ok OTYLEDON 
 
 External 
 Features : 
 
 Color, 
 Hardness 
 
 Win; he 
 Obtain KD 
 
 Uses 
 
 5. Seed ("umpositiox 
 
 Tests. The instructor may either demonstrate or give 
 directions to the student so that he may discover for himself 
 the cruder composition of the bean, corn, and other seeds, 
 particularly showing: (1) The amount of water in ordi- 
 nary dry seeds, by carefully weighing a few ounces, drying 
 thoroughly over furnace or gas, and weighing again. Re- 
 cord your results in per cent. (2) The presence of starch, 
 by the iodine test. (3) The presence of sugar. The 
 Fehling or other test. (See root study, for 4, 5.) (4) The 
 presence of albumen (a i)roteid matter). The IVIillon test. 
 (5) The presence of oil. The ether test. 
 
 Problems. Of what use, if any, are these various sub- 
 stances to the seed, or when will they be of use ? Of what 
 use to man are these substances ? Why are seeds normally 
 very dry? What explanation have you to offer for the 
 great variation in the size of seeds ? Name the largest and 
 smallest seeds you know. What important groups of 
 
6 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 manufactured products are made from seeds ? See Applied 
 Work on Seeds. 
 
 6. Seed Table 
 
 Make a list of all the seeds used in your home, in what 
 form used, and for what purpose. 
 
 7. Vegetable and Flower Seeds 
 
 Write a statement of the seeds used in gardens (the home, 
 market, and florists') and on the farm. 
 
 What do you find out about the importance of seeds for 
 these purposes ? Examine garden catalogues. Find out, 
 if possible, where garden and flower seeds are grown in 
 great quantities for sale. How do you account for the very 
 great number of kinds of different seeds, for example, of 
 beans, there being originally only about four distinct sorts 
 or species and now the varieties number about 400 ? 
 
 8. Applied Work ox Seeds , 
 
 Practical applications of the facts learned by the study 
 of different seeds, based upon the experience of the pupil. 
 
 1. The Starch Industries. Soak a number of kernels of 
 white corn, remove the embryos ; dry thoroughly, crush, and 
 remove the seed coats. Pulverize the remaining part most 
 thoroughly in a mortar. When very fine, stir thoroughly in 
 cold water and set away in a clean quiet place to settle. 
 When this is accomplished, pour off the water and any 
 loose material. The solidly deposited residue will be found 
 by the iodine test to be almost pure starch. This illustrates 
 in a crude way the immense starch manufacturing of the 
 United States from corn. Many chemical and mechanical 
 means are added to secure a pure product. 
 
 Compare your product {hp) with cornstarch and laundry 
 starch. Add boilin.G: water and observe the result. Take 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 7 
 
 equal weights of each preparation just named, mix in equal 
 amounts of water, and add one drop of 10 % iodine to each 
 ounce of the mixture. Study carefully the resultinf? colors 
 for similarity of tints. Read about starch making in the 
 United States. Collect all possible seeds that are used for 
 starch-making purposes. 
 
 2. The Glucose Industry. 
 
 3. The Oil Industry. 
 
 4. TJie Proteid Products. 
 
 5. The Drug Seeds. 
 
 6. Perfumes and Spices. 
 
 7. Beverages. 
 
 8. Miscellaneous Manufactures. 
 
 9. The Seed Industry for F((rms and Market Gardens and 
 House Gardens. 
 
 Topics 2-9 are largely suggestive. The process of manu- 
 facture of glucose, albumen, and oils is generally beyond 
 the facilities of an ordinary laboratory. Seeds, however, 
 may be collected and classified according to use. Some 
 crude results of interest and value may, however, be obtained 
 by the student or instructor in : (a) Action of sulphuric acid 
 on starch of corn (a glucose step), (b) Oil by expression 
 or extraction by ether (see roots), (c) Production of tinc- 
 tures of seeds by digestion in alcohol. 
 
 SECTION II. A STUDY OF SEEDLINGS 
 
 Methods of growing. Seedlings of various kinds are to be 
 grown in various ways in quantity. Between folds of heavy 
 felt paper, kept moist, is an excellent method. Wet saw- 
 dust, sand, and many other ways may be tried. The student 
 ought to grow seedlings and keep a record of the methods 
 used or record those grown in the laboratory. 
 
 Stages. Seedlings for the purpose of study may be con- 
 veniently considered in three stages: (a) First stage, the 
 
8 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 lirst appearance of the sprouting h3q30cotyl ; (b) second 
 stage, the first appearance of the plumule ; (c) third stage, 
 the appearance of roots and foliage leaves. 
 
 Detailed study. Study each seedling furnished, and deter- 
 mine what part of the seed first shows growth ; also from 
 what part of the seed coat it makes its exit. Study this 
 feature in sprouting seeds, placed on blotters between glass 
 plates, and observe direction of growth of the hypocotyl. In 
 the same way study the growing plumule, observing its 
 direction of growth. 
 
 Carefully observe the cotyledons in the sprouting seeds 
 of various stages and determine any change of position, 
 form, or color assumed. Study, if possible, seeds of beans 
 and peas planted in earth, and observe the hypocotyl arch 
 in the one and its absence in the other, and the effect on 
 the cotyledons in each case. 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings showing the several stages in 
 each seedling furnished for study. 
 
 Other work. In the growth of the seedlings, what becomes 
 of the seed coats ? Study well this feature in as many seed- 
 lings as possible. What seems to be the purpose of the 
 cotyledons ? What agent do you think causes a change in 
 the color of the cotyledons ? What benefit to the seedling 
 may this change bring about? From the various experi- 
 ments made, what, in your judgment, are the necessary con- 
 ditions for the sprouting (renewal of growth) of the seeds ? 
 Look up the word " germination " and find out whether or 
 not it is a correct term to use for the sprouting of seeds. 
 What is the first change in the sprouting of a seed, that the 
 dry seed undergoes, and how is this brought about ? (Read 
 the osmosis experiment, under roots.) Try another simple 
 experiment, which consists in placing a few dried raisins in 
 water and observing the results, which are like those occur- 
 ring in the soaked seed. 
 
 Experiments. At this stage in your study make the fol- 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 9 
 
 lowing test for sugar : Dissolve a little grape sugar in water, 
 and add Fehling's solution (which can be obtained at any 
 drug store). What is the color reaction ? Now place the 
 sugar solution in a test tube and hoil. The change of color 
 to orange is a test for grape sugar. 
 
 Grind some dry oats in a mortar, add water and Fehling's 
 solution, and boil. Kepeat, but use, instead of dry oats, 
 some oats that are well sprouted. How do the two experi- 
 ments differ, and what is your explanation ? 
 
 Food of seedlings. What are the sources of all the differ- 
 ent foods a seedling uses from the time when the first sprout 
 shows until it may be said to have become a young plant .? 
 What really determines whether a plant is in the seedling 
 stage or not? 
 
 Seedlings in trade. Why are some varieties of plants (as 
 vegetables) " raised " from seed, while others (like potatoes, 
 and many fruit shrubs and trees) are raised from cuttings, 
 grafts, buds, etc. ? What are " seedlings " commercially 
 and experimentally ? 
 
 Other experiments. Try as many experiments with seeds 
 and seedlings as time and the materials at hand will permit. 
 Some or all of the following are very instructive, and re- 
 quire but little in the way of apparatus : (The instructor 
 Avill give explicit directions.) (a) Various methods of 
 sprouting seeds, (b) The effect of light and darkness on 
 seed sprouting, (c) The effect of cold and heat on seed 
 sprouting, (d) The effect of lack of moisture or too much 
 moisture. (e) The direction naturally assumed by the 
 plumule in seeds sprouted in a pan. (/) Oats sprouted in 
 a deep glass jar, and tested in early morning or later day- 
 time with lighted taper for gas production, (g) Various 
 forms of cotyledons and amount of development of the same. 
 (h) Seedling direction and light, (i) Rapidity of sprout- 
 ing of various seeds, with possible relation to size of seeds 
 and length of time, (j) The reason for the change in 
 
10 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 composition of starchy seeds when tliey sprout (industries 
 founded on this fact), (k) The amount of water absorbed 
 by dry seeds in the soaking process, (l) The vitality or 
 "keeping" quality of various seeds may be studied in gar- 
 den catalogues, farm books, cyclopedias, etc. Remember 
 about seeds of weeds at this point, (711) Weight of seeds 
 compared with that of water. Cleaning seeds by flotation 
 of bad seed, impurities, chaff, etc. (n) The temperature of 
 sprouting seeds. (0) The effect in seedling growth of the 
 removal of the cotyledons. (2^) Seedlings grown in water, 
 sand, loam, and other conditions. (q) Survival test in 
 crowded seedlings (of birdseed, for example). (?-) Per cent 
 of vitality test (i.e., number of seeds in each 100) to show 
 how many seeds will sprout. Use flannel, felt paper, or 
 blotting paper, kept moist on plates covered with panes 
 of glass. Obtain seeds from as many sources as possible 
 in order to answer the query, " Do cheap seeds pay ? " 
 (s) Many other experiments may be tried, the above sug- 
 gesting others along the same lines. 
 
 SECTION III. THE ROOT 
 1. Its Origin, Structure, and Growth 
 
 Source of material. The various seedlings of the preced- 
 ing exercises will furnish much root material. Corn grown 
 in thistle tubes, peas and corn on carles in water bottles, seed- 
 lings between plates of glass, can all be used to good 
 advantage. The grocer's vegetable window furnishes 
 many. 
 
 Origin. On examining seedlings well advanced, what 
 part of the growing seed has developed into the root ? 
 Observe whether there is but one main root {primary) or 
 several {multiple primary) proceeding from the lower {radi- 
 cle) end of the hypocotyl. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY • 11 
 
 Observe, further, how soon the roots form branches. In 
 the bean, for example, what effect would the formation of 
 root branches have on the elongating hypocotyl ? 
 
 Does the pea act in the same manner or not ? 
 
 In the corn, oats, and some other seeds, observe that some 
 roots arise from other parts of the young plant than the 
 radicle end of the hypocotyl. These are secondary or 
 adventitious roots. 
 
 Draw the various forms of roots mentioned above, not 
 omitting the seed name in your drawings. 
 
 Root hairs. Position. Examine young radish, oat, or corn 
 roots of vigorous growth and observe the fine hairs (^root 
 hairs) covering a portion of the surface. With reference 
 to the root tips where are these hairs? What is their 
 form ? What is their size and color ? Use* (771)^ and (Ip) and 
 study carefully. Offer any explanation you can for their 
 absence from the root tip. To understand this, take a 
 well-grown corn or pea seedling, rule black ink marks at 
 equal distances from the seed to root tip and replace in the 
 growing position. Examine twenty-four and forty-eight 
 hours later and observe the relative position of the marks. 
 Where does the root have its linear growth, or growth in 
 length? What effect on the root hairs would growth in 
 their immediate vicinity have? Examine the varying 
 colors of the corn root and see if any correspondence exists 
 between color and place of growth. 
 
 Make drawings showing results of your observations on 
 root hairs and place of growth. 
 
 Structure of root tip. Examine (Ip) the root tips of 
 radish, oats, or onion seedlings. Observe the shape and 
 minute structure of the extreme end (root caj)). What is 
 the purpose of this part of the root ? 
 
 Examine the root in the region of the root hairs and 
 
 1 Throupjhout the Manual (m) signifies use the hand lens; (Ip) the 
 low and (hp) the high power of the compound microscope. 
 
12 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 observe the outer cells (epidermis) ; the central axis {stele); 
 the cell layers between these two (cortex). 
 
 Draw these features of a root (I})). 
 
 Root hairs, their use. Read about the subject of " Hoot 
 Hairs" and find the purpose of the hairs. By what pro- 
 cess do they accomplish this purpose ? Estimate, if you 
 can, how much they increase the root surface. What effect 
 would the " pulling up " of a seedling have on these frail 
 structures ? How then should plants, in transplanting, 
 be treated ? What damage would be caused by dry air ? 
 
 2. The Purpose of Roots 
 
 Uses. Roots have one or more of the following uses : 
 (1) As holdfasts ; (2) as absorbers of moisture and food 
 material in solution ; (3) as storehouses of reserve food. 
 
 Their forms are, therefore, variously modified to meet 
 these demands made upon them. Roots are, furthermore, 
 markedly influenced by soil conditions, resulting in well- 
 marked peculiarities of shape and extent. 
 
 Forms. Tlie primary tap root. When the radicle end of 
 the hypocotyl develops a single root, whose direction of 
 growth is directly downward, the branches being much 
 smaller and short, such a root is a tap root. Examine the 
 roots of corn, pea, spinach, and any other forms furnished, 
 and determine which answer the requirements of the tap 
 root. Many such roots have naturally, or by cultivation, 
 become very fleshy with reserve food and then are called 
 storage roots. Examine the roots of carrots, parsnips, tur- 
 nips, beets, salsify, horse-radish, and radish. 
 
 Draw the various forms of tap roots you have on hand, 
 naming such as are storage. 
 
 Examine, at this time, the roots of the onion and observe 
 that, while they are multiple primary roots, each root itself 
 is not fleshy but threadlike or fibrous. Examine grass roots, 
 oats, wheat, and other forms showing fibrous character. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 13 
 
 Draw examples of fibrous roots. 
 
 Soils and form. Examine the roots of plants that have 
 grown, some in dry sand or clay and others in moist ground, 
 others again that have grown in ordinary soil conditions. 
 What influence, if any,. do you find the soil conditions to 
 have upon the root form ? Why do storage roots have 
 such an excessive amount of reserve food? Seek to 
 discover if this excessive storage is found in cultivated 
 plants, or is found in wild ones also. What effect might a 
 soil very rich in })lant food have upon the form of a tap root ? 
 
 Other root forms. Examine the aerial roots of poison ivy, 
 English ivy, or other similar climbers. What purpose have 
 these roots ? 
 
 If possible, look at some large fig or pandanus trees in 
 the greenhouses of the pjublic parks, and observe the air 
 prop roots. Look at pictures of banyans and other tropical 
 trees, and observe the same features. Examine also, if 
 obtainable, the lower end of a cornstalk iov projj roots. 
 
 In the orchid house, examine, or in books on orchids, read 
 about their air roots and their use. 
 
 What differences woidd you find between the roots of 
 annuals and those of biennial and perennial plants ? 
 
 Show all such roots by diagrams or drawings. 
 
 3. Root and Seed Composition Experiments^ 
 
 Statement. These experiments may be made by the stu- 
 dent, but in many cases it will be desirable to have them 
 demonstrated by the instructor, the student taking full notes 
 of apparatus and results. 
 
 Tests. Various composition tests are : — 
 
 1. The starch test which has been given ; 
 
 2. The grape sugar test (given in Exp. in Seedlings) ; 
 
 3. The albumen test (proteids). 
 
 1 Have been referred to under the seed study. 
 
14 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Grind up some peas in water, add more water, and place 
 the mixture in a test tube. Add a few drops of Millon's 
 solution and observe that a whitish coagulum forms. Now 
 boil and watch the color of the coagulum as the mixture 
 cools. To verify this experiment use some known albumen 
 compound, observing the final salmon jjink resulting. (A 
 proteid test.) 
 
 There are other good tests, — as nitric acid and ammonia. 
 
 4. Oil test. 
 
 Grind up flax seed or mustard or yellow corn, place in 
 bottle and add ether and cork tightly. Set aside for some 
 days and then examine for yellow color of solution 
 and for a thin layer of oil, shown on the evaporation of the 
 ether. 
 
 Test now the various roots furnished, preferably by the 
 pupil, for starch, sugar, albumen, and possibly oil. Let the 
 pupils obtain the results and tabulate. Seeds may be tested 
 in the same way. 
 
 5. Water content. 
 
 Various i^ots, particularly vegetables, ought to be ob- 
 tained and small portions carefully weighed fresh, and after 
 most thorough drying weighed again to obtain the per cent 
 content of water. (See the following table for report on 
 results.) From these results determine which vegetable 
 has the most solid nourishment (composition) 
 
 Table of composition and water content 
 
 Seed or 
 
 EOOT 
 
 Starch, 
 
 Sugar, Oil, 
 
 Proteid 
 
 Weight, 
 P'resii 
 
 Weight, 
 Dry 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Water 
 
 Value as 
 Food 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 15 
 
 4. Root Expkrimkxts 
 
 1. Spinach roots, cut off near tlie tip and placed in shal- 
 low eosin (water solution). 
 
 After twenty-four hours, cut off and make long . section 
 to find the path of absorbed material in the roots. Shows 
 upward path of absorbed liquid. 
 
 2. Oats between glass plates. 
 
 As roots grow record direction and rotate plates ; wait 
 twenty-four hours and record direction again. Repeat the 
 rotation and observe the repeated effect on the roots and the 
 green shoot direction also. 
 
 3. Root osmosis experiment. 
 
 Hollow out a fresh carrot from the top, taking care not to 
 pierce the walls, fit in a rubber cork (very tightly) pierced 
 by a long glass tube, fill the cavity, through tube or before 
 its insertion, with syrup water, slightly colored with some 
 anil in stain, place the carrot (with outer skin well scraped), 
 in a vessel of pure water, and securely stay all parts of the 
 apparatus. Observe the results from day to day, apply this 
 experiment to the root in its absorption of water and dis- 
 solved food, seeking in the plant for analogues of the ex- 
 periment parts. An egg osmosis experiment is given in 
 many books, but this is easier to set up, and is more logical. 
 
 4. Corn seedling in thistle tube, placed in pure water. 
 Observe the remarkable root growth and explain also the 
 
 duration of life in the corn living apparently on water. 
 Through what may other food be taken ? 
 
 5. Seeds sown in shallow soil on marble slab. 
 
 Allowed to grow for some time and then removed. Ob- 
 serve the effect on slab. Seek for explanation and bearing 
 on root work. 
 
 6. Seeds in sponge kept moist. 
 
 As roots grow, observe their direction witli reference to 
 gravity and moisture, and apply to growing plants. 
 
16 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 7. Root pressure. 
 
 Explained and set up by instructor. 
 
 8. Root color, whether exposed to the light or not. 
 
 9. Pea seedling supported on nettiug tied over the mouth 
 of a bottle filled with water. Similar to 4. 
 
 5. Experimental Applications of the Root Study 
 
 1. Based on roots as human food. Bring to the labora- 
 tory specimens of all rout vegetables used in your home, 
 and from the tests in a previous section determine the food 
 constituents. The home, market garden, and in a few cases 
 the farm growing of these roots should be learned. The 
 history, if possible, ought to be determined, in particular 
 the native country of each, and the character of the wild 
 plant, if existing. The fine quality, size, and productive- 
 ness are due to selection of the best seeds, from the best 
 plants, careful cultivation in the best soil, and the crossing 
 of fine plants to secure a combination of their good quali- 
 ties. Nature makes the wild plant, but man produces the 
 choice cultivated forms. Founded upon these principles 
 are the profitable industries of market gardening and seed 
 production. Certain lines of manufacture, as dry vegetables, 
 canned vegetables, and preserved horse-radish. Greater than 
 all other features is the saving to the home by the growing 
 of vegetables in the home garden. 
 
 2. Based upon the sugar you find in the beet. You have 
 found sugar in the garden beet. By selection, as in 1, beets 
 are now grown containing as much as 20 % of cane sugar, 
 and many farmers have become independently rich by the 
 growing of sugar beets. Find out, if possible, the amount 
 of sugar made from beets in 1910 or later. 
 
 3. Based on starchy roots, arrowroot and tapioca. Florida 
 farmers raise much cassava for the starch or tapioca. 
 
 Roots, like licorice aud sassafras^ used in medicine and 
 for flavoring. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 17 
 
 Many miscellaneous roots, for drugs, dyes, and other 
 manufactures. 
 
 SECTIOX IV. STUDY OF STEMS 
 1. The Winter Twig, External Features 
 
 General statement. Twigs of hickory and butternut are 
 particularly good for this purpose, although almost any twig 
 will do, if occasion demands. Twigs may be gathered at 
 any time after the leaves fall and kept in sawdust or sand, 
 in the cold. The student ought to be encouraged to study the 
 twigs on the tree, and at first hand learn their individual 
 characteristics. Simple keys may be made for this purpose. 
 
 Surface features. Observe the surface color of the twig 
 in all its length. How does it vary and what may be 
 the explanation? Examine the epidermis and determine 
 whether it is rough or smooth, dull or shining. Some twigs 
 are hairy or downy. Besides these general features you 
 ought to be able to find four special features on the twig, 
 viz. : (1) buds ; (2) leaf -scars ; (3) lenticels ; (4) zones. 
 
 1. Buds. According to their position, buds are terminal 
 (apicaT) and lateral. What, in the hickory, is the difference 
 in the size of these two kinds ? Further, how do the lateral 
 buds vary in different parts of the year's growth ? What 
 explanation can you give for these differences in size? 
 Other twigs show similar variation in greater or less degree. 
 Examine a bud and observe the covering of scales. Are these 
 few or many in number ? How are they arranged with 
 reference to each other ? What is their color ? This is 
 often very characteristic of the special kind of tree. What 
 sort of surface has the scale? It may be smooth, downy, 
 hairy, or varnished. What purpose have these special 
 features ? 
 
 Make a long section tlirough an apical bud and study 
 (m). Observe the cut edges of the scales and, in particular, 
 
18 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 the delicate structures near the center of the bud (tiny 
 leaves and possibly flowers distorted and crowded upon the 
 growing point of the stem). \Vhat then does the winter bud 
 consist of, and what will it become during the next season's 
 growth ? What, again, may be the purpose of the scales with 
 their various coatings? What provision has the jdant to 
 insure continued growth if the apical bud is destroyed ? 
 
 Caution. Mistakes are comnjonly made here. Consult a 
 good reference book (up to date) on the use of the bud 
 covering. Make drawings showing an apical bud and a 
 lateral bud, natural size (m), also a bud section (in). 
 
 2. Leaf scars. Examine the surface below the buds for 
 peculiar scars or marks. What are their shape and size 
 compared to the twig diameter? Observe carefully the 
 surface of the scars. What do you find? What maybe 
 the causes of the scars and the scar markings? 
 
 Draw a scar in relation to the bud above it (m). 
 
 3. Lenticels. On the surface of the twig look for small 
 marks, scattered here and there, varying much in number, 
 size, and shape, in different twigs. These are the lenticels or 
 air pores, and are caused by the stretching of the epi- 
 dermis in growth. Same use in part as the stomates (in leaf 
 study). 
 
 4. Zones. In a twig of some length or of several years' 
 growth look for peculiar bands of small scars, at irregular 
 intervals along the twig. These are the zones of scars. 
 What explanation have you to offer for their production and 
 irregular distribution ? What relation may there be between 
 zone number and age or years' growth? Compare the 
 hickory twig with as many others as possible, for the pur- 
 pose of shedding light on the zone question. An apple twig 
 is very fine for zone study. 
 
 Twig drawing. Make a drawing of the whole twig, 
 natural size, showing buds, scars, lenticels, and zones, and 
 write a clear description of the same. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 19 
 
 2. Exercises on Various Twigs from Forest and 
 City Trees 
 
 Bud arrangement. Twigs show four possible bud arrange- 
 ments. (1) One bud at each node, each successive bud on 
 the opposite side of the twig from the preceding. True 
 alternate. (2) One bud at each node, with other arrange- 
 ment than in (1). (See the subject Phyllotaxy, in reference 
 books.) Scattered alternate. This is the most common ar- 
 rangement. (3) Two buds at each node. Opposite. (4) Three 
 or more buds at each node. Whorled. 
 
 The bud arrangement is very characteristic of certain 
 trees and tree families, and should be carefully observed. 
 
 Twigs to be drawn. Various twigs ought to be drawn care- 
 fully and brief characteristics written to familiarize the 
 pupil with our common trees. Among those easily obtained 
 are elms, maples, basswood, oaks, ash, cherries, pojylars, cotton- 
 wood, loillows, catalpa, box elder, besides many others of 
 rarer occurrence. The characteristics aside from those 
 shown by the drawing are color, smoothness, odor, of both 
 bark and buds. 
 
 Make a table of all the twigs studied, as follows : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Where 
 Native 
 
 Cult. 
 OK Not 
 
 Buds 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment 
 
 Size 
 
 Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bark 
 
 Growth 
 
 Color 
 
 Surface 
 
 Rapid 
 
 Slow 
 
 
 
 
 
20 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Street trees. Determine the trees that are found growing 
 along the streets, and the relative abundance of each kind. 
 Seek an explanation for the abundant planting of a few 
 
 varieties. 
 
 3. Climbing Stems 
 
 Material. Material for this study may be found com- 
 monly in woodlands, or lacking such sources, the vines of the 
 flower garden and lawn may be drawn upon. If possible, 
 however, honeysuckle and bittersweet, Virginia creeper and 
 grape, besides herbaceous climbers, should be studied. 
 
 Twiners. Examine the twining stems of honeysuckle and 
 hitiersiceet . Compare their stem diameters with their length 
 of vine. How does the proportion compare with the simi- 
 lar measurement of upright shrubs ? Why do these plants 
 twine ? 
 
 Holding the entwined stem with its upper end toward you, 
 observe the direction in which the stem twines. Does it 
 twine with (from left to right) or contrary (from right to 
 left) to the hands of a watch or clock ? Do both kinds of 
 vines, named above, twine in the sanie direction ? 
 
 Draw each vine and designate direction of twining. 
 
 Study other forms, if obtainable, in the same manner. 
 
 Tendril bearers. Examine grape or Virginia creeper and 
 observe the coiled, slender branches (tendrils). Study, if 
 possible, material showing all ages of tendrils. Observe a 
 double effect of the coiling of the tendril. How do the 
 tendrils of the two vines differ ? How are the tendrils ar- 
 ranged with reference to buds ? Discover, if possible, 
 other vines that have similar tendrils. 
 
 Draw the tendril and adjacent stem of such specimens as 
 you have. 
 
 What advantage, if any, does either form of climber pos- 
 sess? 
 
 Air roots. Study a stem of the poison ivy (inclosed in a 
 bottle). What structure does this vine have to enable it to 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 21 
 
 climb ? Is it similar to or different from the forms adopted 
 by twiner or tendril bearer ? The structures on the " ivy " 
 are really air roots and might have been considered in the 
 previous study. 
 
 Draw a portion of the ivy, showing air roots. 
 
 Table. Make a table of all the climbing vines you know, 
 fillincr out headings as follows : 
 
 Woody or Herbaceots 
 
 Climbs How 
 
 CrLTIVATED OR NOT 
 
 4. Modified Stems 
 Tubers 
 
 Potato. Examine the common potato. What is the 
 shape ? Find the point of attachment to the plant portion 
 that bears it. In particular, look at the eyes sunk here and 
 there in the surface and the markings near them. What 
 structures on an ordinary stem do these eyes and markings 
 remind you of ? What bears the potato ; that is, to what is 
 it attached, a root or a stem ? Observe the cluster of eyes 
 opposite the attachment end. What part of the stem may 
 this be considered ? The potato tuber is a stem modified 
 for a special purpose. What is this purpose ? Try the 
 following test : — 
 
 Scrape some potato flesh, mix it with water, and add 
 iodine solution. What does the result show ? 
 
 Draw a potato tuber, naming all the parts. 
 
 Other tubers. Study, if obtainable, other tubers, as arti- 
 chokes, yams, etc. 
 
 Potato continued. To grow potatoes tlie tuber is cut up 
 into pieces, each bearing one or more eyes, and these j^ieces 
 are planted. Name other plants that are propagated in a 
 similar manner by planting stems. This may be called 
 
22 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 "artificial vegetative multiplication." What would happen 
 if you planted the seeds of a potato ? How are new 
 varieties of potatoes produced ? You ought to learn what 
 the schoolboy Burbank did. Why is this tuber called the 
 Irish potato ? What other plant rightfully might deserve 
 to have the name potato? Study the history of the potato 
 and determine its relation to other plants that form a plant 
 family, the Night Shades; also its original home and its 
 characteristics in a wild state. Read about the Night Shade 
 family, and find out the vegetables that belong to the same. 
 
 Beginning at the bunch of eyes at one end, trace a line in ink 
 to the opposite end, following a series of e?/^'^' that are evidently 
 arranged in a line. Continue until all eyes are marked out. 
 What figure do you find marked on the surface ? 
 
 Experiential application. Scrape several large potatoes 
 until you have a mass of pulpy " scrapings." Place them in 
 a large clean dish, pour on a large amount of water, and stir 
 vigorously for 10 minutes. Cover and allow the mixture to 
 remain for 24 hours. At the end of that period, pour off 
 carefully all the water with its ^floating debris. A layer of 
 starch will be found in the bottom. With improvement, of 
 course, but practically the same, this is the European 
 method of starch making. AVhy do the factories of the 
 United States make most of the starch out of corn ? Take 
 equal quantities of the potato starch you have made and 
 corn laundry starch. Examine with hp, test, and then add 
 boiling water in equal amount to each starch. Compare 
 with each other for consistency, color, stickiness, odor, and 
 any other features you may notice. 
 
 Starch is the almost universal food. What per cent of 
 your food is starchy ? How often do you eat potatoes ? 
 What peoples depend largely on potatoes for food ? Or- 
 dinary potatoes are \ starch and f water. Could not your 
 experiment above made show this? What benefit would 
 an increase in starch have ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 23 
 
 The Rhizome or Horizontal Underground Stem 
 
 Kinds of plants with rhizomes. Examine the underground 
 stem of a fern, common sand rush, Solomon's Seal, or false 
 Solomon's Seal ; observe the apical bud or buds. Are there 
 any lateral buds ? What evidences are there of former 
 attachments of aerial stems ? What caused the scars ? 
 Observe the roots, as to their number and place of origin. 
 
 Make drawings of the various rhizomes furnished. 
 
 Purpose. What advantage, if any, is the one apical bud ? 
 Why is the stem direction horizontal ? What advantage to 
 any plant is the possession of an underground stem of this 
 character ? 
 
 From a study of these various rhizomes, find some con- 
 stant character that enables one to decide that these struc- 
 tures are stems and not roots. 
 
 Table. Read under the title " Rhizomes," and in other 
 Avays, try to find out a number of useful plant products, 
 furnished by these peculiar forms of stems, and place in a 
 table as follows : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Where Found 
 
 Use 
 
 Orris "Root" 
 
 Italy 
 
 Tooth Powder 
 
 Note. Remember that many rhizomes are commonly designated 
 as "roots" in both common and commercial language. Bloodroot, 
 ginger root, etc., are rhizomes. 
 
 Field work. Examine, in the proper season, plants that 
 bloom in early spring, with reference to their underground 
 portions. Observe the number that have rhizomes. Ex- 
 plain the presence of such structures in early blooming 
 plants. What advantage may there be that will insure 
 rapid growth? 
 
24 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Applications. Obtain a specimen if joossible of each of the 
 following. The drug store keeps them. 
 
 a. Ginger d. Geranium 
 
 b. Turmeric e. Calamus 
 
 c. Orris /. Sarsaparilla 
 
 Take three vials for each specimen. Take equal quanti- 
 ties of each, crush in a clean mortar, one at a time, and 
 place in vial, labeling, ginger, 1, 2, and 3, and so on, for the 
 others. Fill vials. No. 1 with hot water ; No. 2 with water 
 and glycerine, equal quantities of each ; No. 3 with 60 % 
 alcohol. Set all the vials away for one week, and then 
 compare 1, 2, and 3 of each series, by color, odor, taste, and 
 residue. Your experiment illustrates, roughly, how medi- 
 cines and flavors may be made. Many other solvents besides 
 the ones given are used. 
 
 B^dbs. (Bud Type of Stem) 
 
 Form and structure. Examine bulbs of onions, narcissus, 
 tulips, gladioli, and other forms convenient to obtain. For 
 purposes of this study, the bulb should be cut into two 
 sections, lengthwise through the middle. A bulb is in its 
 general plan of structure very similar to a bud, and it is 
 well to revert to the bud structure at this time and observe 
 the points of resemblance. The dense portion of the bulb, 
 from the lower end of which the roots grow, the upper 
 end being continued into an apical bud, is the ste^n proper. 
 Observe further that all the fleshy scales {modified leaves) 
 are attached to this stem. A stem may be defined as ordi- 
 narily and primarily a structure, the purpose of which is in 
 large part to bear leaves. Keep this in mind. 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings of all the bulbs, external and 
 sectional views, you are able to obtain, carefully naming all 
 parts. 
 
 Other work. What advantage to the plant is the bulb 
 
 ^panr library 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 25 
 
 form of stem ? Obtain a garden catalogue and observe the 
 names of many, bulb-bearing plants, common in the garden 
 either as vegetables or flowers. 
 
 Why do early spring flowers commonly have some form 
 of underground stem, — bulb, tuber, or rhizome, — or else 
 have flesliy roots? (See rhizomes.) 
 
 Experiential applications. Onions, gladioli, tulips, and lilies 
 grow into large bulbs. All are grown in immense quantities 
 for food or for flowers. How would you proceed to produce 
 the bulbs themselves of the largest size for purposes of sale ? 
 
 Onions, shallots, leeks, garlic, chives, are all bulbs. How 
 do they differ ? In how many ways may the first be grown ? 
 What will an acre of onions yield in bushels and money ? 
 What are Bermuda and Spanish onions ? 
 
 Grind up a large onion, place pulp in strong cotton bag on 
 an inclined board with grooves leading to a common outlet. 
 Cover with another board, on which place as great a weight 
 as possible. Collect all the juice. Allow to stand for 24 
 hours. You will find oil and ivater. Which is on top ? Sepa- 
 rate by a pipette. You are an oil producer. 
 
 5. jVItscellaneous Stems 
 
 Kinds named. Cacti plants and stems of scouring rushes 
 ought to be obtained to show stems particularly modified to 
 do the work ordinarily done by other plant parts. Grass 
 stems in long section and the compound thorns of honey 
 locust and the simple thorns of hawthorns show other stem 
 modifications of importance. 
 
 Study. Study carefully each stem furnished. Observe 
 its peculiarities of form and structure and make drawings 
 showing all peculiar features. 
 
 What part of the ordinary plant is green ? What color 
 have the cacti and scouring rush stems ? Do these stems 
 have leaves as commonly understood ? Keep this in mind 
 
26 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 until leaves are studied, and then insert here the purpose of 
 the green stem. 
 
 Look at the hollow stem of the scouring rush and the 
 grasses. Offer, if possible, an explanation. What evidence 
 is there to you to show that thorns are really true stems or 
 rather branches ? Compare at this point with the rose or 
 prickly ash stems which are covered with prickles. What is 
 the difference between a thorn and a prickle ? What may 
 be the purpose of each ? 
 
 Read in particular about cacti and the reason for their 
 fleshy stems and their leaves reduced to prickles. Consult 
 books that describe deserts and their plant life. 
 
 After careful study and reading, seek some explanation 
 for the peculiar stems (like those of the cacti, euphorbias, 
 etc.) of so many desert plants. These plants, in their 
 peculiarities, strongly illustrate the effect of environment 
 or surrounding influences on the form and structure. Ecol- 
 ogy is the study of such influences and effects. 
 
 Practical application. The government investigators are 
 doing much experimentally to find out what grains, grasses, 
 fruits, and trees will grow well in our dry West. They ob- 
 tain their new forms from every dry land on the earth. 
 Such forms are Durum and Speltz wheats, milo and Kaffir 
 corns, and alfalfa. 
 
 What did Mr. Burbank do for the arid regions when 
 he produced a spineless variety of cacti? 
 
 6. Structure of Stems 
 
 Material. Various woody stem sections should be col- 
 lected, both di- and monocotyledons. Sumac and elder are 
 especially good for the former, and greenbrier, cornstalks, 
 and palm-leaf stalks for the latter. Material may be pre- 
 served in formaldehyde, if stems are to be studied in 
 winter. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 27 
 
 Cross sections of dicotyledons. ISIake clean-cut cross sec- 
 tions of the various stems. Observe in the ordinary dicoty- 
 ledonous stem (as the sumac) a central soft part, inth; an 
 outer part, hark (at first epidermis), and between these a 
 layer of hard material, wood, which again may be subdivided 
 by porous rings into other layers. 
 
 Observe that the larger and therefore the older the stem, 
 the more abundant these latter layers. What is the explan- 
 ation that you could give ? Running from the pith toward 
 the bark are radiating lines (pith rays). Compare the elder, 
 sumac, and oak, and measure the proportion of pith in each. 
 Why is the pith smaller in amount as the stem increases 
 in age and size ? 
 
 Examine (m) the bark and find three layers, white, green, 
 and the outside brown or corky. Study long sections of stems 
 at the junction of branches and find the layers above named. 
 Make careful drawings, recording all the features of the 
 dicotyledonous stems. 
 
 Section of monocotyledons. Examine now a cross section of 
 a monocotyledouous stem and find three features : piY/i, ivood 
 bundles, and outer cortex. Observe the great difference in 
 the arrangements of the parts in the two kinds of stems. 
 
 Where in each stem is the hardest portion ? 
 
 What occupies the position of the true bark in monocoty- 
 ledouous stems ? 
 
 What evidence, if any, to indicate age ? 
 
 Make drawings of cross and long sections of a monocoty- 
 ledouous stem. 
 
 Microscopic structure. Study thin sections of botli kinds 
 of stems (Ij)), to learn about the cell structures. Observe 
 the great difference in size, shape, and cell walls of the ^)?7/i 
 and ivood. 
 
 Make drawings of a quadrant of these thin sections, show- 
 ing the different kinds of cells and cell combinations. Turn 
 to the fern study for the details of vascular bundles (wood). 
 
28 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 7. A Study of TAiMiiEiis and Cabinet Woods. 
 Experiential Applications 
 
 Material. Have prepared specimens of as many commer- 
 cial woods as possible, sawed radially and tangentially. 
 Collect native woods. 
 
 Discover, by reading, the sonrce of each form, and its 
 valne as a wood for various special uses. 
 
 Methods of study. Study the individual specimens, for : — 
 
 (a) Color. 
 
 (b) Grain (learn here the meaning of "quarter-sawed"). 
 
 (c) Hardness ; hard and soft woods. 
 
 (d) Polish. 
 
 (e) Weight, compared with water. 
 
 (/) Special markings ("bird's-eye," ''burl," "crotch," 
 " curly "). 
 
 (g) Strength (breaking). 
 
 (h) Durability. 
 
 (i) Odor. 
 
 (J) Effect of oil and varnish application. 
 
 (k) Ease of working with edge tools. 
 
 Table of commercial woods 
 
 Name 
 
 Family 
 
 Country 
 
 Use 
 
 Other work. What are veneers? Why are so many 
 woods used mostly in this form ? 
 
 How are veneers produced ? 
 
 What uses have veneers ? 
 
 What is meant by the terms " treating," " preserving," 
 " doctoring, " woods for fence posts, ties, paving, etc. ? 
 What substances are used for preservation ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 29 
 
 What important home articles are made of wood? 
 
 What substitutes may be used instead of wood ? 
 
 Forestry. What is the definition ? The government has 
 many Forest Reserves. What is their object ? Who are 
 Forest Rangers, and what are they paid ? Where are there 
 Schools of Forestry, and what do they teach young men to 
 do ? What is Burbank's walnut ? What worth has the 
 eucalyptus ? 
 
 If you are 18 and planted 10 acres to eucalyptus and 
 Burbank's walnut, 5 of each, 400 trees to the acre, and 
 these in 12 years gave you clear logs that would square 
 12 in. by 50 ft., worth to-day (1910) $150 a thousand 
 feet, how much would your trees bring you when you were 
 30 years old? 
 
 8. Review Table of Stems 
 
 Use each stem that has been studied, and fill out the 
 columns properly. 
 
 Name 
 
 Ordinary Stkm^ 
 
 Bark 
 color 
 
 Bii.l 
 color 
 
 Bua 
 arrange- 
 ment 
 
 Modified Stems 
 
 Shape 
 
 Where 
 growing 
 
 Purpose 
 
 9. SUPI'LEMENTARY EXERGISE. PuKPOSE OF StEMS 
 
 It ought to be constantly kept in mind that ordinary 
 stems are leaf-bearing structures, and that the arrangement 
 of the buds and branches aiul the general habits of the 
 plant are very largely an effort to obtain the best -possible 
 light relation for the leaves. Stems, of course, have many 
 other purposes, which you are supposed to have stated in 
 the review table. 
 
30 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Particular attention ought to be paid to the influence of 
 environment on the form, structure, and habits of stems. 
 
 Read about "Desert Vegetation," "Tropical Forests," 
 " Arctic Plants," and " Water Plants " in this connection. 
 
 10. Useful Stems Table 
 Make a table of useful stems as follows : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Where Native 
 
 Use : Crude, 
 Eaw, Cooked 
 
 Use 
 Manufactured 
 
 IX WHAT 
 
 Industry 
 
 11. Further Applicatioxs 
 
 1. You may make sugar from sorghum, sugar cane, or 
 maples. How would you proceed? How important is 
 cane sugar ? 
 
 2. You may make dyes from oak and walnut bark. 
 
 3. You may make a cough syrup from cherry bark. 
 
 4. You may make strong fibers from flax or hemp stem 
 by pounding the cured stems, to break the woody parts, 
 and then separating the tough long strands of fiber? What 
 are these fibers used for ? 
 
 5. You may make tannin from oak (black) bark or hem- 
 lock. Slowly steep some chicken skin in strong decoctions 
 of either for a week, and observe the results. 
 
 6. You may make furniture, canes, and other articles 
 from crude limbs and branches. 
 
 7. You may learn how to prune trees and shrubs for 
 form, flowers, or fruit, and so learn horticulture and 
 pomology. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 31 
 
 12. Physiology of Ste:ms 
 
 (Some of the experiments can be made by the stiulcnts, others will 
 have to be demonstrations by tlie instructor. ) 
 
 Exp. 1. The water content of various woods. (Students.) 
 
 Weigh blocks of different woods freshly cut and after 
 drying. 
 
 Exp. 2. Water content of heart and sap woods from 
 freshly cut trees. (Students.) Conduct experiment as in 1. 
 
 Exp. 3. Eapidity of decay ; durability. (Students.) 
 
 Keep blocks of wood in moist warm earth for one month. 
 Examine for signs of decay. 
 
 Exp. 4. Amount of ash. (Students.) 
 
 Weigh, burn, and weigh the ash remaining. 
 
 Exp. 5. Path of upward sap movement. (Students.) 
 
 Place fresh cut elder, lilac, or other twig in eosine solution 
 for 24 hours. Make long sections through pith, wood, and 
 bark, and observe region of discoloration. 
 
 Exp. 6. Path of the downward movement of elaborated 
 sap or food in solution. (Instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 7. Tensile strength. (Students.) 
 
 Weights square rods of equal area and length will sup- 
 port before breaking. 
 
 Exp. 8. The "bleeding" of woody plants, particularly 
 maples, grapes, hickory, and birch, in early spring. (Students.) 
 
 Exp. 9. Effect of light and direction of exposure on the 
 color and thickness of bark. (Students.) 
 
 Vujve holes in the different sides of trees for thickness. 
 
 Exp. 10. Earthpull or geotropism. (Students.) 
 
 Observe the direction of leafy stems, branches, runners. 
 
 Exp. 11. Lightpull or heliotropism. (Students.) 
 
 'As in 10. 
 
 Exp. 12. The epidermis coating or protective "varnish." 
 
 (Instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 13. Food storage of stems. (Instructor.) 
 
32 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Exp. 14. The effect of wind pressure and means of re- 
 sistance. (Instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 15. Effect of climatic extremes on bark character. 
 
 (Instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 16. Grafting. (Students or instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 17. Budding. (Students or instructor.) 
 
 Exp. 18. Cuttings, stolons, layers. (Students or in- 
 structor.) 
 
 Exp. 19. Pruning. (Instructor.) 
 
 The above list is largely suggestive. The experiment 
 details may be stated more fully as the instructor desires. 
 Other experiments not named may be given. 
 
 SECTION V. LEAVES 
 1. Geranium Leaves or other Complete Leaf 
 
 General statement. When the study of leaves comes 
 during the "off'" season, there is no better form to be easily 
 obtained than the geranium. During the growing season 
 many other leaves may be added to the list, but even at 
 such time it will be difficult to improve on this selection. 
 The pupil should compare all available leaf forms, in order 
 to broaden his comprehension of these most vital parts of 
 the plant. 
 
 Surface features. Examine a growing shoot of a geranium 
 and observe the leaves borne here and there. What is tlieir 
 variations in size on different parts of the shoot? Where 
 are they largest and why ? A leaf has the following parts : 
 If it is a complete leaf, it will have a pair of small, expanded 
 structures, stipules, where the leafstalk joins the shoot ; 
 a petiole or leafstalk, bearing at its outer or distal end the 
 large green expanded blade. Are all these parts found in 
 the geranium? Observe that the blade is supported upon 
 a framework of ribs or veins. When one main vein runs 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 33 
 
 from end to end of the leaf, giving off small branches, the 
 leaf is jjinnately veined and the main vein is the midrib. 
 If, on the contrary, a number of equal or nearly equal veins 
 radiate from the base to the margin, the leaf is jMhnately 
 veined. What condition is found in the geranium ? Exam- 
 ine the margin of the leaf. Is it even, not having any 
 irregularities (entire) or is it more or less irregularly lobed 
 and toothed or notched? If tlie notching is shallow, the 
 leaf is toothed; if deej), it is lobed; if the division almost 
 reaches the veins, the leaf is cleft. 
 
 Examine the surface of the leaf, above and below, and 
 observe the color. What difference do you find, and how 
 do you explain it? Observe the presence or absence of 
 leaf hairs on the surface. Examine the leaf for odor. Ex- 
 amine the hairs, (in) and (Ip), and find that some have 
 knobs at their ends. What connection may these hairs 
 have with the odor? Brush the leaf with the fingers to 
 test any difference in the odor. 
 
 On which side are the veins most prominent? What 
 connection have the veins with the petiole? Compare the 
 veins to blood vessels. Is the comparison justifiable ? Com- 
 pare the veins to floor joists to explain their great promi- 
 nence on the under side. Draw (1) a portion of the shoot 
 bearing a leaf; (2) the under view of the blade; (3) the 
 leaf hairs (m) and (Ip). 
 
 Epidermis. Peel off the thin epidermis from the upper 
 and lower surfaces of the leaf, examine with the Ip or hp, and 
 Hnd the irregular epidermal cells and tlie stoniates or small 
 openings witli their two guard cells. Where are the stomates 
 found? Estimate their number in the field of the micro- 
 scope, and with tliis as a starting point, figure the number 
 of stomates on a leaf. 
 
 What do you infer the stomates and guard cells are for? 
 Why do the epidermal cells have such an outline ? Draw 
 the epidermal cells and stomates. 
 
34 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Structure. Examine the sections of the leaf (Jp) and 
 observe the epidermal layers and tlie green tnesophyll be- 
 tween. What color has the epidermis ? Are the cells thin 
 or thick? What purpose has this layer? What form 
 have the cells of the mesophyll ? Are they alike in shape 
 throughout, or are some elongated perpendicularly to the 
 epidermis (^palisade cells) ? If the section shows them, 
 examine the stomates, and determine what they open into. 
 If a vein is cut across, study its cell structure and compare 
 it with the vascular bundles in ferns or in stems of seed 
 plants. Notice the hairs and discover to what part of the 
 leaf they are attached. Draw the leaf section and any 
 details of cell structure observed. 
 
 Description. Write a careful, complete description of the 
 geranium leaf, answering all the questions. Read about 
 " Geranium " and " Pelargonium " in a good encyclopedia, 
 and learn the peculiar features of these plants, and decide 
 which name really belongs to your plant. 
 
 2. Venatio]^ and Vernation 
 
 Statement. A great variety of leaves may be used and 
 ought to be compared by the student with the types given in 
 these exercises. For convenience, the venation study is 
 based on the following leaves, all easily obtainable : grass 
 leaves, Wandering Jeiv (Tradescantia), hyacinth, evening 
 primrose, elm, oak, maple, violet, ivy, begonia, pine, spruce. 
 
 Forms of venation. The pinnately veined and palmately 
 veined leaves have been defined in the geranium study. 
 Two other forms of venation may be recognized: parallel- 
 veined, viz., when the main veins run from the base to the 
 apex and are more or less parallel, and finally the peculiar 
 needle leaves of the spruce and pines, with generally one or 
 two central veins. Examine any of the above-named leaves 
 or any others furnished and determine the method, of vena- 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 35 
 
 tioa. Make careful drawings showing the character of the 
 veining. 
 
 Conclusions. From yonr knowledge of common tree and 
 plant leaves, which form of venation is the more common ? 
 Which form is best adapted to large leaves? What func- 
 tions do the veins possess as shown by the venation? 
 
 Vernation. The unfolding of a leaf from the bud is ver- 
 nation. There are several forms: rolled, folded, twisted, and 
 coiled. Study and draw some forms of vernation. Cut off 
 twigs of as many different trees as it is possible for you to 
 obtain, place in water, and study carefully as the buds begin 
 to swell and grow. In this manner many examples of ver- 
 nation may be easily observed. Observe very particularly, 
 in this process, that the bud develops into a stem on which 
 the leaves are borne and not into a single leaf. 
 
 Some odd forms. Some supplementary statements about 
 venation may be made. Certain leaves, like the common 
 plantain, appear to have a parallel veining, but are really 
 net-veined. Such leaves are ribbed. 
 
 Trillium leaves are apparently a combination of parallel 
 and net venation. Another type, a form of parallel vena- 
 tion, is seen in the banana and other monocotyledons. Many 
 leaves have a marginal vein into which the netted branch 
 veins terminate. 
 
 3. Leaf Division 
 
 Statement. Many leaves, instead of consisting of a single 
 entire piece of expanded blade (a simple leaf), have this 
 l)lade variously divided, the lesser amount of division form- 
 ing teeth and lobes, and the greater separating the leaf into 
 few or many small })ortions called leaflets, all borne on a 
 common stem or j^d'ole. These latter forms have been 
 called compound, hnt divided is a far better expression. 
 The following leaves are easily obtainable, some from the 
 greenhouse, others when there is no snow on the ground, or 
 
36 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 in very early spring : Strawberry, five-finger, yellow straw- 
 berry {ijotentilla sp.), rose, clover, all divided forms, besides 
 which various toothed and lobed leaves may be vised, pref- 
 erably oaks, which as dry leaves are present all winter. 
 
 Special leaves. Examine each leaf furnished, determine 
 the method of division (palmate or pinnate), the amount of 
 division, and the features of the leaflets. Examine for 
 stipules. Draw each leaf, showing all the features. 
 
 A leaf discussion will follow later, but determine at this 
 point, if you can, the value to the plant of divided leaves. 
 Is it a common feature or not ? Is it more abundant among 
 herbs or among trees ? Some reasons for this may appear 
 later. 
 
 General terms. Many terms are in use, especially in the 
 older editions of our botanical textbooks, expressing all 
 degrees of variation in form and amount of division, but 
 the following seem sufficient for the purpose of the aver- 
 age student : (1) Entire margin (lilac) ; (2) serrate margin 
 (willow) ; (3) dentate margin (catnip) ; (4) crenate margin 
 (5) lobed margin (oak, maple) ; (6) cleft margin (hemp) 
 (7) trifoliate leaf (clover) ; (8) quinate leaf (five-finger) 
 (9) odd pinnate leaf (locust) ; (10) even pinnate leaf 
 (11) decompound leaf (yarrow) ; (12) ternately divided leaf 
 (meadow parsnip) 
 
 4. Winter and Spring Rosettes and Leaf Mosaics. 
 Leaf Arrangement 
 
 Material. Rosettes are very easily obtained in the late 
 fall or early spring, from mullein, shepherd's purse, thistle, 
 evening primrose, and five-fingers. A growing plant of 
 begonia, geranium, or primrose in a window will do well to 
 show the mosaic arrangement on the stem. For many pur- 
 poses, specimens mounted on bristol board behind glass are 
 admirable for this work, and, in truth, for practically all the 
 study of ordinary leaves. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 37 
 
 Study of forms. Examine the rosettes and observe the 
 arrangement and varying size of tlie leaves. Why do such 
 conditions exist? Why do so many plants have rosettes 
 that persist through the winter? How are they preserved 
 from injury from the winter cold? Bietiuials and ivinter 
 annmds commonly possess rosettes. What are such plants? 
 Examine, in particular, the winter rosettes of the mullein 
 and look at the covering of the leaves. What is it? Ex- 
 amine (ni and Ip). Wliat may this covering be for? Make 
 careful drawings of rosettes, showing outline of the whole 
 and details of one leaf. Draw hairs of mullein (m and Iji). 
 
 Examine a growing plant that has for some time been in 
 a window. What position do the leaves occupy with refer- 
 ence to the window? What is the cause of this condition? 
 How are the large and small leaves arranged ? Why is such 
 an arrangement called a mosaic .? What benefit does the 
 plant receive from such an arrangement? Kecall if you 
 can the appearance of ivy leaves or plants climbing over 
 brick and stone walls. Look in your reference books for 
 pictures showing leaf mosaics. Make a drawing showing 
 leaf mosaics. 
 
 Arrangement on stem. Examine growing leafy shoots for 
 the leaf arrangements, comparing them with the bud ar- 
 rangement already learned, and name in a similar manner. 
 Look down the shoot with the apical portion toward you, 
 and observe the position of the leaves, radiating outward. 
 What agent decides the leaf position? Make a diagram 
 showing the leaf position as a result of the last observation. 
 
 5. Leaf Modifications 
 
 Material. Thistles, cacti, cobaea, vetch, smilax, pitcher 
 plant, locust, and head cabbage, besides many other plants 
 easily obtained, will furnish leaf modifications in abun- 
 dance. 
 
38 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Study of each form. Examine each modification fur- 
 nished, find its peculiar characteristics, decide what leaf 
 part or parts enter into it, and try by careful and thorough 
 investigation to determine what the modification is for. 
 In this connection read about cacti, climbing plants, and 
 insectivorous plants. Draw each modification, naming the 
 parts. 
 
 Table. Make a table embodying the results of 3'our 
 study of leaf modifications, using the following model : — 
 
 Name of Plant 
 
 Name of 
 Modification 
 
 Part of Leaf 
 
 Purpose of 
 Modifications 
 
 Ecology. Leaves are very greatly m(jdified by the 
 nature of the environment. Desert plants have their leaves 
 so changed in form, structure, external covering, time of 
 production, and other characters, as to show in a very 
 marked way the influence of excessive heat and light on 
 leaves. Similarl}^, plants of very wet places show such 
 condition by many peculiarities. Such response to en- 
 vironment gives rise to Ecology. This science is rapidly 
 assuming great importance in the study of plants and their 
 activities. 
 
 6. Broad and Narrow Leaved Evergreens 
 Material. Without much difficulty there may be ob- 
 tained enough specimens of lemon, rubber, and certain fig 
 species from greenhouses and vinca (myrtle) from the open 
 ground, and also pine and spruce, to make a satisfactory 
 study. The pupil should seek further knowledge by look- 
 ing in reference books and examining pictures of tropical 
 plants, especially trees. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 39 
 
 Study of forms. Observe the general form of the leaf. 
 What peculiarities of thickness, leaf margin, and surface do 
 you observe ? Determine the fitness of the leaf in all par- 
 ticulars to remain long on the plant and its adaptation to 
 great moisture and heat, or to great cold. Examine a 
 "transverse section of a leaf (Ip.), and compare with that 
 of the geranium, Make drawings showing the various 
 leaves and the details of structure. 
 
 How can you explain the presence of such broad, ever- 
 green leaves on the vinca, exposed, as it may be, to great 
 cold, whereas most leaves of this character (broad) are 
 found on trees of warm and moist regions ? Are the leaves 
 really evergreen ? Compare them with the narrow-leaved 
 evergreens, like the pine of cold countries, and observe the 
 great difference in size and form, and seek carefully for an 
 explanation of the difference. 
 
 IMake a list of ten forms of each kind, stating where each 
 is found. 
 
 7. Leaf Experiments and Determination of Leaf 
 Functions ^ 
 
 1. Grow some oats in the dark in a deep narrow glass jar, 
 and at the end of 5 or 6 days observe the color of the 
 leaves. What is the explanation ? 
 
 2. Place a small vigorous geranium in total darkness, for 
 the same length of time, keeping it well supplied with 
 water. From the two experiments what is necessary for 
 the healthy chlorophyll formation ? 
 
 3. Place a vigorous leafy shoot in a small bottle of water 
 and seal about the stem with wax. Place under bell jar. 
 What is the result? The process or function illustrated 
 here is called transpiration. 
 
 1 Other exi)crinieiits, other than the ones ^iven, may suggest them- 
 selves. 
 
40 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 4. Take a vigorous geranium, or better a primula obconica 
 (baby primrose). Water well, wrap the whole pot and top 
 of soil in tin-foil, making a tight joint about the plant 
 stem, then carefully weigh and balance on a pair of scales. 
 Record the results from day to day. What is it that the 
 plant is giving off that affects its weight, and where does 
 this substance come from to the plant? Through what 
 plant structures does it reach the leaves ? 
 
 Read " Transpiration " and hud out its value to the plant, 
 and in particular, how it is regulated. Try experiment 5. 
 
 5. Place fresh leaves of mullein and lettuce on the table 
 for one hour and observe the results. Whicli wilts more 
 rapidly? "What explanation is there ? 
 
 6. Take a vigorous geranium having several healthy leaves. 
 Inclose a young leaf in black French tissue paper. Place 
 the plant in the sunlight, and after three days test this 
 leaf and another similar but uncovered leaf for starch. 
 (Remove the chlorophyll with alcohol.) Which leaf shows 
 a starch reaction ? The process of starch making in leaves 
 or other green parts is pliotofiyntliesis. Read about this in 
 reference books. (See algae studies.) 
 
 7. Take a vigorous leaf from a geranium near the close of a 
 sunny day, take out the chlorophyll, and test for starch. 
 Take another from the same plant in the early morning, 
 before any sunlight has affected it, and treat as before. 
 Explain the results. 
 
 8. Experiments on respiration are difficult, and the pupil 
 may read about this function. 
 
 Record carefully each experiment performed above, or 
 any other introduced by the instructor or ivorked out by 
 yourself. Where possible, make diagrams to show ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 9. Take a geranium shoot and i)lace cut end in a weak 
 eosin solution. Examine the leaf after a day or two, and 
 observe the location of the color, and explain. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 41 
 
 10. Place vigorous plants of various kinds in a window, 
 and allow them to remain for a few days. Turn each half 
 around and determine the varying rapidity of the response 
 of the leaves to the light. Seek for any explanation. 
 
 11. Place a number of sprouting salsify, carrots, spinach 
 or other vegetables Jlat in a tray. Keep for 24 hours. 
 What direction have the youugeM leaves assumed? Split a 
 sprouting onion in halves. Place on the table with cut sur- 
 faces up. What happens to the sprouts ? 
 
 12. As in 4, but place the whole plant in an inverted glass 
 bell jar of great height (16 in. or more) filled with water. 
 Place in bright sunlight. Observe gas ; collect and test for 
 oxygen. 
 
 13. As in 1, but grow in the light until vigorous. Place 
 in closet at close of day, bring out the next morning, and 
 lower a taper to the bottom. What happens ? P)reathe 
 repeatedly into a similar deep glass and test as before. 
 Compare the two. 
 
 14. Take fresh leaves of fern, lettuce, plantain, beet, 
 maple, mullein, sunflower, water lily, corn, carrot, and oniou. 
 
 Allow each to remain on the table in dry room for one 
 hour or until well wilted. Kecord varying time. 
 
 Now plunge each into cold water and let it remain for 
 some time. What amount of revived freshness does each 
 show ? AVhat caused the wilting and how did the cold bath 
 r«?store ? 
 
 8. EcoL()(;i('AL Study ov Leaves 
 
 Field work. Throughout the season, from early spring to 
 fall, find out and observe carefully as many rosette forms 
 of leaves as possible. Rosettes found in early spring, es- 
 pecially, should be noticed, with the locality in which each 
 grows. What do you infer, by studying each, as to the 
 plants' life duration ? How did they survive tlie cold 
 weather? What })roportion of the plants having rosettes 
 
42 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 are annual? Examine shepherd's purse and peppergrass 
 very early in spring. When did these rosettes of annuals 
 start to grow? 
 
 Examine plants growing in sandy and very dry places, 
 and find, if possible, any leaf peculiarities. Do you find 
 any number with common features? If so, try to find 
 some explanation. 
 
 Examine plants found in dark woods, and compare with 
 the same kind of plants in similar soils growing in bright 
 sunshine. 
 
 Study carefully as many water plants as you can obtain, 
 and seek for characters shared in common by all. Examine, 
 if possible, leaves from all sources, under the compound 
 microscope, for any peculiarities of stomates or structure. 
 
 Conclusions. From all the examples you have studied, 
 what do you conclude regarding the influence of surround- 
 ings on leaf structure? 
 
 Table. Tabulate your observations on the forms examined, 
 using the following (Two examples are given as guides to 
 proper use.) : 
 
 Name of 
 Plant 
 
 Location 
 
 Leaf 
 Arrange- 
 
 ' MENT 
 
 Size of 
 Leaf 
 
 Leaf 
 
 Surface 
 
 Texture 
 
 Position 
 
 Mullein 
 
 very dry 
 
 spring 
 
 large 
 
 very 
 
 dry 
 
 horizon- 
 
 
 soil 
 
 rosettes 
 
 
 hairy 
 
 
 tal 
 
 Pickerel 
 
 in water 
 
 one 
 
 large 
 
 very 
 
 fleshy 
 
 vertical 
 
 weed 
 
 
 
 
 smooth 
 
 
 
 9. Useful Products of Leaves axd Application op 
 THE Study to the Wants of Man 
 
 1. Make a table of useful leaves and their products, using 
 the following form, seeking particularly to have important 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 43 
 
 samples under each of the following uses : (a) for food ; 
 (b) for medicine ; (c) for drink ; (cl) for clothing ; (e) for 
 ropes and cordage; (/) for dyes; (g) for flavoring. 
 
 Namk 
 
 WllEKK NaTIVK 
 
 Part of Leaf 
 Used 
 
 PROUUrr, IK MANirFACTCRED, 
 
 i>R Crude Use 
 
 2. Obtain leaves of century plant or other agaves ; pound 
 with a heavy club on a very firm wooden block ; wash away 
 all the debris ; continue until you have a bunch of fibers. 
 The original way of preparing fiber for weaving or cordage 
 making. Sisal, used in harvesting, is an agave. What 
 other leaf fibers are noted ? 
 
 3. Steep finely divided green tobacco, rose i)etals, and 
 horehound, catmint, plantain, or onion (all fall leaf forms) in 
 50% alcohol for one week in tightly closed bottles. Press 
 the leaf masses dry and study resulting liquids for color, 
 odor, and taste. You have made medicinal preparations. 
 By following rules of weight and amount of li(|uid you 
 would have known strengths of drugs. 
 
 4. Crush celery, lettuce, cabbage, beet, spinach, rhubarb, 
 kale, chard, dandelions, endive, or other leaf vegetables, and 
 after mixing with water, test for sugar, starch, etc. 
 
 5. Dry quickly vigorous plants of red, white, and alsike 
 clover, alfalfa, various kinds of grasses, corn leaves, and 
 young pea vines. What relation has greenness to rapidity 
 of drying? How has the odor been affected? You have 
 " made hay." What are the elements that bring success in 
 haymaking? Try dipping some of your half-dry hay in 
 water until soaked, then continue drying. I f possible, obtain 
 or grow a stalk of tobacco. Hang up to dry in a dark, well- 
 
44 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 aired place. Observe change of color, odor, and taste. (A 
 step in tobacco manufacture.) 
 
 6. Take four leaves of the same kind and treat as 
 follows : — 
 
 No. 1. Place between blotters, weight with a heavy book ; 
 examine at the end of six days. 
 
 No. 2. Place between sheets of writing paper, and then 
 as in No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. Place between leaves of a large book for six days. 
 
 No. 4. As in No. 1, but change blotters night and morn- 
 ing. Compare results at the end of the six days. You are 
 making herbarium specimens. 
 
 7. Dry very quickly violets, roses, lavender flowers, and 
 sage, spearmint, thyme, marjoram, or other leaves. What 
 effect has drying on the odor ? Place one half in open boxes 
 and one half in tight receptacles ; test for odor in two weeks. 
 Basis of culinary herbs and sachet preparations. 
 
 8. Take five small cabbage, tomato, aster, lettuce, or other 
 plants ; transplant each of four into flower pots : For No. 1, 
 leave in condition as transplanted. For No. 2, water 
 thoroughly. For No. 3, cover in No. 1 condition by 
 a glass tumbler. No. 4, cover in No. 2 condition by a 
 glass tumbler. No. 5, use as a check experiment not trans- 
 planted. 
 
 Compare the results and learn how to transplant. 
 
 10. Review Table of Leaves 
 
 Leak Arkange- 
 
 MENT 
 
 Venation 
 
 Division 
 
 Parts 
 Present 
 
 Leak 
 Surface 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 45 
 
 11. Exercise (A Wkittex Statement) 
 Review topic questions on leaves 
 
 1. What are leaves? Give a good definition in your 
 own words. 
 
 2. What are the functions of leaves ? Name all you know. 
 
 3. Why do leafy plants need sunlight ? 
 
 4. Why do biennials generally produce winter rosettes ? 
 
 5. What do desert plants do to regulate transpiration ? 
 
 6. Why are parasitic flower plants generally devoid of 
 green leaves ? 
 
 7. AVhat advantage, if any, are divided leaves ? 
 
 8. What effect have forests on the moisture of the atmos- 
 phere ? 
 
 9. What are evergreen plants ? 
 
 10. Name three most useful leaf products. 
 
 11. Why do the cacti have their leaves reduced to spines ? 
 
 12. What explanation do you have for a cabbage head ? 
 
 13. Explain the pitcher of the pitcher plant. 
 
 14. Explain, leaf arrangement with reference to light. 
 
 15. Why do leaves wilt ? 
 
 SECTION Vr. THE STUDY OF FLOWERS 
 General Preface to the Special Studies 
 
 General statement. There are many different methods in 
 vogue for the study of flowers, the most common being, per- 
 haps, to study the trillium, tulip, or some other flower of 
 easily discernible parts. 
 
 It has, however, been amply justified in the author's 
 school experience, that a better understanding is to be 
 gained by beginning with such an extremely simple struiv 
 ture as the willow ; for by so doing the student learns tlie 
 subject from the foundation, and appreciates much more 
 certainly that the essential oryans are all that are absolutely 
 
46 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 necessai'}' in order that the flower ma}^ fulfill its destiny. 
 Then again it is the logical procedure from the simple to the 
 complex, and the procedure is like the addition of one brick 
 to another until the building is complete, and not the demo- 
 lition of a fully made structure to find its component parts. 
 
 The student is expected, in the following pages, to learn 
 first of all the primary features of the normal flower, in all 
 its parts, and then by a study of characteristic flowers of the 
 great type families to familiarize himself with not only in- 
 creasingly complex forms, but to also learn the rudiments 
 of classification, the use of artificial keys for plant deter- 
 mination, and the features that distinguish the most im- 
 portant families of plants, either because they illustrate 
 some great feature of flower structure and adaptation to 
 certain definite ends, or because they are greatly important 
 to man from the economic standpoint. 
 
 The student is expected to bring in samples of all flowers 
 possible to be obtained, and gradually to learn to locate 
 them in their natural families. Flower tables posted on the 
 wall, giving credit for first-reported flowers, and for all 
 flowers seen by the classes and definitely identified, add 
 largely to the interest. Herbarium material may be col- 
 lected, but this is by no means the essential element in suc- 
 cessful flower study. As far as may be, the flowers should 
 be gathered by the class, thus adding to the value of the 
 work by the personal interest of those who have assisted in 
 furnishing material. 
 
 1. The Willow 
 
 Staminate Willoin Floivers,^ or Yellofo Pussies or Catkins 
 
 The shrub and its habitat. You ought to notice the 
 willows as they grow, the places they prefer, especially with 
 
 1 Willow flowers are of two kinds, borne on sei)arate plants. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 47 
 
 reference to the presence of water or moist ground. Observe 
 the size of the shrubs and the frequency of the yellow- 
 flowered form now to be studied. 
 
 The catkin. Examine the " j^ussies " as they grow on the 
 willow tree or shrub, and observe that, as stated in the note, 
 there are two forms borne on separate plants. What 
 feature easily distinguishes the one kind from the other? 
 The technical name for the flower clusters is catkin. What 
 relation does this bear to the common name " pussies " ? 
 
 Examine a staminate catkin and observe its form and 
 color. To what is the color due? 
 
 The small leaves at the base of the catkin are bracts. 
 Observe the catkin in detail and find out what structures 
 make up its bulk. Does the catkin appear with, after, or 
 before the leaves? Draw the catkin, natural size or slight- 
 ly enlarged, as it is attached to the stem. 
 
 The flower. Examine an individual structure or part of 
 this catkin (jioicer) (m). It consists of a dark scale, bearing 
 one or two slender, knobbed stalks (stamens). What is 
 peculiar about the scale, and what use has this peculiar 
 feature? Draw a staminate flower. 
 
 The stamen. Examine a stamen (??i) and (?/)) and find the 
 slender stalk (Jilament) and the top enlargement (anther). 
 What color is each? Draw a stamen (m) and (Z^)). 
 
 Pollen. Crush an anther on a slide, mount in water, and 
 examine (hj)). Observe the pollen grains (microspores). 
 What is their form, color, and number. Draw several. 
 
 Examine pollen grains that have been in water for a 
 couple of hours and observe that some show sprouts (ger- 
 mination). Remember this, as it will be referred to 
 later. 
 
 Count the number of catkins on a well-grown branch, also 
 the number of flowers for an average-sized catkin. From 
 this count form some idea of the amount of pollen produced 
 by a single willow. Why is there such an enormous pro- 
 
48 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 duction ? Shake a fully blossomed branch. What effect has 
 it on the pollen? AVhat natural agent might shake the 
 branch? "What then would become of the pollen? (Re- 
 ferred to later, so remember.) 
 
 Pistillate, or Green Catkins 
 
 Catkin. Examine a pistillate flower cluster (inflorescence). 
 What is its form and color ? 
 
 Observe its general " make-up " and compare with the 
 staminate inflorescence in the matters of bracts, scales, and 
 scale peculiarities. How does it compare in size with the 
 staminate ? Draw natural size. 
 
 Flower. Examine an individual flower (m). Find the 
 scale and observe that it bears a green, oblong, or spindle- 
 shaped structure, the pistil. Draw a flower {m). 
 
 Pistil. Examine a pistil (m) and {Ip). Determine the 
 presence or absence of a short stalk or pedicel, attaching it 
 to the axis of the catkin. Observe the enlarged lower part, 
 the ovary or ovulary, often hairy, and the extreme tip, some- 
 what enlarged, the stigma. When the stigma is connected 
 to the ovary by an intervening part, commonly smaller, this 
 connection is the style. Is it found here ? Examine the 
 stigma (Ip). What peculiarities of surface do you find? 
 Draw the pistil (m) and {Ipj). 
 
 Examine a ripened pistil (pod), and observe the tiny 
 seeds within. What is attached to the seeds and for what 
 purpose? (Seeds in the ovary before the process called 
 fertilization takes place are called ovules.) 
 
 Pollination and fertilization. To produce seed in the 
 willow or any other flower two processes are necessary : 
 pollination and fertilization. Pollination is the transfer of 
 the pollen from the anther to the stigma. It is a general 
 rule among flowers that the pollen is carried by some agency 
 to the stigmas belonging to flowers of another plant of the 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 49 
 
 same kind, cross-pollination. From your observation and 
 reading what different methods or agents are there that can 
 accomplish this ? Upon what agent does the willow de- 
 pend ? (See staminate study.) 
 
 After pollination comes fertilization. The pollen grains are 
 lodged in some manner upon the stigma, germinate and send 
 the growing tube seen in your pollen study through the 
 style into the cavity of the ovary, where it enters one of the 
 tiny ovules there contained, fuses with the egg cell, and a 
 seed, after some growth, is the result. 
 
 Comparative work. Compare, if possible, cotton wood or 
 poplar flowers with those of the willow and observe the 
 resemblances and differences. 
 
 Written work. Write careful description of each catkin, 
 flower, and the pollen. 
 
 The willow family. The willow is the type of the icillow 
 family, consisting of common shrubs and trees, and having, 
 as common examples, all kinds of willows, poplars, cotton- 
 wood, and "Carolina poplar." Of what value are any of 
 these ? 
 
 Applications. (1) Take some poplar wood, cut up into 
 small blocks, and soak for 24 hours in 10 % sulphuric acid. 
 Now by means of a heavy hammer crush the blocks until 
 thoroughly pulped. You have crudely accomplished one 
 stage in paper making from wood (poplar and spruce). 
 
 (2) Take a number of willow blocks, place in any small 
 iron dish that can be closed tightly, heat red hot for 20 
 minutes, and allow to cool. Examine the wood. You have 
 made charcoal. \Vhy did not the wood burn up ? 
 
 (3) In spring place several willow twigs in water or earth. 
 Notice the roots forming on the willows in water; also that 
 the willows in the earth begin growth. These plants may 
 be easily propagated in this manner. 
 
 (4) If possible, observe the action of bees around stami- 
 nate willows. What do they obtain from the flowers ? 
 
50 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 2. The Hazel 
 
 Statement. The Hazel is a member of the Birch family 
 and is an easily obtained shrub growing abundantly in 
 thickets. It is in bloom about the time of the willow. 
 In this shrub the flowers are not borne on separate plants 
 (dioecious), but both kinds are found on different parts of 
 the same plant {monrjecious). 
 
 Staminate catkins. Examine the staminate catkin and 
 observe its form, color, and position on the branch ; also the 
 separate scales, sporophylls, that make up the catkin. Draw 
 a catkin natural size. 
 
 Examine a single scale (?n) and find the stamens. How 
 many are there? Plow do they compare with the willow 
 stamens in size and parts ? Draw a single scale with its 
 stamens (in). 
 
 Examine the pollen Qip) and sketch. 
 
 Pistillate flowers. Look along the twig for small red 
 clusters of pistillate flowers. How are they surrounded ? 
 Examine (m) the pistils and stigmas. 
 
 Sketch a pistillate cluster (m). 
 
 Dissect a cluster and examine a single flower (m) or (Jp). 
 Try to determine its parts. Sketch. 
 
 Other work. Recall, if you have seen them, the full-grown 
 hazelnuts in their "shucks" that are the result of the 
 growth, after fertilization, of these pistillate flowers. Oak, 
 chestnuts, and various other trees have similar flower ar- 
 rangements, and all belong to two closely related families, 
 the Birch and the Beech. What useful trees are found here ? 
 How many kinds of oaks do you know ? When does the 
 oak blossom ? How long does it take an oak acorn to ripen ? 
 
 Final statement. The willow, hazel, and many related 
 forms belong to some lower orders of dicotyledons, having 
 one or both kinds of flowers in catkins or aments (another 
 term for pussy). All, with one or two exceptions, are spring 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 51 
 
 bloomers ; have inconspicuous flowers. What agent for pol- 
 lination, therefore, do these trees and shrubs require ? What 
 advantage is the early date of blooming ? 
 
 Ten important trees belonging to these orders are : 
 (l)Oaks; (2) Chestnut; (3) Beech; (4) Birch; (5) Cot- 
 tonwood; (6) Osier; (7) Aspen; (8) Filbert; (9) Horn- 
 beam; (10) She-oak. What economic value has each? 
 
 3. The Trillium Species 
 
 Species available ; habitat. For this study any species of 
 trillium is equally good, but for the reason that T. recurva- 
 tum, or the bloody butcher, is not picked for its blossoms, 
 good judgment dictates that it is the best one to study, 
 because one is not hastening the extermination of a beautiful 
 plant by so doing. It may be commonly found blooming in 
 all rich woodlands in the northern parts of the United States 
 about May 1. A few complete plants should be procured in 
 addition to the flowering stems. 
 
 The plant. Examine the whole plant and observe the 
 thick rhizome from which the flower stalk grows. Where 
 do the roots grow and what are their peculiarities ? 
 Find an apical hud immediately at the base of the ascend- 
 ing stem. 
 
 Study the erect aerial stem. Observe its varying color 
 from base to summit. How do you explain it ? How many 
 leaves does it bear? Examine the leaves for shape, size, 
 color, and venation. 
 
 What is the position of the flower with reference to the 
 leaves ? Is the flower with a stalk {peduncle) or witliout 
 (sessile) ? 
 
 Study a cross section of the stem (m). What is the ar. 
 rangement of the tissues? Is the stem mono- or dicotyle- 
 donous in structure? Draw the whole plant, also the stem 
 section (?;i). 
 
52 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 The flower calyx. Examine the flower for its size, color, 
 and position. Stud}^ the outer (lower) whorl or circle of 
 parts. What color do the parts have? This whorl is the 
 calyx and its parts are sepals. How many of these are 
 there ? Are they stalked or sessile ? What is their shape ? 
 Examine their venation. Where are they found in the 
 unopened bud, and what seems to be their function ? Draw 
 a sepal. 
 
 Corolla. Examine the whorl next within (above) the 
 sepals. What color has this whorl and into how many 
 parts is it divided ? This is the corolla and the parts are 
 petals. Study a petal and its shape, direction of growth, 
 and venation. Draw a petal. 
 
 Stamens. Next within (above) the petals are a number of 
 oblong or linear structures. How many are there, and what 
 is their color ? These are stamens. Find the two parts 
 named under the willow. Investigate their exact position 
 and discover if they are in one or tiuo rows. Draw a 
 stamen, two views to show its exact form (face and side 
 view). 
 
 Pistil. Study the central structure, pistil, and find its 
 parts. (See willow.) What is its color and shape ? Draw 
 a pistil, side and top views. 
 
 Details of structure. Examine an anther on the concave 
 face (m) and observe two lines of yellow. Examine a cross 
 section of the anther (Ip) and see that these lines really 
 are pollen sacs or microsporaiigia. Make drawings showing 
 both the above features. In the stamen section, look for 
 the cell structure. Compare it to a leaf section. The 
 stamen is really a sjxjrophi/ll or modified leaf. 
 
 Study the pollen (//)) or (hp). What is the color and form ? 
 Draw several pollen cells. 
 
 Examine the stigmatic surface of the pistil (m), for any 
 peculiarities observable. Draw, if possible (i.e., not too 
 complex or difficult). 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 53 
 
 Study a cross section of the ovary. Into how many com- 
 partments (cells) is it divided? What do you observe in 
 each cell ? These structures are ovules. Examine very 
 carefully and determine, if possible, their point of attach- 
 ment (placenta) to the ovary. It may be on a central axis 
 (axial), or on the ovary wall (parietal). 
 
 These ovules are really megasporcuKjia, each containing 
 one megaspore. The ovules eventually become seeds by a 
 process called fertilization. Look this subject up in your 
 textbook and refer back to the willow. Draw a cross 
 section of the ovary (m), naming all the parts. If the ovary 
 walls are, as is usually considered the fact, made up of 
 peculiarly modified leaves (carpels), how many can you 
 decide there are in the trillium ? Where are the ovules 
 attached with reference to the leaf margins or midribs ? 
 
 Lily family. The trillium is an example of the lily 
 family, which contains many showy or useful plants, as 
 the tulip, hyacinth, lilies, onions, etc., and is one of the 
 large families of monocotyledons. Some authors divide the 
 family into several smaller families, in which case the Tril- 
 lium is placed in either the Lily of the Valley or the 
 Trillium Family. 
 
 Practical work. The cultivation of the Bermuda, Spanish, 
 or other onions for the mature bulbs, and the immense 
 amount of green onions grown, show the importance of this 
 famil}^ as a vegetable producer. Leeks, garlic, chives, and 
 shallots are other related forms. 
 
 Asparagus is largely grown for commercial purposes, to 
 be used fresh or canned. 
 
 In certain regions tulips, Bermuda lilies, and hyacinths 
 are grown in immense numbers to supply the demand for 
 the flowering bulbs. 
 
 A large number of species are grown by florists and in 
 home gardens. A few are valuable in medicine. 
 
 An onion venture. A young man planted one acre of 
 
54 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 rich land (rent J? 25 per year) to commercial onions, paying 
 also $15 for seed and $100 for labor. The rows were 
 16 in. apart, and he harvested three large spherical onions, 
 3 in. in diameter from every foot of the row. He sold his 
 crop for $1 per bushel. AVhat was his approximate net 
 return for the venture ? 
 
 4. The Erythronium, Do(t-tooth " Violet " or Adder's 
 Tongue, (a Typical " Lily ") 
 
 Where found. The Dog-tooth ''Violets" are common 
 l)lants in moist woodhmds, particularly near streams, and are 
 beautiful types of the great Lily family and are introduced 
 to familiarize the student further with this noted plant group. 
 
 The plant. Examine an entire plant and especially the 
 part that grows below the surface. What name do you 
 apply to this ? Study the leaves as to their shape, number, 
 color, and venation. Parallel venation is one of the charac- 
 teristics of the monocotyledons. 
 
 Observe that the flower is borne on a naked stalk or scape. 
 What is the color and what the position of the flower (erect 
 or nodding) ? 
 
 Draw the entire plant in such a position as to show the 
 leaves and the parts of the flower. 
 
 Flower. Examine the flower and determine the four 
 kinds of structures named under the Trillium. 
 
 How do these parts compare in number and color with 
 the similar named part of that plant ? Observe that in both 
 Trillium and Erythronium the ovary stands above the 
 insertion of the sepals on the top of the flower stalk or 
 pedun-cle. (This point is the receptacle.) Such a position for 
 the ovary is designated as ovary superior. In this flower 
 how can you distinguish the sepals from the petals ? Com- 
 pare with a tulip. Draw a plan of the flower, by represent- 
 ing the petals and sepals by curved lines, the stamens by 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 55 
 
 solid round spots, and the pistil by .a ring properly divided 
 to show the number of cells in the ovary. Be sure to have 
 each part properly located with reference to the adjacent 
 structures. 
 
 This is called Sifloiver plan or diagram. 
 
 Characters of Lily family. See if your study of these 
 examples of the Lily family agrees with the following 
 characterization : — 
 
 The Lily family is monocotyledonous, coinmonly has bulbs 
 or rhizomes, flowers with three sepals and three petals, 
 usually similarly colored (often called the perianth), six 
 stamens in two rows, a single superior ovary having three 
 stigmas and cells. You ought to consult Gray's "Manual 
 of Botany," and familiarize yourself with the characteriza- 
 tions of the families to which the plants you study belong. 
 
 Learn also, by continuous practice, how to analyze a flower, 
 or determine its name by a " key." 
 
 The study of other forms of the Lily or other monocotyle- 
 donous families may be undertaken, following the same 
 guides as used in Trillium and Erythronium. 
 
 5. Demoxstratiox of ax Orchid — The Lady Slippers 
 (Cypripedium)^ 
 
 Statement. It is not advisable to use orchids for individ- 
 ual class work because of the increasing scarcity of this 
 beautiful group and the consequent danger of helping on 
 their extermination. As the most specialized of the mono- 
 cotyledons, however, they ought to receive attention by a 
 demonstration before the class, dwelling in particular on 
 their adaptation to insect pollination. 
 
 The plant. The leafy stem crowded from base to flower 
 with large parallel-veined leaves and arising from a peculiar 
 
 1 Tlie Iris is equally good, and may be used with necessary changes 
 in wording. 
 
66 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 cluster of fleshy roots and topped by the odd flower or 
 flowers. 
 
 The flower. The peculiarly arranged and colored flower 
 parts : — 
 
 1. The three sepals, two united. 
 
 2. The three petals, one very irregular, called the " lip." 
 
 3. The two fertile and the one sterile stamens, with 
 pollen masses. 
 
 4. The stigmatic surface. 
 
 5. The long inferior ovary, with myriads of seeds. 
 
 Plan for cross-pollination by insects. The special adapta- 
 tion of the lip and the relative position of the pollen masses 
 and stigmatic surface to insure cross-fertilization by bees. 
 
 Orchid family. The characterization of the Orchid family 
 may be inserted to show the highest type of the monocoty- 
 ledons : (a) root commonly fleshy, or, in many cases, epi- 
 phytic, (with air roots) ; (6) leaves typically parallel veined, 
 occasionally leafless, and root parasitic ; (c) flowers three- 
 parted and very irregular, the third petal often variously 
 modified ; (d) stamens, one, two, or three ; (e) pistil, one 
 with inferior ovary containing myriads of small seeds. 
 
 Use. Often highly valued for ornament, but with very 
 few useful forms ; vanilla is one of the most important. 
 Obtain, if possible, a vanilla bean, break up into small 
 fragments, place in a large bottle, and cover with 50 % 
 alcohol. Stopper and set aside for two weeks. Do the 
 same with some tonka beans. Compare the odor and taste. 
 Cheap vanillas are either very often adulterated, or made 
 from other substances as coniferin and oil of cloves. 
 
 6. Apetalous Flowers of the Crowfoot Family 
 
 Kinds available with habitats. The Marsh Marigold, 
 Anemones, and Hepaticas are all suitable flowers for this 
 study, and are all good types of those crowfoot representa- 
 tives that are lacking in petals (apetalous). Each grows in 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 57 
 
 a habitat peculiar to itself. Find them where they grow if 
 possible. 
 
 The plant. Examine the entire plant, observing the roots, 
 leaves, general habit of the stem, and the arrangement of 
 the flowers, singly or in clusters (inflorescence). The ar- 
 rangement may be solitary, in racemes, corymbs, panicles, 
 umbels, not easily explained by word alone, but plainly un- 
 derstood by diagram and actual specimens. Determine for 
 the plant at hand what the inflorescence may be, after con- 
 sulting diagrams made by the instructor. 
 
 Flower. Study the flower. There is but one whorl of 
 leaf like colored parts or sepals, the petals being absent. 
 Determine their color and number. Examine the stamens. 
 How many are there and how are. they arranged? Study 
 the central pistils. How many are there ? Observe that all 
 the parts named are borne directly upon the receptacle. 
 Are the ovaries superior or inferior? 
 
 Draw a portion of the plant with leaves and flowers; also 
 make a plan of the flower. 
 
 Description. Describe carefully, and do the same for each 
 flower hereafter studied when such description is called for. 
 In flowers without petals, having a well-developed calyx, 
 this circle is usually colored like a corolla. What explanar 
 tion can you give ? 
 
 Crowfoot family, value. The Crowfoot family contains 
 many showy or favorite garden flowers, as columbines, 
 anemones, peonies, larkspurs, monkshoods, clematis, Christ- 
 mas rose, and others, and some very valuable medicinal 
 plants, as aconite (monkshood), larkspur, hydrastis, actaea, 
 etc. 
 
 7. POLYPETALOUS (CHORIPETALOUS) FlOWERS OF THE 
 
 Crowfoot Family 
 Where found. Polypetalous types of the Crowfoot family 
 such as ImttPrcups may always be obtained in quantity for 
 
58 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 study, and it matters not materially which variety is used. 
 They grow in woods and thickets, open damp places, or on 
 dry open knolls and prairies. ^Many species of this family, 
 such as the buttercup, cowslip, windflower, anemone, and 
 hepatica, are the most common and highly prized wild flowers 
 of early spring. All are similar and show the chief charac- 
 teristics of the Crowfoot family in a marked degree. 
 
 Characters of family. Chiefly herbs with divided leaves : 
 four or usually five parted flowers (that is, sepals and 
 petals of that number) ; many stamens ; several or many 
 pistils ; all parts borne on the receptacle ; often apetalous. 
 
 Plant and flowers. Examine as usual the whole plant and 
 observe its peculiarities. Are the leaves divided or not ? 
 How many sepals and petals and what colors are they? 
 Sepals of buttercups often fall away early (fugacious), and 
 the flower then may appear apetalous. Be careful not to 
 make a mistake here. Study the number and arrangement 
 of the stamens and pistils and observe their relation to the 
 receptacle. 
 
 Make the following drawings: (a) stem-bearing leaf and 
 flowers ; (b) a single flower, side and face view ; (c) a 
 stamen and a pistil (m) ; (d) plan of the flower. 
 
 List. Name all the garden flowers you know that belong 
 to this family ; also some medicines made from plants of 
 the same group. 
 
 How many kinds of buttercups or crowfoots do you know ? 
 What reputation has the buttercup among eastern dairy 
 farmers ? What has happened when a buttercup becomes 
 double ? What is a " double " flower, and are any ever 
 found in a wild state ? 
 
 8. POLYPETALOUS ElOWERS OF THE MuSTARD FamILT 
 
 Kinds of and where found. Shepherd^ s-purse, spring cress, 
 mustard, candytuft, or other forms may be used. The spring 
 (white or purple) cresses of moist woodlands and bogs 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 59 
 
 are especially good plants for study, as they may commonly 
 be obtained in large quantities in early spring (April 1- 
 May 15). 
 
 Mustard family characters. The Mustard family has these 
 characteristics : (a) herbs with spicy juice ; (b) flowers 
 commonly in racemes ; (c) four sepals and petals ; (d) six 
 stamens; (e) one pistil; (/) in fruit a pod, long or short. 
 
 The plant and flowers. Study the plant for its roots, 
 leaves, and inflorescence. Examine the flower and deter- 
 mine the number and color of each group of parts. Com- 
 pare with characterization given above. Examine in 
 particular the stamens. Are the six all of one pattern, or 
 do you find a difference in size and length ? 
 
 Are the flowers especially attractive to insects on account 
 of their size, color, or odor, or may these plants depend on 
 wind for pollination ? 
 
 Draw a flowering branch, a single flower, and the flower 
 plan. 
 
 Uses of family. Name a number of garden flowers belong- 
 ing to this family, and also as many vegetables you find 
 that belong here. Taste the leaves, and observe that many 
 plants of the Mustard family abound in a hot, spicy juice. 
 Name some that have this quality. 
 
 If you know any market gardens, what per cent of their 
 land area is occupied by vegetables of this family ? 
 
 If cabbages average 6 in. in diameter, and are 2 ft. apart 
 each way, how many would an acre produce ? At 5 ^ a head, 
 what would they be worth ? 
 
 Test a cabbage for its food value. Estimate in particular 
 the amount of water it contains. Are they wholesome or not ? 
 
 Where is the native home of these Mustard family vegeta- 
 bles ? What is the life duration of most of them ? Where 
 do they store their excess of food material ? 
 
 Compare cabbage, turnip, and kohl-rabi seed with mus- 
 tard. Examine radish seed. 
 
60 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Why does grated horse radish lose in strength in stand- 
 ing ? What do radishes bring in " returns" to the producer? 
 How are radishes regarded by the Chinese and Japanese ? 
 
 9. POLYPETALOUS FlOWERS OF THE RoSE FAMILY 
 
 Kinds and place of growth. Various forms of the poten- 
 tillas, often called " yellow strawberries," or five-fingers 
 strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, and the loild roses 
 are obtainable at the season, early June, when this study 
 is contemplated. Observe, in every case, if you gather the 
 flowers, where they flourish most luxuriantly ? 
 
 Plants and flowers. Observe any peculiarities about the 
 plants, as to habit of growth, stem and leaf, and, in particu- 
 lar, the number of petals, stamens, and pistils, and determine 
 whether the different parts are borne on the receptacle (as 
 in buttercups, which these flowers often resemble) or that 
 some different arrangement exists. What relation exists 
 between the calyx and the ovary ? Determine the form of 
 the inflorescence. Make a drawing of an individual flower 
 and flower plan and diagram of the inflorescence. 
 
 Plants of this family with use. Examine all possible ref- 
 erence books and make a list of plants cultivated for orna- 
 ment and for use that belong to the Rose family. The 
 number of " small fruits " furnished by this family is very 
 large, and they are the chief source of the commercial value 
 of the " berry " crop supplied to the great city markets. 
 
 Compare wild berries with the cultivated kinds and note 
 the improvements brought about by cultivation. 
 
 For the student in the northern part of the United States, 
 there is no more appropriate place to study how new or 
 better fruits are produced than in connection with the fruits 
 of this family. Every pupil whose home has a fruit garden, 
 or even vacant land, is able, if he so desires, to do some- 
 thing along these lines. 
 
I 
 
 A MANUAL OF BOTANY 61 
 
 Grafting is the common method of improving the varieties 
 of apples, pears, phims, cherries, and other fruits. It is 
 now commonly combined with selected seedling production. 
 The method of operation is : first, to plant large numbers 
 of seeds procured from choice, vigorous, and hardy apples 
 (or other fruit), and when old enough, graft the choice seed- 
 lings with the desired varieties, the result being a combina- 
 tion of inherited and acquired qualities. (The method of 
 grafting may be given by the instructor.) 
 
 Budding, different in operative procedure, has the same 
 ends obtained by similar methods. 
 
 Selection of seedlings is a prolific method of producing 
 new varieties. ]\Iany plants, apples, pears, plums, peaches, 
 berries, potatoes, etc., do not reproduce "true" from seed. 
 The seedlings will seldom resemble the parent in all points. 
 Hence by careful selections from great numbers of choice 
 seedlings, fine plants may now and then be found, superior 
 in all particulars. In this manner many line fruit varieties 
 have originated. 
 
 The principles of pruning may be learned by demonstra- 
 tion at the hands of the instructor. 
 
 10. Flowers of the Apple Family or Subfamily — 
 Pears, Apples, Crahs, and Hawtiiorxs 
 
 The trees. Examine, if possible, the trees as they grow 
 in the orchard or occur wild in woodlands and observe in 
 particular their size and form, also the tendency to thorns 
 that most forms show, more especially wild or seedling 
 varieties. Discover the effect that cultivation has on the 
 thorny condition of the trees, also upon the size and condi- 
 tion of the fruit. 
 
 Flowers. Fxamiue a Hower cluster. What is the inflo- 
 rescence ? What advantage is there in having several flow- 
 ers near each other in the same cluster? Look at a flower. 
 
62 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 In what ways does it resemble and how does it differ from 
 the flowers of the last exercise ? What do you find regard- 
 ing the odor? In general, what may the odor of flowers 
 mean ? With reference to the appearance of the leaves, 
 when do apples bloom ? After reading the characteristics 
 of the Rose family, how would you characterize this fam- 
 ily ? (It is often combined with the Rose as one of the 
 subfamilies.) Draw a flower, a flower plan, and a diagram 
 of the inflorescence. 
 
 Practical uses. Find the various uses of these trees. 
 What is a quince ? How do pears differ from apples in 
 bloom and fruit? What are the chief commercial kinds 
 of apples ? Why do apples bloom, as a rule, every 
 other year? Where is the native home of each of these 
 fruits ? How are apples kept from one season to another ? 
 Recall this family when you study fruits, especially the 
 pome. 
 
 Why do hawthorns, as a rule, have such disagreeably 
 scented flowers ? Do insects frequent the blooming trees, 
 and if so, what kinds ? When do these trees bloom 
 with reference to the high tide of bees, butterflies, and 
 flies? What use has the hawthorn in ornamental plant- 
 ing? 
 
 What result would come from grafting an apple on a 
 hawthorn or wild crab? What is meant by "stock" 
 for grafting ? How may tender fruits be made more 
 hardy ? 
 
 Learn the characteristics of the best varieties of apples 
 from the actual specimens ? 
 
 What is evaporated fruit ? What is cider ? Peaches, 
 pears, etc. are canned. Why not apples ? 
 
 How long is required for apples to bear fruit from the 
 seed ? What returns do apples and kindred fruits give to 
 the grower ? Where are the most important apple growing 
 regions of the United States ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 63 
 
 11. Flowers of the Prune Family or Subfamilv — 
 
 Plums, Peaches, Apricots, and Cherries 
 
 (Stone Fruits) 
 
 The trees. Which of these trees liave you seen ,!:^rowing ? 
 How can you tell the fruits from each other ? AVhat two 
 main forms of inflorescence have cherries ? When with 
 reference to the leaf appearance do cherries and i)luins 
 bloom ? What general name is applied to these fruits ? 
 What kinds are wild in the United States and in your own 
 vicinity ? 
 
 Flowers. Examine the flowers in the same manner that 
 you did the apple. How do these flowers differ from apple 
 flowers and also from other flowers of the Rose family ? 
 (They are commonly grouped, along with apples, etc., in 
 that family.) ^lake drawings as in the last exercise. 
 
 Characterize the family by comparison with the charac- 
 teristics of the Kose and the Pear families. 
 
 Uses. What uses have these trees and shrubs ? Why 
 are peach and cherry pits unwholesome ? How are cherries 
 regarded by the Japanese ? How does an almond differ 
 from a peach ? Make a list of all the fruits furnished by 
 this family which are useful to man. What are prunes ? 
 What are prunelles ? Discover the use of the wood of the 
 different kinds. 
 
 AVhat has ]\[r. Burbank done to improve the fruits of this 
 family ? 
 
 Where are the peach, prune, apricot, and cherry growing 
 centers in the United States ? 
 
 Which require more room, cherry or apple trees ? 
 
 Diseases. Apples, and in fact all the fruits named in this 
 lesson and the last, are subject to many insect and fungous 
 diseases. What damage is caused ? What means are suc- 
 cessful in preventing these troubles ? AVhat are some of 
 the principles of " sprayin;j; " ? Why ought spraying 
 
64 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 to be practiced by every one owning a fruit garden or 
 orchard ? 
 
 12. Flowers of the Pea Family (Irregular Poly- 
 
 PETALOUS Forms) — Peas, Clovers, Sweet 
 
 Clovers, Lupines, Locusts 
 
 General statement. The Pea family is an immense one 
 (7000 species), and many kinds may be found in your vicin- 
 ity, but only a few bloom before the middle of June. Read 
 the family characterization and keep it in mind while 
 studying the flowers obtainable. 
 
 Flowers. Observe the form of the inflorescence and the 
 size, color, and odor of the flowers. Examine the flower 
 parts for number and for relationship to each other and to 
 the receptacle. In particular, compare the petals to each 
 other as to shape. What do you find ? Flowers in which 
 the parts of the same whorl are unlike in shape are irregu- 
 lar. Observe that all the kinds you have access to are 
 similar in general form to a pea flower. The different parts 
 have received special names. The large upper petal is 
 the banner, the side petals are tvings, and the two united 
 lower petals are the keel. 
 
 Carefully examine the stamens, count them, and find out 
 how they are connected to each other. 
 
 Look up the terms monadelphous and cUadelphous. Where 
 are the stamens situated? Look for the pistil. How is it 
 related to the stamens ? Are anthers and stigma in such 
 relative position as to permit pollen to pass readily to the 
 stigma? In fruit, what does the pistil become? 
 
 Carefully draw plan of inflorescence and of a single 
 flower, also side and face views of flower and each kind of 
 petal, enlarged. 
 
 Pollination. Flowers constructed according to the pea 
 type are especially adapted to pollination by insects. The 
 color, odor, and inflorescence, as well as the peculiar shape 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 65 
 
 of the flower and the relation of all its parts, adapt these 
 flowers for such a method. 
 
 Field observation. If possible, examine blooming clover- 
 plants for insect visitors, and observe how they proceed in 
 order to obtain the nectar. Remove the flowers from a fresh 
 red-clover head and draw out the nectar by suction. Com- 
 pare the bees that frequent the red and white clovers. 
 Are they the same kinds ? Recall that the irregular flowers 
 of the orchid were also special contrivances for securing in- 
 sect pollination. What would you infer about irregular 
 flowers in general ? 
 
 Table. Make a table of flowers of the Pea family which 
 you are able to find from any sources, using the following 
 form : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Inkloui 
 
 CENCE 
 
 Flowkk 
 
 (.01,0 It 
 
 F LOWER 
 
 Size 
 
 Where 
 Native 
 
 Use 
 
 Value as soil restorer. The Pea family (Leguminosce is 
 the technical name) is a remarkable one in many ways, but 
 in no way more so than in the peculiar sfpnbiotic relation 
 that all members have with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. (See 
 Bacteria study.) 
 
 If in season, pull or rather dig up a red clover, sweet 
 clover, alfalfa, or white clover; wash all the dirt from the 
 roots and examine the numerous tubercles caused by the 
 bacteria. A chemical test will show a large amount of 
 nitrogen in these swellings. 
 
 Nitrogen is a powerful plant tonic, producing great 
 activity in purely vegetative (growth) work. The soil may 
 obtain this plant food in four ways : — 
 
66 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 1. Naturally, by small amounts of atmospheric nitrogen 
 combining in the ground with bases to produce nitrates. 
 
 2. Naturally, by the decay of nitrogen-fixing bacteria 
 nodules ; often introduced artificially by sowing clover, 
 alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, etc. 
 
 3. Artificially, by animal waste, as manures. 
 
 4. Artificially, by the introduction of nitrate of soda as a 
 commercial fertilizer. 
 
 Of these methods the best is by the growth of the legume 
 plants and eventual plowing under. This adds to the soil 
 the nitrogen of the bacteria nodules and humus from the 
 decaying plants. 
 
 A test that could be easily carried out, if the pupil has 
 land to experiment with, is to take four plots of equal size, 
 side by side, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Spade them all, and in July sow on No. 4 crimson clover. 
 Cover No. 3 with ordinary stable manure about Oct. 1. Do 
 not touch 1 and 2. The following spring spade all the plots 
 and plant to some one crop, as sweet corn, beets, or cabbage. 
 Sow carefully and evenly over No. 2 nitrate of soda and 
 powdered earth mixed (at the rate of 100 pounds of nitrate 
 to the acre.) Put nothing on No. 1. Compare the harvest 
 on each plot for early maturity, quantity, and quality. 
 
 13. Flowers of the Violet Family (Irregular) — 
 Violets and Pansies 
 
 Plants and place of growth. Plants ought to be obtained 
 in flower and also when the fruit is well advanced. For 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 67 
 
 flower study any species will do, but for the deistogmnous 
 flowers the common blue violets are particularly suitable. 
 They abound in open and moist woodlands. 
 
 In many violets all the leaves arise from the short under- 
 ground stem (radical). Other violets are said to be stemmed ; 
 that is, have stems above ground, bearing leaves. In both 
 forms the flowers are on slender peduncles. How many are 
 there to each peduncle ? 
 
 Flowers. Examine a single flower. Is it regular or not? 
 What is the sepal and the petal number? What is the 
 common petal color? Examine carefully the lowermost 
 petal and find a S2)ur at its base. After drawing side and 
 face views of the flower, remove the petals and count the 
 stamens. What is peculiar about all the anthers and the 
 filaments of the two lowermost? 
 
 Study the pistil. Draw the flower, flower plan and one 
 of the lowermost stamens. 
 
 Examine a plant bearing cleistogamous flowers, i.e. 
 flowers lacking petals, commonly subterranean. Determine 
 the flower parts and notice the color. Compare the seed 
 number in the capsules produced by each kind of flower. 
 What kinds of pollination has the violet ? 
 
 Some related questions. How do you explain the remark- 
 able variety of color in pansies ? 
 
 Some other plants have cleistogamous flowers. What 
 ex])lanation can you give for the two methods of reproduc- 
 tion ? What seems to be the purpose of the spur in flowers ? 
 Kecall other flowers with spurs. 
 
 14. Flowers of the Highest PoLYPETALyT:. The Car- 
 rot Family (Parsley) — Meadow Parsnip, 
 Sweet Cicely, Caraway 
 
 The plants. Plants of the Carrot family are common, 
 but only a few bloom early in the season. The characteris- 
 
68 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 tics of the family are marked and ought to be easily dis- 
 covered. Many of the species are poisonous. 
 
 Observe the characteristic inflorescence, also the almost 
 universal presence of divided leaves. 
 
 Flowers. Are the umbels simple or compound? 
 
 Observe the presence or absence of small bracts at the 
 base of the primary or secondary rays of umbel. Which 
 flowers of the umbel mature the earliest ? Study the in- 
 dividual flower and observe the insignificant calyx and the 
 small petals of the corolla. How many petals are there 
 and what peculiarity of form do they have ? 
 
 Look at the stamens. How do they correspond in num- 
 ber with the petals ? How can the discrepancy be ex- 
 plained ? What evidence do you notice for any special 
 form of pollination ? 
 
 If any fruits are formed, crush, and discover whether any 
 odor is apparent or not. 
 
 Draw a diagram of the inflorescence, a single flower (in), 
 and the flower plan. 
 
 Uses. Look up the uses of plants of this family. What 
 vegetables are found here ? What are caraway, dill, anise, 
 and coriander ? Why is a wild parsnip poisonous and the 
 garden form harmless? Why will frost kill our garden 
 carrot and yet not hurt the wild carrot (the same species)? 
 How did this plant ever become a weed, or was the vegeta- 
 ble produced from the weed form ? Which is the reasonable 
 theory ? 
 
 Test carrots, parsnips, celery, and celeriac for food value. 
 
 15. Shrubs and Trees of the Dogwood Family — 
 Dogwoods (Cornel Species) 
 
 Plant habit and habitat. These are common shrubs and 
 small trees of woodland, thicket, and swamp. If you are 
 able to study them as they grow, do so and observe any 
 
i 
 
 A MANUAL OF BOTANY 69 
 
 peculiar feature of form and foliage, and also of bark color. 
 Taste the bark. 
 
 The iutiorescence is one of the type forms. What is it? 
 What is the size of the separjite tlowers ? (Some kinds 
 have the flowers in heads, surrounded by Umje colored bracts, 
 often mistaken for the flower.) 
 
 Flower. Study the flower parts. What do you observe 
 about the se})als ? How are the petals arranged in tlie bud ? 
 Can you think of any advantages to the i)lant in having so 
 many small flowers clustered ? Make drawings showing a 
 diagram of inflorescence, a flower, and flower plan. 
 
 Use. Read about the Black Gum tree or Tupelo; also 
 find out what you can about '' Kinnikinik " also the use of 
 these trees as ornamental forms for parks and lawns. 
 What particular value have the Siberian and the native red 
 dogwood as ornamental trees ? If possible, look carefully 
 at the common flowering dogwood flower, with its large 
 white or pink bracts looking like petals (petaloid bracts). 
 The ti-ue flowers are insignificant. What possible advan- 
 tage is such a scheme ? What use has the wood of this 
 tree? 
 
 IG. Flowers, with United Petals (Gamopetalous, 
 
 Sympetalous) of the Primrose Family — 
 
 THE Shooting Star 
 
 The plant habitat. This plant is very common in prairie 
 regions, often almost completely taking possession of the 
 ground. In many places it is found on the grassy "brows" 
 of bluffs and cliffs. Study it in its place of growth, if con- 
 venient. 
 
 What leaf arrangement has this plant ? What is the 
 inflorescence ? What name do you apply to the common 
 flower stalk? What })osition have the flowers? What 
 position have the buds ? 
 
 Flower. l^]xamine flowers as to color, form, and parts. 
 
70 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 How many divisions on each whorl ? Observe carefully 
 the corolla. How are the petals related to each other? 
 Flowers of this character with the petals more or less in 
 one j)iece are gamopetalous or symiietalous. In what direc- 
 tion do the petals point ? Look at the stamens. Upon 
 what are they borne ? AVhat i)ositions do they occupy with 
 reference to the petal lobes ? 
 
 Draw a diagram of the inflorescence and the flower plan 
 and a side view of the flower. 
 
 Read in reference books the subject, " Primrose," particu- 
 larly the English forms. What are cowslips ? 
 
 Prairies. What are prairies ? How is their presence 
 exjdained? What part of the United States is largely 
 prairie ? Why did the Indian and the old settler burn the 
 prairie ? When was it done, and what effect had this on 
 plant life ? Why do prairie flowers differ so markedly from 
 woodland species. If possible, compare the wood phlox and 
 the prairie phlox, or compare Other related species of the 
 two localities or environments. What is meant by the 
 latter term ? 
 
 17. The Peculiar, Highly Specialized Flowers of 
 THE Milkweed Family — Milkweed (Asclepias) - 
 
 Forms. The true milkweeds form a large group of plants 
 having very characteristic features, but most of the species 
 bloom too late to permit them to be in condition for school 
 study. There are a number of June-flowering forms, how- 
 ever, and the genus has such remarkable specialization for 
 insect pollination that an examination of the flowers will 
 be amply repaid. The instructor may have to explain the 
 complicated pollination mechanism, as the flower is very 
 difficult for the student to master. 
 
 The plant. Examine the plant and observe the character 
 and arrangement of the leaves. Observe the peculiar sap 
 (latex). What is its color and consistency ? Touch the 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 71 
 
 tongue to the sap. What is the taste ? Of what special 
 use may this latex be ? What is the inflorescence ? 
 
 Flower. Study a single flower. What is the number and 
 color of the sepals and petals ? Test the flower for odor. 
 Is it pleasant? Within the petals and attached to them 
 notice a corona of five concave hoods, each bearing within 
 a Closed horn. Observe the stamens and determine their 
 number and place of origin and the short filaments and 
 anthers. How are these related to each other and to the 
 stigma ? Notice a peculiar inflexed. membranous tip to 
 each anther. Seek carefully for the pollen 7nasses and ob- 
 serve, if possible, the peculiarity of their attachment. 
 
 Draw a flower plan, a flower, and details of the corona and 
 stamens. 
 
 Action toward insects. In your reference books read about 
 the relation of these plants and bees. Notice in summer the 
 charm the common milkweed flowers have for butterflies. 
 What attracts them ? What do you find, occasionally, has 
 happened to insects ? May the flower be said to have be- 
 come too highly specialized when it catches insects ? 
 
 Latex. Make a list of all the plants you know that have 
 milky sap or latex. 
 
 Collect a lot" of milkweed " sap," heat it slowly and care- 
 fully over a smoky fire. What happens ? Put your heated 
 product aside to cool. Examine and test for odor, color, 
 consistency, and toughness or elastic qualities. 
 
 What plants furnish rubber ? How is it prepared ? 
 Why is it valuable? Burn a piece and observe all the 
 phenomena. Put a small piece of pure soft rubber into a 
 vial of chloroform. What happens ? Try another piece in 
 bisulphide of carbon. (Keep both away from flame.) 
 
 Make some scars in the fruit capsules of the large garden 
 poppies. Observe the latex and allow it to dry. What 
 color has it ? What have you produced ? (Read about 
 opium.) 
 
72 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Find out some facts about " spurges/' a great family of 
 plants with milky latex. 
 
 18. The Salver Form of Gamopetalous Flowers of 
 THE Phlox Species (Polemoxium Family) 
 
 The plants. Common and showy plants of many life 
 habits. Study them as they grow if you are able. What 
 common name is applied to many forms ? 
 
 Flower. Examine a flowering branch for the character 
 and arrangement of the leaves and the form of the inflores- 
 cence. Study a single flower. What do you observe about 
 the calyx and the peculiar form of the corolla? Such a 
 form is said to be salver form. The long slender base is 
 the corolla tube, and the lobed, expanded part of the flower 
 is the lijnb. Is the flower with petals separate or united ? 
 Is there any evidence of odor ? Do all the flowers of a 
 corymb open at once or are there some buds and blossoms? 
 Seek for the stamens. Where are they borne and how many 
 are there ? Where are the anthers with reference to the 
 stigma? Examine the pistil. Is the ovary superior or 
 inferior? How many styles are there? 
 
 Draw a flower on its peduncle to show both calyx and 
 corolla. Make a drawing showing position of stamens. 
 Draw a flower plan. Draw a pistil. 
 
 Pollination, etc. What scheme of pollination does the 
 phlox have ? Of what importance is the genus as a garden 
 flower ? What does " phlox " mean ? 
 
 Flowers with long tubes. Name as many flowers as 
 you know with long corolla tubes. What insects visit 
 such flowers ? What mouth parts would be necessary 
 with such forms ? Correlate the sucking tongue of a but- 
 terfly, inserted into the tube, with the position of anther 
 and sticrma. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 73 
 
 19. The Lipped ok Labiate Flowers of the Mint 
 Family — Ground Ivy 
 
 The plants. The JVlint family is one of the most natural 
 l)lant groups to be found in the temperate portion of the 
 United States. Square stems, odorous leaves, and two- 
 lipped flowers are special features that are very conspicu- 
 ous, and the student may easily familiarize himself with 
 these prominent characteristics. Nearly all species are late 
 in blooming, and about the only one obtainable in June will 
 be the plant named above. The student may commonly see 
 it growing in deep shade about dwellings, and so learn of 
 its appearance and habits. 
 
 Examine the whole flowering stem. What peculiarity of 
 the stem is apparent ? How are the leaves arranged ? 
 Smell the leaves before and after rubbing them gently. 
 What do you observe? 
 
 Flowers. How are the flowers situated ? What is their 
 size, color, and peculiar form ? In particular, what special 
 features has the corolla ? How many petals are there ? 
 Flowers of this form are labiate, or lipped. Look for the 
 stamens. Where do you find them and how many are 
 there ? What color have the anthers and what is the situa- 
 tion of these structures with reference to the stigma ? Do 
 stigma and anther seem equally mature? Examine the 
 ovary {m). What do you find ? 
 
 Draw, as usual, the flower features. Draw also a flowering 
 stem. 
 
 Uses of mints. Make a table of useful and ornamental 
 plants belonging to this family. There are 3000 kinds. 
 What are the mints of commerce? How is peppermint 
 made ? (See leaf. Applied Work.) 
 
 What are essential oils ? ^Nlake a list of them, and observe 
 the number furnished by this family. Read about. ''men- 
 thol " in your reference books. 
 
74 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 20. The Labiate or Irregular Flowers op the 
 FiGWORT Family — Figwort 
 
 The plants. The Figwort family produces few early 
 flowers, but it happens that the type genus, figwort, blooms 
 in time for study. 
 
 Observe the great resemblance of some of the stem and 
 leaf characters to those found in the mint family. Rub the 
 leaves, as in the ground ivy. What result do you have? 
 What is the inflorescence ? 
 
 Flowers. Examine the separate flowers and observe the 
 odd form and arrangement of sepals and petals. What is 
 the color of each ? Find the number and place of attach- 
 ment of the stamens. 
 
 Compare the flower, with its form and parts, with that of 
 the ground ivy. 
 
 Examine the pistil. How do its parts differ from those 
 of the ground ivy ? How does the number of ovules differ ? 
 
 Draw inflorescence and flower plan and flower, side view 
 and laid open to show stamens. 
 
 What plan, if any, has the flower for pollination ? Do 
 all the flowers mature at the same time ? Do bees frequent 
 the plant ? 
 
 Make a list of useful plants belonging to this family ; in 
 particular, foxglove, musk plant, mullein. Find some value 
 for each one on your list. 
 
 21. Parasitic Plant Demonstration 
 
 Forms obtainable. It is possible in most places, either 
 early or late in the season, to procure examples of broom 
 rape, squaicroot, heechdrops, Indian 2'>ipe, or dodders. All are 
 equally good to show the profound modifications caused by 
 parasitism. 
 
 The plant features. Compare the color of the plant under 
 
A MANUAL OF 130TANY 
 
 75 
 
 consideration with ordinary green plants. Examine or learn 
 the place of growth of the plant and explain the peculiarities 
 of color you observe. Upon what food does the plant live 
 and from what source is the food obtained? How do the 
 plants obtain such places iu which to grow ? What advan- 
 tage, if any, to the plant, is this parasitic habit ? 
 
 Examine, if at hand, the inflorescence and flower, and make 
 such notes and drawings as are necessary to show the results 
 of your observation. In particular observe the number and 
 size of the seeds. What evidence, if any, of special pollina- 
 tion schemes ? 
 
 Table. Make a table of a number of plant parasites of the 
 seed plant group, using the following form : — 
 
 N.vMF OK Plant 
 
 Family of Plant 
 
 WlIEKK FoUNl 
 
 Peculiarities 
 
 22. Honeysuckles or Viburnums* 
 
 Forms. A number of the wild species, notably the smooth 
 red-flowered honeysuckle, and the cultivated bush forms are 
 suitable and easy of access. 
 
 If the species studied is one of the climbing forms, ex- 
 amine the method of climbing and the structure of the stem. 
 Observe also the leaf arrangement and any other peculiari- 
 ties of these organs. 
 
 Flowers. Examine the inflorescence. What type is 
 shown ? Examine the calyx and find its relation to the 
 ovary. What form has the corolla ? Study this structure 
 for color, size, number of lobes or petals, and the arrange- 
 ment of the latter into regular or irregular flower. 
 
 1 The highest in the rank of flowers except the composites. 
 
76 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 What is the shape of the tube ? (The viburnums hardly 
 ever liave tubes.) Is there any odor or brilliant appearance 
 to attract insects ? Look for the stamens. How many are 
 there and where are they borne ? Examine the pistil for its 
 parts. Examine the relative position and maturity of the 
 anthers and stigma for pollination devices. 
 
 Draw a spray, showing leaves and flowers; also a single 
 flower. Draw a flower i)lan. 
 
 Determine some of the ornamental or useful plants belong- 
 ing to the honeysuckle family. Why does this family have 
 this name ? 
 
 Rank in flowers. The more of the following characters 
 any flower possesses the higher in rank it is considered to 
 be: — 
 
 1. Ovary inferior. 
 
 2. Irregular corolla. 
 
 3. Gamopetalous. 
 
 4. Various modifications of stamen and pistil to insure 
 insect pollination. 
 
 5. Complex inflorescence. 
 
 23. The Composite Family (Aster Tribe) 
 
 The largest (15,000 species), highest rank, and most difficult for 
 the student to understand. Not many species bloom before June ; the 
 dandelion, fleabane, and ragwort being exceptions. 
 
 FLEABANES OR RAGWORTS. TUBULAR FLOWERED FORMS 
 
 General statement. The " head." Flowers of this family 
 are really a collection of small flowers of fewer or greater 
 numbers, borne on a large receptacle, and inclosed at their 
 outer margin by few or many small greenish or otherwise 
 colored bracts forming an involucre. The small individual 
 flowers are of one or two kinds : the central tubular forms 
 called disk Jloicers, and flattened marginal forms called ray 
 flowers. The latter may be absent (as in thistles) or all 
 
A MANUAL OF HOTANY 
 
 77 
 
 the flowers may be Hat in form (as in the dandelion). For 
 proper study a lens is a necessity. The collection of flowers 
 surrounded by the involucre is called a " head." 
 
 Study the head for size and color of each of the above 
 parts, observing the difference, if any, in color of disk and 
 ray. Determine the number of ray and disk flowers, at least 
 approximately. Look at the bracts of the involucre, and 
 observe the form, number, and arrangement. The student 
 is very apt to consider the involucre a calyx and so designate 
 it. Be careful about this. 
 
 The individual disk and ray flowers. Study each form care- 
 full}' (m), particularly the disk flowers. On the latter, find 
 a tiny seedlike ovary below, a cluster of fine hairs {pappus 
 calyx) just above, and above the latter a tube ending in five 
 teeth (petals). Projecting from the tube is a forked style, 
 closely invested by five anthers. 
 
 Drawings. Make the following drawings : side and face 
 views of the compound flower, a single ray and a single disk 
 flower (m), and a plan of the compound flower. 
 
 Problems. Why are the flowers of this family so numerous 
 in species and individuals ? What common devices for pol- 
 lination have been perfected ? For seed distribution ? Why 
 is this family considered the highest in the plant scale ? 
 (See No. 22.) 
 
 Useful applications. Make a table of useful and ornamental 
 plants belonging to the tubular forms of the family, using 
 the form given below as a guide. 
 
 Plants for Food with Ediki.k 
 
 Roots 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Stems 
 
 Flowers 
 
 Plants for 
 Ornament 
 
 Plants for 
 Medicink 
 
78 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 24. The Composite Family (Chicory Tribe) — The 
 Dandeliox. Flowers all Flat or Strap Form 
 
 Statement. The dandelion, owing to its size and extreme 
 abundance, is a flower much more satisfactory to study than 
 the fleabane or ragwort, but, as it shows a different type of 
 head, does, not give, alone, a complete idea of the composite 
 types. The dandelion as it grows ought to receive attention. 
 The soil in which it flourishes, its love of sunlight, and its 
 season of bloom are also to be considered. Their great 
 numbers ought to be carefully explained, if you can discover 
 any good reasons. 
 
 The head. Examine the compound Jloiver and observe 
 the size, color, and appearance, and the arrangement of the 
 involucral bracts. How does the latter feature vary in bud, 
 full bloom, and fruit ? Compare the height above the 
 ground of the flower, and the downy head of fruit, succeed- 
 ing, and explain. 
 
 The flower. Study a single flower and observe the 
 inferior, single-seeded ovary, bearing at its summit the hair- 
 like calyx and the flattened corolla. Look at the hairs 
 {pappus) (m), and observe length and general appearance. 
 Examine the corolla. What are the features of the tube and 
 the limb ? How many petals are united to form the corolla ? 
 Look at the projecting tube of anthers inclosing the top of 
 the pistil. How many stamens are there and upon what are 
 they borne ? Examine the pollen {m) for quantity and for 
 form (Jip). Dissect out the pistil and find all its parts. 
 
 Drawings. Make a drawing of the side view of the com- 
 pound flower, of a single flower, a complete pistil, and some 
 pollen grains. 
 
 Problems. What method of pollination has the dandelion ? 
 What method of seed distribution ? Where are dandelions 
 found ? Explain their wide distribution. 
 
 Table. Make a table of plants belonging to this tribe, 
 using the following form : — 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 79 
 
 Namk 
 
 Nativk IIomk 
 
 Pakt U«ki) 
 
 For what Used 
 
 25. Some Practical AppticATioxs of Flowers 
 
 1. The iiroduction of honefj. Examine such flowers as 
 white and sweet clovers, heartsease, buckwheat, bass wood, 
 and other plants from the nectar of which the bees make 
 honey. Examine, if possible, honey made from any of them. 
 What is honey ? 
 
 2. The production of perfumes. Take any very fragrant 
 flower, as certain roses, collect a quantity of perfectly fresh 
 ones in a clean jar, suspend a small fine sponge saturated 
 with pure olive oil, and close tightly. Press out the oil 
 after twenty-four hours and observe its odor. Try other 
 methods, as saturation with alcohol and heating gently to 
 drive it off, through a tube leading into weak alcohol, or 
 pure oil. Test for odor. The results will be imperfect, but 
 you can make a perfume. Find out what flowers are used 
 in large amounts for this industry. 
 
 3. The production of drugs. Cover English marigold 
 {calendula), chamomile, or dry arnica flowers with 70% 
 alcohol, and allow to remain for a week. Observe the 
 change in color and odor, also taste of the alcohol. You are 
 making drugs in a crude way. 
 
 4. Quickly dry rose i)etals, violets, or other fragrant 
 flowers and observe qualities of the dried products. 
 
 5. Gently cook violets in sugar syrup until thoroughly 
 saturated ; strain and dry. You have a candied flower. 
 
 6. Buy a little crocus saffron, and extract color with 
 dilute alcohol. Some flowers are used for dyes. 
 
 7. Cut flowers. Examine a number of florists' sliow 
 windows, and make a list of the flowers most commonly 
 
80 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 exhibited for sale. Obtain their prices aud make a table of 
 results. 
 
 SP:CTI0N VII. STUDY OF FRUITS (VARIOUS FRUITS) 
 
 General statement. The various fruits in the Fall Fruits 
 Exercise are to be referred to, but the exercises here given 
 take up the subject more specifically and with greater detail. 
 The fruit definition should be ever before the student, viz. : 
 A seed-plant structure, consisting of the ripened ovary 
 alone or with its attached or adjacent flower parts, the pur- 
 pose of the whole being, first, protection to the seed, and 
 finally seed dissemination. Many fruits also furnish food 
 for the successful seed growth. 
 
 Types. There are many types, each characterized by the 
 possession of certain peculiarities of size, form, and structure, 
 but all are separated into dry and fleshy (or 2mlpy) fruits, 
 according to the amount of fluid they contain when ripe. 
 Fruits again may open spontaneously (are dehiscent) by valves 
 or 2^ores, discharging the seed, or the latter may only escape 
 by the decay of the fruit {indehi scent). 
 
 The following types are named with a common example 
 of each. Each of these examples should be carefully 
 studied externally and in section and a set of characteristics 
 formulated. 
 
 Drawings should be made to show the result of the study. 
 
 
 
 Examples 
 
 1. 
 
 The grain. 
 
 maize, oats. 
 
 2. 
 
 The akene. 
 
 sunflower. 
 
 3. 
 
 The samara. 
 
 maple, ash. 
 
 4. 
 
 The nut. 
 
 acorn, hazel. 
 
 5. 
 
 The dry drapes. 
 
 walnut, hickory. 
 
 6. 
 
 The pod. 
 
 bean, pea. 
 
 7. 
 
 The capsule. 
 
 figwort. 
 
 8. 
 
 The cone. 
 
 pino. 
 
 9. 
 
 The drupe. 
 
 cherry, apricot. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 81 
 
 10. The berry. 
 
 11. The hesperidiuiu. 
 
 12. The pome. 
 18. The pepo. 
 
 14. The aggregate fruit. 
 
 15. The confluent fruit. 
 Ki. Tiie accessory. 
 
 gooseberry, grape, tomato, 
 orange, lemon 
 
 (a modified berry). 
 apple, 
 cucumber, 
 blackberry, 
 pineapple, 
 strawberry. 
 
 If time i)ermits, study other fruits and refer them to the 
 proper type. jNIake necessary drawings. 
 
 In each fruit seek to determine the particuhar scheme 
 adopted on the part of the phant for seed scattering and the 
 external agent that combines with the plant to produce the 
 desired result. 
 
 Fruit table. INIake a table of fruits as follows : — 
 
 Common 
 Name 
 
 Fkitit 
 Name 
 
 Where 
 Native 
 
 Juicy 
 OR Dry 
 
 Dehis- 
 cent OR 
 
 Not 
 
 Seed- 
 scatter- 
 ing 
 Scheme 
 of Fri'it 
 
 Ex- 
 ternal 
 Agent in 
 
 Uf'E 
 
 Uses of fruits. Numberless experiments may be performed 
 by the student under the direction of the teacher obtaining 
 from fruits some of the following useful products : — 
 
 1. Evaporated apples. 
 
 2. Prunes. 
 
 3. Raisins. 
 
 4. Dried. 
 
 6. Candied. 
 
 6. Canned. 
 
 7. Jellies. 
 
 8. .Tuices. 
 1>. Ciders. 
 
 10. Vinegars. 
 
 1 1 . Sugars. 
 
 12. Oils. 
 
 1.3. Starches. 
 
 14. Rinds. 
 
 1.'). Wines. 
 
 16. Alcohols. 
 
 17. Perfumes. 
 
 18. Proteids. 
 
 10. Flavoi-s. 
 
 20. Medicines. 
 
 21. Relishes. 
 
 22. Foods. 
 
 23. Drinks. 
 
 24. Fibers. 
 
 25. Ilium inants. 
 20. Miscellaneous. 
 
PART II 
 
 OPTIONAL PRELIMINARY STUDIES 
 
 SECTION I. SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Order of study. ^Vllen you examine any object in the 
 laboratory, the proper method of procedure is as follows : — 
 
 1. Discover all you can about it with the unaided eye. 
 
 2. When small, use a hand lens or magnifying glass. 
 The sign {m) in this book refers to such an instrument. 
 
 3. If the object is very small, the compound microscopic 
 may be required. The signs (Ip) and (Jip) refer to low and 
 high powers of this instrument. The parts and use of a 
 compound microscope ought to be familiarized by reference 
 to charts or books furnished by instrument makers. 
 
 4. After a thorough study of the object, drawings are to 
 be made showing all that you have discovered. 
 
 5. Finally, complete notes, descriptions, or other written 
 work are to be made, showing all that you have discovered. 
 These are to be preserved in connection with the drawings. 
 
 Tools for work. The instruments named in Order of Study 
 together with certain others, as the projection lantern and 
 the opaque projector, will enable you to see the object. To 
 assist in handling the object other tools are sometimes used, 
 as needles, scissors, forceps, scalpels, and, at times, apparatus 
 of different kinds. 
 
 The projecting lantern, which throws upon the screen images 
 from the lantern or microscope slides, is a very important laboratory 
 help, supplementing the compound microscope, and is often used in 
 well-equipped laboratories. The advantage derived is often very great, 
 saving time and labor, and insuring that all pupils see just the impor- 
 tant features of structure most essential to a proper understanding of 
 the subject. 
 
 82 
 
 I 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 83 
 
 Character of work. All drawings ought to be made with 
 well-sharpened and medium-hard pencils, or, preferably, with 
 a fine pen and India ink; the outline should be clear, dis- 
 tinct, and accurate ; every important feature should be prop- 
 erly and neatly labeled; and all written work ought to be 
 in good l)lack ink. In everything the standard should be 
 accuracy, completeness, and )ieat appearance. 
 
 Preliminary work. Study the compound microscope by the 
 aid of the book furnished. Examine permanent preparations 
 given to you, and make sketches to show each as it api)ears 
 under the microscope. The preparations may be mounted 
 letters, plant cells of various kinds, fibers of other materials. 
 The object of this work is to familiarize you with the use 
 of the compound microscope, and to practically apply what 
 you have learned. 
 
 SECTION II. FALL FLOWERS 
 (Introductory Work) 
 
 1. The Nasturtium or Other Simple Flower 
 
 Various species of plants, preferably simple forms, as Bouncing 
 Bet, geranium, or nasturtium, may be used for this study. The 
 nasturtium is particularly good, because of its abundance and the 
 large size of its parts. Tiie entire plant ought to be used. 
 
 Place of growth. In the study of a particular plant the 
 first step is to observe its place of growth and the character of 
 the soil ; that is, whether it is wild or cultivated, whether 
 the locality is wet or dry, and finally, whether the soil is 
 sandy, clayey, black and loamy, or has other peculiarities. 
 This peculiar place of growth is the habitat and is the first 
 subject to be investigated in the study of any plant, as it has 
 much infiuence on form and structure. 
 
 Associations. If flowers are wild, they may grow in little 
 communities by themselves, or they may be moi-e or less 
 intermixed with plants of other kinds. These pure or mixed 
 
84 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 collections of plants, growing in a given habitat, are called 
 associations. 
 
 The plant body. Observe the peculiarities of the plant form 
 and growth : habit, unbranched or branched, low or tall ; 
 leafiness varying in degree ; dry and harsh with scurf, 
 down, hair or bristles, or smooth ; color of various shades 
 of green, yellow, brown, or red ; the size, form, and division 
 of the root. 
 
 The leaf. Observe the size, form, and color of the expanded 
 blade, the degree of division, and the arrangement on the 
 stem. Crush the leaf to discover if there is any odor. Exam- 
 ine carefully with the lens to see whether the surface is 
 smooth or is covered with projections (scurf, hair, or bris- 
 tles) ; observe the method of attachment of the blade to the 
 stem by means of a longer or shorter stalk, or directly, 
 without this structure. 
 
 Inflorescence. Observe the inflorescence or flower bearing . 
 i.e. flowers borne singly or in clusters of various size 
 and shape (each cluster having a special name). Diagrams 
 will enable you to decide which form your plant possesses. 
 These may be drawn by the instructor. 
 
 In position the inflorescence is terminal, on stem or branch, 
 thus halting further growth for that year, or it is axillary 
 and does not so affect the plant. Observe the relation 
 between the size of the flower and the size and kind of 
 inflorescence. What forms would favor large flowers ? 
 
 The flower. (The flower is treated of in detail and rela- 
 tionship in Part I.) Observe the form, size, color, odor, and 
 number; beginning below, or on the outside of a flower, 
 note the different series of parts, each bearing a technical 
 name: (a) sepal, (h) petal, (c) stamen, (d) pistil ; observe 
 also the difference in form and color between the members 
 of the various series. 
 
 Drawings to be made. 1. The whole plant, if small, or a 
 leafy branch, if large. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 85 
 
 2. A single leaf, showing all its parts. 
 
 3. Diagram of the inflorescence. 
 
 4. Side and face views of a flower, natnral size or (m). 
 
 5. Other details as may be called lor. 
 
 Table of flowers. Make a table of all flowers obtainable 
 at time of study, using form here given. 
 
 Name 
 
 WUEKK 
 
 GuowiN( 
 
 Inflo- 
 
 UE8CEN<-K 
 
 Size 
 
 Tpe, IK Any 
 
 I 
 
 2. The CoMrosnM:, on Ct)MrLKX Flowers 
 
 General statement. A complete flower study is taken up 
 as a part of the work of the Study of Seed Plants, but it 
 is advisable for the student to become somewhat familiar 
 with the more characteristic flowers of the fall. V)j far the 
 larger majority of these flowers belong to a great family of 
 plants called the Compositae, Avhich is the largest of all the 
 plant families, containing some 15,000 species. 
 
 What is called a flower really consists of many small 
 flowers of one or of two forms collected together in a head, 
 which is surrounded at its base by a number of small, usu- 
 ally green structures (bracts) forming an involucre. 
 
 One of the two forms mentioned above is flat and elon- 
 gated, colored, often brightly, and narrowed at its base into 
 a white, or otherwise colored part, which usually bears 
 scales, bristles, or fine hairs above, and a single seed below. 
 This form of flower may compose the whole head, but more 
 generally it is arranged around the outside of the head in 
 fewer or larger numbers. From their position these flowers 
 
86 REPRESENTATIVi: PLANTS 
 
 are called rays or rai/ flowers. Why is such a name appro- 
 priate ? 
 
 The second form is a tu])iilar, more or less elongated 
 structure, usually five-toothed at its upper end, and bearing 
 below, the structures named in the first form. From its 
 position those flowers are called disk flowers, and the whole 
 number combined is called the disk. Why are these terms 
 used ? 
 
 Projecting from the top of the disk flower, or from near 
 the middle of the ray flower, are forked structures, com- 
 monly tightly inclosed in a yellowish enlarged part or 
 sheath. These two structures are the reproductive bodies 
 (pistil and stamens) of the flower, and they are considered 
 in detail in another place. 
 
 The special flower. Study carefully the particular plant, 
 provided that it bears one or more heads of flowers. Learn 
 all that you can about the flower in its place of growth, 
 whether in a shady or open place, in water or swamp, ordi- 
 nary dry land or in very dry places, as sand or rock. These 
 several situations give rise to three diverse plant associ- 
 ations: the water-plants (Hydrophytes), ordinary plants 
 (Mesophytes), and very dry land plants (Xerophytes). Ob- 
 serve also whether the plants grow singly or grouped to- 
 gether in numbers. 
 
 Compare the flower carefully with the statements made 
 above and determine the particular feature of the flower head. 
 
 Drawings. Sketch, natural size, the head, face, and side 
 views, and name all the parts. 
 
 Sketch a ray and a disk flower (m), one or both, accord- 
 ing to the flower. 
 
 Sketch a bract of the involucre (in). 
 
 Description. Describe carefully, noting the size, color, 
 odor, parts, and arrangement on the flower stem ; note also 
 the character of the leaves, their number and arrangement. 
 If present, observe and describe the root. 
 
A MANUAL OF JiOTANY 
 
 87 
 
 Table. ]\[ake a table for coiiiparisoii of Coinpositae flowers 
 studied, using this funn : — 
 
 Namk of 
 
 Fl.ONSKK 
 
 Color of 
 Parts 
 
 Kayh 
 
 Disk 
 
 Invohu'rk 
 
 Otiikr 
 
 Fk ATI' RES 
 
 Questions. 1. How do composite flowers compare with 
 other flowers in number of individuals ? How do you ex- 
 plain ? 
 
 2. Why are so many of the composite flowers of the sum- 
 mer and autumn yellow in color ? (45 out of 100 kinds are 
 yellow.) 
 
 3. Why do red and yellow flowers, as a rule, have no 
 fragrance, or at least very little ? 
 
 4. Why are asters and goldenrods such hardy plants ? 
 (Hint: Are they dry and harsh, or soft and full of moisture?) 
 
 5. Why are there so many dandelions ? 
 
 6. Why, on an average, is there one composite flower for 
 every nine of all other kinds combined ? 
 
 (Study their fruits to help you in answering this question.) 
 Additional work. 1. Make a table shoAving the uses of 
 composites, preparing your tablet paper thus : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Where Found 
 
 Part Used 
 
 Use 
 
 llf-MAKKS 
 
 Arnica 
 
 Europe 
 
 Flowers 
 
 Medicinal 
 
 Liniment for 
 sprains 
 
88 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 2. Make a table of wild and cultivated composites thus 
 
 Color of 
 Flower 
 
 Cultivated 
 OR Not 
 
 Number and 
 Sizes of Seed 
 
 Kind of 
 Dispersal 
 
 3. A Study of Common Weeds 
 
 Statement. Weeds have such a vast influence on the wel- 
 fare of the farmer, and so indirectly on the people in general, 
 that a knowlege of the more important forms is very de- 
 sirable ; moreover, weeds are so common and show in a 
 marked way so many truths of botanical science that a 
 couple of weeks spent in their study is time well spent. 
 
 Collection for study. Bring into the laboratory samples of 
 the common weeds of your neighborhood, and study each to 
 learn its name, characteristics of growth and foliage, root 
 system, number, size, and method of the distribution of the 
 seeds. 
 
 When gathering weeds, observe the abundance of each 
 form, place of growth, soil, and presence or absence of 
 damaged foliage (by stock, insects, or other animals). 
 
 Successful weeds. Observation has shown that successful 
 plants possess one or more of the following points ; compare 
 your weeds with the headings in this list : — 
 
 (a) Can grow in any soil or very poor soil.* 
 
 (b) Produces great numbers of seeds.* 
 
 (c) Special methods of seed or fruit dispersal.* 
 
 (d) Deep fleshy taproots, or, 
 
 (e) Very many fibrous roots. 
 (/) Biennials (living two years). 
 (g) Annuals (living one season).* 
 
 I 
 I 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 89 
 
 seasons). 
 
 Perennial (living three or more 
 
 Few or no animal enemies.* 
 
 Strong odor or taste.* 
 
 Harsh or dry in nature of foliage.* 
 
 Not beautiful or strikingly pleasing.* 
 
 Seeds hard, and these or the fruits 
 
 (A) 
 
 (0 
 if) 
 (k) 
 
 (I) 
 
 (m) Seeds hard, and these or the fruits attractive to 
 birds.* 
 
 (?i) Not native to this country.* 
 
 (o) Native. 
 
 The characteristics that are starred are particularly favor- 
 able (from the standpoint of the very successful weed). 
 
 Definition. From all your observation and study try to 
 express in words a good definition for " a weed." 
 
 Table. ^Nfake a table of all the weeds you are able to find 
 in the vicinity of your home, using the following form: — 
 
 \ A M K 
 
 WlIEKF, 
 
 Native 
 
 Where 
 Gkowixg 
 
 Seki) 
 Keatiues 
 
 iN.ffRrOCS 
 
 OR Not 
 
 Use 
 
 Field work. 1. In any vacant lot near your home, meas- 
 ure off carefully a square plot of ground of some definite 
 size, five or more feet on each side, that contains a large num- 
 ber of weeds. On a large scale, make a map of the plot, stat- 
 ing the kind of soil, amount of moisture, and shade. 
 
 2. Now carefully determine the number and location of 
 each variety of weeds, showing by dots, circles, and other 
 means each different kind; if possible, representing each 
 plant by a mark. 
 
 3. By consultation with the teacher determine the name 
 of each kind. Carefully press and mount on your tablet 
 paper, leaf and fruit of each species, or make careful draw- 
 ings of the same. 
 
90 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 4. Try to determine by reference to Successful .Weeds 
 what features are found in the more abundant weeds. Seek 
 in this way to find out some, at least, of the reasons for their 
 success, recording your conclusions on the page opposite 
 your map. 
 
 Reading. Read in the Government Bulletins how weeds 
 damage the crops, and note what is said of the loss caused 
 by them. (Government Bulletins are to be had free for the 
 asking.) 
 
 SECTION HI. A STUDY OF FALL FRUITS 
 
 Statement. Various burs, preferably the burdock and 
 cocklebur; downy fruits as the thistle and dandelion; 
 winged fruit as the ash, hop tree, or maple ; capsules, as the 
 evening primrose, Jimson weed, or others are easily obtain- 
 able for purpose of studying fruit and seed dispersal. 
 
 The burs. 1. Examine carefully the bur with the naked 
 eye and lens. Observe the general shape and numl)er, size 
 and particular form of the structures that make the fruit 
 a bur. 
 
 2. Compare the burs furnished by experimenting on your 
 clothing and find the form that clings most closely. Dis- 
 cover the reason, if possible, in the nature of the bur 
 covering, 
 
 3. Count the seeds in each bur studied. Observe, if pos- 
 sible, plants of the same kind growing in vacant lots. 
 Count the number of fruit heads in a good-sized plant, and 
 from these facts estimate the total seed production. (See 
 lesson on Weeds.) 
 
 4. Bur plants are very often " weeds." From your obser- 
 vations and what you have previously learned about weeds, 
 how do bur plants fill the requirements of a " good weed " ? 
 
 5. Record, from observation or reading, various agents 
 that carry burs from place to place. What advantage to 
 the plant is this dispersal of the bur? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 91 
 
 f). What enemies, if any, do tliese burs have ? (You 
 may hnd the fruits with the larva' of insects in them.) 
 
 7. How long does it take each bur i)lant to mature from 
 the seed ? 
 
 8. Draw each bur, natural size, and the hooks or struc- 
 tures that cling to animals. 
 
 The downs. 1. Examine carefully a thistle or other 
 downy structure. Is it the whole fruit or the single seed 
 that bears the down ? 
 
 2. Observe carefully the number and size of the hairy 
 structures that nuike the down, also whether they are 
 straight or wavy. 
 
 o. Observe in particular where the down is attached 
 to the seed. Why is the attachment generally above the 
 seed ? 
 
 4. Float a specimen in the air and observe the rapidity 
 of " settling down " to the floor. Blow on the down. Does 
 this action hasten or retard the process of sinking ? How 
 would the wind act on the down ? What connection do 
 you see between these observed facts and the general dis- 
 tribution of thistles and dandelions ? 
 
 5. Kecall, if possible, the " cotton " seen on June days, 
 where Cottonwood trees grow in the neighborhood. ^lake 
 a list of as many downy fruits as you are acquainted 
 with. 
 
 G. Examine the down with (Ij^) and observe the features. 
 Explain, if you iind anything worthy of record. 
 
 7. Make drawings of complete fruits or seeds, natural 
 size ; also of one or more hairs, (m) or (Ij)). 
 
 8. Describe clearly and accurately each down studied. 
 
 9. By reading, discover if any downs are of value to 
 man. 
 
 10. Explain, if you can, the results found in the following 
 " living problem " taken from the " prickly lettuce," a 
 ^' downy " weed introduced from Europe. 
 
92 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 (a) A square rod of waste ground had 20 large plants of 
 lettuce. 
 
 (6) Each plant averaged 10,000 seeds. 
 
 (c) The second year the plot had no more plants than it 
 had the year before. 
 
 (d) Why was there such an enormous seed production ? 
 and 
 
 (e) Why are there not more plants on the original plot? 
 
 Note. The Composite is the largest family of plants, and, as a 
 rule, the most abundantly represented by species in any locality. The 
 individuals also are numerous. Now, as one half of Compositie fruits 
 are down-bearing, what influence would this have on the abundance 
 and general distribution ? (See study of Compositse flowers. ) 
 
 Other fruits. 1. Study the vnnged fruits of ash, maple, 
 hop tree, or Ailanthus, and the winged seeds of pine, spruce, 
 catalpa, or birch. Observe the size, form, and adaptation of 
 each sort for dispersal by wind. Make drawings to illustrate 
 the results of your observations. 
 
 2. Examine the dry fruits of the evening primrose, Jimson 
 weed, poppy, or others of similar nature. How are the 
 seeds distributed? In these fruits what do you discover 
 about the size of the seed ? Are the seeds few or many, 
 hard or soft? 
 
 Conclusions. Write an essay on the dispersal of seeds, 
 based upon the results of your observations in the foregoing 
 studies. Make your statements clear and specific. 
 
PART III 
 
 A SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM IN DETAIL 
 
 SECTION T. THE ALGiEi 
 Type 1. Pleurococcus {Pleurococcus vulgaris) 
 
 Habitat. Examine trees, fences, walls, buildings, walks, 
 earth, or other objects for a powdery green coating. In what 
 position with reference to the sun do you find it most 
 abundant? What practical application could be made of 
 this peculiarity? 
 
 Examine before and after a rain and observe any differ- 
 ence in appearance, or dampen bark or wood covered with 
 the plant. Compare with a grass lawn under the same con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The green coloring matter observed in this plant and in the grass is 
 called chlorophyll, and is the cause of the green color of connnon 
 plants. What reason can you give for the increased brightness after 
 a rain ? 
 
 Study in detail. Examine with the lens. What do you 
 discover ? 
 
 Examine with the (Jp). Observe the minute, rounded 
 bodies. What color have they? Are they few or many? 
 
 Examine a temporary mount" with the {h})). Observe the 
 following : — 
 
 1 Thallus plants containing chlorophyll. 
 
 2 A temporary mount is made by taking a glass slide, placing on its 
 center a very small portion or a very thin cutting of the object to be 
 examined, covering with clean water, and then, overall, laying a cover 
 glass. See to it that there is always a full supply of water between 
 the two gla.sses; otherwise air will get in and spoil the view. Hefer 
 back to this direction, if necessary, in future studies. 
 
 93 
 
94 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 1. The rounded structures (cells) are the individual 
 plants. Are they equal in size? Observe a clear, outside 
 layer {cell icall) and the green-stainod interior {cytoplasm 
 colored with chlorophyll.) 
 
 2. Observe that some single cells are oblong in form. 
 What do you conclude from these observations? 
 
 8. By moving the slide, discover, if possible, forms with 
 partitions, dividing them into two, three, or four parts. 
 
 Observe, further, that these combinations vary much in 
 the completeness of the division into cells. This shows 
 how pleurococcus reproduces and is called cell division. 
 
 Cell division. Cell division is the simplest manner by 
 which a plant can reproduce itself. It is simply the division 
 of a cell into two parts that may or may not remain tem- 
 porarily attached. This division may be repeated for a 
 greater or less number of times. 
 
 Drawings and description. Make drawings showing all the 
 results of your observations, and remember that all drawings 
 are to stand the test of neatness, accuracy, clear outlines, and 
 proper naming. Write a careful description, embodying in 
 it answers to ail the questions asked in the preceding 
 sections. 
 
 Green plants. Green plants, i.e. those which contain 
 chlorophyll, are able to secure or make their own food from 
 the mineral substances that are in the earth, water, or air. 
 Such plants are independent. Apply this statement to the 
 pleurococcus. Where is the food su})ply taken from? 
 
 An alga is a plant of very simple structure containing 
 chlorophyll, usually living in the water. Our plant is an 
 alga. Do its observed habits bear out this statement ? In 
 all places that you find the plant growing, what can be said 
 about it ? (Refer to habitat.) 
 
 3. Algae have various colors, the color due to chlorophyll 
 being often obscured by other tints. Pleurococcus, how- 
 ever, is true chlorophyll green. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 95 
 
 An experiment. Soak some pleurococciis powder in al- 
 cohol, in a vial overnight, and study at the next laboratory 
 period. Observe the color of the alcohol, and of the pleuro- 
 coccus cells (/ii>). What conclusions do you make ? 
 
 Some final questions. 1. How simple may a plant be and 
 yet do all that is necessary for life and reproduction ? 
 
 2. What would you say as to whether pleurococcus has 
 any " old age " or not ? 
 
 3. Why is this plant so universally distributed? 
 
 4. How small, actually, is pleurococcus ? 
 
 Tyi'p:s 2 AND 3. Nostoc axd Oscillatorta (or Lyxgba) 
 
 Habitat. These algjc may be found in still water, espe- 
 cially if somewhat impure. Both may be given to you pre- 
 served in formaldehyde solution. There are many forms, 
 particularly of oscillatoria. 
 
 Nostoc colony. Examine a nostoc colony (the jelly-like 
 mass), and observe its color, form, size, and consistency. 
 What does the naked eye reveal, if anything, in the interior 
 of the mass ? 
 
 Nostoc structure. Prepare a temporary mount and ex- 
 amine with the (hj)). Observe, scattered through the jelly 
 film, numerous necklace-like threads (filaments). Examine 
 carefully for color, and shape of cells, and their variation 
 in size and number in the necklace. How does the color 
 compare with that of the pleurococcus ? Are the cells larger 
 or smaller than in that algie? Observe in particular larger 
 cells and their position in the filaments. How do you ex- 
 plain the varying position ? How may this alga multiply ? 
 What use may the jelbj have ? 
 
 Drawings of noctoc. ])ia\v to show the results of your 
 observation. 
 
 Oscillatoria. Examine oscillatoria or lyngba with the 
 naked eye. What do you find regarding the general ap- 
 pearance ? 
 
96 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Structure. Examine with the (Ip) or with the (hp), 
 according to the kind furnished, using as before a tem- 
 porary mount. How do the cells compare in shape with 
 those of nostoc? Are they more or less loosely attached to 
 each other ? How could you make a filament like oscilla- 
 toria from a nostoc necklace ? What shape have the free 
 ends of the filament? How do you explain? (Think of a 
 hollow rubber ball.) Observe the color and other features. 
 
 Drawings. Make sketches showing all the features dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Comparison of the algae. Compare pleurococcus, nostoc, 
 and oscillatoria, with reference to the arrangement of cells. 
 Observe the change from single cell to filament. 
 
 Table. Record the comparison in a table thus : — 
 
 
 Grows 
 Where 
 
 Appearance 
 
 Cell 
 Form 
 
 Name 
 
 Eye 
 
 ???. 
 
 COMP. 
 
 Mic. 
 
 Pleurococcus 
 Nostoc 
 Oscillatoria 
 Lyngba 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cell 
 Arrangemeni 
 
 The blue green algae. 1. Blue green algae (nostoc, oscilla- 
 toria, and many others) have some relationship in structure 
 and habits to fungi (studied later) and are often found in 
 water-supply reservoirs. Discover their importance in such 
 places and the methods necessary for their removal. (Con- 
 sult for this purpose good reference books.) 
 
 2. These algse are by some phiced in a group with the 
 bacteria (to be studied later), called the fission plants, be- 
 cause of their method of reproduction. 
 
 Conclusion. Keep in mind all these forms. What really 
 
A MANUAL OV BOTANY 97 
 
 constitutes the individual ])laiit ? What observations have 
 you made that form this couelusion? 
 
 Typp: 4. Hydkodictiox (Water Nkt) 
 
 Habitat. This alga is found in comi)aratively stagnant 
 water, and appears at first glance much like the filamentous 
 algai to be investigated later {dadoplun-a, vancheria), but 
 study shows it to be far different. It may be grown with 
 considerable success in aquaria. 
 
 Structure. Examine (/y>) and m. Observe the very peculiar 
 attachment of the cells to each other. What is formed by 
 this attachment? AVhat appropriateness has the term 
 loater net? What is the distribution of the chlorophyll? 
 Compare (in this particular) with the vaucheria. What do 
 you find regarding the size of the nets ? Are all alike in 
 size and shape of the " meshes " ? 
 
 Reproduction. Examine a cell of the largest size with a 
 microscope of comparatively high power. Possibly you 
 may find the contents assuming a netlike appearance. 
 This indeed happens ; the old cell wall breaks down, and the 
 tiny net escapes as a glove-fingerlike structure. This is 
 the common method of reproduction. How will this ex- 
 plain, in part, the varying size of the nets ? While examin- 
 ing the large cell look for oil globules. 
 
 Drawing. Make drawings showing nets of various sizes; 
 also a single cell, the largest you are able to find. 
 
 Explanatory note. Water net is a remarkable relative of 
 pleurococcu.s, each large cell producing myriads of exceed- 
 ingly small zoospores which never escape from the large 
 mother cell, but finally arrange themselves in such relation- 
 ship to each other that when they begin to grow, tiny nets 
 are the result. Such a close connection of cells, otherwise 
 independent, is called a colony. 
 
 What advantage can there be in such an arrangement? 
 
98 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Is this condition more or less complex than the simple cell 
 combinations of pleurococcus ? How might such colonies 
 be useful to animal life? 
 
 Type 5. Spirogyra Species ^ 
 
 « 
 
 Habitat. These plants are the common pond scums, seen 
 in ponds, slow streams, and ditches. They are also com- 
 mon in springs. They are easily grown in the laboratory 
 and in aquaria. 
 
 Appearance. Observe the plant as it grows in the aqua- 
 rium jar. Find out all you can with the unaided eye. 
 What is its color, habit of massing together, and position 
 with reference to the surface? Observe the presence or 
 absence of gas bubbles. With a forceps take up a very 
 small portion and observe the form of the plant as you slowly 
 remove it from the water. Press between thumb and linger 
 and observe the feeling. Compare some standing in the 
 shade with another specimen on which the sun is shining. 
 What do you notice ? 
 
 Study with lens. Take a small portion by means of the 
 forceps, place on a slide, cover with water and a cover 
 glass (a temporary mount), and examine with a lens. What 
 do you find with regard to the form of a separate or single 
 plant OY filament? (Your specimen is probably made up of 
 very many such plants, about the real character of which 
 more will be learned later.) 
 
 Experiment. Take a small portion of the aquarium 
 material, place in a small vial, pour alcohol on it, cork, and 
 set aside. Observe at the end of fifteen minutes. What is 
 the color of the alcohol ? This is the test for chlorophyll. 
 Keep your vial material for future use. 
 
 Structure of filaments and cells. Examine your mount 
 {Ip.) What now do you observe regarding a single thread 
 
 1 There are many kinds. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 99 
 
 (filament) of the plant? Try to follow a single fila- 
 ment from end to end. Look very carefully for markings 
 of any kind along the filament. You ought to be able to 
 distinguish two kinds of these, viz. : (1) cross lines at 
 equal distances, really circular partitions between the cells, 
 and (2) what appear to be zigzag lines. What are the 
 colors of the two kinds of lines ? What color has the re- 
 maining ])art of each cell ? 
 
 Demonstration by a student : Let a student take a large 
 open-moutlied cylindrical jar and with a piece of green chalk 
 draw a spiral line on the inner surface. Compare the 
 appearance of this mark with the ai)pearance of the zigzag 
 line of the cell, and from it deduce the true nature and 
 position of the marking. 
 
 Effect of iodine. Apply diluted iodine to your prepara- 
 tion and observe the change in appearance. Are the 
 spiral markings more or less distinct than before ? What 
 color do they now have ? What do you observe scattered 
 along their course? These spiral bands are chloroplasts 
 (green substance) and the round or oval bodies are nodules. 
 
 Nodules. Examine a nodule (Jqi) in an unstained speci- 
 men. Examine the same specimen stained with iodine. 
 You observe a change of color, really to a bluish purple, 
 if the spirogyra has been in the sunlight. 
 
 Experiment. Take a little starch, mix with water, and 
 add a drup of dilute iodine. What do you observe and 
 what do you now infer concerning nodules ? The experi- 
 ment is the test for starch. Eemember it. 
 
 Cell structure (hj)). With an iodine stained specimen and 
 (hp) examine the cell very carefully for a brownish body 
 near the center, the nucleus. Observe if possible its exact 
 shape, the strands attaching it to the spiral band, and a 
 round spot, the nucleolus, within it. Observe any irregularity 
 of the chloroplast and how it terminates at each end of the 
 cell. Does it continue into the next cell or does it stop ? 
 
100 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 What transparent substance might occupy the seemingly 
 unoccupied parts of the cell ? This seemingly unoccupied 
 space in the cell is in reality filled with cell liquid and is 
 often called the vacuole. 
 
 End of filament. Examine the end of a filament, (Ip) or 
 (hj)). What is the shape of the end? Explain, if possible. 
 
 Species of spirogyra. Examine different kinds of spiro- 
 gyra for varying numbers of chloroplasts. How many 
 kinds do you discover ? How do they compare with refer- 
 ence to size, color, or cell structures other than the chloro- 
 plasts ? Such differing kinds are called species. Spirogyra 
 is a,geniis name. The two names with the genus first, followed 
 by the species, constitute the scientific name. All plants 
 have such names in universal use. 
 
 Reproduction. Conjugating spirogyra. If specimens are 
 given to you showing conjugation, look for the parallel fila- 
 ments, the short tubes (conjugating tubes) connecting adja- 
 cent cells; also any change in the cell contents. These 
 cells which are uniting by the connecting tube are called 
 gametes and the process shown is known as sexual reproduc- 
 tion, or the production by cell union of a spore (called by 
 various names, zygospore, zygote, and later, oospore). Plants 
 or cells (in plants consisting of single cells) thus uniting are 
 known as gametophytes. In spirogyra, although a filament 
 of many cells constitutes the plant body, in reality, each 
 cell of sucli a filament can exist independently. If you see 
 dark oval bodies in tlie cells, the other paired cells being 
 empty, they are the oospores, or reproductive cells, formed 
 by the union of the cell contents of the two connected cells. 
 If possible, note the various stages in the process. Read 
 about the purpose of these cells in the life history of 
 spirogyra. 
 
 Drawings. Make the following drawings to show the 
 results of your observations : (1) a mass as it appears with 
 hand lens; (2) a filament of at least ten cells (?p) ; (3) a 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 101 
 
 cell with parts of those adjacent {h[)) ; (4) same as (3), but 
 stained with iodine; (5) an end cell {Jp) ; (G) cells of other 
 species of spirogyra; (7) conjugating spirogyra (Jp) and 
 oospores {hp) ; (8) filament after application of salt solu- 
 tion ; (9) cell division (if observed) (Ip). 
 
 Cell division. In spirogyra that is fresh and bright green, 
 try to discover in the same filament lonrj and short cells. 
 How could you obtain the short cells from the long 
 ones ? If you find such a condition, it means the repro- 
 duction of the filament by vegetation, multiplication, or cell 
 division. In this method how could a single filament, in 
 time, fill a small si)ring or pool ? 
 
 Experiments. To fresh living s[)irogyra, temporarily 
 mounted, add strong solutions of sugar or salt, and observe 
 the effect on the chloroplast band and other cell contents. 
 An action called plasmolysis is taking place; read about 
 this in reference books. 
 
 Examine material growing in bright sunlight. Try to 
 perfect some plan for obtaining the gas thrown off. (In- 
 structor may arrange experiment, with the idea of determin- 
 ing the nature.) The plant is making food from the minerals 
 in the water by means of its chlorophyll-stained cytoplasm, 
 the sunlight being the direct stimulus. The gas thrown 
 off is waste matter (to the plant in this process) and is, 
 at least in large part, oxygen. The process is called 7>/io?o- 
 synthesis, which is the food-making process of all chlorophyll 
 plants. 
 
 Problems. 1. What effect would this alga have on the 
 purity of pond water ? What benefits would come to the 
 animals living in such water ? 
 
 2. Why does it grow in relatively quiet waters ? 
 
 3. Why does it not grow in the ocean ? 
 
 4. Why is it not a good plant for the aquaria ? 
 
 5. Why is it often called "brook silk " ? 
 
 6. Why does it make starch '* 
 
102 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Type 6. Zygnema ' 
 
 Habitat and appearance. The plant grows in localities 
 similar in nature to those where spirogyra is found. It 
 may often be distinguished by its yellow hue. It is easily 
 grown in the laboratory. 
 
 Structure. Examine a very small portion of the alga 
 (remember that all the green water plants, or scums, and 
 the pleurococcus, besides many otlier forms, all containing 
 chlorophyll and living in water, and lowest in the plant 
 scale, bear this name) and treat it as you did spirogyra, (m), 
 (Ij)), (Jip), unstained and iodine-stained. Observe that the 
 cells are shorter relatively than those in spirogyra, and 
 especially observe the very different form of the two clilo- 
 roplasts found in each cell. Examine very carefully and 
 see if you cannot compare the chloroplast to an irregular, 
 many-pointed star. 
 
 By very close observation find an almost transparent 
 connection between the chloroplasts, containing within it the 
 nucleus. This feature is seen more easily in the iodine- 
 stained preparation. 
 
 Reproduction. This alga reproduces as spirogyra does. 
 Seek for either form of reproduction found in that plant. 
 Make careful drawings covering the important features 
 you have discovered. 
 
 Comparison, ('ompare spirogyra and zygnema by means 
 of this table : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Spirogyra 
 Zygnema 
 
 Color 
 
 Feemng 
 
 Cell Ratio. 
 Length of 
 Diameter 
 
 Size 
 
 CULORO- 
 PLA8T8 
 
 1 A plant allied to spirogyra. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 103 
 
 The green algae. Observe for spirogyra, zygnema, and all 
 other green (as distinguished from tlie hlue green forms, as 
 oscilhitoria) alga3, that the water in which they grow, how- 
 ever unsightly the floating plants may appear, seems to be 
 very clear and bright, and is, in fact, reasonably pure and 
 well adapted to animal life. How do you explain this by 
 the results of the preceding studies? What relation may 
 these algre have to animal life? How may the pond scums 
 be injurious to man? 
 
 Plants living in water are called hydrophytes. How does 
 their environment benefit them ? Carefully consider this 
 subject, for it brings to you a new field of work called 
 Ecology, or the relation of a living organism to all its sur- 
 roundings, mineral, plant, and animal. These algte are the 
 lowest members of the water association. 
 
 Type 7. Desmids 
 
 Habitat. These very small algae are more or less common 
 in sluggish streams, ponds, and ditches, where water plants 
 are plentiful. They may be obtained in some abundance by 
 dipping water from such situations, particularly from near 
 the bottom, and straining it through a fine meshed cloth. 
 After straining it through the cloth, put the sediment into 
 bottles with a little water. 
 
 Structure. As these plants are practically invisible to the 
 unaided eye, the compound microscope is necessary. Examine 
 the material provided, (Ij^) <^r Q^P)) ^^^^ seek for small sym- 
 metrical objects, green in color. Study carefully this 
 symmetry of form. How does it manifest itself? Ex- 
 amine the cell wall for any mark or peculiar feature that 
 would cause the symmetry. How is the chlorophyll ar- 
 ranged ? Is it in any way covered up or concealed ? Try 
 to remove it by repeated treatment with alcohol. If you 
 are able to decolorize it, apply dilute iodine and observe 
 the results in the remaining cell contents. 
 
104 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Movement of cytoplasm. Look in particular for any 
 movement of the cytoplasm, especially near the clear ends 
 of the crescent form, Closterium ; this feature is cell 
 circulation. Look for any movement of the entire cell. 
 This is quite often manifest. If observed, watch carefully 
 for some time to see if you can discover the method. 
 
 Reproduction. Look for cells in the process of division, 
 the common method of reproduction. Occasionally, conju- 
 gation of two individuals occurs. Consult reference books. 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings showing different forms you 
 have seen, also any other features o))served. 
 
 Use of plant. Of what use may these small plants be 
 in the economy of nature ? (The economic importance.) 
 
 Classification. The three algae last enumerated, and studies 
 of which are given, are related forms and belong to a group 
 of algae called the Conjugate. This introduces to your atten- 
 tion the arrangement of all plants in groups, large or small, 
 and this arrangement is called classification. 
 
 The group names commonly used are, from the highest to 
 the lowest, as follows ; kingdom, branch, class, order, family, 
 genus, species, and finally the individual. The scientific 
 name ( used the world over for accurate designation) consists 
 of the genus and species names, the latter written after the 
 former. From time to time you will be given appropriate 
 examples to familiarize you with such names, and to learn 
 their value in the description of plants. ( See spirogyra.) 
 
 Type 8. Cladophora^ 
 
 Habitat. This is one of the most common of all algae, 
 being abundant in ponds, ditches and on rocks in streams 
 and brooks, and on rocks and piling of the Great Lakes. It 
 is also found in ocean water. It is of the easiest culture in 
 aquaria. 
 
 1 Branch bearing. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 105 
 
 Appearance. Examine by feeling and with the naked eye. 
 How do the fihxnients compare in size and color with those 
 of the algae already studied ? Observe whether it normally 
 floats free, or is attached. 
 
 Structure. Examine (/^:>). Observe the color, also the 
 distribution of the chloroplasts, the thick cell walls, and 
 the oil globules. Trace a filament for some distance. Is it 
 simple or branched? Would you consider this plant more 
 or less complex than spirogyra? Give some reasons for the 
 answer. Where do the branches always originate with refer- 
 ence to the part of the cell from which they come ? What 
 shape has each branch ? 
 
 Look carefully for cells in the filament that are divid- 
 ing. Where are they situated ? ( Cladophora grows in size 
 by the elongation of the cell tips with subsequent division. 
 Branches ai-e formed in the same manner. The plant rapidly 
 increases in size in this manner and by breaking up forms 
 new plants.) 
 
 Associated algae. Commonly attached to the filament are 
 many small brown structures (diatoms) or one-celled brown 
 algae. Remember this when the diatoms are studied. 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings showing the results of your 
 study. 
 
 Reproduction. This alga reproduces by zoospore formation, 
 which always occurs at night and hence is seldom seen. 
 Single cells give rise to spores having cilia (called by the 
 above name) which move about for a time; then, after a 
 period of rest, germinate and form new filaments. Under 
 certain conditions these spores, also called zoogonidia, unite 
 (conjugate), producing an oospore (zygospore of many 
 authors), which in time produces a new filament. 
 
 What advantage is the double method of reproduction? 
 
 Nature of filament. The cells of this alga, while quite 
 similar to each other, do not all do the same work; certain 
 basal ones serving for attachment to rocks, etc., terminal 
 
106 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 cells elongate aiul divide, and others produce swimming 
 zoospores. Tliis alga, therefore, is not a collection of cells, 
 almost or quite independent (as in spirogyra), but is truly a 
 many-celled plant. 
 
 Type 9. Vauchekia^ 
 
 A BRANCHED ALGA 
 
 Habitat. One species of this alga is a common form about 
 springs, tile drains, in clear ditches, and other similar places. 
 Another form is very common on the ground among carna- 
 tions and other thickly bedded plants in greenhouses. It 
 is a rare alga in the school aquarium, on account of the 
 great difficulty of growing it in such confined places. 
 
 Appearance. Examine material brought from the green- 
 house or other source. Observe the color and general 
 appearance of the plant as it grows, and in particular, the 
 matted appearance of the patches, particularly evident in 
 the water form. 
 
 Examine mounted specimens, both land and water forms, 
 if they are accessible, (Ip). Select as bright and fresh 
 green a filament as can be found, and trace it, if possible, 
 from end to end. Observe the form of the growing tips ; 
 also seek for branches, and if found, observe the angle they 
 form with the main filament. Carefully observe the dis- 
 tribution of the chlorophyll. Seek for any evidence of 
 cross cell partitions. (The plant is, in theory, many-celled. 
 At least it possesses many nuclei.) 
 
 Examine portion of the filament (hp) for the chloroplasts 
 and oil globules. 
 
 You will find practically the same features in both forms, 
 except that all parts are larger and more vigorous in growth 
 in the water species. 
 
 Germinating spores. Among the filaments examined seek 
 
 1 Green Felt. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 107 
 
 for oval or globular bodies with green filaments grow- 
 ing from one or both ends. These structures, if found, are 
 (jerminatimj spores, (i)robably zoospores) showing how the 
 plant grows from these reproductive structures. 
 
 Rhizoids. In the land material mentioned above, seek for 
 root-like branched structures. If found, what color have 
 they? What might be the use of the same? Recall where 
 the plant grows. Seek for the same in the water material. 
 These structures are rhizoids. 
 
 Sexual reproduction. On either kind of material, seek for 
 short branches, api)roximately at right angles to the filament, 
 but differing in arrangement of the two coni})onent parts in 
 the two kinds under consideration. In the greenhouse form 
 there are two branches, adjacent, one round or oval, and the 
 other cylindrical and strongly curved, which finally unites 
 its tip with the spherical body. This latter body is the 
 oogonium containing the female gamete (uniting cell) or 
 oosphere and the curved body is the antheridium contain- 
 ing the male gametes. Observe whether these structures 
 are marked off from the main filament by a cell wall or not. 
 What color has each? In the mature antheridium, find 
 some that have lost their contents. What has become of 
 the same? The result of this reproductive process, by the 
 union of the contents of two cells, is a sexual spore, or 
 oospore which is a structure th<at commonly remains dor- 
 mant for some time (resting spore) before germinating. 
 What use could they serve in the plant history ? Observe 
 the thickness of the cell wall of the oospore. Why is the 
 wall so thick? If the form is the one growing in water, 
 both gametes organs are found on the same branch, and 
 there are several oogonia. 
 
 Drawings. ISIake the following drawings if the material 
 will permit : — 
 
 1. A complete filament with its branches and growing 
 tips. 
 
108 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 2. A portion of a filament (hj)). 
 
 3. Germinating zoospores (Ip). 
 ■4. Rhizoids (Ijy). 
 
 5. Different stages in the formation of antheridia, oogonia, 
 and oospores (I})). 
 
 Observations in conclusion. Observe, by feeling, the rough- 
 ness of this alga as c*omi)ared to spirogyra, hence its com- 
 mon name, " green felt." Observe the numerous small 
 animals that swim about among the filaments comparable 
 to wild animals in a forest. These are of many kinds^ the 
 lowest forms of animal life (infusoria, etc.). Of what ad- 
 vantage to the animals may this growth of algae be ? 
 
 Plants with filamentous plant body, many nuclei, but 
 Avithout apparent cross partitions are called Cienocytes. 
 Compare with inucor. 
 
 Sujjplementary Observations on Filamentous Algoe. 
 Experiments 
 
 1. Observe the bubbles constantly given off by these 
 plants when in the sunshine. Collect the gas by placing 
 vigorous cladophora in an inverted test tube tilled with 
 water. Support the tube so that the lower end is below 
 the surface of the water in the aquarium jar. The process 
 will be very slow, but when enougli gas is collected, remove, 
 under instructions of your teacher, and test with a glowing 
 wood splinter thrust into the gas. What happens and 
 what gas causes such action? Or fill a test tube with 
 water, invert and insert a short-stemmed glass funnel stem 
 into the tube, and fasten the whole over vigorous algae. 
 This plan hastens the collection of the gas. These methods, 
 at the best, furnish a very slow accumulation of gas, pos- 
 sibly much mixed with air. In this gas making, the plant 
 is engaged in the very important work of preparing food 
 for its own use. Th,e crude materials are water and carbon 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 109 
 
 dioxide. Where does the plant obtain those substances '/ 
 From them starch or oil is made. Observe whether tlie 
 bubbles are formed when the alga is in a dark corner of the 
 room or early in the morning. From the results of these 
 observations what seems to be necessary for the manu- 
 facture of the gas (which is a waste product) and the 
 process of food making which produces the gas ? 
 
 2. The water and carbon dioxide for the manufacture of 
 starch or carbohydrate food is taken into the cell of the 
 alga through the cell wall according to the laws of absorp- 
 tion or osmosis, a physical phenomenon somewhat difficult 
 to understand. A number of experiments tend to illustrate 
 the principle, but all are rather elaborate and may with pro- 
 priety be demonstrated before the class. You ought to 
 consult the textbooks to find out what experiments they 
 give for this purpose. Some of them you may be able to 
 perform without aid. This simple procedure you certainly 
 can carry out : Soak a well-dried raisin, bean, prune, or 
 currant in water and observe the result. This in a homely 
 way illustrates food absorption by algae and all other 
 plants. How did the water get into the fruit or seed? 
 
 3. In all these experiments you will find that a mem- 
 brane (fruit or seed coat in the last) separates a thin liquid 
 (of small comparative density) from a much denser, com- 
 monly liquid, substance, and that a marked flow of the thin 
 liquid through the membrane into the denser substance is 
 the first phenomenon apparent to the eye. 
 
 4. In the algae we have the dense cell cytoplasm — the 
 cell wall and the surrounding water with the dissolved 
 minerals and other food materials. 
 
 Habitat. The jjlants studied in this exercise are common 
 on the rocky shores of New England. In the interior they 
 ^ Ascophyllum or Fucus. 
 
110 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 may be seen in large fish and sea-food stores, having been 
 shipped as packing for lobsters, crabs, and other sea foods. 
 
 General appearance. Examine the specimens furnished 
 and observe the peculiar feeling and consistency of the whole 
 plant. Of what does the consistency remind you? The 
 plants grow at tide level, where wave action is very strong. 
 How does the general nature of the plant fit it for such a 
 place of growth ? Observe enlargements here and thereon 
 the main axis. Cut one open. What is it ? What can be 
 its purpose? These structures are bladders. What is the 
 color of the plants? How does it vary from end to end? 
 Being an alga, it must contain chlorophyll. How do you 
 exi)lain the color observed ? 
 
 Branching and main axis. Examine the branching. What 
 do you observe on drawing a plan, showing all the branches, 
 properly proportioned? Such a method of branching 
 is called dichotomous. Examine the main axis, and 
 observe whether a holdfast at the large end as present or 
 not. The axis may or may not have a central line or ridge, 
 the midrib, and a lateral expansion, ivings, according to the 
 kind studied. 
 
 Branchlets and conceptacles. Examine the final divisions 
 of the axis, which in ascophyllum, in particular, feel like 
 the bladders. Cut one open. Is it hollow? These struc- 
 tures may be called branchlets. Examine attentively and 
 observe the minute brown spots or dots scattered over their 
 surface, or collected numerously in some branchlets. These 
 are concex)tacles and contain the reproductive gametes. In 
 fucus the fertile branchlets (bearing conceptacles) are quite 
 distinct, and commonly in pairs. 
 
 Reproduction. Examine {Ip) or {lip) prepared conceptacles, 
 and observe the anfheridia and oogonia. Their full explan- 
 ation may properly be left to the instructor as special 
 preparations are required in order to see all the reproductive 
 structures plainly. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 111 
 
 Consult also your reference books for the reproduction of 
 these seaweeds. 
 
 Drawings. Draw the whole plant, or both species, if ac- 
 cessible, naming all the parts ; also a branchlet enlarged, 
 showing conceptacles, and these structures from microscopic 
 preparations, charts, or lantern screen. 
 
 Economic value of algae. At this time it will be a valuable 
 piece of work for you to hnd out all you can aVjout the use 
 of the rockweed in the products made from it and how, in 
 particular, the Japanese use it and kindred seaweeds for a 
 large number of purposes. Consult all the reference books 
 at your command and record the results of your reading in 
 the form of a table, using the following plan : — 
 
 Name of Seaweed 
 
 Where Founi 
 
 Natire of the Use 
 
 MADE OF It 
 
 Name of the 
 Prouict 
 
 In this connection investigate further regarding the uses 
 alga? may have in the economy of nature, or their beneficial 
 or injurious effects on associated plant or animal life. 
 Find out what you can about the Sargasso Sea. 
 
 Type 11. Diatoms 
 
 Where found. These microscopic brown algae are abun- 
 dant in ponds, — near the bottom, — in springs, ditches and 
 streams, on all vegetation. Very common on some filamen- 
 tous algj^e, as cladophora. Very abundant as fossils, forming 
 diatomaceous earths. AEany may be obtained in the folhjwing 
 manner : Fix over a hydrant a fine-meshed cotton cloth and 
 permit the water to run through for some time. Observe 
 the sediment on dhe cloth and examine (//>) and {hp) for 
 
112 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 diatoms. A useless experiment in water systems supplied 
 by wells, but almost certain to yield good results from lake 
 or river sources of supply. From some source obtainable, 
 make a temporary mount and study carefully the profusion 
 of objects that appear under the microscope. Examine as 
 many forms as you are able to find in the mixture. What 
 is the color? Observe that many are transparent (these are 
 dead). Use (Ip) or Qq)) as necessary. Observe the similarity 
 of the ends. If possible, study the same diatom on differ- 
 ent surfaces. Compare with a box and lid for similarity 
 of form. Eind, if possible, many fine lines. Draw the 
 various forms and varying views of the same form. Ob- 
 serve the free brown forms for a slow motion ; also that 
 some forms are attached by stalks. Consult the books re- 
 garding the cause of this boatlike motion. 
 
 Fossil diatoms. Consult all the references to diatoms you 
 can find. What use is made of fossil diatoms ? What is 
 the substance in the diatom that makes it thus valuable ? 
 What is diatomaceous earth ? How do you account for the 
 great accumulations of this material ? What reasons can 
 you find for such peculiar cell structure ? 
 
 Type 12. Red Seaweeds 
 
 General statement. These often very beautiful forms of 
 algae are common along the shores of both oceans, and are 
 often seen mounted on paper as souvenirs of seashore visits. 
 They are often highly complex and exceedingly varied in 
 form. Unless well supplied with fresh material, the question 
 of reproduction will be out of place in the laboratory. Only 
 the more easily observed features will therefore be noted in 
 this exercise. 
 
 Appearance. Observe the wonderful variety of forms 
 assumed, flattened, ribbonlike, filamentous, feathery, coral- 
 like, and decide what forms your specimens show. Also 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 113 
 
 observe the variety of colors. Observe, in particular, tli« 
 manner of branching, and compare with that of the rockweed. 
 
 Experiment. Wet some dried specimens and note the 
 rapidity of t\\Q fresheninrj-uj) process. Also that some forms 
 are gelatinous, or very mucilaginous. If at hand, treat Irish 
 moss in the manner suggested and observe the results. 
 
 Drawings. Draw' i)ortions of several forms and briefly 
 describe, or take notes sufficiently full to characterize each 
 kind drawn. 
 
 Reading. Read about the seaweeds in good reference 
 books. Why is it that these algcC do not show any green 
 color ? How can you show experimentally that the plants 
 contain chlorophyll ? Of what advantage is the red color ? 
 Find out any uses to which these plants are put by man. 
 
 Type 13. Chara 
 
 Habitat. The plant grows abundantly in ponds, slow 
 streams, and lakes. Very common in park ponds and lakes, 
 often causing much damage and necessitating removal. It 
 is found at all depths from six inches to twenty or more 
 feet. It is not easily grown in laboratory aquaria. 
 
 Appearance. Examine the plant as it grows (if possible) 
 and observe its color, appearance, and direction of growth, 
 whether floating or erect. Take some between the thumb 
 and finger, rub and observe result. Smell of a fresh mass 
 of the plant. What effect or purpose may this odor have ? 
 Place some dried specimens in a vial and add diluted hydro- 
 chloric acid. AVhat do you observe ? How do you explain ? 
 What advantage to the plant may this condition of the stem 
 be? 
 
 Parts of the plant. Trace a main axis, often called a stem, 
 throughout its length. Observe at intervals a tchorl (circle) 
 of branches, and here and there a secondary smaller axis 
 bearing similar whorls. How many branches in a whorl? 
 
114 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 How do tlie whorls compare in the length of branches as 
 you approach the top or tijj of the axis? The very tip 
 looks like a bud and is called the apical hud. The branches 
 arise from the nodes and that part of the axis between two 
 consecutive nodes is called an internode. How do these 
 compare in length from end to end? 
 
 Structure. Examine a branch (Ip) and study the nodes 
 and internodes. How many branches at each node? What 
 do you observe on looking at the branch surface? Look 
 now at the surface of the main axis, and observe the similar- 
 ity of each to the other. You ought to see elongated cells 
 more or less spirally arranged. Examine a branchlet for cell 
 structure. The cells noted above in the main axis and 
 branch are called cortical cells. 
 
 Reproductive bodies. In material having gamete bodies 
 observe on a branch, at each node, two forms of reproduc- 
 tive structures, the female gamete (oosphere or oogonium) 
 above, and the male gamete (antheridium) below the branch- 
 lets. How do these differ from each other in form, size, 
 color, and markings? 
 
 Observe the oosphere more attentively, and find, if possi- 
 ble, spiral cells on the outside, and a large central cell 
 within (oospore), also a lobed margin or mouth. Crush 
 an antheridium and observe the plates composing it, also 
 the strange jointed filaments or sperms (those under water 
 move about, some entering into and uniting with the oosphere 
 to produce the oospore). The oospore, on germination, 
 produces a new plant. 
 
 Section of stem. Study a section of the axis (Ip)) and ob- 
 serve a large central internodcd cell and a layer of outside 
 cortical cells. Compare with the parts of the oogonium. 
 
 Drawings. Draw a plant, natural size, with the details, 
 showing a node, branches, branchlets, parts of the adjacent 
 internodes, and a cross section of the axis (/jv). Also a fertile 
 branch bearing the antheridia and the oogonia, and details 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 115 
 
 of the reproductive structures, plates, sperms, and an en- 
 larged oogonium, all (Ip). 
 
 Marl. Many small lakes supjjort a vast growth of this 
 plant, and it in reality produces from the chemical elements 
 found in the water a carbonate of lime preparation mixed 
 with other elements that foi-m marl. Ascertain the value 
 and use of marl in the manufacture of Portland cement. 
 
 SECTION 11. THE FLNGP 
 Type 1. Yeast ^ 
 
 Yeast preparations. Examine different forms of yeast 
 preparations furnished by the instructor, as yeast cakes, 
 compressed yeast, and liquid yeast. Observe in each the 
 peculiar odor. Where is yeast obtained ? Find out some- 
 thing, if you can, about its preparation on a large scale for 
 the market. Ask your grocer how long he can keep the 
 different kinds of yeasts. Find out how some of your 
 bread-making friends make yeast, and decide, after careful 
 comparison with the following study, if, after all, it is 
 really made, or is something that is grown or prepared. 
 
 Home experiments. jNlix for yourself, at home, yeast of 
 some sort with water, a little flour, and a small amount of 
 sweetening, and place where the mixture will remain warm. 
 Examine frequently the results. 
 
 Note. If possible, put the mixture in a deep, wide-moutliod bottle 
 that can be corked. When freshly mixed, light a taper and insert in 
 the bottle for a moment only. After the yeast begins to foam or 
 bnbble freely, cork for some hours ; then remove the cork and quickly 
 insert the taper lighted. Compare with the results of the first trial. 
 What gas is being made by the yeast ':* Compare by breathing into a 
 deep, clean bottle, and then trying the lighted taper for results. 
 
 Microscopic structure. Examine some prepared yeast mix- 
 ture with (Ip), and particularly with (hp), and observe the 
 
 1 Thallus plants without chlorophyll. - An imperfect fungus. 
 
116 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 size and shape of the yeast cells (really one-celled plants). 
 Do you find chlorophyll ? (The lower forms of plants lack- 
 ing this green color are called fungi.) Observe a large 
 round mark in the cell, a vacuole or vescicle, and surround- 
 ing this a more or less granular cytoplasm (all the cell 
 features ordinarily visible). 
 
 Effect of iodine. Mixed with the yeast are larger, more 
 irregular cells, with lines on the surface (starch cells). Add 
 dilute iodine, and observe the result to the yeast and starch 
 cells. Examine for cells of different sizes and cells of 
 various sizes placed end to end (as in a chain). This is re- 
 production by budding. 
 
 Caution. Do not mistake accidental contact for real chains. 
 
 Drawings. Draw yeast and starch cells and yeast chains, 
 scale of ^ in. for smaller cells. 
 
 Bread and yeast. Study bread making in the books, and 
 explain the part that yeast plays in this operation. What 
 effect has baking the bread on the yeast plants ? In what 
 great industries does yeast have an important share ? In 
 what ways may yeasts be injurious or harmful to man ? 
 How may their presence or growth be prevented ? Consult 
 the subject of fermentation. 
 
 Experiments and problems. Place a small and equal por- 
 tion of a compressed yeast cake in each of four bottles, viz. : 
 
 1. Filled with distilled water. 
 
 2. Filled with Sach's nutritive solution (for green plants, 
 consult reference books for formula). 
 
 3. Filled with distilled water to which a little starch is 
 added. 
 
 4. Filled with distilled water to which a little sugar is 
 added. 
 
 Observe the results. What does this show regarding the 
 food of this fungus ? How would you explain the discov- 
 ery of the first yeast preparation ? What are " wild yeasts " ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 117 
 
 What effect has yeast bread in digestion ? Which are more 
 wholesome, "light" or "unleavened" breads ? What is an 
 enzyme? Why is yeast used in "nonalcoholic'' drinks? 
 What is "root beer"? How do you explain the fact that 
 the yeast plants do not die in a dry yeast cake ? Why are 
 hops often used with yeasts? How may light breads be 
 made without yeast ? 
 
 Type 2. I^acteuia 
 
 General statement. Bacteria are very minute, one-celled 
 fungi (by some placed in another group called Fission fungi), 
 and related in some of their habits to molds and yeasts. 
 They are too minute to be observed by most pupils ; but 
 with proper manipulation of the (Jq)) (400 d.), it is possible, 
 when studying the yeast plant, to observe the very minute 
 dots, dashes, spirals, light or dark tinted, in more or less 
 constant vibration among the yeast cells. The discolored 
 patches on the bread and odor of decay are easily noted. 
 jMany are called germs, and some are frequent cause of 
 serious diseases, not necessarily directly by their presence, 
 but as often indirectly by the poisonous products they pro- 
 duce in their growth (toxins or ptomaines). Cases of poi- 
 soning from ice cream and canned meats are examples. 
 Kead in good reference books about bacteria, and the various 
 means employed to prevent them from injuring foods or 
 attacking the human body. 
 
 Experiments. Try some of the following experiments : — 
 1. Make some meat broth from beef, chicken, or fish ; 
 allow it to cool and then proceed as follows : Take four 
 small bottles, or preferably, test tubes, and number them 
 1, 2, 3, and 4. Into No. 1 i)Our a small quantity of the 
 cooled broth ; do the same with No. 2, but use some cotton 
 for a stopper. For No. 8, boil the bottle and reboil the 
 broth and while both are very hot, pour the broth into the 
 
 1 Bacilli, Micrococci, Spirilli. 
 
118 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 bottle and stopper with a cork ; do the same for No. 4, but 
 use cotton for a stopper. Place all in some moderately 
 warm place and watch carefully for any change in appear- 
 ance and odor. After about three or four days, what do 
 you find, and how do you explain ? 
 
 2. Boil some pieces of potato until cooked but still firm. 
 Plunge a tumbler and saucer into the boiling water, and 
 with a boiled needle, pick out a piece of potato, place on boiled 
 saucer, under boiled tumbler; surround the base of the 
 tumbler with cotton. Allow the second piece of potato to 
 cool and place on the other saucer without any precautions. 
 Set both away in a warm i)lace for four or five days, and 
 then examine for appearance and odor. What do you find ? 
 Explain as before. 
 
 The experiments may be varied by placing the tumbler 
 in a cool place. 
 
 3. Take two small cubes of fresh meat ; dry one quickly 
 and thoroughly over a fire, taking care not to cook it. 
 Place both pieces under tumblers for three days and then 
 examine. Observe the results, and explain them. 
 
 Matters to investigate. Read about the various methods 
 of preserving foods from spoiling ; i.e. plans to prevent the 
 growth of bacteria, molds, and ferments (yeasts). 
 
 Discuss, in your paper on bacteria, the economic impor- 
 tance, if possible, of bacteria, and the good as well as the 
 injurious effects that come from their growth. 
 
 A few questions may assist in the direction of effort to 
 understand these minute forms of life : — 
 
 1. What importance are bacteria to the farmer in soil 
 renovation ? 
 
 2. What plant family is intimately associated with bac- 
 teria, receiving much benefit therefrom ? 
 
 3. What are antitoxins ? 
 
 4. What life habits have bacteria? How do they mul- 
 tiply, and how rapidly ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 119 
 
 /). Why are diseases of the nose, throat, and lungs so 
 common ? 
 
 6. What agents kill bacteria or hinder their develoi^- 
 meiit ? 
 
 7. Why is country air said to be more pure than that of 
 a large city? 
 
 8. What would be the condition of things were there no 
 bacteria ? 
 
 9. How may bacteria gain entrance to the human body? 
 10. What are "disinfectants," "antiseptics," "germi- 
 cides," "food preservatives," and "fungicides"? 
 
 Typk .S. Common Black Mold of Bread ^ 
 
 Home experiments. Take a small piece of bread which is 
 stale, moisten, rub on the floor, and place in a saucer. Over 
 all place an inverted tumbler, and set in a warm place. 
 Watch from day to day, and notice the first appearance of the 
 white " fuzzy " growth, and its further ^ development until 
 the whole has turned dark. Where did the mold come 
 from, and what, from your experiment, seemed to be the con- 
 ditions requisite for its growth ? Try the experiment again 
 without wetting the bread; also again, by keeping in a cold 
 spot. Wliy would no mold grow on a rock treated in the 
 same manner? As the bit of bread increases in age observe 
 the increasing discoloration by various colored patches ; also 
 the increasing offensive odor. These patches are probably 
 caused by bacteria (germs, microbes) and the bread is de- 
 caying, or decomposing. Which comes first, the bacteria or 
 the decay? 
 
 Vary your experiment by using potatoes, raw or cooked, 
 banana skins, fruits, pieces of meat, chips of wood, or other 
 matter of organic (produced by living things) nature. Ob- 
 
 1 Mucor, Rhizopos. 
 
120 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 serve the varying growths on each substance ; also that black 
 mold may grow on other substances besides bread. 
 
 Appearance. Examine mold under glass, with a lens, and 
 observe its appearance ; also the tiny enlargements, light or 
 dark colored, on the ends of some threads. Observe the 
 total absence of true leaf green (chlorophyll) ; also in a well- 
 grown specimen, observe how the mold seems to grow out 
 from the bread along the sides, or even creep over the glass 
 plate on which the saucer containing the bread is placed. 
 
 Microscopic structure. Examine a specimen under (Zp) and 
 observe the white threads that make up most of the plant. 
 This thread is called the mycelium, and really composes the 
 body of the mold plant. Observe, here and there, rootlike 
 structures, that attached the mold to the bread, and from 
 which a number of the threads diverge. Of what use would 
 these attaching structures be to the mold plant besides 
 holding it in place ? Some of the diverging threads, above 
 mentioned, may end in white or dark knobs, sporangia or 
 spore cases. 
 
 Sporangia. Try to trace all the stages in the formation of 
 these sporangia from the slightly enlarged end of the fila- 
 ment, to the black, spherical body, a ripe sporangium. 
 Find a crushed sporangium. What size and number are the 
 contained spores? 
 
 Mycelium. Examine in detail the mycelium of the mold. 
 Is the plant one or more celled as shown by the filament 
 (exclusive of the sporangia which are at last separated from 
 the rest of the plant by wall)? Do you find branches or 
 not? How are the rootlike structures (substratum myce- 
 lium) sometimes connected with each other? What benefit 
 would these structures be to the plant? 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings showing as many features of 
 this mold as you have been able to find. Be sure to show 
 by a sketch the result of your home experiments. 
 
 Problems. What is your explanation of the molding of 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 121 
 
 foods? In what ways can it 1)^ jji-cveiited ? Is mold a 
 fungus or an alga? Kead al)out molds, and find out their 
 economic importance; also the details of their life history 
 not discovered in the preceding work. Are molds poisonous 
 or not ? What disease seems to be caused by a moldy 
 grain? Why are molds less injurious than bacteria? 
 
 Typj: 4. Water Molds ^ 
 
 General statement. Various kinds of organic material 
 placed in water soon develop moldy growths. Live fish 
 are frequently attacked, causing great loss of life. Let the 
 pupil try to grow these plants by means of various vegeta- 
 bles or bits of meat kept for some time in water. 
 
 Structure. Examine the growth in the water by means 
 of the naked eye and with a lens ; observe the size of the 
 growth, color, and general appearance. What fungus fea- 
 tures, more or less resembling bread mold, do you observe? 
 How do you account for the mold appearing on the articles 
 of food placed in the water ? 
 
 Examine preparations (/j)) or Qq')), and look for mycelium 
 and any reproductive structures. 
 
 Drawings. Sketch such structures as you find, and name 
 according to the terms already used in the common bread 
 mold. 
 
 Damage from. Find out the amount of damage done by 
 these plants in aquaria, fish hatcheries, and among the 
 fishes. What remedies, if any, are recommended ? Look 
 up in any good reference book, and add a sumnuiry to your 
 statement about this plant. 
 
 Type 5. Mushrooms and Toadstools- 
 
 General statement. The ordinary forms of "toadstools" 
 and mushrooms are to be found wherever there is decaying 
 
 1 Saprolognia species. ^ Higher fungi. 
 
122 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 organic matter of plant origin. " Toadstools " are mush- 
 rooms that have the reputation of being poisonous, but, as a 
 matter of fact, many toadstools, so called, are delicious and 
 wholesome, and the deadliest known forms are, as a rule, 
 called " mushrooms." 
 
 Form and parts. Examine any ''parasol-shaped" form 
 that is furnished, or that you are able to find for yourself. 
 Observe the stalk that attaches the plant to the ground. 
 Often strands of fiber or threads are seen attached to the 
 lower end of the stalk, and these represent a part of the 
 mycelium that is the real plant living in the organic matter, 
 on which the mushroom grows. Break up a stalk and 
 observe its fibrous nature, like a bundle of threads. What 
 is. the form, color, and size of the stalk, and is it solid or 
 not ? Observe whether or not the stalk is inclosed at the 
 base in a cup, and if near the top, there is a band, or ring 
 encircling the stalk. The expanded portion borne on the 
 stalk is the cap, or ^Meus. AVhat is its size, shape, color, 
 the nature of the surface, and is the section thick or thin ? 
 Observe the absence, or presence, of odor. If your specimen 
 is young, there may be a thin film of skin or membrane 
 stretched from the margin of the cap to the stalk, and 
 covering the under surface of the cap. Such a structure is 
 the veil. AVhat purpose has it ? 
 
 The under surface of the cap may be covered with radi- 
 ating, narrow ridges (gills), small holes (pores or spines). 
 
 Drawings. Draw a side view of the mushroom, a long 
 section through, the whole plant, and a view of the under 
 surface of the cap. Draw spores also. 
 
 Spore print. Spores. Cut the stalk of a fresh mushroom 
 close to the cap, and place the cap, right side up, on a piece 
 of plain paper. Cover all with a tight glass to exclude any 
 air currents. After three or four hours, remove the glass 
 and lift the cap directly upward, with great care. What do 
 you find on the paper ? Compare with the under surface of 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 123 
 
 the cap for siiiiiliirity of form and color. iMake a tcni})orary 
 mount of a small portion of the powder, and examine (lii) or 
 {hp). What do you see? These small objects are spores 
 that reproduce the plant. Where did they come from ? 
 Why are they so many and so small ? What is the color of 
 the print, and of the spores, under the microscope ? Draw 
 some spores. 
 
 Decay of mushrooms. Permit a mushroom to decay. Com- 
 pare it with meat and vegetables; which does it resemble 
 in decay? Is it attacked by larvae or worms? What odor 
 has it ? Will mushrooms keep as long as potatoes or carrots? 
 
 Light and mushrooms. INIush rooms are often grown in 
 dark cellars, caves, or in buildings without windows. Why 
 could you not grow green i[)lants in such pljices ? IMush- 
 rooms, like all fungi, lack chlorophyll. In food and light 
 requirements how do they resemble animals ? From your 
 study of various fungi, state some of the characteristics of 
 this plant group. 
 
 Many mushrooms are poisonous. A very few {amanitas) 
 are, with certainty, deadly in their effect. They may be 
 known by : — 
 
 1. White gills, whatever the cap color may be. 
 
 2. A cup at the base of the stalk, into which the latter 
 fits. 
 
 3. A ring on the stem, more or less like a folded 
 umbrella. 
 
 4. Growth on the earth, not on stumps or wood. 
 
 5. Grow solitary. 
 
 Use. From the nature of the food of most forms, of what 
 value are these plants ? Of what use to man are some 
 kinds? (They are nitrogenous in composition.) 
 
 Drawings of various species. Draw as many kinds as 
 you can find and have time to work with. Learn their 
 names, if possible, and their edible qualities or dangerous 
 characteristics. 
 
124 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Caution. N. B. Never eat unknown mushrooms, and 
 never trust any rule any one may give, except the exact 
 determination of the kind from some good work on mush- 
 rooms. 
 
 Type 6. Puffballs ^ 
 
 Habitat. These fungi grow in similar situations to 
 those occupied by the mushrooms, often in great numbers 
 and occasionally of enormous size, five to twenty pounds. 
 
 Appearance. Examine puffballs of various sorts. Observe 
 the size, appearance, color, surface, and general shape of 
 each ; also their attachment to the soil or other object on 
 which the plant grows. 
 
 Section. Examine puffballs in long section and observe 
 the base and the colored mealy sporemass occupying the 
 upper part of the plant. 
 
 Spores. On jarring this sporemass, what do you observe? 
 How do the unripe puffballs differ from the ripe ones? 
 Why do these fungi have such rounded forms? Why do 
 they have so many spores? Examine some of the latter 
 with (hjy) and compare for size with the mushroom spores. 
 
 Some puffballs are raised on stalks. What advantage 
 would this be ? Others have an outer skin that splits into 
 valves and recurves {earth stars), lifting the ball. Why? 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings, external view and sections. 
 
 Food value. All puffballs, when white in flesh and solid, 
 are edible, but they are not fit for food when the sporemass 
 is even slightly yellow tinted. Some forms grow to great 
 size and are among the best of mushrooms for the table. 
 
 Rules for determination. It may be well here to empha- 
 size again, that there are ?io rtdes of common acceptance for 
 determining whether forms are poisonous or not, that are 
 loorth anything whatever. The only safe method is to learn 
 the name of each kind you find from some good descriptive 
 
 1 Higher fungi. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 125 
 
 work, dealing with such fungi, and never even taste unknown 
 forms. These plants offer abundant, cheap, and moderately- 
 nutritious food, but the greatest care should be taken to 
 learn thoroughly the appearance of wholesome kinds and 
 also, as before given, the characteristics found in the deadly 
 forms. 
 
 Ten edible mushrooms. IJelow is a list of ten perfectly 
 wholesome species or groups, most of which have no simi- 
 larity to poisonous forms, and all perfectly distinct and 
 most easily determined by slight attention to characteristic 
 features : — 
 
 1. Morels, brownish, wrinkled, spongy, hollow, on the 
 ground, in JNIay. 
 
 2. Puffballs, when white-fleshed and solid, not a single 
 dangerous form. 
 
 o. Commercial mushrooms, often wild, ring on the 
 stem, gills pink, ageing to dark brown ; plant gray brown- 
 ish, with short stalk. 
 
 4. Fairy ring, small, buff, in grass, forming rings. 
 
 5. Coral mushrooms, like branching corals, white, brown, 
 buff, on ground and dead wood. 
 
 6. Vermillion Chanterelle, very small, brilliant vermil- 
 lion, gills blunt, shallow, running down stalk. 
 
 7. Sulphur mushroom, on dead logs, stumps, salmon 
 above, sulphur below ; a pore form of bracket shape (see 
 next study). 
 
 8. Honey mushrooms, stump bases in autumn; in great 
 clusters; buff with whitish gills. 
 
 9. Green russula, cap moldgreen, stalk short and with 
 gills white ; on ground. 
 
 10. Violet cap, whole plant violet tinted. 
 
 Type 7. I^kacket Fungi 
 
 Habitat. These fungi are commonly found on stumps, 
 dead trees, and logs. They are easily preserved. Hunt for 
 
126 ^ REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 them, and if possible, furnish your own specimens for 
 study. 
 
 External features. Observe that there is, as a rule, an 
 entire lack of a stalk, the cap or pileus growing directly 
 from the wood. Observe the consistency of the cap as 
 compared to the softness of the ordinary mushrooms. What 
 evidence can you find that these plants live more than one 
 year? Not all, but some do. Compare the under side, 
 or spore-bearing surface, with the same region in the mush- 
 room. What do you find ? Study a section of a bracket 
 fungus. Observe the spongy nature of the caj). (The 
 Indians make punk from certain forms.) Also the gill, pore, 
 or spiny layer, in which the spores are produced. 
 
 Drawings. Draw upper surface and sectional view, also 
 a portion of the under surface (m). 
 
 Economic importance. These plants often cause serious 
 injury to living trees, their mycelia penetrating into the 
 woody tissues and causing death. They sometimes attain to 
 very large size and are frequently used for ornamental work. 
 Certain forms (notably, one called the sulphur mushroom, 
 on account of the color,) of soft consistency are edible in 
 the young state. 
 
 Type 8. Sac Fungi. Cup Fungi. Morels 
 
 Habitat. There are many forms of these fungi, some 
 assuming the shape of ciq^s, some looking like elongated 
 spongy masses, covered with ridges. The morel is a 
 common form found in open woods in April and May and 
 is highly esteemed as a delicate food fungus. 
 
 Appearance. Examine the pileus or cap and observe the 
 form, whether cuplike, club-form, or irregularly covered by 
 ridgelike convolutions. The inner surface of the cups, the 
 outer surface of the clubs and ridges are spore bearing. 
 Draw carefully such forms as you have, both externally and 
 in long section. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 127 
 
 Reproduction. Examine {Ip) thin sections of the spore- 
 bearing surface and observe that the spores are in long sacs. 
 To what are the sacs attached ? How many spores does a 
 sac contain ? Examine the spores and compare them with 
 the spores of common mushrooms. Make drawinj,^s showing 
 these reproductive structures. 
 
 Lichen features. Find, if you can, these phmts growing. 
 Ui)on what do tliey live? Refer to those forms when you 
 study the lichens and observe the similar reproductive 
 features. 
 
 TvrK 9. A (lE.NEUAL Study of Kusts, Mildews, and 
 
 Smuts 
 
 General statement. A very large variety of material may 
 be preserved during the summer for class use during the 
 colder months. This study ought, however, by all means, 
 to be supplemented by out-of-door observations on these 
 forms of plant life during their active growing season. For 
 class or individual work the rusts of grains, barberry leaves 
 in spring, and the blackberry and may-apple clustercups, 
 should be studied. The lilac mildew, the smut of oats and 
 corn also are easily obtainable and may be preserved dry 
 or as formaldehyde material. 
 
 Features of form and structure. Study such material as is 
 presented, with the naked eye and (??i). Observe the form, 
 color, size, and particular place of growth of each plant. 
 Being without chlorophyll, what class does it belong to? 
 What is its life habit, growing as it does on what living 
 plant ? What proportion of the plant part examined is cov- 
 ered with the growth? Where does the fungus obtain its 
 nourishment? What effect would this have on the host 
 plant ? Make drawings showing the result of your obser- 
 vations. 
 
 Examine preparations Up) and {hp)y and lot)k for any 
 features of mycelium, sporangia, and spores, cliaracteristic of 
 
128 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 fungi. How may this plant have gained a foothold on the 
 host? Consult reference books for methods of reproduction. 
 Reference reading. Read about the damage to growing 
 croi)s caused by these plants and give the remedies recom- 
 mended. Consult the government bulletins which give a 
 large amount of information about fungus diseases and 
 spraying for prevention. Many details of reproduction, life 
 history, and other important features must be left to the in- 
 dividual teacher's judgment. 
 
 Type 10. Lichens 
 
 Habitat. The plants may be found by the pupil, growing 
 on trees, fences, old sheds, stones, often almost completely 
 covering the objects on which they grow. 
 
 Appearance. It is well, if x^ossible, to have a plentiful 
 supply of three common forms : foliose or leaflike ; crusta- 
 ceous or encrusting ; and fruticose or bushy form. In the 
 specimens presented determine to which of the above groui)S 
 each belongs, also upon what the plant is found; observe the 
 form assumed by the entire growth (lichens often form, 
 for example, beautiful rosettes). Examine carefully and de- 
 termine how the plant is attached to the object upon which 
 it grows. Make careful drawings i-howing the three forms, 
 natural size. 
 
 Experiment. Take a dry lichen, observe its color, and 
 then thoroughly soak it. What change in size and color 
 takes place ? Recall, if you have seen it, the effect of rain 
 on tree lichens, also on a grass plot after a warm shower. 
 
 Structure. Study with (Ip) or (hp) prepared specimens 
 of a lichen to show its real structure. Observe the inter- 
 woven mass of white threads. How do they resemble the 
 forms already studied among the algae and fungi ? Observe, 
 in particular, the layer of greeyi cells mixed with the white 
 j&laments. What plant do they resemble ? In fact, these 
 
A MANUAL OF ]iOTANY 129 
 
 cells are, in all probability, an alga yon have studied, and 
 the lichen is really a mutual partnership of a fungus and an 
 alga. What advantage does such a plant have over a fungus ? 
 The fungus iihiinents are attached to the algLc cells hy tiny 
 rootlike structures called the haustoria. Of what benefit 
 would the ])artn('rship be to the alga ? This mutual relation- 
 ship is called sj/mbiosis, and often exists anujng animals. The 
 bacteria have a similar relationship with clovers and related 
 plants. 
 
 Reproduction. Observe on some specimens, elongated 
 clubs, cups, or urnlike structures. These are the fruiting 
 bodies or apotheda. Study a section of an apothecium (Jip), 
 and observe the filaments ending in spore cases (asci). How 
 many s[)ores in each case ? What are the s])ores for ? 
 
 Drawings. Draw details of lichen structure and a sectional 
 diagram of an apothecium. 
 
 Value of lichens. From any source find out any value to 
 man directly or indirectly which this group of fungi has. 
 Look u}), in particular, reindeer moss, Iceland moss, rock 
 tripe, and litmus. What relation have lichens to soil forma- 
 tion ? 
 
 A Field Study of Algce and Fungi 
 
 Take a limited area, if possible, containing as great diver- 
 sity of surface features (meadow, wood, pond, creek, sand, 
 gravel banks, bluffs, etc.) as your neighborhood will afford. 
 Make a careful nmp, drawn to a large scale, of the 
 district, denoting by various tints the various features of 
 topography. 
 
 Explore very carefully for any alga^, fungi, or lichens, and 
 designate the location of the same by letter or figure on your 
 map. 
 
 Having found as many forms as })ossible, summarize the 
 whole by a table having the following headlines : — 
 
130 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Kinds ok 
 Plants 
 
 Number of 
 
 Kinds of 
 
 F^Acn 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Alonk or 
 Associated 
 
 Shade or 
 
 Sun 
 
 Water 
 Relation 
 
 Parasite 
 OR Not 
 
 Algte 
 
 Lichens 
 
 Fungi 
 
 From all the observations made try to form a general 
 statement for each class, stating what their environment is, 
 and how each form seems by its structure, color, physical 
 features of dryness, softness, etc., to be adapted to its place 
 of growth. 
 
 Draw a few characteristic forms (natural size or 7n) of 
 each class. 
 
 Remember definitely that the stud}^ of plants and animals 
 in connection with their surroundings or environment is 
 ecology, and is perhaps the most valuable and certainly one 
 of the most interesting in which living things can be 
 observed. 
 
 SECTION in. THE MOSS PLANTS 
 
 Type 1. Water Liverworts {Riccia jimtans) 
 
 Habitat. Riccia may be found in clear ponds or slow 
 streams having much vegetatiou, and especially in cold 
 springs of considerable volume. It is most easily grown in 
 the laboratory, where it ought always to be found. 
 
 Appearance. Examine a plant iii the water with the naked 
 eye. What position with reference to the surface has it ? 
 Observe its color, size, shape, and mode of branching. Observe 
 also whether the axis is cylindrical or flattened. 
 
 Structure. Examine with Qp). Observe the notches at 
 the end of each branch {vegetative ov growing notches) and the 
 mottled appearance of the axis due to air chambers within the 
 
A MANUAL OK BOTANY 131 
 
 plant. Examine carefully the lighter areas. If possible, 
 discover the cell network making up the surface. 
 
 A higher magnifying power will reveal the small green 
 ddoroplasts in the cells. Compare for form and size the 
 cells near the margin with those near the center of the axis. 
 What is formed by the latter? Similar features were ob- 
 served in fu(;us. 
 
 Study a section of the axis Qp) and observe the cell struc- 
 ture and air chiunbors. Explain how the plant floats. 
 
 Drawings. Show all the features of plant structure, by 
 pro])cr drawings. 
 
 Questions. How does the plant body of the riccia differ 
 from most of the alga3 studied ? What effect has the flat- 
 tened condition on the ability to float? Some of the red sea- 
 weeds have a flattened thallus ^ plant body, but they arc the 
 exception in algae. After a study of the next subject observe 
 the gradual change from the alga3 to the land liverworts 
 shown by this plant. How is this plant fitted for life on the 
 surface of still waters ? 
 
 Type 2. A Land Liverwort ^ 
 
 Habitat. Marchantia is a very common i)lant in nearly 
 all regions, growing in deep shade where there is abundant 
 moisture and more or less bare earth or rock. It seems to 
 favor particularly earth that has been burnt over. It is 
 found commonly in greenhouses (being considered an evi- 
 dence of poor management). It can be grown in a Wardian 
 case in the laboratory. Lunularia and coiiocejJuihis, some- 
 what similar species, are occasionally found in quantity in 
 somewhat similar situations. If possible, examine these 
 plants wdiere they grow, or placed in dishes in a natural 
 position. With reference to the earth's surface, are tliey erect 
 
 1 A tlialhis is a i)laiit liaviiii,' no distinction of su-ni ami loaf. 
 
 2 Alarchantia. 
 
132 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 or flat ? Why do they grow in this manner ? How are they 
 attached to the earth ? What color and form have the thalli ? 
 Do they grow singly or in mats ? Take a specimen and 
 place it on the table. Observe the slowness or rapidity of 
 drying. 
 
 External features. Place a well-formed thallus in a watch 
 glass. Examine for a midrib, wings, vegetative notches, 
 manner of branches, and hairs that attach it to the soil 
 (rhizoids). Examine the snrface for more or less regular 
 areas (stomata areas). What do you find in the center of each 
 area ? This is a stomate or mouth for the entrance and exit 
 of air and gases. 
 
 Cupulas. On some thalli, observe the peculiar structure on 
 the upper surface appearing like tiny cups (cupules). Upon 
 what are they always situated ? If possible, find the different 
 stages from the young to the fully developed. How do they 
 differ ? Look inside of a f ul 1-grown one. What do you find ? 
 Examine the contained structure {cjemmce, buds) with (in) 
 and (/p), and observe the shape, color, and other features, and 
 in particular the notches and shining globules of oil near the 
 margin. Is the gemma a sphere or a flattened disk ? How 
 many are there in a cupule ? How many cupules are there 
 on a good-sized thallus ? These gemmae are reproductive 
 structures that are prepared for immediate growth and are 
 fine examples of vegetative multiplication. , Explain how a 
 gemma becomes a thallus, and how those from one thallus 
 may soon cover a considerable area with plants. 
 
 Microscopic structure. Examine the lower surface for any 
 stomates (m). Are they present or not? Examine the 
 thin protective layer of cells which may be pulled off from 
 the upper surface of the thallus Qp). Study this epidermis 
 for the cells and the stomates. Observe the four guard 
 cells of the stomate. What is their use? What color, if 
 any, has the epidermis ? Examine, if possible, a section of 
 the thallus and observe, first, the upper and, second, the 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 133 
 
 lower opidormis, and third, tlio. iiiiddhi mass of cells (ineso- 
 ph}' 11). What shape have the cells ? Where is the chloro- 
 phyll located ? The mesophyll cells are filled with living 
 protoplasm, hence are the active working cells. Observe 
 that the stomates open into irret^nilar dir chdinbers. What 
 structures are found in these chandlers ? What color have 
 they ? Observe the rhizoids projecting from the lower sur- 
 face, or study them separately and find the variations in 
 form. If no fresh section is available, study a figure in 
 some reference book. 
 
 Sexual reproduction. On certain tlialli observe two kinds 
 of erect stalks, expansed at the summit, the fruiting or re- 
 productive branches bearing the gamete bodies. How do 
 these two forms differ ? The one with the divided toj) or 
 receptacle is the archegonkil branch. The other is the axther- 
 idial branch. What shape has its receptacle ? Are both 
 kinds on the same thallus or not ? Study })rei)ared sections 
 of each receptacle, or figures of the same in your reference 
 books, and observe the archegonia depending below and the 
 antheridia in the upper surface of the respective receptacles. 
 When mature, the sperm and the archegonial oosphere of 
 these plants unite to produce a spore, which grows into a 
 flask-shaped structure, which you can see on the mature re- 
 ceptacle of the archegonial branch, hanging downward {the 
 sporopluite). The sporophyte, when mature, contains many 
 spores, mixed with the elastic filaments of peculiar nature, 
 elaters, which assist in scattering the spores. These on ger- 
 mination produce the thallus forms studied at first. 
 
 Conclusions. What reason can you give, or find in refer- 
 ence books, for the two methods of reproduction '.' How do 
 these plants get into the greenhouses? What difYorences 
 are there between the spores and gemmae ? Exi)lain the 
 placing of the liverworts with the true mosses in the moss- 
 plant branch ? What new structural features are seen in 
 the liverworts for the first time ? What is meant by the 
 
134 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 term tissue ? What tissues are found in the liverwort ? 
 How is the liverwort more complex than the algae? 
 
 Drawings. Make the following drawings from the fresh 
 or mounted material : — 
 
 1. Thalli of different sizes and forms, showing cupules, 
 
 if present. 
 
 2. Surface (m) to show stomate areas. 
 
 3. Epidermis {l])) to show stomate structures. 
 
 4. Rhizoids (Ip). 
 
 5. Antheridial and archegonial thalli and branches. 
 
 6. Gemmae {Ip). 
 
 Details of reproduction may be added if observed. 
 
 7. Section of thallus {Ij)). 
 
 Type 3. The Mosses ^ 
 
 General statement about habitat. Mosses are so generally- 
 known that the student ought to be able to answer many of 
 the following questions about their place and manner of 
 growth. Recall all the situations in which you have seen 
 mosses growing and enumerate the different forms by some 
 brief descriptive characteristics of stem and leaves. Are 
 they shade or sun lovers ? Observe the variation in color. 
 What habit do they all have in regard to their growing to- 
 gether ? How do they vary in size and branching ? Tabu- 
 late the results of your observation on mosses, using the 
 form given below: 
 
 No. 
 
 Whkrk 
 Grown 
 
 Size 
 
 COLOF 
 
 Branch- 
 ing 
 
 Shade 
 
 OR Sun 
 
 Leaf- 
 
 1NE88 
 
 With, 
 
 Without 
 
 Fruit 
 
 1 True mosses. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 135 
 
 Parts and structure. Kxaminn tlu^ leafy specimens fur- 
 nished (naked eye and in). 
 
 Observe the central stem, bearing the leaves. Are the 
 latter few or many ? Are they large or small ? Why are 
 you inclined to call them leaves ? What, in your own words, 
 is a leaf? Compare leaves of different mosses for size and 
 shape. Mount a stem with some fresh green leaves and 
 study (Ip). Observe the leaf margin and the presence or 
 absence of veins. Does a leaf appear to you to be thin or 
 thick ? Observe the cell structure of the leaf and the cell 
 chloroplasts. Examine the leaf for stomates. Why are they 
 absent? Examine the lower end of a moss stem for the 
 rhizoids. What color have they ? Are they branched or 
 not ? Carefully observe a large one and find out whether it 
 is a one or more than one-celled structure. What may be 
 the use of the rhizoids? Study a cross section of a moss 
 stem (Ip) and observe the cell arrangement. Why do we 
 call the structure a stem? (This is the first correct use 
 of the term.) 
 
 The Gametophyte or leafy plant. Compare the stems and 
 leaves of a number of mosses. Examine leafy moss plants, 
 showing the gamete structures at the summit, and possibly 
 a green algalike filament Protonema at the base. These 
 plants are gametophytes, and differ from each other in the 
 arrangement of the topmost leaves. In the male gameto- 
 phyte plant, designated by $ , they form a complete rosette, 
 in the midst of which the antheridia are borne ; in the female 
 gametophyte, designated $ , the leaves are in a cluster more 
 or less closely inclosing the archegonium. If preparations 
 are furnished, study the archegonia and antheridia, or ex- 
 amine carefully good figures of the same found in your text- 
 books. In either case endeavor to fix in your mind tliat the 
 fiask-sha])ed antheridium produces motilp sperms, which in 
 water find their way through the neck of the archegonium 
 into the oosphere, which thus becomes a spore (o()S[)ore). 
 
136 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 This, in germinating, becomes the structure studied in the 
 next paragraph. 
 
 The sporophyte. Study a complete moss {i.e. one with a 
 leafy stem, capped by a naked stalk, bearing an enlargement 
 at its summit) and observe the two structures mentioned. 
 The stalk is the pedicel or seta and the enlargement is the 
 capsule, often called the fruit. What is the color, size, and 
 length of the seta ? If possible, observe a young specimen. 
 In this case what do you observe inclosing the enlarged 
 end ? Study now a full-grown seta and capsule. What is 
 the shape, size, color, and appearance of all the visible 
 parts of the latter (m)? A pointed or conical sheath or 
 cover, fitting snugly over the end, is the calyptra. Remove 
 by the fingers and observe beneath, and covered by it, a 
 conical or hemispherical, pointed lid, the operculum, separ- 
 ated from the capsule proper by a seam. Remove the oper* 
 culum, and some fine teeth, the ijeristome, may often appear, 
 surrounding the mouth of the capsule, and showing in some 
 cases in their midst the protruding sporangium. Apply 
 pressure Qp) and rupture a capsule, and observe the spores. 
 Are these large or small ? Are they few or many ? What 
 shape and color have they ? What use has each structure 
 mentioned above ? 
 
 Life history. You have discovered in your study of the 
 moss that there are two different plants, each arising from 
 a spore, but intimately connected. This condition is called 
 the alternation of generations. Generation I was the leaf- 
 bearing gametophyte — coming from a si)ore formed in the 
 capsule. Generation II, consisting of the naked seta and 
 the capsule, is called a sporophyte, and grew from the spore 
 lodged at the summit of the female gametophyte. How do 
 these generations differ in ability to live independent lives ? 
 Which one can be considered a parasite ? What benefit is 
 it to the moss to have its capsule elevated ? 
 
 Moss problems. Thoroughly dry freshly gathered moss 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 137 
 
 and then place in water. What liai)pons ? Did tlic changes 
 caused by soaking occur slowly or rapidly ? Did it dry 
 rapidly? Apply this, if you can, to the explanation of 
 why mosses are not killed by great drought or Arctic cold. 
 Wliat benetit to the moss is the crowded habit of living? 
 What would you infer to be the food of mosses ? Of what 
 use to man are mosses ? Read about peat and fuels pre- 
 ]);u-ed from this substance. If possible, examine si)ecimens 
 of spJuif/nnm, a bog moss, and observe how it differs from 
 the common mosses. The two groups are subgroups of the 
 moss class. Find out what you can about sphagnum and 
 sphagnum bogs. 
 
 How may mosses be related to alga?? What similar 
 features do they have ? 
 
 What are so-called moss flowers ? Why do you not find 
 mosses ordinarily with sporophytes attached ? 
 
 Drawings. Make careful drawings as follows : — 
 
 1. Several mosses (m) to show variation in form and 
 size. 
 
 2. A complete moss (note size) and (m) 
 
 3. Leaves of different species (m). 
 
 4. Leaf (Ij^) to show cell structure. 
 
 5. Leaf section (Ij)). 
 
 G. Leaf cell chloroplasts {!/)). 
 
 7. Rhizoids (//>). 
 
 8. Capsule (/y>) with idl the parts. 
 
 9. Prepared antheridia and archegonia. 
 
 SECTION TV. TIIF FKRX PLANTS 
 
 Class 1. r'i:iiNs Pijoi'ER 
 
 General statement. Ferns may be obtained fresh from any 
 greenhouse at any time of the year and in sufficient quantities 
 to study the leaves and their vegetative features. For much 
 of the work, dried and carefully mounted material is prefer- 
 
138 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 able, as it i? not subject to wilting and consequent useless- 
 ness. Students are often able to furnish some material, 
 fresh or dry, and it is always a distinct benefit to the stu- 
 dent whenever even a part of the material which he uses is 
 brought in by himself. 
 
 Habitat. Recall where you have seen ferns growing wild. 
 What conditions of moisture and sunlight do they generally 
 need ? What forms do you know by name ? How large or 
 how small have you seen them ? How common are ferns as 
 compared with other plants? 
 
 The Sporophyte 
 
 The leaf, external features. Acquaint yourself with the 
 leaf characters of at least the following forms : 
 
 The Boston Fern (cultivated) and the Shield, Spleenwort, 
 and Brake Ferns (wild). The characteristics which dis- 
 tinguish will be learned when we study the fruit (spore 
 clusters). Observe the general appearance of the leaf (all 
 that part commonly called the fern), and observe that it has 
 two parts, a stalk below, the petiole, and a thin, green, ex- 
 panded, more or less divided blade above. In the Boston 
 fern the blade is once divided into lobes called pf?i7ioe (pinna). 
 In the shield fern the blade is divided twice or thrice, the 
 second division forming the pinmdce (pinnula). Observe the 
 amount of division in any of the ferns furnished. Observe 
 whether the stalk is smooth or bears brown scales near its 
 base. Examine a young leaf not yet expanded. What 
 peculiar form has it? (This form is a characteristic of 
 ferns.) The method of leaf unfolding or expansion is 
 vernatio7i. 
 
 Study the distribution of the veins (venation). A charac- 
 teristic form is the forked or dichotomous, with the vein 
 ends separate. 
 
 The rhizome. Examine the fresh underground stems 
 {rhizome), or the same preserved in some manner. (This 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 130 
 
 stem is commonly called a root.) Observe the direction of 
 growth, the size and color of the terminal growing part 
 {apical bud), and the roots ; also the place where the roots 
 of the present year were or arc attached. The leaves are 
 produced at nodes, and between the nodes are internodes. 
 What evidence do you find that indicates an age of more 
 than one year for the rhizome ? Why is the growth hori- 
 zontal ? Why are there not buds at both ends ? Do you 
 find any scales (rudimentary leaves) on the stem ? Why 
 are the stems of ferns living in cold regions underground 
 structures ? 
 
 Cross section of rhizome. Examine (Ijii) a cross section of 
 the Pteris (brake) rhizome and observe carefully the four 
 tissues (cells similar in form, having the same use). What 
 color and form have the cells of the outside layer ? What 
 is the size of the cells ? This layer is the epidermis. Study 
 the cells next within the epidermis and occupying most of 
 the section. What color, form, and size have these cells? 
 Parenchyma or fundamental tissue ? 
 
 Is the color everywhere the same ? Observe two dark 
 brown bands of cells (hard tissue) toward the center of the 
 section. What form has each band and what size, shape, 
 and thickness of wall have the cells ? Observe the remain- 
 ing tissue looking like round or oblong, lacelike areas scat- 
 tered here and there about the bands of hard tissue. This 
 tissue is the vascular tissue, and each area is a vascular 
 bundle. Each bundle is inclosed in a necklace of cells 
 (bundle sheath, endoderm) within which are wood cells 
 {xylem) and vessels (phloem or bast). Study a long section 
 through the same rhizome and try to locate the above tissues. 
 How do the cells differ in shape from the same cell in cross 
 section ? Seek to discover the use of each part of the vas- 
 cular bundles. 
 
 Leaf structure. Examine (Jp) the veins in a loaf, and ob- 
 serve their method of branching, and whether the ends are 
 
140 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 free from each otlier or united into a net. Remove a small 
 portion of the epidermis from the upper and the lower sur- 
 faces, mount in water, and examine (Ip). Study the trans- 
 parent parts for stomates and guard cells. How do the 
 two epidermal layers differ ? Which epidermis has the 
 stomates ? What reason can you give for their absence in 
 the other epidermis ? Study a stomate carefully, and find 
 its shape, and the number, shape, and features of the guard 
 cells (Zp). 
 
 Study a section of the fern pinnula to find the relation 
 of the epidermal layers, stomates, and mesophyll. Where 
 is the chlorophyll? 
 
 Reproduction, the sori and contents. Examine fertile 
 leaves of the Boston, shield, spleenwort, and brake ferns 
 for brownish structures on their surface. On which surface 
 dD you find them? These structures are sort (sorus). 
 What relation to the veins ? How are they situated with 
 reference to the midrib of the lobe and to the margin? 
 Compare the sori of as many other ferns as you may have 
 access to, observing the difference in shape and size. The 
 sorus is often covered with a thin skin or flap, or leaf part 
 (indusium). What use may this have? How may it have 
 originated? Examine a sorus {l}^). Of what is it com- 
 posed? Try to isolate one of the structures (sporangia) 
 and study it carefully. Observe its form, the stalk or 
 pedicel (if present), and a peculiar partial ring of cells 
 {annidus). Try to see the sporangium from various points 
 of view. How does the position of the annulus vary? 
 How much of the sporangium wall does it embrace? Do 
 you find any opening in the wall? If the sporangium is 
 only partly grown, observe small irregularly triangular 
 or round objects through the partly transparent wall. 
 Those are the spores. Seek to discover the purpose of 
 the annulus. What would you say, from a study of the 
 spores, sporangia, and sori on a fern leaf, as to the total 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 141 
 
 spore number in a fern plant ? Wliy is such a plenitude 
 of spores produced? What would you judge is produced 
 when a spore from the sporangium germinates? 
 
 Sterile leaves and sporophylls. Examine sterile leaves 
 (not having sori) of ferns like the sensitive, ostrich, or 
 cinnamon. Observe the absence of the sori, so common in 
 other fern leaves. Examine now the peculiarly contracted 
 brownish or greenish clustered structures borne on stalks, 
 and found growing from the same underground stems as 
 the naked or sterile leaves you have just looked at. Crush 
 a single division of one of these; mount and examine (/j)), 
 and observe the similarity to the sporangia studied before. 
 These contracted stalk structures are strangely modified 
 leaves called sporophylls, bearing nothing but sporangia. 
 
 The G-ametophyte 
 
 Where found. The spores of the sporangia, when ger- 
 minating, produce small, inconspicuous plants known as 
 gametophytes or prothalli. The green coating on the ground 
 of a fern house is largely composed of these minute stages 
 in the fern life history, which, with the fern plants (com- 
 monly so called), consisting of leaf and rhizome, constitute 
 the alternation of generations of the fern. 
 
 Structure. Examine a gametophyte (yip), and observe 
 its color and form. What features remind you of the land 
 liverworts? Observe the cell structure. Discover on the 
 lower surface, near the notch, oblong cells, archegonia, and, 
 near the opposite end, more or less mixed with rhizoids, the 
 antheridia. What is the actual size of the gametophyte? 
 
 Drawings. Make the following drawings: 
 
 1. A complete sporophyte (leaf and rhizome). 
 
 2. Details of venation (??i or Ij^). 
 
 3. A cross section of a fern rhizome to show the various 
 
 tissues {Ip), 
 
142 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 4. The several tissues (Ip) to show cell peculiarities. 
 
 5. The upper and lower epidermis of the leaf, with the 
 
 stomates (Ijo or hj)). 
 
 6. Vernation. 
 
 7. Forms of sori (m) (round, long, and marginal). 
 
 8. Sporangia and spores (//)). 
 
 9. Sporophyll. 
 
 10. The gametophyte {IjS). 
 
 11. Fossil ferns. 
 
 12. Several fern species to show leaf variation. 
 
 Fossil Ferris 
 
 Coal. Examine, if possiHe, specimens of fossil fertis and 
 observe their points of resemblance to the ferns of to-day. 
 What is a fossil plant or animal ? Fossil or preserved ferns, 
 with the related horsetails and club mosses, were in part the 
 plants out of which coal was made. Read about this process 
 of coal formation and learn how many steps or stages were 
 necessary from the living ferns and gymnosperms of the 
 ancient swamps to the veins of hard and soft coal as found 
 to-day. (See Coulter, Barnes, and Cowles.) 
 
 Fern table. Make a table of all the ferns you are able to 
 study, using the following form : — 
 
 Name 
 
 Wild ok 
 Culti- 
 vated 
 
 A MOUNT 
 
 OF Leaf 
 
 DlVISION 
 
 Color of 
 Sta lk 
 
 Eemarks 
 
 Description. Write a dear, accurate, and general description 
 of ferns, embodying all the results of your study. 
 
 Fern problems. From all your observations, and from 
 what you have found out by reading, what sort of environ- 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 143 
 
 ment furnishes the most luxuriant fern growth? Where, 
 for instance, are tree ferns abundant? I low do these ferns 
 differ from ferns of coUl regions? What nuist have been 
 the condition during the coal period for ferns to be so 
 abundant — in Illinois, for example — as to i)roduce, when 
 solidified into coal, from forty to one hundred feet thickness 
 of the same in twenty veins? How do hard coal, soft coal, 
 and lignite differ? Where are the coal fields of the world ? 
 There are nearly three thousand kinds of ferns. What uses 
 do you find for this large number of species ? 
 
 Pteris aquilina (the common brake fern) is found in every 
 considerable land area on tlie earth. What would this show 
 concerning the ancient nature of this species, and of ferns 
 in general ? 
 
 O' 
 
 Class 2. Horsetails and Scouring Rushes 
 
 General statement. Material for study may be easily o))- 
 tained in any region, but for practically all purposes, dried 
 and mounted specimens are as satisfactory as fresh. You 
 may have observed, in your spring walks, the fertile and 
 sterile stems of the common horsetail, in their place of 
 growth and their general appearance. Many students will 
 remember the scouring rushes as objects of use in childhood 
 play, under the names " snake grass " or " pipes." Examine 
 the horsetail, and observe the differences between t\\Q fertW> 
 aerial stem and sterile ; the former being known by its cone 
 of fruit at the summit. How do the two forms differ in 
 size, color, amount of branching, hardness of stem, and 
 size and appearance of the sheaths of scale leaves at the 
 nodes? Examine the branches of the sterile stem for 
 leaves of similar character. 
 
 Leaves, in general, are the food-making organs of green 
 plants. What part must do tliis work in the horsetail? 
 Examine the stem (m, vlp). AN'hat features of the surface 
 
144 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 do you ti lid? In particular, observe the rows of stomates, 
 or ])ores. Rub the sterile stems between your fingers, and 
 also on apiece of rusty tin. What do you notice? Examine 
 (m) sections of the sterile and fertile stems. What do you 
 find ? Explain any advantage of this condition to the plant. 
 Examine the underground stem (rhizome) and find whether 
 each kind of aerial stems is connected to it. How do the 
 appearance, markings, and parts correspond to those of the 
 aerial stems? Where are the roots attached? Are there 
 any evidences of buds ? 
 
 Scouring rush. Examine now a scouring rush. What 
 structure takes the place of the aerial stems of the horse- 
 tail ? Observe on this stem the different features found in 
 the horsetail. There may or may not be branches. What, 
 in particular, are the number and arrangement of the sto- 
 mates {vl})) ? Determine in the same manner as for horse- 
 tails the roughness of the stem. What do you fiud? Is 
 the name appropriate? 
 
 Reproduction. Examine fruiting cones {strobilus) of the 
 horsetail, or preferably those of the scouring rush. Where 
 are they situated? What is their general appearance? 
 Observe the platelike structures that make up the outer, 
 surface (sporophylls); What is the form of each plate? 
 Examine (m) a single detached sporophyll, side view, with 
 its stalk and expanded end. Study the saclike structures 
 (sporangia) surrounding the stalk, and attached to the inner 
 face of the plate. How many are there, and how do they 
 correspond to the number of sides in the plate ? Crash a 
 sporangium and observe the spores (Ijj). What is their color 
 and shape ? What is attached to them ? These structures 
 are called elaters. 
 
 Breathe on some spores, very gently, and observe the 
 results (Ip). What x^urpose may be attained by this 
 peculiar action ? What use was made of scouring rushes 
 in olden times ? Read about " Calamites " and *' Silica ^' 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 145 
 
 in the reference books. What part did the ancient horse- 
 tails have in the formation of coal ? What are the favorite 
 environments of phmts of this class ? Are they hydrophytes 
 (water })lants) or Xerophytes (dry land plants) ? 
 Drawings. Make the followini^ drawings: 
 
 1. A complete horsetail (fertile and sterile stems and 
 rhizomes). 
 
 2. Node of each (m) to show the scale leaves. 
 
 3. Stem section (ni). 
 
 4. Scouring rush, including strobilus. 
 
 5. St^'obilus (m). 
 
 6. Sporopliyll and spores (Ip). 
 
 7. Stem (Ij}) to show section and stomates. 
 
 Class 3. Club Mossp:s 
 
 Habitat. Club mosses, such as lycopodium, are common 
 in northern evergreen woods. Selaginella is found native in 
 many suitable regions south of the evergreen belt. In all 
 large cities, however, a plentiful supply of selaginella may 
 be found, commonly in park greenhouses. Dried material 
 may be put up during the summer which freshens readily 
 when placed in water. The student will rarely see wild 
 plants, and so it is not a satisfactory field study. 
 
 External features. Study selaginella and observe the posi- 
 tion of the plant in growth, its method of branching, and 
 the color and arrangement of the leaves. Observe also 
 the form, color, and place of origin of the aerial roots. 
 Examine the leaves (m) or (Ip) ; what are their forms and 
 exact arrangement on the stem ? Why are there two sizes 
 of leaves? Are stomates present or not? Study a cross 
 section of the stem and compare it with the section of a 
 fern stem, for any similar tissues. What purpose is ful- 
 filled by the air roots? 
 
 Reproduction. Study a strobilus. How do the leaves 
 differ in form and arrangement from those of the stem? 
 
146 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Each stiobilus scale is a sporoi)liyll. Examine ((2>) the 
 sporangia borne in the scale axils. How many kinds 
 do you find, and how do they differ? Observe the greeyi 
 sporangium more attentively. What is its form and size 
 when compared with that of the scale? Crush one and 
 observe the large, many-faced spores, megaspores. What can 
 you call the sporangium which produces megaspores only? 
 How many spores do you find in each? Examine the other 
 kind of sporangium. What is its color and comparative 
 size? W^hat markings are on its surface? Crush one and 
 observe the spores. Are they few or many, large or small ? 
 Name the sporangium. In a strobilus try to determine the 
 number of each kind of sporangia. 
 
 Drawings. Make careful drawings of the following : — 
 
 1. A spray of selaginella (natural size). 
 
 2. A portion of stem with leaves (m). 
 
 3. A leaf (Ij^). 
 
 4. A cone (^m), 
 
 5. Mega- and microsporangia (Ip). 
 G. Spores of the two sizes (/p). 
 
 Description. Write a careful description of selaginella 
 or lycopodium. 
 
 Lycopodium is similar to selaginella, but has only one 
 form of sporangium, and there are leaf differences of impor- 
 tance. It may be substituted, but selaginella is the better 
 plant. 
 
 Fossil club mosses. Read about " Lepidodendron " and 
 "Sigillaria" in the reference books. Wliat part did these 
 ancient club mosses have in the production of coal ? What 
 is lycopodium powder ? 
 
 Conclusions from fern-plant study. Evolution. You ought 
 to be able to understand and state the new features intro- 
 duced by the fern-plant classes, i.e., ferns, horsetails, and 
 club mosses. The marked increase in complexity, the inter- 
 esting life history (alternation of generations), and the 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 147 
 
 value ot the same, and the leatures that lead up to and re- 
 semble the cone-bearing trees (the next study). All these 
 features are a [)art of the evolution of plants from lower to 
 higher forms, and more or less clearly point out (what is 
 the belief commonly held among- scientific men) that all 
 the complex structures of the highest fiower plants have 
 been slowly evolved in the long past history of our earth, 
 from lower and simpler forms, and these in like manner 
 from yet simpler, until at length we reach the primordial 
 cell as in pleurococcus, or some similar structure. All the 
 factors entering into these changes of form are not clearly 
 known, but the effect of environment, the survival of useful 
 and beneficial qualities, the influence of heredity, and, above 
 all, the tendency of the Uvinri principle to variations, small 
 and great, have much to do with the changes wrought. 
 This is a very difficult subject, and it is only hinted at here 
 that you may know a little about the theory that men use 
 to explain the great diversity of plant forms that at the 
 same time are connected by features of structure and repro- 
 duction. 
 
 SFXTION V. THE SEED PLANTS 
 
 Class I. Gymnosperms (Conifers, "Evergreens") 
 A. INTRODUCTORY 
 
 We have now finished our examination of the plants of 
 the three branches (Thallus, Moss, and Fern) below the 
 Seed Plants, the last and highest of these great groups. 
 These lower plants have often been called Jlowerleas plants, 
 not possessing flowers. Another term commonly applied is 
 cryptograms, which signifies a hidden or obscure reproduc- 
 tion. A better understanding of them is, however, given by 
 the use of the three terms above. 
 
 The Seed Plants, while in many features very diverse, 
 unite in the production of seeds, structui'es diiferent from, 
 
148 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 anything found among the lower i)lants. The higher fern 
 plants, however, have numerous points of resemblance to 
 the gymnosperms or lowest seed plants. 
 
 This branch offers a study much more familiar to most 
 students, for the types used are, as a rule, known to every- 
 one, and not obscure forms or those of small interest except 
 from the viewpoint of the trained botanist. 
 
 B. TYPES 
 
 Type 1. Pines ^ 
 
 Material for study. Good pine material may be obtained 
 anywhere, either from cultivated or wild trees. It is desir- 
 able to have as large a variety as possible. White, Scotch, 
 and Austrian pines are generally grown. The pitch or long- 
 leaved pine may often be obtained during the holidays, and 
 in some regions other native species occur. The general 
 form of the trees is to be observed, the arrangement of the 
 branches (compare with cliara), and the great prominence 
 of the central axis ; the somber green of the " needle" 
 foliage should be noticed, and the brown remains of fallen 
 leaves. Examine the trunk for evidence of the sticky, 
 resinous sap. Are the leaves really evergreen ? How long 
 does the leaf remain on the tree? Examine the surface of 
 a pine branch below the leaf-bearing portion and observe 
 the covering of protecting scales. How are they arranged ? 
 Examine now the leafy portion for the same structures. 
 What position do they have with reference to the short 
 dwarfed branches which bear the leaves. Examine a dwarf 
 branch for its size and covering. How many leaves does it 
 bear ? Compare the different species at hand and observe 
 the variations, if any in number. 
 
 Leaf details. Examine a leaf and observe its shape and 
 the degree of stiffness or rigidity. Measure for length. 
 
 1 Narrow-leaved evergreens with needlelike leaves. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 149 
 
 What shape has it in section ? Examine the surface (m) 
 for dotlike markings (stoniates). Are there few or many 
 of these? Where are they distributed and how are they 
 arranged ? What color has the mature leaf? If possible, 
 compare it with the young leaf for form, size, and color. 
 Examine a leaf in cross section (Ip) and look for the outer 
 epidermis, much thickened, the central vascular bundle, and 
 the meaophyll containing resin ducts or small openings in the 
 outer portion. Carefully study each region and determine 
 the character of the cells and their arrangement. What 
 use has each of these features of the leaf ? Observe the 
 palisade cells (or the outer layer of mesophyll). How are 
 the cells arranged with reference to the epidermis ? What 
 are the advantages of such an arrangement ? 
 
 Stem in section. Examine a section of a young stem. 
 The layers from outside towards the center are the bark, 
 ivood, and pith. Seek for resin ducts in the bark. Observe 
 the sticky cut end of the twig and test its odor. Study, if 
 you have them at hand, thin sections of pine wood, cross 
 and long, observing cells and their peculiar form and mark- 
 ings. Examine pieces of white and yellow pine lumber, 
 and find the difference in color, tceiyht, grain, and hai'dness. 
 Which would be the better lumber for various building pur- 
 poses ? Read about pine lumber and find all the many 
 uses of the different species that time will permit. 
 
 Staminate inflorescence "blossoms." Examine the fresh or 
 dried specimen of the staminati'. inflorescence (sporophylls) 
 of the pine. Where is it located with reference to the old 
 and young leaves, and of what is it composed ? Examine a 
 single part (cone of sporophylls) and observe the scales 
 (microspoi'ophylls) composing it. Remove the scale (m) 
 and find the receptacles containing the yellow powder {pollen 
 or microspores). What name would you apply to the recep- 
 tacles ? Examine pollen {hp) and observe all its peculiari- 
 ties. What do you Hnd out about the number of pollen 
 
150 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 grains ? Why do the grains have wings ? In the older bot- 
 anies, these sporophylls are called stamens, and the sporangia 
 anthers ; hence the term used above, " staminate sjjorojyhylV 
 
 Pistillate inflorescence. Examine the "pistillate inflor- 
 escence." Where is it situated ? What is the size and ap- 
 pearance of the small cone ? Is it erect or nodding ? Study 
 the scale arrangement. "What name would you apply to the 
 scale ? Examine the scale sporangia (here called megaspo- 
 raiujia). How many are there ? How many spores in each 
 sporangium? Examine a "cone of the first year." What 
 is its size and position ? Is it erect or nodding ? Why is 
 there a difference in position of the megasporophyll cone 
 and the yearling cone ? Examine a mature cone and ob- 
 serve its form and scale arrangement. Where is it situated 
 with reference to the apical bud ? Examine an opened cone 
 and find the seeds. Are they freely exposed to the air 
 (naked) or are they entirely inclosed in a seed container of 
 some sort? How do the seeds escape from the cone? Re- 
 move a seed and notice the peculiarities. Observe the wing. 
 What purpose has it ? (Throw a seed up into the air and 
 watch it fall.) How many seeds are there in a scale ? How 
 many to a cone ? 
 
 Drawings. Make drawings of the following : 
 
 1. Pine spray to show leaf number. 
 
 2. Dwarf branch with leaves (each species). 
 
 3. Leaf portion {m) to show stomates. 
 
 4. Leaf section (Ip). 
 
 5. Stem section (Z^)). 
 
 G. Long and cross section of pine wood (Jp). 
 
 7. Staminate sporophyll cone. 
 
 8. Pollen (/|7). 
 
 9. Pistillate cones of all stages. 
 10. Seed. 
 
 Other work. Read about the pines. Where do they grow ? 
 What agency is necessary to enable pines to carry out their 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 151 
 
 reproduction ? (Look up aueiiioi)liilous.) Of what com- 
 mercial importance are pines? What are "naval stores"? 
 Make a table of the useful products directly or indirectly 
 depending on pines, thus : 
 
 Name ok V 
 
 WiiKKK Found 
 
 Part I'sed 
 
 »\V PkKI'AltKK 
 
 Use 
 
 Study of woods. Study the varieties of woods used for 
 cabinet and general building purposes, and observe the colory 
 grain, Juwdness, susceptibility to jjolish, iveight, odor, and other 
 features. ^lake a table embodying the results of your study, 
 usincr the followinsr lieadinij:s: 
 
 Name ok 
 Wool) 
 
 Where 
 Native 
 
 Grain 
 
 Pol IS 
 
 Lumber. What are meant by " hard *' and " soft " pines ? 
 Why are such lumbers so much used by carpenters ? Why 
 are pine woods not durable when kept moist? What is 
 lumber? What is pine lumber worth per thousand feet? 
 Why is pine lumber so important ? What are timbers ? 
 Into what building forms are pine logs sawed? Where 
 does the pine lumber come from that is found in our 
 lumber yards? What is forestry? 
 
152 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 Type 2. TJie Spruces. Short-leaved Evergreens 
 
 Where growing. Spruce trees are common evergreens in 
 cultivation, more especially the lUue and Norway. Two 
 otlier common species are the '' black " and " white " ; 
 these are the ordinary " Christmas trees " and are very 
 abundant natives of the northeastern United States. The 
 tree as it grows ought to be observed, if possible, — its 
 regularity of form and branching and the marked ar- 
 rangement of branches. Compare the form with that of a 
 pine. 
 
 Sprays. Examine a spray of several years' growth. What 
 arrangement has the branches ? How can you tell the end 
 of a year's growth ? Examine the apical bud and the lateral 
 buds adjacent to it. How do these help you to explain the 
 branching arrangement and position ? How many "years' " 
 growths of the main stem are leaf bearing ? Below the 
 leaves observe the bark surface and the similarity to the 
 pines. 
 
 Leaves. Examine the leaves. How are they borne on 
 the twigs, like the pines or otherwise ? What directions 
 with reference to the twig do they assume ? Observe the 
 number. Examine a leaf (???). What is its color, shape, 
 and size? How many surfaces has it? Examine (Ip) for 
 stomates and the nature of the margin and point (apex). 
 Examine a cross section (Ip) and, compare it with a similar 
 section of the pine. In what do they agree and in what do 
 they differ ? ^lake drawings showing spray, single leaf (?>i), 
 and cross section (Ip). 
 
 Reproduction. The process of reproduction is similar 
 to that of the pine. If possible compare the cones of 
 the two types, observing points of resemblance and dif- 
 ference. 
 
 Uses. Read about the uses of spruces in paper making. 
 What other uses have they ? What is " spruce gum " ? 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 153 
 
 Ty^e 3. Arhor liter ( Wliife Cedar) 
 
 Place of growth. This tree is native of most parts of 
 northeastern United States and is commonly cultivated as 
 an ornamental tree. As *' white cedar," it is universally 
 known in the north as a tine timber and lumber tree, 
 especially in railroad and telegraph construction. 
 
 Leafy spray. Examine a spray and observe the color, 
 odor, and general appearance of the leaves. How do they 
 differ from those of pines and spruces? They are said to 
 be scalelike. How are they arranged on the twig ? Ex- 
 amine (//)) and find the exact shape. 
 
 Cones. Examine the megasporophyll mature cojies. Com- 
 pare them in size, color, and number of scales with those of 
 the pine. Are the cones few or many ? Look at the seeds 
 and observe the features. 
 
 Drawings. Draw a spray, leaves (Ij)), cone, and seed. 
 
 Other work. Read about white cedar, ties, posts, oil of 
 cedar, cedar knees, and arhor vitce in medicine. Also the 
 use of the tree in horticulture, and notice the great number 
 of varieties. What qualities make a wood durable ? Rail- 
 road companies often " doctor " ties. What is'meant by this ? 
 Why are cedar ties and posts better than white oak, particu- 
 larly if they have been treated to prevent decay? Creosote 
 is now in general use for this purpose. 
 
 Type 4. Balsam Fir and Hemlock 
 
 "Where growing. These trees are common in the conifer- 
 ous forests of the north and are occasionally cultivated for 
 ornament. The balsam is infrequently used as a Christmas 
 tree. If possible, examine the standing trees to observe 
 their peculiar characters. 
 
 Spray and leaves. Study small twigs or leafy shoots of 
 each tree. What is the arrangement of the leaves on the 
 
154 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 twig ? In liow many directions from the twig do the leaves 
 project ? What do you notice concerning the odor ? 
 
 Examine a leaf. What shape has it ? Is it flat, round, 
 or angular in section ? Examine for a midrib. Observe 
 the color of the two surfaces, upper and lower. If the two 
 species are at hand, place side by side for comparison of 
 color, leaf size, odor, and other features. 
 
 Cones. Examine mature cones of each tree and observe 
 their peculiarities. Can you tell the trees apart by their 
 cones ? Examine the seeds. 
 
 Drawings. Draw sprays, single leaves {m), leaf sections 
 (??i), and cones. 
 
 Uses of. Read about hemlock and balsam fir, seeking to 
 discover all possible uses for these trees. What connection 
 has balsam with the paper pulp industry ? Read about, in 
 particular, the tanning of leather and the connection of 
 hemlock with this important industry. What effect on 
 animal tissues has tannic acid ? What sort of lumber does 
 hemlock make ? Compare with pine. Is it more or less 
 valuable ? 
 
 Type 5. Juniper {cornmon') and Red Cedar 
 
 Material for study. The trees are not very common in 
 cultivation, and it may not be possible to obtain fresh mate- 
 rial except in favored locations, as there are many regions 
 where the trees do not grow wild. Where obtainable, how- 
 ever, they are fine forms for study. 
 
 Sprays and leaves. Examine the spray of leaves. Ob- 
 serve the general appearance of the twig. What shape has 
 the individual leaf ? What is its size ? What do you find 
 regarding size ? Are they all of one size ? How are the 
 leaves arranged ? on the twig ? On contact with the skin, 
 what do you notice as to the leaf points ? 
 
 Cones and fruits. Examine the microsporophyll cones, if- 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 
 
 155 
 
 they are obtainable. Observe their size and any features 
 similar to those of pines. 
 
 Examine the juniper ' berries" or megasporophyll fruits 
 (hardly possible to call them cones). What color and size 
 do you observe ? Taste them and observe the result. Ex- 
 amine carefully for seeds. What do you find ? 
 
 Drawings. Draw a spray, some leaves (m), microsporo- 
 pliyll cones (m), and the berries. 
 
 Uses. Read about " Juniper " and " Red Cedar " and find 
 out the uses to which they are put. Read the subject " Cedar 
 Apple " and find the connection to a disease of apples. 
 
 Examine red cedar wood and discover its peculiarities. 
 What special uses are made of it ? Why is it so durable ? 
 Where does the red cedar of commerce come from ? 
 
 Addenda 
 
 A table of conifers. Make a table of all the conifers you 
 are able to find by reading or investigating, as follows : 
 
 Name 
 
 CfU'NTKY 
 
 Pkoi)itoin(; 
 
 UsK AND Value 
 
 FOR LUMIJER 
 
 Use in 
 Manufacturing 
 
 Noteworthy 
 Features 
 
 Coniferous forests. Why are coniferous forests largely 
 cold temperate in their distribution ? What habits and 
 structural features of pines and spruces, in particular, fit 
 them for cold snowy regions ? Why are they not destroyed 
 by animals (herbivorous) in winter, when they are the only 
 green things ? What are mixed forests ? What peculiar- 
 ity in this respect do conifers show ? Where are the great 
 coniferous forests of America ? What conifers are found 
 in the southern hemisphere ? What are the agents at work 
 
156 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 to destroy these forests ? What is the prospect of their 
 permanent continuance ? How does Germany manage such 
 forests ? ^lake a map of the world on Mercator's projec- 
 tion and show the coniferous forest belt by a green tint. 
 Try to make the distinction as exact as possible. 
 
 Class II. Angiosperms (Common Flowering Plants) 
 
 The subject title is introduced here to show the student 
 the proper sequence and position of the highest group of 
 plants. Their study has been taken up in Part I of this 
 work. 
 
 SECTION VT. SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 
 
 Branch I. Thallophytes, or Thallus Plants. 
 
 The lowest and simplest of plants, without 
 true stem and leaf. 
 
 Class I. Fission Plants. Bacteria, Bacilli. Blue-green 
 Algce. 
 The so-called germs. The lowest, simplest, 
 and smallest organisms, in large part with- 
 out chlorophyll, largely parasites, many 
 injurious, some of great value. 
 Glass II. Fungi, Molds, Busts, Yeasts, Mushrooms, 
 Lichens. 
 Plants without chlorophyll ; many parasites ; 
 often saprophytic ; many of value. 
 Class III. Algce. Green, brown, and red forms. 
 
 Plants mostly aquatic, with chlorophyll; 
 mostly independent; many useful for food, 
 medicine, etc. 
 
 Branch II. Bryophytes, or Moss Plants. 
 
 Green plants of some complexity with com- 
 bined parasite and independent genera- 
 tions ; the mosses with small leaves. 
 
A MANUAL OF BOTANY 157 
 
 Class I. Hepattcs, or Licerworts. Flattened horizontal 
 thallus forms or mosslike. 
 
 Class II. Mosses proper^ with two subclasses. 
 
 A. Ordinary mosses, mostly terrestrial or arboreal, some 
 
 aquatic. 
 
 B. Sphagnum forms, aquatic. Peat producers. 
 
 Branch III. Pteridophytes, or Fern Plants.^ 
 
 Green plants, mostly leafy, commonly with un- 
 derground stems ; marked alternation of gen- 
 erations and complicated spore production. 
 
 Class I. Ferns. Several thousand species of fernlike 
 aspect. 
 
 Class II. Horsetails and scouring rushes. 
 
 Green, hollow, jointed stems and scale leaves; 
 conelike spore structures. 
 
 Class III. Club mosses. Mosslike plants with conelike 
 spore fruits. 
 
 Branch IV. Spermatophytes, or Seed Plants. 
 
 Plants with so-called flowers and seed pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Class I. Gymnosperms, or naked seeds ; narrow or scale 
 leaves (usually), mostly evergreen; pines, 
 spruces, cedars, yews, — big trees. 
 
 (Jlass II. Angiosjyerms, or covered seeds; vastly im})or- 
 tant. 
 Ordinary flowering plants of two subclasses; 
 
 A. Monocotyledons, or one-seed le<(f; grasses, lilies, iris, 
 
 orchids, etc. 
 
 B. Diocotyledons, or two-seed leaves; pinks, crowfoots, 
 
 mustards, roses, peas, and hosts of others. 
 
 1 Onl}' the more important classes are named. 
 
158 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS 
 
 REVIEW TABLE, NO. I 
 
 Make a table below, filling out each column for each plant 
 studied. 
 
 Name Bran< ii Plant Body Size Coum Life Haiut Rkmak 
 
 REVIEW TABLE, NO. II 
 
 Methods of Reproduction 
 
 Cell 
 Division 
 
 Vegetative 
 
 MlTLTIPLICA- 
 TION^. 
 
 Cell Union, 
 isogamous or 
 IIeterogamous 
 
 Alteration 
 
 of 
 Generation* 
 
 IIeterospory 
 
 OR 
 ISOSPORY 
 
 REVIEW TABLE, NO. IIL 
 Table of Plant Associations 
 
 Name of 
 Plant 
 
 Branch ani> 
 Class 
 
 Nature of 
 Environment 
 
 Peculiarities 
 
 1 Other than a single cell. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Adder's tongue, 54, 65. 
 
 Adventitious roots, 11. 
 
 Aerial roots, 18, 145. 
 
 Air-chambers, 133. 
 
 Alga, algas, i)3-115 ; blue-green, 
 93, 90 ; brown, 109-112 ; green, 
 103-108; red, 112-113; tables 
 of, 96, 102, 111; classification 
 of, 180. 
 
 Alternation of generations, 13(5, 
 141. 
 
 Amanitas, deadly, 123. 
 
 Angiosperms, 150, 
 
 Annuals, 37, 
 
 Anther, 47. 
 
 Antheridia, 107, 110, 114, 133. 
 
 Antheridial branch, l."5;!. 
 
 Apple Family, 01. 
 
 Apetalous, 50. 
 
 Apetalous flowers, 50, 57. 
 
 Apical bud, 17, 24, 114, 139. 
 
 Apothccia, 129. 
 
 Applied work, on seeds, 0, 7 ; on 
 roots, 10 ; on stems, 22, 24, 25, 
 20, 28, 30 ; on leaves, 42, 43, 
 44 ; on flowers, 49, 53, 54, 50, 
 59, 00, 01, 02, 04, 05, 68, (59, 
 72, 79 ; on fruits, 81 ; on lower 
 plants. 111, 115. 
 
 Arl)()r vitie, 153. 
 
 Arcliegonia, 133. 
 
 Archegonial branch, 133. 
 
 Associations, 83. 
 
 Bacteria, 117, 118, 119. 
 Bacteria and soil, 05. 
 Balsam fir, 153. 
 Bark, 27, 149. 
 Bast, 13i>. 
 Beans, 1, 2. 
 Biemiials, 37. 
 Black mold, 119. 
 Blade, 32, 35, 138. 
 
 Blister, 1, 
 
 Blue-green algse, 95. 
 
 Bracket nuishrooms, 125. 
 
 Bracts, 47, 09. 
 
 liranchlets, 110. 
 
 Bread-making, 110. 
 
 Brown alg*, 109. 
 
 Bud arrangement, 19. 
 
 Budding, 61, 
 
 Buds, 17. 
 
 Bud structure, 17, 18. 
 
 Bulbs, 24. 
 
 Bundle sheath, 139, 
 
 Burs, 90. 
 
 Buttercups, 57. 
 
 Cabinet woods, 28. 
 
 Calyptra, 130. 
 
 Calyx, 52. 
 
 Cap, 122. 
 
 Capsule, 130. 
 
 (^arrot, 07. 
 
 Catkins, 40, 48. 
 
 Cedar, 153. 
 
 Cell-divi.sion, 94, 101. 
 
 Cells, 94, 114. 
 
 Cell-wall, 94. 
 
 Central axis, 11. 
 
 Chara, 113. 
 
 Chlorophyll, 93. 
 
 Chloroplasts, 99, 131. 
 
 Chorii)etalous, 57. 
 
 Christmas trees, 152, 154. 
 
 Cladophora, 104. 
 
 Classification, 104, 
 
 Classification of plants, 150. 
 
 Cleistogamous, 07. 
 
 Climbing stems, 20. 
 
 Club mosses, 145. 
 
 Coal, 142. 
 
 Colony, 97. 
 
 Complete leaf, 32. 
 
 C'omposite Family, 7(), 83, 92, 
 
 169 
 
160 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Composition of roots and seeds, 
 
 14. 
 Compound leaves, 85. 
 Conceptacle, 110. 
 Cones, 144, 149. 
 Coniferous forests, 156. 
 Conifei-s, 147. 
 Conjugation, 100. 
 Corn, 3. 
 Corolla, 52. 
 Cortex, 11, 27. 
 Cortical cell, 114. 
 Corymb, 57. 
 Cotyledons, 2. 
 Crowfoot Family, 66. 
 Cupule, 182. 
 Cypripedium, 55. 
 Cytoplasm, 94. 
 
 Desmids, 103. 
 Diadelphous, 64. 
 Diatoms, 111. 
 Dicotyledons, 2, 27. 
 Diojcious, 50. 
 Disk, 86. 
 
 Divided leaves, 35. v 
 Dog-tooth Violet, 54. 
 Dogwood Family, 69. 
 Downs, 91. 
 
 Ecology, 38, 41, 103, 130. 
 
 Elater, 133, 144. 
 
 Embryo, 2, 3. 
 
 Endosperm, 4. 
 
 Epidermis, 11, 33, 139, 149. 
 
 Erythronium, 64. 
 
 Experiments, seed, 2, 9, 10 ; 
 seedling, 8, 9 ; root, 13, 14, 15 ; 
 stem, 21, 22 ; leaf, 39, 40, 
 41 ; flower, 66, GG, 79; fruits, 
 90, 91, 92; algaj, 95, 98, 99, 
 101, 108, 109 ; fungi, 115, 116, 
 117, 119; mosses, 136, 137. 
 
 Evergreen leaves, 38. 
 
 Evergreens, 147. 
 
 Evolution, 146. 
 
 Fall flowers, 83. 
 Fall fruits, 90. 
 Fern plants, 137-147. 
 Ferns, 137. 
 
 Fertilization, 48. 
 
 Field work, algje, 129 ; fungi, 
 129 ; mosses, 134 ; ferns, 138; 
 flower-plants, 45-79. 
 
 Figwort Family, 73. 
 
 Filament, 47, 98. 
 
 Flower-parts, 84. 
 
 Flower plan, 66. 
 
 Flower-rank, 76. 
 
 Flower tables, 65, GG, 75, 77, 78, 
 85, 87. 
 
 Flowers, 45-79. 
 
 Food of green plants, 94 , 108, 
 109. 
 
 Food of plants without chloro- 
 phyll, 115, 117, 119. 
 
 Food storage, 3. 
 
 Forestry, 29. 
 
 Fossil ferns, 142. 
 
 Fruits, 79, 81, 90. 
 
 Fungi, 117-129; cup. 126; high- 
 er, 121, 124 ; imperfect. 116 ; 
 sac, 126. 
 
 Funiclilus, 3. 
 
 Gametes, 107. 
 
 Gametophyte, 100, 135, 141. 
 Gamopetalous, 69. 
 Gemmae, 132. 
 Genus, 100. 
 Geranium, 32. 
 Germination, 8, 106. 
 Germs, 117. 
 Gills, 122. 
 Grafting, 61. 
 Green algaj, 103. 
 Green felt, 106. 
 Green plants, 94. 
 Growing point, 18. 
 Guard-cells, 33, 132. 
 Gymnospenns, 147-156. 
 
 Habitat, 83. 
 Haustoria, 128. 
 Hazel, 50. 
 Head, 76. 
 Hemlock, 153. 
 Hepaticas, 56. 
 Hilum, 1, 3. 
 
 Honeysuckle Family, 76. 
 Horse-tails, 143. 
 
INDEX 
 
 161 
 
 Hydrodiction, 97. 
 Hydrophytes, 103, 146. 
 Hypocotyl, 2, 3, 4. 
 Hypocotyl arch, 8. 
 
 Inflorescence, 57, 84, 149. 
 Insect-pollination, 48, 56. 
 Internodes, 114. 
 Involucre, 70. 
 Irregular flowers, 65. 
 
 Juniper, 154. 
 
 Keel, 64. 
 
 Labiate, 72. 
 
 Lady slipper, 55. 
 
 Latex, 71. 
 
 Leaflet, 35. 
 
 Leaf mosaics, 37. 
 
 Leaf rosettes, 36. 
 
 Leaf scars, 18. 
 
 Leaf work or functions, 39, 40, 
 41. 
 
 Leaves, 32-45, 138 ; arrangement 
 of, 36 ; compound, 35 ; division 
 of, 35 ; parts of, 32 ; physiol- 
 ogy of, 39-41; modifications of, 
 37 ; simple, 35 ; structure of, 
 139. 
 
 Lenticels, 18. 
 
 Lichens, 128. 
 
 Lily Family, 51. 
 
 Liverworts, 130-134; land, 131, 
 134; water, 1.30. 
 
 Lumber, 28, 151, 157. 
 
 Lycopodium, 145. 
 
 Main axis, 110. 
 Marchantia, l-'U. 
 Marsh Marigold, 56. 
 Megasporangia, 150. 
 Megaspores, 53, 150. 
 Mosopliyll, 34, 149. 
 Micr()i)yle, 1. 
 Microsporangia, 52, 149. 
 Microspores, 52, 149. 
 Midrib, 33, 110, 154. 
 Mildews, 127. 
 Milkweed Family, 70. 
 Mint Family, 73. 
 
 Molds, 119, 121. 
 Monocotyledons, 4, 27. 
 Monodelphous, 64. 
 Monoecious, 50. 
 Morels, 126. 
 Mosaics, leaf, 37. 
 Mosses, 134. 
 Moss-plants, 130-137. 
 Mushrooms, 121-125. 
 Mustard Family, 58. 
 Mycelium, 120. 
 
 Nasturtium, 83. 
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 65. 
 Nodes, 2, 114. 
 Nodules, 99. 
 Nostoc, 95. 
 Nucleus, 94. 
 
 Oogonium, 107, 110, 114. 
 Oosphere, 107. 
 Oospore, 107, 135. 
 Operculum, 136. 
 Oscillatoria, 95. 
 Osmosis, 109. 
 Ovary, 48, 54, 56. 
 Ovules, 48, 53. 
 
 Palisade cells, 34, 149. 
 
 Panicle, 57. 
 
 Parasitic plants, 74. 
 
 Parenchyma, 139. 
 
 Parsnip or par.sley Family, 67. 
 ^^ Family, 64. 
 Hdicel, 48. 
 
 TTeduncle, 51. 
 
 Peristome, 136. 
 
 Petals, 52. 
 
 Petiole, 138. 
 
 Phloem, 139. 
 
 Photosynthesis, 40, 101. 
 
 Physiology, of seeds, 9, 10 ; of 
 seedlings, 9, 10 ; of roots, 12 ; 
 of stems, 31, 32 ; of leaves, 39, 
 40, 41; of flowers, 48, 49; of 
 fruits, 80, 90, 91 ; of algit, 101, 
 103, 108 ; of fungi, 116. 
 
 Pileus, 122. 
 
 Pines, 148. 
 
 I*ine seeds, 4. 
 
 Pistil, 48. 
 
162 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pith, 27, 149. 
 Pith rays, 27. 
 Pleurococcus, 93. 
 Plumule, 2. 
 
 Polemonium Family, 72. 
 Pollen, 47. 149. 
 Pollination, 48, 5(3, 04, 71. 
 Polypetalous, 57. 
 Pond scums, 98. 
 Pore, 122. 
 Potato, 22. 
 Prairies, 70. 
 Prickles, 20. 
 Primary roots, 10. 
 Primrose Family, 69. 
 Prop roots, 13. 
 Protonema, 135. 
 Prune Family, 63. 
 Pruninu;, 61. 
 Puff-balls, 124. 
 
 Raceme, 57. 
 
 Kadicle, 10. 
 
 Kay, 86. 
 
 Receptacle, 54. 
 
 Red cedar, 154. 
 
 Red seaweeds, 112. 
 
 Resin ducts, 149. 
 
 Rhizoids, 107. 
 
 Rhizomes, 23, 57, 139. 
 
 Riccia, 130. 
 
 Rincr, 122. 
 
 Rockweed, 109. 
 
 Roots, 10-17; adventitious, 11; 
 forms of, 12 ; primary, 10 ; sec- 
 ondary, 11; structure of, 11; 
 tap-root, 10. 
 
 Root-cap, 11. 
 
 Root-hairs, 11, 12. 
 
 Root-tip, 11. 
 
 Rose Family, 60. 
 
 Rusts, 126. 
 
 Scape, 54. 
 
 Scientific name, 100. 
 
 Scouring rushes, 143. 
 
 Seeds, 1-7 ; bean, 1 ; corn, 3 ; 
 
 pine, 4 ; experiments with, 9 ; 
 
 composition of, 5 ; physiology 
 
 of, 9, 10. 
 Seed coat, 2, 
 
 Seed leaves, 2. 
 
 Seedlings, 7-10. 
 
 Seed plants, 147-156. 
 
 Seed table, 6. 
 
 Selaginella, 145. 
 
 Sepal, 52. 
 
 Sessile, 51. 
 
 Seta, 136. 
 
 Sexual reproduction, 107. 
 
 Smuts, 127. 
 
 Soil, 13, 65, 66. 
 
 Sori, 140. 
 
 Species, 100. 
 
 Sperm cells, 114, 135. 
 
 Spirogyra, 98. 
 
 Sporangia, 120, 136, 140. 
 
 Spores, 100, 122, 140. 
 
 Sporophyll, 50, 141. 144, 149. 
 
 Sporophyte, 133, 136, 138. - 
 
 Spraying, 63-64. 
 
 Spruce, 152. 
 
 Spur, 67. 
 
 Stamens, 47. 
 
 Standard, 64. 
 
 Stele, 11. 
 
 Stems, 17-32 ; features of, 17 ; 
 climbing, 20 ; miscellaneous, 
 25; modified, 21; physiology 
 of, 29, 31 ; structure of, 26. 
 
 Stigma, 48. 
 
 Stipules, 32. 
 
 Stomates, 33, 132, 140. 
 
 Strobilus, 144, 145. 
 
 Style, 48. 
 
 Sweet pea, 64. 
 
 Symbiosis, 129. 
 
 Sympetalous, 69, 70. 
 
 Tables, algjii, 96, 102-111 ; coni- 
 fers, 155 ; climbing stems, 21 ; 
 commercial woods, 28 ; ferns, 
 142 ; fruits, 81 ; leaves, 38, 42, 
 43, 49 ; mosses, 134 ; pines, 
 151 ; review, 158 ; rhizomes, 
 23 ; roots, 14 ; seeds, 5 ; stems — 
 twigs, 19, 29, 30 ; stems — mod- 
 ified, 23 ; woods, 151. 
 
 Tap-root, 12. 
 
 Temporary mount, 93. 
 
 Tendrils, 20. 
 
 Tests, 5, 9, 12, 14. 
 
INDEX 
 
 163 
 
 Thallus, 131. 
 
 Water-net, 97. 
 
 Thallus i)lants, 93-129. 
 
 Weeds, 88. 
 
 Thorns, 26. 
 
 White cedar, 163. 
 
 Trillium, 61. 
 
 Willow.s, 46. 
 
 Tubers, 21. 
 
 Win-s, 4,64, 110. 
 
 Twigs, 19. 
 
 Winter annuals, 37. 
 
 Twining stems, 20. 
 
 Winter buds, 18. 
 
 
 Winter rosettes, 37. 
 
 Umbel, 57. 
 
 Winter twigs, 18. 
 
 Underground stems, 138. 
 
 Wood, 27, 28, 149. 
 
 Vascular bundles, 139. 
 
 
 Vaucheria, 106. 
 
 Xerophytes, 146. 
 
 Vegetables, 6. 58, 59. 
 
 Xylem, 139. 
 
 Vegetative notch, 130. 
 
 
 Veins, 32. 
 
 
 Venation, 34, 35, 138. 
 
 Yeast, 115. 
 
 Vernation, 34. 
 
 
 Vessels, 139. 
 
 
 Violet Family, 66. 
 
 Zones, 18. 
 
 
 Zoogonidia, 105. 
 
 Water liverwort, 130. 
 
 Zoiispores, 97, 105. 
 
 Water mold, 121. 
 
 Zygnema, 102. 
 
 I# 
 
 rJ^ 
 
i 
 
ANNOUNCEMENTS 
 
ESSENTIALS OF BOTANY 
 
 By JOSEPH YOUNG BERGEN 
 
 2mo, cloth, 380 pages, illustrated, ;>i.20 
 
 BERGEN'S " Essentials of l^otany " is intended to 
 furnish a one-)ear course for secondary schools and 
 also to fit thoroughly for college-entrance examinations 
 in the subject. It gives an intelligible account of the 
 main facts of plant anatomy and ph)siology, together 
 with a general view of the principal groups of plants. It 
 will be found much fuller than the author's *' Elements" 
 or ** Foundations of Botany" in the treatment of the 
 lower forms of plant life. 
 
 Probably the most widely used text-books in America 
 on botany are those written by Mr. Joseph Y. Bergen. 
 An accomplished teacher and naturalist, Mr. Bergen has 
 been quick to seize upon the best methods to illustrate 
 the changes in the study of plants during the past 'score 
 of years, and to adapt those methods to teachers in a 
 concise and presentable form, and in as simple language 
 as the nature of the suhject will permit. This latest 
 book — "The Essentials of Botany" — is an attractively 
 illustrated volume, and contains much new matter that 
 teachers will appreciate, such as chapters on plant breed- 
 ing, useful plants, and on timher and forestry. 
 
 — I'lducatiotial Rri'ie^v. 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY Puulishers 
 
TEXTBOOKS ON SCIENCE 
 
 FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 List price 
 
 Allen: Civics and Health $1-25 
 
 Bergen: Elements of Botany (Rev. Ed.) 1.30 
 
 Bergen: Essentials of Botany 1.20 
 
 Bergen: Foundations of Botany 1.50 
 
 Bergen and Davis : Principles of Botany 1.50 
 
 Blaisdell : Life and Health 90 
 
 Blaisdell : Practical Physiology i.io 
 
 Clute: Laboratory Botany 75 
 
 Davis: Elementary Meteorology 2.50 
 
 Davis: Elementary Physical Geography 1.25 
 
 Davis: Physical Geography 1.25 
 
 Davis : Practical Exercises in Physical Geography 45 
 
 Duggar: Fungous Diseases of Plants 2.00 
 
 Gage: Principles of Physics (Revised by Goodspeed) .... 1.50 
 
 Hastings and Beach : General Physics 2.75 
 
 Higgins : Experiments in Physics 35 
 
 Higgins : Lessons in Physics 90 
 
 Higgins : Simple Experiments in Physics 35 
 
 Hopkins: Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture 2.25 
 
 Hough and Sedgwick: Human Mechanism 2.00 
 
 Linville and Kelly : General Zoology 1.50 
 
 McGregory : Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis (Rev. Ed.) i.oo 
 McPherson and Henderson: Elementary Study of Chemistry 1.25 
 Meier : Herbarium and Plant Description. With directions for 
 
 collecting, pressing, and mounting specimens 60 
 
 Meier: Plant Study 75 
 
 Millikan and Gale : First Course in Physics 1.25 
 
 Newman: Laboratory Exercises in Elementary Physics, per doz. 1.50 
 
 Norton: Elements of Geology 1.40 
 
 Ostwald and Morse : Elementary Modern Chemistry . . . . i.oo 
 
 Pratt: Invertebrate Zoology 1.25 
 
 Pratt: Vertebrate Zoology 1.50 
 
 Russell and Hastings : Experimental Dairy Bacteriology . . . i.oo 
 Sabine : Laboratory Course in Physical Measurements (Rev. Ed.) 1.25 
 
 Sellers: Qualitative Analysis (Rev. Ed.) i.oo 
 
 Stone: Experimental Physics i.oo 
 
 Ward: Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology . . . 1.12 
 
 Wentworth and Hill: Textbook of Physics 1.15 
 
 Williams: Elements of Chemistry i.io 
 
 Williams: Essentials of Chemistry 1.25 
 
 Young: General Astronomy 2.75 
 
 Young: Lessons in Astronomy (Rev. Ed.) 1.25 
 
 Young : Manual of Astronomy 2.25 
 
 146 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY Publishers 
 
North Carolina State University Libraries j 
 
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