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II
I 
COUNTRY LIFE:
A HANDBOOK  OF
gritalturt,  )ort'itulrt, ~    anh5ate (bar&nlig.
BY ROBERT MORRIS COPELAND.
VIEW AT BEAVER BROOR FALLS, Tt AUTHORS RESIDENCE,
FIFTHS -l) TI ON,.E IT SED).
BOSTON:
I)I~SMQQB O   OO PAN:
DIs Moon 0 AND aOkMPANY.
1866. 
Entered. according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by
DINSMOOR AND COMPANY,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
GEO. C. RAND & AVERY,
STEREOTYPERS AND PRINTERS. 
ALL LOVERS OF NATURE
AND TO ALL ENGAGED IN CULTIVATING AND ADORNING THE EARTH,
WITH THE EARNEST HOPE THAT IT MAY ATTRACT TO THE PRACTICE OF
THE ARTS OF CULTURE SOME WHO WILL SEE THAT THE PURSUIT
IS FULL OF PLEASURE,
WITH NO MORE THAN A HEALTHY AMOUNT OF LABOR.
AND ALSO,
WITH THE HOPE THAT SOME WHO NOW EARN THEIR BREAD WITH
THE SWEAT OF THEIR BROW, AND LOOK UPON THEIR
CALLING AS A TREADMILL OF DRUDGERY
AND ENDURANCE,
MAY HERE LEARN THAT WITHIN THE ROUND OF THEIR DAILY DUTIES
THEY HAVE EVERY THING WHICH CAN EXPAND THE MIND
AND ENNOBLE THE SOUL.
Zo
34-is Dnko is Ptbitattbt 
il
I 
PREFACE.
THE practice of the useful arts necessarily precedes their theory
by a great interval, for it alone can furnish reliable material
whence principles may be deduced, and rules determined; and
there can never be a time when it shall cease to be the test to
which all rules and theories must be subjected. This is pre-eminently true of agriculture, the oldest of the useful arts, through
all its branches, and it is, therefore, in vain to look for a book on
the culture of the earth which shall be altogether or mainly
original; all such books, resting on the experience of the past,
must, of necessity, refer to the past, must recapitulate its discoveries and practice,  in greater or less degree.   Unless they be
monographs of peculiar speciality, they must partake somewhat
of the nature of a compilation borrowing from many sources.
I wish to acknowledge the ideas, the words, the illustrations
which I have borrowed; and if I have failed to do this in any
instance, the omission is not intentional.   In some  cases the
views of others are so incorporated with and modified by my
own, that it is out of the question to preserve the distinction
between them.
Stevens (Book of the Farm), McIntosh (Book of the Garden), Loudon, Price, Liebig, Way, Gisbourne (Essays), Paul,
Johnston, Boussingault, the journals of various English agricultural societies, are the European sources to which I am mainly
indebted; whilst among American authorities I have principally
V
\ Ha  - if            c,e  
PREFACE.
referred to Dana, Browne's Muck Book, Text Book of Agriculture, McMahon, Hovey, Shedd, The Working Farmer, Field's
Pear Culture, with some newspaper items.  Of course there are
many things within this wide range of which I have had small
personal experience; in such cases I have relied entirely on the
best authorities, applying them as my general experience dictates.
In the body of the work  I have met some of the popular
arguments against the course of adopting largely the English
improved culture, but not so fully as to preclude a few general
remarks in this preface. Without doubt our common practice
is just where English agriculture was forty years ago.  The descriptions of English farming, tools, buildings, crops, roads, etc.,
given by Young and other writers of that time, might be quoted
word for word to-day, as descriptive of the mass of New England farms. And if English farmers followed this kind of farming forty years ago with profit, and have since improved their
practice so much as to double and treble their profits, with
no other change in the circumstances than an increased outlay
of capital and intelligence, it seems to me that it logically follows that we can do the same.
The frequent discussions about high farming seldom lead to
definite and satisfactory conclusions, for want of a precise and
accepted definition of the term. High farming in this book is
the name of that culture which provides for the thorough re clamation, drainage, and manuring of the land under treatment;
so thorough a manuring that a single application will ensure
ample food to all the crops of the sagaciously planned rotation;
which so arranges the rotation for each field that each crop
comes at a time when the soil is in the best state to feed it,
finds an excess of its favorite food, and yet leaves an excess of
the food most appropriate for the next crop; which looks on
VI 
PREFACE.
every weed as a thief, and on the labor expended in securing
neatness, cleanliness, and order as certain to increase the final
profit; and which leads, by intelligent steps, from improvement
in the culture of earth to the yet more profitable and the far
more noble culture of the man. These steps I have endeavored
to point out in part.   Sometimes I have invited the reader to
trace them with me, hoping that he may find the result to which
they lead eminently practical.
The calendar form, and the general divisions which recur in
every month, have been adopted as facilitating reference.
The course announced in the opening pages, viz., to give but
one method in cases where many are practised, and each has
warm advocates, may expose me to the charge of ignorant conceit and dogmatism, but it has been deliberately chosen for the
convenience and advantage of the general reader, who is not
supposed to be an adept in any of the departments treated of.
To him this book is offered as a manual for guidance; it would
but confuse him if it presented many methods, and left him to
choose between them.   I have myself often suffered from the
difficulty of ascertaining what was the best way of doing something I had in hand, when I had books enough which told in
how many ways the thing was done, a matter to which one is
perfectly indifferent when work presses upon him; and in my
profession of Landscape Gardener, I have often remarked that
much of the expense of obtaining answers to the innumerable
questions put to me on all the subjects treated in these pages,
might be saved to my employers by a simple printed statement
of leading principles and rules.   The adept likes to decide between different methods presented; the tyro is glad to learn
what his teachers prefer.
I have tried to make all obscure operations and descriptions
more clear by illustrations, where the eye often reads more at
VII 
PREFACE.
a glance than in many pages of print, and I here acknowledge
my obligations to Mr. A. C. Warren, of Boston, the artist who
drew the illustrations which form so important a part of the
book. Also, I would again mention my indebtedness to J. H
Shedd, both for the quotations I have made, and for the system
of drainage shown upon the plan with which our book opens,
which was arranged by him.
To my friend Frederick Winsor, M. D., of Salem, I owe much
gratitude for assistance, which none but an intimate friend
could have given, in revising and correcting my hastily written
manuscript. But for his aid the short time which my engagement with the publishers allowed for the preparation of the
book would scarcely have admitted of critical revision.
Bulky as the book is, it does no more than open many approaches to an exhaustless subject, and I lay down my pen
with a feeling of deep regret that I have done so little justice
to what is so near my heart.
One word on a point to which many words are given in this
volume; the spirit in which one should deal with his farm, his
flowers, his grounds. Surely it should be that of reverential
friendship, not of cold and superficial business relation. This
complex, and beautiful mystery, which we call Nature, surely
offers us something more than food and clothing; and, believing
as I do, that man's "life is more than meat," I cannot speak of
the life of that class who seem to live nearest Nature as nothing
more than a struggle for that miserable pittance known as a
living."
With these explanations I leave my book to the reader, asking him only to bear in mind the words of a Boston orator,
who said, "that a book should be judged not merely by its
contents, but by the intention of the author."
VIII 
PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION.
Is the preface to the first edition of" Country Life," I maintained, that, in agriculture, experience must govern theories,
and that any treatise on the subject must owe much of its
value to the degree in which its rules and principles are based
upon the results of experience.
Whilst this is true, we must not allow ourselves to become
the slaves of experience, which, it may be said, is the constant tendency of farming life. To this day, many men sneer
at book-farming as theoretical and unreliable, and resist, as an
encroachment on their rights, those theories of cultivation
which seem to disagree with the wisdom of the ancients.
Nothing would have broken down this feeling and resistance but necessity. When men have a certain result to
obtain, and to obtain it must use the labor of men and animals, and supply tools and machines, they are compelled, if
the labor is scanty, to try to devise, either methods for getting
the result without the labor, or to perform the labor in some
different way. If a man's tools and machinery are worse and
less profitable than his neighbor's, the fact that the result in
dollars and cents is against him will incline him to copy his
neighbor.
The long war we have passed through has absorbed so
much of the available labor of the country, and at the same 
PREFACE.
time increased the value of the products of agricultural labor,
that farmers have been compelled to invent either new machines or new crops, and methods of culture.
As a consequence, we have made vast improvements in
agricultural machinery, particularly in harvesting tools. The
mowers and reapers of 1866 are so much better than they
were in 1859, that the work of haying and harvesting is reduiced from severe to easy work, and a man and boy will now
do the work on a farm which formerly required half a dozen
men.
In Horticulture, new plants and fruits are introduced every
year: some, upon trial, are proved to be of little value, and
soon disappear, whilst a few become permanent friends and
comforts to man. In the cultivation of grapes, there has been
a great advance; and not only do we now have very greatly
improved varieties, but a thousand cultivate grapes to-day
in place of a hundred six years ago. With these new
varieties and the widely spreading cultivation, new diseases
have come, and some men have suffered so severely, that they
have lost heart, and are inclined to abandon the vine; but,
fortunately, man is a persevering animal, particularly when
eating and drinking are the stimulants to his efforts, and we
may rest assured that the grape or grapes will yet be found
which will overcome all obstacles, and be equally good for the
table and the vineyard. In the Supplement, the subject is
extensively treated, and the reader will find there not only the
best varieties for different parts of the country, but also the
opinions of eminent cultivators as to the causes and cures of
the most annoying diseases to which grapes are liable.
In the Flower-garden, I have introduced many new plants,
as well as new lists of old friends, and have urged strongly the
claims of some which I had hitherto neglected.
IV 
PREFACE.
In the Agricultural division, I have brought together a large
number of facts about Merino sheep, and have endeavored to
urge farmers generally to do more to derive, by the aid of
sheep, the full value from their farms. When we comprehend
the real benefits which sheep confer on their owners, it is difficult to understand why so few persons, comparatively, have
flocks. The Merino sheep is a proof of what may be done in
New England to raise the value of agriculture and stockraising.
I have presented in the Ornamental department, somewhat
at length, the horticultural capabilities of cities. I do not
seek to persuade the reader that the citizen can have the
beauty, the wealth, or comfort of the country; but there
is undoubtedly a great deal of space wasted in cities, which
might be turned to good use, and give both amusement and
real enjoyment to those who have only a brick house for a
garden.
Doubtless the careful reader of "Country Life" has found
methods of doing work with which he could not agree, or
which seemed to him to be better done in some different manner. To all such let me say, that I never professed to give all
the ways of conducting the operations incident to a life in the
country, only one way, which I was well assured would give
a good result; and if, by disagreeing with me, I have stirred
the active minds of men to investigate the subject, and produce newer and better methods than my own, I have certainly
conferred a favor on them and all mankind, and may well feel
satisfied with the labor and time I have expended.
Hoping that the Supplement to this edition may bring the
book up to the present time, I leave it once more to make its
way through the world, trusting that whoever reads it will
find more to approve than condemn.
V 
I 
INDEX OF PLATES AND WOODCUTS.
Aquarium........................... 254 Drill for sowing seed................ 485
Asparagus Knife (Book of Garden),.. 551 Dwa.f fruit tree..................... 209
Banks on hill-side,............................. 193
Barn, ground plan, three stories,..... 454  "   for fruit house (Book of GarBarrel for liquid manure............ 12   den)............................... 124
Beaver Brook, Author's residence,..Finis. Espaliered trees (Loudon)............ 197
Boiler, Weeks & Co.'s (Book of Gar-    Fall at Beaver Brook, Belmont, Mass., 729
den)............................... 723 Flower beds, staking out......... 29, 30, 31
Budding Roses, incision in stock, and  Flower-garden, plan................. 726
bud ready (Field's Pear Culture),'.. 731 Forcing box,....................402
Budding; bud in place and wound, 731 Forcing cover....................... 414
Buds, well and ill prepared,......... 730 Fountain............................ 800
good and poor, specimens of,.. 729 Fruit-houses, sections of, (Book ofGar    "  method of cutting,............. 729   den, altered),..................258, 259
Bulb-planter......................... 26  Fruit-house at Everingham Hall (Book
Canvas cover for greenhouse........ 103   of Garden)........................ 260
Catch drains,.......................78, 79 Fumigating tunnel.................. 308
Conservatory, plan and section,....op. 20 Furrows, ends of, made by different
Conservatory bed,.................... 112   ploughs,............................ 574
Conservative pit..................... 168 Grafting, Cleft...................... 560
"  cheap.............. 167 Grafting, Crown.................... 562
" " section,............. 236 Gralting Crown, Scion,.............. 561
" " end.................... 237 Grafting, Saddle.................... 560
Curved paths........................ 325 Grafting tubers of Tree Peony (Book
Cutting, A,.....................285   of Garden)........................ 564
Dams, two specimens,............... 785 Grafting, Whip or Tongue,....5...559, 560
Dibbles.............................. 34 Grapery, plan and section.........op. 121
Dibble guaged (Book of Garden),.... 412 Greenhouse, plan and section,..op.  9
Ditch before hedge.................. 767  "      roots, span and curvilinDrainage, effect on roots,............57   ear...............................15
spade, Irish.............64 Grounds of J. W. Edmands,....... 346
pipes, laying............. 63 Groups; "planting out" disagreeable
" trench diagram (Shedd),.. 63  objects.......................... 328, 329
" trench, section......... 60 Gutter tanks,........................ 356
Drain-tiles, joints in................ 68 Hay-cover, in use................... 696
"    and pipes............... 61 Hot pipe, dipped under path........ 20
" in place,................ 61, 62 Hedge, conical, spreading,........... 768
Drains.............................. 55 Horse hoe,........................... 641
for valley-meadow........... 58 Hotbed for cucumbers,............... 352
"  on hill-side................ 59, 60 Hotbed heated by water; section and
" instruments for cutting,.......62   ground plan (Book of Garden),... 357
Drains on slopes....................... 56 Hot water pipes...................7
ix 
INDEX OF PLATES AND WOODCUTS.
House for fruit in pots (Book of Gar  den),............................... 26
Initial letters, 1, 6, 95, 164, 224, 280,
347, 395, 456, 528, 587, 653, 722.
Instrument for peeling Osiers........ 757
Instrument for stretching wire.......1 195
Irrigation........................... 75
Kitchen-garden, plan...................                                             191
Land set off with feering poles, dia  gram,.............................. 570
Lateral thrust, effect of.............. 364
Layering............................ 290
Level.........................   80
Machine, mowing,........................ 701
Manger and drinking trough com  bined,.............................. 218
Melon-house (Book of Garden)...... 362
Pears, diagram of planting,................ 426
Peat drain   s,........................ 67, 68
Pit, heated by manure..................5    tl 354
Plant basket (Book of Garden),...................... 248
Plant-case o"             " srkn....... 248
Planting tre es...................... 90, 158
Plough, deep tiller,................... 741
" Michigan,.................... 488
" subsoil,....................... 576
Pot, for Endive (Book of Garden),... 409
"for Sea-Kale,"            "... 412
"hinged, for large plants (Book of
Garden, altered),................... 398
Pot, for striking cuttings (Book of
Garden, altered),.................... 284
Potato digger,......................... 46
Potato, Sweet, tuber and sprout
(Cours Elementaire d'agriculture),. 556
Pruning. peaches:.................299,  300
pears,...................... 206
" vines,............... 116, 117, 118
Rafter to coal pit, with air chamber,. 170
Ridge and furrow roof,..............   369
"1    "     "1 "1 1' in section,..  368
Ridge and furrow applied to span
roof,............................... 367
Ridge and furrow roof diagrams,...... 365
Road making,...................... 81, 82
Roots, in deep soil,.................... 643
Rosaries. of W. Paul, ground plans, 667-668
designs for, by Author,.. 671, 672
of J. Horner; ground plan
and elevation,....................... 669
Rosary, in Luxemburg gardens,
ground plan (Paul's Rose Gard.),.... 666
Rose, budded, diagram,.............. 604
Roses, various forms of.............. 673
Rose-tree, Dwarf, in flower (Paul),....677
"    "  old, method  of remodell ing,
'nc:   "   1.No. 13, (Paul),...............  682
Rose-tree, Pillar  (Paul),............680, 681
"    "  Pillar, in flower (Paul),    609
"~   "  Standard             "  678, 679
Standard, in flower " 610, 677
"   "   thick-set with buds, No. 14,
(Paul),.............................  683
Rose-tree, weeping, in flower (Paul),.. 676
Rose-tree, Weeping (Paul)............... 681,682
Section of improved pit (Book of
Garden),..........................  370
Section of conservatory rafter,...............  372
Shut ter s  for    greenhouse.............. 103
Sleepy Hollow,.......................... 586
Stacks, of grain,..................... 700
l on g,.......................... 698
"    roofs  for (Steven's Book of
Fa rm),............................. 669
Stacks, round,.........................  697
StatlRels for    gra in  (Steven's Book o f
Farm),............................ 669
Stratification, of d iffer ent rocks,.......  791
Strawberry hou se (Bo ok of Garden ),.   362
Supply water to cattle, contrivance to, 217
Subsoil, unbroken, an obstacle to roots
(Gisb or ne ),........................ 575
Subsoiling; effect on roots(Gisborne), 576
Tanks, for heating greenhouse,.... 360, 361
Throw crooks, for twisting hay rope
(Steven's Book of Farm),.......... 698
Transplanter,......................... 34
Trees, instances of grouping,....... 762, 764
" Twice gathered " land, diagram,... 74
Ventilationofglasshouses; poor,.... 100
Ventilation of glass houses; good,.... 101
Ventilation of glass houses; by night, 102
Ventilation of hot-bed,...............  351
Village-garden,...................... 316
Wardian case (Book of Garden),..... 247
Waste-way for pond,.................  794
Water supplied to cattle,........... 217, 218
Window-garden,................. 241,242
Wire fence,...........................194
Wood road,........................... 85
x 
f
COUNTRY LIFE.
CHAPTER I.
A?: N  Agriculture, Nature repeats herself.  Each
~/~ 5       year is a repetition of its predecessor, and each
X   month but a further development of the plans
~and processes of the last.
The cultivator of the smallest piece of land
performs, on his scale, the same operations with
~   the farmer whose  acres  are  numbered  by
scores, or with the gardener whose gardens and greenhouses
have cost thousands of dollars.
In preparing a handbook for the instruction of one class of cultivators of the soil, we must touch upon the subjects which interest
all; and therefore, to avoid redundancy, we will select as an example the estate of a person who must in the course of a year have
occasion to practise every operation of agriculture and horticulture
which comes within the means of men of moderate fortune.
I shall proceed to describe month by month a system of proceeding, based upon the most approved theories and practice of modern
horticulture, agriculture, and landscape gardening, which will insure
the largest return in pleasure and money to any one who will
observe faithfully the directions given. I shall confine myself to
the wants of men with small fortunes, as our country must always
be principally inhabited by this class. Men of large fortunes need
no such handbook, as they will seek their pleasure through agents
whose especial business it is to understand all that I propose to
discuss. Men with a bare competence need no special book, for
although they may have a bit of land to cultivate, their operations
will be identical with those I describe, only on a smaller scale, and
1                                        1
I
I 
COUNTRY LIFE.
they have but to reduce my advice and remarks to their own
scale.
I do not propose to offer to the public advice and directions
adapted to all parts of the continent. This would manifestly be
impossible, owing to the great difference in climate. It might seem
at first sight that differences in climate would only affect the time
for commencing and concluding operations, and this idea has influenced all who have hitherto prepared such a work as this; but the
view is incorrect. We must not assume that because the season in
Philadelphia or Bangor is a week earlier or later than in Boston,
directions prepared for either latitude will apply to the other. It
is indeed so in a measure; but special directions are based upon
special differences which are affected by slight variations in climateas, what kind of plants will bear out-of-door culture; what precautions must be taken to secure satisfactory crops of various kinds;
the length of season that will enable those plants and crops to
mature. Again, in the tasteful department of culture there is a
considerable difference in the plants that will bear exposure to the
weather, and consequently in the combinations and effects that are
possible; therefore, if we should take the plants or crops advised
for places four or five hundred miles asunder, and cultivate them
ourselves, allowing the proper difference in time, so that the season
shall have advanced to that point that will warrant a commencement, we should ultimately find that there was the same allowance
to be made at the end of the season; and thus a crop which would
require three or four months for its perfection would be cut short
a fortnight at each end, a month in the whole.
Of course the difficulty in preparing a book of this general char acter is only one of size, as by taking room enough the writer might
consider the whole continent; but the resulting volume would be too
unwieldy and cumbrous  for general use.   Nor shall I treat the
various subjects introduced in a complete and finished manner, en tering into a discussion of the whys and wherefores which have in duced me to assume and maintain the views enunciated, as that
course also would demand too much space and time; but shall con tent myself with stating the theories and practice which experience
and common sense have proved to be the best for people who live
2 
THE ESTATE.
in a climate like that which exists between the parallels of latitude
two degrees north and two south of Boston.
The advice offered is certain, if followed, to give a satisfactory
result. It is prepared for those who wish to learn; who, knowing
but little, are ready to follow advice, not to discuss it. All such
may feel assured that they may unhesitatingly follow these directions, and may confidently rely upon receiving their reward.
THE ESTATE.
As a necessary preliminary to the rest of the book, let me describe the character of the estate upon which we are to suppose
ourselves living, and which we are to cultivate. It shall have an
area of 60 acres, of which about 20 are farm; 12, flower-garden; 3,
kitchen-garden; 11, orcharding for Pears, Peaches, Cherries, Plums,
Quinces, Apricots, Nectarines, Apples and Nuts; 6 acres are octcupied by barns, stables, greenhouse, grapehouse, hotbeds, nurseries,
and dwelling-house; the balance is lawn, woods, ponds, and roads.
The pond, woodland, lawn, and shrubbery are contiguous; the greenhouses, hothouses, hotbeds, etc., are near the dwelling-house and
near to both kitchen and flower-gardens. The surface is uneven.
By purchase or otherwise the estate has come into our hands
unstocked, and with its roads, paths, pond, flower-beds, and plantations in an unfinished condition. We find the roads, paths, orchards,
and most of the plantations to our mind, but in all other respects
the place must be renewed, remodelled, and replanted. The plan at
the end of the book shows a ground plan of this place, and is so lettered and provided with an index that the various operations recommended may be followed easily and understandingly.
It is plain that the place just described may properly be termed
a Ferme ornee. Some American writers have seen fit to ridicule
the use of this term as being inapplicable to our country, and of
no real significance anywhere. Why they should make such an
attack it is hard to tell, for certainly no other term sufficiently describes a country place that may gratify all the tastes of a lover of
country life.  A  mere pleasure place where there is nothing
for use, and all for beauty, would satisfy but few, as most persons
3 
COUNTRY LIFE.
soon weary  of merely  enjoying.   The man  of earnest mind
who gladly unbends from serious work and wanders with the greatest satisfaction through lawns and flower-gardens, ultimately craves
something more solid; a view of the practical part of life; a sight of
the machinery by which all moves smoothly and profitably. Beside the mental gratification derived firom a combination of pursuits, there is almost a duty laid upon every one who makes  a
(country home, to provide occupation as well as recreation. Ownors of country seats in America, are generally men who have retired from active business, and by having a farm connected with
their homesteads, they secure something to do and to think about,
and thus avoid the evil of mental inactivity.
Many who would agree with these ideas, may object to the term
" ornee," as expressing a regard for beauty too great to be consistcut with the profitable management of a farm   This is an error,
and one to which Americans are especially prone, -the sacrifice
of the beautiful to the practical, as though the two things were incompatible. Under this impression they would lay out their farmroads straight, would strip hedge-rows and walls of nature's profusion of wild flowers and shrubs, as offending against neatness and
order; they would plant their trees in straight rows; in a word,
would make every thing as prosaic as the hoeing of corn or the
milking of cows.
It is a mistake to wish thus to deprive agriculture of the pleasure which nature throws about it. Even if it is easier to plough
up to a straight road or wall or row of trees, than to a curved line;
what of that, if by planting trees in groups, and curving the
roads, we can produce beautiful effects in form and color, and offer
agreeable combinations of wood, grass, cultivated field, and distant
landscape? The few dollars a year saved in the one case to the
pocket, are no compensation for the loss of the pleasant lessons
which the beauties of nature must teach every willing mind.   It is
natural that the present generation should imitate their fathers,
whose success has been before their eyes from birth. They who
have been taught that the value of the earth lies in the crops she
brings, and that those methods are to be followed which will most
surely give a large market value to those crops will adopt unwill
4 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE YEAR.
ingly any course that seems to diminish the expected profits; but
they who know how much more precious a worthy mental development is than any increase in the hoard of money, should advise
all their pupils to cultivate the beautiful whenever it is possible,
as the most powerful and delightful means of such development.
COMMENCEMENT OF THE YEAR.
Before entering on a description of the work before us ill this
new home during the next year, let us settle the time when the
agricultural year begins: certainly not in January, when the harvest has long been garnered, and the preparations for the next
year's planting are already in a forward state; not in March, when
the frost fetters of the earth are unlocked, and the farme; goes out
to consider what to do first, - but at the end of the harvest. Then
the farmer begins his preparations for the succeeding year.  What
is true of agriculture, applies with yet more force to horticulture.
January, the first month of the solar year, is not the first of the
agricultural; that year extends from harvest to harvest, and we
must begin to prepare for the next, in its succession, while we are
yet reaping the fruits of the present year.   In the latitude of
Boston, the year really begins in November, when the harvests
have been garnered, and nothing of the year's produce remains
out of doors but a few root crops, which are to be gathered when
we are preparing for the spring work. The same principle applies
to the garden; only there the preparations must begin earlier than
on the farm, as bulb-beds should be made, greenhouses stocked,
and kitchen-gardens got in readiness before the frosts become severe. Some greenhouse plants should be lifted as early as the
middle of August, and almost all by the last of September.
So, even at the risk of making our system badly proportioned,
we must begin our description of the work to be done at the time
when the gardener's year commences, and must take up the farmer's as we arrive at it. Therefore we shall date our year, not from
the end of harvest, or November, but from September, as the
month in which much of the next year's work is commenced.
I*
5 
CHAPTER II.
GREENHOUSE.
EPTEMBER.   In September our flower-gar                 dens are generally in their greatest beauty               AL those beds at least which do not depend on per            -~   ennial roots.  The  Verbenas, Salvias, Pelar                  goniums, Heliotropes and other bedding plants,
i   have now attained their perfection, and although
~f   the annuals and perennials which have gladdened the earlier months are gone, they are not missed, their
places being filled with the luxuriant growth of the plants we
have just named.   No  month  in the year  gives such tender
pleasure to the lover of the flower-garden. In it all the beauty
of the spring and summer seem to concentrate, and to be intensified by apprehensions of early frosts, which shall turn color to
blackness, and fragrance to the noisomeness of decay.
As the evenings grow cooler, the careful gardener is reminded
that the next day he must get up the sashes on his hot, and clean
out his cold houses; that piles of mould, broken crocks, and pots
must be collected in the plant-sheds, and every thing put into the
best condition to facilitate transplanting and repotting.  Commencing our work with the greenhouse, we will give a description of
the house, its size and arrangements.
Our greenhouse A, as shown by the plan, is a two-thirds spanroofed house, with a lean-to shed behind, in which potting may be
done, and where cisterns and fires are situated. It is 60 x 20 feet
and 15 feet high in the middle. The front wall is 10 inches thick
and 4 feet high; every 5 feet in the front wall there is a ventilator, 1 foot square; this ventilator opens between the two hot-water
pipes, so that the fresh air reaches the plants only when properly
warmed; all these ventilators can be closed and opened at once,
6  
Ventilators.
No.3.
A, Greenhouse.             1, Maln's Room.
B, Cistern                 j, Pottinlg Shelf.
C, Ridge Board.            K, WValk.
G, Hothouse.               L, Boiler.
No. 3.
0         0  -       0       _
00t  SU~t~iaX',,(Jot         
I.~%~'~'d.J o'
'-                             f        -.j
X,,\\ ~ h
\~\~_~    __i              _ThZ
A
fo.l
V, Ventilator s
d, Coal Hole.
d, Supporting Posts.
e, Tal)le.
Staging.
41 Shelf.
_n~~~~~~~~~ -
iI! dD     1
=   -i  I II,.
a 
GREENHOUSE.
the shutters resting on a wheel which in its turn rolls on a rod
of iron; the shutters are connected with another rod, which is
pushed forward or drawn backward by a ratchet-wheel at one end.
There is another glass window ventilator near the top of this wall,
which slides by the inside of the wall in opening and shutting.
The front side of the roof is pitched at 36~, the back side at 320;
the roof sashes are whole to within 3 feet of the ridge, where in
each commences a sash 3 x 2 feet, which is hung in the middle,
and connected with a rod, e, which has at each window a ratchetwheel playing into a ratchet on the window; this rod may be turned
at one end, and all the windows opened or shut at once, or each
window may be disconnected by slipping its own ratchet-wheel
along, and then be opened or shut independent of its fellows; d is
the supporting post, of which there are five, of cast iron; these
posts support and tie the ridge and the two sides of the roof. At
20 feet from one end there is a glass partition, which enables that
portion to be shut off from the rest, and heated and cooled at will.
The back wall is 72 feet high, and is two bricks thick; it is solid,
with the exception of the openings shown in the plan for ventilators,
doors, windows, etc. Each wall and the centre posts rest on solid
stone masonry, 2 feet deep. The house is heated by two pipes,
which make the circuit of the inside under the
side plant tables;  each pipe  comes from the.
a,
boiler straight, a, and then sends off two branches
at right angles, b, bending at the corners, and
crossing each other at the front of the house op-,rl
posite the boiler, where each is depressed so as 
to return to the boiler below the point of departure. Thus the house is uniformly warmed, each
side receiving the water hot at starting, whilst in each the retuiii
water is cooled equally before returning to the boiler. A branch
pipe crosses the house each side the partition, to make circulation
in case we wish to heat one part more than the other.   The boiler
is in the lean-to shed back of the greenhouse, and is supplied with
fresh water from the rain-water cistern, B, and when there is not
rain enough to keep the cistern full it is filled by the force. pump
in the well. The furnace is partly above and partly below the
7 
SEPTEMBER.
floor of the shed, and the firehole and the coal are approached by
steps. The coal cellar extends outside the building, where there
is a coal trap.  I  is a chamber for a man to sleep in; j, the
shelves on which plants are to be potted, and under which pots,
crocks, etc., are to be kept.   The plants in the greenhouse are
variously provided for according to their kinds and necessities. The
table, e, in the centre, is for large plants, and those, like Camelias,
which do not need the direct light. Under this table is room to lay
away bulbs, and Fuchsias which, having blossomed in the summer,
will be allowed to remain nearly dormant until growth recommences in spring, and all other dormant plants. On the other
shelves other plants will be kept, just as they need more or less
direct light and heat. Along the rafters and crossing the glass in
various places may be trained Running Roses, Passion-Flowers, etc.
And now for the work! The first of this month thoroughly examine the house, - the glass, the paint, the shelves, - scrub all the
wood-work clean, and thoroughly whitewash all portions exposed to
mildew; fumigate with sulphur, to kill red spiders, etc., before the
plants are taken in; paint the wood-work wherever water or wear
has removed the paint, and make sure that no loose joints will admit rain and cold.   Collect at once leaf mould, good loam, and
white sand enough for the compost for all your plants; lay in your
broken crocks and whole pots. Continue to pick off dead leaves;
prune and repot all the stock plants not bedded in the ground; repot
all that have outgrown their quarters, and remove the top mould from
the others and add a fresh supply; begin to take up and pot all
the cuttings and layers made during the summer. Pot carefully a
large quantity of Dwarf and Giant Chrysanthemums, Salvias, Carnations, Gillyflowers, Ten-week Stocks, Tuberoses, Amaranths, and
such other plants as may be just coming into bud, to be got ready
to exhibit in the conservatory during October and November. Pot
Neapolitan Violets, Cyclamen, Pansies, Chinese Primroses, Oxalis.
Repot Heliotropes, Cinerarias, and Callas; separate and repot Mignonette and Sweet Alyssum; repot Verbenas for last time. When
they are potted, keep them in the shade for a few days, till they
are established in the pots, and then put them on the shelves in the
8 
GREENHOUSE.
greenhouse, from which they will be removed into the conservatory
before the shelves will be wanted for the greenhouse plants proper.
It is very necessary to attend to the large plants not hitherto
renewed and refreshed this month, in order that they may make
new roots before winter. The cuttings, etc., should be kept in the
shade for about a fortnight, being watered moderately. As soon as
these plants are disposed of, plant your Ixias, La Perousias, and
all tender bulbs in small pots, one or more together, as their size
shall dictate; after potting, set them on the upper shelves near the
glass; water them but little till they begin to show leaves, as much
water will rot them; but after they begin to grow, give water as to
other plants.
Get all your tender stock plants into the house before the 15th
of the month, and most of the more hardy ones which you propose
to show during the season by the 20th, as a single night of severe
cold, even without frost, might seriously injure the vigorous color
of their foliage.
The growth and success of pot plants depend very much on the
compost used and the method of potting, which should be as follows: The earth with which the pots are filled must not be too
rich, as this tends to over-stimulate the young plant and change
flower-buds into leaves; besides, plants in a greenhouse may be fed
like fires in a furnace; if we want an increased development we
can easily get it by watering with dilutions of manure; or we can
check the growth, if that be our wish, by withholding the usual
supply of water. Plants, whether in the outside earth or in pots,
derive but a small proportion of their nutriment from the earth in
which they stand. Various experiments carefully tried, where all
the modifying circumstances were controllable, have shown that
however meagre the soil, even if it be pure-washed river sand, any
plant selected could be made to thrive or dwindle just in proportion to the amount of simple or enriched water, or of pure or impregnated air, which should be supplied. Were there room in the
present treatise to cite the experiments of Bousingault and others,
we could prove that the judicious gardener, by studying the constituent parts of the plants he is growing and the constituent parts
of the materials which seem most largely to contribute to their
9 
SEPTEMBER.
perfect development, can have them as much under his control as
the engineer his engine. The experiments made in this matter
have pertained to out-of-door culture, and were made with the hope
of rendering the farmer more independent of varieties of soils and
seasons in getting large crops, and they have shown most conclusively that agriculture need not be a matter of chance, but that
farming operations can be conducted with almost the same certainty
as manufacturing. If this be true on the large scale of farming,
where the temperature, atmosphere, and rain are beyond control,
how much more securely can the gardener guide the growth of his
plants under a glass roof, where all the uncertain elements of
growth can be supplied with graduated exactness.
The earth in which we put plants may be considered in the
light of a sponge which shall absorb, retain, and give out the food
the plant needs to facilitate its perfect development. The essentials, therefore, are a carbonaceous character, as carbonaceous materials are sponges for the absorption of the nutritious gases; a
loose and porous mechanical texture which will allow the water
applied to percolate readily to the fibrous roots of the plants, and
then to drain away quickly if it be in excess; and a due supply of
those minerals usually called salts, such as lime, potash, soda, etc.,
which in small but distinct amounts are all important to the formation of healthy vegetable tissue.
COMPOST for potting. -Make your compost one-third leaf mould,
one,-third rich loam, one-third river sand; mix these materials well
together, and to every bushel or thereabouts (for there is no need
of special care), about a shovelful of lime, ashes, or gypsum.
Having your material ready, set your pot before you upon the
potting shelf; fill it about one-fifth with broken crocks * for drain
age, as nothing injures plants more than to allow their roots to be
supersaturated. Mildew, blight, a sickly growth, are all consequents
of imperfect drainage, and with the single exception of too much
* Oyster shells are as good as, and in the opinion of some cultivators
better than, crocks for drainage, as the roots of the plant find in them material for food.
10 
GREENHOUSE.
and injudiciously applied heat, nothing oftener destroys plants than
standing water. Were we oftener to think of the lesson which
nature teaches us in the woods and fields, we should make fewer
mistakes in this matter. No tree, shrub, or plant, that is a native of
dry uplands, will thrive or even live when transplanted to a swamp;
and the native of a swamp will thrive no better if subjected to a
corresponding change; yet we must attribute the respective failures
of the plants to too much or too little water. Having then the
pot before us with the broken crocks in the bottom (which are the
fragments of old and imperfect pots, hammered together till they
are reduced to pieces varying from the size of a finger nail to an
inch or more square), cover them about an inch deep (varying
the depth a little to suit the plant in hand) with your compost;
take the plant in the left hand and set it into the pot, being careful
not to set it deeper than it stood before, and keeping the crown of
the roots (the point where the roots and stem join), just below
the top of the pot; with the right hand, pour in the prepared
compost on either side, occasionally settling the earth into the roots
with the finger or with a stick, and #ently shaking the plant
that the earth shall be well packed among the small roots. Go
on in this way till the pot is full; then take it in both hands and
slightly shake the pot, giving it a knock or jostle against the shelf,
which will firmly settle all together and leave the plant standing
steady and even in the middle of the pot. After this, shower
it from the rose of the watering pot sufficiently to moisten the
earth throughout. The plant must now be set in the shade and
watered in the same way daily for ten days or a fortnight, after
which it may take its proper place on the greenhouse shelves.
If the plant has been newly taken from the ground, the top should
be judiciously pruned so as to balance the mutilation of the roots,
and give it a well-proportioned shape.  Cut away all the broken
roots, and be careful in selecting your pot to get one large enough to
contain the main roots without much bending. Remember, however, that we do not depend upon the old roots for the main support
of the plant; for that, we look to the multitude of new and fibrous
roots, which the treatment just described will cause to spring out
from all parts of the old roots, and which will rapidly increase till
I11 
SEPTEMBER.
they quite fill the pot. So long as the roots are thus making and
filling the pot, the leaves and woody parts of the plant will increase,
and there will be no indication of flowering till the roots have occupied all the space allotted to them.
With the compost just described, there will be no need of ma.
nure-water for awhile, but when the flower-buds begin to form
there will be too little nutriment in the earth to supply the new
and increased demands of the plant, and to secure a satisfactory
bloom, we must add occasionally a little guano or liquid manure to
the water. The best way to prepare a liquid manure, is to set upon
a shelf in some convenient place an old vinegar or other barrel
that is tight, provided with a faucet. The shelf must be high
enough to allow a watering pot or pail to stand under the faucet.
In the bottom of this barrel, and just above the faucet, make a
staging of two sets of parallel strips of wood, crossed at right angles, upon which the manure may rest, and through which the
water may run as it percolates the manure.
In the cut, the dotted lines
on the barrel show the situa                                    tion of the staging, which is
also shown  by  itself.   This
staging will prevent the ma?  j       W         r/!I  I~'nure from passing into the fau                                    cet and choking it.  Fill the
barrel thus prepared nearlyfull
of stable-dung, and tread it
down well. Pour in water slowly till the barrel is full; let it stand
for two or three days before you begin to draw off. At first this
water must be diluted to be safely used, - one part manure-water
to at least three of pure water, - but as the plant becomes accustomed to it, stronger doses may be given. Such a barrel of manure will bear several saturations with water before all its strength
is drawn out.
If guano is used, put one-quarter of a pound to two gallons of
water; let it stand twenty-four hours, then use like the water from
the barrel. If the guano-water is prepared in a barrel, the staging
must be covered with a fine wire or a cloth-strainer, to retain the
12 
GREENHOUSE.
finer particles. This proportion of guano to water is advised on
the supposition that the guano is of the best quality. Such guano
is, however, scarcely to be obtained, and consequently the best way
is to make what seems a solution of moderate strength, and then be
guided by experience as to weakening or strengthening it.
This application of liquid manure is to be continued only while
the buds are forming, as it will, if used after they begin to expand,
often stimulate the plant enough to turn them into leaves. This
is particularly the case with hard wooded plants like Daphnes,
Camelias, etc., to which liquid manure should be applied only during the dormant or growing, not the blossoming, season. It seldom
happens to Roses or Pelargoniums, as they are gross feeders.
Surprising as are the effects of liquid manure, they are no more
than should be expected, for the food of plants must be diluted
before it can be absorbed by the spongioles of the roots, and such
dilution is the only chemical or mechanical means to which nature
resorts for the development of the crops, flowers, etc., in the fields.
The power which guano in solution exerts, is greater than that of
any other manure, and indeed in its dry state it is likely to injure
rather than benefit vegetation.   In the greenhouse, whether applied as we have directed, or put on the surface in powder, no injury need be apprehended, as the daily watering will in the latter
case soon carry it below the surface; but when used on a large
scale in agriculture, whether as a top-dressing or ploughed in, its
good effect depends entirely on the amount of rain that falls during
the season.
STOCK PLANTS.- AS yet we have made no mention of other
classes of plants which are to be attended to in August.
First,- Stock pot plants. These will generally be Camelias,
Daphnes, Cape Jessamines, Laurestinus, Lemon  Verbenas, and
other hard wooded plants which grow too rankly when planted in
the ground, or which if planted out would be liable to injury from
sun, wind, and transplantation. The way to treat such plants in
the late spring or early summer will of course be described when
we arrive at the proper time. What we have now to do is to take
them as we find them. Such of them as have outgrown their pots
2
13 
SEPTEMBER.
and can be repotted, should, before they start afresh to grow, be removed into pots or tubs a size or two larger than the old. Make
the drainage as before described: then examine the ball which
you have taken out of the old pot, and if there are any signs of
worms, hunt them out and kill them; remove all dead roots, score
the sides of the ball a little, if it is much matted together, so that
in healing the old wounds the plant will naturally throw out new
fibrous roots from the calluses; remove the old earth from the top
of the ball till you come to the roots.   Now set it on the earth
which covers the drainage in the new pot, and fill in between the
ball and the sides of the pot with the fresh compost, and work this
in well with a stick; then shake together; finally add fresh earth
to the top of the bared roots till the pot is full. Water and treat
as in other cases, although it will not be necessary to defer putting
these plants at once into their final places in the greenhouse. Water
Camelias abundantly as they start to grow. Give Azaleas less
water and more sun. House Euphorbias. An excellent pot for
such plants will be shown by and by.
Another class of plants includes those, which, owing to size or
other peculiarities, cannot be repotted. In dealing with these, remove the upper earth in the pot down to the roots, and replace it
with compost.   They will need manure-water oftener than the
others.
Pinch back roses in pots, -make cuttings of Verbenas etc.,
to blossom late in the spring; as the Fuchsias, etc., lose leaves
give little water and keep in the shade till spring.
CONSTRUCTION,
The greenhouse on our estate, as shown by the plan, is a span-.
roofed house with straight sashes. The use to which any glassy
roofed structure is to be put should decide its character. A building for the growth of grapes or fruit, where only one side is to be
exposed to the light, may with some propriety be a lean-to house
(i.e., one of its sides may be a perpendicular, dark wall); but
where plants which should be equally well grown on all sides are to
be cultivated, the light should be admitted from as many points as
possible. A distinguished English writer says: " Of all forms for
14 
GREENHOUSE.
a geeenhouse, that of a lean-to is decidedly the worst, and that of a
span or curvilinear the best." When trained upon walls or trellises
peaches and vines may be grown to the greatest advantage in lean-to
houses, but greenhouse plants seldom can, as:the merits of the latter
greatly depend upon symmetry of form, and this cannot be attained
unless every part of the plant be equally exposed to light, air, and
sunshine.
"It seems now almost universally admitted that the span or curvilinear form of roof is best adapted for this purpose; and the ends
of the house should front north and south, although under peculiar
circumstances they may be usefully constructed to face the east and
west; the more so if they are glass on all sides to within a foot or
so of the ground."
It will be seen that this author uses the terms span and curvilinear as alike distinct from "lean-to," although they are far from
being so. A span-roof, as we have shown, is ordinarily shaped
with the sashes and the lines
of the roof straight.  But the
lines of roof and sash in a spanroof may be curvilinear, and
there may be the same differences in the lines of a lean-to
roof, there being no more restriction to straight lines in this than in a span-roof.
To appreciate the respective advantages of these different forms,
we must consider why glass is used for a roof. However much
artificial heat fire will give, we must, to grow perfect plants,
depend on the sun for light and heat; yet the position of the sun
in the heavens differs greatly in different months.   Out-of-door
plants, in the growing season, have the sun's rays nearly vertical
for a part of the day, and the vertical rays are the hottest. In
greenhouses the order of the seasons is reversed, and the growing
season is at the time when the sun's altitude is low, and his rays
relative to the earth's surface never approximate to the vertical
direction. Our aim must therefore be to arrange our glass roof so
that the rays shall strike it nearly at a right angle. With a rectilinear roof, -whether "span" or "lean-to," - some constant angle
is selected; such, perhaps, as will secure the perpendicularity dur
15 
SEPTEMBER.
ing the coldest months, and as the sun increases his altitude, this
angle will become more or less desirable, and we must then depend upon the increase in the hours of sunshine, so that a decrease
in quality may be made up by increase in quantity; or we can increase artificial heat. But with a curvilinear roof, this difficulty
is lessened, as some part of its changing form will always be nearly
perpendicular to the line of incidence of the rays.
There is, however, an objection to curved roofs. They are more
expensive to build, because of the difficulty with which wood is
bent to curves without injuring its strength.  Curved roofs are
therefore generally made of metal, which can be cast of any
strength and shape required. This change increases the expense
as well as the liability to damage from expansion and contraction
in a climate of such extremes as ours.
Still, when a greenhouse is to be built by a person with money
enough to allow of his considering the best of its kind to be an
essential feature in economy, a curvilinear span-roof is beyond
question the best for all plants which Nature intends to be symmetrical.   Both these styles of houses may be rendered more
effective still by the application of the ridge and furrow sash, which
is described in another place.
This distinction between plants which branch in many directions
and fruit trees and vines, whether grape or flowering, must be kept
constantly in mind while discussing glass structures, as neglect of
the peculiar wants of the different plants the gardener may wish to
cultivate, has been the cause of the almost complete uselessness of
many very elaborate and expensive glass houses.
A greenhouse is a building in which plants may be stored for
the winter, and in which a moderate growth may be promoted; we
may, if we please, divide the house so that some portions can be
heated hotter than others, and the plants in it forced more rapidly
for exhibition in the conservatory, when in bloom; but as a whole
building it should be a cold rather than a hot house.
Some portions of the floors of greenhouses -around the supporting posts, and at the back walls and ends, may be filled in with
loam, in which to plant vines of different species, Roses, Passion
16 
GREENHOUSE.
Flowers, etc., to be trained up against the glass; but this space
should never be used for grapes or fruit unless necessity compels.
I shall treat this subject more freely, when we come to it in its
proper order.
In all greenhouses where flowering vines are planted in the manner we describe, the ground must be forked over in the month of
September, the old loam removed from the surface roots and new
added. If this is done early, they will make new fibres and be
ready for a rapid and healthy growth during the winter.
I shall give no space to the consideration of hothouses proper, as
we have none on our place. They are chiefly used for growing
Pineapples, exotic fruits, and orchidaceous plants. Pleasant as it
is to grow these varieties, it is very expensive and troublesome, and
not in accordance with a moderate income. Whoever wishes to
indulge in this kind of culture must consult more elaborate treatises
than this. The principles of management are very like those for
the greenhouse, grapery, and conservatory, only carried to a
higher point.
2*
17 
CHAPTER III.
CONSERVATORY.
DURING September there is little to be done in the conservatory.
This building differs from any of the glass structures already
described, inasmuch as it is intended for the exhibition of specimen
flowers, and for growing but few plants, such as flowering vines,
which may be planted in the earth under the floor, Roses, etc.,
which grow in beds prepared like those of the out-of-door garden,
or some very large plants, which need room and light rather than
heat.
It should, if possible, be connected with the dwelling, and open
out of those rooms most frequented by the family. In it may be a
fountain basin for fish, aquariums, or birds, busts, statues. If there
is room, a portion should be raised a little higher than the rest, and
be furnished with seats and a table for the convenience of the
ladies of the family, should they wish to sit there with work or
books, and enjoy the pleasure which the fragrance and sight of
beautiful plants must always give.
Of all things connected with gardening none is so misunderstood
as the conservatory. We hear the greatest variety of buildings
called by that name. Sometimes it is that hybrid which necessity
alone can excuse, a greenhouse where plants grow on the shelves,
and grapes on the rafters; and sometimes it is a pit, where a large
bed of earth is boxed up, in which are planted flowering vines, to
run over the back or walls of the building, while in the middle and
front, Roses, Heliotropes, etc., grow; on a shelf directly in frontunder the eaves as it were- is a collection of other plants, such as
are most often subjected to winter culture.
Both these arrangements, for the culture of plants in winter, have
their merits, and are very desirable, but neither of them is a conservatory. That building stands in relation to the other hothouses,
18  
-1
-B                       XP2
,..   4      8    12    J-6
~_ _!
\~y~1  W  S
1/         I,
f t~<:ti~fl~
INDEX TO CONSERVATORY.
A, Ground Plan.
No. 1.
d, groups of plants in pots; E, beds of plants, as Roses, etc.; f,.1,
staging fiull of plants;  h, h, small beds of Verbenas, etc.; m), an, posts
of Conservatory, covered with vines; n, n, busts and statuary; o, o, large
statues, p, p, standing baskets of flowers; R, R, doors; a, s, ground
glass windows to house; x, x, hot-water pipes; g, g, basins for fish, etc.
No. 2.
c, Wall of Blouse; Ij, gutter, y, ventilator; b, pipes for heating beds;
o, o, hang,ing, baskets; v, moulding to connect house and roof.
3
B, Eleva.tioni.
,i 
CONSERVATORY.
as the drawing-room of a fine house to the common parlor or sittingroom. In other plant-liouses plants may be cultivated, to be carried,
when in perfection, into the more light and airy conservatory, to be
admired, and after their beauty is passed, to be removed, their places
being filled by a new set. The pit we have described comes nearest, in point of flowers and character, to the conservatory, but is a
hybrid between it and the greenhouse.
The confusion arises from our American passion for large, important names; from that false taste and mistaken judgment which
thinks to palm off an inferior article for a better, by giving it a highsounding title. I would not be understood to depreciate any building which holds the most humble collection of plants, and shall, as
I continue, give directions for the construction of those which can
be most easily and cheaply made and taken care of; but I do dislike that love of praise which is not contented with the approval of
the discriminating, but resorts to the flimsy disguise of as misused
name, to entrap the admiration of those, who, knowing nothing of the
subject, gapingly wonder at the "learning" that familiarly calls
common things by uncommon names.
The work in the conservatory for this month is (as in the other
glass-houses) to paint, to clean, to renew the earth about the roots of
all plants that stand in beds; wherever this last is difficult or impossible, owing to the presence of floor or pavement, give, when you
water, strong manure-water. Prune the vines, remove all dead or
superfluous wood, pick off decaying leaves, thoroughly syringe all
the plants, and see that the heating apparatus is in order.
Plans for the conservatory should be conceived and settled on in
May, in order that the foundation may be built, and the soil may
be prepared, and such flowering vines planted as we propose to
have, that they may have the summer to grow in, and may be
ready to blossom in the winter.
We should finish our conservatory the last of August or middle
of September, so as to have it covered in before frost comes. The
plan shows a conservatory attached to the dwelling-house on the
east, and designated by the letter C in the index. It is a semicircular building, covering the windows of the dining-room and kitchen,
and entered through a French window from the dining-room and
19 
SEPTEMBER.
parlor. The kitchen windows are of rough glass, so as to transmit
light without looking into the conservatory.   Its  length on the
front of the main house is 31 feet; on the kitchen, 15 feet; on the
end of the main house, 19 feet; the depth in front is 19 feet; on
the side, 15 feet; the porch is 10 x 10.
Plate No. 1 shows the ground plan. The whole front floor, not
occupied by plants, is covered with alternate flags of purple and
green slate; Malone sandstone, or strips of hard pine may be used.
The outside foundation is a stone wall, 3 x 4 feet; above the base
rises an ornamental brick wall, 3 feet, with ventilators, as in the
greenhouse, opposite the hot-water pipes, and opening and shutting
in sections- the curved form of the house making it impossible to
move all at once; they are 4 feet apart, and 1 foot square. The
hot-water pipes and boiler are similar to those in the greenhouse;
the boiler is in a shed at the kitchen corner of the house, and not
shown in the plan; the pipes surround the porch, or may cross it
under the floor.   Where they cross the
pathway, and would be stumbled over if on
its level, they sink on one side and rise
again on the other, as in the greenhouse.
No such rise and fall is necessary where
they cross the entrance from the parlor, as
the conservatory floor is there sufficiently
above the level of the parlor floor to let the pipes pass under.
The smoke flues traverse the walk along the front and return along
the back of the conservatory into the kitchen chimney.
Above the brick wall rises a perpendicular glass front, 8 feet
high, and from the top of this the glass roof springs back to the
main wall of the house in a curvilinear manner. This gives an
immense amount of light, and demands a great deal of heat to
warm it properly. It is ventilated hy a revolving sash in the middle of the top, and by ventilation through the wall of the house,
similar to the greenhouse.
The ground floor is not covered to its utmost capacity, but is arranged so as to give as pleasant an effect as possible.
INTERNAL TREATMENT.- d represents groups of plants standing
20 
CONSERVATORY.
in pots, such as Camelias, Daphnes, Cape Jessamines, Laurestinus,
Pettosporums, Oranges, etc. They may be kept here constantly, or
be brought in when about to flower. e marks beds of plants, Roses,
Geraniums, Heliotropes, etc. These beds are 4 feet deep, well
drained at bottom, then filled in 18 inches with stones, which are
covered with strips of turf 3 inches thick, to prevent the fine loam
being washed away; then comes a foot of oyster shells, charcoal,
bones; then a foot of rich loam. The plants growing here are
never moved, but are not watered during the summer more than
enough to keep them alive, so that they are virtually dormant at
that season, but grow and blossom most luxuriantly in winter. if
are stagings filled with plants from the greenhouse, ready to blossom; a succession may easily be kept up if a little care be taken;
hh are beds similar to e, but smaller, and filled with bulbs, Verbenas, etc.; mm represent the posts of the conservatory, which, in No.
2, are shown covered with vines;  nn  are busts or any small
statuary; oo, large statues of a character adapted to gardens,
Flora, Pomona  etc.; pp, standing baskets of flowers; RR, doors;
ss, ground-glass windows leading into the house; xx, hot-water
pipes; g7, basins for fish, aquariums, or fountains.
In No. 2, c shows the wall of house; j, gutter; y, ventilator;
b, pipes for heating beds; oo, hanging baskets; v, moulding to connect house and roof.
EXPENSE. -A conservatory of this kind would be a real winter garden, and would give more pleasure than any greenhouse.
Water would be supplied from the house cistern, and could be
made to serve many ornamental purposes.   Such a building would,
of course, be expensive, but nothing for which money is ordinarily
expended would give a larger return in satisfaction. As the conservatory need not be stocked till next month, we reserve a list of
plants for it till then.
21 
CHAPTER IV.
BY referring to the index of our plan, you will find the grapery
marked by the letter B. It is quite a large building, eighty feet
long; two-thirds is lean-to, one-third span; and it is filled with
vines.  It is divided by two glass partitions into three parts, so
arranged that the heat may be increased or diminished in either at
pleasure, thus enabling us to have a succession of fruits at those
seasons of the year when it is most desirable. The space on the
floor of the cold grapery, where in greenhouses would be a staging
for the culture and exhibition of plants, is an espalier on which are
Peaches, Nectarines, and Cherries.
The sections of this house have vines in them, respectively two,
three, and four years old, and are, during this month, in very different conditions. The central portion is the cold grapery, where
it is but rarely necessary to have any artificial heat, and which
ripens its crop in August and September. The left section is to
be a retarding-house, whose fruit is to be fit for use in December,
January, or February. The right side is a forcing house, where
the fruit will be ripe in June, July, or earlier, according to the
age of the plant forced. For details of this building, a description
of the border, etc., see the October work for the grapery.
FORCING-HOusE.- In September, examine your forcing-house,
clean the sashes, repair glass, paint or whitewash the wood-work,
and get all things ready for work. As the evenings begin to
cool, be careful to close the doors and sashes, and if any sudden
frosts make it necessary, draw the shutters up over the sashes.
Our vines having been planted three years, we may this year
begin forcing with vigor.
Much care should be taken in a forcing-house, lest being tempted
22
GRAPERY. 
GRAPERY.
by a desire for a large and early crop, which may remunerate us
for previous outlay, we force the vines when young at too early a
month in the year. A forcing-house reverses nature's order and
converts winter into summer; and in managing it, we must be
careful to be governed by the corresponding natural analogies.
Out-of-door plants move slowly from frozen ground and cold air to
thawed earth and genial temperatures. Therefore, our aim in the
forcing-house must be to keep it as cool as possible in September,
without subjecting the roots or vines to a chill. We may begin
forcing this year at least fifteen days earlier than last. In this
connection, I can do no better than to quote from J. F. Allen's
treatise on the grape, as there is no more skilful or successful cultivator of the grape in this latitude.
"If it is intended to winter-force, you must not commence the
process the first year before the first of March; the second year
you may begin the middle of February; the third year, the first
of February; and so on every year until you reach the first of
December; beyond this you can hardly go, as this allows only
time to prune and clean the vine after it has gone to rest." We
shall in this, the third year of our forcing-house, begin to force
about the first of February.
RETARDING-HOUSE. - The  vines in the retarding-house are
ripening their second crop of fruit. Having thinned the grapes in
August, there is but little to do in September, excepting to moderate
the growth as much as possible by keeping the house cool when
the sun shines.  It is important to keep the house dry to avoid danger of mildew; shut the doors and sashes as the nights grow cool;
if there is any appearance of mildew, dust the vines with flowers
of sulphur, and shut up tight at night.
COLD GRAPERY.- In the cold grapery at the first of the month
there will be a little fruit ripening and a little ripe. There should
be but little, taking it altogether, as a vine two years old is too
young to be allowed to bear any thing but specimen bunches. It
is true, that vines of that age will often bear heavily if allowed, but
the final effect of this is injurious, and only tends to weaken the
23 
SEPTEMBER.
plant and reduce its capability to bear large and steady crops
hereafter.
Pinch back fruit and fig-trees in pots, to ripen and improve the
wood.  Having followed the directions for the earlier months (calendar) of this year, in August, or September  "You may begin at the lower part of the cane, and with a sharp
knife cut clean out all the laterals for eight or nine feet, leaving
those on the upper part of the cane for the autumn pruning. Be
careful in doing this not to injure the bud or leaf of the cane where
you cut, for from this eye your fruit is to come the next summer."
If there are any bunches of fruit on the vines, keep your house
as cool and dry as possible, as this is the only means of preserving
the fruit; either extra heat or moisture will occasion mildew or
decay
24 
CHAPTER V.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
WE have already said that in September the flower-garden is in
its most satisfactory condition; we should have limited our assertion
to the first half of the month, after which time the work of disrobing begins. Many plants must be taken up, to be removed to the
greenhouse, and some of the beds must be dug over for planting
bulbs.
Bulbs may be planted in any of the autumn months, until the
ground is frozen, the earlier the better, for many of them will make
fibrous roots in the fall, and thus be ready to grow more rapidly
and vigorously in the spring; and it will generally be found that
the earliest bulbs to blossom, of a given variety, are those which
were earliest planted.
In this month, as before, go over the beds repeatedly with knife
and string, cutting out the old blossom stalks, and tying up the too
drooping branches of the erect species of plants.   Particularly
watch the Dahlias, which by this time have grown large and topheavy; a single high wind will prostrate every Dahlia that is not
well secured, and thus destroy the hopes of a season. The Dahlia
will blossom every month from July to October, if forced early
enough, but will give its best blossoms only as the nights grow cool
and long.
BEDDING PLANTS. -Get up the tender greenhouse plants which
are to be wintered before the 15th of this month; for although
there is often fine weather till October, there will be an occasional
frost, which will cut off every tender plant. As you begin to
transplant, the beds will have a very seedy and dismantled appearance, and your judgment as a gardener will become apparent in
the manner in which you conceal the losses made by transplanting.
3                                        25 
SEPTEMBER.
The more hardy plants, like Carnations, Verbenas, Lantanas, and
Pelargoniums may remain in the ground till October. In September we expect the last blossoms of the Perpetual Roses.
BULBS. - Overhaul the bulbs collected for the spring blossoms,
ascertain the number you have of each variety, and how much
surface they will cover; then decide what beds shall be devoted
to bulbs; take out every thing in them, unless it be Roses or perennial roots, dig them over thoroughly, adding a good dressing of
well-rotted manure. This work cannot be too thoroughly done, as
upon it depends the satisfactory blossom we hope for in the spring.
Having prepared your beds, towards the last of the month (25th,
perhaps), begin to plant, although this may be deferred till the
first of October. The amount of earth required over a bulb differs
with the variety, but none need more than three or four inches.
Where it is desirable to produce any given effect, say of color, with
Hyacinths, Tulips, or Crocusses, lay them out around the bed on the
surface in their proper places before beginning to plant, with a
view to producing whatever effects you fancy, according to the
variety; Tulips and Hyacinths from six to nine inches apart; Crocusses, two or three inches; the larger bulbs from three to four.
By using bulbs of well-known colors and character, the most varied
effects you wish may be produced with certainty.
Where we wish a succession of bloom, nothing is more easily
procured; we have only to plant bulbs of the earlier and later
varieties. A very pleasant effect is got by adding to the beds some
Pansies, as they blossom as soon as the snow is fairly gone, and last
till hot weather. Snowdrops come first, then Crocusses, then Pansies, then Hyacinths, Narcissuses, Tulips, Daffodils, Single and
Double Jonquils, etc.
PLANTING.- Having laid out the bulbs as described,
take a tin tube in the shape of a truncated cone, 6 inches
long, about 3 inches in diameter at the large end, at
Ithe smaller, 1 or 2 inches; take the bulb in your left
hand, in your right, the tube; press the small end down
— a- into the earth as far as you wish to set the bulb -4
26 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
inches for Tulips, etc., 12 for Crocusses, -drawing up the tube,
you will find it filled with earth as high as it was pressed
deep into the ground, its tapering shape preventing the earth
in the upper and larger end from falling out at tile smaller.
Now set the bulb down at the bottom of the hole, its pointed end
up. If it is a Hyacinth, shake a little sand over it; then invert
the tin tube over it, and the earth removed to make the hole will
be replaced. This will be found to be the most neat and rapid
way of planting bulbs.  Any  tinman will make such a tube for
ten cents.
TULIPS.-  When choice Tulips are to be planted, a deal of care
must be taken to arrange colors and sizes so that the tallest may
be in the middle and the smaller towards the edge of the bed.
Connoisseurs in tulips, who pride themselves on the splendor and
variety of their bulbs, resort to very elaborate preparation in the
way of soil, exposure, size of bed, number of rows, etc.; but this
is troublesome, and undesirable to the general cultivator, who does
not wish his whole satisfaction in his flowers to be destroyed by the
trouble of taking care of them.  The utmost that the Tulip demands
is to have the bed in a rather high and airy situation, sheltered from
the prevalent winds, and on a light rich soil. All other details
may be arranged to suit the cultivator.
HYACINTHS, -too, have often been made the subject of elaborate memoirs. Were it necessary to resort to the care insisted on
by the writers of these directions, Hyacinths would cause more
trouble than they are worth. It is enough to observe the directions
just given for Tulips.
With the other common bulbs we may be still less particular.
When the amateur desires variety rather than whole beds of one
kind, bulbs may be planted singly, or in groups, about the borders,
among perennial roots, etc. When they are to be planted in this
manner, it would be well to take with you a wheelbarrow of rich
mould, and put a spadeful in the place where you are about to set
the bulb, as all blossom well in proportion to the richness of the
earth immediately surrounding them. Plant during this month
27 
SEPTEMBER.
Pansies among your bulbs as just described, or in a bed by themselves, or in the borders. The Pansies to be set out are those of
which the seeds were planted in June; by transplanting now, they
will be enabled to get well rooted and make some growth before winter. They like a rich soil, and pay well for it. Old plants can be
divided, and cuttings be made. The Polyanthus may appropriately
be mixed with bulbs to vary effects; transplant this month.  The
ordinary Polyanthus needs no specially prepared soil. Plant White
Lilies early this month.
Late in the month divide and transplant, or reset the perennial
roots. Make beds for them by themselves, or in common with
other plants, but endeavor to get, as you easily may, such a succession of perennials as will give some flowers during all the growing months, from May to October. Having a greenhouse to supply an unlimited amount of bedding plants, it will be well to leave
gaps among the perennials, in which to set Verbenas, Heliotropes,
Geraniums, Salvias, so that their successive and late blossoms may
come in to fill the spaces left by dying perennials.
FLORISTS' FLOWERS. - Some writers have indulged in lengthy
directions for the growth of Auriculas, Ranunculuses, and other
plants, which I can consider in this latitude only as denizens of
the greenhouse and hotbed, and as such I shall treat them. Be
careful now to watch the Chrysanthemums, both Giant and Dwarf,
for the gaiety of the garden in October and November must
depend upon them. Tie them well up to sticks, and keep out the
weeds, and do not allow any perennials or bedding plants to crowd
them, and thus impair their vigor. Make beds of Picotees and
Carnations agreeably to directions in July.
As there are in our flower-garden no beds for the bulbs or the percnnials of which we have been speaking, we will now proceed to
make them.
Refer to the enlarged plan of the flower-garden, where we can
have better opportunity to describe the work intelligibly than in
the narrow limits of the general plan. We will give the method
of staking out two of the beds and let that suffice for all.
First, carefully measure the garden and its walks, and lay it
28 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
down on paper. Then draw on the plan such beds as you know
will produce a good effect when judiciously planted. Remember
particularly, that the prettiness of the shape of flower-beds is not
of the least consequence, but that all beds should be of such shapes
as will give a good effect individually or collectively, when planted.
Make the indentations as large as possible, as they will then be
more easily kept free from weeds and grass; avoid sharp points
for the same reason; give as much variety to the outline as you
can, making your curves easy and graceful.
To STAKE OUT A ROUND BED.- Select a point for the centre,
where drive a round stake; take a rope with a loop at the end,
put the loop over the stake; hold the rope in the left hand as far
fromnt the stake as one-half the diameter of the proposed bed; take
a handful of stakes in the other hand; walk forward at the full
length thus taken, and put in a stake every three paces.   When
you return to the point of departure, the stakes set will make a circle
on the ground.
To STAKE OUT AN OVAL  is more difficult.  Decide upon the
length of the largest diameter, -say 20 feet; draw this line at
some scale on paper; draw another line cutting the first in the middle and at right angles. This second line is the short diameter of
the proposed oval, 8 feet,- 4 feet on each side the long diameter.
Draw around these lines such an oval as
will suit you; at every two feet draw a
line from one side to the other, at right an- i 
gles with the long diameter: the first line
parallel with the short diameter.
Measure these lines and note on each its
length (by the scale of the first line). Go to
the garden, and select the spot for the oval; stake out a long di. nieter, A B, 20 feet long, parallel to the path or border on which 3yoi
wish to make the bed; or, if that be curved, connect two points in
it by a straight line, and make A B parallel to this, and the proper
number of feet distant from it.  Find the middle of the line, 10
feet from each end, and here set a stake C; take a tape line and
pill its ring or end to this centre stake; measure back on the di
29
3~ 
SEPTEMBER.
ameter 3 feet to b, where set another stake; draw the tape firmly
round this last stake; follow the tape till you come to the 12 feet
mark, and fasten the tape at this mark to the centre stake again C.
The tape will now be fast to the middle stake by both its ends.
Find on the tape the 8 feet mark, and holding there, draw the tape
out tight either side the 20 feet diameter; at this point set another
stake a; your three stakes will now mark on the ground the angles
of' a triangle a b c, and the last-placed stake will mark the centre
of one of the sides of the oval. Find the
other side in the same manner. Measure
a           the line A  B, as in the figure, into two feet
5/A4  ~    lengths; at each end of these points meas  b /                3 ure out a line parallel to the short diameter
c a (just obtained on the ground), propor                       tionate to the corresponding line on your
plan. When all are staked out, draw up the middle line of stakes,
and the oval is complete.
Another method of doing the same thing is described in common
mathematical treatises, but it applies only to the regular ellipse
drawn on a smooth surface; among bushes or tall herbaceous
plants it would be impracticable. It is as follows: stake out the
line A B for the long diameter of the ellipse; find two points a, b,
which shall be as far from A and B respectively, as one-quarter
the short diameter of the ellipse; fasten to the points a, b, a cord as
long as the line A  B; press a sharp-pointed stake against the cord,
so that it may loop about it, and draw it back on the line A B to
either extremity; then carry it toward the other extremity in such
curve as will keep the cord constantly taut, marking out your
(ourse meanwhile with the point dragged on the ground, and you
will describe the curve A C B as in the
diagram.   Having  changed the stake to
ifi-_q<E "        the other side of the cord, repeat the oper                        ation and complete the ellipse.
To stake out an irregular figure for a bed, a different method is
44)!lowed.
Suppose it to be the bed A on the plan.   Draw as before, on
paper, a line A B to a scale; make it as long as the proposed bed,
30 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
and let it touch the beds at the points c i.  Now on the plan measure the distance, the outline of the bed and the path at various points
on the line A B; these points are a b c d, etc., and may be any
distance apart, but
whatever that distance is, note it carefully on the plan. At
these points erect
perpendiculars, till
they touch either the
outline of the bed, the
pIerpendiculars, tl               B
theytoucheitherthe  b ~d   e f  k h   m,
path, or the border; measure the length of these perpendiculars,
and put these lengths down, each on its proper line. With this
preparation go out and stake out the line A B as far from the path
or border as the length of the lines ccf and ddf. Now divide A B
into a b c d e, etc., measure out on the ground the lines aaf ccl ddl
etc. (full size), perpendicular to A B, and stake as you measure.
When this is done, remove the stakes that merely mark the line
A B, and you have your figure; and however irregular this figure,
this is the best way to stake it out. There need never be any
trouble in getting one line perpendicular to another on the ground,
if you remember the process followed in staking out the oval.
That method of getting a right angle is embodied in the mathematical proposition that the square of the hypothenuse of a rightangled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides.
To proceed with the work. After staking out all the beds, select those which are to be devoted entirely to bulbs, as a b cf,
marked on the index by a star.* Prepare them as we have directed, and plant to suit your taste. The index shows how they
are planted on our plan.  The other beds may be planted at will;
the bulbs in bunches and groups (see index), the other space
filled with perennials and bedding-out plants.
* See p. 726.
31 
CHAPTER VI.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE kitchen-garden must be closely watched from February to
December, although September needs as little attention as any
month. Seed-beds are now to be prepared for the growth of various salads for winter and spring use, and to start some early
spring vegetables. It is not generally known that much spring
labor with hotbeds could be saved, if attention were given during
this and the next month to growing young plants of those vegetables most in demand in the spring.   Being once well started,
they may be pricked out in cold frames during October and November, and being covered with boards, or leaves, will be found
ready to transplant and grow as soon as the frost leaves the ground
fit for culture.
To plant seeds, select a warm, moist place; fork the land over,
mixing in well-rotted manure; rake the surface thoroughly to reduce it to the finest possible condition; then sow the seeds in drills
six inches apart, if they are to be covered with hotbed frames for
the winter; a foot apart if they are to remain in the open ground.
Spinach should be sowed in long beds, rows a foot apart; cover
the seeds about half an inch deep, and roll in well. All plants
intended for early spring culture must be sown before the middle
of this month, care being taken that they do not get too forward. If they grow large they are very apt to run to flowers
in the spring, before they are in condition for the table. They
may be retarded at pleasure by several transplantings in the course
of the autumn.
Lettuce and Cabbage, the latter for greens and early heads, may
be started, and kept in frames as we have just mentioned. Salads
for winter and spring are not as much cultivated in Massachusetts
as in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia.
32 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
Earth up advancing crops of Celery once a fortnight, being very
careful never to do it when wet with rain or dew, as it causes rust,
and also never to cover the heart; treat Cardoon and Artichoke
Chard in the same way; transplant and trench Endive and Sea Kale;
hoe beds and clear the plants of Sea Kale, Chiccory, and similar vegetables. Watch early Cauliflowers, and gather their heads, as also
Broccoli, before too much advanced. The earliest kinds of Celery
may be dug towards the end of the month. Peru and Lima Beans
will be getting fit for use. Sow seeds of small salads, as hitherto;
likewise beds of Prickly-seeded Spinach. Radishes sowed now will
be ready for the table by winter. Okra must be used frequently,
as it will be cut off by early frosts. Any herbs not yet gathered,
save immediately.  As Onions ripen, gather and dry them.  When
the neck of the Onion shrinks, gather them; lay them in heaps to
dry for ten days or a fortnight, according to the weather, and then
house. If the fruit on the trees is troubled with wasps and bees,
hang some wide-mouth bottles half fuill of molasses, or sugar and
water, about them. Many will be caught and destroyed; they go
in but are unable to return.
FRUITS IN KITCHEN-GARDEN. - It will be seen by reference
to the plan that we include many kinds of fruit in this garden,
such as Strawberries, Currants, Raspberries, Gooseberries, Blackberries, and Thimbleberries, Quinces, Filberts, and espaliered
fruit. These fruits belong to the kitchen-garden only, as they
are not grown in quantities for the market, but as a table supply, and require an amount of attention not demanded by other
orcharding.
STRAWBERRIES.-  Early in this month it is a common practice
to reset Strawberry beds; and whten the land is moist, or there is a
prospect of a wet season, no month is better for this purpose; work
is now less pressing than in the spring, and plants well started get
several months to grow, and will bear some fruit in the spring.
Avoid, if possible, resetting the bed in the place of the old, as all
plants are benefited by the rotation of crops; and where Strawberries have been cultivated several years in succession, they are
33 
SEPTEMBER.
never so good as on fresh land. In preparing the bed, dig it deep,
and give a liberal dressing of manure, as it is difficult to manure
the strawberry crop after it has begun to grow, though no crop
pays better for large supplies of liquid manure during the time of
setting and ripening fruit.  Select good, healthy, year-old plants;
cut off all but two, or at the most three, leaves, and shorten runners.
Hold the plant in your left hand, taking your dibble in the right
(the dibble may be the handle of an old spade or shovel cut off
eight or ten inches below the cross-bar, and roughly pointed, or
a stout bit of hard wood eight or ten inches long, bent on itself
at a right angle, and pointed)  press the
!dibble into the ground about three inches
which will make a smooth hole; as you
\withdraw the dibble, set the plant into the
X41   ____     hole.  Now re-insert the dibble, first on one,
;~ ~   =    ~then on the other side of the plant, at a
re-entering angle of about 45~ to the perpendicular hole first made, and press the earth closely up to the
roots of the plant. This is the most rapid and effective way of
transplanting all plants of which large numbers are required. The
rows of Strawberries should be six inches apart and three rows to
the bed. Some cultivators are now more in favor of a single row
and no beds; each row being two to three feet from its neighbor.
This method allows the fruit to be picked more easily than any
other, but occupies more room and requires more labor in cultivation.
When it is desirable to transplant Strawberries or any other
fruit with extra care, so as not to interfere with their growth, it is
well to use some one of the English or French
b transplanters, of which a specimen is shown in
the cut.  The arm a, is ratchetted and swings
on a point b, and fastens on a tooth c.  Lower the
arm a, and it drops off the tooth c, and opens the
cylinder at the bottom of the instrument, as
shown in the cut; now drive the open bottom
-.. -.    firmly down on each side the plant to be removed until its upper edge is level with the ground; take one
34 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
of the stilts in each hand and press them apart. This brings
the two parts of the cylinder together and compresses the earth
firmly about the roots of the plant within; now fasten it in this
position by letting the arm a, bite on the tooth c. Here the whole is
in a compact box, and a little lifting strength being applied to the arm
a, will take the plant, roots, earth, and all out of the ground. We may
now carry it as far as we please, and having dug a hole the size of the
cylinder, set it into it, fill in the earth closely about it, unlatch a, and
drawing the stilts together slightly raise the instrument by an easy
and slow movement, leaving the plant in the ground. Transplanting accomplished in this way never checks growth for a moment,
but is obviously too slow a process to be used on a large scale.
In selecting Strawberry plants, bear in mind that some varieties
are staminate, or male, and have but few pistillate or female flowers
and consequently are small bearers, whilst other varieties are the
opposite.   If we get a large proportion  of the staminate, our
trouble is useless; if too large a proportion of the pistillate, a failure of fruit often follows from deficient impregnation. The Old Virginia or Scarlet Strawberry is largely staminate, and is an early
though small bearer, rather inferior in flavor, whilst most of the
seedlings more choice in flavor and size are pistillate. It will be
well to set about one of the Virginia to five or six of the others in
order to insure a good crop.
Where it is easy to get a quantity of young plants for resetting
beds, we may largely increase the number and size of the berries,
by never allowing the plant to make runners; if these are carefully
cut of, the parent plant will spread over a large surface, the Old
Virginia even covering a space as large as a peck measure and.
bearing in proportion.   This kind of culture gives many more
Strawberries to the acre than any other.
As to varieties, those that seem to stand competition best are
Hovey's and Walker's Seedling, the Brighton Pine, and the Jenny
Lind. New varieties are offered every year and have their advocates. Without-specially advocating any variety, I am sure that
these have proved themselves good on a large scale.
RASPBERRIES.-  Raspberries should now be well hoed and tied
35 
SEPTEMBER.
up to their sticks. If you have any leisure you may cut out the
old wood which has borne this year, as it is now useless.
ESPALIERS. - The espaliered fruit will now mature rapidly.
Gather the ripening Peaches and Nectarines, and do not leave them
on the trees till they are perfectly ripe, or they will not keep so
well. They should be picked when their color shows the practised
eye that a few days will make them mellow. Take them into the
house and lay them in the coolest and driest place you have, and
be particularly careful not to handle or press them, as the one
removes the bloom, the other hastens decay.
The same holds good of Pears. No Pear should be allowed to
fall to the ground,   whether worm-ripe or not,- as it can hardly
do so without bruising other fruit in its passage, at the same time
spoiling itself. Pears, even more than Peaches, should be gathered
three or four days before they become mellow. Take them into
the fruit room and lay them out on the shelves. The varieties of
Pears on the espaliers should give a regular succession of fruit from
the middle of August to November, by which time the fruit of the
orchard trees will be ready for use. Of the espaliers there are
four Nectarine trees, five Apricots, ten Peaches, and twenty-four
Pears. The Nectarines are Early Violet, Hunt's Tawney, Boston,
New-white. The Apricots are Large Early, Brede, Peach, Roman,
Moorpark; the Peaches, Early York, White Imperial, two George
IV., Grosse Mignonne, two Crawford's Early, two Late Red Rareripes, Oldmixon; the Pears, two Bloodgood's, Madeline, two Dearborne's Seedlings, four Bartlett, three Andrews, two White Doyenne, four Seckel, two Fondante d' Automne, two Louise Bonne, two
Beurre Capiaumont, two Duchess, two Glout Morceau. The Filberts are Gifford's and Frizzled.
MELONS.- Melons are now in their perfection, and should be
used every day, as an early frost will very probably cut them off.
When not done last month, put under each fine melon a shingle, to
keep it from the ground, or its flavor will be injured by the
earth. The Cantalopes, Musk, Nutmeg, and Green-fleshed, should
all be ripe now if ever.  The ripeness of all yellow melons is
36 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
shown by color; but those which have a green rind show ripeness
by a gradual detaching of the footstalk, so that when raised by the
hand the vine drops from the melon without resistance. Watermelons must be made much of now as they are in their prime.
Various ways of ascertaining their ripeness are given: when rapped
with the knuckles they give a hollow sound if ripe, because of
a hollow interval left by the separation of the inner lobes, which
have hitherto been all joined, but separate as they ripen. Another
test is, pressing the melon between the hands; if ripe there will
be a slight crackling (as the lobes crack), the same cavity in the
centre offering no opposition to the pressure. Another test is, the
decay of the tendril, which will be found on the side of the stem
of the vine, opposite the footstalk of the fruit, until the latter is
ripe, when it withers away.
PICKLES. - Hoe carefully the pickle crops of Cucumbers, Mangoes, Peppers, and Martynias; gather all ripe Tomatoes, and lay
the best and earliest ripe in the sun to get seed; the others, not
needed for cooking, should be allowed to accumulate a day or two,
being kept dark and cool, to stew for winter use, or for the market
Be very attentive to the ripening seeds; gather and dry all you
wish for the next season, never selecting for seed those similar varieties which have grown near together, as they will have mixed.
Pinch off the ends of the Lima Bean runners early in the
month, as this is the only way to force the vine to mature its seeds.
ROOT CROPS.- Look over the root crops, Beets, Parsnips, Turnips, Ruta Bagas, etc.; if any stray weeds are to be seen, get them
out. Hoe the Cabbages wherever the earth seems to have fallen
away from the stem. Dig your early Potatoes, and lay them in
heaps, out of the sun and dew, in a dry place for a day or two, to
dry thoroughly before putting them into the cellar. Gather seed
ears of the early Corn as it ripens; dry well, strip back and tie
together the husks, hang them up where they will be secure from
rats and mice. Early Peas and Beans are now to be pulled up,
the vines dried, and the seed threshed and cleaned; the vines or
haulm will be greedily eaten by cattle if well dried, or they may
e
4
37 
SEPTEMBER.
be used for bedding. Gather seed of Summer Squashes and throw
the vines and remaining Squash to the pigs. Dig over the portions
of the kitchen-garden which have grown these early crops, to be
ready for new planting.
Pull up and store away any early Turnips not used, as they will
now be apt to run up to blossom stalks, or become hollow-hearted
and corky. Cut, dry, and tie in bundles, and hang up pot-herbs,
Sage, Rue, Sweet Marjoram, Summer Savory, etc., the last of the
month.
Gather the Squashes, and pile them in some warm and dry
place, or shelter the heaps with boards till they are well dried;
then sell or store them. A light frost will injure them very much,
and every bruise is followed by decay.
As soon as the tops of the Asparagus are fairly yellow, and the
berries red, cut them, lay in piles in the alleys between the beds,
and cover with manure; then dig all in, cover the beds with a
dressing of well-rotted manure and salt, but do not dig in for fear
of injuring the crowns of the roots, unless very lightly; if the
manure is fine it will not impede the Asparagus shoots in the spring.
38 
CHAPTER VII.
ORCHARD.
THE orchard now needs constant attention. The earliest Apples
are mostly gone, and the autumn Apples are ripening. Send out
every day a man with a barrow or a cart to collect all the decayed
and "windfall" fruit for the pigs.  Such as is good enough should
be pared, sliced, and hung up for drying. Our Apples which will
ripen this month, are Porter's, Gravenstein, Jersey Sweeting,
Pumpkin Sweet, Maiden's Blush, Nonesuch, Seek-no-further, Scarlet Pearmain. They should all be carefully hand-picked before
ripening, and laid out on shelves; - not barreled unless they
are to go to market at once. The sale of autumn Apples requires
much judgment, as they do not generally keep well, and are therefore hurried into the market until it is often overstocked. When
carefully gathered and well barreled, they are in demand for export
to the most Northern States and to Canada. For carelessly gathered
fall Apples there is no such demand. A careful picker, barreller,
and marketer, will sell his Apples for nearly double the price commanded by ordinary Apples.
Pears must also be well attended to. Go over the dwarfs, and
pinch back the new growth that was not thus checked in August, to
secure thorough ripening of the wood and save labor in the spring.
In gathering and storing use the same care directed for the espalier
fruit. The Pears that ripen this month are Andrews, Buffum,
Beurre de Capiaumont, Beurre Bosc, Beurre Diel, Bergamot, Bon
Chretien Fondante d'Automne, White Doyenne, Manning's Elizabeth, Flemish Beauty, Napoleon, Rostiezer, Seckle. These Pears
should all be gathered at least a week before they are fully ripe, and
be placed on the shelves of the fruit room, or in baskets and buckets,
as will be hereafter described (for drawings of which see the October
work), and kept cool and dark till quite ripe. If ripened thus,
39 
SEPTEMBER.
they will be highly colored, firm and juicy, and when well assorted
will sell for very high prices. When they are carried to market,
the wisdom of thinning out the Pears on the trees in June and
July will be evident.
All the Peaches ripen this month as they are planted for market.
Our only orchard varieties are Coolidge's Favorite, George IV.,
Crawford's Early (gone early in the month), Royal George, Late
Red Rare-ripe, Large White Cling-stone, Oldmixon, and Heath.
Treat them as directed for the espalier fruit in kitchen-garden.
Our Nectarines are the same as in the kitchen-garden.
The out-door Grapes will begin to ripen this month; first Diana,
then Concord, then Isabella; late in the month Sweet-water and
Catawba. Leave the fruit on the vines as long as possible, cutting
only for use or sale. We have no vineyard for wine-making, and
those who wish to try what is hardly a profitable business in this
latitude, east of Albany, must consult special treatises on this
subject. As the month closes, if there is any threat of freezing
weather, gather the grapes, and winter-pack them in kegs with
pretty dry sawdust, or lay them in drawers between layers of cotton
batting, taking care to keep them cool and dark.
We have only a dozen Plum-trees, as the curculio, black-rot, and
mildew make their cultivation a discouraging task. They will all
ripen this month; Greengage, Coe's Golden-drop, Jefferson, Bolmar's Washington, Magnum  Bonum, Damson.  Gather this crop
as it ripens, and place on shelves in the fruit room. It does not
keep well; so eat, preserve, and sell as fast as possible.
Be sure to bud any stocks or branches of Plums, Cherries,
Peaches, Nectarines, Apricots, and Pears, not budded in August.
40 
CHIAPTER VIII.
NURSERY.
HERE there is little to do if budding was finished last month; if
it was not, do it now. Pull out all stocks that seem diseased; run
the horse-hoe through the rows that are weedy; look over the tallies at the ends of the rows and refresh any that are dim.
The best tally is zinc, on which write with some preparation
that will not fade, or with a stylus, or wooden tallies, first rubbed
over with white lead, and written on with black lead pencil before
the paint is dry.
In the nursery of ornamental plants, be sure to bud all the
Roses as soon as possible; for varieties consult the flower-garden
lists. Toward the last of the month, divide the tufts of perennial
roots, so that whatever you wish to transplant may be ready, and
the rest be making new roots.
Ornamental trees which you propose to plant this fall may be
pruned now, if there is time, as it will save delay when transplanting. Go through the rows of trees and shrubs which are
not to be transplanted this fall, and prune off all side branches,
suckers, etc., which would interfere with a satisfactory development
of the plant. Every unoccupied part of the nursery should be
trenched and thoroughly manured, to be ready for planting next
month.
EVERGREENS.- If there are any evergreens that must be transplanted before spring, or become worthless, move them now. Arbor Vites and Norway Spruces seem often not to suffer by fall
transplanting; but as a rule, no evergreen should be disturbed in
the fall, except as a forlorn hope, for it is of the greatest importance
that a tree freshly transplanted should have time to repair the
damage which its roots have suffered in the removal before it is
4*                                     41 
SEPTEMBER.
taxed for any other purpose. Transplanting tears away more than
we can estimate of minute fibres and spongioles, the vital parts
of the plant, and its first physiological act in its new position is to
heal these wounds and make good the place of the lost organs.
The healing process is to form a callus similar to the callus on a
"cutting" and analagous to the granulations thrown out in wounded
flesh, where no tissue like skin or flesh is found at first, but a new
substance that serves to protect the wound against the external air
and shocks, to shield the new tissues that form beneath; so the
broken root makes a shield of cellular tissue, which is in time absorbed or cast off, to give place to woody fibre and cellular tissue,
from which roots are emitted in due season.
To insure the growth of cuttings, gardeners know that they
must remove most of their leaves and set them in a shady place
where there will be but little evaporation.   So deciduous trees
being without leaves in the autumn and winter evaporate but little
moisture even in the sun; not enough to overtask their roots and
prevent the formation of calluses after transplanting. They may
therefore be removed even in the late fall with great advantage;
and if this be well done, and the trees properly secured against the
wind, the formation of calluses and new roots is certain in nearly
all hardy varieties; and when spring comes there is an immediate
resumption of growth; whilst a tree transplanted in the spring has
all this reparative process to perform before it can grow. But
in evergreens, the process of growth begins later in the spring, and
the demand on the roots for sap continues till spring again; and
when they are moved in the fall their vital processes are in full
activity. The new growth of leaves, young and tender, is just
formed, and demands the largest possible amount of moisture;
whilst, if newly transplanted, the supply from the roots is diminished, and a demand made (for the formation of calluses) by the
roots for a part of this diminished supply. Even if the evergreen
could be moved into the most favorable position, where evaporation
should be at a minimum and moisture at a maximum, the process
of healing its wounds and putting forth new rootlets must go on
very slowly, so great must be the demand of its foliage, under any
circumstances, in the fall.
42 
NURSERY.
Suppose, however, the healing process goes on in the roots sufficiently to keep the tree alive. If it is to withstand the winter
winds, the roots must have every opportunity to spread and seize
firm hold of the earth. Even deciduous trees, with their skeleton
top, are often winter-killed after being transplanted in the fall,
by being so shaken in the wind that the slight hold of the new
roots on the earth is broken. How much greater is the danger
to the evergreen with its thick and leafy top, that opposes a large
surface to the wind! But in the spring it needs less moisture, for
its leaves are then old, and having supplied the tree for half a
year or more, they have performed half their function, are thickened and hardened by the deposit of mineral matter in their tissue,
and therefore work more slowly, elaborate less sap, and of course
are less exposed to evaporation.
PRUNING.- If, however, you are compelled to move evergreens
in the fall, prune them before setting them in their new place. It
is little that can be done to restore the balance between roots and
leaves; but you must aim at this; so cut away as far as possible
the same proportion of top that you have torn away of roots. Evergreens may not be cut back like deciduous trees; their branches
are to be thinned out.
43 
CHAPTER IX.
THE FARM.
IN September the farmer looks for some little leisure from the
driving work of the year; not idleness, but an opportunity to begin
upon those repairs and improvements which are not indispensable,
but which will pay well in future.
Field No. 4 is in grass for the first time. It will depend upon the
set the grass got last year, and on the kind of spring and summer,
whether there will be a crop of Aftermath or Rowen succeeding the
hay. The field was laid down to Grass and Clover with Rye last
year, and should have cut a heavy crop of Clover. Early in the
month, if there seems to be grass enough to warrant it, cut the
Rowen. If, as is possible, the Clover has come up clean and free
from any stray Rye, summer weeds, or grass, you may cut it for
its seed, in which case it should be left to stand longer than if to
be cut for'hay.
CLOVER. -If cut for Rowen, treat as in summer; put in the
mowing machine as soon as the dew is off in the morning. The
whole of it may be cut before the mid-forenoon, there being about
two acres in the field. After dinner turn it thoroughly; at four rake
it; put the hay into cocks that will contain about fifty pounds dry
hay. Cover with hay covers every night and during damp weather.
Leave unopened until an examination shall show whether it is
cured and fit for the mow; if it is, the covers should be removed
during the heat of the morning, and the cock be turned over, to
allow the bottom to get thoroughly dry. Then haul to the barn;
salt slightly. This Rowen will prove the most agreeable food to
your milch cows during late winter and early spring, and will cause
a larger flow of milk than any other kind of hay.
CLOVER-SEED. - But if you wish to have clover-seed, the crop
44 
THE FARM.
must be treated differently. Let the grass stand till nearly ripe seeds
show at the bottom of the head; it will not do to wait longer than
this, as the head continues to grow long after, and the lower seeds,
which are the best, would ripen and fall before any others would
mature. You may now mow this like Barley, or cradle it and tie
in bundles. In either case, cure it like a grain crop; carry to the
barn, and either thresh immediately or put it on the mow to be
threshed hereafter. Another method of saving seed is to use a
machine which can be carried through the field and will take off
the heads, which must then be collected, dried, and threshed. The
stubble may be pastured, or be cut for inferior hay or for bedding.
The ornamental grounds now need their last cutting for the
season. That part of the lawn which was cut but once for hay
will now yield its crop of Rowen, which must be treated in all
respects like the Clover, excepting that it need not be left in cocks
to make.  The Clover leaves being very fragile when dry, break
readily and are lost if the hay is turned frequently in making; and
it is to avoid this that we cure it in cocks. Some farmers are of
the opinion that all hay is better made in this way.
ROWEN.    The Rowen from the lawn is to be made like any
other hay, and stored in the barn for the cows in spring. The
grass on the rest of the lawn, and about the borders, flower-gardens,
and house, is, as it has been at each previous cutting, similar to
Rowen, although somewhat less nutritious, owing to the repeated
cuttings, and is cured in the same way.
Field No. 2 is in Roots.  Its area of 3 acres is divided into 11
acres Carrots, 1 Ruta Bagas, 4 Parsnips, 4 Flat Turnips.   Nothing need be done here but to go over the field occasionally and pull
out any weeds that have come up since the last hoeing.  If the
weather is very dry and the roots seem to suffer, let the brook into
the catch-water drains, and allow it to stand long enough to saturate the ground thoroughly. Before the water is turned in, run
the horse or wheel hoe through the rows to loosen the soil.  If
there is no water for irrigation, hoeing will be of service.
The lawn south of the hall door was planted with early Potatoes,
45 
SEPTEMBER.
which must be dug early in the month. The evidence of ripeness
is the gradual drying up of the vines. It is easy to distinguish
between the ripening of the vines and the disease known as "the
rot." In the rot the vines decay and blacken all at once. Potatoes may be dug with the common hand hoe or with a potato hand
digger, which is much like
a manure rake, with four
or five long teeth, which
searches into the hill bet                                     ter than the hoe and with
less danger of cutting the tubers. After digging, leave them lying
on the ground to dry in the sun tili there will be only time enough
before dew-fall to gather them into heaps. Cover these heaps with
the dry haulm of the tops, or with a hay cover. Remove the cover
next morning, and leave them another day, or even two days, to dry
thoroughly, covering every night. When well dried, carry them
into the root cellar.
It will save time in the end to assort them as we take them from
the cart into the cellar, putting the smaller tubers together, either
for pig-feed or for seed, and the large ones by themselves for sale
or the table. Keep the varieties well separated, so that you may
be able to plant next year with judgment, and grow those varieties
which have rotted least, yielded best, and which have the best flavor.
In this neighborhood, Worcester Reds, Davis' Seedlings, Carters,
and Jackson Whites have proved the greatest favorites for field
Potatoes, and it is with these that we should plant our field.
Where there is more than one quarter of an acre of Potatoes to
dig, it will be true economy to buy a potato-digger, which may be
worked either with horse or oxen; the animals walk in the furrows either side of the rows, while the digger, like a ditch plough,
splits the furrow and turns the tubers out to daylight, where they
may be easily gathered.
In Field No. I the pasture needs no attention this month.
At every opportunity cart muck, weeds, and loam to the barn
cellar; leave them in such positions as not to interfere with cleaning the cellar of the summer's accumulation before winter.
The cows want fodder night and morning, as in the last month.
46 
THE FARM.
and in rather larger quantities. Keep good watch to insure that
the cattle are well and regularly fed and cleaned, and that the barn
is kept clean and sweet. The horses will need no extra care as
yet, although as the nights grow colder their legs should be rubbed
dry after the day's work and the beds be made a little thicker.
Select the pigs you propose to kill before January and put them
by themselves in order to begin extra feeding. Do not increase
the feed much till the weather becomes decidedly cooler.  They
will be found to gain much more rapidly during the first cool
weather than afterwards, or than during the hot weather.
The fowls are taking care of themselves; the young geese, turkeys, and ducks being well grown. Such fowls as are to be got
ready for early use or sale in the fall should be regularly fed, beginning with small quantities and gradually increasing.
RYE. - During the month thresh the Rye or Wheat cut from
No. 3, winnow and put it into bags for sale. If you propose to
sell the Rye straw do it as soon as the price is fair, for as soon as
cold weather approaches it will be the haunt of rats and mice,
which in search of stray grains will cut it to pieces and make it
almost unsalable. Sell all the Rye that you do not wish to use,
whenever the market it good, as it is a crop in which there is not
much fluctuation, and as it sells by weight the loss in drying during the winter will often counter-balance the gain in price in the
spring which is seldom much for home-grown grains.
DRAINING.
During the dry weather clear all the open drains that are at all
clogged, and begin new tile or stone drains in all the wet parts of
the fields.
The system of irrigation which we are following will lose much
of its value, if the surplus soakage water is not rapidly removed.
There is scarcely a field but is benefited by draining.
This is the best month to repair the roads for fall and winter
carting, as gravel laid on now will be well trodden and bound before hard freezing begins.
Examine the catch-water drains, and wherever the action of the
47 
SEPTEMBER.
water has injured them, repair thoroughly. Make the drains now
in Field No. 1 for next year's crop.
It is very strange that our farmers should be so remiss in the
matter of irrigation, when no natural aid is as powerful if applied
with judgment. In a climate where frequent rains remove all fear
of drought, a supply of water by irrigation would seem superfluous; and yet it is in England, where such a climate exists, that
irrigation has been carried to the greatest perfection. HIow much
more then should we gain in this often scorched region!
The necessity of drainage has forced itself upon our agriculturalists, and although it is exceedingly rare to find a farm thoroughly
drained, it is no less rare to see a farm where something of the
sort has not been done.
The theory is very simple and obvious. It is important to hasten the approach and prolong the stay of warm weather as much
as possible. We know that a wet board becomes wholly heated
much more slowly than a dry one, as the water must first evaporate. So earth saturated with moisture will not become warm
enough to germinate seeds readily, till the surplus water is removed; sufficiently at least to leave the surface freely exposed to
the heat of the sun's rays.  Evaporation is a rapid process, if we
consider the vast amount of water daily converted into rain-clouds;
a slow process when we wait for the drying of a submerged or
saturated field to an extent that will allow the plough and seed to
be applied in spring. This delay is most seriously felt in late seasons, when under the most favorable circumstances farmers find
barely time enough to prepare for the crop. The surplus water
may in this way shorten the season a fortnight or even a month.
Again, in the fall, the early rains -colder than the soil -will
collect in the very places whence the sun could hardly remove the
water in the spring, and will inevitably chill or decay the roots of
the yet immature crops; thus cutting the season short at this end
another fortnight or month. This time lost from the season will be
enough to destroy those crops which can mature in this latitude
only by havingi the full amount of heat which our late springs
and early winters afford. Besides this shortening of the growing
season, there is the utter impossibility of ploughing such lands in
48 
THE FARM.
the autumn to expose them to the beneficial action of the winter
frosts.
All this difficulty may be removed by judicious drainage; and
no month is more favorable to the making drains than September,
when we usually have some weeks of steady, dry weather, which
evaporates the surface water, and enables us to judge where drains
are most needed.
"To determine the actual degree of cold produced by the evaporation of one pound of water from the soil, is rather a complicated,
and not a very certain, operation; but scientific reasons are given for
an approximation to this result -that the evaporation of 1 pound
of water lowers the temperature of 100 pounds of soil 10~. That
is to say, that if to 100 pounds of soil holding all the water which
it can by attraction, but containing no water of drainage, is added 1
pound of water which it has no means of discharging except by evaporation, it will, by the time that it has so discharged it, be 10~ colder
than it would have been if it had the power of discharging this 1
pound by filtration; or more practically, if rain, entering in the proportion of 1 pound to 100 pounds, into a retentive soil which is saturated with water of attraction, is discharged by evaporation, it lowers the temperature of that soil 10~. If the soil has the means of
discharging that 1 pound of water by filtration, no effect is produced beyond what is due to the relative temperatures of the rain
and of the soil. Mr. Dickenson, the eminent paper-maker, who
has several mills and a landed estate in Hertfordshire, has deduced
from a series of observations which are, we believe, entitled to
great confidence, that of an annual fall of 26 inches of rain, about
11 are filtered through a porous soil.  The whole of this 11
inches (and probably more), must be got rid of by a retentive soil,
either by evaporation or by superficial discharge. The proportions
in which each of these will operate will vary in every case, but
this will be a universal feature -that these 11 inches will retain
in undrained, retentive soils, except during some accidental periods
of excessive drought, a permanent supply of water of drainage,
which will be in constant course of evaaporation, and will constantly produce  the cold consequent  thereon.   Retentive soils
never can be so warm as porous, for a simple reason,  Ewery
5
49 
SEPTEMBER.
one knows, or may know, that if into two flower pots, with holes in
the bottom, are put respectively equal portions of gravel and clay,
equally heated to any point short of torrefaction, and if equal
quantities of water are administered to the surface of each, water
(water of drainage) will run from the gravel long before it begins
to run from the clay. Gravel can hold by attraction much less
water than clay can. At the time when each is saturated by water
of attraction, and neither holds any water of drainage, evaporation
will begin to act upon the water in each, and will act most strongly
in the vegetative period of the year. The cold produced will be
in proportion to the quantities of water evaporated respectively,
and will, of course, be greatest in the retentive soil.  We  will reserve a farther cause of coolness in retentive soils, which is also
connected with evaporation, till we have spoken of the depths of
drains."
"The temperature of retentive soils is very much raised during
that period of the year in which vegetation is active, by  the
removal of water by drainage."
"Many experiments have shown that in retentive soils the temperature at 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water-table is at
no period of the year higher than from 46~ to 48~, that is, in agricultural Britain.  This temperature is little affected by summer
heats, for the following short reasons. Water, in a quiescent state,
is one of the worst conductors of heat with which we are
acquainted. Water warmed at the surface transmits little or no
heat downwards. The small portion warmed expands, becomes
lighter than that below, consequently retains its position on the sur face, and carries no heat downwards. To ascertain the mean heat
of the air at the surface of the earth, over any extended space,
and for a period of eight or nine months, is no simple operation.
More elements enter into such a calculation than we have space or
ability to enumerate; but we know certainly that for seven months
in the year, air, at the surface of the ground, is seldom lower than
48~, never much lower, and only for short periods; whereas at 4
feet from the surface, in the shade, from 70~ to 80~ is not an unu sual temperature, and in a southern exposure, in hot sunshine,
double that temperature is not unfrequentlyobtained on the surface."
50 
THE FARM.
"Now let us consider the effect of drains placed from 2 to 3 feet
below the water-table, and acting during the seven months of which
we have spoken. They draw out water of the temperature of 48~.
Every particle of water which they withdraw at this temperature
is replaced by an equal bulk of air, at a higher, and frequently at
a much higher temperature. The warmth of the air is carried
down into the earth. The temperature of the soil, to the depth to
which the water is removed, is in a course of constant assimilation
to the temperature of the air at the surface."
"From this it follows, necessarily, that during that period of the
year when the temperature of air at the surface of the earth is
generally below 48~, retentive soils, which have been drained, are
colder than those which have not."
"There are no satisfactory British experiments with reference to
the surface-heat of the earth. Professor Leslie's only commence
at 1 foot below the surface.   Schubler's experiments, made near
Genoa, in the year 1796, are strictly superficial. His thermometers were sunk in the soil only to the depth of 1-12th of an inch.
In that sunny clime he found the mean heat of soil, at that depth,
to be at noon for six successive months, 131~. If that were his
mean heat for six months, we cannot doubt that it is frequently
obtained as an extreme heat in the hottest portion of our year, in
England:'
"Mr. Parkes gives temperatures on a Lancashire Peat Moss, but
they only commence at 7 inches below the surface, and do not
extend to midsummer. At that period of the year the temperature
at 7 inches never exceeded 66~, and was generally from 10~ to
15~ below the temperature of air in the shade, at 4 feet above the
earth. At the depth of 13 inches, the soil was generally firom 5~
to 8~ cooler than at 7 inches."
"Mr. Parkes' experiments were made simultaneously on a
drained and on an undrained portion of the Moss; and the result
was, that on a mean of 35 observations the drained soil at 7 inches
in depth was 10~ warmer than the undrained at the same depth.
The undrained soil never exceeded 47~, whereas after a thlunderstorm the drained reached 66~, at 7 inches, and 48~ at 31 inches.
51 
SEPTEMBER.
Such were the effects at an early period of the year on a black
bog. They suggest some idea of what  they are, when in July or
August thunder-rain at 60~ or 70~ falls on a surface heated to 130~,
and carries down with it into the greedy fissures of the earth its
augmented temperature. These advantages porous soils possess by
nature, and retentive soils only acquire them by drainage.'
How then shall we best get these advantages by the aid of
drains? how deep shall the drain be in the soil? and how wide apart
on the surface?  That some absolute depth is right for average
soils is self-evident, whilst different qualities of soil will vary this
depth and distance.
We should not forget, in considering that the reasoning in the
foregoing and following quotations is applied to England and Scotland, that the facts and deductions from them are equally applicable to America. The depth of the drains below the surface
in all ordinary cases depends upon these two considerations: from
what depth does water prefer to arise to the surface by evaporation, or to descend into subsoil drainage, and how much does the
escape of water by natural evaporation affect the temperature of
the soil.
Careful experiments have  shown that the heat necessary to
convert 1 pound of water into vapor by sun evaporation is just as
great as to convert it into steam over a fire, and that the fire heat
contained in 2 or 3 ounces of coal is that amount.
By consequence, then, were all the water which falls upon an acre
of land in a year, 40 inches or 4,040 tons, to be so removed, there
would be for each day 11 tons, which would consume the heat of
32 cwt. of coal per hour. We know that all this water is not so
removed, but all that is removed by evaporation consumes heat pro
rata; and the amount we know, under all circumstances, is large,
whilst in saturated land it is enormous.
Bring before your imagination an acre of close clay land, nearly
impermeable by water; in its natural condition, this land, in early
spring, is unapproachable for its saturation; by degrees it dries,
and is meagrely tilled, the crops feebly budding into life are not
only grievously choked and poisoned by the standing water, but
52 
THE FARM.3
also the heat, so vitally necessary to their rapid growth, is taken
away at the rate of 24 cwt. of burning coal per hour, whilst the
plants are half frozen."
"It has been proved that the heat of a pound of water in a state
of steam would raise the temperature of 1,000 pounds of water
one degree, and consequently the heat abstracted to convert one
pound of water in the soil into steam, reduces 1,000 pounds of
earth one degree, or 500 lbs. two degrees, and so on."
Besides this abstraction of heat by evaporating water, another
solid objection should be considered: that water is the best of nonconductors of heat. If a kettle of water is heated below, it soon
boils by the rising of the lighter hot water to the top, and the falling
of the heavy drops at the top. But if a fire were made on top of the
kettle, it would never warm, as the hot and light particles are at
the top, and cannot ascend and allow new cold particles to have
access to the fire.
"Apply this to poor land lying exposed to the heat of the sun,
the warmth of whose rays may penetrate.into the ground only so
fast as the water evaporates and reduces its level. But although,
so poor a conductor, it is a very rapid radiator, as we have seen.
Were the soil warmed, we will say to 60~, and the water at any
depth, not over two feet, to 40~, the water would rapidly abstract
the heat and rise into the air, carrying away with it as is above
seen the warmth of thousands of pounds of soil."
But let the land be readily permeable by water and it becomes a
carrier of heat, not a remover. Supposing the water to be that of
a warm thunder-storm, say warmed to 70~, it will run down into the
soil to the drains, carrying that warmth and imparting it on its way;
or, supposing the upper stratum to be warmed to 70~ or 120~, the
water which falls upon it instead of standing there, awaiting to
absorb heat enough to evaporate, and so cooling the soil to its
dead loss, now runs through it, abstracting much of its heat, and
carrying it down to the subsoil, and, of course, as it gradually cools,
imparting its heat to the soil.
We are thus brought to the edge of the question of how deep
drains are to be. Set a pot containing a plant into a saucer full of
water; at first the water will rise as high in the pot, or owing to
5*
53 
SEPTEMBER.
capillary attraction a little higher than, the water in the saucer.
The top of this water is the. water table; from this point it rises
by evaporation through the soil till it appears at the top, and is
thence discharged into the air.
Observe how largely heat must be abstracted to make the water
thus escape; and it is for this reason, though perhaps not knowing
how to explain it, that gardeners object to plants standing in water.
So, too, whenever water stands in soils it assumes a level which
we call the water table and from its top it will rise to the surface
by evaporation. How low ought this water table to be, to reduce its
injurious action to a minimum? Experiments have shown that the
water in the soil, from its surface to a depth of not less than 30
inches, is colder by several degrees than below that depth; or in
other words, the evaporation acts upon the water to that depth, and
consequently cools the water and the earth holding it; below that
depth it does not affect it materially; only water enough rises to
supply the roots of plants, which will descend if the strata is open to
the water level, if it be even 4 feet below the surface. Not less than
30 inches should be the depth to the top of the water table, and as
much lower as circumstances will admit, until we arrive at 4 feet,
where the temperature seems to be about the same with water at
much greater depths. At first, we might suppose that deep drains
would not remove the water with rapidity after a rain, but, on the
contrary, in lands drained at different depths, the drains 4 feet
deep begin to run the soonest and stop the earliest, showing that
the flood about the roots, immediately after a shower, is the water
of evaporation, condensed and checked, together with the water of
saturation, not the rain. For instance, MIr. Parkes relates, p.
153, Royal Ag. Soc. for 1844, "that on the 7th and 8th November, rain fell by guage to the depth of 48 of an inch.  On the
9th, he inspected some drains on SMr. Hammond's farm, and found
that after a rain of 12 hours' duration on the 7th, in a nine-acre
piece, the drains 3 feet deep were just dribbling, whilst in a four-acre
hop ground adjoining, the four-feet drains were already exhausted."
Mr. Hammond states that after the late rains Feb. 17, 1844, a
drain 4 feet deep ran 8 pints of water, whilst another, 3 feet deep,
ran 5 pints, although placed at equal distances.
54 
THE FARM.
There are cases, undoubtedly, where shallow drains should be
joined with, if not substituted for, deep drains. On very plastic
clays, dig a hole into the soil, and permeate its bottom with small
holes, and arrange so that water shall gradually weep through its
sides. At first it will rapidly disappear through the bottom, but
slowly small particles of clay will wash down, and form a film or
puddle over the bottom, after which no water will escape. In all
clays which will so puddle, you will observe that much of the
water must be removed by surface drains and shallow drains, as the
deeper the drain the more chance there would seem to be for puddling.  This is not, however, true, in its full application, because
another feature in clays may be improved in connection with deep
drains, namely, cracking, We know that a clay field will contract
under the sun's heat, so as, in many cases, to make during summer
really fearful fissures.
As the rains return in the autumn, the clay absorbs the water,
swells, and refills the cracks. But if the field was thoroughly
and deeply drained, this rain water will be conveyed into the
drains all the more rapidly for the fissures, and that which was its
curse, becomes its blessing; the clay will close more slowly and
perhaps not at all, giving the desired opportunity for ploughing,
subsoiling, and sanding, by which the clay may be made exceedingly
fertile. When shallow drains shall be used for deep is a very nice
question, and can only be settled by a professional and experienced
man.  The depth of drains seems to be settled, at any rate approximately. Let us now consider their distance apart.
Water can only get into drains by gravity; and just as certainly
as it seeks its own level it also seeks the lowest point to which it
has access and for which it may run. Let A be a section of a
field to be drained. Imagine the
drains, b b, to be made at no matter                     I I111!lil ffI
what  distance apart, but 421 feet! [L.
deep.  The water will at once es-,
cape into the drain, being pressed  -<.
into it by the weight of the mass
overhead. This will be followed by the drops overhead up to the
top of its water table, which directly over it or adjacent may be
55 
SEPTEMBER.
reduced to 4 feet; but at the same time the water will tend to these
two drains from both sides, as is shown by dotted lines. Experiment has shown that in ordinary soils the water needs a slope
of                                   about one inch to the linear yard to overcome friction; in very
porous soils less will do; in very retentive, more will be necessary.
To lower the water table in the centre of our land at a to the desired depth of 4 feet, we must have our drains distant from the
centre  18                               feet, or the drains 36 feet apart.    I  have said very
light soils will allow the drains to be farther apart. The distance
will be affected also by the slope of the land, which may so slope
that the water will move rather in the line of steepest descent through
the earth, gradually approaching the surface, than laterally into the
drain. B is a hillside; the arrow shows the line of steepest de
c-drain.
a
b
scent, and the inclination is 1 foot in 20 feet, or 1 inch in 20
inches. Now to overcome friction, we must allow 1 inch to the
yard, or 3 inches in 20 feet, for the drains. But the natural slope
here is 12 inches in 20 feet, or four times as much, and the inclination is therefore four times stronger to run to the surface at a
lower part of the hill than to the drain. If the drains are made
diagonally to the hill this is somewhat counteracted. I only mention these cases to show the need there is for judgment and caution. But some one may object that land thus drained at every
40 feet with drains 4 to 5 feet deep will be too dry, and plants
will perish. The following cut shows some Wheat plants whose
roots were carefully traced when growing freely in open mould;
they penetrated 5 feet.   Indian Corn has been traced 7 feet;
Parsnips 5 and 6 feet. Thus will be seen the enormous advantage
56 
THE FARM.
of that treatment of soil which gives the plant 5 feet to feed in,
rather than 6 inches, and also that
where the plant has room  it will 
push down  through the warm  soil
to the water table, and there get
water much  warmer than were  it
standing one foot above.
No one ever saw crops dry up in
deep-drained and well-tilled land,          v
whilst all of us have seen it in land                   i 
where hard pan is within six inches 
or a foot of the surface,- as is shown 
by the wood cuts, pp. 575,576. These                           4.
roots must find all their food and
moisture within this shallow soil,
which is soon warmed by the sun and dried out.
Experiments have shown that all land not decidedly sandy is
benefited by underground drains; some have found that even
sandy and dry land was improved by them, as they seemed to serve
as conduits to admit moist air to the roots of the plants, and allow
the moisture of the subsoil to rise more freely to the surface. It
is therefore claimed that the principle is of universal application.
I will not press it to that extent now, but simply assert that all
springy, rocky, deep, wet, and low lands should be drained. The
rule laid down by English farmers is, a drain every 40 or 60 feet;
but this distance is to be varied according to the judgment of the
cultivator.
The surfaces to be drained will be either side-hills, undulating, high and level surfaces, or low and level surfaces.  In
the first and last cases, the adjoining land being higher, experience teaches that the surplus water, to some extent, runs into
the place we wish to drain from this higher land near by. We
must therefore find an outlet for our drains.   The best outlet
is a natural brook whose high-water level is lower than the bottom
of the drains we are to make. If the high-water level is higher
than this, we must still be content, for brooks fall rapidly from their
high-water mark; and if at the highest flood our drains do not
57 
SEPTEMBER.
work well, we may rest assured that as the flood lowers they will
draw the water from the land more rapidly than it could flow off
if we had no drains and were compelled to rely on the natural
drainage. If no such brook can be found, look for the nearest
pond which is ordinarily lower than the bottom of our drains; and
if no pond can be found, ascertain the lowest point which is under
our control on the farm, and there make a pond, first digging out
all the loam, etc., and then, if the bottom is hard pan, cutting
through it to some open gravel or sand stratum below. The water
discharged into this will soak away; or if we do not open upon a
sand stratum we may make an artificial pond.
Having found a point of discharge, dig a main drain as wide as
is requisite for the rapid removal of the water, and as deep as the
surface will allow at the end most remote from the outlet; if the
distance is considerable, the drain will be very much deeper at the
outlet, as there should be about 3 inches fall in 100 feet of drain
to insure the water's overcoming any slight obstacles to its flow.
If the distance to be traversed by the main drain is very long,
so that by starting at 3 feet depth and dropping 3 inches to the
100 feet it would sink lower than the outlet, the upper end
must be made more shallow, or there must be less drop in 100
feet.
To rendelr this description more intelligible, consult the accom
panying diagrams.
No. 1 represents a
piece of land bounding on a brook and
surrounded by high
land. The farm does
not include the whole
of the high land, as
shown by the boundary fences x x; a is
the brook. Now dig
the main drain b, 500
feet long; start it at
the upper end y, 39
58
No. 1. 
THE FARM.
inches deep; sink 3 inches to the 100 feet, which gives at the
lower end 54 inches in depth. Dig the other main, b' from the
brook back, 150 feet; at the commencement, 49 inches deep;
at the outlet, 54 inches. Now dig at the foot of the hill, and following its curve as shown by the diagram, a drain e c c c, nowhere as deep as the main drain by at least 2 inches for every
100 feet that the main drain is distant from it. This drain should
be as a general rule not more than 30 feet from the base of the
hill. At various intervals cut cross-drains d, from c c c to the
main, B, which, starting from the bottom level of c c c, shall sink
gradually so as to enter the main above its bottom level. The distance between these cross-drains will vary according to the character of the surface, its unevenness, wetness, and level. As has
been said, 20 to 60 feet is common practice, and they may be
farther or nearer as necessity directs.
When you can conveniently, enter the side into the main drains
at an acute angle, for the flow of the water should be facilitated
as much as possible, and every rectangular turn obstructs it more
than an acute angle. Also, enter them above the bottom if possible,
that the water may reach the bottom of the main after a slight fall.
But if our surface were a side-hill it should be treated as in diagram No. 2. Here it is necessary to retard the flow of water, rather
/~'~j j /;; j//i;/~jj;,,Z
1,
59
i
I
No. 2. 
SEPTEMBER.
than increase it, as the rapid running may destroy the sides of the
drains.
Under these circumstances the best plan is to carry the drains
diagonally to the slope of the hill, takinlg care, however, that they
follow the slope sufficiently to prevent the waters settling into the
earth on the lower side of the drain, making the land below each
drain more "soggy" than if not under-drained.
As before, A is the brook; B, the main; c, the side-hill drain; d,
the cross-drains; x x fences; y the heads of the mains.   Where
one main empties into another, as at S, much care must be used to
protect the receiving main, that it may not be destroyed by the
friction of the running water, which may undermine its side and
cause it to fall in.
The third case of drainage is a nearly level field with no hill
sides near. Treat this like No. 1, only carry the drain c across
the upper end,- and perhaps down the sides of the field, - to receive any water that may be in the adjacent land.  In most cases
however, this can be dispensed with, as the main and cross-drains
draw the water thoroughly enough.
Having fixed upon the lines of drain, de                    cide upon the materials with which to make
~= = ~    your drains.  These are as various as the
means and inclination of proprietors.  The
best way is always the most economical; we
will describe  it, and  then  mention other
methods.
~ f —:~-     ~Dig the drain the requisite depth, narrow
60
*-  H e       E        b;~~~~-  
THE FA.RM.
ing from top to bottom, like a truncated wedge. The earth is to
be thrown all to one side. Now take the pipe and collar, or
horseshoe sole tile, or plain horseshoe tile, which comes in pieces
1 foot to 14 inches long, and may be bought at Albany, N. Y.,
Worcester, Manchester, and Boston, Mass., or Exeter, N. H.
These tile vary in diameter from 1 to 6 inches, and proportionately
in price.
If you use the sole tile, which has, as
shown in the cut, a solid bottom, having
made the bottom of the drain smooth, lay         X
down the pieces of tile end to end, bringing
the ends together. It is obvious that the
bottom of the drain must be made level,          (~~-~ —
smooth, and hard, and below frost, so that
neither heaving of frost nor unequal hardness of bottom, may ever
disturb the tile after it is laid; for if it is disarranged, the ends of
the pieces will not come opposite each other, and will interrupt
the flow of water, so that the drain will ultimately be choked
and rendered useless.
If the tile without the sole is used, it must be laid on a board or
plank to prevent the running water from wearing the bottom of the
drain, which would cause the tile to sink and the mud to rise into
the cavity of the drain and choke it.
The tile being laid as directed, a section of the drain will be thus.
Pile over the top of the tile stones about the size   --
of a man's fist,- if they can be procured,-to the
depth of 4 inches; they must be laid by hand;
shoveling them in would break the tiles. To expedite the work
the stones should be piled at the side of the drain opposite the
earth removed in digging; and if they are placed close to the edge,
the man who lays the tile can fill in the 4 inches of stone as he
goes along, a boy standing at the side of the drain to hand the
joints of tile and any stones that may have rolled beyond reach of
the man. When 4 inches of stone have been thus carefully laid
in and wedged about the tile, 8 inches more of larger stones may be
thrown in with a shovel. Then return the earth dug out until the
6
61 
SEPTEMBER.
drain is full and heaped a few inches higher than
the adjacent surface, to allow for settling.
The cut shows a section of the drain when
A=.. completed.  Brush, straw, tan or sods may be
laid over the tile, or even coarse gravel, or loam;
_   or you may use broken stones to insure the most
=~ _ ~perfect drainage.
Similar drains may be made without any tile,
using different sizes of stone, beginning small and gradually in                                     creasing till within 18 inch                                  es of the surface.  These
are called blind drains and
l~~     ~answer very well for many
B~~~~~~~~~~~
years, but are apt to choke.
The "V drain" is an im                                      provement on absolutely
C~D  ~      blind drains; the wood cut
shows its structure; having
cut as if for tile, select rather
flat stones and lay them to                                      gether at the bottom, edge
to edge, their lower ends
resting on a board or plank;
on them fill in with stones.
Drains may be made with
brush, laying in bushes and
branches of trees, their buts
up  stream;  these  sooner
or later decay  or choke.
Lastly  we  come  to  the
instruments to be used in
making  the  drain.   The
accompanying  instruments
are the English instruments
for  cutting  drains;  the
workman's feet never ap                                      proach within 8 or 10
62 
THE FARM.
inches of the bottom of the drain, which does not need to be more
than 10 inches wide for the largest size drain pipe, and not
more than 2 inches for the usual inch pipe, which is competent to drain off all the water in the soil, and conduct it into the
mains.  A 2 inch pipe with a fall of 3 inches in 100 feet, and a
velocity of.895 foot per second will discharge 11,400 gallons a
day."
The following is quoted from J. H. Shedd, Civil Engineer,
of Boston -
"The accompanying diagram shows the lines that may be followed
in forming the cross section of a trench from 221 to 6 feet deep, and
to admit a pipe from 1 to 8 inches inside bore. The
full lines represent the sides of the trench; the  \...7,
horizontal dotted lines are at certain distances from   \.2 4/'
the bottom, as represented by the figures opposite          4 3
each, at the side.  The figures above each repre-'' ~ 
sent the width of opening  at the surface for a
trench of that depth; the widths are given in feet
and hundredths; to reduce the decimal to inches,
divide by 8; the result will be inches, nearly.  The     }'.i/
vertical dotted lines show what earth must be removed in order to increase the width at bottom to
receive the larger sizes.  Suppose a trench is to be dug 4-1 feet
de ep;  the  numbers
opposite 41 is 1.42,
or 1 foot 5 inches,
which is the width
of opening at surface.
"If the trench is
to be 3 feet deep             it      i'
it need be opened
only 1 foot wide at                  I                 I
the top, and with
proper tools it can ~,.,,,
be carried down to
a width of about 2 inches at the bottom, though, of course, the
63 
SEPTEMBER.
foot of a man cannot come within 6 or 8 inches of the bottom;
in which case the pipes are laid by a man, walking on the surface,
at the edge of the trench, who lifts the pipe, piece by piece,
with a kind of hook made for the purpose, and lays them carefully
in the trench, as shown by this engraving."
An Irish spade, No. 2, shown in the following cut, is thought, by
some, the best instrument:  "As it is not necessary to the convenience of the workmen that
the sides of the trench be carried down any nearer vertical than
is represented in the engraving, they may be opened and carried
down in the same manner, for each size of the pipe, until the sides
have approached so near, that a pipe of
the size required can be just passed between them; the cut may then be carried
down vertically to the depth required.
This allows much earth to remain which
would be thrown out if the sides were cut
straight down from the width opened at the
top to the width at the bottom. A skilful
workman will dig the trenches with ease
in this way, after some practice, though it
may be a little troublesome at first. I am
now having trenches dug, in which the
opening at the surface is even less in width,
for the required depth, than is here given."
"The labor of one man, in a day of 10
hours, varies very much under different
circumstances."
"1. In hard, gravelly, and  clay soils,
where picking is constantly necessary, a
man will throw out only from 3 to 5 cubic
yards in a day."
"2. In ordinary clay and gravel, with an
occasional use of the pick, he will throw
out about 10 cubic yards in a day."
i
i
"3. In loose earth, without picking, or in shoveling after the
picking of another, as in railroad excavations, a man throws out
15 to 18 cubic yards a day."
64 
THE FARM.
"In the first case, a yard, or 27 cubic feet, will be removed for
25 cents, by a man who works a day, of 10 hours, for $1."
"In the second case the removal of a yard will cost 10 cents.
This will be the basis of our estimate of the cost of cutting
trenches, from the fact that most soils which need draining may be
classed under this head."
"In the third case, 1 yard will be removed for about 61 cents.
The solid contents of earth removed from a trench 100 feet long,
of sufficient width at bottom to admit the smallest sized pipe, and
of the depth as shown, is as follows:
Depth.           Cubic Feet.    Cubic Yards.          Cost.
2 1-2 feet.............127.5........... 4.72..............$0.47
3    "...........174............ 6.46.............. 0.65
3 1-2"............227.5...........  8.43..............  0.84
4    "...............288...........10.67.............. 1.07
41-2...............355.5...........13.17.............. 1.32
5    ".............430............ 15.93.............. 1.59
5 1-2 {...............511.5...........18.94.............. 1.90
6    ".............600............22.22.............. 2.22
To this must be added the cost of tools, trimming, and superintendence."
"The quantity removed by increasing the width at the bottom of
the trench, so that it may admit pipes of the larger sizes, is very
slight, being only 11 cubic feet in 100 feet length, on increasing
the width to 3 inches at the bottom. Quantity removed by increasing the width to 4 inches is 44 cubic feet; to 5 inches, 10*
feet; to 6 inches, 20] feet; to 8 inches, 45 feet; and to 10 inches,
791 feet.
The increased cost being, for the 3 inch width, 21 cent; for 4
inch, 2 cents; for 5 inch, 4 cents; for 6 inch, 8 cents; for 8 inch,
17 cents; and for 10 inch, 29 cents.
The amount of earth removed by widening the trench for a
larger pipe, is the same in every case, without regard to depth."
Drains have been dug by Mr. Shedd the past season, in stiff,
hard pan, 4 feet deep, for 27 cents a rod - which you see will
reduce the cost materially below the estimate hitherto given. A
large number of very valuable tables of cubical contents and costs,
6*
65 
SEPTEMBER.
are given by Mr. Shedd, in the Report of the Maine Board of
Agriculture, pp. 251-2.
For such drains as I have just described to you the best conduit
is drain tiles or pipes. There are three kinds: the horse shoe, a,
the sole tile, b, the pipe and collar, c; a
a         b  needs a board or something under it to keep
~};;}  ~the soft under-soil from squelching into and
filling it; b is the next best, but c is by far
the best of all.  a and b are both liable to
9!+S~   ~  be disarranged; they are laid end to end,
and for ordinary drainage 2 inch pipes are
amply large; should one end of any pipe, from any cause - extra
pressure or softness- get tilted or shoved one side, the flow is interrupted, and soon the whole drain would choke and become worthless. This is obviated by the pipe and collar. These are round,
and the joint covered with an earthern collar large enough to admit
the two ends of the pipe and leave 4 of an inch all round for the
free entrance of water; the pipes rest in them, and are supported
at the two ends and unsupported in the middle; the middle is, however, immediately filled under and compacted with silt and mud.
Perhaps some one will doubt that enough water can get into these
joints to do the work. They are a foot apart, and offer openings
which, making a reasonable allowance for rough ends, are not less
than I inch square. But listen to experience:  Gisborne says, "This scepticism is natural, but on each point we
are able to offer them abundant consolation and conviction. We
have seen hundreds of drains wrought in the manner we have
described, and in no instance where the land contained water of
drainage have they failed to run freely. We never heard any one
say they did not."
The rationale of this escape of water through small pipes is apparent at once if you refer to the wood cut, which shows the distance apart at which drains are to be laid.  The pipe laid 4 feet
deep -in a soil whose natural water table is 1 foot below the surface, has the pressure, of course, of all the water which may be
over it. If water over the pipe is near the outlet into the pipe, it
receives a proportional pressure, and the water in the land to be
66 
THE FARM.
drained is forced into the drains with a pressure proportioned to its
distance from the drains.   The pressure of water, to the foot perpendicular, is 6-r4 ounces to the square inch, and the water is
forced into the pipe with three times that pressure, and having
once entered into it, escapes with the greatest rapidity.   Mr.
Parkes mentions a pipe, 12 inch bore, laid down over 350 yards, an
experiment, through an unctious, plastic clay, which discharged one
gallon per minute during 76 days, when all the water seemed
removed firom the soil. Mr. Shedd calculates that, in a drain 200
feet long, laid with tiles 13 inches long and 2 inches diameter, the
amount of aperture at the ends of all the pipes will be 184 joints,
or 110 square inches, for the entry of water, whilst the outlet of
the pipe is 3 inches; thus the opportunity for the entrance of water
is 37 times greater than for its discharge. The discharge will be
rapid enough, however, as has been seen.
In laying the pipes at convenient points, such as junctions of
side with main pipes, it is well to sink a cesspool, rising to the
surface of the ground, and covered with a movable cover.
These cesspools can be occasionally opened and examined, and the
condition of the drain tested.
Tile drains are sometimes choked by the roots of trees and
branches, and by deposits of iron in very ferruginous soils; the
use of the pipe and collar reduces the danger. Pipes and collar are
more expensive than horseshoe or sole tiles, but more than enough
better to pay. The cost of tiles in England, allowing a fair price
to the maker, is $4 a thousand feet or pieces, or I of a cent a foot;
and it is a discredit to our makers that we have to pay so much
more. Tiles are made in various parts of the country, and in
time will be supplied at reasonable rates.
In peat lands where drains are to be made, another plan is sometimes followed. Peat turfs cut and dried in the sun become as
hard as coal, and may be used under water much like bricks without softening or losing shape for a long time.           A
A drain may be cut in peat land as in A: take        _
out all the turfs to a with a peat-cutter, and lay
them by the side of the drain to dry as if for             -
burning.
0
67 
SEPTEMBER.
The work is begun by cutting the top sod, which should be removed by an ordinary spade; then the peat-cutter is used, cutting
across the end of the drain working backwards, and taking the turf
out smooth, like pieces of cheese. The top-drain (down to a) may
be wide enough to allow a man to stand in it, and must then be
about 4 cuts of turf wide. The drain being dug as far as a through
its whole length, leave it till the peats cut out are dry enough for
fuel. Then send in the cutter; let him, standing in the drain, dig
out one turf, the width of the cutter, exactly in the middle of the
drain, down its entire length. As the material is very soft and
oozy, and will probably settle in if not prevented, let another man
follow, and taking the dried peats from the side
~I     t-"'"'   of the drain lay them across the top of this new
.j___     cut as in B.  Then cover with the top sods first
cut, then with sand, gravel, or peat, to the full
height. Across drains thus made, bridges should be made at intervals for teams to cross; otherwise the drain may be crushed in,
OPEN DRAINS. - No drain is so poor as the common open one,
dug like the others, but not filled. It is constantly collapsing,
sliding in, being undermined by muskrats, etc. Indeed, covered
drains should have wire nettings at the discharge hole, to prevent
vermin from getting in and choking them.
For all ordinary tile drains, a diameter
of 2 inches for side and cross drains, and
3 to 4 inches for the mains, is enough.
9, ii       Where drains cross each other, the junc!   tion should be in T or elbow joints, which
are supplied to order from the tile works.
IRRIGATION. - Whilst standing water is very injurious to undrained land, the benefits of water, when properly applied in the
process of cultivation, are wonderful. In America, capital has so
rarely been applied to farming, that the good it can do is but little
known. If our farmers have a few spare dollars, they are much
more ready to devote them to building unprofitable railroads, to buying wild lands, or to shaving notes, than to improving their farms;
68 
THE FARM.
though this last is the best speculation they could enter into, inasmuch as their farms are entirely under their control, and will, if judiciously improved, pay a rate of interest that increases every year.
As I have said, water when it stands in land, delays the maturing of a variety of crops, and yet the farmer can have no greater
advantage than water- so under his control that he can apply or
withdraw it at pleasure.
The staple crops of that latitude in New England to which these
pages apply, are Grass and Roots, and upon theamount of that crop
depends the value of our farms, the net profits of our cultivation,
and the general prosperity of the country. These crops are subject
to serious fluctuations. When cut short it is generally by drought,
sometimes by too much wet. For the latter, we have seen the
remedy; now for the former!
If any farmer with large fields of Grass and Roots could turn on
water when he pleased, he could in times of drought secure his
Grass from danger. In the late autumn he could so apply it as
to stimulate and keep green the late Grass fields; and by allowing it to flow freely over the surface during the spring, or by entirely submerging the surface, he could remove frost and start the
Grass early. The same is true of all other crops; Grain, Corn,
Roots, all suffer from uncertain moisture and changing temperature,
whilst they might by the aid of well-controlled water be cultivated with the certainty of manufacturing.
In treating of the culture of plants in greenhouses, I spoke of
the value of special manures in a liquid form. In Agriculture
their value is no less, yet from our liability to protracted droughts
that value is often unattainable. Peruvian Guano, for instance,
has a power to stimulate and support vegetation without injuring
(as some falsely suppose) the soil, which is second to no manure
and yet, being a dry and highly concentrated powder, its benefitwhen added to the surface as a top-dressing, a compost, or to be
ploughed in- is often imperceptible. It must be diluted to be
absorbed by the roots of plants. Were water under our control,
we could effect this dilution at will; we might top-dress with
guano, and then let in water, which would immediately soak the
manure into the roots. The benefit to any one crop- whether it
69 
SEPTEMDBER.
were Grass, Rye, or Wheat in the month of June, Corn in August,
or Roots in September- would more than pay the cost of simple
irrigative works. We might by such an application to grass-lands
in July after haying, when the hot sun burns up the roots and prevents the growth of Rowen, or to the young Grass and Clover which
follow a grain crop, secure a second crop equal to or larger than the
first, and count our profit by tons of Hay and bushels of Grain or Corn.
In England, this has been done; and in the neighborhood of
some large cities, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and others in Great Britain
and on the continent, where sewage is attainable and can be used for
irrigation, Grass crops have been cut 4, 6, and 8 times in the year,
and to the amount of 20, 40, and 80 tons to the acre. A report
made to Parliament states that by the application of sewage water
the annual rental of land near Edinburgh has been increased from
$8 and $50 per acre to $150 and $200 per acre; and that poor,
sandy, sea-shore land has been raised in value by this means alone
from an annual rental of 50 cents to $75 and $100 per acre. It
is stated, that by the application of sewage water, the rent of land
near Milan has been raised from a merely nominal value to $40
and taxes per acre.
"In 1826 the Grass of the Craigintinny meadows near Edinburgh
was let for $120 to $150 per acre, whilst portions belonging to the
Earl of Moray brought $285 per acre rent. Remember that this
is because the frequent application of sewage during the season,
gives such crops of Grass that it may be cut three or four times in
the season."
" Some lands at Willesden in the county of Middlesex were cut
four times in one year. The first cut gave four tons to the acre,
the second 8 tons, and the fourth 12 tons of Italian Rye Grass."
"At Ashburton where liquid manure has been used for the last
fifty years, land thus treated produces Grass a month earlier, and is
valued at $40 to $60 per acre a year, whilst the same land not thus
treated is considered worth only $6 to $8."  (Essay by G. Drysdall Dempsey, published in Weales' Series.)
In applying pure water the largest benefit is got where it is allowed to run over the surface in a slow current; the next, where
it stands but a few hours at a time, and where the under drainage
70 
THE FARMI.
is complete enough to remove all soakage at once; the least, but
still a marked benefit, is got from water meadows, where the water
is allowed to stand for many days, or even weeks, before being
drawn off. In low meadows, which are flowed all winter, this application of water is very beneficial, as it keeps out the frost, prevents the early growth of coarse grasses, and fertilizes the earth by
dissolving valuable materials in the soil, and carrying them directly
to the roots. But if such meadows are kept under water after
vegetation fairly begins, the injury exceeds the benefit, as the
coarse and sour grasses start which will choke out the better qualities after the stagnant water is removed. A distinguished English
writer on Agriculture has the following on the effects of irrigation:  "It is a commonly received opinion that the elementary food of
plants is contained in a state of solution in water, and that no plant
can exist without a supply of it in a greater or less degree, in a
dense or rarified state."
"Without some degree of moisture the roots of Grass become
withered and perish, and too great a depth over them (i.e., the roots
of grass, except aquatics) is equally fatal to their existence. Stagnant water on Grass lands encourages the worst and kills or discourages the best kinds. Water in motion, whatever the depth may
be, is less injurious than if quite at rest, and the shallower the
current and the quicker the motion over the turf, the more the
latter is excited into luxurious growth."
"Many different opinions are held to account for this result:
that is, the luxurious growth of Grass under a thin flow of water in
motion. One supposes that a nutritious food is deposited by the
water in its course, and the greater the quantity in transition, the
greater the deposit. This idea rests on the presumption that mineral or decayed vegetable substances float in the water, and that
they are intercepted by, or lodged among, the leaves of plants. This
may be partly true; but when it is observable that where there is
the greatest quantity of sediment, the Grass grows least, and where
there is no visible sediment whatever, the growth then is strongest,
we must attribute the luxuriance to some other cause than the deposition of substances from the water."
"As early and as heavy crops are obtained by using the purest
71 
SEPTEMBER.
water, as by that which is full of all manner of impurities; not
but land is enriched by deposits of decomposed animal and vegetable matter, and which would be strongly evident in the future
growth of crops of Grass or Corn. Yet for the temporary purpose
of irrigation, perhaps the most transparent water is the most efficient. It must be borne in mind that heat, light, and air are indispensable agents in the development as well as maturation of plants.
If they be kept in a low temperature, secluded from fresh air, or
kept in darkness, they are inactive, or languish and die. Applying
these facts, while considering the effects of irrigation, we may
safely conclude that the energies of the plant are excited by being
protected from the chilling night air, while they enjoy a higher degree of heat, generated by the motion of the current; and at the
same time, are not excluded from the direct action of solar light."
"Nor can a thin covering of water be said to deprive the plants
of the necessary portion of air. The agitated portion of the former
mingle with the latter air, so that there is an intimate connection,
which enhances by mutual influence the effects of both."
"From these observations it would appear that irrigation promotes the development of grass by its instrumentality in affording
protection from cold air; by its generation of heat, and by its free
admission of every ray of light. It moreover thickens the sward
by increasing the number and inducing the simultaneous production
of leaves, rather than by exciting the premature production of
stems. By such effects, irrigation is said to be a sweetener of the
turf, because there is a thick and equal growth of leaves at the
bottom. The deposit of warp or mud contained in most river
water, possesses fertilizing properties, proportioned to the soil and
other substances from which it has been obtained, and it must be
valuable in the same proportion for the permanent improvement of
the land; but where the object is a quick succession of grass, much
deposit injures the herbage, and sharper streams have been found
better adapted to the surface."
I shall not now proceed with the subject of liquid manures as fit
for the growth of plants, but leave that for another month, to which
it more properly belongs, while I proceed to describe the preparation necessary for the diffusion of water over the surface.
72 
THE FARiM.
Irrigation may be effected in several ways: 1st, when the farm
is bounded by a brook, river, or pond which is sufficiently above
the fields to be irrigated to have a flow over and through them to
their lowest part, whence the water may be conveyed away into
another field, or into some outlet for drainage.
2d, where water can be dammed up at the mouth of a brook
which passes through any fields, and by flooding back, may make
a water-meadow which may be drawn down at will.
3d, where damming will flood back a stream till it swells high
enough to be conveyed by drains to the land to be irrigated.
4th, where water is forced by hydraulic rams, or by windmills,
to an elevated point, whence it may be distributed over the surface.
The first of these methods of getting water is evidently the most
economical and simple, the works needed being merely gates and
sluices, which will enable us to check the current, so that by opening the sluice gate the water will run in the desired direction. Even
under these circumstances it is desirable that the field should slope
gently from the watery side to its farthest boundary.  In such a
field, as soon as the water is admitted into one end of the leading
drains it will flow without delay to the other, unless its path is
obstructed; and by resorting to simple devices we may spread it
as widely as we please. I shall quote again from the author last
cited a description of one method of constructing works for irrigation.
"Let us suppose there is a field of moderate size, say six or eight
acres, which is intended to be irrigated; from the upper to the
lower end there is a fall of five or six feet; across the upper end
an open ditch is made, banked on both sides so that it will hold
water to stand one foot higher than the surface of the meadow adjoining.  Into this ditch the water is admitted from the river, either
by a weir or dam across, or by an open duct cut from a point higher
up the stream, which saves the expense of making a dam, which
might be otherwise inconvenient. A supply of, or inlet for, the
water being thus secured, the next operation is laying out the
leaders, inclined tables, and catch-drains. We cannot convey a
clearer idea of the manner in which the surface of the water meadows should be laid out, than by supposing that the whole was
7
73 
SEPTEMBER.
ploughed lengthway and laid into twice-gathered lands or ridges
of eight yards each."
The wood cut shows a field twenty-four yards wide. A land
or ridge twice-gathered is shown by laying this out in three lands,
each eight yards wide.  Now run the first furrow down through
the centre from x to x/, and return on the
other side of the furrow thus made  from
xf to x; and so continue till the whole
~___~,,     ~d~land is ploughed; this will leave the middle
c       j   higher than the sides of the land.  Repeat
the process with b and c, and the field upon
completion of ploughing will be thrown into
three ridges and four hollows.
"Along the crowns of the ridges (x to xl), water-leaders (c, on
plan, p. 75) are made, diminishing in width from the main  at
the top to where they terminate near the receiving ditch at the bottom; the catch-drains are shallow and narrow at top, but are
made gradually wider and deeper at the lower end. It will be
easily conceived that when the water is admitted into the leaders
from the main at top, either by withdrawing sluice-gates previously
fixed, or by removing thick heavy turfs, used as stoppers, the water
will flow along till the leaders are brim full and running over on
both sides along their whole length. It comes down the slopes,
falls into the catch-drains, and is carried off into the bottom ditch,
and from thence again on to the river."
"An  attendant, shod in water-tight boots, keeps an eye on the
action of the leaders, to see to the equal distribution of the water,
and by raising or depressing the edges over which it flows, or by
introducing a stopper of thick turf into the leader, regulates the
flow of water in every part. If there be a full supply of water,
the whole meadow may be irrigated at once; if not, one part may
be done before another. It should be well understood that the more
copious the supply of water, the quicker it flows over the surface,
and the sooner it is let off the more effectual is the process, and
the more rapid will be the growth of the Grass."
"Wh;en the surface of the meadow is undulating, the first object
to be attended to is, whether the hollows can be dried by catch
74 
THE FARM.
drains; if so, the leaders must be made straight, or winding along
the highest part of the knolls, whence the water will flow down the
slopes to the catch-drains in the hollows."
"Where there are different levels, or where the leaders, from
being too long, act imperfectly, the irrigator throws his catch-drains
into divisions, by which the whole becomes more effectually watered,
in consequence of an accelerated motion being given to the water.
Where, however, the plane of the surface of the field presents a
considerable descent, the leaders and 
catch-drains, instead of being car- 
ried straight across it, are cut in an
angular direction across the  line  -
of descent with such  an  inclina- -[
tion as will best favor the gradual.
though  certain  discharge of the 
water; for in some situations the
declivity of the ground is so great
as to render it necessary to make
leaders at certain distances below
each other, to catch the water at 
different points of the fall and thus
prevent its too rapid passage."
A, river; B, head ditch to receive
the water;  c, leaders to conduct
water; d, catch-drains; E, ditch to
conduct water back  to river;  x,
fences.
The drains may be made permanent, or may be shovelled out anew
each  time we  plough  the field.
When once it is laid down to grass, 
the drains may be grassed like the 
rest of the field.                             _ —_
When  level land is irrigated according  to the methods just described, it must be very much ridged
in ploughing to insure a flow for the water from the leaders into
75 
SEPTEMBER.
the catch-drains.  But level land should never be irrigated unless
the under drainage is very good.
Flow meadows or water meadows are made by damming any
brook that crosses a meadow,- perhaps even a ditch,- making
the darn high enough to flow the water back not less than a foot,
-better two feet, in cold regions,- over the whole field.  The
water should be deep enough not to freeze to the bottom; for
should it freeze to the sward, a rain or flush of water might raise
the ice suddenly and tear up the grass with it.
The method of irrigation by catch-drains just described would
be very expensive on steep hillsides, or on very undulating surfaces, and is said by some who have tried it not to convey the
water to all parts of the field with sufficient rapidity.
Another system better adapted to such surfaces, and recommended by its very simplicity, shall be presently described.
My readers may object that expensive works for irrigation and
draining are well enough adapted to the rich lands and men of
England, bpt would be less profitable or possible in the more sterile
and cheap lands and on the small farms of New England. The objection would have weight to superficial thinkers only; for irrigation has been most effective on the steep and seemingly sterile
hill-sides of the West of England and Scotland.
In such places, comparatively little reliance has been placed on
the water in summer, when all brooks and springs are liable to be
dried up; but in late autumn and early spring it furnishes grass
for pasture. It is turned on, as the season grows cold, and running
slowly in a thin sheet over the surface from one catch-drain to the
next, by its motion, as has been observed on a preceding page, it
keeps the ground over which it runs warmer than the uncovered
soil, and thus keeps the grass growing until the cold becomes sufficiently severe to freeze running water to the sod; then the water
is shut off, and the icy covering partially protects the grass till a
thaw, when the water is at once turned on, be it a spring or a winter thaw, till again frozen, or till cut off by drought.
Thus in the early month of January (corresponding to our March)
the running water warms and protects the Grass roots, and the
young and tender herbage grows rapidly, furnishing early feed.
76 
THE FARM.
Travellers have been astonished in visiting the farms where the
practice prevails, to see verdant hill-sides at a season when all else
is brown and bare. It will be seen that it is a reasonable practice,
and after Nature's example. Call to mind any bleak, unsheltered
hill, where a brook runs during fall, winter, and spring, and you
will remember the green line of grass that marks the course of the
water, long after winter has seized all other green places, and
long before spring has proclaimed itself even in the most sheltered
spots. And this early coming and later stay of vegetation is not
the only gain; for where pastures and hill-sides are naturally sterile,
or covered with moss and sour vegetation from having been too
long pastured, a stream of pure water turned so as to trickle over
the surface, is found to sweeten the soil, banish moss and rubbish,
and produce short, sweet herbage with the samne certainty that a
top-dressing of wood ashes brings out Clover on every soil.
England is not the only country where this practice has been
followed with great advantage. There are many farmers among
the Swiss Alps who have irrigated for years without knowing of
any similar practice in other countries.   These farmers, finding
their supply of water in the streams that come from the glaciers,
on the very edge of which they live, have converted land that was
not worth fencing, into land that cuts six and eight tons of hay to the
acre. Their system of irrigation is as follows:  Having decided upon the size of your "catch-meadow," lay off
the hill by the level into lines a, marking them as you go by stones,
stakes, or sods raised with the spade; the lines may be at such distance apart as you please, and however near together they may
start, the varying inequalities in the field as the lines of level are
followed across its face will make any close parallelism between
them impossible.  Next dig the leaders x; these will be tapped
at y, to draw the water into the catch-drains.   Beyond the last y
the leaders x become catch or watering-drains themselves. Now
from points equally distant, or at such distances apart as you please,
on the line of the first catch-drain, draw straight lines crossing all
the lines of level, a, previously laid out at R, to the farthest extremity of the field.
Then take a spade, four to six inches wide at the point, or a
77
7,e 
SEPTEMBER.
plough invented for the purpose, which cuts and throws out a strip
of turf four inches wide, and dig or plough along the lines of
level, a, until they are all thus dug out. Your field is now divided
by a series of small ditches. To ensure the water's running
{~~~~~~
y\      \'.'
;I         ~         jj/~
, -   --                       1 
,,'I
h                  
h)                                           t'
through these with sufficient rapidity, their inclination may be
varied as seems  best.   Now  with  spade  or plough,  cut  the
transverse lines of drains b, thus dividing the field into irregular
quadrilaterals. The b set of lines are the leaders through which
78
'7
c3
c)
c;
o3
9
o.I
DA
-i
13I
I
9I
?
.0 
THE FARM.
water may be supplied to the top, bottom, or any part of the field
at will by inserting into the mouths of the catch-drains pieces of
sod cut to fit them exactly, thus blocking out the water when and
where we please.
A section of such a field would appear as shown in cut C,
where a a and c c are the catch-drains shown before. Cut E
shows the intersection of catch and cross-drains.
The peculiar advantage  of this system -apart from the
ease and rapidity with
which it can be carried  out is the certainty with which the
water is conveyed off
the surface or to distant points of the field
lilt                                                      the  surface  or tob  Z
S  L        j t           cl cI eI_I
' —---         a'
a, catch-drains; b, cross-drains; c, stops of turf.
irrigated.   The levels once established, there need be no expense
in clearing drains every year or two, for at such intervals the spade
or the ditch-plough should run along at the side of the old drain to
cut a new one, the sod or earth turned out of this being used to
stop up the old drain.
I have urged these two matters of drainage and irrigation at this
length, because they are the two surest methods of raising the
rental of all our farms, and because there is no land too poor to be
benefited by one or the other; and neither is so expensive that any
farmer should be terrified. Remember that the English farmers,
few of whom are fortunate enough to own the farms on which they
live, are obliged to get the profits of their investments in permanent
improvements during the continuance of their leases; and yet most
of these improvements are made by tenants who hire their whole
farms, either at their own expense or by paying interest on money
advanced to them to make such improvements, by their landlords
or government. These farms are often hundreds of acres in extent, and are leased at rentals, varying from one to fifty dollars per
acre, and averaging $12 to $15 per acre, with rates and taxes
in addition.
79
C 
SEPTEMBER.
How much more reasonably, then, may such improvements be
made by our farmers, who are not obliged to get the returns from
their investments in a few years, but may enjoy them for life with
a right to transmit them to posterity.
September is the month in which to undertake these improvements; there is generally more leisure then than at any other
period of the farming year; and the work once begun should be
prosecuted as long as the weather allows. Drains may be dug
even in winter, although if they are to be covered, it is well to
guard the bottom from being affected and softened by frost.
It will be observed by referring to the plan that the whole
estate is underdrained, and the farm irrigated wherever low enough
to command water, different methods of irrigation being tried in
different fields.
The simplest way of locating the drains, is to
use a level much  in vogue  among  masons.
Three strips of wood, two of which are about
12 feet long, the other of any length, are jointed
together to make a huge A, thus.  Cut and
As~~ t       c * ajoint them so that when the instrument rests on
the points A and C on a level floor, the bar E D
will be perfectly horizontal which may be tested
as follows: insert a pivot at B; and find the middle of E D; suspend from the pivot a plumb line B x; y, marks the middle of E
D, and if the instrument stands level on its legs A C, the line
B x will cut y. If this is not the case, adjust A and C till it is.
Now going out into the field set the leg C on the point from which
you wish to start your level for the first catch-drain and move the
leg A, till it rests in such a position as to make the line B x cut
y, when the points A and C must be on the same level. Drive a
stake or raise a sod to mark these points; remove the leg C to the
point where A rested, and repeat the process. With such an instrument, an intelligent man can lay out the catch-drains for a field
of many acres in a day.
80
k 
CHAPTER X.
ORNAMENTAL.
It is but little work to keep in order ornamental grounds on
which the work has once been thoroughly done; but we have a
deal of such work to do for the coming year, and must be at it as
soon as possible.
The avenue has been but roughly made; so with the roads to
the barn. The farm-roads, the paths in the flower-garden and
those to the grapery, farm-house, and kitchen-garden are finished.
All other paths exist only on the plan. The pond extends no
farther than is shown by the dotted lines; the side-slopes of the
main avenue are unfinished; the bridges only temporary; and beyond the woods there is no ornamental plantation.
Our attention should first be given to the avenue, as being both
the means of access to the estate, and as the object which gives
the first impression to visitors or occupants. It passes through a
gravelly soil with a top stratum of gravelly loam to the depth of
18 inches.  It enters, as shown by the topographical lines of the
plan on the crown of a ridge,
which has sufficient slope in:either direction to carry off......-'?.
water rapidly  either by thesurface of the road, or through drains below, and was made as
follows: the road was excavated 2 feet deep and 15 feet wide;
the loam, the first 18 inches, was carted off to fill up inequalities in
the surface of the lawn wherever it was needed, and to bank the
avenue at those points along the hill where there were cuttings.
The gravel was dug out 6 inches deep and laid up in piles at the
road-side. When the men who were digging had advanced some
few rods, another set began to make the avenue. They first laid
in by hand stones about the size of a double fist to the depth
81 
SEPTEMBER.
of 6 inches. In the middle, a V drain, as to be described, was
made as the stones were laid. On top of these stones and thoroughly covering the drain was laid 15 inches of smaller stones,
as shown in the cut, always keeping the stones at least 3 inches
higher in the crown or middle of the road than at the sides;
over these stones enough of the gravel already piled beside the
road was laid to make a covering to the road-bed 24 inches deep,
and this should bring the centre of the road on a level with the
surface of the surrounding soil. This gravel was thrown upon the
road by the shovel, and one man in the road, with a long-toothed
iron rake, distributed the
gravel equally over the sur                                    face, always drawing toward
=....=_:him the loose stones out of the
gravel, and repeating the op          __ en ~ __ ~~eration with the next gravel
thrown on, thus spreading
it out, layer over layer, and
leaving the surface of the road covered with fine gravel clear of
stones.
If this work is carefully done, travel and the action of wheels
passing over it will force the fine gravel down among the stones
beneath, pressing the small stones of the upper layer in their turn
more compactly into those below them, and so on to the bottom.
A few months' wear will suffice to make this avenue firm and compact, and will insure dry, good driving at all seasons of the year.
It can freeze only 4 inches deep, and will of course thaw and dry
rapidly.
Roads freeze just in proportion to the amount of water that
stands suspended in their material. If this is all loam it holds
water like a sponge, and freezes and thaws accordingly; if all
gravel, it holds less water and freezes less; if but 4 inches of it
is gravel, it holds scarcely any water unless frozen during a rain.
This is so, because, -1st, there can be no standing water on a
crowned surface; all that falls and is not at once absorbed runs off
immediately into the gutters, and so is carried into the natural or
artificial drainage of the surrounding surface. 2d, a surface thus
82 
ORNAMENTAL.
made and crowned is hard and compact, like a house roof, and
absorbs hardly more water than a roof; 3d, the little that may be
absorbed will trickle rapidly into the more open stones below, and
will thence find the drain in the middle of the road, which is quite
out of the reach of frost, and will convey the water into the pond
or other receptacle where it discharges.
After this road has been used some six or nine months, put on
about two inches in depth of screened gravel. That first put on
will have been lowered by pressure about that distance and can be
forced no farther, so that this dressing will be final.
Where roads cross low places, as ours crosses the island, it is
well - if the road-bed is higher than the ordinary level of the neighboring water -to crown the bed a little, but less than the surface of
the drive-way, say two inches, and lay on each side a tile drain, or
stone drain, of 1 to 3 inches discharge, instead of the single V drain,
and then fill in as directed above.
Roads made in this manner consume considerable time and
money, but are, nevertheless, the cheapest roads in the end.
The manner in which roadmaking is practised, even in the
neighborhood of Boston, where roads are better than in any other
part of the United States, is very unscientific. The men whose
office it is to first make the road (County Commissioners, etc.),
fearing to startle the tax-payers and voters by presenting a high
estimate for the cost of making roads, allow the work to be done
in the most indifferent way. They content themselves with skimming the soil down to the gravel, and then shovelling from the
sides of the road a few inches of gravel to crown it a little in the
middle, and finally covering the whole with a very thin dressing of
gravel. This method does tolerably well where the road-bed is
hard pan and the surface drainage is good, although even then,
frosts and thaws, and the oozing of water from springs in adjoining
high lands, make mud of disgusting depth in winter and spring;
but where the road-bed is not hard pan, but soft or loamy gravel,
or where it traverses boggy land, this method produces roads vile
beyond description, except in midsummer or early autumn, although
better than most roads in the Western and Southern States.
Even now, some of the towns and cities in the vicinity of Bos
83 
SEPTEMIBE1R.
ton, - Cambridge for instance, - pursue this or a worse system,
and thus subject tax-payers both to the first cost of the road,
and to a large yearly bill for repairs.
The important and vital requisite to the possession of good roads,
is close attention to good drainage. It is to the standing and soakage of water that all our bad roads are due.
FOOTPATHS. -Our footpaths, like those in the flower-garden.
to the greenhouse and grapery, should be made like the avenue,
only narrower, for it is important that they should be dry at all
seasons. But the paths that traverse lawn and woods, like those
on the south of the house, may be made much more simply. It
will be enough to dig' off six inches or a foot of the top soil, and
replace it with gravel, crowned about 1-1 inches in 6 feet. Even
less than this is sufficient for paths that go through woodland or
other places little visited. For them, either dig out 3 inches and
fill in with gravel, or merely dig out and invert the sod, and cover
with loam to kill the grass and weeds.
Indeed, the rural beauty of all decidedly retired places, is sadly
marred by the appearance of trim gravel walks. Where wild
flowers and blossoming shrubs, free songs of birds, the murmur of
the brook, or the plash of water on the bank of pond or river, fill
us with a feeling of solitude, we dislike any appearance of man's
labor or artificial improvement. At the bottom of all our hearts
is an appreciation of the exquisite character of simple, natural
beauty, and an admission that nature far excels man in producing
beautiful effects with earth, grass, trees, and water. If we are
strolling through secluded meadows, and beside unfrequented
waters, in natural woodlands or forests, however much we may
enjoy the beauty or the delight of discovery, there is an additional
interest to most of us, in the fact that others have enjoyed the same
pleasures, as we know by the herbage bent beneath the tread of
man or beasts, by a rough seat, or by any similar evidence not out
of keeping with the surrounding natural objects. But if our way
lies through a thickly settled country, where artificial life is constantly forced upon us, where all walks are formal and gravelled,
all gardens trim and hedged, fences straight, and trees in formal
84 
ORNAMENTAL.
lines, it is an additional pleasure to come upon a spot where nature
seems hardly to have been disturbed, where the path we follow
seems to have been made by loose cattle, or is a wood road, too
little used to be regularly made, and so left to wind in and out to
avoid a standingtree or projecting rock. Such roads, with their
three tracks, two wheel ruts, and between them the path for the
feet of men or animals, overgrown with grass and spangled with
White Clover and Butter-cup, or gay with Asters or Golden-rod,
are an unfailing source of delight to all true lovers of nature.
Let us practise on the lesson they teach when we make paths
through ornamental grounds; paths are merely for convenience,
and should never attract attention in any other way than as being
well adapted to bring out the irregularities of the surface, and the
views of the landscape.
85
$ 
CHAPTER XI.
BANKS.
IT was directed that a portion of the loam dug from the road-bed
should be carried to points where banks are to be formed. In the
construction of banks more mistakes are made than in almost any
other branch of ornamental improvement. The rule for our guidance is, to make all banks such as shall conform to nature's practice
under similar circumstances. Nature never makes terraces except
on an immense scale, as shown in the banks of rivers where the
stream has worked from one level to another; and man should
never make them except from necessity. The banks about a house
should not be disguised by artifice, to conceal the fact that it has
been raised above the surrounding surface, but should be made to
assume natural slopes, because such slopes are more pleasing to the
eye, more easily made, and can be preserved at less expense.
Whenever circumstances compel us to set a building on a hillside so steep that the observer fears lest a jostle should slide the
building from its place, we ought to throw out such a bank as will
broaden the base on which it seems to rest, and thus remove the
feeling of insecurity. If it be necessary to break the bank into
two or more to economize material, or for some other imperative
reason, the necessity justifies the act; but under no circumstances is
such an arrangement beautiful. It is always hard and formal, and
should be avoided.
When a bank is to be made, consider the natural surface of the
adjacent land. If it is to be laid up about a house, observe the
slope of the surface on which the house stands, and try to give
your bank the same slope or one in harmony with it. Thus, B is a
house on a hill-side. If the bank slope to a, as shown by the
dotted line B a, it is harsh; if to b, it is more harmonious; if
to c, it is perfectly so, and is confluent with the natural slope of
86 
BANKS.
the hill, as shown
by the unbroken line 
ending  at C.   The
eye then rises along                      B 
the slope to the top
of the bank, and then                                  \
easily takes  in  the            B 
whole house. More-  -- 
over, such a bank and.
slope give grace and                         A,
dignity to the house. 
Or again, suppose.
a road to be cut across
the face of a hill, thus.  A, road; B, top of hill;  C, bottom.
The bank,f c, is harsh; f d is better; butf e is harmonious, and
confluent with the general slope of the hill.
If banks or slopes must be, they cannot be made too well, as they
are to be grassed, and perhaps planted with shrubbery; the follow ing is the method in which they should be made, without exception.
Decide upon the slope; if you are to make a bank fill up within
2 feet of the line of slope, and parallel to it; add 2 inches of
oyster shells, old bones, or similar manure; then fill up 2 inches
above the top line of slope with rich or well-manured loam, to
allow for general shrinking; tread freely to prevent subsequent
shrinking. When it is perfectly firm, rake the surface thoroughly
with a long-toothed iron rake, and then sow seed and beat or roll
in. If it is to be sodded, fill up with well-packed loam to the line
of slope, then cut thin sods, not over 2 inches thick, and cover
the bank; beat them thoroughly, to press their roots well down
into the earth. Water occasionally if the weather is not dry; if it
is, water every day, till the sod has begun to grow; then give it a
few doses of manure-water, and gradually cease to attend to it.
If a slope is to be made on a hill-side, cut down to the line of
slope you propose to maintain. If in so doing you come to the
hard gravel, dig it off at least 18 inches, and replace it with
such material as was directed for the bank. If, however, you do
not come upon gravel, trench and thoroughly manure, then sod and
grass as above.
87 
CHAPTER XII.
LAWN.
THE lawn is divided into three parts: one west of the house and
drive; one south of the house and north of the path; and one south
of the path to the woods. The last is to be treated like ordinary
grass-land, and has already been laid down to grass; viz., Red-top,
Timothy, and White and Red Clover. The portion west of the house
is already in lawn, but that south of the avenue is to be laid down
this fall. It has been cultivated this year in early Potatoes, which
were dug late in August. For some years it was in grass, and had
been pretty well exhausted.  Last year it was ploughed and subsoiled, with a MIichigan plough, to the depth of 18 inches, and
the rocks and large stones were removed. In April it was dressed
with compost, - 8 cords to the acre, - which was well though
lightly ploughed in, care being taken not to disturb the sod inverted
last fall. It was then planted with the Potatoes as mentioned.
Remembering that we are undertaking to make a permanent
lawn in a climate naturally dry, we must spare no pains in doing
the work thoroughly. First, make the drains shown on the plan
by red lines, laying them with tiles 3 to 4 feet deep. Now cart on
not less than 4 cords to the acre, of the best manure we have.
Spread the manure no faster than it can be dug in; at the same
time and rate spread common plaster, not less than 600 pounds to
the acre.  Having made these preparations,
trench the whole field 18 inches deep, or
1          -i.. w      otherwise thoroughly subsoil.
The process of trenching is as follows:
L[_,o  *iThe parallelogram, a, b, c, d, is a field;
open a ditch at one end 18 inches deep, and
2 feet wide (a e, f c), and carry the earth
dug from it to the edge of the other end of the field, and there
88
i6-.
m,..-.v 
LAWN.
pile it up in the space within the dotted lines. Then open another
trench or ditch (e, g, I, f), and throw the earth into the first trench
(a, e, f, c), mixing well the manure and plaster, and thus continue
till the whole field has been dug over. The earth piled at b, i, k,
d, will fill the last trench, and complete the work.
Spread over the surface, as a top-dressing, 200 pounds Peruvian
Guano to the acre; then rake with a short-toothed iron rake.
Sow and roll in the seed, using double the quantity usually recommended to the acre for laying down grass-lands, of Red-top
(2 bushels), Timothy (20 quarts), White Clover (8 pounds), and
Yellow Clover (8 pounds). White Clover is very liable to be
winter-killed the first' winter; so, to save seed, you may defer sowing it till late winter or early spring, when it may be sowed on the
sward. Add to this Vernal grass (1 bushel to the acre), which
will give a peculiar fragrance at every mowing. Roll thoroughly.
Other combinations of grass seeds are given hereafter.
This work should be done in August, and must not be left later
than the first fortnight in September, otherwise the grass will not
set well before winter.
8*
I
89 
CHAPTER XIII.
TREES AND SHRUBS.
STAKE out the places for ornamental trees and shrubs which are
to be planted this fall, and have the holes dug, well prepared, and
filled in to the top, for this will save much time when you come to
plant.
For trees, dig holes 2 feet deep, 4 feet in diameter. At the
bottom you may put well-rotted manure 6 inches deep; but by
no means let it come within 6 inches of the roots when planted.
It is for food to the tree in the second year, when we want rapid
growth.
The holes for most shrubs need not be
more than 3 feet in diameter, and when
well dug, should be from 12 to 18 inches
wider at bottom than at top: and the bottom  X
should be well loosened with spade, pick- 
axe, or bar.
As selecting the places where we are to
plant trees must be preliminary to digging the holes, let us give a
little thought to the principles which should guide that selection.
Mr. Downing, referring to the difficulty of grouping trees, and
in advising persons who were not well skilled in making plantations,
and yet wished to produce the charm of variety and irregularity
while they shunned stiffness and formality, mentions approvingly
the practice of a man who went out with a basket of Potatoes, and
threw them" up into the air with various degrees of force, and then
planted a tree where each Potato had fallen. This he asserted
would produce better irregularity than is likely to occur to unprac
ticed planters.
I think this scheme most injudicious, and that it would be productive of barbarous results when followed.
90 
TREES AND SHRUBS.
Nature seems never to fail in producing beautiful groups,
whether they be looked at in winter, summer, or autumn. In
spray, in full foliage, or in autumnal coloring, her trees are always
beautiful, always seem just fit for their place. It very rarely
happens that any of her groups, with which man has not meddled,
seem badly arranged.
Why it is that so very few of man's plantations escape criticism,
and so very few of nature's are open to it, I know not, unless it
be that the Divinity of nature is so powerful in its control over
the mind that we tacitly admit it to be irreverent to criticise her.
Selecting the most beautiful group of trees that we are acquainted with, let us study it, and seek the causes of its power
over us. They are many - irregularity of outline but one among
them; variety of species gives variety of form, of spray, of leaf,
of top, of color. Whether in spring or fall, all are there, and
each contributes so largely to the beauty of the whole, that we
could not remove one without the risk of destroying the beauty
of all.
The most attractive groups are not those in which but one or
two varieties are found, but those where there are several kinds of
trees with shrubs intermingled. For there is to every tree a character, and an individuality which is most clearly brought out by
contrast.
The form of the Elm is very graceful; it is very much and very
finely divided; and its spray and smaller branches are almost
always somewhat pendant. The grace of the tree is proverbial.
The Hickory is also graceful; not a branch or a twig of it is
straight, its whole spray is full of irregularity, and yet its expression is contest and resistance rather than grace and pliancy. It is
one of the hardest and toughest of woods, and this character is
shown in every branch.
The Oak is very different from these. When it is relieved
against a clear evening sky, where every branch, however small,
is sharply defined, we see but few absolutely straight lines, and yet
the character of the tree is angular, rigid, unyielding, though never
stiff, - from that quality it is redeemed by its dignity and reserved
force,- still it is never in any sense pliant or graceful.
91 
SEPTEMBER.
The Ash is made up of straight lines, is stiff, and is rarely possessed of any pretensions to grace; at the same time a perfect
Ash is a most beautiful tree.
The Horse-chestnut has its own peculiar, stubby branches, its
uniform shape, its dense shade; is, in a word, a cabbage on a stick.
We might, were this the proper place, easily set forth the varieties in form of all our common trees, and trace them to their
causes; but it is needless to enlarge upon facts that are patent to
every lover of nature.  And the varieties of form are not more
marked than those of color and character of foliage. From Evergreens to Oaks and Maples, there is every shape and shade of
leaf, and the satisfactory character of an artificial plantation will
depend, mainly, on the judgment with which varieties are combined.
An old writer (Gilpin) on Landscape Gardening, laid it down as
a rule, that satisfactory planting could only be attained by masses
of trees of the same kind, because many of a kind were necessary
to give the character of the individual to a group. This is true
where trees are to be planted over many acres; but where a man's
arboretum is confined to a few specimens or groups of trees, he
would lose all the pleasure derived from variety and from agreeable
contrasts of light and shade, the graceful with the stiff, the spirytopped with the horizontally branched, by following such a course.
Besides, nature, as has been said, rarely makes a group of a single
species.   There may be a prevalence of one kind, as in some
of our meadows of the Red Maple, but the stem of the White
Birch will gleam through the green leaves; in some part of the
group will be the dark color of the Pine, Hemlock, or Cedar, - a
single tree it may be, but enough to tone the whole;  at another
point will project the rough, contorted, but horizontal branches of
the Swamp White Oak; the edge will be thick with shrubs of
every form and color,- Viburnum, Cornel, Clethra, Black Alder;
while running through and over all, will be the feathery festoon of
the Virgin's Bower, the glistening leaves of the Horse Brier, the
crimson stem of the changing Woodbine, and the gold of the Ivy.
Study every natural group you see, and make yourself master
of its beauty and the causes of it, and you will not only find that
its variety and irregularity are wonderful, but that the system by
92 
TREES AND SHRUBS.
which it was all developed can be followed as well as analyzed.
It is the result of careful study and well-planned planting; and
although the greatest carelessness seems to prevail, we see that
nothing could be removed without injuring the whole. Every
tree-stem has its own peculiar beauty of lichens and mosses. The
rocks are green, golden, or brown, as the rain is frequent or rare;
the flowers are light or dark colored, as shade or sunlight needs
contrast.  Every part is perfectly balanced.   This may  be the
work of chance, but it is a chance which is perfectly uniform in its
action, which may be reasoned on and predicted, and reduced to
tabular views; a chance- if a chance- that has proceeded by
rule and regulation from the earliest period of man's observation
till now.
It is not my intention to inquire why God makes beauty; lie
does make it, and that most lavishly, and without regard to the possibility of man's ever being benefited by it. The depths of unexplored forests, unopened mines, and unfathomed seas are all aglow
with beauty, grace, and variety; and no appreciative mind but
must always be full of delight at the manifestations of love shown
in this peculiar regard for the beauty which may be given to the
most common' objects, to recommend them to man's attention when
discovered; and one must be awed too by the certainty of the
careful and deliberate design and plan which influenced the conception and development of every object in nature.
Shall we then who wish to reproduce such beauty, to imitate the
Master's workmanship, to make plantations that may communicate
to us and to our neighbors the same pleasure and instruction we
derive from God's planting, resort to the blindest of chances, worse
than dice or lottery?
I do not mean to say that Mr. Downing advised the Potato exercise as a general or the best practice, but he mentions it with such.
commendation that men of ordinary judgment, and a slight acquaintance with the art of planting, will be very much inclined to
adopt the plan. That some A or B might by chance have been
successful in this way is true; but it would be mere chance; and
it is to be regretted that Mr. D. should have mentioned it with
any hint at favoring it, for several persons have quoted such a plan
93 
SEPTEMBER.
to me, and it may be often found in print, as an infallible guide in
making an effective plantation, whilst in reality it is the merest nonsense.
Our rules, therefore, for planting are: study well your material;
then study the outlines of all the best natural groups you know;
make careful notes of the way in which the varieties are combined,
how near the trees are to each other, how often nature has planted
them close together, how often within a few feet of each other, how
often at the distance of 20 or 30 feet. See where she has introduced a mossy rock; how she has drawn attention to some points
by a mass of Woodbine hung on a projecting branch or twined
round the nodding top of a Cedar, or swinging from the pendant
branches of an Elm. See how she has given a rounded form or
great angularity and prominence to a group by relieving against a
Willow or Maple a picturesque Hemlock or Hackmatack.  Make
yourself master of all this; draw it out on paper; and then, so
far as you can, reproduce the effects you like best by transferring
them by eye or measurement to the ground to be planted. Do
not expect to satisfy yourself or to escape the sage criticism of
those who, very like, cannot distinguish a Cat Brier from a Gillyflower, cannot name one in a hundred of the trees, shrubs, and
flowers which surround their homesteads; or of those who do every
thing by rule and line, and see beauty in graceful Hemlocks
clipped into hideous resemblances to lions and cocks; who admire
the straight line only, and would regularly curve, or straighten and
enclose with a stone wall, the wild and indented margins of our
ponds and streams; who worship Lilacs, Snow-balls, and Carnations, but are quite indifferent to Viburnums, Cornels, Fringed
Gentians, Wild Roses, Clethras, and Cardinal flowers.   If they
condemn your efforts to reproduce Nature and to imitate her profuise, graceful, and irregular variety, they are simply to be pitied,
and their comments are to be despised. What you have done will
become more beautiful, more and more like nature, every year;
and will, as soon as it has had time to grow, give delight to every
one who can appreciate Nature herself, and can see in the work
of a man the spirit and intention which guided him, though im perfectly expressed.
94 
CHAPTER XIV.
GREENHOUSE.
CTOBER.  There will be but little new work
in the greenhouse in October.   The plants
&,iQ~          potted from the ground last month may now be
~              taken from the shade and arranged on the
shelves and platforms which they are to oc                   cupy during the winter.  When you arrange
~.: them on the tables, set the largest in the mid                   dle, and graduate the others according to size,
so that the mass of foliage may slope regularly down to the edges
of the tables: place on the shady side those plants which thrive
best out of the direct sunlight.   In front and on the hanging
shelves those small plants are to be placed which need direct light,
and which, not being rapid growers, will not interfere much with
each other.
If any Monthly Roses, Verbenas, Pelargoniums, Lantanas,
Chrysanthemums, or Carnations, still remain in the garden, they
must be removed at once, otherwise there will be no time for
them to make new roots before the beginning of winter. Cut
down Achimenes and gradually dry them up.
Prepare thumb-pots or pans, and sow in them seeds of Lobelia,
Nemophila, Nierembergia, etc., which will be wanted in the spring
to hang from the roofs of the greenihouse, conservatory, etc.; set
these pots and pans on the sills of the windows, or anywhere near
the light Do not neglect the bulbs mentioned last month, but plant
at once those that were not then planted; and if any planted have
fairly begun to grow, give them water, though very sparingly at
first. Pot Ixias and Sparaxis if not already done; set Cinerarias,
Neapolitan Violets, and Daisies into frames.
Keep most of your plants cool and rather dry, as they will then
95 
OCTOBER.
make more hardy roots and growth than if over-stimulated; all the
Camelias need abundant water, and Chrysanthemums liquid manure. During all warm and dry weather keep the sashes and ventilators open, and allow the air free access during the night as well
as the day, but avoid any thing like chilling the plants. It is not
necessary to resort to artificial heat at present.
Use water rather sparingly, though frequent syringings will be
very beneficial, for water thus applied comes in the most natural
form in which plants can receive it. Rain is important to out-ofdoor plants, not only as a supply of water, but because it sets leaves
and twigs in motion as it runs over them, and washes away dust,
and insects and their eggs.
AERATION. - The system of ventilation in our greenhouse
furnishes air both in sufficient quantities and in the most natural
way.
One would naturally suppose that plants are benefited by the
motion of their leaves and branches, and numerous experiments
have shown this to be true; for where currents of air have been
used to ventilate greenhouses, the plants have been more thrifty
than where air has been admitted without regard to its course
within the house.
In a dwelling-house the whole object of ventilation is gained by
securing a constant supply of fresh air without any annoying
draughts.  But "ventilation" does not properly describe the true
system of admitting air to plants in greenhouses, where the current
or draught is essential to the welfare of the vegetation.
A distinguished vegetable physiologist explains this matter as
follows: "Ventilation is the process of letting the external air at
once into the forcing-house; and aeration is the art of keeping the
air of the forcing-house in constant motion by currents of warmed
fresh air. The importance of aeration cannot be over-estimated;
it is the one thing which now requires to be secured in order to
render our artificial climates natural. Man's reason must tell him
that a plant condemned to pass its life in a still atmosphere, is like
nothing so much as a criminal condemned to pass his life in an
everlasting pillory. In order to secure motion in the vegetable
96 
GREENHOUSE.
kingdom, currents of air are made to do the work of the muscle,
limbs, and volition, of animals.
"It is not at all improbable that in addition to the mechanical
effects of motion in assisting the propulsion of the sap, it may be
important that the stratum of air in contact with the leaves of
plants should be incessantly shifted, in order to enable them to
procure an adequate supply of food, for we find that water in motion, when used for irrigation, feeds them better than when stagnant.
"Leaves are constantly abstracting from the air the very minute
quantities of carbonic acid (and other gases) which it contains.
When the air moves quickly over their surface, fresh supplies of
that food are incessantly presented to it, and the operation of abstraction may be much facilitated; while on the contrary, if the air
is stagnant, the absorption of carbonic acid (and other gases) may
be much slower.
"Perspiration is another vegetable function which must be maintained in healthy action. The quantity of water that flies off from
the surface of a plant will, other things being equal, be determined
by the rapidity of the motion of air passing over its surface.
"In an absolutely still air, perspiration will be reduced to its minimum, and it will increase, within certain limits, in proportion to
the quickness with which air sweeps over it. If the motion of the
air is thus favorable to the two great operations of feeding and
perspiration, we shall find that it is equally needed, day and night,
for inspiration and feeding go on principally by daylight, whilst
perspiration or exhalation continue during the hours of darkness.
"A good system of aeration must be constantly in action."
To make this more clear, it may be well to mention here one
of the great vital principles of agriculture.
It is generally supposed that, given a good soil, plenty of water,
and sunshine, all plants derive the materials for their organic growth
directly from the earth. This view is well enough for general purposes, but it is by no means strictly true. The vegetable portion
of plants -in which is not included the water of their tissues or
the mineral matter conveyed by water into the tissues and held
there in suspension only to be detected by the ashes resulting from
9
97 
OCTOBER.
the complete combustion of any plant -is derived principally
from the air. The earth is needed as a place from which to grow,
and in and upon which the plant, by means of its roots, may perform its vital functions; but the larger part of the structure of the
plant is supplied in a mysterious manner by the air.
Without delaying for a scientific explanation of the causes and
reasons of this wonderful fact, we will consider a few familiar instances, which will prove conclusively the truth of the statement.
In any of our country towns it is easy to find lands covered with
woods, which within the memory of the present generation, have
been cultivated till they were worn out; i.e., so drained of those
constituents which plants derive from the earth, that no crop could
be got from them that would pay the cost of cultivation. These
lands upon being abandoned by man, soon began to grow up in
wood,- here and there little Pines or Birches or Cedars started,
-and in ten or twenty years the fields were quite covered, and in
fbrty a fair yield of wood could be cut from them. The wood
being cut and the land ploughed and cultivated, good crops can be
again got for some years. These lands were not manured by any
thing but air and water, and yet not only have the trees grown,
but their leaves, shed from year to year, have fertilized the soil far
beyond the fertility any soil acquires by the slow disintregation of
its mineral constituents during a term of years, - an operation
analogous to the increase of moneyed capital, which yields an an nual interest, till ultimately it is doubled and more by the accumu lation.
It may be said that this proves nothing more than that land,
which without manure will not yield crops for food, does yet con tain the elements of vegetable growth necessary to develope the
forest. But it will not be said truly.
It was stated at the beginning of this treatise, that agricultural
operations are not changed in kind but merely in degree, by being
conducted on different scales; so that we may fairly reason from a
single plant to whole crops. Now experiments have been carefully
tried by men distinguished in agricultural science, which have
proved conclusively that, be the crop what it may, about three  fourths its vegetable bulk is derived from the air. Pure sand has
98 
GREENHOUSE.
been confined under glass receivers, and in it seeds have been
planted, which have been watered with pure distilled water, no
manure being applied, and yet these seeds have germinated and
made a very considerable growth of vegetable matter; showing
that apart from the stock contained in the seed, the nourishment of
the plant was derived from the air.
It is not claimed that a healthy vegetation capable of maturing
food for animals has been produced under such circumstances, as
there are certain chemical elements, not to be found in common
air, with which a plant must be supplied, in order to yield food for
man; but simply that such experiments prove both that plants derive a large portion of their substance from the air and water, and
should therefore have enough of both, and that the growth of
woodland under the circumstances mentioned above, is mainly attributable to the food supplied by the air.
Another striking illustration of the truth of this position is found
in a common agricultural operation: fertilizing land by green crops.
Given a piece of land too poor to be worth cultivating; weigh out
the manure you apply, and sow Clover seed; the Clover will grow
for a year or two and cover the land more or less generously; at
the end of the second year plough in the tops and roots, and leave
them a short time to decay. You will find that the land is permanently enriched, so as to yield a remunerative crop if cultivated.
If the crop of Clover ploughed in added nothing more than the
weight of manure first applied, plus the material it abstracted
from the soil, the subsequent crops would be no greater than if the
manure alone had been ploughed in and left, and the farmer would
be poorer by the cost of cultivating his Clover; but the reverse is
the result whenever the experiment is tried.
Thus it is clear, first, that air is necessary to plants, and full of
the elements of organic life; second, that it must be constantly renewed and shifted by winds and currents, or else stationary plants
would soon exhaust the supply and cease to thrive; third, that a
leading principle of success in plant culture is aeration.
Currents of air judiciously admitted, give additional efficiency
to the use of the syringe. Syringing washes violently away insects and their eggs; but instinct teaches insects to avoid those
99 
OCTOBER.
parts of the plant in the line of usual currents of water, and thus
escape. If, however, currents of air strike the plant on various
sides, instinct again leads the insects to shun these new currents,
and the two fluids, air and water, being applied sometimes together,
sometimes apart, both cannot well be avoided.
The old method of admitting air by sliding sashes in the top and
K-~~~ ~               ~front of the house, is unfavorable
to this general diffusion of air, as
the accompanying diagram shows.
~, \\\      In this section of a greenhouse the
sashes slide at x and x'; the cur                                rent admitted at x' naturally warms
A       B       a little as it enters, rises and goes
_' ~1.   out at x, affecting the plants but
very little; as it is cold and rapid,
and blows above the warm pipes a, it does not mingle with the
warm air or sink much, but rather blows across and out at the top.
The hot air is blown in the line of the two lower arrows, and goes
through and under the staging for plants; whilst those standing on
the table in front, or trained up against the glass feel but little
warmth. Whenever air is admitted, it comes in nearly as cold as
the outside atmosphere, strikes the overheated foliage, which it
chills rather than cools. Now if our system is followed this can
never happen. Again, where air comes as in the preceding diagram,
no current really affects the leaves so as to give them the motion
described as so beneficial. The truth of this will be seen when we
consider the condition of the house before the admission of the
outer air. The whole house is warmed so that a'thermometer at
the level of the eye, shows enough
heat to need air.  If the tempera             a~;~\~          ~ ture is thus high at the level of the
eye, what must it be at a, whither
all the hot air is tending by natural
'... laws? to remedy this we admit air at
=  t~s  xr'; this serves to cool down the front
_  of the house too much, and only makes
the upper part hotter. Open the sash
100 
GREENHOUSE.
x, and the hot air will rush out for a few minutes until the air at
X,/ begins to fill the current, when it will no longer sink, the temperature in its neighborhood having been lowered too much to feel any
difference between its own weight and that of the entering air. The
current however is strong; it is a draught, and the air comes in at
x' and goes out at x, making a curve (x' x) through the house,
giving no aeration, but cooling one part very much without relieving
the rest.
Now observe our plan. In a lean-to or span-roof house, we
carry up a brick wall for 3 feet at least: every 5 feet we open a
ventilator between the hot
pipes a a; now if the house is 
too hot, by opening the venti- 
lators x and x', we let a stream
of cold air,-  not upon the
tender  foliage, but  on  the
hot pipes, where it is at once
warmed, and rises in four directions; perpendicularly by                  [o
the natural laws of equilibrium in fluids, and diagonally.
by the power of the draught.   ~.
When  the upper sash is
opened at c, these different            X\
currents converge toward that I'
opening,   making   currents                                    1
throughout the house, which from their various directions, must
thoroughly'search every part of every leaf, and, although gently
and almost imperceptibly, yet surely, set all the leaves in motion.
The diagram, however, only shows how air may escape by openings above, made by sliding or revolving sashes. Revolving sashes
are for some reasons the best, for others the worst; standing at an
angle with the roof when open, they are very liable to be broken by
the wind; and yet must often be opened in windy weather. To obviate the need of either sliding or revolving sashes when but a slight
current is wanted, or during high winds, the back wall of a lean-to,
or the ridge of a span-roofed house should be carried up from 2 to 4
9*
101
least: every 5 feet we open a
-c, 
OCTOBER.
feet above the sashes; then there should be ventilators, a a, in this
wall, above and below the sash, closed by sliding doors; these may
be more or less opened, and will admit air slowly and without
danger from high winds.
With ventilators thus arranged and of sufficient size, there is no
need of sliding or revolving sashes; the roof may be made whole,
and breakage  thus avoided.    To  secure nocturnal ventilation,
where the current moves slowly, these ventilators may be slightly
opened, or others made as
CLPa~~               ~shown in the cut; a a being
~-.X~~~ ~             closed, open b; the air will
enter x' x and creep slowly
along in the direction of the
arrows. It will take this course
because it will constantly cool
.J;           g~       ~  faster along the walls and the
X nor         ~x'  ~glass than elsewhere, and the
warm  air will rise to supply
its place. It must be remembered that all the air we propose to
supply to these houses is thoroughly warmed by the hot water or
steam pipes before it reaches the body of the house, except when
admitted through a a, and this entering into the hottest part of the
house, warms before it reaches the plants.
Greenhouses and other glass structures built in this manner,
with attention to these various details, are more expensive than when
built in the old-fashioned way; and it is true that in the old and
ill-arranged houses good plants are grown, and that gardeners are
a dogmatic set of men, unwilling to adopt improvements. It is
also true that dwelling-houses with unventilated rooms heated by
air-tight stoves, allow some children and adults to grow and live
and are less costly than houses built with the most improved apparatus for heating and ventilating.
COLD.- Sometimes very cold nights occur in October (in this
latitude), particularly toward the last of the month. Such nights,
however, are foretold by the character of the day preceding. It is
enough when they are anticipated to put up the shutters and cover
102 
GREENHOUSE.
the roof with straw matting. Various arrangements are resorted to
for covering the glass with straw, cloth, etc. Our plan is as follows:
For the front make wooden
shutters that will fit accurately 
between  the divisions of the       T
windows.  The cut shows the                       _!r,'c  
inside of such a shutter made                                     f  _, 
of White Pine and painted                   B y ='             __m,
boards, and screwed on to two
cross strips 4 inches wide, and about 3 inches shorter at each end
than the shutter. The appearance of a window without, and of
one with this shutter is shown; c c c, common iron buttons screwed
to the window casing a. When you wish to put up the shutter,
turn the buttons out of the way, set in the shutter, which must fit
tight, and secure it with a turn of the buttons. During the day
these shutters should be piled on the border in front of the house,
the lowest resting on pieces of joist that it may not freeze to the
ground.
To cover the roof expeditiously, another plan is resorted to:
take straw matting or sail cloth, in as large pieces as you choose
-enough to cover the whole roof, if you please; every 3 feet
along one side, insert eyes
that will just  fit over the
heads of spikes or hooks secured to the top of the sash
just above the gutters; fasten
the opposite side its whole
length to a moderately heavy,
straight roller.   This roller
must be heavy enough to descend along the roof by its
own weight, taking the cloth
with it, unless prevented.
Into each end of the roller
screw a pulley wheel. Carry a cord through and over
the wheel a, at the ends
103
i'l,,,
A, 
OCTOBER.
of the roller, and back again through a pulley at c, lead it to E,
where it passes through another pulley and drops through the
roof to f, within the house, where it is fastened.
Now suppose the sail rolled up at the eaves of the house a as in
diagram; if you wish to cover the glass, go to f (within), and pull
on both the ropes; you will draw up the roller toward c c, where
the ends of the ropes are fastened, unrolling the sail as it rises,
and have only to pull equally on both ropes to insure the rising of
the roller at an equal rate at both ends. Of course the rope must be
secured atf, when the sail is quite unrolled. To uncover the glass,
loosen the ropes atf, and let them pass slowly through the hands
as the roller descends by its own weight, rolling up the sail as it
goes.   These protections will be enough till the weather becomes
decidedly cold.
If bad luck overtakes you before the fires are lighted, and the
thermometer in the house falls below 32~, be very careful in the
morning not to allow the sun to shine on the plants; keep the
shutters and sail-cloth up, and syringe the plants with cold water;
this will take out the frost, and probably prevent any great
injury, unless the cold has been sufficiently severe to burst the
tissues and sap-vessels, in which case nothing can be done but to
cut back the plants, and as it were start afresh.
While speaking of the greenhouse in September, I said, in discussing the causes of failure and success, that injudiciously applied
heat or moisture are the chief causes of the frequent failures to
grow a completely satisfactory collection of plants.
Some portions of every greenhouse, however perfect its arrangements, will be hotter than others, owing to the way in which it is
visited by the sun's rays, or to the natural rise of heated air, or
to the location of the hot-water pipes.   By  ascertaining these
places, and judiciously arranging varieties, gardeners might grow
hothouse plants in greenhouses with some success, though not satisfactorily, for hothouse plants need not only great but steady
heat.
And in order to provide for the culture of some such plants,
although we have no hothouse proper, our greenhouse is so divided
as to allow the heat in one portion to be increased above the tem
104 
CONSERVATORY.
perature of the other, and this smaller part will answer all the
purposes of a hothouse in fact.   Here we have some Orchids,
although we make no attempt to grow such a collection of Orchids
as need peculiar treatment and a separate house; in this part of
the greenhouse we start cuttings and stimulate young plants for
the greenhouse and conservatory; whilst there are some plants
which never leave it.
I shall give some lists of plants adapted to the hothouse, conservatory, and greenhouses, not pretending to give all that may be
cultivated, as we have not room enough for a full collection, but
such as are beautiful and will prove satisfactory if well cultivated.
Some of the plants included in this list will live in all our glass
houses, others in but one or two of them. In the case of plants
not usually cultivated, directions are given.
Orchids need a great deal of heat in the growing season, with
abundance of moisture. Some are air-plants, and need only blocks
of wood to grow on; some should have baskets in which are various rough substances, as bits of peat, stones, charcoal, etc., to
nourish and support the roots, but no earth; others need pit culture; some will exist in a greenhouse, but all are better situated
in the hothouse, and should be grown as hanging-plants.   The
range of heat, and the respective seasons for maximum  and minimum heat, show how well we can accommodate the varieties
included in the list.
Block, pot, or basket. Barkeria Spectabilis. Max. heat, 60~ to 65~; min.
45~ to 37~. Growing and blossoming season, January to July.
Pot.  Cattleya (varieties).  Max.  heat, 75~ to 80~;  min.  55~ to 65~.
Growing and blossoming season, February to August. Food, the loose fibres
of peat, sphagnum, lumps of wood and stone.
Pot. Caelogyne. Moderate temperature. Ordinary food. Growing and
blossoming season, April to October.
Pot. Cymbidium. Max. heat, 75~ to 80~; min. 55~ to 60~. Growing
and blossoming season, August to September. Food, twigs, loam, and leaves;
abundant moisture.
Basket. Dendrobium Speciosum. Max. heat, 550 to 65~; min. 45~ to
55~. Growing and blossoming season, February to May. Many varieties,
needing various treatments; bears the coolest temperature of any.
Basket.  Lycaste. Max. heat, 65~ to 70~; min. 550 to 60~. Growing and
105 
OCTOBER.
blossoming season, February to March. Abundant moisture; well-drained,
peaty soil.
Block, pot, or basket. Luelia. Moderate temperature. Growing and
blossoming season, November to January.
Pot. Mormodes. Max. heat, 70~ to 80~; min. 55~ to 60~. Growing and
blossoming season, October to November; food, very rough, fibrous peat,
sphagnum, charcoal, well-drained.
Pot. Odontoglossum. Max. heat, 65~ to 70~; min. 45~ to 50~. Growing and blossoming season, September to October. Similar treatment to
last.
Block. Oncidium. On blocks well syringed; easily grown in pots; treat
like last; rather cool; well watered when growing; dry at season of rest.
Growing and blossoming season, May to August.
Pot. Peristeria. Max. heat, 75~ to 80~; min. 55~ to 60~. Growing and
blossoming season, August to September. Stronger and richer soil; ample
pot room.
Pot. Saccolabium; abundance of heat and moisture when flowering; at
other times dry. Plenty pot room. Growing and blossoming season May to
August.
Pot. Stanhopea; moderate temperature. Growing and blossoming season, June to August. Treat like last.
Pot. Zygopetalum. Max. heat, 70~ to 75~; min. 65~ to 70~. Growing
and blossoming season, November to February; light, fibrous soil, welldrained.
Such Orchids are easily managed if attention is given to their
times of growth and rest, as only at the growing season do they
need extra warmth and moisture; at that time the temperature in
the night should never fall more than 10~ below that of the day.
Their bulbs or roots should never be allowed to remain in a temperature much lower than their minimum, even if in a dormant
state. If in flower at a season when the sun is very hot and bright,
they should be shaded, as the direct rays injure the blossom; it is
true they are natives of the tropics, but they grow for the most
part in rather shaded spots.  The highest degrees of heat show
what the temperature must rise to during the flowering season; the
lowest, what it must never fall below.
BULBS.-Bulbs of various species are great ornaments of the
green and hothouses, and should generally be started in the latter.
To be perfectly successful, they require rather more care than is
106 
GREENHOUSE.
generally given.   Gardeners generally lay the pots containing
bulbs that have gone out of blossom under the table or on their
sides, until that time next year when they are to be started again.
Bulbs have certain seasons for growth and rest, and they indicate the approach of the former by a heightened color and glossiness, swelling of the crown and starting at the eyes. The season
of rest follows flowering, when the leaves decay and the plant becomes practically dead for ornamental purposes. At this period
they may be kept more cool, but not cold, as all tropical bulbs need
a good degree' of heat even when dormant; and they should by
no means be laid aside as soon as out of blossom, but should have
abundant heat and moisture until the leaves are well matured, and
if checked sooner, the bulb suffers.
Pots for bulbs should be of different shape from ordinary pots,
narrower and deeper, for the bulb roots to descend. A bulb 3
inches in diameter should have a pot 10 inches deep and 5 inches
wide at top; other sizes in the same proportion.
The following are good pot bulbs, not including the garden
bulbs, Hyacinths, etc., which are great additions to the beauty of
the greenhouse, and may be used according to directions yet to be
given.
Griffinia,
HIypoxis,
Iris,
Ixia,
Japan Lily,
Lachenalia,
La Peyrousia,
For most bulbs, soil as follows: rich loam, well-rotted cow manure, one-eighth river sand.  The compost should be heated just
short of combustion, to kill eggs and embryos of worms.
Potting as follows: put in drainage material, and cover it with
a handful of charcoal; fill to within about an inch of top with
loam, varying the depth according to size of bulb; sprinkle on a
little sand or charcoal dust; then set in the bulb, and fill in round
it with loam. As before said, water but little till the leaves show,
then give more water and heat
107
Amaryllis,
Coburghia,
Cyclamen,
Eriospermum,
Gesneria,
Gladiolus,
Gloxinia,
Massonia,
Oxalis,
Sinningia,
Sparaxis,
Strumaria,
Trichonema,
Tropaeolum. 
OCTOBER.
Some delicate bulbs may be grown in sand mixed with a very
little cow dung, stimulated with guano-water.
Other plants proper for hothouses will be found in the following
list, though some of them may be exhibited in the greenhouse or
the conservatory during the time of flowering.
The greatest care must be observed in the hot part of our greenhouse lest we violate natural analogies. It will be proper to shut
up this part of the house earlier than the rest, so as to retain more
of the sun's heat, and the temperature may now fall lower than
at any other season.
The months of September, October, and November will be a
time of rest, as it were, during which the vines that had grown too
luxuriantly, and were cleaned and pruned in August, will ripen..
All those plants which showed blossoms in the spring, and
which we do not intend shall blossom during the winter, may be
kept for the present in the greenhouse, to be brought into the hothouse for forcing as spring approaches. During the present month
ventilate well and water sparingly, syringe rarely; and remember
that the ease of our future task in managing the plants depends
upon keeping them as cool and hardening them as much as possible
now. Many gardeners make sad mistakes by keeping the heat
too great during all the cold months; the lower the temperature
outside, the higher it is raised inside. All you need is to keep it
uniform, and slowly increase it toward spring. It is unnatural for
most plants to blossom in the fall, whilst all feel a natural impulse
after the turn in the year.
Many plants that are native of hot countries need much  less
heat than some natives of more temperate regions; the difference
depending mainly on their wood, whether it is hard or soft and
succulent.   Ericas, for instance, came  from the Cape of Good
Hope, but many or most of them may be allowed to experience
several degrees below 32~, whilst other plants firom the same country, as Pelargoniums, are destroyed by much less cold.
A word here on the treatment of Ericas. They must be brought
into flower in the hot part of our greenhouse, but may be kept
very cool after flowering. This family of plants has the reputa
108 
GREEHOUSE.
GREENHOUSE.
tion of being difficult and shy; but is very easily managed under
uniform treatment. The majority of heaths prefer a sterile soil
upon dry bottom; the best material for their compost is dry
and well decomposed peat mixed with sharp sand; the most vigorous varieties like an admixture of strong loam. Water in generous quantities is most important to their healthy growth; rainwater is best, soft well-water next; but water containing mineral
matter is injurious.  In potting, do not make your compost very
fine; it is a common mistake. Early spring, just before the commencement of a new growth, is the best time to repot. Shift into
considerably larger pots; for soil, mix largish pieces of turf; say
an inch square, with very fine peat and sand, and use the mixture
both for potting and shifting. This, if well drained, and with a
free supply of light, air, and water, will insure good specimen
plants. They are readily grown from cuttings, which should be
taken in spring. As the Ericas rarely seed, cuttings are the only
reliable means of propagation. The proper treatment of their cuttings is described in an old number of the Gardener's lagazine;
by a former gardener at Winship & Co.'s, as the practice of
the Messrs. Winship at their nurseries, Brighton, Mass.   I have
condensed the following from his verbose description: "In July
if the plant has made a good growth, cut the young shoots off
the parent plant, about an inch long, with a sharp pair of scissors; remove the leaves from its lower half; after the leaves are
removed, cut its end square close to the joint with a sharp knife,
and a quick, clean cut.  Prepare a pot, of that size which will best
suit your bell-glass, by filling it half full of broken crocks, the rest
with fine sharp sand; water the sand and smooth its surface; into
this set the cuttings, making a hole for them with a sharp-pointed
stick. Water gently, to settle the sand, and cover with the bellglass.  Keep  constantly moist.  Some kinds will root in three,
some in six months, and others in less time. When rooted, put
in thumb pots in sandy peat, or in a compost of decayed leaf mould
and one-third sand. Set the pots in coal ashes, in a frame under
glass, or on the upper shelves of the greenhouse; shade during the
heat of the day, and keep moist for two or three weeks; after this,
10
109 
OCTOBER.
cool and harden. According to the habit of the plant is to be the
future pruning and culture.,,
Plants which need early culture in
flower well, are:
Achimenes,
2Eschynanthus,
Aphelandra,
Begonia,
Billbergia,
Cactus,
Caladium,
Charianthus coccinus,
Clerodendrum,
Combretum,
Eranthemum,
Mesembranthemum,
Moussonia blegans,
Passiflora,
Pharbitis,
Philibertia,
Poinsettia,
Portlandia grandiflora,
Quisqualis indica,
Stephanotis,
Strelitzia,
Tillandsia.
In the greenhouse, as before said, the treatment is to be much
more cool and dry than in the hothouse. During this month keep
well ventilated in dry weather; shut up early. The plants which
will make a good stock for the greenhouse, and which may be
shown in the conservatory when in blossom, beside those already
given, are as follows:
Abelia,
Abutilon,
Adenandra,
Amphicome arguta,
Anagallis,
Aotus,
Aphelexis,
Astelma,
Bejaria,
Bouvardia,
Browallia,
Burtonia,
Calandrina,
Calceolaria,
Ceanothus,
Chenostomia,
Chorozema,
Cineraria,
Coronilla,
Cosmelia,
Cuphea,
Dielytra,
Diplacus,
Dolichos lignosus,
Erodium incarnatum,
Escallonia macrantha,
Fabiana incarnata,
Fuchsia,
Gazania,
Gnidia,'
Gorteria,
Helichrysum,
Iberis semperflorens,
Lantana selovii,
Lapageria rosea,
Lechenaultia,
110
the hothouse if they are to
Euphorbia,
Franciscea,
Gardenia,
Gesneria,
Hibiscus,
Hoya,
lpomea,
Ixora,
Jasminum,
Lantana,
Mandevilla, 
GREENHOUSE.
Lobelia,
Loddigesia,
Mahernia,
Malva,
Maurandya,
Muraltia,
Nierembergia,
Pelargonium,
Petunia,
Philibertia,
Primula,
Rhyncospermum jasminoides,
Ruellia, varieties,
Russelia juncea,
Salvia, vars.,
ROSES in varieties. -Verbenas, Chrysanthemums, Rhododendrons, Viburnum, Azaleas, Lauristinus, Deutzia, Cytisus, Alyssum,
Calystegia, Acacia, Genista, Mignonette, Gilliflower, Wallflower,
Ten-weeks Stocks, Hydrangea, etc.
ill
Selago, vars., -
Sphenotoma gracille,
Sprengelia incarnate,
Stadmannia australis,
Statice, vars.,
Stenocarpus cunninghamii,
Stylidium,
Sutherlandia fruetescens,
Tasmannia,
Teopea speciosisimea,
Thunbergia,
Torenia,
Triptilion spinosum,
Vaccinum cocineum,
Veronica. 
CHAPTER XV.
THE CONSERVATORY.
THE conservatory is to be treated like the greenhouse.  Keep
it cool, yet above frost.   The  plants in pots must be watered
rather oftener than those in beds. In bright weather syringe frequently.
The beds of the conservatory are made by raising a border, a a,
one foot above the level of the floor; under the floor drain thoroughly with 18 inches of loose stones, B, laying under them a
drain, d, which will quickly remove superfluous water. As a precaution, it would be well to lay a flue or hot-water pipe, c c,
through this drainage, which could be connected with the boiler,
as there are times in our very cold winters when the earth
about the roots of the plants is cooler than the air, and the
growth of plants may thus become feeble and spindling. Many
plants very desirable for such beds, but rather belonging in the
hothouse, are especially liable
a.....r  L       to  such  injury.   Over the
E —,               A'     —'drainage stones lay a course
~     -"..... -of turf, E E, to prevent the
loam from washing away;
over this fill to within 3 inches of top with rich, light, yellow
loam; after planting, cover the top with a light dressing of good
dark loam.
No plant should be set in this bed with its roots in the close ball
made by pot culture; they must be opened out. When all is complete and the plants set,plant some Lycopodiums, Sedums, etc.,
among the other plants, to cover the surface with their delicate
foliage and make a perfect bed of green, out of which the other
plants shall rise.  After arranging the beds and grouping the
plants, follow previous directions.
112 
CONSERVATORY.
RUNNERS FOR POTS AND WALLS OF CONSERVATORY.
Mimosa prostrata,           Smilax, vars.,
Passifiora, vars.,           Sollya, vars.,
Rhyncospermumjasminoides,Swainsonia galegifolia,
Rodochiton volubile,        Tacsonia, vars.,
Roses,                      Tropeolum, vars.,
Rosteria,                   Zichya, vars.
PLANTS FOR BEDS.
Good varieties of
Calceolaria,
Chrysanthemum,
Cineraria,
Calystegia,
Coronilla,
Cuphea,
PLANTS TO PLACE ON TABLES
may be selected from both the cold and hot parts of the greenhouse.
TO GROUP ON THE FLOOR IN POTS.
Daphne,
Erithronia crista galli
Genista,
Laurestinus,
Lemon,
Acacia,
Agave,
Azalia, -
Brugmansia,
Camelia,
Cape Jessamine,
It is more difficult to keep such a conservatory in good condition
than ordinary houses, because more is expected of it. It is emphatically a showhouse, no propagating or cultivating being done,
with the exception of the plants in beds. As these last must remain till worn out, careful attention must be given to secure a good
succession of blossoms.
The conservatory ought to be during the winter like a vast
bouquet, only the more beautiful from the size, which admits of
combinations impossible in any bunch of flowers. Where there
is a well-arranged greenhouse connected with the estate, it is not
very difficult to keep up a good display; but without it it is im                    lO*
113
Billardiera ovalis,
Brachysema, vars.,
Clematis Convolvulus,
jasminum, vars.,
Kennedyia, vars.,
Mandevilla suaveolans,
Heliotrope,
Hydrangea,
Lantana,
Lemon Verbena,
Lobelia
Mignonette,
Perpetaal Roses,
Petunia,
Salvia,
Steevia,
Thunbergia,
Verbenas.
Magnolia,
Oranges,
Pittosporum,
Poinsettia,
Rhododendrom, etc. 
OCTOBER.
possible, and the so-called conservatory becomes one of the anomalous glass houses before referred to.
The heat must be more decided and constant than in the greenhouse; otherwise plants brought from thence full of vigor and
blossom will be checked, their flowers will dwindle, the whole plant
will become stunted and sickly.
To make our conservatory all we have described, we must start
the fires earlier than in the other houses, and rely less on the shutters and sail-cloth. The number of plants which will make a fine
show under glass in October will be less than afterwards. Gilliflowers, Salvias, Amaranths, the Dwarf and Giant Chrysanthemums, and other annuals and perennials, with Roses, Heliotropes,
etc., will make a good show; the shelves and tables should be
filled with these fall flowers, and some may be placed among the
groups of evergreens (now out of blossom) on the floor, to brighten
them.
114 
CHAPTER XVI.
GRAPERY.
THE retarding-houses must now be more carefully watched than
before. Shut up early at night to retain sun warmth, and yet ad mit air abundantly during bright, sunny days, to keep the temper ature low. If there should come a period of decidedly cool weather,
start a little fire under the boiler; but delay as long as possible;
give the fruit trees but little water, to ripen the wood.
The vines in the forcing-house should now be pruned, as they
come into a nearly quiescent state. Before pruning, remove the
ripe and ready-to-fall leaves. There are several systems of pruning and training vines.
When a vine is carried up the whole length of the rafter, its
upper end is of course in a better atmosphere than the lower, and
consequently tends to ripen its fruit sooner.   This would be no
disadvantage where the fruit is grown for private use, and a succession is desirable, were it not that the fruit above grows large
at the expense of that below, owing to the tendency of the sap to
ascend, thus strengthening the upper eyes, and giving them all
they can use before it lingers and settles in the lower eyes.
To counteract this tendency, various methods are resorted to; the
most common being to take down the vines and lay them in a horizontal position, in their dormant season; there they are kept till
all the eyes have " broken" equally, when they are again fastened
up to the wires. In this way equality of size is more nearly attained, while difference in temperature gives the desired succession
in time of ripening.
Where fruit is grown for the market another plan is sometimes
followed, which is to carry the main cane up a certain distance, and
then bend it as nearly as possible at a right angle, and carry it
along the whole length of the house. This of course keeps all
115
V 
OCTOBER.
the bearing part of the vine in the same temperature, and insures
a nearly uniform supply of sap to all the eyes. But the practice
has its disadvantages, such as the unequal length of cane in the
different vines before they are bent, and therefore rafter training
is usually preferred.
The methods of pruning are more various than those of training,
and each method has something to recommend it.   We  practice
spur pruning.
This being the second year of forcing, and the fourth of the
vine's age, it will perhaps be well to state the proper method of
pruning from the time of planting the vine.
The system for the forcing-house and the cold grapery differ a
little from the retarding-house.
PRUNING.-  The vine is generally first started in the hotbed, or
in the pit in pots, so that it will have attained some length by the
time the spring sun has thoroughly warmed the border. Early in
June, having the vine in a pot with 3 or 4 feet of top, plant it
in the border, and take in the top through the wall opposite the
rafter upon which it is to run. The warm, rich border will stimulate
to a rapid growth; allow it to grow without stopping, even after it
has reached the top of the house, when it may be trained along
the back wall, pinching off its end a few weeks before cutting
back. Pinch off at the first bud any lateral shoots
that appear, and all tendrils. When the vine is
within a quarter of the whole length of the rafter,
begin to prune; cut out the lower laterals close to
the wood, being careful not to injure the bud or
eye at the base of the lateral; and thus continue
to cut as the wood ripens.  In this diagram A  is
a F  b    the main stem of a vine; a a a a, laterals; b b, first
'~    k   cut; c c, second cut.   As winter approaches, and
A I      the leaves fall from the vine, cut it back to d, three
eyes from the bottom.
In December paint the vines with a mixture of sulphur and soft
soap; untie them from the wire on the rafter and lay them down on
their sides, covering with mats, etc., as a thorough protection against
116 
GRAPERYo
frost.  In the coldest weather some little fire must be kept in the
forcing-house, lest frost prevent the early swelling of the buds in
the spring. During the earliest months of the year, do not let the
sun heat the house, but keep it rather cool till April; then gradually uncover the vines.   The  buds will soon begin to swell,
and just as they are breaking, tie up again to the rafter.  The
vine will now have this appearance.   As  it begins  to
grow, all the eyes will push out shoots; allow the end /
shoots to grow at will, but pinch off the laterals at the;|
second point or eye.  The first eye of the lowest lateral -
may be allowed to bear a bunch to test the fruit. After these
laterals are pinched they will break the last eye and start again,
and after each pinching they will repeat this process at the bud
nearest the end till fall.   They must be pinched back every
few  weeks during  the season.   When  the main  branch has
reached the top of the house, stop it, and continue to stop each
new growth it makes from the leading bud.   Nip all the laterals
at the first bud, as last year.   The diagram shows the appearance of the vine after this; a a a, first laterals left as buds last year; b, new lateral;
c c c, points at which first laterals are again!
stopped;  d d, first pruning  new  laterals;
f, second pruning of same; e, vine stopped               i.'
at top of house; g, final cutting back of
vine.                                               ~;/
In the fall cut back the leader to about onethird its length, and all but the two spurs to
the first eye, as last year, leaving the two
A_
lower spurs and the eyes above for the next
year. Treat through the winter as before. In the spring of the
third year the vines will swell their buds in March; begin heating the house with fire the middle of February, and increase the
heat in March; follow the same system as last year, only you may
allow each spur and eye to bear one bunch of grapes. This brings
the vines to the fourth year, which is the age of our vines.
In October, if the wood is well ripened and the leaves are falling, give the final pruning. Cut back the leaders two-thirds of the
117 
OCTOBER.
length of the rafter, and all the laterals of this year;s wood to the
eye, the spurs of last year to the first eye, those of the year
before to the second, as shown in the cut.   The  spurs should
range  about  8 inches apart on the cane.   When
this system is pursued for a number of years, the
spurs become unwieldy; in which case every other
one may  be  cut back to the stem,  thus  forcing
out a new  shoot;  or at the end of ten or twelve
years  every other vine may  be  cut back to the
bottom, which will develope the  latent eyes and
;  give a new cane for the next year.   You will lose
one year's crop from every vine thus treated, and re             new the vine.  It is the practice of some growers to
.j.train up a new leader beside the old for a year
or two before that is cut down; but it is poor econ             omy, for although there is then no entire loss of crop,
the grapes are few and poor, while the growth of the new wood is
liable to be feeble and spindling. Another system of pruning, by
which a new cane is got each year, is called the long cane renewal system.
As has been said, this pruning also applies to the cold grapery,
with the single exception that the vines should be started later
in the spring.
By thus cutting back close to the main stem, the eyes are started
early, those nearest the leader being the first to start. It is then
a natural inference that in the retarding-house a different system
of pruning must be followed, the object there being to delay growth
as long as possible in the spring. Directions for pruning in the
retarding-house will be given in the winter.
There is yet another method of forcing grapes, which may be
practised in any ordinary greenhouse, or to still better advantage
ili a forcing-house; viz., in pots. Grapes grown in pots generally
ripen earlier than those grown on rafters. The temperature of
tile earth about the roots of the vines in pots is the same as that
(,f the air about the leaves, and thus the whole plant is equally
stimulated. The roots of the vines on the rafters are in the border outside, and cannot be affected by the heat of the house unless
118  
; 
>~<%~J'
F
0
{Fj;\\I~\
<~
Io\\
Li
-
+
~
j        Aj
Ff r~ZLAjj
Ii
1)           I
0
0
0 
GRAPERY.
the border is vaulted; they may be thoroughly protected from frost,
but cannot be warmed to any considerable extent, and are consequently less stimulated than the cane and leaves, and do not contribute as largely as the latter require.
Vines which are to be grown from pots are started from cuttings - or better, from eyes - which are induced to grow as much
as possible the first year, to insure strong plants. When the leaves
have all fallen, prune to nine inches in length; keep them through
the winter in some dry place well protected from frost. In January or February shift them for the last time into larger pots,
not less than a foot in diameter, -thoroughly drained, and filled
with earth well mixed with rather coarse old turf. Allow as many
shoots to grow as can conveniently be accommodated in the place
where the pot is to stand; some cultivators retain four or five
branches, others but one or two; perhaps one cane is as much as is
really judicious. Stop it about five feet long; as often as it starts
afresh, stop it, and pinch off the laterals.
In September the plant will lose its leaves, and should be
pruned to about 3 feet long for a 12 inch pot, 4 or 5 feet for
a 15 inch pot, every additional inch in the diameter of the pot
allowing an additional half-foot of cane, although the ultimate
length must be regulated by the space allowed during forcing.
If the plant is to be forced early, set the pot over the flues or
pipes late in December. The culture of potted vines will be described at another time.
DESCRIPTION OF GRAPERY. -Having explained the practice
to be followed in our grapery, I proceed to describe the building
itself. Refer to the ground plans and elevations on next leaf, in
connection with the description.
A B C is the grapery; A, retarding-house; B, cold grapery; C,
forcing-house; D, shed for boilers, etc.; E, boiler; F, cistern.
The back wall of A is 16 feet high, the front 5 feet high, of
which 2-2 is solid, 22 glass, as in the greenhouse; the building is
12 feet wide. B is 20 feet wide, 6 feet high in front, 14 Feet in
the middle, 9 feet at the back. C is 12 feet wide, 13 feet high behind, 4 feet in front, of which 2 feet is brick, 2 feet glass. The ar
119 
OCTOBER.
rangement for ventilation through the wall at the side and top is the
same as in the greenhouse and the conservatory. The back wall
of C is 2 feet thick, 6 inches of the distance being an air chamber.
The back walls of A and B are 1 foot thick; all front walls are 1
foot thick; side walls to glass, 1 foot; above glass, posts, and window sashes, 6 inches in the rough, worked down enough to look well
without losing strength. E, the boiler, will be described hereafter.
F, the cistern, collects the water from the roofs; there is a well in
the shed which can force water into the cistern at need.
The heating is done by means of 4 inch iron pipes, which are
carried round the inside of the different buildings, just as in the
greenhouse, only that the hot water may be carried into either division of the house without warming the rest any more than would
be done by one-half the leading and returning pipes through the
grapery, as the water is carried either to the forcing or retardinghouse. The heat derived from this amount of pipe is not enough
to much affect the cold grapery; it does not do much more than
take the chill off the air at those seasons when this part of the
house is intended to be dormant.
The smoke is carried in a brick flue shown by dots, into a flue
which runs under the walk in the cold grapery, through to the farther end of the forcing-house, and thence up the chimney. In
order to allow the pipes free range about the house, without the
extra expense of bends, elbows, etc., the sill of the door is raised
so as to be reached either from without or within, by two steps,
under which the pipes pass quite out of the way.
On all sides of the forcing-house, grapes are planted. The border is at one end and in front, and takes the roots of the vines in
those parts of the house; at the back and the inner end vines are
planted in the floor of the grapery, which is a regularly prepared
border, and is enriched annually with liquid manure. There is a
table on the right of the walk, on which vines in pots are placed
for forcing; and over the whole course of the pipes is a narrow
table, on which strawberries and some early vegetables may be
forced. The vines are brought into the house through cylindrical,
oblique holes, 6 inches in diameter in the front and side walls,
just between the foundation and the first course of bricks. The
120 
GRAPERY
hot-water pipes are 1 foot from the vines, along the front and back,
6 inches at the ends. Under the middle table is a mushroom bed.
The arrangement of the retarding-house is similar; but the
front shelves may be used to start hothouse bulbs, and low growing plants for exhibition in the greenhouse and conservatory.
The cold grapery has vines along the sides and ends, and one
row in the middle near the walk; but the immediate front is occupied by an espalier, on which are grown Cherries, Peaches, Apricots, and Nectarines.
It is a very nice matter to heat such a building as this, for it is
difficult to calculate how large a boiler, or how many feet of pipes
are necessary. A formula is given below by which the necessary
calculations can be made.
The amount of heating surface of pipes to be allowed, depends
on the number of cubic feet of air which are to be heated per
minute, and on the difference between temperatures within and
without. Upon the number of feet of pipes depends the size of
the boiler; and the efficiency of the boiler is determined by its
shape, setting, and the distance between the furnace bars. Messrs.
Tredgold and Hood, in England, have made the most reliable
calculations on this matter, and their directions are accordingly
quoted, as follows:  " If," says Mr. Tredgold, "the cubic contents of air to be heated
per minute be multiplied by the number of degrees it is to be
warmed, and the result be divided by twice the difference between
the temperature of the house and that of the surface of the pipes,
the result will be thefeet of surface of iron pipe required.
"Thus, if 1000 cubic feet per minute are to be warmed, and the
extreme case is supposed to be that when the external air is 20~,
the house should be warmed (to) 50~; and therefore the air is
warmed 30~; and with water (within) the surface (of iron pipes
which contain water) will be 190~ when the water boils, but only
180~ in its average state; therefore,
1000 x 30    30000
116 feet of surface."
2 (180-50)    260 -
Mr. Hood gives another formula for ascertaining the number of
feet. He says that 14 cubic feet of air must be heated for each
11
121 
OCTOBER.
square foot of glass in the building. Multiply 125 by the difference between the proposed maximum temperature within and the
temperature without, and divide this product by the difference between the temperature of the pipes (average of surface 180~)
and the proposed temperature of the room or house; then the quotient thus obtained, when multiplied by the number of cubic feet
to be warmed per minute, and this product divided by 222, will
give the number of feet in length of 4 inch pipe, which will produce the desired effect. If 3 inch pipe is used, the number of
feet of 4 inch pipe must be multiplied by 1.33; if 2 inch pipe is
used, by 2.
The number of feet of pipe being thus obtained, the corresponding boiler surface may be ascertained from a table of proportions
given by Hood as follows:  "When the difference in temperature between the pipes and the
air to be heated is 140~ (pipes 200~- air 60~),
Surface of boiler exposed to fire.
3 1-2 square feet will heat
5 1-2 square feet will heat
7 square feet will heat
and so on; the figures of the 4 inch column being increased onethird to give those of the 3 inch, and doubled for the 2 inch.
"Again, when the difference in temperature is reduced, say to 120~
or 100~, a boiler of the same size as above will heat one-sixth and
one-third more than when at 140~."
A FORMULA FOR CALCULATING SIZE OF BOILER. — Take the
cubical contents of house, and to every 100 feet allow 10 square
inches of boiler surface, and 1 square inch of fire grate.
Much depends upon the distance between the pipes at their
junction with the boiler; they should not be less than 16 inches
from centre to centre of 4 inch pipes.
When the boiler is not more than 18 inches deep, it is best to
lead the flow pipes from its top, and insert the return pipes as near
the bottom as connection can safely be made. The main feeding
pipe from the boiler, which has to supply several circulating pipes,
should be no larger than they, unless more than 4 pipes are to be
122
4 inch pipe.
200
300
40(
3 inch pipe.
266
400
533
2 inch pipe.
400
600
800S" 
GRAPERY.
served, as the rapidity of the current in the feeding pipe will be in
proportion to the demands on it.
The forms of boiler are various, and almost every cultivator has
his favorite. One of the very best
was exhibited by Weeks & Co. at
the Crystal Palace, London. It is
a saddle-shaped pipe boiler, -the
diagram will explain itself.  The
fire is made on the lower set of
pipes, which serve as furnace
grates.  The return water passes
through them, consequently they
are always  kept below  the fusing  point of  coal and iron, so
that they never clinker or burn
out.
B, vertical transverse section. The connection between the top and
bottom pipes is made at the back in A; the supply pipes are led
away from the top of the back side; the cold water is returned at
a (A).
Those vines in the cold house which are carried fiom floor to
ridge without any support from a sash, may be tied to a strong wire,
fastened below to a post in the earth and above to the ridge. The
trellises for vines along the rafters are made thus: At intervals of
4 feet along the under side of the rafter carry out iron rods a few
inches long, with an eye at the end; provide curved strips of iron
a foot in length, 2 inch wide, 1 inch thick, pierced with three holes,
one for each rod. Through the eye of each rod and the middle
hlole of each strip carry a wire and fasten it above at the top of
the glass and below near the entrance of the vine stem. A wire
of the same length is to pass through the side holes on each side
of the first, and fasten as that was. You have now a trellis in
front of the rafter along its whole length, which may be taken
down very easily if the eyed rods are so put up as to be quickly
detached.
The espaliers for fruit trees are curved back enough to spread
123
A
I
,.OOo
B
Vertical transverse section of same boiler.
A, view of boiler from above; 
OCTOBER.
the branches well out to the light. Fruit grown in a cold grapery
will not be forced very much out of season, but may be expected
from a month to six weeks before that grown in the open ground
is ripe, and has besides the advantage of being thoroughly protected from insects, if properly cared for.
The patterns of espaliers differ nearly as much as those of boilers. The cut shows a very good kind. The tree being grown
with a single stem till it reaches the top,
-    -    -  when  branches  are  allowed to  develop,
~  ~~     and are trained down over the sides, thus
getting, besides a thorough spreading out
to the sun, the advantage of the delay of
. sap, and consequent formation of fruit buds
in the place of the leaves which preponderate in more vertical branches.
When fruit trees are cultivated in a grapery where vines are
planted in the floor and fed from the bed there prepared, the roots
of the trees should be confined by borders of slate or other material within certain limits; their soil must be prepared for them,
and when it is exhausted must be renewed, or liquid manure must
be supplied.
GRAPE BORDERS. - The only part of the grapery yet undescribed is the borders, which in the estimation of most cultivators
are the very foundation of all success,- the alphabet of grape culture. From the many minute directions given I quote the advice
of J. F. Allen, of Salem, already referred to.
Some of the very best English cultivators of the present day
are of the opinion that thorough draining at the bottom, and subsequent filling with the best of loam, is all that any grape border
needs, and that the future stimulation and growth of the vines is
to be effected by copious supplies of liquid manure. This course
is rational, cheap, and in accordance with the views I have already expressed.
Mr. Allen's directions are as follows:'-" The border should be
20 to 30 feet wide; if but 12 feet can be had, the vines must be
set farther apart. If the soil is a good loam, begin at one end and
124 
GRAPERY.
trench it: mark off 10 feet the entire width; throw out the soil
2 feet deep; if bones or the carcasses of animals can be had, cover
the bottom well with them; if these are not readily procured,
slaughter-house manure may be substituted.   Mark off 10 feet
more of the border, and cover this manure with part of the soil
from it. Upon this put an inch or two of oyster shells or old lime
rubbish mixed with broken bricks; over this put some soil from
the border, then a good covering of cow manure, upon this a
slight covering of loam again, followed with a good portion of
oyster shells or the substitute, and over this a thick covering of
stable manure well rotted; finish with a thick covering of loam.
The whole length is to be made in this manner, in alternate
spaces of  10 feet each trenching.   After it is finished, the
border should be 3 feet 6 inches deep; it will settle to less
than 3 feet in a few months. The proportions recommended for
this border are 21 loam, I bones or other strong manure, 1 oyster
shells or lime and brick rubbish, 8 rotten stable manure.
"Before planting the vines the border should be spaded over to
mix well the top substances, being careful not to disturb the strong
manures at the bottom, as these substances when decomposing
would destroy any of the roots of the vine with which they came
in contact. Should the soil be poor, decrease the proportion of
loam and increase the manure, and use the top soil of a loamy
pasture. If the soil is very poor and unsuitable, use the following
compost: 2 top soil of old pasture, 4 bones, 1 oyster shells, I rotted manure; throw these materials together and leave them till
decomposed; then throw loosely into the trench.   Those of my
borders which have the most slaughter-house manure and offal
continue as they ever have to produce the best fruit."
Very few situations in this country need other drainage than
loose stones.
11*
125 
CHAPTER XVII.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
IF the bulbs were planted last month, there will be comparatively little to do in the flower-garden.
All beds which are nearly emptied of their annuals and bedding
plants, should be manured and dug over. Wherever enough flowers
are left to make a pleasant show, pains should be taken to preserve
them as long as the frost will allow.
During this month the flower-garden must depend principally on
Verbenas, some perennials, Gilia, Alyssum, Candy-tuft, Mignonette, Giant and Dwarf Chrysanthemums, of which the variety is
so great, that with a little care in selecting colors, the summer flowers will hardly be missed.   Some late flowering bulbous roots, if
sheltered at night, will still be in blossom, as Tuberoses and the
other autumnal bulbs.
The monthly Roses in the Rosary will continue in blossom till
winter, and in the shrubbery, the St. Johnswort, Cinque-foil, Tamarisk, Daphne, and Wigelia Amabilis, together with the White
Snowberry, Scarlet Winter Green, parti-colored Euonymus, redleaved and redder berried Barberry, and the black berries of the
Privet, will help to disguise the rapid approach of winter. Any
bulbs not planted must be got in as soon as possible. The perennials now claim attention, and the borders and beds not devoted to
bulbs and bedding plants, should be stocked with a good variety of
them. The beds in front of the conservatory, and those in the
middle of the garden, should depend entirely on annual planting
of bedding plants, bulbs, and flowers firom seeds, which are certain
to give a satisfactory bloom; besides, it is desirable that the flowers
here should be of a low habit of growth, sure not to exceed a certain size; and we obtain this desideratum by using Verbenas, Heliotropes, Salvias, etc., with which we may secure just the effects
126 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
we fancy, assured that one part of the bed will not overtop the
others. In the border beds this is of no consequence. They back
upon hedges and shrubbery, and do not depend entirely on their
own beauty of color, form, etc., for the gratification they can give;
the eye will certainly wander over them to the hedge or shrubs
beyond, and will blend all into one agreeable or disagreeable whole.
Were all the plants in these borders of a uniform size, they would
lose the charm of variety and grace; but by mingling different
perennials, annuals, and greenhouse plants, their effect in connection with the shrubbery, is the most charming that can be imagined.
Perennials as a class are more satisfactory than any other flowering plants, for when once planted they are no trouble for years,
beyond digging over the beds and occasionally cutting down
the stools to reduce them to a convenient size. If the varieties
are well selected, they will give some flowers during every month
from April to October, one variety coming forward as another
goes to seed. The following list gives the names of a few varieties for each month, with the height of the flower stems just before
they blossom:
Month.        Early or late.           Size.
Name.
Anemone, double
and single,
Thalictrum Ane manoides,
Uvularia    (Bell wort),
Solomon's Seal,
Trollius     Euro peus,
Columbines,
Saxifrage,
Pedicularis,
Violets,
Moss    Pink
(Phlox),
Polemonium Rep  tans,
Primula,
Corydalis,
6 in.             pink.
1ndes"  6 in.
"t            late,
S m   Sc
l"             "             3 in.            variety.
"               blue.
1 ft.         yellow, red.
6 in.             red.
127
Color.
May,
early,
white.
I ft.
11
yellow.
white.
11
early,
late,
early,
11
11
1 1-2 ft.
I ft.
6 in.
yellow.
variety.
white.
variegated.
several.
11
late,
11
'early, 
OCTOBER.
Early or late.
early,
late,
early,
late,
flellebore,                                  1 ft.          white, blue.~~1
Pulmonaria,
Peony,
Dog-tooth Violet,
Delphinium,
Hellebore,
Double    Butter  cups,
Lysimachia Num  mularia,
Lily of the Valley,
Iris,
Double   Ragged
Robin,
Houstonia,
Pentstemon Ova  ta and Atropu  reus,
Soapwort,
Hairy Phlox,
Purple Lupine,
Peony,
Double     White
Rocket,
Phlox, varieties,
Scarlet Poppy,
Blackberry Lily,
Yellow Lily,
Canadian Lily,
Yellow Day Lily,
Double Larkspur,
Crane's Bill,
Cucumber Root,
Senecio Aurea,
Spirea (sorts),
Garden Pinks,
Polemonuim,
Campanula
sorts,
Antirrhinum,
sorts,
Lychnis,
Vervain,
"            early,
I1 ft.             red.
3 in.          blue, white.
"    whole month,   1 ft.
late,           1 ft.
early,         1 1-2 ft.
128
Name.
Dialytra,
Month.
May,
11
11
11
Size.
I ft.
6 in.
I to 2 ft.
3 in.
18 in.
I ft.
,Ooior.
pink.
purple.
red, white.
yellow.
blue.
white, blue.
6 in.
yellow.
11
11
11
late
late,
whole month,
I in.
3 in.
various,
yellow.
white.
all colors.
11 late,
11 early,
June,
11
1,
late,
early,
late,
whole month,
11
2 ft.
1 ft.
6 in.
various,
11
yellow, purple,
red.
red.
many.
11
early,
whole month,
early,
11
11
late,
early,
11
whole month,
early,
early,
I ft.
various,
6 in.
1 1-2 ft.
2 ft.
6 in.
I ft.
11
6 in.
I ft.
various,
I ft.
3 in.
white.
several.
red.
yellow.
11
I red.
yellow.
blue, white.
purple.
white.
yellow.
all colors.
pink.
white, blue.
11           11
11
11
I
11
1,
cc
variety.
red.
blue, purple. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Early or late.
early,
c~
whole month,
late,
whole month,
early,
late,
whole month,
early,
whole month,
early,
whole month,
11
whole month,
early,
whole month,
early,
late,
early,
late,
early,
~~
late,
early,
Name.
Aconite,
Perennl   ial Flax,
Even ing Primrose,
Indian Hemp,
Spiderwort,
Asphodel,
Fraxinella,
Penstemon,
Monarda,
Evenin,, Primrose,
Sedum,
Vervain,
Veronica,
Double  Lychnis,
Chelone,
Dracocephalum,
Anterhillims,
Perpetual Pea,
Hibiscus,
Mallows,
Lilies, sorts,
Blue Catananche,
Fumitory,
Orange Galliardia,
Hemerocallis,
Dianthus,
Lobelia,
Chinese Lychnis,
Willow Herb,
Yucca Filamen  tosa,
Phlox,
Blazing Star,
Coreopsis,
Cassia,
Asters,
Golden Rod,
Ladies Tresses,
Orchis,
Asclepias,
Achillea,
to,"      early,
Po"   whole month,
"          late,
"     whole month,
asi,"     early,
e"     whole month,
"          late,
"  whole month,
"     whole month,
chle"     early,
September,    early,
c e                     1w
129
Month.
June,
11
11
11
July,
11
11
11
11
11
August,
11
Size.
1 1-2 ft.
6 in.
I ft.
11
2 ft.
11
I ft.
I to 3 ft.
6 in.
I to 3 ft.
11
I ft.
11
2 ft.
various,
. 2 ft.
11
, ft.
all sizes,
2 ft.
I ft.
2 ft.
11
I ft.
2 ft.
I ft.
2 ft.
Color.
blue, white, purple.
glorious blue.
yellow.
white, pink.
white, blue.
white.
white, blue.
white.
red, purple.
yellow.
white.
blue.
11
red.
white.
pink.
various.
pink.
various.
white, pink.
various.
blue.
pink.
orange.
white, purple.
various.
scarlet.
orange.
pink.
3 ft.
all sizes,
various,
6 in.
6 in. to I ft.
2 ft.
I ft.
2 ft.
I ft.
white.
many.
blue.
yellow.
11
various
yellow.
white.
various.
many.
white, pink.
yellow.
white, pink.
Coreopsis,
Achillea
I. 
OCTOBER.
Month.   Early or late.
September, whole month,
Name.
Asters (sorts),
Golden Rod,
Gentian,
Eupatorium,
Blazing Star,
Globe Thistles,
Chrysanthemum,
"            late,         various,
Some of these continue to blossom during October, till severe
frosts destroy all vegetation.
All perennials may be transplanted without fear of injury, for
they have a multitude of fibrous roots; but though they will bear
rough usage, no class of plants is more grateful for kindness and
care. By means of transplanters they may be moved even when
in blossom without being affected at all.
To insure a satisfactory flower-garden, that portion of it which
is chiefly devoted to perennials must have open spaces, in which
annuals and greenhouse plants may be set. Our list shows that
during the early summer perennials are abundant, while they diminish in variety as the season advances; thus being precisely
adapted to supply the need of flowers before the time arrives when
annuals and greenhouse plants are in perfection; viz., July, August, and September.
The arrangement of perennials as respects size, form, and color,
must depend on fancy, only observing the general rule to place the
larger plants toward the back of the beds which are near the
shrubs, and in the middle of open beds which are not connected
with taller objects, with such variations as will prevent monotony
of effect.
Much of the satisfaction derived from such a garden as ours, depends on the judicious selection and grouping of shrubs. Throughout the season you may have some shrub in blossom; and by their
flower, and the color of their leaves or berries, they fill the gaps
among the perennials.
Neatness is essential to the well-being of the flower-garden;
the more orderly the borders, the more complete the absence of
all signs of decay, the greater the satisfaction we feel. Neglect of
'130
Site -
all sizes,
11
I ft.
various,
3 ft.
11
Color.
many.
yellow.
blue.
several.
purple.
11
11
11
various. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
this spoils the richest collection of flowers, while its careful observance renders the most meagre collection beautiful.
As soon as the frost cuts any plant down, remove it, as its blackness is disagreeable. Dahlias touched by frost should be cut half 
way down only, so as to ripen the tubers.
131 
CHAPTER XVIII.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE work for October in the kitchen-garden is a continuation of
that described for September.
Lettuce plants which are to be headed for winter, may now be
pricked out into the hotbed frames, and covered at night with the
sashes. Cabbages for early spring must be planted in frames, and
for a short time be kept under glass and watered gently, to enable
them to get well rooted; when that is done, the sashes must be removed, and the plants kept cool to harden them.   The plants
should be set down to their leaves in the earth, as the stem is the
most tender part; if well watered and set low, they will need no
outside covering till the end of November.
Such Cauliflowers as are showing their blossoms should be sheltered from rain and frost by some leaves broken down over their
heads. Ripe Onions, if not gathered in September, may be pulled
and left on the ground to dry; late in the month the Onion Pips for
spring use are to be gathered, or left covered with Pine branches
till spring.
There is a variety of Onion resembling the Potato Onion, grown
near Philadelphia, which once planted goes on year after year
without replanting; the bulb throws up its seed-stalk and ripens
its seed, and at the same time produces a new bulb by the side of
the old one which is all ready for the next year's growth, and, if undisturbed, will surely produce another crop of seed and another
bulb.
Cabbage and Broccoli now need their last attention in the way
of hoeing.
Bank your Artichoke Chard, Celery, and Cardoons, but never
when wet, even with dew. Cut the Parsley well back to force out
a new growth, and transplant enough for winter use into the frames.
132 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
Finish gathering Pickles. Any melons not larger than the fist
should be picked for mangoes.
As the frosty nights approach, cover enough Tomatoes for daily
use, with cloth or straw; a very light covering will enable them to
defy early frosts. If the frost comes sharp enough to cut off the
vines, gather all fruit of sufficient size, and lay it in a warm and
sunny place, covering at night; if thus treated it will all ripen and
prove good, though not so high-flavored as when ripened on the
vines. Tomatoes may be kept in this way many weeks after the
vines are gone, they being much more tender than the fruit.
Treat melons like Tomatoes. Watermelons may be kept till
Christmas.
Cut the herbs down to the lower leaves or stems, to be ready for
next year.
Transplant Currants and Gooseberries, pruning the old wood
from both; the rust or mildew so common on the fruit of the latter, is often avoided by removing old wood and letting light and
air into the middle of the bush. For full directions see Summer.
If the Raspberries were not pruned last month, see to them now.
Last year's wood is now worthless, either for growth or fruit.
Prune Thimbleberries and Blackberries, and make new plantations.
For Espalier fruit follow the directions of last month. Filberts
will soon be ripe and show it by the gradual opening of the husk,
and the brown color of the nut.
Where there is a demand for Salads, Cress, Mustard, Radishes, etc., during the winter, sow them now in very warm borders,
or in frames. They will need close care and attention, and must
be protected at night. Just as soon as the weather grows decidedly
cool, frames must be kept over those in the borders. They may
be sowed in boxes and removed to the grapery on the approach
of cold weather.
Large Onions may be planted for seed, in order to get it earlier
and in greater abundance than is possible when we plant for this
purpose in spring.   The beds should be well dug and trenched,
about 4 feet wide, and 18 inches apart; set the Onions in the bottom of the trench, and cover with 3 or 4 inches of earth. Cover
12
133 
OCTOBER.
the beds with a light dressing of leaves or old manure for the winter; they will start in April and begin to grow in May, and as soon
as they have attained their full height, should be tied up to stakes,
as the head is very heavy when full of seed; the seed when ripe
should be dried a day or two and kept in paper bags for use.
Endive, though rarely grown for the Boston market, is a very
excellent vegetable; it should be blanched from time time as it is
wanted for use; this may be done under endive or flower pots, by
earthing up, or by covering with boards or straw; the first is the
best method. The same is the treatment of Sea-kale: see hereafter.
Dill, Alexanders, Skerrits, Rhubarb, and Sea-kale should be
sown, as their seeds are very slow to germinate, and will come
forward more surely and quickly in the spring, if subjected to the
action of the winter's frost.
Make the Mushroom bed in the forcing-house and others in the
cellar of the barn or house.  Mushrooms to be productive must
be kept warm and moist, but not wet. When not kept in this condition, the bed is unproductive, though not spoiled, for the application of warmth and moisture will rouse its activity again.
Many methods for making Mushroom beds have been proposed.
The simplest is that of Mr. James Galbraith, described in the
Working Farmer of November, 1854.  "The Mushroom may be
successfully cultivated in dry cellars, provided the temperature
ranges from 50~ to 55~, or thereabouts.
"The mode of culture I have practised is simple, and sure to
produce an abundant supply.
"Let the groom or coachman collect the horse droppings in the
stable, and let them be deposited every morning under a dry shed,
open in front, facing the sun, to be thoroughly dried. Hang an
old fishing net over the pile collected, to keep off chickens or
other animals that might break the droppings to pieces, as they
should be dried as entire as possible. The material collected in
the shed should be turned over every day, to prevent fermentation
taking place.
"Construct a frame of boards, say 30 x 4, 2 feet high behind and
18 inches in front, or smaller in the same proportions, if thought
134 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
best. When there is enough dry material collected to cover the
bottom of the frame two or three inches thick, put it in and trample it all over to make it solid.
" Repeat the same process as you collect material, until the bed
is complete. Lay 4 inches of light vegetable mould on top. In
the course of four or five weeks there will appear in the mould
something like white threads running all through the mass. When
this takes place, water the bed moderately, and cover it with dry
Grass cut from the lawn, as it contains but few seeds to shake out
and grow in the bed: it is better in this respect than common
Hay.
"Water cautiously.  In a short time the bed will become an entire mass of spawn, and continue to bear for twelve months, provided the cellar is not too damp and cold.   Should  the materials
heat in the process of drying, or afterwards during the process, all
will prove abortive."
A bed of this sort is, as the writer truly says, a mass of spawn.
Beds may be made in hotbed frames; the bottom being filled in
with dry, heating manure, which is to be well trampled and left
till the violent heat is abating; then cover with two or three inches
of earth, in which spawn is to be placed. The bottom heat, with
moisture, will cause this spawn to increase rapidly, and the bed will
yield Mushrooms for a long time.
Spawn for planting may be prepared in many ways. Make a
brick of cow and horse manure; into this brick put a small piece
of spawn; lay the brick in a warm place, and in a short time it
will be fuill of spawn.  "Spawn" is the white radicles of the mush]room plant, which may often be seen in the earth of old pastures,
where horse droppings have dried.
There are many varieties of fungus that are edible, a few that
are poisonous; the rest are disagreeable rather than injurious.
The "gills" of a fungus are the thin leaves seen when it is
turned over, filling the concavity of the lid with their paper-like
lobes, which radiate as the sticks of an open umbrella.   Their
color varies with the variety of fungus, being pink in the Mushroom.
In gathering Mushrooms, be careful to twist them off in the
135 
OCTOBER.
ground at the root, for if any of the stem is left it will decay and
fill with maggots, which will destroy the other Mushrooms as they
begin to grow.
Beds may be made by raising a wedge-shaped pile of welltrampled and rich manure; leave it till it heats; by inserting sticks
into different parts of the pile, and testing their heat when withdrawn, you may learn the temperature of the bed. Cover it with
loam, and in that plant spawn; cover all with straw. Keep thoroughly moist, and in a few days the spawn will fill the loam, and
the Mushrooms begin to grow, and they will continue to appear for
six months or a year. Examine the bed frequently, to gather
the fungi, and prevent their over-growth and decay, and the consequent incoming of maggots. If the bed yields more than enough
for daily use, make catchup.
So few Mushrooms are grown for our market that we may be
said to know nothing of them. Many market gardeners near
London have several acres at a time in different stages of growth;
and before leaving the subject I will quote the method of cultivation followed by such gardeners, it being very successful:  "The essential points to be regarded are: proper material, good
spawn, moderate temperature, uniformity of humidity according to
the state of the beds or crop,- as while the spawn is running, and
until it is desirable that the crop shall appear, they can hardly be
kept too dry. Afterwards they require a greater amount of moisture, and this, particularly during the winter, in a tepid state.
Darkness has by some been deemed essential, but experience has
shown that larger, better colored, and more healthy Mushrooms are
grown in the light.   London  market gardeners cart home from
London stables long manure; the short material is shaken out of
it, and the long, stringy part is kept for covering, as well as for
forming the interior of the ridges. The manure is not allowed to
heat before it is put into the beds, if it can be prevented, for pre viously heated material does not produce so fine Mushrooms; the
fresher the horse dung is, the longer will the crop last. If this is
properly attended to, it does not signify what kind of mould is
used for surfacing the beds. The short manure is to be piled in
wedge-shaped ridges, or flat, square beds, the shape being a matter
136 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
of fancy so long as provision is made for the rapid removal of
rain water; the middle of the bed, varying in size according to
the ultimate size of the bed, is made of the long and coarse strawy
manure, which, as we have just said, is covered thickly with the
short manure, and this again with loam. When the interior temperature of the beds gets down to 80~, they are spawned with
pieces of spawn about two inches square, placed one foot apart;
the bed is then covered with earth two inches thick, which is to
be well packed with the feet or a spade, then carefully watered. The
more compact the bed, the better the Mushrooms; compactness,
and green, unheated manure constituting the secret of successful
Mushroom growing. Beds made in this way ought to be watered
but rarely, if the weather is reasonably moist, and when watered,
if possible, use liquid manure.
"Cover the ridges, after making, with straw or mats, and examine
frequently; when well made they will bear abundantly for two or
three months."
Constant reference has been made to artificial spawn. It may
be made in the following manner: gather horse droppings, sheep
or deer dung, and lay in a dry place; then chop in a hay cutter
straw or fern leaves;- not a large quantity, but enough when
mixed with the manure and clay or loam to give the mass consistency; - mix together the manure, stubble, and clay or loam till the
mass is about as pasty as grafting clay; spread the mixture evenly
over a warm floor, to the depth of three or four inches. When
about half dry, cut it into bricks of a convenient size; let the
bricks dry a little more, and then make holes an inch deep into
their upper ends, into which put pieces of spawn the size of a
walnut; now cover the holes with more of the mixed material.
The bricks being prepared, pile them in small stacks against each
other, and cover with fresh, hot manure, putting on enough to keep
the temperature of the mass at 50~ to 60~ degrees, too much heat
or cold being fatal to Mushrooms. In a few days the spawn will
have run through the bricks in all directions, making the stack a
mass of spawn. Now open the stack, take down the bricks and
lay them in a warm and dry place; here they may be kept for
years as a supply for forming Mushroom beds.
12*
137 
OCTOBER.
If you have not spawn to begin with, collect from cattle on dry
food 2 parts cow dung, 1 part horse droppings, 1 part sheep, deer,
or pigeon dung; dry under cover, and break them till they will
pass through a half-incli sieve; mix all together, and lay the mass
closely packed and trodden in a conical heap; keep the temperature at about 60~, by coverings of litter, mats, or manure.   In
about four weeks the spawn will begin to form, and in a short time
the heap will be filled with it.  This spawn may be kept a long
time in a dry place, or may be made into bricks as just described.
I have gone thus fully into the method of producing this esculent, because it is so easily grown, and is capable of so many uses
in its simple form or in catchup. Few persons are aware of the
profit attendant on its culture, or how completely the grower may
convert it into a salable form by making catchup.
Espaliered trees are to be treated as they were last month, the
fruit being carefully gathered and disposed of.
You can begin to prune as soon as the leaves fall.
During the month be sure to select and store all the seeds not
yet gathered for spring planting.
Whenever a crop is removed, dig the ground over and leave it
rough and unraked, that the frosts of winter may mellow it and
kill the eggs of insects and the seeds of weeds.
Cut down all decayed stems and branches of the herbs, culinary
or medicinal, -all the half-shrubby kinds to the old wood; the
herbaceous perennials, like Rue, Sweet Marjorum, etc., to the
ground. If the beds are old, spread and dig in carefully a light
idressing of manure well rotted; where they are too much covered
to admit of this, dig up the alleys and scatter some of the loam
over the beds, together with a top dressing of light manure.
Well-rooted plants of all the herbaceous and half-shrubby herbs
may be planted early in the month in beds, borders, or rows, care
being taken to enrich these beds, etc., well, before planting.
Beds of Horseradish may be made by planting small pieces
of the root of old plants.
Peas sowed in the last of October and November will come up in
the spring ten days earlier than if sowed in the spring, but not so
138 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
thickly; as an extra early crop it is worth while to plant some.
Pot, the first of October, strawberries for forcing, and if. they start
well give a shift by the last of the month. Remove figs in tubs
to the cellar or shed, and cover at night those which are standards
or are on the espalier.  They will not need covering with earth
before November.
139
__ 
CHAPTER XIX.
ORCHARD.
THE fruits which demand attention this month are Apples,
Pears, Quinces, and Walnuts. I will first give directions for haivesting the Apples.
The first of the month, overhaul the stock of barrels, and if the
number is deficient, purchase more at once; be sure that there are
enough heads and hoops. When all is ready, begin to gather the
fruit as soon as ripe, and by no means wait till hard frosts set in;
the slightest skin of ice upon standing water should stimulate to
the greatest exertions. It is very true that the leaves of the trees
protect the fruit against frost, but it is not all protected in this way,
and if frozen, however slightly, it is likely to decay very rapidly.
Apples when ripe readily come off in the hand if gently turned
round, and should be left on the tree until they will do so, unless
the near approach of winter renders immediate gathering necessary.
When the fruit is ready for picking, carry ladders of different
lengths into the orchard, so as to prevent any necessity for beating
or shaking off the fruit. Clear some place on the ground large
enough for a heap which would fill several barrels; cover this
space with dry straw or old hay. Fasten a hook of iron or wood
to the handle of each basket, that it may be hung on the tree or
ladder, so as to leave both hands free. Let your pickers understand that it is a fixed law that every apple, small or large, is to be
picked by hand. Every basket as it is filled, must be carefully
emptied at the appointed place, by being laid on its side and slowly
turned, that no apple may be bruised. It facilitates this labor and insures greater care in handling, to have one person with an extra basket constantly employed in exchanging the full baskets of the pickers for empty ones. When one pile of fruit is large enough, make
another. There will probably be a small portion of the fruit which
140 
ORCHARD.
cannot be reached by the hand; this must be shaken down after
the hand-gathering is done, piled separately, and used or sold as
soon as possible.
When the day's work is drawing to a close, cover the heaps with
straw, hay, or hay covers, for the night, and do the same on wet days.
Leave the fruit for several days, according to the weather, to cool
and dry. When dried enough, have the barrels carried into the field
and the Apples put into them by hand, carefully sorted, according
to quality. Let one man fill the barrels as full as possible without
crowding, and lay on the heads, which another person should fasten
in firmly. When this is done, the carts are to be sent out, and
the barrels lifted into them. Roll them as little as possible; carry
them into the fruit room, where they may stand on end or be piled
on each other. If they must be left out through the night, or in
wet weather, lay them on their sides, and pile them up so as to
shed rain, and cover the upper ones with boards.
These directions may seem unnecessarily minute, but the common
method of picking all that can be easily reached and shaking off the
rest, heaping all together into barrels without any care, except to have
a show of good ones at each end, though it may seem easier than
that which I have described, will be found in the end not only less
thorough, but far less profitable. For when the Apples are gathered and housed, nearly all the expense is over, and is the same
whether the work has been well or ill done. The carefully picked,
assorted, and packed fruit will keep till late in the spring, at
no extra cost, and will then be worth several dollars a barrel
more than in the autumn; whilst the Apples carelessly harvested
not only will not keep till spring, but will command an inferior
price when sold.
In all marketed produce, appearance has a great influence on
the sale. Even roots which are clean and neatly loaded and
packed, will sell better than roots of the same quality put up in a
slovenly manner. It is natural to suppose that extra care in packing would not be given unless the articles were worth it; and a purchaser decides accordingly. So that the small difference in trouble
necessary to assort and barrel apples with care, often makes all the
difference between afancyprice and the ordinary one, in selling them.
141 
OCTOBER.
The varieties of Apples in our orchard are the following: Baldwin, Rhode-Island Greenings, Roxbury, Hunt, and Golden Russets, Northern Spy, Belle Fleur, Danvers Winter Sweeting,
Hubardston Nonsuch, Newton Pippin, Pearmain, Red Gilliflower,
Ladies' Sweeting, Spitzenberg, Wine Apple; of these, Baldwin,
Greening, the Russets, Northern Spy, Belle Fleur, Newton Pippin, and Ladies' Sweeting keep till very late in the spring.
Tar trees to catch canker worms, as hereafter described; continue to tar till winter.
PEARS.- Pears must be gathered about the same time as Apples, and their fitness for harvesting is to be decided in the same
way; pick into baskets and carry at once into the fruit room, where
they may be laid, either in heaps, to be afterwards distributed according to variety, or on the shelves in the same way once for all.
If they are to lie on the shelves till consumed, lay them just so
near each other as not to touch. Those laid in heaps may be left
for a day to dry and cool, and then packed away for winter.
Divers plans for preserving fruit have been invented, and some
very expensive fruit rooms have been made, warranted to keep
Pears perfect till spring; but the cheapest and simplest method
has proved the best. One objection to all fruit rooms has been
that fruit stored in them till spring has been very apt to shrivel,
and never become high-colored; but the following method avoids
this evil:  Pack either in champagne baskets or in light, wooden buckets
with tight covers; Hingham buckets they are called in and about
Boston.   If the baskets are used, place the fruit in layers, with
one thickness of flannel or cotton batting between the layers, till
the basket is full; then place it on a shelf and leave it untouched
till the fruit ought to be nearly ripe. If your experience has not
taught you when this is to be expected, you must examine occasionally. Pears thus preserved will gain in plumpness, and as
they ripen each variety will attain the richest color of which it is
capable. If the buckets are used, proceed as with baskets till they
are full; then set them aside, uncovered, for a few days, to cool
and sweat, after which cover tight and hang up in the fruit room.
142 
ORCHARD.
These Pears will command the very highest price in the market,
and many varieties which almost never attain a high color under
other methods, will in this way become really rich.
No fruit is more widely cultivated than the Pear, and the number of varieties is great; only a few, however, pay for cultivation;
and what the desirable varieties are, it is hard to learn, so greatly
is their flavor influenced by soil and exposure, even within the
limits of a town. It may be said with truth, that no two cultivators agree as to the best dozen varieties for a given latitude. In a
future month I shall discuss the differences in Pears, and explain
the respective advantages of Quince and Pear stocks, and the treatment requisite to produce the best fruit from either stock.
Our Pear orchard is planted with Bartlett, Beurre de Capiument, Beurre Bosc, Beurre diel, Dix, Duchess, Flemish Beauty,
Fondante d'Automne, Louise bonne de Jersey, Napoleon, Rostiezer,
Sieulle, Seckel, Urbaniste, Beurre D'Aremberg, Easter Beurr6,
Chaumontel, Glout Morceau, Passe Colmar, Winter Nelis, Beurre
de Rantz, St. Germain.
QUINCES. - Quinces are not so generally cultivated as they deserve; the bush occupies but little room, and that the least desirable, is hardy, a superior desert fruit, and generally certain to bear
a good crop. The Apple or Orange Quince is the only variety
worth cultivating. The mature tree ought to yield from 2 to 4
bushels of fruit, which when well harvested is rarely worth less
than $1.00 to $2.50 per bushel, thus giving a large profit for the
small surface under cultivation. They may be set 8 to 10 feet
apart, and will soon cover the ground so as to keep down weeds,
and render the labor of cultivating slight. They have a decided
enemy in the borer, and must in their early years be closely
watched; if during the first few years the borers are hunted out
and killed, and the earth around the bushes be covered with coal
ashes, they become thrifty and able to defy the borer in future; if
the but of the tree is surrounded with common tea or sheet lead
for a few inches above and below the surface of the ground, the
borer will be effectually excluded.
No fruit is more easily injured in its appearance by careless
14'3 
OCTOBER.
harvesting than the Quince; every bruise on its skin is followed
by discoloration and decay, and consequently by slow sale in market. Pick by hand and lay in the basket; remove thence by hand
into barrels, and afterwards treat like Apples.
WALNUTS. -Walnuts and Shagbarks ripen this month  and
should be gathered as they fall. After a sharp frost at night, the
ground will be covered with them, and we must wait for the frost
to open the outside shell and let us at the nut; the Black or English Walnut is surrounded by a thick and spongy husk or shell,
which is very hard to remove by hand, as it clings closely and
stains the skin badly, but it yields readily to frost.
The husk of the Butternut is thin and clings closely to the nut.
All these nuts when gathered should be carried to a warm place,
and there spread out to dry; when well dried, the kernel is oily
but rich in flavor.
Nut trees of these last two varieties are easily and rapidly grown,
and though not so beautiful as the Shagbark, are yet very ornamental, and a few should be cultivated on every even small estate.
The  Shagbark is the staple nut of the Eastern United States,
and the tree is one of the most ornamental of the deciduous trees,
and easily transplanted when young, though it does not bear moving well after it becomes large.
144 
CHAPTER XX.
NURSERY.
IN October the nursery demands a large share of attention.
Trench now wherever you did not in September, and then plant
stocks for budding and grafting. Make layers of Roses, Honeysuckles, and those shrubs which propagate more easily by layers than
by seed. As a general rule seeds are the most reliable means for
getting larger quantities and varieties of trees, though the process
is slow. Many seeds are hard and tough in themselves, or are enclosed in some kind of tough shell or stone. Such seeds should
always be planted in the fall, and left through the winter and spring
to the action of frost, which by its expansive power breaks or disjoints their hard covering, and lets the tender germ and radicle
start on their upward and downward journey.
Time and again cultivators have been utterly discouraged in
their attempts to grow varieties of plants, because the seed seemed
invariably to fail. Much of this failure is owing to the seed having been planted at the wrong season; the seed of Roses, Hawthorn, and Buckthorn, for hedge plants, if sown in the fall will
start in the spring, and make strong growth during the summer;
but if planted in the spring they often do not appear till the next
year, and the nursery man, finding no growth from his seed during
the first summer, concludes that it was worthless, and probably
digs the land over and plants other seeds of the same kind; when,
had he planted the fall before, or waited till the next year, he
would have succeeded with his first lot of seeds.
The stones of Plums and Peaches, and other hard seeds, must
either be planted in the fall, or be cracked and planted in the spring;
cracking the stone is rather dangerous, as it is very apt to injure
the germ of the kernel. Walnuts, Shagbarks, Filberts, and most
13                                       145 
OCTOBER.
other nuts are subject to the same laws of planting and germination.
Acorns, Chestnuts, and Horsechestnuts grow whether planted
in spring or fall, their shells being so soft as to offer but little opposition to the swelling kernel; but they do better when planted
in fall, for all seeds are more ready to germinate when first ripe
than after being kept for some time and getting somewhat dry.
You may see in your autumnal walks in the woods Acorns sprouting under all the Oak trees, even when merely lying on the surface
of the ground. This natural process teaches us what to do if we
would be perfectly successful with such nuts.  Keep them in a
box till spring, covered with moist sand, and soak them twenty-four
hours in tepid water before planting.
Directions for forming nurseries, seed-beds, etc., will be given
hereafter.
Autumn has as great advantages over spring for layering hardwooded plants and shrubs as for planting nuts; the tongue and cut
of the layer heal and granulate somewhat during the winter, and
the whole skin and wood seem to prepare for a ready growth in
spring. Canker worms will begin to run after the first hard frost,
and the trees must be tarred to protect them.
146 
CHAPTER XXI.
THE FARM.
OCTOBER is a very busy month on the farm.  Continue to make
and clean out drains, and prepare for thorough irrigation. At
every leisure moment draw muck and litter to the yard for manure.
During the latter half of the month dig the Roots, beginning
with Potatoes, then Beets, then Carrots, last Ruta-Bagas and Turnips; the latter may even be left till November.
There is a machine for cutting off the leaves of Carrots and
Ruta-Bagas as they stand in the ground. Directions were given
last month for Potatoes and are good now.
When ready to harvest other Roots, begin as soon as the dew is
off, in a bright day, pull them out and lay them on the surface to
dry. A tool much like a spade cleft into four fingers is very
convenient for raising roots, as it does not break them like a spade,
and its blades are not pointed like those of a dungfork.
Beets should be drawn without first cutting the leaves; lay them
on the ground long enough to dry off surface moisture, then gather
into heaps; twist off the tops, and cut off the tails and small roots
with a sharp tool. Some English writers recommend that this
last process be done as the roots are drawn.   Our farmers find
that the leaves are readily eaten by cows for green fodder, and
when judiciously fed out conduce to a full milkpail. To top and
tail properly, hold the Beet or Ruta-Baga in the left hand, and in
the right a tool made from an old sickle or grass cutter ground
sharp; one blow will remove the top, another the tail of the root,
which is then thrown into the heap or the cart. When the weather
promises to be fine and dry, it is well to leave them in heaps for a
few days before storing, as they sweat a little, and will keep the
better for the drying.
147, 
OCTOBER.
In harvesting Mangel Wurzel, also, twist off the leaves.
When the Roots are all thrown into the cart, drive the full load
into the root cellar, where they may be piled in their proper bins.
While emptying or filling the cart, do not throw the Roots about
more than is absolutely necessary, for although rough and harsh
to look at or handle, they decay faster for every bruise.
The cellar should be well ventilated and drained. The perfect
preservation of Roots depends mainly on these two requirements.
Darkness is not so essential as is sometimes asserted. Light does
not necessarily stimulate growth, nor darkness prevent it; it depends much more on warmth and moisture.
Until the nights become very cold leave the windows open, as
the exhaling warmth of the Roots will keep the temperature high
in the cellar long after it freezes outside.
Root cellars are very important in our latitude, and in making
them their location should be carefully considered in relation to the
barn. We grow Roots to feed to stock through the winter, and the
greater the daily distance over which this bulky material is carried
in feeding, the greater our labor, the less our profit. All new
barns should be built with a reference to the storage and transport
of Root crops. A good plan is to have the stalls for cows and other
neat cattle in the cellar, if removed from the manure, as it is casier
to feed with Hay from above, and with Roots from the same level
with the cattle; but it is then more difficult to dispose of the manure. By carefully considering all these wants before erecting a
barn, we can provide for them all in the most convenient and satisfactoiy way. Refer to the ground plan of our barn and see how
this is done.
BARN. - The general (see March) plan shows that it stands on
a side-hill. The slope of hill from end to end is 12 feet in 100, so
that much of the cellar is above ground. It is divided into two
stories, and one story of wood rises over it.  The lower, the manure
cellar, in which are kept the hens and pigs, is 61 feet high. The
next story is for 4 of its length 721 feet high; the remaining 20 feet
being 6-1 feet in height, is at the extreme west end, and is devoted
to Roots, of which it can hold at least six thousand bushels, its area
148 
THE FARM.
being 50 x 20 feet. Directly in front of the root cellar is a carriageway 10 feet wide, extending from one side of the barn to the other.
Loaded teams may thus enter at one side and leave at the other.
Two large sliding doors 10 feet wide give entrance to the root
cellar, so that a cart full of Roots having entered by the road-way
may be backed into the root cellar and there unloaded.
Through the wall in the middle of the root cellar is an aperture
which may be kept tightly closed by a flap-door, through which is
laid a railroad that is traversed by a small car.   This car being
taken into the cellar and there loaded with Roots, whole or cut,
may then be drawn out along the railroad, which extends down
the centre of the barn, and its load distributed on either side as
wanted, or carried to the boiler. When the car comes out or goes
in, the flap-door is let fall and the aperture is closed. The car
may be stopped in front of the mash-tub, and there have meal
mixed with the Roots, or take in cut feed, and then run out, and its
contents be distributed.
Such an arrangement tends greatly to the economy of labor,
and also saves material and wear and tear.
In the south-east corner of the root cellar is a wooden box through
which the manure of the carriage horses in the stable above may
be discharged int9 the lowest cellar. Under the front edge of the
root cellar are spouts for emptying swill, etc., to the pigs. A boiler
is set in the corner of the meal storeroom for cooking food, and
the car can be run directly to it.
In speaking of topping Roots, I said that the tops should be fed out
to milch cows; this does not apply to all Roots; for instance, RutaBagas, leaves of which some cows will not eat, and which if eaten
in large quantities generally loosen the bowels overmuch; if but
a small quantity is fed at a time, there is no danger, and an increase of milk. Again, cattle will often utterly refuse to eat the
tops of Carrots and Parsnips, while sheep eat them readily. Under
all circumstances, however, it is better to carry the loads, tops and
all, directly to the barn, and top as you unload. Such leaves as the
stock will not consume, may then be thrown through the muck-traps
in the floor, shown in the plan, into the manure cellar, where the
pigs will eat some and make manure of the rest.
13*
149 
OCTOBER.
I have said nothing of Potato tops, which are usually dry before the Potatoes are dug; in this condition they are called
"haulm," and may be collected into heaps to rot, or carted to the
manure cellar as bedding for pigs, or burned, and their ashes spread
on the spot.
The Corn crop is to be harvested now. If not cut during September, send your men into the field early in the present month,
with tools made from old scythes, or reaping-hooks, to cut it all
about 6 inches above the ground, leaving one hill in six uncut.
As cut, lay each hill on the ground by itself during the heat of
the day. Early in the afternoon begin and gather five hills; stand
them on their butts about the uncut sixth hill, which will steady
the whole; this being done, draw all the tops down a little, and tie
firmly together with a straw rope. You will thus stack the whole
firmly, and may leave it for weeks without injury from weather.
The outer leaves will wither down, and as they dry will offer a
perfect water-shed to the rain; whilst the bulk of the stack is not
so great as to prevent the ready access of sun and air in fair
weather.
Corn thus stacked will ripen thoroughly, dry hard and glossy,
and the stover will cure into a sweet and good fodder, which will be
eaten almost to the last but by cows during winter, particularly
if first cut in a stubble cutter. All corn-fodder should be cut up
before feeding, to insure the thorough decay of those portions which
the cattle may reject, and which are consequently thrown into the
manure heap. Were it fed out in its long state, the cattle would
pick off the leaves and reject the buts, which must then be thrown
into the manure heap, where they will remain undecomposed for a
year, their glossy, flinty exterior defending them from fermentation and the action of the various acids and gasses generated in the
manure.
Many farmers practise a different treatment of the Corn crop;
and I will deviate from the rule laid down at the beginning of this
book, to make a short inquiry into the relative merits of the two
methods.
It is the practice of most New-England farmers to go into the
field as soon as the Corn is glazed, and top it; i.e., cut off the tops
150 
THE FARM.
just above the highest ear. These tops are stacked in bundles to
dry, and then stored in the barn for fodder; and it is urged that
thus good fodder is made of the tops which cattle will eat, while
the buts which cattle will not eat are left. It is true that tops
saved in this way do make excellent fodder if not too long dried, but
it is at the expense of the Corn. The Corn is not fully ripe when
thus topped, and depends on the nourishment supplied by the leaves,
for its full perfection. Cut off these leaves and the grain is cut off
from some portion of its food.  The experiment has been thoroughly
tried, and it has been proved that Corn topped weighs 3 to 5 lbs. per
bushel less than the same kind of Corn in the same field, saved in
the manner I have directed.   Again, by cutting the tops you
make the buts utterly worthless, whilst under the stacking method,
the buts cure with the tops, and will be eaten when cut and fed
out; and when cut in the method first given, before it is glazed and
ripe, through fear of early frost, more Corn will fill out and ripen
in the stook uninjured by frost, which would quite destroy it if
treated by topping. There is a simple reason for this difference.
The leaves of plants are their lungs. Sap is supplied by the roots
in direct proportion to the demands of the leaves; but when it
first ascends the stem, it is crude and innutritious, as far from perfection as is unfermented cider or unleavened bread. It ascends
through the fibres of the stem and spreads itself to the sunlight in
the sap vessels of the leaves, where it becomes refined and perfected; it then returns to the tissues, the fruit, or whatever part
needs it; unfit before to perfect the Corn, it is now fit and is appropriated by the peculiar sap-vessels of the ear. Beside this function of the leaves, they act - how, has not yet been definitely ascertained-like the exhausting or suction valves in a pump; they
draw on the roots for moisture, and the roots furnish it, and just in
proportion to the demand.  Therefore, whenever the leaves are removed the demand ceases.  Suppose, for instance, instead of "topping;' all the leaves above the ears were picked off; no appreciable demand for sap would be felt above this point, consequently
none would be supplied. If all the ears were ripe, this would not
matter, the plant being cultivated for the grain; but when the Corn
i.s unripe it must surely suffer for the lack of those supplies of sap
151 
OCTOBER.
that are needed to perfect it. What is true of gathering the leaves,
is equally true of topping, which is merely the same thing more
thoroughly done; by either process any farther growth of the Corn
above the lower leaves is stopped.
It is then plain that the farmer who cuts off the top of his Corn
before the grain is fully ripe, cuts off the food necessary to insure
perfection in that grain, and loses in corn what he gains in fodder.
Return now to the plan I advise. Suppose the Corn to be cut
at the root at the time when it would be topped under the other
process, although that would be too early. It is evident that the
broad leaves will draw up into themselves all the crude sap still
lingering in the stem, of which we know there is a large quantity
in the thick and succulent Corn stalks. This crude sap will pass
through the leaves as it did before cutting, will be elaborated and
returned to the ears, and so down through the stem, adding just so
much to the value and perfectness of the grain.
I have treated this matter at length because it is of great importance to a people who depend largely on Indian Corn.
Cutting at the but seems to those who have not tried it, more
troublesome and expensive than "topping," because it necessitates,
first, cutting and binding; then, re-opening and plucking the ears;
then, re-gathering and mowing away the stalks; but if the work is
done judiciously, it is not as expensive as the ordinary method, in
pursuing which we must first, cut, bind, stook, and cure the tops,
then gather and store them; second, gather the ears into the
wagons as they are driven through the field; then cut, stook, and
store the buts, or throw them to the pigs, or burn them in the field.
Three processes.
In my method you cut, stook, and thoroughly cure both corn and
fodder; when once well stooked it may be left until it is convenient to remove it, without injury to either corn or fodder; the less
time the fodder is exposed after getting dry, the better for it. The
centre hill which was left uncut may either be cut at first, and all
the bundles well braced against each other as in stooking wheat,
etc., or when the stooks are opened to gather the ears this hill may
be cut, and, if not thoroughly dry, be laid in the sun a short time.
When we are ready to put the Corn into the crib, we send two
152 
THE FARM.
wagons into the field, open the stooks, pick off the ears and throw
them into one wagon, fork the bundles of fodder into the other, and
drive each to its appropriate place. We thus have but two operations instead of three, and have all the fodder together where it
may be fed out or made into manure. The centre hill is well
opened and laid in the sun when the carts are first driven round
the field, and by the time the loose bundles are all collected, will
be dry enough to be gathered in their turn.
Continue at intervals of leisure to open and drain ditches and
collect materials for manure. If any of the much-travelled and
level roads need gravel, dress them this month, as the long interval
of open weather before winter will allow the gravel to become
well trodden, and will insure a firmer and better road than if the
gravel is spread in the spring. But do not put gravel on roads
of steep grade, as the frost and rain of winter and spring will
wash them badly.
The principal marketing of this month will be Roots, Cabbages,
and Apples. Where the accommodation for the crops is ample,
and they are well gathered, it is better not to sell them before
spring; the chief part of the expense and labor of the crop is
over with the harvest, and the increase of price before spring is
generally large. In the autumn many farmers of small capital or
inferior accommodations are compelled to sell, and thus the market
price of green crops is much lower than in the spring, when the
supply is small and the demand active.
Cows.   Towards the last of this month the winter milch cows
will be near calving, and they should have rather more generous
food than the other cows. Every effort should be made to have a
large stock of new milch cows in the winter, as then the price of
milk is largest, and the manure most easily and entirely saved.
The value of manure depends very much upon the food of the
stock, as manure is only the unassimilated food of the animals that
produce it. Analyses of the various kinds of food have shown
that some are more valuable for manure than others, and that this
difference of value is in proportion to the elaborateness of the or
153 
OCTOBER.
ganization of the different parts of the plant. Thus the seeds are
better than the fruit, the fruit than the straw, the leaves and straw
than the wood. Rape cake and oil cake, or the pressed seeds of
Rape and Flax, when eaten, produce much more powerful manure
than the tops of Turnips or roots of Rape or the straw of Flax. Indeed, the latter is often found to be poisonous to vegetation.   Many
other examples might be offered in illustration of this fact. The
reason is to be found in the greater amount of concentrated mineral
and other elements, potash, soda, lime, ammonia, etc., which exists
in the seed than in tile haulm and roots, these elements being the
most valuable constituents of manure.
It is a well-attested fact, that the manure of animals fed on grain
and seeds is much richer than that of those fed on Grass, Hay, and
Roots; so that when the animals come into the barn for the long
winter months, we have within our own hands the means, - which
we could not have while they were at pasture, -of increasing the
value of their manure.
But this is not the only consideration. The Grass on which they
have been feeding during the summer is always the best and certainly the cheapest food for increasing the milk of cows and the
flesh of fattening animals; of this they are now deprived, and we
must find something to supply its place. Hay alone will produce
neither of the good effects of the fresh Grass; Rowen is better fobr
milk but not for flesh; but Roots and Grain of different kinds, mixed
with Hay and Rowen increase both milk and flesh.
We come back then to the subject of milch cows and their food.
In summer it costs but little to keep them, but the value of milk,
unless we make butter and cheese, is low, and the manure is badly
saved. In winter, on the other hand, the cost of keeping is large,
but the price of milk rises in proportion, and the manure is all
saved, and can be produced of better quality. If, then, we procure
new milch cows at this season, feed them well, and save all the
manure, we shall get the largest possible profit from the operation.
Breeds of cattle best adapted to our latitude, and varieties and
uses of manure, will be discussed in the winter months.
154 
THE FARM.
In September we selected the hogs which were to be killed in
the winter. Improve the quality of their food as time goes on,
and keep them warm.
As the nights grow cold, the horses should be blanketed and
should be protected firom draughts of air. Fowls which are to be
killed at Thanksgiving, must be separated from the rest and cooped
up for fattening. As the days grow shorter and the nights longer
and colder, it will be more difficult for fowls to find food for themselves, and those which are to be killed must be carefully attended
to. The great point in fattening creatures of all kinds is to keep
them always improving, and if they once receive a check it takes
a long time and much extra care to start them again.  Laying and
stock fowls will need but little attention yet.
155 
CHAPTER XXII.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
DIRECTIONS were given in September for preparing holes for
trees and shrubs, and getting the latter ready for transplanting.
Transplanting should not be begun till the leaves have either
fallen or changed color preparatory to falling, for at that time, as
has been shown, evaporation is at a minimum, and the tree has
the best chance for a good future growth with the least amount
of pruning.
There is a theory that pruning may be dispensed with, and trees
do sometimes live which have been transplanted without pruning,
but they are starved and sickly for years. It is useless to expect
half the original amount of roots, mutilated, and in a strange soil,
to supply sap to the same amount of top as before removal; as well
might one expect a full-grown man to live and thrive on a child's
allowance of food.
There can be no doubt that the best time for transplanting all
trees and shrubs which can bear our severe winter after a fresh
removal, is the fall, for at that time both the trees and the earth
are in the best possible condition for a successful operation. When
a tree is moved, the mutilated roots need both moisture and warmth;
the tree taken in the autumn from warm earth is set again into
w       a       r       m        earth, and if this is done early in the season there will be
time enough before winter for numerous new rootlets to creep out,
which will give the plant a new hold on the earth and enable it to
resist the winter winds. The rains of autumn will pack and settle
the dirt between and about all the fibres, and the tree will become
firm and steady. Well planted in this manner, it will be found
by the earliest spring warmth that starts the sap ready to begin
its circulation and growth quite as early, to say the least, as we
could possibly think of transplanting in the spring. There is, be
156 
ORNAMENTAL.
sides, an accumulation of sap, made by those roots which are below
frost, which is, as it were, so much capital prepared for the spring
demand. This sap is what is drawn off from the sugar maple in
large quantities. Trees and shrubs planted in the autumn generally get a start of half a season over those planted in spring, and
keep their advantage perceptibly for half a dozen years.
Another advantage of autumn planting lies in the longer supply
of water before the summer droughts, which renders the tree much
less likely to be injured by them than if planted in the spring.
Strongly as I recommend autumn planting, however, I should
advise its total neglect rather than a poor execution of it.
There is great ignorance on this subject of tree planting among
those who ought to be best informed, and none the less that every
man thinks himself beyond any need of instruction with regard to
it, and this unconscious ignorance is the means of much waste of
money and temper.
Patience, great patience, is the first requisite for a successful
planter. In fact, the first and the most important acquisition to be
made before undertaking the management of a country place is
patience - a large stock of patience. Demosthenes described action as the first, the second, and the third requisite to successful
oratory, so may I say of patience to him who would succeed in the
culture of fruit, vegetables, or rural beauty. No natural process
can be much hurried; and when once a tree is well planted, a greenhouse erected, a grapery stocked, a flower-garden laid out, there is
need of long and patient waiting, endurance of "hope deferred,"
before the wished-for result is attained.
Starting then with plenty of patience, dig a hole as directed in
September, not less than 4 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep. We
want this depth both to secure for the roots free access to the subsoil
where moisture is most abundant, and to enable us to fill in at the
bottom good food for the tree during the next few years. If the
holes were dug in September, or if the ground where these are to
be made has been well trenched and enriched, you need only open
out space enough for the proper accommodation of the roots. Examine the top of the tree or shrub to be planted, and prune it if it
needs pruning; then look to the roots, and if any are broken, cut
14
157 
OCTOBER.
them off smoothly with a
sharp  knife  drawn  from
beneath upwards,  so that
the cut surface may point
~~#  B     ~downwards,  and  be  left
like a newly-made cutting,
all ready to grow.  Now
set the tree into the hole so
that the part of the stem from which the roots start may be on a
level with the surrounding surface, -just on a level,-if the hole
was made in September so that the earth at the bottom has had
time to settle; a little deeper when the hole is newly made. It is
well enough to have the stem in the centre of the hole, though this
is important only when you are planting a row of trees on a line
which passes through the centre of all the holes. In general ornamental planting avoid rows. Let your assistant steady the tree in
the hole while you retire a short distance and look at the effect of
its top; recall to your mind its character when full grown, whether
erect or pendant, and see how your tree should stand to give its
branches the best chance to develop its characteristic beauty and
become a fine specimen of its kind; and let your assistant turn and
move it till it stands to your mind. While he still holds it, get into
the hole and carefully draw
out all the principal roots into
A                           the same relative positions they
-    _    __ = held before transplanting; in
the same  way  comb  out the
;-~-= ~        z_ _'_=~     __ —smaller and fibrous roots.  And
~~-    - b  y        =     ~! now you will probably find that
the point whence the roots di                                  verge is higher above the bot              ~~B  ji             ~tom  of the  hole  than  their
:_____                  ____ ends, as in cut A.  In this case,
a —~  A   d,   -either take the tree out and
shovel in earth enough to make
a little mound in the centre of
the hole on which the centre
158 
ORNAMENTAL.
of the tree may rest, or carefully work earth in by hand without
removing the tree, till it stands evenly, all parts having an equal
bearing. Now let your assistant shovel in earth upon the roots
slowly, giving you time enough to raise the different roots to their
proper level; for although all the roots, if long enough, may be
brought down to the bottom of the hole, the position is not natural,
and if compelled will injure the after-growth of the tree. Cut B
shows my meaning. Dig the hole widest at the bottom. Fill the
earth in thus gradually till the hole is about half full, or until
the uopper roots are partially covered; this, and not the semi-filling the hole being the important point. If the work has thus fai'
been properly done, the tree will stand erect and firm without support from the hand.
I do not advise that tedious process of separating and laying out all
the fibres of the roots which is so insisted on by most teachers, but
merely direct that main roots and rootlets should be laid and combed
out in the same relative positions they held before the tree was lifted.
Attend to this and to their being carefully covered and surrounded
with earth, and you have secured the important requisites; more minute and fussy attention will indeed make the success of the operation
more certain, but not in proportion to the trouble taken, while they are
pretty sure to exhaust the stock of that invaluable quality, patience,
possessed by most men; and when that fails, carelessness begins,
bad habits are formed, and it is probable that the important steps
as well as the minutiae of transplanting will then be slighted.
Leaving the tree in the condition just described, plant others in
the same way until you have many in this half-finished state.
When the day is so far advanced that there will be just time to
finish the work, pour one or two pails of water -varying the
quantity according to the size of the hole- slowly upon and
around the roots of each tree; no matter if it is raining at the
time; this water has nothing to do with supplying moisture to the
tree; its use is to separate the little rootlets from each other, which
it does better than a hundred fingers, and with no draught on your
stock of patience, and to draw down and pack close the finer particles of earth about each fibre. When the water has drained
away, throw back into the hole the earth remaining at the side;
159 
OCTOBER.
when it is all returned you may gently tread it down. Observe
that hitherto neither the foot nor any instrument has been used to
consolidate the earth, for the effect of treading or any other pressure would have been to injure the rootlets; but now there is so
much earth between the foot and the roots, that they cannot be injured by pressure, while they will get all its benefits.
If these trees do not thrive it will be because of some unavoidable accident. They will not even be hurt by the winter winds,
though some of the taller ones with large tops may need the support of a stake, which should be driven in within an inch or two
of the stem, before any earth is thrown on the roots. If it is
driven after they are covered, there is danger that it will bruise
the larger and tear the smaller roots.
These directions will not be repeated. They are to be followed
in all cases and for all trees and shrubs, unless some physical obstacle prevents, which must be met when it occurs, and cannot be
foreseen.
The autumn planting so strongly recommended is not for all
trees indiscriminately. Evergreens, as I said in September, should
never be planted in the fall, unless from necessity; no stone-fruited
trees; none that are but partially hardy; no natives of any latitude where vegetation commences earlier and lasts longer than in
ours (although there are some exceptions to the rule), should be
planted in the fall. But it is the time to plant almost all our deciduous trees; I have found the Hickory, Red Maple, Birch, Beech,
Magnolia, Larch, Three-thorned Acacia, English Elms and Oaks
are apt to die when planted in the fall, as are the European Larch,
Ash, Laburnum, Beech, and Chestnut.
It may seem to one not familiar with our ornamental trees, that
these exceptions cut off nearly the whole number; but a glance at
the list of trees offered at any first-class nursery, will show that
the varieties mentioned above as exceptions are but a small part
of the list; and many of those I except will not die entirely if
well planted in the fall; they are sure to spring anew from the
root, but the top is apt to be winter-killed.
And once for all, it is better to plant any of the excepted list in
October, with the care just insisted on, than in spring in the com
160 
ORNAMENTAL.
mon, careless method. I repeat that the later in the fall the tree
is planted, the greater the danger of its being injured or killed.
Many things are to be considered in making plantations, whether
large or small, the neglect of which materially detracts from the
beauty of the plantation. In another month will be found some
lists of the trees and shrubs most desirable for this purpose.
OCTOBER'S HARVESTS.
When we think of the glowing woods and purple lights and
mists of October, it seems impossible that the analysis and description of this month's work can be contained in meagre words and
uninteresting narrative.  No month is so full of rich and varied
attractions, and none offers gratification and satisfaction to the diverse tastes of so many admirers.
Theoretically, October should be a sad month, for then the harvests are mostly gathered in, the fields are bare of the summer's
verdure, the woods in the first stages of leafy decay, the birds gone
or going to more genial climates, the garden rusty and full of seedy
or frost-stricken flowers; every thing telling of the departure of
genial summer and the approach of chill winter.
How opposite to this is the truth! Now the farmer's heart overflows with the consciousness of his wealth. The rent roll of the
largest land-owner, the stocks and bonds of the richest broker, the
ships and warehouses of the most princely merchant, can never
give their owners such an overflowing and contented feeling of
well-rewarded labor, as the crowded barns and granaries, and wellstocked linters and folds give the farmer.  He has labored hard
through the summer's heat, has cast many and anxious glances at
the clouds and winds, has listened with strained ear for the creaking of ponderous wagons loaded with hay, as his experienced eye
read the threats in the gathering clouds. But now under his own
roof are gathered the accumulated and condensed rays of the sun
and breaths of summer zephyrs; the earth's fatness and its increase
have contributed to make him rich. As he stands on his barn
floor with the last rays of the sun just gilding the contented faces
of the cattle enjoying their evening meal or chewing their cud,
14*
161 
OCTOBER.
and hears the rhythmical beating of the milk on the empty pails,
or its muffled sound as the rapid stream is lost in foam, harmonizing
with the quiet cooings of pigeons or the occasional drowsy remonstrance of some hen or chick crowded on the well-filled roost, his
heart cannot fail to overflow with gratitude and thanksgiving for
God's goodness. and nature's bounties. The undeniable signs of
wealth on all sides give him more positive satisfaction than any less
tangible property can awaken in its owner. The miser to enjoy
his hoard must lock his door and chink the gold pieces together,
else half his pleasure is wanting. Bare ownership never rewards
men; the reward is in seeing the possession, and showing it to
others. The well-filled crib, the high-piled hay-stack or bay, the
low of sleek cattle, the peaceful bleat of sheep, all reiterate in
tones unmistakable to us and to our neighbors, our prosperity and
thrift, and bear constant witness to our summer's work.
Go to a farmer at such a time if you wish him to contribute to
any worthy cause, and you will scarcely be refused.
And it is not the farmer only that October cheers and delights.
To the eyes of all who love nature, it offers, not decay and death, but
a rich display of her choicest beauties. Every tree is now decked in
its most glowing attire; it seems as though all the sun's warmth and
the earth's rich fatness had been collected and absorbed, only to be
returned infinitely increased and improved. The air feels its duties
enlarged, and is changed into blue and purple mists, that envelop all
the hills and fill the valleys. Nothing is as it was. The hedgerows
that all summer long have been the home of the cat bird and the
thrush, and whose floral beauties have hidden their heads in the thick
verdure and shadow from the too ardent caresses of the sun, are now
radiant with the yellow Golden-rod and the purple Aster; in the
brown meadows these flowers are almost put to shame by the rare
blue of the Gentian. Rising from the meadows through these
flower-mists of Asters and Golden-rods, gaining intensity of color
as it reaches the Birches, Maples, Chestnuts, and Oaks, blended to gether and yet made more brilliant by the purple atmosphere, the
spirit of Beauty in color grows more and more wonderful and mag nificent, till the splendors of the earth rival those of the sunset. It
seems as if a consciousness of the long sleep of winter now near
162 
ORNAMENTAL.
at hand had roused the material world to show its gratitude to its
Lord and Master for his constant care and kindness- for the gentle
rains and winds of spring -for the hot and stimulating suns of
summer- for the bounteous harvests of autumn-into one resounding hallelujah, in whose song the voice of the smallest flower is not
lost, though blended with the mighty tones of forest and mountain.
His heart must be dead who can walk the woods and fields now,
careless or unconscious of the beauty around him.
The harvest of the farmer is nearly over, and although
"        like coals of fire the apples
Glow among the withered leaves,"
he has little more to look for. But now is the very high noon of
the harvest of beauty, which beginning for the true lover of nature
in the Violet and May-flower of the spring, has been constantly
swelling by brook and river, in the deep valley and up the hillsides, all summer long, till now its fully ripened field is spread
out over every foot of the earth's surface, and only waits the sickle
of the reapers, who may cut and store away in their memories
seed-grain which shall feed their minds in all the years to come,
and growing and swelling in them, shall make them fit to participate in all the bounties that God so lavishly pours upon his children
through Nature.
163 
CHAPTER XXIHI.
GREENHOUSE.
fOVEMBER.  The work of the Greenhouse
a     ~ e  in November is a continuation of that for
October.  All plants should by this time
have been housed, for the most hardy cannot
withstand the frosts which may come any
night.  It will not be necessary to start fires
at present, unless we have a long cold rain                    storm, or a cold "snap."
This month and the next are the true winter for nearly all the
plants in the houses.
Such plants as have been carried in to blossom (Chrysanthemums, etc.) are of course in their glory, and must have abundance
of air, sun, and water; all other plants are to be watered very
sparingly, and aired often enough to keep them hardy and vigorous; there will be a constant tendency to decay and mildew, which
can be prevented by fresh air and the immediate removal of any
dead or dying leaves, twigs, etc.  Water only when there is a
promise of bright weather, evaporation being slow in the present
half dormant condition of the plants, and large supplies of water
being likely to drown the roots.
Be very careful that no cold finds you unprepared. In November there are often ten days or a fortnight of perfect weather, the
true Indian Summer; but the nights are often very much colder
than would be expected from the warmth of the days.
If there are any bulbs now going out of flower, as Tuberoses or
exotic bulbs, which are not to be stimulated during the winter,
cover them with dry sand or moss, and lay them away in a warm,
dry place, till spring.
Shut up the sashes early in the afternoon; put up the shutters
164 
GREENHOUSE.
and let down the cover for the glass by the time the sun is fairly off
the house. In this way you may keep a deal of warmth through
the night.
The gardener's judgment about keeping up his supply of flowers
is severely tested in November and December. No good collection need ever be destitute of flowers; but our chief reliance must
be on the common sorts, and principally on those that were taken
from the flower-garden; Roses, Heliotropes, Chrysanthemums,
Verbenas, and the early-laid Pinks. It is difficult to get much
variety beyond this. Cinerarias, Callas, Violets, Cyclamens, Pelargoniums, Nemophilas, should be shifted, as they fill the pot with
roots; water the Azaleas sparingly, and give Oranges and Lemons
but little water till they grow. Camelias need abundant water,
and occasional showering or washing of leaves, to remove dust.
As the Carnations thrust up flower stems, tie them to sticks; set
Pelargoniums near the glass, and bring Tenweek Stocks into the
house near the glass; keep Spring Roses in cold frames.
As in almost every house many plants are kept for the purpose
of bedding out in the spring, and others for forcing in early summer, one or more good pits should be made to contain them.
I will describe several kinds of cold or conservative pits, in
which plants may be kept either dormant or active. They should
be made about November, to be ready for plants when first removed from the garden.
The chief obstacles to wintering plants in pits, is their liability
to be harmed by vermin, and the difficulty of regulating light and
hleat.
A CHEAP PIT. - Select a piece of ground sheltered from the
prevailing winter winds, and rather level, but with natural drainage
enough to prevent water standing within 3 feet of the surface.
Mark out a parellelogram of the proportions 2 x 3, the length
running east and west if possible, the width never exceeding 6
feet; 4 is better for convenience in managing.   Dig this parallelogram 3 feet deep, and throw the earth out; into the bottom of
this cellar, and within three inches of each corner, drive into the
earth a 3 x 4 joist; those on the back, 5-2 feet long, on the front,
165 
NOVEMBER.
4-2; this will leave them 18 and 6 inches respectively above the
surface of the ground. To these posts, on the inside all round,
nail inch boards from the bottom of the pit to the surface of the
ground; this leaves a space 6 inches wide between the boards and
the sides of the cellar; fill this space with oak tan or manure, well
trodden or rammed. Now nail inch boards to both sides of the
joists above ground, and fill the space between with well rammed
tan. You have now a pit the top of which slopes to the south or
east. Nail across the top grooved strips of wood, at such distances
as to receive the edges of sashes and shutters.
The construction of the pit within will differ, according as the
plants are to be kept over in pots or not.
If in pots, cover the bottom of the pit 6 inches deep with stones
(having first underdrained, if the natural drainage is bad); over
them put 1 foot of oak tan, or coal ashes, into which plunge the
pots up to the brim; this may be done any time before the first
frosts.
The objects to be sought are dryness, ventilation, and warmth;
the first to be secured by drainage, natural or artificial; the second
as follows: cover the frames, as you would a hotbed, with sashes, to
slide in the grooves before mentioned; in the early morning and
late afternoon keep the sashes closed, but open them partly in the
middle of the day until settled cold weather comes. At night
cover the sashes with mats held in their places by boards; you
will thus keep a moderate, uniform temperature in the pit. Just
before winter, drive down a post 2 feet from each corner of the pit,
and on a line 2 feet from the ends; set those on the back up a
little higher, and those on the front a little lower, than the parts of
the pit-roof nearest them; board up the outside of these posts, and
fill in between these boards and the pit with well trodden leaves.
Bank outside of all with leaves or long manure, as high as the
shutters and mats.
The cut shows a section of the pit.  a, interior of pit; B, corner
posts; c, inside boarding; d, outside boarding above ground; e,
sashes, etc.; f, second set of posts; g, boards on outside of these;
H, tan or leaf filling; i, outside bank.
When winter is about to set in, lay the shutters over the glass,
166 
GREENHOUSE.
over them straw matting, over the matting leaves or straw 6 inches
deep, sloping all to the
lower side; cover the whole
with loose boards to shed
rain.  Make openings from                   b     D
the outer air into the pit by          =                    _
thrusting a handful of straw                            _ly
at intervals of about 3 feet
through the covering into
the pit; they will act as ventilators, the air passing up and down
the straw. Whenever, during the winter, the outside temperature
rises above freezing, and promises to stay so even for a few hours,
uncover the whole top and open the sashes, so as to change the
air.  Before closing the pit in the fall, strew over the surface
of the earth plenty of poisoned meal or bread, to destroy any
vermin that may burrow in. When the pit is opened during the
winter, examine it, and remove any decaying plants or dead vermin, and water very slightly with tepid water, but not unless the
earth in the pots is very dry.
As spring approaches, the coverings may be gradually removed,
till the weather allows the plants to be treated as if they were in
an ordinary hotbed.
The success of the pit depends mainly on good drainage, gradual
hardening of the plants during the fall, and as frequent admission
of air and light through the winter and spring as possible.
If the plants are put directly into the earth instead of pots, the
pit must be managed differently.
First fill in 6 inches of loose stones, then 1 foot of oak tan, or
compact short manure; over this 1 foot of rich loam. As early
as the middle of September plant in this loam Geraniums, Heliotropes, Verbenas, etc. Treat like a hotbed; give air and water
often enough to properly ventilate and stimulate the plants. When
they seem to be well rooted, and begin to make a new growth, give
all the air possible. Keep the sashes off whenever the nights are not
too cold, and gradually reduce the water to a minimum; be careful
that they are not touched by frost, and if necessary cover at night
with mats or shutters; the aim being to harden the plants slowly,
167 
NOVEMBER.
and by checking their growth to throw them into a dormant state.
From this point treat as if they were in pots.
An excellent conservative pit may be made in which to winter all
kinds of plants, if we have the control of a small amount of heat.
Such a pit should be a permanent structure, and will therefore be
rather more expensive than the one just described.  I do not mean
what is often called a conservative pit, in which flowers can be produced during the winter, but one where plants can be ventilated and
kept in a more healthy condition than in a close pit. The objection
to the pit before described, is that it is unsightly and clumsy, and
destitute of abundant ventilation; the one now to be described can
be in any portion of the ground without offending the eye or the
nose. There are few or none like it in this country, but it is common in England, and recommended by the best English authorities.
It is 6 feet wide, 321 feet high behind, 22-1 feet high in front, with
hollow brick walls, the air chamber thus left being a better nonconductor than 9 inches of solid brick, beside affording a means
for ventilating and heating. Length such as you please. The pit
may be either wholly or partly above ground. Its site is a matter
of some importance, to secure ready drainage and convenience in
warming. It would be well to have it near the greenhouse, the
dwelling-house, or the barn cellar. The cut shows how it could
receive warmth from dung, and more, if necessary, from hot-water
pipes. If the plants to be preserved need 221 feet in the clear, dig 2
feet additional of cellar. Cover the bottom with coal ashes to absorb
any water that may
fall through. Carry
h  up  the walls, b b,
./ on the pigeon-hole
_ system; i.e., lav
I rug them so as to leave
_:_  an open space every
other brick, the size
k",                                    I                               ontepgenhl
__            #d __                       i                    ~|yte;-e.                          a
_=-f-. _t11,
of the end of a brick. When you reach the surface of the ground,
c, begin to carry up either a solid brick wall 9 inches thick, or a
double wall; in the latter case, let the air chamber connect with the
I
168
r, 
GREENHOUSE.
pigeon-holes below, so that the air warmned by the lining or the fire,
may ascend into the air chamber. Carry through the walls near
the floor, and thence by an elbow to the surface, pipes, g, 3 inches
in diameter, and 6 feet apart, with a movable cover, to admit outside air to the bottom of the pit, the chill being taken off in its passage through the lining in the chamber d, and the warming being
completed by contact with the hot pipes. Build the outer wall, e,
of solid brick, 2 feet from the inside wall; cover d with a lid
shutting down tight. The heating pipes are shown at h. Build
a floor, i, about on a level with the surface of the ground,
of crossed strips of wood, making an open work, through which
water spilled at any time will fall to the coal ashes below and be
absorbed; on this floor the pots are to be set.
No provision is made for aeration, as no cold air holes are to be
allowed above the surface in severe weather; at other times the
sashes may be raised enough to allow confined air to escape; but
fresh air will be admitted through b whenever the valve which controls it at the top is open.
The chamber between the brick walls at d being filled with welltranmpiled, unfermented stable manure, the heat from this will spread
through the pigeon-holes in the wall b, and suffice for all but the
most severe weather; this filling must be changed as often as it
loses its heat. When d is full, shut f and cover it with boards
and straw. The pipes h h are to be connected with the house furnace or boiler or range, or with the boiler in the greenhouse, or
the smoke-flue of some constantly used chimney may be carried
under the floor. The sashes are movable, and in cold weather
covered with shutters and mats; the latter must be large enough
to cover and lap over the joists.
When the preservation of the plants is the sole object, it is well
to let the pit face the north, that the plants may not be too much
heated and stimulated to grow; but if a gentle, early growth is
desired, the aspect should be toward the south or east. In summer
the sashes can be removed, and in spring the heat can be regulated
by admitting air.
No heating pipes or flues would be necessary, if the depth and
width of d were so increased as to hold a large body of manure,
15
169 
NOVEMBER.
which must be removed and renewed as often as it loses its heat.
The outer air should always be introduced into the bottom of the
pit, that it may be warmed before it reaches the plants. Remember
that perfect dryness is essential to the success of such a pit.
Many of the half-hardy plants can be carried through the winter
in a pit thus managed, with but little manure, and that seldom renewed; the half-hardy Roses often live through our winter with
only a covering of straw, and Pelargoniums and Verbenas can endure a considerable degree of cold.
Span-roofed cold-pits made in this manner, cost but little more,
and like all span-roofed buildings, they are better when light and
air can be admitted; but during our severe winters they are protected with more difficulty.
By the use of a peculiarly made rafter, additional warmth may
be secured. The cut shows a section of such a
rafter; b is a shoulder where the sash rests and
slides; c is another shoulder where a wooden
shutter slides; a button, a, keeps it in place. The
7   N ^ mair chamber, 2 inches deep, between b and c, is
a better protection than an additional shutter.
November is the proper month for cleaning
and mending hotbed frames, making new ones,
and getting them all ready for spring. Hotbeds may be made as
simply as one pleases, and at a very small cost. The rough and
cheap kinds answer very well, but require more care and watching
than the best. We have several varieties on our place, which will
be described hereafter.
Many half-hardy and even quite tender plants may be safely
preserved till spring, by freezing them up. Surround them with
rough deal boxes, leaving the top open until violent freezing
weather comes on. When they are well frozen cover the tops and
exclude light and air till the spring is so far advanced as to remove
danger of hard freezing; then gradually uncover and thaw them
out. In many cases it is not so much the freezing which destroys
life, as the alternation of frequent freezings and thawings; this
may be prevented in the way described.
170 
CHAPTER XXIV.
CONSERVATORY.
THERE is but little to be done in the conservatory this month.
The general management is the same as in the greenhouse; but as
more plants are in blossom than in that house, there is need of more
heat, lest they be checked and their buds damped off. All that is
necessary, however, is to keep a mild and uniform temperature,
water moderately, and give no general syringing except on bright
days.
The Camelias are swelling their buds considerably, and if the
gardener has shown due attention, there will be a good general
supply of flowers.
'In no month is a beautiful collection of flowers more cheering
than now, when the glow and beauty of October are slipping away
to join the by-gone glories of summer.  The trees have lost their
leaves, and the occasional Aster or Golden-rod to be met with in
our walks, only renders the contrast of naked trees, sere and yellow leaves, frost-burnt grass and deserted garden, more sad.
There will still be beautiful days, and during the true Indian
summer, when the skies are full of warm, vague lights, and a mysterious haze clothes every thing and penetrates everywhere, we
shall bask contentedly in the sunshine; but such days will soon be
gone. They are the last lingering kisses summer is giving the beloved earth ere she goes. They are indeed beautiful, yet always
sad.   Nature seems tearfully bidding good-by to the loveliness
that lingers in the land; and as in our memories the pleasures of
the past are most prominent, and'veil with their rosy light and
pleasant indistinctness the sorrows, the painful experiences, the
days of sickness and misery, so is the face of the earth suffused
with the exhaling memories of spring and summer; the trees and
rocks and grassy meadows are all bathed in rare purple and golden
171 
NOVEMBER.
lights, and covered and penetrated with mists and vapors, which
seem to clothe lovingly and sympathizingly the trunks and limbs
that have stripped in preparation for their coming contest with the
winter storms.
But these tender and precious memories are still those that rise
as good-by is spoken. As we stroll through the woods, our feet
rustle in fallen leaves. We look out through naked stems and
branches over wide views, which but a few weeks ago were hidden
by thick, leafy curtains. No birds fill the air with cheerful songs,
though an Occasional partridge whirs away before us, or a quail
rises to find more secret cover.   The busy squirrel hastens from
tree to tree with quick leap and sharp bark, eagerly gathering the
remaining nuts for his winter's store. Before our walk has been
carried to half its former length, the shortening day and setting
sun remind us that home-life and firelight must take the place of
the prolonged rambles of the summer that is gone.
In such days we receive peculiar delight upon entering a wellfilled conservatory, whose fresh, green leaves, bright flowers, and
delicious fragrance beguile the senses, and together with the warm
sun and still air, induce the belief that summer has not gone, but
has only come in from the fields without, where she was common
to all, and yet had about her something of the unapproachable and
grand, to our hearts and homes, that nearness and daily familiarity
may make us more intimate with her workings, and unlock to us the
secrets of her growth and perfection; and, by bringing us closer to
her may awaken or strengthen our love for her wonders and beauties, and bring us into sympathy with the floral loveliness so lavishly
spread on all sides during the growing year.
172  
~'.ott
-'2            ~-                                   -
RESIDENCE OF J. FRANCIS FIShIER, I'I{ILA. 
CHAPTER XXV.
THE grapery makes but slight demands on the gardener's attention during this month; the retarding-house alone needing careful
watching, as the fruit there begins to ripen, and in order to preserve it a long time, a uniform and rather low temperature must be
maintained.   During  bright, dry weather admit air freely, to
sweeten and dry the house, but never do this when it is cloudy or
damp. Dryness and uniformity of temperature are now the desirable things. If it were possible to darken the house as soon as
the fruit is fairly ripe, the Grapes could be better preserved, but it
would be at the expense of the vines.   Disbud the vines, as directed in February. Grapes on vines, retarded in pots, may be
preserved by setting the pots into a cool, dark room, as most cultivators attach no farther value to these vines, which, like all others,
are certain to be injured by prolonged darkness.
Many ingenious plans have been invented for preserving Grapes,
and with various success. For instance: cut off the bunch, with
a bit of the wood, by which it may be hung up in a cool, dark,
dry place, and kept for a long time without shrivelling.
The berries, however, lie on one another, and often rot; it has,
therefore, been proposed to suspend the bunch by a string, tied to
the stem, near the small end, thus inverting the cluster, so that
every berry may fall back from its neighbors, and contact be
avoided; cut a long cane with the bunch, and set its end in water,
removing a section occasionally, to ensure absorption.
Again: lay the bunches in drawers covering, and supporting
ealch with cotton batting; this keeps them pretty well. Undoubtedly the method given before for pears -packing between layers
of flannel or cotton, in tight buckets, would be excellent for grapes.
15*                                    173
GRAPERY. 
NOVEMBER.
But the vines are the best place for them as long, as they can well
be kept there.
With a separate house or compartment for each kind of vine, the
fruit could be better preserved, as different vines ripen at different
seasons, and need different degrees of heat and moisture to bring
them to, and keep them in, the best condition. But this is not
within our means.
Prune vines in forcing-house, and cold grapery, as the wood
ripens; also the fruit trees.
Mr. Allen, to whom I have frequently referred, gives, as the
best vines for retarding-houses, the following names, and proportions.  If the house is small, have fewer vines; if large, more in
the same proportion.
Canmon Hall Muscat,
White Hamburgh,
Escholata Muscat,
White Nice,
Red Lombardy,
Queen of Nice,
Bowker,
Bishop,
Black Portugal, or Ferrara,
Prince Albert,
TEMPERATURE. -To ensure the right temperature in all our
houses, during November and December, it is necessary to watch
the thermometer closely, ant have the fires ready to kindle at a
moment's notice. Our climate is treacherous in these months, and
we often have several days of unexpected and severe frost, followed by many of mild and charming weather.
Now, and in future, it is very important to preserve a standard
and uniform degree of moisture in the house; and the only accurate means of determining moisture and warmth is the hygrometer
or double-bulbed thermometer. By this instrument you may easily
ascertain the precise amount of heat and moisture present in the
air at any one time. To understand it, and its use, we must revert
to the general laws which govern the atmosphere.
The evaporation which goes on so rapidly beneath a summer
174
Black Hamburgh,
Muscat of Alexandria,
Zinfindal,
Black Lombardy,
Wortlyhall Seedling,
Tottenham Park Muscat,
Syrian,
Black Damascus,
Black Prince,
Old Black St. Peter's,
6
2
1
5
3
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3 
GRAPERY.
sun, is water assuming the form of vapor, and rising in accordance
with the general laws of gases. Gases do not generally, when
mixed together, form a single gas, but only a mixture, like sand and
water. Thus the vapor, in the air, spreads itself by its own elasticity, dependent on its temperature, or is carried about in currents
of moving air. The amount of vapor which a cubic foot of space
can contain, depends solely on its temperature; although the time
required to fill that space with vapor, from water of the same temperature, depends on the density of the air in it, by which the expansion of the vapor is retarded. If air, containing all the vapor
which its temperature admits, be chilled in any degree, a part of 
its vapor will be changed into water, in a state of very minute subdivision, which will float like dust in the air; this is fog, mist, or
cloud. If the air is at 70~, but contains only as much vapor as
might be held by air of 570, it is plain that mist would not be
formed until the air was cooled down to 57~. The degree to which
air must be cooled, to make the vapor in it turn to water, is called
the dewpoint; and the dewpoint evidently shows the quantity of
water in the air.
When the dewpoint is high, and the air is by any means forced
to ascend, and thus by expansion and other causes, to be cooled,
clouds are formed. The upward motion of the air is indicated by
the barometer's falling.
When any surface is colder than the dewpoint, it chills the adjacent vapor into dew.    The  simplest exemplification of this
is seen when a cold surface is held over a steaming kettle, and
condenses into drops the water which we see in the form of steam;
and when a film of water collects on the outside of a glass of
iced water, in summer, the same operation is repeated, the only
difference being that the watery vapor has before been invisibly
diffused in the air, instead of being visible as steam. The cold,
condensing surface which nature holds to collect a portion of the
unseen moisture in the atmosphere, as dew, is the surface of the
earth, and the things upon it. Dew falls by night, and not by day,
because the sun-heats prevents the earth from cooling during the
day, though it is radiating (i.e., parting with) its heat as constantly
175 
NOVEMBER.
at one time as at another. All night long the earth gives off heat,
while it receives none in return, and thus it becomes colder than
the air that is nearest it, and begins to take heat from the air, i.e.,
becomes at once a cold, condensing surface, and dew is deposited
on it. Remember that cold surfaces become condensers in virtue
of their power to draw away that heat from the air, on which, as
has been said, its power of containing vapor partly depends. The
rapidity with which dew is deposited depends, therefore, on the
warmth of moisture in the air, and on the difference between its
temperature and that of the earth; cold condenses moisture as
the hand squeezes a sponge, and when either the air or the sponge
is nearly as full of moisture as it can hold, a slight squeeze brings
out the water.
Objects with a large amount of surface in proportion to their
bulk, as is the case with grass and trees, radiate heat most rapidly,
and are, of course, the best condensers, as may be seen by the
greater amount of dew on them than on smooth ground or boards.
In cold nights the dew freezes as it forms, and we have frost.
Independently of the cooling influence of the earth, the atmo.phere cools somewhat at night, though its power of radiation is as
small as its power of absorbing the heat radiated into it.
It is for this reason that a covering of mats in a cloudy night
protects plants from frost- the mats or clouds acting as a screen
to prevent the escape of the heat which the earth is radiating, and
to shut it in about the surface which they cover.
Understanding, then, that the power of the atmosphere to contain watery vapor depends mainly on its temperature, its heat,
and the amount of moisture already contained in it, we see the
value of an instrument by which these two conditions, the heat,
and extent of saturation, may be ascertained; in connection with
the barometer it enables us to foresee changes of weather. The
hygrometer is a thermometer with two bulbs and stems; about one
of the bulbs a bit of cambric is fastened by one end, while the
other falls into a cup of water, placed just beneath the bulb, and
thus keeps the bulb constantly wet, and at the temperature of
water standing exposed in the atmosphere, to which temperature
the air must closely assimilate before any rain can fall, and this
176 
GRAPERY.
temperature may be read off by the height of the mercury in the
wet tube, while that in the other tube shows the temperature of
the air not in contact with the wet bulb.
So long as there is much difference in the temperatures shown
by the two thermometers, there will be no general deposition of
moisture, dew, nor especially rain, for that cannot take place till the
general temperature approaches the dew point. But the upper
strata of air may be at this point, and the probability of rain is
greater or less in proportion to the distance of air thus saturated,
and cooled from the earth's surface.   The air cools 14~ and the
dew point sinks 1~ for every 100 yards that we rise above the
earth.
If the barometer is falling while the difference of temperature
between the two tubes of the hygrometer is slight, it is plain that
we may expect a change of weather soon, at the surface level;
and this will come the sooner if the sky is crowded with cirro
cumuli clouds,- particularly if the cumuli have flat bases, -the
cirrus at such times showing a very moist state of the upper air.
By the following formula the probability of wet weather may
be calculated from the hygrometer, the barometer being examined
at the same time. When there is a difference of 20~ between the
wet and dry bulbs clouds can scarcely form; but they form when
the difference is reduced to 10~ or 12~, and then rain may be expected, provided the barometer is falling.
Multiply the difference between Wet Bulb   and  Dry Bulb
40~               450
45~               500
50~               550
55~               60~
60~               65~
65~               700
above 70~
Subtract the product from the figures of the dry bulb in the same
line, - that is, from the temperature of the air, - and you have
the dew point. When the two bulbs are within a few degrees of
177
by
2.3
2.1
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.5 
j1
NOVEMBER.
each other, a very slight commotion in the atmosphere will produce rain. Thus, suppose
Dry Bulb. Wet Bulb.
70~- 65~0 = 5~ X 1.7 = 8~
70~-    8~ =  62~ = dew point.
To this point the atmosphere will often cool in summer, and
in all cases where the multiplying factor is 1.1, or when, in
other words, the thermometers are near the same point, rain is
threatening, and will fall soon. For the general use of horticulture, it is enough to compare th, two thermometers of the hygrometer, without making a calculation, for this tells accurately
enough to what extent the air is saturated.
Thus in the retarding-house in November, we can ascertain at a
glance whether the air is too moist, or if with the air in the forcing
house at a given temperature we wish to increase the moisture,
we can proceed with perfect certainty of success.
It is also a great assistance, in connection with the barometer,
to the haymaker, in deciding upon the weather to be expected.
And it is the general service which the instrument may render in
the hands of a careful experimenter, which has induced me to enlarge to such an extent as I have, on the subject.
THE  FORCING-HOUSE. - This house needs only to be kept
clear of all decaying matter, ventilated freely, and kept at a uniform temperature, and, as before said, pruned if the wood is ripe.
So with the
COLD  GRAPERY. -Keep the vines here as cool as possible,
without risk of injury from frost. As soon as the leaves begin to
fall, early in the month, cut back all this year's cane, excepting 4
feet; cut the spurs which have fruited back to the new wood, and
those which have not, to one eye which may bear next year.
This is a good time to cut out all spurs that crowd each other,
leaving the permanent spurs not less than 8 inches apart on the
178 
GRAPERY.
same side of the stem. Clean the grapery thoroughly, and whitewash the walls, mixing a little sulphur with the wash.  Dress the
vines, as directed for Peaches in February, with the sulphur wash;
towards the close of the month, unfasten them from the trellisses
and lay them down for the winter, and as the weather becomes
cold, cover with mats.
179 
CHAPTER XXVI.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
NOVEMBER is the last month of the flower-garden for this calendar year; now is to be done every thing left unfinished in the preceding months. Finish planting any bulbs yet on hand. They may
be planted, indeed, any time before the frost comes, but will blossom better, if planted early enough to make roots in the autumn.
The beds should be covered with litter; common Tulips, Hyacinths, Narcissus, and Crocuses, need very slight protection; the
depth of an inch or two of old litter, straw, or leaves, scattered
over the bed, is enough; indeed, they are so hardy that they can
stand the frost without any covering at all, but they flower earlier
and better if they are covered. The choice varieties should be
protected, with some well-rotted compost added to the litter.
You may still, if there is room in the greenhouse, etc., take up
Daisies and Pansies, Gilly and Wall-flowers, which have not blossomed, for winter forcing. Daisies may be carried through the
winter in blossom, if transplanted now, with a good ball of earth,
into a common hotbed frame. As soon as planted, put in the
sashes, and keep them warm enough to start them; then admit air
freely, so as to harden them. From this time, keep the sashes
on only enough to shut out the frost; cover them with mats
and leaves on very cold days; admit air whenever it is possible.
The Daisies will begin to blossom, if attended to by the last of
MIarch, and continue till the hotbeds can be removed from around
them. The same treatment of English Violets and Pansies will
insure a large yeild of flowers early in the spring.
Ranunculuses and Anemones in this latitude are very difficult
to raise, unless protected through the winter in some such way as
I have just described; some of the latter are so tender as to need
as much care and attention as a cold pit.
180 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Early in the month, or before the ground freezes, take up all
bulbs not hardy, as Tuberose, Madeira Vine, Lilies, Amaryllis,
Gladiolus, etc.; dry them carefully and pack them away in dry
sand till it is time to start them in the spring. The foliage of
some of these bulbs will have already perished, while that of
others will be green unless touched by the frost. Allow the tops
of the latter to dry before you separate them from the roots after
they are taken up. The sap contained in the tops will settle into
and ripen the bulbs.
The Polyanthus is quite hardy in this latitude, but the choice kinds
flower much more abundantly when covered during the winter.
Carnations, also, though hardy, are sometimes killed by being
started in the warm days in February and March, and ought to be
protected by a light covering of litter.
Select from your bulbs such as are to blossom in glasses or pots,
in the greenhouse, conservatory, or dwelling-house, in the spring,
and plant them or set them into glasses. For this purpose select
none but the ripest and healthiest-looking bulbs, as any others will
give a weak and spindling growth, and perhaps prove deficient in
flowers. The bulbs fitted for such growth are Tulip, Hyacinth,
Dwarf-Iris, Polyanthus, Narcissus, Crocus, and Jonquil. Regular
bulb glasses are the best things to use; set the bulb into the neck
of the glass and fill with water until it just covers the crown of
the bulb. If you take a large glass, and cover the mouth with
coarse wire gauze, you can set into it several kinds of bulbs, which
will blossom together.
Protect the tender Rhododendrons, Half Hardy Roses, Mahonia,
and, indeed, all tender Evergreen or deciduous shrubs, with bass
mats, Evergreen branches, or straw. For the Evergreens it will
be enough to stand branches of Pine or Hemlock closely around
them; what they need is protection, not so much against cold as
against the sun's rays in the early spring. Most of the other plants
should have straw bands twisted around them, but not in thick
masses, as the straw is liable to get wet, or heat and decay, and
thus destroy the plant. Standard Roses should be laid down on
the earth, where they may be held by long forked sticks, and
covered with straw or leaves, overlaid with branches of Evergreen.
16
181 
NOVEMBER.
Bengal and China Roses must be covered either with earth or
deep litter; Musk, Noisette, and Ayrshire should be well wrapped
in straw and mats; Bourbon in light litter; Hyb. Bourbon, Hyb.
Chinese, Hyb. Perpetual should be lightly wrapped in straw;
Provence, French Moss, Rose Alba, and other garden Roses should
be pruned and have a little manure piled about their roots and be
left. Prune all hardy Roses before covering, leave tender kinds
till March or April. For Rose culture see June and July.
Examine the borders and remove every weed, and, if possible,
dig them over, also the flower-beds and borders, so that the
loosened earth may admit the frost freely, to crumble stones and
clods, and kill the eggs of insects and the seeds of weeds. Any
beds that will need manure next summer should have a good
dressing of long and unfermented manure now; this being dug in
will, during the winter, ferment and decay, and bring the soil into
fine condition for next season's culture.
As you will want next spring and summer a variety of compost,
make into convenient heaps old leaves, straw manure, wood mould,
muck and clay, or sand. These mixed with lime and ashes will
make excellent compost, ready for use when you want it.
Examine the gravel walks, - dig out any weeds that have been
left, and put on and roll well such gravel as is needed; the frost
will mix it with the old stock, and another rolling in the spring
will give us paths in firstrate order.
Baskets and all wire-work should be removed now into the toolroom for the winter, and the beds enclosed with wire-work be well
dug over.
Look over the vines on trellises; clear away dead branches,
prune off all straggling ends, and tie the vines carefully to the
supports, lest the winter winds thresh them about; untie and cover
with straw or mats the tender Roses and Bignonias.
Most of the perennials should have been planted in October,
but it is not too late any time before hard frosts. I will accordingly
now give a plan for planting one of our beds with perennials, and
bedding out plants, to produce an agreeable effect.
See plan, beds R.   The  numbers on the plan refer to the
182 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
heights of plants; 1 for the highest, and so on. The following is
the list of plants for those beds: -
e of Flower.      Height.
May,              8 in.
No. 1.  Saxifrage,
Uvularia grandi          flora,
Primula,
Double Ragged
Robin,
Purple Lupin,
Iris,
Blackberry Lily,
Spirea,
Lychnis,
Fraxinella,
Monarda,
Hibiscus,
Lily,
No. 2. Solomon's Seal,
Columbine,
Primiula,
Hairy Phlox,
Canadian Lily,
Garden Pink,
Campa,nula, double
and single,
Flax,
Double Lychnis,
Antirrhinum,
Lily,
Aster double,
Ladies Tresses,
foa1 ft.       yellow,
Piul"      yellow, red,
Roin'red,
2 ft.           blue,
3 ft.       blue, white,
18 in.         yellow,
Sie"'       various,
2 ft.         scarlet,
rai a" Jy    blue,
"   white, scarlet,
"iics  Cvarious,
1 to 3 ft.         "
o SoM1 ft.     white,
"umia'various,
ri a"'yellow, red,
6 in.            red,
GadnPn,"       sorts,
Achillea,
Asters Single,
No. 3. Moss Pink or
Plhlox,
Pulmonaria,
Lily of the Valley,
May,          6 in.          red, white,
"            ".         purple,
"            "l                white,
June,           "             white, blue,
July,          I ft.          blue, white,
In No. 3 room is to be left for some of the bedding plants. For
183
Color.
white,
No. Plants.
1.
2.
I.
11
June,
11
11
July,
11
May,
11
June,
11
11
1.
I.
3.
1.
2.
3.
3,
3.
4.
3.
4.
2.
1.
2.
6.
11
11
July,
11
11
11
11
I ft.
I ft. to 6 in.
11
I)Iue and yellow,
scarlet,
sorts,
11
3.
2.
2.
3.
3.
12.
2.
2.
.6.
11
Aug.
11
11
white,
red, white,
sorts,
6 in.
I ft.
Atig., Sept.,
11
2.
1 1
many.
2.
2.
Campanula, 
NOVEMBER.
such a bed, place in the back part near the larger perennials, several roots of Sage; Mlexican and Large Purple.  Coming forward
in the bed, put in Orange Lantana, Heliotrope, Pelargonium (Tom
Thumb, Horse-shoe, etc.), Trailing Lantana, and Verbena; in front,
along the edge of the path, will be sown Mignonette and Sweet
Alyssum.
BED K.
Time of flower.    Height.
May,            1 ft.
June,          2-3 ft.
Dul" Lrp3 ft.
er n"         2 ft.
P y"         3 ft.
July,           2 ft.
Da cp um "   3 ft.
Ly"          1-3 ft.
August,          2 ft.
-            2 ft.
u"',.     2-3 ftw
{'sa         3 ft.
Aug., Sept.,       1-3 ft.
sceis"  "        2 ft.
....si"  "       2 ft.
September,        1-3 ft.
"            2 ft.
May,           18 in.
June,           1 ft.
I"         lto 3ft.
"            1 ft.
"n           1 ft.
c"ni       1 to 3 ft.
July,           1 ft.
D b Lhi "    1 ft.
"             2 ft.
"            1 ft.
184
Color.
yellow,
red,
red, white,
white,
blue,
11
white
blue, white
pink,
sorts,
blue
oran;e,
white,
blue, white
yellow,
11
red, yellow
yellow,
sorts,
blue,
white,
blue,
red,
11
white,
sorts,
yellow,
sorts,
blue,
white,
red,
11
.p ink.
No. Plants.
2.
2.
1 -
3.
1.
2.
1 -
I.
I I.
2.
4.
1 -
I -
2.
1                   3.
1 -
2.
1                    1.
2.
12.
2.
1.
2.
1 -
2.
3.
1.
3.
1 -
2.
2.
2.
I.
2.
No. 1. Pedicularis,
Uvularia,
Dielytra,'
Peony,
Penstemon,
Double Larkspur,
Vervain
Peony,
Fraxinella,
Dracocephalum,
Lily,
Cotonanche,
Galliardia,
Yucca,
Hemerocallis,
Cassia,
Golden-rod,
Aselepias,
Coreopsis,
Chrysanthemum,
Gentian,
No. 2. Saxifrage,
Delphineum,
Dodecatheon,
Soapwort,
Double Rocket,
Lily,
Senecio aurea,
Antirrhinum,
Aconite,
Chelone.
Double Lychnis,
Perpetual Pea,
Fumitory, 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Color.    No. plants.
blue, red,         3.
sorts,           10.
yellow,            3.
sorts,            3.
yellow,            3.
white,           2.
sorts,           3.
Violes      6.
blue,             2.
white,            3.
blue,            3,
blue,             2.
pink,             3.
sorts,            6.
blue,             1.
white,            1.
No. 2. Lobelia,
Phlox,          J
Coreopsis,
Wild Aster,
Golden-rod,
No. 3. Solomon's Seal,
Columbine,
Violets,
Polemonuim,
Lily of the Valley
Iris dwarf,
Hairy Phlox,
Garden Pinks,
Campanula,
Spiderwort,
Sedum,
Lysimachia Num
mularia,
Mallows,
Chinese Lychnis,
Ladies' Tresses,
Asters, double,
Achillea,
Eupatorium,
Chrysanthemum,
dwarf,
yellow,
white,
orange,
white,
sorts,
red,
blue and white,
Plant among these the same bedding plants as before, using as
annuals, Candytuft, Gillia, etc.; add, in the first class, Dahlias and
Hollyhocks, in the second, Tuberose, Gladiolus, Amaryllis, and
Japan Lily, etc.
The question arises here of the grouping of these plants in their
different sizes and classes; but no rule need be given except that
of' placing the taller ones in the background, that they may not
conceal the others. In setting out bedding-plants care must be
taken also to give harmonious effects of color.  This subject will
be more fully entered upon in the summer.
Here we leave the flower-garden until April and May with their
soft showers and warm sun and winds shall have cleared away the
effects of the winter's frosts, and prepared the earth for its work again.
16*
185
ime of flower.
July,
ly, Aug., Sept
July, Aug.,
g., Sept.,
11               11
May,
11
June,
June, July,
.11              11
11             11
Height.
I ft.
., 1-3 ft.
2 ft.
2 ft.
2 ft.
I ft.
6 in.
11
I ft.
6 in.
11
I ft.
11
6 in.
11 11
July, Aug.,
August,
Aug., Sept.,
11            11
September,
2 in. -
I ft.
I ft.
11
1-2 ft.
I ft.
I ft.
3.
1.
1.
2.
12.
I.
1.
sorts,
6. 
CHAPTER XXVII.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE question of the profit or loss of our kitchen-garden will be
settled this month, for there will be no more income or expenditure till another season.
But first comes a very busy time; for we must not only finish
all our harvesting, but prepare for spring work, and look to the
proper protection of the various crops which are to be kept through
the winter, either for consumption or spring culture.
Lettuce, Cabbage, and all small salads in frames, are to be frequently aired, to make them as hardy as possible. As the month
advances, the cold will become more severe; there will be some
days when the sashes must not be lifted at all, and must be covered
with mats. When winter fairly sets in, cover the sashes with
straw and leaves, enough to keep out the frost and the early spring
sun.
The very first of the month, thin the Spinach plants and the
Corn Salad, so that they may get hardy before winter. Handle
them carefully, as the leaves are tender, and if broken at all, are
very susceptible to the frost; when winter is close at hand, strew
over them loose straw or branches of evergreen trees; the plants
are hardy, but a slight covering will forward the growth of the
leaves in the early spring.  Cover young Onions in same way.
Earth Celery and Cardoons, etc., in the course of the month,
but only in dry weather, and make preparations for housing them
before settled cold weather.  The best way is to use one of the
hotbed frames; plant the Celery in rows, at the bottom of the
frame, and fill in carefully to the top with well-packed, just-moist
sand; then lay on the sashes; during mild weather give air, at all
other times keep well covered with mats and litter, but ventilate.
186 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
It can be planted the same way in the cellar, but it is likely to
rot unless kept cool and dry.
Another way of planting, inferior to the above, but still good, is
to select a row that runs north and south. Dig the rest of the
Celery, and bring it to this row. Take the plants which have
been dug, and lay them closely against the unbroken row, planting
the roots a little way in the ground. Having laid one row on each
side the ridge, cover slightly with sand, or dry loam, and lay
another row, and so on until you have laid all you have, or until
the ridge is as wide as can be easily managed. Cover the sides
with not less than 6 inches of loam, laid over with straw, hlaulm,
or leaves. Cover the top with litter. Drive down a post at each
corner of your now oblong mound, and others at intervals of 10
feet along each side, the tops being about level with the top of the
ridge. Connect the tops of the posts with a stringer, or wall-plate
of 2 x 3 joist.  Upon this wall-plate erect a roof, pitched just
enough to shed rain; this roof may be made by nailing boards
lapped over each other like shingles. The space between the top
of the ridge and the roof should be filled with litter, and the ends
of the ridge banked up in the same manner as the sides.  The
Celery and Cardoons are now safe from frost; and if the ridge is
opened only at the ends, and closed up again carefully, its contents
may be taken out whenever wanted, and will be fit to use until
spring. To avoid the expense of a roof, you can use haulm, or
straw, thatched enough to shed rain. It is a good way to pack the
side rows, tops and leaves down, and roots up, as when thus laid
no water can get into the heart of the plant, and it needs less protection. In all cases ventilate like Turnips with straw.
Cabbages and Cauliflowers are to be preserved in the same way.
Pull the Cabbages and lay them upside down on the ground, for a
time, to allow all the moisture to drain out; pull off the loose outside leaves, and then take them to a well sheltered spot, and plant
them up to the head; when planted, cover like Celery. Another
very good way is to build them up into a few triangular stacks,
then thatch and cover as before. The worst way is to keep them
in a cellar, unless it be very cool and dry. If any of them are
187 
NOVEMBER.
frozen before harvesting, leave them in the ground to thaw, as they
are more likely to decay if pulled up when frozen.
Late Cauliflowers and Broccoli will produce heads as long as
the absence of frost will allow; break leaves down over the heads
to protect them against sudden rain or cold.
Finish harvesting the Root crops, as directed last month. If
there is not room in the root cellar, the following is the best way
to preserve them.
Choose a warm and protected corner of a well-drained field,
and there make a furrow nearly 2 feet deep, by running your ditch
plough several times in the same line, north and south. Lay the
Roots into the furrow in a neatly built triangular stack, throw back
the earth all over the Roots, to the depth of a foot, and cover the
whole with straw. At intervals of 4 feet set a small bundle of
straw on its buts on the Turnips, so that the straw will reach into
the air through the earth, and will serve as a ventilator, to prevent
the Turnips heating and growing. Open when you want a supply
at the southern end, in a bright, warmish day.
All tubers may be easily and cheaply kept through the winter
in this way.
The last Roots to be cared for are the Turnips sown in August.
If left in the ground, freezing and thawing will injure them but
little, and it is better to have them so, than to put them into warm
cellars. Very small Turnips often remain in the ground through
the winter, and start afresh in the spring, if slightly protected with
straw or evergreen. The same is to be done with those Parsnips,
Oyster Plants, and Horse-radish, which you do not intend to
stack, that they may be easily dug in the spring. All these Roots
are better off in the ground than stored in cellars. But a better
way than either is to pack them in sand or coal ashes, in hotbeds,
as directed for Celery.
Take up Sea-Kale, Endive, Chicory, Asparagus, and Strawber ries, for forcing.
At every spare moment continue to dig in long manure and
haulm, and to dig over, without manure, those beds that do not
need it. Collect all litter, leaves, and rubbish, and carry them to
188 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
the hog-pen, if you have no other use for them. They disfigure
the grounds when left on them, and will be blown about by the
winter winds. See that by spring all the manure gets sufficient
fermentation to kill the seeds of weeds which have been mixed
with the heaps during summer.
Our kitchen-garden covers several acres, and is laid out in
straight lines and right angles. All I have said about it applies,
of course, to a garden definitely located, and in successful operation; but I shall now devote a little space to the consideration of
the general principles which should govern the selection and preparation of a spot for a kitchen-garden.
As to selection one must, of course, be limited by the nature
of his estate; but the best soil is a deep, rich, sandy loam;
the best exposure, a hill-side, sloping to the south or east, down
to level meadow or valley, for here earlier vegetables  can be
grown than on level surface. This is in accordance with the principles referred to in my remarks on the angle to be selected for the
roof of a greenhouse; viz., that the sun gives most heat when it
is most nearly over our heads; in other words, that any surface is
most heated by those rays which are perpendicular to it. Now, in
the spring, when the sun is low in the heavens, the surface of level
ground gets no rays, which approximate to the perpendicular, but
a hill-side, during the middle of the day, receives rays which are
very nearly perpendicular, and are, therefore, absorbed, instead of
being reflected and wasted.
But this increased supply of heat ceases to be an advantage as
the summer advances, and the heat increases, for then the level
land has enough, and the hill-side is dried up. In the fall perpendicular rays are again in demand, and the hill-side is again preferable to the level for gardening purposes. We see at once, then,
what varieties of crops to grow on different surfaces, and how te
vary our garden culture. The hill-side will give us early Radishes,
Lettuce, Peas, Corn, Cucumbers, Tomatoes, Melons; the level
ground will follow with later Lettuce, Peas, and Corn, Beans,
Roots of various kinds, Celery, and the later Salads.
It is well, then, that a kitchen-garden should include both level
189 
NOVEMBER.
and sloping ground, but it is vain to expect good crops from either
unless they are well drained; thorough drainage, either natural or
artificial, being as essential here as on the farm.
But the quality of soil, and the character of surface are not the
only considerations in selecting a spot for the kitchen-garden; its
position in relation to the house and the grounds in general is important. Let it be near the stables and hog-pens, the framing
ground and the hotbeds, if there be proper ground in that neighborhood; but wherever located, let it be for convenience, and not
for concealment, as is so often advised. There seems to be a general feeling that a kitchen-garden cannot be in harmony with ornamental grounds, and must, therefore, be removed from them, lest
the sight of it mar our enjoyment of their beauty. Now it is not
only a necessity, but it may be an ornament to every estate, as
much as the lawn or the flower-garden. What though its arrangement be rectangular, while curves preponderate in the other
grounds? the two are not necessarily at variance; the effect of
each may be much heightened by the contrast which the other presents. The love of the beautiful is often developed and the mind
kept active and appreciative by the stimulus of judicious contrast,
and a man of taste, who had avoided straight lines, sharp angles,
and every thing like formality over the rest of his grounds, might
well display all these in a kitchen-garden, as an expedient for increasing the enjoyment which he derives from the general grace
and ease of the place. No better reason can be given for adopting
such an arrangement in a kitchen-garden, and were it the only reason it would be sufficient, for I hold that convenience is a consideration secondary to beauty, and that this is the true order of motive
in all cases where the means of a proprietor are large enough to
justify him in gratifying his taste.
But this desire for contrast is not the only reason for adopting
the rectangular arrangement. Where single rows of trees or es paliered fruit are to be grown, and where much of the culture will
be on a scale large enough to employ a horse, the permanent lines
should be straight, if possible; for curved or irregular boundaries
are a great inconvenience when teams must be frequently driven
or turned close to them.
190 
~~<~~a  ~INDEX.                                 S -        S
24 Pears                   16 Pe aches. 
~~~~~  g  9      4.? g Es ali~~OE v  a g                              ~~  ~D  ~
-s       6 Nectarines.              6 Apricots.
6        Plums.            4 Chenies. 
-,~          10 Grapes.                   4 Figs.
-~9 L      l       S, Standard Pears,       32.;
~'....... D, Dwarf    do.,      20. 
x:~ P,                     Peaches,    12.
-~  |              PI Plum,             4.                      4 q 
q ~~x<c,  Currants,                   100.          
~~9g, Goosberries,                       26.      ~ 
~ >sxxxxx Black and Thimbleberries.                                ~'
-  Raspberries.
~   Strawberries.
u   _.....  -... -P
: u P       P.P      P       P.     P       P       P      P  w
~
~~~[
-
I
I
i 
NOVEMBER.
How TO LAY OUT A KITCHEN-GARDEN.  - The spot selected, its
preparation is the next question.
First for the level portion. Decide how many trees or grape
vines you wish to have on espaliers, how many standard fruit trees,
how many dwarfs, and then stake out, just 15 feet within the limits
of the level portion, a walk, B, not less than 6 feet wide, and surrounding the square.
The space between this path and the boundaries all round is for
a border. From B, in the middle of each side of the square, carry
in both directions a path also 6 feet wide; this will give four side
entrances. Having staked out your paths, dig them out from 1 to
3 feet deep, and spread the earth on the adjoining ground. Now
trench the remaining surface 2 feet deep (digging it over, the
whole depth of a digging-fork, is the best course for those who
cannot afford to trench); throw out every stone as large as an egg;
collect these stones and empty them into the open paths, until they
are filled within 6 inches of the adjoining surface. Then send a
man with a small stone-hammer to lay these stones smooth, crowning them so that the middle of the 6 feet path may be at least 2
inches higher than its sides; as he does this let him break into
firagments every stone larger than an English walnut, and thus
smooth the surface still more thoroughly, and bind the whole well
together.  Over his work lay 3 inches of gravel -coarse, but free
from large stones; as it is laid in heaps on the stones let a man rake
it toward him, bringing along the stones which his rake takes out,
and covering them with the fine gravel remaining behind. When
all the gravel is laid, the surface of the path will be perfectly
uniform; then roll it well to bind and harden the whole. Such a
path will never be troubled with weeds.
Having made the paths, estimate how long a range of espaliers
is desirable; you can do this by multiplying the number of trees
and vines to be grown on espaliers by 10; or, if your limits are
confined, by 8 feet; espaliered fruit may be grown as near as this
without danger of injuring the trees. If there be enough to sur round the whole garden, begin at one corner and 6 feet from the
boundary; set posts 9 feet long and at least 3 feet in diameter into
the earth to the depth of 3 feet, and 8 feet apart, or fasten them by
192 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
iron straps to blocks of stone,   7          r- r....
sunk in the ground; connect                 _[._
them by two transverse bars
2 inches square, the first of
which may be screwed to the
posts at the distance of one   " —. =  ~ —i —..
foot from the ground; the sec-!- -'
ond at the same distance from =_ -__!l
the  top of the posts;  now-'fasten to the bars, and perpendicular to them strips one inch square
and 6 inches apart; give the whole at least two coats of darkcolored mineral paint. If the amount of espaliers decided on is
not enough to surround the whole garden, put them up on the north
side first, then on the west, then east, last south.  In our climate
good fruit may be grown on espaliers facing the north.
It will be well at this stage of proceedings to erect along the
north and west sides a fence or screen of some kind against cold
winds, unless the garden is sufficiently sheltered by high woods or
land in the immediate vicinage, in which case a hedge will answer
all purposes; make it of thorn if you wish to exclude vermin.
An Evergreen hedge is best for beauty and warmth, and if you will
have the kitchen-garden screened fiom observation, summer and
winter, nothing but Evergreen or boards will answer your purpose;
for a summer screen the espaliers and the foliage on them will be
quite sufficient. Of course something more is necessary if you are
exposed to thieves.
The espaliers just described are cheap, and in the opinion of
many are the best kind; others prefer iron and wire for material.
They should be put up in all gardens where high cultivation is
practised, as they give a large amount of fruit in proportion to the
surface covered, without materially shading the ground. They
may be made against the dead walls of buildings, garden walls, etc.,
and enable the cultivator to grow many rather tender kinds of
fruit (even figs), the degree of success varying with the locality.
By means of them Nectarines, Plums, and any fruit usually attacked
by insects may be made an almost certain crop.  Differeit kinds
of insects are troublesome at different seasons, but none for more
17
193 
NOVEMBER.
than a few weeks at a time, either at the flowering season, or during
the formation or the ripening of fruit; and at these seasons espaliers
may easily be covered with mosquito-netting, which, without excluding the sun, rain, or air, effectually shuts out all insects.
Our espaliers are of several kinds. Those of iron are made as
follows: Sink blocks of stone 2 or 3 feet into the earth, out of the
reach of frost, as for the wooden espaliers, and 9 feet apart; set
into each stone "uprights" of iron 12I inch square at the bottom, 6
feet long and tapering to the top; tie these "uprights" with top
and bottom rails 21 inches wide, 21 inch thick, and pierced so as to
slide over both the upright posts, and the smaller uprights, which
are 3 inch square and 8 inches apart, and of iron, as are also the
rails. When completed, paint with a proper metallic paint. Such
espaliers are very costly, and many think that the iron injures the
trees by its excessive cold in winter and heat in summer.
Wire, A, makes a better and cheaper espalier. Stones are sunk as
before, but at the distance of 10 or 12 feet apart, and into them
are set iron posts, 2 x 2 inches thick, and 6 feet high; the corner
posts are to be particularly well secured, so as to bear the strain
necessary for tightening the wire. 2 feet from each corner post
sink another stone, to which the corner posts are to be firmly
braced.
A
B ~                      _..
B.A
\\~~~~~~~~~~~~~,__
\                            F~~~J
e-W\-'-<A
WVhen all the posts are up, begin to strain the wire; a convenient and powerful instrument for this, may be made as follows:
194 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
into a log of wood, C, 18 inches long and 6 inches in diameter, put
two handles at opposite ends, but not at right angles to each other;
through the middle of the log bore a small hole.  The   wire, - to l
inch in size, having been fastened securely to one of the corner
posts, lead it through all the holes in the same line in the posts
bring its end through the hole in the log, which should be placed
against the corner post, and twist it once or twice round the log to
make it firm and tight. Now turn the log by the handles, aind
wind up the wire as tightly as possible; -and it is possible to
strain it very hard; - when it is tightened enough, let an assistant
drive an iron or a hard wood wedge firmly into the hole in the
post through which the wire was strained; this will prevent the
wire from slipping back when it is unwound from the log, as it must
be before it is secured by winding it round the post and then twisting it about itself on the side of the post opposite that on which it
was strained. When you break it, leave end enough to admit of
the repetition of the straining process, when this may be required.
The instrument, and the method of applying it, are shown in the
preceding cut at B.  Simple as
this instrument is, its power is  A
immense; it is on the principle
of the wheel and axle, and the  _,_ [,
longer the handles or levers,    D/
(radii of the wheel) are, and the! 
smaller the log used (provided it                         g
be strong enough), the greater    a
the power which can be em- 
ployed.  Quite large trees have
been pulled up  by its strain,
when they were used for corner
posts.
Before putting the wire into
the fence it should be straight-                -
ened, which may be done by
laying the coil upon the ground.
Fasten a board, A, to a post; the board is filled with two rows
of iron pegs, in parallel lines; carry the end of the wire between
105
r' 
NOVEMBER.
each alternate peg, and fasten its end to a pole or short bar, B,
which a man holds in both hands; walking backward, he draws the
wire through the pegs, straightening it; a second man delivers it
slowly from the coil; C shows a splice in the wire; B represents a
portable straining post for corners, etc., where no good fixed posts can
be set; a is to be left in the fence, but b is to be removed after the
wire is strained, and be set into another straining post, as a brace;
it is put under the shoulder of a, and fastened with a screw-bolt
through d.
The espaliers being arranged, trees or vines may be planted in
the ordinary way, to grow upon them. The common espalier fruits
are Peaches, Apricots, Nectarines, and Pears, but, as has been said,
Plums and Cherries, and, in sheltered places, Figs and foreign
Grapes may be grown.
There are as many plans for training trees on espaliers as vines
in houses, but nearly all are varieties of the "fan" system, which
spreads out the branches on the espaliers like the ribs of a huge
fan. Each cultivator must decide for himself on the best means
for effecting this, the  guiding principle being to cover the trellis
well with fruit-bearing wood, but to check over luxuriance of
merely leaf-bearing wood, and to admit sun and air freely while
you protect fruit and wood from too great heat.
When you desire a luxuriant growth of wood, prune in the fall;
when a diminished quantity, in the spring; and bear in mind that
summer pruning is one of the means for producing well balanced
and thrifty trees. Were a thorough system of root-pruning to be
followed, summer pruning would hardly be advisable, as the tree
would make only wood enough to keep up a good supply of fruit;
this, however, is scarcely possible when  espaliered fruit is grown
in the enriched borders of a kitchen-garden, all the area of which
must be devoted to some kind of esculent crops.
Summer pruning differs from autumn or winter pruning. The
gardener should examine the trees late in June, or early in July,
and selecting those shoots which seem most desirable, either be cause they will fill a gap or are particularly promising, should nip
off the end and tie them down to the espalier; such shoots as by
their luxuriance overshadow or crowd the fruit and old wood, are
196 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
to be cut entirely off, and the rest pinched back to about one-third
of their growth. By tying the new shoots with an inclination
toward the ground, you lead the sap to settle in them, and they
tend to form fruit rather than leaf buds; but the theory that general summer pruning has the same tendency, is not supported by
the best experinece.
Summer pruning saves winter work, and saves the fruit from
being threshed and bruised by the long new shoots shaken by hi'i
winds.
As a general rule, pruning has much the same effect at all seasons.
It is best to prune stone fruits and all other rather tender trees
towards spring; but the best fruit growers have not found by observation and experience any other rule for the time of doing general
pruning than the amount and urgency of the work on hand, though
trees bear careless pruning better at some seasons than at others.
Trees for the espalier should be in the second year from the
bud, if they have been budded, and should be cut back to the third
or fourth bud from the stock. As I have said before, their subsequent training and pruning must depend on the fancy of the cultivator. The following examples are taken from Loudon's Encyclopiedia of Gardening, and show the best practice of the best
English cultivators.
.f 1                                        ].'g
a, the herring-bone fan; b, the irregular fan; c, the stellate fan; d, the drooping fan; e,
the wavy fan; f, the horizontal; g, the horizontal with screw stem; h, the horizontal with
double stem; i, the vertical with screw shoots; k, the vertical with upright shoots.
17*
197
,,,,~~~ I 
NOVEMBER.
So much for the espaliers.
If the garden is small you may now plant dwarf trees in the
outer edge of the border, and alternate with the espaliered trees, but
nothing but want of room and subsequent hiyh manuring can justify such overcrowding.
The proper place for dwarfs and standards is on the opposite
side of the walk, and around the inside square. The dwarfs here
should be 10 or 12 feet apart; standard Pears 20 feet apart;
Peaches, too, may be planted on the edge of this square, 15 feet
back from the walk, while the Pears need not be more than 10
feet from it.
If there is not room enough here for all the fruit trees desired,
set a double row through the middle of the square, 20 feet apart in
the row, and 20 feet from each other. These trees should connect
the entrance paths on the sides by a blind walk; that is, the land
between the double row should be used for culture, and to walk
and cart over at different seasons of the year.
Having placed the trees, ascertain how many Currant bushes
will supply the family; set them opposite each other, but independent of the trees oi thetwo sides of a path, 3 feet back from the
edge of the path, and 6 feet apart; in a small garden they may be
set only 3 feet apart; begin at the corner of an entrance path, and
follow round to the next corner, or farther, if you need so many
bushes. Gooseberries may be set out in the same manner.
Next select the best place for an Asparagus bed. Have it as
near the stables as the character of the land will admit. The bed
may be made ready for the seeds or roots either in the fall or the
spring. It is rather a slower process to get Asparagus from the
seed than from the root, but the first cost is less, and the process
often easier, though beds are better and more speedily productive
when made from roots.
Cover the bed with a thick dressing of manure; then trench
thoroughly, 3 feet deep, and loosen the bottom of the trench beside; take care that the manure is well incorporated with the soil,
and at the same time work in not less than a cubic inch of salt for
every square foot of surface. If this work is done in the fall the
198 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
land is left till spring. Autumn-made beds may have a very heavy
and coarse manure worked into them, as the winter frost will decay
it, and take away its harshness. It is well to mix in a large
amount of broken bones while trenching.  You need have no fear
of making the bed too rich; Asparagus is a very gross feeder, and
the bed cannot be thoroughly manured again without being
remade; liquid manure and top dressing are the only means of enriching it after the crop is started.
The preparation and future treatment of beds will depend upon
whether it is proposed to force Asparagus at any time, and whether
the bed is to continue permanent as long as productive.
Good permanent beds may be made from seed. Sow the seed
in 3 drills, 18 inches apart,- the bed to be 4- feet wide,- cover
the seed 2 inches deep, -sow it the first of May. When the
plants have grown 6 or 7 inches high, thin them into straight
lines, and leave them 12 inches apart.  "Beds raised from the seed
will need a pint of seed for a bed 42 x 30 feet. If roots are used,
160 will plant the same area."
In transplanting Roots, it is all important that they should
never get dry, or be bruised. Select only the best Roots, which
will be well grown, and have an abundance of buds around the
crown.
Some cultivators prefer plants two or three years old. Yearlings are quite as good, and as no bed should be cut for two years,
the yearling plants will have time to get their full strength.
The plants may be set in drills or in beds.  To make a bed,
stake out a parallelogram, as long as you please, and 4-2 feet wide,
dig trenches transversely, 3 feet apart, and 12 inches deep; if that
depth will allow the roots to be set with their crowns 2 inches below
the surface, and yet not compress the smaller roots. As fast as you
set them cover with loam. If you do not wish a regular bed set
the plants in single drills; when cultivated by the acre, set the
roots deep enough to plough in manure over them.
As I have before stated, after-enrichment is to be applied by
forking manure into the alleys between the beds, by top-dressings
of well-rotted stable manure in the fall, which may be very lightly
199 
NOVEMBER.
forked in in the spring (great care being taken not to touch the
crown of the roots with the fork); by top-dressings of guano just
before rains, or, lastly, by liquid manure, diluted urine or cow
manure, or guano mixed with water.
The size of beds will depend upon many local circumstances,
but a bed of less than 30 square yards will not furnish a reasonable
dish; and a bed of 6 square rods will give two or three bunches
daily through the season.
The Asparagus bed being decided upon, select the best position
for Horse-radish, which will grow in any soil or situation, but well
repays good culture. A large bed is unnecessary for a private family; therefore, to economize room, choose some strip between the
espaliers and the fence or hedge, or any other convenient spot. If
you wish to grow Horse-radish to perfection, you can imitate the
English gardeners, who are as particular with it as with Celery. It
is desirable to get long, thick, and straight roots, therefore thoroughly manure and trench the beds to the depth of 3 feet. Open
a trench in the ordinary way, 15 inches deep and 2 feet wide;
plant sets 9 inches apart each way, keeping their crowns upright;
cover with the earth of the next trench, and continue to plant.
When more than one bed is to be made, leave a space for a second
bed and open the third.
The sets during summer grow vigorously; rake off the decayed
leaves in the autumn; early the next April lay a foot of earth
from the unplanted bed over that of one year's growth, and then
prepare and plant the new bed. In the autumn open the older bed
at one end and take out the roots as you come to them; they will
have a size and perfection that can only be understood when seen.
You may have Horse-radish sufficiently good, however, from any
ordinary soil, with common planting and care.
Now select a place for the culture of pot herbs of various kinds.
Most of the ordinary herbs are perennials, and must occupy the
same ground for several years; therefore as for Asparagus, trench,
dress, and manure richly before planting. Sow the seeds in the
hotbed in March; thin out the plants as they grow, and give air
enough to make them hardy. As soon as the weather will permit,
200 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
set them across the bed, 1 foot apart, in lines 15 inches apart. Or,
sow the seed in the open ground in May or June, but it will be
much slower in coming to a good growth. Cuttings of the new
growth may be made and set in nursery beds as soon as the wood
ripens; as soon as rooted they may be transplanted into permanent
situations.  The beds will last three years or more, according to
culture, soil, and exposure. There are both annual and perennial
varieties of Sweet Marjoram and Savory; the perennial are the
best, and may be readily propagated by seed, cuttings, or divisions of the roots. Seed should be sown in the spring, cuttings
be made in the summer, and divisions of the roots in September.
Pennyroyal is of similar character, and may be grown in the
same way. Other herbs, like Basil, Dill, Anise, Caraway, Angelica, Coriander, Thyme, etc., are of but little use, and it is not
advisable to cumber the garden with them.
Our kitchen-garden is now pretty well stocked with all the
fixtures excepting Strawberries, Raspberries, and the annual crops,
all of which will be deferred until the appropriate time.
The garden being thus laid out, and partly planted, as soon as
time allows some kind of edging should be put to the walk. The
best is slates. They should be half an inch thick and from 3 x 12
to 12 x 24 inches in surface. They need not be more carefully
cut and made than for roofing, but must be of the best material
and free from cross grain and waves, so as to be strong enough to
resist all ordinary concussion.   Draw  the garden line straight
along the edge of the path; set the spade down perpendicularly
into the edge of the bed, working it backwards and forwards to
make a space into which the slate is to be set. Set the slate 10
inches deep into this place, leaving but two or three inches above
the ground. Set them edge to edge, perpendicularly, and in straight
lines, then thoroughly press and pack the earth of the beds and the
gravel of the paths against them. The deep setting will not only
keep them firm in their places, but will prevent the roots of grass,
weeds, or other plants from straying beyond their proper limits;
while the few inches above ground give a clean and precise edge to
both path and bed, and make them look trim and orderly.
201 
NOVEMBER.
This is a sufficient description of the method of laying out the
level part of the kitchen-garden. The sloping and irregular portions should not be treated in this geometrical manner, but in a
more graceful and varied style.
I shall postpone the description of such a garden to another
month.
202 
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ORCHARD.
TiHE fruit harvest proper is over before November, but if any
fruit has been left ungathered, lose no time in securing it.
Thoroughly dig the orchard over with long-tined forks, so as to
leave the earth light and open to the frost. If manure is needed
for next year's crop, dig it in now; you can use long manure, as
the winter's action will decay it before the young root fibres
need it. As you dig, cover the ground before you with a good
dressing of the following mixture, - one barrel of oyster-shell
lime, slaked with the water which has dissolved a bushel of salt.
This preparation is a very powerful stimulant to apple trees, and a
great destroyer of insects and their eggs. If orchards were laid
down to grass, as some are, we should still be obliged to dig up the
earth round the trees, for a distance at least as great as the spread
of the branches. The first time the application of this mixture is
made, two bushels should be used, but afterwards one every year
is enough.
Manure the Pear-trees well, as no fruit is more grateful for
manure, which increases the crop greatly, both in size and number.
The secret of pear culture indeed, is to give the trees plenty of
manure and moisture, and to thin out the fruit. If there are any
gaps in the orchard, made by the death of trees, or other causes,
set out new trees now; the earlier the better, as this work should
have been done in October, if possible. Stone fruits must be left
till spring, as the winter is very apt to injure them. Cherries may
sometimes thrive when planted in the autumn, but it is not best to
try the experiment.
Untie the Figs from espaliers, and wrap the branches in straw,
and then lay them down on the ground, covering with a little light
203 
NOVEMBER.
litter, or lay them down and cover with earth, like Raspberries.
Treat all tender Grapes in the same manner. Isabella, Concord,
and Diana do not require this attention; but many growers think
they thrive better, and ripen earlier for it. When vines are to be.
laid down prune them thoroughly. The system of pruning for
out-of-door grapes is the same as that for the grapery, but it is not
customary to prune them quite so closely as when in-doors.
The first year cut back within three eyes of the old wood; the
second year allow three main canes to grow, and spread them out
on the trellis or wall, fan-shaped. During summer pinch all side
shoots two eyes beyond the bunch, and as often as they start, pinch
back. In August pinch off the ends of the growing shoots, so that
the wood may ripen well.   New shoots will start after pinching,
which may be treated in the same manner.
In the autumn of the second year cut down within six eyes of
the old wood, and cut out or back, to one eye, all side spurs on
what is left. The third year allow your three leading canes to
branch out as much as you please, so as to cover the wall or trellis.
The lower eyes will all break. Pinch off the fruit-bearingff shoots,
two eyes from the bunch, after the fruit is set.  The last eye will
start again, and must be allowed to grow for a few weeks, and then
be again stopped. This practice will hasten the ripening, and improve the quality of the fruit.
By no means pinch back the first time to within one eye of the
bunch, as, if you do, that eye may start to the injury of the fruit,
and to the loss of the bud for next year's growth. Stop the leading canes in August, as before. In the fall cut off at least half the
new growth, and shorten in all the side spurs to within two eyes of
the cane. Continue this practice year after year until the trellis is
well covered, then keep well pruned.
The wood of the grapevine in a few years solidifies; that is,
the sap deposits its solid particles in the sap vessels, until they are
finally filled up, and no longer afford free channels to the sap.
Therefore when your vine is six or eight years old, in November
or January it is well to cut back one of the original three canes to
the but. The next spring new canes will start from the latent buds
204 
ORCHARD.
on the side of the old stock, which may be trained and pruned as at
the beginning. When they are well grown, and fruit-bearing, cut
down the other old canes, and proceed with them in the same manner.  This practice, in the grapehouses, is called the long cane
renewal system.
November is a good month to prepare vine borders for hardy
grapes. It is not necessary to take so much care as for those indoors. A deep, well-drained, well-manured loamn is good enough.
In manuring give a large dressing of oyster shells, old mortar, and
bones. An annual top dressing, lightly forked in, or liquid manure,
will be the only subsequent enrichment necessary. Nothing is better for vines than soapsuds, and the suds from the weekly washing,
if saved, and thoroughly applied, will produce a large crop of
Grapes.
Having disposed of your vines, begin to prune Apples and Pears.
This work will be light if it has been well done before. Be sure,
in trimrminy, to cut off all the twigs and branches to be removed
smooth with their main stems, and with a clean, upward cut.
In pruning, always cut about midway between the buds, with an
upward cut. In pruning Grapes the whole internode (or space between the buds) should be left, as the frost is apt to kill the bud if
too near the cut. This danger is less with fruit trees, but it is prudent to leave half an internode, when the trees are pruned, in fall
or winter.
Have in your mind, in pruning, a distinct idea of the shape
which you desire to give to the tree. Every kind of tree has some
characteristic form, to which each individual of the species conforms, with greater or less exactness, and the same is true of different varieties of any species of plant. Thus the general form of
an Apple-tree is quite distinctive from that of other trees, and yet
different varieties of Apple-trees have still further peculiarities.
The Rhode Island Greening, the Hubbardston Nonsuch, and others,
tend to grow and branch low, and cover a large space.
The Northern Spy grows tall, but weeps very much, with long
and switch-like branches.
The High-top Sweeting also grows tall, but with rather stiff and
stubby branches.
y~~~~1
18
205
irk 
NOVEMBER.
It is folly to try to counteract these peculiarities; they must be
borne in mind in pruning, and the natural shape of the tree conformed to as much as possible.
In pruning, cut off all branches which chafe each other, all
those whose ends strike together, and all suckers which crowd the
tree. There is a dangerous tendency to overprune. The leaves
are the lungs of the tree, and should only be removed enough to
give the light and air free circulation among the branches, and not
so much as to deprive the tree of its necessary breath, or the fruit
and stems of shelter from the too scorching sun.
The general shape to be aimed at for Apple-trees, is a well-balanced, rounded or umbrella shaped top, so thinned of small
branches as to admit light and air freely, but not the direct rays
of the sun.
In pruning Pear-trees, a difference is to be made between
standards and dwarfs.   Standards  grow tall and are  generally of fastigiate or birch-broom shape, the branches coming out
from the stem near together, and running in a vertical direction.
This method of growth brings the branches too near each other,
so that they chafe and injure the fruit, and also prevent the free
access of sunlight, as well as offer great obstacles to the fruit
gatherer. The branches must therefore be brought towards the
horizontal position, though not without care, as the wood of the
Pear-tree is not sufficiently tough to bear great weight of leaves
and fruit, except with the mechanical advantage which it derives
from the natural uprightness of the tree. However, to some extent it is safe to train the branches into a convenient form, and
this is to be done by pruning in the following manner.  In the
accompanying cut you have
be ~~ ~      ~ 4  Apart of the stem of a stand         / Xb        A              ard Pear-tree, with a branch
/S;    A, growing upwards, in its
natural position.   The buds,
a  b c, if suffered to grow,
will grow into the tree and
crowd it; rub them off, therefore, and cut the branch off at e; the bud, d, on the outside, will
206 
ORCHARD.
will then start, and form a branch growing from the stem, and less
vertical than A. When this branch has grown a short time, and
begins to tend upward, repeat the operation, and you will thus
gradually flatten it and others in the same manner, as much as you
please.
Standard trees are those which, growing freely, attain naturally
a considerable height and size. They are often inconveniently
large, and it takes several years for them to mature sufficiently to
bear good fruit. The attention of horticulturists was early given
to discover some means of avoiding these evils, and it was found
that they might be modified by what are now called dwarf trees.
Soon after the discovery of the arts of budding and grafting, it
was found that by these arts the fruit of tall growing frees could
be obtained from small ones of the same species, if the former
were budded or grafted into the latter, thus reducing the size of
the tree, and consequently hastening its maturity. For the new
bud cannot receive from the smaller roots and stem of its adoption
that amount of sap which it naturally demands, and therefore,
suiting its demand to the supply, contents itself with what it can
get, and makes its growth with less material, and thus produces a
tree of a smaller size. Thus a new kind of tree, the dwarf, is
produced.  Experience has proved that these trees have not only
the advantages above mentioned, but also afford a greater and
better yield of fruit, proportioned to their size, than that of standard trees of the same species, for being less freely supplied with
sap than is the case with standards, they cease to grow earlier in
the fall, and consequently ripen their wood earlier, and mature
their buds and elaborate their juices better, which of course improves the yield of fruit. Therefore were this the whole statement of the relative value of these two forms of trees, the case
would be greatly in favor of the dwarfs, and all growers would at
once destroy their standard trees, and make fruit and money by
dwarfs instead. But there is another side to the question. The
dwarfs have the great drawbacks of being rather short lived and
very fastidious about the soil in which they stand. Besides, many
of the choicest varieties of Pear refuse to be dwarfed.
207 
NOVEIMBER.
To meet the difficulty of dwarfs being shorter lived, it is well
that every third tree in your Pear orchard should be a standard;
it will have room enough, and will be in its prime, when the dwarfs
die.
To humor their fastidiousness, place dwarfs in a rich loam, deep
and moist, but not wet; gravel they abhor, and in a close clay
they never thrive long. Set them so deep that the Quince-stock
will be buried from borers, and in time the Pear will throw out its
own roots above the Quince, and independent of it. But fruit
growers have been most aided in their struggle against these difficulties by the discovery that trees can both be dwarfed and brought
to early maturity on their own roots. The process is as follows:
Sow seeds of the Wild - but not of the Button- Pear, or transplant. stocks as yet unbudded. In the fall of the next year, move
them into a new and rich soil, cutting off the tap root; do the same
in the following fall; thus moving the stock three times, the seedling twice, in two years.  Tile effect of these frequent removals is
to check the tendency to make long tap roots, and cause a mass of
fibrous roots to be formed.   Graft or bud at the proper time the
next year, and in the succeeding spring cut down to the bud; either
before or after cutting down transplant to the place where it is to
bear fruit. Or you may vary the process thus: In the second fall,
when the stocks are removed, they may be packed in damp moss
and laid away in the cellar; during the winter, graft them; the
next spring set them out in nursery rows again, and the fall or
spring after, do the final planting, as just directed.   Pear-trees
treated in this mnanner have produced large crops five years from
the seed, or the first setting out of the budded stock.
The dwarf has much less waste room than the standard; for as
fruit grows on the small branches, or only on the ends of large
ones, the latter loses all the space occupied by its large branches.
The branches of the former being dwarfed as well as its height, the
fruit is brought nearer the main stem of the tree, and the strain
upon branch and stem is much diminished.  The system of pruning recommended for Pear-trees may therefore be carried out to its
full extent with such trees, without the danger that attends its too
free application to standards.
208 
ORCHARD.
Dwarfs should be grown in pyramidal form, that
the lower branches may bear the most fruit, being
in less danger of breaking from the weight, than
those abovp.  This form also occupies less room 
and gives more fruit to the acre.
Begin to prune as soon as the leaves drop in the   \\
autumn, and continue the work until spring. There 
is no danger to be feared of canker or loss of
buds, if all cuts are made as directed, -neatly 
and smoothly, and in an upward direction. Some ~
care must be taken, however, with the  larger
branches, to protect the cut surface from the air
and water, which would cause the wood to decay,
aud send disease throughout the tree.  Where the cut is small,
this surface is covered in the next season, by a natural growth of
wood and bark; but otherwise, some artificial application must be
made.
Many good receipts for such coverings, are given in treatises on
these subjects.  The two following are effective -
Melt over a slow fire, three parts of clear resin to one of shellac,
and apply while warm, with a brush. It will harden immediately,
and be both air and water-proof. This preparation can be kept
and used at any time, by adding to it as small a quantity of alcohol
as will dissolve it.
The other receipt, which makes also a good grafting-wax, is 2
ounces of common resin, melted over a slow fire, till it is clear; add
1 ounce of alcohol, and bottle it; add enough alcohol from time to
time, to keep it liquid. When about to set a Pear orchard, dig or
trench the land thoroughly, even if you are able to plant but a
very limited number at a time, the profits will be great in proportion. Cherries do not generally need much pruning, beyond the
removal of dead wood and chafing branches. They should be dug
round, but not manured.
The principles already stated, apply to the care of all other fruit
trees.
Nut-trees need no more care than Cherries.
Be sure before the winter is over, to haul all the prunings from
18*
209 
NOVEMBER.
the orchard to the brush heaps, as you will be too busy in the spring
to attend to it properly. They should be cut into short pieces,
ready to use, as they make admirable fuel for heating boilers.
The proper pruning of Peach and similar trees, will be described
hereafter.
210 
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE FARM.
ON the farm as over the rest of the estate, the last work of the
season is to be done, and it is apt to be done in a hurry.
The remainder of the Root crop is now to be gathered, and with
it the harvest closes.
Send the teams into the manure cellar, clear out what remains
there, and draw it on to those fields which you intend to manure or
to top dress during the winter, or early spring, unless the ground is
too soft.
If the month prove wet, do not team the manure on to grass
land, as the wheels would cut the soil badly. Any reclaimed
meadow, dry enough for grass or culture, where heavy teams cannot go while the ground is open, must be dressed after it is frozen,
when it will bear up the wheels,
Having cleared out the manure, draw into the cellar as much
muck, leaves, litter, loam, or even sand, as you have time to collect.
Fill the pig-pens with the same material, to the depth of a foot or
two, for the pigs to work over during the winter (which they will
do the better if you occasionally scatter a little corn over the surface), and as an absorbent of liquid excrement.
Draw into appropriate bins as large a quantity of leaves as can
be collected for bedding. Neat cattle and pigs do not absolutely
require bedding, but they are benefited by such care, and fatten
much better. Farmers who most truly study their own interests,
are careful to keep their stock warm and well bedded; knowing
that this is a cheaper way to warm them, than by feeding alone.
A temperature of about 100~ must be maintained in the bodies
of all the higher animals to secure the performance of their vital
functions; and in moderate weather this heat is maintained by the
furnace within them; i.e., by the combined action of the eIgestive,
211 
NOVEMBER.
circulating, and respiratory system, which supply and bring into
contact oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen in such a way as to effect
slow combustion over the entire body. Food is the fuel in this
process, better or worse as it contains carbon and hydrogen in
larger or smaller proportions. In cold weather this vital heat is
taken from the body by the atmosphere, and must be supplied
faster or be prevented from escaping, if the animal is to be kept
alive; just the same thing as is true of the fires in our houses.
The Creator has provided for this necessity by the warmer covering furnished constantly to those animals which live in Arctic
regions, and periodically to those that are exposed to the winter of
the Temperate Zone; and also by the instinct which leads every
animal to prefer in cold weather those articles of food which are
the best fuel, or in their absence to eat more freely of such food as
has less power of maintaining heat. In the case of man reason
teaches him to increase his clothing; instinct leads him to eat
animal and fatty food at the proper time. Any excess of fuel in food
is stored up in the form of fat, and in time of need is again
absorbed and burned, as are our wood-piles.  Of course this is not
the only use of food, but it is the use with which we now have to do.
Nature then provides animals with means for resisting cold, and
unless we are willing that our stock should be worse off than wild
animals, we must give them in winter more fattening food than in
summer,- grain, meal, roots, in addition to hay. If we wish them
to be in better condition than wild animals, we must make it still
easier for them to keep up the vital heat. In no other way can
fat, the extra fuel, collect on them. But the fattening articles of
food are the most expensive, and it behooves us to shut in the heat
given by them and bring the atmosphere about our creatures as
near as possible to that summer temperature, which does not chill
them and urge them to eat largely in proportion.
In short the more heat without the less fuel needed within; in
proportion as stock is well housed and bedded will it fatten with
less food.
Bed all your creatures well, then; it saves the covering which
nature gives them. Let none of them show bare knees, hips, or
back fr:  which hair has been rubbed by the hard floor or stall,.
212 
THE FARM.
but let every part of every animal tell the same story of care and
kindness. Pile up leaves high in the bins, and even make temporary stacks of them.
It is true that you are thus robbing the soil for the time of its
natural manure. Leaves are Nature's return, her interest paid for
the summer's crop which she has borrowed from the earth, and the
profit on the earth's invested capital, and rightly belong to the spot
which produced them. By their decay beneath the trees woodland
is annually enriched; by their removal it is impoverished. But
one of the laws of agricultural improvement is that man may with
profit impoverish one portion of his land, if by so doing he more
than proportionately enriches another. The gain need not be made
in the same proportion from every rod of land; the balance sheet
may be struck for the whole farm. At another time the woodland
may be attended to, enriched in turn, and the balance restored.
Therefore be unwearied in collecting leaves from the woods and
road-sides. The manure made from a given weight of leaves may be
less in quantity than that from the same weight of any other material used for litter, but it is better in quality.
Blanket the horses as soon as the nights are really frosty; as
with bedding the cattle you will both save in food and gain in
appearance. A horse well blanketed and groomed is not the same
as when his neglected coat is filled with dust and his shivering hide
sets every hair on end. Cleanliness and friction are as good for
his skin as for ours; their good effects are evident in his appearance and in his work. See that the cattle, too, old and young, are
from this time well carded and brushed every morning.
As the nights grow cold the fowls will go to roost earlier and
more regularly; let none of them roost out of their proper places;
the younger ones particularly are inclined to seek new roosts about
the stables and sheds; break up all such irregular proceedings as
soon as you detect them. Feed regularly every morning- not
much to the stock fowls, but enough to assure that their crop shall
be full once in the course of the day; in accordance with the principles before recognized, increase the food of the fattening fowls, for
all kinds of which there will be a great demand in the latter half of
4k
213 
NOVEMBER.
the month; for stuffing two or three weeks with boiled barley, corn
meal, bits of bread, will entirely change the quality of the birds
you propose to eat or sell at Thanksgiving. The rapidity with
which they fatten, when once the process is fairly begun, is almost
incredible. In all animals this process begins inside; they must
store up quite a stock of fat amongst the muscles, along the bones,
around the various internal organs, before the gain is at all apparent
on the surface; but when it does begin to show there, the creature
seems to gain while you look at it.
The greatest benefit will now be found in an abundant supply
and use of water of irrigation; the Grass will be kept green and
sweet long after it would be worthless unless so protected.
As good opportunities offer, purchase stock to be fattened in the
winter. Sheep pay rather the best. I shall give you directions
and advice hereafter.
TOOLS. -On the first wet day collect into the toolhouse all
the tools, great and small, which belong there; scrub and polish
them well with sand and water; oil with any cheap oil such as are
not to be used again till spring, and hang them up; mend forthwith
any that show the least need of repairs; carry to the carpenter or
blacksmith those that are beyond your skill, and do not leave this
to be done ( any time," which is no time.  When in good condition
let them be returned to their shelves. You will find plough-points
worn or broken, nuts and bolts gone, handles loose,- a thousand
little things that have escaped notice, or been tolerated during summer and fall; and you should improve your leisure, and by attending
to these little things, and by comparing the stock of tools on hand
with the list of last spring, you will know not only what is left
over from the summer, but also what can be depended on for next
year.
Where the owner of tools is the only user, they are broken very
frequently and mysteriously, but when they are committed to the
tender mercies of hired laborers, the loss and breakage are frightful. The best spring supply of shovels, spades, hoes, and scythes
will present, at the November muster, as sorry an appearance as
I, W
214 
THE FARM.
Falstaff's ragged regiment; hoes without handles, rakes without
teeth, shovels with broken corners and centres, scythes gapped,
snaiths broken, whetstones in pieces.   Be courageous and undismayed at the result, and be sure of one thing, by making this November examination you will have twice as much next spring as if
you leave the matter till then. A winter's cold and snows are a
sponge to the memory of farm servants, and an excuse for all
losses. No one knows any thing in the spring; the laborers, discharged at the close of the last year's work, and now scattered far
and wide, are made to father all losses, and bear all blame; every
new man will assure you, upon an honor not to be doubted, - because not yet tried, - that he never loses, nor mislays, nor breaks
tools; he is the "new broom."
Any tools, the wood-work of which was originally painted, must
be touched with paint wherever they are rubbed.
Run the hay-wagons, ladders, etc., under the sheds, and wash
them clean; then examine, repair, and paint at once, for here, too,
"delays are dangerous."  Examine, repair, repaint the sleighs and
sleds, that they may be ready for use when the snows come.
Go over the farm, and repair any fences where loose ends,
boards, posts, or material can be in any way harmed by the winter's storms.
HIaul an ample pile of short brush into a shed, for the use of the
house and farm boilers. There is a double advantage in this; the
farm is made clean and tidy, and a supply of the very best fuel for
boilers is secured, which kindles quickly, burns fiercely, heating the
boiler at once, and as soon as the need of fire is over goes out, with
little or no loss from unnecessary fire.
As you now begin to feed regularly, f you have fuel in abundance boil or steam all the food used, unless it be hay, and even
hay has been found to gain in nutritive quality from steaming.
The water of boiling or steaming, called "hay tea," when fed out
to milch cows, increases their milk cheaply and economically, and
when mixed with the solid food is very nutritious.
Be sure to feed regularly, let the food be what it may. Remember how faint and irritable you become when one of your meals is
delayed; not only are you so annoyed that the food gives less than
215 
NOVEMBER.
usual satisfaction to the palate and mind, but your digestive organs
are weak with emptiness; and in your haste to satisfy hunger, you
probably eat too fast, fill the vacuum with half-chewed food, to your
discomfort for a long time. Thus the foundations of dyspepsia are
laid. Cattle suffer in the same way when their food is delayed beyond the proper time.
The same is true of food taken before the accustomed time. If
you, like a rational being, live on plain but wholesome food, to eat
a hearty meal you need a good appetite, more than if you were in
the habit of creating an artificial appetite by stimulating condiments; when the proper time comes, hunger is the best sauce; but
if food is placed before you too soon, you feel but little desire for
it, and do not eat as much as usual. So with the beasts in your
barn, whose only sauce is hunger. If fed before their stomachs
are ready, they will smell over and reject much that would have
been eaten with a relish if offered at the proper time.
See, then, how necessary it is to feed regularly. Feed often.
Do not allow so long a time between meals that the hungry animals gorge like Boa Constrictors, when their food comes. Feed in
small quantities, that all may be eaten, and no rejected and fouled
remainder may lie before the animal to disgust it with similar food
when next presented. Feed late at night; cattle do not, like men,
sleep only at night; whenever there is nothing else to do they
sleep; so our dietetic analogy no longer holds, and we need not
fear that they, like us, will suffer from late suppers. On the contrary it is a weary interval for them to wait from the early supper
through the long, cold night, till breakfast. Go into the barn just
before your bed-time, and give all the animals a little, if it be but
a forkful of hay. They will eat it up clean, and go to sleep much
more contentedly for it.
I know that animals, like men, may acquire habits of fasting;
and if you kept animals without any interest in their welfare, and
without a qualn of conscience, sought (like some keepers of stables) to get your money at the expense of others, it might   for one
season -be for your advantage to disregard the natural requirements of stock placed under your charge. But you keep your
creatures for their milk, their flesh, their labor or speed, and when
216
t, 
THE FARM.
the special object for which you bought them is attained you dispose
of them. Consequently it is for your interest to aid the development of those peculiar qualities for which you procured each, and to
this end all my directions have been tending. If you neglect them
it will be from laziness,- either that laziness which prevents our
acting upon our convictions, or that which prevents our being convinced, when we foresee that conviction brings with it increased labor.
Supply water regularly; animals need great quantities of it.
Water is supplied to our barn in the following manner; of course
other methods may be better for other localities. By a stop-cock
the water can be at once let into the trough before each creature,
so that he may then and there drink his fill  The advantage of
admitting water thus is apparent in many ways. Careful milk
growers have found, from experiment, that a cow's milk is shrunk
appreciably by her being turned out on a cold day, into a barnyard
to drink and shiver.
Horses, too, suffer more from want of water than can easily be
imagined. Your horse is led out to water at sunset; from some
reason he does not want to drink; perhaps it is but a short time
since he had his dinner drink; he may be almost thirsty, but
his instinct is not reason, and he does not know how to provide
against a future want; he does not, like man, drink when he is
supplied, though he may not need it, but only when his stomach
cries "give."   Hence the old proverb, "Any fool can lead a horse
to water, but the Devil can't make him drink." He is returned to
the stable and left with his supper of cut feed or of hay and oats
before him; his stomach loaded with bulky food, soon craves water,
but he must go without it; not for the few hours between breakfast and dinner, or between dinner and supper, but for 10 or 12
hours; and we all know how hard it is to bear thirst.
Within the barn water is supplied to our cattle as follows:  A pipe is brought from a
spring into a hogshead which
stands higher than the man-                      l | | k
gers.  This pipe is laid below   -I
the reach                     of frost, a n d  when'' 
it rises to enter the hogshead,
19
217 
NOVEMBER.
is enclosed in a charcoal-filled box 1 foot square, and thus secured
from freezing, by an excellent non-conductor. By the faucet k,
water may be drawn from the hogshead for any purpose. The pipe
g, leads from the bottom of the hogshead to a set of mangers, and
is also boxed in charcoal; the turn-cock n, controls the water in it.
Ft ~! 2?  3          The mangers are double and
V shaped; the lower part (A
It~~~~  ^    2 ~~        in the wood-cut) is of 2 inch
J if\\   planks  spiked together- or
p!,p'
better of slate, -and is wa                                    ter-tight.  Over this is a lid
-c~'~',~          B turning on a rod by means
X.... j ~of the wheel and axle.  The
upper surface of this lid is the
Up/',t.bottom of the manger a, which
2 is spiked or cemented to the
Q. I,~''    trough below.  When the lid
'~   B is down, the manger is en                          e       i:tirely shut off from the water,
and from it the cattle eat their
fbod. When the food is eaten
and it is desirable to let in the water, turn the cock n; a single
turn of c throws up the lid B and admits the creature to the water
in A. When all are satisfied, shut off the water at n; a waste
pipe at the other end empties the troughs, and the lid is again shut
down. Thus the work is done quickly, neatly, and under cover. For
greater convenience in turning, the wheel and axle may be
at the same end with n. Where
there are several separate mangers, water may be carried to
each in succession, from the
same or from different heads;
a water arrangement of a similar kind is working most successfully in the barns of Dr. E.
Hobbs, of Waltham, Mass.
I.
I                    1a1 1  al
?...., E L-    3
ir. 3
218
m       s.-L.......I.... =-~  - j  
No?.
No. 3, bottom of manger.
No. 4, one side of the trough. 
THE FARM.
Remember that mineral poisons injure cattle as they do men,
though not in the same degree, and do not use lead pipes, unless
all the water which has been standing in them can be drawn off
before any is offered to your cattle, either to drink or mixed with
food.
Another advantage in not turning cattle out, is the saving contusions and similar injuries. In every linter there will be some cattle by nature bullies and quarrelsome, who will be sure to try to
crowd and hook their weaker companions, who are often much injured in this way; besides the bullies often keep the more timid
from the water troughs, even after they have themselves drank
enough, from mere mischief; and the weaker creature will stand
shivering and shaking, till the desire to drink is lost in the wish
to hurry back into warmer quarters.
THANKSGIVING.- Taking leave of November, we close our outof-door work for the year; and its end in that part of the country
for which this book is particularly intended, will be wound up and
celebrated by the annual Thanksgiving.
And what more fitting close can the year's work have, than a
true and hearty thanksgiving for the blessings and mercies that
God extends to all, but to farmers in particular.
Well may he, looking with overflowing heart at his abundant
and well-housed crops and his happy cattle, return hearty and repeated thanksgivings for all this bounty.
Our Puritan fathers, when they instituted this holiday, little
thought that they were but following the example of Pagan men,
set long before the coming of Christ. These Pagans, after the
harvest was gathered, met for joy and congratulation, and feasted on
the fat of the land; but they went farther than this; they selected
the choicest of the flocks and herds, and offered them in sacrifice
on the altars of their heathen gods. Let us follow their example;
let us remember that though our God is a Spirit, and cares not for
the flesh of ox and lamb and fowl, and has no need of the tithings
of corn and wheat, he yet claims his share.  He has expressly said,
"Whatsoever ye do to the least of these, mny children, ye do also
to me." Let us then select from the best the tithing for God, and
219 
NOVEMBER.
divide it among the many poor, who have little to eat or wear;
let their hearts, too, overflow with the gladness of the harvest time,
and their store of comfort and prosperity so swell, that they may
truly say, " Our harvest is gathered."
It is fitting that the farmer and his children, his servants, his
very cattle, should each feel the glow of enthusiasm, now that they
pause and look back on the successful year. No more joyful sight
than the loaded table, the cheerful faces of kindred, young and old,
the merry games of blind-man's buff, after the table has been
cleared and set aside. Truly delightful it is to watch the fire as it
flashes and flickers through the gathering shades of evening, when
all draw their chairs around the welcome blaze, and listen to tales
of the good old times, or recall the hurry of the past summer, when
man, woman, child, and beast, each seemed nerved with a new and
resistless zeal to hurry the hay-cart out of the way of the coming
storm.
Then remember the poor, the sad and gloomy homes where no
fire lights the hearth, where hungry and half-naked children quarrel over the fragments picked up by the road-side, or sorrowfully
begged at the rich man's door; they sit in no cheerful firelight;
they tell no tales of the happy past; their only memory is of sorrow, their best recollection of some fitful time when chance gave
them food and fire enough for a few days.  Remember them now,
farmer, whether rich or poor! If you are rich, you are but the
steward of a larger bounty; if poor, you are richer than those who
have nothing.  Go over your stock, select some fatted lamb, some
well-grown turkey, some sacks of corn, some load of wood, and
with truly thankful heart take it to those whom our Saviour has
said "ye have always with you."
Such a close to the year may well crown it with honor, and save
you from that mortifying self-reproach which ought to visit "the
unthankful," when  God sends "his sun to shine, and his rain to
fall," on them even as on the thankful.
Now that the evenings lengthen and the cold drives you to the
fireside, do not imitate the black bear, who at this season takes to
his warmest hole, and there sucks his paws for dear life, content if
he but get through to another spring. Remember that we do not
220 
THE FARM.
live to work, but work to live; that the accumulation of wealth is
not the end, but a means by which you and your children are to
develop your minds, to cultivate your intellects; and to cultivate
them for their own sakes, not for the money they may return to
you in shrewder management and keener bargains. Your plainly
spoken mission in this world is to fit yourself for another, - not
by merely being or doing good, but by expanding your mind, and
filling it with knowledge, which will in that other world, where the
pursuit and attainment of knowledge will be the end and the occupation of each day, put you on a level with those with whom
you are thrown, and will enable you to sympathize and advance
with them.
Think over the year's work not merely to see how money has
been made or lost, but how far you have increased your knowledge
of the wisdom and mysteries of Nature.
Lay out your plan for the coming year; go over every field and
every crop in your mind; see what is best adapted to each, and
consider both how you may get the largest yield, and how when
harvested it may best be used.
For the next few months there will be but little to say of the
monthly routine of the farm, and I shall devote the space hitherto
occupied by these details to a general inquiry into farming, its
theories, its capabilities, how it may be of the greatest benefit to
all, and what the country and country life offer to every man.
19*
221 
CHAPTER XXX.
THE ornamental grounds receive in this month the last touches
for the season; for the next few months their beauty, for a certain
beauty they will have, will not depend upon or arise from what we
can do for them.
Go over the grounds, and trim and tie up all the ornamental
shrubs which need attention, as directed in the flower-garden; surround tender plants with straw and Pine branches.
Spread over the lawn and all ornamental Grass, a good topdressing of the finest and best-rotted manure. It will make the
surface unsightly, but will compensate for this evil in the spring.
Either before or after this dressing, the Grass should be well
rolled, as it will thus be kept firm during the winter, and be less in
danger of being thrown up by the spring frosts.
Examine all the roads and paths, and be sure that their surface
is even and the gutters and drains clear, so that rain and melting
snow may be rapidly removed without wearing and washing the
gravel.
Take up and house all ornaments which will be injured by winter storms; renew any paint upon them, that requires it, early in
the winter, that it may be thoroughly dry before spring.
Examine the dams and banks of the artificial water; at this
season muskrats are very apt to burrow into them for winter homes,
and do serious damage by letting in water, which gradually undermines the banks. Wherever there is danger of ice freshets in the
spring, the banks may be fortified by sinking squared logs along
the shore, by one end, while the other end rises several feet above
the water; the ice will slide against the timber, and be caught by
it, so as to leave the water free to pass off without injuring the
bank. Unless this precaution is taken, the rapid rush of the water
222
ORNAMENTAL. 
ORNAMENTAL.
will plough the ice into the ground, and perhaps wash the bank
entirely away. Mere water fireshets need not be much dreaded, if
the bank is covered with close, firm Grass, which will shed the
water like a floor. To prevent injury from freshets, ponds are
sometimes made large enough to hold this occasional increase of
water, but this is a poor expedient, which sacrifices the beauty of
the pond through the greater part of the year; and quite unnecessarily, as even close sodding is a sufficient protection to the banks.
Sods laid even as late as November will be very useful in this
way.
Planting ought to be quite finished before this time, and if it has
not been done there is no time to be lost, as during the last of this
month there will be heavy and cold rains, that will cool the earth
and prevent the roots acquiring any hold. Trees planted now
should be well staked.
The ground is generally frozen up by or before Thanksgiving. As
soon as it is frozen have all the dry leaves raked up, or they will
be blowing about all winter, and keep the grounds dirty and littered.
If you have enough in the barns and cellar for bedding and manure, make a pile of those now collected and cover it with boards
and branches. Or, better still, if there is any hole or pit about
the place, fill it with the leaves wetted and matted together with
the salt and lime mixture; in the spring they will have been converted into the best kind of mould for potting and for general
greenhouse uses.
Go over all the trellises on which you have had deciduous vines,
as Clematis, Madeira, Convolvulus, Apios, etc.; cut the straw away
at the surface of the ground, untwine them from the trellis and
throw them with the dry leaves.
The ornamental trees and shrubs may be pruned and trimmed
into any shapes you please; but do not prune the tender ones, lest
the operation should expose them to greater danger from winter
killing.
The work is now to be closed for the winter, and during the long
interval of frosty weather there will be ample time to lay plans for
next summer's work.
223 
CHAPTER XXXL
GREENHOUSE.
.  ECEMBER.   The care of the green and
and other glasshouses now becomes the gar                    dener's principal occupation, but it will be
found enough to keep him very busy. Should
the first of the month be warm, it may be
possible to get along without fires, but only if
~.~o ~        the weather is very clear and bright; then
the sun's heat will warm the house so thoroughly, that by putting up the shutters and letting down the covers
early, we may retain heat enough to prevent frost during the night.
The advice so often given that the house be covered with mats and
shutters during all moderate weather, is "penny wise and pound
foolish;" for plants are very much injured by darkness, particularly
in cold weather, and even with the closest covering it is but rarely
that fires can be dispensed with in December. Start your fires
every cold afternoon, but do not let them heat the house higher
than 45~ to 50~ at any time in the month.
Air the house thoroughly on bright and warmish days, and admit
some air by the sashes every sunshiny day, unless there is a high
and very cold wind, when all the sashes should be closed as tightly
as possible, and the house be ventilated and aerated by the opening
in the front wall, where the air enters upon the hot pipes, and by
the ventilators in the back wall. Through them no high or cold
wind can harm the house.
Carefully examine the plants daily, and pick off decaying leaves.
Water sparingly, and syringe only on bright and mild days, when
some air can be admitted. Give little or no water to the Cactus
family and all similar plants.
In the hot portion of the house more fire heat must be kept up,
224 
GREENHOUSE.
so that the temperature may never fall below 45,~ and may average
55~ to 60.~ Not only are the plants here natives of warm climates,
but many of them are to be forced into flower in order to take their
place in the conservatory. Water more freely than you did last
month, and set pans of water over the pipes that they may send a
constant and warm moisture through the house. Admit less direct
air than in the greenhouse, as a chill will be much more severely
felt than there. Let the ventilators be nearly or quite closed at
night, unless the weather be very warm.
The exotic bulbs planted in the fall have now grown considerably, and must be treated like all other plants in the same stage of
growth.
FUMIGATION.- It may be necessary to fumigate the houses this
month, to destroy aphides and other vermin which are always
present, and begin their work on tender shoots and foliage, as
soon as they start. For fumigation take one or more common
portable furnaces, such as plumbers use; make a charcoal fire
in them, and set one under the middle, or at each end of the
stagings; on the fire lay common leaf tobacco, - no matter
how cheap and poor,- it will fill the house with a dense smoke.
Do this about sundown, and leave the smoke in the house all
night.
For aphides a gentle fumigation is enough, but for coccus and
thrips, you must make a dense and pungent smoke. About 11 A.M.,
the next day, if it be mild and bright, open the sashes as freely as
is safe, and let the air circulate.
This fumigation will destroy all living insects, but has little or no
effect on their eggs, some of which will hatch in two or three days;
so repeat the fumigation three times at intervals of two days. By
the last time, you will probably have destroyed all that would
trouble you for some weeks. A single fumigation injures the fragrance of the flowers as much, and renders the house as disagreeable,
as three, while it does not half do the work. After the last fumigation, air freely, and syringe well with water which has been standing in a warm place long enough to lose its chill; this will remove
all dead insects and feeble leaves. Thorough fumigations early in
225 
DECEMBER.
the winter, often suffice for the season. The gardener must judge
however, as to the necessity of a repetition. To fumigate a few
plants, you may put some charcoal coals in the bottom of a small
pot; on this lay tobacco; invert over it another pot of the same size,
or a trifle smaller. The smoke will come out through the hole of
the top pot quite cool.
Another kind of work should also be done often; viz., washing the pots, were it only to improve the appearance of the house.
Many gardeners insist that the green and slimy accretions on the
outside of the pots do no harm, and may as well be left there.
That the injury to the plant in the pot is small, is doubtless true,
but such collections of fungi, foul the air of the house, and render
the task of keeping it clean and sweet much more difficult. Scrub
the pots clean occasionally, with sand and water.
Cleanliness is a leading principle in all successful hothouse culture, and it will be found that the houses most infested with mealy,
scaly bugs, aphides, etc., are those where the pots and plants are
allowed to become dirty and mossy.
BULBS FROM SEEDS. -  The last of December is the time to sow
seeds of Ranunculus, Anemone, Auricula, Cyclamen. When large
quantities are required, separate beds must be formed and treated
with special care; but we need few. Ranunculus and Anemone are
rather shy.
Take shallow garden pans, with holes for drainage, and cover
the bottom with an inch of good potting-earth, from which all earthworms have been carefully removed,   Sow the seed thinly over the
surface, and cover with a shallow dressing of the same earth, never
more than quarter of an inch; set the pans where there will be direct
light and a moderate bottom heat.  The earth must be kept moist by
daily gentle watering, through a pot with a very finely pierced
rose; the water must fall very gently and regularly. Keep the
pans always in a uniform temperature and state of moisture. When
the seeds have germinated and begun to grow, treat like all other
bulbous plants.  They will grow rapidly, and mature in the early
summer. As soon as the leaves have fairly withered, carefully examine the earth in the pans, and pick out all the roots; many of
226 
GREENHOUSE.
them will be very small. When all are gathered, dry and lay
them away like the larger ones for planting, in the following fall.
They will begin to blossom the third year from the seed.
Examine the cold pits as often as the weather permits, and give
air and light; remove all decayed leaves, and, if the plants seem
to be suffering for want of moisture, water gently and slightly,
through the nose of the watering-pot.  Daisies and Neapolitan Violets may be brought into the house to flower; repot Carnations
coming into bloom; nip back strong shoots of Pelargoniums, to make
them stocky, and repot young plants; water Cyclamens liberally,
and repot Achimenes and Gloxinia. Head back plants lately removed from the ground, for reasons already given.
Persons who have no glasshouses, and wish to grow a few bulbs
for the early spring flower-garden, need not start them till later in
the winter, when directions will be given.
You may now pot out of the seed pans, some Lobelias, Nierembergias, Gilias, Nemophilas, etc., which are to be suspended in different parts of the house, from the pillars and brackets, as hanging
plants. Select for the same purpose some of the fine foliaged and
drooping Verbenas, and Lantanas.
Attend to the bulbs in glasses. If you have not put them into
glasses, do it at once. Bulbs usually grown in glasses may be set
out in pots, like those previously described for that purpose. Do
not cover the bulbs to more than half their depth.
Any Pinks, Chrysanthemums, or bulbous plants, taken from the
garden, which have ceased flowering, may now be removed, and
the bulbs left to dry up slowly. Remove the Pinks and Chrysanthemums when out of bloom, to the back of the house; set them under the shelves, or in a cold pit, and supply their places with succession plants, or some taken out of the pits. Water them very rarely.
the bulbs and Chrysanthemums may be allowed to grow quite dry,
but the Pinks will need water and care occasionally, till spring.
Pot well-started cuttings which are for spring bloom;  repot
Roses which are growing strongly; Tree Peonies will bloom in
spring, if taken out of the garden and potted; Japan Lilies can be
set in pots in the cold frames.
227 
CHAPTER XXXII.
CONSERVATORY.
THE directions for the conservatory are nearly a repetition of
those for the greenhouse; as before said, keep it warmer than the
greenhouse.
Daphnes, Pettosporums, and similar plants are coming into
blossom, and need more water than before; all these plants, Camelias, Azaleas, and the like, are much alike in general character, and need similar treatment; they should have a peculiar
house to themselves. As we have no such house, but are obliged
to keep them in the conservatory and greenhouse, I will describe
the treatment of the Camelia, which is the most capricious, with
some minuteness, premising that the others are to be managed
similarly.
CAMELIA.-  The  Camelia can  endure a very considerable
amount of cold for a short time, during the season of rest. The
thermometer may fall 2~ or 3~ below freezing, and yet the plant
be uninjured; but this tolerance of cold is only at certain times;
when the plant has blossomed and begun to grow, it needs a great
deal of heat and an abundance of water; - there is but little danger of giving too much; -  when it has made its growth and formed
its flower-buds, it relapses into a dormant state for some months,
and so remains till vegetation begins again, a period which varies
according to the time of flowering. The proper time to examine
and repot such plants is just before the renewal of growth. The
Camelia generally blossoms very fully, then rests a few days, and
sometimes a week or two, then begins to make its new growth, and
needs, as I have said, plenty of heat and moisture. When the
new wood is formed, the flower-buds make their appearance.
When they are formed, gradually diminish the supply of water
228 
CONSERVATORY.
and heat, giving only water enough to prevent drought, till it recommences its growth. It is impatient of standing water, and
requires thorough drainage. In the summer, which is usually its
dormant season, it may be removed from the house, and set in
some cool and shady place, where it is well to bed it in coal ashes
to insure the immediate and thorough absorption of falling water,
and to prevent insects or worms from getting into the pot.
As before said, examine its ball of earth just before the roots
begin to grow again, give fresh loam, and if need be, repot; it is
rarely necessary to repot large plants oftener than once in two or
three years, the time depending on the thoroughness of its drainage
and the quality of the loam in which it has been planted. Many
specific preparations of earth have been proposed for Camelias.
The best and most reliable is good virgin loam. If this is rather
tenacious, reduce it with pure sand. The only means of subsequent enrichment is liquid manure, which should be applied, according to the best English growers, only during the season of the
plant's repose, never during flowering or growing.
As soon as growth recommences the flower-buds swell; two, or
at the most three, are all that should be allowed in each cluster;
if more appear, thin them out with sharp-pointed scissors; if this
be not carefully done, they will crowd each other off. 
By no means bring them at this season into a very warm house,
for much heat will cause the buds to fall off; keep them as cool and
well aired as possible. If they get dusty, sponge the leaves or syringe very thoroughly. The general health and good treatment of
the Camelia are proved by its breaking all its buds at once, as it
starts afresh. It is very apt to lose its lower buds and grow from
the top only, thus spindling up and becoming naked below. Take
every possible means to prevent this. Be sure that the supply of
water is regular and abundant when the buds are developing, or
they will drop. The other plants named are not so shy or difficult
to manage as the Camelia, but need the same general treatment.
AZALEAS.- As regards soil, the Azalea, Erica, and Rhododendrons prefer peaty soils, and if good peat can be had, it should by
all means be used especially for the Ericas.
20
229 
DECEMBER.
The variety of Azaleas is great, and they are a beautiful family
of plants, whether we refer to the Azalea Viscosa of our own
swamps, the Azalea Pontica of the flower-garden and shrubbery,
with its many varieties, or to the yet more varied Azaleas of the
greenhouse. They are easily grown from the seed, from side cuttings, and from grafts.  "For seeds, the soil is made  smooth by
white sand; as soon as the seedlings have made two or three
leaves, transplant them to store pots, - many together,   in sandy
peat. The seed pans should be put where they will have bottom
heat. Cuttings are prepared by taking the tops of the young shoots
when 3 inches long, cutting off the lower leaves, and leaving the
upper; many should be put together into a pot three-fourths full of
peat, one-fourth white sand; water gently upon planting, and cover
with a bell glass; set in a shady place, where the temperature will
be from 50~ to 60~; after they have made roots, remove the bell
glass -during the night at first, and finally dispense with it wholly
- to harden them; at last, pot in 21 inch pots, and keep them
shady and warm till they are well established, then treat like all
other hard-wooded plants;"-like the Camelia,  in  general  they
bear pruning well, and may therefore be shaped as you please.
If from imperfect drainage or any other cause the roots become
diseased, examine carefully when you pot, cut away the dead, and
give the living roots a fair chance.
The chief objection to the Azalea is its liability to die without
much apparent cause. It often dies at the surface of the ground.
Grafting the tender into the more hardy is no protection, as they
die just above the stock. They are also very much attacked by
the thrip; "the best remedy (for the latter) is, to prepare strong
lather of soap and flower of sulphur, in a tub, and to immerse the
plants two or three times in it, setting them again on their stages,
and shutting up the house or pit close for two or three days."'
(Mclntosh's Book of the Garden, p. 684.) At this season, water
but little till they commence to grow.
The Oleander is another very fine conservatory and garden
plant; it is a strong, free grower, may be got from seeds, or cuttings either of the new or old wood; the latter root freely when
230 
CONSERVATORY.
hung in bottles of water. The trouble with the Oleander is its
shyness in blossoming. It should be planted in strong, rich loam,
and when the flower buds appear should stand in pans constantly
full of water. After it has blossomed it should have as much sun
as possible, and little water, till the spring of the next year, when
the watering and stimulating should be recommenced.
A glance at the Oleander shows that three shoots start from the
growing points, which in large plants are the flower shoots. If you
would have a plant or a part of a plant blossom freely, rub off the
young shoots as soon as they appear at the base of the flower buds;
all the sap will then be thrown first into the buds, and will consequently develope magnificent flowers, while three other buds or
shoots will start lower down on the branch, which terminates in the
flowers. By carefully attending to this you will not only get much
better flowers, but will keep the plant in much better condition and
shape, as without pruning it often becomes straggly and unmanageable.
Cut down the plants every spring, after flowering.   Once in
three years you must repot. If you cannot obtain pots large
enough for the entire roots, pare the ball with a sharp knife, on the
sides and bottom, till it fits the pot; after repotting set in a shaded
place, and in a few weeks the roots will form anew.
By thus carefully watching and managing Oleanders you may
obtain their full and great beauty. They are great ornaments to
the garden in summer, whether in pots or tubs, above the surface
or sunk in the open ground.
Rhododendrons are quite as impatient of heat as Camelias, and
need more water while forming their flower buds. They may be
freely grown from seed, cuttings, layers, or by budding. Daphnes
are freely grown by cuttings, or by grafting on common sorts of the
same species. In December hang up here, as in the greenhouse,
the plants which you wish to have pendant from the roof and
windows. Give Acacias, as they come into flower, abundant water.
Now is the time for persons who have no large estates or garden
structures for keeping and growing plants, to do something in a
231 
DECEMBER.
small way, by which they may secure the delights of flowers and
plants in winter.
Some persons have a knack at making all kinds of plants grow in
the most unfavorable circumstances. I think this is partly owing to
a magnetic attraction existing between such persons and their plants.
The plants seem to know that they are loved, that they are household treasures, that every new leaf and flower is as welcome as the
new words and expanding thoughts of a baby to its mother. Apparently conscious of this, they do their utmost, and in places the
least adapted for successful house culture of plants, we often find
stands or individuals equal to the best greenhouse specimens.
I was never more impressed with this than in the town of Beaufort, near Quebec. The road winds along beside the St. Lawrence,
and through a village of French people, who have preserved the
customs of their old French ancestors, and whose houses are reproductions of the picturesque cottages of Northern France. Their
climate is very extreme, and the thermometer, for months together, 
is 10~ or 15~ below zero.  The houses are some of stone, some of
wood, plastered on the exterior, heated only by stoves, and yet in
the early spring there may be seen, in almost every cottage by the
road-side, large plants   Roses, Pelargoniums, Fuchsias, some five
or six feet high, and not in blossom merely, but so filled with
flowers that the leaves only served like the green in a bouquet, to
show the flowers to better advantage.
Apart from the singularity of such successful culture under these
unfavorable circumstances, how beautiful it is to see these, or any
flowers, in the houses of the poor! it is a proof that there glows in
the heart of the occupants a recognition of something in life more
worthy of admiration than the merely practical and bread-earning.
A few flowers in the window, a border neatly trimmed and kept
in the front yard, a vine trailing over the door, along the eaves, or
overhanging the architrave of the window, are the best possible
proof that the dwellers in that house are, whether rich or poor,
capable of rising above the troubles and cares of life, to the higher
and better regions of Nature and God.
We  talk often of natural and revealed religion which point us
to the earth, to the universe with its wonderful mechanism, as a
232 
CONSERVATORY.
proof that there is a God, and that no such wonderful elaboration,
where each part fits into its appropriate place, and where the
whole machine, subtle, grand, and simple, works so calmly and
perfectly, could have existed except by careful design. They tell
us that the proof is overwhelming that one mind arranged every
part and detail before the world was started on its career; and undoubtedly their argument is just and weighty; but it has not half
the power that lies in the color and fragrance of the Rose, the
twinkle of the dew-drop, the flashing, shifting ripple of the brook,
the calm, holy, and indescribably beautiful reflection along the
shores of some wooded pond or mountain lake. These are the
visible manifestations of God.   He is the Beautiful; and when
we love and cultivate the beautiful, we love and cultivate his plain
outward manifestation.
Every flower that blooms, every crystal or water-drop that glistens, is a proof positive of the presence and all-pervading influence
of God; and every heart that is open to the love of a flower even,
is open to the love of its Maker; though covered, concealed, unacknowledged, it is there, and sooner or later the simple flower will
lead its lover to other higher loves. Teach children to love flowers,
waters, trees, skies; open their hearts early to all the powerful and
subtle influences of nature if you would have them noble and
worthy men and women.
God might have made the whole earth green; might have spread
no varied feast of form and color for the eye, without a change in
the daily motions of the heavens or in the daily events of life;
and yet how different a world would this have been! how dull and
uninteresting! Take color from the forms of creation, and you take
away a stimulus without which the mind would grow dull, listless,
indifferent to some of the highest pursuits which now engage it.
The constant presence of beauty is the strongest evidence for the
immortality of the soul.
The annual death of the leaves and flowers, and their annual
resurrection teach an unmistakable lesson. The dewy mornings,
gentle verdure, and whitening blossoms of May and June, have
appealed to the noblest and best in man since history's earliest
record; the rich summer beauty and luxuriance of July, the
20*
233 
DECEMBER.
brilliancy of October, have aroused and ennobled innumerable
mninds; and we, who in the enthusiasm of youth or maturity of
manhood reverence and admire the beauty of nature, are worshipping the same outward revelations of God, which have appealed
to mankind for many generations.
The simplest flower, a single bud, the crimson spider that flashes
about in our ponds and rivers, the sea anemone achored to its rock,
are all parts of, and necessary to, the whole wonderful beauty of nature. In beauty there is a law of gravitation; each atom attracts the
whole in proportion as it is itself attracted. The simplest object in
the natural world is as important, as well-recognized by God, as
valuable to the discerning eye, as the greatest and most impressive.
Therefore, cultivate a love of the beautiful; cherish every flower
you may. Be sure that whoever truly loves a single flower, whether
in the home of wealth or in the Five Points of New York, has in
him some recognition of goodness and purity. Never sneer at the
humblest  stand of flowers;  the poorest specimen.   The  Geranium growing in the broken tea-pot that stands on the dusty sill
of a dusty window, in a fever-stricken town, may have a value
in the eye of its owner and a power of good over his mind, not to
be equalled by the rarest conservatory or the most beautiful garden
of a rich man.
Do not think that this book is written for the rich, to promote
their ease and luxury. It will be a greater satisfaction to me to
awaken the class of day-laborers to the value and power of beauty;
to show them how they may arouse in themselves and in those they
love, an appreciation of Nature and Nature's gifts to her worshippers, than to show the rich how they may get a greater return in
beauty or fruit for the money they expend on gardens and pleasure
grounds. I would impress it on all classes, that loving ennobles
and purifies the soul; loving is of value according to the nobleness
of the thing we love; and he who in his little village-garden grows
and loves his flowers for their own purity and nobleness, will receive
a richer reward and get a better - because an inward - growth,
than he who pours out his money like water to produce rich gardens
and costly plants, that they may be external and evident proofs
of his wealth and power.
234 
CONSERVATORY.
Before we leave these winter months, I hope to show both that
this is true and that the love and pursuit of agriculture is the legitimate occupation of the best portion of our nature.
I have described planthouses fit for men of large means. I will
now describe a
CONSERVATIVE PIT on a large scale, but not very costly to
make or expensive to support, which will return an unlimited
amount of satisfaction. Such a pit might be erected on the L roof of
a city house, may be large or small, cheap or costly, according to the
fancy of the builder. I shall describe it as standing on the ground.
Stake out a parallelogram 18 x 30 feet, and dig it out to the
depth of 3 feet; along the front side and at both ends lay a solid
stone or brick wall 3 feet high. At the back erect a solid brick or
stone wall 3 feet high, and above this a hollow brick wall 24 inches
thick and 20 feet high. In the base wall on the front and ends
leave openings for ventilators as shown in the plan. In the top
of the front side of the back wall leave tubular openings 4 feet
apart, as shown in the plan for top-ventilation. All these openings
in the walls must have tight covers on the inside, and wire gauze
covers where they open into the outer air. The top-ventilators
open under the coping of the top of the wall, which will protect
them against high winds. In other respects the exterior is made
like that of ordinary greenhouses; the glass roof is divided into
two sashes, the upper sliding over the lower. Refer to the plan of
the end. e is a door which slides to the right to give entrance; it
is 3 feet higher than the floor of the house, being on a level with
the surface of the ground, and steps which curve to the right
descend from it to a path (d in the section), 3 feet wide, which
leads tb the other end of the house. On the left of this walk is the pit.
PIT.- Mark out a parallelogram 9 feet wide x the distance between the walk at the foot of the steps and the other end of the
house; lay a tile drain and a pipe for heating the soil, through the
length of this parallelogram; at each corner drive down firm posts,
Red Cedar or Locust, or squared stone posts, not less than 3 inches
235 
DECEMBER.
square in the clear; to these posts, if of wood, spike closely
matched 2-inch planks; if of stone, fasten by bolts and iron straps
SECTION OF CONSERVATIVE PIT.
SCALE.- One-fourth inch to the foot.
a, a. hot-water pipes; b, table, 3 feet wide; C, plank or slate front to pit; d, floor of walk
-strips of wood or slate; e, trellis for vines; f, gravel underdraining for pit; g, earth, ete.,
in pit, 2 feet deep in front, 3 feet behind.
236
RI
I  \\ --  - AZT. —=
I -. I
-. I f
--. --                                        0
6           i  -- -_
11 I.    =Z=. 
CONSERVATORY.
slabs of slate 12 inches thick; carry up the planks or slabs 3  feet
in front, 4 feet at the back of the ends, sloping gradually to the
front. There is no need of planking against the back wall. Fill
into the space thus enclosed.
jIIjI   y
_                                    ~
~
_                                         ~
e
I                                            ~
_'~
I'I I
___________           I    I I I    I         I              __ I
I       I I I I
I    I  I  I  I         I  I        ____
I I
____               I    I 1        I   ___   _______
I    I    I  I
_ ~            I&            =-I'
END OF CONSERVATIVE PIT.'
SCALE.- One-fourth inch to the foot.
a, foundation wall; b, brick foundation, 3 feet high; c, double wall, 2 feet thick; d, tiled
slope for the top of the wall, protecting ventilation tube; e, door, 3 feet wide; f, sliding
sash; g, wooden base; h, top sash sliding over; i, lower sash, fixed.
237
If — I. 
DECEMBER.
Over these stones lay 6 inches of tough sods, over the sods 3
inches bones and oyster shells, over these 3 inches best loam, over
the loam 3 inches of bones etc., as before, and 6 inches well-trodden, unfermented horse-manure. Fill up to the edges and slope
nicely with the best loam you can get. Leave all to settle for a
fortnight or two; then fill up anew with loam. Into the top of the
back wall drive a row of staples 4 feet apart; do the same at the
bottom, and between the rows stretch coarse wires for a trellis; at
the foot of each wire plant a choice running Rose (Safrano Tea,
La Marque, Cloth of Gold, etc.); cut them down within two buds
of the surface. Over the rest of the pit plant what you like:
Lemon Verbenas, Bourbon, Tea, and China Roses, Heliotrope,
Sage, Lantana, Verbena, China Orange, and other and smaller
plants; among these Double English Violet, Daisy, Lysimachia,
Lycopodium. Set the plants in August, and let them all be small,
so that as they grow you may give them shapes as you prefer. b
(in the section), on the right of the walk, is a table 3 feet wide and 3
feet high, to hold pot plants, cuttings, boxes of Cucumbers, Melons,
or Strawberries, or any low-growing plants; under the table carry a
double hot-water or steam pipe, with a coupling to connect at will
with the pipe under the pit.
DI)o not put on the sashes till late in September, and only then
if hard frosts threaten; after the sashes are on, leave them open
and air the house as much as possible; get what heat is necessary
from the sun and the use of the shutters and mats, and do not resort to fires while you can avoid it.  Keep the temperature as low
as 40~ to 45~, till the last of December; gradually increase the
heat if you cannot otherwise keep out frost, but rely principally
on the increasing heat of the sun as the days lengthen.
The plants will begin a slow growth in October, and gradually
throw out a few leaves and blossoms till January; in this interval
water sparingly; as December grows old, give water lukewarm
and in greater quantity; the plants will soon begin to grow vigorously. During the rest of the season, till warm weather, water
and syringe as in other greenhouses; keep a moderate temperature
during the night, and let the sun heat the house thoroughly during
238 
CONSERVATORY.
the day; the plants will soon begin to blossom freely. Train
the vines on the wire trellises as fast as they grow: they will
grow the better, and you can give them any shape.
Here, as in other houses, the plants need fumigating. Once a
month give a copious watering of liquid manure, made as before
directed.
During the coldest weather, connect the pipe which runs under
the pit so as to warm the earth below, but only in a moderate degree; it is not desirable to stimulate growth by bottom heat to any
great extent, but to give just enough to keep the roots warmed in
proportion to the increased heat about the branches.
As the spring advances, use the front shelf to start cuttings for
bedding out, and to grow plants for the kitchen-garden.
Later in spring withdraw fire-heat, and toward the last of April
give less and less water.  By the first of June take off all the
movable sashes, and entirely cease watering, or in droughts water
just enough to save the plants from being dried up. Under this
treatment they will cease to grow, and will ripen their wood; when
this is effected, cut them    vines and all -  back as much as you
judge sufficient to enable them to blossom and grow next season
without crowding. If any of them do not suit you, this is the time
to substitute others. Cover the top of the pit with a liberal dressing of well-rotted manure, and dig it in carefully with a foot or
hand fork. After August, follow the directions already given; i.e.,
begin the year again.
The fire and boiler-room is not shown here. If the dwellinghouse is heated by hot water or steam, its pipes may connect with
the pit; or a simple flue and fireplace may be built at one end
and instead of hot pipes, a brick flue, through which all the fire
and smoke must pass, may be carried along the ends and front of
the house. Water may be caught from the roof, raised from a
well, or supplied in whatever way is most convenient; the fire and
cistern, are in a small shed at the back of the house. If the cistern is above the level of the floor, a pipe may be led from its
bottom to the centre of the house, in order to lessen the labor of
carrying water.
The cost of a house built on this plan may be greatly increased
239 
- DECEMBER.
or reduced, at the fancy of the proprietor, and will depend on the
amount of ornament and finish. When present cheapness is the
grand desideratum, substitute for the brick walls double wooden
ones, built like those of an icehouse, with a space of a foot, at
least, between, into which sawdust is put, or which is back plastered. Clapboard on the outside, putting tarred paper under the
clapboards; inside use tarred paper under sheathing or lath and
plaster.
Such a wooden house, 18 x 30 feet, can be built now, and in the
vicinity of Boston, for about $600; a brick house, for $800 to
$1000.
A person of small means may think I have hardly made good
my promise to describe a cheap house, since $1000 for such a purpose is scarcely more easily spared than $2000. And, of course,
only those who have some balance of money to their credit can
afford any planthouse; such things are out-of the question for men
whose every moment is spent in struggling for freedom from debt.
But for one who can afford it the first cost named is very small in
proportion to the return which will surely follow, while the after
cost of keeping the house will be very small. It is easily warmed,
not requiring more than 3 tons of coal at the utmost, probably not
more than 12 or 2 tons. Most families could manage it without the
help of a gardener, there being no necessity for potting or starting
slips, no grape vines to be watched, pruned, and thinned. The
work is simple, and if you choose, you may carry the plants with
which you start through many years.
But beware of one error with regard to this house; viz., the calculation that it will pay a portion of its cost, or its running expenses, by sales of flowers and plants. Professed gardeners may
do this, but the attempt will only bring to an amateur disappointment and annoyance. He will always scrinp himself in cutting
flowers, lest he may not have enough for sale, and will never be
satisfied if he does not succeed in making money out of his house;
but if he undertakes it with no expectation of pecuniary return, lihe
will get his pleasure without any disappointment, unless it be the
pleasant one of an unexpected surplus, which may bring in a few
dollars.
240 
CONSERVATORY.
I                                 <
-      -  - -,
WINDOW GARDENING.- A few plants can be effectually cultivated on a still smaller scale, and so as to produce a very pleasant
result. In any room where a fire is kept up throughout the winter put up a window-case. A bay window is the best for the purpose, as it projects and receives sun and light from several sides,
but other windows will answer.   The  above engraving represents a three-sided bay window, projecting 3 feet beyond the room;
if you can afford it, make a double window of this, with a pane
21
241 
DECEMBER.
in the top of each of the two
outer side sashes,  swinging
on hinges, so that by lowering the inside top sash, and
opening one or both of these
swinging panes, cold air may
be freely admitted  to  the
case. Now cut a piece of
1I- inch planed plank to just
fit into the window on one
side, and to project into the
room as far as you please on
the other, where it may be cut
into any shape which suits
you.  In the cut it is of the
same  shape as the portion
within the window, so that
the whole is a hexagon. This
plank, A, is to be the ceiling.
Into its four front corners
sink holes to receive the
posts, which are to form the
A
2;w\h    
frame of the window. (See cut, a/, post rebated to hold sash.) The
size of the posts is decided by the height of the window, and they are
chamfered on the outside to meet the angle of the hexagon, which
they are to occupy, and rebated on each side deep enough to hold
the sash. Now construct a framework, B, of 2 x 3 planed joist, just
the size of the plank ceiling, and with holes corresponding to those
in the ceiling; countersink in opposite sides, grooves or cuts 1 inch
deep and 2 inches wide, 1 foot apart; into these grooves fit planed
slats. As the bay window does not reach the floor cut four 3 x 4
smoothed joists, to reach from the floor to the sill.  Screw them
against the four corners of the window. Cut two other posts, c, 3
inches longer than the first four, and halve their tops, so as to make
a joint, on which the frame of the floor of the window-case may rest.
Have a zinc pan made which will just fit the floor of the case, 
and make a tight joint all round; its edges must be turned up 2
242
~    aI-'
B
Ie
c
d1 
CONSERVATORY.
inches to prevent any water spattering over upon the floor, with a
one-half inch waste pipe in its centre, to discharge water into the
pail below.
Paint the whole inside wood-work thoroughly, with at least two
coats of best zinc paint; when this is dry, put the pan in its place.
Make two small stagings which will fit into as much of the two
opposite sides of the case as you please; they should not be nearer
each other than 2 feet, and their shelves should be not less than 5
inches wide, with a rise of 4 inches for all; or the first 3 inches,
and each other step two more than the last. The number of tIhe
shelves will depend of course on the area of the floor; they may
be carried straight across or curved concavely; the latter being
more pleasing though not quite so well for the plants. Against the
sides of the window and case you may carry up shelves 1 foot to
18 inches apart, to the very top. Screw some hooks into the ceiling from which to hang drooping plants; they should be hung with
cords of different lengths, so that when well grown they may form
a kind of arch with the plants on the sides. Paint stagings and
shelves before plants are set on them. From the bottom of the
case hang a curtain to conceal the pail- which must stand under
the pipe before mentioned -and the various utensils used in managing the case.
This case is a miniature greenhouse. It will be thoroughly
heated by the sun which shines on it during some portion of the
day, and if enough of this heat cannot be retained to warm it
through the night, the doors should be thrown open to admit the
warm air of the room.
It should be stocked with a variety of plants.   Set near the
posts pots of vines, as running Roses, Smilax, Tropeolum, Waxplant, Solanum, etc.; on the stagings and in the pan set Geraniums, Verbenas, Heliotrope, Lantana, Cuphea, Fuchsia; in shaded
places, Daisies and Violets; on the shelves, drooping Fuchsias,
Mahernias, drooping Heliotrope, Lobelia, Nierembergia, Gilia,
etc.; hang up any you please of these last.
Of course you are not confined to these plants, but they are
enough to give a good variety; be careful not to get too many and
crowd the case.
243 
DECEMBER.
Suppose all this to have been done early in October; during the
rest of the month, and the whole of the next, water sparingly and
give plenty of air; do not induce the plants to grow more than is
quite natural. The sun's warmth will be enough for day and night.
In December set the bulbs in their glasses into the front of the
case; water sparingly, and on very bright days syringe thoroughly.
Still keep the temperature low, not higher by the sun's heat than
75~ in the day, and at night let it fall as low as 40~. In January
water more freely and with tepid water, syringe twice a week, and
keep the temperature at night as high as 50~. The plants will
now begin to grow. Once a fortnight give weak manure-water.
Admit air as often as the outside temperature allows. During the
day let the case get as hot as 75~ to 80~, and at night fall to 55~;
follow this treatment till spring.  Your plants will be healthy, grow
strongly, blossom freely. Whenever aphides appear, fumigate three
times, allowing an interval of two days for the eggs to hatch; after
each fumigation, syringe well to clear away the dead insects.
-For your fumigations you may use a small brazier or an alcohol
lamp with a wire netting supported over the flame, which should
be as small as possible, that the tobacco laid on the netting may
burn slowly, and the smoke not be too hot.
Any severely cold night frost may be kept out by shutting up
the case, first setting inside a large, lighted solar lamp. Its heat
will keep out frost.
In late spring take out all plants not trained to the wood-work;
set them in a cool, shady place, and reduce their water till they stop
growing. Do not withhold water entirely, or allow the earth to become dry in the centre of the pots.  When they have thoroughly
ripened their wood, cut them down to a convenient size.
In August, or at the proper time for each kind of plant, repot,
shifting to larger pots if necessary; examine the roots, give fresh
earth. Put them into the case again in October; but before doing
this examine and scrub the paint and wood-work; stop all leaks;
fumigate with sulphur and tobacco of such strength as will kill insects and eggs, but not affect the paint.
A very neat case of this kind can be made when the window is flush with the room, as in ordinary windows, especially if
244 
CONSERVATORY.
the window selected lies between the chimney-breast and the wall,
so that three sides of the case are made by the chimney-breast, the
opposite wall, and the intervening window.   It is best to have all
the sunlight possible; but sunlight is not indispensable, although
abundant daylight is. For this reason, if not for beauty, it is well
to have all sides of the case of glass, as the plants thus get more
light and grow more symmetrically.
A very neat and pretty case of this kind can be built for $15,
and stocked for $5 or $10, and once built and stocked it costs nothing more while it lasts. Its great advantage over plant-stands for
rooms is, obviously, in the facility it offers for excluding dust, for
watering, syringing, fumigating, and regulating heat. Such cases
may be made on the outside of windows, but unless very carefully
built it is impossible to keep them warm enough. The contrivance
was suggested by the
WARDIAN CASE, -which is another simple and pretty method
of growing a few plants in a room. In original theory, the Wardian case was air-tight, but in practice this is not necessary; indeed, it is found that by considering the case as a small greenhouse,
and managing it on greenhouse principles, a more perfect result is
secured; the advantage of the Wardian case being in equality of
temperature and moisture, and in protection from dust, rather than
in the exclusion of outside air; the latter being in fact nearly impossible, because air will find its way through the earth and pot.
It is from badly regulated supply of moisture that room plants
mainly suffer. Out-door plants are supplied by rains, by winds,
by local currents of air which bring moisture where it is needed;
and the importance of this supply is shown by the stunted and with
ered appearance of vegetation during droughts, when a reduced
quantity of water is furnished by the roots, while none can be obtained by the leaves from the air.  In greenhouses this diffused
moisture is artificially supplied.
Plants taken from the greenhouse into the room of a dwelling, are at once placed in a very dry air, always drier than that
out of doors, and in cold weather made still more so by fire
heat; and the most copious watering at the root will not remedy
21+~~~
21*
'245 
DECEMBER.
this evil, for the roots cannot do the work of the leaves as well as
their own, and cannot give the moisture usually furnished by the
breathing pores of the leaves.
It is clear then, that the dryness of the air is a cause of the common failure in cultivating plants in our rooms. There is, besides, a
great deal of dust, ashes, and soot always floating in the air of our
houses. This dust is very fine, and abundant enough to injure plants
seriously.  By shutting plants in close cases from which all currents
and circulation of air are excluded, this evil of dust, etc., is removed.
Again, plants not only absorb moisture from the air, but also give
out a great deal by perspiration, which, in the ordinary course of
things, is carried off by the winds. The earth also evaporates
freely under a warm sun or a dry wind. Set a glass jar over a
pot plant, and this usually invisible process will be demonstrated to
the eye. The glass is no hindrance to the sun's rays, which warm
the earth and the plant in the pot and draw up moisture through the
plant, and also evaporate it directly from the earth. To this moisture the glass is a hindrance; it shuts it all in, and as the sun
leaves, and the glass and the air within it cool, the vapor condenses,
and runs down the glass to the earth again. This process is repeated day after day, with no sensible diminution of the moisture in
the pot. Plants have been kept in this condition for many months
without the addition of a drop of water to the original supply.
The evident drawback to such a case is the dimming of the glass
by condensation of moisture,- on the inside, when the air without is
cooler than that within- on the outside, when the relation is reversed.  In either case it may be temporarily obviated by a small
door in some part of the case, by opening which the temperature
within becomes the same as that without.
A beautiful feature of this arrangement is the power the case
has of regulating the heat within, by the process described under
the glass jar: the condensation increasing in proportion as the temperature within rises above that without, and so shutting out the
rays which would soon make the temperature within too high for the
health of the plants. As the case cools by the loss of the rays so shut
out by the veil of mist, the evaporation ceases to supply material
for condensation,-the veil is withdrawn and the sun looks in again.
246 
CONSERVATORY.
In such portable greenhouses the most tender and delicate exotics,- Ferns, Lycopl)odiums, etc.,- have been grown successfully.
Unfortunately, the cost of glass and the inconvenience of having
very large cases in our rooms set a limit to our collection and the
size of our plants.
I have dwelt on the effect of the sun's rays on the case and its
contents, in order to make the process plainer; but direct sunlight
is not essential to a perfect case, and by keeping the case out of the
sun during the greater part of the time, the condensation and consequent dimming of the glass may be avoided.
Wardian cases of every shape have been made to suit the taste
of cultivators. Not only are plants preserved in the best condition
by these means, but cut flowers may be kept under similar glasses for
a much longer time than in the ordinary way. In the middle of a
shallow glass dish set a bouquet in an appropriate glass; pour an
inch or two of water into the dish, and cover the bouquet with a
bell-glass, which will shut down into the water, and make the space
within really air-tight. The flowers will preserve their freshness
for a marvellously long time. The cut shows a WVardian case,
"The stand is 22 inches
high, and fitted with a          //        -         
groove all round, to hold          a                      
the box;  the glazed top    j:~    /
At~~~~~~~&J?<XL::..t.'....
or cover is 1.9  inches                                       II
high; whole  height of
case, 4 feet 2 inches."
The sides are of maliogany, the  bottom  of
pine, 1-}  inches  thick;,__
the upper edge of the
box is furnished with a
groove,  to  receive  the          ~...
glass roof, and this groove
is lined with brass to pre- 
vent the rotting of the
wood. The roof frame is
of brass, and is glazed with the very best flattened crown glass; the
247 
DECEMBER.
brass astragals are grooved for the reception of the glass- not
rebated as in ordinary glazing. The case is 32 feet long by 2 feet.
Eyed studs are cast on the inside of the ridge astragal, about half
an inch in length, to sustain small orchids or ferns from the roof;
the box is lined with copper, and from one corner a copper tube, 2
inches long, and furnished with a cock, leads off all superfluous
moisture."
"One of the panes in the roof is made to draw out, being less
firmly set than the others in the groove of the astragal; this is necessary for the occasional arrangement of the plants, though the
general arrangement is made by removing the entire top." This
latter, however, is seldom necessary,  as "plants, both in pots
plunged in moss, and planted out in proper soil, and well drained
below, have been kept in a healthy state for nine months without
removal."
i
..."...
Fn
"B is a very elegant plant case, which might stand in a hall, or
the centre or corner of a drawing-room. An iron or earthen pot.
with a groove cast in the upper surface, which holds the glass cover;
in the middle set an earthen stand, with an iron standard to hold
small orchids or other hanging plants.  It may drain through the
bottom. C is a wire basket for holding flowers and plants, either
with or without a cover; the stand and bottom of the basket are of
248
i> 
CONSERVATORY.
iron or wood; the sides of wire outside, and zinc in; the bottom
channeled, to allow the water to pass off by a small pipe. Such a
movable case is very beautiful, and is easily arranged and cared for."
Another very delightful and instructive companion and ornament
for the house or conservatory is the
AQUARIUM.-The very general interest in, and knowledge of, the
aquarium renders it unnecessary for me to enter minutely into a discussion of the principles to be observed in making and managing it.
It must not be supposed that because it is a means of growing aquatic
plants it is therefore the complement of the Wardian case, where
we grow land plants, and to be managed on the same principles;
for not only is it necessary to introduce animals into an aquarium
in order to make its plants thrive, but its great purpose is to make
us familiar with aquatic animals, and they are its main attraction,
the plants being secondary, though essential.
An aquarium can be made in any water-tight, open-mouthed
vessel, but the habits of the plants and animals can be studied
much better if the sides of the vessel are of glass.
Water in which aquatic plants are cultivated soon grows foul,
and its surface is covered with green slime, and this was the great
difficulty to be overcome in establishing the aquarium.
In 1842, Dr. Johnson, an English naturalist, mentioned, in a
work on Sponges, that having placed in a jar of sea-water plants
and branches of sea-weeds, to some of which minute shell fish
were attached, he found that not only did the water remain clear,
but the plants and animals throve perceptibly.  In 1845, Mr.
Ward, the inventor of the Wardian case, announced to the scientific world that he had succeeded in growing sea-weeds even in
water artificially prepared. Since that time the attention of naturalists has been strongly directed to aquariums, and some of the
earlier establishments were so successful and charming as to arouse
an immediate and wide-spread enthusiasm on the subject, and recent periodical literature has abounded with articles about it.
The first step was the discovery that when the plants introduced
into jars of fresh water had snails attached to them, or those in
salt water, periwinkles, the water did not become foul or filled with
249 
DECEMBER.
conferv,e.  This attracted attention to these animals both in confinement and in their native waters, and then it appeared that they
are the scavengers of the refuse of the waters; and a little reflection showed the observer that a sea, a lake, a pond is but a large
aquarium, in which each animal and plant contributes something
to the support of all, and that his aquarium, to be successful, must
copy nature's. The plants ill water supply by their exhalations
oxygen to the animals, who in return furnish the plants with carbonic acid; the decaying vegetable refuse becomes food for snails
and minute animalcules, which are eaten by small fish, and they, in
their turn, by large. The whole life of the waters is like an endless chain, which, when broken into parts, is valueless for its original purpose.
The result of these observations is the rule that the plants are
the first thing to be established in the aquarium; that as soon as
they have fairly begun to grow, snails must be put in, then insects
and fish.  Then  we can watch - as it were from beneath the
waters - the whole miracle of life, death, and reproduction,
which is perpetually wrought ill the unseen depthls of ocean and
lake.
The beauty of the aquarium depends on the beauty of the vegetable and animal forms within, and as motion lends such an additional charm to all things, the fish and other animals are the most
beautiful and bewitching portion of the stock, and every owner of
an aquarium is eager to increase this portion. The number of
plants is obviously limited; there can be but few species and varieties even in a large tank, and their beauty is injured by crowding;
but it is hard to believe that animals may not be added at pleasure,
as they occupy little room, and are constantly changing their quarters. But the laws of animal life are inflexible; they set a fixed
limit to the number of animals which may be kept in good condition, as they do to the number of persons who can comfortably use
a room; and by the same rule; viz., their proportion to the amount
of oxygen supplied, whether in the tank or the room. Think of
the air in a crowded lecture-room, and you will understand the
condition of an aquarium overstocked with animal life.  Within
its narrow compass the limit is quickly reached, and the first mis
250 
CONSERVATORY.
take of all who start aquariums is in overstocking with animals.
Their shapes, colors, and movements, are so fascinating, that it is
hard to resist the inclination to put in every one we find.
I am not at all competent to define these limits, or even to name
the many wonderful and beautiful things to be found in every collection of water. I shall content myself with giving some of the
results of my experience, and shall leave the reader to elaborate
these general directions for himself.
For several reasons, I urge every one who has a little spare
time and money to make an aquarium for himself.  It unlocks to
the mind a new world, it takes us ifito the secrets of nature. A
growing plant is a beautiful sight: its gradual increase, its healthy
color, its stretching branches, budding leaves, opening flowers, are
wonderful and lovely; and the repetition of this process over the
whole face of the earth, or over a single acre even, is not less
marvellous; but we cannot grasp and comprehend it as we can the
process within our aquariums; we live in it, we are a part of it. We
cannot form a miniature earth, which we may watch from without,
and into which we may successively introduce plants, insects,
beasts, birds, men, and watch and enjoy their growth and development; for we are ourselves members of the system, and cannot
get outside to look at it from afar with observing and discriminating
eye. But we can isolate a part of this whole, and make a miniature world of waters, which we may control and keep under constant observation.  It is curious that we should possess this power
over that portion of the system which ordinarily baffles our observation most completely.
We see the waters about us, sail over them, bathe in them, make
constant use of them, admire their colors, motions, reflections; in
our enthusiasm we call water the eye of Nature, because it in a
peculiar way lights up her face and gives it expression. But our
acquaintance is with the surface only. Of the rich beauty and
wonders of the depths below we get no more than occasional
glimpses; yet these, momentary as they are, show us plants and
animals as delicate, as beautiful as any thing in the land life from
which they so strangely differ.  Our delighted and wondering
251 
DECEMBER.
imaginations are at once busy in peopling those unseen depths, and
the vain-glorious theory that beauty was made for man's delight
disappears in the face of the fact that in those waters where man
can never go there is just as overflowing an abundance of beauty
as on the land; a beauty, too, which seems rather intended to escape human eyes, for the fish or plant is no sooner raised from its
native element than its life and beauty depart. The great fact is
hardly modified by the few exceptions in the way of aquariums,
which show us such mere fragments of the aquatic life.
Little as these contrivances show us in relation to the whole,
that relative little is in itself immense, and is besides so perfeet a reproduction of the system of that whole, that we are
justified in saying that it unlocks to us the secrets of the world of
waters.
Make your aquarium. Cover the bottom of your vessel- be
it bathing tub, water pail, glass jar, or proper tank - with two or
three inches of clean sand and pebbles, taken from brook or pond,
or from the sea-shore, if your collection is to be marine; set in this
such plants as you please.   Suppose your collection to be of
fresh water; get stones covered with graceful, exquisite lichens
and algae; from the river bring the Bladderwort, the Pond-weed,
Duck-weed, Eel-grass; put in at the same time a few snails,
and fill the vessel with water. You feel that you have nothing as
yet; the plants are indeed beautiful, but there is nothing that
seems to you like life. Leave the aquarium for a few hours, till
the water has cleared; now examine it. There, swaying on the
graceful top of that plant, is a group of Hydras, stretching their
tentacles in every direction in search of food; from that folded
leaf starts out the restless crimson spider Itydracula, or the
water-boatman, which are to the water what swallows are to the
air; on that stone is a bryazo6a, or a jelly fish; the snails are
creeping up the glass with a smoothness of motion curiously fascinating; look closer and you will see their little tongues, like reaping-hooks, gathering up every particle of vegetable decay within
their reach. You find that without having intentionally got a
single fish or highly organized animal, you have before your won
252 
CONSERVATORY.
dering eyes a life and a variety which you may spend hours in
watching.   Now  add a few silver perch, bream, or shiners, a
stickle-back, an eel, or a leech, a gold or silver fish, a water newt;
and the circle is complete.
Add as you please. I cannot tell what is the proper number,
but your observation may. When you see the fish come often to
the surface, gasping, they are too many for your plants, and some
of them must be removed. If any have died, draw off the water
through a syphon, remove the fish, and supply fresh water, and
repeat this process till the equilibrium of animal and vegetable life
is established. If green slime collects on the glass, get more snails;
they will soon dispose of it. But keep no worms or crustacea,
however curious, which are always hiding under the stones or burrowing in the sand, for they only foul the water, without furnishing
instruction or pleasure.
What an immense field of delight and research such a collection
opens. Already the aquarium has given an impulse to the study
of natural science, has drawn into these pursuits many who were
previously repelled by the dry system of the books, the array of
hard words, that brought up to the mind no distinct images. It is
teaching us observation, training a faculty that has been sadly
neglected in our modern systems of education; and were this its
only use it would still be invaluable as a promoter of healthy
science.
I know of no cheaper and better material for a tank than slate
and glass. The slate is easily worked for bottom and posts, and
the joints can be made tight with the best Roman  or Portland
cement, laid on with the smallest sized mason's trowel, or with
a tin trowel, made to order; or they may be packed with Red
Lead and oil, and over this a solution of rough Gutta Percha,
in common Resin, thinned with Turpentine, may be painted. If
the cement is not kept well moistened while it is setting it will
crack.
The cut shows such an aquarium in elevation, a ground plan of
the base, and an outline of one of the corner posts. When made
of slate and glass they need not cost more than $3.
22
253 
DECEMBER.
It will be seen
that I by no
______  S 2Cij,.. i ~F     _ _*means look  on
\\,   1   ~                   ~         j   this as a mere
*X. /jI'i  II1amusement  for
;'.i';_!'-:-:~:;l'::'~g',,, ~5: an idle mind, or
as a mere orna                                     __.......ment; though it
is among the
best and most  inexhaustible amusements, and the most elegant
*a ___ ~    - — 3D~ ~ornaments, and  as
such is quite in
place  in the  con                                             servatory; the more
so as aquatic plants
form  one  of  the
marked featuresin it.
-a~~~; jThese plants,  curi                                             ously enough, are no                                             wise particular about
__'~~........ --  ~the quality of the soil
in which they grow, but seem to flourish equally well in the richest
mud and in the poorest sand; and whilst on land manure and stimulation are the watch-words of successful culture, in the water
neither is of any consequence.
I hope I have succeeded, in the preceding pages, in making clear
what are the obstacles to successful plant culture, and how they
may be overcome; too much heat, too much water, too much meddling, is ruinous to house plants; yet constant and assiduous pains
must be taken to ensure healthy and satisfactory specimens.
It will more often be found that plants thrive in the cold rooms
of the poor, than in the heated houses of the rich, because during
most of the winter, plants in a state of nature grow little or none,
all that they need being protection from frost. The cool rooms of
the poor, ill ventilated as they are, furnish more fresh air than can
254 
CONSERVATORY.
survive the furnace heat and constant dust of the better class of
houses.
With a little judgment and care every one may have some kind
of plant during the winter, as a link between the past and the
future, to carry us hopefully over that desert season.
255 
CHAPTER XXXIII.
GRAPERY.
UNTIE the vines in the forcing-house and cold-grapery from the
trellises, and lay them down on the ground, covering with bass mats.
In the cold-grapery keep the temperature up by fire and sun, night
and day, but not much above freezing, say 40~.
In the forcing-house give more heat; let the mercury rise in the
daytime as high as 55~ or 60~, and do not let it fall at night
below 40~.
The fruit is now ripe in the retarding-house, and must be preserved with care and watchfulness; some fire will be necessary to
save it from frost.
These directions will be much the same for the next two months.
The same temperature prescribed for grapes is suitable for the
fruit trees in the graperies. They lost their leaves in October and
November, and should have been pruned then; if this was neglected, do it now as soon as possible. The directions given for
pruning espaliered out-of-door trees, are to be followed in the
houses, and further directions will be given hereafter.
The out-of-door treatment of trained Peach-trees is nearly the
same with that of Pears; any necessary variations will suggest
themselves to the gardener in the course of practice. I will in
another place describe the peculiarities of Peach culture more in
detail. In many parts of New England, where the climate is too
cold to permit the favorable growth of Peaches in the usual manner, they may be trained to espaliers with great success.
It is difficult, in this country, to obtain the best evidence as to
the relative merits of different houses for the culture of Peaches,
Apricots, and Nectarines.
Those persons who have such houses are either the few wealthy,
who leave their arrangement and management to gardeners, who
256 
GRAPERY.
being generally men of rno cultivation and acquainted with no
method except that followed in the particular house where they
worked before, have neither the observation to detect, nor the contrivance to remedy, the defects of that method, and can therefore
conceive of no improvement on the kind of house they are familiar
with; or they are poor men who grow fruit to sell, and must therefore content themselves with cheap houses, and refrain from any
experiments, however likely to be improvements on ordinary fruithouses or ordinary methods. In short, American enterprise and
invention have not turned in this direction.
In England, on the other hand, the culture of fruit un(ler glass
has been carried to the highest point, and the houses and trees are
sans reproche in all those establishments that pretend to take a high
rank. We must, therefore, examine the English houses and systems
of planting, pruning, and training, for our models, though different
cultivators differ so much in their methods, that we shall find it difficult to select the best from the variety offered to our choice.
I shall describe several kinds of houses, either of which will
prove successful.
Fruit trees may be cultivated either in tubs or in borders, and
the treatment differs according to their position. I shall first describe those in borders.
FRUITHOUSES.- The oldest, simplest, and cheapest houses for
this purpose have been found to be better than any others, if some
modern improvements are added These improvements are chiefly
in the ventilation, which in the first houses was extremely defective.
No plants subjected to hothouse culture are so imperious in
their demands for sufficient pure air as fruit-trees.  Some cultivators in Europe are accustomed to remove the sashes entirely at
certain seasons, in order to admit the largest possible amount of
air. Such a system is, however, rude, ill-judged, and unnecessary.
The accompanying figure, A, shows one of the earliest forms of
peachhouse, and originated in Denmark; it is from 30 to 40 feet
long, by 9 feet high, and 6 feet wide at the bottom. The top sash
is short, and slides down over the lower; the back wall is brick,
and chambered with flues for hot air; the front may be of wooden
22*
257 
DECEMBER.
posts driven into the ground, in lieu of brick. In front is a hot air flue.
The trees are planted in the soil c.
A great difficulty with this house was
entire want of good ventilation.  The
trees are planted within 12 inches
of the back wall, and are  warmed
by the hot air in the chambers; thus
the wall is warmed gently, and the
house is kept as hot as you please,
by the front flue.  This house may
be improved by  adding  a  stone
foundation, both as a security against
frost, and an assistance in drainage;
and by making openings through the
.A;
wall, b b; one into the hot air flue below, to warm the air of the
house, as before described; the other conveying the hot air away
out of doors. If the back wall is carried up a little higher, and
the ventilating tube turned upward, it will be still better. Such a
house would give large crops of early fruit; or by omitting the
fires, it could be used as a cold-house, which would ripen the fruit
in July and August.
All plants, however, which are so far removed from the light,
thrive slowly in comparison with those brought directly to the glass.
B is another cheap house, but better
t.... than the last.  The trees are here trained
within 1 foot of the glass.  a is a slanting
~;~<~ Em\\roof, either of wood, slated, or of glass.
~~'^~ A\       This gives the trees good head room.  In
* ~ Adif  this case, as in the last, the foundations
B 2S \   and ventilators are added to the original
plan, and the former may be of wood,
supported by wooden posts instead of
~\\;b S~   ~ i    brick.  This house is widerthan the last,
=   m    ___to allow the extra head room, and  con         v~~j  i  ~F   sequently higher at the same pitch. The
e___    X   pitch must vary in this latitude accord                          ing to the season of the year when the
greatest heat is desirable.
258 
GRAPERY.
" C is a very good house, heated by hot water. It may be of any
length; the pitch is 30~. The front sash and parapet wall are 3 feet 9
inches from the ground
to the top of the spout or
water-gutter. The spout
serves both as a plate
to support the rafters
and also to convey the
water which falls on
the roof.   The  plates
and rafters are metallic,
but may be as well made
of wood. The table trellising is supported by
small stone or brick
I}
water-gutter. Tepot             ==j
pot;the  rootof.   the- plte              mI===R=
and rafters are metalhc,  ~~~\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\~~\~#~~~~~~\\\~  >~~i
posts; the roots of the
trees on the curved trellis extend out through the arches of the front wall to the border in
front of the house. The hot-water pipes b, b, are supported on
brick pillars, and run parallel to the front and end walk, 2 feet
from the table-trellis. The boiler is in a niche in the back wall,
and is managed from a shed. The back trellis springs from within
9 inches of the back wall, and slopes as shown in the drawing.
The whole trellis is composed of iron rods, 6 inches apart."
"D is a very good spanroofed  peach  house
standards  grown  in the
middle; dwarf  varieties on the sides; heated
by hot-water or steam
pipes a, a;  ventilated
through the ridge b, b,
also by sliding sashes in
front, and by openings
c, c, against the pipes.
The sashes are entire,
but may be made mov
c,',  I
The-  sases    r    nir,           v         ~             
'25.9 
DECEMIBER.
able. Such a house should have its length running north and south;
the sides should be as high as the angle of pitch will allow, to give
the lower branches abundant room; the ridge should therefore be
from 12 to 14 feet from the ground."   Span-roofed houses are unquestionably the best for fruit trees, and would be in general use,
if it were not for the iron band of prejudice. In such houses
Peaches could also be grown in boxes or pots, thus prolonging the
season.
"E is an interior per                                           spective view of a very
successful   range  of
houses at Everingham
Hall, England. The
trees are trained over
///E   t / 7    the whole  back wall,
and  over the curved
trellis in front. Gable
, ~ / < K~~~    trellises might be set
up  at the ends, or the
vines carried up the
rafters; in these two
~___i~x                   ways a large addition
,,                                       to the training space
would be secured, and
______ ~     ~ at'_    ~:the fruit in these posi                                           tions would be better
than the rest."  The back part of the front trellis should be rather
higher than given in the cut, although it would then shade the
lower part of the trees on the back wall; this is of little consequence, as but little fruit grows on those branches.
Cherry, Plum, Fig, and Apricot houses are similar in character to
those just described, and are to be built on the same principles.
The trees in them should, however, be principally in tubs, as it is
always rather difficult to get a perfectly satisfactory assortment, and
if in the ground it is difficult to make changes and alterations. This
may be done with ease when the plants are in pots.  The plan F,
is the only one I shall give for this kind of house. These fruits,
260 
GRAPERY.
except the Cherries, may be grown in lower houses than Peaches,
and the houses should, if possible, be span roofed.
"House  F  is very
much like D; a, a, a, a,
are the ventilators; b,
b, shelves for Strawberries, etc. The floor is
of slate slabs, or strips
of plank.   Sashes may
slide  or  not,  as  you
please. The side ventilators are 1 x 3 feet,
and  should be opened
and shut all together. c, c, are side lights. If the top sashes are
fixed, the openings in the ridge should be 10 inches wide. The details of construction, ventilation, etc., are the same as for the houses
before described." In all cases I have introduced the improved
ventilation into the proper place.
Having devoted as much space to this subject as this month will
allow, I shall defer a detailed account of the proper treatment of
the houses till the next months.
261
'A
I.       cadr. bo                               0
~ 1 t
.PI~~~~~ 
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THERE is no call upon the gardener's time in December, in the
actual garden, if the directions for the last month were carefully followed.
During this month, air the spring Salads, Cabbages, etc., whenever opportunity offers. In the middle of mild days, open the
ridges of vegetables and take out supplies for the family, or the
market, and then close them immnediately.
Continue to pile in heaps, for manure, dried leaves and haulm.
Collect, if the cellar is over filled, a pile of manure in the garden
for summer use.
Get the hotbeds in order for spring, and if there are any to be
built, make the plans and get the materials. They may be made
in the workshop, and not carried out till it is time to put them together for use.
For directions see January "Kitchen-Garden."  Prune Gooseberries and Currants; mulch Strawberries; lay down and cover with
earth Raspberries; remove to greenhouse or grapery Figs and
Fruit trees in tubs.
At the close of the last month, I said I should describe the proper
treatment of kitchen-gardens laid out on sloping and irregular
surfaces, at some other time. I shall hardly find a more convenient
time than the present.
Economy and convenience, considerations which are potent in
the lkitchen-garden, generally induce us to lay it out in squares and
rectangles, but these very motives may lead us to arrange a particular garden in an entirely different manner. For instance, if it
were on the side of a hill, it is plain that under the ordinary method
some of the paths must ascend the steepest part of the hill, and
consequently be very difficult to make, to keep in order, or use.
262
KITCHEN-GARDEN. 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
And -here let me say, that however desirable it may be to have
some sloping ground within the limits of the kitchen-garden, the
whole area should never be of that character, except from necessity.
PATHS -  THEIR CONSTRUCTION. - On the side of a hill, then,
the paths must not be straight, but must follow the surface, and
wind round the bases of the smaller elevations, across rather than
up the hill,- must, in short, follow the easiest line of ascent. The
greatest difficulty in making them - and very troublesome it isis their liability to be washed by rains; for they become water
courses to carry away the water from the beds, and the lighter bits
of gravel are washed off, and they are left rough, stony, and unsightly. In England, they are often covered with a mixture of
tar, asphaltum, and gravel, which of course cannot be washed
away; but this is very costly, and, besides, the heat of our summer
sun softens the tar and asphaltum, so that it runs and sticks to the
foot in a most annoying way. Another method is to pave such
paths, and if this is well done, it never needs repairing; but it is
costly, and besides seems out of place among grass and green trees.
Again, such paths have been made entirely of oyster shells, which
do not wear into such small pieces as to be washed, and which
allow water to percolate freely into the drainage below; but they,
too, have their peculiar drawbacks.
No material is so satisfactory as gravel, could the washing be
avoided. Much may be done by making the path higher in the
middle than at the sides, so that water can run off laterally into
small paved gutters. If the hill is very steep, raise bars a few
inches high to cross the paths diagonally at intervals, and check
the current as well as turn it to the gutters. Occasional openings
may be made from the side gutters into the grass land, where the
soil is clayey, boggy, or peaty, for its texture will be improved by
the gravel washed on.
Nobody can afford to make such paths poorly. Dig them out
deep, and fill in principally with stones; cover with rather coarse,
and finish with the finest and hardest gravel. Then roll often,
watering freely from the rose of the watering-pot. If the material is good, and the work well done, there will be but little wash.
263 
DECEMBER.
These directions apply to ornamental grounds as well as to
kitchen-gardens.
Having made the paths, put in the slate edgings for the beds,
that the loam may not wash out of them into the paths.
For the rest, the arrangement of the garden should be much the
same as on level ground, with the exception that all rows should,
when possible, be carried across the slope, in order to check the
wash, and collect and save the lighter particles of earth. With
the same view, strips of grass may be left transversely to the line
of slope.
A kitchen-garden is especially for use, must be watched and
worked over constantly, and, except on very small estates, is to be
looked at with a purely practical eye, so located and laid out that
without regard to beauty or variety it may answer best its practical
purpose. But on a piece of land too small to admit of one portion's being devoted to practical, and another to ornamental purposes, beauty and profit must both be got from the same land. So
there arises another kind of kitchen-garden, where economy and
convenience are no longer the sole considerations that govern, but
where the arrangement is made with an eye to beauty, the three
harmonizing like pedestal, shaft, and capital, in a column, or like
stem, leaves, and flowers, on a plant. This garden cannot by
means of hotbeds, espaliers, and the other appliances which wealth
commands, produce fruit and vegetables in long succession, and
most perfect in kind and quality. It cannot show beds rich both
in foreign and native shrubs and flowers, but must be content with
few varieties; and perhaps their bloom will be brief, instead of extending through every month of the growing year. Its trees are
of the commonest kinds, and can soon be counted, but every tree,
shrub, and flower, is loved and watched with an interest unknown
on a large estate, and out of this familiar acquaintance will come
blessed influences over the owner, his family, and his friends. A
very small piece of ground may do much toward furnishing the
table, still more toward furnishing the mind, if it be used for but
one purpose. But both may be combined, and while the appetite
for food is supplied, the equally instinctive hunger for beauty need
not go unsatisfied.
264 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
I recommend to any person,-however humble his means, however narrow his land,- if he must choose between beauty and
profit, between flowers and shrubs on the one hand, and vegetables
and fruit on the other, to have beauty. If your garden plot is
not large enough for both flowers and vegetables, devote it solely
to the flowers.
I know that this advice is directly opposed to the common opinion, which holds that all the land in the possession of a man not
really rich, should be made "to pay," to feed, or in some way support the bodily life of his family. But I hope I have already
clearly stated that which I shall urge more and more, that the
chief consideration in managing any piece of land should be how
it may give the largest amount of beauty consistent with necessary
convenience and economy. Potatoes and Apples you may buy
about as cheap as you can grow them, and you will buy them if
you do not grow them, to keep body and soul together. Beauty
can only be bought at the most extravagant prices, and if it is not
cultivated at your home, will hardly be bought; there is no physical
appetite to clamor for it, and common economy begins by dispensing with it.
I have something more to say about this which you may find
under " Ornamental Grounds."
23
265 
CHAPTER XXXV.
ORCHARD AND FARM.
CONTINUE to prune, as directed last month, unless the weather is
severely cold. Not that the cold would injure the trees in pruning,
but that the work would be so disagreeable that it would probably
be imperfectly done.   Be careful to cover the stumps of any large
branches with the mixture of shellac and alcohol, as it will keep
out the cold and rain, and prevent any tendency to canker. As the
mixture is fluid, it is easily applied, even in the coldest weather.
You will remember that I closed my last month's farming directions by saying that I should devote the winter months to the general subject of farming.
First, let us dispose of the work in hand. The cold will soon
become severe, therefore take advantage of the sunny days to turn
the young and dry stock out into the yard, and throw to them, on
the snow (or if there is no snow, enclose in racks), a supply of Corn
fodder, or coarse Hay. Cattle will eat up in this way a great deal
of material that would otherwise be valueless, except as bedding or
manure. The appetite is whetted by the cold, and, besides, all animals like to have occupation. Nothing is more agreeable to neat
cattle, in warm weather, than when standing in the shade, or up to
their bellies in water, to chew the cud whilst they thrash off the
flies. But the most romantic heifer could find but little pleasure in
lying down in the snow to chew its cud; they will, therefore, browse
round, and pick off the leaves from the Corn stalks, chew old buts
too hard to be even smelled of in the barns, and hunt out tle sweet
stalks among the driest meadow hay. Let them remain out only
during the warmest part of the day. Do not turn the milch cows
out at all, if the weather is sharp; and when, on sunny days, they
go out, do not let them stay long enough to get chilled. The econ                                                         266 
THE FARM.
omy of farming is now to be practised; you have harvested the
crops, now how can you use them to the best advantage?
Cut every thing you feed out; Hay, of course, as it is more economical, and more digestible. Stalks, by all means, as they will
be more readily eaten, and the refuse, when turned to the pigs,
will, as we have seen, decay more readily. Occasionally throw a
handful of Corn into the manure heap. The pigs will scent it, and
root for it, and thus work the manure and loam over much more
thoroughly than when, without any such object, they merely root
for practice. Shut off the water of irrigation as soon as the fields
are fairly covered with ice.
The weather is now both cold and steady, and promises us ample
time to kill and cure pork and beef; if this is done in cold weather
they will be sweeter, and keep better than when stored at any other
time.
For home use, do not let your pigs get over fat; kill them when
they are between one year and eighteen months old. If they have
been well fed, and have grown rapidly, they will be in the best condition for use.  Too fat pork, or indeed too fat meat of any kind,
is most unwholesome food; and although the annual premium
offered at the county show may stimulate the farmer to get his
creatures as fat as possible, and the irrational practice on the part
of the butchers, who pay the best prices for the fattest cattle, may
tempt him to gain this profit, yet the practice of over-fattening is barbarous, and unwholesome, and my advice to you is, by all means, if
you must fatten, to sell the animals to such as like them, and keep
for your own consumption the more healthily developed specimens.
I will not here enter into an argument to prove this point; it
has been again and again settled beyond dispute, and on purely
scientific principles, in treatises devoted to the subject.
As the fowls get fat dispose of them; there will be no profit in
winter fattening. Keep them warm, and well fed, and they will
lay regularly through the winter. Vary the food of the sheep and
cattle you are fattening, occasionally; it keeps the appetite better
and ensures quicker development.
Occasionally look into the fruit room; keep out the frost, and be
sure that the barrels are always closed at once, after being opened
267 
DECEMBER.
to take out fruit. Any admission of air is likely to hasten decay.
It is very common to open a barrel of apples and keep it open till
its contents are all gone.  The rotting process is so rapid that the
owner often blames the packer for it, when the fault is really in
the careless keeping which has produced just the effect that might
have been anticipated. The barrelled fruit having been artificially
preserved for a season, is subjected, when least able to resist it, to
the very worst influence. Buy sheep and oxen to eat up the crops
of Hay and Roots accumulated, and sell all poor, dry cows, to be replaced by better.
Watch the market carefully, and sell fruit and vegetables
whenever they command a fair price; do not be deluded into waiting for a possible increase of price, when you can sell so as to be
remunerated for your labor and expense. It is a species of gambling in which, your articles being perishable, the chances are all
against you.  Pay off all the laborers except one man at the stables,
a gardener, and a boy.
Continue the overhauling and repairing of all tools, etc., and
bring your farming account up square, so as to see the probable
profit or loss, for a guide for the next year's operations.
The next year's work should always be the result of careful deliberation; and if each day's work is not indeed accurately forseen
and provided for, yet each must take its place as it comes, as part
of a methodical whole; a whole which would not be systematic,
but only irregular and annoying, if any of the cogs of the great
wheel of life should not fit into its proper groove as the wheel revolves.
"Farming is a dog's life, and is unprofitable in New England at
any rate." This is the text of all village gossip; of farmers at
the stores and in their barns, and too often in their clubs, and at the
county meetings. It is hinted at directly or indirectly in half our
agricultural periodicals, and openly asserted in the rest of our current literature.
FARMING NOT DRUDGERY.-  Farming is looked upon as a
necessary occupation, and well enough as a substratum to society, and farmers are considered as the raw material for the produc
268 
THE FARM.
tion of mechanics, merchants, men of letters, soldiers, sailors, and
loafers.  In their position as farmers they are deserving of pity,
and they must each and all struggle with all their might to better
their condition, by escaping from their present life.  This may be a
strong expression of the prevailing opinion, but it is in the main a
correct one. And this opinion I pronounce to be false and unworthy, though I must acknowledge that the practice of the agricultural community gives too much ground for it.
It is true that we have a very difficult soil to cultivate- sometimes stony, sometimes sterile,   a soil that needs a great deal of
artificial stimulus in the way of manure, but with the proper
culture the crops are on an average larger than on the more favored
lands of the south and west; it is a common thing for our farmers
to get from 60 to 80 bushels of Indian Corn, 20 of Wheat, 30 or
40 of Rye, to the acre. And when this crop is harvested it is at
its market; so that the cost of transportation is very light, and the
difference between outlay at the farm and the market-price is nearly
clear profit.
We have to work hard for these crops and to harvest three tons
of hay to the acre is no child's play. It must be done under a hot
sun, and often hurried almost beyond human endurance, to avoid
the threatening showers. But when harvested it is worth money
enough to pay well for the trouble, and when sold, in the form of
beef or milk, will return an ample profit to the farmer.
It would be foolish to deny that the chief consideration that determines a young man in the choice of a profession, apart from
special taste, is a pecuniary one, and most men will turn from one
in which the daily gain is small or uncertain. But the daily gain
is not always a just criterion. Let us look into this matter for a
few moments.
A farmer hires his farm servant at a cost of from 75 cents to $1.25
per day, while he pays the mechanic who comes to mend his barn
fi'om $2 to $2.50 for his day's work, which is shorter than the
farmer's. So far the advantage seems to be on the side of the mechanic.  But the mechanic's work is one of great uncertainty,
employed as he is only for a few days at a time, now here, now
there, now nowhere. The farm servant, on the other hand, is
23*
269
pi 
DECEMIBER.
employed without variation in price for many months, knows what
to rely upon, and what will be the wear and tear.  His net earnings
may be laid aside with a feeling of certainty that he will get
renewed and steady employment the next year; business may be
dull, mechanics idle, but farms must be cultivated. Then his work
is, taking the year through, no harder than that of the journeyman
mechanic, though it may seem so at first sight. The length of the
summer's day is compensated by the shortness of the winter's one.
He gets up at 4 in summer, and goes in the clear, cool morning
to milk the cows and clean the stables; no hard work, surely.
With a hearty appetite he eats a substantial breakfast, and then
goes out to plough or dig, sow or reap.  Mowing and reaping are
very hard work; but they are the hardest in farming, and after all
are no worse than running a saw or pushing a plane all day. Take
all the working days together, the ten hours of mechanics' work is
more fatiguing and wearing upon the mind and body than the
farmers' longer day. You will find it so, farmers, if you change
and try it. If the farm servants would work for 10 hours with
the diligence and perseverance with which good mechanics labor in
order to receive the best wages, they would do more in that time
than is ordinarily accomplished in twelve or sixteen.
I will not pursue this train of thought; any one may carry it on
for himself, and however contrary to the general theory, I think any
person who carefully compares all classes of labor, will find that
the farm servant's work is no more severe than that of any other
journeyman. Having decided then on the equality in hard labor
between farming and other occupations, and having seen that the
greater wages of the mechanic are balanced by the steadier employment of the farmer, we now find on further examination that in
every other respect the farmer's life is to be preferred. His work
is healthful, being out of doors in the fresh air, and is agreeable,
from the pleasant objects it constantly brings before him, and from
its variety.
And this superiority is still more apparent when we look at the
comparative success of different occupations. An examination of
the careers of those who begin life as journeymen in any trade,
will show us that the percentage of those who ever rise above that
270 
THE FARM.
condition into one of pecuniary ease is extremely small. Sufficient
means at the outset to give a good education, and a small capital,
will increase the chances of success, but even with this advantage
the per centage continues small. The risks in any kind of business
are so great, and the outlay required so disproportioned to any immediate return, that young men without large capital or peculiar
opportunities stand a poor chance of doing any thing more than
gaining a bare livelihood.
Moreover, when having laid up a small sum he ceases to be a
journeyman and sets up for himself, his little earnings will be much
better invested in hiring or buying a small piece of land, and will
give a much surer prospect of a good return, than if spent in tools
for a mechanic's work, or laid out in stock for any kind of business.
A little calculation will show that there can be no better investment for a steady and enterprising young mian, than to buy a few
acres of land, paying what ready money he can, and giving a mortgage for the rest. He pays no rent or interest to another, but to
himself; and instead of putting his savings into some outside investment, which must always be more or less insecure, he puts
them into his land, which is sure to give a good return. I recommend this course to any young man who is prudent and earnest in
his work, and am certain of his success; for not only is he more sure
of his interest, but it may be made compound as it were, nay, even
greater in its rate of increase, when put into high farming. Rich
manure, good drains, thrifty young orchards, etc., pay each year an
increasing percentage on the money invested in them.
To make the previous statement more definite, let us enter into
a calculation.  Whether he engages a farm near a city or in the country, he will easily get one for six per cent on its value, per annum.
Let the farm be worth $3,000, the rent will be $180.  The size
will vary from 10 to 100 acres, according to the locality. Were
he a mechanic or a day laborer he must pay at least $50 rent,
which reduces the excess of rent for the cultivated farm to $130
per annum.  He had $500 which he invests in stock and tools,
interest $30,- or whole interest more than a journeyman mechanic would pay, $160.
This farm ought to net over.cost of cultivation $500, besides the
271 
DECEMBER.
milk and vegetables consumed by the family; -less rent of cultivated land gives $340 for his year's wages, - earned fobr himself,
subject to no master, and in the fresh air. If hlie had worked as a
mechanic, he would not have received for wages more than $400,
with the best of luck; -  $340 less $50 rent of house, gives $290,
-  this goes for household expenses.  He will lay up a little of this,
which invested in his farm will pay tenfold.  If he buys his fahrm
upon mortgage he will pay off the cost of the farm as he saves, or
lie will make improvements in culture, drainage, and stock, that
will give him every year a much larger balance; the first year is
the smallest earning; and in an ordinary life time, if he be expeditious, careful, and energetic, he will accumulate $10,000 to $15,000 in money or improvements, besides educating his family and
living well.  Any prudent, industrious, and willing Yankee can do
this in New England if he farms as hle ought to; and but very few
merchants, professional men, or mechanics do more; and the average not as well.
I have considered the question only from a pecuniary point of
view; and this is the least important. In the next month, I will
speak of the higher benefits and advantages of a fatrmer's life.
272 
CHAPTER XXXVI.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
IN the "Kitchen-Garden " I said that beauty should be the distinguishing feature of every homestead, its aim and spirit, its warp,
into which may be filled the woof of sundry conveniences and comforts. But this is not the practice of the world in general, and it is
by dispensing with beauty that economy begins.  Economy being
necessary as well as commendable, it is much practised; and too
often it is used as a catch-word by heads of families, as an excuse for denying their families something which is not attractive
to themselves, while they substitute something more to their
taste.
That economy which feeds the body well at the expense of starving the mind is wretchedly short-sighted. The Bible expressly
teaches that what can be put on the back, into the purse, or into the
stomach is valueless in comparison with that which clothes and feeds
the soul; -that perishing wordly treasures are not to be counted
with those everlasting possessions, which instead of being left for
our heirs to quarrel over, are ours forever when once they are acquired, are in fact the stock in trade with which we are to begin
the next world. Yet the mass of those who profess to believe in
the Bible, hurry on to get a little more money and neglect to provide for the soul.
All of which may be very true, but what has it to do with growing flowers and other ornamental things instead of vegetables and
fruit on a bit of land too small for both?
Let me tell you how the two things are connected in my mind.
I have often seen a small house in a dusty street with a bit of a
garden in front; over its windows and door, pretty vines climbed;
bright Roses, Marigolds, and Hollyhocks lighted up the dark, sad
cloud of poverty that hung about the place; though they were of
273
r 
DECEMBER.
no economical value as food, drink, or clothing, they gladdened the
minds of the laborers who passed to and from their work morning
and night. These men and women too closely pressed by want to
do more than scrape together the wherewithal to keep body and
soul together, yet find a moment to stop and enjoy the color and
fragrance, which are to them the best proof of a God who watches
over all his creatures. Seeing the beautiful things, they sigh for
time and space to cultivate the same, and thus a spot is kept warm
and green in the corner of their hearts, ready at the proper time to
give liberal foothold and nourishment to any seeds of goodness and
nobleness which may be dropped there. The tendency of the life
of the poor is to materialism; it is hard to persuade them that
there is any object more important than providing for the body.
Tied down in the din of machinery; unable to go out into the Godmade country where the truth might come freely to them, seeing
their employers and companions seeking those things only which
bring money,- how can they believe what they hear at Bible-readings, that these things so greedily sought are of no real value?
But when they see time and labor spent to grow flowers, merely
because they are beautiful, they perceive dimly that there is something precious beside money and the things it buys; and the throb
of pleasure in their own hearts as they stand in the beautiful presence testifies yet more strongly to the truth.
Millions of dollars are spent in this country for education, not
only because it is a help in getting bread, but because it is right
that men should be educated. This education is directed to the
development of other qualities than shrewdness merely, - truth, reverence, taste; and to this end no plan is better than to show children that their teachers value all things for their intrinsic worth, for
the power they have over the mind for good. What the child sees
its teachers and parents love and cultivate, he will cherish and
love. The presence of purity and nobleness in the soul drives out
impurity and meanness, as water rejects oil.
Think of this tax-payers and fathers! If you wish your taxes to
give the greatest return, surround your children when at home
with objects and influences which will make their minds best able
to enjoy and expand, under the teachings of the public instructor.
274
R 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
If they see you surround the home with beautiful things, because
you love them, they will do so too. If they see your garden arranged for beauty as well as utility, while all over the homestead
stern economy occasionally yields to a reverential love of nature,
and to a sense that the gratification of the eye and the mind is
quite as important as the gratification of the appetite, they will grow
up with liberal, generous feelings and opinions, they will be men
and women who have the best interests of the age at heart.
When discussing the laying out of the kitchen-garden, I directed
that some paths should be straight and some curved; these directions were not purely arbitrary, but are the result of certain principles. How to make a road or path is settled in a few words;
how to lay it out depends upon many considerations.
RESIDENCE OF R. S. FIELDS, ESQ, PRINCETON, N. J.
275 
CHAPTER XXXVII.
LOCATING ROADS AND PATHS.
STARTING with the ffact that the road or path is to be a means
of going from one point to another, most men will say that it
must plainly be as straight as possible, must be the shortest distance between the two points, if such a line of travel is practicable.
But I cannot think this reasoning correct. I am sure much evil
has grown out of it. Of course the purpose of a road is to connect
two places for travel, and of course it does not answer its purpose
if it is not pretty direct; but it is possible to sacrifice too much to
this directness, and the sacrifice is so often made that I consider it
important to inquire into the matter at some length.
Though the inquiry is made particularly to determine what rules
should guide us in laying down roads and paths on private estates,
I shall first speak of public roads, believing that we may thus arrive at conclusions which will apply to private roads with even
greater force than to highways.
Suppose yourself travelling a road carried as straight as a railroad, but not travelling by steam power; you are walking or
driving in no more than ordinary haste. For miles ahead you see
your road; if your journey is not to be long the end is in sight
from the beginning, and you measure off the distance, step by step,
thinking in spite of yourself how slowly you get on, till you grow
impatient, hurried, fretful. Get what glimpses you may on either
hand, that provoking vista robs them of genuine variety, and with
its stupidly familiar face takes away all chance of a pleasant surprise. It will not let you tarry to enjoy a pleasant side view in
peace, but is always reminding you of your purpose, and upbraiding you with neglecting it. If good fortune has put a hill in the
way too thick or hard to cut through, you are relieved for a moment
only to see with a more annoying distinctness from its top your
276 
LOCATING ROADS AND PATHS.
whole road marked out.  Across marshes and prairies such roads
are necessary and proper; there is no excuse for their curving,
and any deviation from the straight line would be an insult to public
good sense, as well as' robbery of the public purse; but they are
never favorite roads to pedestrian or equestrian, unless he belong
to the cultivated class, who think trotting horses the great delight
of life.  With what relief we  turn from them to a road which
winds to avoid water, or to cross mountains by an easier ascent!
how we enjoy the unexpected views which burst upon us at the
sharp turns, the alternation between the woods or glens that shut
in about us, and the valleys that open before us, or the heights that
give us a glimpse of our destination, without revealing all the road
by which we are to reach it! We can linger when we like without a guilty feeling that we are wasting time, and at last are surprised at some curve to find that it is the last, and has brought us
unawares to our journey's end. Variety is a great delight and a
great aid to the traveller; it refreshes not only his mind, but his
body; for variety of surface calls into play a different set of
muscles.
Another disadvantage in straight roads in a hilly country (meaning roads which doggedly hold to their original direction and curve,
- when curve they must,- up and down, not right and left), is
that they lead over the hills in the line of most difficult ascent, and
so try man and beast to the utmost; they call a new set of muscles
into work. We need not dwell on this point. Every one knows
how much more easily he gets round than over a hill, and how
difficult and expensive it is to keep steep roads in repair.
A rigidly straight road, then, must be disagreeable, wearisome,
expensive. There is another objection to it, great though not very
obvious; it stultifies the minds of those who travel it; not utterly,
but surely, the more completely as they travel it more frequently,
and have less internal resources.
The fact of its monotony implies this, for we all need the stimulus of variety to keep our minds active; we grow stupid, and
"whistle for lack of thought," when we  are shut in by outward
sameness, and deprived at the same time of books and companions.
We should return in very different moods from a walk through
24f
277 
DECEMBER.
Holland, and from one through Switzerland. Men may sneer at
the idea that scenery modifies character, may instance Swiss Cretins, and ask where are the Swiss poets; but the exception does
not disprove the rule, and poetry speaks in other ways than in
verse. Though there be boors among mountains, and wits and
philosophers on prairies and marshes, the mass of mankind have
been, are, and will forever be, refined by quiet beauty, quickened
by the picturesque, made deeper and stronger by the sublime.
They are susceptible to these natural influences, though in different
degrees. The blood colors the cheek and brightens the eye of one
man quicker than that of another, when they stand together in
sight of Mount Blanc, or on the seashore, but depend upon it the
blood flows quicker in every man's veins when he looks on such
sights. We are all barometers beneath these influences, and you
are not foolish but wise to judge of these influences by the more
susceptible instruments. The folly lies in thinking there is no
quicksilver in those veins which are more sluggish, or that their
sluggishness proves the absence of heavenly influences.
I have gone into this inquiry about the advantages and disadvantages of straight town and county roads thus at length, because
here is the very stronghold of narrow-minded prejudice; here is
the public error which so vitiates private taste.
No vandalism is so common in New England as that which
obtains among road surveyors, county commissioners, "selectmen,"
and well-to-do farmers. Possessed with the idea that directness is
the only virtue in a road, they straighten curves, cut down hills,
fill up valleys, and rather than swerve from some fixed line, cut
down noble trees, the growth of centuries, and whose beauty and
majesty typifies Divinity itself. Trees are sacrificed every year
that were the very ideals of perfection of their species, and were the
pride of the whole country round. The absurdity becomes painful
when a tree, produced by the concentrated energies of the earth, air,
and sun, for years, the noblest of its race, as beautiful as Venus or
Apollo, worthy of daily love and worship, is removed, because
some headlong milkman or hurried stage driver can thereby save
a few feet. Generations of milkmen and stage drivers may have
sprung up and died since it was a sapling, and other generations
'278 
LOCATING ROADS AND PATHS.
would pass away before its natural decay, and yet some astute
road-maker or officious village dignitary orders its removal, and
the green head is brought low. Such outrages are barbarous, and
their perpetrators ought to be known, and their names written in
the annals of the rogues and scapegraces of the neighborhood, and
handed down to the contempt of posterity.
This public mistake is so prevalent that it influences private
opinion, and the multitude, who are too ignorant to have any mind
of their own, or too timid to carry it out, follow the public fashion,
and accordingly we find in private grounds straight avenues,
straight walks, straight rows of trees, rectangular enclosures. All
the variety and grace of nature is ruled and straightened out of
them.
Ill advised as this treatment is at any time or place, in the public road and kitchen-garden, it seems somewhat excused by the
plea of business and necessity, but in ornamental grounds even
that is removed; there every argument and fancy should favor the
introduction of whatever may tend to refine the mind, banish
thoughts of business and money, and awaken emotions of taste,
and so far from following the leader, every one should be careful
to measure his improvements before he makes them, not by "What
will they say?" or "What do they do?" but by what seems most
akin to the graceful, beautiful, and refined. If he cannot study
some acknowledged canon of good taste, has neither time, money,
nor opportunity to visit places improved with taste, and which are
truly ornaments to nature, let him make the best attempt he can,
assured that he will be ridiculed by those who are safe because
they do not infringe upon public opinion, and conscious that his
discernment will be improved by the effort made, and that if he
tries faithfully, he will get right in time.
279 
CHAPTER xxxvm.
GREENHOUSE.
:   ANUARY.  The greenhouse will demand more
attention during the rest of the winter than it
has hitherto done.  After the year turns there
seems  a  disposition in plants  to  increased
ii:~  "      growth;  the days are longer, there is more
light and heat to stimulate the tissues, and
and the sunlight is more magnetic.  Be care                   ful, in your impatience for flowers, not to increase the heat of the houses too rapidly; we shall have colder
weather yet, and we must not get up our greatest heat too soon.
Water all plants a little more freely, and syringe as often as a
clear, bright day promises sun enough to evaporate the moisture
on the surface.  From this time till spring warm water may be
used in watering with great advantage. The small holes in the
rose of the syringe are the best to use; and although after fumigations it is well to syringe forcibly over and under the plants, to
wash off dead insects, it is generally better in syringing the house
to throw the shower up into the air, so that.it may fall perpendicularly, and with only the velocity it receives from its own weight,
upon the plants.
This manual being for the guidance of amateurs and learners, I
shall now give the general treatment of a large and important class
of plants, to which much of the beauty of well-kept greenhouses,
conservatories and parterres is due. Geraniums (Pelargoniums),
are as familiar as household words to all lovers of plants; to all
who wish a few plants in the house, and in some of their many
varieties are easily cultivated, and sure to give satisfaction. In
England and our Southern States they will pass the winter out of
doors, and unprotected, or with a slight covering. There are dif                                                        280 
ferent degrees of hardihood among Geraniums, and this difference
must be understood to render their culture certain. Some kinds,
like the Common Scarlet, Tom Thumb, and Horse Shoe, are so
tenacious of life that they may be removed from the garden into
pots, be cut down near the ground, and left in any outhouse or cellar where the temperature is above freezing, and they will live,
and may be set out in the flower beds the next year, to renew their
growth and beauty.  Geraniums vary in their power of withstanding the sun; some varieties will not bear our hot sun in summer,
they neither grow nor blossom well in it. I have said in a preceding month that as a general rule succulent plants are tender,
and need more heat than the woody varieties; but Geraniums are
succulent or woody, according to the rapidity of growth; they may
be exposed to a very low temperature; when in the flower-garden
they often stand several severe frosts without injury. On the other
hand, to ensure that they grow and flower well a degree of heat is
desirable that would ruin Heaths, and many other hard-wooded
plants.
Our limited means forbidding us to give the peculiar culture,
which makes each plant thrive best, we must be content with so
managing our small house as to give all a fair chance.
The soil in which Pelargoniums especially delight is old sods,
cut and stacked for a few months, and then chopped, with a spade,
moderately fine. The cuttings and young plants need rather finer
material of the same kind. In the growing and flowering season
keep the plants near the glass, and give each room enough to expand well on all sides. A span-roofed house or pit is best for
them; when they get the sun only on one side, turn them often,
that they may be symmetrical.   Some  Pelargoniums bloom but
once a year, others nearly all the time; the latter are the only ones
which should be cultivated in the ground, with the exception of the
Rose Geranium, whose fragrant leaves are more desirable than its
flowers. After blossoming, or when to be removed to the house
from the garden, cut them back to within a few eyes of the old
wood. Such as are in pots should be taken out, their roots pruned,
and cut out if dead, and they repotted in pots one or two sizes
24*
GREENHOUSE.
281 
JANUARY.
smaller.  This "underpotting" is a very common expedient of
gardeners to throw plants into flower. Most plants flower from
their new growth, and a new growth can be stimulated only by new
roots, and underpotting induces new roots. As they grow, shift into
larger pots. Shifting is transferring the plant to a larger pot
whenever the present pot is crowded, and each increase of size,
giving new material, stimulates the plant to renewed efforts. The
sizes of pots increase slowly, so that the next size affords just the
room wanted. After potting, set them into a cold pit or other cool
place, where light is abundant, and the thermometer does not fall
below 400. When the roots have fairly begun to grow into the
new soil give much air, to harden the plants; as soon as the new
growth is pretty well hardened set on the staging. They may be
put into larger pots for flowering, as soon as wanted. The everblooming varieties may be kept in a constant state of growth, or
remain quiet until the time comes for setting them anew in the
garden, at the pleasure of the gardener.
Small new plants generally do better in the garden than old
stocks, although the latter commence blossoming sooner. If you
set out old stocks, cut them down just before setting out, much as
for repotting in the fall; this will ensure a more vigorous and
healthy growth.
Pelargoniums may be propagated by cuttings, seeds, roots, and
layers. The latter is the surest method for nearly all plants, but is
slower, and only resorted to from necessity. Plants which strike
easily from cuttings are more often increased in this way.
To make the best cutting of a Geranium (see p. 285) cut off a
small branch of new wood which has not blossomed, together with
a bit of the old wood on which it grew; the old wood at the joint
is called a heel; it is full of invisible though active eyes or buds,
which readily make roots. But good cuttings which grow readily,
may be got by cutting with a sharp knife directly across young and
unblossomed shoots, below a bud; remove all the lower leaves as
high on the cutting as it is to be set deep into the sand or earth;
but do not remove any leaves above this point; do not bruise them
or allow them to wilt - with one exception to be made hereafter
282 
GREENHOUSE.
and on this account plant your cutting as soon as possible after it is
made. This is very important.
The general soil for all cuttings is white, clean river sand, an
inch or more in depth, as free as possible from iron and other impurities, laid over such soil as best suits the variety of plant from
which the cutting is made, so that when they strike and emit
their roots into the sand, they may work slowly through to the
earth below, where they will grow in proportion to their strength.
Many experiments have shown that with some plants, charcoal
dust, brick dust, charred turf, bone dust, and other materials are
excellent for cuttings;-almost every gardener has a specific preparation for the purpose.
To insure that they shall do well, it is best to make a bed
like a common hotbed, in which there may be some bottom heat.
To support its leaves the cutting must emit roots, and to this end
all the collateral circumstances must be favorable. The first act of
a healthy cutting is to form a callus, already described in speaking
of transplanting; to the formation of this callus, warmth and moisture at the cut end are essential; and by setting the cuttings in a
hotbed, or by placing the pots and pans containing them on or over
hot-air or hot-water pipes, a moderate bottom heat is obtained.
Beside being supplied with warmth and moisture, cuttings must
be protected against too rapid evaporation by bell glasses, or by
being set in comparatively dark places. The more tender and
shy plants should have air in only a moderate degree, until roots
have started; the hardier need less care. Constant watchfulness
is indispensable with cuttings of succulent plants, when set in
warm, damp, and shaded places, lest they damp off; this is a mysterious but common cause of disappointment; the cutting rots near
the surface of the earth.
Before making your cuttings, prepare the vessel in which they
are to be set; fill the pot to within 3 inches of its top with broken
crocks; over these put 12 inches of such soil as the plant likes
best; over this 11 inches of sand or such other material as you
prefer; set the cuttings round the edge at a slight angle from the
inside outwards. Those cuttings always strike most readily which are
283 
JANUARY.
nearest the pot; experiments have proved conclusively that cuttings
need air as well as moisture, and this seems to be supplied to a sufficient degree, through or along the sides of the pot.
Better than pots are shallow pans made for the purpose, and
easily drained.
The facts about air and moisture led to the following invention,*
which has proved excellent for its
purpose: a 48 sized pot (B) is rendered water-tight by plugging up the
hole in its bottom with a handful of
clay (a); over this are laid enough
broken crocks to raise the top of a
small sized pot (E) level with the
top of B; the hole in E is plugged
with a cork. Over the crocks and
around E is filled in soil fit for the
plant after it begins to grow; over
this to the top of B, pure sand, in
which the cutting is set, as in all
other cases, 1 to 12- inches deep, and
inclined toward the side of the inner po
in a warm, shaded place.
Some plants form calluses slowly; by partly severing the cuttings some time before using, the cut part will callus like a layer
before it is removed, and when made into a cutting, will strike
more readily. The best time for making cuttings of plants under
glass, inorder that they may get well established before the next
winter, is the late winter and early spring. This rule, however, is
not without exceptions; some plants, as Ericas, must be stimulated
to grow before cuttings are taken from them, as it is their young
shoots, with or without a heel or bit of the old wood, which are
needed; and all plants have especially appropriate seasons for
taking cuttings, which will be noticed in the proper place. You
may decide whether a cutting has struck, i.e., has sent out roots, by
* McIntosh, p. 349.
284
E
Set the whole apparatus 
GREENHOUSE.
gently touching one of the old leaves; if the roots have formed,
the leaf will drop at touch, as a new growth has begun; if no roots
have formed, the leaf will not come away without twisting.
Cuttings, as I have said, are the easiest           \
means of increasing a stock of plants, and 
they are so easily grown from most plants
that  the  ordinary  methods  seem  good'.     )
enough; but however  easily they grow,
the operation is much more rapid and sure
when they are exposed to bottom heat. A
leading authority in such matters, lays it
down as a rule that "it is not the temperature of the atmosphere, but of the soil that
requires to be raised; we must first obtain roots, the leaves will
follow." "As soon as the cuttings begin to grow, more light and air
may be admitted to them, and such as begin to push up weakly
should be topped, and when fairly rooted, transplanted from sand
into pots in their proper soil." As many plants which will root
freely in sand, refuse to grow in it, all cuttings should for safety
be removed as soon as they have fairly begun to grow. Where
large quantities of Scarlet Geranium are wanted for bedding, they
should be planted in a dung bed in March, where they will grow
rapidly.
I have said there is an exception to the rule that the leaves left
on a cutting must not be allowed to wilt before it is set; it is in the
case of strong, fleshy plants, full of sap, which may with advantage be allowed to lie on the table a few hours to evaporate some
of their superfluous sap.
"When the object is to get new and improved varieties," seeds
are sown, which is a simple process, but care must be taken in selecting seeds.
The shape of the flower, the substance, size, and color of the
petals are the points to be preserved and- improved, and this is to
be sought by careful hybridizing or intermixing the pollen of different plants.
For the benefit of some of my readers, who may not understand
this common term, I will give a short description of a process by
285 
JANUARY.
which varieties of plants are obtained. Every perfect flower has
a calyx or cup; this is the green outside, seen to the best advantage in the bud when the calyx folds around and encloses the
rest of the flower, as the green outside of a Rosebud. The corolla
is next the calyx, and is what is usually called the flower, and is
either whole or divided into many parts. These parts are called
petals, as the red or white leaves of the Rose. Next to the petals
are the stamens, which more or less in number, are arranged next
the petals or corolla in all flowers; they have two parts, the filament and anther; the filament is the long and narrow stem of
the stamen, and the anther is the generally round or oblong body
attached to the top of the filament, and of a slightly different
color, as the crowd of yellowish, slender bodies inside the colored
petals of the Rose. Next to the stamens, and within them, is the
ovary and pistil, or pistils, the central part of the whole flower;
the ovary contains the object for which the whole flower grew and
blossomed; viz., the seeds or ovules.
Careful experiments have shown that these various parts of the
flower are all formed from the some original material, the leaf,
which is the source and type of all. The calyx is often at first,
and sometimes throughout the life of the flower, a rude leaf, and
many instances will occur to every student, where the transformation
is in process; the petals are in very many cases interchangable
with the sepals or. divisions of the calyx, and in many plants it is
difficult to distinguish between them. Stamens constantly change
to petals, as every one knows who has examined a Pond Lily.
The ovary, when simple, is merely a leaf folded upon itself, whence
it derives its Latin name carpel, and a compound ovary is only
several simple ovaries combined.
To return, I said the ovary and its pistils are in the centre of the
flower; the pistils surmount or surround the ovary, and have some
secret communication with its interior and its contents the ovules.
A plant without a pistil and ovary is barren, seedless. These organs
alone, however, do not produce seed, except when fertilized by the
pollen of the stamen.   This pollen  is a yellowish powder  of
changing character, contained in the anther, which you remember
I said is attached to the filament of the stamen. At the proper
286 
GREENHOUSE.
time in the development of the flower, the anther of the stamen
opens and ejects some of its pollen on to the pistil of the ovary.
What the precise action is, physiologists do not know; it is sufficient
to say that this pollen fertilizes the pistil, and through it gives life
to the seeds contained in the ovary.
It was for this the flower blossomed; soon after the pistil is fertilized the flower droops, decays, and leaves the ovary to ripen its seed.
Hybridizing is removing the stamens from a flower before they
have fertilized the pistil, and then carrying the pollen of another
variety of the same species to the flower operated on. This foreign
pollen fertilizes the pistil, as that of the stamens which have been
cut off would have done; the flower dies, the ovary grows and
produces seeds, the flowers from which will neither be like the
flower which was artificially fertilized, nor that from which the
pollen was brought, exactly like neither parent, and yet resembling
both. In this way all the best varieties of flowers and fruits have
been obtained, the hybridizing having been sometimes the work of
man, sometimes of nature.
By this method you see you can change your Pelargoniums at
will and in any direction. Let the seed to be propagated ripen
fully and freely; gather, dry, and keep it in a cool, dry place till
March; then sow it in a rich, light soil in a well-drained pan,
which is then to be set in a warm place where it will have a moderate bottom heat. When the seedlings have two leaves, and are
an inch high, remove them to some place as near as possible to the
glass; water but moderately, lest the plants damp off. After a
week's exposure pot into 60-sized pots, in a compost of rich loam, leaf
mould, and one-eighth sand; replace under the glass after potting;
as they grow, shift from time to time. During the first summer set in
a warm, well-ventilated place out of doors, on boards or other dry
substance; the next winter keep close to the glass; do not top or
manure them. So soon as they blossom select the desirable plants,
and throw away the rest. The plants retained are to be cut down,
the tops used for cuttings, and the plants stimulated to grow, and
give more cuttings and finer flowers.
"Tuberous-rooted Geraniums, and some others, may be propagated by dividing the roots. Remove all the soil from the roots,
287 
JANUARY.
and cut them into short pieces with some fibres annexed to each;
plant the pieces in small pots, which are to be plunged into pits
with a mild bottom heat, and watered; as the young shoots appear,
give air. If many shoots come up, remove all but the strongest,
never keep more than three; when these are 3 inches high stop
their growth by pinching off the end, to induce side shoots."
The process here described answers for most hard and softwooded plants.
Some plants have the power of growing from their leaves alone.
When the leaf is placed under favorable circumstances, buds appear
on the edges or along the mid rib, which grow and produce perfect
plants. The leaf is pegged' down upon clean sand, or is kept in
place by a small stone, then set in a warm and moist place, and
treated like a cutting when the buds appear.
The principal plants which grow thus are Achimenes, Gloxinia,
Gesneria, Begonia, Bryophyllum, Malaxis, Aspidium bulbiferum,
Nimphea micrantha, Dionea, Mentha piperita; occasionally Drosera, Portulaca, Cardamine pratensis, Nepeta gleheoma; also sometimes Crassula, Aloe, Eucomis regia, Lilium candidum, Hyacintli,
Squill, Ornothagulum thyrsoides, the Ficus clastica, Hoya,
Camosa, Citrus, Aucuba, and Theophrastus.
Pinks, Carnations, and other flowers having jointed tubular
stems, are propagated by pips or pipings: "They are taken from
young shoots of the current year's growth; the lower leaves in
case of the Pink, are stripped off within two or three joints of the
top of the cutting; the lower part is cut off close under the joint
with a clean sharp knife; never cut off or mutilate the remaining
leaves; the pips ready, press them down into the sand three-fourths
of an inch, and the same distance apart." If they are too limp to
set well, lay them in cold water for a few minutes to stiffen. They
may be covered with bell glasses, or left exposed; they strike
root readily; after they have rooted, transplant to pots, frames, or
the open ground.
Some plants can be increased with certainty only by cuttings of
the flowering stems made like pips, just before flowering; such are
Double Scarlet Lychnis, Double Rocket, and some other border
plants.
288 
GREENHOUSE.
Cuttings of the root are often successful when other means fail.
I do not pretend to give full lists of names, but content myself
with these general directions, and leave my readers to experiment
for themselves. All common greenhouse plants may be propagated
in the ways described, or by layers, by grafting, or budding. The
following common stock greenhouse plants may be increased as
first described.
Pelargoniumn, Roses, Erica, Salvia, Lechenaultia, Heliotrope,
Verbena, Diosma, Fuchsia, Daphne, Deutzia, Calycanthus, Clethra,
Bryonia, Azalea, Cleanthus, Cytisus, Coronilla, Gardenia, Weigelia, Myrtus, Sedum, Polygala, Steevia, Lantana, Mahernia, and
many others.
I give the foregoing only to show how to commence increasing
a collection; a few trials will enable you to grow all varieties in
their proper way. Oleanders, as we have seen, thrive best in bottles of water, whence they are to be transplanted into small pots,
as soon as well rooted.
"Cuttings of hardy fruit trees should be taken off any time between the shedding of the leaves in autumn, and the first coming
out in the spring; " the earlier after the ripening of the wood, they
are cut, the better; keep them moist till spring, then plant on the
north side of a wall, where they will be shaded till they have
rooted. Evergreens may be propagated by cuttings, taking off the
new growth with a heel of the old wood. Cuttings of partially
ripened wood of hardy Evergreens, shrubs, and Roses, are found
to grow best."
"It is very easy to send cuttings to great distances without destroying their vitality, if placed loosely in a tin case, with half a
table spoonful of water,- more or less according to the size of the
case, - which should be hermetically sealed."
Layering is done after the following manner: Lay bare the stem
by removing the soil from about the roots of the plant which is to
be propagated; select the shoots to be layered; bend them down
to the ground to find the point that can be most easily induced to
touch the earth without breaking the shoot; in cases of succulent
and soft-wooded plants, this must be done with great care, as their
shoots and branches are often broken by being bent. The point
25
289 
JANUARY.
sought being found, begin to cut with a sharp knife on the under
side of the shoot, upward and toward the middle of the shoot, for
about 1 inch, thus a, 1,: the cut should always be begun just below a
bud, so that the bud may be
separated from the parent,
except so far as it is attached
to the upper part of the
tongue of wood thus made.
The  cut made,  bend  the
shoot to the ground as in
Fig. 2. Set a forked stick
over the branch at b (Fig.
3), this will hold the whole
branch firmly to the earth;
now carefully remove the
earth under the cut part of
the shoot, at a (Fig. 3); the
hole being made, take hold of
the end of the shoot and bend
it up as in Fig. 4, leaving a tongue at a, projecting into the hole just
made. With the hand press earth
3  carefully into the space now left at
a, between the tongue and the old
-Irk ~~  =     wood, also pack earth all round the
bent portion of the shoot  and the
forked stick, so that the shoot shall
-:i   -   -   -   ~be kept in its bent position, and the
tongue  remain open.   The  shoot
will  receive  sufficient  nutriment
~1    ~through its uncut portion, whilst the
X24   tongue will callus  and send roots
b,y                   into the earth.  After these roots
I f  -     have grown considerably, which may
.... 1 -be told by examination, cut the shoot
off at b, and the severed portion will
be a perfect plant.
The season for performing this operation extends over nearly
290
I   1
2 
GREENHOUSE.
the whole year, on an estate where there is a greenhouse, as the
plants in the house may be layered while vegetation is suspended
out of doors. Many plants root so easily from layers, that it is
not necessary to tongue their shoots, but merely to twist them
enough to break the bark and the close connection of the woody
fibres. Others, again, only need to be laid down and covered with
earth. A shoot is in the best condition for this operation when its
upper part is still growing, while the lower has ripened. Still
shoots and branches of last year's growth may be layered with
success.
Some rare and shy plants are layered by bending a shoot into
the hole in the bottom of a pot which is suspended near by; the
shoot is thus brought through the pot to the air above, and earth is
filled in about it in the pot.  All layers must be watered and kept
rather warm, but they need no shading.
Many herbaceous plants like Pinks, Sweet Williams, etc., are
layered in some of these ways instead of making cuttings. Layering is much the most certain practice, but is slower and affords
fewer plants.
You remember my saying that cuttings of the Grape may be
made where only a single eye or bud is taken. The theory seems
to be that each bud is as complete in itself as a seed, and has stored
in its immediate neighborhood all the food it needs in the early
stages of its growth, if the surrounding circumstances are made favorable. Consequently, in lmaking a cutting it is enough to put
into the earth just so much wood as seems to belong especially to
the bud, giving the latter a reasonable access to light, air, heat,
and moisture.
Buds are the only perfectly reliable source for the propagation
of any particular variety. Seeds as I have shown may be quite altered from their original intention by hybridizing, and easy as this
operation is to man, it is still more easy to nature. Bees, wasps,
flies are all means used by her for intermingling the pollens of different plants; they dive into the flower in search of honey, get
showered with the pollen of the stamens through which they brush,
and then fly to another plant; if this is a different species, the pollen they bring will produce no effect on the pistil, but if it is the
291 
JANUARY.
same species, but a variety differing in shape, color, or otherwise,
the imported pollen when brushed against the pistil, will attach itself and fertilize it. Such natural hybridization is the yearly annoyance of those who cultivate plants of the Squash and Cucumber family. Melons being the most delicate members of this
family, their flowers are constantly overcome by the stronger pollen
of Squashes, Cucumbers, etc. The fact is so well established that
no good gardener will plant these different members of the same family near together. The hybridizing of a season does not appreciably
effect the fruit of that year, but the seed contains the future fruit
which will prove disagreeable next year. It sometimes becomes
necessary for cultivators of rare varieties of plants, whose color,
shape, etc., they wish to perpetuate, to cover the flowers they select for seeds with bellglasses, or lace bags, to prevent insects from
performing this hybridizing.
Propagation by cuttings of single buds is a valuable means of increasing those plants whose seed is scanty, or which from some
cause cannot be budded or grafted, as Hollyhocks and other herbaceous plants, Grapes and some other woody plants. Grapes may
be grafted, budded, or grown from long cuttings, but cannot be multiplied by either process so fast as by cuttings of a single bud. The
best kinds of Hollyhock, Double Lychnis, and other herbaceous
plants, should have their cuttings made after this mariner:
So soon as the plant has blossomed enough to satisfy the grower
that it is a desirable variety, cut down the flowering shoot; new
shoots will start up around it; when these are 18 inches to 2 feet
long, cut them into pieces, each containing one eye,   much like
cuttings of the Grape. Instead of using the secondary small shoots,
the main stem may be divided longitudinally, and then cut into
pieces 2 or 3 inches long, taking care not to injure the buds. Place
these cuttings under light, rich soil, and cover them just leaving the
bud open to air and moisture; soon roots will be sent out from the
cut ends and edges; when these are pretty well grown, transplant
to a seed bed of light, rich loam, well sheltered, but with more direct light; treat carefully with air, moisture and warmth, and you
will soon have fine plants.
Growing the Vine from single eyes is much the same practice as
292 
GREENHOUSE.
that just described. The eyes should be prominent, well developed,
and on the last year's wood; cut an inch above and an inch below
the eye; select a pot of 4 or 5 inches in diameter; put in good
drainage, fill with rich, light loam, and set the cuttings so that the
eye shall be covered by at least an inch of the loam. Give the pot
if possible, a bottom heat of 70~ to 80~, and keep the air at 60~.
In a short time a shoot will appear. Before this, little care will be
required; keep the earth in the pot just moist; as soon as the
shoot is above the surface, water occasionally and watch well that
no worms get into the pot,'which they cannot do if the pots are set
into a few inches of coal ashes. In a month they will be nice plants
six or eight inches high, and may be repotted for the last time. Subsequent treatment depends on the use to which they are to be put.
There are several other methods of propagating the Vine, but
this is the best and allows of the speediest increase.
Pelargoniums will be coming into blossom, - should have a last
shift of pots, and have abundant light and moisture.
Repot Achimenes, Gloxinia, Cineraria, and all climbing plants
not yet repotted, Verbenas, Japan Lilies, Fuchsias for spring show;
if the Carnations need it, give a larger pot. Dielytra spectabalis,
and Pansies may be introduced into the house for the spring bloom.
Water Camelias abundantly whilst in blossom, and as the
Azaleas start to grow, give them more water.
25*
293 
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE  conservatory should be, at this season, truly a winter
garden. The climbers on posts and trellises are now in bud and
blossom; the Camelias, Daphnes, etc., are blooming, and the
Roses, Heliotropes, and numberless other smaller plants lend their
colors and fragrance to complete the beautiful whole. Under all
is the delicate green moss, the Polypodiums, the Stone Crops, etc.
Lysimachia nummularia, with their green leaves, make a carpet
of verdure. The cold weather without enhances the delight of this
in-door garden, and no owner will regret the labor and expense that
has brought about such a result.
There is generally more mild weather in January than in the
other winter months; on many days fire-heat may be dispensed
with altogether. Be careful, however, lest sudden cold take you
unawares, and never be without fire at night.  The work is light
now -admitting air, regulating heat, and supplying moisture. In
fine weather syringe often, letting the showers fall perpendicularly,
as before directed.  On  warm days change the plants, removing to
the greenhouse those out of blossom, and replacing them with
others just coming into bud.
294
CONSERVATORY. 
CHAPTER XL.
GRAPERY.
CONTINUE the treatment laid down for last month in the grapery.
We shall not begin to force till next month, but in the interval
must keep the forcing-house rather warmer than hitherto, but not
higher than 40~ or 50~ in the daytime. The cold grapery must be
just above freezing; the retarding-house, as last month, cold and
dry, but above frost. All this needs but little fire. Peach-trees,
Fig-trees, etc., which were housed in the cellar or sheds, should now
be brought into the houses.
The mushroom bed, which I described as under the table, in the
forcing-house, and of which no further mention has been made, is
yielding an abundance of mushrooms; other beds may be made in
the other houses, if you please.
In the last month's grapery I gave drawings, and some descriptions, of houses for Peaches and other fruits, with the promise of entering more fully into the method of growing and managing such
fruit under glass.  It is obvious that trees to be grown under glass
must be of smaller stature than when grown in the open air, and
that means must be found to dwarf them. Beside this, they should
be under different degrees of excitement at different seasons, to
accomplish which many schemes have been devised. It is usual to
plant such trees in the ground like vines, and in this way large
crops may easily be got; but a better way in many respects is to
grow them in tubs. If trained on dome or curved espaliers of
course they must occupy the same place for years, and in that case
they should be planted in the earth; but you will remember my
saying that span-roofed houses are the best for all such culture, and
there the trees assume the shapes natural to them when grown outof-doors.   To ensure perfect crops, and to keep them entirely
under control, the trees should be allowed a period of entire rest;
295 
JANUARY.
and if they could be removed, after bearing their crop, from the
house where they have been excited, to a cooler and shadier place,
they would be carried through an artificial winter, and so have the
needed rest, and be prepared for profitable forcing another year,
and if continuous crops of fruit were wanted it would be easy to
secure them, by having two houses, with different exposures, and
removing the trees from one to the other, as heat and stimulus were
desired, or shunned. Evidently this is out of the question with
trees planted in the earth, for their roots must be undisturbed to
secure growth and fruit, but by cultivating in tubs of size sufficient
to give the roots full room, the change can be made with ease.
I will give directions for cultivating the tree fruits in the ground
before I speak of them in tubs. And I shall give English rather
than American experience, for, as I have said before, these fruits
are but little grown under glass here in comparison with what is
done in England, nor do general cultivators carry their practice to
as great perfection here as there. We need not cultivate these
fruits under glass unless we wish to have them out of season. The
English, on the contrary, must grow most of them under glass to
have them at all, their climate being too damp and cold, and their
hours of sunshine too few to bring Peaches, in particular, to perfection. Some of our cultivators, however, are very successful in
growing fruit out of season, for instance, Allen, of Salem; Holbrook, of Braintree; Stetson, of Bridgewater, and others, who
yearly exhibit the successful results of their labors on the tables of
the Boston Horticultural Society.
In gardens Peach-trees are generally grown on their own stock,
the buds of improved varieties being transferred to ordinary stocks
got from planting the stones of any kind of Peach. When Peaches
were a new fruit, and not common, we had, in whatever part of
country they were cultivated, perfect trees and perfect fruit, but
the demand increasing with unusual rapidity, it was difficult for
nurserymen to supply it, and in their eager efforts to do so they
neglected the precautions, without which perfect trees and fruit
cannot be secured; viz., to select stones of the best fruit from the
healthiest trees, which show no taint in their constitution, and to
plant these for stocks. Stocks thus grown are healthy, and if bud
296 
GRAPERY.
ded from equally healthy trees, will make healthy and satisfactory
trees.  But the nurserymen, in their haste, planted all stones indiscriminately; they were so careless about the kind and quality of
the tree which bore these stones, as to pay boys by the quart for
stones collected in city streets during the Peach season, many of
which were, of course, from poor trees, and perpetuated, when
planted for stocks, their own defects. The stocks thus produced
were budded with choice varieties; the bud governs the kind of
fruit produced where it is inserted, but the health of the tree is
governed principally by the stock.
And the nurserymen were not content with violating nature in
this way. The careful cultivator knows that every plant grown
for a number of years on the same spot, exhausts in that ground
the food which it particularly needs, and that to secure good crops
from such ground a different plant must be grown on it, which will
need few or none of the constituents necessary for the preceding
crop, but wants just those that are left in abundance in the soil.
But the Peach growers were not only careless about the seed
which supplied their new orchards, but they planted these orchards
on the ground before occupied by Peaches, and thus deprived the
young trees from the first of their vital necessities, and compelled
them to feed on vitiated and exhausted earth.
Still another rule of agriculture was neglected; viz., that each
year's crop must be carefully cultivated, manured, ploughed, hoed.
What should we think of the prospective Corn crops of a farmer,
between whose rows the ground was thickly sown with Grass or
Rye? Why, that he would lose more from his Corn than he could
possibly make good by the additional crop. But Peach growers
sowed Grass between their rows of trees, or allowed it to grow
there. This double demand on the ground results either in impoverishing both trees and fruit, or in shortening the life of the tree.
When speaking of Pear-culture, I said that its success depends
on plenty of moisture, plenty of manure, and on thinning the fruit.
This last process has an important influence on the quality of all
fruit crops, and is indispensable to success in Grape growing, as
the merest tyro knows; but this, too, was neglected by the Peach
growers, who, in their greediness for large crops allowed the trees
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JANUARY.
to bear all the fruit they set, and consequently got no fruit equal
to that grown on properly thinned trees.
What  wonder that our trees with such a pedigree have  "the
yellows," are uncertain bearers, and in many parts of the country
complete failures? Whoever wishes to get perfect fruit and longlived trees, must go back to first principles, must select his seed,
grow his stocks, and be particular about the source, especially in
growing trees under glass, where the process is expensive and
tedious, and where one diseased tree may be the cause of a large
loss.
Remember, too, the discovery made in Pear culture: that large
growing varieties worked upon the stocks of small growing plants,
preserve their superiority of fruit, while the tree continues of
small size. This is of great consequence under glass, where room
is all-important; small tops and roots are desirable both in the
trees planted in the ground, and in those in tubs; and this is the
case even in span-roofed houses, where the middle trees may and
should be larger than the side rows.
Supposing our peachhouse to be built, or the trees grown as in
our graperies, the proper soil is the first consideration.
Perfect drainage and a light soil are necessities. It has been
supposed that the Peach does not need rich soil, because in the
open air it thrives better in light and sandy, than in rich alluvial
soil. Not so. The things to be especially avoided are over-dampness and over-richness near the roots; the former is particularly
bad, and causes rot, the latter, canker. To insure drainage, the
soil must be sandy and porous, but it should be highly and constantly fertilized with well-rotted, not with rank, manures. If the
situation of your house is wet, drain well, and under the border
lay a foundation of rubble stones.  Through this rubble it will be
well to carry, as in Grape borders, a pipe from the boiler; because
to insure success in forcing, we must keep the roots warmed in
proportion to the top. By covering the outside border every fall
with a good coat of leaves and horse manure, as early as October,
the summer heat may be retained enough to enable you to dispense with heat through the rubble in winter. Upon this lay two
298 
GRAPERY.
or three feet of rich maiden loam; in this loam the trees will
thrive so long as its fertility remains unexhausted, To avoid
exhaustion, water at the proper season with liquid manures, and
also every fall, after the wood is ripened and the leaves have fallen,
remove the two or three upper inches of loam, and replace with
old pasture mould, or well-chopped turf; before laying this on,
fork in lightly a dressing of well-rotted manure, or give several
copious waterings of liquid manure.
The border prepared, select, whether for walls or trellises,
healthy trees, one year from the bud, of those varieties you prefer;
set them out, all trees of the same size and habit of growth for the
trellises; but for the back have dwarfs and standards alternately.
The stock on which to work Peaches in order to dwarf them, is
Plum or Bitter Almond. Choose trees budded near the ground;
set them so as to just cover the base of the bud, and plant in fall
or spring; the fall is the best time if the house can be ready then.
Cut the stem back to four eyes from the bud;
through the winter keep the house just above
freezing; do not let it get much higher than 40~
in the daytime, and rely upon the sun's heat kept
in at night by shutters and mats, unless the weather 
should be so severe as to render it impossible to          1
keep the temperature above freezing without fires.  As the spring
comes on the sun will get more power, and the house, even if constantly ventilated, will warm in the daytime above the growing
point, and soon the buds will swell and start to grow. Before they
do this, cover the tree with the following wash, which is to be applied by a brush drawn up along the stem, so as not to disturb the
buds, and is the same which is to be used for grape vines; 2 oz.
flour of sulphur; 2 oz. soft soap; 4 oz. quicklime, mixed in a
gallon of rain-water. This is to be applied at least two weeks before you begin to syringe. As the buds swell, increase the humidity of the house by syringing morning and evening when the
day is bright, and once during the day in cloudy weather. The
four buds will produce four shoots; bend them into such shapes as
suit you, but keep them low down; let them grow at will till midsummer, and then pinch off their ends. This will check growth
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JANUARY.
and the wood will ripen. As soon as the leaves fall, cut back the
four shoots to within four eyes each of the old wood. Cover the
border as before directed, with litter and manure. Keep the house
this winter as the last, cool, till spring excites the trees; during the
winter fumigate with sulphur; whitewash the house to kill red
spiders and other destructive insects; examine the stock near the
ground to detect any borers that may have got in (though they
should never get into a house well cared for); should there be any
sign of them, run a wire into the hole till you touch the worm;
kill and pull it out. Before the young shoots begin to start in the
second spring, wash the stem and roots with the mixture just directed. The cut shows the present appearance of the tree. Al                      low the four present branches to grow in
the same direction as hitherto, and allow
two buds, new shoots, to grow up the wall
at a sharper angle than the others.  Treat
2           the house this year as the last; allow no
fruit to grow. During the second fall of
growth or the third since planting, cut a a,
b 6, back one-third of their length, and the
new shoots to 4 eyes.  The diagram shows
b the tree during the third winter and spring.
3            Give it more heat this year after February
than before, and induce it to grow earlier; this may easily be done
without fire heat. During the third summer allow no fruit to grow
unless as a specimen, for if the trees bear so young, they will lose
in permanency and strength. Let the new shoots grow up the
wall so as to perfect the fan shape; let the other branches grow at
will till midsummer, when they must be pinched as before; in the
fall prune all back one-third of their length; cover the border
deeply with manure and leaves. The fourth winter you may begin to force -not earlier however than the middle or last of February. Go over all the young wood with the lime and soap mixture. During January keep the temperature higher than before,
but not over 500 in the day, and let it fall at night to 35~ or 40~.
Give plenty of air. Before beginning to increase the heat, ascertain whether the earth in the borders has retained heat enough to
300 
GRAPERY.
render forcing well-balanced, and if not, be ready as you heat the
house more, to throw some heat into the pipe which traverses the
rubble foundation. The proper heat of the border cannot well be
prescribed, as it will depend on circumstances not to be forseen;
but if the gardener remembers the analogy of Nature, he will
easily be guided into the right course. When out-of-door vegetation begins in the spring, the earth is quite cold, but lately unlocked from frost, with a temperature from 35~ to 40~; and it gradually warms as the season advances. If then the borders are at
about 35~, we may safely begin to heat and slightly increase the
heat in them month by month.
During January give the inside borders two or three copious
waterings of warmed liquid manure, which will warm them about
enough.
It is found at this stage that the trees seem to receive great benefit from ammoniacal vapors, and in old times gardeners heaped
stable manure under them; the vapor may be obtained as well
from pans of urine set over the flues and pipes to evaporate, and
the unsightly manure be avoided.
When we begin forcing after the application of the wash to the
young wood, we must dispense with the syringe for a time, as it
would remove the wash; the proper humidity must be kept up
by watering the floors and flues, and by setting evaporating pans
of water about.
During pleasant days early in this winter, all the heat which is
necessary, may be got by shutting the house up; the temperature
in the day may range from 45~ to 50~, and must not fall below 40~
at night; and to maintain this night-temperature, fires must be
made.  "About 12 or 15 days after increasing the heat, the blossoms will begin to expand; at this period the humidity of the house
hitherto caused by steaming and syringing, should be lessened, and
a slight increase of temperature afforded; the increase should not
be over 5~, for to hurry the expansion of the blossoms and the
setting of the fruit, might endanger the whole crop. The more
slowly the buds swell and go through the stage of forming the
parts of fructification, and the important offices dependent on it, so
much the more certain will success be."
26
301 
JANUARY.
"When the flowers are fully expanded, and the pollen fit for dispersion, a more abundant ventilation will be necessary, and this
must not be withheld, even although it becomes necessary to increase the heat every morning and continue it through the day,
to make up for the air admitted."
"At this time the greatest care must be taken that ventilation be
properly administered, and that no draughts of cold, frosty air be
allowed to blow in directly upon the trees."
You will now observe the great advantage of the kind of ventilation or aeration advocated in the plans of houses I have proposed.
"The temperature, although well aerated, may now range from
50~ to 60~ in the day, and must not fall at night below 450." Increase heat and moisture with the expansion of the fruit.
"As soon as the flowers begin to decay, the young fruit will be
seen seated between the fragments of the petals.       If the embryo
fruit is many days struggling to get free of the decaying blossoms,
it is a sure symptom of a sluggish action of the root.
On the contrary, fine fresh trees in their prime, will soon enable
their progeny to escape."  "This is an important fact, and should
constantly be borne in mind by cultivators, as it indicates more
surely than the after state of the foliage whether the roots are
healthy or not."  "When the fruit has arrived at this state, less
ventilation and consequently less heat must be given; but the
changes must be effected slowly, as all sudden changes Of temperature with stone fruits are particularly dangerous. The artificial
heat may remain at 50~- 60~. The sun-heat may raise the temperature to 75~ without danger, for there is a great difference in the
connection of vegetable life with artificial or sun-heat. In proportion as the sun heats the house more, ventilate more."   "At this
period of the fruit's existence moisture must be increased by
syringing, to refresh and nourish them, and to keep down the appearance of thrips and red spiders, the existence of which may be
often traced to too high and dry a temperature."
After the fruit has fairly set, the trying season is over, and all
that follows is judicious thinning the fruit and stimulating its growth.
"To insure growth close attention must be paid to pruning the
new wood, which may at this season be effected principally by dis
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GRAPERY.
budding," i.e., by rubbing off all those buds which have not commenced growing, but which would overcrowd the tree if allowed to
grow.   "By timely  disbudding  much  after-pruning and overcrowding the tree is avoided."  "Disbudding should commence as
soon as the young shoots are 2 inches long, and should be carried
on progressively until the tree is disburdened of its superfluous
wood, and left in condition to perfect what is left; the work should
be followed for four or five weeks, and the trees be gone over
often."
"During the process of disbudding two kind of shoots will be
observed, the one strong and robust, emerging from the centre of a
group of buds, and proceeding in an outward instead of a lateral
direction, which if laid into the espalier would be broken; these
strong and watery shoots are to be removed, reserving only such as
may be necessary for fillingup the centre of the tree; the other
wood is often of slender growth, but it is the wood destined to produce the flower-buds of the next season. This should be moderate
in growth, not drawn to great length, and very short jointed, and
thickly set with buds. Too high temperature, want of ventilation, and inattention to disbudding all cause this unnecessary elongation.   A  contrary course tends to the formation  of short,
stout, well-formed shoots, abounding with bold and well-swelled
buds."
"The period of stoning is considered a precarious time with all
stone fruits; if all be not right at the roots, if sudden changes of
temperature or inefficient ventilation be allowed to exist, then many
of the fruits will fall off." During the whole culture of fruits, remember that the aim should not be to violently force nature, but to
accelerate her progress, and all attempts to drive vegetation rapidly
by heat will produce sickly, drawn, and unfruitful results.
Syringing over the leaves as a preventive to red spiders, must be
constantly persevered in, but care must also be taken that the border
is neither too wet nor too dry, either state being injurious to the
fruit. Throughout the season every leaf and fruit which falls must
be carefully picked up, as they produce and harbor vermin, if left
to decay onil the ground.
Fruits ripened under glass have not usually the color or the high
303 
JANUARY.
flavor attained by fruits grown in the open air; they may be better
protected from insects, and may also have more certain and regular
temperature.
Just as soon as the fruit is gathered remove all movable sashes,
and let the air have free access to the house; the more rapidly the
wood ripens the better it will be for the trees; this ripening may
be hastened by pinching off the ends of the shoots. When the
wood is ripened, prune off at least a third of all new growth, and
keep the houses as cool as is possible, until the approach of winter
renders it necessary to renew heat in the houses, and prepare for
next year's forcing. I omitted to say that as the season advances,
and artificial heat is no longer necessary, you may let the house get
as hot as the sun will make it, only creating all the ventilation that
is possible.  By subjecting the house during autumn to the lowest
possible temperature, and keeping it so a long time, the trees
"break" better, and produce better wood and fruit the next year;
and in fact the thorough ripening of the wood in the fall is the
most important part of the year's work, as upon it, in a great
measure, depends the success of the next year's crop.
So far I have described the peachhouse as if all the trees were
dwarfs, and yet I gave directions that every other tree on the walls,
or the high trellises, should be a standard. The standards should
be grown up to a single stem, until they are above the wide part
of the fan-shaped dwarfs; they may then be encouraged to throw
out side shoots like the dwarfs, and may  be treated in the same
way. Sometimes fruit-growers plant in this way, intending in time
to remove the dwarfs, and give all the room to the standards; I
doubt the wisdom of this course with short-lived trees like the
Peach, as the standards would live no longer than the dwarfs. It
is well enough to plant Cherries and Peaches alternately with this
view, as the Cherry outlives the Peach.
Cherries, Nectarines, Apricots, and Plums are to be treated in
most respects like the Peach.
I have mentioned that the Peach-trees in tubs are to be treated
differently from those planted in the borders. They can be forced
earlier, with a good chance of success, as the tubs are above the
floor of the greenhouse, and it is easy to give them bottom heat,
304 
GRAPERY.
and so stimulate all parts of the tree. Trees in tubs should be
grown in span-roofed houses, and in three rows, the middle being
standards, the two outer rows dwarfs; thus the light may be fairly
distributed among all. Pruning and training should be much the
same as with espaliered trees and dwarfs, out of doors. The pyramidal shape will be found best.
As trees in tubs are very heavy, I recommend laying three railroad tracks, made of bar iron, set on edge in cuts made in sleepers.
These tracks should all converge at the door, and pass through it
to the reserve or supply-house, whither the trees, out of bearing,
may be removed, to be replaced by others, which are fit to be
forced. The rails may be near together, and each tub may stand
on a little truck, with wheels, or one truck may be used for all, the
tubs being lifted on to it when they are to be moved.
Peaches may be ripened in pot culture as early as April and
May, but only with a large expenditure for heat, and with the loss
of the perfection which characterizes fruit grown later. A signal
advantage in pot and tub culture is, the ease with which decayed,
diseased, or worthless trees may be removed, and replaced by
others.
I have given the whole treatment of Peaches thus at once, in
order that a more clear and connected idea may be gained by those
who wish to grow them.  To succeed perfectly they should be cultivated in houses especially adapted to them; in which, however,
early crops of strawberries, and various vegetables, may be started
and forced. Grapes are often grown in the same house, and the
arrangement scarcely interferes with the perfection of some varieties, and must be made by persons like ourselves, who are restricted in room; but the danger is, that one kind of fruit may
at any time need more heat or more air than agrees with the
other.
The advice of a distinguished cultivator of Peaches is, to take trees
of a year's growth, cut them back to four buds, and plant in a 12
inch pot, shifting them yearly, till their roots fill an 18 inch pot,
which, he believes, is the largest size required. The soil he uses is
a good turfy loam, mixed with decayed bits of wood from the bottomn of the wood-pile. When the trees are established to his mind
26*
305 
JANUARY.
he brings them into the house, in mild weather, during November.
Do not start all at once, but take in the tubs at different times.
Begin forcing with heat at 55~ during the night, falling to 50~
by morning; but in mild weather never falling below 55~; during
the day the sun's heat may be allowed to raise the temperature
even to 90~, until the fruit is stoned, then keep it at 95~ to 105~;
of course a great deal of moisture is required with this high temperature; syringe over head twice a day, or oftener if necessary,
to prevent green fly and red spider. Very little water is needed
at the root till the trees are covered with leaves; after that give an
abundance.   As the fruit approaches maturity the water must
gradually be withdrawn, to heighten the flavor.   In all cases -in
pots or in the ground- the slower Peaches are ripened the finer
and higher flavored will be the fruit; and those who think to increase the size and appearance of their fruit by a close course of
treatment, will make a miserable mistake.
Much advantage has resulted, in early forcing, from assisting the
early impregnation of the flowers, particularly where the trees are
young, and of robust habit, and are deprived of the natural agents
in this process, as plenty of air and the aid of bees and other
insects. The pollen may be transferred from the stamens to the
pistil, by a camel's-hair pencil.
In cases of some very fruitful trees there is a great abundance
of fruit buds, but no leaf buds, except the terminal ones, which
would be cut off in pruning; these trees, even if they set their fruit,
lose it immediately after for want of the terminating buds to draw
up sap; this may be remedied by inarching leaf branches of other
trees into these too fruitful branches; - the former have grown and
supplied the fruit with all needful sap, and have ripened it well.
It is sometimes a successful practice to transfer fruit buds into
barren branches, and thus get fruit from otherwise useless
wood.
The tendency to buds or fruit is easily seen and directed during
the different prunings; the best branches are three-budded, and of
a rich brown color; two of these buds are blossom, the middle is a
leaf bud; branches which have only single buds are leaf branches,
and those with double buds only have no leaves.
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GRAPERY.
I have, throughout these directions, dwelt especially on the im portance of frequent syringings, to remove insects, or rather to pre vent their collecting. If, in spite of all efforts, they attack the
trees, you must fumigate.
The red spider is prevented and removed by syringing, or killed
by gentle fumigations of sulphur, of which small quantities may be
strewed on the flues or hot-water pipes; it may also be showered
over diseased trees out of sulphuraters, or applied with water. To
subdue or destroy the insect these applications must be carefully
made, and perseveringly followed up -having been commenced in
season.
Thrips of two species are destroyed by the same means, but
both insects must be taken young, and before the trees leave out,
as the old animals can bear more of these applications than the
young foliage.   Fumigate after the trees are pruned, painting,
white-washing, and washing all the old wood with spirits of tar and
other preventives.
The earwig is very injurious to flowers and young fruit; it harbors in decayed and hollow branches, under bricks, wood, etc. It
may be easily trapped by laying over the ground the hollow stalks
of Beans, Artichokes, etc., the sweet pith of which entices it in,
where it may be destroyed in great quantities. A mixture of
powdered sugar, arsenic, and wheaten bread, in equal parts, also
attracts and kills it.
The Peach and Poplar saw fly are very injurious to trees on
walls and espaliers, particularly out of doors. They hatch in immense numbers in April or May, cover the leaves with minute
cobwebs, eat them, and then form pupae. They may be destroyed
by removing a few inches of earth about the roots in the fall, and
charring it, which should be done as soon as the leaves have
fallen.
There are several varieties of aphides, which may be destroyed
by fumigation, but their eggs can only be removed by friction.
The wash recommended for application just before forcing is
begun, kills the insects as soon as they are hatched.
Fumigate when the leaves are dry; when wet they afford secure
hiding-places to many of the insects. Choose a still evening, and
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JANUARY.
stop every hole through which smoke can escape; by mixing damp
hay, pot herbs, etc., with the tobacco, the smoke may be made more
dense. The best way to fumigate trees is by a tunnel-shaped tin,
with its nose bent at right angles; in its throat put some glowing
wood embers, and lay the tobacco, etc., on them,
X with a fine wire gauze over it to prevent the flames
escaping with the smoke; fit the nose of a bellows
to the tube.  You  can now blow as dense a smoke
as you please into the parts of the tree most in need
of it, and may easily kill all insects. Be careful not to blow so
fiercely as to heat the leaves or fruit, lest you shrivel or destroy
them.
The turtle scale is sometimes very troublesome. They are
readily seen, as they are white, and collect in masses; their eggs
are killed by washing the old wood with spirits of tar, but this is
too strong for the young wood.
There are several weevils, the curculio, etc., which trouble
Plums and Nectarines, less, however, in the house, than in the
open ground. They are easily prevented by care. Remove all
the fruit that falls and contains eggs, and during the season when
the fly is active, frequently dust the tree with flour of sulphur; it
may be yet further excluded from trees on walls and in the open
air, by covering them with musquito netting.
As before said, the Apricot is to be treated much like the Peach.
In pruning, be very sure to cut at a wood bud, or a triple bud, that
there may be something to grow and draw up sap. If any branch
has nothing but fruit buds, do not shorten it at all, unless there is a
necessity for wood in that place. If possible, train some leaf branch
over the place, and remove the fruit branch after it has borne.
Strong growing varieties may be pruned back one-third, medium
one-fourth, weak still less. Apricots often bear on spurs of two or
three years old; carefully watch and prune accordingly. When
the fruit has set, and is as large as a small marble, thin each
group to two or three; later, after they have stoned, thin again
down to the quantity the tree can bear; the green fruit makes a
good sauce or pie. Apricots are apt to ripen one side, whilst the
other is hard; gather and lay in a tray, with the hard side upper
308 
GRAPERY.
most; set in a sunny place, and in a few days the hard side will
have ripened. It is well to gather all Apricots before they are
ripe, as they are more juicy when ripened off the tree.  If any
of these trees - in-doors or out - grow too rank, prune the roots
as hereafter described.
The Cherry under glass is to be managed like the foregoing,
only with less pruning; it needs no shortening back, except for
overgrowth. The same is true of the Plum, and their growth is
best checked by root-pruning. These trees being natives of a cold
country, make and ripen wood even in short seasons, while natives
of warm countries, like the Peach, Nectarine, and Apricot, grow
through the whole season, never ripening their wood well in our
climate, even under glass.
Root pruning is performed in many ways, and is quite as often
serviceable to trees out-of-doors as under  glass.   The  rudest
method is to lay bare all the tops of the roots of trees which have
grown too luxuriantly, and leave them thus exposed for a long
time; when the earth is removed to kill the eggs of insects, which
is sometimes done, the roots must be left bare all winter; but this
is a very imperfect method. To prune the roots properly, dig a
trench all round the tree, at the distance of 3 to 6 feet from the
stem, according to its size; dig deep enough to cut all the roots
across; leave it open a day or two, then fill back fresh earth. The
operation may be performed in spring, summer, or fall, the latter
being perhaps the best time for most trees. It is a very severe
check to trees which have a large stock of leaves, and may sometimes cause them all to wilt.
The evident effect of such pruning is to reduce very much the
number of roots, and consequently the supply of sap; when sap is
supplied less liberally, the next growth is much less free, and the
tree sets more fruit and less leaf-buds. Many trees, particularly
standard Pears, which grow nothing but leaves, may in this way
be thrown into full bearing.
The reason for this change in the character of the buds is, that
the sap flows more slowly, and being carried through a greater
number of leaves in proportion to its amount than before, is better elaborated and ripened, made richer, and when it settles
309 
JANUARY.
into the buds it carries the elements of fruit rather than leaves,
which demand a more rank and raw sap. For the same reason,
branches which are bent down - whether the stem stands or is
trained on an espalier - produce more fruit-buds; the sap in them
is retarded, ripened, and the buds show its quality by tending to
fruit rather than to leaves.
GRAPES IN POTS. -A few pages back I said that some vines
could be grown in the peachhouse, and in a former month (October), I gave a short notice of Grape-vines grown in pots. I there
mentioned that, as in the case of Peaches in tubs, the fruit can be
forced in pots earlier than in the open ground, because the roots
can receive a larger amount of heat and stimulus.
I left those vines in their fall sleep previous to the commencement of the winter forcing. Let us now return to them. They
sank to rest in the early autumn and may be kept in a perfectly
quiet and cool condition till you decide to commence forcing, which
may be as early as you please, since both tops and roots are entirely under your control. Vines started and well managed in December, will ripen their berries in May. Befored giving any heat,
cover the vines with the wash recommended for Peach-trees; remove the pots soon after to some place where they may receive
plenty of bottom heat; if fires are not needed in any of the houses,
plunge the pots in hot manure; the roots may receive a heat of
75~ to 80~. Before the buds break, remove a little of the powdery
soil from the surface of the pot, and replace with rich, turfy loam.
In order to make the buds break early, bend the canes into a circle.
As soon as the young shoots show the bunches of Grapes, a selection must be made, and no more bunches retained than the pot can
well maintain; a 15 inch pot may be allowed six bunches, and for
every variation of an inch either way a bunch may be added or
subtracted.  The  after treatment is like that of ordinary vines;
the shoots are stopped an eye beyond the bunch; when the berries
begin to swell for the last time, stop the shoots again. During
growth water freely, and so train the shoots that they may have
the most abundant light, as this, more than any thing else, adds to
the strength of the vine, and the perfection of the fruit. Use ma
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GRAPERY.
nure-water till the fruit begins to ripen, when pure water only
should be given and that in reduced quantity. Bottom heat may
be kept during forcing as high as 80~; atmospheric heat mhy begin at 45~ and increase to 75~, or higher if the increase comes from
the sun's heat; night heat should fall at starting as low as 45~, and
never rise higher than 60~. In cold, dark days let the temperature
stand at about the night heat. I repeat, that if you would succeed
you must strictly observe the practice of nature. Remember that
however hot the days may be in summer, the nights are, with very
few exceptions, cool; and that in cloudy weather, the days are but
little warmer than the nights. Plants understand this better than
we, and grow accordingly; and a little observation will show that
at such times there is almost no growth, and what there is seems
unhealthy unless ripened by a sun soon after.
When the berries ripen, set the vines into a cool and light room,
with a north exposure; the fruit keeps better in the dark, as I have
said, but the vines suffer, though this matters little if you do not intend to force them again.
Vines well laden with fruit may be used very effectively with
other plants or fruit, to ornament a dinner table.
If you intend to force the vines again, when the fruit is cut, encourage the ripening of the wood in every way; prune it as soon
as ripened, and treat as in the years before.  It will often be found
better not to force them two years in succession, but to lay them
aside for a year and treat like young vines, that they may recruit
and gain strength for future bearing.
An improvement, as some think, on simple pot culture is trough
culture.
"The plants are from buds planted in pots, which ate plunged into
a heat of 80~ to 90~; when they have grown 2 or 3 inches they
are repotted into 60s, in loam, leaf mould, sand, and a little decomposed manure; they are replaced in bottom heat, the air kept sweet
and pure. As soon as the roots have filled the pots, transfer them
to 32's, using more manure in the compost. Set the pots as near
the glass as possible, in a temperature of 70~ to 80~.
"When the pots are full of roots, shift to 8's, using a stronger
compost, and draining thoroughly; set them at least 5 inches from
311 
JANUARY.
the glass, and raise the temperature 5~ to 10~. When the vines
have grown 8 or 10 feet, stop them, and if they are healthy they
will at once throw out laterals from the buds at the extreme ends.
It is to be hoped no other buds will break; pinch these top laterals
when 6 or 8 inches long.  But all laterals emitted from the base, if
fruit buds, should be stopped at first joint; - allowing the end laterals to grow freely is the best means of preventing the starting of
the other buds. Water freely during the whole time, and occasionally with liquid manure. When the wood is ripened, set the
plants against a south wall, and protecting the roots from the frost
let them remain as long as is prudent."
"As the leaves fall off, shorten the canes to the required length,
which will be regulated by their strength. The time for taking
them into the house again will depend upon the time the fruit is to
be ripened. Take the vines into the house in December; they
will then ripen in May.   Begin the temperature at 55~, and gradually increase it to 70~. Keep the atmosphere moist by syringing,
and if dry at the root give weak manure-water. To prevent the
roots getting too damp, set the pots on pieces of brick, which also
improve the circulation of air in the house: when the buds have
well broken, transfer them into a trough of this kind: plank (or
slate) troughs are carried the length of the house, about half way
between the floor and the glass roof. The bottom of the troughs
is made of crossed strips; upon these lay pieces of turf 3 inches
thick, to keep fine loam from sifting through; upon the turf 3
inches of compost, made of equal parts turfy loam and rotted manure, with a little sand; remove the vines by turning the pot upside down and lifting it off the ball; examine the ball and take out
worms and pieces of crocks, but do not break the roots or loosen the
earth.   Now set the balls into the loam in the trough, and 3
inches apart. Fill between the balls with the same compost; cover
the roots 1- inches deep. The plants are now as well off as if
planted in an open border. Tie the canes of the front and back
troughs to the rafters, and of the middle to the posts of the house,
or to wires carried up to the roof. Syringe well, water occasionally, and pour the water on the ball and not upon the remaining
earth, as the roots have not yet spread. When the shoots have
312 
GRAPERY.
fairly commenced to grow, stop them as in all other cases, leaving
but one bunch to each, or 8 to 12 to every vine; a heavier crop
would injure both the color and the flavor of the fruit. Water
abundantly; the superfluous water will run off through the open
bottom of the trough. In this way the grower may produce Muscats as readily as any other Grape, and a constant succession of
fruit may be kept up without forcing the permanently planted vines
too early. After the fruit is cut, remove the vines carefully from
the trough, and set them out of doors where the roots may be protected from the sun; they may be replaced by another set of vines
for a late crop."
"When the vine borders are vaulted or well warmed by hot air,
water, or steam, the vines growing in them may be forced as much
as you please, but it is not judicious to do it, as the strength and
long life of the vine is sure to be injured. Pot or trough culture
is equally favorable for retarding or for forcing grapes."*
J. F. ALLEN'S LIST OF GRAPES.
Forcing-house.
Black Hamburghs, variety.
Red and Rose Chasselas.
Chasselas de Bar Sur Aube.
White Frontignan.
Black and Grizzly Frontignan.
Golden Chasselas.
White Gascoigne.
Royal Muscadine.
Muscat of Alexandria.
Tottenham Park.
Zinfindal.
Cannon Hall Muscat.
Red Traminer.
Macready's Early White.
Early Black July for extra early.
Cold-grapery.
Black Hamburgh,
Wilmot's New Hamburgh,
Wilmot's No. 16,
Victoria Hamburgh,
White Frontignan,
Grizzly do.,
Pitmaston, white Cluster,
Golden Chasselas,
Chasselas de Bar SurAube,
Rose Chasselas,
Red do.,
Royal Muscadine,
Red Traminer,
White Rissling,
Macready's Early White,
GENERAL PLANTING. -" Black Hamburgh for greatest number; Grizzly, Black and White Frontignan are all admired by those
* Reduced from McIntosh.
27
4#
313
10
10
10
10
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 
JANUARY.
persons who like the Muscat flavor; they are liable to shrivel, and
are more delicate than other grapes, and do not keep well when
ripe; the Grizzly is the earliest of these. Tottenham Park Muscat is very like the above, but not so high-flavored: sets its berries
better. Portuguese Muscat, Chasselas de Bar Sur Aube, Pitmaston,
White Cluster, Syrian, white, has very large bunches, sometimes
weighing 20 lbs."
*
314 
CHAPTER XL.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE cold beds containing various plants for spring culture and
winter use, must be examined as often as the weather permits, and
if we have the usual January thaw, they may be uncovered
and receive light and air in abundance.
In my last month's description of the treatment of hill-sides used
as kitchen-gardens, I omitted one point of considerable importance;
viz., that a close board fence or close stone wall should be erected
across the hill toward the top of the garden, if you propose to cultivate either early or late crops there. Beside the protection given
by such a fence or wall against high winds, it is very important as
a means of retarding frost; and the lower down the hill it is, the
better it works. You know that as air cools it condenses, becomes
heavier, and falls to the earth, and when there, it runs like water
over an inclined surface to the lowest level. Let the air on the
top of a hill grow cool, it will run down the sides, if not so fast as
water, yet in obedience to the same laws; and as it runs lower
down it becomes colder, until at the bottom of the hill it is cold
enough to produce frost, though at the top it was merely cool. A
close fence coming down to the ground will stop this current of air
as it would water, and either the air must find an outlet by running
along the side of the fence, or it must pile up against it as water
against a dam; so that, in time, the air at the bottom of the fence
will be cold enough to freeze, while higher up it is mild.
This is not mere theory; it has been practically proved, and
plants growing on the lower side of such a fence, and opposite a
hole in it next the ground, have been found frost-bitten at that part
of the stem which was no higher than the top of the hole, but untouched higher up.
Here, then, is a means of increasing the value of your garden.
315 
JANUARY.
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STREET
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s
316 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
An evergreen hedge will have the same effect; so will a close
hedge of any kind that spreads evenly over the ground when in
full leaf. 
Now is the time to prepare the hotbeds for extra early forcing,
though for ordinary forcing February is early enough.  I shall
enter into the details of managing hotbeds next month, and those
directions may be applied to January, if you choose to begin so
early; but in general I advise against beginning such culture before February. The earliest forcing of Lettuce, Salads, Endive,
and Cauliflower, and the development of Cardoons, Chicory, etc.,
may be carried forward in the forcing-house and cold-grapery.
Agreeably to my promise in last month's kitchen-garden, I shall
now give drawings, details, and description, of the
VILLAGE-GARDEN.- This garden may belong either to a man
of wealth, or to one who lives by daily labor. I shall describe it
as if it belonged to the latter. A richer person may devote more
to ornament, and make more expensive improvements; but I wish
to show how one whose time and means are both limited may get
the most pleasure, beauty, and profit, out of his little garden.
I assume that this place is half an acre in size, situated on a village street, and that a house is to be built on it. I have made it,
like most village lots, a parallelogram, with no grcat difference between its sides. The front on the street measures 125 feet, the
depth is 174. The main house is 35 x 25 feet; the L 15 x 20
feet; piazza on the eastern side 6 x 30 feet. This makes quite a
roomy house, larger, perhaps, than would be generally wanted by
persons of small means.
I make the entrance to the front within 8 feet of the south-east
corner of the lot, and carry the path to the house with an easy
curve. The distance is not thereby made much greater, yet by
curving thus, and planting the swells of the curves with trees or
shrubs, the house not only appears to stand farther back from the
street, but its front may be somewhat concealed and rendered less
public, and the occupations'and amusements of its occupants made
more private.   My  object in placing the house thus far back
27*
317 
JANUARY.
from the street, 40 feet, is to give an opportunity for both these
effects.
The house might as well be on the west as on the east side of
the lot, but near one side it should be, in order to leave the land
more in a body for economical or for ornamental purposes, and the
side selected should generally be the one which is farthest from any
neighboring house. Where the house is in the centre, the whole lot
is cut up, and the place cramped. Not so with a house placed as in
this plan, for we see at once that the little strip on one side is but
a small portion of the place, whilst the other is of an undetermined
size, and if the trees, etc., are well grouped, seems much larger
than it really is; the breadth thus secured enables us to vary the
direction of our paths, so that they seem to traverse a large area,
and we can make our flower-beds and plantations in good sized
masses. The object in a small place is to avoid all standards for
comparison, which may enable a critical visitor to compute readily
its size. By judiciously varying the direction of the paths, concealing their terminations, filling their bends with trees and shrubs,
so that standing on one part we may not see the rest, we practically increase the size of the place.  Straight lines and right
angles reduce the area to its smallest possible size. They provoke
a calculation, as follows: This path must be about so long to the
first angle, and to the next thus much longer.  There are 20 Peartrees standing on it, 10 feet apart- 200 feet one way, 10 on the other
20,000 feet in the place! I do not mean to say that every visitor
would thus reduce your place to figures, but that is the tendency.
Again, if the space on the sides of your house is narrow, you
can plant but a few trees, shrubs, etc.; you can make no masses,
or even tolerably sized groups; you cannot hide your neighbor's
house or boundaries; they are constantly thrust in upon you.
But by putting the house at one side, you increase the available
area, and can make those groups and combinations which will be
both ornamental and useful, and will'serve to divert attention from
the narrowness of your estate, to the great variety and beauty of
the things which you grow on it.
You will see as you follow this description through, that the
318 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
place, small as it is, is really capable of producing a great quantity
of material both for beauty and use; and if this is so arranged as
to be presented to the visitor's eye at different times and unexpectedly, it will seem much more, and be more surprising.
But the good effect is not for strangers alone. Gossiping and
curiosity are the prevalent vices in our towns and villages, which
it is the duty of each of us to check so far as he is concerned. If
the grounds on each side of our house are so narrow as to bring
our neighbor's affairs constantly under our eyes, it is difficult not to
be too interested in them; but if we have quite a large space on that
side of our house which we most use, large enough both to conceal
our neighbors and to give us something beautiful of our own to
look at, we remove from ourselves much of this temptation to
meddlesomeness, and every time we look out of the window, our
eyes rest on natural and peaceful beauties of our own, which soothe
and interest us, and divert our attention from the business of other
people to those objects which in themselves suggest instructive and
pleasing trains of thought. Having started with the rule that we
ought to make our homes as beautiful as possible, for the sake of
ourselves and our families, we must in carrying out the rule make
due allowance for human nature.
Perhaps our education has been purely practical, and we have
been taught to value a piece of land with a house, solely for its
productive capacity. We may admit the force of the arguments
for cultivating beauty, and yet find great difficulty in bringing
ourselves to act accordingly; and this difficulty will be increased,
if the land on both sides of your house is equally narrow, for, as I
have said, it is too narrow to admit of pleasing effects, without
much contrivance and somewhat unnatural arrangement; it will
be much easier to arrange it with an eye to the practical, and we
shall be more inclined to yield to our mistaken inclination. Now
our duty is to strengthen ourselves against our meaner selves.
Look at the plan, and see how, by placing the house as I have
done, there is room on one side for nothing but the piazza,- covered with vines, both for beauty and to act as a screen,- and an
espalier for Pears, with the necessary borders for them to grow in.
But on the other, are first vines covering the house and embower
319 
JANUARY.
ing the windows, next, little beds of bulbs and Verbenas in the
turf, next, a larger flower-bed; -then an ample path, then a fine,
large Apple-tree, then more grass;-trees and flowering shrubs,
grass and espaliered fruit. The area is not great, -75 feet wide,
-yet by judiciously breaking it up and grouping pleasant things
together, we secure a very great amount of diversity and beauty,
a pleasant feast for the eyes at all seasons of the year. Now look
at the space in front of the house, where are shrubs, flowers, grass,
and trees, and yet but little space devoted to them.
Whoever passes such a place, when the trees have attained their
full beauty, will stop to enjoy the pleasant sight, and will say to
himself that the children he sees playing about cannot fail to do
well in the world, if the influences within doors correspond to those
without.
Follow the path from the front door to the kitchen-garden! You
begin your walk through flowers and grass, shrubs, and trees; as
you proceed you come to stout and thrifty Pear-trees, well loaded
with flowers or fruit; among them are Currants, crimson with their
beautiful fruit, or behind them, Strawberries; beyond thie waving
tassels of Corn, most beautiful of grain crops, and at their feet
yellow Squashes, golden Pumpkins, or ruddy Tomatoes As you
round the curve, Peach and Cherry-trees greet you, and only as
you turn a bend in the path do you come upon the henl-iouse and
pigsty, where, well secured, are those animals which, if kept close,
may be made to contribute to the economy and pleasure of the
family; but which, if allowed to stroll about, are entirely destructive to the garden, a trouble to their owner, and a pest and
nuisance to his neighbors. The fowls lay their eggs everywhere
but on your own premises, and scratch up and deface every part of
the garden, while the pigs destroy every vestige of fruit, flower,
and vegetable, and reduce the whole place to the appearance of an
Irish hovel.
So plain is this to every one, that my reference to it may seem
superfluous, but it is lamentably true that even in thrifty New
England towns and cities, people who would feel grossly insulted
if their neighbors did not consider them respectable, allow their
pigs to run at large, and the most common sight in every village is
320 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
platoons of hens rummaging, scratching, and destroying the gardens
of their owners, and of all the neighbors. Now you may lay it
down as a fact, that it is hens versus garden.  If the hens are not
closely shut up throughout the growing season, your garden is
good for nothing; a few hours' investigation by a set of hens of
active minds and legs, will reduce your best hopes in horticulture
and floriculture to despair. And certainly one-half the ill-feeling
between country neighbors is due to the ravages of the domestic
animals, of one or the other. I have a garden, and sacrifice my
hens; soon my neighbor, who has no garden, but has hens, receives
a notice from me, polite, perhaps, but sarcastic, that his hens are
my nuisance, and must be abated. He promises well, but does
nothing; it is too much trouble or expense to him to shut them up,
and any time will do. I send more and more messages. At last
he shuts them up for a few days. I breathe more freely, and my
terrified flowers, plundered Currant-bushes, and pecked Melons
start anew to grow. But that henhouse was a temporary structure; its door falls off the hinges, or is left open by some one of
the family, who goes to get eggs, carelessly or designedly, because
I "needn't make such a plaguey fuss about a few old Currantbushes or green Tomatoes," and I see the hens again in my garden.
Now I am enraged; perhaps I swear; at any rate I stone the hens,
and knock one in the head, but don't kill her, and in my wrath toss
her over the fence after the others, where she performs sundry
drunken evolutions, as running round in a circle a vast number of
limes, with her head between her legs, or straight into the barn
door, each foot stepping on the other as she goes; she screeches,
and all the other sympathizing fowls do the same. There is music.
My neighbor rushes out, sees the whole story at a glance, comes to
the fence, looks over, and calls me "a nasty, mean  feller, to be so
cruel as to hurt a poor hen, that never hurt me." At such times
heu proprietors are very chicken-hearted, and have an unwonted
supply of the milk of human kindness. To his abuse over the
fence I perhaps say nothing; perhaps I return it. In either case
we are enemies; we talk each other down at all village meetings,
and my neighbor particularly pronounces me the meanest and most
unneighborly of men.
i
321 
JANUARY.
This is a common experience. My neighbor doesn't consider he
has done any thing mean to try my patience and ruin my garden;
the meanness is all on my side.
Now I recommend all my readers to keep a gun, if it be not
against the law to fire a gun within the limits of your town; where
it is, poisoned meal may take the place of the gun; and after fair
notice, to kill every trespassing hen. Do it early in the season.
If you must have the quarrel, save your garden; don't lose the
garden and have the quarrel to boot.
The house located, the general arrangement of the place is next
to be determined, and that this may be intelligent and satisfactory,
make a plan of it, as you would like it when completed to your
mind.  If your land is perfectly level you may represent it accurately on paper, and however uneven its surface may be, a plan is
an important aid in laying it out. My directions for making this
plan will be general, and the plan in the book may be taken as an
illustration; I shall return to my description of that plan presently.
Measure off, upon a piece of drawing paper, the dimensions of
your land - be it parallelogram or other shape -  according to some
scale: supposing your land to measure, on one side, 120 feet, allow
on paper each inch of a foot-rule to measure 30 feet, each half-inch
to measure 15 feet, and so on; then one side of your plan will be
4 inches long. Go out and measure the distance from each front
corner of the lot to the middle of the front of the house, also the
distance from these corners to each corner of the house. Then
measure the outside of the house all round, noting down the
measurements as made. Return to the house and find that point
on your plan which corresponds to the middle of the front of the
house. To do this set the legs of a pair of dividers by your scale
of 30 feet to the inch, so as to measure the distance from one corner
of the lot to the middle of the front of the house, as you have
noted it down. Set one leg of the dividers on that corner in the
plan, and with the other leg make as much of a circle on the paper
as will reach from the front line back into the plan farther than
you think the front of the house will be; do the same thing with
the corresponding measurement from the other corner, and where
these two curves cross each other, will be the middle of the front
322 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
of the house on the plan. In the same way find the corners of the
house on the plan; connect these by a line drawn straight through
the middle point, and you have the front line of the plan of your
house. From this line measure out in accordance with your notes
all the sides of the house, and be sure that all the angles correspond to the real ones. Having put the house upon paper, go out
again and decide where you will put the gates, which will give admission to the front and kitchen doors, bearing in mind what I have
already said about them; also select the position for the henhouse.
These points settled, ascertain the relative positions on the boundary lines, and returning with these measurements, apply them to
the plan. Now draw your path to the front door, then that to the
kitchen, and to the piazza.  If the local circumstances  make
straight paths the most desirable and pleasant, make them straight;
but otherwise curve them. If the surface is uneven keep the
paths to the hollows as much as possible, and when you ascend a
slope follow the easiest line of ascent. Curve the paths whenever
this will enable you to produce a pleasant effect, by planting a
group of trees or shrubs in the bend, or to give a good view of the
house and garden, or for any good reason. Make them 5 feet wide
at least. This will seem to you too wide to look well, a waste of
ground, and involving expense in construction. In fact it will look
better than any less width, and 6 feet is better than 5; for proof
refer to any of the plans which accompany this book, where all the
paths are 5 to 6 feet wide, and see that were they narrower the
plans would look pinched and meagre. And as to waste of land
and money, it is not wasting to make a thing satisfactory, which
you must have in some form or other, as you must paths; and
surely a path, which forces friends to walk in "Indian file," and talk
to each other over their shoulders, is not satisfactory, but very annoying, and if it be over a small place, it forces us to notice and
regret the narrow limits which lead to such scrimping. If on such
a place the paths were wide enough for three or four persons to
walk abreast, they would seem wasteful, for their breadth would
be unnecessary and incongruous. If our path allows two persons
to walk abreast easily, it is wide enough; I do not mean so that
they can just squeeze along without treading on the border, but so
323 
JANUARY.
that they may walk, easily, side by side. And this brings us to a
principle in path-making.
Most persons think that paths are the most important features on
a plan, and that how they look, and into what pretty shapes they
divide a surface, are the important questions.  But if paths are
rightly placed, and of proper width, they are the least important
features in a place; if badly placed, the most important. For a
path should never attract notice to itself, any more than a coat or
the frame of a picture to themselves. It is merely a means of access to something, and should be so managed as to afford this access
in the pleasantest way, and to do nothing more. If wide enough,
its width attracts no attention; we walk along it, talking with our
friends, and looking at the landscapes or the flowers.
Draw your paths then 5 feet wide; wherever two of them meet,
round the corners so as to allow a wheelbarrow or a child's carriage
to be drawn round them easily; this, too, being no waste of room.
Next fix the place for your well, if that is to be out of doors, and
turn a path to it. Next assign a place for the clothesyard, which
should be large enough for use, and no larger; mark on your plan
that this is to be surrounded by a hedge of evergreen, which, when
grown, will effectually screen the yard from cold winds and from
observation, so that washing-day may come and go unknown to any
person outside the house.
The next thing is to draw such a path as will traverse the whole
garden, giving access to the henhouse on the way. Avoid sharp turns
and corners, and it will seem to lead on without reference to the
boundaries, whether near or distant, crooked or straight. Curve it
to avoid inequalities in the surface, and for the sake of grace and
beauty, but make all its curves as long and easy, and gently-changing as possible. A comparison between a straight and a crooked
line, is almost always in favor of the straight; its simplicity and directness fills us with disgust for crooks, and sharp, unnecessary
turns.  The same principle will guide our choice between well and
ill-curved lines; the best curve, like the line of beauty, possesses
the good qualities of the straight line, and seems appropriate; the
had curve, like the wriggle of a wounded snake, is like the crooked
line, meaningless. Do not think that because a line is not straight
324 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
and-_....... — it is beautiful.  For instance, let
isr_, /a, a, and b, b, be paths over the
same  surface.  If that  surfice
were very uneven, and b, b, followed its undulations, or was lost
among copses of trees and opened at every turn on some pleasant
sight, it would be appropriate; but if short, and over a level surface as in our garden, the worst possible path.  The chlanging path
should beguile us along unconscious of any change, except as new
objects are brought into view.
A gentleman once objected to a change made in his grounds,
which would alter some straight paths to curved, that lhe should
never like it, could never get along with it, for he was accustomed
to walk much lost in reverie, or in thought, and should be constantly running into the borders if his paths were curved.   This
was a perfectly natural feeling; his idea of a curve was a crooked,
hump-backed line.  The change was made in accordance with the
principles just laid down, and to this day hlie walks lost in his meditationis, and has never yet been wrecked on the dreaded borders.
Our garden path was to give access to the henhouse, but should
not quite touch it. Such a building should stand as far back from
the line of direct wvalking as convenience will allow, for although it
is useful and desirable, it is generally ugly and noisome. The former objection may be removed by vines well trained; the latter by
sprinkling the pigpen occasionally with diluted sulphuric acid, and
covering the floor of the house with plaster of Paris, chloride of
lime, or charcoal, all of which answer the same purpose, being absorbants of aminonriacal, and other gases valuable for manure but
disagreeable to smell.
You will now make, agreeably to directions before given, as many
espaliers and of such kinds as you please. In the plan, to which we
now return, there are 365 feet of espaliers, giving 45 trees 8 feet
apart; of these 2 are Figs (sometimes they will bear, and sometimes not,- but as curiosities have them), 4 Nectarines, 6 Apricots,
1    2      Peaches, 3 Plums, 3 Cherries,'15 Pears.  Had you  no other
fruit these would be enough, but I shall let you have more. Where
the    paths A and B cross, you may  turn back a short path, which
wil     l  render access from one to the other easier; in the little trian                   28
},~:  %i -
f6
325 
JANUARY.
gle thus left, you may put an Apple-tree; it will do less mrnischlief
there than anywhere else. In so small a place plant no Apples in
the borders, unless they are dwarfs; for when Apples are plentiful
they are very cheap, and when scarce, your trees are not likely to
do better than your neighbors; and no tree is so unprofitable in a
small place as the Apple. It covers a large surface, shading it so
that no smaller tree can grow, and gives no compensating return.
Dwarf Apples are not so bad, but I should never plant any.
Cherries are about as bad, but occupy less room, so that I have put
in a few in those swells of the path where there is room enough,
also in places where you want a screen. Set dwarf Pears around
the inside of the paths, 10 to 12 feet apart, as before described;
our place will accommodate 18. We shall thus have 33 Pear-trees,
the annual value of whose fruit will be not less than $2 per tree,
when well established, and more if you use them yourself. For directions about planting, etc., refer back. Set currants between the
Pears, each bush 3 feet from a tree, their centres 4 feet apart; there
may be 50 Currants; in the place of some of these you can substitute Gooseberries if you choose.
From the clothesyard, measure back a strip of land 50 feet long
and 521 wide, which will be large enough for the smallest sized
Asparagus bed described under the directions for the culture of
that vegetable. I have made it 12 feet wide to insure a sufficient
supply. At right angles to the lower or north end of the Asparagus bed, are rows of Horseradish; cultivate this as I have
directed, and short as the rows are, they will furnish enough for
any family. At the west of the clothesyard is the Raspberry bed,
6 rows allowing 125 plants at 3 feet apart, and 2 feet in the row.
Perpendicular to the Raspberry and Asparagus beds, are 7 rows of
Strawberries of different lengths, quite enough to give a good supI-ly through the season. Enclosed by these different beds is an
area, not large certainly, but enough to give, under good management, an abundant supply of summer vegetables.
By planting only so many vegetables as will suffice for your
family, you may have an abundance and variety for that purpose;
but if you are possessed with the usual spring mania for planting
everything in large quantities, you will be cramped for room. Twenty
326 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
Tomato plants will give all the Tomatoes any common family needs,
and allow some for preserving and pickling, and they need not occupy more than 400 square feet of land. Let other things be in
like proportion. You should no more think of growing Potatoes
on such a small place, than of planting Apple-trees; all such largegrowing crops are too unwieldy for a small garden.
You observe on both east and west sides of the place, the espaliers
are carried past the house and into the grass land.  You must allow
a border here at least 12 feet wide (taking both sides of the espaliers) for the roots of the trees; this must not be cropped with any
thing, but must be well manured.
Pears, as I have said, need plenty of manure and moisture,
whilst Peaches and similar fruit are injured by strong manure;
and by manuring around those trees upon a pretence of taking a
crop, the trees are injured, although you may get good crops of
other things.
You will see on the left of path A on a bend, 4 Quince-trees 8
to 10 feet apart, and 2 by the henhouse; these 6 trees are enough
for your family.
Return now to the front and ornamental part of the place. On
each half of the eastern side of the house are vines; 2 Woodbines
at each corner; next, 2 monthly Honeysuckles; next, 2 Roses
(Queen of Prairie and Rosa-ruga); in the middle a Virgin's
Bower, or Clematis Virginiana, and Clematis Azurea, Grandiflora,
and Flammula (white and fragrant). On the front of the house, on
either corner, a Monthly Honeysuckle; on each side of the door,
Woodbine; between door and either corner, Boursault Rose, and
Mrs. Hovey (Prairie). On west side 8 vines; at north-west corner,
Monthly Honeysuckle; at south-west, Wisteria; next to each of these
a variety of Clematis; next, Trumpet-creeper and Woodbine; in
the middle, Sweetbrier, and annual vines. In each hole may be
planted some tubers of the Apios, the wild Ground-nut, and of the
Madeira vine; and in the proper places where it will show to advantage, the Ipomea Learii and others. The two latter should be taken
up in the fall, as the frost destroys them. On the west and north L of
the house, Grape-vines are put, and if the varieties are well selected,
and carefully pruned and trained, you will be able to ripen the
327 
JANUARY.
Grapes on the north exposure, though the east and south are better of
course. Either the Concord, Hartford, or Diana Grape will ripen
there; the Isabella and Catawba must have more sun; and the Catawba does not ripen with certainty anywhere in our latitude. The
east side of the house may be devoted to Grape instead of ornamental vines if you choose. I prefer the ornamental. The henhouse
may be covered with grapevines; over the well, too, which you
see just where the kitchen path B reaches the house, a little wellhouse may be erected and covered with vines. Hop-vines thrive
in such a place, and although this is not the best way to cultivate
the Hop for a crop, it will give shade and some hops.
Ascertain what objects in the neighborhood should be screened
from sight, and what are agreeable; fix these points on paper (to
a scale). Let A be a window in the house, from which the object
B is to be concealed; draw
/(      1  -     the lines A C, A  D, which
shall  embrace  between
Am j)-0~                      ~ _- t B  them the whole of the dis                         -- -_  4'~    { agreeable object; plant in
--   ~ f  =. — the triangle thus formed
..~,9   trees as gracefully grouped
as possible, and unless by expanding the group you would shut out
something you wish to see, spread them out beyond both lines
enough to make a pleasing group. Carefully compare the size and
shape of the different trees with which you might make the screen;
to determine which you will need draw imaginary lines in the air,
which will enclose the top and bottom of the object, and by them
judge how high your leafy screen must be. When the trees and
shrubs are selected, mark their names down on paper, and put
the points which show the stems at least 10 feet apart, and as much
more as the future size of the tree will allow consistently with its
purpose of a screen.
Here let me notice a pestilent theory which has taken possession
of the minds of some planters, who getting a theory apply it at all
times and places, regardless of the principle which is its life. This
notion is that in planting groups of trees they should be placed as
far apart as they ought to stand 20 or 30 years later in order to have
828 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
their perfect development.   No theory could be better where a
group is made for its beauty alone, with ample room and free choice
of material, for in no other way can the greatest amount of beauty
be obtained; but where trees are planted to screen an unsightly
object, this theory has no place. What you want is a screen, and
to get this you might put up a high, close fence, were it not ugly,
expensive, and perishable; you prefer trees because they have
neither of these defects, and form in time a perfect screen; but you
defeat your purpose unless you plant thickly, so thickly that in a
few years the object of your planting will be secured. If you
must wait ten or twenty years for this, you will either become so
accustomed to the nuisance as to be careless whether it is hidden
or not, or you will cease to wait for earthly things. Again, it is
foolish when planting for a screen to use such trees only as will
have the greatest individual beauty when full grown, for they may
be slow growers or short-lived. You may secure the result at
which the theory aims and yet have your screen, not by mixing
slow-lgrowing or distant trees with shrubs, the latter to spring up
and make the screen without crowding the trees; but by adding
to these, trees of a rapid growth and short life, which will serve
as nurses to the slower-growing trees, and will soon make a screen
which can be cut down as soon as the permanent trees are large
enough to take their place.
I would use permanent trees and shrubs when and where the
latter are high enough to cover the object, and should like them
better than trees, but only if sure they would do this.
*F ~ ~~~~,                    ~
28*
329 
JANUARY.
In case that whilst there are some objects like roads, unsightly
buildings, windows of inquisitive neighbors, which you wish to
"plant out," and others which you wish to retain in view, reverse
the practice just described. B, C, and D to be shut out, and A to
be seen if possible from the whole line E F, either because it connects windows of your house, or because it is a favorite promenade.
Draw on the plan, or beyond its edge, on the same paper, the location of the three objects; then draw the lines E A and F A, and
E B and F D; make the most varied plantations you can between
E B A and F A D, and connect if possible these groups of trees
with shrubs, thus. You will get a varied outline, beside concealing
and showing respectively the given objects.
Where a group is planted for other purposes, the guiding principles are very different, as I have said, and for them I refer you to
the month of September, where the subject is more fully discussed,
and to future months.
If circumstances do not permit you to study and imitate any particular group of trees, if there is none in your neighborhood which
you care to study, you must be guided by this consideration: in
selecting and planting your trees, both the beauty of the individuals
or their appearance in combination must be considered, in your estimate of the pleasure to be derived from them. As I have repeatedly said, variety is an important constituent of the beautiful, and
its presence is a powerful inducement to the mind to consider new
things, while the enjoyment of familiar things is prolonged. However beautiful any 6ne object is,- supremely so if you please, - it
will pall on the mind at times; you may be an enthusiast (though
not a monomaniac), may sell all you have to obtain some work of
art, may enshrine it in the most appropriate manner, may visit or
live with it, may show it with a torrent of enthusiasm to your
friends; yet there will be times when it loses its control over your
mind and eye; you will go to other things less beautiful. Leave it
then for other things - inferior things; freshen your soul and
eye with them, and when you return the old love will re-assert its
control with new power.
This undeniable fact controverts a theory, which from the time
of Gilpin and other authorities in landscape gardening to the pres
330 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
ent day, has had many advocates; viz., that any spot to be improved should be planted with trees entirely or mainly of one kind,
as in no other way can great effects be produced, and the full
beauty of the trees be ascertained. This is not true even on the
large scale of mountain and forest, as each man's experience will
testify. Recall the scene you admire and love most, count over in
memory, or on the spot, the varieties of trees which are blended
together to produce the effect; there are not only trees, but vines
mounting the trunks, and throwing their wreaths over the branches
and top, and by changing form and color, giving new and unwonted
life to the whole. Lower down at their roots are shrubs of many
kinds, and their feet again are fringed with flowers. I admit that
in a case like the 27 Oaks at Waverly, Mass., the pleasure is in the
individual trees, whose perfection and magnificence is not surpassed
in the United States, nor could they be improved by planting other
trees amongst them, but there is no oak effect; it is the beauty of
old and individual trees, which have been growing only 600
years, and are not likely to be reproduced in much less time.
All of us know of some dark, solemn Pine wood, in a deep glen,
where no other trees seem to exist; but the peculiar beauty of
those Pines is seen and felt only when we are within the wood, not
when we look at it from a distance; its depths have a variety not
to be found on its skirts; it is the dim-colored light, the whispering
winds, the contrast of the columnar stems with top and foliage, the
intermixture of shrubs, etc.; while the spot in the wood most loved
is where a break in the trees has opened a bit of water, or a prospect, or where has sprung up a ruddy Maple or a golden Hickory.
To try the theory by a smaller scale, and on our plan; southeast of the house is a group of 9 trees, 5 of which are in a row,
that worst of all positions for good effects. Red Maple in front
will relieve its red blossoms in early spring against 3 White Pines,
and contrast its light budding spray, and irregular shape with
the more stubbed branches and elliptical outline of the Sugar
Maples, and the fastigiate Elm and Tulip-tree. In the fall its gold
and red will be heightened by the dark green of the background;
before its color is gone it will be taken up, as is a song that was
gradually hushing away by stronger voices, and the brilliant Sugar
331 
JANUARY.
Maples will bring back the fading glory, and carry it up to a yet
higher resplendence, always intensified by the deep green of the
Pines on one side, and the English Elm on the other. Can anybody maintain that this group would be better all Pines, all Maples,
all Elms?  And as I have just hinted, color is not the only gain by
this arrangement; the shape and variety of spray are equally
beautiful, and in their turn contribute fully as much to the beauty
of the whole. Variety is an element of beauty in virtue of the
contrast it affords.  What is more bewitching than the tracery of
the Elm against a winter evening sky? Words cannot describe its
beauty, its magical effect, no hand can trace it or reproduce it; the
interlacing of the branches overhead, the arches and beams of this
member of a cathedral that would have delighted medieval builders. And in the spring, when the tree feels down in its vitals the
moving power of the early sun, and long before other trees have
swelled their buds, expands its own, how- just as they burst into
flower- the same tree which we so much admired for the purity,
distinctness, and variety of its spray, and its crossing branches in
fall and winter, seems now, in the light of the setting sun, to have
entangled in its network one of those rare purple mists of autumn!
and to have woven it into a garment as beautiful in color as the
Tyrian purple of old, which none but kings might wear, and as delicate in texture as those fabrics of the Eastern loom, which may be
passed through a ring, and are yet ample enough to clothe an Eastern beauty, whose form and limbs are not more lovely than those
of that same noble American Elm.
Look now at our grouping in the south-east corner, where such
an Elm stands surrounded by stiff Maples, Ashes, and Pine trees,
and heralded by Norway Spruces, whose picturesque grace is a
good preparation for a true appreciation of the Elm.
If then you are making a group on your plan, remember that
you are to introduce a variety of trees in a variety of positions,
and so placed that each will be seen to the best advantage, and
combine into the most graceful whole. Around and among these
trees, plant those shrubs which will grow in the shade, and on the
edges of the group, others needing more light; and the group may
be rendered yet more beautiful by fringing these edges with Asters
332
'W 
VILLAGE-GARDEN.
and Golden-rods. In another place will be given a list of suitable
trees and shrubs.
Our flower-beds are placed according to previous advice; the
round ones directly under the windows are for bulbs, and later for
bedding plants, or such annuals as you prefer. - Fill the other beds
with a choice selection of perennials, with spaces for other varieties
of plants.
333 
CHAPTER XLI.
ORCHARD AND FARM.
IN the orchard continue to prune; remove and burn the brush.
It is well to hurry this work a little, as there will soon be more
demands on the limited labor of the farmer; take scions the last
of the month.
Throughout this book I assume that the balance sheet of profit
and loss in dollars is not the only test of rural improvements or
the sole inducement to agricultural labors. Burns has said: -
"The rank is but the guinea stamp,
The man's the gowd for a' that,"
and it needs very little reflection to see that in those two lines the
history of the world is written. Success in a worldly point of
view is desirable, and its evidence speaks to all men, in better
clothes, better houses, better equipage,- in the "guinea stamp."
And this is worth some effort to gain; it is natural and proper that
men should strive for those things which contribute to their own
comfort and pleasure and consequence, which elevate them in the
opinion of the world. But good as it is to be current coin in
this way, how worthless it is in comparison with being the gold
of true manhood.
Education is the watchword of New England. Now how would
you educate your children; by sending them among coarse, sensual,
semi-barbarous people, or by associating them with the refined and
noble? The latter, of course! If you, as a farmer, have a creature to fatten, you put it in the most favorable circumstances, you
give it the best pasture, the most abundant supply of water, the
mildest temperature, you do not allow it to be worried by dogs or
334 
ORCHARD AND FARM.
boys; you give it shade from the fierce sun, and shelter from the
biting wind. This is right; this is good farming.
So if you have a child to educate, and wish to make him a noble
man, true gold, surround him with the most favorable influences.
Assuming, then, that the aim of every man is, whilst he gets his
"living," to develope himself fully, lie cannot place himself more
favorably than by following some occupation which will constantly
carry him into the fields and woods, and bring him into close communion with nature, where every influence will be for good. Look
how these influences surround the farmer! he works for his daily
bread.  It is hard work, but he does it thankfully, because it assures him that the blessings of home and love will be continued to
him, without fear of famine and ruin. As he goes out to his early
work, he sees sights that would well repay any man for severe
toil: the colors of the sky at sunrise, the glistening of the dewdrop, the general wakening of nature. The songs of birds come
to his ears, the flower under his foot speaks of beauty and wisdom,
the fields have a voice that is pouring out praise to God.
As he turns the mould with the ploughshare, a bit of quartz or
spar catches his eye, attracts his curiosity, and leads him through
pleasant thoughts of geology, how these crystals were formed, of
the structure of the globe, the stratification of rocks, the formation
of soils. The tree he is cutting bends, and as it falls shows him
the rings which have marked its growth, and starts his thoughts
afresh- upon the wonderful structure of trees, the phenomena of
growth, the wonders of reproduction. Every graft or bud he puts
in, teaches him vegetable history. As he goes to the barn at
night, the cry of a calf new born from a cow of a favorite breed,
which promises to be the most perfect of his stock, arouses a thousand thoughts of the providential wisdom which not only secures
the perpetuation of races, but provides man with the means of
improving each race of animals to ultimate perfection.
His labor over, he returns to his house, lying warm and glowing
in the rays of that setting sun, whose rising was so beautiful and
so delighted him. The rich, yellow light gilds the tops of tree and
chimney, is lost in the deep shadows of the pond shore, or sparkles
in the spray of the waterfall. With a painter's eye and a poet's
335 
JANUARY.
soul, he drinks in these sights, and involuntarily thanks God for
his lot, and pities the poor inhabitants of cities, condemned to pass
their lives within brick walls, and shut out except for a few brief
days in the stated summer vacation from the feast daily spread
before him.
You will say, " How absurd a picture is this! to find a farmer
earnest and enthusiastic, poet, artist, and naturalist, is as rare, as
impossible, as to invent perpetual motion." I grant it is rare; but
by no means impossible.
We have several senses, sources of pleasure or pain; of these,
sight and hearing are the two most valued, and productive of most
pleasure. Suppose a man possessed of all these senses to put out
his eyes.  In horror you ask his reason for the act.  "Oh," he
says, "the dust gets into them, the sun dazzles them; and besides
I was near-sighted, and could not see half so much as you, and I
never thought half a loaf better than no bread."
Or suppose him for the same reason to tie a bandage over his
eyes, and keep it there the greater part of the time; his eyes
would soon grow weak; he would lose his sense of color, and his
discrimination of form. You meet him at a time when the bandage is removed, and congratulate him on the enjoyment he must
receive from the beauties of nature. He peevishly asks, What
beauties? for his part all things are alike, the annoying sun makes
such a dazzle,'tis hard work to keep his eyes open; every thing is
green, and one thing so like another that there is no variety worth
looking for. You reason and remonstrate, point out the difference
between things as he sees them and as they really are, perhaps tell
him it is because his eyes are weakened that he does not see as
you see. He listens with a tired patience, and says in conclusion,
It is very well for you to say so, but he can't see it as you do, and
if a man isn't to believe his own eyes, what can he believe? You
would leave such a man in disgust; and perhaps you are now
thinking me tedious and foolish for putting the absurd case,-and
yet it is possible that you are that blindfolded man.
You read these accounts of what farmers may see, hear, and
know, and you call it all twaddle and nonsense.   You  "know
better;" you've farmed it all your life, and know'tis hard work
336 
ORCHARD AND FAR3.
and lots of it, and little profit in it, and a dog's life, and kills the
women folks, and makes all hands too glad to go to bed at dark to
stay up and admire Venus, and the comet or the moon, or to read
and think. City people and rich folks may go about the country
and see what they call beauty, but for your part you don't believe
in it. Trees are sort of pretty, and you don't know but'tis well
enough for the women folks to have a few flowers in the front
yard, but you've something else to do. You don't see any beauty
in having to get up early and milk, -maybe it is as I say, but
you don't see it,- and as for geology and botany, and all that, and
structure of the earth, that's book learning, and not for poor folks
like you. Chopping wood is hard work; you can't stop to count
rings, and if you should, how would you know that they really did
show how old the tree was? But I won't go on quoting from you.
You know it is all true as well as I, and you are blind and won't
see; you not only have put a bandage over your eyes, but you
won't let any one take it off. You know best, and if you can't
believe your own eyes, what can you believe?
Do you suppose that a nice sense of the beautiful is the common
property of man, and that you would have it as much as another,
if you were to have had it at all? The appreciation of the beautiful is the result of much self-culture added to natural quickness
of sight. My mind may be naturally more apt to learn some
things than is yours, but you can cultivate yours as I mine.  The
eyes of all are not alike, and yet education brings every eye to see
those things it wishes to see. Turn a city laborer into the woods,
where he must get his living by hunting, and defend himself
against savage men and beasts, and his eye, hitherto ignorant of
woods and woodcraft, will become in time so acute that he will follow a trail for miles through the primeval forest, and know whether
it was made by man or beast, how many have travelled it, and
whether fast or slow. Early education makes a great difference
in this, and some men are more acute and will learn these signs
more easily than others, but all can and will learn them under necessity.  So the sailor sees objects barely visible on the distant
horizon, and discriminates between the spouting of a whale and
the sail of a vessel, knows a ship from a barque, a schooner from
29
337' 
JANUARY.
a brig, will tell you whether a ship under bare poles is a merchantman or a man-of-war,- all at a distance where you and I, landsmen, can scarcely see any thing without a glass. Yet if we wish
to learn this, we shall.
Those who are most remarkable for their love and appreciation
of beautiful things, make them their constant study, seek them out
whether near or distant, compare one with another, note their excellencies, and use each new object as an aid toward understanding
and enjoying others.
When you commenced farming you knew but little about cows,
horses, stock of any kind; you went to cattle-shows, examined your
neighbor's stock, looked for points of excellence; and have finally
educated your eye so that you are a better judge of stock than
your neighbors, and thus make your stock more profitable than
theirs. Precisely in the same way can you educate and refine your
mind. By studying the beautiful, and inquiring into the mysteries
of nature, you will render yourself as much more tasteful than
your still slumbering neighbors, as your stock is more improved
than theirs; and the gain in this kind of development is immense.
Money at interest doubles in a fixed number of years, but the
wealth invested in the mind often doubles in days, and each day
opens new stores of pleasure and instruction. You are no mere
dweller on the earth's surface, but a confidant of Nature's myste ries, a growing man.
You  and I see at the railroad station a wonder-w6rking  and
queer looking machine of enormous power; we understand that by
fire, and water, and iron, its marvels are wrought, but we are un initiated, not at all acquainted with the life and workings of the
machine; its boiler and steam chest, valves, pumps, etc., are all
"unknown terms" to us, and  while we  admire the engine and its
results, we regret our ignorance of its mysteries. If some kind
engineer explains the wonderful machine, is patient with our ignor ance of principles and details, until we become fully possessed of
its theory and construction, what a revelation seems to be made!
It is no longer a strange and terrible beast of burden, but an ac quaintance. When it passes us, dragging its long train of' cars, we
no more feel inclined to do homage in blind reverence, but would
338 
ORCHARD AND FARM.I.
salute with the same earnest God-speed as though it were a great,
powerful, honest fellow, bravely laboring up the hill of life with his
load. We have learned something- principally a lesson about
our own ignorance; -a ray of light has gleamed into a hitherto
closed chamber of our minds, not only making us aware, with its
pleasant light and warmth, that we have such a chamber, but show ing us how empty and hung with cobwebs our mind is. We feel
that an unexplored field of discovery is opened to us, that we may
go on with the enthusiasm and promise of explorers; for it is the
privilege of learners not to stop with any one lesson, not to be de pendent on any instructor, however able, not to cease when the
limits of present knowledge are reached, but to go on and add to
that knowledge.
We cut down a tree to burn, a common thing, and of no great
consequence. What if the tree has been growing many years,
and is the result of vast natural processes? It is but a tree. The
sap begins to stir beneath a spring sun; we see the buds swell,
the flowers and leaves expand, the fruit mature: an every-day
thing, the natural result of the change of the seasons.   Study
the anatomy and physiology of the tree; humble your conceit
a little; do not think it beneath the dignity of a man, earning
money and carrying on a household, to be as a little child.
Look first at the little seed, swelling with heat and moisture; before you are aware, noiselessly, and yet exerting a prodigious
force, the tender little radicle, or first root, and the still more delicate plumule or first stem and leaf have burst the coats, which the
whole  mechanism  of the plant was  a year in  forming  for
them. The rootlet goes down into the ground, and the plumule
up into the air. Cut such a little plant into delicate slices, and
place a bit under a magnifying glass; you now see that it is full of
living cells, end to end, hardly stronger than water, and seeming
the most fragile of things. You are told this is vegetable tissue.
the principal constituent of all vegetation. A few weeks later cut
a section of another little plant, which has opened a few leaves;
on examining the section as before, you see mixed with the cells
small bundles of harder fibres; these you learn are woody fibres,
which, when compacted enough, make the solid trunks of trees. A
339 
JANUARY.
section taken still later in the season shows its centre full of what
you have long known as pith, surrounded by a minute ring of cells,
woody fibre, and cells again; these outer cells, on examination,
look different in shape and closer together than the inner ones; you
do not yet know why, and - forgetting the shame-faced unwillingness of the man to learn like a little child -you get a section of a
plant of two years' growth, and find in it two distinct rings around
the inner pith, and two distinct rings of outer cells, or what you
call bark.  The cells of the outer rings differ as before from the
inner, and resemble each other, only the outer of all has its cells
most closely bound together. A three year's old plant shows you
three rings of woody fibre, but two of outer cells; the two of last
year have become one, while there is still a young bark within.
The next spring you make a cut across the stem of one of these
plants, and find three layers of woody fibre as before, with another
layer almost woody, and nearly three layers of bark. In the fall
the same plant has four layers of wood, and only two of bark; you
now see that what was nearly woody in the spring is quite so now,
and what was nearly bark then is now quite bark, whilst the second
ring of the spring is lost in last year's bark. Now you believe that
ring of wood shows a year's growth, and you are excited to know
more.
Reading or investigation teaches you that in the early spring the
sap is taken up by the roots, sent up through the woody fibres into
the twigs, and thence into the leaves, where it is spread out to
ripen; and when ripened, is sent down to feed the growth of new
twigs, and nourish the cambium layer which makes new bark and
new wood. Farther study tells you that the wood and the new
roots alone contribute to the life of the tree, and that so far as this
is concerned, every ring but that of last year, might he removed
without affecting the vitality of the tree. Thus you get insight
into nature's operations; you see the life of the tree, - are taken
behind the veil. You can almost hear the trickling of the water
in the spring to the roots, - its gurgling as the sap runs up the
stem and down again into the wood and bark. You really believe
now that the leaves are the lungs of the tree, and that it is of no use
to manure your trees near the stem, but the manure must be put out
340 
ORCHARD AND FAR.I.
where the new roots are forming. The tree is no longer merely a
thing to bear fruit, give shade, or fuel; it is an organized being, with
the most wonderful and delicate mechanism, and as much the object
of the bounties and cares of Providence as are animals and men.
Insensibly you are led on to new researches; you no longer plant
your crops mechanically; you think how the buds and leaves of one
will differ from those of another; buds, tubers, seeds, all have a
new meaning for you.  You no longer look on the rain and sunshine as sent for the crops of yourself and other men, but comprehend that God kindly allows you to understand and take advantage
of his mysteries, and that the real work of the season is done by
the wind, the rain, the sunshine, and the organs of the plants; that
all your powers and efforts are weak and useless, compared to
these; and you begin to go about your work more reverently.
You read how stones decay, form soils, and feed plants, and you
wonder that rough, hard stones, can be taken up into the delicate cells
you have seen under the microscope; so you are led to consider the
different stones, how some are more easily dissolved than others, and
to wonder if these are not the ones used by plants. Inquiry shows
that they are; then you wonder whether the supply is equal to the
possible future demand. You begin to read about the rocks, and are
led on into their history, and into that of the formation of the
earth's crust, into accounts of the kinds of stones, the way they lie
as respects each other. Your mind is rapidly growing. When
next you plough, you put the share in deep, to bring up more of
these stony particles to the roots of the crops; you hoe with some
understanding, and it is no longer dusty, dirty work, but an aid to
nature's laboratory process; you are stirring the soil to break up
stones and clods, and set free their particles, to open them to the
dissolving power of rain and the life developing influence of the
sun.
Perhaps you meet some  day a man with a curious stone in his
ha    nd; y    o     u look at it, and say, " Oh! yes, shells!" he looks at you
with surprise, and asks if you know about them; half ashamed, you
say,  "Well, no; but then, I've always seen them."  Hle tells you,
pointing with his finger, these are shells, those ferns, those corals;
he         shows you a    Trilobite, and explains that it was the earliest ani
29*
341 
JANUARY.
mal of its kind ever introduced into the world. He points you to
the river bed with its bold sides, where the waters have cut their
way through the solid rock, a hundred feet deep, two hundred wide,
e
and carries you, half against your will, to the stream. You know
well the Hemlocks and Arbor Vites, which fringe the bank from
its top to the water's edge; you have hunted and fished among
them many a time in your boyhood; - he lifts a layer of moss,
and shows you the bare rock as full of shells, ferns, and corals,
as the piece which first attracted you in his hands.  With a
few words he carries you back through the long path of ages,
and shows you the earth as a sea, full of creeping and swimming things, that died, and were buried under sand or clay, and
turned at last, into stone, and so have been kept imperishable till
to-day, for you and him to study and decipher. Thus another page
of the book of nature is opened to you, and you grow excited. He
finds you a willing listener, and tells you how in that world of
waters, convulsions of the globe formed dry land, on which grew
trees of gigantic size, and of species now unknown, or only represented by dwarfed vegetation; how they were buried in the earth;
and, as they grew by absorbing sunshine, so now they are dug up
as coal, to return in the fires of wintry climates, the condensed sunbeams of ages so long passed away, that the interval can hardly be
numbered in years. He leaves you delighted, astonished, eager for
more such knowledge.
Now you believe that you have had a bandage over your eyes,
that you had at best but half your eyesight, and you no longer
answer to one who tells you of nature's wonders and beauties, that
you can't see them, and therefore don't believe in their existence.
Remembering how blind you were, you are cautious. Still you
say,-openly or to yourself, -  This is all true and wonderful, and a
good thing to know, because it enables one to get his living more
easily and understandingly; and besides, such knowledge does expand the mind, and make one more of a man, and thus place him
higher in the esteem of his neighbors; it is practical and useful;
but the time spent over beauty and art, and looking at the
landscape, is wasted; such employment can only be justifiable in
men of great wealth and ample leisure. In fact you feel fortified
342 
ORCHARD AND FARM.
in this position by your recent discovery of the things to be learned.
They are so many that you want for the farther study of them every
moment of that time, which you have discovered since you cared
to look for it can be given even by the hard-worked farmer,
during which you can manage to keep awake, though you once felt
quite too weary to do any thing but sleep after supper; and if your
work takes up all the daylight, and your scientific studies all the
time you can spare from sleep, what remains for this star and landscape gazing, this fine idling.
Do not think that since the bandage was taken away you have
seen all that is to be seen. There is to be a wider range to your
vision. You have learned to admire and love things at which you
once sneered, have learned that they are for you as well as for the
rich and the men of leisure, and they have lightened your toil, and
given a new value to life. You have tasted the exquisite pleasure
of mental growth, and should be wiser than to think yourself
familiar with the full extent of this joy. Learn now that the
greater ease with which you get your living, the higher stand you
have taken in the estimation of your townsmen, since you began
these studies, is but a small part of their value, is, indeed, merely
an accessory of their value, which really lie in the degree of help
they give you in carrying out the law of mental and spiritual growth.
You have found out that the man who only does his work, eats
his allowance, and begets his children, is but one remove above the
brute; and even if he does this honestly and morally, you think him
entitled to no great credit for doing what is no more than what is his
duty. You are rising; but the wings have but just begun to grow,
which shall finally lift you high enough from the earth to see what
that word duty means. That word, among many other things, will
grow more full of meaning as you grow more full of understanding.
Believe me, that as much as you have gained by becoming a pupil
of those, at whom you once wondered or sneered, you may gain
just as much more, and of a far higher quality, by listening to the
lessons of beauty which Nature is ready to read to you and they to
expound.
This sense of the beautiful is not to be created, but only to be
cultivated in you; it exists in you already, and practical as you
343 
JANUARY.
consider yourself, it has much to do with your likings and dislikings; under another name, indeed, but with  an unmistakable
resemblance to the feeling which moves poets and artists.
You have in your stable two heifers; one straight-backed, with a
small head, fine neck, tapering limbs; the other high in the rump,
big-jointed, coarse-headed, clumsy limbed. One you call handsome,
the other homely. You like to look at the one, and dislike to look
at the other, entirely apart from their relative qualities as a matter
of profit. One of your yokes of oxen is sprightly and well-formed,
with small heads, small and shapely horns; the other is awkward,
heavy-headed, and large-limbed. Again you pronounce one yoke
handsome; the other you say are "monstrous fellows to work, but
homely," and you "rather hate" to drive them yourself; you send
a hired man or boy with them, and work the others yourself. Your
mind insensible to beauty? By no means.
As you drive up to your own home, the evening sun is gilding
the tassels of your corn, is caught like a cobweb in the branches
of the old Elm which shades the door, gives a new charm to the
meadow behind the barn, is full of swallows flitting to and fro, and
you say "handsome enough for a picture."  Handsome, is, perhaps,
your only word for such things; you know it means something
about appearances, or, as you term it, "looks;" and you say'tis all
well enough to have things look well and be handsome, if it doesn't
cost more, and doesn't take time that belongs to other things.
You cannot be indifferent to beauty, for the nature, which your
Maker implanted in you to enjoy the world, which he has made
beautiful, because he loves the beautiful, will assert itself. And
now assuming you to be in earnest to develope the nature he has
given, you will look about to find how the beautiful may be cultivated without interfering with the practical.
As you feel yourself greater, and life grander, because of this
study and insight into the natural sciences, so will you become beautiful and refined; so will your home be calmer and holier, your
work nobler and more elevating, from constantly cherishing and
studying nature's beauty. And in time you will feel artistic beauty,
for all true art rests on natural beauty, and presupposes an acquaintance with it i is great only so far as it is true to nature. So we
344 
ORCHARD AND FARM.
must know nature before we can enjoy art, and then, when our enjoyment is at the height, we shall feel that nature is as much above
and beyond art, as it is the manifestation of a greater artist.
I have talked to you as if you went along with me; I have tried
to show you how our natures may be opened and developed, and
how our occupation more than any other, affords a wide field for
pleasure and improvement. We have seen that the better the influences about a man, the better can he do his duty. I have faintly
indicated what that duty is. If, for one year, you will follow out
this plan, you will be so strengthened, instructed, and delighted, that
your motto ever after will be, "Onward!"
The farmer is like a fallow field, turned out to be benefited by
the elements.  Every thing about is favorable; no envious walls between him and the sun, the wind, and the rain, to shut out the exhilarating winds of winter, the delicious zephyrs of spring; to blind
him to the rich colors with which the world is painted; to dull his
eye to the variety, grace, symmetry, grandeur of the forms of creation;- and yet he obstinately refuses to look upon the earth as
any thing but a workshop, where, with difficulty and much toil, he
may earn a meagre support. Talk to him of knowledge, science,
beauty he shakes his heavy head and says: "Get up at sunrise and
go to bed at sunset,- no time for that." He will open his shell
like an oyster, to eat and drink, but attempt to show him how much
more there is in life, and he shuts it up tight again.
Farmers are discontented, when they have every thing to make
them contented. Remember that the purpose of your lives is to
develop your mental and moral natures, whilst you get your living,
and that this is your duty, as it is the duty of all men; that for the
secondary object of getting a living, your chance is as good or better,
than the average; while for the primary objects of life, your
chances are far the best, if you will seize and improve the opportunities held out to you. God and Nature are your next neighbors.
You can grow food and clothes, and cultivate your mind, and fit
yourself for the real life to come, without the help of those men
and neighbors engaged in other pursuits, while they are dependent
on each other and on you. If you choose, you can have the pleasantest homes, the most beautiful farms, the best schools, the bright
345 
JANUARY.
est children, the purest morals, the most satisfactory lives; and,
striking the average of the years, your drawbacks and discomforts
are mere trifles not worthy of notice.
Assuming that you purpose to be "improved" farmers, I will
next show how such farmers get larger and better crops than their
ignorant and prejudiced neighbors.
VIEW IN THE GROUN         DS OF J. WILEY EDMANDS, NEWTON CENTRB.
346
An  2   -I= 
CHAPTER XLII.
GREENHOUSE.
repetition of former directions, for now that
winter has come with all its rigor, there
needs nothing but care and watchfulness.
During clear days, the  sun will heat the
house immoderately, unless ventilation is constantly maintained, and this, too, when the cold
winds have kept the thermometer at zero outdays.   Remember that you must keep your
healthy, and allow no check or chill, but must
~         j
not, on account of excessive cold without, overheat within; at
night allow the thermometer to go to the lowest limit hitherto given
for the different species of plants now in active growth, and on
cloudy days raise the temperature but little over the night heat.
Such treatment will make the plants stocky and vigorous, and insure a rich reward at flowering time.
Remember that now all the bulbs are to be brought near the glass
for direct light, and that sunlight is good for every plant. Pans of
seed should be sowed, and cuttings made, and the pans set where
they will get bottom heat.  As the bulbs grow, and show indications of flower stems, give more water. Some of them which you
know blossom in their native lands, in swamps, or during the rainy
season, should stand in saucers filled with water.
Japan Lilies, Achemines, Gloxinias, Fuchsias, Cinerarias, Stephanotus, Alamandia, Pansies, Dielytra, Roses, Verbenas should be repotted; Monthly Carnations, which have outgrown their pots need
larger.  Azaleas as they grow, may receive more water; early
Pelargoniums should receive a final shift, and be pruned well to
make them stocky.
347
of-doors for many
plants growing and 
FEBRUARY.
I have, as may be seen by turning back, given the treatment
proper for all the cuttings, seedlings, etc., which you need make for
several months, and to these directions you should now refer. Besides this, read all books upon the treatment of different families,
to which you have access, and thoroughly acquaint yourself with
their natural history and habits. By so doing you will not only become a more successful cultivator, but will acquire a large and entertaining stock of information.
I spoke last month, of commencing hotbeds as a work to be undertaken about this time, and will now give directions for making them.
HOTBEDS. -They are of many kinds, and heated in various ways.
Where not a large surface is to be covered with them, the easiest
plan is to use rank manure, which, by its fermentation, gives out a
large amount of heat. As this is the oldest and cheapest method,
I have no doubt it will continue to be generally practised, to the exclusion of all other methods, but, as I shall show, it is not the best.
Market gardeners, who depend upon the earliest crops to obtain
the largest prices, will have begun their new hotbeds in January, and
will have carried some through December; but this would be a very
foolish course for us. Had we been very desirous of early salads,
we could have grown a few in some of our glass houses; to go to all
the trouble of hotbed culture for them, would not be good economy. It needs the greatest care and judgment to carry hotbeds
well through such a month as February, when the thermometer is
sometimes at zero for days together, and when the seedling plants
from beds prepared in January, are just in the state to be quite destroyed by a moment's carelessness. I therefore, recommend you
to prepare your hotbeds during the last of this month, and have
them ready for planting early in March. We have two months of
virtual winter after this, and but little outside culture can be undertaken before the first of May.
Hotbeds are usually made of about the following proportions,
the length of the range varying to suit the kind of plants you propose to grow, or the amount of glass you use; the bed should be 5
feet wide, and be divided into lights or frames 3 feet wide; the
sides of the frames are to be of 12 or 2 inch plank, as high again
348 
GREENHOUSE.
above the surface behind as in front. Dig a trench 6 inches larger
every way, than the inside of the frame, and 1 foot deep; spike
the planks firmly to 2 x 4 joists, which are to be cut as long as the
entire depth of the frame, which depends on the plants to be forced
in it; Cucumbers, Salads, Flower-seeds, needing only shallow
frames, whilst Asparagus, Tomatoes, and similar tall plants, need
something deeper. For the former class of plants, the frame should
be 18 inches to 2 feet in the back, and 9 inches to 1 foot in front;
larger plants need 3 feet in the back, and 18 inches in front. But
where it is necessary to use the same frame for all kinds of plants,
another expedient may be resorted to; make a frame of the ordinary size, and another which will just fit on to the first, covering it
exactly; it may be held in place by bolts or bands. When the
plants have grown so as to fill the first frame, take off the sashes,
and, placing the second over the first, put the sashes on the upper
frame; thus you will get all the additional depth desired.
The front plank should be 2 inch lower than the outside of the
frame, to allow the sashes to slide; and the end planks should be
rebated from 1 to 12 inches, to leave a place for the same purpose;
mortise into the top and bottom sash, 3 feet from each end of a 9 feet
frame, crossbars, 3 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, into which, on
each side, a groove or rebate has been made, corresponding to the
groove in the end plank, into which the sash is to slide; over every
joint, where planks, etc., come together, nail, or screw strips to ex clude any air that might otherwise creep in. This done, prepare
the sash, which is to be made like the sash of a greenhouse, -3
lights wide for a sash 3 feet wide. The glass is not set as in a
window, where each light starts from, and ends in, a properly pre pared piece of wood; the sash is divided into 3 equal parts, which
are separated from each other by two transverse bars, grooved like
an ordinary sash, to receive the glass; the lower pane of glass is
put in first, the next laps dver it, like a shingle, I inch, the next
over that. When the glass is firstrate, it is not necessary to lay
any putty between the panes at these joints, but with ordinary glass,
the joints will not be tight, and must be filled in with putty. Of
course, glass thus laid, sheds rain like the roof of a house.
The frame and sashes ready, begin to make the hotbed. lMy
30
349 
directions were to dig a trench 6 inches larger in every direction
than the frame, and 1 foot deep, which will carry the bed 1 foot
into the ground. Some cultivators prefer to have the whole above
the surface, because they think it then easier to regulate the heat.
Ours, however, is sunk 1 foot.
Drive down at the four corners 3 x 4 joists, and spike to their
outer sides 2 inch plank, as for the cold pit; this framework is to
be brought up nearly flush with the top of the ground, and to be
just the size of the frame previously made. Set the frame on to
the foundation, where it may be kept in place either by screwing
down a few cross strips, or by its own weight. Now fill into the
bed 2 feet deep of strong manure, unfermented; -a mixture of
litter soaked in the urine of cattle and horse droppings;- lay this
in, shaking it well and beating it with the fork, but not treading it;
fill the bed 3 to 6 inches higher than it is to stand, -it will settle
that much in the course of a week or two,- and pack it in higher
behind than in front, so that the top of the finished bed will have
the same slope as the sash. Lay over the manure 3 to 6 inches
of the best light loam to be had, which should be taken from one
of the heaps made for this purpose last year from lime, leaves, and
sods. Such heaps should be covered up all winter to prevent their
freezing solid; a slight freezing is beneficial, as it kills the eggs
and larvae of insects and the seeds of many weeds, but it is better
not to let it freeze at all, than to have it solid and unmanageable.
Your bed is now ready for the sashes. When they are in place,
surround the bed as high as the sashes with seaweed, leaves, or
coarse litter; this is called a lining. Later, as the heat of the
fermenting manure reduces in intensity, this lining must be replaced with strong manure to keep up the proper temperature.
In a few days the manure will begin to ferment, and will give out
an immense amount of hot, ammoniacal gas and steam; so hot
often as to burn the vitality out of the loam above the manure,
and totally destroy the tender roots of young plants. To avoid
this it is well to sow the seeds in small pots, which are plunged
into the earth up to their rims; as the heat grows more intense,
these may be withdrawn a little every day, just enough to save
them from being burned; as the heat moderates, allow them to
350
FEBRUARY. 
GREENHOUSE.
settle back into the earth. At the same time sow in the mould
the seeds of such plants as you intend to cultivate.
It is always quite easy to ascertain proximately the heat of the
beds by thrusting down pointed sticks into the manure, and after a
short time withdrawing them; the degree of heat which their
points indicate to the touch, will show how safe it is to sow seeds.
It is a good plan to have two beds, the second rather larger and
deeper than the first, and made later; into the second may be
transplanted, or, as it is technically termed, "pricked out," the seedling plants which have been started in the first bed. If there then
is but one bed, the seeds which have germinated in the pans are to
be pricked out into it.
Should the heat threaten to be too great, thrust large, round
stakes down to the very bottom of the bed, and then withdraw
them; the holes left will act like smoke-jacks, and will carry off
into the upper air of the bed considerable of the heat, which may
be discharged into the open air by raising the sashes. The heat
will soon abate, and this, too, at a time when perhaps it is most
wanted, when the outer air is intensely cold, while within the
frame the young plants are just expanding their second leaves.
Until several leaves are open you must keep the heat well up, and
ventilate constantly, but moderately; afterwards more air may be
admitted, and pains be taken to harden the plants as much as
possible. It is important in the hotbed as in the greenhouse to
prevent the direct access of decidedly cold air to the tender foliage.
To admit air within a frame to which the sashes are not confined
by strips of wood, you raise the sash at the back; but when this is
done, cold air would rush in and cool the frame too rapidly; so
nail blocks of wood to the back of the frame A, at b, also screw or
nail a ratchet pierced with
holes, c, to one side of the
frame; nail to the top of the
1 b   L  o     w                  sash at the back an old mat,
e, which may hang down
A   1       l    ~over the opening  into  the
frame, and being kept by the
~-BeTh... ____               _   +f~block b, from clinging to it,
351 
FEBRUARY.
and thus shutting out air, will temper and retard the current as it
enters, and thus give it time to mix with the warm air within, and
lose its dangerous qualities. The sash is kept up by thrusting
through one of the holes in the ratchet an iron pin, which will pass
under the sash and give it sufficient support. When more air is
wanted than can be supplied by the opening allowed by the ratchet,
slide the sash down the frame or remove it entirely.
The strong manure which I have said should be substituted for
the "lining" of leaves, as the manure ceases to ferment and furnish sufficient heat, is to be thatched on its outside, or be covered
with boards to keep the heat from escaping into the air or being
reduced by rain and snow.
When Cucumbers or Melons are to be forced in such beds, it is
usual to start them on bits of sod laid into the loam, grass side
down; if they are afterwards to be grown in the open air, these
sods are removed thither as soon as the plants are well grown
and the external temperature permits; but if they are to be forced
in beds they are removed as soon as they begin to run, to a fresh
hotbed, where to prevent injury from heat, they are at first planted
on mounds of earth (see cut); the earth is filled in level with the
mounds as soon as the heat abates. On these mounds, the vines
are set as in the figure, the
top of the mound being within
----------... 4 or 6 inches of the glass.
-i ~-I —-  2The  vines  do  not increase
much vertically, but they run,
...... —.. and as their growth is the bet                                    ter the nearer they are to the
glass, they should be properly placed at starting.
The second story which is added to the bed when the second
frame, already described, is put on, gives room enough for Tomatoes and other tall plants.
Asparagus may be forced in frames so as to be very early.
The manure pit is to be made 3 feet deep, and at least 6 inches of
earth laid over it; into the earth set the roots, covering the crowns
2 inches. The plants should be from I to 3 years old, and should
be set as follows: at one end make a small ridge of earth, 4 inches
352 
GREENHOUSE.
high; along it set the plants as close as possible without crowding
top and roots; cover the roots with a little earth, and set the next
row, and thus continue till the bed is full; then cover the crowns
with 2 inches of rich loam. After the sashes are put on, examine
the manure daily, as directed to ascertain its heat; overheating at
the beginning of forcing will kill the roots. For cooling the ma nure, proceed as already described. Be very careful in cutting
the shoots not to injure the crown or the roots, either of the plant
you cut, or of its neighbors. No culture is easier or more satisfac tory than this. WVhen Asparagus is to be winter forced, the roots
should be moved in the fall, to dry sand in the cellar, where they
may be kept dormant till you wish to use them.
This, then, is the common and the cheapest way of heating beds,
but as you see it is very uncertain, and not only needs constant
care, but may at any time result in disappointment.
From the temporary character of the frames, and the necessity
of having the manure all below the bed, whence it can be removed
only when the bed is abandoned for the season, it is obvious that
when once it has ceased to give out heat, its uses are over, except as
food for the roots of plants.  Again, the "linings" are outside and
above the surface, consequently, even when they are well covered,
much of their heat must be wasted by escaping into the air. Finally,
the heat when obtained, cannot be well controlled, but is now so
much too great as to endanger the plants; and presently so slight
that tender plants are liable to damp off.
No better heating material for temporary uses can be found, as for
instance in making a bed in which to strike cuttings or germinate
seeds, which need bottom heat in moderate weather, and which, when
once they have fairly begun to grow, need no more extra heat, but
are to be potted or transplanted to the open border.
The temporary character of the bed and the exposure of the lining may be obviated by pits made with vaulted brick bottoms,
which can be more or less heated by linings external to the frames
but under the surface of the ground.  A frame made after the manner of the Cold Conservative Pit answers well for this purpose, if
we add a dungbed in which to get immediate heat, and where seeds,
30*
353
V-7
:1
Fv 
FEBRUARY.
etc., may be planted. The pit shown in the cut is one of the very
~,~~~     ~best if manure is to be the
means  of  generating  heat.
~-<tg~~ A  <A is the interior of the pit,
c m    f~f  e ij~a  Jand the space between,f, f,
_v-< l~j X~~~m/C X   a holds the loam  for cultural
purposes.   The pit A  is 5
feet in breadth; allow 16
inches for side walls =  6 feet 4 inches, add to this 2 feet for the
space h, which holds the manure = — 8 feet 4 inches, and 9 inches
brick walls. The whole space will be 9 feet 10 inches wide. Dig
this whole space 3 feet deep; build the walls c, 9 inches thick;
and the front wall 3 feet 6 inches high; back wall 5 feet high.
Mlark off 2 feet inside each wall, and carry up on brick piers the
walls d, 8 inches thick, on piers 2 feet apart. The full height of
the back wall is 6 feet 6 inches; of this 3 feet 6 inches, is open,
and supported on brick piers; the front wall is 5 feet high, of which
2 feet is solid.
The space B is now enclosed on each side by a row of iron
or stone posts which support the bottom, e, of the pit. From e,
and resting on these piers, carry up on each side 2- inch brick
walls, f,f, to a convenient height; at the top of these walls carry
over tiles to cover the space between f and d; this will leave a
hot-air chamber between d d, and the piers which support d; cover
the top of these piers with tiles, slabs, or planks, which will make
the floor e; on top of the walls d, lay the sashes as for a wooden
frame; cover the tops of the openings h, h, in each side of the pit
between c and d with a lid fastened into the walls d. This space h is
to be filled with closely packed fresh manure, shown in the cut;
there will always be anl air-space between d and f, and under the floor
e, through B; and through these air-spaces there will be a constant
circulation of air, and the bed may be kept as warm as you please.
Whenever the heat is too little, a part or the whole of the lining
may be withdrawn, and its place supplied with fresh. Being under
ground, covered with a substantial cover, and enclosed by brick
walls, there can be little or no loss of heat.
354 
GREENHOUSE.
The floor, e, of the pit may slant like the sash, or be level,
though the top of the earth when filled in must slant like the
sash.
This pit, which is taken from the "Book of the Garden," and
Loudon's Enclycopedia of Gardening, is undoubtedly the best for
manure heat, but is sometimes objected to as taking a very large
amount of manure, and not giving so quick heat as the common
bed; but this is more than equalized by the facility with which
liinings may be removed and added, and by the complete protection
of the plants from any danger of being burned. Should the location of the bed be at all wet, underdrain with tiles. It will add to
the permanent efficiency of this frame to line the inside with rough
mortar.
HOTBEDS HEATED BY WATER OR STEAM. -It is strange that
the best cultivators should continue using even these improved
dung pits, which, at the best, are troublesome and expensive, and
uncertain in their heat, when they have at hand heating apparatus
vastly better for the purpose. The second step in heating horticultural buildings was the use of hot air; a furnace being placed in
one end of a building, the chimney at the other; the two were connected by a flue, which carried the fire and smoke, and of course
grew hot, and gave out a great deal of heat.  This was, for a long,
time, the only way of heating large glass-houses, and even  now a
slight improvement on it, known as the Polomaise, is much advocated and used.  Such apparatus is better than to rely on heat
from dung and sun, but it is not the best, and there are grave objections to it; the bursting of flues, dryness of air, and what is
more important, the constant leakage of gas through the chinks
into the house; almost all gases from fire are injurious to
plants, and those from the burning of coal are particularly hurtful.
Seeing that apart from its disadvantages it was difficult to apply
this cumbersome apparatus to hotbeds, cultivators naturally preferred
for them the old manure plan, for which they moreover claimed the
advantage of supplying ammoniacal gases.
Unquestionably these gases are good for plants, but it is not
355 
FEBRUARY.
necessary to resort to unsightly manure-pits to get them.   Pans of
dissolved guano, of sulphate of ammonia, or of urine, set in hotbeds, or on the flues of greenhouses, will give all that is needed of
such gas. And this can be done with the- later invented and vastly
superior apparatus for water and steam, where the pipes occupy
but little room, rarely get out of order, and of course can discharge
no noxious gases into the house. The wonder is that any other
apparatus has been used, since they appeared, for although their
first cost is greater, their greater durability makes up the difference,
and they do the work much better. Pits heated by water or steam,
or by both together, are so much simpler to manage, and so much
more efficient than those just described, as to scarcely admit of
comparison. The air from these pipes is never so dry and burned
as that from hot-air furnaces, and by a further improvement (tanks
or troughs) all dryness is removed and much warmed moisture
thrown into the air of the house.
I have several times, in the different months, given directions for
setting pans of water- pure or otherwise - upon the hot-air flues
to evaporate, and both warm and moisten the air. This leads at
once to the idea of making tanks of heated water do all the heating
for a house by their evaporation. On a large scale they would
give off a great deal of moisture, sometimes too much. We may
regulate this by reducing the number of tanks, and supplying the
place of those removed by hot pipes carrying air, steam, or water:
thus a, a, a, are such pipes carried through gutters or troughs of
water. These gutters may vary in breadth and depth as we please,
a 1. — -Ia
and thus we may have entire control both of the heat and the
moisture.
I now propose to give a plan of a hotbed, to be warmed with
water, and unquestionably superior to any hot-air or dung-heated
bed' ever used. The range may be as long as you please. The
bed is figured in McIntosh's "Book of the Garden," p. 442, whence
I also take the description. It combines in the best way top and
356 
GREENHOUSE.
bottom heat, with the    -                       A
humidity requisite for   ~
such structures. 
"Fig. A is a section  
of the pit supposed to          _        -
be built entirely above                                           \ 
the ground level; the    \<           \'w \\X,  kb
walls are hollow, and.
built of brick on edge,
to economize material."
As this pit is planned for England, where the weather is milder
than here, it will be well for us to build thicker walls, by setting
the bricks flat.
"Fig. B is the groundplan, a b marking the sectional line.   The  details
are as follows: Under each
rafter is carried up hollow
pillars c, c, c, c, projecting
only four inches within the
pit, and having no communication with the general
cavities in the side walls.
In these a cavity is left at
the top and bottom; along
the  centre of   the pit a
flue of brick in bed d is
-4~~~2
B
mI
I
I
d
l m    1
carried 2 feet wide, and 1' in depth, with openings in its bottom,
e, corresponding with those in the pillars along the front of the
pit, and also with those in the back; the openings in the latter
being just below the levels of the tops of those in front. These
openings are all to be connected by flues or tile-drains; the hotwater pipes are to be laid along the centre, as shown in the plan
and section, but somewhat elevated above the floor on which they
are placed, and covered over about 9 inches above their upper surfatce, with slate slabs, three-fourths of an inch thick. The communicating openings between the flue in which the pipes are laid and
357
c 
FEBRUARY.
the hollow pillars of the back wall, should be 3 inches below the
top of the said flue, to act as chambers to retain heated air. The
boiler is to be placed at one end of the pit, unless the pit is so situated as to be heated from a boiler adjoining; the space J; between the hot-water pipe flue and the back wall, are to be made
solid with earth and rubbish, so as to form a good foundation for
the connecting openings or flues to be laid on top of them."
"In this climate, and to economize heat, it would be better, instead of filling this space with rubbish for a foundation, to carry
through it, in solid brick-work, the chimney flue from the boiler;
the smoke, etc., would heat it thoroughly, and go far toward warming the pit in an economical manner."
"The space between this flue and the front wall should be filled
with hard, dry, open materials.
"In fitting this pit for the reception of plants, the space between
the hot-water pipe flue, and the front wall of the pit, as well as the
whole surface over the flue, should be covered, as shown in the section, with stones, brickbats, or coarse gravel, to the depth of not less
than 12 inches.
"Over this, if for Melons and Cucumbers, is to be placed a layer
of turf, with the green side undermost,-and over it the necessary
compost, h. If the pit is intended for Pines, or other plants in
pots, then gravel or coal ashes may be substituted."
"By this arrangement three things are attained, bottom heat, top
heat, with an atmosphere constantly moist, and finally a constant
circulation of air. Unless I am much mistaken, supposing the pit
to be 6 feet wide and 3 feet high at back, and 1' 3tt in front, above
the mould, the whole atmosphere of such a pit would pass through
the flue once in every two minutes, when the apparatus was in full
work, thus producing a constant and vigorous circulation; farther,
if it be desirable to change a portion of the air continually, small
apertures to the outward air may be made in the front descendingflues; a small portion of fresh air will then pour in continually,
mingling with the descending air, and ascending heated into the
pit, supplying the place of that which will escape through unputtied
laps and other crevices."
"The internal areas of the pilaster-flues should not be less than
358 
GREENHOUSE.
6 inches square, which they may be according to the proposed plan;
and the cross-flues and apertures into the pit must have the same
area. If it be found that, with this area, or apertures, the heat
produced by the pipes is brought up too rapidly, not having sufficient
bottom heat, and overheating the top, these apertures may be
diminished. If they be too small, an inequality will arise between
the temperature of the back and front of the pit, caused by an excessive difference between the ascending and descending air; the
total heat brought up will be the same; for as the heat increases
the velocity with which the air will ascend will increase also. But
if an aperture of the size above recommended be employed, there
will not be two degrees difference between the front and back of
the pit. In order the better to disperse the ascending currents, it
may be well that the aperture, instead of opening directly into the
pit, should have a semi-cylindrical draining-tile, placed in front of
it, to throw its draught right and left.  But this is an unnecessary
refinement; a pair of 4 inch pipes will be found sufficient for
Cucumbers, Melons, or Pines, in a 6 feet pit."
You remember that these two pipes are to be laid in a chamber
just above the floor; the only drawback to the perfect action of
this arrangement is, that the air is liable to lack the great moisture
needed in a pit; by enclosing a portion or the whole of the pipes
in gutters or troughs, as previously shown, to be kept full of water,
moisture will be supplied in abundance. These troughs may connect directly with the pipes, and thus ensure their being constantly
full.
"Should the temperature afforded by 2 four-inch pipes be insufficient, 4 may be used, but if a nozzle-pipe were attached to the
boiler, and the entire flue in which the pipes are enclosed were
made water-tight, and used for a tank, an ample supply of both
heat and moisture would be afforded."
There are some apparent but unreal objections made to this plan
by McIntosh, and afterwards refuted by himself, which I shall not
quote, but shall leave it with his further endorsement; viz., that
experience has proved this to be a very superior pit.
* "Pits might to a very considerable extent be heated on the tank
* "Book of Garden," p. 450.
359
0 
FEBRUARY.
system, at little expense, if arranged as shown in the cut. Figs.
A and B are ground plans and sections of such a set of pits; they
show how a large range of pits may be heated by a single fire in
a very economical manner. The ground plan is intended to represent four distinct pits, each 50 feet in length, and 6 feet wide in
A                     the clear; the boiler is
ifi ~.                      \     By.~m  ~~.,..,..~:,~} to be placed in the mid   ___''',''    _-_,~~      ~ A'"\\\\m[ die (dotted lines), at b,
\\\\\\\\\'    m\\\ W\,,\\l\m i\, or as better seen in sec,, xx   __ _____ 1-.                 tion B, with the stoke
. _A_____   X\A:.~i hole under the level of
~l'..i                                  -........~.~$...................:-  I- ~ the walk or passage be                                          tween them; the floors
are to be rendered per                                           fectly level and firm with
a coating  of  concrete,
l ~j:and afterwards covered
-' ~ |  Do      with cement over their
by__..  B _. )         whole  breadth, as  are
also the side walls to the
~!~'-.~f|~         height of 6 or 7 inches.
B~~i~           ~ Down the middle of each
tank under each pit, let
a line of bricks, set on edge, be placed, leaving the ones nearest
the extreme ends out; this will give a flow and return current, the
line of bricks forming the outer edge of each tank being kept 3
inches clear of the side walls, to prevent the loss of heat by absorption or otherwise; over the tanks thus formed, thick slate or
thin pavement is to be laid, and closely joined with cement, extending from back to front of pit. Apertures at every 5 or 6 feet
may be cut in them, to which iron or earthenware tubes may be
attached of 4 inches diameter, and furnished with stoppers, to be
taken out for the admission of moist heated air into the atmosphere
of the pit, and replaced wvhen that is not required. Cut C, a, tank;
b, pit; c c c, tubes of iron leading from tank to top of earth in pit,
and open air; these tubes would not only moisten and warm the air
360 
GREENHOUSE.
when opened, but would radiate heat into the earth around them at
all times.
C
a b                       a b b
"Similar provision should be made over the apertures a, between the outer edges of the tank and the side walls, to allow the
heated air in them free access to the pit, and as the air from such
openings is not over moist, the apertures may be left uncovered.
The back walls may be 3- feet high above the ground line, that is,
allowing 8 inches for depth of water and top covering, and 3 feet
10 inches from top of covering (of tank) to the glass.
"The front wall above the ground line should be 2 feet 6 inches
high. Circumstances will always direct this, as the height of pits
must be suited to the purposes for which they are intended. The
boiler will supply all or part (of the tanks), as may be required,
and this can be regulated by stop cocks placed in the pipes which
connect the boiler with the tanks, and these again can be subdivided
by sluices, as in the adjoining cut.
"By this means we should              -           \\      __....
heated by one fire, and for;,~
have~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: 1200'/' feetof srfac
the purpose of growing young  q — ---    -;:   f —          l
plants in pots, forcing French  G
Beans, Strawberries, Aspara-            \        Ho
gus, Salads, etc., such  pits
would  be  invaluable.   The, 
walls should be 9 inches thick ~                     /__
for durability, and also to re-    _.__. -.        _   ~ A d      x
tain heat and  exclude cold, 5/,~ 
and if they are built hollow                                -        )
so much the better, and the
31
361 
FEBRUARY
sashes of the best Yellow Pine timber; the glazing should be with
6 x 10 crown glass; to use larger glass in such structures would
be unnecessary. The roof may be on the ridge and furrow principle without much difference in the cost; the range should extend
from east to west, so as to present the frontage nearly to the meridian. To heat the greatest possible space at the least possible
expenditure of fuel and cost of erection, we think this the best of
all methods."
X is a house for Strawberries, heated
by hot-water or steam pipes; in the spring
and latter part of the year for Tomatoes,
Melons, etc., which are grown in pots; the
pots are set on shelves, which  are suspended by wires to the rafters, and may
upon occasion be unhooked and entirely
removed.
Y represents another pit, heated by both
hot-water pipes, a, and tanks, d.
There were many difficulties in growing
Melons by hot water or air, from the difficulty of imparting that amount of moisture
x,
/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~It
l/
to the roots so grateful to MIelons. You will see by the annexed
plan that there are valves (shown by the dotted lines) just above
the water pipes, and the mois-  E
ture may escape and ascend                        Y
to the outside air.  The tanks
are covered  as  usual with
slate slabs, over these is laid       — =~
rubble, and over that loam          I                           ~
for the plants.  Small pipes...            d.          0.~
or tubes go through this       loam-    A           mp _
to the rubble.  When  it is desirable to moisten the roots of the
plants, water is poured into the pipes, and is thus diffused through
the rubble and spread over the warm surface of the slates, where
it is converted into vapor, and thence ascends into the earth of
the pit; as the fruit arrives at maturity, this moisture can be withheld, and the fruit thus attain perfection.
362 
GREENHOUSE
We have thus followed all the improvements in hotbeds; and I
think it must be clear to every reader that he, who has any large
surface covered with hotbeds, can hardly afford to heat them by
the rude and unmanageable dungbed, when it is so very easy to
heat to any desired degree, in a clean and neat manner, by the use
of steam and hot water.
Roors. -I have not given any explanation of the niethod by
which steam and hot water are made to circulate, so as to diffuse
heat throughout and over a large surface; nor have I referred to
the great difference between hot air, hot water, and steam. Before
doing this I will say something about the glass roofs of hotbeds and
similar structures.  Thus  far we have supposed ourselves to be
using the ordinary flat sashes for hotbeds and for houses either
flat or curvilinear sashes.
There is another kind of glass roof which on the large scale is in
all respects superior to any other kind of sash, the ridge-and-furrow
roof. This is, as you will see, built according to the best principles of construction is applicable to both large and small surfaces. I should, however, prefer it only on the large scale, or for
hotbeds, as I think the other roofs about as efficient in this country and rather easier to manage; but to cover a large surface, the
ridge-and-furrow is best.
The original principle of all steep roofs is that embodied in the
child's card-house,-mutual support by leaning.  But 
as the material used for roofs is very heavy, another 
problem, beside that of sustaining them at the ridge
and holding them up at the eaves, must be calculated.
The mere support at the eaves may be got by setting posts under,
as in the cut, but these posts only hold up the per -'
pendicular weights over them, which is more or 
less, according to the pitch of the roof; the sharper
the pitch, the more the weight is brought over the
supporting posts; the flatter, the less over the posts;
and in all cases the weight not carried down to the
perpendicular posts, tends to fall in the direction of the slant of the
roof. This is called, technically, the thrust of the roof, and if not
363 
FEBRUARY.
prevented, this weight or thrust would press the tops of the supporting posts apart, till the ridge fell in (see cut). To hold the
posts together against the thrust, beams were
\__ _     ~carried across from the top of one to the other,
and to these the roof was securely attached; so
X     L     D   ~that whatever weight was not carried directly to
the perpendiculars might be so tightly hold to
these cross beams or "plates," as to be indirectly carried to the
perpendiculars. Of course this expedient is useless in very wide
buildings, for there no cross or tie beams can be long enough to
hold the posts together. In building with opaque walls, this difficulty is easily overcome by the introduction of inside walls, floors,
rooms, etc., and in churches and other large structures, by various
contrivances  of timber and masonry.    But  these, though well
enough where the roof is valuable only as a protection, are impossible when light and heat are to be admitted through the roof.
Thus a limit was set to the size of glass-houses; their number
might be increased indefinitely, but beyond a certain limit their
size could be increased only in the vertical direction, and in that
case the difficulty of heating set a new bound. By the device of
ridge-and-furrow roofs this difficulty was removed, and the means
of the proprietor are now the only limit to superficial extension;
and with all your plants under one roof, you may get much more
pleasure and profit from the same expenditure than when they are
divided between several houses.
This roof is simply the combination of several common pitched
roofs, which, but for the introduction of iron as a building material
could not have been done successfully and economically; for were
these many parts connected by timbers, the inside would be dark
and obstructed.
On the ends of an iron rod b, cut B, of the proper thickness, and
about two-thirds the length of the distance between the posts a, a,
screws are made; other rods c c, e e, d d, of proper length and thickness have screws on their ends, which enter into clasps made for the
purpose, where either two are screwed up at once, or each has its
own nut, and is screwed separately; 3 rods like c, b, c, which tie
the posts together, are tightened by a screw of this character. See
364 
GREENHOUSE.
C. b, b, are the hollow ends of a clasp screw, or nut on a large
a
B
~~~~~~~~~~~a 
scale, the ends b, b, are chambered, and have a female screw turned
on their inside, into which the ends a, a, of the rods are entered.
These ends have a screw made on them which will screw into the
C
I
ends b, b; the space between a, a (the ends of the rods), is open;
into this space a hand spike is entered, and by turning this, the whole
clasp turns, screwing on to the two rods at its opposite ends, and of
course drawing the two rods toward each other. This is a very
31*
v _
365
It 
FEBRUARY.
powerful apparatus, and enables the rods a, a, to be tightened at
will. Into the aperture between b and b the other rods may be
brought and tightened by nuts on their lower ends.
This is the principle followed in putting up a ridge-and-furrow
roof. The methods, the screws, clasps, etc., differ according to the
building and the architect. Thus we may extend our roofs as much
as we please, and yet bind them together tightly, cheaply, and even
ornamentally.  But at the same time, we seem to run into a new
difficulty, arising from the great quantity of water shed from these
many roofs, into their valleys, where there is no inclination to send
it off; there it would accumulate till its weight endangered the
whole house. This difficulty however, is met by making the columns, that support the roofs along the ends, and through the length
of the building, of hollow iron, and thereby economizing material,
without losing strength, and, at the same time, providing gutters by
which the water runs off from the valleys. A drain under the
bases of the columns, collects and carries off the water, either to
waste, or to a cistern, from which the water for the boilers, and the
other uses of the greenhouse is supplied.
Houses with this roof, have the further advantages of requiring
a less proportional amount of heat, of securing more light and
heat from the sun, and of resisting hail better than houses of the
same area, with an ordinary roof.
They can be thoroughly heated at a much less cost than a building of smaller area, which is higher in the centre, for as you increase
the height of a room, you increase the difficulty of maintaining a
proper temperature at the bottom, without over-heating the top; in
other words, the waste of heat is in proportion to the height of roof,
not to the area covered,
They secure more light and heat by having the same advantage
over an ordinary roof, where there is but one angle of inclination,
which I some time ago showed is a recommendation of the curvilinear roof; viz., that of presenting some surface at right angles to
the sun's rays, in whatever position he is in the heavens, and thus
admitting those rays, which, like the vertical rays of midsummer,
bring most heat with them. And, securing as these roofs do, the
366 
GREENHOUSE.
advantages of the curvilinear, they are more easily built, because
the choice of material is not limited as in the curvilinear, to that
which is pliable, and can be bent to the proper curve.
They resist hail better, because they make its blow glancing instead of square, for they receive it at an acute instead of an obtuse
or a right angle, in which position they would have much less power
of resistance.
Accumulations of snow are borne up by the strongest part of the
roof.  And if the principle be applied to an ordinary span-roof, as
shown in the cut, or even to a lean-to house, the roof will rather
facilitate, than obstruct the discharge of snow and rain, an important
~~~
1<
A
consideration in our climate. The cost of making span or lean-to
houses in this way, will be greater, but they would gain in every
other respect.
When a ridge-and-furrow is to be used horizontally, the valley
posts, and consequently the valleys, should be 20 feet apart; but
when applied to an ordinary house, this distance is to be determined
by the angle which we wish the sashes to present. The width should
be much greater than that of the ordinary sash; about that made
by leaning two ordinary sashes against each other at a good angle.
I have described these houses minutely, because, although they
are much admired and frequently built abroad, they are rarely seen
here. Their greatest value seems to lie in the ease with which they
367 
FEBRUARY.
allow large surfaces to be covered, and the reduced cost as compared
with any previous plan to effect the same thing.
Any small garden might be wholly covered in in this way, and, by
a little more expense and variety in the roofing, the effect would
be made more picturesque, and the facility in removing snow increased. Such a garden would be a real winter-garden. Parterres
of flowers, small trees, shrubs, and other plants, could be enclosed,
and the most beautiful combinations effected. Of course, this is
not a luxury for the poor, and cannot be accomplished at small expense, but any one who has the means to spend upon it can procure a more satisfactory result for the same amount of money, in
this way, than in any other. In a southern latitude, the cost of
maintaining such a garden, would be slight, as the sun's rays would
supply even more than heat enough, except in decidedly cold
weather, and during the sun's absence.
The ridge-and-furrow roof applied to hotbeds is very advantageous, and costs but little more than any other roof, while it is
very much better.
A__  ~    In the case of a pit 78 feet long and 7
God ~ ~A    ~ feet wide, an English gardener, who gives
dg~~ |   ~   ~the views of Sir Joseph Paxtoll, advises as
bfollows: "Cover the pit A with a ridge-and         i- LPi<furrow roof, making  the space from the
\\\ ~-I\    ~ground in front of the pit a, to the val e~\~ _~~  =3~  A= ley-rafter b, 3 feet 6 inches, and the back
wall below the rafter c, to d, 5 feet 6
inches. Divide the whole length into 4 compartments, for growing
different sorts of plants, by 42 inch brick walls.  Divide the whole
length of the ridge-and-furrow roofs into 12 bays, having ventilation in the angle of each- pediment, f, g." Now to get at the plants,
each light is hinged at the valley-rafter, and fastened with a thumb
button at the ridge-rafter. By referring to cut B, it will be seen
that the light or frame leaves the ridge-rafter in the direction of,
and lies flat upon, the next light at c. Each light may be opened
in this way so that the workmen may get at the pit. Each ridge
is formed of two lights, resting on the top sides, where they open
from each other, and secured at the lower sides by hinges, so that
368 
GREENHOUSE.
when it is necessary to give air, or to work in the interior of the
. ili~i' l l; if  I  
_."
pit, they can be tilted to any required height, or be thrown back
like the leaves of a book against the ridges on either side. In wet
weather these top lights can be kept quite closed, as an abundance
of air can be admitted at both the back and the front of the pit,
by means of triangular ventilators situated immediately under
each ridge. The water which falls on the pit is carried off in
gutters formed in the rafters upon which the lower sides of the roof
rest.  In Fig. B, a represents a light open, with the iron stay
pierced with holes to regulate the opening, and to which the lights
are secured by a bolt, which can be easily removed; f wooden
ventilator, closed; g; the same, open. Fig. D is a plan of rafter
under each pair of lights, with a concave centre to carry off water,
and small gutters, a a, on each side the               D
rafter, to carry off water of condensation.
Fig. E is the plan of a hinge. In the pit
figured above, all the work is carried on
from without, and consequently the plants,
etc., in the back of the pit are rather inaccessible; the plants to be forced are grown
upon b      eds  of f erm entin  g material, whilst
the pit is also used  to kee p plant s t hroughit
the winter, which stand upon a plank or
slate flooring.a
369 
FEBRUARY.
But increasing the size of the pit so as to introduce space for
entrance, and heating with hot water in tanks and pipes would be
[ _~~~       ~~a great improvement.  The
section of a pit so improved
is represented in the  cut.
In this there is head room
]  provided along the back of
the pit, by sinking a narrow
passage, a; and there is also
a tank, b b, for bottom heat,
and two 3 inch water pipes,
— c, between the tank and the
front wall, for atmospheric
heat, to be used  together
with the tank, or not, according to circumstances, that is, as dry or moist heat is required.
Under the tank Sea-kale or Rhubarb may be forced, or Mushrooms grown.
It would hardly be necessary to have the sashes themselves
movable, when the pediments may be lowered down, as through
the latter, being at opposite ends of the pit, any amount of air may
be introduced.  "Of course a pit made in this manner would require to be broader than that first described, and more expensive,
and would be unnecessary for simple forcing."
I have now presented all the best methods for the construction
of hotbeds.
The hotbeds upon our place are near the house-stable and the
greenhouse. The range is double, and heated by a boiler placed
in the middle, which warms tanks and pipes in the different beds.
Two of these beds are for the conservation of plants through the
winter, and are upon the plan described in October, in which fire heat is resorted to. As I said in the commencement of this notice
of hotbeds, we shall not begin culture till the first of March, as
that will give ample time for the growth of all the plants that we
wish to force. We shall begin a slow fire the last week in Feb ruary, so as thoroughly to warm the pits and the earth before
planting seeds and cuttings. When the dwelling-house is heated
370 
GREENHOUSE.
by steam, or has a kitchen-range with a hot-water back, a small
number of hotbeds placed near the house can be conveniently
heated by pipes from the house. Hotbeds seem a formidable care
to those who have never been accustomed to them, but they are in
reality simple and easily managed, the chief requirement being
watchfulness, to keep the temperature at the proper height.
371 
CHAPTER XLIII.
CONSERVATORY.
THE pleasure derived from this house continues unabated, and
the number of flowers is constantly increasing. After plants fairly
begin to grow, the development of leaves and flowers is usually very
rapid. Some of the orchids are now beginning to bloom, and their
strangely fantastic forms lend a weird charm to the whole interior.
Watch the plants carefully, to detect the earliest signs of thrips,
aphides, red spiders, and other insects, and be after them at once;
it will not do to delay at all, for their power of reproduction is
wonderfully great, and the sooner they are attacked the easier it
will be to exterminate them.
The intense cold of the outer air renders more
1               fire heat necessary now than hitherto.   Any
snow that falls upon the roof should be removed
as soon as possible, both to avoid the injury to
the glass from its freezing and thawing, and to
restore the light which it excludes. It will be
easily removed on the first bright day. For
~~2   Xthe warmth of the house, and of the sun, will
at the same time compact it, and loosen its hold
upon the glass, so that by starting it near the
eaves the whole mass will slide off together.
During the intensely cold days of this month
the                    water of condensation will collect rapidly,
and run down over the glass and astragals, and
3,o                     n           to the floor and plants, in all badly ventilated
houses. The only way to remove it is to sus                   p     e nd              tin conductors under the sashes.  But
rafters and                 astragals  may b e  made to pro                    vide against this difficulty. When the ventila                                                           372 
CONSERVATORY.
tion is good there is comparatively little condensation, as the constant circulation prevents the moist air from remaining for any length
of time in contact with the roof. A very simple rafter and astragal may be used in building the house, which will collect such
moisture as may be formed, and carry it down to the gutter in front
of the house.  The cut shows sections of three rafters, either of
which fully answers the purpose.
The second one has small copper conductors nailed along its side.
The house should be so well ventilated as not to need these articles,
but it is always safer to have them in case of need. The rafter
may be made as ornamental as the architect chooses.
32
373 
CHAPTER XLIV.
GRAPERY.
WE begin to force one house this month. First cover the whole
border with a good dressing of 1 to 2 feet of strong stable manure.
Fork it well together with the old litter already upon the bed, and
then cover with mats or boards, to protect against snow, rain, and
cold.
The slight warmth which has been for the last two months kept
up in the house to protect against frost, is now to be raised to 60~
in the daytime, and 40~ at night. Keep this temperature up for
10 days, and then slowly increase to 65~ by day, and 45~ by night.
Water the vines well with the syringe, and keep pans of water
over the pipes or flues, for evaporation. Some ammoniacal preparation mixed with the water benefits the vines, by the exhalation of
gas. Admit air freely in sunny weather, and at all times allow as
much air to pass through the ventilators as is consistent with the
proper degree of temperature. The sun may raise the heat in the
day much above 65~, but it should never be higher from fire heat.
Towards the last of the month, about the 25th, perhaps, raise the
temperature 5~ more, and allow the sun heat to become even more
powerful than before. You may now expect to see the buds begin
to swell, and very likely some of them will break, or commence to
grow. As soon as they are well broken along the whole vine, tie
the vines to the trellises. Syringing the air frequently, and keeping it very moist by evaporation, will conduce more than any thing
else to the uniform and rapid swelling of the buds.
During the month it will be found advantageous to water the
grape-borders with rather weak liquid manure; which, as well as
all the water supplied during this period, should be warmed at least
as high as 65~. The easiest way to warm the water is to let it
stand in shallow tanks in the grapery about 24 hours.
374 
GRAPERY.
The temperature of the cold grapery to be kept as hitherto,
and the vines are not to be excited in any way.
The vines in the retarding-house will by this time have ripened
their wood, and probably lost their leaves. As I have said before,
the method of pruning these vines differs a little from that where
the grapes are to be induced to grow early. The pruning in the
retarding-house is to be delayed as long as possible, and though late
pruning is likely to make the vines bleed, it does not materially injure them, but tends to delay the ripening of the fruit. It is best
to begin the process of retarding in November, by disbudding.
Pick off all the buds but the lowest, which you wish to have grow
the next season, as soon as the wood has fairly begun to ripen, but
not until all danger of a new breaking of buds is past, as if the
bud which is left should break, it would probably cut off all
prospects of crop. In February cut back to this bud. Pruning
should be done about six weeks before the vines start, which
will be the last of March or the first of April.   After pruning, dress the vines with the soap and sulphur preparation; untie
them and lay them down as the other vines, and keep the house
as cool as possible without freezing.   One of the benefits of
this treatment is that the wood thus seems to gain vigor and elasticity. Vines long subjected to a high temperature, dry and crack;
the wood becomes brittle; but by giving them a share of cold
weather each year, this danger is partially avoided.
Should there be any days sufficiently warm, air the conservative
pits, and the frames which contain the salads, etc. Remove into
the forcing-house and cold grapery boxes and pots of Strawberries,
Salads, etc., for early forcing; also from the cold pits some Cauliflower, Broccoli, and Endive, and boxes or casks of Cardoons, Seakale, etc., as will be more particularly described hereafter.
375 
CHAPTER XLV.
THE FARM.
I HAVE treated the subject of farming, thus far, wholly from one
point of view, and have implied, it may be thought, too strongly,
that self-improvement, for both profit and pleasure, is not only the
best but the easiest thing to do, and requires only resolution for its
success. But I am by no means ignorant of the many great difficulties in the way of the farmer, who seeks to develop himself
into the perfect man.
One great drawback is the pecuniary one. The want of money
not only makes more work necessary, but it irritates the workman
and leads him to attach too great importance to it, and so forget the
greater in the less. He must work himself, because he cannot
afford to pay others, and labor early and late to accomplish his
work in season. The day's fatigue unfits him for evening reading
or study; even the most ambitious student must yield to this difficulty. But these days of extra work are not constant, and time
will come in the course of the year which it depends only on ourselves to improve. Besides, however hard the day's work, it is
not often that the farmer is too tired too talk, or to hear others
talk; and often when eyes unaccustomed to reading would swim
and close over the printed page, he could talk for hours with a
neighbor about the approaching election, or the new candidate
for the vacant pulpit. Seldom is a day's work hard enough to
unfit him for going to the caucus, which is to nominate a friend or
a favorite politician; he can go to a circus or a prayer-meeting,
although his day's work has been large enough to excite the admiration of all beholders.
This leads us to the secret of improvement in agricultural pursuits, - association.
Combine with a few neighbors who are also interested in the ad                                                       376 
THE FARM.
vancement of agriculture, and form a club, which shall meet
weekly, for the interchange of information, or for special remarks
from some member appointed by the rest, to find out something interesting and instructive. Go to the club-meeting willing to be
taught even by a neighbor, whose general information you think
not superior to your own, but who on this occasion has taken
pains to acquire new facts on a given subject. Listen to his communication; take part in the discussion which will arise; tell what
you know on the subject; ask explanations of all doubtful points;
express your doubts and difficulties freely; you may thus get help
from those who are better instructed, and gain the gratitude of
those who share your ignorance, but lack the courage to say so, and
who will thank you for speaking for them, and opening the way for
them to speak for themselves. The replies you get may be satisfactory or not; if not, and the crooked path is not yet straight, you
will have something to think over in the interval before the next
meeting.  Your mind will be excited by the inquiry, and you will
find yourself in the evenings more inclined to look up the subject
in books, and get what light you can upon it, than to go to sleep
over the fire. Perhaps you can find nothing in your books, and
have no newspaper whose light is more than the glimmer of a
farthing candle. Some of your neighbors have other books or better papers, and will gladly lend to you.  Have no scruples about
asking them. We are all complimented by having our opinion
asked.  Press on in this way, now talking, now reading, now inquiring, now imparting, and you will soon have an increased
knowledge and zeal that will necessarily lead you to farther acquisition. 
Such associated efforts in the way of clubs and social gatherings
are of great value to farmers. They bring together a great variety
of information in the form most easily appreciated. A distinguished
man once said that good talk is the healthiest and most nourishing
food for the mind; that each man's mind is both a sieve and a mill,
which selects, assorts, and grinds all the facts and theories presented to it, turning out an elaborated result, flour or bran for the
use of others, just according to the character of the individual mind.
And this result of the process of sifting and grinding, when forced
32*
377 
FEBRUARY.
into the minds of others through the channel of conversation, is
particularly well adapted for their nourishment and expansion.
In your farmer's club, where no member has had much intellectual training, the winnowing process may be less thorough than
the case would justify, but it will certainly be more complete than
any member could make it alone. The idiosyncracies of different
members will lead them to select different books, to fasten on different facts, or see the same facts in different lights, and so to make
good each other's deficiencies.
But remember that you do not meet to register isolated individual
experiences,-of how many quarts A's cows gave, how many bushels of Corn B got to the acre, or how large a crop of Apples C expects. Unless these things have some relation to each other,
some bearing on the topic for the evening, they are mere gossip,
and will not expand your mind, though they may keep you awake.
Remember that you and your associated fellows are building an edifice,- the perfect farmer, who is to be a conglomerate of facts, experiences, and theories, and will be perfect in proportion as these
are of the best quality, and harmoniously combined. If you were
building a dwelling house, you would select among the materials
offered, would reject many stones and bricks, would cut off the ends
of boards that were shaky or pierced with knot-holes, would throw
away many imperfect nails; but if the plan with which you started
was good, you would at last have a satisfactory house.  So in building up your intellectual structure,- the perfect farmer,   you must
expect a great amount of rubbish to come under inspection, to be
tried and found wanting; but build on according to the best plan
you can make, and with the best materials you can get. Want of
practice here will of course make it more difficult to start with a
perfect plan than in house building; you can only block out the
leading features-of the character you wish to form, and may even
then be unable to get the best materials, or to adapt them to your
peculiar circumstances. But, as in house building you use materials brought from many places, so your farmer's character cannot
be completed without many imported materials. The experiences
of his native village will never suffice; they must be thrown aside
unless they are fit for your purpose.
378
0 
THE FARM.
Lay it down then, as a rule of the club, that no member shall
relate his personal experience, except to throw light on the question
under discussion, or to ask for information. Appoint some member
or members, who are best fitted, to find out what man or nation, is
acknowledged to succeed best in farming, and use the treatise which
describes their practice (or his, if you can narrow it down to an in dividual), and the reasons for it as a standard text-book, to which
all questions are to be referred for decisioni.
There is a strong prejudice against book-farming, among farm ers, because they think the statements of books are mere theory.
Nothing is more common in farming communities, than to sneer at
some man as a  book-farmer.    Men who get together and relate
the traditions of their ancestors, in the peculiar dialect of their na tive district, and conduct their farms in accordance with those tra ditions, often refuse to listen to the same doctrines embodied in a
book, and expressed in good English; or, if, having condescended
to listen, they hear something plainly in accordance with their own
preconceived ideas, they are confirmed in their self-conceit, and approve the book so far as it agrees with them, or condemn it for disagreeing with the same authority which they set up as final, never
admitting that there can be a wider experience, or a closer observation than that of themselves and their fathers. Whoever knows
common farmers, knows that this is true; and yet, there was never
a more narrow and inconsistent prejudice. The traditions which
they hold and follow, are the maxims of some man, who in his day,
got the largest crops, and raised the best stock of his neighborhood
and was therefore, with reason, consulted and imitated by his
neighbors; in other words, became an authority on farming in his
district. What are books, but the history of the practice of some
man or people? and if the practice set forth in them is universally
successful, producing the most satisfactory results, are they not
worthy of the most respectful attention? Should they not be received as authorities, instead of being sneered at, because they are
printed instead of spoken?
There is another reason why book farming is lightly esteemed
)y farmers. They have toiled painfully for years to get the expe
379 
FEBRUARY.
rience which is necessary before the traditions aforesaid can be put
into profitable practice, before they can even be fully understood.
Somebody inexperienced in farming has read a book, a good book
perhaps, which pleasantly portrays the pleasures of agriculture,
comments on the rudeness of the ordinary practice, and describes
methods of culture by which time and labor may be saved and
money gained; and forthwith he knows not only enough to carry
on a farm, but - to judge by his talk - more than men who have
farmed from childhood. Practical farmers watch his course, and
see him wrecked on the shoals which lie in the path of all beginners, on difficulties which perplexed them long ago, and were long
ago overcome; then they grimly smile, and say, "So much for
book farming! might have known it." The failure is put down
altogether to the account of the book, whereas the book had nothing to do with it; want of elementary, experimental knowledge,
was the cause. In the hands of a practical farmer, who had this
knowledge and was used to hard work, the same book would have
been of immense value, as the mariner's compass, which would be
of but little service to a landsman turned adrift in a boat, ignorant
of its management, is to the experienced sailor comfort, and per haps life.
A book is, as I have said, the history of some one's practice or
theory, and the farmer's club having found out, through a committee, what nations have been most successful in farming, should
procure those books on the subject which are considered the best
authority by those nations. Do not swallow any one of these books
whole, but either read aloud at the meeting of the club, or appoint
some member to read it at home and report at the next meeting
such new ideas as he may have obtained from it. Discuss this in formation, see how it agrees with your own experience, and where
it differs; find out, if possible, the cause of the disagreement; ascer tain whether it arises from difference of climate, soil, etc., and hav ing sifted thoroughly the whole matter, throw aside the chaff and
garner the wheat for use.
The continuance of this process with one book after another, will
bring you into contact with a new class of minds, men, and prac
380 
THE FARM.
tice; will teach you new things about your special vocation, and will
increase your geographical, historical, and scientific knowledge; in
short you will have begun to grow.
This way of passing an evening each week when you are too
tired to read, will soon awaken your minds to such an interest in
books and study, that you will be too tired no longer.
Nor is this the only good to be derived from such clubs and associations; people from different parts of the town, brought together to exchange experiences, will feel a mutual interest, and
will be desirous for the progress of the whole; sectional and district jealousies will be forgotten, and the spirit of improvement in
agriculture will gradually extend to other things, till the whole
community will be raised above its neighbors in knowledge, refinement, and wealth. No proverb is truer than that Scriptural one,
"A little leaven leavens the whole lump."  If a few men combine
earnestly for improvement, there will surely cluster around them
all the good and growing men in the town. They will start and
support many great movements in town, and state, and national
government, for mental, moral, and social progress, and the result
will be that each will find himself at the end of the year better
and wiser than at its beginning, and will begin to see beauty in
objects before uninteresting, and to take pleasure in things for a
value in them not to be measured by money.
Assuming, then, that you have determined to do all in your
power to develop a perfect system of farming, and that you have
inaugurated your farmer's club, and brought it to a flourishing
condition, I will call your attention to a few improvements in the
practice of agriculture, which not only are better for mind and
body than the old methods, but will give fuller barns and storehouses, and larger moneyed returns.
America will eventually become the best farmed country in the
world. At present England holds, on the whole, the highest rank.
Belgium and Holland surpass it in some respects; larger crops are
raised from a given area, and more expensive improvements are
undertaken and carried through to a successful result; but the soil
and surface of the Low Countries are, as their name imports, un
381 
FEBRUARY.
favorable to a varied culture, and many things are never attempted
there which fill England with wealth and beauty.
The English farmers are mostly tenants who occupy the cultivated
portions, and cannot afford, on land not their own, to make the outlay necessary for great improvements, which, though profitable in
the end, are so only after a term of years. Still, what with the liberality of the proprietors, the enterprise of the tenants, and the aid
extended by government, the state of agricultural science and
practice in England is very far beyond that in this country, and it
will be long before we shall overtake, and longer before we shall
surpass it.
In New England, farms must be comparatively small, and the
soil is of such a character as to compel us to adopt the most thorough
system of culture, if we wish to secure that home market which
gives us the advantage over Western farmers, whose crops must be
transported to a great distance to find a market, until the cost of
freight makes them as high priced as ours in the end.   This
home market is sure to continue, for the population of New England will be more and more engaged in manufactures, and trade
must become denser and denser, and increase the demand for the
fruits of the earth.
New England farming must be "high farming" in order to be
successful, and only as it approaches to the perfection of the English and Flemish systems, will it secure the best return for outlay
of labor and money.
In November, I said that during the winter the farmer should
lay his plans and arrange his work for the next year. But the work
of no one year is complete in itself; it springs from the years before, and influences the years that come after; so that in making
these plans you must have an eye to the long future.
There are several distinct kinds of farming: stock farming,
cereal, grass, and root farming, milk growing, fruit culture, market gardening. Which of these an individual will follow will depend on such circumstances as the district he lives in, his means,
his tastes, natural or acquired. It is not probable that he will follow
either kind exclusively. This is rarely done in any country, cer
382 
THE FARM.
tainly not in ours where labor is less subdivided, and pursuits less
hereditary than in any other.
Stock farming (if it is of neat stock) necessitates the production
of milk, cheese, and butter, of some cereals to feed the men and
animals, of roots for winter consumption. Market gardening is
generally pursued alone, and is more like horticulture than the
ordinary work of a farm; to follow it successfully, a knowledge of
vegetable physiology, of varieties, of forcing, etc., is necessary,
things not essential in ordinary farming. It is more often connected
with milk farming (where the milk is sold in the fluid form) than
with the other kinds; for milk farmers have plenty of manure, and
are within a short distance of their market (20 or 30 miles is soon
travelled by railroad). This readiness of access to market is essential to the success of both kinds of farming, for both milk and market vegetables are bulky, and the expense of freight eats up the
profits when they are transported far.
Stock farming will generally be followed at a distance from cities,
in districts where land is cheap, and a large surface can be devoted
to pasturage. So it has been ever since want of pasture has governed the movements of the great migratory, pastoral races; and
thus has arisen the popular idea that stock farming can only be
carried on where there are extensive pastures.
The stock farming of which I propose to treat deals with small
herds and moderate sized pastures; it feeds the stock on green
food during mild weather, but as winter comes on it provides them
with shelter, and with food, garnered beforehand. The pastures
will be comparatively large; will be at a distance from large towns,
but this does not much increase the market price of the animals, for
stock has this great advantage over all other farm products: when
it is marketable it can be made to take itself to market. The farmer, much of whose land is hilly, rocky, or otherwise unfit for tillage, will incline to this kind of farming, which he may follow in
one of two ways; either by buying the food necessary to support
his stock through the winter, perhaps by growing barely forage
enough to keep them through, or by raising on that portion of his
land which is fit for tillage, fodder crops in abundance, for both
summer and winter use, and for sale, so as to give a source of rev                                                                \
383 
FEBRUARY.
enue in addition to his regular stock sales. Evidently this is the
best kind of stock farming; it is complete and independent, and
only among such farmers can we expect to find perfect breeds of
animals.
The cost of fencing extensive pastures is so great as to induce
some men to neglect their fences and suffer their cattle to roam
over their neighbors' land as well as their own; but the model
farmer never follows a course so slovenly and productive of ill feeling in a neighborhood; in his mind, good stock farming implies the
employment of no more land than can be well and securely fenced,
and of no more stock than can be well supported on the pasture
land with the assistance of fodder crops sufficiently abundant to
leave a surplus for sale, and a guarantee against suffering from
drought or flood.
On this basis stock farming may be followed among our hills
and mountains, where every farm can have some interval and some
upland, the one for tillage, the other for pasture. Climate, the
market, the proprietor's tastes, will decide what kind of stock shall
be grown.  Undoubtedly the time will come when the sides of
every hill and mountain in New England will whiten with the harvest as much as the valleys and meadows,-not with Wheat, Corn,
or Rye, but with wool,- and the flocks of sheep will be as countless as the herds of the prairies. Lower on the same hills will be
cows and oxen, and on the edge of the plains and valleys, horses.
Our stock farmers may with advantage take lessons in this matter from foreign lands. Sheep growers in Scotland, Switzerland,
and other mountainous countries, use their mountains strictly in
accordance with climacteric laws. These heights are not absolutely sterile, though the climate is too cold to allow timber to
grow; the higher you ascend, the lower is the temperature, the
later the spring vegetation, the earlier the winter frost.  The
herdsman of the valley drives his flock in the early spring to the
base of the mountains, where the green herbage is eagerly cropped
by the winter-weary sheep and lambs; as the weather grows
warmer, the grass grows green higher up, and by the time the first
pasture is fed off the next above is ready, and so on to the top of
the lower mountains. Again, as the frosts of early autumn seize
384 
THE FARM.
on the summits, the flocks descend with the grass, till winter finds
them again at the base, ready to snuggle into the warm fold. I do
not mean that there are definite, precise steps in this process; when
we deal with large natural surfaces, we find no exact limits; all is
on too large a scale; but the general statement is true.
There is no reason why our hill-sides should not roll down a cov ering of wool after the summer's pasturing quite as white as the
winter blanket of snow, and of a value which will equal or surpass that of all the present agricultural productions of the Northern States.  The same kind of pasture is good for other cattle, and
hardy oxen and tempting beeves may do as well as sheep, though
they must be less in number. These larger animals need more
abundant food, and are better adapted to the more succulent and
coarse herbage of the lower lands. Horses will never thrive on
rough hills; the loss by accident would be large. The early
months of the colt must be passed in pastures that will never twist
or wrench his tender bones, but will allow him to grow symmetrically, and after his frame has become firm, he must still be pastured where his adventurous and frolicsome disposition will not
subject him to the risk of rolling down steep hill-sides, or of injuring his wind by racing up the steeps with his companions. Yet
good horses can only be raised where there is pasture room enough
to give them constant exercise, and if a pasture is tolerably level
and free from holes and stumps, its poverty does not unfit it for
colts (unless it be overstocked), as the necessity of taking a good
deal of exercise in getting their daily food, tends to make them
hardy and enduring.
Under favorable circumstances, stock farming is the pleasantest
kind; there is less hand and more head work, and the variety of
culture, of treatment of animals, gives constant variety and change
of occupation, and calls out all the faculties. Besides, there are
two strings to this bow, the crops and the stock, both of which cain
hardly be broken at the same time; hence the loss can scarcely be
so great as when all is staked on a single crop.
I think such farming may be made the most delightful occupation in the world.
It need never be monotonous; the culture of crops and the
385
33 
FEBRUARY.
rearing of stock in summer, their protection in winter, the health
and joy to be gained from the fields and fresh air in warm weather,
the long winter evenings for reading, the ready hospitality to be
extended to friends and strangers attracted to our door by its homelike look, thoughts and practices for the welfare and advancement
of others, -all is full of variety and pleasure, and such a life,
properly lived, may be a lighthouse for the guidance of others
along the road of life.
Stock farming is comparatively simple in its description, and
it seems as if only a little money and an enthusiasm for the
work might enable any one to follow it with ease and profit; but
it is really the most difficult kind of farming if done in the best
way.
First, the farm is to be selected.  The land should be near a village or town, for the convenience of the family.  There should be
some level or interval land for profitable culture, easily drained,
easily irrigated, of good texture, and sheltered from the coldest
winds. The hill land should be near the house, easy of access, as
little rocky as possible, well-wooded in parts, and facing the south
and east, so as to receive the early and late sun.
Next the house is to be erected; not a shingle palace, not a cube
or parallelopiped of boards, not a Gothic cottage, not a show-box of
any kind; but a comfortable, roomy house, of two stories, with a
spacious kitchen, a good cellar, and convenient dairy. The living
rooms all on the pleasant side of the house; no best parlor too
good to live in and only for show. The outside of the house to
have at least 20 per cent of the whole cost expended upon it, so
that when it has been inhabited a few years it shall be beautiful to
the eye of every beholder. Let it express in every window casing;
in the verge boards; in the hospitable entrance; in the cozy chimney stack; in the vines already growing, and ready to wreathe
their graceful tracery over every point and projection; in the broken
gables; in the blooming flower-beds; in the protecting branches of
the old trees near which it is set; in the shrubs and young trees
well disposed around it; in its general effect on the landscape where
it sits nestling among hills and mountains, or crowning a gentle
eminence, or giving entrance to some wild lawny meadows, -the
386 
THE FARM.
Home Spirit, -that indefinable, intangible atmosphere which can
never be seized and appropriated, can never be added to an ugly
and tasteless place, has no money value, cannot be won without
wooing, but which breathes from every tree and shrub, catches up
and intensifies the colors and fragrance of the flowers, gives comfort and joy to the simple farm buildings, hallows the whole place,
and makes every member of the family radiant with a somethingy
which all can recognize, love, and desire, though they cannot define.
This home spirit is not the result of calculation and carpentry; it
cannot be built into the house, and yet it is never more plainly
shown to the stranger than in the very work of man's hands, of
carpenter, mason, painter, and gardener. The architect does not
desig,n it; he cannot.  It is individual, and belongs to those who
build the house and ornament it. It influences them in the choice
of a design, it instinctively teaches them how to select aright the
plan of the house, the location, the externals; it is the natural result of a life spent in the love of nature, of beauty, of religion; it
comes only to those who humbly seek to be all that the best men
should be, and when it comes, they are as unconscious of it as the
Heliotrope of its fragrance; but it issues out and enfolds a house
and its inmates, so that the rudest hind feels it, and every one seeks
to reproduce it. The children who grow up in the house redolent
with it always love their birthplace, and return to it long years
after, when perhaps the hand of time has picked out the mortar
from the chimneys, has broken the trellis from the vines under which
they used to sit and play, has planted weeds in the flower-beds, and
neglected to prune the long ago too luxuriant hedge. But amid all
the change those who love it see their early home, and can easily
reproduce it. It is rare that the child of such a home is any thing
but an honor to it; its light burns to him forever; he carries the
sacred fire in him, and his share of the home spirit will live in him
to be breathed out in a new home at some future time.
The stock farmer, as I have said, is well able to found a home
like this.
Next he must select a good position for his barn. It should be
at a convenient distance from the house, near, but not too near, and
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CIIARLES RIVER. AT AUBURNDALE, NEWTON, MASS.
(~;?\. 
FEBRUARY.
towards the centre of the farm, sheltered under some grove or hillside, easy of access for teams coming in with the crops or carrying
out manure, and in such place that water can be brought to it.
This farmer, then, must be a good farm architect.
Now the land must be studied with a view to its division into
fields, and to the best crops to be raised; the rotation of crops must
be decided upon, and their probable rate of increase. The pasture
lands must be examined, to find out what stock they are adapted
for, and how much they will feed.
Having decided on the kind of stock, the farmer must next learn
the best breed for his various purposes. In England this question
is decided by the traditions of each county. The business of stock
raising has been so long established there, and the - various breeds
so carefully tested as to their capacity and adaptation to different
localities, that as soon as a man has settled upon his plan in farming, he knows at once what stock is best for him, and without danger of loss in unsuccessful experiments, he buys the proper cattle
and goes to work.
Not so here. The English and European breeds do not present
precisely the samne qualities here as in their native countries. The
intensity of our heat and cold, and the dryness of our atmosphere,
affect both the constitution of the animals, and the quality of the
pasturage to which they are confined. Experiments have been
tried in various parts of the country by a few earnest individuals, in
propagating certain kinds of foreign stock, with the hope of deciding, which is best for their locality. In some cases these experiments
have been very fairly tried, and have elicited valuable information;
but too often there has been a flaw in the experiment, owing to the
prejudice of the experimenter, which has made it unreliable.
On the other hand, some men have imbibed a prejudice against
all foreign stock, because it is foreign, and brought hither only by
the rich, and they pertinaciously deny that it has any practical
value. They content themselves with picking up the best native
animals they can find, and often have stocks of cattle in their barns
better than any blood stock that can be bought. But this is the result of something very like accident; viz., a rare individual power
by which they detect the excellences or defects of a creature at a
388 
THE FARM.
glance. A man with this power needs no single standard stock, for
he can choose from an immense range; but the mass, who lack the
judgment necessary to successful selection, are subject to frequent
losses.
One thing has been settled by the experience of many generations of stock-breeders: that like produces like, under ordinary circumstances. Could you have a cow and a bull, both of whose
parents, 4 cattle, were noted either for their milk-producing qualities, their tendency to butter, to fat, or as workers, you might feel
absolutely certain that their offspring would have the same qualities.
So universally does this hold true, that it is in the power of any
individual to produce such a breed of cattle as he prefers, if he will
persevere with care and judgment.  Consequently, if there were
no desirable breeds, it would be possible for our stock-farmer to
p)roduce a breed exactly fitted to the hills and valleys of New
England.
The requisites for this breed are a fair amount of rich milk in
the cows, a tendency to fatten, - both in the cows when not in
milk, and in the oxen when at work,- a moderate size, which can
be readily supported and fattened on our somewhat meagre pastures,
in summer, and sustained at small cost in our barns during winter,
and a frame and muscular development which fit the males for
work. If sheep are the stock, a large fleece, with small bones, and
delicate meat, and a hardihood of constitution, which enables them
to defy both heat and cold, and to protect themselves and thrive
with but little attention from man.
In establishing this new breed, it is important to cut off as many
of the preliminary steps as possible. This may be done in part
by beginning with those breeds of cattle, which, in a country similar to our own, possess most of the qualities just enumerated. The
breeds most in repute in England are Durham, Hereford, Ayrshire,
Devon, Alderney. Of these there are various grades and crosses,
and many varieties, assimilating in some respects to either.
About 60 years were spent in bringing one of these breeds to
its present state; and since the type was fixed it has been easy, as
I said, to keep it so. If we can cut off 30 or 40 years of the experimenting, and at the end of the remaining time have a stock
335
389 
FEBRUARY.
just suited to us, it will be a fortune to the successful breeder, and
an incalculable benefit to the community.
The popular breeds may be first divided into sizes, as large or
small. The Durhams and Herefords are large, the Devons, Ayrshire, and Alderney, or Island Cattle, small.
The large animal has a large stomach to fill, and an appetite in
proportion, larger bones, greater amount of offal and waste; but
when grown, gives more weight of beef, and a larger quantity of
milk. To produce these large breeds in perfection, the summer
pasture and the winter fodder must be rich and abundant. Does
this pay? is the question. All these peculiarities of size are against
the hilly country, and in favor of the prairie. These cattle are
good as food and to work, and often can be fatted to astonishing
weights, whilst cows of the same breeds are mentioned which have
given from 20 to 30 quarts of milk, for 4 or 5 months after calving, and afterwards fall off to a reasonable yield, until they have
finally dried up. But to produce such weights and such quantities
of milk, a large and constant amount of food of extra quality was
necessary, and the animals were grown under the equable and moist
climate of England.
Such great weight it is desirable to attain, as it is better to feed
one animal, and to have only one to care for, than two, but it can
never be attained on such a farm as we have been considering, except by stall feeding, and that kind of stock raising is to be pursued under different circumstances, and will be described hereafter.
The milk given in such abundance is not rich; it takes from 10 to
15 quarts of milk to make a pound of butter, and, although good
for those who sell milk, is not well adapted to our stock farmer.
The Island or Alderney cattle are as much below the medium
size as those that I have described are above it. These animals are
not valued for their working or beef qualities, being inferior to many
other varieties in these respects, but, as they are small, the cost of
keeping them would be so also, were it not that the delicacy of
their constitution requires an extra quality of food; as milkers, too,
they are deficient; the quantity of milk is small, and the quality,
after skimming, watery and poor. Their excellence is in the quality of their butter. Four quarts of milk often make a pound of but
390 
THE FARM.
ter, and butter that is most attractive, too, from its golden yellowness.
But butter is only one among many things required by the stock
farmer. So the Alderneys must be rejected. Indeed, as a breed
they are not valuable to any one. The rich cream, the small size,
and the peculiar beauty of the young cattle, are urged as its claims
on the man of wealth, or the man who can keep but one cow. But
the chief requisite in a cow is good milk; our children, our pigs,
and ourselves, to a great extent, depend upon it; butter can far
more easily be dispensed with, and is, besides, not a bit better for its
beautiful yellow color. Mloreover, the beauty of the young Alderney
is more than counterbalanced by the ugliness of the old one, which
is the ugliest in appearance of all neat cattle.
The Ayrshire is often called the poor man's cow. It is small,
hardy, and handsome, is easily supported, makes good, quick working cattle, and fattens pretty well. This seems nearer the mark,
and, at first sight, appears all that is wanted for the foundation of
our breed. But the Ayrshire is found to have a tendency to fatten
in rich pastures, which often gets the better of its milking qualities,
to the great disappointment of the owner. Besides, the milk is
poor in quality, ranking only above the Durham in this respect.
I am aware that statements are made of the amount of butter
made from the milk of Durhams and Ayrshires, which go to prove
it as valuable as the Alderney, the quantity being greater. But
these statements must have been made by persons whose herds fed
in pasture where the clover was up to the top of their horns, and
when the same animals, or others of a similar breed, were transferred to poorer pastures, or less abundant feed, they have shrunk,
both in the quality and quantity of their milk; and, however much
butter may have been made in any case, it cannot be denied that
the skim milk is a poor and washy article.
The last breed I come to is the Devon. These, too, are small
cattle. The males are noted for their docility and enormous working powers, as well as for a decided aptitude to fatten, and for the
superior quality of their beef, it being better than any other.
They do not ripen, or become fat and fit to kill at so early an age
as the Durhams, being seldom fit for beef before they are 5 years
old; but they can be worked till 4 or 5 years old, and then put up
391 
FEBRUARY
to fatten.  "They need work to develop them, and if kept idle
will be invariably stinted in their growth, whilst the Durhams, or
short horns, are impaired for beef if worked. They do not, indeed,
attain the great weight of some breeds, but in a given time they
acquire more flesh, and with a less consumption of food, and their
flesh is beautiful in its kind."
The milk of the Devon is very rich, instances being given where
4 quarts have made a pound of butter, and 6 quarts being sufficient
to do this at any time. It is very rich, too, after beingff skimmed;
no length of standing will free it from all its cream, and the skim
milk of the Devon is equal in richness to the new milk of the Ayrshire and Short Horn. The quantity is reputed to be small, and
this is generally set down against them; but there is a difference
in the quantities given by different stocks of Devons. Devon cows
of some breeds have given in America 3,500 quarts in a year, and
will constantly average 1,600 to 1,800 quarts. They never come
in with an immense bag, to dwindle down to nothing soon, but are
constant and steady milkers till within a short time of calving.*
They are very hardy,- both males and females thriving on pastures where a Durham would starve,- and the cows have not the
tendency to milk diseases so characteristic of the Alderney. Does
not this stock offer the best foundation for a New England breed,
good for all parts of the country, high or low?
The general virtues of the Devon stock are shown in its already
wide diffusion over New England, for by either chance or design
most of the earliest importations were Devon, and their blood is
now shown in the red cattle found in all parts of the country.
Our farmer having selected his horned cattle, next turns to
horses.
The Morgan is the New England horse, and probably he will
always maintain his supremacy for general purposes among our
hills.
Pigs must be bought, to eat up the skim milk, and their breeds,
* "And two cows are mentioned in England, of the North Devon breed,
one of which gave 19 1-2 pounds of butter in a week, and more than 480
pounds in a year. The other produced more than 20 pounds in a week." -
Colman's European Agriculture.
392 
THE FARM.
of which there are many varieties, must be investigated. At one
time the Suffolk bid fair to conquer all other breeds, and to drive
out the "race horse" and "corkscrew" varieties.  Undoubtedly
the Suffolks are valuable; they fatten readily, and have but little
waste, but they are tender in constitution, small, and make rather
too large a proportion of fat pork. Their size is increased, and
the pork not injured, by crossing with the longer bodied and larger
framed Middlesex, Essex, Hampshire, and other breeds. Pigs can
be improved or injured in two years, so that our farmer will soon
settle the matter by experience; they are easily raised, and take
care of themselves. Not so sheep.
If our farmer has decided on keeping sheep, he has selected a
path sown with difficulties, although promising great profits. The
sheep farmer has two harvests, the wool and the mutton; he must,
therefore, in selecting his stock, have regard to both. At present
our people are indifferent to the quality of the mutton they eat,
and are more governed, as in beef, by the size of the quarter and
its handsome appearance, than by the quality of the meat. It will
not always be so; we are beginning to discriminate, and shall soon
be willing to pay larger prices for mutton of delicate flavor and
juicy tenderness, than for the coarse, rank, hard meat, so generally
bought and sold. Let our stock farmer select his sheep with an
eye to the quality of the mutton, and he will soon find a taste for
the meat growing up among his customers, and a corresponding
willingness to pay for it.
But it happens that the sheep which give the largest fleece are
less valuable for meat; so we are in a dilemma; unless we can get
a high price for the carcase, we must try to get the largest fleeces.
Our aim must be to improve some breed so as to combine both.
Merino sheep now stand first for fleeces but do not give so choice
mutton as other breeds.
Sheep need more attention than any other stock, and if not well
attended to at the lambing and tupping seasons, they will surely suffer; and the young lambs need constant care.
Fowls offer a field for improvement, as there are so many varieties.
Having settled all these points, and made ready the house,
393 
FEBRUARY.
grounds, kitchen, and flower gardens; having built the best barn,
and selected the most suitable stock, and bought some animals, our
farmer finds that his farming is no child's play, but will need a
great deal of thought and care, and that a field for study and research is opened before him as varied and interesting as that offered
by any other pursuit. The best food for the different creatures,
the improvements to be made in food, in seed, in sowing, cultivating, harvesting, and feeding will demand constant care and attention, and the exercise of unflagging energy.
He may be a boor if he chooses, may govern his estate by the
saws and traditions of his ancestors, may believe in luck and the
changes of the moon, may be a mere machine, valuable in so far as
he helps to feed mankind, and pays his taxes; or, on the other
hand he may be an agreeable, educated, earnest man of practical
science.
I have made no reference to cereal and grass culture, or to his
fruit or other interests, because they are secondary to his stock.
The cereals and grass are of great importance and are to be improved as much as possible, but not more by the stock farmer than
by others, and the methods followed by those who make these crops
their principal objects will be imitated by him.
This stock farmer has something new at all seasons, and some
profit constantly accruing from the sale of early lambs, of wool, of
mutton, of pasture-fed steers and oxen, of butter and cheese, of spare
fruit, of winter-fed cattle, they are always bringing in a little ready
money. And what is not spent on the household, should be invested in improvements, for improving one's farm is, as I have before shown, a better investment than mortgages or bank stock.
394 
CHAPTER XLVI.
GREENHOUSE, CONSERVATORY, AND HOTBEDS.
C  ARCH.   The work for all these structures has
been described so minutely and anticipated in
so many cases, that it is unnecessary to devote
much time to them now.
The long days and the high sun of March
will give so much natural warmth, that fire heat
may  be almost dispensed with;  ventilation
should be free, and constant care be taken to
keep the moisture of the houses as great as is demanded by plants
in rapid growth.
There will now be a larger supply of flowers than hitherto;
every plant will be either in blossom or rapidly swelling into buds,
and the amateur or professional gardener may enjoy fully the pleasure or profit that he has looked forward to, from the very beginning of his winter's work.  A well-filled greenhouse or conservatory
in March is always a great satisfaction, and as in November its
gay beauty consoled us for the decay without, so now its charms
serve to moderate our eagerness for the coming of spring and to
while away the tedious weeks of weary waiting for her warm days
and soft winds and wild flowers.
It is quite time now to finish our cuttings of the bedding-out
plants for summer; if set at this time, they will strike root before
April, and be quite well grown by the middle of May, which is as
early as it is generally safe to set them out.
You will remember that I said the Camelias would be out of
blossom in the spring, and would either be just making their growth,
or have already made it. So, too, with other hard-wooded plants
which blossomed early. They may be pruned into a desirable
shape as soon as the wood is fairly ripened.
395 
MARCH.
Azalias will be coming into bloom, and need plenty of water.
Besides the various methods of propagating plants, already described, is one adapted to hard-wooded plants, called inarching.
Some of these plants are very difficult to graft, bud, or layer, and
may be more successfully treated by inarching.
It differs from grafting in the scion's not being separated from
the stock, from which it derives the whole, or a part, of its support, until the junction is completely effected.
There are very many methods of performing this operation; the
one generally followed is crown and side inarching.
The spring is the usual season for out-of-door plants, the sap
being then in rapid motion, but it may be done in greenhouses at
any season when plants are growing.
The plants to be inarched (one of which, at least, must, of course,
be portable), are to be brought together, and the branches to be
operated upon should be selected, and crossed, that the best point
of juncture may be decided. Cut from each branch such a slice
of the wood and bark, that when the branches are again crossed,
they will just fit into each other, the sap-wood, cambium, and bark
of one plant meeting the same parts of the other. Cover the whole
joint with grafting-wax, to exclude the air. In about a fortnight
the joint will be made, when cut the scion across the end, thus
freeing it from its original stock. After another fortnight cut away
the but-end of the scion, so as to leave none of it not grown to the
stock, and the operation is completed.
In all cases the scion and stock must be about the same diameter, in order to effect a perfect union between them. Sometimes
scions, which have been cut off the parent plant, are inarched.
This is done with such scions as are difficult to graft, they needing
a constant supply of food.
Inarch as before, but keep the but-end of the scion nearly vertical; immerse it in a phial of water, and every few days remove
the phial, and cut off a thin layer from the end. This will keep
its vessels open, and enable them to absorb water for its support.
Some gardeners stick the but-end in a piece of potato, for the same
purpose.
Resort must be had to some of these means of increase, with
396 
GREENHOUSE, ETC.
many of the choice exotics. But few flowers are naturally double,
or beyond improvement by the gardener's skill; but when improved they rarely generate seed which will produce the parent
plant in all its perfections. Camelias are particularly troublesome
in this respect. Oranges and Lemons are, if I may be allowed
the expression, compound plants, and must be budded, grafted, or
minarched, to produce flowers and fruit at an early age.  It is easy
to grow them from the seed, but only one or two kinds blossom,
until four or five years from the seed.
The rich fragrance of the blossoms, the color and character of
the foliage, and the beauty of the fruit, render Oranges and Lemons favorite house plants, and they are easily cultivated.
They like a strong, rich, and even clayey soil, and during their
growing and blossoming season, should be watered once or twice a
week with liquid manure. Their growth never stops, if they are
properly managed, although it varies in rapidity with the seasons.
It rarely happens that a collection of Orange trees is without some
blossoms, and it is very common to see the trees, and even the
same tree, bearing buds, blossoms, and fruit, at the same time.
They are readily grown from cuttings, which are to be set, 3 or
4 inches long, half their depth into sand and loam.   Give thema gentle bottom-heat, and moisture, as to other cuttings. In a few weeks
the cuttings will elongate; as soon as the roots are well-developed,
pot and treat like other hard-wooded plants.
The plants, old and young, need constant, but not superabundant
moisture.  Too much or prolonged dryness w;ill cause the leaves to
fall off, which will not be replaced for a year or two.
The seedling plants may be budded or grafted the fall after they
are planted; if you want a standard plant, induce the seedlings to
grow tall, by removing all side branches, as they appear. The
Shaddock and Citron make the best stock for working, as they
grow strong and rapidly, and make larger plants than others. If
the plants are set into the shade during the summer, supply moisture sparingly.
There are some small Orange-trees, fit only for flowers; these
can never be induced to make standards.
When Oranges become diseased, turn them out of their tubs; cut
34
397 
MARCH.
out decayed and old roots; cut down the branches, or stems, to
healthy buds; give new soil and bottom-heat: the plant will soon
throw out a new and healthy growth.
These plants need, as they grow, very large pots, in order to supply sufficient earth End manure, and this necessity is a serious
drawback to their successful cultivation.
This difficulty is obviated
by the use of such a pot as
v   ________ is represented in the adjoin           ~  ~itiii!/ - a   i -l    / ing cut.  This pot is made of
,ii fi/b                         slate or of plank. If of plank,
-\L~ \''"/l/r/lt   the inside must be covered
N iiI I IJ'!/!//tt~   with pitch, or any paint not
______~~~~_   i         affected by  continued mois                              _: 6ture, to insure durability. The
- sides, a and b, are suspended
.... A:     -  on hinges, with close-fitting
joints, and are held tight by transverse bars, d, which shut close on
the opposite sides.
The roots of plants in such pots can be examined at will, and
loam added or removed.
Roses, Achimenes, Gloxinias, Fuschias, Japan Lilies, Heaths,
Calceolarias, Carnations, and Pansies should be repotted; bedding
plants be started from cuttings. Sow seeds of summer annuals.
Give Cactuses, Heaths, and Cape Jessamines more water, and air
well all plants in cold frames.
It
398 
CHAPTER XLVII.
GRAPERY.
TnHu vines in the forcing-house are now rapidly breaking their
buds, and must be tied up just as fast as they break evenly along
the whole cane.
The first growth is very rapid, and the fruit will show as soon
as the shoot has grown two or three eyes. Allow them to grow
until the lower leaves are pretty well expanded, and the flowers
well formed; then cut back to one eye beyond the fruit. Never
in out or in-door culture cut back to the fruit, as is sometimes
recommended. Remember the analogy between the leaves of the
vine, the fruit-tree, and Corn, and recall the reasoning applied to
topping Corn, where it was shown that removing the upper leaves
from the stalk deprives all below of nourishment; so with the
vine.  The bud above the fruit will probably break and grow a
little way; stop it at an eye.  The leaves thus formed will draw
sap and elaborate it for the fruit. Leave but one shoot or spur.
If you have too many spurs, you can cut them out at this season without fear of bleeding; the remaining leaves will consume
all the sap supplied. Increase the temperature slowly, beginning
at 60~ to 65~ by day, and 60~ by night; rising even to 85~ with
the sunshine; increase towards the last of the month to 70~ to 75~
by day, and 70~ by night, allowing the sun to raise it even to 90~;
give plenty of air and syringe constantly.
I hope it will be understood that no more leaves are to be removed than is necessary to allow the sun a reasonable access to
the house, and to moderate the growth of the vine.
Some persons, following the analogy of Corn-topping, assume
that all the leaves and growth are necessary to perfect the plant
and its fruit. But you know that it is necessary each year to cut
back the vine, both to make it bear and to keep it within the limits
399
t 
MARCH.
of the house. You also know that no plant can grow without
drawing on the soil for its support; all that grows and is cut off is
just so much impoverishment of the soil, and is an unjustifiable
waste, if it could have been checked by summer pruning and
pinching.
Towards the last of the month the buds in the cold grapery
begin to swell a little; keep it cool, and do nothing to excite the
vines into activity, as the next month will be soon enough to wish
for any start.
The retarding-house must be kept cool; cover the glass with
shades, canvass, etc., in the middle of bright, sunny days, and give
as much air as you can without chilling the vines.
In the forcing-house may be set on the shelves more Strawber    ries in pots, and as they ripen they must be attended to. Pots or
boxes of Cucumber and Melon seeds, also.   Renew the Cauli   flower plants as they mature, and set them on the shelf or in any
convenient place.
The Mushroom beds are now in active growth, and should be
kept moist. If there is any room, French and Kidney BearLs may
be planted in boxes.
Use all the spare room for purposes of culture. Broccoli, Cauli*  flower, boxes and pots of Cardoons, Sea-kale, Lettuce, etc., may
be set in the cold grapery, ready to be put into the forcing-house
as they are wanted, but care must be taken that no dead leaves
or insects are about them, as the injury these would do the vines
would far exceed the value of the vegetables. These plants will
all be gone by the time the vines are so grown as to need all the/
room, and exclude the light with their leaves.
The vines in pots and troughs will be much more advanced thant
those on the rafters; their berries should have already swelled,
and be nearly ready for thinning.
This process cannot be too carefully and thoroughly performed,
whether in vines or fruit trees; but in vines, especially, it is essen  tial to successful culture and perfect fruit. To thin, provide your  self with a pair of long, but narrow and fine-pointed scissors; go
over the vines carefully, bunch by bunch, and snip out every im  perfect berry, and enough perfect ones to reduce the bunch to a
400 
GRAPERY.
good and healthy proportion and size. No rule can be given to
guide in this operation, from the difference in the size of the berries, the larger ones needing more thinning than others. The process must be repeated when the Grapes color and swell.
Be very careful not to touch the berries with the hand, which
would produce rust; it is well to wear gloves. Remove the berries that you cut off at once, as their decay would injure the atmosphere.
One great difficulty in Grape culture is shanking or shrivelling,
that is, the drying up and discoloration of the bunch and footstalk.
Many reasons have been given for this disease, and many remedies proposed. It attacks the cold grapery in the early summer
months, but is less likely to trouble a forcing-house, where heat
can be regulated, and where ventilation, light, and moisture, are
abundant.
Mr. J. F. Allen, the author before quoted, says, that it is "a
disease peculiar to the Grape in its culture under glass structures,
caused by a deficiency of nourishment, which deficiency is occasioned principally by a defective atmosphere in the house, causing
stagnation in the flow of the sap; and this difficulty may be increased, and the spread of the evil promoted, by various causes,
such as a poor border, general weakness of the vine, overcropping,
and chiefly by not paying due care to the ventilation of the
house."
The last of the month, remove the litter from the border of the
cold grapery, and cover it with a thick coat of strong horse manure, which, by its fermentation, will begin to heat the border.
The fruit trees in the forcing-house will soon begin to grow, and
must be attended to, according to former directions. 
34*
401 
CHAPTER XLVIII.
FLOWER AND KITCHEN GARDEN.
BEDS of Ranunculuses, Daisies, Anemones, etc., should be opened
as often as it is safe, and on some of them, it will be well to put
sashes, as, by so doing, we may soon start growth and blossoms.
But be careful not to let your spring enthusiasm get too much glass
under way, as it demands a great deal of care and attention.
Some time in March, if the weather is mild, and the ground
thaws, the Snowdrops will bloom, and often in sheltered places,
even before the snow is entirely gone, Crocuses will follow, and
Pansies will prick up their leaves and venture into blossom; English Violets can be induced to bloom by setting movable glasses over
them.
A very simple contrivance which may be
iii A/l,!      _;> used to facilitate the blooming of such
A~ Lkk UR           ~ plants, is shown in the adjoining cut.  A
= \ ~       common square box, without top or bottom.
a       \.IH \\  \ On the upper edge is fastened a rebated
frame, the groove of which receives the
pane of common glass a. The inclination
should be such that the rays of the sun will fall perpendicularly
upon it at some part of the day. Lay around the bottom of the
box, ali over the adjoining ground for a few feet, leaves, or litter,
to keep it a little warm. Plants thus enclosed, must receive due
ventilation, and some water, as in a hotbed. You can get earlier
Violets, Daisies, Polyanthuses, etc., by this method than by any
other.
Keep the roses and other plants which were frozen up in November, in the coldest place possible, until into April, or, at least,
until the ground is permanently thawed.
Whatever kind of hotbeds you have decided to use, begin to heat
402 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
them now, and, as soon as they are thoroughly warmed, sow the
seeds of the earliest vegetables; there is no hurry, as yet, about
the seeds of annual or other flowering plants; the last of the month,
or the first of April will be time enough.
Examine the beds in which Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Lettuce
plants were wintered. If they are in good condition, and promise
plants enough, no more seeds need be sown; if not, plant the earliest
varieties now. Keep the heat of the beds constant, till the young
plants are well started, with little ventilation. After they have
made a few leaves, give air cautiously, but enough to harden the
plants gradually. Follow these sowings with Cucumbers and
Melons. Those which are to be fruited in the bed, may be planted
among the Lettuce and other plants, as the vines will not increase
much before the Salads are all gone.
If the Melons and Cucumbers are to be afterwards set out in the
garden, set small, square bits of sod, grass side down, or thumb pots,
just under the surface; sow the seeds on the earth over the sods or
pots, so that when well grown, and when the weather will permit,
they may be transplanted, sod and all, into the open ground.
Towards the latter part of the month, we shall sow seeds of Tomatoes. To get them extra early, sow the seeds the last of February, or first of March. Remember what was said about selecting
the seeds from the earliest ripened fruit of last year; if our seed
did not ripen as early as those of our neighbor, we had better buy
his.
We shall not sow seeds of Salads, Parsley, Herbs, etc., as they
will come early enough when planted in the open ground, but, if it
were desirable, this would be the time to do it.
Fill two frames with the Asparagus roots taken up in the autumn,
for forcing. If planted according to previous directions, we shall
have it for the table by the last of the month.
Sow the seeds of Egg-plant, Broccoli, Endive, Cardoons, and
prick out into the succession beds, some of the winter-saved Salad,
Cabbage, or Cauliflower plants, for an early start.
A market-gardener should begin in February or even in January
to start his vegetables in hotbeds, for an early market, but the family
wants, in a country place like ours, do not demand this.  The little
403 
IMARCH.
that we need ean be grownx easily in the forcing-house; and if we
had no such convenience, I should not advise you to have many hotbeds. They are costly and troublesome, and the vegetables grown to
maturity in them never have the flavor which they attain when
grown in the ordinary way. A well-managed kitchen-garden, with
conservative pits and cold frames, will afford an ample supply of
vegetables to carry a family fairly through the winter, till the natural round begins again.
There are some crops besides the tropical fruits which can be
had only by hothouse culture; and there are others, as Salads and
Potatoes, that cannot be well preserved through the winter, and the
use of which is so important, that we wish to have no interval
without them. For Potatoes, indeed, we need hotbeds only to start
the sprouts, and even for this they are not essential.
In a dry, well-sheltered place, raise a bed of horse manure 18
inches deep, about the middle of March; lay it down and beat it well
with the fork, making the bed as long as you please, and any width.
Over the manure lay 2 inches of loam, on which spread evenly
seed Potatoes, whole if small, cut if large, and cover them with 2
inches of loam. Box it in with boards like a hotbed, and bank the
outside with leaves and manure; but be careful that it does not
overheat and injure the Potatoes. The Potatoes will sprout, and
begin to grow, by the time it will do to set them out in April. When
planted they will require extra care. Plant them in ridges, slightly
raised above the surface (not more than six inches) by manure, in a
spot sheltered from the north and west, and well open to the east
and south. Over the manure throw an inch of earth, on which
place the potatoes, and cover them with two inches of earth. If
the sprouts appear before frosts are gone, cover the ridges every
night with long straw, old hay, or seaweed. This litter may be
left in the furrows, shaken on with a dung-fork every night, and
removed in the morning. Potatoes grown with this care will be
ripe the last of June.
If started in a hotbed they must be even more carefully watched,
and as the sprouts appear you may cut them off, with a little bit
of the tuber, and prick them out in a new bed. They will all
grow, and produce abundantly.
404 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
No subject has been more discussed by cultivators, than the
proper method of planting Potatoes; whether whole or cut, large
or small. It would seem as if this point might have been decided
long ago, with regard to a plant so common, and so long known,
but it is still a matter for experiment. I have seen Potatoes grown
from parings, which had found their way, through the swill-pail, to
the manure-heap, and thence to a hotbed, where they produced
tubers. The same result has been obtained, when it was not a
matter of accident. It seems really a simple question, and one
that need not remain undecided, to engage the attention of horticulturists year after year. We know that as in the grapevine, the
cutting of a single eye, or the budding of a single bud, grows readily, and produces for years; so in the Potato, each eye or sprout
will grow, and produce abundantly, when cut from the tuber, and
planted separately. The eye, then, is a perfect germ, containing
in itself all that is necessary to growth.   Each tuber has many
eyes, as a long grapevine cutting has many buds. When these
eyes start to grow, their rootlets find a little food stored for them
in the tuber, and when they have exhausted this, they must depend upon the earth to support them. It is true that the feebler
rootlets may at first find their most suitable nourishment in the
tuber, before they are able to select for themselves food in the soil,
but beyond this the tuber is of no value; and, as you see, we can
eat our Potatoes and have them too.  Of course the crop will be
in proportion to the number of eyes planted.
Whether small or large Potatoes are best, may depend somewhat
on the variety, but in any case those should be used for seed which
are the most mature. As in trees, and other plants, the best ripened
buds, namely, those from the middle of the stem or branch, are
always found to grow-and bear quicker than others, so it is with
the tubers of the potato.
The Potatoes that we shall plant for early forcing are, Hill's
Early, Early White, Chenangoes, and Jackson White.
In our climate it is never safe to plant out-of-doors in March,
any thing that can be injured by frost, but we may reduce the covering from about the cold frames and lighten it over the Tulips,
etc. so as gradually to harden them.
405 
MARCH.
You will find the Parsnips and Oyster plants which you covered
over and left in the ground, last autumn, in fine condition for the
table now, and the Horseradish may also be dug.
Many kinds of vegetables which are rare in this country, might
be cultivated to great advantage. The choice of vegetables for
culture seems to be to a great extent, a matter of locality, some nations growing a few varieties in abundance, which others care but
little about. For a notable example, take the Salad tribe; the
French depend upon Salads for a relish to every meal; the English use them but little, and we still less. In the Netherlands, Artichokes, Cardoons, and some other vegetables, are more in favor
than either in France or England,
All these vegetables are good food, and especially valuable as
affording a variety which is wholesome for all classes, and particularly beneficial to the poor, to whom vegetables afford a large
amount of cheap and nutritious food.
A description of the method of cultivating and using a few of them,
may interest some persons, and to aid in introducing them to general attention, I have condensed the following directions from some
English treatises: Artichokes are cooked and eaten in various ways;
the blossom, bud, or head, just before it expands, is eaten as a Salad,
and, also pickled. The scales of the calyx, with the fleshy adherent
portion, are pulled off, dipped in salt, oil, and vinegar, and eaten.
The button, which is the top of the receptacle which holds the imperfect seed, is sometimes eaten in the same way, sometimes fried
in butter, sometimes used in fricassee and ragout, and sometimes
pickled. The head may be quartered, and, after the chaffy down
and seeds attached are removed, used as a Salad or pickled.
Some cultivators, as soon as the leaves are well developed, and
the flower stem beginning to grow, that is, the first of June, cut all
level with the earth; a new and vigorous growth of leaves follows,
which, in the autumn, is held together, and hilled like Celery to
blanch. It is then covered with a little litter, and in six weeks the
blanching process will be over, and it may be cooked with drawn
butter, or in various other ways, which are described in cookery
books. In this state it is called Artichoke Chard.
The Jerusalem Artichoke is another species of plant, is good food
406 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
for cattle and hogs, and, if cultivated for this purpose will yield
large and profitable crops, and some persons think, is superior to
the common Potato for the table.
There are several varieties of the Artichokes, some of which,
produced by French gardeners, have very large heads. The globe
is the one most used as food in England, and the best for a novice in
culture to try. Others are the oval, or conical, the dwarf, globe,
etc.
The seed of the Artichoke seldom ripens in England, but freely
on the continent of Europe, and on our own, in favorable and warm
exposures. The bed may be made from seed, or slips, or eyes, or
from dividing the tubers themselves.
The suckers, or slips, are taken from the old roots as soon as
they have formed some roots. The best way to take them, is to
remove a little of the earth from the old tuber, and thus seeing the
exact position of the slip, to cut off a small piece of the tuber with
it. The suckers should be taken when from 12 to 15 inches high,
with care not to injure the leaves; plant them in rows 4 feet apart,
sets 2 feet apart; water till they are well established. The new
sets will produce heads the first season, but not so early, or so large
as the old ones. Keep the ground well stirred, then cut out all the
suckers that rise in the spring, except the three or four best. Cut
the crop when matured, as it weakens the plant to allow it to
flower, and, when the head is cut, remove the stem down to the
root.
In the autumn, when the heads are all gone, cover the bed with
horse manure and tan. Early in the spring dig it in carefully,
so as not to injure the crowns of the plants, and also dig plenty of
manure into the alleys. The Artichoke is a gross feeder, and the
roots run deep, so that the ground should be well enriched before
making the bed. Salt in large quantities, and wood-ashes are
found to contribute largely to the growth and development of these
plants.
If you wish to save any of the heads for future use, cut off with
them, 3 or 4 feet of stem; set them in a dark cellar in damp sand,
and every day draw them out, and cut off a small bit of the stem;
they will thus continue to absorb moisture for a long time.
407 
MARCH.
You may divide the old roots if you choose, instead of taking off
suckers; this can be done any time after the buds have fairly begun to grow. But it is thought by many that such plants never
thrive as well as the suckers.
The Jerusalem Artichoke,  elianthus tuberosus, is cut into eyes
for planting, or set like Potatoes, and planted in well-manured
ridges, 3 feet apart, and 8 inches between the sets, covered 3 inches
deep; cultivated through the season, and dug either in the fall of
the same year, or the spring of the year ensuing.  They are so
hardy that they would endure our winters with no, or but a slight,
covering. In digging, only the largest tubers are selected for use,
the others being returned to the earth for the next year's crop, and
a field once planted, will keep itself in bearing for several years,
and will yield as abundantly as Potatoes. Many persons in Europe
use them for the table constantly and with great relish.
Cardoons are much prized on the continent of Europe,  and
somewhat used in England. The footstalk, as well as the midrib
of the leaves, is used for stewing, soups, and even Salads, in autumn and winter. They require blanching, to make them tender,
and to remove bitterness.   Of course the longer the stems the
better, the more rapidly grown the more tender, and the better
blanched the more attractive they become. For cooking, the solid
part of the stem is cut into lengths of 6 inches, and boiled in pure
fresh water until tender; then remove the slime and strings which
will cover the pieces, wash them clean, put in fresh cold water
until wanted, then eat with white sauce, etc., as Artichokes.
This plant is a perennial in the south of Europe, but an annual
elsewhere; it is sown every year in hotbeds in March, and out of
doors in May. They would not be sure to do well in our climate,
unless, like Celery, started in a hotbed. Sow in thumb-pots, or in
bits of sod. Two ounces of seed will sow a bed of 32 square feet.
Plants in pots may be set 14 inches apart in the rows, which
should be 4 or 5 feet apart. The beds must be well manured before the plants are set out, which they should be like Celery, when
18 inches high. Tie them to stakes 3 feet high, to prevent the
leaves from breaking. Earth up at the same time, and continue
to earth gradually as the leaves grow. Water should be supplied
408 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
abundantly, and always, if possible, enriched with manure. They
will be ready for use in the autumn and through the winter, like
Celery; treat it in the same manner, to protect it firom cold
weather.
Endive is a salad plant of the Chicory family, like the Lettuce.
It is sown in July or August, for winter use. Sow the seeds in
beds, broadcast. Stimulate the growth of the plants as much as
possible by liquid manure; when 21 inches high, prick out small
kinds in rich soil, 4 inches apart; water till they begin to grow.
An early crop may be sown in May, and pricked out amongst
Peas, Cabbage, etc.; but few should be grown at a time, as the warm
weather stimulates the production of flower and seed stems. Large
kinds are to be planted 10 to 12 inches apart, in rich soil, in rows,
12 to 15 inches apart. As it is to grow late, the bed should slope to
the south, to get the late sun. The Endive is to be blanched to make
it perfect. As it blanches with some rapidity, do not prepare more
than 6 or 8 days' supply at a time. Begin at the end of the row,
and holding the leaves close together; tie a strand of matting
around them, at the same time heaping up the earth. When the
weather is cold, or not favorable for blanching in this way, use a
blanching-pot. Invert a flower-pot over the plant, covering the
hole in the bottom of the pot with a stone.  An  Endive pot is
better. The knob at the top renders it easy
to handle, and its flare encloses all the leaves.
When planted late, Endive comes into use
just before winter, and with care may  be 
made a winter Salad.  Tie up the leaves,
raise the plant with a ball of earth, and set it
out in a dry and cool place, like the conserv- 
ative pit. If it is to be depended upon for Salad, a cold pit or
frame should be constructed on purpose. It bears a good deal of
cold, and is a valuable adjunct to a winter table. It may be eaten
boiled, if desired, as may Lettuce also, but must be blanched in
either case.
Succory, another plant of the same family, and indeed the type
of the family, is also very valuable, both as a Salad and for its
35
409 
MARCH.
roots, which are used to adulterate coffee, and for other purposes.
The seeds of Succory are sowed in June, in rich earth, when the
plants come up, thin in the rows 6 inches apart. By the beginning
of October, the roots will be well grown; they are then taken up
and packed away for use. It is a perennial, and, like Carrots and
Beets, it has stowed away in itself the material for a growth of
leaves. If the blanched leaves are wanted in the early winter
set the roots as thickly as possible in a hotbed frame; pack sand
amongst them. A few weeks before they are wanted, lay over
their crowns 6 or 8 inches of loam, and a foot of manure. The
leaves soon shoot into this earth, and become white and crisp, and
ready for use. They may also be packed horizontally in boxes,
covered with earth, and set in a warm cellar; before spring they
will be found to have grown, and to be beautifully blanched. Or
a cask of any kind may be bored with holes 12I inches in diameter,
and 3 inchesapart; insert roots all round, horizontally; cover with
earth, and make a new boring and a new layer of roots; continue
till the cask is full. Fill several in the same way, and set them
in a cold place. When you want the Salad, remove one cask at a
time into a warm place, and follow in a week or two by another;
the temperature to be from 40~ to 60~. The leaves are to be cut
when 7 to 8 inches long, taking a thin slice of the crown.  To be
eaten with oil, vinegar, and salt. Three handfuls will make a good
Salad.
Dandelions are grown for our markets; the seed is sown in May,
the plants tended till winter, when they are covered up, and they
start very early in the spring, giving larger and better Salad than
the wild plants. It is eaten abroad, blanched like Succory.
Mustard is more generally used for Salad than any other of this
family of plants. The varieties are numerous, but all are cultivated in the same manner.   The plant is used when in the cotyledon state; the two first leaves thrown up by the seed. Sow it
every three or four days, and set in such places as will insure the
most rapid growth,
Some London gardeners have the floors of hothouses covered
with tan, and sprinkle the seed on every other day, thus keeping a
410 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
constant supply. The plants are cut when 3 inches high, tied in
bunches, rinsed, and put on the table. Soaking in water injures all
Salads of this family. The seed may be sown, for private use, in
shallow boxes, and set in a warm but shaded place.
Cresses are various in kind; the Water and Winter Cress are the
ordinary kinds. Water Cress may be got by sowing the seed in
any moderately still running water, or by laying branches of the
plant on the surface, which will mature and spread their seed.
They should be gathered young and eaten at once.
Winter Cress is grown from seed sown in drills, in August; half
an ounce of seed will sow 20 feet of drill. As the plants grow,
pick off the outside leaves for use, cut the flower stems down as
they appear. A very slight protection will carry through the winter, the plants being thinned out in the autumn to prevent damp-.
ing off.
Sea-kale is a Salad much used in Europe, and very valuable in
all scorbutic diseases. The blanched shoots, and the midribs of the
leaves are the parts eaten, and when ready for food, they are
cooked like Cardoons.  It may be grown from seed or from cuttings of the root. Seed should be sown late in April, in drills 2
inches deep, and 6 or 8 inches apart. Two ounces of seed will
sow a bed of 32 square feet, broad-cast, or in drills a foot apart.
The seed is very apt to be imperfect, but this may be easily ascertained by cutting them across; the good ones will be plump and
solid.
When the seed vegetates, keep it clear, and when large enough,
thin the plants to a foot apart; the plants removed, may be transplanted; only one bud should be allowed to grow, although several
will appear, particularly on plants which come from cuttings of the
root. All summer, and through the fall, the plants are kept well
hoed; before winter cut them all over, and cover with straw or
manure.
The young plants have very few fibrous roots, and a long tap
root.  They are, therefore, easily set with a long wooden dibble, 3feet long with a handle at the top, and a cross piece as a guage,
from 9 to 12 inches from its point, but made so as to shift for shorter
411 
MARCH.
roots than this, which is their average length. The lower
part should be 321 inches in diameter, tapering to 2 inches
at an obtuse point. The holes should be made by one man,
guided by a line, and followed by another man with the
roots, which may be rapidly set in the holes, the soil filled
in by a pressure of the foot. The young plants left covered
in the fall, will start to grow very early in the spring, or
may be forced.  Before forcing, remove the leaves and lit       ter, then salt the bed well, and syringe, or water with a
caustic lime-water, to kill slugs, snails, etc. Cover the
crowns of the plants with an inch or two of fine sand; over the
tops of the plants, set Sea-kale pots, which
differ from the Cardoon pots, only in having a
cover.  Cover around the pots enough ferment                in mg material, as horse manure, to raise the tem                  perature of the bed to about 60~.  In six or
seven weeks, the pots will be full of the plant.
The    covers  are   necessary to   enable us to examine the growth and health of the plants.  Various other contrivances are resorted to, but none is so good as this. Boxes covered with laths, and all similar arrangements admit the gases of the
manure into the plants and injure them.
The plants to be forced in the hotbed, are taken up in the autumn, and kept cool and dry till the time for forcing. Open a hotbed frame, and fill as usual with manure; then cover with enough
earth to allow the roots to be set within 2 inches of their depth;
cut across the length of the bed, a trench, into which pack the roots
as thick As possible; cut another trench 5 inches from the last,
and so on, until the bed is full. Cover the crowns with six inches
of straw; over the beds, nail hoops covered with mats or canvass,
and cover the whole with straw. In this way an enormous quantity
may be forced at once. Five well-grown heads are an ample supply for a family at one time. The roots may also be forced, as
directed for Cardoons.
Whoever has a glass house of any kind, has opportunity to raise
an unlimited supply of winter vegetables. Mustard may be sown
412 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
on the floor; Sea-kale and Cardoons may be forced and blanched
under tables, and along the flues, and Lettuce and Endive forced
under the sashes.
Borecole is another vegetable for winter and spring, much esteemed wherever the winters are moderate. It is a Cabbage-like
plant, but does not head like a Cabbage, nor blossom like the
Cauliflower.   The crown, or centre of the plant is cut out in
November, and continues in use through the winter, and if well
protected by branches and litter, the stump will yield an abundance
of delicate shoots in the spring. In character and treatment it is
like the Cabbage.
Broccoli is the last of these vegetables, not in common use, which
I shall mention at present. It is used in winter and spring, when
Cauliflower is not easily obtained, and the best varieties can hardly
be distinguished from Cauliflower by the taste. Broccoli is grown
from seed. Sow the seed in lines two feet apart, in holes two inches
apart. Drop three seeds in each hole; when they come up, thin
out all but the best plant. For early use, sow the first of May;
for autumn, last of May; for winter, last of June.
Do not transplant unless necessary, as it induces the plant to
button, i.e., run up prematurely in small flower-stems and buds; as
the plants grow, tread the earth hard about their roots. The first
of November dig a trench through the warmest part of the garden;
take up all the plants which are expected to blossom in the early
spring, and plant them out against the sloping bank of earth above
the trench; then cover the roots up to the lower leaves with earth.
The plants will root in this position, and yet not grow much before
spring. As winter comes on, cover the tops with litter, not deeply;
remove it to give light and air, whenever the weather will permit.
But be sure so to shelter the heads of the plants that the rain and
snow will be shed off them, as otherwise they will rot.
The full-grown plants may be set in a cold pit, or preserved, as I
have hitherto directed, for Celery.   It is somewhat doubtful
whether plants preserved in trenches would always survive the
weather in this climate, as they would be deprived of light and air
in the severest season, but in moderate weather their success is
35*
413 
MARCH.
certain, and in the Middle or Southern States they would need no
litter over their heads.
Cauliflowers may be readily protected and forced, where there is
a good conservative pit, or a greenhouse. The seed should be
sown in seedbeds, the middle of August. As soon as well grown,
prick them out 4 inches apart, in a cold frame; when well
started cool and check growth as much as possible. Cover at the
approach of winter; give light and air when possible, and towards
spring put on the sashes, and induce growth. When the weather
allows, transplant to a warm spot, and cover with a bell-glass, like
the Endive pot, except in its material.
The cut shows a still better protection. The bottom is a quad                <..  ~     rilateral of strong glass, set in an iron
sash, four panes each side.  An iron
rebated edge is added to the top, into
, _' —   - -  iwhich a pyramidal cover is fitted of
oglass, in an iron frame.  This cover
can be removed at pleasure.  By partly
turning it we may give air, without too
great exposure.   If planted near a
wall or close fence, they may be protected by mats or covers. For
late summer use they may be sown in the hotbed this month, and
in the open ground early in May; they will blossom in September.
They are easy to grow, needing only rich soil and good culture;
if they button, it is from poor soil or poor seed. The flower is
often 9 inches in diameter, but this size is no proof of goodness;
2 or 3 inches is the best size, and the perfection of a flower
is shown in its creamy color and smooth texture. WVhen the flower
has opened enough to look bunchy or warty, much of its value is
gone. It should be cut just below the flower, and all but the innermost leaves removed. If an early frost threatens, cut with a
long stem, and hang up, heads down, in a cool, dark shed or cellar,
and they may be preserved for some time.
414 
CHAPTER XLIX.
ORCHARD.
LosE no time in finishing pruning, as there will soon be other
work to occupy the attention of the men. As you prune, be on
the lookout for the eggs of insects. Caterpillar eggs of various
kinds will be found glued to the forks of twigs, and canker worms
to the twigs themselves.  If the trees were not well manured in
the fall, cart out into the orchard now an abundance of manure,
and leave it in convenient piles about the field for ready use, and
just as soon as the frost will allow, dig it in.
It may seem strange to my readers that I have so often directed
that manure should be left in piles in the open fields, when it is
one of the principles of good farming that manure should be kept
under cover, to prevent the evaporation of the gases, and to avoid
the washing of rain and snow. I have not enlarged on the method
of making manure, as it is so generally well understood.
Manure should be mixed daily with meadow mud, sand, loam,
or any similar material; this absorbs the liquid portions of the
manure, and the gases, and preserves them for the use of plants.
I have directed that the manure heap should at times be sprinkled
with weak sulphuric acid. This acid combines with the volatile
gas of ammonia, one of the most valuable constituents of the manure, and changes it into the sulphate of ammonia, which is not
a volatile gas, but a salt, in a solid form, and soluble in water.
Manure which has been well mixed with loam, can be affected
but little by evaporation in winter, when the cold weather reduces
any possible fermentation, and in every way discourages evaporation.
It cannot be denied that rain will wash the pile, but this washing will be less in winter, for then the manure is frozen, and yields
less to the washing. And if the piles are made large, the loss will
415 
MARCH.
be slight, as the surface only will be affected, the great mass remaining uninjured, and even this apparent loss is not total, as it
will fertilize the neighboring grass.
It is true that it is better whenever it is possible, to keep the
manure under cover, but generally the room is needed for other
purposes, and besides, the spring work is often hurried at the last,
and it is a great saving of time to have it all ready on the spot
where it is to be used. There is also sgme land too soft to cart
upon in an unfrozen state.
CANKER WORMS.- Towards the last of this month, if the weather
is mild, and certainly in April, the canker worms will begin to come
out of the ground, to ascend the trees, and lay their eggs. Now is
the time to be after them, and if every farmer will carefully attend
to his trees, this nuisance can be effectually destroyed, and with a
combination of farmers for this purpose, the whole race of canker
worms could be exterminated, and that of caterpillars reduced to a
small remnant. But in every neighborhood there are always some
slack or careless men, who will never unite with others for any
good purpose, and their negligence results in injury to themselves
and their neighbors.
The canker worm can be destroyed only by care. The male is
a miller, and flies where he choses, -whilst the female crawls.
The egg being laid on the twigs of a tree, hatches, and the insect
eats its fill, and after a time lowers itself into the ground, where it
is transformed into a male or female worm. As soon as the frost
is out of the soil in the spring, or during the mild weather in October and November, they come to the surface, the females crawl,
and the males fly, to the nearest tree. Up the tree they go, and
on their passage the females are sought and fertilized by the male.
Having ascended the tree, they lay their eggs and die. The method
of their destruction is simple.
Surround the stem of the tree with some trap into which they
may fall, or in which they may stick. The simplest plan is to tie
tight round the but of a tree, a piece of tarred paper. Smear the
paper with common coal tar, or some of the patent canker worm
destroyers. They are all liquid, and a combination of tar and
416 
ORCHARD.
grease, which will remain for a long time soft in the air. The
females crawl into it, and stick there. By renewing the preparation every few days during the season of their emergence, they
may all be caught. Some of the eggs may not have hatched,
either in the tree or on the ground, and will keep over till the next
season, so that the work must be repeated every fall and spring for
three years. At the end of that time the worms will be thoroughly exterminated, and it will be many years before another
horde can arrive at the same place.
There are various canker worm traps, each of which has its
merits, and once applied, some of them need no farther care for
the season; but I should discountenance all which are bound tight
round the tree for more than a few months at a time, as they will
surely prevent its expansion and growth, and do serious harm.
The cheap plan that I have described is harmless and efficient;
more expensive and less unsightly methods may be adopted by
those who prefer them.
This protection against the attacks of canker-worms and caterpillars, brings us directly to the general subject of the removal of
insects and their eggs from the surface of trees.
The most common practice among gardeners and amateurs is, in
the spring of each year to go round with a triangular scraper, to
curry down all the trees in the orchard and ornamental grounds,
whose rough bark seems to harbor insects. After being scraped as
smooth and round as possible, the trees are covered with a wash of
lime, mud, or cement, to cover the torn bark, and farther to eradicate the insects. This practice is nearly universal, and supported
by very illogical reasoning.
You will remember that I have before directed that the trees and
vines cultivated under glass, should be washed with soft soap, sulphur, etc., before vegetation begins, and also that some of them
should sometimes be bathed in spirits of tar, to remove the eggs
and the young of thrips, red spiders, etc.
This direction was given, because the eggs of all these insects
are laid upon the outside of the bark, or in its crevices, and may
be thus destroyed, and because the insects themselves are destructive to the trees when under glass, but not wlhen out of doors.
417 
MARCH.
This sound horticultural practice, together with the strength of a
certain authority, has led to scraping and washing.
Those who have the charge of the trees on Boston Common annually scrape every Elm, and other rough-barked tree, and then plaster
them. This treatment of ornamental trees seems to have originated
in the false reasoning of some Boston theorist, and has spread far and
wide, from the weight of the great example, among the smaller
towns. The reasoning seems to be that it would not be done in
Boston if it were not right; and that if it is right for Boston, it is
right for every place. The conclusion would be well enough, if
the premises were correct; but it is neither right for Boston trees
nor any other trees, and it cannot be proved that any tree out of a
fruithouse was ever benefited by such application.
This wholesale denial may seem rash to those who advocate
scraping, but I believe it to be incontrovertible.   The  good
effects of the practice in the fruithouse, have joined with a
misapprehension about the meaning of a common natural phenomenon to encourage the tree-scraping.  This  phenomenon is
the abundance of Lichens and Mosses of various kinds on all
diseased trees, whether in cultivated grounds or not. These parasites being the constant accompaniments of disease in trees, have
been supposed to be the cause of the disease, when in fact they are
merely the consequence. It would be as reasonable to assume
that the hurried pulse, and hot, red skin of scarlet fever are the
cause of the disease, and to practise for their removal accordingly.
They are the symptoms and consequences of the fever, which depart with it; and the same is true of the parasites, of those at
least which are at all harmful. But let us take up this question
methodically, and examine separately each of the supposed benefits of the scraping process. Its advocates claim that it removes
from trees destructive insects and injurious parasites.
First, the insects. Many nests of eggs, and sometimes insects
themselves, may be found in the rough bark of any tree in the
spring, and scraping and washing would probably kill them. But
examination of these eggs has proved again and again that they
are the eggs and larvae of spiders, and other insects, not known to
be materially injurious to vegetation. The insects which really
418 
ORCHARD.
make the bark a screen for attacks on the tree are tree-borers and
wood-wasps, which go through the bark at once into the wood, and
can only be killed with a wire, as before directed, and another
borer, which goes under the bark, and cannot be reached till the
entire thickness of bark is removed. The woolly-aphis and barklouse lay eggs on the bark, near the roots, and in the forks of the
branches, but never accumulate in sufficient numbers to harm the
tree, and certainly need not be scraped for where they do not exist.
All other insects that really injure trees, such as canker-worms and
caterpillars, lay their eggs on the twigs, and in the forks of the small
branches, or on and under the leaves; in these situations it is, of
course, impossible to reach them by scraping.
I do not give this more in detail, because I think it foolish to
write at length about things with regard to which any candid reader
may satisfy himself by a slight investigation.
The insects so injurious to trees and vines under glass, almost
never attack a tree or vine in the open air, unless under some peculiar circumstances, which would not be affected by scraping and
washing.
Lay it down, then, as a rule in your horticultural practice, that
no tree is to be thus treated for the removal or prevention of insects.
Second, parasites. Driven from the untenable ground that
scraping saves the tree from destructive insects, our opponents fall
back with confidence on the assertion that no more certain means
can be contrived to remove parasites.
The bark of every tree is the home of different Lichens, Mosses,
Liverworts, which may be included under the name of parasites,
and, moreover, different trees support different and peculiar species,
which as surely mark the variety of tree as do the fruit and flower.
Now what is the value of the bark to the tree?
We have already settled that the inside bark alone is actively
engaged in supporting the tree, that the outside bark is dead and
almost entirely disconnected with the inner and sap-transmitting
layer; that it grows thicker as the tree grows older, till in some
trees, like the Cork Oak, White Oak, Shell-bark Hickory, it becomes so useless as to be thrown off by the action of the elements,
41'9 
MARCOH.
in strips and fragments of various sizes. The innumerable parasites which live upon the bark, are all nourished by roots of some
kind, - whether real roots or a root surface to the under side of
the frond, -but of all the multitude only a very small number
ever penetrate -by roots or otherwise   to the inner and living
sap-bark, and none of these are found to injure healthy trees, on
which they never largely spread. The only parasites which penetrate to the inner bark (like the usnea barbata) make their appear'.nce on trees that have begun to deteriorate, and as the tree grows
more unhealthy, they increase in number. They are the hasty
pulse and red skin of the fever patient. Will it cure the sick tree
to scrape them off?
The currying process, then, is inefficient as regards the removal
or prevention of destructive insects, and there is no need of it to
remove parasites. It does no good. Let us see whether it does
no harm.
The outer bark serves a useful purpose to the tree, though it
carries no sap which the parasite can intercept and appropriate;
it is a clothing for protection against heat and cold, both to those
trees on which it grows rough and loose, and to those where it becomes closer, harder, more condensed with each successive season,
as is the case with the Smooth-barked Hickories, the Maples, and
Lindens. The rough bark is like the wool of sheep, the smoother,
denser bark, like the skin of men. If any farther illustration is
needed, it may be found in the fabrics we select for our winter
clothing, thick, non-conducting materials. This half-dead, outer
bark protects the inner bark and wood against heat and cold; prevents the early spring sun from overheating them; protects the
sap that has begun to stir from the night frost, which would freeze
it, and so burst the sap vessels; and is equally and for the same
reason useful in the fall.
Now scrape a tree all over, reducing the thickness of the bark
appreciably, and just so much do you reduce its clothing, nature's
shield, just so much do you expose the tree to injury.
Again, this outer bark is a protection against excessive evapora tion. We have already considered the pores by which leaves ab sorb and exhale moisture. In a similar way young or tender bark
420 
ORCHARD.
takes in or gives out moisture, the degree differing with local circumstances and the habits of the plant. The Sunflower, and all
plants which grow in constantly wet places, evaporate largely
through their skin and bark, and the microscope shows that they
do this by means of the breathing pores of which the outer layer
or epidermis of their skin is full. The Cactus, and other plants
which grow where there are alternate floods and droughts, have
very few of these breathing pores in their epidermis; they evaporate but slowly. To use a common phrase, their outer bark or
skin is close grained, that of the former class loose grained.
The same difference is found in the outer bark of the young and
old plants of any species, to correspond to the activity of evaporation (as of all other processes) in early life, and its gradual diminution, and to the increase of leaves.
Obviously it is not intended by nature that there should be much
evaporation from the bark of trees.  Their inner bark is of open
texture, and will evaporate freely if exposed; so it is covered by
a layer which evaporates almost nothing.   Trees transplanted
from the deep forest, even if they have an abundance of roots and
the best care, into the open land, are very liable to die, and the
few that live are years in getting strength, and making any appreciable growth. These trees are in all respects like those grown in
open land, excepting that having been protected by the surrounding forest, they have never needed to acquire that closeness - or
thickness -and hardness of outer bark which alone can defend a
tree in the open land against heat and cold, drying wind and sun.
The forest tree, never visited by searching winds and scorching
sun, evaporates more of its waste moisture through the bark than
the tree in the field; it must, for it needs to perspire more than it
can do through its somewhat scanty leaves, bathed in the moist
forest air; accordingly the pores of its bark are adjusted and used
for perspiration. When this tree is removed to open land, where
the air is dry, the sun hot, the wind free, it evaporates too much
through its bark, and must make a new bark to meet the emergency.
A tree whose protecting bark has been scraped off, so that its
tender inner bark is exposed, will evaporate moisture like the
36
421 
M!ARCH.
transplanted forest tree, and its consequent suffering will be in
proportion to the extent of the scraping.
To the scraping succeeds the wash, sometimes of mud, with no
particular character, and doing no harm except by its disgusting
unsightliness; sometimes of alkalies. Dip your hand in a vessel
of lime or potash water!  Even if you remove it at once it feels
slippery; the alkali has eaten away some of it, turned it into
soap. Keep it there long enough, and it will be reduced to soft
soap. Substitute for your hand a piece of wood; it will soon be
rotted.
The advocates of scraping, not content with cutting off a large
part of the bark, which nature provides, follow with an alkaline
wash, to rot more; they say that this wash is to neutralize the
acids in the bark, which nourish parasites. What did nature put
the acid there for? To be removed by men? If so, why are not the
trees in woods and forests, in places unvisited by men, destitute of
acids, as they cannot be relieved of them, and must, therefore, be
predestined to ruin? How foolish such a theory! As we have
seen, parasites do no harm, and we have no excuse for robbing
them of their food.
LICHENS AND MOSS A BENEFIT. - So much for the harm done
to the tree by this process, for the loss which may result to your
pocket. Another loss is certain to result, that of the exquisite
beauty which dwells in the parasites.
Not even the leaves, or the tracery of the branches, or the
grand simplicity of the stems contribute more to the beauty of
the tree, than these parasites, by their color and form.
Visit the noblest trees you know, and carefully examine them in
detail, to determine the elements of their beauty, which combined
give the tree its general effect and charm, form and color; color
of leaves, of wood, of bark; color not merely positive and single,'
the same at all times, but changing, varying, sometimes brilliant,
sometimes dull, but always harmonious and attractive. When
flooded with sunlight, the local color of bark and parasites is lost
in general light and shade. Then the irregular cracks and crevices
in the bark, the roughness and variety of surface, seem the charm
422  
VIEW OF THE HUDSON RIVER AND CATSKILL MTS., FROM HYDE PARK
4* 
ORCHARD.
of the stem, and make themselves felt.  On a cloudy day, or after
a rain, the same stem seems ablaze with a color and beauty of its
own. The grays of one kind of Lichen are but a background to set
forth and relieve the purples, yellows, and oranges of others; the
variety and subtle shading of color bewitch the eye. It seems in
one spot, or on one side, as if the sun were shining, or rather as if the
Lichen were gazing like the moon on the sun, which is veiled from
us, and reproducing for us his glory. This color is no definite and
definable thing, which may be seen and appreciated by all alike; to
catch its full charm one needs a discerning and cultivated eye, and
the more that eye is exercised, the finer our sense of color becomes,
the greater our admiration and love for its exquisite beauty, until
we are so lost in it as to be in danger of merging the greater in the
less, worshipping the beauty of color, to the exclusion of the other
charms of the tree. This love grows with exercise, and new fields
of pleasure open before it, till those who indulge it really see colors
in the clouds, the air, the earth, in the Mosses, Lichens, and leaves,
unseen and unimagined by the common crowd. They never walk
alone or unoccupied, they have sunlight in the cloudiest day, and
the common sunlight has for them more than a common glory.
The forms of this class of vegetation are as varied and bewitching as its colors. You may study them best on a rock covered -
as rocks often are- with Lichens, starred with Liverworts, fringed
with Mosses, and garlanded with Ferns; it will give you hours of
delight, and put you to the blush for having been so long ignorant
of, or dead to, their value and charms.
Scrape a tree or a rock (as well one as the other), and you ruthlessly remove all this beauty, and despise and ruin that which the
Creator delighted to honor, without getting even the poor satisfaction of a money return.  We are the worst of iconoclasts; we destroy all this beauty upon the mere suspicion that it is injurious,
and we rudely trample under our feet that which was provided to
feed and develop our minds.
The question then naturally arises, if all natural analogies and
facts are against this practice, why do men spend time and money
upon it? Do no benefits arise?
423 
MARCH.
The argument that" what is sauce for the goose, is sauce for the
gander," is at the bottom of this mistake, leading to the application
to ornamental trees, of the processes that have been thought beneficial to fiuit trees, fobrgetting the fact that the finest specimens of
ornamental trees are those discovered by explorers in places before
unvisited, the spontaneous growth of unscraped, unwashed nature.
But what is the fact with regard to fruit trees? Has even this
argument, poor as it is, any ground to start from?
I maintain that no diseased tree of any kind, has ever been bettered by mere scraping and washing. The first thing that a wise
horticulturist does to such a tree, is to prune it, cutting out carefully, all decayed and worthless wood; next, he digs about it, and
manures it.
The pruning, especially if he cuts off the top of the tree as well
as the dead branches, will give the remaining wood all the sap that
before feebly nourished the whole, and, accordingly, the roots become invigorated, the branches start with a new growth, larger and
healthy leaves burst out, which in turn, make the sap better, and
develop new roots, the tree grows and flourishes, and, no longer affording food to those parasites that fed on its decay, they gradually
fall away, together with its old, rough bark. The digging and
manuring hasten this process, and a horticultural victory is achieved.
And this, without the labor and expense of scraping, and with no
risk of injury to the delicate inner bark, by exposing it to sun and
wind and frost.
In conclusion, let me recapitulate:  1st, Insects. -No insects which harbor in the outer bark of
trees, and can be removed by scraping and washing, are really injurious to the tree. All injurious insects either go below the bark,
and into the wood, or are hatched from eggs laid on the twigs and
small branches.
2d, Parasites. - No parasite, injurious to the tree, will fix upon
it, unless it has become enfeebled by age or disease, and the tree
cannot be cured by their violent removal. All other parasites are
put on the bark by nature, to make it more beautiful, and it is a
violation of the laws of good taste to remove them.
424 
ORCHARD.
3d. - No tree has ever been with certainty benefited by scraping and washing, and it is an expensive process, and likely to injure the tree by exposing the delicate inner bark.
4th.- Any practice in horticulture, or agriculture, which violates nature's laws, without undeniable advantage, is bad gardening,
and bad farming, and a discredit to those who practise it.
The month of March is so near the growing season, that the
demands of the orchard for the year to come must be well considered. We have -on our place no new orcharding to plant, no
trees to replace, as our orchards are all young or in their prime,
but were we about making a new plantation, too much care and
attention could hardly be paid, at this season, to a careful selection
of the best kinds of trees. If you are planning the cultivation of
fruit, remember the point continually urged; it is not so much the
quantity of fruit that is to be sought, as its quality; its size, color,
delicacy of flavor. Grow those fruits which will ripen at such
times as the market is generally bare of fruit. Every neighborhood is overstocked with fruit in the late summer and early autumn, and consequently such fruit is of small value, and mush of it
really does not pay for its raising.
Winter apples come into the same category; the large profits of
the earliest orchards induced the planting of many more, until they
have become so common, that in good Apple years they are hardly
profitable.
I do not mean to discourage the planting of orchards, but only
to point out the necessity of a judicious selection of fruit. Those
Apples which keep late will always command better prices than
others, and of course the same is true of the earliest ones.
There are other kinds of fruit culture much more profitable than
that of Apples. I mean the Peach and the Pear. It is true that
in New England the Peach-tree has deteriorated very much of late
years, and it is thought by many that it is not worth while to cultivate it; but a little observation, as we have before seen, of the
causes of their degeneration, may show how it may be prevented.
In the first place, many cultivators have been too grasping, and
have grown grass in their Peach-orchards, which has of course
drawn off nourishment from the trees.
36*
425 
MARCH.
Secondly, they have left them unpruned, and allowed them to
remain unchecked, except by the frost, so that the unripened wood
has staid on the tree, weakening it the next year, and injuring the
new wood and the fruit.
Thirdly, they have let the tree bear as much fruit as it would,
and this always renders it small and imperfect.
In the neighborhood of Boston, however, persons who have
Peach-orchards of well-selected varieties, and well taken care of,
have for several years past made a profit of several hundred dollars an acre, without any extra expense.
Pears, however, offer a more certain return than Peaches, as the
latter are often injured by late frosts in the spring. There is a
great variety of Pears, but few kinds are really valuable, and the
value of these varies very much with latitude and longitude.
As we have said before, the latest fruit is most certainly remunerative. Common Iron Pears, which grow abundantly in hedgerows, are as valuable in the spring as the most delicate kinds in
summer and autumn. But there are better winter Pears than the
Iron, as for instance, the Easter Buerre, which is fit for the table
in March, when it sells for very great prices.
The great profit from the growth of Pears, arises not only from
their large price, but from the abundant production of fruit to the
acre. Alternating two dwarfs with one standard, in the row, the
trees being 12 feet apart, the standards will be 36 feet from each
other.  Then place the rows 20 feet apart, and set the trees so that
the standards of the second row will each come opposite the middle
of the space between the standards
S    d    d      S      of the first row, and of course the
middle of the space between two
dwarfs, and so on.   This arrange                            ment will allow 221 trees to the acre,
ad    d  S    d    da  and of these, one-third will be stand
ards.
These trees ought always to yield,
after well growing, at least two dozen
Pears to the tree, which will never
426
S   d   d   S 
ORCHARD.
be worth less than 50 cents a dozen, and often one or two dollars.
At the lowest price, the fruit will bring $221. This ought to be
the receipts within four years of their setting out. Apples will
not bear two barrels per tree, worth $1 net a barrel, for ten or fifteen years.
But if the trees are planted in the improperly called Quincunx
manner, as shown on page 107 of Thos. W. Field's Pear Culture,
and 10 feet apart in the rows, and the rows 10 feet apart, not less
than 473 trees can be easily, properly and profitably grown to the
acre; 8 feet apart as I have said, will suffice in rich land for Pears
on the Quince stock, and 12 feet is enough for all kinds.  Pears
demand, as a sine qua non, a deep, friable, rich, well-drained soil,
and constant care and culture, when they will certainly pay the
cultivator large profits.
Some may doubt whether this culture is as profitable as I say,
because it is not more general. It is in this as in all new enterprises; the timidly conservative, the lazy and procrastinating,
and the self-complacently shrewd have not embarked; these last,
with preternatural sagacity, predict that the thing will be overdone
and the market overstocked, forgetting as they peer into the millstone, that population increases quite as fast as fruit. But the
thing has been tried by many, and its success demonstrated, and my
statement is founded on their experience.
Pears will often bear much more than this calculation allows,
and may be much more closely planted, and in the course of 10 or
15 years the standards will grow two or three bushels of Pears
apiece, worth from three to twelve dollars a bushel according to the
fruit.
The selection of Pears to suit any given soil, is rather a difficult
matter; it is a singular kind of fruit, and often a man's land will
bring but one or two kinds to perfection, in which case he should
devote himself exclusively to these, and give them a name and
reputation.
Other kinds of fruit-culture, as Grapes, Cranberries, etc., might
be recommended, but I leave the consideration of them to another
time.
I wish especially to impress upon the farmer, that the early spring
427 
MARCH.
is the unoccupied time, when he should decide on the kind of fruit
that he will cultivate, that when the season for work comes he may
proceed with judgment and dispatch.
Towards the last of March begin to graft, and continue through
April. Scions cut after the buds begin to swell will not do well.
428
r 
CHAPTER L.
THE FARM.
FEW persons can understand the immense importance of the
farming interest. The dullest mind is impressed with the cost and
value of manufactories, of ships, and warehouses; no one goes into
a large city without wondering at the variety of occupations, the
number of inhabitants, and asking how they all live; and yet, in
comparison with the agricultural interest, all other trades and occupations are a drop in the bucket. To the farmers fall the duty
of feeding the world, and although floods of fine words are poured
out yearly by the orators of agricultural societies, and by aspiring
politicians, in praise of this occupation, few persons ever rise to
the comprehension of its real magnitude.
The value of the eggs of the domestic fowls of this country
alone is from $30,000,000 to $40,000,000, and the value of the
Grass crop is greater than that of any other crop, being worth, in
the shape of hay, to live and slaughtered animals, $500,000,000.
Small as may be the contribution of each person, to this aggregate,
it is a contribution, and would be missed in some way, were it to fail.
The connection of supply and demand is very plain, and since the
demand of food to support life is so constant, and great, it is of
immense importance that no means should be left untried, to
increase the amount and quality of the crop, without materially
increasing its cost. To illustrate the waste and loss, which may
result from the want or the neglect of such improvements, take
the single item of horned cattle.
Suppose a certain number of farmers in this country, to grow
yearly, 100,000 cattle for fattening.  These cattle are ill-selected
in some respects; instead of the small bones, and little offal, of the
Short-horns, or the Devon stock, they have coarse bones and unnecessary-waste portions to the extent of 50 pounds, to put it at a
429 
MARCH.
figure small enough; the average value per pound, of the animals'
carcases, we will call six cents; then the loss, per animal, is $3, or
$300,000 on the whole number. We have seen that there is no
need of this coarseness; care in selection when breeding would have
avoided it. But this $300,000 is not the only loss. The coarser
in nature, structure, bones, an animal, the more food he requires to
gain a given weight. The greater amount of food necessary to
fatten these coarse animals, than if they were fine, was not less
than $2 an animal, or $200,000 more. A common stock farmer
will have 50 head of cattle at a time, and, for the 100,000 cattle,
2,000 farmers thus lost $250 dollars apiece, $5 a head on their animals.  This calculation is much too small, for almost every New
England stock farmer knows that his cattle have much more than
50 pounds of unnecessary waste, which does not exist in the choicest
cattle. But it shows how important small things are to the farmer,
and also, how exact a science farming is, giving as much opportunity for head work, as for hand work; and, when we consider the
great aggregate of agricultural products, it becomes apparent how
large gains slip through their hands.
It may seem of little consequence whether the profits of a man,
who cultivates his farm with no thought of any thing outside its
boundaries, are great or small; but this is a mistake, and is felt to
be one, where farming is acknowledged as one of the sciences. As
our agriculture advances, we feel the value of small gains more
strongly. While our stock roams over large pastures, and our hay
crop is too large to be consumed, or sold, we care but little about a
few pounds of waste in any animal, but just as soon as we begin
to feed our stock on purchased provisions, and to be restricted in
our range of profit to the difference between the cost of food and
the market price of the fattened animal, the disadvantage of coarseness in limb and material is forced upon us, and we seek to avoid it.
STALL FEEDING.-The second kind of stock farming is characterized by stall feeding the animals to be fattened; in it, pasturage
is of little consequence, as the animal is but rarely turned out, and
only for air and exercise. It is because of the rude state of our
general agriculture, that stall-feeding is so little practised among us.
430
I 
THE FARM.
Among farmers determined to get the largest possible return from
their land, it will always be practised. I do not mean to say that
our common farmers have no stall-fed cattle, for almost every one
of them has some pair of oxen; some old cow, some calf which is
fed on Roots, Hay, Meal, etc., through the winter, to increase its
weight; but there is no general practise of this sort, it being considered unprofitable.
This second kind of stock farming will prevail most in level,
alluvial countries, where land is too valuable to be given up to
pasture. The crops of such a farm will be decided by the kind
of stock kept. Sheep of all ages may be grown on it, both for
wool and mutton, as the sheep fats at 18 months to 2 or 3 years
of age, and the food eaten by the young animal is no loss. But if it
is to fatten neat cattle, there will be no young creatures; those
which have been grown in a pasture country, and have reached
the best age to fatten, will be bought, and the process hurried forward as fast as possible. The kind of stock decides the food, the
food the crop, and thus the whole arrangement of the farm depends
directly on the stock.
It seems almost impossible to our country farmers that there can
be any profit in fattening cattle, unless most of the fat is acquired
in pastures, thus costing nothing, as they think; and yet the best
experience has shown that the profit of fattening falls to the stallfeeding farmer much more than to the pasture-feeding farmer.
Let us take a single animal as our example, and ascertain what
is the proper treatment for it, and then we may conclusively reason
for a number.
Our farmer in the fall buys an ox; if he be shrewd, he will
select.one in good condition, and growing, because an animal never
lays fat on the outside, where it shows, till there is some accumulation within, so that good condition externally is a proof of the
same internally. But there are other marks which he regards in
making his selection; he feels the hide, taking it up in his fingers;
if it slides easily over the bones, is pliable, he knows that the creature is inclined to fat; he looks at its eyes, for if they are mild
and gentle, the creature will be quiet and make  fat faster.  He
rejects every animal with large bones, coarse hair, general un
431 
MARCH.
wieldiness, as he knows these indicate an internal structure that
must be supported, but is worth little. Besides these marks, there
are others which he cannot describe, but knows to be important.
Having bought his beast, he drives it slowly home. I assume
that this man is a wise and growing farmer. He begins to feed
with Hay, like his neighbors, and finding no gain in this, he adds
some Meal. He calculates the weight and value of the Hay and
Meal, and the cost of care. He weighs the creature occasionally,
to see exactly what he gains. Dissatisfied with the experiment,
which he finds, as his neighbors prophesied, a costly one, he turns
to the books. They tell him that oil meal, rape-cake, and other
food, have been found equal to or better than corn meal, for fattening, and cheaper; he accordingly tries it, feeds as before, and
weighs his animal, noting the gain or loss.
As he reads farther, he finds that Turnips and other Roots are
excellent aids to meal; he draw- upon his stock of Roots, and
feeds, noticing the gain as before. Further inquiry informs him
that the Turnips boiled with the Meal, have been found by some
more fattening than when raw. Again he tries the experiment,
continuing to weigh and notice the result, charging as before, the
cost of Meal, Hay, Turnips, interest on cost of animal and tools,
wear and tear, labor and fuel. From time to time he compares
his records with those of others; he learns that warmth is beneficial as well in building as in food, and so by degrees he learns the
best and cheapest food for fattening. Whether the result of his
experiments is like that of the English and European experiments
or not, he makes note of it.
When the animal is fattened, he sells it, and then makes up his
final account of profit and loss.  In whatever  way the balance
turns, he knows that his experiments have cost him something, so
to make quite sure he begins anew. This time he is careful to
buy animals of small bones and little waste; he puts them into the
stall, and feeds by that plan which his experience has decided to
be the best, and if any prophecy may be founded on the facts of
universal experience, he will gain a fair profit by the operation,
and this profit will have arisen from abandoning the exclusive use
of Hay and Corn, according to the common country practice, and
432 
THE FARM.
by the use of other kinds of food. And in addition to this pecu niary profit, he gets a great deal of very valuable and highly en riched manure.
The results of such experiments as this in England have had a
great influence in revolutionizing agriculture. From the fact that
animals fattened faster when fed on Turnips and other Roots, in ad dition to Meal and Hay, than when kept on Meal and Hay alone,
and that the process was hastened still more when the Roots were
given as the main food, and Meal and Hay in less proportion; attention was turned to the general culture of Roots, and they were
found to yield enormously, in comparison to the amount of land
occupied, and the cost of production. This crop then furnished
the greatest amount of food for stock, which returned a manure
richer than that resulting from Hay-feeding, to be the food for
future crops.
It also appeared that Root crops made the land better in the
cheapest way, and their culture soon took the place of the clumsy
method by which exhausted land had formerly been brought again
into bearing.
However fertile land may be, however much it may be improved
by draining and irrigation, constant cropping will reduce its fertility, till at last it is not worth cultivating, and no crop does this
sooner than Grain. But Grain, together with the products of flocks
and herds, which fed on the natural pasture of the farm, was the
main reliance of the farmers of the old style; and of this they
could take but a few crops before their land was exhausted. To
restore it, they resorted to what is called a "bare fallow," that is,
the field was left uncultivated for awhile, to be slowly fertilized
by sun, wind, and rain.  If during this " bare fallow" the ground
was kept clear of weeds and frequently ploughed, it gained enough
to grow another Corn, or "white crop," as it is usually called.
The fallow system was improved by the aid of manuring, which,
of course, hastened the process of restoring fertility.
Farmers were early aware that this impoverishment of land,
where one crop had been grown for successive years, was because
its supply of the peculiar food of those crops was exhausted, and
that it could be enriched again only by cultivating it with some
37
433 
MARCH.
other crop, or by the naked fallow. It seems the simplest way, to
cultivate a crop which would not require the same food as the previous crop, but could thrive on some of the materials still left in
the soil; and it may seem incredible to us that men should so long
have groped on the threshold of the discovery of this principle,
the full application of which has wrought so marvellous a change
in agriculture; but the proper practice of the rotation of crops has
not been introduced into our country, and we are now where the
farmers of the "bare fallow" period were in England.
To return: at that time Roots were cultivated only for family
use or for occasional sale, never for fodder crops; Grass and Grain
were the crops of that day. The wastefulness of this course will
appear more plainly, if we consider for a moment the difference
between the demand and the return of different crops. The production of seed, is the aim of the life of all plants, and is accomplished either directly, as in the Grain crop, or indirectly, by storing
partially elaborated material in some convenient place, to be completed and ripened as seed in another year, as in the case of Turnips, etc..
Now the Grain draws on the soil more largely than the Turnip,
for two reasons: it has less time in which to do its work, for it
must prepare the ripe seed (which may be regarded as the concentrated extract of the plant) in a single year; and it has but little
means of drawing from any source except the soil. Its slender
stem and narrow leaves are not adapted to absorb much nourishment
from the air; it must be fed through the root, and impoverishes
the soil proportionately. But the Turnip, which lays up a store in
the root, has twice as long to prepare its seed, and can go through
the slower process of obtaining a large amount of its food from the
air. Accordingly it is furnished with the means for doing this, as
may be seen in any Root plant, or in other plants with a similar plan
of growth. The surface of leaves exposed to the air is large, compared with the roots, and experiment has repeatedly demonstrated
that they draw on the atmosphere much more largely than on the
earth.
This difference in the demands of the Root and Grain crops points
them out as fit successors to each other, and this grows plainer the
434 
THE FARM.[
more we consider the difference between the food necessary to
elaborate seed, and that capable of giving the largest bulk of leaves
and roots. Could farmers ever be induced to consider their crops
in this abstract way, they would save trouble, time, and expense.
This great principle of rotation of crops was dimly recognized in
the substitution of Grass for Grain on the exhausted fields, and in due
time of a fallow for the Grass; but in this way there was great loss
of time and acreage. So long as farmers believe that Hay and
Grain alone are sufficient to produce good beef and mutton, so long
they are indifferent to the difference between the Root and Grain
crops, for it is wasteful to grow crops for which one has no use,
merely because the land will produce them.  But when it was dis covered that Roots of all kinds were not only good food, but the
best food for cattle, those farmers who believed in the discovery
cultivated Roots, and found not only that their value as food was incontestible, but that with a given expenditure in manure and labor,
Roots gave a larger return in value than any other crop. This was
the turning-point, the rising tide-wave of improved agriculture.
The new crop was an improvement in every respect; it restored
fertility better than the fallow, gave an immense amount of fodder,
and ensured a corresponding increase in manure, from the greater
number of cattle which could be fed from the farm.
Under the old system -the same pursued in New England at
the present day - there was a large and a small white crop, one
large yield of Hay, then smaller and smaller, then good pasture,
then poor. This rotation gave a change from better to worse. The
new practice demonstrated that there need be no "worse;"  it
showed that a Root crop should fallow the sod, and should be
followed by Grain; that again by Grain, or Grass and Clover;
that by pasture and Roots. At first it was made a point that a
white crop should never be taken two years in succession, and after
going through Roots and Grass, it was found, on returning to the
white crop, that the ground was so much richer than before, that a
number of bushels was taken previously unheard of in the neighborhood. A succession of rotations had the same result, until the poorest land has become rich; some land too rich, and it has at last been
necessary to take two white crops in succession, to check the waste
435 
MARCH.
power of the soil, which produced so heavy a burden of straw that
the grain suffered.
Do not think that the mere introduction of Roots effected this
wonder of converting worthless into fertile lands. Draining and
irrigating were used to improve and stimulate; as the process went
on, it was found that the stock did not give manure enough to satisfy the farmer; other manure was sought and found in guano, and
in artificial manure. Oil meal, and similar food, before mentioned,
was resorted to to supply certain elements which were wanting in
Turnips. Cattle no longer roamed over meagre land, but if pastured at all, fed on rich Clover or Grass aftermath, and being soon
filled, lay down to digest in quiet, and so got more nourishment
from their food.
The farmer did not care to grow the cattle in their young and
unprofitable years, but bought them at a fair price from hill pastures, just as they reached the age for fattening.   The pasture
farmer in his turn studied to increase the size and rapidity of
growth of his young cattle, that they might the sooner be ready for
market, and might bring the highest price.  And thus a wheel was
set in motion, which touched all the agricultural interests; the
more crops, the more labor; the more labor the more outlay of
capital; and this led to the invention of labor-saving machines,
which again gave the farmer power to grow greater crops. It is
not at all necessary to enlarge on these mutual relations and their
progress; it is enough to put you in the way to see how largely the
agriculture of another country has been benefited by the intelligent introduction of what is called rotation of crops.
Here I shall be met by the assertion, with which the indifferent
or obstinate American farmer, answers all arguments drawn from
the rise and progress of British agriculture; viz., that the cost of
labor here, forbids the cultivation of the more troublesome crops.
Let the cost of labor be what it may, there is no truth in this assertion. The question is not of the cost, but of the net profit; and
the most costly crop may yet be the most profitable. In truth, it
is not to the cost, but to the trouble, that these farmers object. Crops
which require much labor and watching, do not suit the happy-golucky man, whose method of getting a fair crop of grain from
436 
THE FARM.
unexhausted land is very simple. He cuts off and burns the wood,
ploughs rudely, and harrows in the seed, leaving the stumps standing, the water-courses undrained, the rocks unremoved; he gives
the crop no further attention, till it is fit to cut. Year after year
this process is repeated, till the land refuses to yield enough to pay
for the labor; then a scanty dressing of manure is given, or perhaps some rude attempts at drainage are made, or the plough runs
deeper, and the land is held a little longer under cultivation.
Our New England farmers are wont to deride the practice of
the men who have reduced Virginia, Western New York, and other
States, from unbounded fertility to sterility, or something scarcely
better, by bad and exhausting farming; yet our average farming
differs from this only in degree, not in kind.
It is not enough to do a little better than you have done; if you
are to be the best farmer, you must entirely remodel and reform
your practice. To cultivate an acre of ground thoroughly is a
costly process, and demands a liberal outlay of time and money.
If it is wet, it must be drained, and poor draining is exceedingly
foolish. The cost of digging the drain is the same, whether it is to
be laid with tiles or stones  and this main expense is out of all
proportion to any difference between the cost of these two materials, and must, besides, be incurred anew whenever any repairs
are made.  A tile drain will last from 60 to 100 years, a covered
stone drain will last equally long, a blind drain but a few years, a
brush drain a still shorter time, and an open drain is always out of
order.   Besides the ultimate loss of the cost of the open drain,
which is to be met when they are remade at the end of about 15
years, is the loss of land for culture where they are. When properly
made they occupy about one-eleventh of the acre, so that if the crop
is Hay, assuming the net value to be $12 for the growth of 2 tons
to the acre, they will displace $1.09 worth of hay, which in the 15
years at interest, with annual loss, would equal $25.18. The cost
of the drains would be at least $48.20, which with repairs and interest in 15 years, would be $196.48 per acre, and at that time
might be reckoned as a loss, as they would have to be remade.
If, instead of this open drain, you lay a tile drain, it will cost to
complete the work, about $50 per acre, which in 15 years will
37*
437 
MARCH.
amount to $126.24. At the end of 15 years the drains are as good
as at first, and in comparison with the open drain, there is an
absolute profit of $126.24 to begin again with. In 15 years more
this profit, aside from that of culture, will amount to $317.69, and
if 10 acres are reclaimed instead of 1, this profit in 10 years will
be $3,176.90, merely by the substitution of the better drain, while
the profit of the culture is yet to be estimated.
This calculation has been based on the largest cost of the drain,
and the lowest price of Hay.  The drain can be well laid for much
less, and the price of Hay rarely goes down so low in New England. But there are many better crops than Hay, - Corn, Wheat,
Rye, or better still, Roots. It would be easy to grow upon land thus
drained, crops which would not otherwise have grown on it at all,
and which will pay at least $10 extra profit; which would be 60
per cent on the cost of the improvement, or in 15 years with
interest $936.48. An enormous sum, certainly, as the return from
a single acre improved; and this is no romantic theory, but so plain
a fact in business, that the English Government have established a
large fund to be loaned at low interest, to land-owners, to enable
and induce them to make improvements in drainage. MIany farmers borrowed thousands of dollars from this fund, and gained an
ample return.
Indeed, one reason why our farmers are so far behind the times
in these matters, is, that they are without the capital sufficient to
make these improvements, or, at least, they think they are; for
they cannot spare the few hundreds that they "lay up" in bank
stock, or mortgage bonds, that give them 6 per cent, and do not see
that the same money invested in their farms, would pay ten times
as much, and even more; for this $50 cost is mostly for labor,
which may, in many cases, be done by the farmer himself.
Farmers cannot believe, when they see a drain full of water, that
a little two inch hole, with or without loose stones, could carry
that all off. The outlet is the important thing; give a drain fall
enough, and 2 inches will discharge an enormous quantity of water
in a day. And by cutting the drain 3 or 4 feet deep, the springs can be
cut off, and the subterranean waters stopped and carried off before
they get to the surface. Such drainage would double the value of
438 
THE FARM.
thousands of acres in New England, which are now but half cultivated, because they are too wet in spring and fall.
There is an argument against making valuable permanent improvements, which has great weight with farmers, and is even
quoted by those who have considerable intelligence, as being conclusive; viz., that for the sum necessary to thoroughly drain an acre,
one can buy another acre as good as the first.  So he can, and be
just one acre poorer than before.
You farm to grow rich; by buying more land you grow poor.
In the case of the two acres, you must pay taxes on both, you must
manure both; you must plough and plant, hoe and harvest, two
acres instead of one. To plough 10 inches deep will cost, per acre,
$3, beside wear and tear of tools, say 25 cents ($3.25); to sow
with Corn, at least 50 cents ($3.75); to hoe twice, $2 ($5.75); to
cultivate, $2 ($7.75); to thoroughly manure with barnyard manure, $20 per acre ($27.75); to harvest, $4 ($31.75), or more
according to the crop; making together, an expense of not less
than $33 per acre.  Allowing $20 profit per acre, there would be
from the two acres, a profit of $40, or $33 less than from the one
reclaimed acre, which, paying the cost of cultivation, would yield
$40 profit per acre. It may seem unfair that I should allow $40
as the profit of a well-drained acre, and only $20 as the profit for
the unimproved acre purchased. A moment's thought will show
that it is not unfair; the very fact of having drained a field well,
will induce you to cultivate it twice as well, - indeed, it implies
some accessories of good culture. The stones used to fill in the
drain ditch, are gathered from the surface of the field, much to its
improvement; and, what is a more conclusive argument, if the unimproved acre can yield $40 net profit, it cannot be bought for
$71.  Thus there will be the difference between $40 and $7, or
in 15 years, as before, the sum of $730.81.
There will be another benefit from thoroughly cultivating what
we have; if we apply thorough drainage, etc., to an acre of our unproductive pasture, we can put the whole $40 into our pocket, beside raising the value of the property we now have, in place of increasing our barren acres. The drawback to profit in agriculture
439 
MARCH.
is the cost of culture, and this is undeniably halved by confining
ourselves to the one acre.
The draining lightens and deepens the soil; the manure from
above, is met by the accumulated manure from below; the roots of
the crop are fed in the warm earth and manure above, during the
first of the season, and are cooled, fed, and stimulated, by the subsoil in hot, dry summer, and early autumn. Unquestionably, we
shall need but half the manure necessary for two acres; we can
keep fewer men, do the work quicker, be less exposed to the danger of early and late frosts, have less care and anxiety.
But, as I have said, this is but the beginning of good culture. In
our anxiety to get the most from our one acre, we shall plough
deep. The value of deep ploughing is almost self-evident; plants
accustomed to find their food in six inches of earth, and to live or
starve, as that food was sufficient, or insufficient, because an impassable barrier met them at that depth, now have twelve inches in
which to find food,- the accumulated food of ages; and you
have thus added another acre of land six inches deep, to your farm,
and so situated that the plants cannot fail to get the full benefit
of it.
Next comes sowing the seed. Be it what it may, enough is better than too much; first, it costs less; second, it is more quickly
sowed; third, it needs less thinning when up; fourth, it is more
easily kept clean. To sow the seed of Turnips, or other Roots, by
hand, is a long and tedious process, and wastes much time and seed,
but with a seed-sower, a man will sow several acres a day. I will
not, therefore, charge the improved acre with the cost and interest
on the cost of the seed-sower; both will be saved in two crops.
Suppose that instead of such small seed, you plant Indian
Corn, or smaller Grain.
Indian Corn may be rapidly deposited from some of the new
corn-sowers, at just the same distance from hill to hill, with the
same number of corns in each hill, and all the rows straight, at a
larg,e saving of seed and time, more than enough to pay the cost
of the sower in one season's culture. How long it would be necessary to talk to New England farmers, to satisfy them that all small
440 
THE FARM.
Grains are vastly more economically sowed by the use of graindrills, whilst the yield is increased, I do not know; but in England
the drill has been used by the most intelligent farmers, who find a
saving of firom 1 to 2 pecks of seed to the acre (50 cents to $1),
and from 50 to 150 per cent in the cost of sowing. The seed is
all evenly sowed, and therefore comes up quicker, and loses less
firom birds, that are ready to pick up badly covered grains; the
plants grow better from all having the same room; all the heads
fill out alike, from abundance of air and light, and a fair share of
soil; and lastly, and chiefly, the field can be weeded.  How horrorstricken would our farmers be, if asked to weed a wheatfield?
I do not say, that with the price of labor here, we could make
much money by weeding Wheat by hand, although in England, at
the cost of 1 to 2 dollars per acre, a gain of 2 to 3 bushels of
Wheat, has been made; or $4 to $6 by weeding; and when weeded
by horse-hoes, at a cost of 75 cents to $1 per acre, the same gain is
made. Weeding has the advantage of removing all the weeds, which
exhaust the soil in proportion to their number; it stirs the earth, and
gives the roots a better chance to push, and induces the Wheat to
tiller, or produce more stalks, and consequently more heads and more
straw. And it removes the weeds for all time, helping to bring
the land to a condition of perfect cleanliness. Under this method
seed is sown 7 to 9 inches apart, and yet the yield per acre is equal
to and greater than the yield under the system of sowing broadcast, and covering all the land. So far has this been carried, that
in special experiments, and in the general practice of some farmers,
it has been shown that by throwing a field into ridges 3 feet wide,
and 3 feet apart, and sowing only the alternate ridges, and cultivating with care and cleanliness, the yield is as great in the average
as when drilled 7 to 9 inches apart, or sown broadcast.
But some Western farmer will say: "'Tis all very well to cultivate an acre of Wheat this way; it could not be done in my fields
of 200 or 300 acres." One English gentleman, whom I propose to
refer to presently, has 500 acres of Wheat, which are sowed by
drill and weeded, and he, as I shall show you, has grown rich by
farming.
To pass on to the Turnips. Suppose them sowed by a seed-sower,
441 
MARCH.
they must next be thinned.  If they are in rows 2 feet to 30 inches
apart, they may be cut into gaps of 12 inches, by two blows of a 6
inch, or three blows of a 4 inch hoe, and thus the single plants left;
these, losing their accustomed support, will fall over, but in a day
or two will recover. Practice will enable the laborer to readily
single his Turnips, cutting away all but the one he wants left. Be-,
fore singling begins, the rows should be scuffled, or cleaned with the
horse-hoe or cultivator. Next, as the Turnips begin to grow, hoe
them.  The benefit of hoeing to the crop is enormous; it increases
the yield some hundred bushels to the acre, and yet, strange as it
may seem, it was years before the body of English farmers could
be induced to grow Turnips at all, and years more before those who
did grow them could be induced to hoe them. Earnest agriculturists labored till they were heart-sick, to persuade the mass of
farmers to cultivate their Turnips properly, and one of them tells
how for years his neighbors came and looked over the wall, and
sneered at him while thus wasting his time, as they held hoeing
Turnips to be. But our farmer must hoe.
I have rudely blocked out the treatment of the improved acre
in the common crops. Thus cultivated for successive years, with a
judicious use of the crops, it will make the farmer rich. The practice is the same for many acres as for one, and to perfect success in
either, a careful system of rotation of crops is necessary. Irrigation may also be necessary, but it has been sufficiently advocated on
in a previous month.
Our model farmer in New England will therefore grow rich if
he perseveres, for the ratio of profit when the crop is harvested is
the same, whether here or in England. Farmers who do not like
to confess their unwillingness to adopt improvements, fall back upon
the high price of labor, as an excuse for not growing Root crops.
This is the weakest of reasons.   Labor  and watchfulness and
judicious rotation of crops are the things necessary to success in
all cases; and in all countries where the same object is sought, the
means must be similar. If to grow a fat ox be the aim of two
farmers, with one of whom labor is cheap, with the other dear,
there is no difference in their desire for profit; each wishes the
largest possible. Each wished to feed his ox on the most fattening
442 
THE FARM.
food; which has been ascertained to be both Grain and Roots. Now,
what is the relative cost of producing each of these crops? In
view of the ultimate value of each, Grain is the more costly of the
two; Turnips give the largest return, whether to the man who pays
high, or to him who pays low wages. This being the case, it is all
important that the man who pays the most for labor, should grog
the best crop. If Corn cost $32 an acre, with $20 profit, and Turnips cost $42, with $60 profit, it does not matter that the latter cost
a third more, if they pay three times as well at that cost.
In carrying out these several estimates, I have set a fixed value
upon the crops we raise, and allowed 90 cents a bushel for Corn,
and $8 for stover and 50 bushels of Corn to the acre.   I have allowed 20 cents a bushel as the value of Sweeds Turnips, or Mangold Wurzel, to feed out. Some fairmer might take exceptions to
my reasoning in this wise: Turnips are not worth as much as that
to sell in my town; there is no market for them. They are worth
that to feed out, and I propose that you take land which will.yield
12- tons of Hay to the acre, and cultivate it well in Sweeds or Mangold, they will certainly yield you, one year with another, 20
to 25 tons to the acre. Careful experiments, tried very many
times, have shown that to feed out one part of Hay, is equal
to five of Turnips.  Thus from your land you now get out 12 tons
of Hay, but for home consumption, to make beef, mutton, wool, or
milk, by Root culture, that which is equivalent to 5 tons of hay.
The cost of the 12 tons of hay was about $12 an acre, and the profit
$10; the cost of the Turnips $40, the profit, on the Hay basis, $30,
and really much more; the average of 20 estimates by New England
farmers, of the cost of an acre of Ruta-Bagas, or Mangolds, is $40.
See Coleman's reports.  The profit, relative to cost, is the same,
but the money in pocket four times as great at the end of the year.
Besides, I have shown how this difference between the price of
American and of English labor may be nearly done away, by employing machinery to do the bulk of the work. The cost of tile
draining has nothing to do with this point, remember; we start
upon our outlay as fixed capital. Ploughing, harrowing, sowing,
cultivating, may be done by horse power.
The Grain may be harvested by horse power; and by machinery
443 
MARCH.
in the barn, we may thresh and sort our Grain, cut our fodder and
Roots, and feed them out, so that all the labor will be reduced to
the lowest cost.
Perhaps all this is met by the old objection of want of capital
to invest. Let me once and for all reply: take your farm as you
find it; make the best of it, and invest every cent of profit not
needed for your family, in improvements; and be assured, each
new investment will pay well. The poorer a man is, the less can
he afford to farm slovenly. If you are so poor that you must
carry out your manure in a wheelbarrow, and dig it in with a
spade, spread it thickly over a small surface, dig 12 instead of
6 inches deep, cultivate with scrupulous care, and you will find the
return most satisfactory. Be not deceived by that most specious
and ruinous of theories, that you make more money by spreading
the manure of one acre over two, and cultivating two acres in the
time before allowed for one; for though the crop of the two acres
may be double the crop of one of them, each yields but half what
it should. One acre would have given you as much as both these,
if it had received all the manure and proper culture, and at a
much less cost.
Suppose your farm has six fields, and you have decided to begin
a rotation. If the land is poor, I advise at first a 6 years rotation,
something as follows:- 
FIELDS.
No. 1.        No. 2.         No. 3         No. 4          No. 5.         No. 6.
Wheat.       Turnips.   Spring Grain   Grass ist   Grass 2d year    Potatoes.
and Grass.       year       or Pasture.
Turnips   ISpring Grain   Grass 1st   Grass 2d year   Potatoes.         Wheat.
{and Grass. I year.   or Pasture. 
Spring Grain   Grass 1st  IGrass2dy          Potatoes.       wheat.  Turnips.
and Grass. I   year.  I  or Pasture.
Grass 1st   Grass 2d year]- Potatoes.        Wheat.       Turnips.   Spring Grain
_ _ _year    I or Pasture.                                           and Grass.
Grass 2d year   Potatoes.     Wheat.   {Turnips.    Spring Grain   Grass lst
_ or Pasture.             I              l               and Grass.        year.
Potatoes.      Wheat.   I  Turnips.   Spring Grain          Grass.    Grass 2d year
II~~~ I             I and Grass.                    or Pasture
Wheat.       Turnips.    Spring Grain    Grass.          Pasture.    Potatoes.
and Grass.
If your farm is large, and each field contains many acres, you
444
Year.
-ist
2d
3d
4th
5th
6th
1st 
THE FARM.
may introduce a variety of crops; and if your land is strong, you
may take two white crops in succession. Thus: in place of Potatoes and Pasture, you may have Indian Corn and leave out the
Pasture; or you may have half Turnips and half Potatoes; or
half Potatoes and half Indian Corn, etc., etc.; or you may grow
Flax, Hemp, Tobacco, etc.
By this course you will ensure the largest crops, and will keep
your weeds well down for each crop.   The hoed  Potatoes or
Indian Corn, will hold the land clean for the Wheat, which will
then need less weeding; the Turnips will clean it well for the
spring Grain, and that well cleaned will ensure 3 or 4 tons of Grass
to tlhe acre the first year, and as much the second, unless you pasture it, which, in my opinion, is but a slovenly kind of farming.
As you continue to grow crops to fatten your stall-fed animals,
you will verify what has already been said about the advantage of
adding meal to the Turnips and Hay, the economy of buying oilmeal rather than growing Corn, the consequent increase of manure
for the Turnips, which, with Potatoes and Indian Corn, should be
the dunged crops. You will find that by drilling in some guano or
other artificial manure with the seed of your Turnips or your
Grain, you will drive the Ioots ahead of the fly, and get a fine
early growth, and you will give the Grain an early set, which will
increase the yield from $5 to $10 an acre. This increase will be
clear profit, so much more capital to put into other improvements,
which shall give a like increase, and so on without limit.
You see that this farmer I am portraying, is no mere Hodge, a
tiller of the soil, a peasant.  He is a careful reasoner, a chemist,
an anatomist; a merchant who studies the markets of the world,
to guide him in his purchases of manure and feed, and in his sales
of crops; an anatomist in his familiarity with the structure of
stock, by which his treatment of them is guided; a practical chemist, because he must learn the constituent elements of his crops and
soils, and of the manures with which he feeds the plants; without
this he is still a bungler. How great this subject of manures is,
we shall show in a future month.
It may seem rather late in the day to advocate the cultivation
38
445 
MARCH.
of Turnips, now that they are becoming diseased and are less used
in England; but it does not follow that they will deteriorate here;
the very opposite result may follow, as the English seed direct has
never given as much satisfaction here as home-grown seed. And
besides, there are other Roots: the Mangold Wurzel, the Carrot
and Parsnip, which are even better than the Turnip, and what I
have said holds true of them. 
Our farmers feel that in these improvements they are entering
an unknown country, and they are afraid to hazard their hard-won
earnings on these new ventures.  They think they get their money
too hard to waste or risk it; they know that in the old way they
can make a living; may they not lose all by this change?
What foolish, cowardly drivelling, to come from a race of men
famed for their courage and enterprise! men who, for a mere
chance of bettering their condition, will sell off at a low price, and
emigrate to a new country, where they can get new land only at
the price of all the hardships of a pioneer's life. What inconsistency to risk so much for new land in the West, while they dare
not risk a dollar for the new land, the new farm, under their feet,
unworn virgin soil, that only waits to be called upon, to be stimulated by the caresses of the sun and the soothing of the rain, to
give crops which will burst your barns and swell your purse!
Are you afraid to risk labor in a business in which Englishmen
have invested thousands of dollars, with a sure profit? Be not
deceived about the "ratio of labor!" the proportion of profit is
the same here as in England; if you spend less, or invest less, you
get less; and more, as you invest more to develop the resources of
your farm.  Remembering this,-remembering that 60 years ago
the most profitable and fertile farms in England were where yours
now are, read these statements of the men who have tried the experiments, and made the money.
"Mr. Rodwell, in Suffolk, sunk $25,000 in mere marling 820
acres of land, with a lease of only 28 years, and during the 28
years of his occupancy, his produce was $150,000 greater than in
the 28 years which preceded his improvements." This land was
hired, and this money spent, as an investment of capital. Think
of it, farmers of New England.
446 
THE FARM.
This practice of marling, applied to clay lands, it is said by Ar thur Young, a distinguished agricultural writer of the early part
of the last century, "has turned 300,000 or 400,000 acres of waste
into gardens, and rents rose from between 10 to 40 cents, to $3
and $4 per acre.  Many of the tenants realized a capital larger
than the reputed'value of the property."
"A  Mr. Mallet made a fortune in 30 years, upon a farm of
1,500 acres, and bought land of his own, of the value of $8,500 a
year. A more remarkable example, even, than that of the Scotch
proprietor mentioned by Dr. Cartwright, who, being compelled to
sell his estate, hired it on a lease, and afterwards repurchased it
with the profits he derived from his tenantry."
By drainage alone, "hundreds and thousands of acres, formerly
condemned to remain for pasture, or to grow at long intervals uncertain crops of Corn and Beans, have been laid dry, and rendered
fertile, and brought into regular rotation, in which Roots find their
place. Sheep stock thrive where previously a few dairy cows
starved, the produce has been trebled, the rental raised, and the
demand for labor increased in proportion. In the neighborhood
of Yorkshire manufactories, moorland, not worth a shilling (25
cents) an acre, has been converted into dairy farms worth ~2
($10) per acre."
"A secured public loan of ~4,000,000 was granted in 1856, and
it has been estimated that in the ten previous years upwards of
~16,000,000 was invested by the nation, and by private companies
and individuals, in thorough drainage. A Mr. Nelson, one of the
late Lord Tarborough's tenants, used to say that he did not care
who knew that he had made ~80,000 by employing bones (as a
manure), before other people knew the use of them."
" The pecuniary gains of agricultural progress, are not to. be estimated by the mere saving in wages, horse labor, seed or manure.
Thorough draining not only diminishes the cost of ploughing, but
it renders it possible to grow great crops of Roots, of Mangold
Wurzel, from 30 to 35 tons to the acre, and of Turnips from 20 to
25 tons; ten times more live stock is thus fed on the land, than it
maintained before; the Corn crop follows the Roots in due course,
447 
MARCH.
without farther manuring, and is made certain in addition, even in
wet seasons.
"Under high farming, the manual labor employed is both increased and concentrated. A greater number of men are required
per acre, and a lesser number in proportion to the produce.  With
mechanical assistance, the crops are less dependent on the seasons,
and each operation is more quickly performed."
"With improved breeding, the stock is increased in quantity, more
early matured, and gives better and finer animals. Four-year old
horned sheep are replaced by mutton grown in 18 months. The
aged cows, and worn-out oxen, which form the staple of the continental meat market, lose from 15 to 20 per cent more in cooking, than our well-fattened oxen and heifers, to say nothing of the
difference in the flesh. At every stage, the farmer who farms
for money profit- not like the backwoodsman, the metayer, or
peasant proprietor, merely to feed his family- loses by rude implements, ignorant cultivation, and coarse-bred live stock.  At
every stage of progress the modern English farm becomes more
like a manufactory, producing on a limited surface, enormous quantities of food for man, turning Peruvian guano into Corn, bones from
the Pampas into Roots, Russian Oil-cake into Egyptian Beans, and
Syrian Locust-pods into beef and mutton."
"The gain to the farmer and the landlord, is, we repeat, the most
insignificant part of the benefit; the agriculturist is the manufacturer of food for the nation, and upon his skill, under Providence,
it depends whether plenty or scarcity prevails in the land."
"Mr. John Hudson, of Castle-acre, entered upon his now celebrated farm, in 1822.  It consists of self-drained, light, Suffolk soil."
"At that period the only portable manure was rape cake, which
cost ~13 a ton, and did not produce any visible effects for months.
The whole live stock consisted of 200 sheep, and 40 cattle of the
old Norfolk breed. He adopted what was then the new, now the
old, and what is destined to become obsolete, four course Norfolk
system; that is to say, 250 acres pasture, 200 Wheat, 300 Barley,
or in dear years, 600 Wheat, 300 Roots, and 300 seeds, the rest
being gardens and coverts. On these 1,200 acres he at present
448 
THE FARM.4
maintains 10 dairy cows, 36 cart horses, a flock of 400 breeding
ewes, and fattens and sells 250 Short-horns, Herefords, Devons, or
Scots, and 3000 South Down sheep.  The crop of Sweeds (Turnips)
average from 25 to 30 tons, and of Mangolds 30 to 35 tons per acre.
His Wheat had in 1855, averaged for the 5 previous years, 48 bushels per acre, and Barley 56 bushels. Of the seeds, the Clover is
mowed for Hay, the Trefoil and White Clover are fed down by
sheep, and there are no bare fallows. The purchased food given to
the cattle in the strawyards and sheds, and to the sheep in the field,
consisting of Oil-cake, Meal, and Beans, costs ~2,000 a year. The
greater part of the Oil-cake is changed to manure, which it enriches
in quality, as well as increases in quantity. But the direct expenditure in artificial manures, guano, nitrate of soda, and super
phosphate of lime, amounts, in addition, to ~1,000 a year; wages absorb ~2,500 to ~3,000 a year.  Seven or eight wagon loads per
acre, of farmyard manure, are ploughed into the land for Roots,
besides above 24 shillings per acre of super phosphate of lime,
drilled in with the Turnip seed, while Wheat has a top dressing
of 1 cwt. guano, I cwt. nitrate soda, and 2 cwt. salt mixed with
earth and ashes. No weeds are grown. The Turnips are taken up
in November, and a troop of boys and girls under the charge of an
experienced man, traverse the ground, forking out, and burning
every particle of Twitch (Grass) and Thistle.  The same troop is
called in during the progress of the Root crop, whenever occasion
requires, and immediately after harvest, they go over the stubbles,
with their little three-pronged forks, exterminating the slightest vestige of a weed. The expenses of clearing are kept down to a
shilling an acre (this is in England; it would cost at least 80 cents
here), which proves that by stopping the evil at the source, and
iever allowing the enemy to get ahead, land may be kept wholly
weeded, more cheaply than half weeded."
"The farmer who saw a thief, daily stealing from his dung-heap,
would soon call in the aid of a policeman. The weeds are an
army of scattered thieves, and if the pilferings of each are small
in amount, the aggregate is immense."
"He who allows himself to be daily robbed of his crops, and the
community to the same extent of food, and all the while looks
38*
449 
MARCH.
helplessly on, is not only a bad farmer, but in effect, though not in
design, a bad citizen also."
"At Sedlington, where there is a strong clay to deal with, and
more good grass land than at Castleacre, it is not necessary to purchase so much food to feed, to keep live stock for manure. But
there were about 150 cattle, and 1,000 sheep sold fat, besides a
choice breeding flock of Devons, the result of 20 years' care. By
these sheep the light land is consolidated and enriched. If they
are store sheep, they are allowed to gnaw the Turnips on the
ground for part of the year. If they are young, and to be fatted
for market (this would be American practice), they are drawn,
topped,  tailed, and  sliced,  with  a portable  machine.   Thus
feeding by day, and penned successively over every part of the
field at night, they fertilize and compress, as effectually as any
roller, the light, blowing sand, and prepare soil which would
scarcely feed a family of rabbits, for luxuriant Corn crops.
The cattle, consisting of two-year old Devons, Herefords, and
Short-horns, or three-year old Scots, or Anglesea runts, purchased at fairs, according to the supply and market price, in spring
and summer, are run on the inferior pasture till winter, then taken
into the yards or stalls, fed with Hay, Sweeds, Mangolds, Groundcake, Linseed or Barley meal, and allowed an unlimited supply of
clean water. When the spring comes, they are put on the best
Grass, and sent off to market as soon as they become ripe, having
left behind them a store of manure, which is the capital from
which every thing else must spring."   "Under the old system
[the same as our New England system], 300 acres were poor
pasture; now, under the rotation system, the strong clay feeds
four times as much live stock as before, and bears Wheat, at least
twice in four years."
"According to the latest experience, the most profitable system in its present light condition, would be to devote the farmyard
dung to growing Clover, to eat down the Clover with folded sheep,
and then to use the ground fertilized by the roots of the Clover,
without home-made manure, for cereal crops, assisted by a topdressing of guano, to be followed by Roots, nourished with superphosphate of lime.  No land is here lost by unnecessary fences, no
450 
THE FARM:
force is wasted on ill-bred live stock, no fertility is consumed by
weeds, no time or labor is thrown away."
A comparison instituted by Young, between two neighboring
counties, applies well to this country and England.
"A lazy desire to creep with sluggish monotony along an established path, and a feeling of impatience at being pushed into a novel
track, helped to maintain hereditary prejudices, and truants invented fanciful excuses for not doing what was plainly advantageous
to be done, because they preferred present sloth to future profit.
"They were like a man who had lain upon one side, till he
shrunk from the trouble of turning over to the other, though when
the process was performed the new posture might be easier than
the old. But once roused and put in motion, and the inherent reluctance to stir overcome, the gain in interest as well as pocket,
was felt to be very great."
No one reading these English experiences, and many more like
them, can help the burning shame flushing his face, that our people
should be still standing on the frontier of the great realm of Agriculture,- should hardly have taken a step into it, while other nations have marched far in and appropriated enormous wealth.
Talk as you please about the difference in price of labor, it is
indisputable, 1st, that if it is profitable to farm at all, to grow any
crops, to keep any cattle, it is more profitable to grow and keep the
best, than the mediocre kinds; 2nd, if but a given return can be
got from one acre at a given expense, it is better to increase the
expense double or treble, if, by so doing, the profit can be doubled
or trebled, even much more if it can be quadrupled or quintupled,
as it unquestionably can; and no man not stiff with lying on one
side will deny it.
3d, Cattle, whether American or English, are the same in constituent elements and conditions, and are nourished alike by the same
food. Any kind of feeding which is profitable in England, will
bear a proportionate profit here, and those crops which grow here
with a merely nominal profit - say Corn- can hardly be turned
into beef with much profit, any more than in England, while those
crops which give enormous profits in both countries (Roots), and
are of great value as food for stock there, are proportionately so
here. Yet with all the light shed on Root culture abroad, our agri
451 
MARCH.
cultural newspapers contain every season accounts of some man's
little experiment with one-half acre of Roots, and of the wonderful
profit therefrom; and to-day any man who has two acres in Roots,
is a wonder to his neighborhood, and the wiseacres dubiously shake
their heads, while Englishmen have 300 acres in Roots.
4th, Reasoning and experience has proved that rotation of crops
is the life of successful farming, -unless in some special case, as
Onions, - and yet how many of our so-called good farmers can
show a creditable and long-continued rotation, or assure you that
they really believe in such a thing? A few men have ventured
into draining, rotation of crops, Root culture, with the same awkward
caution with which a boy ventures on skates for the first time, always expecting a fall, and probably getting falls, all of which, however, instead of being credited to ignorance or carelessness (where
they belong), are debited to the new system of culture.
Remember that we must have done with child's play and doubting, we who are to be really improved farmers, and that we must
not be dismayed by a few mishaps. Running and walking, like a
man, is unquestionably more agreeable and valuable than creeping
like a child; but the child learns, slowly and feebly, to walk, and
so must we. And let us entreat our agricultural editors, instead of
devoting much time and space to the questions whether large or
small potatoes are best for seed, whether free martins give milk,
whether Ethan Allen trotted in 2.40 or 2.39, whether labor in
England costs one-half or one-fourth as much as labor here, whether
milk should be measured in a beer or a wine measure, to enter at
once into the great question behind all these, and to show the
people how a kindred race, by applying thought and capital to
farming, have brought sands like those of Plymouth County, in
Massachusetts, hard clays, like many about Boston, rocky and sterrile lands, like much of New England, which is so impoverished as
to make a man the poorer the more he has of it, to a fertility fully
equal to the virgin soil of the West, capable of yielding 40 bushels
of Wheat to the acre, whitened with countless flocks of sheep, rich
with herds of fat cattle.
We must balance our want of cheap labor by the invention and
adoption of machinery. Already steam has been applied in such
ways, that for a first cost of $300, with the waste brush of the
452 
THE FARM.
farm for fuel, much of the work about the farm steading, which
now occupies the time of many men, may be done by machinery.
MIowing-machines, horse-rakes, improved tools, and last, and greatest, the steam-plough, are now ready to give us aid and strength,
and to take much drudgery off our hands.
The same spirit which has thus far in this book set the mental
benefits of any occupation above all its other benefits, and which
has urged the charms of nature, and the nobleness of the pursuit,
as chief inducements to agriculture, encourages all agricultural improvements, which make the life more profitable; as I well know
that the better a man's business pays him, the more time and inclination will he have for self-culture.
As soon as the firost begins to leave the ground, open the irrigation drains, and let the water flow evenly over the Grass. After
the Grass starts, flow for a few days at a time, and then withdraw
for the same length of time, and again return; by intermitting the
flow of water in this way, the yield of Grass is increased, and the
Grass is sweeter. Cart out the manure, and spread the piles previously carted out.  We shall hire two men for the season, and give
each his regular work at once; let one man always drive the horses,
another the oxen, and do not committhem to either man indifferently,
for one accustomed to the speed of horses is unfitted for sluggish
oxen.  As before, you, or the farmer and his boy, should do all the
milking and feeding. Let the work be regularly planned and carried forward, so that each man cannot fail to know his duty. I do
not mean that the farmer should make his plans and business known
to all his men, as that is sure to introduce confusion and cause mischief; but it is a great advantage that each laborer should know
his own work in advance, and should be made, if possible, to understand its importance and relation to the general whole. He thus
gets a feeling of his own importance as he awakens to a sense of
personal responsibility. In the plan of our barn, which is described
on the next page, I have endeavored to arrange every detail for
convenience and true economy, and although some things preferred
may at first seem far fetched, and perhaps even cumbersome, I
think a trial of them will surely prove their merits.
4,53 
454                     MARCH.
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THE FARM.
DESCRIPTION OF OUR BARN.- Our barn has often been referred to, but
never yet described. I will give its description now, to enable you better to
understand some previous directions, and others yet to come. It is on a sidehill, which slopes so rapidly that we are enabled to enter all three stories
with teams.   This is very advantageous, as it simplifies and eases work.
FIRST STORY, OR CELLAR. - The lower story is the cellar.  A marks the
space devoted to manure, and I shows where the muck falls to from above.
This muck is, of course, mixed with the manure as we please. B is a space
devoted to the storing of carts, and similar articles. C, hog-pen. D, henhouse, for general uses and laying. E, setting-room. F, pens for breedingsows.  G, foundationof story above.  H, doorinto cellar.  K, where the manure comes into the hog-pen from the carriage horses, two stories higher. The
manure and urine of the cattle from the story above, shoots into the cellar
through traps, like Browns patent coal-hole covers, which remove danger of
cattle getting their legs through them.
SECOND STORY. -The second story is entered by teams  at 7 7, and may
be left and entered by animals and men by 7/ 7/, also. 1 is the root cellar, already described. 2, muck traps. 3, the box through which the manure of
the carriage horses, in the third story, passes into the cellar. 4, the doors
which admit carts into the root cellar, 9 feet wide. 5, the railway. This is
the most convenient thing possible; the rails are sunk into the floor, so as not
to interfere with walking, and of course save a great deal of labor. 6, the
flap which admits the car into the root cellar. 8, horse stalls, 5' by 9/, with
mangers and water, as before shown. 9, boxes to hold the cart harnesses. *10,
cow stalls. 11, stalls for oxen. 12, cow mangers, and water-troughs, as described. 13, horse mangers. 14, spring doors, which shut the cattle out of
the barn floor. 15, ox mangers. 16, mash-tub; there empties into it cut hay
from above. 17, water-trough and ball-cock. 18, stairs up to chamber, and
down to cellar.  19, empty space for carts, wagons, or wheelbarrows.  20,
swill spouts, leading to cellar. 21, grain and tool room. 22, meal chests. 23,
work bench. 24, boiler. 25, chimney Windows on all sides, to give abundant light and air. The floor of the third story, over the heads of the cattle,
is pierced with holes, which convey air up through the haymows, to the ventilator on the roof, and thus not only cool the hay, but ventilate the second story.
THIRD STORY. - 26, carriage-room. 27, floor of barn. 28, harness-room.
29, man's room.  30, hay bays.  31, stalls of carriage horses.  32, mangers,
and water. 33, manure trap, leads to cellar. 34, meal-chest; 35, mash-tub.
36, water and ball-cock.   37, closet.  38, chimney in harness-room.   39,
stairs to second story.  40, ventilators through hay.  41, entrance doors. 42,
sliding doors to carriage-room. 44, spring doors, to keep horses off the floor.
45, door of exit for unloaded teams, over a plank bridge, built on posts.
455 
CHAPTER LI.
GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY.
~ a!(PRIL.  Many days in April are so warm as to
~~!Ig~ d A    enable us to dispense with fire heat and to de                   mand that every opening for fresh air should
be made the most of.
The plants are in a glorious condition in
consequence of having been properly attended
to during the winter, and the fragrance and
beauty of the flowers, stir the most stolid heart.
Continue to propagate by cuttings, etc., and also sow in pots
and pans the seeds of annuals and perennials not yet started.
Plant any roots of Auriculas and Ranunculuses, which you may
have in thumb pots, ready to be transferred to the garden as the
season advances; set Tuberoses also in pots; by giving them an
early start you will get them into blossom in the garden before the
autumn frosts can harm them.
Bring the Dahlia roots into the house and lay them under the
stagings, where the warmth and moisture will stimulate the tubers a
little and cause the buds to start, so that you may sooner cut them
to pieces and get them ready either to plant in the open ground or
to start in the hotbed.
You may remove to the back side of the house and the cold
frames those plants which are fairly out of blossom, and which you
do not care to have grow much before next winter.
Open the cold frames and pits, remove gradually all the dung
linings and leaves, but retain the shutters. There will hardly be
weather cold enough to require other protection than sashes and
shutters. On every fair day let in light and air by removing the
shutters early in the morning. The gradual admission of sun will
456 
GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY.
soon start the plants and we may expect by judicious management to get them a little forward for planting out. Water occasionally, as you see cause, and with tepid water; but be careful
not to get too much moisture in dark weather, as it may cause
"damping off."
Remove the sashes from the Daisies and Violets all day in moderate weather; they will give you abundance of flowers throughout
the month. Beds of Auricula and Ranunculus prepared in the
fall will need constant attention; Pansies too, whether in pots, in
the frames, or in beds by themselves, should be well cared for;
give air and water; late in' the month they will be in full blossom.
The manure removed from about the beds should be carted either
to a pit into which it may be dumped, mixed with some loam, or
to the barnyard. Having lain exposed to the weather all winter,
it has lost most of its value; and although a good fertilizer if dug
in, it is not nearly so valuable as fresh manure; but if returned to
the yard or the cellar to absorb the urine of the cattle, its value
will be restored; or if leaves and loam are mixed with it, and the
whole packed in a pit, by the fall it will have decomposed into a
compost, fit for almost any purpose.
Do not be alarmed if in spite of ventilation the sun raises the
temperature of the houses at mid-day to 90~ or 100~; only give
plenty of moisture to the air by repeated syringings, and by setting
evaporating pans on the flues.
Those who are not familiar with the spring and summer bloom
of the flower-garden and shrubbery, should not delay making themselves acquainted with it, as the season will soon be upon them
and should not find them unprepared.
The choicest plants and flowers may be readily grown in the
garden, if a little care is taken to start them in the greenhouse and
hotbeds.
Repot any plants which seem to need it, and gradually remove
all half-hardy plants out of blossom to the cold frames and pits,
that Pelargoniums, Azaleas, Cinerarias, Fuchsias, etc., may have
more room.
We have occasionally very cold weather, even in April; be on
the watch for it, and do not let your houses be caught by it unpro
39
457 
APRIL.
tected. By letting the canvas-cover down over the glass early in
the afternoon of a warm day, you may enclose a great deal of the
sun's heat, and save fires.
It might be supposed that the house itself would afford considerable protection against cold; but a glasshouse radiates heat very
rapidly, and the large amount of moisture in the air is in itself
dangerous. This radiation may, however, be prevented by a very
slight cover. At a time when in the outer air water will freeze
hard and in the greenhouse all tender plants will die, a common
canvas will entirely protect them from danger.
Do not be tempted by any warm days to remove into the open
air, for a permanency, any plants which have wintered in the
houses; the ground is still cold, and severe frosts are sure to come.
Keep the plants that were purposely frozen up in the autumn,
frozen as long as possible. Keep them on the north sides of the
house, and try to prevent even the tops from thawing, and when
you find that they are about to thaw, carry them into the shade,
and do not let the sun shine on them for some days. By burying
them in the earth, the frost may be gradually removed, and with
less danger to the plants.
458 
CHAPTER LII.
GRAPERY
CONTINUE the temperature in the forcing-house as last month, at
60~ to 70~ at night, 70~ to 75~ by day, in cloudy weather, 80~ to
90~ in sunshine; admit all the air possible, and supply abundant
moisture.
Continue to thin. Before the end of the mohth, all the vines
should have been thinned the first time, and some the second, and
even the third time.
Cut back the laterals above the bunches to one eye, and repeat
the cutting as they start afresh, and also cut out any shoots which
make head between the bunches and the main cane, as they only
abstract the food of the bunches, without corresponding benefit.
The thinning process, after the first time, depends very much upon
judgment; the kind of vine, size of berry, earliness of ripening
must all influence thinning. As the berries swell, the shoulders
of the bunches should be supported by tying them to the cane
or branches above.
The vegetables in the forcing-house should be now fit for use,
and the Strawberries for picking. The vines will soon cover all
the glass with their leaves, and exclude the light so much that but
few vegetables will thrive. The Mushrooms will be producing
abundantly. Water with tepid water from time to time. Endive
and the blanched vegetables do not need direct light, and will continue to improve as yet.
The retarding-house must be kept as cold as possible; cover
with canvas during sunshine, and let in all the air that is safe. No
fire heat will be necessary in bright weather, but must be used if
there should chance to come a very cold and cloudy interval.
The vines in the cold grapery, on the contrary, need all the sunlight they can get; give aeration through the ventilators, and some
459 
APRIL.
other air during bright weather. Follow the same degrees of temperature given for the first month of forcing-house. The difficulty
to be anticipated is that of keeping the temperature as uniform as
by fire heat. The first of the month, if the manure spread on the
borders in March was active, the vines will have swollen their buds
considerably, and by the middle and last of the month will begin
to break. Follow the forcing-house treatment exactly. The vegetables in the cold grapery will be thriving finely; the abundant
light, heat, and moisture will give sufficient stimulation.
From this time to the end of summer the work of the houses is
no less pressing, but is to be taken in connection with the outside
work, and there is great danger that it will be neglected. The fascination of the various out-of-door occupations tends to make the
gardener forgetful. The houses should be syringed very often, on
sunshiny days, and the thermometer and hygrometer carefully consulted, as too great heat and dryness on the tender foliage may do
almost irreparable mischief.  The grapevines outside the house, on
espaliers, which were wrapped up in straw, should be examined
towards the last of the month. Loosen their coverings, and fork
into the border plenty of strong manure, which may give the roots
an early start; but take care not to injure the roots of the vines
with the fork. The figs on the espaliers also should be examined,
and receive some manure about the roots. Those which were laid
down in the earth will not need any attention for the present. The
espaliered fruit otherwise needs nothing, unless it be to examine
the fastenings, and if any be found broken by winter, to repair them.
In your examination, remove any eggs you may see glued to the
twigs, and note carefully those shoots which seem likely to die the
coming season, from  frost-blight, and cut them out-  from the
Pears, Cherries, and Plums, before the sap gets into active circulation -from the Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots after the leaves
have expanded a little.
460 
CHAPTER LIII.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
THE flower-garden begins again to assert its importance, and
resumes its place in our interest. The Snowdrops are all in blossom, the earliest Crocuses show their heads, and we know that the
other bulbs will soon follow. Here and there a last year's Pansy
opens its eyes to the spring sunshine, whilst in sheltered spots in
the shubbery, the Forsythia will soon be glowing with yellow
flowers.
The blossoming time of all plants varies a little with the season,
but less than is usually supposed, and it is doubtful if the greatest
variation amounts to ten days. Sanguinaria and Rue anemone
are the earliest wild flowers, and if planted in any of the beds or
borders, will be in blossom almost as soon as the Snowdrop. Before the month is old, the Snowdrops will be replaced by Crocuses,
Daffodils, Narcissuses, and in the most favored situations, by the
earliest Hyacinths.
The litter should be carefully removed from all the beds, a little
at a time, to harden the bulbs. If the garden was left in proper
condition in the autumn, there will be need of but little spring
cleaning. Rake up any dead leaves that may have blown in, and
be ready by the first of May to begin real work. Make all your
selections of seeds early, and decide how you will plant the beds,
that when the time for planting comes, you need not be delayed.
If you mean to employ others to advise and direct your work, see
to it now, when you can be sure of getting just such persons as you
prefer, and when they are at liberty to devote ample time to your
service.
If your garden is still a grass plot, or a ploughed field, have a
plan made. Make it yourself if you can, as I have directed for the
village garden; if you cannot, employ some one to do it for you.
39,                                    461
e 
APRIL.
Some details with regard to the making of plans, I will give at another time.
Overhaul the seeds that you have on hand, and all the garden
ornaments, tools, etc., that were packed away in the autumn. You
repaired them then, so now you have only to decide what you will
add to your stock.
If you have no greenhouse or hotbed, make a hotbed now. (For
directions see pages 480.)
Plant in the bed the seeds of all those annuals which blossom
late in the summer and fall, and need to be hurried; also, all those
which you wish to have in succession. Seeds of annuals should be
lightly covered with earth, more or less, according to their size.
Some seeds, like those of the Ipomea, are enclosed in a horny
shell, which prevents germination for a long time. All such seeds
should be soaked in scalding water, for several hours, or a day, before planting. When you purchase seeds, you can always learn of
the seller whether any peculiar treatment is necessary.
Towards the last of the month, set in the hotbeds Dahlias, Maderia vines, Gladiolus, and all other tubers to be blossomed in the
garden; the start thus given will insure a longer and more satisfactory bloom.
Such manuals as Breck's Book of Flowers, Buist's FlowerGarden Directory, etc., give minute details on this subject, for
which there is no room here, and I would rather induce you to seek
out and read such books, than try to supply their place.
Every year some new plants and flowers are produced for admiration, and some gardeners get the largest part of their profits
from the sale of these novelties.  I think it is well to try them as
far as is consistent with economy, but by no means to the neglect of
old and deserving favorites.
It is with flowers as it is with trees, if you would be successful,
you must have a large stock of patience. There will be innumerable annoyances and disappointments, through the season, but care,
attention, and patience, will bring a bountiful reward in spite of
them all.
As the warm days come on, you will feel your enthusiasm kin
462 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
dling within you, and your imagination will give you delightful visions of vegetables, flowers, and plants, in marvellous abundance,
crowding every inch of your land. You will lay out magnificent
plans, and set to work with eagerness, and at first, all will go well.
It is very charming to get up early, on a bright spring morning, to
dig and plant in the unwonted light of the dawning day, and with
the delicious melody of the early birds filling the air; and you will
snatch a few minutes each evening from business, for your garden
work, and as the shades of night shut down, and send you in from
your employment, you will feel injured, and will wish that the
fabled "curtain of night," were a real one, of which you had the
string, which you would certainly keep drawn up. Reluctantly, and
with many a backward glance at the smooth beds, dotted with
stakes, so prophetic to your eye of future glories, you return to the
house, where you descant in glowing terms, to your wife or friends,
on the topic that absorbs your thoughts. Perhaps, in your ardor,
you plant several weeks too early, and those seeds that escape death
from rotting in the ground, meet it from the frosty air.  Still you
are not discouraged, and replant with wonderful perseverance. So
in spite of ups and downs, you work on through the spring months,
while the weather is cool, and your whole frame retains the bracing effect of the winter. But the work thus begun, must be continued with unabated zeal, through the heats of June and July, if
you would not lose all your past labor, and see your hopes choked,
by the fast growing weeds that lay concealed in the upturned clods,
that looked so innocent when you planted them with seeds of your
own choosing, little thinking of the unwelcome companions that had
pre-occupied the ground.
Do not, then, in your first spring enthusiasm, lay out too much
work. Be contented to do less than you would, now, that you may
not have to do more than you can by and by
In a flower-garden there is a great deal of beauty to be procured
from grass and shrubs, and such flowers as need but little time and
care; and it is wiser to plant the seeds of those flowers which you
know will grow easily, and cover the ground, to the exclusion of
weeds, than to try experiments in new and delicate varieties.
To cover the ground, plant in masses such annuals as Mignon
463 
. APRIL.
ette, Sweet Alyssum, Gillia, Candytuft, Cacalia, Escholtzia, Coreopsis, Portulacca, etc., and among them, in less profusion, set those
that grow up straight, and occupy but little room, as Aster, Gillyflower, Zinia, Mourning Bride, Antirhinum, etc.
A perfect flower-bed, in full growth, shows nothing but leaves
and flowers; from the turf to the top of the group there is an unbroken though varying surface, of different forms and colors, so
harmonized and contrasted as to give constant delight to the eye.
This result is best obtained by mingling various kinds of annuals
with the bedding-out plants, which having been started in the
greenhouse or hotbed, are turned out of their pots and planted in
the beds, and which constantly increase in blossoms and beauty, ti'll
cut off by winter frosts.
Plan your garden, then, with a view to its permanent improvement and advantage, and if your spring enthusiasm does not exhaust
itself before the trying time comes to prove it, if your courage,
prudently husbanded, continues through frosts and gloom, and the
discouragement of weeds, and droughts, unabated, your  spring
visions will become a rich summer and autumn reality.
There will be a long time in the spring when the flower-garden
is dependent on bulbs for its beauty, and even after other flowers
come forward, these bulbs, and their cousins-german, the tuberous
rooted plants, continue to hold an important place.
I will give a brief account of the best bulbs, and their culture.
The careful and wise gardener always seeks first the best native
plants, as they are more hardy, reliable, and easy of culture than
foreigners. Three varieties of tuberous roots, but little cultivated,
though of great beauty, are Ranuneulus, Anemone, and Auricula.
They are all natives of much milder climates than ours.
The Auricula is of the same family with the English Cowslip
and the common Polyanthus; it is more tender than the latter, and
averse to both heat and cold, especially the former.  It should be
planted in cool, moist situations, away from the drippings from
trees, shrubs, or buildings.   It must be protected  during  the
winter and early spring, but as it starts early in the  season,
the covering must be lightened and removed as soon as possible.
464 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
The Ranunculus is an Asiatic, of the Buttercup family; our
winters are too cold for it, and our summers too hot. To cultivate
it successfully in the open ground, make a deep, rich bed in the
autumn, in a place sheltered from severe cold, and yet shaded from
the midday sun of spring. As early as possible, in the spring, un cover the bed and dig it over; remove an inch or two of earth,
and set the claw-like roots over the bed, six inches apart each way;
then cover with half an inch of soil. If the weather continues
cold, cover with a moderate depth of litter, Pine-branches, or other
shelter.  As the plants grow be sure they have enough water, but
do not saturate them.  The plant, after flowering, will soon ripen
its roots, when the leaves will turn yellow. The tubers should be
taken up, and laid away in a dry place, till the next spring or for
winter forcing.
The Anemone is of the same family, and is very beautiful. It
is not so difficult of culture as the Ranunculus. Plant in rich,
well-drained beds, in autumn, and cover with a garden-frame and
litter. In the early spring replace the litter with sashes, and stimulate to an early growth; blossoms will appear in June.
Many summer bulbs, not usually cultivated, may be started now
in hotbeds or pots, set in protected places. The Tiger-flower is singularly gorgeous, and is a very full bloomer. It will do well
planted in the open ground in May.
Snowdrops may be successfully moved, immediately after flowering, before the leaves die; or as soon after as possible.
There are many varieties of the Iris, or Flower-de-luce. Some
of these are so common as to be quite despised; others are much
admired. The Iris Susiana blossoms early, and is dwarf; the roots
,ieed to be taken up in summer, and replanted in the fall.  The
grand white Iris, large and showy, is I think very handsome,
ud not to be replaced by newer plants.  So, too, with many of the
'ich blue and purple varieties.
The number and variety of Lilies is very great. White Lilies
re to be planted in the early autumn, or they will not blossom the
.ext year.  They should be moved just before making their fall
rowth of leaves.
The common Lilies are all easily grown. The Japan Lily is
46i 
APRIL.
rare and beautiful, and needs as careful treatment as the Hyacinth.
The bulbs need not be taken into the house in winter. It may be
started in pots in the spring, and turned into the border in May.
Two very beautiful Lilies are natives; L. Superbum, and Canadensis. These throw up tall stalks, surmounted by a crown of
from three to seven flowers, very beautiful, and much improved by
cultivation; they grow abundantly in the woods and fields.
Peonies are very numerous; their tubers should be transplanted
in the autumn or early spring; nearly all are hardy.  The Tree
Peony needs a little protection. The old red Peony, the ornament
of every village garden, is very fine, and were it not so common,
its splendid color would make it a favorite.
The white, pink, variegated, and fragrant Peonies are the most
generally cultivated, and if a good variety is selected, will be in
blossom from May to the last of July, The Tree Peonies often
grow to a great size, and a large plant full of blossoms is a beautiful sight.
Tulips are too well known to need more than a mention; directions for forming beds were given in September.
The Amaryllis is a beautiful summer-flowering Lily, and its
crimson flovwers should be found in every garden. It is tender,
and should be started early, to blossom to perfection; although
planted in:May, it will blossom well and late.
The Gladiolus family is numerous and beautiful, and blossoms
for a long time.
The Solomon's Seal is a beautiful plant, tuberous rooted, and a
native.  It may be taken from  the woods, and with a few years
culture will be much improved.
The Fall Crocus should be planted in the spring. It blossoms
with purple flowers in October, and is very pretty and desirable,
but rare.
Dahlias are flowers very much admired, and are of various
colors.  New varieties are brought forward every season by their
enthusiastic admirers. The best plants may be purchased by the
dozen in the spring at a moderate price. They are tender, and
must be taken up in the autumn after the frost comes.  Directions
have already been given.
466 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Another almost tuberous rooted plant, which has been a great
favorite for the last few years, is the Dielytra. It is a native of
this country, and there are many varieties. D. eximia is the one
generally grown in gardens.  It grows rapidly, blossoms early and
long; the flowers are curious in form, beautiful in color, and graceful in arrangement; the foliage is no less pleasing than the flowers.
D. canadensis is a native of the woods, rather rare, easily cultivated and very fragrant. D. cucullata has white and yellow blossoms, is small, and is native, improved by cultivation.
Another plant of the same family which is very charming, is the
-orydalis, aurea and glanca; generally found about rocks, and
asily grown from seeds.
Adlumia cirrhosa is a perennnial of the same species.  It is a
.ery pretty vine, and should have a place in every garden.
Fumitory, the last of this family of American plants, is an an.ual, rather pretty, and grows abundantly from the seeds.
The Squill,- Scilla esculenta, - has a pretty blossom; has a
,ulb like the Onion, and is sometimes eaten for it by the Indians.
'lanted in the Fall, it blossoms in AIay.
" The HIemerocallis, or Day-Lily, may be planted in the autumn
r spring, and is propagated by divisions of the roots; it is a spees of Funkia."
The White Day-Lily is very beautiful; it blossoms for about two
.onths, and its flowers are very fragrant. The blue is a coarser,
i-d less desirable flower, not fragrant. There are many other
rieties.
I have appended this list to my remarks on the necessity of
iving no more garden than can be well taken care of, that you
ay see the possibility of a great variety of flowers in a small
-ace, most of which need but little looking after.  These plants
,mbined with bedding-out plants, and well-selected annuals, will
ve plenty of flowers from the middle of April to the last of Oc')er. Refer to the flower-garden, August; see beds L and P. The
:ssomns begin with Crocus and Snowdrops, followed by Hyacinths,
ulips, Narcissus, Daffodils, Polyanthus, Iris, Pansies, Squills,
:elytras, Lilies, Amaryllig, Gladiolus, Day-Lilies, Tiger Flow
467. 
APRIL.
ers, Tuberoses, Fall Crocuses, blended with Mignonette and Sweet
Alyssum  on the borders, after June;  with Gillia, Heliotrope,
Creeping Lantana, Tall Lantana, Globe Amaranth  Escholtzia.
These two beds, well managed, will give at any time a large bunch
of flowers, and from July to October, you can cut them in abundance.
In planting d we have kept the tall bulbs at the back, placing the
smaller ones in front. In P, the tall ones are in the middle of
the large swells, and slope down to smaller on the edge; and the
same arrangement is made with the other plants.  Mignonette,
Sweet Alyssum, Gillia, and Creeping Lantana have gone from the
front of the bed back to the middle, and among  the other plants
next to them and amongst them, are Verbenas; inside in P, are
Heliotropes and Lantanas, which are at the back of d.
Cover the surface of the beds with a good dressing of fine guano,
and rake it carefully with a fine-toothed narrow rake, the first of May,
and then along the edge and as fast as we please, the seeds of the
annuals are sown broadcast and thin, and then raked in. They
soon come up and cover the decaying leaves of the bulbs, which
as the leaves decay, may either be removed altogether, or only lose
their dead leaves. The middle of May the other plants are carefully set, and by attention the change is prevented from being disagreeable. I do not mean that there will be no time without
flowers, as it is impossible to make the gradation unbroken, but the
nakedness need not be long apparent.
The seeds of the annuals should be sown early; the guano will
stimulate a quick and vigorous growth.   When the pot plants are
set out, remember that they have been accustomed to abundant
heat and moisture, and that you transplant them to the cold, open
ground often covered for days together with cold and dark clouds, and
watered only with cold water. If you want quick growth, put under
and around each, as far as the ball of earth will allow, a quantity
of steaming horse manure, and water for some days with quite
warm water; but do not manure and neglect to water, as the manure
will dry up to the great injury of the plant., If such care is taken,
your bed will be a wonder to careless cultivators for the next six
months.
-468 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Let me repeat some remarks that I made in September. The
good gardener will never be in his garden without strings, knife
and sticks, and will always be ready to cut down dead stalks and
leaves, and tie up drooping or top heavy plants.
Patience, neatness, and order are your watchwords, and should
be inscribed over the entrance to your garden.
40
469 
CHAPTER LIV.
ORCHARD.
IF the ground was not well thawed last month, begin now, as
soon as it opens, to dig in manure in the orchard, together with the
proportion of the salt and lime mixture described in the fall. AVood
ashes, potash, soda, or lime, spread over the surfiace of the orchard,
are very beneficial to the trees: they all seem in their caustic state,
to kill the eggs and larva of insects, and are also of direct use to
the trees. No vegetable physiologist has yet determined why it is
that salts (lime, soda, potash, etc.) are of use to vegetation; they
(particularly potash and soda) are found in great quantities in all
vegetable tissues, and seem essential to their development. Land
destitute of these salts, is sterile, and can be induced to bear crops
only by application of some of them as manure. At times they are
most powerful aids to vegetation; some crops are more dependent
on them than others, as for instance, Clover.  White Clover may
be brought up on any land where no White Clover seed has been
sown, and the plant not seen for years, by dressing it with wood
ashes, or potash. Red Clover may be grown on land previously
unable to bear it, by a liberal dressing of sulphate of lime. Leaves
and bark of trees are full of these salts, and it is from the ashes
of burned wood and leaves, that the potash and soda are obtained.
These few facts establish conclusively, their importance to vegetation, but how they contribute to its welfare, is a mystery.
These salts are generally found in the tissues of plants, in a crystalized form, and deposited in the cells as foreign matter, not contributing at all to the composition of the woody and cellular tissue,
which is called vegetable matter.  Some of them are found in much
greater excess than others; fruit trees when burned, give in their
ash a great amount of potash, less soda, and but little lime. Yet it
is the application of lime to the soil which stimulates the trees, and
470 
ORCHARD.
enables them to assimilate the potash and soda they need. I shall
not enter into chemical details, but simply say that the lime enters
into combination with the particles of the soil, and, by chemical interchange, the potash, or soda, is set free, and its place is taken by a
corresponding amount of lime. The salts, thus set free, are dissolved by water, absorbed by the plants, and found in their tissues.
Therefore, you will be almost certain of benefiting your trees by
giving them a liberal dressing of lime.
When the orchard is dug over and pruned, see that the fences
about it are in good order, that no animal may get in and browse
the young twigs.
Though it is spring, and long before the time when baskets, ladders, and hooks are wanted, use some wet day of leisure to look
over these implements, and repair damages.  By doing this now,
you will remember all summer what your deficiencies are, and be
on the watch to repair them.
By the last of this month, the caterpillars will begin to build
their nests.  The webs will be seen- very small, at first- in the
forks of the twigs, and smaller branches. Provide yourself with a
caterpillar brush, or a bit of sponge; fasten it to a long, light fishing rod; get a few pounds of crude potash, and a butter firkin; nail
a strip of wood across the top of the firkin, for a handle; put into
it a pound of potash to a gallon of water. In the early morning,
the caterpillars are all in the nests; they rarely start out for food
before the sun is a few hours high. Go through the orchard with
your brush and bucket, and wherever you see any sign of a nest,
dip the brush, or sponge, into the firkin, and sop it on to the nest,
rubbing it round the fork of the branch.
The Wire caterpillar brush is used without potash with the idea
that the stiff wires will crush and destroy all the worms, but the alkali
water is more effective; it will burn up not only the worms, but the
unhatched eggs. More effectual than either, where the nest is accessable, is a more disagreeable, and I might almost say disgusting,
process; cover the hand with a stout buckskin glove, and rub the
nest and its inhabitants into a paste; you will thus insure the total
destruction of the insects and eggs.
This work will consume a deal of time during the last of April,
471 
APRIL.
and the month of May. There are at least three broods of worms,
all of which must be cut off, if you would have trees with perfect
leaves, and a full crop of fruit. The lazy man, who neglects this
work, or the man who thinks he cannot afford it, are equally foolish, and will surely find that their neglect not only permanently
injures the trees, but destroys the fruit for the ensuing year.
Careful watching, and washing for a few years, will materially
reduce the number of worms. Some, however, will escape and
lay their eggs, unless they are removed by another insect destroyer,
the birds.
That farmer who allows any one to kill the birds about his place,
because they eat his Cherries, Strawberries, and Peas, "saves at
the spigot to lose at the bung." Only a few days ago I read a
communication, in one of our agricultural papers, favoring the destruction of birds, on the ground that they not only eat fruit when
ripe, but at other seasons eat the seeds of Red Cedar, Blackberry,
etc., which are voided afterwards, undigested, about their roostingplaces, in pastures, etc., where they take root and spring up,.to
choke the pasture, and annoy man and beast.
Befbre calculating the benefit, let us look into the mischief done
by birds. Suppose we had 100 acres of pasture-land (enough to
ruin us!) entirely free from Cedar, Bramble, and other plants
whose seeds are food for birds. The birds begin to resort thither,
and sow the seeds of fruit eaten elsewhere.   Suppose that in one
season they thoroughly sow an acre with troublesome plants,
though the supposition is absurd, -they will not germinate till
the following spring, or become perceptible until the second year.
In the spring of this year a man with a sharp bush scythe will
cut over and virtually destroy every plant in a day or two;- cost
$2! But all the birds on the 100 acres will not sow so much.
What are the benefits?
First consider the amount of land nearly or quite worthless for
pasture, which birds plant, as with Red Cedar, the most valua ble tree in New England for post-and-rail fences, a tree which
might be cultivated with profit. Hedgerows and old stone walls
are thus sowed with Cedar and Blackberry, and as one rides through
the country he may see them on all sides, not in the middle of the
472 
ORCHARD.
fields, but along the e(dges, where as they grow large they give
shade to the cattle, timber to use, fruit to preserve. Were there
no other benefit from the birds, this would compensate for the cost
of cutting down brush. For the fruit eaten, the beauty and song
of birds more than compensates.
But ho} immense a balance is left. Careful experiments have
shown that every robin consumes, during the summer, 15 lbs. of
worms. A robin, fed for experiment, consumed, on an average,
beside bread-crumbs, bits of beef, gravel, and water, 20 dwts. of
worms a day. If the birds were wild, the beef and bread-crumbs
would be replaced by seeds and earthworms, by caterpillars, cankerworms, larvae of various kinds. And at liberty, the consumption
would of course, be greater than in confinement; but at 20 dwts.
a day during the six months when robins frequent cultivated land,
one of them would eat fifteeni lbs. (Troy weight) of worms. Think
of that every farmer and gardener who complains of the robin, or
of any bird, for all eat in proportion! The thousand birds which surround your farm and homestead during the year, welcoming morning and evening with their songs, eat 15,000 lbs. of worms. How
many canker-worms, caterpillars, spiders, etc., would  go to make
up that amount? It is nothing less than insanity to prevent such
destruction of vermin, because it involves a little labor with a
scythe, to mow the bushes or brambles they have sowed, or the loss
of a few quarts of Cherries. Even the common crow is useful in
the same way. It is not to be denied that he pulls up a great deal
of Corn, and gives a great deal of trouble, but he does it not for
mischief, but in his efforts to assist the farmer. Every one knows
the injury done to Corn, and other crops, by the wire or cut-worm;
many specifics are recommended, all of some service; it is in the
pursuit of these grubs that crows and blackbirds pull up the young
plants, at whose roots instinct teaches them that their prey lies;
and it will be found that the fields most haunted by crows, are most
infested by the worm. I mention this to show the real habits of
the crow, not to prove that we may not lose more by their hunting
after the worms, than by the ravages of the worm if left unhurt.
Robins, crows, and blackbirds are not the only consumers of
worms. A distinguished American naturalist told me that one
40*
473 
APRIL.
morning hlie saw several branches of a favorite tree overrun by
many hundreds of the coarse, hairy, black and red caterpillars,
often seen on willows.  Hle was on the point of going out to remove
them, when he saw a male catbird light among and begin to eat
them, occasionally flying away with some for its young. The bird
continued this all day. By the same hour on the next flay there
were no caterpillars to be seen on the tree; the bird had cleared it.*
So of other birds; and the millions of pounds of worms eaten
by birds, would, if unconsumed, devour every green thing. So
long as a country is covered with forest, these insect nuisances are
rare, and so are birds; as the land is brought under cultivation the
insects increase, and the birds with them. So ready is nature to
provide for the wants of civilized life. You rarely see many birds
in the deep woods; they are about the homestead and hedgerows,
and the murderous guns of idle men and boys do incalculable mischief to farmers and horticulturists.
The last work in the orchard for this month is grafting, which
may be done through all the month of May.
* Rev. Thos. Hill, Walthiam, Mass.
474 
CHAPTER LV.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE work of the kitchen-garden begins now in good earnest,
and from this time till winter will keep the gardener busy.
The hotbeds and cold frames require constant attention. Dig
over all the open ground, particularly that which was manured last
fall with strong manure. You,will find it pretty well rotted. Any
that remains undecomposed must be shaken to pieces, and
thoroughly mixed with the earth.
Make beds for Radishes in the warmest exposures. If your garden is protected by a fence, sow early, otherwise defer sowing till
late in the month.  Among the radishes set Lettuce plants and
early Cabbages, from the cold frames and hotbeds, as soon as the
weather permits and the plants are ready for removal.
Sow Peas in warm exposures very early, as they will not be injured by frost.
Mlake ridges for early Potatoes, as described last month. Prick
out Cabbage plants for the cold frames as soon as you find settled
weather. Choice heads of Lettuce, Cabbage, and similar vegetables.,
may                             be covered at  night with the boxes already described.  But
t         h          e           great occupation for this month  will be with the hotbeds and
d i g g i n g    the ground. Make out a         list of the seeds you want, and the
quantity of each, the first of the month, and buy early while the
assortments at the stores are large and various. Melon seeds are
said to be much improved by age, and by being carried for some
w     e      eks                  in a  body-pocket, before planting. It ha s  never been stated
what the advantage of this practice is, but general opinion pron o u n ces                       in its favor, and there is, therefore, probably some benefit
in it. Few things puzzle amateurs more than the arrangement of
g       o od                    lists of seeds, in kinds and quantity.  It is equally troublesoime and unprofitable to have too much or too little, and the for                                                             475 
APRIL.
mer error is very common for fear of the latter. Some kinds of
seed each gardener does better to grow for himself, but in most
cases it is best to buy, if he can be sure of the quality, as by getting seed grown on different soil from his own, he secures something of the benefit of rotation of crops. It is undeniable, that
seed grown year after year deteriorates, even with the best care
and selection. Judicious selection has as much to do with the improvement of seed as any thing else. For instance, a Wheat
grower wishes the earliest kind, the largest head, with the greatest
number of kernels and most plumpness, and a stiff and not superabundant straw. If his Wheat is such as he likes, he goes through
his fields in July, and finds some heads, perhaps only one, much
earlier ripe than the rest; some superior in plumpness or other
respects. Perhaps one head unites all these good qualities. He
marks it, and, when it is ripe, cuts and saves it. He will manure
and dig well a little spot and sow these seeds early, so that the
plants shall be well grown before winter. The next year he will
keep these plants well weeded, and will certainly get several heads
much better, in all respects, than the rest. These he will gather
and  sow.   The  next year he will get not less than 100 heads,
which will give him 2,500 plants for the fourth year. At the least
calculation, he will find among these 3,000 perfect heads, bearing,
many thousand perfect kernels, "allowing 63 pounds to the bushel,
for wheat, 86 grains will weigh a dram, or, at any rate, 87; the
bushel will then contain 701,568 grains." *
Our cultivator will have obtained at least one-tenth of a bushel
of a new and improved variety of seed, and another year's care
will give him three bushels better still, and of course he may continue the improvement as long as he pleases. The same care will
produce the same result of course with any kind of seed, and
every cultivator should make a point of improving one or two
kinds; not many, as it takes too much time and trouble.  However, the experiment, as I have stated it, is far more elaborate than
will be found necessary in practice. Let me quote two accounts.
"B. King, January 22, 1841, Sussex, England. Planted 3
* Stephen's Book of the Farm, p. 438.
476 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
grains of Wheat, 1 grain, the shoots of which were divided from
each other and transplanted twice, yielded, in 1842, 3 pounds, 1243
ounces of grain. The third grain was divided three times, and
yielded  7 pounds 152  ounces.  The number of roots from this
grain was 173; of ears, 3,272; of grains, 97,028. Half an ounce
contained 382 grains. This, according to the Horsham experiment, was enough, the second year, to plant two-thiris of an acre."
"Mr. Jones, of Cambridgeshire, in 1838, got from 30 grains of
Wheat 1443 ounces; in 1839, 1443 ounces sowed, gave 141 bushels;
in 1840, 1' bushels sowed, gave 45 bushels; in 1841, 45 bushels
sowed, gave 539 bushels."
In improving seed, only one species of any family should be
cultivated in the same near neighborhood, because of the tendency
of plants in the same family to mix seeds. Remember that the
earliest healthily ripened fruit gives seed which will next year
produce fruit still earlier; and a wise gardener, if he depends upon his own seed, will keep his earliest fruit for that purpose rather
than sell it, even at an extra price. But, as I said, land gets tired
of growing the same seed, year after year; so that the farmer often
finds it for his advantage to buy seed from a neighbor.
As it is troublesome to select seed and estimate the quantity required, I will give the calculation for a garden of an acre, made by
a distinguished cultivator. Some plants which we usually grow
are omitted, and some uncommon sorts added. And it must be
observed that the amount of seed for an acre is not to be multiplied by 20 to obtain the amount of seed for 20 acres; because, in
a small garden, allowance must be made for the inferior plants,
which are cast aside when seedlings are pricked out; whereas, in
cultivation on a larger scale, no such transplanting is done, but
good plants and poor are allowed to grow together.
"The list I give is for succession crops, and but one single planting for one acre:
French or Kidney Beans, 4  quarts.
Scarlet Runners,            2   "
Parsnips,                 4 ounces.
Salsify,                  2    "
Skerrit,                 2    "
477
Peas,
Beans,
Early Cabbage,
Savory,
Brussels Sprouts,
36 quarts.
10     "
8 ounces.
4     "
3     " 
APRIL.
Cauliflowers,
Varieties  of Bro        ccoli
Borecoles,:
Red Cabbage,
Drumheads,
Kohl Rabi,
Onions,
Carrots,
White Turnips,
Yellow Turnips,
Celery,
Spinach,
Red Beets,
Yellow Beets,
Leeks,
Lettuce,                 4 "
tRadish,                  3  pints.
(if none were forced.)
Mustard,               1 1-2 quarts.
Cress,                 1 1-2   "
(if neither are forced.)
CrosParsley,            1 4 ounces,
2 curled, 2 plain.
Early Potatoes,      1 1-2 bushels.
Late       "         3         "
Jerusalem Artichokes,  1 peck.
Garlic                    8 ounces.
Shallots,                2 pounds.
Add to the above 2 drams of long green Cucumber, 2 drams
of short, prickly Cucumber, 2 drams of best Muskmelons, 1 ounce
of Watermelon, 4 drams of best Cantelope melon, 2 drams of
Summer Squash, 2 ounce of Marrow Squashl, 2 ounce of Crookneck, 4 quarts of Stowell's Evergreen Corn, 2 drams of Tomato,
1 quart of Black Beans, and other seeds in like proportions. Your
list made out, your seed purchased, you are ready to plant at the
earliest date, and you must plant early and late in order to have
succession crops.
Do not imagine that because the seed is provided in ample quantities, that thick sowing is advocated; thin sowing is almost always
better, in order to give room for the young plants to expand their
leaves and roots.
Never buy cheap seeds.  The best seeds are worth the best
price, and no cultivator can afford any other. For if the seed
is bad, all the expense and labor of ploughing, manuring  sowing
and cultivating are lost. Cheap seeds are refuse or damaged, or
else of some worthless variety.
The importance of absolutely pure seed cannot be over estimated.
We talk of the number of weed seeds in the soil; we sow more
every year, than we imagine. Prof. Buckman, of England, in
some late investigations, found that "in a pint of Clover seeds there
were 7,000 weed seeds; in a pint of Grass seeds 12,600 weed
seeds; in a pint of Broad Clover 39,440 weed seeds; and 2 pints
478
4 ounces.
8            1,
4 11
2 11
2 11
2 11
12 11
8             11
16,
6 11
2 11
8 quarts.
4 ounces.
2
4 ounces.
Endive,
L,,ttuce,
Itadisli,
4 ounces. 
KITCH EN-GARDEN.
of Scotch Clover yielded severally 25,560 and 70,400." All other
seeds are similar, and the number of weed seeds in Grass seed,
Red-top, Herd's Grass, etc., if enumerated, would horrify the most
slovenly farmer.
Some seeds are those of parasites, as the Orobanche and Dodder.
These are exceedingly minute, and adhere to the seeds of the plants
to which they are parasites, so closely as almost to be invisible to
the naked eye, and can only be removed by strong pickles.  Rust
and other similar diseases in grain, are parasitical fungi, and adhere
to the seed.
Some kinds of seed, to be relied upon, must be fresh when used,
as Carrots; others, like Turnips, are better for keeping a year or
two, particularly if good seed of different years is mixed. Before sowing, provide yourself with some guano, or super phosphate of lime, as a top dressing; these manures raked into the surface, will stimulate the young plants into very rapid growth, and
will drive plants of the Cabbage family, out of danger of the fly.
These plants are very apt to be eaten by a small fly, when in their
cotyledon state, but are out of danger just as soon as the rough
leaves are formed, which are the second pair. Squashes and Melons also, are very much eaten by bugs and worms, when young;
they are aided by guano.
So also, throughout the season, any plants which are slack in
growth, or which you are desirous of hastening, may be hurried by
a top dressing of guano raked in, or by digging it in round the roots
or by giving it as a liquid manure.
The tools absolutely necessary to a kitchen-g,arden, however
small, are a spade, shovel, hoe, iron-toothed rake, trowel, lifting and
manure forks, dibble, wheelbarrow, garden linle, watering pot, transplanting tray, or basket. All these tools should have their separate
places, and be returned thither every night.
The better class of gardens will need in addition, an edging
knife, wooden rake, long-handled shovel, pruning knife, hland-saw,
hatchet, longdiandled pruner to reach to the topmost boughs of
trees, some boxes with glass tops to protect the early plants, some
square frames without bottoms, and with tops covered with mosquito netting, which, set over young Melons, etc., will keep off bugs
47) 
APRIL.
and flies, hotbed frames, cold-pit frames, Sea-kale, Cardoon, and
Cauliflower pots and glasses, syringe, wheel hoe.
Provide yourself with a good supply of the best tools, as they
will be found much the cheapest in use; and take good care of them,
which is the surest way of keeping them a long time. Towards
the last of the month, you will need to look after the early nests of
caterpillars.
HOTBEDS. - I have not given a day's treatment of the hotbed,
but will do so now. In the early morning, as soon as the sun
strikes the beds, remove the mats or shutters, if the day is reasonably mild.
Visit the beds about 9 A.M.; if it is bright and the thermometer
is rising towards or above 80~, raise the sashes a little; during the
forenoon give more air as the bed heats. About the middle of the
afternoon, begin to water; use slightly warmed water. Water
poured into the beds at this time will soak into them and nourish
the plants much more than if applied earlier.
As soon as the watering is over, close the sashes, and when the
sun gets off the bed, cover for the night. Keep the temperature
of the bed constantly high, but with a moderate degree of moisture. Hotbed plants should never want moisture, but never be
surfeited; too much dampness in cloudy weather will produce
mildew and decay. To be successful with the beds, there is need
of great watchfulness; as the plants increase in size, admit air as
freely as is consistent with their growth, to harden them.
480 
CHAPTER LVI.
THE FARM.
FARMING begins in good earnest in April. Soon the cattle will
be turned out to pasture; every day you may let them out into the
yard, and there will be no harm in occasionally letting the young
and the dry cattle scamper for an hour or two over the pastures;
the fresh air and exercise will be of service.
You will do well to give each of your men his own tools, a hoe,
spade, shovel, scythe, rake, etc.; give it him in good order, and
charge it to him; if he breaks or loses it, deduct its value from his
wages, and give him another, but let each man keep and use his
own tools, and never borrow. Thus much annoyance and dispute
will be avoided.
This year's work is pointed out in our rotation.
Field No. 1, Pasture not so good as last year, and to be ploughed
up in July, and sowed with Flat Turnips.
Field No. 2 is to have 1 acre Ruta-Baga Turnips, 1 acre Mangold Wurzel, 43 acre Carrots, 4 acre Parsnips, 2 acres Potatoes, to
be planted in August with Wheat and White Turnips, sowed in
drills or broadcast.
Field No. 3, 2 acres in Winter Wheat and Grass, on which sow
12 lbs. Red, 4 lbs. White, 4 lbs. Yellow Clover; 300 lbs. of
plaster, mixed with 150 of guano. Field No. 3 will also have 3
acres in Spring Rye and Grass, or you may instead grow a fodder
crop of Sweet Corn or Oats, to be cut in the milk.  Sow Millet in
July.
No. 4, Grass, to be cut twice, or pastured on aftermath.
The first orchard, which has been growing 20 years, was planted
last fall with Rye and Clover. The Rye is to be cut for fodder,
and the Clover fed down by pigs when it comes up.
Orchard No. 2, 15 years old, is to be planted with fodder Corn
41                                      481 
APRIL.
in succession, in rows well manured, and when cut to be followed
with flat Turnips, or Rye and Clover, in the same strips for next
year's fodder.
So orchard No. 3, 5 years old.
The Pear and Peach orchard is not to be cropped at all, but to
be mulched.
The water of irrigation is not to be applied to any lands which
are to be tilled, with exceptions already noted, but to grass and
grain lands, while the crops are in the growing stage.
If March was too frosty to allow you to spread over the grass
land the manure which was carted out last fall, spread it now.
This should be done as soon as the frost leaves the ground, in order
that the spring rains may wash it into the earth at once. The
grass land will be too soft to cart over with comfort, and if the
piles of manure were properly placed last fall, there will be no
need of any thing but a pair of stout arms and a wheelbarrow.
Sow at the same time Clover seed over the land laid down to
grass last fall, at the rate of, at least, 15 lbs. per acre, as just described. It is recommended that this seed be sown on the last
snow, in order that it may be readily carried down into the soil as
the snow melts, and thus be evenly distributed. This is a good
plan when snow comes in April, as is often the case, and the seed
is probably more equally distributed than by sowing on the sod,
and leaving it to the rain; but to sow when the ground is still hard
frozen, is to waste much seed.
Now is the time to sow guano and super-phosphate, as a topdressing.
The amount of Clover seed, per acre, sowed at this season, is 10
to 20 lbs. The quantity of seed should vary with the soil, and
with the other seed sown. I have frequently directed you to sow
all crops thinly; but this does not apply to grass seed; the amount
of these to the acre should be liberal, as much is eaten by birds
and insects, some is poor, and when it germinates it is very desira ble that it should come up thick; the coarse parts are thus ren dered sweeter and more pliable, and the hay is eaten by the stock
with greater relish.
When the seed and guano is all sowed, or the manure spread,
482 
THE FARM.
roll all the grass land and grain fields carefully, to consolidate the
surface, and press into the ground, out of the way of the scythe or
mowing-machine, any stones or roots which may have been heaved
above the surface by frost.
The first farm work will be preparing land for spring Grain.
Reference to the scheme of our 6 years' rotation will show that
there is always some spring Grain which is sowed with Grass to
follow Roots. With the exception of early Potatoes, Roots are
never off the ground in season to allow the sowing of winter Grain;
therefore it is always desirable to divide the land for Roots - one
portion to be planted with early Potatoes, the other with Turnips, etc.
The spring Grain will vary according to locality. In the Western States Winter Wheat has been nearly abandoned, because it has
been so much more severely injured by insects than Spring Wheat.
Where this is the case, the farmer may grow upon his fallows such
Roots as he pleases, the land not being wanted for Grain till
spring. With us in New England, Spring Rye, Oats, and Barley
are the usual crops. Spring Rye has in some localities been destroyed by the rust and blight. Wherever such diseases prevail,
Oats or Barley must be sowed. They will thrive on much poorer
soil than Wheat, and Rye is considered a Grain for poor soils, and
is grown year after year, upon land which does not yield crop
enough to fairly pay for the labor. But, in truth, no Grain crop is
adapted to poor soil; no poor land should be tolerated; the kind of
Grain to be grown in any field should be decided by the nature,
and not by the quality of the soil. Rye thrives well in loamy
and dry gravelly soils; not so well on sandy land, though it will
yield a fair crop in any fertile soil, but in rich loam it runs to straw.
Oats are adapted to sandy clay, light loam, and good gravel.  Barley thrives best in a hazel loam, or on good sandy land, and yields
good crops on well drained and worked clay, but under any circumstances needs a well-drained soil. Wheat should be reserved
for rich loam or loamy clay; clay of any kind yields good Wheat,
if well drained and tilled, but these processes must be thoroughly
done; and, indeed, we may say the same of the treatment of the
soil for any Grain crop.
Occasionally farmers sow land down to Grass with Indian Corn, or
483 
APRIL.
Squashes. Each of the various methods for getting land into Grass
has its advocates, and each is best, under certain circumstances.
The following is the method for sowing land with Spring Wheat,
to be followed next year by Grass. Plough thoroughly, but not
before the land is dry enough to break to pieces under the harrow; plough at least 9 inches deep, and as much more as is
possible. As soon as this is done, if the seed is to be broadcasted,
bow 200 lbs. of guano, mixed with 200 lbs. of plaster, and double
the bulk of good loam, peat, or charcoal to the acre; harrow carefully, and remove all large stones, stalks, and weeds. Pickle the
seed, and sow 121 to 2 bushels to the acre. This is much more than
for fall sowing, as the seed will have no time to tiller, and only
those stalks will bear seed which vegetate early, and thrive. Follow the Grain with Grass seed, and then give a single light harrowing, followed by the roller, which will leave the seed pressed
into the soil, and the soil compact about it. A firm and compact
soil is especially important to the Wheat plant, the light crops which
it bears on sand and sandy loam being chiefly due to the lightness
of these soils. The field will need no other care than occasional
weeding, till harvest.
The benefit of the guano sown in the spring is manifold. It
gives the seed an early growth, and drives it forward when rains
are frequent, and it increases the yield in direct proportion to the
amount applied. A cwt. of guano will invariably give double or
treble its cost in extra crop. When Grass seed is to be sowed
with the Wheat, follow the seed-wheat with at least, Red-top, 1 to 2
bushels, Herd's Grass, 2-1 bushel, Clover 12 pounds. It is useless and
slovenly to draw a brush-harrow over the surface when the land is
friable and in good condition, and the seed evenly spread. Grass
seeds are much more economically and evenly sowed in the broad cast seed-sower than by hand, and although we do not care to spare
our seed, having seen the advantage of its being in excess, the
evenness of distribution is of great consequence to the crop.
The use of Wheat as a spring grain will be determined by the
latitude. In some parts of our country Wheat will not ripen its
seed unless sown in the fall, because it has then this advantage: It
grows and tillers, (i.e. throws out suckers from the root which
484 
THE FARM.
take root and send up a seed stem of their own), and covers the
ground before winter with a thick sward. In the spring, before
the land is fairly thawed, the plants feel the sun and begin to make
new roots, slowly but surely, as the frost comes out, and before the
land could be ploughed and sowed the new roots are well formed,
and the plants ready to grow.
If you select Spring Rye or Oats as the grain, the treatment will
be similar in all respects. Rye is sometimes saved from the rust
by a pickle. The exact benefit derived from this pickling has
never been determined, but it is certain that fields have been saved
by pickling the seed, while adjoining fields, with unpickled seed,
have suffered. For both Wheat and Rye various pickles are recornmmended.  One method is to fill a tub with weak urine, or other
ammoniacal liquid, pour in the seed and immediately take it out,
and set it in a sieve to drain; then mix it with caustic lime, or
Plaster of Paris, or wood ashes, in sufficient quantity to dry it. To
ensure the seed's being covered, roll the mixture in a barrel, or
shovel it over repeatedly. In this way the seeds will be prevented
from sticking together.* I give a drawing of a drill for sowing
seed. The seed and special manure are put into the boxes, and
are sowed at the same time, securing a more even deposition of
both than is possible in hand sowing.  Use 1 bushel per acre. The
saving of seed is considerable, and at the /        \ \!)~ 
same time you are
sure that all the seeds [             _  t
are deposited at a uniform depth, which is
of very. great importance.  Careful trials
have shown a consid-..
erable loss or a gain as.
the seeds were sowed
too deep, too near the surface, t)r at the proper depth.  It has been
* Other pickles are salt and water, blue vitriol dissolved in water, arsenic,
but this last is dangerous.  In the place of the lime, in which I directed you
to roll the seed, powdered chlarcoal, or any dry, antiseptic dust, may be used.
41*
48,5 
APRIL.
calculated by Stephens, that in a crop of 64 bushels to the acre,
there is a loss of 33 per cent of the seed when sowed broadcast, of 40 per cent in a crop of 58 bushels to the acre.   The
proper depth is between 1 and 2 inches- not less than 1 and
not more than 2.  Spring Rye sown broadcast demands  141 to 2
bushels, in the drill 43 to 1 bushel, per acre.  The straw of Rye is
very much more valuable than any other, owing to its length and
stiffness.
Oats are never sown in the fall, but always in the spring. Sow
3 to 4 bushels to the acre, broadcast. It is not so often drilled in
as the other Grains, but gains as much by the process as any other.
One to two bushels to the acre is enough when a drill is used. The
peculiar roots of the oat collect the earth on which they grow into
nodules, and the land needs rather more than usual cultivation to
reduce it to fine tilth after oats.
Barley sowed like the preceding, requires 2 or 3 bushels to the
acre, or 1 in drill. Sow it later than the other grains, but as early
as the first of May. Do not roll it unless the land be very light.
It may be pickled to advantage. The use of steeps, or pickles, for
grain, is asserted to have another value than protection, if the steep
is well made. A large number of careful and instructive experiments were tried in this direction by several English and Scotch
agriculturists.   The seed was analyzed a sufficient number of
times to settle definitely its important constituents, and then these
constituents were procured in a soluble form, were dissolved in
water, and the seed soaked in the liquid until enough was absorbed,
in the judgment of the experimenters, to thoroughly manure a
given acreage upon which the seed was to be sowed. In the majority of cases the seed so prepared, and the field thus manured,
gave large and satisfactory crops, demonstrating to the experimenters
the truth of the theory upon which they had acted. But in other
cases the experiment proved an entire failure, either because the
theory was incorrect or the experiments badly tried. The inventor
of this method patented it, and sold preparations for different
crops. Undoubtedly there is a good deal in the idea, and I recommend every farmer to try the experiment.* All the Grain crops
* See pp. 155, etc., of Highland Society's Prize Essays for 1845.
486 
THE FARM.
are much benefited by weeding. Particular care should be taken
to ensure that there are no seeds of mustard or other weeds
among your seed-grain. It should be thoroughly examined, and,
if need be, winnowed several times before sowing.
Land is in fine condition for all these Grains, after a crop of
well-manured Roots, which leave it in the spring light and friable.
If the field can be ploughed directly after removing the Roots in
the fall and not harrowed, it will be in still better case, and may
if necessary, be sowed in the spring without a new ploughing, only
breaking down the furrows with a heavy harrow or cultivator.
No Grain should be manured with barnyard manure, as it is too
coarse and rank to be easily appropriated by the roots of Grain,
which having to elaborate in a few months a highly concentrated
seed, needs to find its food in a well-rotted condition in which it is
easily assimilated.
It has always been laid down as a principle, that no Grain except Oats should be sown on a lea or old sod. Wheat does best
after Clover, the sward being broken up in the spring or early summer, and summer-fallowed, ploughed once or twice and sowed in
the fall. The Clover tops and roots thus ploughed in, very soon
ferment and decay, and give the Wheat just the food it wants.
Some of our Western farmers prefer a Timothy sward to any other
preparation for Wheat. Whoever uses the Michigan plough may
sow upon the sod just as readily as on stubble or fallow. This
plough is shown in the cut. It is double. The front plough cuts
the sod in a ribbon, and rolls it under where it is covered with
mould to the depth of two or three inches by the large plough
which follows.
All lea land is more infested with wire and cut worms than fallow or stubble, and is in that way objectionable; but with this exception there is no sort of reason why the sod should not be used
for winter or spring Grain. By adopting this practice, a different
rotation may be followed, which is better than the one previously
laid down under some circumstances. Well-buried sod is excellent
food for Grain, if it is the sward of well-enriched land, it is easily
decomposed, and yet firm for the early growth of the plants. Oats
487 
APRIL.
grasp the earth and consolidate a foothold better than any other
Grain, all of which need a well-rolled soil.
ffi~m
Indian Corn is sometimes used to get land into Grass. It differs
from all other Grains in being a hoed crop, and is used very often
in the place of Roots, or to follow them on land which will bear
two white crops in the rotation. It is sown by the corn-planter or
by hand in rows. Different distances are prescribed according to
the size of the Corn, straw, or tops, and the traditions of the district;
3 feet each way from hill to hill is about right; the seed should be
set 1-1 to 2 inches deep, 4 or 5 grains to the hill, 9 to 12 quarts to
the acre. For this Grain, either barnyard or special manure may
be used either broadcast or in the hill; both methods have their
warm advocates. On good land I advise broadcasting the manure
before ploughing, and then sowing with the seed some artificial
manure in the hill, which is as good as any other manure in the
hill to give the Corn an early start, and will hold out long enough
to establish the plants so that they can send their roots abroad for
the other manure. The time for sowing Corn is from the middle
of May to the middle of June. Different varieties of seed obtain
in different parts of the country. The Canada Corn may be sowed
later than any other, as it ripens earlier, needing but 90 days;
other and larger varieties need more time. It is a question whether
488 
THE FARM.
the Canada Corn will not yield as many pounds per acre as any
other; it is smaller, may be sowed closer in both row and hill, and
with more grains to the hill.
I should not speak of this grain now out of season as it is,
were it not in connection with sowing land to Grass. Cultivate the
Corn fat. As soon as the Corn is high enough to show the rows
distinctly, go over the field and shake a teacupful of ashes over
each hill; then send a horse-plough through the rows each way, to
furrow, deepen, and loosen the soil; follow this with the hoe, and
carefully cut off, or pull up every weed. Do not content yourself
with covering them with earth. Such a course is slovenly, and
short-sighted; the weeds will soon come up again through the
earth. After one good hoeing there need be no other general hoeing. As soon as weeds show again in the rows, send a horse-hoe, or
cultivator, through each way, once or twice, enough to break up the
surface soil thoroughly, and kill the young weeds, but never plough
a second time, as the plough runs deep enough to break the young
roots of the Corn. Cultivate or horse-hoe as often as is necessary,
till the Corn becomes too large for the horse to go through the rows.
If you have been careful and constant in your culture, the weeds
will be so much subdued that they will not start again, for the Cornstalks will shut out light from the ground, and without light weeds
will not thrive.
In July go over the field with the hoe, and cut and remove any
remaining weeds.  Then sow the Grass seed broadcast, which is a
rather difficult and tedious process, for the sower must stoop lower
than the Corn leaves, to spread the seed well over the ground.
After sowing, rake the surface thoroughly with wooden rakes, to
mix the seed well with the soil. Under the protecting shade of
the Corn it will germinate rapidly, Cut the Corn in September as
close to the ground as possible, and remove it at once from the field,
stooking it along the edges or elsewhere. Immediately after some
shower, roll the field thoroughly, so as to make it as level as possible, and press the Corn roots into the soil, where they will soon decay; for the same reasons, roll again before winter, and in the
spring.
Prepare land for early Potatoes. The land for this is the pas
489 
APRIL.
ture, or sward of last year, which is to be got into condition for
winter grain. Plough with the Michigan plough, or with the common plough followed by a sub-soil. It is in the Root crop that
the deep culture and thorough manuring are to be done, as after
that  crop is removed,  the land lies in  grain or sward for  5
years. Potatoes are not, therefore, as good as other Roots, as they
are not benefited by much manure. The best crops of best Potatoes are usually grown upon unmanured but rich land. It has been
thought by many that manuring has caused the rot, and I am of
those who feel that less, rather than more manure should be the
rule, for the sake of the tuber. Indian Corn may be planted in rotation in place of Potatoes, if you choose; planting the 90 day Corn
in the middle of May, it may be stooked by the 20th of August,
or the 1st of September; and afterwards there will be time to sow
winter Grain. Before ploughing, cart on manure; the amount of
this per acre, will be determined by the stock on hand, as all of it
is to be used on this and the other Roots; no other than special
manure being needed by the other crops in the rotation. An ample dressing is 10 cords to the acre of very rich manure; this is
equal to 4 ox, or 2 horse, cart loads with the side boards on, well
trodden and full to the top. Our New England farmers will
take their first alarm at this, in their eyes, immense dressing. 20
cords of ordinary compost will be still better; remember that the
field is to receive no other than special manure, or top dressing, for
6 years.
Having ploughed in the manure, harrow and furrow out. Run
the furrows across the field 3 feet apart each way; drop into each
intersection, your Seed Potatoes; the number will depend upon
the kind you use, and the traditions of your district. If whole and
small, 1 to 3, if cut in pieces, 3 to 4 pieces; lay them in with some
care; as the seed is dropped, a man or boy should follow with
plaster of Paris, and shake a handful over each hill; another
should cover the Potatoes, drawing over them not less than one,
nor more than two, inches of earth; the seed having been well covered, the hoe should be pressed down on the hill to consolidate the
earth.
I mentioned in September, several varieties of good Potatoes;
490 
THE FARM.
add to these, for early culture, Hill's Early, ripens in July; ChenanIgo, in August; Jackson White, also in August; State of Maine,
Gilly Flower, and many other varieties variously esteemed.
Potatoes can be planted the last of this month, or the first of May.
Another spring crop, which may be planted upon lea or fallow
land, manured or not, is Peas. I do not mean Peas for the table
or market, but Peas as a field crop. Prepare the land as just described, and harrow evenly. Sow the seeds, with a seed-sower, in
rows 3 to 4 feet apart, using 2 bushels to the acre; set the seeds 3
inches deep in the ground. Treat like Indian Corn during the summer.  They will be ripe in July, when pull up and bind; stook till
dry, then thresh. The yield will be about 30 to 50 bushels to the
acre. Peas are excellent flesh-forming food for cattle or hogs.
The straw will be readily eaten, or may be used for litter. This
crop can be sown as early as Oats, although early Peas are more
open to the attacks of weevil than those sown  later.   On the
other hand, the Pea likes much water, and late-sown crops are
liable to be checked by drought.
The field Bean is another crop similar to the Pea, but cannot be
sown till the middle or last of May, through fear of the frost; and
as they grow quickly, they need not be sown till the middle of
June. Plough, harrow, and roll. Sow the Beans in rows 2 feet
apart, using 1 bushel to the acre; set the seeds 2 inches apart, and
2 inches deep. Hoe during the season. As soon as the pods are
yellow pull them up, tie in bunches, and stack to dry. Thresh
them as soon as they are dry. Beans ground are excellent food for
cattle, with Turnips. The straw is good for fodder or litter. Both
Peas and Beans should be cracked or ground before feeding, in
order to render them more digestible.
During wet days, which come often in March and April, the
farm hands should be employed in the manure cellar. Let them
first clear a space, situated conveniently near, and there begin to
make a pile of manure. The manure accumulated during the winter, and packed and trodden by the hogs, is very solid. It may be
rendered more manageable by turning it over, and at the same time
will become better mixed.   After turning, leave it a few days
before it is used.   During the process of turning, it would be
491 
APRIL.
well occasionally to sprinkle the heap with diluted sulphuric acid,
or to shake over it Plaster of Paris, charcoal, or peat dust, to
absorb the gases which would otherwise escape, and to stop heating or fermentation.
Fermentation, or heating in the manure pile, is the progress of
chemical change, which results in the evolution of carbonate
of ammonia, evident enough to any one who stands near a pile
of heating manure. Other gases are formed in the process, and escape at the same time, but the carb. ammonia predominates, and
the pile loses most by its escape. When the acid, or other absorbent, is spread through the heap, these chemical changes are arrested,
and whatever gas has been generated is immediately absorbed; no
more can form, and consequently fermentation stops.
In the last month ('vhile discussing the rotation of crops) and in
the present, I have frequently referred to artificial manures as a
means of fertilizing crops, and some readers may not understand
why the term "artificial" should be appropriated for any set of
manures, when all manures are, to a certain extent, manufactured
articles. The term is particularly applied to guano, super-phosphate
of lime, poudrette, rape-cake, bone dust, and other fertilizers,
which are articles of commerce. Different farmers preferring and
using different kinds of artificial manures. Already many thousands of tons of them are used in this country, but seldon with care
or accurate knowledge of their value. The use of artificial manures
is an indication of the improvement of agriculture, since, generally, only those who are desirous of improvement, will spend money
for manure. And the man who is willing to do so, is generally
anxious that the land for which he makes the outlay should be in
the best condition possible, in other words, that he should get the
best return for his investment. Yet there is a class of greedy men,
eager to get money, who buy and use these manures without investigation or discrimination, having only a general perception that
artificial manure will rapidly increase their crops. Such men will,
sooner or later, overdo the thing, and suffer from the careless use
of these stimulants, and then they will pronounce this whole class
of manures too dangerous to be of any value.
Every reader of American agricultural literature must have
492 
THIlE FARM.
been astonished at the differences of opinion about the value of
guano.  Some men pronounce it the most valuable of manures,
the regenerator of soils, the mainspring of agriculture, the great
means by which the farmer may improve his condition. Others
maintain that it is uncertain in its operation, overstimulating
land for a time and then leaving it exhausted and barren, at one
time powerful, at another powerless; in short, unreliable and valueless. As with guano, so with all all other manures; no two
statements about them are alike.
Curious and inexplicable as this seems at first, it is owing to
nothing but greedy haste to get rich by a short cut.  Nothing for
nothing is the rule everywhere in Nature; and no man grows rich
in farming by short cuts, unless it be at the expense of those who
follow him. I have said that unlimited patience is the stock in
trade of the successful gardener; the same is true of the farmer.
The operations of Nature are slow and sure, and not to be hurried;
her laws are immutable. If we would succeed, we must study her
secrets, and do as she does. Your assertion or.mine is of no
weight unless based on personal experience both wide and minute,
or on similar experience of other men. To hear the talk of our
experimental farmers, one would suppose that the round of agricultural experiments and success began with them, whereas the
laws which govern agriculture have been discovered by long and
patient groping and many trials, and are now matters of record. If
you are inclined to make experiments, which require time and
money and imperil your crops, endeavor to learn by readting and inquiry, how others have succeeded in similar experiments, and what
was the cause of their failure or success. Their experience may
enable you to avoid the rocks, the snags, and the whirlpools, the
situation of which you must otherwise learn by sad experience.
I will endeavor to show the principles upon which successful
manuring is based, and to lay down a plan for future action. To
arrive at any definite and consistent plan, we must ask and answer
the questions, "Why manure at all?" and "What is manure?"
To take these questions in order. We know that any plant cultivated on an acre of land for many successive years without manure, finally reduces that acre to sterility. It will bear no more of
42
493 
APRIL.
its old crop. The reason for this seems to be, that the constituents
of which that crop is composed, are withdrawn to such an extent,
that there is not enough left to support new plants; not enough, I
mean, in a form adapted to the plants. That the necessary constituents are not wholly exhausted, is proved by the field's being
able to produce the same crop again after lying fallow for some
time. A large part of the vegetable constituents of plants is floating in the air as gas, and rain washes down a portion of them as it
falls, making thus a considerable contribution to the crops. But the
air does not contain all the elements of plant life, for lime, potash,
and soda, technically called "salts," are not volatile, and  can
neither float in the air nor be supplied by it; yet they are always
found in greater or less amount in all plants, and are essential to
their life and growth, though we do not know how; and they are
all important to the formation of the flesh, bones and blood, of men
and animals, who obtain them principally from vegetable fibre
where Nature has stored them. They may be formed through the
agency of the atmosphere. For instance, lime exists as a carbonate in the rocks, and as these crumble into powder under the constant contact of atmospheric gases, the influence of storms and frosts,
they spread the Lime over the neighboring soil. But this is a slow
process, and we are forced to believe that no soil is ever wholly
exhausted of the available form of these salts, whilst it may be
wanting in the gases which are necessary to plant life, and in
whose absence plants cannot appropriate the salts.
It is not difficult to ascertain the constitution of a soil, and to
make a table of the constituents. I shall, in the following pages,
give several such tables; do not in reading them be misled as to
the quantity of the various constituents contained in the soils men
tioned. In some cases the constituents will be given in pounds, in
others, in a per centage; to get the number of pounds, will, in such
cases, need a little calculation.
I have not quoted the number of tables or the variety of soils I
might have, as the number would not strengthen the points to which
I wish to attract your attention, and in the tables quoted you will
find ample illustration of the value of earth analyses, and of the
494
0 
THE FARM.
component parts of soils. The soils of your farm may differ from
these analyses materially, but the principle will be the same.
CLAY FROM ZUIDER ZEE. *
1.       2.         3.
Insoluble quartz or
sand, with alumina
and silica.
Soluble silica,
Alumina,
Peroxide iron,
Protoxide of iron,
Protoxide of manga  nese,
Lime,                          
Magnesia,
Potash,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Phosphoric acid,
Sulphuric acid,
Carbonic acid,
Chlorine,
Humic acid,
Crenic acid,
Apocrenic acid,
Hunfin, vegetable re  Inains  and   water,
chemically combined,
Wax and resin,
Loss,
145,605 lbs.
5,404"
54,251 "           Soluble
81,565  "
Amo.60.7 5 2,907  " matter
17,289"
hi i8535,007 "  |  to an acre.
229,509"
The number of pounds is ob7 tained as follows: thile weight of
an acre of good land, 1 foot deep,
is given as 4,094,640 pounds, or
94 pounds to the cubic foot.  By
the use of these numbers, you
may  get the weight of the per centages of any tables of analysis
of top-soils.
100.00 100.00 100.00
This soil is kiln-dried before making the analysis. These are
rich soils, and draw their origin from the Rhine country and decayed rocks.
IN ONE IMPOVERISHED SOIL. t
1
Silica, quartz, sand, and 6
silicate.
Alumina,
Oxides iron,
Oxide managanese,
Lime,
Magnesia.
Potash and soda,
*Text Book of Agriculture, p. 33.    t Text Book of Agriculture, p. 35.
495
57.646
2.340
1.830
9.038
.350
.288
4.092
.130
1.026
1.972
.060
.466
.896
6.085
1.240
2.798
.771
.107
55.372
2.286
2.888
11-864
.200
.284
2.480
.128
1.521
1.937
.075
.478
.576
4.77i
1.418
3.428
.037
.152
8.324 7.700 9.340
trace. trace. trace.
.542.611.753
pounds.
.45o.
.524.
trace.
.320, == 13,102 pounds.
.130.
trace, == many pounds. 
APRIL.
Phosphoric acid,          trace,  many pounds.
Sulplhuric acid,            "          "
Chlorine,                   "           "
Humic acid,              11.470,   about 500,000 pounds.
Insoluble humus,        26.530, = and is a source of, and converted into carOrganic matter, contain-              bonic acid,
ming nitrogen,        00.000.
Carbonic acid united to
lime,                  trace, = many pounds.
Water,                    none.
When kiln-dried, a trace in an analysis of 100 grains, would be
many pounds in 4,094,640 pounds.
A BARREN SOIL IN NEW JERSEY. *
2
4.50, = 184.258 pounds.  Contain perhaps, a little
nitrogen; mostly carbon.
87.60, = over 3,000,000 pounds.
3.65.
.45,  10,425 pounds.
trace.
1.39.
.01, — 49 pounds.
.08, - 3,277 pounds.
.06, = 2,456 pounds.
.12, = 4,913    "
Silicates,
Alumina,
Lime,
Magnesia,
Peroxide iron,
Potash,
Soda,
Chlorine,
Sulphuric acid,
Phosphoric acid, wit
iron as phosphate,
Carbonic acid,
Moisture,
Loss,
.03, = 1,228 pounds.
00
2.00.
.01.
100.00
Kiln-dried, as before.
These analyses of soils are just as good for my purpose, to show
what good and poor soils offer to the crops, as though I had a hundred such. Let us now ascertain what are the constituents of the
crops themselves. I will take the crops usually cultivated, and give
in tabular form the number of pounds to the acre, of the various
constituents which will be removed by these crops. Knowing then,
what crops require, and the composition of soils, we have next to ascertain what the air furnishes; we shall then see the elements
which are to be supplied by culture, to facilitate the growth of crops.
When we look at the vast amounts of the various constituents
* Text Book of Agriculture, p. 36.
496
Or,anic matter, 
THE FARM.
of the soil which exist in every fertile acre of land, it seems impossible that they can be exhausted even in a long course of
cropping, or that the small amount we can return as manure, can
be of any use. According to Boussingault,* Wheat takes from
the soil,
Dry crop in pounds     To  1-2 an Eng    of the ash.     I       lish acre.
As Wlheat,             1,052,'
As Straw,              2,558. 
3,610. J
This reduced to ashes, give
Wheat ashes,
Straw ashes
2.4 per cent,    or        25 pounds.
7  per cent,              179 pounds.
Constituents          in 25 lbs. Wheat ashes.   In 179 lbs. Straw ashes
Phosphloric acid., 12.0                               5.0
Sulphuric acid,                  0.3                  1.5
Chlorine,                                             1.0
Lime,                            0.8                  15.0
Magnesia,                        4.0                   9.0
Potaslh and soda,                7.0                  17.0
Silica,                          0.4                121.0
Oxide iron, etc.,              trace.                 1.75
The organic matter of an average crop will take from 121 acres:of carbon, 2,259 lbs.;  of hydrogen, 262 lbs.; of oxygen, 1,923
lbs.; of nitrogen, 52 lbs.; of nitrogen (in the form of ammonia)
63 lbs.
Let me say here, before going further, that ammonia is a compound formed of nitrogen and hydrogen, one equivalent of nitrogen
to three of hydrogen, represented in chemical formula as N H3.
We see from the table of constituents found in the analysis of
the ash, that nitrogen enters more largely into the formation of
plants than any one saline element except silica, of which, as we have
seen, there is always a preponderance in common soils. As far as
analysis and experiment have been able to detect, nitrogen is never
taken up by plants in its pure form, but only as ammonia; and
although we may manure crops with various kinds of nitrates, -
that is to say, preparations in which nitrogen exists not as ammonia,- yet before the plants can use it, it is changed into ammonia. Nothing enters the plant through its roots, except dissolved
by water; ammonia is readily dissolved in water, and thus carried
*Rural Economy, p 366.
42*
497 
APRIL.
into the plant. That some nitrogen may be carried into the plant
from the air, is quite possible, it being a constituent of the atmosphere in connection with hydrogen and oxygen; but investigation
does not show that the plant has any power of separating nitrogen
from the atmosphere, for its own use, and accordingly it is generally admitted that ammonia is the source of the nitrogen in plants.
I dwell upon this question because upon the importance of ammonia in the economy of plants, depends the value of the different
special manures. One class of chemists assert that there is no
need of supplying ammonia artificially, but that the value of a manure depends entirely upon the quantity of salts (lime, potash, and
soda), together with phosphoric acid in it.  Another class strenuously maintain that the value of a manure is determined by the
ammonia which it can yield to plants, and that the salts are of no
consequence so long as there is a fair amount of phosphoric acid
with the ammonia.
Let us examine a few more crops before proceeding further.
Analysis by Hemming.- A Rye crop abstracted from one halfacre (English) in pounds of- carbon, 2,169; hydrogen, 245; oxygen, 1,868; nitrogen, 34; potash, 25; soda, 1; lime, 10; phosphoric
acid, 14; ammonia, 41.
A Turnip crop took from one half-acre (English) in pounds:
Nitrogen, 159; potash, 166; soda, 5; lime, 102; phosphoric acid, 33.
A crop of Beans took from one-half acre (English) in pounds:
Nitrogen, 164; potash, 55; soda, 8; lime, 37; phosphoric acid, 29.
Boussingault ascertained that in a rotation of 5 years, the following crops (per one-half English acre) took in pounds:*                     Dry Crop.  Carbon. HIydrogen. Oxygen.   Azoteor  Ash.
Nitrogen.
1.  Potatoes,          2,828     1,244   164    1,264      42    113
2.  Wheat and Straw,   3,122     1,487    171    1,262    32    270
3.  Clover Hay,        3,693     1,750    185    1,396     78   284
4 1 Wheatand Straw,   3,857      1,836   210    1,559      40    210
Turnips, 2d crop,   3,656    2,832    36      278      11     50
5.  Oats and Straw,    2,151     1,087    125     816     26    99
19,307   10,236    891   6,575     229 1,026
Boussingault is an advocate of the free use of ammonia as a manure, and values manures in proportion to the amount of ammonia
* Rural Economy, p. 357.
498
4 
THE FARM.
in them, and accordingly in his analyses makes no account of the
ash.
Prof. Liebig, on the other hand, values his analyses and manures
upon the saline constituents of the ash, and neglects the organic
and ammonia-producing qualities. I will give some of the analyses of the ash, of the above crops, taken from Way, that their constituents may be understood.
I gave Boussingault's analysis of the dry crop. In Way's tables
the weight of the dry crop is given, and with it the ash; but Way's
crops were sometimes taken from twice as much land as Boussingault's, and are sometimes twice, and often several times greater
in gross weight than Boussingault's, and consequently the comparison between the ammonia of the one, and the ash of the other, is
only approximate.
Boussingault's
Analysis.a
Crop, lbs. Ash, lbs.
11,733    113
4,675    284
4,977    210
8,754      50
2,882      99
WAY'S ANALYSIS OF THE FOREGOING.
Clover Hay.
2.11
51.09
1.25
43.21
9.75
64.31
36.79
4.58
Turnips.
14.24
60,98
78.82
107.68
21.54
6.29
201.68
39.21
38.15
26.69
2.00
Silica, 
Phosphoric acid,
Earthy phosphates,
Sulphuric acid.
Lime,
Magnesia,
Peroxide of iron,
Potash,
Soda,
Chlorine,
Salt,
Chloride of potash,
A difference will be observed in the number of pounds of crop
given in the two quotations of Boussingault's analysis; -the first
quotation shows the number of pounds of kiln-dried material, the
second of the material in its condition when harvested. The
weight of the crops analyzed for the ash by Way and others, is
given in its ordinary condition, and to make the table intelligible in
its comparison, in the second quotation I have given the crop of
*Rural Economy, p. 357.  t Brown's Field Book of Manure, p. 391.
'49'9
trogen, as shown
in last table.
lbs.
42
78
40
1 1
26
way Is
Analysi'.f
Crop, lbs Ash, lbt;.
12,750 423-97
4,000 213-09
9,068 246-01
52,000 600.30
5,040 198-90
Potatoes,
Clover Hay,
Wheat and Straw,
Turnips,
Oats and Straw,
Potatoes.
16-86
47-99
50.21
29.11
25.41
1.35
195-07
27-53
16.64
13.80
Wheat and
Straw.
150.52
31.54
0.44
8.88
. 12-70
0.56
39-23
2.14
Oats and
Straw.
96-80
22-30
5.80
12.00
9.10
2.7o
36.50
3.60
6.30
3.80 
APRIL.
Boussingault, in its harvested condition. Let me now call your
attention to the fact that vast as is the amount of soluble minerals
in fertile land, the insoluble ingredients are in much greater proportion, being sometimes 60 to 80 per cent. These insqluble materials
vary with the locality; they are rocks composed wholly or in part
of Lime, Potash, Soda, Magnesia, Silex. Silex, or Flint, gives to
the outer coating of straw its hardness, and is as necessary to
plants as any other element.
The analyses of "fertile soil" show a considerable and constant
amount of ammonia, which should increase rather than decrease
in the hands of the good farmer, and yet we have seen that plants
annually take from the soil a large quantity of ammonia.  Whence
do they get it?
Careful analysis of air, of rain and snow-water, slhows an appreciable amount of uncombined ammonia in the air, which is washed
down by rain and snow and carried into the earth; but a thorough
course of experiments just concluded by the best agricultural investigators in England, has proved that the amount annually furnished to the earth in this way is less than the amount taken away
annually by ordinary crops. Yet the opponents of special ammoniated manure have pointed to the ammonia of the air as sufficient
to supply all the wants of the crops, and have maintained that any
other supply of ammonia is unnecessary.
One follower of Liebig gives the number of' pounds of ammonia found in.the soil of several different acres, varying in amount
from 3,000 to 8,000 pounds, and then triumphantly inquires what
farmer would ever cart from his manure-yards 8,000 pounds of
ammonia to his fields*.
This is most mistaken reasoning. Our tables have just shown
that in a single fertile acre, there may be 145,605 pounds of lime,
54,251 pounds of potash, 17,289 pounds of phosphoric acid   all
soluble.  What farmer would ever think of carting such quantities
of these salts out of his yards to his land?
Again, it is said that the value of barnyard manure is dependent,
not upon its ammonia, but entirely upon the carbon and salts supplied by it. But the same great authority who asserts that all the
* Prof. Horsford, Camrnbridge, Mass.
500 
THE FARM.
ammonia needed in agriculture may be derived from the washings
of the air, shows that at least 200,000 pounds of carbonic acid
per acre may be supplied from the same atmospheric reservoir. In
the eyes of his school then, the value of barnyard manure cannot
depend on its carbon. The constituents of barnyard manure are,
about 80 per cent water, 18 carbonaceous matter, 2 of salts and
ammonia. If then its value lay in its carbon and salts, our farmers would do well to burn their manure and carry out the ash only,
which would reduce the expense of manuring a field with barnyard manure at least one half.  But in fact, this manure, though
not in any one's opinion perfect -varying as it does in quality, and
never containing all the elements of plants in due proportionhas always been found more generally efficient than any other manure. How it may be improved will be stated hereafter.
To return to the advocates of saline manures.  They give a list
of instances in which the crops on different pieces of land were
doubled and trebled by the application of some saline manures,
lime, gypsum, phosphorate of lime, etc.; and from this they
reason that these salts are the important special elements in manures, and that their liberal application will result in unbounded
crops.
On the other hand, the advocates of ammonia show equally large
lists of cases in which the application of that substance produced
crops as great as those that followed the saline manures; and from
this they infer the importance of ammonia, and the uselessness of
any other so-called fertilizer.
I could give lists of experiments on both sides, each list equally
conclusive in favor of the manure employed in the experiments
set down in it. Both cannot be true, and in their precise applica
tion neither is true.
Before defending either side of this argument, we must consider
to what use vegetation is devoted. With scarcely an exception, to
support animal life. Animals can thrive only upon food which
contains nitrogen;  therefore an analysis which deals only with
ash of a crop, can furnish no argument applicable to animal economy, for the food of an animal must contain all the elements necessary for animal life.  To omit from your analysis that portion of
the crop most essential to the result for which the crop is grown, is
501 
APRIL.
absurd; yet this is done in every ash analysis. The heat necessarily applied to obtain the ash converts nitrogen into volatile ammonia, and sends it off in the form of gas. Such an analysis can only
satisfy those who assume that all the nitrogen needed by plants is
supplied by the air. This is assuming the whole ground, and if
admitted cuts off all further argument. But I do not admit it, or
see how any one can admit it.
Let us take the case of an acre of land, sterile, and destitute of
various salts, of carbon hnd ammonia, with nothing but lime in
abundance. It would be useless to expect a crop if we applied to
this acre once or twice the amount of mineral matter that our crop
would need. Even under the best culture, the land could not be
so thoroughly worked and exposed to the action of the roots, that
the crop could search through the whole acre (4,094,640 pounds
of soil) and hit upon just what it wanted. The advocates of the
saline theory would not expect it, any more than we; they would
expect to supply annually for several years, the saline constituents
of the crop in some excess, and in such form as would enable the
crops to seize it readily, and would not feel sure of an ample crop
until the constant accretions amounted to enough to leave a large
balance on hand, on which the crop could draw in time of need;
and they would not consider the condition of the land perfectly
satisfactory until it was so well stocked with these constituents,
that the addition of a year's supply would be necessary only to
keep this balance good.
Or again; suppose al] the saline constituents to be abundant, except one, and that one an element universally and largely diffused
through plants,- potash, for instance. Would our theorist rely upon
the disintegration of the thousands of pounds of solid rock in the
soil, which might annually crumble enough to supply to an acre of
land the few pounds of potash needed by its crop? He would
have good reasons for not doing so; he knows that the process of
disintegration would be slow, and not most active during the growing season. He knows that it might be more perfectly and surely
accomplished in one part of the field than in another, and that accidental causes might altogether check it. These reasons would
decide him to apply potash enough, in an assimilable form, to carry
or,e crop, at least, through the season.
502 
THE FARM.
Let us now put the case of an acre of land abounding in saline
constituents, but destitute of ammonia, from which several crops are
to be taken, demanding various amounts of nitrogen. Obviously,
the only natural source of nitrogen in this case, is the ammonia in
the air, which will be carried into the soil by the rain and snow.
* According to Liebig, the largest annual amount that can be calculated upon from that source is "upwards of 80 lbs. of ammonia,
or 65 lbs. of nitrogen; for by the observations of Schubler, the
annual fall (of rain) must be 2,520,000 lbs. This is much more
nitrogen than is contained in the form of vegetable albumen and
gluten in 2,650 lbs. of wood, 2,500 lbs. of Hay, or 200 cwt. of Beet.
Root, which are the yearly produce of such a field. But it is less
than the straw, roots, and grain of Corn, which might grow on
the same surface, would contain." The field here calculated contains 26,910 square feet. To an English acre there would be 158
lbs. per acre of ammonia.
In another place he says:  "No conclusion can have a better
foundation than this, that it is the ammonia of the atmosphere that
furnishes nitrogen to plants."
The amount of ammonia thus supplied comes in the shape of the
carbonate, which is the volatile form of ammonia, and when carried
into the earth is either still retained as a carbonate, and still volatile,
or is fixed by the free or combined sulphuric acid in the soil, and converted into sulphate of ammonia, which is soluble in water, but not
volatile. There can be no doubt that some is thus fixed, and a
strong argument for the use of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is that
it fixes ammonia, the sulphate of lime yielding its sulphuric acid
to the ammonia, taking, in payment, its carbonic acid, and becoming
carbonate of lime. How much is thus fixed, of the 158 lbs. to the
acre, we do not know; but that which remains as a carbonate is still
volatile, and under the warmth of a summer sun undoubtedly reevaporates into the air, as does the same gas from an unfermented
manure pile; whilst during the winter it is scarcely absorbed at all,
as at that season the larger part of the rain and snow-water runs
off the frozen surface into the natural drainage.
*Agricultural Chemistry, p. 44.
503 
APRIL.
Of the whole amount supplied in rain, etc., not more than twothirds (105 pounds) can be absorbed, and there is every reason to
suppose that a large portion of this is re-evaporated, while of the
remainder a considerable proportion in most soils would be carried
by the water with which it fell, or by subsequent  washings, into
the subsoil, where it is below the roots of most annual plants. It
is a mistake to look upon an acre of cultivated soil as if it were a bed
of charcoal, chloride of calcium, or sulphate of lime, which would
filter all water that ran through it. Much of the surface of our soil
is full of perceptible holes left by worms, decayed roots, etc., and
leading directly to the subsoil, through which a great deal of the
water that falls runs rapidly into the subsoil, without any filtration
or purification whatever, carrying with it any ammonia it may
have.  And other large quantities of highly ammoniated rain water,
that of thunder-storms, fall so rapidly and forcibly as to be shed
from the surface like that which falls in winter.
In all these ways the ammonia (N H3) supplied from the air is
wasted (so far as our soil is concerned), till it is evident that but a
small amount is retained for the crops.
Again, look at the results obtained by those who use the largest
quantities of highly nitrogenized manures. Urine - whether of
men or animals - is the most ammoniacal of manures. The following table shows the composition of human urine:-*
Urea,........................................................ 3.01
Uric acid,.................................................... 0.10
Indeterminate animal matter and lactic acid, and lactate of ammonia,   1.17
Mucus of the bladder,..........................................  0.03
Sulphate of potash,........................................... 0.37
Sulphate of soda,................................................... 0.32
Phosphate of soda,........................................... 0.29
Chloride of sodium,...........................................  0.45
Phosphate of ammonia,........................................ 0.17
Chloro hydrate of ammonia,....................................  0.15
Phosphate of lime and magnesia.................................  0.10o
Silica,........................................................ trace.
Water............................. I..........................  93.30
Loss,........................................................    0.54
100.00
* Brown's Muck Book, p. 318.
504 
THE FARM.
In addition to the other solid ingredients, we have 3 per cent.
of Urea, which consists of *
Carbon,...................................................... 20.0
Nitrogen,..................................................... 6.6
Hydrogen,..................................................    46.7
Oxygen,......................................................... 26.7
100.0
and is accordingly richer in nitrogen than any other organic manure. When it begins to ferment, it changes into carbonate of
ammonia and escapes, giving the pungent smell to fermenting
urine. This carbonate of ammonia is so very volatile, that every
possible means must be taken to secure it; one of which is to mix
large quantities of water with urine, for although urine is mostly
water, there must be additions made before the carbonate of ammonia is held. By thus diluting it, and then allowing it to stand
for a time, a given amount compared with an amount of undiluted
urine, equal to the urine contained in the diluted specimen, and
allowed to stand for the same time, is found much the richer in
ammonia. Thus, in cow's urine: t
IRecent urine contained
ia mixed with water and set by for 6 weeks,
Same amt unmixed    "..
This excrement, so peculiarly rich in ammonia, is scrupulously
saved by some nations, particularly by the Flemish and Chinese,
who use it largely in various fermented and unfermented forms,
separate, and combined with charcoal, gypsum, etc., and the resulting crops are larger than any which follow the application of any
other manure, even in dilution. I say even in dilution, because,
as plants can take their food only in a diluted form, it might be
said that the great returns from the use of urine were in consequence of its being in a liquid form.  So powerful a manure is
human urine, that one part of it is equal to 13 parts of horse, and
16 of cow, manure.
Othier highly nitrogenized manures are guano, rape cake, and
poudrette, or night-soil.  The crops which follow their application
* Brown, p.319.
43
505
solid matter.
900
850
550
lbs. N IE13.
226
200.
30
f Brown, p. 321. 
APRIL.
to various soils are so enormous, as to excite fears that the soil
would be exhausted.
These facts furnish conclusive replies to those who advocate the
exclusive use of saline manures.
I have followed both sides of the argument thus far, in order to
show that there is room for thought in farming, especially in the
matter of manures, and that it is a mistake to follow any theory
which disregards any of the important elements of vegetable
tissue.
We have looked at the constitution of various soils, and at the
constitution of several crops. Now take the best soil and cultivate
it without manure. For many years the crops will be undiminished, but will ultimately decrease. The land is at first in what is
called good heart; the balance is large, and crops can draw on it
to any extent without danger of check; but to ensure a continuance of this fertility, and to exactly carry out Nature's laws, we
must return to the soil as much of the constituents of the crops as
they remove. If we add more of any one thing than is taken
away, the proportion of that substance in the soil will increase,
and may be neglected in the next manuring; and on the other
hand, I repeat what I have before implied, that it is justifiable to
pursue a course of cropping and manuring which does not in each
individual instance restore the elements removed, but which in the
aggregate keeps the balance equal.
We have seen that it is the intention of Nature, by crops of
wood and the annual accretion of leaves, by the weathering of
rocks, by the deposit of more or less ammonia in rain, to raise land
to a high state of fertility; and that if our culture returns only
one element - organic or inorganic - it destroys the perfect symmetry and balance, and impoverishes the land surely, even if it be
slowly. It is necessary to understand this clearly in order to farm
with the best judgment.
The foregoing reasoning answers the question, Why manure at
all? We see that unless we restore the elements we take from
the soil in crops, we shall ultimately impoverish it; let us now
proceed to the farther consideration of the second question.
506 
THE FARM.
It is quite possible to attempt to keep one's land "in heart" to ill
advantage, and with a present loss greater than any future gain.
Some enthusiasts have believed that by analyzing crops, manures, and soils, agriculture may be reduced to the method and
precision of manufacturing, and a large or small crop be secured,
just as may be desirable; and this does seem possible when we
look at the harmony of parts, and the balance which may be maintained between what we add and what we remove from our fields.
Yet the general practice of farmers is blind and headlong, especially
in this matter of manuring.
Proverbial as is the folly of carrying coals to Newcastle, our
farmers are guilty of it every year; at a great expense they carry
manure on to land which needs something quite different. If they
reasoned and analyzed a little, they would save both money and
time, and gain in crops. Had I given more lists of soil analyses,
you would have seen the great difference in soils on the same farm.
I do not believe that farmers ever will or could profitably have
the soils of all their fields analyzed, and then proceed to manure
according to the deficiencies reported and to the proposed crops.
Farmers who have in mind analyses of ordinary land could not
persuade themselves to manure at all. Imagine a farmer reading in
an analysis of his soil that an acre contains 300,000 pounds of Lime,
50,000 pounds of Potash, 75,050 pounds of Magnesia, 4,000
pounds of ammonia; and that the crop he expects from that acre
will use 100 pounds of lime, 500 pounds of potash, 30 of ammonia. Could he believe it necessary to add a little more in the way
of manure? he would be the most obstinate of sceptics, and would
never put in a pound of manure; it would seem as mean and small
as for a millionaire to save his cheese-parings. And yet with these
thousands of pounds of rich mineral manure, the little additions of
the farmer are necessary to any good crop. Why, it would be
hard to say; whether because of its being in a form more easily
assimilable, or because of the necessity of keeping the balance
good, or as a condition of tenure imposed by nature on landholders,
it is necessary.
A great error into which men fall in considering analyses of
soils, is to suppose that the hundreds of thousands of pounds set
507 
APRIL.
down there are all in a condition to be used by plants. They are
perhaps locked in solid rocks which are nearly insoluble by water,
and from which they can be freed only by the slow work of ages,
or by the rapid grinding, wasting, and dissolving of the laboratory.
It is the free and easily assimilable elements of a soil which are
of value to a crop; none other are of consequence. Remember
this when you study an analysis of soil. No fact is better established in geology, than that soils are not necessarily formed from
the rocks that underlie them, but may be diluvial drift. A soil
overlying phosphatic limestone, may be wanting in both lime and
phosphates.
But while it is not necessary or important to have these analyses
of our land for our guidance, each man's farming may be much
improved by his clearly comprehending the principles of analysis,
and the mutual relations between crops, manures, and soils, the
general physical character of different fields. He may then apply
to each soil that kind of manure which is richest in the elements
in which the soil in question is deficient; he will not waste it on a
soil compounded in the same proportions as itself.
Soils may be generally divided into sandy, clayey, loamy, carbonaceouls, and lime soils; and these again subdivided into coarse
and fine, close and open; with a few exceptions we have learned
from the analyses of soils made by David A. Wells for the State of
Ohio that all loamy soils, with tlhe exception of river bottoms, are
nearly identical in their chemical composition.
The difference in fertility arises mainly from the thickness of
the strata, and the fineness to which its particles have been reduced
by the action of the elements; all diluvial soils are overlaid by a
stratum of loam, and in its virgin condition, this soil, wherever
it lays, is equally fertile, and will produce equal crops; all crops
take from the soil certain salts as we have seen. If the soil is
virgin, it will be sufficiently rich in the salts to give a good crop;
just in proportion to the cropping it has received without manuring,
just so much of the various salts will have been withdrawn, and
must be restored in some shape to restore the soil to fertility.
To begin with the texture of soils. Some land is hard clay,
which (even when well drained) retains moisture for a long time,
508 
TIHE FARM.
and whether wet or dry is hard and difficult to work. When wet,
it is slippery and tenacious; when dry, it is like a brick. The first
improvement to such a soil is to drain it thoroughly, which lightens
it, and renders it more pervious to air and warmth; the second is
to mix with it such materials as will tend to open it and make it
light. Let us compare it to a dough, which is sticky and tenacious
when partially mixed. By working into it more flour it becomes
closer, but yet lighter and more friable, and by a continuation of
the process is brought to an open texture which allows us to do
what we please with it. So a clay soil is opened by the application of sand, ashes, peat, or carbonaceous manure, all of which are
opposed to the close character of the clay. They separate its particles, and give new channels for the escape of moisture, and the
necess of light and air.
These clays may abound in or be destitute of lime. A little care,
and a few simple experiments, will tell which is the case with
yours. If lime is in excess, they are marls, and are valuable as a
lime-manure. If lime is absent, or present only in small quantities, its application will be of great benefit; top-dressings of lime,
gypsum, and ashes, will produce wonderful effects.
Clays have. great power of absorbing ammonia and other gases,
and are useful to incorporate with manure and with other soils for
that purpose.
But suppose that your land is sandy; all waters and valuable
manures rapidly run through it, and the land is sterile. By applications of clay you may counteract the looseness of soil, bind it
together, and fertilize it.  Some other things will have the same
effect, particularly peat, and carbonaceous manures, so that we find
these serviceable in two quite different kinds of soil. Peat, however, serves in the sand rather as a sponge, to hold gases and food
for plants, than as a binder to the soil, whilst clay answers both
purposes.  But peat being dark-colored warms the soil, during the
growing season, by absorbing all the sun's rays, while it imparts
moisture even in dry weather, from its loose texture, which in the
afternoon and evening rapidly radiate heat, and by thus cooling the
surrounding air condense moisture. A little investigation will show
the farmer of what kinds of rocks his sand is composed; if of
43*
509 
THE FARM.
now ihe finds that the sand, clay, or peat, which he mixes with his
soils, does more than improve their texture, that it has a positive
value as manure; and so he is led to look into its chemical composition.
In a former month, while speaking of stock, I said that the value
of their manure is in proportion to the nature of their food. Hitherto our improving fatrmer has cared little for the elements in his
manure; it has all been dung, and that was all he thought about
it. But now he must consider not only the mechanical texture and
the chemical composition of his soils, but also the composition of
his manure heap, and the means of improving it; a step which
brings him at once to artificial manures.   For with the knowledge
that without an annual addition of the elements necessary to vegetation, and removed to greater or less extent in every crop, his
most fertile land will deteriorate, then comes a sense of the importance of ascertaining whether or not he is "carrying coals to
Newcastle."  He sees the advisability of purchasing a few pounds
of the needed elements in their concentrated form, and incorporating them with his more bulky manure. He understands what
chemical elements are, and that without them his land cannot be got
into good heart, and kept there; and having finally come to think
upon the subject, he no longer thinks it ridiculous to spread 5 bushels of salt, or plaster, or lime per acre. It is nothing to him that
the amount is small; he only asks whether it is enough.
Our farmers have gone on for ages using barnyard manure, and
with success, when they applied it in sufficient quantity, because it
approaches to the character of a universal manure, in proportion
to the nature of the food of the animals that make it. But the
wonder is that men do not grow poor by its use when unimproved.
Before we enter on the question of barnyard manure, it should
be premised that it is generally more readily taken up by plants,
on account of its holding so much water that when fresh it is like
liquid manure; and observe that this water of composition is all
important to its value; without this the other elements would be
almost useless, so few and small in amount are they; yet it is important only in dry seasons, and then only for a limited time.  As
soonD as the earth becomes dry it evaporates, and the manure loses
511
A 
THE FARM.
now lie finds that the sand, clay, or peat, which he mixes with his
soils, does more than improve their texture, that it has a positive
value as manure; and so he is led to look into its chemical composition.
In a former month, while speaking of stock, I said that the value
of their manure is in proportion to the nature of their food.  Hitherto our improving fatrmer has cared little for the elements in his
manure; it has all been dung, and that was all he thought about
it. But now.he must consider not only the mechanical texture and
the chemical composition of his soils, but also the composition of
his manure heap, and the means of improving it; a step which
brings him at once to artificial manures. For with the knowledge
that without an annual addition of the elements necessary to vegetation, and removed to greater or less extent in every crop, his
most fertile land will deteriorate, then comes a sense of the importance of ascertaining whether or not he is " carrying coals to
Newcastle." He sees the advisability of purchasing a few pounds
of the needed elements in their concentrated form, and incorporating them with his more bulky manure. He understands what
chemical elements are, and that without them his land cannot be got
into.good heart, and kept there; and having finally come to think
upon the subject, he no longer thinks it ridiculous to spread 5 bushels of salt, or plaster, or lime per acre.  It is nothing to him that
the amount is small; he only asks whether it is enough.
Our farmers have gone on for agcres using barnyard manure, and
with success, when they applied it in sufficient quantity, because it
approaches to the character of a universal manure, in proportion
to the nature of the food of the animals that make it.  But the
wonder is that men do not grow poor by its use when unimproved.
. Before we enter on the question of barnyard manure, it should
be premised that it is generally more readily taken up by plants,
on account of its holding so much water that when fresh it is like
liquid manure; and observe that this water of composition is all
important to its value; without this the other elements would be
almost useless, so few and small in amount are they; yet it is important only in dry seasons, and then only for a limited time.  As
soon as the earth becomes dry it evaporates, and the manure loses
I
511 
APRIL.
the advantage it possessed.  Under a system of irrigation, or in a
moist climate, or in an ordinarily wet season, it is easy to compound
manures much more beneficial to the crop, and at no greater expense
per acre.
It may be said that in admitting the importance of irrigation,
etc., to the success of any other than barnyard manure, I admit
the superiority of that manure; since we cannot control climate
and rain, and must therefore depend on the water of composition.
It is my wish not to deny, but to insist upon, the value of the
common manure, and to urge farmers to make all they can; but
at the same time I propose to show that we can improve it very
much, use it only in part, or wholly do without it.
The first step towards understanding this matter, is to examine
an analysis of such manure. Of course, this will vary with the
kind of stock kept, the number of each kind, and the nature of
their food. I will therefore give a table of the composition of the
manure of several species of stock, as well as of the compost.
This will enable you to see how money is annually wasted, and
how to reform your farmyard economies.
Barnyard manure in its unmixed state, is composed of the
droppings of horses, cows, pigs, sheep, hens, pigeons; generally
horse, cow, and pig, are the chief makers of manure. To this is
sometimes added the excrements of the family. On most farms,
cow manure will largely preponderate in a compost. On farms
where there are many sheep, their manure is kept separate. It is
much richer than that of either horse or cow, one part of it being
equal to three parts of the best compost. The simple excrement
in a fresh state consists of*
Water..........................................................68.71
Arotized matter,..............................................   23.16
Saline matter................................................  8.13
100.00
The 8.13 of saline matter is composed of phosphate of lime,
magnesia, silicate of potash, common salt, and silex.  So powerful
is this manure, that "it is said that 1,000 sheep, folded on an acre
* Browne, p. 239.
I
512 
THE FARM.
of ground one day, would manure it sufficiently to feed 1,001 sheep,
if their manure could all be saved; so that by this process, land
which can the first year feed only 1,000 sheep, may the next year,
by their droppings, feed 1,365. Sprengel allows that the manure
of 1,400 sheep for one day is equal to manuring highly one acre
of land. In France, it is allowed that one sheep manures about
10-1 square feet of land per night" (when folded on the land).
* "The manure of the horse is composed of
" 1The manure of the horse is composed of
Water,...................................................... 75.31
Geine, or organic matter...................................... 20.57
Salts,....................................................... 4.02
100.00
"The geine, or organic matter, is composed of
Carbon,.... I.... 9.56
Carbon......................................................9.56
Hydrogen,......................................................1.26
Oxygen,....................................................9.31
Nitrogen,......................................................54
20.57
"The geine (organic matter containing both carbon and nitrogen) is nearly double that in cow manure, and the salts, which are
mostly phosphates of lime, magnesia, and soda, are about the
same." But its dryness and preponderance of ammonia cause it
to heat with great rapidity, and thus to lose much of its value, unless well secured. As a manure to be used alone, as a top-dressing, it is worthless; ploughed in fresh, or made into a careful, compact compost, with loam, peat, etc., it is of great value. When
thus comnposted, the heap should be broad, well trampled, occasionally watered and sprinkled with plaster of Paris.
Cow manure, as I have said, is usually the most abundant kind.
Its composition is
Geine...................................................... 15.45
Salts.........................................................95
Water...................................................... 83.60
100.00
* Dana's Muck Book, p. 168.
513
.I 
6
APRIL
The organic matter of 100 parts cow dung give *
Nitrogen,........................................................505
Carbon,.........................................................234
Hydrogen......................................................824
Oxygen,...................................................... 4.818
6.381
1 part of nitrogen unites with 3 of hydrogen to form one equivalent of ammonia. 100 parts fresh cowdung will afford - pounds
of nearly pure ammonia, or about 2 pounds 2 ounces of carbonate
of ammonia.
"Experiments have shown that one cow prepares daily 85.57
pounds of dung, or about 13 pounds geine, 3 ounces phosphate of
lime, 121 ounces gypsum, 1-1 ounces carbonate of lime, or per year,
4,800 pounds geine, 71 bone dust, 37 plaster, 37 lime, 25 salt, 15
sulphate potash." t Of the geine, there will be 156 pounds iiitrogen, or 189 pounds carbonate of ammonia.
"Cow dung, for several reasons, its universality, its sameness of
character, its composition, may be taken as the type of all manures,
and all may be valued as they approach to, or depart from it."
"A single cow fed on Hay and Potatoes, will yield 31,025 pounds
dung, whose composition we have just seen; this would have lime
enough for 140 bushels of Rye and its straw, could it all be evenly
spread and readily taken up, and also more than enough nitrogen." + I have previously said that it is not known what part
ammonia or any other alkali plays in the vegetable economy, but
the action of nitrogen in the compost heap is very powerful. It
acts upon the geine and renders it soluble; it does the same to the
silica, by forming nitric acid with the elements of the air, in connection with ammonia, and this nitric acid decomposes the silicates
and produces nitrate of potash.
Having given the compositionof the two principal elements of
the compost heap, I now give the analysis of a compost of barnyard manure, just before it was applied to the soil.
* Dana, p.150.    t Dana, p.161.    t Dr. Dana's Muck Manual.
514 
THE FARM.
64.96  Carbon,
24.71  Hydrogen,
10.32  Oxygen,
Nitrogen,
Ash,
Analysis of the ash.
Insoluble in water, but soluble
in muriatic acid.
Potash,                       3.22  Silica,                     27.01
Soda,                         2.73  Phosphate of Lime,           7.11
Lime,.34      "    "Magnesia,          2.26
Magnesia,.26         "     Iron,          4.68
Sulphuric acid,               3.27 Carbonate of Lime,           9.34
Chlorine,                     3.15      "    " Magnesia,        1.63
Silica,.04 Sand,                        30.99
-  Carbon,                     0.83
13.01  Alkali and loss,            3.14
"Thus, 100 pounds well-made barnyard manure gave 65 pounds
pure water, 25 inert carbon, 10 per cent inorganic, and.006 (i
pound) nitrogen; of the 10 per cent ash only 3 per cent are of
much value; but the above manure was of extraordinary value in
comparison with the ordinary compost heap."
I have recommended all along that manure be formed into compost heaps with various materials, - at the head of,which stands
peat; 2d, clay, old sod, or decayed vegetable matter; 3d, loam;
4th, sand; 5th, tan, sawdust, etc.
We have already seen how great are the advantages of clay as
an application to land. I have said that for sand it seems to be
the specific, but its value is relative, and confined to a few varieties
of soils, whilst peat can be much more widely applied, and is of
more general value. Under the general name of peat, are comprised several varieties, of different value, from that which is rich
in vegetable matter, salts of lime, potash, etc., to those pond muds
which are little but barren sand.  "100 parts of average peat
contain t
Water,......................................................... 85.0
Salts of lime,.....................................................5
Silicates,............................................5...........5
Geine,......................................................... 14.0
* Text Book of Agriculture, pp. 321 and 322.
515
Fresh.
Dried at 2121 Fahr.
* Water,
Organic,
Inorganic,
37.40
5' 27
25.52
1.76
30.05
Inorganic.
Soluble in water.
0
t Dana, p. 245. 
APRIL.
"This does not differ much from cow manure, so far as salts,
geine, and water are concerned. The salts of lime are about the
same, whilst the alumina, oxide of iron, and magnesia in the silicates added to the salts of lime, make the total amount of salts in
round numbers, equal to that of the cow dung.
"If the bulks are compared, it will be found that at 90 pounds
per bushel, full measure, and 103 bushels being allowed to a cord,
each contains and weighs as follows, in pounds: - *
Solu. geine.
128
376
519
" The salts and geine of a cord of peat are equal to the manure
of one cow for 3 months. It is certainly, a very curious coincidence of results, that nature herself should have prepared a substance whose agricultural value approaches so near cow dung, the
type of manures."
The various analyses submitted, show that the ammonia of manures is held in the carbonaceous matter. Peat has its share, but
has lost the power of forming more. This power, or disposition,
may be restored by the addition of alkali.  "Sufficient alkali to
give peat the same value with cow manure, is 2 pounds potash, or
3 pounds  soda ash, in 100 pounds.  We are now no longer surprised that peat should be the best component of the compost heap,
and it becomes clear why cord for cord, peat mixed with other
manures, produces la compost, each cord of which is equally valuable with any single cord of the original manure." t
This fact established enables the farmer not only to double the
value of his manure heap, by the addition of peat, but to add nearly
as much more, because of the power which peat possesses of absorbing gases, holding water, collecting heat, condensing moisture.
It is worthy of more than a passing mention, that nature should
have furnished this singular substance with two powers which seem
almost inconsistent; the black color of the coarse and stringy fibres
absorbs heat which is imparted to the soil, while the same coarse
* Dana, p.246.t    t Dr. Dana's Muck Manual.
516
Weight.
9,289
9,216
9,216
Insol. g.
1,288
673
529
Salts of lime.
9 2
9 1
8 1
Total. g.
1,416
1,049
1,048
I Dung,
Two. I Peat,
kinds Peat, 
THE FARM.
ness of fibre, gives it a power of radiation, whereby it cools much
more rapidly than the other soil after the sun has gone down, and
is enabled thereby to condense and collect the dew, so valuable to
vegetation in hot weather.
But, at the same time, it is a fact that compost whether composed
exclusively of manure, or of peat, or compounded from both, is at
least, 70 per cent water. Therefore of each cord carried on to your
land, 6,451 pounds are water- more than three tons!  To draw 3
tons I of a mile, costs not less than 50 cts; for 10 cords of manure
to an acre then, you spend $5 in carting water, which, after all,
is often of no value; as when applied to reclaimed meadows, many
of which are pure peat and are always too wet, particularly at the
seasons when manure is applied.
Of the remaining 30 parts of the compost, at least, 20 are carbonaceous matter, which is of no value to the aforesaid peat land,
or to over-rich loamins, where vegetable matter collects to the injury
of crops, and necessitating the application of alkalies to consume
the fibres.
If the compost is to be applied (as it should be) to sandy, calcareous,
or clay soils, this carbonaceous matter is valuable, both as carbon
and as sponge; if to dry soils, where irrigation is impossible, the
70 per cent of water is valuable so long as it lasts. In short, the
value of a barnyard composted manure is limited by the crop to
which it is applied; for Turnips, Cabbages, and other crops which
unquestionably derive most of their carbonaceous support from the
air, it has less value than for quick-growing grain crops. Thus a
knowledge of the chemical constituents of our compost guides us in
using it.
We have seen that peat is in itself a manure, though an inert
one, and that by the application of caustic alkalies to the amount
of 20 per cent of the whole amount of manure used, we may fertilize a peaty acre, provided the manure with which the alkali is
mixed be carefully spread over the surface.
It may be asked whether this process of converting the muck into
manure on the field does not eat up the very soil, and so make it
impossible to keep -land in good heart. Suppose that it does; we
44
517 
APRIL.
can obviate the difficulty by withholding only the water of eomposition, and applying the other constituents. Even then the return
of the 20 per cent of carbonaceous matter would be entirely unnecessary for any other purpose than as an absorbent or to alter the
texture of the soil, for we know that the air supplies to the soil
yearly, at least 300,000 pounds carbonic acid per acre, or 1,800,000 for the six years' rotation; and to add the small amount in our
compost to a peat meadow already overloaded with carbon in the
face of such a supply from the air, would be mere waste. Besides
I do not pretend to say that the original condition of land is always
its best condition, and to be kept of the same by annual returns of
what the crops abstract. If in any soil one constituent is largely
injuriously- in excess, it should be cropped in such a way as
to reduce that excess. This is the best kind of farming. It is
from an excess of carbon that peat meadows seem to lose so much
of their fertility after a few years' culture; the ashes of the wood,
roots, and hassocks burned when they were first cultivated gave the
proportion of alkali needed by the peat. This is exhausted in a
few years and must be supplied; if by barnyard manure the
process is slow and clumsy.
To rich loams the same reasoning will apply; and for light sand,
or gravel, or poor clay, I have already said that a composted manure is best.
To the loam and the reclaimed meadow therefore, we need apply
only the salts removed by crops, and nitrogen in the form of ammonia.
The amount of these elements furnished to an acre in our manure, is but a small percentage of the stores already in its soil, but it
is necessary to prevent its growing poor. Small as the supply
is, its effect is always perceptible, whether we give it in the solid or
the fluid form; and it seems as though plants were endowed with a
reasoning power which led them to use the annual income from the
manure or the air before beginning on the accumulated principal.
Chemical laws may be explained after study, but this law is inexplicable; that a crop grown on fertile land without manure should
be good, and yet be perceptibly increased, if there be incorporated
518 
THE FARM.
with the upper foot of an acre that weighs 4,094,640 pounds, an
amount of some special salt, not exceeding 100 pounds.
There is this limitation of the law to be stated; viz., that for a
6 years' rotation, the aforesaid small dressing must not be applied
all at once, but annually; otherwise it will sink into the subsoil,
below the easy access of the roots.
Probably the action of these special manures is much like that
of the accumulated starch in a seed potato, which feeds the young
germ before it is old and sturdy enough to struggle with the rough
earth.  So these small doses of concentrated food give the plant
vigor in its infancy, and carry it rapidly forward to a healthy maturity, when it can compel earth and air to yield it food.
For a 5 years' rotation we must supply 500 pounds of ammonia.
This can be purchased in 12' tons of Peruvian Guano (containing 17
per cent of ammonia) at $60 per ton - ($90). Of guano, which
contains a larger proportion of ammonia we need not purchase so
much.   In this ton and a half there are 704 pounds of phosphates; our 5 years' rotation will need only 213.80 pounds; our
supply both of phosphoric acid and phosphates will therefore be
ample. We shall need 200 pounds of lime. There is none in the
guano, but, as I directed, the guano should be mixed with its weight
or bulk of gypsum, which will give 33 per cent of lime, and 46
per cent of sulphuric acid; in one ton of gypsum there are then,
not less than 660 pounds of lime, and 920 sulphuric acid, at a cost
of $3. The crops of this rotation will require 136.52 pounds sulphuric acid; of magnesia they ask 78.50 pounds, which is not to be
found either in our guano or gypsum; therefore we must add 421
pounds of epsom salts ($14) sulphate of magnesia, and of potash
536 pounds, either in the form of ashes or potash of commerce
dissolved; of commercial potash it will take 600 pounds ($36),
or 2 tons of ashes; 350 pounds of common salt will give all the
soda and chlorine we will need.
These should be mixed with their bulk of fine peat, sand, loam,
or clay, to incorporate them thoroughly together, and to insure the
proper absorption of the ammonia gas, and an equal distribution
over the surface. The items are: -
519
W 
APRIL.
1 1-2 tons Peru. guano......................................... $90.00
430 pounds epsom salts,.......................................  14.78
1 ton gypsum,................................................ 3.00
600 pounds potash of commerce................................ 36.00
350 pounds common salt,...................................... 1.25
$145.03
Cost of mixing and spreading,.................................  5.00
$150.00
If, instead of guano, we buy 1,500 pounds sulphate of ammonia
(at 5 cts   $75), to furnish our ammonia, and for our 213 pounds
phosphoric acid, buy 400 pounds phosphatic guano, 80 per cent of
which is phosphate of lime, we shall get 286 pounds phosphoric acid
for $8, and shall need no gypsum, the sulphuric acid being contained in the sulphate of ammonia, the lime, both in that and in the
400 pounds of phosphatic guano, with these:Epsom salts,             430 pounds,   at.06  per pound,    $25.80
Potash,                  600   "         "       "           36.00
Common salt,             340  "         ~.0125    "          4.25
$66.05
Sulphate of ammonia........................................... 75.00
Phosphatic guano.............................................. 8.00
Cost of mixing and spreading 50 bushels loam,..................... 5.00
$154.05
To apply the same amount of salts and ammonia by barnyard
manure, or compost, would require at least, 12 cords of the very
best composted manure of which there is any analysis, and this,
every farmer knows, would be worth, in the field, spread ready for
use, not less than $120, at the ordinary estimate, which omits many
items of expense, that would, if considered, raise the cost far higher.
Were cow manure used to give the supplies, no less amount than 30
cords would be needed, to furnish the necessary amount of some of
the elements. No barnyard preparation, really rich enough to restore
the elements abstracted by the foregoing five years, would cost less
than $150. Remember that I have said that for sorhe lands these
composts are the best manures, though not for all.
The constituents of the crops of the 5 years' rotation are
520 
THE FARM.
equal to  2 cords of pure cow dung.
{1   3                  11 c
500 pounds,
213          "
136   "
78.5 "
536  "=
350   "
Ammonia,
Lime,
Sulph. acid,
Magnesia,
Potash,'
Salt,
Fifteen cords of pure, unfermented horse manure, will furnish
the necessary constituents, but in both cases the manure must be
pure and unfermented. To make a manure then, take,
3 cords cow-manure (which will give ammonia and phosphate),....   $30.00
Buy as before, the other manures............................... 75.00
$105.00
Were we to retain the proportions of salts as abstracted by the
rotation and tabulated above, it would be absolutely necessary to
buy many of them, as no composted manure could supply them in
sufficient abundance, excepting at an enormous cost.
The effect of liquid manure is wonderful. 400 gallons of the
ammoniacal water of gas-works, caused an increase of from 3 to
10 bushels of wheat, above the results of several other powerful
manures with which it was compared. Under the use of urine,
there has been even a greater increase than this, but I have no room
to give examples.
There is one marked loss in using compost, and a corresponding
gain with special manures applied as wanted; viz., some of the elements of the compost heap are very volatile, and if the whole
amount were applied at the beginning of 5 years' rotation, a large
per centage would necessarily escape by evaporation, before the
last crop was removed, while, as we have seen, a similar loss would
result, though by a directly opposite process, if the whole amount
of salts needed during the rotation, were to be put on at once; the
saline elements would wash into the sub-soil, and in a short time
would be lost to the roots, and the young crop would be deprived
of its simple food, and its valuable stimulus.
A supply of these constituents during the five years, drawn from
dung, would be very uncertain, as they are needed in different proportions by different crops. When we supply them by artificial
44*
521
"       35
Ad       18 
APRIL.
manures, however, we may give the crop each year just what it
will want, when it starts to grow, without giving any thing unnecessary.
Refer to the list of the constituent elements of the crops of the 5
years' rotation of Boussingault, p. 499. Potatoes and Turnips received large amounts of potash; the one 195 lbs., the other 201 lbs.,
while Wheat takes but 39 lbs., Oats but 36 lbs; and on the other
hand, of ammonia, Turnips require but 32 lbs., Oats, 52 lbs., and
Wheat 80 lbs. If the potash had been all supplied at the beginning of the rotation, the Potatoes would have had an abundance,
but by the time the Turnips came round, their supply would probably have been in the sub-soil.
In making an estimate of the cost of supplying special manures,
it is difficult to present one lower than the cost of dung; but if a
man does not want to keep cattle, he can buy artificial cheaper than
animal manure. The market price of all these elements is high,
owing to the limited demand, and to the fact that purchasers are
not acquainted with the best sources of supply.   For instance,
sulphate of ammonia costs 5 to 8 cents per lb., at the shops; it
could be made at gas works, from gas liquors, for very much less.
The cost of potash is 5 to 8 cents per lb.; wood ashes could be
purchased in the country, or be made from refuse wood in the forests,
so as to bring the price much lower, especially as in the wood ashes,
are many other things, which we should be obliged to buy. A cord
of leached wood ashes (or 100 bushels), contains 50 to 60 lbs. of potash. In 1 cord of leached ashes, dry weight,*
Phosphoric acid............................................. 117 lbs.
Silex....................................................... 146"
Oxide of iron.............................................. 17
Oxide of manganese......................................... 51
Magnesia................................................... 119"
Carbonate of lime........................................... 3072"
Potash combined with silica.................................. 50"
Where ashes are bought to make soap, or potash, the refuse is
generally considered worthless, but we see that its agricultural
value is very great, especially for Grass lands, and for all leguminous plants.
* Dana, p. 144.
522 
THE FARM.
When we have a dung heap to work upon, there is a large list
of materials which may be added to it. I will give a list of some
of the most valuable and accessible, arranged in the order of their
value.
No.  2.
Human excrement,
"   urine,
Guano ammoniated,
"   phosphatic,
Sulphlate of ammonia,
Gas liquor,
Burnt bones (ground),
"    "    whole,
Blood,
Soot,
Potash of all kinds.
Bone  black,
Hair,
Horn shaving,s,
Lime,
Salt (waste or good),
Oyster shells,
Peat,
Aslhes of both kinds,
Seeds of oil cake,
Native phosphates,
Soda of all kinds.
No.  4.
Sea mud,
Pond mud,
Soaper's waste (Barilla ashes),
Sea-weed,
Seeds of all kinds (dead seeds),
Gypsum,
Leaves, 
Soap suds,
Clay,
Marl,
Green manures, ploughed in.
Large as is this list, it is not complete; almost all matter, organganized or unorganized, is at some time or place valuable for this
purpose. Persons estimate the same kind differently, according to
their chemical theory. Liebig, the great advocate for saline manures, says:  "No conclusion can, then, have a better foundation,
than this: that it is the ammonia of the atmosphere that furnishes
nitrogen to plants." Another chemical authority, Dr. Dana, a
friend to ammonia, says:  "It may be established as the fourth
leading principle of agricultural  chemistry, that  soils contain
enough of all the mineral elements to grow any crop." In another
place he says:  "The nitrogen, then, in dung, is that organic ele
523
No. 1.
No. 3.
Loam,
Starch refase, liquid and solid,
Sawdust,
Wood chips,
Tan (especially Oak),
Sea water,
Straw or Hay,
Fern,
Crushed Granite. 
APRIL.
ment to which must be attributed its chief enrichment; the nitrogen is the basis both of the production of ammonia and of the formation of nitrates; hence the quantity of nitrogen in manures will
form a very good element for the estimation of their value. Manures will be found rich in proportion to their quantity of nitrogen,
or their power of forming nitrates. This is the great and first
cause of the enriching power of dung."  Liebig again says: "When
we supply to a soil easily penetrable by the roots of plants, as well
as by air and moisture, in the form of ashes, the constituents that
are removed in the form of crops, the soil will retain all its original
favorable state." Of course neither ammonia nor carbonic acid
can be supplied in the form of ashes, both being volatile. Liebig
says again:  "Practice in agriculture has taught  us  that the
amount of vegetable matter on a given surface, increases with the
supply of certain substances, which were original constituents of
the same surface of the soil, and had been removed from it by
means of plants." And again: "In the solid and liquid excrements of men and animals, we restore to our fields the ashes of the
plants which served to nourish these animals; these ashes consist
of certain soluble and insoluble earths, which a fertile soil must
yield, for they are indispensable to the growth of cultivated plants;"
and farther: "the action of an artificial supply of ammonia, as
nitrogen, is limited, like that of humus, the source of carbonic acid,
to a gain in point of time; in other words, to the acceleration of the
development in a given time, of our cultivated plants."
This grants enough to upset the whole of his reasoning. All we
want of our fields is to yield the crops we cultivate in the growing
season, and if the ammonia supplied by the atmosphere comes only
at that season when it cannot be used, it is of little value; indeed,
as a source to depend upon for our supply, of none at all.
Liebig further says: "It is also of importance to know thlat the
rule usually adopted in France and Germany, of estimating the
value of a manure according to the amount of its nitrogen, is quite
fallacious, and that its value does not stand in proportion to its
nitrogen."
We know that the constituents of soils bear a certain relation to
the constituents of plants, which cannot be neglected without im
524 
THE FARM.
mediate loss; and if one set of investigators prove the value of
nitrogen or ammonia to crops, and another that of the saline elements, it seems to me plain that both are essential.
The weakness of the theorizing of Liebig in this direction is
summed up by Dr. Dana as follows: -
"It has been proved by Krocker, that rich and even barren
soils, at the usual depth of tillage, contain an amount of ammonia
exceeding per acre that of any fair crop raised by the aid if the
best farmyard manure on the best soil; it is not enough that tons
and tons of ammonia are already existent in soil, if that ammonia
can only be extracted by chemical processes and human manipulation; no matter how much of this element may be in rain, how
much may exist in the soil aided by the inorganic salts, fair average crops may be raised by these natural sources of ammonia. To
obtain profitable crops, an excess beyond the natural supply is essential; to keep up this excess and to retain the largest return for
the seed sown, nitrogen, in the shape of salts or of readily decomposing organic matter, must be supplied with inorganic salts. The
nitrogenous principle gives at once an energy to vegetation enabling
it to unfold early and largely those organs (the roots and leaves)
by which the earth and air contribute their portion to the growth
of plants. Nitrogen gives salts power to do more work in the
same time; it is a labor-saving machine, enabling the farmer from
the same ground and with the same time and labor to reap larger
rewards. Natural vegetation is a low-pressure engine, but it will
bear any amount of pressure, so beautifully built is it in all its
parts. Inorganic salts are the water, geine the fire which raises
the steam to drive this machine, filling the thousand cylinders which
are distributed throughout plants. Nitrogen is the regulator of
this engine. Nature has everywhere put the machine into the
hands of man. She takes man as her apprentice, and her generous hand supplied the daily bread, while man was learning the
construction of valves, the working of pistons, the real power of
the engine, the sources of the steam. These, even though dimly
seen, nature demands should be worked up to full pressure, when
the apprentice sets up for himself, and is determined that the sweat
9,
525 
526
of his brow, whilst it feeds his body, shall also purify, enlarge, and
strengthen his intellect."
The soil of any fertile acre is so full of the saline constituents
that by supplying ammonia and some few salts we may get large
crops for many years, but we effectually reduce the stock of all
minerals abstracted and not returned, a reduction which must be
felt at last.
There is a principle in the chemistry of plants not yet noticed
in these pages; viz., substitution.  In the absence of the constituent which best supplies a plant's wants, the plant contents itself
with that one of the constituents which represents, or which most
nearly makes the place good; so lime is a substitute for potash,
potash for soda, soda for magnesia.
Again, an insoluble form of some one alkali predominates in almost
every soil, as potash in granitic soils, lime in calcareous, and can
be set free (made soluble) by adding to the soil the alkali which
is deficient, to the immediate and evident advantage of the crop;
and when the alkali is superabundant - as carbon is in peatno large return of it need be made in manure.
The natural disintegration of the minerals of a soil is slow, and
the process may be hastened by careful and close culture. The
nore finely the soil is comminuted, the more rapidly the mineral
elements are set free, and the less need there seems to be for manure.
Jethro Tull, in the last century, and the Rev. Mr. Smith, of
Lois Weedon, in England, at the present time, have maintained
that by careful and thorough culture, soil can be kept highly productive for years, and crops of undiminished perfection be taken
without manure. The Rev. Mr. Smith has grown large crops of
Wheat on the same land for many years without manure, by thoroughly spading the soil and planting in alternate strips a few feet
wide; the intermediate strips being in naked fallow, open to the
free action of air and moisture. By this culture he has been enabled to get from an acre as large average crops as any in England.
But his land must inevitably become all the more thoroughly exhausted in the end; it is impossible that a prolonged course of
APRIL.
w 
THE FARM.
subtraction should not reduce the minuend, the stock of minerals,
etc., in his soil. Our farmers would do well to improve upon a
part of his system, instead of adopting it entire. They should
return the proper amount of manure, and also reduce and pulverize
the soil so thoroughly that all its wealth may be opened to the crop.
Nature has drawn a beautiful circle around agriculture,- an
endless chain, quite independent of man's proceedings; let our
culture be as various and exhaustive as it may; let the growth
and decay of animal life be as great or as small as they may;
nothing is added to or taken from the amount of matter in the universe, though it is not always divided in the same proportion between the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. All that
grows supports some other life; the rejected portion of the food of
all animals- from the greatest to the least, of each year - is sufficient in amount, if husbanded and applied, to produce food for the
year succeeding.
It rests with us to say how much of this constant quantity shall
be organized in plants and animals in our neighborhood. We may
improve or neglect Nature's kind provision for us; we may get the
gain or leave it to others more active and enterprising. If we are
anxious to be the best farmers, we shall improve every opportunity;
we shall gather up and apply every particle of manure, animal,
vegetable, and mineral. In our thorough tillage we shall break
the stones, and reduce their mineral manures to a shape more susceptible to the action of the gases and acids stored in the soil, and
ready to convert them into food for our crops; and in return, the
generous soil will fill our barns and our purses to bursting.
527 
CHAPTER LVII.
GREENHOUSE.
i......AY.   We are growing tired of the greenhouse,
full though it may be with flowers, bright and
fragrant.  Every time that we enter it, the
go:~ ~,approach of real, out-of-door spring, the blos                   soming trees and wild-flowers, have paled its
beauty; it looks to us too much like a ball     [1 -~  ~       room after a party is over, and we really won              e:i der how it could have given us so much pleasure during the winter; we are all impatience to get the flowers
out of doors, and look at the thermometer and the sky many times
a day, to see if the weather is not mild enough.
All the care that the greenhouse now demands, is the supply of
sufficient water and air, the cutting of slips and sowing of seeds.
We shall hardly need a fire unless there should be a long, cold
storm, or a very cold night. Attend constantly to the pots and
pans of cuttings and seeds, and gradually withdraw water from the
stock plants, which are now to be allowed to fall asleep and to rest
till the next season; for dulled as our enthusiasm may be now, it
will all revive at the approach of cold weather, and as the chills
of the early frosts make themselves felt through the autumn air.
No love is more imperishable than the true love of flowers;
it may pass away when we are compelled by sickness or city
life to forego their culture, even years may intervene between the
times of making and owning one garden and another, but just as
soon as the opportunity offers, the true enthusiasm breaks out
afresh.
The early days of May are at once the most fascinating and the
most tiresome of the year. The warm and balmy mornings bewitch us, and with their promise of pleasure to come, draw us out
528
0 
GREENHOUSE.
to long and pleasant walks, or to the delights of culture; but soon
come creeping over the landscape the chills of the east wind and
the gray mists that so often accompany it, and our enthusiasm and
self-gratulation are suddenly nipped.
Fast-day is very frequently, in the eastern part of Massachusetts, the first day on which spring asserts its dominion.  Every
one knows how often it begins with the delicious warmth of spring,
and how as often its end is cold and chilly.
The gardening furor of which I spoke last month, will continue
unabated during this, and culture will soon begin in earnest.
The time for setting plants into the borders varies very much
with different seasons. If tlhe progress of the season has been
regular and uninterrupted, it is decidedly warm by the middle of
May, and you may set out Verbenas and hardy Geraniums, stock
Gilly-flowers, Wall-flowers, Roses, Pelargoniums, etc.; but if you
want them to grow, you must surround their roots with some fermenting manure, and water every few days with warm water; not
very freely, or the roots will be likely to decay; and you may
save the plants from chills and checks, by sheltering them during
any long, cold rains. Warm rains and showers are beneficial.
The last of the month, set out Heliotropes, Salvias, Lantanas,
Nierembergias, Fuchsias, etc. All the plants with which you propose to enrich the garden.
It will still be necessary to watch against frost, and to cover
when there is danger of it. A very slight protection, an inverted
pot, or hay cover, or even a Pine branch laid over a plant, will
screen it from the spring chills. Transplant into the borders, also,
all the annuals that are advanced enough to make it worth while,
and give the others every inducement to grow. Be in no hurry to
set stock plants out, as a single chill would materially injure them;
it will be better to wait till the settled heat of June. Some gardeners recommend giving stock plants a shift now, and adding
fresh loam to the tops of the pots. I have given my reason for
making these changes later. Those plants which are to make a
growth during the summer, such as Euphorbias, Poinsettias, Chrysanthemums, etc., should be pruned and shifted, and be set where
they will start, but all that are to repot should be left undisturbed.
45
529
I
v 
MAY.
Make cuttings of Double Primroses, cut back Heaths, Oranges,
and Azaleas, before they make their new growth.
Be careful when plants are set in the shade for the summer, to
raise them from the earth by slabs of wood or brick, or by thick
layers of coal ashes, to keep out earth worms, which would riddle
the earth of the pots, letting out the water too rapidly, and reducing the nutritious qualities of the earth.
There are two ways of keeping the stock plants; one is
to set them on the north side of a building or fence, or under a
canopy of wood with latticed sides, which will keep off the direct
rays of the sun, and admit the air freely. Evergreens need no
sun, unless for a short time in the morning, but abundance of
light; other plants are uninjured by a moderate amount of sun.
The other method is to plunge the pots into the earth up to their
rims. When this is done, a piece of slate should be set under the
pot to prevent the roots of the plants from getting out into the soil.
They are very apt to do so, and though they cause the plant to
grow rapidly, ultimate injury follows; for when the plant is lifted
in the fall, these roots have to be cut off, and the6 old roots are unable to supply the demands of the new wood. It will be found
sometimes of advantage to take old, cankered, pot-bound plants
out of their pots, and plant them in a border, more or less shaded,
according to the variety, and allow them to grow at will; if so indulged, they will often renew their growth and vigor, forming new
roots and tops.  It is impossible to foresee and provide for every
case which may occur - each must be settled as it comes up, with
care and judgment.
The pots of Auriculas should be coming into bloom now, and
should be placed in conspicuous places. The mealy petals which
contribute so much to their beauty, must be shaded from sun and
rain and high winds, which tend to deface and injure them.
During the summer there will be but few flowers in the greenhouses. Fuchsias will be in perfection, and Orchids, and some
tropical bulbs. Achimenes and Gloxinias, which were planted in
February, will now be well grown, and will blossom some time in
June, while those planted later will continue in blossom through
the summer.
530 
GREENHOUSE.
All tuberous-rooted plants and bulbs, as Oxalis, Ixias, etc., as
soon as their leaves have turned yellow, should be removed from
the soil and laid aside in a warm, dry place, for two or three
months, according to the time when we wish to start them anew.
Pot into small pots, small plants of Polyanthus, of Primula siniensis, and Cineraria, and as soon as warm enough, remove the
pots into borders, where they may get some sun, and grow into
stocky plants for the autumn. They will need to be shifted once
or twice before winter, according to the growth made.
Plant Carnations which have not yet blossomed, in places where
they will show well; either among tall-growing plants, or in a bed
by themselves.
Carnations for winter may be struck now from cuttings, if this has
not been done before. Or you may set old plants in rather sterile
places, and layer all their branches. Be careful not to stimulate
them so that the layers will blossom before winter. As soon as
there is any intimation of the approach of cold weather in the fall,
pot the layers. Full directions for culture will be given in July.
Set out in somewhat similar soil the Dwarf Chrysanthemums,
which have been under the stage since they blossomed.   As
they grow, layer the young shoots into small pots; when they have
well-rooted, remove from the parent plant, and as soon as they fill
the pot with roots, shift into larger pots and better soil; you will in
this way get good, stocky plants for winter blossom, and rather better than when made from cuttings.
The greenhouse, even after its principal plants are removed, will
have some in blossom all summer; the Orchids, Cape Bulbs, and
tuberous-rooted plants just mentioned, Passion Flowers, Wax-plants,
Roses, Fuchsias, etc.- Take all the plants from the conservative
pits as soon as the weather will allow. If you did not start a little
growth in the plants by sashes, as I directed, give them all the light
and air you can some time before removal. When you have emptied the pits, take off the sashes, clean and paint and lay them
aside. So also the frame-work; give all the wood-work a good
coat of whitewash or paint, to keep off the hot rays of the sun
during the summer.
Frames containing Pansies, Auriculas, Anemones, and  Ranun
531 
MAY.
culuses will gradually go out of bloom. As the flowers die and
the leaves wither, remove the roots.  The  Pansies and Daisies
may be divided and replanted in the borders, to make a new
growth. Pansies can be better grown from seeds than from cuttings, but Daisies should be propagated from cuttings. Set them
in northern aspects, as the summer heats are destructive. The
frames containing Anemones and Ranunculuses, should have occasional waterings with tepid water, but should be well protected
against cold rains which rot the roots, and against high winds which
destroy the flowers.   Set the Cinerarias out of bloom into cold
frames.   Give the Camnelias completing their growth abundant
water and frequent syringings; by shading the Pelargoniums and
other flowers their bloom may be saved for a longer time. Fuchsias shifted into large pots and manured with guano water will
make a great show hereafter.
532 
CHAPTER LVIII.
CONSERVATORY.
THE Conservatory, like the greenhouse, is getting out of date,
and we only go through it now to get at the garden. From its
windows we see the flower-beds gay with bulbs, and we cannot but
feel the superiority of the out-door beauty; and yet the conservatory is by no means bare of flowers.
If it has been well managed it is as full now as the flower-beds
were in the autumn, when the early frost came and cut off Heliotrope and Salvia, and checked the Geraniums and Verbenas. The
clusters of rosebuds or La AIarque are filfl and fragrant; the delicate blush on the Saffrano and long, greyhound-like buds of the
Yellow Tea, were never more beautiful; while overhead the blossoms of the Passion Flower shine like stars in the sky. The
Geraniums are in full blossom, and the Heliotropes fill the air with
fragrance; and yet the sweet English Violets among the litter in
the garden, the Hyacinths and Tulips of the beds, the Wisteria
over the windows, greet us together with the song of birds and the
gentle airs of spring, in so attractive a language that we think them
more beautiful than the children of the tropics which we have only
induced to grow and blossom by extra care. What a mysterious
power is exerted over every mind by the spring.
The returning birds, the soft breezes, the swelling buds, the
springing Grass, seem to re-invigorate the dullest minds, and every
earnest man is braced anew for noble enterprise. In the dreams
of early morning, in the reveries of evening, we see the days of
our untarnished youth; we recall the many games which the returning, warm weather always renewed; we remember the May
parties, when every one was eager to find the first blossom; the
longing looks sent over the greening fields as we dragged our unwilling legs up the schoolhouse steps, and wished that we were
45*                                   533
I 
MAY.
dogs or birds,- any thing but schoolboys, -that we might frolic
in the sunshine all day long. We remember the aspirations of
our early manhood, how the world all seemed fair and pleasant.
We had grown up in the shelter of our pleasant homes, and all we
knew of life was its green pastures; and, standing at the gate of
our new year, we looked forward to the crops of glory and wealth
we were to gather; we trace the footsteps we have made; some
through pleasant fields and in gardens rich with all the blossoms of
worldly success and pleasure; some through the wintry days of
sorrow and disappointment, the wintry fields of poverty, whence
we could with difficulty glean a meagre support. We feel how
much of beauty and promise, of sorrow and ugliness, is covered
by the pleasant spring; and whether successful or not in the struggle hitherto, there is each spring a new start of the blood in our
veins, a new uprising of determination to reap a full harvest the
coming summer, and to meet the next winter nobler and better
men. We look more lovingly on the children we meet, have kinder
words for friend and stranger, and there is through every part of
our nature an atmosphere partly our own, partly the influx of the
external promise, which seems, like the golden hazes around the
rising and setting sun, to gladden and warm and animate every
Chought and impulse.
534 
I 
RESIDENCE OF -ASIIINGTON IRVING, TARRYTOVN, N. -Y.
RESIDENCE OF WVASIIINGTON IEVTING, TARRYTOVN, N.Y\. 
CHAPTER LIX.
FORCING-HOUSE.
THEf fruit on the earliest vines will ripen from the first to the
middle of the month, and the Black Hamburghs will begin to color
by the last. As the fruit colors on the principal vines, remove the
pans of water from the flues, and give generally less water. Thin
for the last time, cutting out every defective or imperfect berry.
Constant care must be taken to keep ventilation good; the sun will
often be obscured for some hours by the clouds, and then come out
with tremendous power. Houses ventilated in the wall, as ours
are, are not likely to be overheated by these sudden changes, if they
receive reasonable attention, as the ventilators in the front and back
will prevent too rapid accretion of heat. But houses not so ventilated are very often injured exceedingly, and should, therefore, be
anxiously watched during variable weather. To manage an illventilated house, on a changeable day, taxes the best efforts and assiduity of the gardener, but it can be done. By the middle of June
the fruit will be quite ripe, and, after that,-the aim will be to keep
the house cool and dry.
The treatment of fruit-trees during the summer, in the forcinghouse, has been already given in the winter months, and also, that
for pot Grapes. These will be fully ripe by the last of May, or
first of June.
When all the fruit of vines and trees is cut, remove the sashes,
and give but little water till it is time to close again in the autumn.
During the summer, red spiders may make their appearance. To
expel them, strew sulphur about the floors, and occasionally dust it
over the vines.
As soon as the wood is ripe in the autumn. prune and lay down
for the winter. Before shutting up in the autumn, strew sulphur
over the flues and pipes, and make just fire enough to melt, with                                                         535 
MAY.
out igniting it. The fumes will fill the house and kill the insects.
After the fumigation, scrub and paint as directed in September.
Before the middle of May all the vegetables should be removed,
as they will not thrive, and will injure the ripening fruit.
We here take leave of the forcing-house. I have given directions, which, if followed carefully, will insure good and healthy
vines, and full crops of fruit, but the minute culture of the vine demands a book by itself.
I have given a connected description of the culture of fruit and
pot Grapes, in another place. Farther directions seem superfluous.
The cold grapery will be during May, in the condition of the
forcing-house in March, and early in April. The vines will be in
flower during the month, and some will set their fruit, when they
must receive their first thinning.
The danger of shanking and shrivelling from ill-balanced heat
and moisture, has been already described.
The fruit will go through all the stages of setting, swelling, and
thinning during June, will ripen in August, and be in use through
September and October.
The treatment of the cold grapery through June, July, and
August, is like that of the forcing-house in April, May, June, and
July, and needs no farther description, so we may here bid farewell
to this branch of our subject.
The fruit-trees will be treated as before directed. Ripe Cherries
may be expected in May, Apricots and Nectarines in June and
July, and Peaches in July and August; this is the harvest season
for glass-houses.
But though the work of these houses is not varied enough to
need farther description, it has imperative claims on the gardener.
He must expend a great deal of time and thought upon his houses,
or his ripe fruit will be destitute of color, size, and beauty, and his
vines and trees will be ruined for future crops.
Remember that too much heat, and too much moisture will not
benefit the crop; it must be accelerated, not forced. A neglect of
this fact has ruined many an establishment.
536 
CHAPTER LX.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
CONTINUE the work of April, - digging, preparing borders, and
clearing up. Just as soon as the ground is ready, you can sow
seeds of the most hardy flowers, such as Mignonette, Sweet Alyssum, Candytuft, Catch-fly, Flos Adonis, Heart's-ease, Larkspur, Lavatera, Lupin, Sweet Pea, Hawkweed, Annual Snapdragon, Zinnia.
Sweet Peas should be planted in large masses, at the back of the
flower beds, or in hedges along the walks of the kitchen-garden, or
elsewhere. Or they may be sown in circles around a bush or some
kind of trellis-work, when the size of the other plants warrants it.
Beds G, E, may have such groups. Sow Sweet Peas again in
June, that they may last till late in the autumn.
The size which plants usually attain is generally given on the
outside of the seed-bag, and you may be guided by it in the choice
of places for planting. Towards the middle of the month, almost
all the flower seeds may be planted, Amaranths, Balsams, Asters,
Gillyflowers, etc. It will be well at this time, also, to plant the
seeds of many biennials; they will thus get well grown this year,
and blossom better next, than if sown later.
Among these are Sweet William, Antirrhinum, Canterbury Bell,
Foxglove, Coreopsis, Dracocephalum, Asclepias, Cassia, Gerardia
Hedysarum, Hibiscus, Enothera, Penstemon, Lychnis, Rudbeckia,
Solidago, American Aster, Spigelia, Chelone, Trillium, Veronica,
Podalyria, Liatris, Ragg,ed Robin, Columbine, Iris, Valerian, Thrift,
Lily of the Valley, Hollyhock, China Pink, and common Pink, and
many others are enumerated in all dealers' lists.
All flower seeds should be planted very shallow.  If planted too
deep, seeds are in danger of decaying; but if shallow, they receive
the full benefit of the sun and showers of spring, in their germinating season. Dig the bed up thoroughly, either with a spade or
537 
MAY.
trowel; then beat it fine with rake or fork; remove one quarter
of an inch of the top earth, either by skimming or by pushing it back
with the rake. Scatter the seed thinly over the surface; then sift
back the loam, not more than one-fourth inch deep, over the seeds.
Or, having prepared the ground as before, with one tine of the
weeding-fork, or a stick, draw a line in the earth one quarter of an
inch deep; scatter the seeds into it, and cover as before. It is
pretty to plant seeds in circles, stars, or other figures. Concentric
circles of different flowers have sometimes a charming effect. For
instance, a small circle of purple Candytuft, surrounded with one
of white, then Escholtzia, and outside of that Portulacca, white,
red, or yellow. Mignonette and a fringe of Tassel Flower might
be introduced.
The disposition of flowers, with a view to producing a good effect
when in blossom, is a matter of individual taste, and there is ample
opportunity for variety. It is difficult, indeed, to produce other
than a good effect, with such beautiful material, but the general
rule should be followed of keeping the tallest plants in the background.
Some varieties should be used but sparingly; Zinnias, Four-o'clock's, and such tall, stiff plants occupy a great deal of room, and
their flowers are never particularly pleasing. Four-o'-clock opens
only morning and evening, and has nothing to recommend it at
other times.
I recommend the use of only the more delicate annuals; they
give a greater abundance of flowers, and of the kinds most desirable
for bouquets and vases, and they harmonize better with the beddingout plants. It is always well to have some bulbs, some perennials,
some bedding plants, and some annuals.   By such an intermixture, a great deal of pleasure is secured, without much labor.
The trouble of cultivating most annuals goes far towards counterbalancing their attractions. It is better to plant a few of their seed
in many places, than many in one place, with a view to transplanting them. Some bear transplanting ill, others scarcely notice it.
When all the seed is sown in one place, you have first to prepare
the ground and plant the seed, then to thin and weed the young
plants, then transplant as they are wanted; protect from the sun,
538 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
and water them, and so you get your plants with a great deal of
trouble; and as many of them have' but little top, they do not cover
much ground, and must, therefore, be planted in large numbers to
produce any effect.
The rules to be observed are: Sow the seed thin, cover but
slightly, water in dry times, do not let plants stand too near together,
cut down all plants as soon as out of blossom, remove dead leaves,
tie up to sticks the drooping heads and branches, let all be neat and
orderly.
Where effects of color or form are attempted, by concentric circles, irregular, straight, or wavy lines, or otherwise, great care is
necessary. The outer shoots of the plants should be supported
by small branches of Birch, Beach, etc., stuck into the ground,
deep enough to be firm, and so far under the plants as to be concealed by their leaves and side shoots.  The greatest obstacle to the
successful culture of annuals, is the too great luxuriance of their
growth, and rather poor soil is generally better for them, on this
account, than very rich. Much may be done towards producing
a perfect bloom, by thinning out side branches, and occasionally
pinching back leaders.
I shall give, in a few pages, a list of plants which will grow and
blossom at different seasons, and the sizes and colors being given,
any person can easily choose such as will produce the effect he desires. But to get effects of color, you must plant a large mass of
the same kind, or color, together, otherwise, only a thin, meagre,
and spotty result will be obtained. Many treatises devote a large
space to the analysis of colors, showing how plants may be mixed
and blended, correctly and pleasantly. Their statements are based
on some theory of colors, in which I have no faith. I do not believe that the exact and minute gradings and blendings of color
proposed can be produced in an ordinary garden. These treatises
analyze the colors of the rainbow, and show how its harmony was
produced, and may be reproduced. But in their reasonings, they
forget that there is a great difference between the spectrum which
they study, and the flower-garden. For the colors of the spectrum
are blended where they meet and merge in each other, in a way
that is impossible with the distinct lines of color in the flower-bed,
539 
MAY.
and their connection in the latter case, is still farther effected by the
green leaves that mingle more or less in every part. Besides, if it
were possible to give this wonderful effect from one point of view,
it must be lost with a step in either direction, and a flower-bed is
manifestly made to be seen and enjoyed from many points; further, plants are constantly growing in height and breadth, and no
two can be expected to grow just alike. Therefore, elaborate
plans of coloring in flower-beds must fail; and yet, in arranging
flowers, we should always be guided by a regard to the relative positions which their colors occupy in most harmonious combinations,
so that they may, when in perfection, resemble a well-arranged
bouquet, or dish of flowers. By familiar observation of their colors
in beds, both the eye and the taste may be cultivated till we learn
to love and appreciate color, and instinctively, as it were, how to
combine with the pleasantest effect. A bouquet or dish of flowers
so arranged that all their colors show to the best advantage, is
seldom seen. Flowers are too often mixed confusedly, so that there
is no distinct character obtained, and the eye gets no healthy excitement. Arrange your flowers always so that one decided color
shall predominate in the whole, and also be massed in some particular place.  Then contrast with the principal mass of color, those
colors best calculated to relieve and show it to advantage. Do not
entirely disconnect the main mass from the same color in other parts,
but, by a single flower of the same, or a similar hue, carry the eye
along to the other parts where the dominant color is again to be
seen. Do not put your flowers in blotches, or formal masses, but
introduce them with graceful irregularity, so that while you are enjoying the principal color, your eye may be unwittingly led into
the other forms and colors that blend and intertwine with it. Do
not fall into the common mistake of making your bouquet of noth ing but flowers; they should be in abundance, but not so as to con ceal the green leaves, twigs, and berries. To show them to their
best advantage, mix plenty of green, and in autumn, colored leaves
and berries with them, which may rest and divert the eye, till it re turns to find the flowers more bright and beautiful than before. I
believe that very much more beautiful dishes, or bouquets, may be
made in the autumn, when the flowers are almost gone, than in
540 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
their midsummer profusion. In the summer, the richness cloys, we
enjoy them less, because of their quantity, and cannot help feeling
that what is abundant, is cheap, and yet in this abundance of flowers
we cannot persuade ourselves to use green enough.
As in the dish or bouquet, we approach the reds and crimsons
with the colored leaves of autumn, or the scarlet berries of Holly or
Wintergreen, or the hips of the rose, the haws of the Thorns, or
the jetty black berries of the Privet, we gain an intensity of color
that the flower could never attain except in such union. If the
edge of the dish, or outside of the bunch, is bordered with the
brown greens of the Cedar, Arbor Vitae, and Juniper, the whole
tone is still more intensified. Try now the effect of laying under
your Crimson Verbena, or Scarlet Geranium, a bit of cool, gray
moss, and, a little farther off, a purplish Heliotrope, and still
farther, a group of White Verbenas, contrasted with the rich
green of the Geranium leaf, and again toned by some pink flower,
and you will find a wonderful effect, one that will vibrate as you
look at it.
The habit of heaping colored flowers one upon another, and putting nothing else in the dish, arises, I think, partly from the want
of delicacy of taste, and partly from taking as a standard of color
the spectrum, or pictures, where other things, as light and shade,
atmosphere, etc., come in to blend and tone the whole.
To return to the colors of the garden. As I have said, arrange
your plants according to a well-digested system of colors, but remember that unity of effect and harmony is almost impossible
from all points, or for a length of time. My flower-garden, if I
have in it all the varieties I want, if I work over it for weeks, cultivating, pruning, tying up, and watching it, during all that time,
may give me the precise effect I have desired and looked for, yes
longed for, for months; but it will probably only be for one day, or
even for a part of a day, and never again during the year; and if
I can get that perfect effect for those few moments, I shall be certainly satisfied and repaid, and regardless of comment from those
too dull to appreciate or too critical to admire. I shall be content
to work another season, just as long, for the same few moments'
pleasure.
46
541 
MAY.
There are moments in life when the beautiful is recalled to us,
for which we have waited, watched, and longed, for which we have
spent money, time, study; moments which others cannot share,
and may not know, which are gone as soon as come, but which are
the best reward for all our labor and trouble, and which open
glimpses to us of the beauty and nobleness, unseen and unattainable
here, but which we can thenceforward believe have an existence on
the other side the grave.
The artist may see this desire of his heart, in some early morning, as the clouds roll away from the rising sun, showing sea, moun.
tain, and forest, or he may come upon it suddenly, in the glisten of
drops of rain, or dew, or in the blaze of ice-clad trees and bushes
under the moonlight, when each twig is a seeming fire of diamonds,
or it may look up from the depths of the water, which reflect the
awful beauties of the heavens, stretching unfathomable distances
beneath his feet; the musician may hear it in some strain floating
through his dreams, in the voice of a singer, in the caroling of
birds, in the tones of the sea, in storm or calm, in the lulling, lilting, babbling of the brook; he may have studied and sought for
it through a lifetime, and it may come to him as the reward of his
labor, or in apparent mockery, heard for so short a time, so soon
gone; nevertheless, it is something to have lived for, and to die for.
The poet will get it in that song which is irrepressible, and from
his heart's depths a wail of unbounded sorrow, or a burst of im,
measurable gladness.
Every lover of beauty sees it now and then, it may be, when
the glorious and beautiful waterfall of Montmorenci leaps before
him, unexpected and terrible, one moment a hurrying mass of
water and rapids, a confused outline of hills, river bank, wierd evergreens, rocky ledges; the next shut into a gorge beneath his feet,
it leaps in the glad sunshine, spanned with rainbows, 300 feet, a
torrent of foam, a resplendent veil of mist, a wonder and glory
forever; and then, gathering its waters, gently and peacefully glides,
over stones and sand bar, to the broad St. Lawrence. He may see
it in his own child, or in the flower-bed before his door. It is never
the certain reward of labor; we may work for it a lifetime, and
never find it while we seek it; but the seeking will so ennoble and
542 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
purify the mind, and quicken the powers of appreciation, that when
a sudden movement unexpectedly brings us upon it, we shall be
repaid and stimulated, let it vanish as speedily as it may.
The flower-garden may give this momentary delight, or a dish
of flowers that we have arranged; but in whatever form it comes,
when you receive it, you have lived; the moment is an epoch, one
of the milestones on your way; you will remember it forever, and
date from it all kindred matters.
COLORS. -  You are now in the joyful spring; you have begun
the culture of beauty anew. Out of cold earth, rough clods, uncontrollable. elements, mysterious seeds, you may, with love and
patience, bring out the rarest beauty, capable of administering to
whatever is best in our natures; or, in discouragement, you may
let weeds choke your flowers, and disorder and neglect turn your
garden to a reproach and a sorrow.
The following arrangement of colors I have taken out of McIntosh's Book of the Garden, and they may be expected, according
to that treatise, to produce harmonious results:
Dark blue, scarlet, white, black, blue, brown, scarlet, white, black, light
drab, black, orange, black, light drab, black, white, black, claret, orange,
gray, white, scarlet, dark green, crimson, white, dark gray, dark red, black,
deep crimson, mixed, geranium, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, dull
red, gray, mulberry.
The reds need not, and should not, be all of the same shade;
and so of other colors. Black, of course, cannot be got; in its
place may be substituted the deepest crimson and the darkest purple; why it is introduced, I do not know, unless it be for intensity
of tone. I shall not give any of the elaborate patterns, geometric
and irregular, so common in books upon flower-gardens.
You may get a beautiful effect by a number of small round beds
along a path, each of which is filled with one kind of flower, surrounded by slate edgings, and in the Grass. They give great variety, in spite of their sameness of shape.
For instance, fill one bed with Carnations; they will blossom
all about the same time, and may be full of flowers for some
543
* 
IMAY.
weeks; the next two or three beds may be filled with varied Picotes, one red, one yellow, one white, one variegated; after them
Carnations again. Or you may fill one with Mignonette, the next
with white Candytuft, the next with pink Lantana, pegged down,
then two Verbenas, first purple, then crimson, deep blue Ageratum,
dark purple Heliotrope, then Horse-shoe Geranium, and down the
other side with a similar succession. There must be enough of
each kind of plant to produce a decided spot of color.
Another bed, as G, in our flower-garden, may begin, 1, Nemophila, 2, Gilia, 3, Ageratum, 4, Heliotrope, 5, Purple Lantana,
6, Scarlet Geranium, 7, Yellow Lantana, 8, Scarlet or Purple Salvia. A, in this garden, has in the middle 1 Heliotrope, outside 2
Mignonette. F has 1, Scarlet Geranium in the middle, 2, Scarlet
Verbena on the edges. 0, 1, is Heliotrope, 2, Gilia and White
Verbena. B and C are full of bulbs in the spring; as they go,
prick out among them such bedding plants as you like. As there
are shrubs all along here, I shall put in these beds the lowest
growing plants, Verbena, Gilia, Nemophila.
In G and E put annuals among the perennials, and set out
among them, like shrubs, large plants of Salvia, Heliotrope, Lantana, Brompton tenweek Stock, Wall-flower, and Carnation.
The groups of sweet Peas must be so managed as to cover all the
brush which they trail over.
The following lists of hardy annuals are taken from the Book
of the Garden, p. 817. They are the bestfor general use among
the many there given -
Ageratum,         cellestinum,
"             oderatum,
Alyssum,          calycinum,
Anagallis,        ccerulea,
"         carnea,
"         indica,
"      latifolia,
"      grandiflora,
Asters,           china  and  ger                 man,
Amaranth,         globe,
Bartonia,         aurea,
544
0
pale blue,
lilac,
white,
blue,
flesh colored,
purple,
blue,
red,
many colored,
I 8 in. seed or cutting.
1 8              11
1 2 11
6
6
6 Sow in
6 frames in
6 March.
12-24 seed or cutting.
red and white, 12
yellow, 18 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
blue and white  12    seed or cutting.
colors,      12-24
Calandrinia,      ascendens,
red,         12
"     speciosa,                maroon,        18
Calendula,         officinalis, fllo. pleno,   orange,     15
yellow,       24           "
dark blue,      9           "
bluish purple,    9            "
blue,         9           "
white and purple,  9-18
scarlet,       9-18        "
blue,        18
bright blue,     18
scarlet,      18           "
white, yellow, pur       ple,        15
pink, 9 "
lilac,        9'
brown,         9           "
red purple,     18           "
white,        18          "
blue and white,  6             "
purple and white, 12             "
blue and purple,   9            "
scarlet,       9           "
buff,       12  seed and cutting.
blue and white,  12            "
"            stellata,
Campanula,        loreyi,
";          pentagona,
"           stricta,
Candytuft,
Cacalia, 
Centaurea,        cyanus major,
"           depressa,
Cientranthus,     macrosiphon,
Chrysanthemum, carinatum,
Cheenostoma,      fastigiatum,
"           polyanthum,
"           viscosum,
Clarkia,          pulchella,
"            flora alba,
Clintonia,        pulchella,
Collinsia,        bicolor,
"             grandiflora,
Collomia,         coccinea,
"            grandiflora,
Convolvulus,      tricolor,
"           atroviolacea,
Delphinium,
"           consolida,
Dianthus,         siniensis,
Erysimum,         perowskianum,
Escholtzia,       crocea,
"           californica,
Eucharidium,      grandiflorum,
"           concinnum,
Gilia,            tricolor,
Godetia,          tenella,
Gramnanthes,    gentianoides,
"           flora lutea,
Gillyflower,
Heliophila,       arabioides,
46*
dark purple,   12
various,    18         "
c n o i a"  18
"        12
dark orange,   24
orange,     12-18      "
yellow,     12-18 
dark crim son,  12 
reddish,    18         "
lilac and purple, 18       "
"         18        "
deep orange,    6          "
yellow, 6               "
various,     12-24       "
blue,       9      It
545
Br.achycoma,    iberidifolia,
Balsam,
dark crimson, 6
11
11
11
glandulosa,
11
11
11
seeds
grandiflora,
rose lilac, 12 
MAY.
Hemineris,         incisifolia,
Hibiscus.         africanus,
Iberis,            (candytuft,)
Isotoma,          axillaris,
Kaulfussia,        amelloides,
Lasthenia,        californica,
Leptosiphon,      densiflorus,
"           androsaceus,
Linaria,          spartea,
"              tristis,
Lobelia,          crinoides,
"              heterophylla,
"              ramosa,
Lotus,            jacobeus,
Lupinus,          bicolor,
"             pilosus,
"            nanus,
Malcomia,         maritima,
"            flora albo,
Mathiola,         (stocks,)
Mesembryanthe-  tricolor,
blu e,        9
"           6
yellow,        6
lilac,      12
ro se l ilac,   9
golden yellow,  12
brown,        12
blue,         6
"          15
" 12
black,       12
deep blue,      6
" 24
blue and white,   6
red,          9
white,        9
various,      12-18
red,         8
mum,
pomeridianum:            yellow,        8          "
insignis,                 blue,         9          "
maculata,          white and purple,  6            "
blue and white,   6           "
yellow and orange,         vine or cut.
rosea,                rose colored,    9         bulbs
chrisanthemoides, yellow and white, 12             "
drummondi,               various,      12-24  cuttings.
"ctna     12          "
pale yellow,     9
pinkish lilac,   18
orange crimson,   6
" 6
yellow,       6
white,        6
purplish crimson,  9
(Mignonette,)    9
bright rose,    12
yellow,       6
Saponaria,        calabrica,
"             oeymoides,
Schizanthus,      diffusus
carmine,     9
red, 9
546
seed and cutting.
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
Nemophila,
Nierembergia,
11
Nasturtium,
Oxalis,
Oxyura,
Phlox,
Petr-nia,
Platvstemon,
Podolepis.
Portulacca,
11
Reseda,
Rhodantbe,
Sanvitalia,
11
11
11
11
purple and white, 18 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Schizanthus.      venustus,
lilac, purple, and'
yellow,       24
" 24
white,       12
pale blue,. 6
various when dou      ble,        24
yellow,       6
bright rose,    12
Shortea,          californica,
Vesicaria,         oculata,
It is very likely that all these flowers cannot be at first obtained
in this country, and probably all would not be desirable, except in
a very large garden, where very elegant and precise effects are
wished for, but the sizes and colors being distinctly marked would
enable a careful horticulturist to produce any result that he had
planned. The time of bloom is not given, but all blossom about
the same time, or may be made to do so by starting such as are of
slow growth, in hotbeds or the greenhouse.
The practice in the best English gardens is to have what is called
a reserve-garden, which stands in relation to the flower-garden as
the hot and green houses do to the conservatory; in it plants are
brought into condition for setting in the main garden, into which
they are removed to supply gaps. Without such a reserve, it would
be almost impossible to keep a garden in perfection for any time,
or even to have it so once.
A real flower-garden is rarely seen in America, and I do not
know of any one which can be at all compared either in style, keeping, or size, with the remarkable gardens of England, where 20
acres have been devoted to the display of annual, perennial, and
bedding-out flowers. Of course this area includes other ornamental
features suitable to a flower-garden, as sheets of water, fishponds, and fountains, arbors, statues, vases, etc. The cost of keeping
such a place is enormous, and in a country where labor is as costly
as it is here, would be beyond all bounds; and certainly, the pleasure to be derived from it is not in any measure proportionate to the
cost and trouble expended, for size and quantity do not add beauty
and pleasure in such a case. Still, such a garden, kept open to the
public, near some large city, might be of great service to the people;
it would expand their minds and cultivate their tastes, and give an
547
cuttings.
11
11
Schiziopetalon,
Sedum,
Senecio,
pinnatus,
walkeri,
azureum,
elegans,
11 
MAY.
impulse to floriculture throughout the whole country; but it will be
long before such a thing exists here; this generation certainly will
not live to see it. Such a garden would be, too, a fitting and beautiful feature in the laying out of a great park of several hundred
acres, where its artificial and cultivated beauty would be an agreeable contrast to the wild natural style in which most of the ground
would be laid out.
Such a garden is not to be produced merely by having a good
design to start from; I could give any number of elaborate designs
for such a purpose, but even if the ground were carefully staked
out and planted in accordance with them, they would need to be
watched and tended by some person who loved the work, and who
could devote all his time and thought to it.
Flowers are naturally simple and retiring; -they rarely intrude
on the notice of man; they bend over the brooks, lending and receiving beauty by the reflection; they peep out of the grass, they
fringe the roadsides, and their masses of bright color contrast with
the gray stones and dark foliage about them; but they never insist
on being noticed; they are always subordinate to leaves and branches
and stems, and those that give the best and most enduring pleasure, combine modesty of appearance with beauty of color and
delicacy of fragrance. The possessor of a bed of such flowers,
however simple and familiar, if they are perfect of their kind, and
well-cared for, need not envy the owner of the widest and most
expensive flower-gardens of England.
There will not be much return for the care of the garden during
this month, unless there is a good collection of bulbs, and they will
be in their glory before the month is over.
Choice Hyacinths and Tulips should be shaded from the hot sun
and severe rains and winds, and early in the month it is well to
loosen the earth amongst the bulbs with a trowel or fork. The sun
blends the colors of the Tulips, and destroys the Hyacinths. Drive
in stakes round the edges of the bed, at moderate intervals, and
higher ones through the middle at corresponding distances, and
connect them all together by strips of wood or strong cording, over
which a canvass or well-oiled cotton cloth can be spread to form a
roof. The cover should hang down a little over the sides. It will
548 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
be an efficient screen from the sun, and in case of a storm can be
lowered on the exposed side, and defend the flowers perfectly from
the beating of the wind and rain.
Common bulbs will not need this protection, but the rarer plants
will not repay us for the time and money we have spent on them,
unless we take this extra precaution, which will often keep them a
week or two in perfection.
As soon as the leaves decay, remove those bulbs which you wish
to divide or reset, and pack them in dry sand until it is time to
plant them in the fall. Common bulbs may be left in the ground
for three years, but the choice kinds should be removed annually.
When you take them up remove all the outside skin, to the brown
under skin. Be careful in taking them up to keep a catalogue of
kinds and qualities, otherwise you will be unable to plant them
with judgment in the autumn.
Before the tops of the bulbs decay, set amongst them the annuals and bedding plants, by which they are to be replaced, and
give the new plants all the care possible, to stimulate early growth.
If pains are taken, there.need be but a short interval of nakedness.
During the summer, water occasionally with liquid manure, or
shake over and rake into the bed dressings of guano, just before
rain.
Set in place all trellises and wire baskets, and plant the seeds or
cuttings which belong to them. The Tropeolum, or Canary-bird
flower, and the Maurandya and Ipomea, and German Ivy are the
prettiest summer vines, on a small scale, while Nasturtium, Convolvulus, Maderia, Ipomea learii, are quick growers and beautiful
coverings of a larger kind.
In the course of the month make all the plantations of woody
vines, as Wisteria, Honeysuckle, Rose, Periploca, Aristolochia,
Clematis, etc.
The first of June should find you about ready to enjoy and weed.
If, however, the sowing of flower seeds out of doors is delayed till
the last week of the month, when the ground is warm, but little
time will be lost.
549 
CHAPTER LXI.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE hotbeds are to be watched with care; the Melons and Cucumbers will be in blossom, and showing fruit, and all plants are
in a state of advance. Give air in abundance, to make them hardy.
Make a dungbed early in the month, just as you would for a
hotbed, in some sheltered situation, and cover with 3 inches of
loam. As soon as the manure begins to ferment, set into this bed
the Melons and Cucumbers which are in thumb-pots, or on bits of
sod in the greenhouse. Set 2 Melons or 3 Cucumbers in each
place;. cover with a hand bell-glass, keeping the glass on all the
time, unless the weather is decidedly warm, till there is no danger
of frost, giving air in the middle of sunny. days by tilting the glass.
Prick out into sheltered places the most forward Lettuce, Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Broccoli plants; make beds in which to sow
seeds (as directed in the flower-garden) of these plants for later
summer use; and carefully forward and harden those which are
still in the hotbeds.
Plant an abundance of early Peas, and continue sowing later
crops once a week during the month. Sow seeds of Radish in the
same manner. Radish seed may be mixed, two for one, with Carrots, Beets, and Turnips, when sowed in the seed-sower; the Radish
will germinate early and grow rapidly, and mark the rows so that
they can be cleaned readily, and they may be pulled long before
the other vegetables are much grown.
Asparagus will be fit for the table as soon as it has grown from
2 to 4 inches. It is better so than larger. Be careful when cutting it not to injure the buds of the crown of the roots, and be sure
always to cut it below the surface. A common knife will answer,
but it is not so good as one made for the purpose. The objection
to the common knife is that it makes a smooth, clean cut, in which
550 
KITCHEN-GARDEN
case the stump of the shoot will bleed considerably, while by cutting
it with a saw-toothed edge,
you leave a jagged surface,
and the sap is not inclined to
extravasate.
Lettuce in the hotbeds should be now about ready for the table,
and in the graperies an abundance of Salads, Strawberries, Cauliflowers, etc.
Sow in beds seeds of small Salads, Mustard, etc., as often as
once a week, to ensure frequent and tender growth.
This is the proper time to make beds of Artichokes, either for
the table or the field. Sow in beds seeds of Sea-kale, Cardoons,
Alexanders. Make beds of Horseradish. Sow seeds of Parsley.
This will remain for some years in the same spot, and should, therefore, be planted in some place whence it need not be moved. Sow
Spinach, for summer use, several times in the course of the month.
Plant early table Turnips; English White are the best.
Procure the roots of Rhubarb, to make new plantations the first
of the month. The best variety for family use is not that which
grows the largest, but that which melts most completely in stewing.
Victoria Rhubard is a very large and rather coarse variety; the
Early Prince Imperial is better for family use. Plant it in deep, rich
soil with plenty of manure. Every autumn cover with a foot of loam
and manure, and in the spring repeat the process, and dig in around
the crown. The leaves will push before the middle of the month,
and it will be ready for the table before its close. Some farmers
recommend covering heads of Rhubarb with an inverted barrel, for
the purpose of hastening its growth, at the same time that they
blanch and make tender the edible portions. The latter purpose is
accomplished, but not the former, and it is maintained by some that
the process develops some medicinal and disagreeable qualities.
The very first of the month plant Strawberry beds; the earliest
planted generally make the best beds. Mulch old beds with tan.
There are many methods of making beds, and many varieties of
vines, as I have before said. The size and shape of the beds must
be determined by the amount of room that can be spared them.
Sometimes Strawberries are planted as an edging to the large
551
N 
MAY.
divisions of the vegetable garden. For this purpose set them along
the edge of the bed, and take care to turn the runners in towards
the bed as they begin to grow, and thus ensure a thick and wellfilled edge.
The more delicate varieties of fruit are by no means the best
for general culture, as they are with considerable difficulty gathered and preserved for marketing. But they are, of course, the
best for the table. Shake some guano amongst the plants in old
beds, but do not set new beds in newly manured land.
Set out Raspberry beds now.   Set the rows 3 or  4 feet apart,
and the plants 2 or 3 feet apart in the row. Select for planting the
best of last year's suckers; they should be well grown  and have
an abundance of fibrous roots. Cut the cane of the plant back to
within four or five buds of the roots; set the root 3 or 4 inches
deep in the earth, and at the same time set stakes if you are to use
them, so as not to injure the roots by driving them afterwards.
The best varieties of Raspberry vary with the latitude and often
very greatly with a short distance. The advice of a good and
honest nursery man in the neighborhood is the best guide in selection.
Make the beds for pot herbs as before directed, and be sure
before planting the seed that you rake the loam on the surface of
the bed until it is reduced to a fine tilth, and then sow the seed not
more than one-half inch deep. Set the offsets of roots rather
deeper, enough so to be well covered.
Caraways are biennial, and if sown this year will bear seed next;
they are valuable for medicinal and culinary purposes.
Plant Onions for seed the first of the month, as directed in October.  The earlier they are planted, the earlier and better crop they
will bear. Sow the seeds for late onions during the month; be sure
to have the loam well pulverized before sowing the seed.
Plant Beet seed any time this month; the early-planted often
grows better and produces less stringy, and more juicy Beets, than
the later; this depends, however, much on the character of the
season, whether wet or dry. To ensure success with Beets or any
tuberous root, the plant should grow regularly, rapidly, and uninterruptedly, and with sufficient moisture; the tuber becomes coarse,
0
552 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
hard, or stringy, when checked in its growth by drought or any
other cause.
The best variety of Beet for home consumption is the long Blood
Beet; turnip-rooted Beets grow more rapidly, and are equally well
liked by many.
The Beets for field culture will be described hereafter. All the
roots for early kitchen use can be planted in May, but for winter
not till June, July, or August.
In selecting seeds of Celery, remember there are several kinds,
some of which are ready for the table earlier than others. Make
a bed for them near the last of the month, in a warm spot, and sow
them as in a hotbed.
Plant beside fences, or in other favorable places, Nasturtiums for
pickles; the seeds have quite as good flavor as capers, and the
brilliant flowers contribute largely to the gaiety and pleasantness of
the kitchen-garden. The seed vessels are taken for pickling when
about half ripe.
Sow in a good place, according to previous directions, Endive for
salad use in August, also the seed of broad-leaved Sorrel.
In the middle of the month sow Sweet Corn, and Stowell's Evergreen Corn, as mentioned in April.
About the third week plant the seed of all kinds of Melons.
Earlier planting than this for out-door crops is rarely successful.
Do not make the common mistake of putting a shovelful of strong
manure under each hill.  It soon dries, and unless frequently watered hinders the growth of the young plants. Make the hills in
a rich, moist soil, for Cantelope, Musk, and similar melons, 3 feet
apart; for Watermelons 4 feet; for Squashes 10 feet. Dish the
earth where you propose to make the hill, and scatter a little guano
over the earth; rake it in, and sprinkle the seed four or five in the
hill, intending when the plants are fairly established to reduce them
to three. If the land is not rich and moist, dig or plough in over
the whole area a heavy dressing of rich, well-rotted, barnyard manure.
The best land for vines of all kinds is a newly broken sod. It
is unnecessary to give any general directions for the selection of
Melon seeds; the experience of each locality must decide. The
47
e
553 
MAY.
flavor of the Musk is not so delicate as that of the Cantelope, but
the yield is generally larger. The Mountain Sweet Watermelon
is the most reliable in the neighborhood of Boston, but many cultivators have been very successful with the Black Spanish and other
varieties. At the South there is a Watermelon called the IceCream melon, the rind of which being turned back like that of the
Banana, shows a perfectly regular and delicious pulp.
Of the Summer Squashes there are at least two varieties, the
round or scallop shaped, and the club shaped. The latter is much
covered with warts and wrinkles, and is gourdlike; the former is
the more common Scallop Squash, and rather the better for use.
There are also several varieties of Winter Squash; the Crooknecked and the Marrow are those most generally cultivated. The
latter ripens earliest, the former keeps longest; the Hubbard
Squash is very much liked by many and keeps well.
There is also a Squash called the Chili or Valparaiso, which is
not fit for use till the spring after it is planted.
The treatment of Pumpkins is the same with that of Squashes,
except that in New England the seeds of the Pumpkins are generally planted in the hills of Corn in cornfields.
Cucumbers vary in kind, and may be planted early in the month
for table use, but for pickles not before June; for the latter purpose
the small varieties are best.
By the third week in May it is safe to plant Lima and Sieva
Beans. The seed of the former is sometimes out of the market;
they are rarely ripened in our latitude. The Sieva is next to it in
quality, and is also late in coming into bearing. However early
they are planted, they are seldom ready for use till September, and
may then be used constantly till frost, and if, after severe frosts
have destroyed the leaves of the vines, they are pulled up, poles
and all, and stacked and covered at night from the cold, the Bean
pods will remain uninjured, and may be used for a long time- indeed till they are all gathered.
These are pole Beans; set the hills 4 feet apart, and make the
hill by setting the pole, and then planting the Beans around it.
Treat all pole Beans in the same manner.
554 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
Set bushes for the Peas to run upon as soon as they show the
rows distinctly.
It is but little use to plant the seeds of Tomatoes in the open
ground, as they rarely get sufficiently advanced to bear. The earliest Tomato plants may be set out and covered with boxes as previously directed, the first of this month.
Red Pepper seeds can be sown in beds the middle of the month,
to be transplanted in June.
Scorzonera and Salsify are two plants not in general use, but
valuable. The latter is better known as the Oyster plant. Sow
the seeds the first of the month, in rows 6 inches apart, and covered -
inch deep. Thin to 6 inches apart as soon as well developed. They
may also be propagated by slips from the roots. The roots are fit
for use as soon as the leaves decay in the autumn, but may be kept
like Parsnips, till spring.   The  roots may be sliced and fried,
boiled, or stewed. If left in the ground till spring, the Salsify
will early throw up an abundance of young shoots, which are a
very good substitute for Asparagus. These plants need a good
deal of moisture, and should be planted in a deep soil.
Skirret is a plant similar to these; the edible portion is the root,
which is composed of a cluster of fleshy tubers, as large as the finger, which may be eaten boiled and dressed, or fried in batter, or
having been boiled, cold with vinegar and salt.
The seed of Skirret, as of the last two plants, may be sown in
April, if the season is early; it may also be propagated by taking
up the old roots in the spring, and cutting off slices, or slips, each
having an eye, which are to be planted in rows, 6 inches apart each
way; but by seed is the easiest method.
Another plant not commonly cultivated in this latitude, is Okra,
the green capsules of which are very much esteemed in soup, to
which they communicate both flavor and body. The dry seeds are
burned and ground like coffee, and are preferred to it by some.
Sow the seed by the middle, or last of May; set it in drills 4 feet
apart; seed an inch deep, and hills 8 inches apart. Put three or
more seeds in each place, to allow for failure. Weeding, hoeing,
and occasionally drawing the earth up to their roots, is afterwards
necessary.
555 
MAY.
By the last of the month it will do to set out Egg plants, from
the hotbed, particularly if some slight protection against frost is
provided; set them 3 feet apart each way. The purple-fruited is
the best for culinary purposes. If there are no plants in the hotbeds, sow the seed in a sheltered place about the third week, and
set them out permanently in June.
SWEET POTATO.-" This plant requires a dry, rather light, deep, wellstirred soil, which must be located on
a dry subsoil, and the whole  either
rich in organic manure, or rendered so
by manuring.  Stiff clay does not suit
it.  Slips or sprouts from the previous
year's tubers are used for planting, and
are obtained in the following manner:
On a bed of earth make a box with
planks set edgewise, and fill in about a
foot in depth of good, warm, fresh manure; over which spread two inches of
fine, rich earth, and on this lay the potatoes, so near as to almost
touch each other, and cover them from 2 to 22 inches deep with the
same earth. If the nights are cold, this bed must be covered with
straw, or some other warm covering, which is to be removed during the day.  There is danger in making the bed too warm, and
so spoiling the roots; they must be kept tolerably wet after the
sprouts appear. When these are 3 inches long they are fit to set
out. a, Sweet Potato sprouted, b, a sprout ready to plant.
Plough the ground very deep, and throw the earth into ridges,
or common Potato hills. Do this immediately before planting, that
the earth may be moist and fresh. Remove the slips, or sprouts,
from the Potato, and set 2 in each hill, 2 or 3 inches apart, and
make the top of the hill sufficiently hollow to hold a pint of water.
If there is no rain, watering in the evening is requisite for a few days.
When planted in ridges, the sets should be 8 or 10 inches apart;
keep the weeds clean, and hoe earth up about the bottom of the
556
6 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
plants; when ploughed the last time, about the last of July, hill them."
Be careful in ploughing not to bruise the vines, or cover them with
earth; when covered, the vines will root and produce small Potatoes
At the South, the crop is increased by covering the vines; our season
is too short. " They should be dug as soon as frost kills the vines."
Store in boxes, tubers packed in dry sand, the temperature of the
room equal, and above frost.
By the last of May, the Onions planted for seed in the fall will
have advanced so far as to need to be tied to sticks.
Tie up the leaves of Cos, or Romanl Lettuce, so as to insure
blanching.
Thin out all vegetables which are well growing, and hoe up the
starting weeds. A great deal of time is gained, and labor saved, by
destroying weeds when young, before they have got firm hold in the
soil, as later they impoverish the ground, and shade the plants from
the sun. During the next month the care of removing weeds is a
serious annoyance; they should be dug up in the morning on sunny
days, and will then entirely dry up before night, whereas, if hoed
in dull weather they are likely to grow again.
Examine the Strawberry beds occasionally, and remove weeds
when it can be done without injury to the vines and young fruit.
By the last of May, the early Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Broccoli,
etc., will be ready for hoeing.
The kitchen, like the flower-gardener, should never go into the
garden without knife, strings, and sticks. It is surprising to see
how much may be done by early attention; in nothing more
than in the various branches of gardening, is the old proverb exemplified, that "an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of
cure."
By the last of the month the largest Radishes may be thinned,
and there will be ample supplies of Lettuce in the hotbeds.
Do not leave any piles of stones or rubbish in the walks of the
kitchen-garden, but remove them at once to the manure pile and
waste hole.
Examine the espaliered fruit trees, and rub off all buds which
will produce shoots in bad positions; this saves future pruning.
47*
557 
MAY.
Any stocks or branches which were budded in the autumn, must
be cut back to the bud the first of May, that the buds may start
with vigor.
At the same time uncover the Figs, and get them ready for summer. For details of culture, see July.
558 
CHAPTER LXII.
ORCHARD.
THE pruning is, of course, over, and the hunt for caterpillars
proceeds with full vigor. The trees will begin to blossom about the
last of the month.
This is the best month for grafting all kinds of trees; the sap is
in free circulation, and the weather mild, which promotes the rapid
growth of the scion, and the healing of the wound.
It will not be necessary to minutely describe all the kinds of   l.
grafting, as but few are ever prac- 
ticed on a large scale.  Cleft and  
whip  grafting are the  common
kinds, especially the former.  The
method of whip or tongue grafting is described by Downing as
follows:
"Having chosen the stock, cut
it off at the point where it appears
best to fix the graft (see cut); if the stock is quite small, it may be
within 3 or 4 inches of the ground; then with a very sharp knife
make a smooth cut upwards, about 2 inches in length. Next make
a split from the top of this, cut about quarter of the way downwards,
taking out a thin tongue of wood; cut the scion 4 or 5 inches long,
so as to have 3 buds; then shape the lower end with a single
smooth, sloping cut, about the same length as that on the stock, and
make the tongue upward to fit in the downward slit of the stock;
now apply the scion accurately to the stock, making the inner bark
of the scion fit exactly the inner bark of the stock, at least on one
side.  Without changing their positions tie them carefully together
with a piece of bass matting or tape, and finally cover the wound
559 
MAY.
with well-prepared grafting
more tha
and belo
If graftit       b wl 
grfthan balf aa  inch it
July, fo
left    at  tl
off smoo
tom of the scion; tha eese bu
where they are placed, fro
Though i sltl  teddt  ncmo   rc
tice, the unionama                   of the parts
graft is always  greatly insrebycosnthpatsota
a bud is left near the top oftesokadantenerhebt
tom of the scion; these budsatattersn  a  oteprin
where they are placed, fromthwodmatrangralfaii
tate the union of the parts na   hm   h   pe   ato  h  tc
and the lower part of the so
for want of nourishment."
,1qy/,042
aze'  
~
The cut No. 1 here given shows saddle grafting, and needs no further explation. a is the scion, b the saddle-shaped
stock, and c the completed graft.
"Cleft grafting, No. 2, appears to have
been one of, if not the most primitive
of all modes, which may be naturally inferred from its great simplicity.   Although easily performed, it has a clumsy
appearance, but is yet very useful in
the case of old trees requiring to be
cut down from old age, disease, or other causes."
The figure shows a specimen of cleft grafting.  "a the stalk, of
almost any diameter; b, c, scions; but there may be several, according to the size of the stock.  The operation is thus performed:
The head of the stock is first sawed over, and then smoothed with
a knife; a cleft is then made in the stock with a hammer and split
560 
ORCHARD.
ting knife, or as often with a carpenter's chisel. The scion is prepared by cutting it down to a wedge shape, taking care to preserve
the bark, on the outer edge, pushed into the cleft as
the knife or chisel is withdrawn, taking care that the
inside bark of the scion fits the inside bark of the stock.
When the.number of scions desired is inserted, the
whole is bound round with matting, and clayed in the
usual manner."
Instead of using coarse and unsightly lumps of clay,
where directed, you may use the grafting-wax and a
firm cotton cloth. The wax is poured on warm, and runs into
and over the apertures; pierce a piece of cloth with holes to
fit over the scions, and then bind it around the stock, as round
a sore finger, covering it with a little more wax, to keep it firm
and in place. The wax will immediately harden, and hold all
in place, exclude air and rain, and as it is not rigid, will expand as
the scion grows, and finally fall off.
Downing further adds, "Apple stocks are grafted in great quantities in this mode, the stocks being previously taken out of the
ground, headed down near the root and cleft-grafted with a single
scion, sloping off with an oblique cut the side of the stock opposite that where the graft is placed, and then planted in rows, so as
to allow only a couple of buds of the scion to appear out of the
ground. It is not usual with many either to tie or clay the grafts in
this case, as the wound is placed below the surface; but when this
plan is adopted, the grafts must be set, and the trees planted at once,
drawing the well-pulverized soil with great care around the graft.
"Another way of grafting Apple-stocks, in some western nurseries, consists in tongue grafting on seedling stocks of very small
size cut back to the root; this is performed in the winter by the
fireside; the grafts carefully tied, and the roots placed in the cellar
in sand till the spring, when they are planted, the top of the graft
just appearing above the ground."
"Cleft grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode,
because if the split has been made right through the stock, it is in
danger of being injured by the weather, belore it is covered by the
wood of the scion. If the cleft is only made on one side the stock,
561 
MAY.
the evil is mitigated. Another objection arises when only one scion
is used; the tree becomes as a matter of course, attached, as it were,
to one side of the root only."
"Cleft grafting the vine is sometimes done in the following manner. A spur is cleft commencing the incision exactly above the
second eye. The scion when chosen is cut in a wedge-shape form
at its base, commencing the slope of the wedge just below a bud,
and so that when the scion is inserted into the cleft, the bud of the
latter and that of the stock may be placed opposite each other,
which is considered the most favorable position for success; the
process of tying and claying goes on in the usual manner, with the
exception that a small hole is left in the clay opposite the bud of
the scion, to allow that bud to develop itself freely.
"When the scion has grown 14 or 15 days it is then headed back
to one bud, which is left to draw up the sap until the union has
fairly taken place between the stock and the scion. The proper
season for grafting the vine in this way is when  the shoots have
made four or five leaves. If done sooner there is danger of the
sap flowing so fast as to prevent a union taking place, by what is
called bleeding.  This process is often adopted in grafting succulent plants, and some European growers employ it in propagating
Roses and Camellias. For the latter purpose it is of considerable
importance, as each individual bud is made to form a plant, the
scion being so cut that only one bud is attached to each.
"Crown grafting is merely a variety of cleft graft      f   4 i   X    ing, and is sometimes called rind grafting.  It is
practised upon old trees either for their total re      t,....    moval, or upon large amputated branches, to renew
by degrees.  It is upon the whole better than cleft
grafting, because the stock if old is not subjected
to the chances of being split, the scions in this case
i 7 S  M  being placed between the wood  and the bark.
\  ~\!   It is performed later in the season than cleft
i:':/i~ll~,  grafting, because the bark separates more freely
from the wood  than at an earlier period.  In
['/ I 8  rind or crown grafting, great care must be taken
that the bark of the stock be not bruised during
562 
ORCHARD.
the process of opening the bark for the reception of the scion, and
for this purpose a proper spatula or grafting knife should be used."
The ivory end of the budding knife is the best instrument for separating the bark from the wood, as it is made for a similar use in
budding.
"The scion is to be prepared without a tongue, and is placed in
the stock so that its wood may be in contact with the albumen of
the stock.  Sometimes it is cut with a sort of shoulder at the top
of the graft, that the graft may rest on the top of the wood, in
which case this kind of grafting is called shoulder grafting.
"The scion being prepared in either way, the bark is opened to
the extent of 2 inches, and the scion is made to pass down between
the wood and the bark. If the bark of the stock is hard and dry
and does not yield readily, it may be scored or cut perpendicularly
downwards, to enable the operator to open it (as in budding) so
that he may thrust the scion into its place with its cut side next the
wood; this being done, tying and claying follow as in other cases."
Herbaceous grafting a, b, p. 5 64, is rather a singular kind of grafting. It consists in attaching the solid parts of herbaceous plants, or
of woody plants, when in a herbaceous state, to others of the same or
similar species, while in a similar state. The Tree Peony has
been successfully grafted on the fleshy roots of the herbaceous
plants of the same genus.
In the case of the Tree Peony, the operation may be performed
at any time from the middle of July to the middle of August.
The tubers throw out roots in the autumn, and are then taken up
and potted, and preserved under cover during the winter. The
operation is exceedingly simple; it consists in selecting single
tubers of the plant, in which a triangular notch is cut near its top,
b, to which notch a scion of the tree sort, a, is made to fit, having
two or three buds upon it.
When placed, it is tied with soft matting, and clayed or waxed
over in the usual manner. If the plant which supplies the scions
be scarce, only one bud may be used, instead of three.  In selecting tubers for this purpose, barren ones, that is those having no
visible eyes, are as good as fertile ones, or better.
By this means, Dahlias may be largely multiplied, as every
563 
MAY.
whilst only the crown of the root produces
tuber is a stock,
'buds.
When whip grafting is the means used, and
L  Ma  ~ the bud is set high up from the root, it is well
Q~   Bto wrap the whole  stem with moist moss, to
keep it in good condition for the union to take
place.
Whip, splice, tongue, and saddle grafting can
only be effectively used when the stock and
g a raft are about the same size, as otherwise the
proper parts could not be brought together;
~~;?~      but clqft and crown grafting are possible, no
matter what disparity there may be.
There are many refinements upon grafting,
with which I shall not trouble you, for when you
have advanced so far as to inquire about the
refinements of culture, you will no longer need
such aid as this book offers.
The other work of the orchard will be very simple - a mere
repetition of the work of April.
Keep the caterpillars well rubbed off. No more tar need be put
on between the last of the month and November, for in that interval the egg-laying canker worms do not run. You will find it a
simple way of destroying great numbers of the worms which eat
the leaves, after they are hatched, to jar the trees by heavy blows.
The worms feeling the jar, cease eating, and drop to the ground,
lowering themselves softly by a thread which they spin as they go.
The thread will be broken directly, and the worm will run for the
tree to climb back, and be caught in ithe tar on his way.
The appearance of these worms is very unlike that of the grub
which laid the egg, and if there is no sign of perfect, leaf-destroying worms, the tar may be omitted early in the month.
If your orchard is surrounded by stone walls, or close board
fences, you will find it advantageous to plough very early and sow
with any succulent fodder, and to turn in young pigs when it is
pretty well grown. They eat all the green crops, particularly
Clover, greedily. A good Clover field is a certain source of fat
I
564 
ORCHARD.
and growth for pigs, and in an orchard they will pick up windfalls
through the summer, thus destroying enormous quantities of worms.
The great value of pigs, in this way, is not sufficiently appreciated.
They thoroughly root over a field in which they are turned, and
eat all the worms and grubs they can find.
A litter of spring pigs, fed in such an orchard, and supplied beside with skim milk, will thrive wonderfully.
48
565 
CHAPTER LXIII.
THE FARM.
CONTINUE the work of April with regularity and rapidity; postpone no necessary job, for a loss of time, however small, in the
spring, can not be made up during the year.  On every farm there
is always far more to do than time in which to do it, and this is especially the case on a place like ours, where there are ornamental
grounds, which offer employment for every leisure moment.
We sowed clover over the Wheat field in No. 3, and also over
the Rye in orchard No. 1.  The pasture in No. 1 will have given
good feed during the last half of April, if properly irrigated, and
should now give abundance.
The Grass lands and Wheat fields may be kept constantly irrigated through May.
Our Spring Rye should have been sown in April, unless the
season was late, in which case sow it early in May. Sow one acre
of Rye, Clover, and Grass, and one acre of Oats, Clover, and Grass,
to be cut in the milk; reserve the third acre for fodder, one-half of
which should be got in as soon as the warm weather has regularly
begun; sow 2 to 4 bushels seed to the acre, in a seed-sower; sow
very thick, and set the rows within 3 feet of each other; the Corn
will come up thick, and will tend to leaves more than butts, and will
keep the ground well shaded. You may either broadcast your
Grass seed before sowing the Corn, and trust to hand weeding, or
sow it at the second hoeing, as I have directed, when the Corn is
just large enough to cover the ground. No hand hoeing will be
necessary, if the land has been well attended to heretofore.
With the Rye and Oats spread 300 lbs. guano, 300 lbs. plaster,
one cart-body full of fine peat, 100 lbs. potash, mixed, unless you
gave a generous coat of manure at the beginning of the rotation,
566 
THE FARM.
in which case omit the potash. The Grain should be sowed with a
drill, and the manure spread at the same time.
Cut the Winter Rye in orchard No. 1 just as soon as there is
enough for the scythe, and feed it out together with Roots, any
which are left, and Grain and Hay to the milch cows. The Rye
will grow very fast now, and may be stimulated as much as you
please by liquid manure.
In the orchards to be cultivated there are rather more than 6
acres, half of which is not to be cultivated;  but half is for
culture, which will not injure but rather stimulate the growth of
the trees. Two acres should be devoted to Indian Corn, one to
fodder.  Sow the fodder on this land rather later than on No. 3;
one-half as late as the second week in July, and then sow Millet.
The Sweet Corn fodder will then follow the Rye, the Sugar
Cane, the Sweet Corn, to be again followed by Sweet Corn and
Millet.
During much of the month there will be good feed upon the pasture in No. 1; and after the lower lawn and No. 4 are mowed,
they may be fed.  Remember that the pasture in No. 1 is no common New England pasture, needing 3 acres for one cow, but land
well able to give 1~ tons per acre, and must therefore be fed early
and close, to prevent the grass growing rank. Small as the enclosure is (5 acres) you will gain decidedly by setting a hurdle
fence across half way, and eating down one-half before you turn
on to the other.
Before turning out your cattle sell those cows who have proved
poor milkers during the last year, and be on the lookout through
the summer to buy better.  It is not for your advantage to keep
many cows during summer, unless for butter.  The price of milk is
higher in winter than in summer, and we know that the manure is
neither so valuable nor so easily saved in summer. Try to keep
enough, and no more, of the best kind for dairy purposes, and
devote yourself to getting large crops to be fed out the next winter to cattle, sheep, or milch cows, whichever is the best in your experience.
It is well now to start a calendar or account-book with each of
your animals, as a test of their value.  If you begin at the date
567 
MAY.
of turning out to pasture, charge each with its cost, pasturage per
week, every item of food and care for the suceeding year; and
credit it with its milk and manure. You will then know how you
stand, and what is profitable and what not.
The same should be done with each field and each crop, charging
it with all the expense it makes, with interest, with one-half of the
manure spread on it, and crediting it with its crops, whereby you
will soon learn the profit and loss of crops and manures.
If there come any wet days, when you are short of work, go
through all the cellars, and thoroughly clean them, cleaning away
all cobwebs etc., and then apply a strong lime wash. We are told
never to apply whitewash except in bright weather, as it will not
dry white at any other time. I give the statement for the satisfaction of those who believe in it, of whom I am not one. I have
whitewashed the ceiling of good houses during dark and rainy
weather, and have never seen any inferiority in the final whiteness
and lustre. But in stables and cellars it is of no consequence
whether the wash prove white or not; it is for cleanliness.
We are to plant 2 acres with Potatoes, in No. 2, and will select
some variety to test its quality. If you must buy the seed, you
will like to know the proper quantity. A large Potato judiciously
cut into 3 pieces, and all these planted in one hill, yields better than
it would if planted whole. A medium-sized Potato should be cut
into 2 pieces; cut from end to end, and not across. Remember
that the tuber is like the branch of a tree; the buds at the ends
are perfect or not, as it is perfectly or imperfectly ripened; the
middle buds, or eyes, are certainly ripe and perfect. By cutting
across the middle, you divide the middle eyes, and are liable to put
all the immature buds into one piece. Were the two ends of the
Potato to go into the same hill, it would not matter much; but
the cut pieces are mixed in the basket fiom which they are planted,
and if they are all cut across, there is great chance that some hills
will be planted wholly with immature eyes. The quantity of seed
cut as above, which will be needed, is about 8 bushels. It depends
somewhat on the variety. In a bushel of State of Laine, Eastport, Chenango, Jackson White, Worcester Red, or other round
Potatoes of medium size, there are about 400. If the rows are 4
568 
THE FARM.
feet apart and the hills 3 feet, each hill has 12 square feet = 3,630
hills. Call it 3,500 hills, the acre will need 843 bushels of seed. In
any case, 10 bushels to the acre ought to be an abundance.
Be sure that the rows are perfectly straight, for this saves a deal
of time and trouble, first and last.
If you are depending on farmyard manure to keep your land in
good heart, cart on to the 2 acres of Potatoes not less than 20 cordls
of your best compost. Now is the time to manure for the whole
rotation. Had the bed been manured last year for Indian Corn at
the same rate, there would now be no need of any other manure
than plaster. Cart on only just in advance of the plough, and spread
thickly over the surface; plough as deeply as a stout pair of horses
can carry a deep-tiller plough, and follow with a one-horse subsoil
plough. On most land one horse will make but little impression
with the subsoil plough, but that little every year is all important.
He will, if the plough is held firmly, deepen the soil one or two
inches every time he goes over the field. These two inches are
the top, and, consequently, the hardest part of the subsoil, and being
loosened and improved, will be seized on by the roots of the crops,
and mixed with the top-soil when the deep-tiller plough goes through
again. When you plough the same field in the fall for Rye, or
Wheat, you will find the first plough gaining much more than 2
inches on the spring ploughing, and a new subsoiling will show the
wisdom of the proceeding through the rotation.
Having ploughed in the manure, draw straight furrows across the
field both ways, with a one-horse plough. Strike the first furrow
by what the English ploughman calls feering poles. These poles
should be a part of the permanent equipment of the farm. They
are 9 feet long, shod at one end with an iron point; paint them in
3 colors, red, white, and blue; but do not put the paint on the same
part of all the poles; vary the arrangement, so that when set up in
the field it will be the easier to distinguish them from the objects
around; graduate them into 3- feet lengths, so that they may serve
for measuring. When ready to begin ploughing, measure off from
B, p. 570, the straight side of the field, a head land, 15 feet, or one
ridge wide, and set one pole, c, 321 feet from the fence A; then go as
48
569 
MAY.
far as you please along the side A, at a right angle to the headland,
and measure another 321 feet, and set another pole, d, and so on to the
';        l I
_?                                              l
I
I
I
- - -'
r,i 
LI _     
end of the side A. Now start your horses and plough exactly down
the line of the poles c, g, keeping them always in line, and allowing
the cord which connects the horses, or the yoke of the oxen, to
knock the poles down. As soon as it (d) is ploughed over, stop
the team, and take the pole once and a quarter the width of the
ridge, and at right anogles to the line of poles, and there set it firmly
into the ground at dl; go back to the beginning of the furrow, and
take the first pole c, and carry it once and a quarter the width of a
ridge, and at right angles to the line of poles, and fix it at k; start
your plough again, and when you plough over the next pole, e, treat
it like d and c, and set it at et, and so on. Return on the back of
this furrow, and continue to plough till you arrive at the end of the
quarter ridge made on one side by your first furrow and the fence on
the other. You will thus have ploughed half a ridge. Return to the
line of feering poles, and plough down from k to s, and back as before; as the poles are ploughed down, reset at the distance of a
ridge. See diagram. This method leaves an open furrow for surface drainage, etc., from h to r, from b to t, from n to v.
'k
-f
-2
570
.B
I
A
el
f
I
I
II -
L4.
II -
i
i
I
I
i
i
I
I
II
II
i
"I
TV 
THE FARM.
Of course this method of ploughing cannot be followed on new,
stumpy or unbroken land; it is suited to subdued and open land,
even to that which is very stony, but not to ledgy land. Ledges
are as invincible by the plough as stumps.
A land is that portion of ground marked out by natural limits,
by the eye of the ploughman, or by stakes, which is to be ploughed
through before starting afresh. Its width and the method in which
it is to be ploughed depend on circumstances, but it should not be
wider than 30 feet.
It would seem to the uninitiated that the length of the furrow,
the width of the slice, the area of land, were of no particular consequence to team and ploughman; but these things are of real importance, and the work must be broken with stopping, turning, etc.,
to insure its being done to the best advantage. Careful experiments have been made in England and tabulated, to show how the
amount of land ploughed in a given time by a given force is effected
by the width of furrow-slice and the length of furrow; it is upon
these that the speed of the team, and consequently the amount of
work accomplished, depends.
Speed per hour      Distance walked in
in miles.             8s hours.
Land ploughed in
8}1 hours at that
speed.
R.    -  P.
3         1
3        14
0        21
0       34
2         2
2        28
1        3
1       42
NOTE, —The above is taken from "Stevens' Book of the Farm," vol. 1,
p. 167.
In calculating the time necessary to plough a given area, remember that the team cannot be kept constantly at tile same rate of
speed; apart from the time lost in turning, allowance must be made
for stops and rests and changing lands.
The next table shows plainly which length of furrow was found
the best.
571
Breadth of furrow slice in inches.
Miles.
8
1 8
12
1 12
17
1 16
26
1 24
Yards.
1,284
440
642
220
808
880
332
1,320
Inches.
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
A.
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
I
1 1-2
2
3
and
11
1,
11 
MAY.
Length of ridge      Breadth of slice        Time lost in
in yards.             in inches.              turning.
H. M.
78                    10                5    11
149                    "                 2   44
200                    "                 2    01
212                    "                 1   56 1-2
274                    "                 1   22
NOTE. - Stevens' Book of the Farm, vol. 1, p. 167.
In ploughing longer ridges a loss of time appeared, though not
so much as in the short, but the ridge of 274 yards (or a medium
one of 250 yards) gave the best average. Just look at the difference! in one case, out of 10 hours work, 5 hours 11 minutes were
lost in turning, whilst in the ridge of 274 yards there was a loss of
but 1 hour 22 minutes in 10 hours work.
This is of the greatest importance, for you may thus lose or save
one half the time you have to plough. Under the best circumstances ploughing is a difficult and slow process, needing every
possible advantage; yet it is generally done as if it were susceptible
of no improvement.
Breadth of slice and kind of land are the next considerations,
and are decided by the character of soil and crop.
It should be the work of the best ploughman on the farm to set
the feering poles and plough down the ridges the first two furrows;
the rest of the ridge may be ploughed out by a less expert hand.
The headland is left a ridge wide and ploughed last. The proper
width for the ridge, in the opinion of experienced cultivators, is 15
feet; from open furrow to open furrow, 30 feet. By ploughing thus
you will make all your furrows lie in the same way on the same
side of each ridge.
Such care in laying out lands and ploughing will be ridiculed by
most of our farmers, and pointed out by some of my readers as an
evidence of the foolishness of my theories. Nevertheless it is wise;
it saves time and labor, and pays well.   The extra work, i.e.,
skilled labor, should be done by the head of the farm, and thus
money be saved; there is no time lost in turning, no corners unploughed or half-ploughed, and the land is in the best condition for
after culture.
572
Time
ploughing.
H. M.
4 49
7 16
7 59
8 3 1-2
8 32
Ilorses worked.
.11 -
I 0
1 1
1 1
I I 
THE FARM.
Certain circumstances decide the best way of ploughing; for
instance, on a hill-side all the furrows of each ridge are turned
down hill; but the principle of the detailed plan will apply to all
lands.  The calculations of time etc., in the preceeding tables are
based on ploughing Grass land.
MAlany farmers plough stubble land and sod in opposite ways; but
it seems to me that their practice should be just reversed. The
plough they use in stubble land has a somewhat convex mouldboard, and leaves the furrow-slice on its edge, where it is well exposed to the air and the harrow; but the plough they use in sod
turns it down fiat, the idea being that each sod should just fit into
the place of the last, so as to leave no sign of grass, c, p. 574. No
better method than this last could be devised to consolidate land, and
it is the best for sandy lands or. those where wheat is to grow; but
for the general purposes of agriculture it is bad. Where the sod is
thus inverted, the grass is turned over upon the subsoil, air is shut
out from it, which can be neither ameliorated nor sweetened, and the
sod will only decay after a long time, and the roots of the crop get
nothing from the subsoil till they have penetrated the thick sod.
Plough such sods with a very concave mould-board, which will
roll the sod into a pipe, double it on itself, d, p. 574 or leave it on its
edge. To most lands it is important that the air should get into the
sod to feed the roots, to sweeten the soil, to decompose the turf.
The Michigan plough answers this purpose admirably. It peels
off a thin sod, which it rolls over on itself like a pipe, and then
covers it with a quantity of under soil, in which the seed will be
sown, e, 574.
On p. 574 are diagrams to show the appearance of the ends of
these different furrows, where the sods e, are cut narrow and rolled
upon themselves, whilst they are covered by the loam piled on
them by the stubble plough, which follows on the same beam. As
soon as the harrow runs over the field after this plough, it crumbles
the furrow-slice of subsoil, down over the sod, and leaves plenty of
fine earth in which to plant; whilst the sod is so doubled over as to
be broken at the same time, that it makes a kind of pipe in the soil,
a good opening for the circulation of air and gases, which gradually
crumbles and settles under culture. When the ridge is ploughed
573 
MAY..,
out, the plough should go down the open furrows and back, to lay a
c
11/
~~~                                  <  '~ e
~
new small furrow of subsoil upon the bottom edge of the furrowslice, thus: - *
The furrow slice should be
~< ~ ~ ~?.f-.'x, about 10 inches wide,  and
!';;til'~ \             X/fS7'E'i from 7 to 12 thick; but the
,   thicker it is, and the deeper
I;  ii'p  i~~~/~' ~the plough goes into the soil,
the more  careful we must
be to turn the slice enough to loosen it from the earth, and thoroughly commingle the parts.   Picture to yourself a field well
ploughed, and you see how thoroughly the manure, which was
spread before ploughing began, is turned into the subsoil, when all
* It will be observed that d and e are incorrectly drawn, as they should represent the left instead of the right side of the ridge; and the team would seem
to be walking towards us.
-I  IJ I.                                 -                           -   - X -,-.,                           -.,
574
\          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ il    
THE FARM.
that is unconsumed the first season must wash down into it, out of
the reach of vegetation; and you can see for yourself how beneficially artificial manures come in during a rotation, to supply that
which the crops are in immediate want of, which was in the barnyard manure, but has washed down out of their reach.
Subsoil ploughing is considered by many as the great discovery
of, modern agriculture. And it is easy to see that ploughing the
same soil year after year, to the same depth, with heavy plough
and team, compresses the soil, and makes the subsoil very hard.
Into this the roots can no more make their way than into a ledge
of rocks; they are denied the use of the valuable manure which
has washed into it for years, and thrive only in proportion to the
richness of the surface soil. Though the subsoil be a mine ort
manure, they cannot work, and must spread out on its surface.  It
may be full of water, yet can 
only  delay  vegetation  in  the          X
spring, without nourishing it in 
times of drought.  The wealth,...
which is shut up there, out of the                   ~/ 1   ////  t5H
way of air, etc., becomes its in- 
jury; undecomposed and uncom-  2  lm                      i
bined, what may  be food often
becomes poison; so that when
an adventurous ploughman stirs it a little, and brings some of the
"yellow stuff" to the surface, it hinders, and perhaps even kills
vegetation. Thought has unlocked the treasures of the subsoil,
and shows the enterprising farmer that if he can loosen it up, and
open it to air and moisture, without turning it on top of the good
surface earth, he can ameliorate it and make it available food for
his crops.
The first step is, of course, thorough-drainage; the next, to put
in the subsoil plough, invented to break up the hard pan, and open
and improve the subsoil in just the way I have said is necessary;
so that when the stubble plough runs through next year, it brings
up more earth to the surface, and enriches, without injuring, the
topsoil.  In a word, the subsoil plough runs under ground, like a
mole, loosening the earth, and leaves the other plough to turn up
575 
MAY.
hereafter the earth which it has loosened. In this way the power
is put into the farmer's hands of doubling or vastly increasing his
acreage, of giving his crops 12 inches instead of 6 to feed in, and
the additional 6 inches contain the accumulated food of years; how
the roots descend if an opportunity offers, is shown in the cut.
Some subsoils are the worse for stirring. An open, loose, grav                                  elly, or sandy, leachy subsoil, a
'f<-V~~'           strainer to the surface soil, car             ~   a-~ ffi         rying off rapidly water, and all
e'~  _~ g-    ~      things dissolved in water, should
;.* f  Afar~    be left undisturbed, and rather
:'-"", 5, —                  A ----- —. — compacted than lessened.   Oth              "". *  f      W     ers are overloaded with mineral
iil 1'I' l l  tlI/lI':ijmatter, deleterious to vegetation
':,!?ti,i,,uil,l,;,iilil, pl',II until after their combination with
air and oxygen; and they, like
that before spoken, should be deepened slowly, and not ploughed up
to the surface till the atmosphere has had time to do its work.
To enter farther into these details would be inconsistent with my
plan; they may be found elsewhere discussed in full and by more
competent persons.
The 3d week in May is quite early enough to plant field crops
of Indian  Corn.   Country tradition says, "Plant when  the oak
576 
THE FARM.
leaves are as large as a mouse's ear." After this week there is
rarely a frost severe enough to do harm. The 90 day variety may
be planted as late as the 3d week in June with a good prospect
of success. The seed may often be saved from insects by steeping
it in solutions or pickles of soot, alum, blue vitriol, etc., by rolling
it in tar and afterwards drying it in ashes.
Though any crop may be planted in May, I do not recommend
the planting of Roots before June, or in some cases till July. Their
place in the rotation must decide how liberally it will pay to manure them. I wish to persuade you to adhere rigidly to the rotation; by so doing you give your land the best chance with the least
outlay.  Remember that frequent experience says there is a gain
of 5 bushels of Corn on an acre, where 100 pounds of the best
guano has been sowed with the seed, and that by the use of such
manures there is no fear of exhausting the land.
The benefit of these manures is especially in the early start
which the plants are enabled to make, when the rains are frequent
and the plant is young. Nine-tenths of all the accidents which
happen to crops occur during their infancy, and may be avoided by
careful stimulus at that time.
The special manures being in the form of a dry powder, need
moisture to dissolve them and take them to the roots of the plants,
and should therefore be applied when the rains are abundant. I
have seen Grass crops increased from 1 to 221 tons to the acre, by
the application of 250 pounds of guano in April, when the ground
was first thawing and the frequent rains carried it directly to the
roots of the grass, and I have observed that the increase was not
nearly so great when the same amount was applied in May, after
the Grass had started, and the spring rains were mostly over. But
the person who used it in May, is to this day convinced that guano
is of no value, "at least on his land," not knowing that the mistake
he made was in taking the wrong time to apply it.
Experiments are trials, and  the experiments of the  agriculturist being more than usually uncertain in their issue, because of
the uncontrollable nature of the influences with which he has to
deal, more than common care and thought are required on his part,
that nothing that he can do may be wanting to his success.  He
49                           Z
49
577 
MAY.
cannot rely upon sun or air or rain, so that he must all the more
make sure that what he can do is done with exactness, to make up
as far as may be for the uncertainty of the elements, and yet it is
in agricultural experiments that, as a general rule, the least care
is observed.
To perfect a chemical or mechanical experiment is admitted at
the outset to be a very nice matter, and all the elements are carefully calculated, and the manipulation is put into the hands of an
expert. In agriculture, -on the contrary, men think any one may
try an experiment, and go so far as to send a stupid Irishman to
make the application, and note the results. Nothing is more common than to hear farmers say certain things may do for other people, but not for them; their farms are never benefited by the improved, or new-fangled notion; and this because they are too lazy
to take the necessary pains. I heard not long since, of an old and
quite successful Maine farmer, who, leaning over the fence, observed some men gathering pickles; i.e., small Cucumbers. He
looked on for some time, and then asked how much the crop would
pay. He was told $200 an acre. He looked some time longer,
and then said, " that if it paid $500 an acre, he would not bend
his back all day in picking the'tarnal' things." I might give
numberless instances to prove this point were this the proper
place.
Set the hens, geese, and turkeys, whenever you have eggs
enough, and the fowls show a desire for it. For details, see next
month.
I quote the following as a guide to experimenters and to give
some idea of the value and effect of special manures.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES ON GRASS. By Mr.
Alexander Ross, Land-steward to George Cranstoun, Esq., of Corehouse, Lanarkshire.
"The manures were top-dressed on young Grass for Hay on the
14th of April; the Grass was cut on the 3rd of July, and the Hay
weighed and stacked on the 15th of July. The hay is valued at
$15 per ton. Nature of the soil light brown loam. Exposure,
east.  Elevation about 700 feet above the sea:-"
578 
Application of the special manures.    Effec
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2'.
Substances employed.' ~            ~                0       ~    ~  
t'      et.
Nothing.           cwt. lbs.  $. ct..              $.  t.  cwt.
1 Nothing..3
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~36
2   Peruvian Guano.           1  56    2.20       3.29      3.29     56
3   Peruvian Guano.           1   0  220          2.20 
Animal Charcoal.         2   (.84     1.6     9          63
2   0.84      1.69       ~       6
4   Peruvian Guano.           1   0    2.20       2.20 
Saldanha Bay Guano.   2   0.73      1.49      369      54
5   Saldanha Bay Guano.   4   0.73     3.00      3.00    42
6   Saldanha Bay Guano.   2    0.73     1.49                7
Gypsum.                  4    0.41      1.66    315    47
7 5 Saldanha BayGuano.   2   0.73      1.49    )
1.58
Animal Charcoal.   2   0.84     1.69     3.18      58
8   Animal Charcoal.          3  56.84      2.95      2.95    40
9    Animal Charcoal.         2   0.84      1.69    }
1    Gypsum.               3   0.41      1.24    J293    44   E
8nmlo   Gyapsum.               7   0.41      2.90      2.90    41  1
11   Gypsum.                   4   0.41     1.66
Common Salt.             4   0.32     1 32       2.98    41
12   Coal Ashes.              60   0.04     3.00      3.00    43  3
13   Turf Ashes.              60   0.04     3.00      3.00     40
14   Common Salt.              9   0.32      3.00      3.00    39
15    Tulrf Ashes.            40    0.04     2.00       3.        4 
LiquidManure.          140   0.01      1.15     3.15    54   8
16   Liquid Manure.          300    0.01      2.49      2.49    49  3 
CHAPTER XLIV.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
ON estates which were thoroughly put in order in the fall and
winter, the spring work on the ornamental grounds is very small;
but whoever is laying out a new place should have begun as early
as April, if the frost was out of the ground, and should have decided
before that time all such preliminaries as plans and contracts.
It is no small matter to lay out a country place, be it large or
small; nothing in the range of agriculture, or horticulture, demands
more refinement and culture, more rare and peculiar qualities; yet
there is nothing which every one feels so competent to do. Insinuate that a man does not understand this kind of gardening, and
you lay yourself open to the same retort as if you hinted that he
was not to be trusted with a horse, or managed his children ill;
viz., that you had better mind your own business.  I have known a
great many persons who wished advice about laying out their
grounds, but of the whole number, not 10 per cent ever attributed
their wish to ignorance of the proper method of doing this work.
It was always a press of business, or a natural disinclination for
such occupation, which led them to employ a professional person.
Adroit inquiry will generally show that these persons have bought
and read all the cheaper books on the subjects, have pumped their
neighbors, have tried various experiments, and have at last discovered what was plain to all lookers-on from the first, that they have
neither the knowledge how to lay out their places with taste, nor
the necessary qualities of mind to enable them to receive such
knowledge.
I will not attempt to say which are the most essential of the
qualities that go to make up the perfect landscape gardener. The
man is not to be found who possesses them all.
The true landscape gardener will scarcely think of worldly sue                                                         580 
ORNAMENTAL.
cess, which in this country he can hardly get, but he will be imbued with a love of nature, which compels him to search out and
develop her beauties; the occupation will be bread and meat, and
the money returned for his services will be of value to him only as
a means of enabling him to contirue in the work. He must have
a large share of innate taste, good taste.
I will not pretend to dogmatize on the nature of good taste. As I
understand it, it is the power of perceiving the beautiful wherever
it exists, the love of it, and the wish to reproduce it. The power
of reproducing it may be totally wanting in the man of good taste;
he may be appreciative only, and in no wise executive. But the
true landscape gardener must be both a man of taste, and of executive ability; otherwise, his works will be weak and worthless
in their conclusion, however grand they may be in conception.
I have known the worst blunders to be made by men of acknowledged taste.
Beside taste and executive ability, he must have a practical education, which is the basis of judgment. He must be a good botanist, and must understand not only the species of plants, and the
localities and circumstances in which they thrive best, but also, how
they may be planted and grouped so as to display all their beauties.
He must be a geologist in the general way, understanding the formation of soils and surface, the stratification of rocks, and the principal features of the various transformations the earth has undergone. He must be something of a chemist, for he will be obliged
to use many compounds in his varied work, such as limes, cements,
washes, steeps, etc., the quality of which will depend on their compounder's knowledge and judgment. Above all, he must have a
good engineering education, and be earnestly interested in all kindred studies, and must keep up with all improvements in engineering and mechanics. He is to be the pioneer of all agricultural
improvements; with him it rests to try all new machines, to simplify all agricultural processes, to appeal to and stimulate the love of
agriculture, as a means of developing the beautiful.
He should have a fair knowledge of architecture; enough to tell
him when and how the grounds should be subordinated to the
house; as in the case of a fine house in a small area, in city or
581 
MAY.
town, where architectural ornaments should be so combined with
gardenesque effects that house and grounds may seem but parts of
the same whole. So too, in the country, there should be gradation
in the improvements; those near the house being more architectural
in character, the house being forgotten, and nature borne in mind
more and more as the distance widens. This cannot be done by
one who knows nothing of architectural styles and effects.
And the true landscape gardener must have a genuine sense and
appreciation of fine pictures, must be an artist in this respect,
though he be unable to make a picture or drawing which can bear
criticism.  For his aim must be to show pictures both within and
without the grounds he lays out, to screen or to show objects near
or remote, by judicious planting, to fix attention to favorite spots
by single trees, to secure or preserve beautiful reflections in water.
But though thus much familiarity with engineering, architecture,
and painting is essential to the landscape gardener, no amount of
proficiency and excellence in either of these arts will fit a man for
landscape gardening. Great and glorious though they be, a position
at the very head of them is no guarantee, but rather the opposite,
of success in their sister art. What Michael Angelo said of one is
true of all the arts; they are "jealous mistresses; no man shall be
taken into their intimacy and confidence, shall be blessed with their
smiles and favors, in whose heart they do not reign alone. Each
must be worshipped and wooed faithfully for a lifetime, or she can
never be won. Most worthy are they of all the devotion, the genius,
the patience, study, labor, that have been offered them. These are
the elder arts. But their younger sister is their Peer, and will not
smile on their rejected or inconstant lovers. She too demands devotion, life-long devotion. With whomsoevor she is mistress, the
others will be handmaids, an/ vice versa."
When a painter looks at grounds, he looks for a painter's effects,
and approves or condemns as the picture is good or bad. Were he
to lay out grounds, his constant thought would be to produce pictures on the large scale. Had he miles of country to deal with,
could he move houses, hills, woods, towns, rivers at will, he might
make pictures to his liking. But this he cannot do. The work
must be confined to a few acres; the place is to live in, not to look
582 
ORNAMENTAL.
at. Were the most admired picture criticised on the score of fitness for a home, it might prove a failure. If our grounds are not
well adapted for our use and enjoyment, they are useless to us,
however beautiful they may be. The tree which is all important
to shade a favorite seat or walk, may to the painter's eye be just in
the wrong place, so that he longs to paint it out, and yet in its absence the seat, the walk, the lawn would be naked and desolate.
Still more impossible is it that an engineer should be a first-rate
landscape gardener; his watchwords are regularity, order, method,
precision; he works by formulas, he thinks mathematically; he
rules nature, cuts down a hill to fill a valley, hollows out the bed of
a lake, dams a river. He deals in force, and his pride is that the
forces of nature are under his control.
Of architectural gardening too much may be found here, and in
Europe its effects have been much more disastrous. I need not
enlarge on the artificial and unsatisfactory results which would follow from the extension of the architectural style, which has been
spoken of as so important under some circumstances over a large
estate.
The education of this artist who works in ground, trees, grass,
water- all out-of-door things - is never complete, and always advancing. The Violet, hidden under its leaves, the tuft of Goldenrod, which fringes and rounds a corner, the spot of color among the
green leaves made by the Wild Rose or Sweetbrier, thrust through
the branches of a Cedar, or relieved by a Pine, the Columbine
nodding on the ledge of a rock, the blasted tree, the dash and play
of a mill-race, the mighty waterfall, the snow-laden tree, bending
and struggling with its burden, the sublime and the picturesque, the
ugly, which he is to eschew, the lovely, which he is to reproduce,
are acting on his mind as regularly as the air upon his lungs. He
sees a beauty of color which the artist's eye never notices, because
he must reproduce the near effects, which the other may neglect.
He watches varieties of form as closely as the sculptor; he seizes
improvements in engineering as eagerly as the engineer, for his
success depends much on his observing the maxim, "Ars est celare
artem."
But above all he must be able to appreciate the true home sdirit
583 
MAY.
of the class for whom he may be working. He may as gladly lay
out the grounds of the village carpenter as the estate of a retired
merchant; but his success in either ease must depend on his ability
to enter into and thoroughly appreciate the peculiarities of his employer; he must know them better than the man himself; and whilst
he neither fawns nor flatters, never yields a point which he knows
to be right, he must be able to present his views to his employer
in such a way that he may see them through the artist's eyes, and
follow the artist's ideas as though they were his own.
As the sketch-book of the earnest painter is always in his hand,
so should the mind of the landscape gardener be always open to
new impressions, and his memory should be as retentive as his eye
is quick, that he may have the power to recall the effects he would
reproduce.  And finally, he must be a good draughtsman, to show
his ideas on paper to his employer, before the work is begun.
If such a man could be found, his advice must be liberally paid
for. Years of study and observation have contributed to make
him what he is; and his occupation can be pursued for a portion
of the year only.  When you employ him, you expect him to be
a walking dictionary, an enclyclopwdia, to which you need only
mention a subject to receive all the information you want; and for
this collection of ideas and learning on legs, you must pay a fair
price; enough to support the artist and pay the interest on the outlay with which he bought his knowledge.
And if you decide to employ a man like this, if he can be found,
and to pay him fairly, expect him to be an honest man when he comes
on to your grounds; do not expect him to be in love with what you
love. In all matters, acquaintance is needed to develop appreciation; you have lived on a spot and loved it, association gives it
beauty and value in your eye, and it is well to employ a stranger to
improve it; he will see it as it is, and prescribe for its real wants.
If you have a long, narrow strip of land like a turnpike, he will
know how to disguise its defects, for he will see them at once; and
so in other and more important things.
But you take alarm at the expense of the advice, and the designs of such a man. Remember that it is a work of time and
money to make a beautiful place; that a good landscape gardener
584 
ORNAMENTAL.
has laid out many places, has learned all the short cuts in time and
money, has tried all the new experiments, and is able to set you
on your legs at once, and save your creeping. In such matters
time is money, and you save both by employing a skilful person at
the outset; the $20 you pay him for advising you how to begin,
may, and probably will, save you hundreds before you finish.
And above all, whether your place is large or small, have a plan
of what you propose to do before you begin, that you may know
definitely not only what is to be done, but what it will cost, as you
may within a small per cent, with a good plan and specifications
before you. But never expect your place to look like the plan.
Under no circumstances could you see it from the same point of
view or distance.  The resemblance between the completed work
and the plan must be so great that it will be at once recognized,
but no more.
And if you employ an artist, let his work alone after its completion long enough- for years - to allow it to show what hlie intended. The architect, painter, engineer, leaves his work perfected; it may be seen at once in its beauty or ugliness. The
painter does his work on smooth canvas, with pliable brushes and
easily flowing  oils.  The landscape gardener works with clods of
earth, trees, wheelbarrows, shovels, laborers; and when he has
done his best, he must leave time to finish and smooth his work;
eight, ten, or fifteen years may be required to show what he saw
in his mind when he began. Long before that time, the caprice
of the owner may have pulled to pieces and planted, may have
neglected or altered; Nature may have refused the sun and rain
on which the artist relied; and the most beautiful design may become a sorrow and a mortification to its originator.
Bear in mind all these things; and then before the frost is gone,
as I have said, get a real landscape gardener to examine your
place and direct the summer's work.
If there are any trees to be planted, plant the deciduous between
the 1st and 15th of May; the evergreens between May 15th and
June 6th: Be guided by the new growth; when this is just be
585 
586
ginning or has just begun, and the buds begin to tassel out, it is
the best time to plant.
Prune all trees, evergreens as well as deciduous, but the former
must be thinned as directed in September.
Renew seedbeds in the nursery, and clean up the rows of
young trees. Plough through the rows, and tie up to stakes all
that are bent by snow and wind. Cut back to bud or graft all
budded or grafted trees and plants.
<'
~~% ~
MAY.
SLEEPY HOLLOW. 
CHAPTER LXV.
GREENHOUSE.
UNE.  The greenhouse in June gives but little
X:,pleasure and considerable care.  During the
month  remove out-of-doors all the movable
plants that are not to be retained to flower;
there is no longer danger of frost, as it but
rarely occurs in June.   Sow seeds of plants
for winter.  Repot Gloxinias, etc., for summer.
Repot Euphorbias for winter; prune and repot
Heaths and Epacris; tie, prune, and water Stephanotus, and other
running plants.
The graperies will be attractive through the summer, with their
ripening and growing crops of grapes and fruit, and will, if well
managed, be an honor and pride to the place, while the flowers left
in the houses, though few, as Orchids, Fuchsias, Cape-bulbs, etc.,
will be interesting from rarity and beauty.
Withdraw moisture, as far as it is safe, from all the vines and
permanent plants, while those which are to blossom during the
summer must be abundantly watered. Many of the Orchids which
need the greatest amount of heat will blossom now. As soon as
the flower buds on the Camellias are easily seen, remove them to
shade, and reduce; water permanently.
The sashes should be let down, and raised only in case of a long,
driving storm. Overhaul the houses during the summer, to repair,
sweeten, and restock with plants.
This is the proper time to begin such a conservative pit as I have
described, and also any greenhouse or conservatory. An early beginning gives time to get a stock of plants started, and to have the
work thoroughly done.
Take down and clean out all the pipes, and clean out flues, etc
587 
JUNE.
Soot is a very valuable manure, is highly nitrogenous, and should
be preserved.
Many of the tools will not be used again for some months; an
inventory should be made of them, and they should be cleaned and
put away.
Constant work in the garden now occupies the gardener, and he
should be very careful in attendance on the young stock of plants
which he is to bring forward in the autumn. They should be set
in cool and partially shaded places, and on good drainage, and be
secured against damping off.
The bulbs which have gone out of flower, and whose leaves are
yellow or withered, must be removed from the earth, dried and
wrapped in dry moss, or covered with sand, and laid away in a cool
but dry place, till they are wanted in the autumn; do not put them
where the temperature will fall below the average before given.
Cuttings may be made at any time during the summer, and seeds
should be sown early of such annuals as will be wanted in blossom
in the greenhouse in autumn and early winter.
Bud the hard-wooded plants whenever the bark slips readily from
the wood, and the wood from the eye of the bud.
The treatment of the greenhouses, etc., will be the same throughout the summer, and will require no further mention. 
The conservatory being near the house, will be more subject to
observation than the greenhouse, and will require some care to
keep it attractive. The front perpendicular sashes may be removed,
and a canvas cover hung over the top glass in sunny weather will
convert it into a verandah, or the glass may receive a few coats of
whitewash. In the place of the plants which are removed, bouquets
and baskets of flowers from the garden should be set about on the
shelves, and various floral decorations devised to conceal the barrenness of the place. Indeed, the evergreen plants may as well be
kept here as elsewhere, if the sashes are removed, and they are
well shaded.
I might have entered more in detail into the management of
these houses, but'I think I have said enough to enable any reader
to supply, by his mother wit, all that I have omitted. I hope, at
least, that I have said enough to awaken or strengthen a love for
588 
GREENHOUSE.
the subject, and perhaps to arouse in some a determination to begin
at once some house of the kind. I repeat that I know of no kind
of culture that better rewards the loving patience of him who devotes his time to it;.and no one who can afford the expense, which,
after all, may be very much reduced by judgment and economy,
does well to forego the enjoyment it affords.
The great drawback to the full enjoyment of such houses is, generally, the employment of an ordinary gardener.  Most of the men
who apply for this situation, if competent men, are either dogmatic,
and overbearing, angry if the proprietor or family remove a flower or
plant without permission; or have had but very superficial instruction,
and are by no means fitted by nature or education for the delicate,
careful, thoughtful attention that the work requires. So they freeze
the plants one day, and roast them the next, they drown or they dig
them up, kill them by kindness or neglect, and the whole history
of a greenhouse, in the mind of its owner, is often only a series of
chapters of accidents, resulting from the stupidity or carelessness or
self-will of a succession of ignorant would-be gardeners.
More may be learned of a gardener's character and competency
by previous investigation, than of that of any other servant; and
much of the trouble so common may be avoided by careful and discreet inquiries. But the only way in which the owner can be
secure of good service, is first to make himself thoroughly master
of the work to be done. Then he knows exactly what to require,
and can put his finger at once on any mistake or omission; and the
very fact of the master's being so well informed will of itself be
likely to ensure better service than any other thing. And such a
master can detect directly a man's incompetency, and decide whether
he is worth training or not; if he is, he can train him, if not, dismiss him before he has had time to do much injury by his ignorance.
Therefore, if you cannot spare the time to take care of the greenhouse yourself, which is the way to get from it its utmost pleasure
and benefit, be sure you know how it should be taken care of, if
you would have it well done by others.
After all, beyond the knowledge of the general principles of culture,
the chief requisite in a gardener isjudgment; the power to adapt
50
589 
JUNE.
himself to emergencies, to decide where the neglect of rules is
better than their observance. The mere labor of taking care of a
greenhouse is not great; many a lady has done the chief part of
the work, and women might often be employed in them to great
advantage.
590 
CHAPTER LXVI.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
THE flower-garden in June is more attractive in name than in
reality. It is in fact more meagre than in the month past, or
those to come. The bulbs have nearly gone, and the annuals and
bedding-out plants are not sufficiently advanced to take their place.
Still, a little skilful management will shorten the interval very
much, and many gaps can be filled as soon as made.
Bedding-out plants should be watered for some weeks, every day,
directly on the ball, unless rain is abundant; so too, young annuals.
Remember that it is but little more trouble to enrich'the water a
little, than to give it pure and poor; and the growth of the plants
depends, of course, on the care they receive. I refer rather to pot
plants than annuals. They have been accustomed to find their
nourishment within the narrow limits of a pot, and do not readily
push out roots. You will often find, on taking up the pot plants in
the autumn, that the involved, cork. screw roots which they had in
the pots, have not opened at all in the ground, but only grown more
involved and contorted. It is, therefore, important to open out
the roots before planting, as much as possible, to assist them to
stretch out for their food.
If your flower seeds have not all been planted, lose no time; set
the Dahlias from the hotbeds, Tuberoses, Amaryllis, Gladiolus, etc.
Transplant from the frames all the annuals whose seeds were sown
there, and so far as the season's culture is concerned, have no more
to do with greenhouses and hotbeds. Should the month prove very
dry, water the flower-garden thoroughly, from time to time. Water
copiously, and in the late afternoon; the water will then have time
to soak in.
Remove those bulbs which are to be taken up, as fast as the
leaves dry up.   Fall flowering bulbs, Colchicum, Crocus, etc.,
591 
JUNE.
should be taken up, if not already separated and replanted, as
soon as their leaves are decayed, in order to replant later.
Attend carefully to the edgings of the beds, and eradicate weeds
as soon as they make their appearance. Watch the vines on the
garden or house trellises, every day, and train them frequently, if
you would have them make their best growth. Vines always grow
better and faster when constantly trained than when left straggling,
to be threshed about and broken by the winds. Cut down and tie
up as previously directed, and make neatness and order rule
throughout the garden.
June is the month of roses, and we may now enjoy a profusion
of the most beautiful flower that nature affords. No cottager in
the country is so poor as not to have a rose-bush, and in our older
settled country we often see roses blossoming along the stone walls
and hedgerows in great abundance, which may be recognized at
once as former inhabitants of the garden.
We do not see such large general collections of Roses now, as a
few years since, owing, I think, to the rose-bug and green slug,
more than to any thing else.
It is very discouraging to see one's Roses when in full luxuriance
of leaf and flower growing brown and sere, and looking as if they
had been burned by fire, and still more so to find the centre of our
Damask and Mloss Roses, instead of being the seat of fragrance
and beauty, full of disgusting bugs; and yet, we all suffer alike
from them. If there were no way of restraining them, we might
abandon the culture of the Rose in despair, for the fleeting beauty
of the blossoms illy compensates us for the red and withered bushes
left by the insects after the flowers are gone.
But we do seem able to check insects if we take care enough.
Great vigilance is needed to insure success, but success well repays
all trouble.
The first insect which attacks the foliage is a green fly, much
like the vine fretter, and comes about the last of May, or the first
of June.  Its ravages, however, are not alarming, and the fly may
be driven off by showering the bushes with dry lime and lime-water.
But the slug of the saw-fly is the great enemy.  The egg is laid
in MIay, and hatches by the last of the month. They confine them
592 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
selves to the under side of the leaves, and eat off thd outside, so that
the circulation is destroyed; it is this which gives the red and
burned appearance to the foliage.
For a long time these slugs baffled all efforts to destroy them,
until it was discovered by Mr. Haggerston, of Watertown, Mass.,
that syl-inging the bushes thoroughly with weak solutions of whlale
oil soap would destroy the larva, and drive away the fly.  The solution may be made as strong as can be used without injury to the
young foliage. A pound of the soap to 4 gallons of water is a strong
solution; to ascertain how strong it is safe to use it, dip a few halfgrown, tender leaves into it, and observe the effect. The stronger
the solution, within the bounds of safety, the greater the benefit.
Shower the suds over and under the bushes from a syringe with
a fine rose, so as to give a powerful and yet well-divided shower.
After twelve hours, repeat the operation with clear cold water, and
again with the suds, after an interval of two days. This process
performed three times, will banish the slugs and save the bushes
for the season; and if the practice is followed up for three successive years, worms and flies will be driven from the garden, unless
it is surrounded by other gardens not so protected.
The showering should begin in May, when the little fly first
makes its appearance, to discourage the laying of eggs.  As  the
smell of the soap is very offensive, it should be applied for the last
time not less than a week before the flower-buds expand, that they
may be untainted when they unfold.  Select for putting on the
soap, a dry time, with promise of fair weather; if rain follows
within twelve hours, the benefit of the soap is diminished.
Whale-oil soap is equally effective with all kinds of slugs, canker worms, etc., if well applied.
The next nuisance is the rose-bug, which appears after the Rose
is developed, and feeds upon its petals. These bugs are so hard,
and covered with such horny shells, that showering does not affect
them. But with care they may be subdued.
In the first place, use toads; they eat the rose-bugs with avidity,
and if the bushes are shaken, a great many bugs will fall off and
be snapped up at once by their waiting mouths. The proprietQr of
50 
593 
JUNE.
a fine garden could well afford to pay $20 a hundred for toads, as
they are gluttonous consumers of worms and flies of all kinds.
A more certain method is to take a basin of boiling water, and
go over the bushes, picking off every bug and dropping it into the
water; this is a good deal of trouble, but it is effectual.
The later blossoming Roses, and the second blossoms of the perpetuals, escape all these nuisances, which are gone by July.
Showering the bushes with strong decoctions of quassia drives
away and kills slugs and flies, without any bad smell. Use 1 ounce
of chips quassia to a quart of water. 1 quart of gas liquor to 10
of water, showered over the plants in the same way, is effectual
against aphides and other insects.
Aphides are but little annoyance out of doors. Smoking has
been described in the winter months as a remedy against insects.
Sprinkling with fine Scotch snuff often kills small insects.
In confined situations, mildew is very apt to attack the Rose, and
injure its foliage.  Syringing with sulphur and water, or nitre and
water, is good for prevention or cure; or flour of sulphur may be
dusted over the bushes from a sulphureter.
A species of red fungus sometimes attacks the plants in late
summer, which may be rubbed off by hand.
When a Rose thrusts out a bunch of leaves from the middle of
a bud or blossom, it indicates too much strong manure at the roots,
and the supplies should be withdrawn for a time.
It is generally supposed that Roses may be grown by any one
in any soil, and indeed, the poorer kinds do not seem very fastidi ous, but the really fine ones are shy and dainty, and unless well
cared for never thrive. They will not grow well in poor soil, nor
on lawns choked up with Grass; and although all thrive best when
fed with abundant moisture and liquid manure, most of them are
particularly averse to wet situations.
The number of varieties is very great; some European culti vators having had at one time 30,000; but of this vast number but
very few are worthy general culture.
There are several large families with well-marked peculiarities,
needing different culture and giving very different returns for
kindness.
594 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
The method of propagation to preserve varieties is by layers,
cuttings, and budding, the latter being the quickest way on a large
scale. Seeds have been the original source of nearly all the vari eties. Cuttings are readily made to grow, of almost all kinds, par ticularly when taken off with a heel of the old wood.
Many varieties of soil and manure have a remarkably powerful
effect on the Rose. Charred turf from old pastures seems to have
wonderful virtue, inducing the roots to send out new fibres at once,
and consequently producing new and enlarged growth. Guano, as
a liquid manure, is also very beneficial, while soapsuds from the
house washings has an excellent effect, especially on the strong, growing varieties.
June Roses are familiar to every one, and having once blos somed they are soon gone. If your means and opportunities con fine you to Roses of this class, have them by all means, but get
better as soon as you can. By better, I do not mean better blos somns, fbr what is better than the old Damask, the Red Moss, the
White, or the Hundred-leaf? They are unsurpassed in color and
fragrance. But I mean better varieties, which, though they may
bear no flowers equal to June Roses in perfection, bear their own
several times in the course of the season.
Before describing the improved Roses, I wish to draw your attention to our wild Roses, and the Sweetbrier. I do not know
whether any efforts have been made to improve this class of Roses,
and doubt very much whether their especial merits could be improved upon.
They are single, mostly rather low growing, and with small
leaves. But they are perfectly hardy, accommodating themselves
to all soils, and growing freely among other bushes, or in the
Grass; are very fragrant, and their blossoms are succeeded by
red hips, or seed vessels, which contribute much towards the enlivenment of the shrubbery during the winter. A bank of these
Roses has often seemed to me more beautiful than any garden
collection.
Garden Roses need careful culture, and should generally be
grown singly to insure perfection, whilst the effect of the Wild
Rose is increased by numbers. To fill a bend in a path or road,
595 
JUNE.
to skirt a plantation or fringe a pond, they are as beautiful as any
thing. For the latter purpose, the Carolina is the proper variety.
It is a late and strong growing plant, with large, dark green foliage,
perfectly hardy, and very fragrant; it has an abundance'of flowers,
produced in clusters of three, or more, and it continues in blossom
for several weeks. It will thrive beside a pond, on an island, in a
brook, or along a springy bank, and I class it in the first rank of
shrubs.
The R. blanda, the nitida, and lucida, are lower-growing, blossom very early, do well in poor, sandy, or gravelly, dry soil, and are
as beautiful in color of flower as the Carolina, but inferior in color
of foliage and fragrance.
The Sweetbrier, everybody knows. Its delicate pink and white
petals, constrasting with its rich, dark-colored and fragrant leaves,
have long made it a universal favorite. It differs materially from
the Eglantine, or Sweetbrier Rose of England.
Our Sweetbrier is second to no other plant or shrub, for its many
virtues.  It is properly a wall, or pillar Rose; it throws up long
shoots, often 20 feet in a single season, and soon covers a trellis,
but, like all other running Roses, dies down in a mysterious and
rapid mannier. It is a capital stock on which to bud other Roses,
its strong and hardy habit giving increased strength and hardihood
to the bud.  When planted on a trellis it should be trained with
care, and some of its shoots may be budded to produce variety;
the same plant may have half a dozen different varieties upon it,
and some of its own also. It is very much nourished by soapsuds
or guano water.
The Michigan, or Prairie Rose, is found wild only at the west,
but has been extensively introduced here as a climber; it blossoms
profusely late in the season, and has an especial value from coming
in after the other running Roses have gone, but it has no fragrance.
From its seeds the improved Prairie has been derived.
The Cherokee Rose, of the south, is the most magnificent of our
American Wild Roses.  It grows strongff and flowers profusely. So
strong, indeed, is-its habit of growth, that it is used at the south for
hedges and fences, for which purpose it is unrivalled, as it cannot
be penetrated even by a hog. It seems to be too tender for our
596 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
latitude, although when sufficiently experimented on, I do not doubt
that some seedlings, or hybrids, will be found which will combine
all its virtues, and be hardy besides.
With these Roses, our list of American Roses may close. There
are some hybrids besides, which are more properly garden Roses.
In Plymouth County, Mass., there is to be seen along the road
sides and old walls, a very large, semi-double, crimson Rose, which
seems almost naturalized, but it undoubtedly escaped from some
gardens at first, and is not of sufficient value to induce any general
culture.
The Cinnamon Rose, R. cinnamomea, has all the qualities of a wild
Rose; comes early, grows anywhere, defies Grass, thrives in gravel,
and, if let alone, will make a thicket full of flowers in June, but
the flower, apart from its fragrance, has no attractions.
I would urge strongly the use of these native Roses in the making of new plantations and shubberies, for the reasons already
given. Our planters and gardeners, hitherto, have been too apt to
consider all wild flowers as worthless, and have left them to their
native woods; but as a better appreciation of these plants prevails,
they will be sure to receive more attention. The wild Rose has a
value that the garden Rose cannot have, for the latter can never
bear neglect. The Rose is as much the queen of flowers in her
exaction of attention thus, as in every other respect. Neglect kills
her, and to thrive well she requires to be appreciated, praised, and
cultivated, and then when duly worshipped, her gracious bounties
are lavishly bestowed.
June Roses, so called, are not, in my estimation, equal to our wild
Roses, which so readily and abundantly hang out their treasures by
the wayside, for man or nature, as either is ready to enjoy. The
June Rose blossoms once, and then in perfection only if well cared
for, and then is gone for a year, while there are Roses which, with
the same amount of care, will blossom several times in the season,
or even every month.  There is something very fascinating in the
constant succession of buds and blossoms, always offering some new
beauty to our admiration.
The following remarks upon the Rose, and those on the same
subject in July, are condensed in great measure from Paul's Rose
597 
JUNE.
Garden, and from McIntosh's Book of the Garden, but my own ob.
servations are so interwoven as to make it impossible to use quotation marks in all cases.
Besides the Natives, Roses are divided into several classes; the
Bourbon China, Noisette, Ayreshire, Scotch, Perpetual, or Remontant, Tea, Banksia, Austrian Brier, Provence, or Cabbage, Evergreen, etc. Each of these classes has its own peculiar merits;
some individuals of each class are nearly, or quite hardy, and some
of each are very tender and can be cultivated only under glass.
The countries in which Roses naturally arrive at the greatest
perfection, are all warm and dry, as Italy, Turkey, Syria, India,
and our Southern States; and in order to attain such perfection in
our colder regions, we must imitate those climates in houses built
for the purpose.
It seems strange that no large collection of Roses under glass has
been made in America, for the Rose has a large number of admirers, and is as worthy of a special house as the Orchid or Camellia.
The full beauty of the Rose can only be understood when many
individuals are collected together and in blossom, at the same time
where the effect of each may be heightened by massing and contrast.
Even in out-of-door collections, the gain over the usual practice
would be very great, if a larger number of bushes were collected
in one place, the sizes being carefully arranged.
The Provence or Cabbage Rose has many varieties, and has
given origin to many beautiful Hybrids. The Unique Provence is
very beautiful, sometimes white, sometimes striped.   These are
June Roses, may be propagated by seed and cuttings, but make
few layers, are almost universally hardy, are free growers, but do
not usually attain a very great size; they should be pruned in the
autumn, as the wood is then pretty well ripened, and by pruning
them the sap is induced to settle into the remaining buds, thus improving them and inducing a better bloom the next year.
1Disbudding is found as advantageous with the Rose as with fruit
trees, and is to be practised as much as possible. The Provence
Roses should be cut down to 3 or 4 eyes, according to their strength,
after the removal of all malformed and superfluous shoots.
The Hybrid Provence tend to form dense heads, and should be
598 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
thinned out to about one-third the number of shoots, and those left
must be shortened to 6 or 8 eyes. No apprehension need be felt
that this autumn pruning will start the buds of either the Provence,
Moss, Damask, or Alba Roses, in case of mild weather in winter;
this is only to be feared with the tender or half-hardy varieties.
The Moss Rose springs probably from the Provence, and has
many beautiful varieties. The old Red Moss is generally the most
esteemed for beauty and thickness of flower as well as mossiness.
They must be treated like the last. The best varieties are the Old
Red, Crested, Princess Adelaide, White, Unique de Provence, and
Perpetual.
They differ very much in constitution, some being very delicate,
others hardy, some loving a poor, others a rich soil, but like the
Provence they need high culture to bring out their best powers.
The Miniature Moss is a pretty and delicate little Rose.
The French Rose, or Rosa Gallica, is the largest class of summer
or June Roses; these are hardy and robust, and afford fine plants for
standards and for large specimens; among them are many splendid
varieties, and if they were not single bloomers, they would certainly
stand first in Rose culture. By pruning some of the June Roses
in October, and leaving others till May, a regular succession of
blossoms may be obtained. By pruning in this way, from month to
month, the time of blossoming may be materially altered.
Some gardeners delay pruning their French Roses until they
show flower-buds, and then prune severely, by which means they
not only remove the flowers about to come, but induce the plants
to throw up new strong shoots, which blossom in the fall. I do not
altogether believe in this practice; for although it sometimes proves
successful, it is by no means certain, as the plant often contents
itself with making a new growth, not accompanied by flowers. It
is in this class that we find the best variegated Roses.
Among the Hybrid Provence Roses are many well adapted to
pole or pillar culture; they are easy of culture, and require to be
moderately pruned.
"The Hybrid China Roses are a cross between the Bourbon,
China, and tea-scented Noisette, crossed with the French Provence,
and other summer Roses. This class of Roses illustrates a very
599 
JUNE.
curious principle; that impregnating the Bourbon, China, Noisette,
or Bengal Roses, all free summer and autumnal bloomers, upon the
summer Roses, Provence, or Gallica, takles away all perpetual or
remontant habit, and leaves them only summer bloomers."
"The Hybrid China are very vigorous growers, and are often
used to advantage as pillar Roses. When grown as standards, they
should be trained down to check luxuriance of foliage, and induce
flowers. They should, in pruning, have some shoots left long, and
others entirely cut out. The strongest growers should be cut away
at least one-third, the weaker, one-half, and be thinned out. Such
Hybrid Chinas as are used for pillars should have three canes left,
which should be allowed to grow without stopping; the spurs from
them will give an abundance of flowers for some years; when they
show age or weakness, cut down and replace by new shoots.  Disbud through the summer, and prune in the autumn."
Mlost of this class bear our winters without covering, but are
benefited by pruning down and covering with litter or straw.
"The Hybrid Bourbons are derived from the Bourbon, and are
similar to the Hybrid China in vigor of growth and abundance of
flowers (with more substance in both flower and foliage), but require closer pruning; otherwise they should have much the same
treatment with the Hybrid China." They are mostly hardy with
us, but improved by coverings of straw and litter.
The White Rose, as a family, is better known in New England
than most of the other Roses. They are not all white, some having
a delicate pink or blush on their petals. I have seen the most
superb of White Roses as far north as Norridgewock, Maine, some
bushes being 10 feet high, and white with flowers. They are all
distinguished by the glaucous foliage, by being nearly thornless,
hardy, and for the most part of moderate growth; they should be
closely pruned in November, but if pruned in spring will blossom
rather later in the summer.
"The Damask Rose is a free grower, does not require close pruning, is light red in color."  It is the Rose from which, in Asia, the
largest quantity of rose water is made, has always been a favorite,
and is well adapted for general culture, being quite hardy. Prune
in November; blossoms in summer.
600 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
It is from this rose in some of its older varieties, that all the
favorite Perpetuals have originated.   They have thick leathery
foliage, and thorny shoots; are propagated by seed, offsets, cuttings, or layers.
The Scotch Roses are well known, and are always favorites;
they grow almost as readily as our wild roses, and may be used
with excellent effect in the formation of shrubberies. When once
planted they need little pruning or attention for many years, as they
sucker freely, and keep themselves well replaced. There are a
great many varieties, although they do not differ much in color,
being generally some shade of white and pink.  The Yellow Harrison is sometimes called Scotch, but is, undoubtedly, derived from
the Austrian Brier.
One of the most beautiful rose-beds I have ever seen, was made
from a large number of Scotch Roses planted in a bed shaped like
a cross. The Roses and their offsets soon filled the bed, and spread
on all sides, sloping from the highest old plants in the middle down
to the grass. The effect when in blossom was a large quatrefoil,
and could hardly have been excelled in beauty.
They may be planted with good effect along the sides of an
avenue, in its bends, or on the edge of a plantation of other shrubs
or Roses. The foliage is not so liable to be destroyed by insects
as that of other Roses; the fragrance is exquisite and they are
perfectly hardy.
The American Sweetbrier, I have already mentioned. The
English Sweetbrier, "R. Rubiginosa, is a beautiful Rose in its
original condition, and there are many improved varieties. The
Splendid, less fragrant, but with large crimson flowers. The Rose
Angle, very double, bright rose-colored flowers; the Celestial, very
double and fragrant; the Carmine, semi-double red flowers."
The Austrian Brier is the source of many very beautiful hybrids.
The whole family and its hybrids are very impatient of all smoke
and foul air, and rarely thrive well in cities or large towns. The
Persian Yellow is the best hardy Yellow Rose, but is weakly in
habit. These Roses all require rather poor, moist soil, and moderate pruning.
51
601. 
JUNE.
"The  Sulphur Rose, R. Sulphurea, is of this family, and is a
magnificent Rose, but is blossomed with the greatest difficulty in the
open ground, and can be best brought to perfection under glass. It
should be budded into strong growing stocks like the Dog Rose, R.
Mannetti, or the American Sweetbrier."
"The Boursault Rose is well known amongst us, and is the commonest of all our climbers or pillar Roses; there are several varieties, varying from red to pink; one, Elegans, being red with white
stripes." These Roses are peculiar for their reddish, thornless
wood, and dark reddish foliage; they are very easy to grow, and
for covering arbors, festooning along chains, climbing walls, are
second to none.
I have already mentioned the American Prairie Rose, R. Setigera. The original Michigan has been hybridized and developed,
until from being a late-blooming single, it has become an earlyblooming, very double Rose. The Queen of the Prairie is the
most double of all the wall Roses. In spite of its profusion of
very double flowers, and its very rapid growth, I do not like it so
well as many other wall Roses. The Baltimore Belle, Milledgeville, Superba, Mrs. Hovey, Eva Corinne, are better in color than
the Queen of the Prairie, and the King of the Prairie has the superior merit of being very friagrant.
These Roses should be trained to three shoots and allowed to
grow their whole length; the long shoots will throw out spurs well
filled with flowers. As the shoots show signs of age, cut down in
spring, and induce new growth to replace them.  Prune in November. Mrs. Hovey is rather more tender than the others, and
should be covered with straw.
R. multiflora is a very charming family of pillar Roses, but
tender; with care, a dry soil, hot manures and protection in the
winter, it may be blossomed out of doors, but they are more properly in this latitude greenhouse Roses. Laura Davoust, R. grevilla, and R. multiflora are the usual representatives of this family;
they require but little pruning.
"Banksia Roses are natives of China, very fast growing, but
too tender for out-of-door culture; they are admirable for the
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FLOWER-GARDEN.
walls and pillars of the conservatory. They require a rather dry
soil, and but moderate pruning; the short branches bearing the
flowers.
"In our more Southern States, and even in the Northern States,
if grown on walls and taken down and covered in the winter, these
Roses might be got into good flower, but could not be much  depended on. They make many strong shoots from the roots which
are to be removed every autumn unless there is need of new canes
to replace the old ones."
The family of Hybrid Climbing Roses vary in their source.
Laura Davoust and Russelliana are from the Multiflora; Garland
and M'me D'arblay are firom the Musk; Sir John Seabright from
some Italian Rose.
"The Evergreen Roses are found to thrive well in France, England, and Scotland, and it would seem that they might come into
general culture in this country, as they will undoubtedly thrive, if
well protected during the winter, and grow in a dry, warm soil.
They give clusters of from 10 to 50 blossoms at a time, and from
their trailing character are used as creeping Roses. The shoots
should be grown to their full length, and allowed to flower from
spurs as long as they will, and then be replaced. They should
be well thinned out at pruning, and some of the shoots should be
shortened back; the latter will blossom later in the season than
the former."
"The Ayrshire Rose is but little known among us, which is
much to be regretted; for although they are not a large family,
they are very beautiful, and would be a great acquisition for wall
and pillar culture; they also make good weepers and trailers.
Their origin is a mystery, but they are supposed to be derived
from some of the trailing Roses of the wood and are hardy."
Trailing and weeping Roses are not often enough used in our
planting. Beautiful effects may be produced by setting in the
centre of the bed a strong-growing standard Rose, like Pio Nono,
which will make a good upright growth, and yet is well furnished
with pendant side branches. Next to the standard, all round, set
several pendulous Roses; round these, again, Hybrid China, or
Bourbon; then Mloss, and edge with Scotch. Instead of Pio
603 
JUNE.
Nono, which is a perpetual, while the others are summer Roses,
may be used some standard, Hybrid Bourbon, or China.
That the Ayrshire will answer in our latitude with slight protection, I am certain; for I have seen the R. Ruga and Dundee
Rambler for several years doing well on a north-east exposure,
without winter covering, and they were rarely cut down by the
frost more than two-thirds their length.
The Roses I have described thus far are all summer Roses, and,
as I have said, are well deserving of especial attention and culture,
but are not equal in real value to those which may be properly
called Remontants, which blossom two or three times a year.
The China and Bengal Roses are monthlies, but are all tender,
or not more than half hardy. The latter, as well as the Teascented, are usually found in greenhouses, and are the main dependence for flowers in the winter, and are very desirable, but not
to be compared to the hybrid perpetuals, or summer. They are
rarely more than semi-double when open, and although delicate in
color, and of good fragrance, are possessed of Rose qualities in but
a moderate degree.
Much objection has been made to the so-called perpetuals, because they blossom only two or three times, instead of monthly,
and are rather short lived. The first of these objections seems to
me to have but little weight, as certainly two blossomings are just
so much better than only one. The second, that of their short
lives, may be done away with. They are usually budded into
other stocks, to get hardihood and size, and to increase the number
in proportion to the demand.
A budded Rose may be known on the slightest inspection. The
lower part of the stem is at a different angle from the middle, and
at the point where the angle is made a cicatrice is plainly visible,
showing the mark of the incision for the bud.
The Rose is affected by its stock, as a fruit
tree, only in vigor of growth and hardihood,
and in the latter respect the influence is not
very great.
The Rose stem is full of latent buds down
to the very roots, and as a little attention will
show, it is inclined to sucker, or throw out sub
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FLOWER-GARDEN.
terranean branches, which struggle through the earth to a greater
or less distance, and then come up to the surface, making each a
new bush. The stock prefers to develop its own buds on these
suckers rather than to nourish the bud or graft; and as many of them
are made under ground, it is quite difficult to detect them; but if
the stock does develop any of its own buds or suckers, it will send
all its sap to them, and the budded Rose must die. To prevent
this, the plant must be narrowly watched, and every bud cut off as'
.oon as it appears; and occasionally the earth must be removed, the
iroots examined, and any detected suckers destroyed.
This trouble may be qualified in the following manner: Set the
budded Rose into the earth so deep as to fully cover the junction
of the bud with the stock, and score the budded portion a little.
If it is strong enough to allow it, tongue it as for layering, and put
a stone or piece of wood in to keep the cleft open. In time, the
budded Rose will send roots out into the earth, and support itself
quite independently of the stock. Some of the choice varieties,
however, are very much disinclined to root when budded, and by
thus rooting lose any benefit which might have been derived from
the stock.
The second source of loss is a difference in hardihood between
the bud and the stock, the latter being either more or less hardy
than the former. In either case, a severe winter will sometimes
kill the one and not the other.
It generally happens that the stock is the most hardy, and it is
therefore prudent where there is any room for doubt, to cover the
plant with straw, etc., below the junction of stock and bud. A
prudent gardener will protect himself against reverses by having
cuttings of his budded Roses in case of accident, for although some
of them may not be as fine on their own roots as when more amply
supplied with sap, yet the difference is slight, and scarcely perceptible to the uncritical eye, and after all, "a live dog is better than
a dead lion."
The Hybrid Perpetuals are more troublesome in another way;
they have to be pruned at least twice in the season. All Roses
blossom from the new growth only, and after blossoming the bush
must be cut back, to stimulate a new growth.
51*
605 
JUNE.
"This invaluable family has been got by crossing the H. China
with different varieties of China and Bourbon Roses, until a great
variety have been obtained.
"Among this great variety, some are much more hardy than
others, and those which are best adapted to different latitudes are to
be ascertained only by actual trial. Being difficult to root when
layered, is, no doubt, one reason for their being so often on other
stocks than their own; but on their own stock they thrive better
on poor soils than when worked."
I think, on the contrary, that it is useless to hope much from
Hybrid Perpetuals in poor soils, under any circumstances.
To insure a good second blooming, the plants must be well watered and manured; but, though needing plenty of water, Roses
dislike a wet soil, that is, one in which water stagnates.
Liquid manure is particularly grateful to Roses, and no better
use can be made of soapsuds than to water them with it.
"Damask Perpetuals are a very beautifill class; they make thick,
close heads, their flowers are abundant and fragrant; they are
equally good for garden, or pot culture. Disbudding and pinching
off the young growth may be substituted for after pruning to some
extent."
"Perpetual Scotch Roses are a hybrid between the Scotch and
the Damask Perpetual. They come into blossom in June, and continue till frost."
"The Bourbon Roses as a class, are perpetual, and are all worthy
of cultivation, some more so than others. They seed freely, and
are, therefore, good for further experiments. They do not form so
good heads as some of the other Perpetuals, and, therefore, should
not be budded high to form standards; they do well on their own
stocks, but make rather better plants when budded; their profusion of bloom and long continuance, especially recommend
them."
The Perpetual Moss is a small group, and yet, a delicate one;
the bud is the charm of the plant, and, if we could have them in
October or November, they would give as much pleasure as the
greenhouse in January. Like the common Moss, they require a
606 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
rich, deep soil, and thorough pruning. Perpetual Maguet is the
best; Perpetual White and General Davoust are bad growers, and
uncertain in time of flowering."
"The Musk Rose is common in all mild climates, but must
have a mild and humid atmosphere; it succeeds well as a wall or
pillar Rose, and is the oldest of the Perpetuals. Its great charm
is that it blossoms rather late in the season, and thus comes in between the earlier and later Roses.  It blossoms in quite large clusters, and the flowers have a musk  fragrance."  It should be covered in winter, and should have a good deal of attention; our
summers are rather hot and dry for it.
The China and Tea Roses, as I have said, are the stock greenhouse Roses, blossoming monthly; they may be removed into the
garden in the spring, and will blossom all summer profusely,
when they may be removed to the house, or left where they stand,
either protected or abandoned.   The roots rarely die if they are
covered, and although nearly the whole top will winter-kill, the
roots, if not dead, begin to grow very early in the season, and do
well all summer. Cut as freely as you choose when in blossom, as
this induces a more abundant growth. It will be observed that in
this class those Roses which, like Safrano and Yellow Tea, are pillar Roses, and large growers, do not get to be any thing beyond
shrubs in the open ground. There is not time for them to grow to
perfection, and yet, when single plants are set out early, they will
blossom profusely till frozen, and the Safrano will live with slight
covering through the winter.
I think the Safrano the queen of Tea Roses. It has not the long,
greyhound-shaped buds of the Yellow Tea, the brilliancy of the
Cloth of Gold, the yellow of the Solfaterre; nor the strongest tea
fragrance, but its rich-colored wood and ruddy foliage, its splendid
color, comparable only to the orange tints of the most glowing sunset, and its profuse bloom, ought to make it indispensable in every
collection, however small. When budded on a strong stock, like
the Sweetbrier, it gets a much stronger habit of growth, and both
buds and Roses increase very much in size. I have often seen
them as large as the Cloth of Gold.
"The Macartney is from China, and does well under glass, or
607 
JUNE
during the summer in the border. It may be trained as a wall
Rose in the greenhouse. The old Macartney is not equal to the
Mlaria Leonida."
"The Minature Rose (R. Lawrenciana) seems to be a small va riety of the China, and is best adapted to pot or border culture.
They prefer a light, dry soil, and a warm situation."
"The Noisette Roses are in some respects, the finest of this class;
they are nearly all for the wall and pillar, and are generally too
tender to do well out of doors, but are the main reliance for the
conservatory and greenhouse. The original Noisette is an Ameri can, and seems to be a hybrid of the MAlusk and China."
The originals were quite hardy, although needing in our lati tude, some slight protection during the winter; but the more nearly
they have approached the China parent, and the more richly they
are perfumed with the tea fragrance, the more tender they have be come, and the less of the Noisette appears in the clustering buds
and blossoms.
The pruning of this class differs with the individual; some being
of a long and straggling growth, others short and compact.  They
are free bloomers, and mature seed readily. All flowers should be
removed from those inclining to fruit, as soon as withered, as a
single bunch of seed weakens the plant more than many blossoms.
Such of thle Noisettes as are of compact and dwarf habit, may,
like other half-hardy kinds, be cut down in the autumn, and cov ered with litter for the winter.
We have now gone through the list of the Rose families, making
but little reference to the varieties, which will be considered again
before leaving the subject.
I have endeavored to inform you with regard to the specific dif ferences, and the sources of varieties, in order to enable you to
decide upon the treatment to be adopted towards such plants as you
possess. It would only be confusion, if I were, in October and
November, to run over a list of names, and tell you to cover this,
cut down that, and neglect others. I have here explained what
kinds must be covered, what may be, and what need not be, and
when the time comes you will act accordingly.
These general divisions of species will be a great assistance also
608 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
in buying; bearing them in mind, you can pass steadily and without distraction through the bewildering lists of names, put into
your hands to choose from at the nursery or at the trade-sale.
One general fact in the treatment of Roses you have plainly inferred from these directions; viz., that they should be collected in
family groups, which should be kept separate as far as possible;
not only for convenience in giving them similar treatment, exposure, soil, pruning, etc., but in comparing individuals, and retaining
or rejecting them, according to their merits. It would be beautiful
to have a Rose garden arranged with a bed for each family the
size of each bed corresponding to that of the family.  Such a
garden would be a source of great advantage and satisfaction. I will
hereafter give a few designs for such gardens.
The variety of forms that Roses assume when grown according
to their nature and inclination, is very great, and it is not easy to describe or conceive their beauty when allowed to grow in that way.
We  are accustomed to think of them  as
shrubs, or, at the most, low standards; but
when we have such plants as those, we are
lost in astonishment and delight.  The pillar
Rose is grown, as will be hereafter described,
around a cedar post; these posts may stand 
in the open lawn, or along the sides of the
walks in the Rosary, or they may be used at.
the corners of the house, or wherever fancy 5may dictate; they cannot be out of place, 
and they are beautiful in any position. Quite 
tender Roses may be grown thus, as they can  I
be taken down in the fall and covered.  By 
pillar Roses are meant the strong-growing,
vigorous kinds.
Climbing Roses are of a strong but pendulous growth, and are used very effectively for walls, arbors, and
chains. The latter method is rarely used in America, but if once
introduced, could not fail to be admired and imitated.  The Roses
are grown up to a series of posts, enclosing the garden. Two or
three shoots, not more, are allowed to grow to the top of the posts.
609 
JUNE.
When the post is well furnished in the spring, chains are stretched
from post to post, and allowed to take their
natural curve, and the next season shoots are
trained along the chains.   By  a judicious
course of disbudding and cutting back, the
chains in a single season become entirely en                   wrapt.  The next season they form festoons of
flowers from post to post.
In attempting to give lists of those Roses
best adapted to our climate and purposes, I
find myself met by various difficulties.  In the
first place we are sadly in want of reliable
data, as to what varieties will flourish best
Standard Rose.    here; different towns and localities suit Roses
very differently, and when the most careful precautions are taken,
each person must try for himself, and must expect many disappointments. Yet every one complains of such lists as those I am
about to give, that they are too general and indefinite, and do not
give sufficiently minute directions to enable the reader to decide
beyond a doubt as to a proper choice.
But even if it were possible, which it is not, to give such a list
and such directions as should infallibly meet the wants of each
reader, another difficulty arises the moment he presents himself, list
in hand, at a nursery or at a trade-sale. The nursery man is very
sorry, but though your names are all down on his printed catalogue, he unfortunately has not just now all that you require. He
is just out, or has ordered, or will order, or those that he has not,
are, he is sure, too tender or too shy to answer your purpose; here
are others that would be a great deal better.
At a trade-sale you are even worse off, for if you find what you
want, the chance is, ten to one, that it is in a bundle with half a dozen
things that you do not want, and you must either lose the one or
take the whole.  I have myself seen at such sales a bundle made
up of Pio Nono, La Reine, La Marque, and Souvenir de la Malmaison, the first two hardy, the last tender, and the third so delicate
that it will live in a gardeni only by great care and attention during
cold weather.
,610 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
I shall, however, give you several lists of Roses, the best of their
kind, describing the families and degree of hardihood, and their
peculiarities, as far as my space will allow.
The first are Downing's lists; the second, those of McIntosh
given for Scotland; and though our climate is more severe. than
that of Scotland, they will thrive with us with such limitations as I
have added.
DOZEN  BOURBON  ROSES.
pale flesh color.
purplish crimson.
deep rosep
delicate fawn color.
changeable carmine.
white.
REMONTANTS OR PERPETUALS.
deep rose color, very large.
pale rose.
light crimson.
brilliant crimson.
fine deep pink.
dark crimson.
HALF A I
* Souvenir de Malmaison,
Paul Joseph,
Hermosa,
Queen,
Dupetit Thonars,
Acidalie,
L         a Reine,
Duchess of Sutherland,
Crimson Perpetual,
Aubernon,
Lady Alice Peel,
Madam Dameme,
These would most of them stand our winters, but would be none
the worse for a light covering.
HALF A DOZEN CHINA ROSES.
Mrs. Bosanquet,                        pale flesh color.
M'me Breon,                            rose.
Eugene Beauharnais,                    bright crimson.
Clara Sylvaine,                        pure white.
Cramoisie Superieure,                  brilliant crimson.
Virginale,                             blush.
All half-hardy.   If covered in the fall the roots will start anew
in the spring, but they rarely live uncovered.
HALF A DOZEN TEA ROSES.
Safrano,                               buds, rich deep fawn.  Already
described.
Souvenir de mon ami,                   salmon shaded-with rose.
Goubault,                              bright rose, large and fragrant.
Devoniensis,                           creamy white.
Bougiere,                              glossy bronze.
Josephine Malton,                      shaded white.
All tender; the roots will live through the winter if covered.
HALF A DOZEN NOISETTES.
bright sulphur, large; will not blos                   som out of a greenhouse.
* Needs protection in winter.
6-11
HALF A DOZEN
Solfaterre, 
JUNE.
Jaune Desprez,                         large bright fawn, greenhouse.
Cloth of Gold,                         pure yellow,            "
Aimde Vibret.                          dwarf in the border very tender.
Fellenberg,                            brilliant crimson,    " 
Joan of Arc,                           white,               "    "
These Roses should never have been given without the comments here appended.
HALF A DOZEN HYBRIDS; need little protection.
HALF A DOZEN HYBRIDS; need little protection.
Chenedole,           Village Maid,             Fulgens,
George IV.,          Great Western,            Blanchefleur,
Old red Moss,        Crested Moss,             Gen. Dubourg.
Persian Yellow,
Three best, Souvenir de Malmaison, Old Red  Moss,  Gen. Dubourg.
FOR WALLS IN NORTHERN GARDENS.
Baltimore Belle.
FOR SOUTHERN GARDENS.
Laure Davoust,
Ruga Ayrshire, Laure Davoust,     Greville.
The following lists are taken from McIntosh. One word first,
to those about purchasing Roses. Go to the dealer and buy what
he has of those on your list, and no more; the next year of the
same, and so on till you have them all.   Nursery-men, like
store keepers, wish to suit their customers, and' if you insist on
what you want, you will have it in time, but if you can be persuaded out of it, you will have put upon you instead, whatever has
been grown with the least trouble, and can be sold at the largest
profit.
Winter Roses in bloom in November and December, under glass.
HYBRID PERPETUAL; hardy.
Gloire de Rosamene.
NOISETTE.
Vittellina.
TEA-SCENTED (Perpetual).
Laura,
Mondor,
La Sylphide,
Caroline.
Bride of Abydos,
Nitida,
Fragrans,
Goubault,
Nina,
CRIMSON CHINA (Perpetual).
Fabvier,
Belle de Florence.
612
large bright fawn, greenhouse.
pure yellow, 11
dwarf in the border very tender.
brilliant crimson, 11                         11
white,,I,I
Queen of Pr'airie,
Comte d'Eu,
Fellenberg,
Alba,
Bardon, 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
BOURBON; hardy in America.
Celimene,
Crcd Mrne,      Splendens,
Queen.
Amarantine,                        Celimdne
Comice de Seine et Marne,          Splendens
Hermosa,                           Queen.
Justine,
Weeping Roses, which, when wrought on stems from 6 to 9 feet
high, are trained in a pendulous direction to a framework of wood
or iron. Such Roses are difficult to manage, from the constant
tendency of the stock to throw out its own buds and suckers, and
from that of both stock and bud to die.
Noisette Du Luxembourg, tender; Hybrid Noisette, Adolph, tender; well
covered in winter; Evergreen, Felicite perpetual, warm, moist atmosphere,
potted in winter; Boursault, Amadis, hardy; Hybrid China, Belle Fleurette;
hardy, but improved by litter in winter. Ayrshire, Splendens, half hardy;
Multiflora Laura Davoust, hardy in summer but needs great care in winter.
Bourbon, Pierre de St. Cyr, hardy. Musk, Princess de Nassau, needs moist,
warm atmosphere.
PILLAR OR POLE ROSES.
HYBRID rERPETUAL; a little covering.
Louis Bonaparte.
HYBRID CHINA; a little covering.
Petit Pierre.
Decandolle,
Vingtneuf,
DAMASK; hardy.
La ville de Bruxelles.
HYBRID CHINA; cover a little.
Chenedole,
Richelieu,
Juillet.
MOSS; hardy.
Princess Royal.
Emperor,
Princess Adelaide,
HYBRID NOISETTE; tender.
Madeliene.
HYBRID BOURBON; hardy.
Charles Duval,
Paul Perras.
Henri Barbet,
Victor Hugo,
Great Western,
BOURBON; hardy.
Amenaide,
Imperatrice,
Josephine,
Madam Aude.
52
613
Mrs. Elliot,
M.,id. Hardy,
Berenice,
Fulgens,
Vulcan,
Madame Plantier,
Bouquet de Flore,
Acidalie,
Madame Desprez,
llierre de St. Cyr, 
JUNE.
EXHIBITION ROSES, WITH LARGE, FULL FLOWERS.
Felicite Parmentier,                Alba (hardy),
Eugeine Beauharnais,                Crimson China (tender).
TEA-SCENTED BOURBON; tender or half-hardy.
Comte de Paris,                     Souvenir d'une Amie,
Triomphe de Luxembourg,             Josephine,
Bougere,                            Malton,
Moiret,                             Silene,
Devoniensis,                        La Renommee.
CHINA; tender or half-hardy.
Madam Breon,                        Clara Sylvain.
BOURBON; hardy, if slightly covered.
Souvenir de Malmaison,              Mad. Soucher,
La Cam6e,                           Le Florifere,
Acidalia,                           Lichas,
Mad. Nerard,                        Dupetit Thouars.
HYBRID PERPETUAL; cover a little.
Duchess of Sutherland,
Willi am J     esse,
Mad. Laffay,
Robin Hood,
Austrian and hardy Persian Yellow.
Baronne Prevost,
La Reine,
Dr. Marx,
Count Egmont,
Reine de Fleurs,
DAMASK; hardy.
Triumphe de Rouen.
Mad. Hardy,
Mad. Soetman's.
HYBRID  BOURBON; hardy.
Paul Perras,
Charles Duval,
Tippoo Saib,
Sylvain.
PROVENCE; hardy.
Laura.
Cristata
Adrienne de Cardoville,
MOSS; hardy.
(I have indicated the best moss before.)
Etna,
Alice Leroi,
Blush.
Laneii,
White Bath,
Louise Colet,
Comtesse de Nob,
HYBRID CHINA; cover.
Chn,6dole,
Marjolin,
Belle Marie.
Brennus,
Galien,
Comtess Plater,
Lady Stuart,
614
Coupe de H6b,6,
Victor Hugo,
Legouv6,
Cte Boubert, 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
HYBRID FRENCH; hardy.
La Vestalle.
Alette.
FRENCH; hardy.
Ohl,
Belle Rosine,
Cambronne,
Celestine,
' Due de Trevise,
Eclat de Roses,
Couronne d'Amour,
Due de Trevlse,
Due de Valmy,
Franklin,
Gloire des Amateurs,
Jeanne de Laval.
Adele Prevost,                       Ohl,
Berenice,                             Belle Rosine,
Col. Coombs,                          Cambronne,
Guillaumne Tell,                      Celestine,
La ville de Gand,                     Duc de Trevise
Leo X.,                              Eclat de Roses,
Ne plus ultra,                        Couronne d'Amour
Surpasse tout,                       Duc de Trevise,
Sophie Duval,                        Duc de Valmy,
Randolph,                            Franklin,
Omphale,                              Gloire des Amateurs,
La ville de Londres,                  Jeanne de Laval.
Roses for grouping, to produce contrasted colors:
BOURBON; hardy, slightly covered.
Princess Clenmantine,
Paul Joseph.
Armosa,
Mrs. Bosanquet,
Queen,
HYBRID CHINA; tender.
Belle Thurette.
HYBRID PERPETUAL; cover.
Mad. Laffay.
NOISETTE; tender, but may be kept if covered.
77    La Pactole.
DAMASK; hardy.
Deesseflore.
CRIMSON CHINA; tender.
Belle Emilie.
Fabvier,
Belle de Florence,
HYBRID NOISETTE.
Mad. Plantier.
CLIMBING ROSES.
(Those marked 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12 are of very rapid growth.
2, 4, 6, 7, 10 are adapted for a shady wall or a northern aspect.)
BOURSAULT; hardy.
Drummond's Thornless,
* 2. Red.
1. Amadis,
Elegans,
Inermis,
615
Dubois Dessauzais,
Pauline Garcia,
Beauty of Billiard,
Miss Glegg, 
JUNE.
AYRSHIRE; cover.
4. Queen of the Belgians,
Dundee Rambler.
3 Ruga.
Splendens,
Countess of Leven,
EVERGREEN;
tender, but will live if covered.
Carea Spectabilis,
Leopoldine d'Orleans,
Rampant,
Priucess Marie.
MULTIFLORA; half hardy.
I De  la Grifferaie.
5. Felicit F Perpetuelle,
Princess Louise,
6. Banksice Flora,
Carnea Grandiflora.
7. Russelliana,
8. Graulhic,
HYBRID; hardy, if covered.
Garland.
NOISETTE; tender.
Belle d'Esquermes.
10. Grandiflora,
Du Luxembourg,
RUBIFOLIA.
11. Beauty of the Prairie.
MUSK; moist climate, half hardy.
12. Princess de Nassau,
ROSES FOR COVERING ROCKS AND ROUGH BANKS.
These are, as I have said, only possible with careful treatment;
they may be covered with earth like Raspberries.
AYRSHINE AND EVERGREEN.
Thoresbyana,
Rampante,
Countess of Leven.
Leopoldine d'Orleans.
Alice Gray,
Lovely Rambler,
Felicit4 Perpetuelle.
SCENTED ROSES.
Gotibault,
Louis Puget,
Fulgoric,
Rachel,
Gen. Dubois (a rather single, but very
fragrant and valuable Bourbon).
Minerva,
Riego Aubernon, 
Adam (tea-scented),
Hamon,    "
Belle Allemande (tea-scented),
Belle Fabert,
Clementine Seringe (H. P.),
YELLOW ROSES.
NOISETTE; tender.
Pactolus.
Clara Wendell,
Solfaterre,
AUSTRIAN;  hardy.
Persian Yellow.
616
9. Mme. d'Arblay,
Eponine.
VERY SWEET
Harrisonii, 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
TEA-SCENTED; tender, but may be covered.
Vicomtesse de Cazes,
Princess Adelaide,
Pellonia.
Eliza Sauvage,
Safrano,
Devoniensis,
Diana Vernon,
ROSA SULPHUREA; covered in winter, soil rather rich, and an open and dry
exposure.
ROSES WITH MOTTLED OR STRIPED FLOWERS; hardy; summer
bloomers.
Perle des Panachdes,           white, striped with rose.
Rosa Mundi,                    white and carnation.
Village Maid,                  white, striped with rose and purple; pendulous.
New French,                    chocolate and slate, with red, spotted centre.
Mad. Campan (rosa alba),   vivid rose, mottled with dove.
Panache pleine (moss),         white, striped with rose.
Duc d'Orleaiis (French),       cherry rose, with white spots.
Donna Sol,         "           purplish rose, spotted with white; pendulous.
Aramis (French; hardy),    white, stripped with rose.
Duec de Bassano,  "            crimson and violet marbled.
Comte de Maurinais (hardy), slate with blush, and chocolate spotted.
Omphlale,              "       rosy pink, and spotted with white.
Superb Marbled,               vivid crimson marbled with purple (Gen. Daner                               moor.)
The following is a SPLECT LIST of much esteemed varieties, arranged alphabetically; those marked P. are strong growers, and
good for pyramids, poles, or pillars, and it includes most of the finest
Roses in cultivation.
hardy,         Hyb. Perp. and
Provence.
"              Bourbon.
tender,            Noisette.
hardy,             Moss.
",              F rench.
Hyb. Perp.
1{
P. Acidalie,              white,
Aimee Vibert,               "
Aristobule,              crimson,
Antenor,                   rose,
Alexandrine Bachme-  bright red,
teff,         "
Angeline Granger,         pink,
Auguste Mee,           light pink,
P.Augustine Monchelet.
Aramis,                  striped,
Archiduc Charles,          rose,
Abricote,                apricot,
Adam,                     blush,
Adelaide d'Orleans,      creamy,
Beaute Lyonnaise,  rose and white,
Blanche Lafitte,    white and flesh,
P. BoquetdeFlore,   light carmine,
Blanche de Beau-    white and rose,
lieu,
Blanche de Porte-    pale blush,
mer,
"         Damask Perp.
52salmon,
52*
617
Adam Paul,
rose colored,
11
11
hardy,
hardy,
tender,
French.
China.
Tea-scented.- -
11
Evergreen.
Bourbon Perp.
11
Hyb. Perp.
hardy if Covered,
11
11
11
hardy,
11
11 
JUNE.
Banksiie Flora,
Bernard Palissy,
Beauty of Billiard,
P. Blairii, 
P. Brennus,
Bizarre Marbree,
Boulade Nantieuil,
Blanche fleur,
Baronne Heckeren,
Baronne Prevost,
Beranger,
Catherine de
Wirtemberg,
Celina,
Comte Plater,
Comtesse de Segur,
Chenedole,
Comtesse Lacepide,
Charles Duval,
P. Coupe d'Hebe,
P. Grivelii,
Crimson Superb,
Caroline de Sansal,
Charles Boissiere,
Chateaubriand,
Chereau,
Colonel Lorry,
Cymedor,
Comte de Nauteuil,
Comte Montalivet,
Comtesse Duchatel,
Comtesse Batthlli   ani,
Ceres,
Cerise pourpre,
Cezarine Souchet,
Charles Souchet,
Comte de Bobrin   isky,
Comte de Paris,
Cloth of Gold,
Devoniensis,
Dapetit Thouars,
D'Assas,
Diodore,
Dr. Arnal,
Duchess de Mont   pensier,
Duch. d'Olbans,
" of Sutherland,
Duc d'Aumale,
Dometille Becar,
Duc de Trevise,
Banksia.
Hyb. Bourbon.
Hyb. China.
" Bour bon,
Hybrid China.
" Bourbon.
1,.     11
Mtiltiflora.
Chiina.
Hyb. Perpetual.
Bourbon,
Hyb. Perpetual.
Damask Perpetual
Hyb.      "
Bourbon.
Hyb. Perpetual.
11
Bourbon  Dwarf.
Hyb. Perpetual.
Noisette.
Tea-scented.
Bourbon.
French.
Moss Perpetual.
Hybrid      "
11        ~c
blush and pink,             "
, bright rose mottled,         "
rose,       hardy if protected,
rosy blush,           hardy,
velvet crimson,            " 
618
11
Fi7ench.
11
Hyb. Prov.
11 Perp.
Moss.
Hybrid French.
11                  11
Bourbon.
Tea-seented.
Bourbon.
11
Hybrid Provence.
11 Perpetual.
Bourbon.
Provence.
French.  
FLOWER-GARDEN.
pink blush,
rose to blush,
rosy crimson,
dark velvety crim
P. Devigne,
De la Griflerie,
Etigbne Napoleon,
Eblouissante de la
guerre,
Eugene Sue,
Edward Defosse,
Enfant d'Ajaccio,
11
hardy if covered,
tender or half hardy
if covered,
tender,
sac
Eliza Sauvage,       salmon yellow,
Eugenie Desgaches,    bright rose,
Earl Talbot,          rose and lilac,
Fairy Queen,           glossy lilac
Ferdinand Deppe,        rose color,
P. Frederick II.,   deep purple crim.,
Fulgens,             crimson velvet,
Felicitd Parmen  tier,               rosy blush,
Fringed Provence
or Crested Moss,      rose pink,
Gen. Foy,                purple,
"Bertrand,       white striped lilac
"Changarnier,    violet purple,
"Bernard,         dove centre, crim.
"Jacqueminot,       deep purple,
Negrier,            rosy blush,
Cavaignac,          rosy pink,
Bedeau,             bright red,
Castellane,    brilliant crimson,
Drouet,        crimson and purple
Gloire de France,       deep rose,
"  de Colmar,        crimson,
"  de Coulines,     carmine,
Garabaldi,           bright crimson,
Gracilis,              bright pink,
Geant de Bataille,       crimson,
Graziella,            brilliant pink,
George Cuvier,         rosy cherry,
Georges de France, salmon and yellow
George IV.,        deep velvety crim
Henry Lecoque,        deep carmine,
Herman Kegel,
Harmonii,                yellow,
Hermosa,                pale rose,
Je me maintiendrai,    rosy pink,
Jupiter ponctue,  bright velvety crim
Juno,                   pale rose,
Jaunatre,               primrose,
"                fawn colored,
Inermnis,               deep rose,
"                   bright red,
Isocrate,                 rose,
Jacques Lafitte,       bright rose,
James Veitch,              rose,
Jeanne d'Arc,          pale blush
Joseph De Caisne,   satin-like rose,
Austrian.
Bourbon.
French.
Hybrid China.
Banksia.
Evergreen.
Hybrid  Perpetual.
Boursault.
Hybrid Perpetual.
ts~I
619
hardy,
tender,
hardy,
Hybrid French.
Multiflora.
French.
son,
red ro'e,
fres 11 pink,
bright cherry,
Indica.
Tea-scented.
11
ybrid Perpetual.
11         11
11                    11
hardy if protected, Hybrid Bourbon.
11 China.
Alba.
Provence.
French.
11
I Hybrid Perpetual.
11 China.
:11 I 11
.Perpetual.
11
11 China.
French
11
Hybrid China.
Bourbon.
oursault.
Hybrid Perpetual.
11                11
I Bourbon.
Tea' -
Hybrid China.
Bourbon. 
JUNE.
half hardy if cov'd,     Noisette.
hardy,             Moss.
"          Hybrid Provence,
Julia,
Laurii,
La ville de Londres
La ville de Brux
elles,
Lucrece
La ville de Gand,
Letitia,
L'attrayante,
Las Casas,
Laura Davoust,
La Reine,
Lady Stuart,
Lion de Combat,
Louise Odier,
Louise Peronne,
Leonore d'Este,
La favorite,
La Sylphide,
La Pactole,
La Marque,
bright rose,
pale rose,
brilliant rose,
deep rose, veined,
nankin,
rose pink,
rose,
rose,
delicate rose,
crimson and purple,
bright rose,
bright silver pink,
flesh,
deep rose,
blush,
yellow,.
pale yellow,
oz,      white,               hardy,
flesh,                            H         e
white,yellow centre,       tender,
rose,            half hardy,
flesh,       hardy if protected
white and fawn,             "
rose carmine,              "
dark rose,               "
bright rose, spotted,       hardy,
dark rosy crimson,            "
light carmine,             "
rosy blush,              "
Lx,    bright rose,              "
pure white, 
white,                 "
delicate flesh,           "
re,    light rose,              "
blush,                 "
rosy lilac,     hardy if protected
crimson,               "
rosy crimson,                                F
bright   "               hardy,
pale flesh,              "
rich bright rose,  hardy if protected,
blush, mot. with pink, half hardy if cov'd,
pure white,            tender,
pale yellow,              "
violet purple,          hardy,
variegated   white,
striped with crim.,        "
le        yellow,             tender,
Melanie Willermi
Mad. Ogier,
" D'Arblay,
"   Sylvester,
" Breon,
" Bosanquet,
" Angelina,
" Souchet,
" Tripet,
" Campai,
" Andry,
" Fremion,
Hiliare,
" P. Trudeau
" Lebras,
" Hardy,
' Zoutman,
" Lamorissir
Alboni,
" P. Audot,
Menoux,
Matthew Mole,
Mrs. Elliot,
Mrs. Rivers,
Marianne,
Napoleon,
Nephetos,
Narcisse,
Ohl,
Oeillet parfait,
P. Princess Ad
laide,
620
crimson,
rosy crimson,
rose,
Damask.
Alba.
French.
11
Hybrid China.
Hybrid Bourbon.
Musk.
Hybrid Perpetual.
Bourb. Perpetual.
Hybrid Perpetual.
Bourbon.
Tea-seented.
Noisette.
11
Hybrid Provence.
Hybrid Perpetual.
Tea-scented.
China.
Bourbon.
Alba.
Hybrid Perpetual.
'Alba.
Damask.
Hybrid erpetual.
Moss.
I B rbon.
Hybr d Cl'mb.
F"enel"
Hybr'd Perpetual.
Hybrid Pi-ovence.
Bourbon..
I China.
Tea-Scented.
Freiicb.
Tea-scented. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Adelaide,          pale  glossy  rose,
flowers in clusters,
Princess   Clemen   tine,             deep rosy purple,   hardy if protected
~"   "     ~pure white,             hardy,
Princess Royal,
"   Lamballe,    pure white,              "
"   Marie,     coppery white,          tender,
De Nassau,  yellowish straw,       tender unless
well protected,
Pierre Jaussens,   scarlet, shaded with
crimson,             hardy,
Perle des Pana- white, striped with
chies,                  rose,                "
Paul Perras,          brilliant rose,   hardy if protected,
Paul Ricaut,          rosy crimson,
P. President Mole,      pale rose,             "
Persian Yellow,          yellow,             hardy,
P. Pins IX.,           purplish red, 
Paul Dupuy,      bright velvety crimson,       "
Prince Leon Kots   clioubay (extra),   bright crimson,          "
Reveil,            cherry red, shaded
with violet,            "
Robin Hovel,            brilliant,              "
Rosine,                clear rose,           tender,
Reine des Fleurs,       pale lilac,           hardy,
Reine blanche,
Rose du Roi,
Reine d'Angleterre,    rosy blush, 
Rose Aimable,          rosy pink,              "
Semiramis,        fawn in centre to pink,      "
Sylvain,             bright crimson,   hardy if protected,
Souvenir de la reine
des Belges,       red and carmine,         hardy,
Standard de Mar  engo,            brilliant crimson,          "
Souvenir de Leve  son Gowver,       dark red to ruby,
Salvator Rosa,          very red,              "
Souchet,              deep crimson,   hardy if protected,
Souvenir de Mal  maison,                 white,
Souvenir de l'Ex  position,           dark crimson,            "
Safrano,             copper yellow,       half hardy,
Souvenir d'un ami, salmon and rose,        "    "
Solfaterre,           cream white,           tender,
Triumphe de bol  rollyer,               cream,
Triumphe du Lux  embourg,              buff rose,         half hardy,
Triumple de Paris, dark velv. crimson,       hardy,
"  de Jaus sens,            vivid rosy crimson,         "
621
Moss.
Bourbon.
Provence.
Alba.
Tea-scented.
Mtisk.
French.
I-lybrid Bourbon.
11       11
11                   11
Austrian.
Hybrid Perpetual.
11                 11
11
Bourbon.
Hybrid Perpetual.
Musk.
Hvdrid Perpetual.
French.
11
Damask.
I Bourbon.
Hybrid Perpetual.
11
11
11
Bourbon.
11
11
Tea-scented. -'
Noisette.
11
Tea-scented.
Hybrid Perpetual.
French. 
JUNE.
hite, striped with
pink,
pure white,
light crimson,
pure white,
Provence.
Moss.
Hybrid Perpetual.
Moss.
Unique de Provence,
William Jesse,
White Bath,
William Griffiths,
William IV.,
Vesta,
Vieillard,
Vicomte Cussy,
Vicomtesse de
Cazes,
P. Vivid (Paul's),
Tea-scented.
" vHybrid Bourbon.
It will be observed on comparing these lists, that the same name
is often repeated, but it is always in different connections, and to illustrate different peculiarities in the Rose. The last list is general,
and gives a very perfect collection. 
Many of those which are marked tender, it may be well to try
out of doors, after you have gained experience by the culture of
those whose hardihood you are sure of, for sometimes a slight advantage of exposure, a little careful protection will enable a tender Rose to thrive; and by some care in getting varieties from
seed, in budding, etc., the constitution of the most tender may be
hardened.
The limits of the careful gardener's powers, have not yet been
discovered, and the field of improvement extends farther, and
promises more in Roses than in any other flower.
622
hardy,
1:
11
lively red,
scarlet,
delicate rose,
cherry,
11
11
Freneb.
11
Moss.
Bourbon.
11
hardy if protected,
yellow rich,
vivid crimson, 
CHAPTER LXVII.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
JUNE ends all spring planting in the kitchen-garden. We no
longer talk about early planting; all seeds planted now are for succession and late crops.
After the first of this month, nature is in a hurry, and by the
15th, whether the season has been early or late, things are in about
the same state of advance, year after year.
In the hotbeds there should be, by the second week, abundance
of Cucumbers, and good-sized Melons; the vines as they grow
over the frames, should be pinched off, to check the sap; hurry the
fruit and keep the vines within bounds. Every kind of crop may
be removed from the hotbeds. The Tomato plants will be very
large, if the secondary frame was set over the first, as directed in
the notice of hotbeds.
Make beds of Cardoons, setting the plants 4 feet apart each
way; take the plants from the seedbeds and frames, with great
care, and by no means nip off the end, or mutilate the leaves.
Shade the plants when set out, with an inclined shingle, so as to
break the sun's rays; it is on its leaves that the plant is to depend
for attaining full size. If its roots are well developed, and it is
well planted, shaded and watered, it will be able to maintain the
leaves, and will thrive accordingly.
All the plants before enumerated, which were sown in the seedbeds,
may be now transplanted for the last time. It will be well to shade all
the large plants if possible, particularly Tomatoes, and also to water
them in the evening for a few days; they will soon establish themselves.
Cabbages, Cauliflowers, and similar plants, should be set out before a rain.
The final transplanting of the young herbs will take place
623 
JUNE.
towards the last of the month. The more shrubby varieties, like
Sage, Lavender and others, may be used to make an edging to the
walks, or division lines for the beds. Cuttings of the old plants
can be struck in any shady, moist place. Some of the herbs will
be fit for cutting the last of the month.   Cut just as they are in full
flower; they are then richest.
The early-planted Cabbages, Lettuces, Cauliflowers, etc., must
be hoed and hilled a little. Lettuce plants will head much better
for several transplantings, and also for hoeing; so too, with Cabbages.  The earliest Cabbages will be fit to use next month; Lettuce will be in fine condition for the table all this month.
As soon as the Asparagus begins to get spindling and stringy,
cease to cut it. It is very poor economy to cut it too long, the
permanent yield is impaired by so doing.
Hoe the Corn as soon as it is well out of the ground. The first hoeing you may draw a very little earth round it, but never afterwards.
All the vegetables are benefited by occasional hoeings, even when
the weeds do not demand it. Breaking the surface of the earth
lets in the air and rain, induces the earth to absorb gases freely,
and promotes early and large condensations of dew.
The earliest Peas will soon be in blossom, and the latest should
be sown.  You will not get a large yield from any Peas sown this
month, as they do not get into blossom till the weather is too hot
for them to thrive.
About the third week in June, plant pickle crops of Cucumbers,
Mangoes, etc. The plants of Red Pepper and Martinyia, should
be transplanted from the hotbeds, the first of the month. Make in
a good place, out of doors, a Mushroom bed. The weather will now
be warm enough to insure, with frequent waterings, large returns.
Hoeing the Sweet Potatoes increases the crop very much.
Hoe and clean the Irish Potatoes. Two or three times each
week, examine the Melons, Cucumbers, and Squashes, for bugs.
The troublesome ones are very small, striped black and yellow.
They perceive the approach of a man long before he reaches them,
by the jarring of the earth, and will either drop to the ground, or
crawl under the leaf; turn the leaf and pick them off. When the
vines are fairly freed, dust the plants with plaster of Paris; renew
624 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
the examination and application as often as twice a week, until the
vines are grown beyond danger of injury. The large squash-bugs
come later, and are to be removed in the same way.
Any work directed last month, and not completed, should be finished as soon as possible. As you use up small Salads, sow more.
The early Radishes will be gone, and you will now draw those
sown with the Carrots and Parsnips. As soon as the Carrots are
well developed, thin to 6 inches, and Parsnips to 9 inches, long
Blood Beets 9 inches, Turnip Beets 6 inches. As the Artichokes
grow, remove all small side heads and suckers, that the principal
heads may be more perfect. The perfection will be shown by the
gradual opening of the scales, and the heads should be picked
before the flower shows in the centre. As soon as the principal
heads are grown, cut the stems down to the earth.
Sow Cabbage seed for the late crops. Sow seeds of Drumhead, Savoy, and Red Cabbage. Spinach will be fit to gather during the month.
Such plants as have been set out for seed, Radishes, Carrots,
Onions, etc., will now have thrown up the seed stem, and are about
ready to flower. Tie each stem to a stick, or set a stake at each
end of the row, and connect the stakes with a rod, to which the
heads can be tied.  It is said that when the young Onions do not
swell, but grow too much to tops, they may be induced to swell by
bending the tops down.
Celery may be set out for the earliest crop. The latest must be
set in July. By no means plant in trenches, but set it in rich,
deep soil, flat, as you would a tree. Then let it, and all similar
plants, grow freely without hilling, until it has long, well-developed
leaves; then hold the leaves up and hill it. This must be done in
dry weather, after the dew is off, or the Celery will rust. When
set in trenches, the roots are too far below the sun in the autumn,
and when hilled before the leaves are pretty large, they are choked,
and, however long they grow, never get large, thick buts.
As the Tomatoes advance, do not put straw under them, or tie
them up to sticks, but let the branches extend out over the ground.
As the plants grow large and commence to ripen, in August, it
53
625 
JUNE.
is very well to work straw in under the fruit and about the
branches.
Weeds are now a fertile source of discomfort; the earlier and
younger you take them, the easier it is to destroy them, and the
better for the plants. Every weed is a thief, who ought to be apprehended before his rascality is accomplished.
If June is dry, all the young plants will be benefited by occasional copious waterings, and particularly if the water is somewhat
enriched with guano or other manure.
As the Strawberries ripen, gather; and do not be troubled if the
robins get a few.
The Cherries will ripen about the first of July. It is difficult
to get thorough protection against birds, unless the trees are covered with nets; but some advantage may be gained by the use of
scarecrows. Those made of old clothes, etc., to represent men
and women, are no protection against small birds; they are quite
useful in Corn fields to drive away crows, who are over sagacious
and deceive themselves, but little birds do not mind them; but set
light poles, inclined at a considerable angle, in the tree, and tie
them firmly to a branch. They must be long enough to project
well beyond the tree; suspend to the loose end some strings, to
which are tied pieces of tin, hung so that they may sometimes
strike against each other. The noise frightens the birds, and still
more, the light reflected from the dancing tin; on bright days this
expedient is very effective; in bad weather only the noise is of
any service.
Shooting does no good; you may kill a few birds, each of whom
would have eaten 10 or 15 pounds of worms before winter, but
their places will be soon supplied by others. As I have said, the
effective guard is a net. Common mosquito netting is rather
fragile and troublesome; a net made of packthread, which would
entirely cover the tree, and could be drawn in tightly about the
trunk, would admit light and air, and keep off the birds, and if
well dried after using, and,then laid away, the same net would last
for many years. This is easily done with espaliered trees.
Apricots should be thinned this month; thin as directed in the
grapery.
626 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
Watch the espaliered trees; pinch off all bad shoots, such as
have been already described, and disbud where buds are formed,
which would be ill-placed next year. Tie down the shoots as they
grow,'that they may not get too rigid and stiff.
Thin the Peaches and Nectarines; they are not good for pies,
as the Apricots are; but the value, and indeed quantity of the
crop, will be increased by wise thinning.
Watch the Plum-trees narrowly. This is the month for the curculio. Mosquito netting will protect the fruit; and all that which
drops should be carefully removed.
Thin the Pears; all these fruits should be thinned from one-half
to two-thirds of the fruit which sets, and the culls should be removed, not left on the ground to decay.
The first of the month you will find a marked benefit if you
surround all your fruit-trees from 3 to 4 inches deep, and as wide
as the circle of the branches, with a mulch; use old tan, wood
chips, straw, or hay.
627 
CHAPTER LXVIII.
ORCHARD.
THE orchard is but little trouble in June. Thinning the Peaches,
Apricots, Nectarines, and Pears, should be carefully done; the
Cherry-trees must be watched, and the fruit gathered and marketed.
The Apples would in many cases be benefited by thinning, but
the size of the tree and the quantity of the crop prevent very
careful thinning, as it would take more time and expense than the
advantage to the fruit would warrant.
As soon as the fodder crop sown in the orchard is sufficiently
advanced to admit of it, turn in the old sow and her litter of pigs
to fatten. Previously, hints for mulching were given.
If the orchard is under a fodder crop, you cannot mulch, but if
uncultivated, mulch by all means. Cover the whole surface with
hay or straw, if possible. Salt hay is the best; rain washes the
salt into the earth: the hay or straw packs closely over the earth,
and shields it from the sun's rays; evaporation can take place but
slowly, and no matter how dry the season, land so protected will
be cool and moist.
A thick mulch of old chips and river waste was found by Mr.
H. W. S. Cleveland, formerly a large Pear grower in New Jersey,
a preventive against cracks in the fruit, to which it also imparted
superior flavor, at the same time that it increased the smoothness
of the bark.
He found, too, that native Grapes, previously much injured by
rot and mildew, were saved from such diseases by the mulch. It
should be, when settled, 5 or 6 inches thick, and if it is, straw or
hay must be put on at first double that thickness. In the fall it
should be drawn back from the trunks of the trees, to prevent mice
from harboring in the straw, and under its cover feeding on the
628 
ORCHARD.
trees in winter. I have known men who thought themselves good
farmers, spread straw under the trees towards the time of the
ripening of the fruit, to prevent its getting bruised by falling on
the ground. If they had spread it in the spring, they would have
(lone better.
If you cannot afford to mulch the whole area of the orchard,
mulch around each tree, as far as the branches extend. If the
orchard is set, where no orchard should be, in a wet, undrained
place, a mulch would be injurious, as it would keep the earth too
wet; and in springy land, well drained, it would be less valuable,
as the springs will give water enough, and the sun's rays are desirable, to warm the earth.
53*
629 
CHAPTER LXIX.
THE FARM.
EVERY farmer is now in full tide of work. Those who grow
sheep, in addition to their other work, must shear early in the
month. The sheep must be driven home, taken to the washing
place or trough, washed, assorted, sheared, clipped, marked, then
turned out to their lambs. The wool is rolled up, weighed, packed
and stored for market. The whole process fully exercises the care
and patience of the farmer and all his men, and it is to be the
principal source of revenue for the year. The careless farmer
turns his sheep, when shorn, out to the lambs, and then sends both
off to pasture, where the poor creatures must take their chance of
weather till the new wool has started sufficiently to protect. His
sheep naturally take cold and contract diseases, which are the cause
of loss to him sooner or later; a danger which may be mostly
avoided by housing them after shearing, and on the approach of
storms, and rubbing their bodies with refuse lard.
This interlude coming at the heel of planting hurries the farmer
very much, and materially deranges his economies if the season
has been late, but on this very account, it is only the better test of
excellence in farming, and a proof of the smoothness with which
the affairs of the good farmer run.
We have no sheep to care for; those which we had in the winter being sold as soon as they were fattened.  Our only live stock
which need constant attention, are the cows and calves.
The summer cows have been calving through Mlay, some of them
in June even. Examine each calf as it arrives; if a heifer, see
how it is marked and formed.  If your eye has been trained, you
will not easily be deceived, even in a new-born animal, at least you
can decide on its merits before it is three days old. If you are not
practised in judging of stock, buy Guenon's Treatise on the Marks
630 
THE FAR1M.
of Cattle.  Though often sneered at by" practical men," and not in  fallible, it gives principles to guide your selection which are of great
value, and will prove correct in the vast majority of cases. In ex  amining a great many cows, I have not found one exception to his
rules. Flint's Dairy Book will also be an aid to the farmer in the
selection and treatment of cattle. All our calves will be Devon
(direct, or crossed with stock we like), and as we wish to increase
our stock, and have served our cows carefully, we shall raise every
promising calf.  Any which do not promise well, we shall either fnIt
for veal, or kill when 3 days old.  At that time the skin is valuable,
and each day's delay in killing those which are unprofitable to raise
or convert into veal, is a dead loss.
The mhale calves, if full blooded, are to be still more  carefully
examined; indeed, we should not decide how to dispose of them
till they are some weeks old. Meantime feed them as well as you
can. If we, or any of our neighbors, will want a new bull next
year, or the year after that, select the one which is the best blooded
in all respects, has the best ancestors (much depends on the milk ing qualities of the female ancestry), and promises best for breed ing.  The rest are to be killed for veal when fat, or grown for
beef and work, if fit for such purposes. You remember that I said
when speaking of Devon beef, that it is the better for having done
some work.
Every farmer finds a difficulty in raising calves economically,
and this arises, I think, from the general greediness for gain. The
calves are grudged the milk which they take from sale of butter,
aund, consequently, all kinds of devices are resorted to to grow
calves at a small cost.  Now  one thing is settled:  nothing for
nothing; a calf fed on weak, poor food, will make a coarse, poor
animal, and the few cents saved in its infancy will cause a loss of
many dollars in its maturity.
If you want fine cows or oxen, feed them abundantly and well
during their earliest months. This will strengthen their constitutions, and they will afterwards thrive on poor pastures and less
food. But stint them in their youth, and if they live, they will be
no better than Pharaoh's lean kine.
In Scotland, and many parts of England, calves are raised as fol
631 
JUNE.
lows: as soon as some cow selected for the purpose brings a calf,
another calf of the same age is bought, and one is tied on each
side of the stall where the cow is, so that it can barely reach her
bag. For a day or two she shows dislike of the new comer, but
soon becomes wonted. The two calves suck the cow dry in a short
time, and are then removed till time for the next meal. As they
grow they are also fed on cut Potatoes, Hay, etc. In 8 or 10 weeks
these calves are removed, and two others take their place, and are
treated in the same way. It depends on the time at which the cow
calved, whether she can bring up more than two sets; if she has
still milk, though it be only enough for one calf, let her fatten it.
In this way calves get great size and early maturity at a cost
which is really small. The expense of the cow for the time is not
more than $1 per week, and in 10 weeks, or for $10, she will have
brought two calves into a fine, healthy condition, so that they can
feed themselves.  If you do not like to use your choice cows for the
purpose, buy a more ordinary animal. 
C. F. Heard writes to the Country Gentleman, that he takes his
calves away from the cow when three days old, and teaches them
to drink by putting his fingers into their mouths, and then lowering
his hand into the pail. After they have learned to drink, he gives
them 4 quarts of milk, morning and night; new milk for 4 weeks; 2
new, I skim, with a little meal, for the next 2 weeks; then all
2
skim and more meal, for some time longer. He gives Barley, Rye,
or bolted Oatmeal, but not Indian, as that makes them scour.  At
the end of about 8 weeks, he gives sour milk from the cheese-press,
or churn, and continues this as long as he has it, with some Meal,
some Hay, and what Grass they will eat. In the fall he houses
them to keep them warm, gives soft Hay, cut Turnips, wind-fall
Apples, etc.; during the winter he gives Hay and Turnips. His
calves weigh 600 to 800 pounds the first year, and on good feed,
900 to 1,000 pounds at 2 years old; at 3 years old, 1,200 to 1,400
pounds, and, when matured, 2,000 pounds and upwards.
I think either of these methods will produce the desired result.
The first gives the least trouble, although it will not succeed unless
the calves are in the charge of a competent and careful man, and I
do not doubt that is the cheapest.
632 
THE FARM.
BUTTER.- During this and the next two months, we must make
our butter and cheese for the season. I do not mean that none is
to be made at any other season, but the butter made off good, fresh
feed, keeps better, and is higher flavored than that of any other
season.
Our milkroom is near the farm-house, which stands near the
farm barn (see the general plan).  The building is small, at a
little distance from the back of the farm-house, faces the north, is
well ventilated and shaded; its windows are covered with wire
gauze to shut out flies. The shelves are of slate slabs, 4 of an
inch thick and 18 inches wide; of course they can easily be kept
clean and sweet, which is very important. The floor is also made
of slate slabs, and the rooms are in addition kept sweet and clean
by whitewash. The temperature will range throughout the summer between 60~ and 65~. In the centre is a well of constant
cold water.
Morning and night, during summer, the milk is carried directly
to the milkroom or dairy, where it is strained into pans and at
once set on the shelves, in charge of the dairy-woman. It is kept
cool for at least 12 hours, and skimmed before it begins to sour;
the cream put into jugs, till enough is collected to begin churning.
No doubt sour curded cream will make butter, but the best butter
comes from cream which is but slightly acid.
The dairy-woman selects such a churn as suits her -one of the
rotary kinds.
"The churn is not soaked over night; but in the morning put
in a quart of boiling water, churn it 1 minute, then put in a pailful of cold water to remain in the churn 5 minutes, and the churn
is ready for use. As soon as you have done with it, wash it well,
dry it, and put it in a dry place. Churning should be done in the
morning, while it is cool. Rapid churning is not the best; but if
the cream is acid and of the right temperature, it will require less
than half an hour. The temperature of the cream to churn best
should be 62~. If the cream is not acid, put it in a warm place
for a short time to make it so. Never scald the milk or cream; it
gives a peculiar flavor, and is useless labor. I use tin pans to set
my milk, because they are light to handle and are easily kept
633
W_m 
JUNE.
sweet and clean.  The first cream that rises is best both in flavor
and color."
"The milk should not be set more than 24 hours, and it is
better if skimmed in 12 hours, as what little might be lost in
quantity would be gained in quality."
"The cream should be kept in stone or glass jars, or well-glazed
or enammelled wcare, as the acid corrodes common coarse glazing,
and it imparts poison to the cream."
"The cream should not be covered, except by a gauze which
will not exclude air.  I put an ounce of salt into a 3 gallon jar,
when I begin to fill it with cream, and stir the cream well morning and night. It should not be kept more than a week.
"As soon as the butter has come, I draw off the buttermilk, and
remove the butter into a long wooden tray.  Then I press out the
buttermilk with hard-wood clappers (it would be better to use the
table and roller shown in Flint's Dairy Book), and mix in by
weight 11 ounces of salt to the pound.   I then work it over thoroughly (but not long enough to heat it or make it like a salve),
and mix in 2 ounces of white sugar to 10 pounds of butter. If it
is for present use, I make it into balls and stamp it.  But if it is
to be kept for winter, I put it down solid into stone jars, sprinkling
a very little salt on the surface, and covering it with a thick, fine
cloth, put on the lid, and place the jar in a dry, cool place. It is
better to fill the jar with one churning; but if not able to do so,
pack in each churning solid, and exclude the air till you get the
jar full.
"If it is to be kept a long time, or sent to sea, pour a little
melted butter over the top of the jar before you put on the cloth.
"It is very important to have good salt to use, as some salt gives
the butter an unpleasant taste, and prevents it from keeping well."
"I do not wash my butter, nor allow any water, hot or cold, to be
put with the cream, to lower or raise the temperature when I churn,
as it is very injurious to it. It washes out the flavor and sweetness from it, makes it insipid, and soon turns it rancid. The water
which remains in it injures it more than buttermilk. I do not belie-ve it is possible to keep butter for any length of time that has
been washed. Some one should superintend the dairy to see that
634
w 
THE FARM.
all is done as it should be."  [Prize Essay, by Mrs. Winchester,
of Brewer, Maine, read before the Maine State Agricultural Society, at Bangor, 1857.] There are as many methods of making
butter as people who make it. The method given will insure a
good result. The same is true of
CHEESE. -We  shall make some cheese for our own use; and
were the process more common, no farmer need buy cheese in
order to get the best quality.  One method is as follows: "Take a
gallon and a half of water, and throw into it 1I pints of common
salt. Boil and skim it, and add 3 or 4 ounces of Rose leaves.
After it is sufficiently steeped, let it cool, and put in 1 ounce of
saltpetre and 4 rennets (calves' stomachs, properly prepared).
"A great spoonful of this preparation is enough to turn 15 gal lons of milk. When the curd is made, dip it out carefully and put
it into a cloth that sets in a vessel with its bottom perforated with
holes."
"Let a person on each side take hold of the corners, and raise
the curd carefully, and turn it from one side to the other of the
cloth, in order to the better draining off of the whey. Then lay
it as before in a vessel perforated with holes, and thus turn it once
in fifteen or twenty minutes, and in the interval place a follower
upon it with a stone above (a' follower' is a cover made to just fit
into the vessel when lying on the curd, and which holds up a stone
or heavy weight; as the moisture presses out of the cheese or
curd, and it shrinks, the board and weight follow the shrinkage),
cutting the curd through each time."
"When the whey is out, season it with salt to suit your palate,
while cutting it up in small pieces with a knife; then put it up for
pressing. Let it stand under 30 or 40 pounds' weight for 24 hours,
and then turn it and let it stand under the same for 24 hours more.
A severe pressure, which is sometimes given, spoils a rich cheese
entirely." A following weight, in this case, is better than a screw
press. With a screw press, you may indeed tighten to any extent,
but when the pressure has forced the whey out, and the cheese
shrinks, the screw no longer exerts any pressure.
"Set your cheeses in closets made for the purpose, in which flies
635 
JUNE.
cannot enter, and turn them every day. By using the patent
cheese shelf, you can turn a large number at once."
"The outside should be scraped clean, then be rubbed with a
mixture of butter and Spanish Brown, which answers very well;
but other mixtures answer equally well."
"A small quantity of Anatto (which imparts a yellow color),
say the size of a kernel of Rye,-sewed up in a cloth, may be put
in each curd."
" Never wash out your cheese-cloth in soap, but rinse it out in
whey."
The cheese-room may be in the dairy-house, but should be separated from the butter department, as the peculiar acids of the cheese
tend to affect the sweetness and flavor of the butter.
The careful making of butter and cheese is both important and
profitable. Really choice butter commands a very high price. In
the summer the prices which milkmen pay for milk are ruinously
low, and it is much more profitable to work up your milk yourself.
Buttermilk and whey are the very best food for young pigs, particularly when they are at Grass.
The method of making cheese differs materially with each
county, I might say town, in the United States, and England.  The
method I have quoted may not be the best of all, but it will unquestionably produce a good article, and if your dairy-woman is
good she will improve.
FOWLS.- By the last of May, or the first of June, all the fowls
will have hatched, or be on the point of hatching.
I mentioned in May that nests should be prepared. I will now
briefly describe the proper management of fowls.
All fowls show great eagerness to lay in bushes, tufts of Grass,
etc., and cannot be relied on to furnish eggs unless regularly confined to their house. Undoubtedly fowls which are allowed to
stroll and lay where they please, are more certain to bring up broods
of young, but their eggs are lost and they form bad habits. If their
house is warm, they will, after once becoming habituated to it, lay
and set there. The setting or hatching-house should be apart from
the laying-house, as all fowls, and particularly hens, are annoyed by
636 
THE FARM.
the presence of others during incubation. Eleven eggs are enough
to put under any fowl, as many as she can well take care of; the
size of the egg being proportioned to the size of the fowl. Ducks
set so badly that it is best to hatch their eggs under hens.
Make the nests in roomy boxes, or baskets, raised a little above
the floor. For geese they should be particularly low, as they find
difficulty in climbing. Hay or Straw should be stuffed into the
corners to keep the eggs in place.  There should be room enough
for the bird without its tail being bent up, or turned to one side,
which pains the bird, and often interrupts her setting.
Set hens 3 weeks, ducks 4 weeks, turkeys 4 weeks, geese a calendar month. The hen is the least reliable setter of the three, and
is very fastidious. Select a large, well-feathered hen, of a mild
and gentle disposition; so soon as you find that she wishes to set,
which may be known by her setting resolutely in a box or on the
floor, remove her at night, just about roosting time, to the nest prepared, and put a couple of old eggs under her. She may dislike
the place; change her quarters till she is suited. If she is removed
in the daytime and covered from the light, she will be frightened,
and will desert her eggs and lose her desire to set. After she has
covered the 2 eggs for a day, remove them at night and put in
the 11 eggs which she is to hatch; put near her plenty of water
and food, and a box of ashes, in which she may roll when she
comes off the nest to drive out lice, etc., and let her come off the
nest to look for food when she pleases; if she is well selected and
a good mother, if the food and water are near, she will eat and
return immediately; and if she refuses to do so it is useless to try
to force her; either set another hen on the same eggs, try to hatch
them in an oven, or abandon them.
Never try to release the chicks when nearly hatched, by breaking the shell or removing pieces; the proceeding will hurt or kill
them. After they are all out, set near them a plate with crumbled
bread and meal, and some water, and give the hen food. If the day is
fair, put the nest into a portable hutch, and remove hen and chicks
and food, to some open gravelled space. The chicks will run about in
the sun, and get food and strength; if rain threatens, put them
under cover. In a few days they will be strong enough to take care
54~~~~~~~~~~~~Z
54
637 
JUNE.
of themselves. Feed them every 3 hours for the first few days,
and afterwards 3 times a day, if you wish them to grow fast.
Boiled Potatoes, Indian meal, crumbs of bread, etc., are fit food.
If it is ducks that are hatched, keep them in the house for a
few days, away from the water, and feed on bread soaked in water,
Barley meal porridge, boiled Potato, and other laxative food, and
continue this fare after they go out. As soon as they are fit to go
out, take them to a shallow pond in some retired place, where
they will not get frightened or drowned by larger birds. In a week
they will be strong and able to take care of themselves.
Turkeys are rather shy and difficult to raise. Contrary to the
law in all other fowls, a single impregnation fertilizes the whole
contents of the ovarium. The turkey lays her egg, if possible, in
secluded places. Keep her in the house every day till she has
laid; remove the egg at once to a dry place, and turn it carefully
every day. When she shows a desire to set, set her at night.
Once set she is very constant. Place food near her and keep her
nest cleared of dung and loose feathers; when the poults are all
out, be very careful of them for a few days. Some persons recommenld that a pepper-corn be thrust down their throats directly;
and as turkeys are fond of stimulating food, the pepper may warm
their stomachs and give an appetite.
The old bird should be well fed with coarse meal, etc., but the
poults will eat nothing for 24 hours; after that time their appetite
comes.
The first danger is from a continued purging, which soon kills the
young bird; feed with finely chopped, boiled egg every 3 hours, for
a fortnight.  After the young birds have eaten, remove the food
they leave, out of the mother's way; at the same time give water
in a shallow vessel.
After two days, if the weather is fine, set the turkey in a coop
on the gravel or short grass, during the bright part of the day,
feeding her with coarse porridge, boiled Potatoes, and water, and
the poults with the chopped egg. Confine them to the house if
foul weather threatens. A week of fine weather will make them
strong enough to follow the mother, and she can then have her liberty; the poults will begin to pick up insects, and will thrive and
638 
THE FARM.
grow astonishingly.  The turkey is a very careful protector of her
young, and you need have no hesitation in trusting them to her as
soon as they are able to run about.
The goose is more difficult to manage. Not only must she be
impregnated for each egg, but impregnation can only be effected in
the water; and when she shows signs of laying, she must be caught
every morning before she leaves the house, and felt, to learn if the
egg is hard and ready to come away. If it is, confine her till she
lays, then let her go; remove the egg to a dry place and turn it
carefully every day. When she is ready to set make a low nest
for her, and manage like a hen or turkey.
In all these cases, when the eggs are hatched, one side of the
nest should be opened and sloped down, in order to allow the chicks
easy passage to and fro.
Let the goose go off when she pleases, but keep food near, dry
boiled Potato, Barley porridge, and Oats, for she easily becomes
constipated. If she run for the water when she comes off, do not
be alarmed; her feathers will not soak water, or chill the eggs, and
wrapped up in the down with which she has surrounded them, the
eggs will not cool, even though her absence be long.
If there are ganders enough, one pairs with each goose; and if
there be but one gander, although he will serve each goose, he selects one for a mate, stays by her nest, and protects her against all
intruders.
So soon as the goslings are out of the shell, even before they are
dry, if it is fair weather, take them in a basket, and the goose by
the wings, and carry them to a warm, dry spot in a Grass field, and
leave them there so long as it is clear and warm; if rain threatens,
remove at once, as the goslings must not get their backs wet for the
first 2 or 3 days; if this happens they will grow weak in the
legs and die or become worthless. In wet weather, cut a good sod
and put it near the nest; they need to peck young Grass. Set near
them a shallow plate of water, blocked up so that it cannot tip over
on to the goslings, who will certainly walk into it.
In a few days they grow strong, but for a week still need watching, for if one of them fall into a rut in a cart track, or is caught
in a tuft of Grass and turned upon its back, it cannot right itself,
639 
JUNE.
and the mother marches off and leaves it to die. After three days
of sunny weather the goslings may be allowed to go to the pond.
At the week's end they will be out of danger, and if well fed will
grow rapidly.
If these directions for rearing fowls are followed, they will give
good broods. Hasty as they are, they must suffice. For accounts
of fancy breeds and their management, you must consult special
treatises.
The early broods of chickens often hatch in April, and then the
hen rears another brood in the fall. It is the earliest and latest
broods which are most valuable; of course they are also the most
troublesome. The very early chicks will often lay in the succeeding winter.
The important things in a henhouse are warmth, good ventilation, and light; and without plenty of good care you cannot have
plenty of eggs. The demand for poultry is enormous. Thousands
of tons are consumed in our large cities every winter, and for that
which is well grown and well prepared for the market, very remunerative prices may be got.
But very few persons understand, how to prepare poultry for
market, and, as a consequence, it comes in a bruised and uninviting
condition, and commands but a low price.
The proper method is to hang the fowl up by the legs, open a
vein in the throat, and allow it to bleed to death. As soon as it is
dead, plunge it in boiling water for a few minutes, long enough to
heat the fat just under the skin, lay it under a thick covering to
steam and loosen the feathers; then withdraw, pick carefully, again
plunge in hot water, immediately withdraw; the skin will then
have a rich oily appearance; dry and cool. Never draw fowls;
they do not keep as well, or sell for as much as the undrawn.
Pack in roomy boxes; put under each layer a little soft Straw,
or wrap each bird in paper, which is better; fill the box tight with
birds and paper; then screw on the cover, and send to market.
Your poultry will command several cents per pound more than if
put up in the common way.
SUMMER CULTURE Or ROOT CROPS. -To return to the farm.
Press forward the planting as rapidly as possible. By the middle
640
'6 
THE FARlM.
of the month the Corn will be fit for the first hoeing; if it is very
weedy and heavy, send the horse-plough through the rows each way,
turning the soil from the Corn. Then, if the soil is not well pulverized, send the cultivator through in the  same way, which will
spread the earth out level again. If the land is in fair condition,
and not stony, send the cultivator first, or better still, the horse-hloe.
This is the best tool which can be used in common land, not too
stony.
When the team comes out, let the men go in with hoes, and cut
away all the weeds from about the Corn. Cut out or pull up all
but four stalks, and then draw up the loose earth about the young
stalks. If the land is in good condition, this can be done rapidly
and easily.
Never hill the Corn. If the land is wet, and you think to drain
it by hilling, you will be disappointed; the land must be drained.
The only result of hilling will be to loosen the hold which the Corn
has on the soil.  Corn sends out aerial rootlets as it grows.  If it
is hilled, these roots go into the loose earth of the hill and get no
firm hold; if there is no hill, they descend to the firm earth and
strengthen the plant.  Some of the roots of Corn spread near the
surface; if it is hilled, these go into the hill and get no hold.
Treat Potatoes in the same way, only drawing earth enough
about their roots to secure a covering for the tubers as they grow,
for any that are exposed to the sun become worthless. But even
Potatoes should not be hilled much.
54-,
641 
JUNE.
The only difference in managing other crops is, that for most of
them the horse-hoe and the cultivator should be used, instead of
the plough. These two tools will leave little to be done by the
hand-hoe, in land which has been well tilled; the hoer need only
go over the field, and clear away the few weeds which escaped the
machines. The cost of cultivating by horse power is small,$1.00 to $1.50 per acre.
In cultivating the Root crop, the Radishes will mark the rows
and guide the boy who leads the horse. As soon as the cultivator
or horse-hoe has opened the rows, the men should follow with hoes,
and thin the Roots to the proper distance: 8 inches for Carrots;
9 for Parsnips; 10 to 12 for Ruta Bagas; 12 to 14 for Mangold
Wurzel. Leave wider gaps, rather than smaller than these.
The" singling" or thinning may be done rapidly and surely by
hoes, with a little practice; any man who can chop wood well,
striking surely where he aims, can thin Roots. He must walk
down the row sidewise, facing the row to be thinned.  If his hoe
is 4 inches wide, two blows will thin the plants to 8 inches, three
blows to 12 inches. The remaining plants will fall over when deprived of the accustomed support from their neighbors, but will
soon revive if the hoe has not touched them. Another man should
follow the singler, and cut away any weeds which remain, and
draw with the hoe a very little earth about the plants that are to
stand. By the next day all these will revive.
The horse-hoe should go through the rows again as soon as the
weeds show, and if many weeds have started among the plants
they must be hoed by hand; after which the roots will outgrow
and smother all weeds, and cover the ground too closely to allow
any new ones to start.
If there is any market for the Radishes, or if the stock will eat
them, they may be drawn after the horse-hoe has marked the rows,
and before the Roots are singled. If there is a market near, Radishes will generally pay more than the expense of their seed, and
the trouble of drawing, washing, and tying in bundles.
Carrots, Parsnips, and Beets, may be sowed early in the month,
Ruta Bagas and Mangold Wurzel from the 20th June to the 20th
July.
642 
THE FARM.
For Mangold Wurzel and Ruta Bagas, well-ploughed, inverted
sod will answer very well, particularly if ploughed with the Michigan plough. Parsnips and Carrots thrive on a sod well turned
with the Michigan plough, where the subsoil plough is also used.
But for all these crops stubble land is best, as their roots penetrate
very deep, and unless the sod is so placed as to rot rapidly, they
will not thrive, and a deep soil, as shown by the cut, is a sine qu(
non for successful Root culture.
ffiffi M>fflffi                ~~x      ffi
~> ~<~~~~ffi~~~ ~
I do not recommend for any of these crops that the land be cul*-ivated in ridges.  It is a practice brought from England, where
rains are frequent, and the water must be hastened in its flow
rom the surface; we rarely have too much water, and wet land
should not be devoted to this crop.
643 
JUNE.
The rows of Carrots and Parsnips should be 20 inches apart,
those of Ruta Bagas and Beets, 27 inches to 32 inches apart.
As these crops are not to be sowed till late, the ground on which
they are to grow, whether stubble or sod, should be ploughed in
the fall, or very early in the spring. Plough as early as possible,
and leave it in the furrow.  In June, there will be a good crop of
weeds; cross plough and harrow thoroughly.  Be  sure that all
your rows are perfectly straight. If you do not use a drill which
will sow the seed and the artificial manure together, sow for Carrots, Parsnips, and Mangold Wurzel, 200 pounds guano or superphosphate to the acre; for Ruta Bagas, and other Turnips, 400
pounds bones, or 200 pounds guano or superphosphate, and then
harrow. If the seed and manure are sown together from a drill,
harrow first.  When  the manure is sowed broadcast, the seed
should be sowed from a seed sower, which should be set for the
kind of seed used. Secure a stick at right angles to the line of
draught, and hang from its end a piece of heavy chain, which
will mark on the soft earth a line parallel to the first row sowed
by the sower or drill.  Let the machine be drawn straight through
the field in the line of the feering-poles, and return in the line
marked by the chain.
The seed of Mangold Wurzel, if good, need not be sowed nearer
than 6 inches; 4 inches is proper for good Ruta Baga. Carrot
seed being generally poor, may be sowed 2 inches apart; Parsnips
the same.  To sow an acre, you need'31  pounds of Carrot seed,
4 of Parsnips, 221 to 3 of Ruta Bagas, 3 to 6 of Mangold Wurzel.
For the latter, sow 500 to 1,000 pounds salt, broadcast. This crop
has not been grown so extensively in this country as the others.
The Englishl plan of throwing the land into ridges, which has been
found unnecessary for the other Roots, after trial, will undoubtedly
be rejected in the case of Mangold, though it is recommended for it
now.
The English farmers, whose Roots are in drills, find it a good
plan to go over the rows and draw the earth from the roots, that it
may not cramp them, as they get most of their size above the sur face. Should it be found that they are thus cramped when sown
644 
THE FARM.
flat, the plough could be run through the rows at the time of second hoeing, leaving the share close to the row, throwing the earth
out a little into the middle; but it is doubtful whether the gain
would pay for the trouble.
With sowing the Root crops the June planting ends, unless
Millet is planted for fodder, which may be done as late as lst
July.
The Grass of the lawn should be cut with the lawn mowing
machine at least twice in June, and may be fed green to the cows.,
or made into Hay. Other Grass will not be cut till July, as in a
well-managed rotation there is no June Grass.
You may begin to cut Corn fodder as soon as the Rye is gone,
if the Corn is large enough; if not, the lawn Grass will supply its
place for awhile.
If you have any leisure, draw muck and other waste material
to the yard, for compost.  It would be a good plan never to return
to the barn at noon or night without a load of some such material;
in this way a large accumulation may be made at no expense.
Tie up the cows every night in the stable, and open all the windows and the upper half of the doors, for ventilation. The cows
will be just as cool as if in the yard, and the manure will be
saved.
Remember to keep the fowls close, else they will do much mischief.
645 
'CHAPTER LXX.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
I SHALL not enter into details with regard to making a proper plan
for the improvement of your place, for as I have said, this is properly the work of the landscape gardener. Justice cannot be done
to the subject in the limits of this book, and were it to be written
out with all possible minuteness, there would be left unsaid much
that can only be learned from experience.
Before making a plan, the landscape gardener will require a
careful topographical survey of your place, which shall show exactly the boundaries, the situation of the buildings, of all prominent single trees, of all groups of trees, hills, valleys and the
general changes of surface, the water-courses, springs, and ponds;
and which shall give the levels of so much of the land as it may
be necessary to operate on. And before this is made, he should
himself walk over the place with you, and say what he thinks it
well to do; and if he does not make his own survey, should carefully point out to the surveyor what he wants included in the
survey. An accurate survey and a large amount of levelling are
as important to the value of your plan, as for the plan of a railroad.
If your house is standing on your place, your adviser should go in
and acquaint himself with the views from the windows, in order to
know what objects it is desirable to show and what to conceal.
This preliminary survey will be expensive, but yet the cheapest
thing for which you spend money in beautifying your place. On
the plan, or a copy of it, the artist will lay down the improvements
proposed; the plan of improvements will be made to a scale, and
when carried into effect, the plan will fit the grounds, and mean
what it appears to mean on paper.
The important features in your improvements are:
646
I. 
ORNAMENTAL.
1st. The point of entrance and the management of the approach.
2nd.  The location and treatment of water, artificial or natural
and the proper amount of drainage.
3rd. The location of flower-beds or flower-gardens.
4th. The location of kitchen-garden.
5th. The location of greenhouse, conservatory, grapery, and
garden structures.
6th. The drive or walk.
By this name I designate a road or path which may carry one
naturally and easily about the whole place in such a way as to display its beauty and open that of the surrounding country. If the
place is large enough I should always make  this path at least 12
feet wide, and 15 is better, to allow the passage of a large carriage.
But if the limits do not allow of a carriage road, carry a footpath
about so much of the place as it is desirable to visit, taking care
not to cut up the surface more than is necessary, but to leave the
land in as large masses as possible. Never curve or distort it
merely to gain length, never curve it where it would be better
straight, and never make it straight where a curve would have more
beauty, or would display the surface to better advantage. But I
have already said enough about paths and avenues.
The situations of the various comforts and ornaments mentioned
will depend on circumstances, which cannot be readily foreseen.
In our selection of sites we must be guided by the general principles already laid down.
LAWNS.- In the fall I spoke of the necessity of thorough cultivation to a good lawn; but I do not consider that it is necessary to
cultivate a lawn for a year or two in a hoed crop in order to reduce
the soil to the fine condition best appreciated by grass. A beautiful and permanently satisfactory lawn may be made in a single
season and economically, however rough the surface.
If you wish for a lawn this summer it will be necessary to grub
and trench the surface, carefully throwing out all roots and stones,
and mixing the manure as described in September. I think it unquestionable that a lawn well made and manured from the rough
647 
JUNE.
sod, from a bushy pasture or a forest, if well drained would be better than when first cultivated, for the crop we take off generally removes quite as much as it adds, if not more, whilst the after culture is the same in both cases.
Suppose a beginning to be made with a rough bush pasture, a
piece of forest or a grass field. If you wish to kill the trees and
bushes before you remove them, it is best to cut them in June or
August, and burn them. Open a trench as before, and as you
trench leave on the surface every rock and root. By trenching
deep you can get under and around the roots, and take them out
more easily. Before this or at the same time, cut the proper drains.
If you begin with a good force of men as soon as the fiost is out
of the ground, the work may be done by the middle of May.
Cart the manure on to the field as the work goes on, and pile it,
so that you can spread and dig it into the trenches. When the
land is all ready, harrow or rake in a couple of hundred pounds of
super-phosphate or guano  and gypsum, with the Grass seed, and
either three-fourths of a bushel of Spring Rye, a bushel of Oats, or
three-fourths of a bushel of Barley to the acre. If the land is light,
roll it. The Grain will be very thinly spread, and will germinate
about the same time as the grass. When it is 2 inches high, as it
will be in a fortnight, the whole lawn will be a rich green color.  In
a month it will be a foot high, and the young Grass among it fairly
green. Send a mower over it, and cut the Grain rather high above
the surface, say 2 to 3 inches. It will then start again, and although
it will not grow so fast as before, in another month it will be fit to
cut again.  And though it is then July, the Grass will be strong
and green, and in August or September the whole may be cut a
third time.
Or, instead of sowing Grass when you plant Grain, sow the Grain
more thickly (2 to 3 bushels per acre), and let it grow till it is 2 to
3 feet high; then roll it down and plough it well under with a deep
tiller plough. The ground will then have been green from within
a week of the sowing till the time of ploulghing under.  In either
case, after rolling, and before ploughing, spread 20 bushels of lime
to the acre on argillaceous, loamy, or sandy land, which will both
enrich the land and hasten the decay of the green crop; harrow
648 
ORNAMENTAL.
the land immediately, and either sow the Grass seed alone, or with
Millet, 10 to 15 quarts to the acre; the Millet will be up in a
week, and make the field green again; cut it for fodder as soon as
it is high enough, or leave it for Hay. It will not cure properly
unless cut by the middle of August or the very first of September,
on account of its great succulence. Very few fodder crops give as
good return as Millet. It may be sowed as late as the middle of
July, and will throw up a fodder crop in August or September, of
3 or 4 tons of dry Hay. But remember that if you take this crop,
you exhaust the land in proportion.
In either of these ways you may have a green lawn during the
whole season, with the exception of an interval of two or three
weeks, and I think either of them better than the Corn and Potato
system.
When land is poor, and good manure is scarce, a different system
should prevail. Dig and trench thoroughly as soon as the frost is
gone, and sow Spring Grain of any kind very thickly. As soon as
the Grain is in blossom, dig or plough it in together with lime (5
to 150 bushels lime to the acre; the larger amount if the land
needs it, and has had none for years; oyster-shell lime is best);
sow Grain again, Buckwheat, Oats, or Millet, and when that is
well grown and presents a fair sward, plough it in; and manure
each time with 300 to 500 lbs. guano to the acre; after the second
time sow for a permanent lawn.
These methods of making a lawn are more expensive than Corn
and Potatoes, but quicker and thorough; you are not laying down
a Grass field; and remember always that no permanent evergreen,
summer, and satisfactory lawn can be made unless the work is
done thoroughly and deeply, and with a liberal expenditure. Made
in this complete manner, a lawn will defy all ordinary vicissitudes
for 10 or 15 years. It should be top-dressed spring and fall, with
well-rotted stable manure, guano, ground bones, super-phosphate, or
wood ashes.
Two divisions of the ornamental treatment of our place have
been untouched, or barely referred to: Water and Plantations.
They will be spoken of in the two months which yet remain.
55
649
w 
JUNE.
During June our grounds will need some attention. All the permanent lawn should be mowed once or twice during the month.
The walks must be constantly examined, to free them from weeds,
and repair the damages from storms.
Watch the growth of the vines on the arbors and trellises, and
train every shoot before it gets the wrong direction, or is too long
to be bent.  It is not too late to set out Madeira vines and Miaurandya, which have been started in hotbeds, to cover naked spots.
Mluch variety may be produced in prominent situations, by setting
down wire baskets on to the turf, cutting out the sward inside the
basket, and planting there greenhouse or bedding plants, Roses, etc.
In the same way portable trellises of wire, of low dwarf, fantastic
shapes, may be set about in appropriate spots, for Madeira, MAlaurandia, Ipomea, and the other vines which have been started before.
When these vines are used in wire baskets they both screen and
ornament them by twining in and out.
June is the month for the purest delight in nature, and, busy as
the farmer is, he may have ample time for enjoyment. No month
is so rich in Nature's bounties. The fields are so yellow with Buttercups, that they seem to reflect the sun, whilst the air is vocal
with the song of birds; now the days are at their longest, as
though it were intended that there should be time for all men
to do their fair share of work, and yet enjoy the beauty about
them.   Whoever is deaf to June, insensible to her promises
and delights, is to be pitied, and it is in vain to appeal to him
to become either the best farmer, or the best man. The generous
promises and opportunities of this beautiful month are more
worthily expressed in the following lines, by James Russell
Lowell, in the "Vision of Sir Lanufal," than in any other words
in verse or prose: -
"There is no price set on the lavish summer,
And June may be had by the poorest comer
"And what is so rare as a day in June?
Then, if ever, come perfect days,
Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune,
And over it softly, her warm ear lays;
650 
ORNAMENTAL.
Whether we look, or whether we listen,
We hear life murmur, or see it glisten;
Every clod feels a stir of might,
An instinct within it, that reaches and towers,
And, grasping blindly above it for light,
Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers;
The flush of life may well be seen
Thrilling back over hills and valleys;
The Cowslip startles in meadows green,
The Buttercup catches the sun in its chalice,
And there's never a leaf or a blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace;
The little bird sits at his door in the sun,
Atilt like a blossom among the leaves,
And lets his illumined being o'errun
With the deluge of summer it receives;
His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings,
And the heart in her dumb breast, flutters and sings;
He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest,
In the nice ear of Nature, which song is the best?
Now is the high-tide of the year,
And whatever of life hath ebbed away,
Comes flooding back, with a ripply cheer,
Into every bare inlet, and creek, and bay;
Now the heart is so full that a drop overfills it,
We are happy now, because God so wills it;
No matter how barren the past may have been,
'Tis enough for us now that the leaves are green.
We sit in the warm shade and feel right well;
How the sap creeps up, and the blossoms swell;
We may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing,
That skies are clear, and grass is growing;
The breeze comes whispering in our ear,
That Dandelions are blossoming near,
That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing,
That the river is bluer than the sky,
That the robin is plastering his house hard by;
And if the breeze kept the good news back,
For other couriers we should not lack;
We could guess it all by yon heifer's lowing,And hark! how clear bold chanticleer,
Warmed with the new wind of the year,
Tells all in his lusty crowing.
651 
JUNE.
"Joy comes, grief goes, we know not how;
Every thing is happy now, -
Every thing is upward striving;
'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true,
As for grass to be green, or skies to be blue,'Tis the natural way of living."
652 
CHAPTER LXXI.
GREENHOUSE, CONSERVATORY, ETC.
ULY. - The cuttings, layers, etc., for the fall
stock of plants, must receive constant attention;
' some will be well rooted for repotting, others
must continue in the frames and seedbeds.
The  sleep of the plants still continues, or
rather, is now at its depth; to pursue the nat:~~ FFural analogy, it is now midwinter for them.
Pelargoniums are now out of blossom; cut back, make cuttings,
and repot as directed before. Towards the last of the month, begin to repot the plants which need it, and whose growth has recommenced, and re-adjust plants, giving fresh earth when needed.
Examine the buds on the Oranges and other budded plants, and
when they have well taken, cut them down.
Pot Roses and plunge them in the earth, or set in cold frames
till fall. Make cuttings, and repot Neapolitan Violets; make cuttings of Azalea.
Contintie to give abundant water to the plants and bulbs in flower
in the greenhouse and conservatory, and pay strict attention to fruit
in the graperies.
The retarding-house will be in its vigorous young growth now,
and must not be neglected. Continue to propagate for the fall,
sowing seeds of Mignonette, etc.
The Polyanthus, Primrose, and other seeds which were sown
last fall, are now to be potted off for fall flowers.
Give occasional waterings when necessary, to layers of Pinks,
etc. Well-rooted Chrysanthemums will need potting; sow seeds
of Cineraria.
55*
653 
CHAPTER LXXII.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
WORK and enjoyment share this month in the flower-garden.
Remove all weeds as soon as visible; take up the bulbs as soon
as ripe enough; pick off decaying leaves from Auriculas, Ranunculuses, etc., as they injure the plants if left; assort, dry, and lay
aside the seedling Ranunculuses and Anemones.
The rosary will be in splendid condition the first of the month.
As the plants go out of blossom, cut off the hips, and cut back Perpetuals for a new growth.
Verbenas will have begun to run in the beds, and should be
pinned so as to fill out any shapes you please.
Geraniums will grow strong and rapidly. They must be followed daily and trained gradually; if carefully managed, they can
be made to cover their beds entirely, and will be a mass of brilliant
flowers in August.
Heliotropes may be trained and pinned down, but do not need it
as much as Geraniums; they make more pliable shoots, which
naturally incline to weep and cover the earth.
Salvias are easily trained so as to cover the beds. In July most
of this work must be done, as the bending should begin with their
growth and be concurrent with it. For the smaller plants, old
rusty or imperfect hair-pins are excellent for fastening the shoots to
the earth; they can be bought very cheap by the hundred. The
stronger plants, like Salvia and Geranium, need long forked sticks,
such as for layering.
Many annuals, like Cacalia, Mignonette, and others, weep readily
and cover the ground, but others must be trained.
The reserve garden must be carefully cultivated in July, to give
succession plants for August.
Carnations and Picotees will be in blossom now, and if there is a
654 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
good collection, they will give a brilliancy to their section of the
garden, second only to that of the Roses.
The variety of Carnations is very great, and as I have before
said, the common kinds are beautiful and desirable, and by sowing
the seeds, charming collections may be made, though only of common kinds. The choice varieties, which are the result of long and
careful culture, you can hardly expect to get once in a hundred
times. They are increased in numbers from pipings and layers.
"Carnations are divided into three classes: Flakes, Bizarres, and
Picotees. Flakes have but two colors, and the stripes are large,
going quite through the petals.  Bizarres are variegated in irregular spots and stripes, and with not less than three colors. Picotees have a white ground, spotted or pounced with scarlet, red,
purple, and other colors. These are again divided into Pink Flake,
Purple Flake, etc., Scarlet Bizarre, Crimson Bizarre, etc., Purple
Picotee, Yellow Picotee, etc."
These varieties are best grown from layers.  Begin to layer the
last of July or first of August, or when just in flower, that they
may get well rooted before winter. Lay them in the ground, to
be afterwards potted; if left too long, the wood does not strike so
readily. Before layering, water the plants well; then take the
shoot to be layered in hand; cut off all the lower leaves, leaving
a few on the upper part; with a sharp knife cut into the stem below a convenient joint, and up through a joint; then bend down
and treat like other layers. It is well to cut off the tongue of the
layer, back to the joint, as it has to decay before the joint will callus or emit roots. The layers should be covered with about two
inches of good compost. Do not water for a day or two, as the
tongue should dry a little.
If there is more grass (technical term for young shoots) than
can be conveniently layered, make cuttings or pipings of them.
Cuttings will take most certainly if set into a dungbed of moderate heat, and if any cuttings upon potting have callused and not
rooted, if removed to a fresh hotbed, with a stronger heat, they
will strike.
The best soil for them is well-rotted turf from an old pasture.
A  soil recommended by Hogg, is, "Two barrows light loam, one
655 
JULY.
of leaf mould, one of old firame dung, half a barrow of old cow
dung, and a quarter of a barrow of river sand."
When they are to be blossomed in pots, they are potted for the
last time in March, in 11 inch pots. Let the soil be dry for a few
days before shifting; set them into a dry and somewhat shaded
place, and water moderately at first through the rose of the watering-pot. Tie the flower shoots up neatly to small green rods, or
to stiff copper wire.
As the buds appear, cut out some, to insure the perfect development of the remainder.  As they approach blooming, care must
be taken that they do not break the calyx irregularly. All Pinks
are very apt to split one side of the calyx, when the petals burst
through the opening, and this spoils the beauty of the flower.  To
prevent this, when the petals first show, tie a thread, or better, slip
an India rubber band round the top of the calyx; then with a
sharp knife cut slightly the notches between its divisions. The
edge of this notch is hard, and it is the difficulty of breaking it
regularly that causes the flower to split one side.  If cut a little,
there will be no trouble.
Great care must be taken that wire worms do not get into the
pots or around the young layers. If the plants are of weak-growing kinds, two may be potted for flowering into the same pot; but
only one of the stronger varieties should be allowed.
Carnations and Picotees naturally blossom in June and July; it
is difficult to force them, though the ever-blooming or tree varieties
may be forced for winter and spring. For this purpose, a year's
previous culture is necessary. After layering, induce growth, and
as the shoots lengthen, pinch them back occasionally to render the
plants stocky, and pick off buds. Treat like other plants, shifting
occasionally as they grow. They will begin the second winter full
of sap and buds, and will blossom very profusely.  They  will
blossom the winter and spring after layering, if not prevented.
When Picotees are approaching maturity, if they are to be exhibited, the beauty of the flower is shown to advantage by cutting
a broad ring of paper, and slipping it under the petals; the contrast brings out both color and form. When the petals do not lay
over regularly, they may be drawn into place with delicate ivory
656
I 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
pincers, all which will not reflex smoothly, being turned into the
centre.
"A perfect Carnation is round; the outer or guard petals should
rise perpendicularly inside the calyx, about 4 inch above it; should
then turn out at right angles and lie over it; should be thick and
uniform; from these the other petals should retreat in regular,
symmetrical circles to the centre, which should be well filled with
them. Each petal should be flat, with only slight undulations in it,
and its edge should be smooth, not fringed and rounded, without
notch or indentation. This is the most apparent distinction between Carnations and other Pinks. The border of the Picotee
petals, however, are minutely serrated. The colors should always
be pure and clearly defined."
"When the layers are well rooted, they should be potted, if not
layered into pots, and set aside in a cool place till winter, when
they should be kept in a cold pit till towards spring (see March).
The varieties of common Pinks are Grass Pinks, well known,
and often used for borders, Pheasant Eyes, and Cob Pinks. The
last are the largest, and are supposed to be a cross between the
Grass Pink and the Carnation. The early Red Pinks are probably a cross between these and the Dianthus Deltoides or Armeria.
They may be propagated by pipings and layers, like Carnations; layer rather late, (middle of August), that the plants may
not get too strong. Set the new plants in a bed, if you wish to
show a collection, raised 6 or 8 inches above the general surface of
the garden; make it of rich loamy soil 2 feet deep; set the young
plants one foot apart each way. As the winter comes on, cover
with litter; in May, open out. As they show flower stalks, either
set a stick to each, or set stout sticks round the edge of the bed,
and connect them with wire, and tie the flower stems to the wire.
When set among other plants, they must be covered with litter in
the fall, and staked singly in the blossoming season. If not tied
up they get top heavy, and often bend and break. The same care
must be taken with the calyx as with that of the Carnation.
The Grass Pinks used for borders may be propagated most
657 
JULY.
readily by slips or pipings, and if cut early in the season as May,
and set out in the border, will strike and grow readily and blossom
profusely the next year; some few even the same year. It is necessary in making such cuttings to remove some of the lower leaves,
but in no case, whether Carnation or Grass Pinks, cut off or mutilate the ends of the upper leaves of the cutting or pip.
Towards the last of the month, repot the Auriculas which are to
be repotted. During this process the roots may be divided to increase the stock.
"For full-sized plants in repotting, use pots 6 x 7 inches; for
smaller ones, seedlings and offsets, 3 x 5. In repotting, the crown
of the roots should be carefully examined, any rotten parts cut out,
and the wounds dressed with powdered wood charcoal. When
slips are taken, the cut portion of both parent and slip should be
dressed with the charcoal."
Some cultivators do not think it necessary to shake the earth
out of the roots oftener than once in three years; at other times
they shave the ball down somewhat. But as often as once in three
years, the earth should be shaken out and the roots carefully examined.
Oyster shells mixed with the drainage improve the plants. When
repotted, set into a cool place, and keep cool till toward spring, and
give them plenty of fresh air, but do not let them freeze. In February remove an inch of the top soil and replace with rather rich
compost; bring near the light and heat; by March, flower-buds
will begin to show.
Sow seeds in March for new varieties; the old plants will ripen
seeds in June and July; as soon as the leaves decay, sort out the
roots and lay them in a warm, light, and dry place, till well ripened
and dried; then keep till March.
The following is an excellent compost for Auriculas:
"Two barrows of cow dung at least two years old, a barrow of
leaf mould, one of pure light loam from an old pasture; mix
thoroughly and add silver sand enough to keep the compost open
and drainable. Before using it should be thoroughly frozen to kill
vermin."
658 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Hogg gives for compost: "1 barrow sound staple loam, 1 barrow
dried night-soil, 2 barrows dung of sheep, cows, and poultry, onefourth barrow sea sand. Leave for two years before using."
During July the earliest forced Dahlias will come into blossom;
tie up to sticks carefully; liquid manure liberally applied just as
the flowers begin to form will improve them wonderfully.
Remove all the buds which are inside the branches, and will not
show to advantage, or from their position will be deprived of light.
The other blossoms will fare all the better.
Prepare early in the month, beds of Pansies for autumn bloom.
The plants used are those which were struck from cuttings early
in the season, or were grown from seed. With care, they will
blossom till winter, and if covered with litter will begin again early
in the spring.
The natural enemies to the Pansy are the wire worm and grub,
earwigs and slugs, which may be caught in traps of hollow stems
of alder and artichoke, etc.
Should you want a few extra fine blossoms for any particular
purpose, pinch off all the blossoms before they expand, for several
days; the next will be the finer.
The best soil for Pansies is one-half bushel leaf mould, one-half
bushel cow dung, well rotted, 2 bushels decomposed turfy mould,
well sifted together and freed from worms. If the mixture is stiff,
lighten with river sand. Flowers may be cut to advantage as fast
as they appear. Plants which are kept for flowers should always
have their flowers cut off as soon as they fade; otherwise they go
to seed, and the strength of the plant is diverted.
When healthy plants, in a well-managed'garden, begin their
bloom, it is wonderful to see what a quantity of flowers they produce in a given time.  A collection of Bengal or China Roses may
have every blossom and half-opened bud cut at 4 P.M., and by the next
inorning at 8 there will be a large number of fresh buds. The same
is true of all other flowers. Verbenas and Heliotropes planted in
beds may be cut continually as long as any blossoms appear, and
cutting only increases the tendency of the plant to flower. All our
common plants blossom, as I have often said, from the new wood,
659 
JULY.
and by cutting off the shoot which bears the flower we drive out
others at its base.
I have said but little about the forms of beds in the flower-garden.
It is a subject that has been so often treated, that it seems hardly
worth while to enter upon it. Flowers are in themselves so beautiful that they always appear well; yet some attention to the forms
of beds will add to their effect.
In small places the flowers, of various kinds and sizes, should be
grouped together, for the sake of variety.   There is not room
enough to devote a large space to each kind, color, or size.  In
places where the flower-garden is extensive, the same desire ftbr
variety dictates that beds of particular colors and kinds should be
contrasted with others of mixed character.
The shape of the small beds should be simple, and that of the
larger ones marked with distinct indentations and curves, that the
plants may readily fill them out. To cover acute angles with plants,
and exclude Grass, is a very difficult matter.
The simpler the forms of the beds, the easier it is to give character and distinctness to the colors. I have already recommended
the circle, either of a single color or of concentric rings.  If the
centre is large, and filled with a light colored or white flower, with
a narrow ring of darker flowers outside, the bed will seem to rise
out of the ground from the edge to the centre, while the opposite
arrangement, that is making the outer ring the widest and lightest,
will make the bed seem hollow.
It is a poor plan to put too many flowers together in a bed. A
few, if properly managed, may be trusted to cover the ground well;
and if many are plan'ted, they are sure, as they grow, to crowd each
other and spindle up and lose their natural proportion and symmetry.
For Pansies especially, simple beds should be made, as it is desirable to see the character of the flowers, and their being varie-r
gated forbids any clear effects of color.  Verbenas  being clear
colored, may be placed in a bed of intricate shape, as the purity
of their color will preserve and define its limits.
Scarlet Geraniums give color to any shape as soon as they are
660 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
well grown. Heliotropes have a particularly good effect in large
masses. It is hardly an effect of color, abut rather of coolness.
Their blue is very cool, and has a delightful effect to the eye, even
in a hot summer's day.
Salvias are generally too large to be used for color alone. They
should be set in mixed beds, where size is an aid to color, and yet
their intense brilliancy makes them very effective, and in a large
bed, with well rounded and decided indentations, a group of them
is very fine. So, too, set at the point or edge of any group of
shrubbery to which we wish to give character, they are superior to
any other plant. The difficulty with Salvias (particularly with the
Mexican Sage, the best one for out-of-door culture), is the lateness
of the period at which they begin to blossom, generally not before
the middle or last of August, and they do not attain full perfection
before the danger of frost. In towns and cities, or in any place
well protected from frost, the Salvia is a sine qua non. Its color
grows more brilliant as the cold weather comes on, and when October is in its glory, the Salvia rivals the trees.
The difference of temperature between towns or cities and the
country is very decided, and hardly credible, even when we make
allowance for the increase of heat caused by the collection of men
and animals, and by the fire heat from house chimneys and manufactories. Most of the tender pillar Roses could be grown to perfection in the sunny court-yards of city houses, while they would
never grow to be more than shrubs in out-of-town gardens, and I
have often seen groups of tender exotics, in the front areas in cities,
in November, in full bloom, when in the country they have been
gone for a month.
The Heliotrope is as susceptible to frosts as the Salvia, but it
blossoms so much earlier that they do not interfere with it materially.
A  very beautiful annual bedding plant is the Gilia-tricoloi.
Plant the seeds in May, and it will grow with rapidity, blossoming
but little until the last of August; it will then flower profusely, and
the colder the weather, until the ground freezes up, the larger and
more fragrant the flowers; whilst a bunch of Gilia in November
56
661
LS-F 
JULY.
will fill a room with its delicate and spicy odor. During warm
weather the fragrance is hardly perceptible.
The Lobelia is a very pretty bedding plant. I mean the blue
and purple kinds. The L. Cardinalis is a tall growing, splendid
crimson flower, and should be planted among other flowers, but the
other Lobelias may be set to fill beds by themselves, or be used to
fringe taller plants. They are sufficiently different in color from
the Heliotrope to contrast well with it, and they, too, last till very
cold weather.
Nemophila is well known and much praised as an annual bedding plant. It needs a moist, rich soil, and must be carefully
nursed to yield a large supply of flowers. It is better as a pot
than a garden plant.
Nierembergia is recommended for bedding out. I do not like it
for that purpose, but find it capital to plant among stones and rocks
and to use as a hanging plant.
Candytuft may be used for bedding out in a succession-bed very
well. The yellow grows tall, and has a curious, orange blossom,
larger than that of any of the others. The white, purple, and
crimson, planted in concentric circles produce a very rich effect.
The plants must not be crowded, but set from 4 to 6 inches apart
each way. The seed vessels must be cut off before they grow.
A Candytuft bed does not remain in full bloom more than three
weeks. It is a good plant to set in a bed as the bulbs are passing away, where the bulbs are to be reset in September, when the
glory of the Candytuft is gone.
Do not neglect Petunias. They are such strong and coarse growing plants that we might at first doubt the possibility of getting
much color from them, but they may be relied upon for that purpose, and for a long time. Do not get mixed seed, except for
planting in a mixed bed. They are not good for small beds, and
attain their full beauty only in the mixed bed, where they may be
allowed to fringe some plants, and hang their blossoms over the
edging, on the grass. They gain fragrance as the weather grows
cold, particularly the white, and give it off freely on the cool
nights of September, when they may be perceived at a great distance.
Calceolarias are very good bedding plants for the mixed bed, as
662 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
they are inclined to be tall, but few of them will bear the heat of
our suns and the dry summers; the common yellow is a very good
variety; the flowers are small, but have a fine color.
Ageratum may be planted from seed each year, or started in the
greenhouse and hotbed; it may be pinned down in a separate bed,
or be grown in the mixed bed, where it properly belongs. It is in
full blossom towards the last of the season, and continues so till
hard frost.
Anagallis is a pretty flower and may be used like Lobelia; get
it from seed in the hotbed.
Cuphea is much used for bedding; more for the color of its
leaves, which are a dark, reddish green, than for its flowers, which
though red, are insignificant.
Cinerarias are not as good for the garden as for the greenhouse,
but they may be used in beds by themselves, and allowed to grow
as high as 18 inches. Their shape and colors would allow of very
brilliant effects. They are however averse to the dry heat of our
summers and require a great deal of nursing.
Lantanas are excellent bedding plants. L. Sellowii is light pink,
low growing and excellent for covering the ground with flowers.
The orange, pink, and yellow Lantana is a large and coarser
growing plant, and unless carefully pinned down should be set in
the mixed bed.
The Maurandyas, purple and white, are vines, and very graceful over low wire trellises and screens. The flowers and foliage
are both fine, and they begin to blossom as soon as they grow.
Several varieties of Mimulus are excellent for the mixed beds
and for separate beds, when allowed to grow up 18 inches. M.
atroroseus, dark rose; M. lanigii, salmon rose; M. lateritus, buff
orange; M. pictus, rich crimson.  If well managed they remain
in blossom for a long time.
The varieties of Nasturtium hardly need to be described; their
colors range from light yellow to deep crimson. The Tropeolum is
of this family, its flowers are small and abundant.
Antirrhinums are not enough known or appreciated; they grow
from 18 inches to 2 feet high, are hardy, and seed should be planted
in August for the next year. Cover for the winter. Their colors
663 
JULY.
are varied, some pure, some mottled and striped. Planted in
masses they look well. The best varieties are propagated by cuttings as well as seeds, and it is only in this way that we can be
sure of their color. They should be potted before winter sets in,
and kept over in cold pits; give light and air in spring, and start a
moderate growth under the sashes before setting out. They continue in blossom for a long time; there are catalogues containing
the names of a great number of varieties valuable for form or
color.
An admirable mode of planting these flowers is in a round bed
set about 1 foot apart in alternate rows, in concentric circles, either
darkest in the centre and shading to a white edge, or the reverse,
producing the effect I have before mentioned. The illusion could be
increased by having the darkest plants the lowest, and gradually
increasing the height through the different shades. When in flower
the green leaves are below, and the bright colors of the blossoms
alone show on the surface.
In selecting Geraniums, be careful to get those which are sunhardy. All the Tom Thumbs and Horseshoes will bear the sun,
also the Rose Geranium; one or two of the variegated-leaved species are hardy, but their value is not in the bed, but as shrubs or
among shrubbery where their green and white leaves are relieved
against other foliage.  The lemon-scented Geranium is of value as
a green, for its fragrance. The oak-leaved, sage, and nutmeg, and
others with fiagrant leaves endure the sun very well, but all the
choice fancy kinds are too tender.
The question may be asked what difference in planting there
should be between the single and the mixed beds.
In the single beds all the plants should be of the same height
and shade of color. When a house is elevated on a broad esplanade, which gives room for flower-beds, they should be of this character. Directions for making them in the lawn or garden have
already been given.
The mixed bed demands a mixture of colors and a variety of
sizes, and permits the mingling of different plants of the same
color or size, in the same mass. Thus to get a mass or band of
crimson or red, we may mix together, Geranium, Antirrhinum,
664 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Salvia, Candytuft, Lobelia cardinalis, etc.  For blue or purple,
Heliotrope, Candytuft, Lobelia, Antirrhinum, Ageratum, etc. For
orange, Candytuft; for yellow, Antirrhinum, Calceolaria, Yellow
Flax; for white, Candytuft, Petunia, Sweet Alyssum, Antirrhinum.
Mixed beds are generally more desirable than single ones, as the
latter are difficult to keep in perfection for any length of time, and
in our flower-garden I have therefore made use of them.
It is not unusual for those laying out flower-gardens to copy designs from books, forgetting that such designs, if ever good for any
thing, were intended originally to suit certain peculiar localities, and
that they cannot properly be transferred to different ones.  Unless
you not only make your bed the same shape with the original one,
and plant it with exactly the same plants, but also make its surface
and surroundings the same, and the point of view from which it is
seen, you cannot expect to attain the intended result.
Sometimes designs are made up with directions for staking,
planting, etc. At one time a man made a large sale about Boston
of separate patterns of this kind. Such plans are nearly worthless,
not only for the reasons above stated, but because they are generally too intricate to be used to any advantage in ordinary gardens.
They are copied from the geometrical plans of European gardens,
which were made up without regard to cost, and very probably,
also, with little regard to taste, intended merely as accessories to
some extensive place, and wholly subordinate to some grand architectural design. Probably much of the plan was worked out with
colored stones and gravel. Then, too, such elaborate designs require perfectly level ground, while generally the beauty of a
flower-garden is much increased by unevenness and irregularities of surface.
So that a design which looks very pretty on paper, and may
have been well enough and harmonious in its original position, will
be often stiff, awkward, and bad when transferred to another, and
would be condemned even by its designer.
It seems a simple thing to design a group of beds, and so perhaps
it is, but it is not so easy to adapt such a group to any particular
spot.
56*
665
w —
v 
JULY.
Designs for Rose-gardens, or rosariums, stand in rather a different position from those for other flower-beds, and I shall give some,
as I promised in June. In these the exhibition of the single plants
with their peculiarities, and of the full beauty of their blossoms, is
the great object; accordingly the general effects of form and color
in the mass, are of secondary importance. Roses in themselves
are eminently graceful, even when elevated on standards, yet
often the most formal groupings are necessary to show them to
the best advantage; the combination or group varying with the
especial effect to be produced.
~
-~~
>4         LYF:i;(3;~-   -
I               ~
In a general collection of shrubs we seek for a tout ensemble to
which color, form, variety of foliage all conduce; but in a collection of Roses intended to do justice to individuals particular
care must be taken to bring together only those plants which are
especially able by color or habit of growth to develop the peculiar excellencies of the other members of the group.
666
No. 1. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
The most remarkable Rose-garden in the world, considering its
size and publicity, and the number of specimens, is the Jardin du
Luxemboury, at Paris. It is depressed below the public promenade,
so that it lies beneath the eye of the visitor, and the flowers are
massed with a view to this fact. The Roses are planted in long
parallel beds, edged with Box, 7 feet wide, containing two rows of
plants, dwarfs and standards alternating, and the dwarf of one row
e4o'i ~'l
8 s   t 9\ e  N  1   *2~i   ~ q    /      fl 
Jlrq X  4bei1 It X  eA,V
v     ol @@.Eg  
R t- T-  -  X
S~~~                                    ___;;>~~~~~~;~~;D    S   A
a)A~ n/  < 1,ia   efcQ
~  /@  s.P-W   2@                                     qS
44\           A c         J                     J{
%  ts9/ytt!Sl~q~ss
(IS iAi84q;s,N i4I                0951    s
,9.X           \
I~e}X~                            Bee
5Cl.!    * 1    A,   &    i         s.*i ld6
No. 2.
"I'll.,,,,., t
667
a 
JULY.
corresponding in position to the standard of the other. In this garden there are 1,800 specimens.
The  ground plan, No. 1, taken from Paul's "Rose Garden,"
shows one of the Luxembourg gardens.
No. 2 is a design made for W. Paul by two distinguished English landscape gardeners.
No. 3 is another, made by the same persons, for MAr. Paul.
4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
,0  )
U q f    A
&a1.                    2'                            4,       
No. 3.
They say: "In the designs for rosariums we have arranged the
whole of the beds and standard Roses as near each other as they
should be placed, even in the most limited situations; but in situations where a little more space of lawn can be allowed, it will be
better to keep them more apart."
"The arcades a b, in No. 2, a a, in No. 3, are for the purpose of
exhibiting climbing Roses, which, we need not say, will produce a
very imposing effect." b, in No. 3, an aviary; c c, covered seats;
I
668
o?....~,~.....?
'F'5 36          48                 IF.8 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
d d d d, Weeping Roses, the outside of both surrounded with
shrubs. " In order to make the rosarium as interesting as possible,
the beds might be planted with bulbs to precede, and annuals to
succeed, the Roses."
Nos. 4 and 5 are ground plan and elevation of a Rose-garden of
John Warner, Esq., at Hoddesdon.
"The earth in the four
beds which compose the
inner circle is raised about
4 feet above the level of
thatwhich surrounds it, and
upon this is built a temple, the frame-work being
formed with iron rods.  It
is covered with Climbing
Roses of various kinds.
There are eight plants in
each bed. The temple is
shown when the Roses
have been pruned, but is
upon  this  is builtate~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-9m-                  
~~m D
quite covered with them in summer. The diameter of the first
circle is 26 feet, of the whole 48 feet. A hedge of Scotch Roses
surrounds the whole, over which we look upon an extensive lawn,
with various plants showing in the distance."
This is not a large garden, the whole number of Roses not exceeding 300, though I should think this number would hardly do justice to all the families. Our amateurs, who think of the prices they
669
--:.'~",~;2Z'%~' ~'" ~.1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 
JULY.
have to pay at nurseries for plants, may at first be discouraged by
this number, but by ordering such plants as they want from English or French nurseries, they may reduce the cost very much.
$20 a hundred would cover the whole expense.
I cannot say that either of the designs I have selected from Mr.
Paul's book suits me, or would, in my opinion, answer for our limited gardens. The two designs I give are very different in character. A, represents part of a plan of several acres, two of which are
devoted to house, shrubbery, rosary, and flower-garden; the latter
is formal, and in its centre is a fountain.  The flower-garden is
about 3 feet lower than the house; the walk leading to it is covered
with a wire trellis, to form an arcade, and is covered with Running
Roses. On either side of the garden the walk is guarded by posts and
chains for Weeping Roses; the index shows how the other Roses are
managed. Some, as shown in the single specimens, are planted for
general effect, without regard to families; others are arranged in
families, which are grouped together somewhat according to their
general character and resemblances. Outside the Roses are groups
of shrubs and trees. B represents a small place, whose whole area
is but one acre; it is managed upon much the same principle with
the last, and the index shows how it is planfed.
The treatment of the rosary has already been extended beyond
its proper length, in justice to other subjects, but I cannot yet leave
it. No class of plants deserves and demands more attention.
Each year new Roses are offered for sale of various degrees of
excellence; most of them originated by French growers.  The
English do something in this way, but not so much, and Americans
still less. Amateurs, accordingly, may find exercise for their time
and energy in this direction. Our nurserymen are too much occupied in forming a general collection to devote the requisite time to
improving the Rose. It is a long process; often several years from
the sowing of the seed to the attainment of the perfect flowers, and
during all the time constant care and attention is necessary.
The most promising field for effort is the production of Perpetuals. The list of these is large, but many of the specimens are of
but little value; and we are especially poor in choice wall and pillar
Roses.
670 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
F
~                 ii
~?# ~~)/~(~\ 
;;ii;i~;;~j    A
~ 
//~~~ >  
j       ii;   ~ ~            i ~
~J 
L
Ornamental Trees.
-[11 P    Roses in Chains.
Roses on House.
\/\AA/wv  Roses in Arcade.
o 0o o Roses in Combination.
Roses in Families.
A Provence Rose.
B French Rose.
C Moss Rose.
D Scotch Rose, and Aus         trian.
E Hybrid Perpetual.
F Tea Scented.
G China.
H Bourbon.
I Hybrid Bourbon.
K Hybrid China.
L Damask.
M Alba.
N Evergreen.
0 Noisette.
P Ayrshire.
671 
JULY.
Asp
1 3      1,,,,..... /                       -..
I.B,,:. 
t                     acizF   < XXj 
'    Ornamental Trees.
-     R- Roses in Chains.
........ Roses on House.
VW\MIw Roses in Arcade.
o   c   Roses in Combination.
Roses in Families.
-    Espaliers.
P    = —---- Pears.
Peaches.
A Provence Rose.
B French Rose.
C Moss Rose.
D Scotch Rose, and Austrian.
E Hybrid Perpetual.
F Tea Scented.
G Clhina.
H Bourbon.
I' Hybrid Bourbon.
K Hybrid China.
L Damask.
M Alba.
N Evergreen.
0 Noisette.
P Ayrshire.
~......Currants.
g.    -.   Gooseberries.
Raspberries.
Strawberries.
672 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Before beginning the work of producing new varieties, the amateur must have clearly before him the object he wishes to attain.
I will quote again from Mr. Paul, what are the points of excellence
to be sought.
"Habit of the trees. Form of the flowers; color, scent. Freedom, constancy, and duration of flowering.
"' Habit. The growth of a tree should be free. It is immaterial
whether pendulous, branching or erect, as all are desirable; handsome foliage is important.  The  offspring of tender Roses may be
rendered more hardy by intermixture with hardier sorts.
"Form. A Rose may be equally good whether cupped (1), globular (2), compact (3), or expanded (4). But of whichever form
it may be, the petals should be thick and smooth, and the outline
circular.
't v v
"Color. This, of whatever shade or color, should be clear and
full.   The  thick petalled Roses  usually    a 
present us with the richest tints; such are'?
therefore desirable for this reason, as well as 
on account of holding their flowers perfect
a longer time than others.  Vary the col- 
ors as much as possible. 4
"Scent. All Roses should be sweet; there
are indeed but few kinds that are scentless, though the degree
of fragrance varies much.
"Freedom, constancy, and duration of flowering.   Some  Roses
are most profuse bloomers, presenting a splendid effect on the
tree, but separate are poor and flimsy. Others produce a less quantity of flowers at one time, but a regular succession from which a
57
673 
JULY.
good Rose may be gathered at almost any time during the season
of flowering."
Then the flowers of some are very transient, lasting but a day,
others will retain their form and color for a week. These properties are inherent, for all kinds are not influenced alike by the state
of the weather.
We should seek to combine the varieties which possess the
above named qualities in an eminent degree.
The next question which arises is; do certain properties proceed
more from one parent than another? if so, which, and what are
they? It is the opinion of some vegetable physiologists that the
offspring assumes the habit and foliage of the male, while the flowers are influenced more by the female parent.
This, however, is not proved, and all such questions are to be
met and settled by each person for himself. One thing is certain,
that some varieties produce seed more freely and certainly than
others, and therefore in beginning to improve  you must plant in
light, deep, well-drained soil, in separate localities, the plants of
different varieties most inclined to produce seed. These do not require the same amount of cultivation as those which we grow for flowers; indeed they incline more to seed if not vigorously pruned.
As flower buds show, remove most of them, so as to give those
that remain a larger supply of sap, in order to ensure more perfectly developed seeds. When the bud expands, hybridize as previously directed.   After this operation shelter the impregnated
Rose from the wind and rain for a few hours; the pistil being fertilized, the Rose will soon lose its petals, and the seed vessel will
continue to grow. Give it all the care it needs for the rest of the
season, watering if there should be a drought. When the hips are
ripe, and have turned from red to black, cut them off, put them into
a glass vessel, and set it in the sun, or hang them up in paper bags
in a dry place, till they are perfectly dry. Keep dry till used.
The best way is to start the seeds in frames, but if we do not have
room to spare, the hardy varieties should be sown in the autumn,
that the hard shell may be affected by the frost; the rest should be
saved till the last of April.  Then select a place warmn and shel
67.4 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
tered, but open, well drained and airy; prepare a seed bed by
thorough spading; lay the earth into narrow beds that the middle
may be easily reached from either side. Sow the seed in drills 1
foot apart, and cover with about an inch of soil. Beat the earth
compact, and water the bed a little; strew over the bed lime or
soot to keep away slugs. Rose seeds germinate with difficulty,
some not appearing till the second year. Their germination may
be hastened by soaking in hot water, or by exposure to frost in the
bed. I should have mentioned that before sowing, the seeds must
be taken from the hips, which are often very hard and hold the
seed tenaciously, and must be broken in pieces by hand, or soaked
till they are soft enough to allow the seed to be taken out. When
the plants get above the surface, protect against birds and worms.
Watch the bed carefully, weed the rows, loosen the earth about
the young plants with a sharp, fine pointed stick, being careful not
to start the hold of their roots. Forward the growth of the seedlings in every possible way, by weeding, hoeing, and liquid manure. They will soon grow rapidly, and the foliage of each will
assume its peculiar shape, which will enable you to decide to some
extent to what family it belongs, though the flower may sometimes
contradict the leaf.
As they grow through the season, the Remontants will be very
likely to throw out flower buds. If the plant is strong, and it is
not too early in the season, let the bud develop; it will show the
color and character of the flower, though not its perfection, which
can only come after culture. But if the plant is weakly, or the
season late, pinch off the bud. The summer Roses will not show
buds for a year or two.
When the plants are well grown, by the last of summer, carefully transplant into new beds, still keeping the different varieties
separate. Transplant with care, in order not to disturb such seeds
as have not germinated. On the approach of winter, cover the
seedlings with leaves or straw, not too thickly, but enough to protect them from the sun and frost.
The next year prune somewhat, guided by the growth of the preceding year.  The Remontants will be likely to blossom in June.
If so, mark those which show most promise, and when their buds
675 
JULY.
are well established, bud into strong stocks, as the Dog Rose, or
Sweetbrier.  This will bring the Rose to perfection much sooner
than the parent plant.
You see this will be a work of several years, and after all, you
may not get any improved kinds. But you must not decide against
the seedlings until the most promising have been well manured and
cultivated for as many years as those which have been named, and
have taken high rank, as the after culture of seedlings often produces marked changes in their character.
To succeed well, the cultivator should each year plant some seed,
that there may be something coming on each year, and that there
need be no awkward gaps. Should you succeed and get a first-rate
new Rose, you not only will have the satisfaction of success, but
you may have the profit of a large pecuniary reward, for they
command high prices.
Remember always that you cannot have perfect Roses without
great care and attention. You must study varieties, and cultivate
and prune accordingly. One kind will be killed by the very treatment that will perfect another. One Rose may be forced into blossom by vigorous pruning; another would be driven by the same,
from flowers to leaves. In my first analysis of Roses, I gave some
directions forpruning the dif?~ ~/~~'       ferent families; I will now
show  you  how  MIr.  Paul
Ad,~      ~    Eprunes, premising that I have
no room to specify the vari                                    eties to which the different
kinds  of pruning  are  best
adapted;  that must  be de                                  cided by each person when
q~~~~~~ t    A?he has his Rose before him.
/~I:~4~'  t ~ ~ ~~If you buy a Rose, give it
~i~t~~~~~~  #   *a good situation and good cul                                    ture, and when it makes its
growth you can see how to
treat it.
Weeping  Roses,  like the
676 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
accompanying cut, are so beautiful that it is hard to decide between their claims and those of the Pillar Roses, of which we had
a specimen in June; and we turn from. them to such standards as
our next cut presents, bewildered at the sight of this new competitor for the palm; and for my own part, I give the preference to the
dwarf over the standard at least, and I especially wish to see naturalized the Evergreen and the Trailing Roses, which trail over
rocks and creep up tree stems as freely as Woodbine, or Celastrus
scandens.  Why should they not be grown here as well as in Enland?
The Wall Roses which we ordinarily cultivate, the Prairies and
Boursaults, are not equal  to Noisette,
Ayrshire, Multiflora, and Evergreen, for  
beauty and variety.
The  following directions for pruning,;
and plates are chiefly taken from Paul's
"Rose Garden."
Long pruning is the treatment mostly   
applied to the Hybrid Chinese, and the
vigorous varieties among the Moss, Dam- i.
ask, Noisette, and Perpetuals, which form large heads of rather
loose, but not ungraceful, growth.
Suppose that we have a standard Rose with two buds and it is
in the spring, after the buds have made their first growth. "We
shorten the shoots that remain at the termination of the dark shadow              57*
677 
JULY.
ing, a, No. 1.  Seven shoots is the greatest number that should be
suffered to remain on the young plant, and
\\>< r  /      ~generally even a smaller number is prefer                        able.  One or two should rise perpendicu                ~ A/    larly from the tree, and around this or
-<> ~~these, all others should be regularly dis                        posed, and the more equal and greater
distance that can be contrived from shoot
N~o. 1.    ~     to shoot, the better.  The shoots, whenever
they arise, should have a tendency to grow
from the centre, for if they grow towards
it, they will eventually cross each other,
forming a confused and crowded head, No. 1."
"When shortening in, the lowest shoots should, where practicable, be left the longest, and others may be shortened in closer
and closer, as we  rise. towards the summit of the tree.   The
centre branch will, from its position, command  a fine supply of
sap; it is likely that it will maintain its ascendency. Now the
shoots shortened closest will (other things being equal) produce
the strongest growth, with the greatest tendency to arise perpendicularly, and thus the head is formed as desired. In shortening
the shoot, we should insert the knife at b, on the opposite side of
the shoot to that on which the bud next below is placed, and we
should cut in a direction slanting upward, about one-eighth of an
inch above the bud."
"No. 2 represents the tree after its
second  summer's  growth.   To  prune
properly, you must not only look at the
tree, but through  it, and  from  many
points."
"It will be observed that the shoots
are left of greater length than the previous year's pruning 1st, the plant being established, will have a greater command of food from the soil. 2d, having
been put in the right course for forma
tion last year, in this pruning we have an eye for flowers. The
678
No. 2. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
centre shoot, left last year, is shortened,
in order to keep the head compact.   No.
3 is a fair illustration of a full-grown tree 
to which long pruning has been applied.
"The Damask Perpetual, the Chinese, 
the Tea-scented, the moderate-growing
French and Bourbon Roses, are to be
close pruned.   No. 4 represents a plant                  No. 3.
of this description.
"Here we have a crowded head the first
vear.  The shoots are of less length than 
before, but more numerous.  Thin as before, but less severely. The
shoots may stand closer to each other here, because those they give
birth to will be less robust and will produce
1                                                         ____
U!
smaller foliage. The shoots left after thinning, are shortened in
closer than in No. 2.  If a summer
Rose, it will not bloom the first year,
but if an  autumnal,  it will assuredly      A   d' 
bloom the first autumn, and probably
during the summer.   No. 5 represents
this tree taken from another point of
view, as it appears the next year. We
thin out in autumn, the shoots shown by                No. 6.
the single lines, and shorten where shaded,
in spring, as before. This we do, on the
supposition that it is an excitable kind; if
not, we complete the operation at once, by
679
:I
No. 5.
No. 4.
. -Z 
JULY.
shortening in the autumn."  "Most persons prefer plants budded
in two places; we have therefore given examples of such; for my
own part, I like a plant with a single bud best.  It is enough for
every purpose, and the head is more easily fashioned."
"No. 6 represents a perfect tree, which has been close pruned
for several years." It would seem that a modification of long and
close pruning would be necessary for some varieties, and so it is;
but practice alone can inform us correctly which they are. The
plan of pruning must be regulated in some measure by the object
sought. There are particular forms which Roses are capable of
taking, and they can be led into these by prun                ing and training.   No. 7 is a pillar Rose, with
five shoots.   It had only three when planted,
and these were soon  cut close to the ground,
to induce  a vigorous growth.   We  now  cut
the three shoots shown by the single lines, and
shorten the others to J; as indicated by the shadow;(    9    ing.   After pruning, the branches should  lie
at full length on the ground,  and be fastened
down with little pegs, to prevent them from blow                ing about.  Owing to the recumbent position, the
buds will break regularly the whole length, and
by the end of April they may be tied up to the
No. 7         pole, either in an erect position, or twined about
it.  A good stake answers every purpose for the
first two or three years, when the pole may be
set (Red Cedar), with the branches cut off at irregular distances
from the stem."
"No. 8 shows the same plant the next year.   We  begin to
prune at the bottom of the pillar, by thinning out the vigorous
shoots. This must be our aim, for it is easy enough at any time
to extend the growth, and thus increase the height. We ascend
the pillar, thinning more thoroughly as we approach the top.
There we select one or two of the best shoots, to continue the ascent, and tie them up. The small laterals are now cut back to 3
or 4 eyes. If any spot is thin, we cut back to 1 or 2 eyes, and thus
get strong shoots to fill the vacancy the next season.   By  the
680 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
third spring we find them of considerable height, and in every condition to produce an abundant bloom."
"We continue this treatment till the pillar is
covered; it should not be more  than  12 feet
high.  Pillar Roses send up strong shoots from
their roots each autumn; these
should be cut out; but one or,
two may be left to replace old
shoots, now losing their vigor.
The old branches will not main                 a.tain their vigor for many years, 
and must be replaced.   Keep
the poles sound.  No. 9 repre- 
sents a perfect pillar Rose; its 
~ j  to     main branches have not been
twined about the pole, but the
O.8.N    t         practice is a good one."
Climbing   Roses  require
about the same treatment as the pillar Roses,
with rather less pruning.  Close pruning is not 
desirable for either kind, after the plants are well
No. 9.
established, if wae want masses of bloom. 
No. 10 gives a fair specimen of a Weeping Rose one year after
budding.  Cut the shoots in close the first time, to induce vigor; we
remove the upper bud entirely cutting the stem across at a. Having
removed the upper bud, we thin out the two          --
shoots marked by single lines, and shorten the                / 
others to the dark shading. The new shoots             /
will push from them vigorously, and soon -'
reach the ground. No. 11 represents the tree
the second year.  Continue the operation as 
before, but shorten less.  Single flowers will    / 
be occasionally produced, and the following
year these short, bloom-bearing branches may.0
be spurred to about two eyes. After this there
is little difficulty in bringing he tree to per
fection. About the second or third year it is necessary to attach a
681 
JULY.'
hoop to the head of the Weeping Rose,
to keep the branches from injury by the
/    \F 0 action of the wind, and to assist in man          0     Ht.<    ~aging them properly."  No. 12.
~! X                 \ \ ~"After a Rose-tree of any kind is trained
to the shape desired, if it is healthy and
~i'}I                    vigorous we prune, so as to increase the
size each year.  This must be done with
No. 11              vigorous kinds, or they are over-pruned.
-- It should be done with the moderate
growers, for as the roots extend their
growth, and the stem increases in size, the plant is capable of sup                         porting a larger head, and perfecting a
.  greater number of flowers.  This increase
A'  it   of size must be accomplished by thinning;
t hin out  well, leaving shoots at the farthest
FOCI,: ) ~limit of the plant, that is consistent with
its being well ftlledfrom base to summit.
In pruning Roses that have attained some
-; X          age, it may be necessary to remove a
branch or two occasionally, to keep the
I        Ir,  > head from becoming straggling and mis                        shapen.  A  saw, sharp, fine-pointed, and
close set, will be found useful here, as well as in removing small
shoots, which from this position it may be difficult to remove with
the pruning-knife, and also for cutting away dead branches. After
using the saw, dress the wound smoothly with
a knife."
"No. 13 shows an old plant whose head
is dying.  To recover such plants, cut back
as shown.  To remodel the tree, the main
lower branches must be cut well back; the
lower part of the branches will show no ap                      parent buds, but they exist latent, and by
cutting back they will be forced into activity."
No. 13.
Trees that have become weakly, are much
improved by close pruning; so are those
682 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
small growing kinds, which flower so constantly that it is rare to
see a shoot that is not terminated with flowers.
To do justice to autumnal Roses, they should be pruned a second
time in summer, just after flowering; or, if the summer flowers are
not much valued, just before flowering; by this practice their vigor
and beauty will be much increased.
But while thinning and shortening are all important, disbudding
is a yet more effective agent for producing flowers in the finest
possible condition, for keeping the plant in full health and vigor,
and for bringing it to its highest point. It is evident that the more
vigorous in habit a plant is, the greater the space to be left clear
from bud to bud, to allow shoots room to develop.
Young plants, judiciously disbudded, become more finely formed
than by thinning and shortening alone.
No. 14 shows a variety of Rose which  
is very thickly furnished with buds.  It is
apparent that all these buds cannot be developed.  To decide which to remove, remember that the tendency of all buds should
be outward;  and the farther apart they
are, with in just limits, the better.  Should
two  buds  threaten  to  cross  or crown
each other, the one taking the least favorable course of growth should be removed.                                              --
"The summer kinds, disbudded or thinned in summer, usually
continue to elongate from the ends of their shoots; the autumn
push forth the entire length of the shoots when the second flowering is complete; the trees are improved in both cases, for the shoots
grown at this season of the year will produce the finest flowers the
next year."
683 
CHAPTER LXXIII.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
HOE the advancing crops, to kill the weeds and stir the soil.
Watch weeds narrowly, for each day one grows your land is so
much the poorer.
Plant out the last Celery, and if the first planted is well grown,
hoe it a little.
Gather the Peas and Beans as they are fit for table. String
Beans will be fit for the table by the middle of the month. As
the early Lettuce goes out, other Salads will gradually take its
place.
Thin the Gooseberries the first of the month, and use the berries
you remove foi cooking. Those that are left will grow the better.
If you wish to increase the size of any particular Currants, pinchl
off the end of the shoots an inch or two beyond the berries; this
will throw the sap more abundantly into the fruit, and increase it
very much. The Currants will be red and nearly ripe by the middle of the month, but very sour; the longer they hang on the bushes
the sweeter they become.   The white varieties will be found
sweeter than the red, at the same stage of maturity.
As soon as the Strawberries are entirely gone, weed the bed
thoroughly, and you can have a new bed with but little trouble.
If the bed is large, mark out through its length by the garden line,
sections from 2 to 3 feet wide, and 18 inches apart. On these sections wheel a little old manure, lime, and ashes; dig the whole in.
vines and all, very deeply; trenching will pay. The plants left in
the rows will immediately throw out suckers into the new earth
from both sides, and will before autumn entirely fill it. When it is
full, that part of the bed that was at first left, may be dug up and
kept open for the next two years.
Covering the bed with a mulch of tan in the autumn or early
684 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
spring, is thought to conduce to the welfare of vines and fruit; it
will be dug in at the present time, if a new bed is made as directed.
The Raspberries have been growing with rapidity; it is the new
wood, or the spurs which have branched out firom last year's canes,
which will bear fruit, but it is the new canes which have grown
this year which will bear fruit next. These canes should be tied
up as they grow, and before laying down in the fall all that are not
wanted for next year must be taken up. Those taken up can be
planted in trenches in the cellar, or buried in the open ground, to
be planted out anew in the spring,. As soon as out of bearing, cut
out the old wood which bore the fruit.
Thimbleberries will ripen a little later than Raspberries. They
send up new canes for next year's growth, early in the summer.
But unlike those of the Raspberry, these canes continue to grow till
they reach over to the ground. The extremities will then, if allowed, send out roots, and thus make new plants, and this is the
natural mode of increase.  If we prevent this by tying up the
long shoots to espaliers, we only injure ourselves.
Cultivated Blackberries will ripen the very last of the month.
The long shoots should be trained as they grow, horizontally to
trellises, and after a good growth has been made, the extreme end
may be pinched. It will bear fruit from new spurs, which will
start next year from the canes of this, and by training the shoots
down this year the sap- is made to settle more into the eyes, and
makes fruit buds of them. This berry is very much inclined to
run to wood, unless checked by this kind of training.
Sow Peas the last of this month, if you wish to have them in
the autumn, but you must not expect a large crop. The earlier
varieties are the proper kinds to plant.
The general crops heretofore mentioned must be carefully
watched and hoed. Vines of all kinds are benefited by hoeing,
but care must be taken not to bruise them in the process.
Pickle crops may still be planted early in the month.
Artichokes will be getting fit for eating now, and must be used
at once. Some Okra will be fit to use the very last of the month.
Early Potatoes, planted'in the open ground, will be ready to dig
58
685 
JULY.
the third week in July, if not earlier, and after that you may rely
on them for the table.
Summer Squashes should be used as soon as they are as large as
your two fists. They must be taken young to be delicate, and if
left till old are not acceptable even to hogs.
The latest Cauliflowers, those which are to be taken into the
house for winter, must be set out now, before the end of the month.
The early Onions, both those planted from pips, and those in
beds carried through the winter, will be fit to pull the middle and
last of the month.
Early Cabbages should not be pulled up, but cut off the stump,
which, if left, will give new growth for greens till late in the autumn.
Sow some Spinach for autumn use. Transplant Endive, and
sow small Salads firom time to time; the last of the month sow
Endive for winter.
Hoe Sweet Potatoes when they want it; weed and hoe the
Root crops for the last time; after this they will cover the ground
and kill all the weeds themselves.
Attend carefully to the espaliered fruit. During the month the
Cherries, both standard and espaliered, will be ripe and gathered,
and the other fruit on the espaliers will mature rapidly. Thin as
necessary from time to time, and disbud. Remember that disbudding and pinching off will save much other pruning.
The Pears, etc., in the orchard, both standards and dwarfs, must
be watched with care; thin much and often. You may rely on
gathering from one to six dozen from each tree, and some large
standards may bear several bushels. But you should leave only
fruit buds enough to produce fine fruit.
July is a month for doing odd jobs about the kitchen-garden,
and care should be taken to keep it all neat and tidy.
Next month will be time enough to plant seeds for autumn and
winter vegetables. In July, if the bark will slip freely from the
wood, Cherries, and other stone fruits, as well as Pears and Apples,
may be budded, but August is likely to be a better time. I will
then give directions in detail.
I have deferred till now, a description of the growth, propagation, and pruning of the Currant and Gooseberry. This is not a
686 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
difficult or intricate business; but upon its being well done, depends
in a great measure the success of these plants.
Figs can never be cultivated in this latitude upon a large scale,
for our winters are too severe, but as curiosities they are desirable,
and in a good location, with great care, a few specimens may be
made to thrive and to ripen fruit.
Gooseberries are not so often cultivated as they ought to be.
The'difficulties in the culture of the Gooseberry are mildew and
uncertainty of crop.
The mildew, which seems almost enough to condemn them, is
peculiar to some varieties; others are nearly exempt, but all are
liable to it when in too wet or too shaded places, and when not well
pruned.
The want of sufficient pruning is also the cause of the uncertainty of the fruit.
Mlost of the choice varieties come from Yorkshire,  England,
which is famous for Gooseberries. By buying the best Yorkshire
varieties, which are said to be exempt from mildew, and planting
in well-drained, deep, rich soil in an open, airy situation, and pruning well, you secure a good crop.
They must be pruned once or twice in the fall, winter or very
early spring, and in summer.  At the first pruning cut out at least
one-half the bush, removing old wood rather than new when you
can. By pinching back and thinning out in June, the size and
flavor of the fruit is increased. To secure the finest desert fruit,
the berries should be well thinned when about half grown; these
"thinnings" are excellent for sauce and pies.  It is a peculiarity
of this berry that the same bush rarely produces the largest fruit
two years in succession. Do not expect fine fruit unless you give
plenty of manure.
If it were better known it would be a favorite; and undoubtedly,
by hybridizing the English with our native varieties, some might
be produced which would bear abundantly and be free from mildew. We have two native Gooseberries which are very palatable;
one, Ribes' hirtellum, is small, berries not more than half an inch in
diameter, very sweet, of a dark red color, and each bush bears
enormously; I have gathered two quarts from one wild bush in a
687 
JULY.
hedgerow; the other, Ribes' cynosbati, is a much stronger and
coarser variety, berries I to 3 inch in diameter, covered with long,
strong prickles, a good flavor, rather lighter red than Hirtellum,
excellent for sauce, etc., and the bush large-growing.
The Gooseberry may be increased by seeds, cuttings, and suckers, but the latter never make good plants, while the first mature
slower and often differ from the parent.
Cuttings should be taken from the wood of the current year with
a heel of older wood in October or March; if in October, keep
them till spring in a cool place not too dry; then plant in a border,
moderately shaded, light, deep, and rich; but first cut off all buds
which will be below the surface after the cutting is in place, otherwise they will come up as suckers some time or other. The medium-sized fruits are generally higher flavored than the larger.
In short, if you want good Gooseberries you must make yet another draft on your patience, and probably by this time you agree
with me, that this same patience is an essential quality in a gardener.
CURRANTS.- The Currant needs less care than the Gooseberry,
and yet it demands great care and attention to bring its fruit to
perfection. It is always unwise to plant the suckers of Currants,
as they continue to sucker and bear but little and poor fruit. The
argument in favor of using suckers; viz., that they are the plants'
natural means of increase, is of no weight, as Currants can be propagated about as easily as Potatoes.  Make cuttings of the last
year's wood in the spring, or of the current year in October or November. Make the cuttings 4 to 8 inches long; cut off all buds
which would come below the surface when the cutting is set, and
set them 2 or 3 inches deep in a garden border, moderately shaded,
light, deep, and rich. They will be well-rooted plants in the fall,
and may be permanently planted out then, or in the next spring.
Currants are much benefited by thorough, but not severe pruning.
Cut out about one-third of the old wood each year, and in June or
July pinch back the new shoots a little; this increases the size and
flavor of the fruit. The old Dutch Currant was formerly the favorite, but is now gradually giving way to new varieties; one of
688 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
which, which promises to supplant all others, is the Cherry Currant, whose fruit is as large as a Mazzard Cherry and yields enormously.
No more profitable fruit can can be grown than improved Currants. As a table fruit they always sell well, and the demand for
Currant jelly would be great could it be sold low enough to come
within the reach of people of moderate means. I know that the
fruit is not the most costly ingredient in the jelly, but its price must
be counted as an important addition in the cost of the whole.
It is never wise to continue to cultivate the same bushes more
than 8 or 10 years; more fruit can be got from younger plants.
Mulching improves the fruit and enables the bushes to hold their
leaves later in the fall. They are very grateful for generous dressing of manure well dug in.
58*
689 
CHAPTER LXXIV.
THE FARM.
HOT weather has come, and with it the hurry and chief harvest of
the year, on all farms which have a large acreage of Grass or Grain.
Haying has more admirers, and is more dreaded than any other
farm work. Some persons enjoy it, others detest it. I do not
think it very hard work, on the whole. Coming in hot weather, it
does, indeed, demand much endurance, and hand mowing is very
tiresome except to those who are really adepts in it; in fact it is an
art which can only be learned in youth; it requires a peculiar and
elastic motion, best acquired by growing boys, and it rarely happens
that one who makes his first attempt in his manhood gains any
skill in mowing. But it is to be hoped that the days of hand mowing are on the wane, though the time can never come when it will be
quite abandoned. The bulk of the work, however, can and should
be done by machines.
But there is much other work to be done before we come to
mowing, and while we are about it, and we will consider this first.
All the crops should be hoed a second time before haying is
begun.
Corn is high enough to cover and shade the ground, and the
Root crops have advanced to the third leaf, unless it be the later
sown kinds, like Ruta Bagas.  The Roots sown early this month,
or late in June, should now be cleaned and thinned. If guano was
sown with the young Turnips, the plants will soon hurry by the
danger of the fly, and get their rough leaves.
It is because the Root crop demands care during haying, that
New England farmers are so much prejudiced against it. The
practice of good farmers has been to finish all their other work before they began haying, that there might be no interruption in getting that important crop; any work which cannot be so disposed
690 
THE FARM.
of is very annoying to them, and they are not willing to entertain
the idea of a crop, the most difficult work of which comes just in
the heat of haying.
It is the custom to hoe the weedy crops on dark days, bad hay
days, but it is a gain only in appearance, for weeds cut in such
weather are sure to start again.
Haying should be over by the end of the first fortnight in July,
the time for cutting varying a little with the variety of Grass.
The bulk of experiments unite in setting the flowering season as
the best time for cutting, as the Grass then contains the largest
amount of untransformed sugar, starch, and gluten, and makes the
most succulent and nutritious Hay. The weight, however, after
drying, is less in comparison with the bulk, than when it is cut after
the seed is nearly or quite mature.
We do not cultivate the Grasses for seed, but for straw, and
should try to get the forage in its best condition for feeding out.
Were we cutting the Hay to sell, on the rule "caveat emptor," it
would be wise to let it ripen before cutting, as it would then be
heavier and more profitable. It is a question whether farmers are
bound to sacrifice their own interest to the supposed interest of
others. If the over-scrupulous farmer were to carry to market a
load of Hay cut at what he knows to be the best period, and consequently of light weight compared with its bulk, the purchaser
would pay no more per ton than for Hay cut when the seed was ripe,
and consequently weighing more than the other, and he would laugh
at the farmer if he asked more than the market price of the latter
for his superior Hay. It is much to be regretted that some standard
cannot be fixed to regulate the sale of Hay, and enable both buyer
and seller to get their dues.
The application of my remark that haying should be over in a
fortnight, depends a little on the weather; but, with modern improvements, a very little. To begin with, Hay should be cut with
a mowing-machine. These machines have been brought to such
perfection that it is easy, with a pair of horses, to cut at least an
acre per hour; some teams do much more. Therefore the farmer
need not begin his hay-day blindly; he can afford to wait till
691 
JULY.
the sun has fairly risen, dispelled clouds and fogs, and dried the
dew. The dew being thoroughly dried off expedites the making
of Hay very much. When a swarth is cut wet and laid in the
sun, the upper side dries, but the lower remains wet, and must be
turned before it can feel the sun; and until it is dry the other side
cures but slowly, the evaporation of its juices being prevented by
the steam which rises from the under side. But when the dew is
off and the ground dry, the swarth laid over begins to evaporate
its juices at once. Do not suppose that standing grass is as long
in drying as mowed grass, for it admits air freely among its stalks.
Many days in haying-time begin with clouds and fogs, which
puzzle the most weather-wise farmere; it is impossible to know
whether they will break up or thicken. Now the scythe cannot be
withheld till this is decided; its work must begin at 4 A.i.
The mowing-machine, however, cannot be used everywhere.
Many mowing fields are too rough for it; but this is the fault of
bad farming,- slovenly, ordinary New  England farming, which
neglects to drain and clear, and is careless about manuring.  The
farmer who condemns a mowing-machine because it fails in his hassocky, rough, stony field, condemns himself and his farming; and
were he candid hlie would confess it. A field so cultivated as to
admit of the use of a machine, pays for the extra labor by the increased crop, at least one-half ton per acre. Had I time I could
prove that the space occupied in a rough field of loose surface
stones, pieces of wood, and hassocks, is more than enough to shut
out this amount of grass.
But supposing our land prepared for the machine; we send it
into the field at 9 A.M. We have no enormous gang of haymak ers to be fed, treated, lunched, coaxed, and driven. One man or
boy drives the machine, which cuts and spreads the grass evenly.
Two others are removing the hay-covers from the hay cut yester day. By the time an acre is cut, one or two other men begin to
open the hay that has been uncovered. In two or three hours the
machine cuts as much as we can manage to-morrow. If we have
a hay-tedder or spreader, we put one or two horses into it, and
drive over the field, turning the hay ten times as fast and well as if
692 
THE FARM.1
done by hand, and at one-tenth the cost. It can be easily turned
before dinner.  The men who turned the hay may load some that
is well dried, or may be employed in weeding.
After dinner the horse-rakes go to work, one or more, according
to the amount of hay down. They first rake the dry grass into
winnows, while the tedder is turning the grass cut in the morning.
As soon as this is done, the horses are put into the hay wagons, and
we load them with the winnowed hay which was perhaps cut yesterday, and at farthest the day before.
By 3 P.M., the horse-rake is again at work on the morning's
cutting, while it is still hot.  There are many  varieties of horserake; which is best must be decided by the purchaser. On a clean
farm the spring-toothed is most convenient, and costs no more than
the others, but it needs two persons to manage it; Delano's "independent-toothed" is a good rake, and one man can manage it; but
I prefer the "improved spring-toothed," also mnanaged by one man,
who rides, and elevates the teeth with a lever.
When the hay is raked, cock it and cover with hay-caps. The
great gain made by using them is not half understood. Everybody
knows that hay heats somewhat when cocked up, and would cure
were it ~ot that the night air and dew cool it. When covered it is
neither cooled nor damped, yet its own steam or vapor passes off
rapidly; consequently it makes nearly as fast by night as by day
and is not injured by showers. Many reliable instances are given
where Hay, cut and covered as here described, was left out in
two or three days' severe rain, and found perfectly cured in the
cock when the storm was over.
In all cases it is well to invert the cock in the sun for an hour
or two before getting it in, that the bottom Hay may have a chance
to evaporate any moisture it may have taken from the ground; but
repeated and careful trials show that Hay put in cocks which would
make 50 pounds of dry Hay the same day on which it was cut, covered and left to dry without being opened for two or more days,
will cure into the best quality of Hay, - better in all respects than
that made in the ordinary way. For the bleaching and scorching
of the sun removes many of the essential oils which give the Hay
its peculiar fragrance and sweetness; while repeated turning
693 
JULY.
breaks off all the delicate leaves and flowers, leaving only the
coarser and harder parts, which are not easily broken and are
much less nutritious. Rain, too, injures Hay that is not covered,
very much; it changes its color, washes away the wax, which is
very valuable, dissolves much of its essential oil, sugar and starch.
The injury is in proportion to the extent of wetting.
Obviously, the process of making Hay is hastened if there is no
dew to be dried off it; and if it is cocked up when heated by the
sun, and covered so that it cannot cool fast, evaporation must continue, and when it is re-opened to the sun its drying does not begin,
but is hastened.
Clover hay is most injured by repeated turning, its leaves and
flower being so tender as to be broken by the least movement.
Hay made in the cock is nearly as green when fed out in winter
as Rowen, or even as when cut; and Clover made in the cock does
not lose the color of its blossom.   In midwinter I have seen
Clover-Heads in Hay thus made, which at first sight seemed just
picked from the field.
Those old-fashioned farmers who were accustomed to spend just
so many days in making their Hay, who left it two days at least
after cutting, and expected it to "look dry" when carted to the
barn, would be frightened at the appearance of a barnful of wellmade Hay. It would be so green that they would think it must
have heated.
Well-dried Hay does not need much salt. 2 quarts to the load,
or 4 to the ton is plenty; some salt is desirable to increase its relish,
but it is very easy to put in too much. Hay should never go to
the mow till it is dry enough to keep well without the help of salt.
If it must be got in green, pains should be taken to ventilate it;
and in large, deep mows and bays it is an excellent plan to build a
chimney of Straw or other material in the middle, as in our plan
of the barn.
To do this, bore through the floor in the middle of the space for
the bay or mow many 3 inch augur holes within a circle of 3 feet
diameter; set several bundles of Straw on their buts over these
holes; pack Hay closely round these bundles, and when it is level
with their tops set other bundles above them, but down; or you may
694 
THE FARM.
draw up the first bundles a little after the Hay has been filled in
hard around them, continuing the process till the mow is full,
when the Straw may be left at the top or removed. The hole may
be gradually narrowed as the mow rises. The cool air of the cellar
will rise though the holes in the floor, as the escape of heated air
from the Hay makes a draught through thie chimney, and will ventilate and cool the mow. Do the same when you make a stack.
After some months a cover may be put under the holes in the floor
to exclude air.
A better way is to hoop a headless barrel on its inside, remove the
outer hoops with the exception of those at the top and bottom, secure to the inside some ropes or straps, by which to haul the barrel
up as the stack or mow rises, and use it as you would the straw
bundles, it will last for years. A make-shift way is to set several
poles on end in the middle of the stack, fastening their tops and
spreading their lower ends. In our barn a permanent lattice-work
chimney is built firom floor to roof.
It does not hurt Hay to heat a little just enough to warm the
mass, but if it becomes smoky it loses both in value and weight,
though some farmers say that smoky Hay is just as good to feed
out, though it does not sell well; they tell too much for their own
argument; if smoky Hay wont sell, it is because it is not so good.
Milch cows seem to yield as much milk when fed on it, but it does
not fatten cattle, and it hurts the wind of horses.
There are many kinds of hay-covers; some of plaited rushes
(imported from China), some of tarpaulin, some of duck, some of
cotton cloth soaked in oil and beeswax.     The best are the cheapest, and are made at some cotton mills for the purpose. They are
of strong, closely woven, unbleached cotton; about 4 feet 6 inches
square is the medium size.  The largest covers are best -large
enough to cover a 50 pound cock of dry Hay. The cloth should
be chemically prepared to prevent its mildewing, and is then better
than if oiled, for oil tends to decay the fibres. Into each corner tie
a stout piece of tarred twine, in the loose end of which put a loop.
The easiest way to fasten the twine is to take the corner in the
left-hand so that a few inches of it project over the cloth by the
string; now double the end back into the hand over the string;
695 
JULY.
take the looped end of the string and tie it round the doubled end
of the cover, in a noose or slip knot, and draw it tight. It will
hold the corner more securely than any string you can sew on, and
is quite as good as eyelets set into the corner (into which a string
must be fastened afterward), and much cheaper.  Have ready some
stout, well-seasoned forked sticks of hard wood at least 6 inches
long; hook the stick into the loop and drive the sharp end into the
ground, when the cover is to be pinned to the ground. Iron pins
permanently fastened to the loop are better but more costly.  The
wooden pins may be permanently fastened also. When you are
about to use the covers, remember that a little care saves much
trouble, and have ready a pile of them in the barn-floor. They
may be bought fitted for use at 75 cents and needing only the
strings and pegs for from 40 to 60 cents apiece according to quality. When ready for use they should be folded compactly. When
wanted in the field pile them evenly into a wagon, hand-cart, or
wheelbarrow and leave one to each cock; as the Hay is cocked up,
some one should go over the field, spread the cover over the cocks,
*... ~ K...:  and pin the corners firmly to
:.:~- ~~'~     - ~.   the ground.  If this is well
__=<'~.                   done they will, as I have said,
.I~...<~~'_:.o.bear a         three days'  rain; they
-']~.^...    ~;           shrink under rain and shed it
like a roof.  When  the cock
is uncovered, a man or boy should go round and refold the covers,
a work which will not take one-half a minute for each. If this is
done the pins are all secure, and the covers in a portable form. If
a shower comes up it is a short job to send a horse and cart or
men with a hand barrow round to collect and take them quickly
where they are needed, and when unfolded there is no confusion,
entangling of strings, or loss of pegs to prevent putting them on
rapidly. If not well pinned down they are liable to be blown off,
or cannot be drawn out tight enough to turn rain well.
Their use is not confined to the hayfield; for Rowen, stooks of
Grain, shocks of Peas and Beans, Corn stover, piles of Apples,
they are equally good, and when once introduced on a farm they
are in as frequent demand as the shovel or wheelbarrow, and could
696 
THE FARM.
be as ill dispensed with. I think they more than save their cost in
a single season. If you cannot afford to buy a hundred, get a few
at a time, and as you learn their value you will buy more. In
winter dry them well, fold and store in a dry place.
With the aid of mowing machines, hay-tedders, horse-rakes  and
hay-covers, the uncertainty and difficulty of the Hay harvest is
removed, and it may be undertaken and carried forward with speed
and security.
No good haymaking or "tedding" machine of American in vention has yet been offered for sale; the English machine although
efficient is costly and very heavy. It is the only apparatus connected with haymaking that remains to be highly improved. The
time spent in turning Hay, shaking out swarths, etc., is a very considerable draught on the busy hours of haying.
A large fork, much like a dirt-scoop, has been invented, which
can be shoved into and under the load, and then attached to a rope
and pulley, so that the whole load is taken up and placed on the
loft at one movement. Such an apparatus can hardly come into
general use on small farms, as it involves considerable preparation; but some arrangement of grapnels might be devised for
raising large masses of Hay at once.
With us the practice of securing Hay in stacks is not at all
common where barns are available,- not so common  as it might
be, with advantage, I think. They are quickly and easily made,
and Hay well secured in them keeps sweet and fragrant till spring.
As a preparation for the stack, stathels (short piles) should be
driven into the ground, or a low trestlework erected, strong enough
to bear the weight, and high enough to protect the bottom of the
stack from wet. When you determine to make
a stack, endeavor to have ready the amount of 
Hay which will make  it, or else be provided  j/   /;
with a tarpaulin or sailcloth large enough to 0,:
cover the stack,when suspended above it. Pitch  /:C
the Hay from the loads to a man standing on.
the stathels or stack buts.  With a fork he lays           
it round regularly, if the stack is to be round,
along, if it is not, treading it well as he lays it, spreading it a little
59
697 
JULY.
as it rises, sd as to make a round stack, egg shaped, a long stack
something like the bottom of a ship, or the sides of a good homemade loaf, and contracting it again with an opposite slope for a top
or roof to shed rain.
When  the stack i s     finishe d,
leave it for a few days to set  t     \'<\'\\,\"ier  \\:::k5? )':\\; tie and  shrink; then    trim it
well, and if straw can be had,
thatch it; if not, take Ferns,
To_ —:______:.Rushes, meadow Hay, or any
long Hay, and  beginning at t he
eaves, lay it quite round the stack in parcels, like shingles, rising
tier by tier, and binding each tier as you go. Crown it with long
straw doubled over the ridge. This, if well laid and secured, will
shed rain.
To secure the whole, make a Ilay rope, which is done by twisting long Hay together, one handful into and over another, twisting
thoroughly. This method is very rude, and a rope much stronger
may be made by the aid of throw crooks. Various forms of these
are in common use.  "A is a home-made crook of stout ash wood,
3-1 feet long, the bent part of
2
6eab       At                which is thinned off till able
to be bent to a curve, and is
i___   ~     there retained  by the iron
stay a, the part b being left
beyond the stay as a point of attachment for the
rope.  The end c, is furnished with a ferule and
swivel ring, by which it is either attached to the
person by a cord round the waist, or held in the    B
hand. B is a better form of the crook, where the
strain of the straw rope is in a straight line from
the hook  a  along  the spindle e to the handle
d: the left hand holds the swivel  ring  c, and 
the right hand causes the part e b d to revolve
round the line a e d by means of the handle b,                 d
which is covered with a loose hollow cylinder of 
wood, the rest of the instrument being made of iron."
698 
THE FARM.                       9
When the rope is made, drive a pin firmly into some sheltered
part of the stack, to fasten the rope to, and finally bind and tie the
whole together.
The cuts show different methods of roping the roof of a stack.
When you wish to use the                       z
Hay, begin on one side, and with
a Hay knife cut off large slices
at once, and haul them into the
barn.  By cutting large slices.k
quite down to the ground, you  C
will prevent the rain getting 
in,  and  will  preserve  the 
soundness of the stack.
The important points to be
remembered in stack-making
are to tramp and lay the Hay
well.  Salt as for Hay in the 6 
barn.$ j'
I think it would often be
better economy to stack Hay than to enlarge our barns.  But if
you stack, remember to cut
off the Hay and carry it into                           a
the barn, and not turn the cat-           KD.
tle out to feed and shiver in
the cold stackyard.
So me European  farmers                              
dig large pits and pack Grass
into them as compactly as possible, salting freely, and covering over so as to shut out --
air when filled.   The Grass
keeps greener, and they think        I
sweeter than under the com- -
mon methods; but the amount          -
of salt must be injurious. Hay......
or fodder too much salted acts BOSSES, STATELS, OR TRESTLES, FOR GRAIN STACKS
'699 
JULY.
on animals as a cathartic, purging them violently, and awakening
an inordinate and unwholesome thirst.
Grain may be stacked like Hay, but greater care is necessary in
laying it in order, to secure it from rain. Hlay may be packed uni  formly, but there is danger that open spaces will be left between the
bundles of Grain.  "The stack should be built in this way: set up
a couple of sheaves against each other in the centre of the stathel, and
another couple against their sides.  Pile other sheaves against these
in rows around the centre, with a slope downwards, towards the cir  cumference of the stathel, each row being placed half the length of
the sheaf beyond the inner one, till the circumference is completed,
when it should be examined, and where any sheaf presses too hard
upon another, it should be relieved, and where a slackness is found
a sheaf should be introduced. Continue the stack around, laying
each sheaf over the inter -
s_~_~_~~:   ~stices of the two below close
to the last one, pressing it in
':-    ~~ X                    with the knees, as is repre                                        sented at h. When the out                     -~~ >                 ~~sile row is thus laid, an in:~- >- ~ —t.~             side one is made with sheaves,
whose but ends rest on the
"....-:.   g.         bands  of the outside row,
thereby securing the outside
sheaves in their,places, and
X~Y               ~ A —-at the same time filling up
the body of the stack firm:~ ~~~~-  ^ly with sheaves. A few
more  sheaves may  be re                                        quired as an inmost row,
to make the heart of the stack the highest part.  It is an immense
benefit to a stack to have its centre well filled with sheaves, as it is
the heart sheaves which retain the outside ones in their places in
4  the circle, with an inclination downward from the centre to the cir  cumference, and it is this inclined position of the outside sheaves
that prevents the rain finding a passage along the straw to the
very heart of the stack, where it would soon spoil the grain." " As
700 
THE FARM.
the stack goes up the pitcher should preserve its shape, by shoving
in the but of any sheaf which projects too far, or by pulling out
any which are too far in."  "The cave of the stack is formed according to the mode in which it is thatched. If the ropes are to
be placed lozenge-shaped, as shown, the cave-row of sheaves is
placed just within the topmost row.  If the thatching-ropes are to
run from the crown of the stack to the eaves, the cave-sheaves are
made to project two or three inches beyond the topmost row of
sheaves."
To fasten a rope, draw out a handful of straw from a sheaf, and
wind the rope around it, and then push the end of the rope between
it and the stack, or make a tie to the rope itself. Should a stack
lean, prop it with stout stakes.
In commending mowing-machines, I said some hand mowing
must be done; there will be corners out of the reach of the machine, headlands, etc., which must be cut by the scythe, so that it is
necessary to hire at least one good mower.
59*
701 
JULY.
If a farmer cannot afford to buy a mowing-machine, he can cornmbine with several others to do so. The same machine, horses, and
driver can easily cut the grass of three or four farmers, by a little
management. I know an instance of three farmers, living nearly
two miles apart, owning a machine together, with which they have
done all their mowing during the past three years, with speed,
economy, and comfort; and between them they saved nearly its
cost the first year. Such a partnership between obliging, neighborly people may often supply the want of individual capital.
As soon as the Hay is out of the fields, turn the water of irrigation on to them, and allow it to stand for a few days at a time; its
use now will give a second crop nearly as large as the first.
The management of irrigation must be decided by experience.
Some persons recommend letting on the water as soon as the Hay
is off; others advise leaving the grass to make a start. I should
use it as soon as a field was cut, first dressing with one or two hundred weight of guano or super-phosphate of lime.
If you have liquid manure carry it out on to the grass, and you
will receive an enormous return.
Farmers who have tried a liberal top-dressing of compost just
after cutting their grass, affirm that they get better returns from
it then than at any other time. I confess I do not see how this is
possible, for it seems to me the dry, hot weather must reduce the
value of the manure to that of so much mulching.
So soon as the grass is gone, and even before, you must begin
on the grain.  Do not leave it till fully ripe; the straw should be
yellow at the bottom, but not all along the stem. Try the grain;
squeeze a kernel between the thumb and finger; if its contents
squeeze out in a dry and mealy condition, it is fit to cut; if quite
milky, it should stand longer. There is a great loss in leaving it
till fully ripe, from birds, and from the amount which shakes out
of the ear while harvesting.  And besides, careful experiments are
detailed in Stevens' Book of the Farm, and elsewhere, which show
that grain cut from 5 to 10 days before it,was fully ripe, proved
of much better quality than a portion of the same crop, in the same
field, which was left till fully ripe; so that even if the whole of a
702 
THE FARM.
"dead ripe" grain crop could be saved, its greater bulk would not
atone for the loss in quantity and quality of the flour and meal
made firom it.
The winter-sown grain is the first to ripen; the earliest summersown is next.
Barley and Oats may be allowed to stand later than Wheat and
Rye, because they ripen more slowly and are less valuable. But
Oats cut a week or two before they are ripe, dried as Hay, and fed
out in the Straw in winter, are often found to make superior Hay
and Grain for horses.
Grain should never be reaped where it is possible to use a cradle
or scythe, and large fields should be harvested with a reaping-machine.  It is said that reaping saves more of the straw, but it does
so at a cost generally of double or treble its value in labor. When
grain is badly lodged it must be reaped, for neither the cradle nor
scythe can go through it; but all grain in good condition can be
mowed evenly, and laid ready for binding, with the common
scythe, and, after a little practice, at much less cost than with any
other hand implement. Mowers, cradlers, and reapers follow the
same method; viz., cut the grain and leave it, the two former in
regular swathes, the latter in bunches or bundles. Leave it thus
till noon; then turn it, and leave again till 3 P.M., when all hands
should be sent in to bind it into sheaves.
To do this rapidly, let one or more men precede the binders, and
with hay-rakes draw together enough grain to form a good-sized
sheaf (the size must be determined by the length of the straw
which is to bind it). The binder takes in his right hand a handful
of the larger straw, then gathering up the grain into his arms he
passes the straw round behind it, and brings the ends together in
front, where he crosses them upon the grain with some pressure.
Then laying the bundle upon the ground, he presses it close with
his knee, and tightly twisting the ends of the binding strand round
once or twice, he finishes by tucking them under the band. If
tightly held and twisted the band will hold well; and by it the
sheaf is now to be managed.
Other men should follow the binders, and gather the sheaves into
703 
JULY.
stooks. The stook is made by leaning several sheaves against each
other, and others against them; over their tops lay 2 or 3 sheaves; lay
them firmly and well balanced, so that they will shed rain. Another
way of protecting the stook (which must then be made rather
small), is to set over it a large sheaf, head downward, and opened
out so that it will embrace the whole top of the stook. Or they
may be protected with Hay-covers, which is the best plan. Leave
them to dry thoroughly for a day or two in fine weather, longer if
necessary; but the longer they stand the more liability to injury
by rain, and to loss from plundering birds, and from loosened and
fallen kernels. The grain may be removed at once to the barn, if
you have a place there for it where there is free air. The best
place is above the barn floor overhead; lay poles or timbers across
the beams, with such an interval between as will just support the
sheaves. Thus stored, the grain is sure to be well aired and dried
and the method is therefore good for grain too green to be mowed
or stacked.
All grain    even Oats -should be thus carefully harvested;
it then brings a price high enough to more than pay for extra
labor; the straw is not soiled or broken, and both spends and sells
better.
When the hurry of harvest is over, thresh; the sooner the
better. To thresh by hand, sweep out the threshing-floor clean,
pitch down into it as many bundles as its width will accommodate;
lay them in two rows, buts out. The best place is the floor of the
Hay barn, where large doors can be opened at each end and allow
a free circulation of air to remove dust and cool the workmen.
Lay the sheaves with the knots uppermost, as there are heads in
them which must be threshed. When the grain has been well
threshed, the bundles should be untied, and turned over so that the
flail may do thorough work. This over, tie the bundles up again,
and fork them away into the loft to be sold or used; sweep the
Grain to one side, and clear the floor. If let out, it'should be by
the bushel, and the straw be well inspected afterwards to insure
thoroughness.
I need not describe the winnowing machine.  There are threshing machines worked by horse and steam, which can  be used to
704 
THE FARM.
immense advantage on large jobs, and farmers may find it well to
have one in partnership.
Grass for seed is to be treated like that for Hay, till nearly ripe,
when it should be cradled or mowed, and otherwise treated like
grain.
No grass should be cut for seed unless free from all weeds
and bad grasses. You have had an instance of the number of
weed seeds in two pints of Dutch clover, the seed of which
is pretty large,- 25,560 and 70,400 to the pint, or an average of 50,000. In Herds grass there is undoubtedly as large
a proportion of weed seeds as the Dutch clover; and therefore,
when we sow one-half bushel (32 pints) of Herds  grass  (ta an
acre), we sow the seeds of about 1,000,000 weeds.  In (a bushel
of) Redtop my experience would show a still larger proportion,
and I do not doubt that in general we sow 4,000,000 weed seeds to
the acre. What wonder that we have trouble with weeds in after
fallows.
Any land which you wish to sow with Millet may be sown as
late as the middle of this month, with the certainty of a good crop
of fodder grain of 3 to 5 tons per acre, in Septemiber. Grass
seed sown at this season with Millet, does well.   Sow with them
1-1 pounds common purple topped or flat Turnips to the acre.
They will make their growth in the young grass after the Millet
is removed, and will yield 200 to 400 bushels to the acre, not,
however, without drawing their support from the land; every crop
we grow reduces the fertility of the soil, but I assume that we cultivate so well that we wish to get all the crops we can, and that
the Turnips are manured for, and will make manure in return.
If we get a poor crop of grass, it will be because we have not
manured well, or because the land is in bad heart,- which is our
fault and bad farming.
During the dry weather that follows haying, there is time to repair ditches and to begin or continue underdraining. On most
farms there is a lull of work at that time, the breathing space between two harvests.
705 
CHAPTER LXXV.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
THE  care of finished grounds during summer is light work.
Our time is occupied either in devising new improvements or in
enjoying the results of our labors.
Although I have at different times referred to nurseries, seedbeds, varieties of trees and groups, only general principles and
hints have been given, and there is need of more detailed directions before we close our year.
Seed-beds and nurseries are of course to be made in the fall and
spring, - in the fall, for all plants having a hard, bony seed.  It
is not well to plant at first in the place where they are to stand for
several years, for most plants incline to a few long roots, often to a
single taproot; those with hairy or fibrous roots are the exceptions.  All the skill of the nurseryman is to be directed to checking this tendency, and inducing the plant to make fibrous roots.
Evidently a plant with but few roots, and those not fibrous, is
not likely to flourish when transplanted. Some of its roots are
broken, and in its new quarters, however much food there may be,
it has but few mouths to eat with.
Walnuts, many kinds of Oak, Beeches, Chestnuts; among fruittrees, Pears and Cherries have hard-shelled seed, and few, or taproots.
A germinating seed sends a little root, the radicle, into the earth,
and a little stem, the pumule, into the air. The root like the stem
grows from the end; but not by successive buds formed one year
to be expanded the next, but by successive elongations. This
elongation takes place only in obedience to the demands of the
plant for food, and the natural tendency is to go straight down like
a carrot, when there is food enough; side roots are sent abroad
only when the taproot meets with a check or scarcity of food.
706 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
Consequently when we try to remove such a tree, we find the
central root running down, sometimes 5 feet into the earth with
scarcely a side root. To transplant the tree is plainly an impossibility. We cannot dig up the deep roots, and if we could, we
could not plant them again properly.
This is the main cause of the general failure in transplanting
such trees from the forests or fields where they have grown from
infancy. The thing is nearly impossible, no matter how much
care is taken. This being the natural growth of the tree, it has
been reasoned that any attempt to prevent its forming a taproot
would result in checking its growth, it being a plain violation of
nature's law. It is true that if we change the habit of the tree's
roots we injure the tree, unless we so conform other circumstances
to it as to make good what we take away. For instance, a tree
whose roots go down 5 feet into the soil, only throwing out a few
fibrous side roots, draws all its support from the soil contained in the
inverted cone covered by its branches, through which the roots
choose to extend, multiplied by 5 feet. Suppose its branches to extend 50 feet in diameter; the superficial area is about 1,900 which
multiplied by 5 gives 9,500 cubic feet. But this is the amount of
earth contained in the solid entire cube, and which abstractly considered it is necessary to allow to support it in full vigor. If now
you divert the taproot, cut it off or bend it so that surface roots
shall take its place, which do not dip more than 2 feet down, the
diameter through or over which they can be allowed to range must
be increased; a circle with a diameter of 50 feet will no longer
unquestionably feed the tree; it must be enlarged three-fifths. Or
to change the form of statement the trees could be within 25 feet
of each other while they had taproots, but after the change the
distance between them must be at least 40 feet to insure the same
amount of food. I do not give these as the proper distances, but
as illustrative of the relative needs of taprooted and fibrous rooted
trees.  And I do not mean to say that no trees should be planted
nearer than they will bear to be when well grown, nor in the first
case will the roots ramify through the 9,500 cubic feet; there may
be as good reasons for planting close as for planting wide.  But
this may be stated without modification; viz., if a given number of
707 
JULY.
feet of good soil are necessary to the perfection of an average
specimen of any class of trees, all other trees of the same species
to attain perfection need the same amount of the same quality of
soil,-or more if it be poorer, less if it be richer.  For the sake
of shade, fine groups, timber, or screens, we may plant closer, and
in that case manure will do much to supply the want of room.
To return now to the seed-beds. Make them for all kinds of trees,
so that y6u may have an abundance of such as you wish after all
the losses of growing, etc. Make the beds from 3 to 5 feet wide
and as long as you please; dig them deep and manure well; rake
fine. With a dibber make holes for all largish nuts, acorns,
etc., one inch deep and as many inches apart as their size indicates;
drop one nut or seed into each hole and cover with earth. Make
the rows across the bed. Smaller seeds may be sown in drills and
covered from one-half to one inch deep, according to size. All
berries enclosing seeds, like Haws, Black alders, Barberries, etc.,
may be put to soak for some hours or days in lukewarm water in
a warm place, and as soon as they are softened to a sort of pulp or
pounce, they should be mashed and strained through one of the
coarser kinds of fine sieves, then washed several times till clean,
and afterwards rolled in ashes or plaster to dry and separate them.
Or you may drop one berry in each dibber-hole, the holes being
3 to 4 inches apart, from each berry; three or more plants will
probably start and may afterwards be transplanted.
In the same way treat other seeds. Allow the bed to freeze
and thaw, as the alternations break the shells of the seeds and free
the germs. Early in the spring loosen the earth between the rows
with a handfork. When the plants appear, keep the bed free from
weeds, and the earth light, loose, and well watered.
The next spring transplant to another bed and put them 6 to 9
inches apart, rows 2 feet apart and still running north and south.
Mulch in summer, and cultivate them in this. bed, till they grow
crowded, when they should be removed to their final position.
When this is done they should be examined again, and any taproots which have formed should be pinched off.
Some trees like Hemlocks, no matter at what age, when takenr
from fields or pastures, have only a few  finger-like roots; those
708
i 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
which live after being removed to a good soil and cultivated there
for a year or two, will make an enormous quantity of fine, hairy
roots, and may be transplanted anywhere with safety.
A few seeds thus planted and cared for will save hundreds of
dollars to a person planting largely.
A more rapid way is to buy seedlings of a propagator who will
sell them for a trifle per hundred. Set them out in the second
year from seed. But banish from your mind the notion- which
has been known to creep in- that after doing this and using what
you want, you can sell the rest for enough to reimburse the outlay.
Such a practice is detestable and fills one with care and worry.
When he looks at his young plants he thinks- not of their beauty
-but of the money they will bring; instead of using the best, he
acts like poor country farmers, who feed their family on the refuse
of stall and field and sell the best. If you would get real enjoyment from your young plantations, propose to yourself to use what
you want and give away the rest. There is no gift more appropriate or beautiful to a neighbor than a few choice trees, shrubs or
flowers, which he may be too poor to buy. If you make a speculation of it, the cost of the plants which you use may be small in
money, but it will be great in trouble and aggravation.
In forming your collection you should be influenced very much
by the consideration of the soil you have to deal with, the character and species of the trees and shrubs already growing round you,
and the requirements of the climate. If your place is to be your
home in winter as well as summer, the plantations must be made
with a view to their effect in the one season as well as in the other.
It is common to set more value on strange trees than on the
native trees and shrubs about us. In some cases the preference is
well founded; as for instance, in a region like the most of Plymouth
County, Alass., where the principal growth is White and Yellow
Pine, and Birch; here the eye naturally tires of the monotony and
longs for variety. A judicious intermingling of strangers enlivens
the landscape and increases our love for it; giving us not only the
imported beauty, but by contrast, an increased enjoyment of the
beauty of the native varieties.
This reference to the woods of Plymouth County is not by way
60
709 
JULY.
of sneer or depreciation, for few trees are so beautiful to me as the
American Pines.  The White Pine is the organ of the forest; its
cool, shady depths and gentle music in summer, when played on by
the zephyr, are most inviting, while its sublimity when snow-laden,
and resonant with deep, bass vibrations, giving utterance to mighty
hymns of praise under the heavy hand of the storm-wind, impresses
the most insensible mind. Considering its adaptedness to all situations, its shade and coolness in summer, its shelter in winter, the
enlivenment it lends the wintry landscape, its grace, dignity, and variety, I think it cannot be much surpassed. I cannot call it the king
of evergreens, for to me that place is the right of the perfectly developed Hemlock, but it is second only to the Hemlock, and in
music and voice is its superior.
The size of your place must also have much to do in deciding
your selection of trees and shrubs; if it is large, trees should predominate over shrubs; if small, shrubs must be the leading feature,
trees being used only for relief and shade. Upon the size, too,
must depend the influence which is exerted by the natural wish to
collect many specimens as a sort of arboretum, for purposes of
pleasure, instruction, and curiosity. This is out of the question in
a small place, and should only be indulged in on a place of several
acres.
What then do I call a small place? It is difficult to answer, so
much do standards vary. Ours is a large place. Half an acre, an
acre, two or even more acres are small under certain arrangements;
if the larger part of a place of a few acres is devoted to vegetables, crops or flowers, then the place is small.
It is already plain, that in my estimation the useful is somewhat
subservient to the beautiful. I would have grounds so arranged
that the surface devoted to culture of ally kind should be much less
than that devoted to permanent beauty; meaning by permanent
beauty that which comes from well-arranged and established lawns,
plantations, and shubberies, in contradistinction to the more fleeting
attractions of flowers, orchards, and general culture.
In the "village-garden" I endeavored to state my views about
selecting and grouping trees and shrubs. I have no space to mention all their varieties, much less to enter into particulars on their
710 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
merits, and the peculiarities of the groups which can be formed from
them. The best way to master the subject is to study nature, and
upon this I insist as the indispensable basis of good planting. Whoever sneers at the woodland and meadow that surround his home,
and seeks new varieties of trees, unless he have real genius or great
familiarity with the imported varieties in their natural habitat,
where they have attained all the luxuriant beauty of our best natives in wood and hedge, will surely produce awkward and artificial
results.
However liberally you introduce foreign trees, retain a large
number of the native and common kinds, that they may connect
the home-place with the general landscape, and let the strangers be
subordinates to enrich and diversify, rather than to predominate.
The following trees have been widely introduced and profitably
grown by nursery-men to the exclusion of much finer native varieties. The opposite list contains American trees and shrubs quite
as good, often vastly better:
Foreign.
Ailanthus, bad as possible.
English Ash, good.
*    Elm,  "
European Elm, "
Abele or Silver-leaved Poplar, bad;
leaves out late, and loses its foliage.
Scotch Larch, very good.
European  Linden,  very  inferior;
loses its leaves early, much at  tacked by worms, etc.
Norway Maple, good,
European Mt. Ash, ordinary.
English Oak, very good, but of slow
growth.
European Sycamore, tender, not very
good.
Weeping Willow, firstrate as an oc  casional tree.
Scotch Pine, very good.
Austrian Pine,   "
Norway Spruce, firstrate.
Of these trees, particularly of the
poorer kinds,  thousands of dol  lars' worth have been sold; of the
best American kinds comparatively
few.
American White Ash,
Red Ash,       good.
"    Black Ash,
Poplars of several kinds, all good for
quick growth.
American Linden, poor.
American Larch, not firstrate, but of
quick growth.
Maple Red,
"   Sugar,           firstrate.
"   Silver-leaved,
Oak Red,              I
"Black,
"WScarle,  $  very fine.
"Scarlet,
"Pin,
"Rock,
Hickory, 3 varieties, firstrate,
Buttonwood, once good, now poor.
Willow Water, good and not special in
character as the Weeping, admitting
of more general use.
Willow Osier.
" Golden, and many other good
varieties.
All of the following are native:
711
Native.
6 
JULY.
Horse Cliestnut, indifferent to bad.
American Mt. Ash, very good.
Pine, White and Red, firstrate.
"   Yellow, good.
Balsam Fir, very bad.
Spruce, Double White, good.
Tupelo, peculiar and very fine.
Liquid Amber, veryv fine.
Red Cedar, firstrate.
Arbor Vitoo, fair, occasional tree, ex  cellent hedge.
White Fringe Tree, firstrate.
Judas Tree, good.
Tulip Tree, good.
Magnolias,      good.
Virgilia euted, fair.
American Elm,  firstrate; other vari  eties good.
American Cypress, good.
Kentucky  Coffee Tree, much like the
Ailanthlus, but  not  so vile, rather
tender.
Beech, firstrate.
Birches,    "
Sassafras, rather hard  to grow, but
peculiar and desirable;  its autuii  nal coloring very fine.
Butternut, not very good as an orna  mental tree.
Chestnuts, very good.
and many others
Of our American trees the Balsam Fir and Arbor Vite, American Elm, Sugar and Silver-leaved Maples, have been largely sold;
but the others in the native list are comparatively unknown.
We generally depend on the taste of the nursery-man, who prefers to sell the trees he can grow most easily, and thus a deal of
rubbish has been foisted upon the public.
I have already said how beautiful I consider the American Elm.
The maples are resplendent in the fall, but the Red Maple is the
most beautiful of them, and well fitted for wet places; the Sugar
Maple is very fine, but is too regular and with too little variety to
be firstrate; the Silver-leaved makes a large, but loose and straggling tree; it is good for wet places. The American Oaks are particularly fine as a family, and as individuals. When properly managed in the nursery, they are easily grown, and quickly, notwithstanding the general opinion to the contrary. I hope to see the
time when they shall be largely used as a roadside tree in our
country towns; by any such roadside they would thrive, though
they never will do well in cities. They are all hardy, and many
individuals might be mentioned which have stood by our village
roads since the settlement of the country, and are still full of vigor.
The Hickories come next for beauty. They vary much in
character, but are generally most graceful; their branches drooping from top to bottom often remind one of the rippling leap of a
waterfall; although the toughest of trees, and the very type of
strength, they are never awkward or stiff; no branch is straight
4
712 
ORNAMIENTAL GROUNDS.
the curves blend together from little twigs and branches and stems,
like harmonious music; their rich yellows in fall are the clearest
and most reliable of autumnal coldrs.
Beeches are very fine, and if well treated when young, are
easily managed and of reasonably quick growth; the branches and
spray are very light and broken. The tree is said to be destitute
of dignity, and to have no effect either grouped or single, but I
cannot agree to this.  However true it may be of the English
tree, it is not so of our own, and it is on the dictum of English
writers, and their indiscriminating disciples here, that the tree has
been condemned.  Its white bark broken with lichens, and the
dark lines and scars of age and storms, is very attractive, and
must charm the appreciative eye when seen gleaming through the
leaves; it is always picturesque and full of variety. The ease
with which characters may be carved on its bark, has given it the
name of the "pictured tree." The Copper and Purple Beeches
may occasionally be introduced with good effect; masses of them
well blended with other trees would be fine.
The Birches are very fine; the common Gray Birch not so
good,- but the Canoe, Paper, and Yellow Birches, are entitled to
a first rank among our trees. I would rather use them singly than
in masses.  They are particularly charming along the banks of
brooks or ponds, which return a beautiful reflection of the singular
and pleasantly colored bark and the unusually graceful branches.
They all do well in low lands. The Scotch Birch is an acquisition.
The Chestnut, fine, whether alone or in masses. The nobly
rounded outlines and massed branches of a Chestnut wood, are
always among the finest sights in a landscape; the foliage is as
clear and vivid in summer as that of the Beech, and is a particular
excellence in both, whilst in the fall they are the most conspicuous
of trees. The Chestnut and Oak mass together in wood very
well, and I know no better trees for this purpose in land that is
rather level or rolling.
The Beech is seen to the best advantage along rocky ledges, or
along hill-sides; Hickories either in level or rolling land.  The
Birch is finest in lowlands or on hill-sides, and when in groups,
60*
713 
JULY.
should always be massed with Evergreens, for the sake of the contrast in winter between their white and yellow stems and the vivid
color of the Evergreen, through which they gleam like a lamp
from a window at night. Elms never mass well together; they
are best as single trees, in groups of from 3 to 6, or to skirt a
plantation. Tupelo and Liquid Amber belong to one family, and
their autumnal color is very brilliant. The deep crimson of the
Tupelo gives it a conspicuous place in the autumnal landscape, its
abundant berries make it a haunt for birds, whilst in branches and
spray it is the most weird and picturesque of trees. Its contortions remind one of the Laocobn, particularly when festooned, as
it so often is, with Ivy or Woodbine. The Liquid Amber masses
well with round-topped trees, while the Tupelo should be alone or
on the outer edge of groups.
The Judas tree, which is rather low growing, and of no particular presence, is, however, recommended by its abundance of red
flowers long before it gets into leaf. So, too, the Fringe-tree and
Virgilia; their blossoms recommend them; the former is rather
a large shrub than a tree.
The Tulip-tree grows very large, and is fine in masses or single.
Its curious flowers are its attraction to the mass, but its real merit
lies in its architectural leaves, their clean and vivid appearance,
and in its massive character.
The Magnolia never gets much size with us; the "Glauca" has
beautiful flowers; Acuminata has pretty flowers and fine foliage,
and is good in groups of round-topped trees.
The Tripetala or Umbrella, and the Macrophylla, are valued
for immense leaves and flowers. There are several other varieties, all beautiful and conspicuous. Soulangeana and Conspicua
are full of early flowers.
The American Mountain Ash, like the European, is valuable
for its blossoms and bright berries. Rarely use it single, but plant
it among Evergreens, where it may thrust its white blossoms and
scarlet berries through their branches; the color of both is heightened and the effect always beautiful.
Our Willows have great variety of form, size, and color, and
are valuable in plantations about water. The usual mistake is to
714 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
suppose that they are the trees for water, and should always predominate in plantations in its neighborhood; no pond as large as a
wash-tub but is wept over by Weeping Willows. The practice is
disgusting. The Weeping Willow is really a fine tree, and occasionally looks well near a pond, over which it may lean, and where
it may be mirrored; it likes plenty of moisture about its roots.
But when this is said, all is said. It thrives perfectly in a deep,
good, upland soil. On account of its marked character it should
be introduced but rarely. Peculiar trees tire the eye unless they
have a deal of variety, and when often introduced, although they
bear a small proportion to the whole number of trees on the place,
they control the general effect, and leave their own impression predominant in the mind. If you must use many weeping trees, vary
them as much as possible. The Black Birch is a very graceful
tree of this class, and is redeemed from being miserably lachrymose by its generally sprightly character and its little tassels of
blossoms and seeds. The Weeping Beech is considered tearful,
but its contortions never allow it to become sombre, and the same
is true of almost all trees which have been made violently weeping
by horticultural devices, such as the Weeping Ash.
The Golden Willow should have a place in every plantation of
size, for the sake of its splendidly colored wood in the early spring.
A group of these Willows, after they have felt the quickening of
the early spring sun, and their sap has begun to creep, is perfectly
resplendent, and in a violent rain storm beguiles us into the belief
that over them the sun is shining.
The Black, Bay-leaved, Water, and many other Willows, are
all good in their place. Some of them do as well in a sand bank,
or better, than in low ground.
The Buttonwood is most often indigenous in wet lands, and although not so fine a tree as it was a few years ago, is still an acquisition, and we may reasonably hope that it will recover its health
and re-assume a leading place among round-topped trees. Its scaly
bark and white wood make it both curious and attractive. It, too,
should be in the company of Evergreens, to bring it out in better
relief. One objection to it is that its leaves come out late.
The European Sycamore is a Maple, and pretty; its dark green
715 
JULY.
foliage and yellow blossoms recommend it, but I do not think either
it or the Norway Maple equal to our own Maples, and neither is as
hardy in this climate.
The American Cypress and Larch are two semi-Evergreens, as
though nature had stopped with her intention but half fulfilled in
their case, or the material had fallen short. The Cypress we need
hardly consider; it thrives only in a more southern latitude; with
us it lives and grows, that is all. But the American Larch or
Hackmatack is too little known. It is as wild and unmanageable
as an Indian girl; its luxurious picturesqueness of branch and top,
when it has room to grow, are wonderful, and to me it is the most
picturesque of American trees. If planted from seed, it will grow
anywhere, and would often very much heighten the effect of glens,
brooksides, or even groups of formal trees.  When planted as a
specimen tree, it should be in a spot to which it can give its own
character; where the irregular surface needs, and is grateful for, the
addition of the Larch. In groups, it should be planted in the middle, to draw up and give character to the whole.
The Scotch Larch, though picturesque and of quick growth, has
never in this country acquired so fantastic and striking a growth as
our own tree. Yet it is invaluable, and may be used to advantage
alone, in groups with other trees, or in masses by itself. Both these
Larches should be introduced where Evergreens and deciduous
trees are mixed as a connecting link.
I had nearly forgotten to mention the Acacias and Locusts.
Alone, or to fringe plantations, to impart wildness to a glen, the
three-thorned Acacia is of great value, and it also has considerable
dignity. No tree is like it; armed with terrible thorns, each bunch
of which threatens blood and wounds to the intruder; in them some
fanciful persons have seen nature's weapons, to prevent bears climbing to suck the honey of the blossoms, and to eat the nuts. It owes
much of its beauty to its long white clusters of fragrant blossoms. It
is desirable wherever it will grow, which it does best in light, deep
soil, though it will grow in sandy places. The Locusts are so much
attacked by borers that they often die in spite of the care of the cultivator. As timber it is of great value, being almost imperishable,
and it is a good quality in it that it will grow in grass or pasture
716 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS. 
fields without injuring the grass; beneath its shade pasture always
improves.
No doubt I have neglected to mention many excellent deciduous
trees, but it would take so much time and space to enumerate all, that
I should not think it desirable even if it were possible. The best of
our deciduous trees I have mentioned, and even if you use no others
you cannot fail to get satisfaction from plantations made of these.
But the Evergreens must not go unnoticed.  The White Pine
has already been described, but chief of Pines though it is, it is so
non longo intervallo; the Red Pine (P. resinosa) comes close to it.
This tree is but little known here, but it is very common in the
northern part of the United States, in the forests of MIaine, Vermont, and New Hampshire, and up the mountain sides of the whole
northern continent. Its tufted foliage is like that of the White
Pine, though longer, thicker, darker, in spite of there being but two
leaves in a sheath; its wood is rough, scaly-barked, and reddish, and in
the forest its stem runs up tall and stately like gigantic columns.
It is fully equal to the Austrian Pine in foliage and color, and
should be in every collection; and I hope it may yet be as common as the Balsam Fir is now, which is of all trees the meanest,
least expressive, stiffest, most worthless. When young it is often
handsome, and that it may be beautiful when old, witness the tree
now standing on the old Gore Place, Waltham, MIass.; but for one
such specimen there are ten thousand mean trees.  No sight is
more common in our New England villages than a little cottage
close to the street, with two or more tall Balsam Firs tyranizing
over it, giving no shade in summer, no music in winter, no
beauty at any time; with their lower branches cut away to allow
the inhabitants of the house to see out, they are like monstrous
pompons in a soldier's cap.
Never cut the lower branches of an Evergreen if you set any
value on its peculiar beauty! The habit of the whole class is to
lay the lower branches on the grass, and present a succession of
green, unbroken, to the very top.  The  Pines, as they grow old,
acquire a new character. Their stems and branches become di,gnified and beautiful, often very picturesque, and a little judicious
thinning may sometimes show this to better advantage. But never
717 
JULY.
touch a branch of an Evergreen without first preparing yourself by
careful and long thought and study and familiarity with the best
specimens, for you can never replace the limb removed.
The Yellow Pine is inferior to the others, but about equal to the
Scotch Pine. One superiority it has; it is most deliciously fragrant
when shedding its leaves in autumn; then the air of a Yellow Pine
wood is more delicious, fragrant, and balsamic than that of any
flower-garden or greenhouse, even in their perfection.
The Arbor Vitae may be planted along brooks and in rocky
places, occasionally introduced into a group, used as a hedge; but
when employed without discrimination it is bad.
The Norway Spruce is an unusually fine tree, and too much can
scarcely be said in its praise, whether single, massed, or in mixed
groups; it is eminently a picturesque tree. The White and double
Black Spruce are nearly as valuable.
The Hemlock is the King of Evergreens. As a hedge nothing
is more beautiful, particularly when it is gemmed with drops of
rain or dew; when young its spray and color - especially the
color of the new growth-  are bewitching; it may be used as a
shrub, a tuft, or a screen.  In middle age it rivals the Norway
Spruce in luxuriant picturesqueness, in variety and grace. But its
triumph is in its old age; a solitary old Hemlock stands like a
king; its stately stem, powerful branches, rugged, sturdy habit,
claim notice and praise. Standing alone it is peerless and magnificent; and a Hemlock forest is all this, and in addition, sublime.
Whoever has ridden along our northern mountains, and looked
down even on a still day on a valley full of Hemlocks, fringing
the meadows and creeping up the mountain sides must have seemed
to himself to see a glorious green ocean; the variety of branch and
top, the broken outlines, all recall the dancing waves of the sea.
But let the storm-wind strike it, watch the trees bend, sway, and
roll, as the blast pours its fury upon them, and you will feel that
the sea has swept up over the solid land. You need not then ven ture upon the treacherous deep to see the wild magnificence of a
storm. As the tempest dies away and quiet returns, and the glad
waves of branches dance and toss in the sunlight, you will feel the
wonder, and power, and beauty of nature.
718 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
I have mentioned the Red Cedar or Savin, as a firstrate tree.
It is so. It should be planted oftener in our ornamental grounds
We pass it by with the commendation that it makes good posts
and feeds the birds with berries; but few know the tree. It is a
singular combination of grace, variety, and picturesqueness, with
stiffness and formality. Its power over the eye is the less from its
foliage being so minutely subdivided, and it might be said to lack
beauty or individuality of foliage; but its masses of foliage are fine;
scores of little twigs and branchlets combine to form one branch
of mass of green on the tree, and the disposition of the main
branches- often weird, always picturesque- gives its foliage a
really marked character. The color of the leaf is more varied
than that of any other tree; it would be easy any day in winter or
spring to make a bouquet of cedar branches, which in sober richness and variety of color would bear comparison with a garden
bouquet. During the summer it loads itself with berries, which
are to be the food and mainstay of many birds through the winter,
and meantime, their rich blue bloom gives the tree the appearance
of being in blossom for months together. Its thick foliage makes
it a favorite resort for birds in summer;-  resting on its spiry,
swaying tip, the Red Mlavis swings and pours over field and wood
his rich, abundant song;-while in winter it is the warm home and
house of refuge for shelterless birds. It is excellent, too, as a screen
to houses or barns. But it shows us something of its glories in the
fall. Wild vines incline to cling to and grow up through it; the
Sweetbrier will push its flowers and berries up into it; the Woodbine and Ivy twine round the stem, and burst out in masses over
the branches; they climb up to the very tip of the slender top, and
taking a firm hold they fling long festoons of branches and leaves
abroad in the air. There they sway and dance in the wind all
summer long; but when autumn comes, and the "wine of the
year" is fermenting in their sap vessels, and the leaves have grown
ripe for the harvest, there comes over the Ivy a rich yellow, and
over the Woodbine a deep crimson glory, that first appears in the
edge of a leaf, but which creeps up the midrib, spreads through
the sap vessels, and at length some glorious autumn morning fills
and illumines every fibre and tissue. The dear old Cedar is ablaze
719 
JULY.
with crimson and gold; his modesty and sober colors can no longer
veil and hide him from public esteem; he is crowned with fire; no
one can pass without an admiring pause. The russet and browns,
the blue berries, all combine to make a wonder and a glory.
But beautiful as the tree is, enthusiastically as we should like to
praise it, let us hush, for its real triumph is to come.  The added
glories of the fall do not develop its peculiar personal charms.
But look at it after a snow-storm! The minute subdivisions of
leaf and twig offer thousands of footholds to the tired snowflakes;
it is full of purity and whiteness; it bends beneath its load, bht
never tries to lose or shake it off; the long, pliant, irregular
branches are now more weird and fantastic than ever; the treetops bend in every direction, and the branches are pinned to the
ground; they form arches and pillars, towers and minarets, labyrinths of beautiful shapes. The winter king claims the Cedar for
his own. Pines and Hemlocks too are most beautiful in winter,
but their long fascicles of leaves do not offer the many resting
places which the little feet of the snowflakes find in the Savin;
they close up as the storm-wind blows, they bend down to avoid
the blast, and at the least breeze shake off the load which they
have taken up in still weather; - not so the Cedar! it spreads wide
its arms as there is more to receive, and folds them about the welcomed strangers, till fiercely shaken by the pursuing Winds.
If you would have your country house most beautifully surrounded in winter, build it among Cedars. Pass one winter there,
and when the snow has come you will see, what you perhaps never
before suspected, that winter in the country is far from cheerless
and may well compare with the summer.
In characterizing our trees I have often spoken of their voice as a
quality too important to be disregarded. In the Pine and Hemlock it is the sweetest and most impressive music, responding to the
most delicate touch of the zephyr, obedient to the might of the
tempest; whilst there are other trees which have no voice for the
light winds and only shriek or roar under the blast. The musical
ear may be fed daily, charmed or annoyed by the voices of the
trees as they join in the morning or evening hymn around the
homestead.
720 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
The wind, when first he rose and went abroad
Through the waste region, felt himself at fault,
Wanting a voice, and suddenly to earth
Descended, with a wafture and a swoop, Where, wandering volatile from kind to kind,
He wooed the several trees to give him one.
First, he besought the Ash; the voice she lent
Fitfully, with a free lashing change,
Flung here and there its sad uncertainties.
The Aspen next; a fluttered, firivolous twitter,
Was her sole tribute; from the Willow came,
So long as dainty summer drest her out,
A whispering sweetness; but her winter note
Was hissing, dry, and reedy. Lastly, the Pine
Did he solicit; and from her he drew
A voice so constant, soft and lowly deep,
That there he rested, welcoming in her
A mild memorial of the ocean cave,
Where he was born."
61
721 
CHAPTER LXXVI.
GREENHOUSE, ETC.
UGUST brings us to the end of our year.  Be                   hind us, is all the work done; before us, much
of the expected reward. Many things have
1  been left undone, and many partially or poorly
executed; but all has been attempted, and the
whole work has been carried forward in the
best spirit, and with an earnest desire to do our
best. The failures and disappointments which
have tried us, or which are still before us, are small compared with
the pleasure we have enjoyed and the success which is promised;
and we have little to complain of, for who can expect unmingled
satisfaction?
The greenhouse in August begins to re-assert its claims, and we
begin, slowly and reluctantly, to repair, renew, and refresh, assured
by reason of what seems impossible to our external senses, that
the present luxuriant vegetation and rich beauty around -s can so
soon and so easily fall before the destroying touch of coming
winter.
Clean all the wood-work, mend pipes and glass, stop leaks, pot
and shift cuttings, overhaul the old plants, and give them new earth
and new pots; put every thing in the best condition for growth. Give
copious waterings of liquid manure from time to time, and lay in
a good stock for winter use.
The graperies demand no time or care beyond that given the
last month; they all contain fruit in some state of forwardness, and
are to be enjoyed rather than worked over.
The long shoots are to be pinched back, to mature wood, and
where there are other plants, leaves should be removed to admit light.
Be careful that the houses do not get chilled by easterly winds.
722 
GREENHOUSE.
The grapes in the cold grapery will be coloring and ripening during
the month.
If you have not had as much or as fine fruit as you hoped, let
this year's failure help you to insure next year's success.
In the conservatory the work is the same, and there is rather
more of it, as more of the plants are stock, and are seldom exchanged for others.
Repot and stimulate Pelargoniums which have been cut down.
If the Chrysanthemums, Cinerarias, and Roses seem to crowd their
pots, shift. Pot Achimenes, and lay aside such Gloxinias and
Fuchsias as are out of bloom. Pinch Ericas and Epacris back a
little; it will both strengthen them and increase their bloom.
Repot Callas, if not done last month.
In beginning the work for winter, look over all that has been said
in the previous months about the treatment, culture, and propagation of plants, that you may be sure to start fairly.
Now is the time to plan and start new cold or conservative pits,
or refresh old ones, and, in general, to furbish up all the paraphernalia of winter war.
Those beds in the conservatory in which there are no plants
should be enriched, and renewed, and well dug over, while those
containing plants should have three or four inches of earth removed froion their tops, to be replaced by rich virgin loam.
723 
CHAPTER LXXVII.
FLOWVER-GARDEN.
IF you would have the full midsummer glory in your flower-garden, be constant and careful in your attendence upon it; the bedding plants are now at their highest point, and will continue to
grow and blossom.
Annuals, too, are in their prime, and the place of those just out
of bloom should be filled from the reserve-garden. All annuals
going to seed should be cut down or pulled up. Many, like Candytuft, may be kept much longer in blossom if prevented from ripening their seeds.
Most of the perennials are gone, but those which remain are so
brilliant in color, and large in size, as to allow the loss to be scarcely
felt.
Transplant from the seed-beds the seedlings of all perennials or
biennials sowed in the spring, to the places where they are to blossom next year, or if no place has been selected, prick them out in
rows in the nursery, that they may get well grown before the next
year. You may at this time sow the seeds of Sweet Williams,
Foxglove, Canterbury Bell, Pansies, and other biennials, from the
seed ripened this year. Such seed will germinate much more rapidly than when dried over winter. This, indeed, is true of all
seeds; they are in a better state to germinate and develop, if sown
as soon as ripe; examples of which are the Acorn, self-sowed firom
the Oak; Peas and Beans, dropped from the vines while harvesting.
Only such seeds as would be winter-killed should be kept till spring.
Biennials hardy enough to stand the winter, gain a year in flowering if planted in August. Pot out of the garden such annuals
as you would like for the winter, which were sowed late and are
not yet much developed. Take off slips, suckers, and cuttings
from perennials.
724 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Remember that the Chinese Hollyhock, Double Scarlet Lychnis,
and similar plants, may be propagated by cuttings of the flowering
stems and other parts.
Clip Box edgings, that they may make a new growth before winter.
Plant out such bulbs as are injured by too long drying, as Snowdrops, Lilies, etc. Also if there are still any autumnal flowering
bulbs not planted, Colchicum, Autumnal Crocus, etc., set them out.
Make layers of Carnations and the other plants already mentioned; cut off such layers as have been before made, and are now
well rooted.
Pot cuttings which have struck roots.  Pot seedlings that are
well advanced, and shift into larger pots those seedlings, cuttings,
etc., before potted or sowed in small pots.
Every thing which is to go into the house in the winter, should
be arranged and assorted now, and many plants potted. After
potting, remove to the shade of a north wall or a shed; keep cool
and moderately watered.
Auriculas and choice Polyanthuses, whether seedlings, cuttings,
or old plants, should be often worked over and cleaned; keep them
growing.
Make ready your bulbs for planting in September and October.
Give the flower-beds occasional waterings with liquid manure;
but remember that no slight watering should be given to plants in
the open border; they should be watered freely, if at all. For
they ought to be accustomed to supporting themselves, and if the
soil is deep, they will thrust their roots down to the water table,
while if watered slightly from time to time, the roots will turn
towards the surface, and thus not only the plant gets less hold upon
the earth and less food, but it grows weaker, and if the watering
is omitted for any length of time, will dry up speedily, when other
plants, accustomed to rely on themselves, are thriving.
Once a month, throw a little salt over the walks; it kills weeds,
and binds the gravel more firmly together.
During the month, begin to bud Roses. The earliest budded
will sometimes start and grow very much before winter; but those
budded later are safer. On the next page will be found a description of the flower-garden referred to on a previous page.
61~
725 
AUGUST.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
HOW PLANTED WITH BULBS, PERENNIALS, AND SHRUBS.
* against a letter means that the bed is full of the bulbs.? only partially
filled.
Beds planted as follows:*a,  Snowdrop, Crocus, Hyacinth.
b,       "          "..".Narcissus, Tulips.
*C,""
:d,      ".       ".        ".       ".       ". Daffodils,  Pansies,
Peonies, Day Lily, Tiger Flower, Gladiolus, Fall Crocus, Tuberoses.
?e,                                          Daffodils, Pansies, Polyanthus.
*f,  Snowdrop,           Hyacinth,             Tulips,     Pansies.
9,                           "s
k, Perennials.
1, Bedding plants and Annuals.
m,   "           i.        (
o,  Iris,     Jonquills,                          "    Daffodils,     "
p,  Crocus,      "        Hyacinth,  Gladiolus,  Squill,  Tulips,  Dielytra,
Pansies, Dwarf Peony, Polyanthus, Lilies, Amaryllis, Tuberose.
q, Perennials and bedding plants.
r,"
s, Baskets of flowers.
t, Fountain.
LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS.
15. Red Pine
16. Rhododendrons.
17. Sugar Maple.
18. Fringe-tree.
19. Roses.
20. Magnolia soulan      geana.
21. Magnolia glauca.
22. Kalmia.
23. Azalea viscosa.
24. Forsythia viridi      ssima.
25. Austrian Pine.
26. Red        "
is described on pages 30, 31, 544.
"           "    31, 544,
"           "    31;, 544.
r...                 468.
" "   537, 544.
."           "    31, 544.
.... 537, 544.
"           "    184, 185.
"           "    467.
"..  544.
" "   467.
. a    183.
726
1. Norway Spruce.
2. Larch.
3. Hemlock.
4' Copper Beech'.
5. Tupelo.
6. Red Maple.
7. Cockspur Thorn.
8. Cydonia.
9. Smoke,
10. Spirea.
II. Wigelea,
12. Barberry.
13. Oaks.
14. White Pine.
27. Azalea Pontica.
28. Spirea prunifolia.
29. 11 hypericifolia.
30. Hawthorn.
31. Snowball.
32. White Lilac.
33. American Elm.
34. English 11
35.    11'Oak.
36. Nettle-tree.
37. American White Ash.
38, Fastigiate Oak.
39. Bladderwort.
40. Black Alder.
Bed a
11 b
" C
" d
11 e
.f
11 9
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FLOWER-GARDEN.
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E 
AUGUST.
I will give full directions for budding, which are applicable not
only to Roses, but to all other plants and trees. I have taken the
illustrations from Field's new book upon Pears, a very valuable
work, and a great assistance to the cultivator.
Make cuttings.or layers of the China, Bengal, Tea-scented, and
other Roses, for the winter and spring. Those made at this season will blossom next spring and summer. Make cuttings also of
Heliotropes, Salvias, Lantanas, Verbenas, etc.
Read over the previous directions for the flower-garden.
Budding is to be performed when the plant is ready, rather than
at any particular season.
Budding is, in fact, the same thing as grafting, but in practice it
has some advantages over that method. In the graft there are
several buds, but only a small portion of stock and graft can be
united, and the junction must be effected between like and like;
the albumen and young bark of the graft must grow upon the
albumen and young bark of the stock.
In budding, a larger amount of these substances can be brought
in contact.
The condition of the stock when to be budded, must be as follows: When a small slit is made lengthwise in the bark, and a
smooth, hard, and thin instrument is introduced between the bark
and the wood, the bark must leave the wood freely and smoothly,
as that of the Willow separates when you make a boy's whistle.
The stock must be tested several times to ascertain the condition
of the bark. Most trees are in the best state in the spring, and if
the bud were equally ready, budding could be done then as well as
in the summer.
The usual time to begin budding is late July, August, and September; if done later than this, there is scarcely time enough for
the bud to get securely attached to the wood before winter. The
condition of the bud should be like that of the stock. The buds
must be all well formed and fully ripe. I have said before, that
the lower buds on a branch are generally too old and not well developed; the branch grew so rapidly that the lower buds were
passed by, while the upper are not well matured and ripened; the
middle buds will be ripe and well formed, and may be reasonably
expected to thrive best when removed.
728 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
A shows a stick of such buds; the upper
and lower ends of the shoot having been
cut off; those that remain lie close to the
stem, are well filled out, and the stick is
straight and regular.
B shows buds which are too high on the
stem, and too much elevated above the
wood.
The bud must be cut smoothly and applied smoothly to the stock, every part of
the bud, and particularly the base of the
eye, coming in close contact with the mucous surface of the stock. Should a bud
be cut from B, you see
on the wood; there wo
the eye.
I said that buds migh
condition; one leading
sequently the loss of th
bud offers as a handle d
A shows the buds wi
the spring.
Having selected the
to remove them properl
Let a (Fig. C) be the bud you are to
remove; hold the stem in your left hand,
and cut the bud out, beginning as far below the bud as you mean  to conme  out
above it, as is designated by the shaded
lines. The woody side of the bud, when
held towards you, will look like the centre
lines, being the woody centre of the bud.
Of course a bud so cut out will have on it
a   small shield-shaped  piece of the wood of
the branch from which it was cut. MIany
operators insert the bud, wood and all, into
the stock, and very often the budding is
729
A      3B 
AUGUST.
quite as successful as when it is removed. Still, if this wood
comes in contact with the mucous surface of the stock, it prevents
the junction from being immediately perfect.
The removal of this wood is a nice but simple process. If the
bud is not fully ripe, the operation will destroy the centre and life
of the bud, its eye, as at b, and no growth can possibly occur.
When properly removed, it is as at c,
where you see the rough knotted root or
bottom of the bud.
,: b      ATo remove the wood, the pointed end of
the budding-knife is used, or a blunt-pointed
quill pen.  The bud is held in the left hand
by its footstalk, and the point of the quill
introduced under  the lower  end of the
woody shield, when a slight upward mo                    tion will throw the wood out.
The operation must be executed with
rapidity, and as soon as the bud is ready,
before it has been exposed to the air, it
should be inserted into the proper place in the stock. The air
makes the bud oxydize, and causes decay, and of course endangers
the success of the operation. Indeed, so necessary is rapidity in
this matter, that it is best to prepare the stock before the bud is
cut off.
The budding-knife is essential to the success of the operator.
These knives are of various patterns, but all have at one end a
piece of ivory, elongated, thin, and rather broad, which, when the
bark is cut, may be inserted under it, to raise it from the wood.
The ivory may be used separate from the knife, but is less convenient.
Suppose you were about to bud a Rose.   Knife in hand, first
cut off a large number of the leaves of the stock plant, and rub
off all the thorns near the place of operation, which must be carefully fixed upon. It should be as near as possible to a bud, as this
bud will draw the sap, and so aid the growth of the new bud.
Some cultivators recommend that the bud on the stock should be
cut off, and the new bud set directly over its seat; but this is a
730 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
clumsy and blundering method.  At the
appointed place, make a light but smooth        ~;
cut transversely across the stock, as at a
(Fig. D); then another, parallel with the 
course of the stem, and at right angles
with the first, as at b.  c represents the
bud, all ready for insertion, as it is prepared  at this stage of the proceeding. 
When  ready, put it into your mouth to           N
keep it from drying, but do not wet it more
than is absolutely necessary.
The stock cut, insert your piece of ivory,
wood, or bone, under the two corners of the
rectangular cut, and gently raise or slip up the bark. Before putting the bud into the opening, hold the top of it on the thumb nail,
and cut it straight across, that this end may be fitted evenly against
the transverse cut in the stock. Now insert the pointed end of the
bud into the opening of the rolled sides of the cut, and press it
into the aperture till the squared end of the bud is just opposite to
the transverse cut on the bark; when bring the two lines parallel
and press the edges close together; the appearance will nowr be like
E. When set, take a narrow piece of bass
matting or tape, and beginning at the bot- 
tom, tie the side of the cut firmly over the
inserted bud;  fasten the lower end by   a
winding up over it, and the upper in a
noose.  Wind  some  distance both above
and below the insertion and cuts, to insure  
that the air is kept out.  The cut F shows        1       r
the completed work.
I said, in first describing buds, that the
footstalk has a double value: first as a
handle to the bud, in which light we have
already considered it; the second value
now becomes apparent. In about a fortnight after it is set, the
bud will have formed a junction with the stock. As soon as
it begins to swell with the sap supplied, the connection between
731 
AUGUST.
the bud and the old footstalk ceases to be of value to the bud, and
as the new development continues, it loses its hold and will drop
off if touched. This, then, is a test of a junction between bud
and stock, and when it is proved, the bandage should be loosened,
but not wholly removed for at least a month.
Plants budded early in the summer will, if cut down to the bud,
develop it during  the late summer and the fall.  If they grow
enough to make a well-ripened and hardy wood of even two buds,
it is a good thing, as this wood will stand the winter well, and be
more forward the next spring; but if the bud breaks without being
well ripened, the whole will die in the winter, and the operation
will have been in vain. Therefore it is generally safer that the
bud should not break till spring, when, after the frosts are over,
and before vegetation really begins, the stock should be cut down
to the bud, which will grow rapidly. I have seen a Cherry bud
which grew 5 feet in one season. Pillar and wall Roses also make
very rapid progress.
Roses may be budded in July, August, and September. Those
done in July and August will make good growth, if cut down.
Cherries, Pears, Peaches, etc., should be begun in August and finished in September.
This is an easy way of adding to our stock of Running Roses,
and increasing their beauty; upon the strong canes of the Prairie
or Boursault, we may work the Noisette, the Musk, and the Perpetuals, and the same plant will thus, in another year, show a wonderful succession, combination, and contrast of blossoms.
But remember that you cannot produce any results by putting
together different species or families; like must grow upon like.
The theory some persons have maintained, that a Rose budded on
a Barberry will produce yellow Roses, is the wildest kind of nonsense. If the bud would take at all, the yellow Rose would undoubtedly follow, but it will not.
Not only must budding and grafting be confined to the same
family, but generally to the same species, if real and permanent
success is to be expected.
Our floral year has revolved, and we are now upon the threshold
of another; we are looking forward to the preparations for the
732 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
next year, while yet we are in the midst of the perfection and enjoyment of this.
I think no one can have followed this year through practically,
without imbibing a deep and earnest love for flowers and their culture, and forming a determination never to be without some such
interest in future.
I hope I have made it plain why I would have every one cultivate something of a garden; and have proved that it is not the
size of the garden which gives it its power to bestow pleasure, but
the perfection of its arrangements, the flourishing condition of its
flowers, and the care devoted to it.
And I need not repeat here what has been so often expressed
and implied throughout these pages, that to obtain the purest and
best enjoyment from a garden, it must be our own work; the result, more or less successful, of our own planning, and care, and
labor, of early and late attention, of personal devotion and love;
for love it is, after all, that makes the flowers grow, as it does every
thing else that is beautiful. And this love, like all other love,
grows with exercise, so that to any one who has watched over a
flower-garden for a few seasons, such a charge becomes almost
indispensable. Try it, and see for yourselves.
62
733 
CHAPTER LXXVI/I.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
IT seems absurd to speak of this month as the end of our year
in the kitchen-garden, for we are hardly more than beginning to
enjoy the results of our labor.
Set out during the month plants of Savoy and Red Cabbage;
they will head before winter. Plant White Turnips for winter
use. Sow Lettuce to head in October and November; transplant
and tie up Endive.  Sow seeds of some sort of Radishes, such as
black and white Spanish, Salmon and Turnip-rooted, for October
and November. Sow seeds of Cabbage and Lettuce for winter
frames, and for setting out in the spring.
Some kinds of Peas may be planted now; the earliest varieties
may be relied upon for a fair crop in October or November. Sow
abundantly of small salads. Spinach sowed the first and second
week, will be good for greens before winter; the prickly seeded
varieties are to be sown for spring in beds.
Plant beds of Onions for pips, and for leaving out in beds over
winter. Make the beds carefully, 5 feet wide; rake the earth fine,
sow in rows 1 foot apart and keep clean. Covered with pine
branches they will go through the winter well, and begin to grow
very early in the spring.
Artichokes must be attended to. The heads will be constantly
getting fit to be eaten. If they are cut down for chard, earth up
once a fortnight, like Cardoons and Celery, but never do it in wet
weather, or when the plants are wet with dew, lest they should
rust.
Keep the Asparagus beds clean, and when the seed is perfectly
ripe, collect and separate from the pulp, and either sow it now or
wait till Spring.   Mustard  and  other small salads should be
sowed weekly as before. Plant beds of Winter Cress; the plants
734 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.,
will be well grown before winter and be early in growing in the
spring.
Melons and Cucumbers are now in fruit; Melons may be hastened in ripening and improved in flavor, if a clean shingle is laid
under each, which keeps it warm and prevents its being flavored
with the earth. Gather Cucumbers for pickles.
Cut off the ends of the Lima Beans, as the fruit on them will
not ripen and removing them will aid the development of the pods
already set.
Hoe and clear the weeds from beds and paths.
Gather Okra for soup, and all fruits and vegetables as they come
into condition.
Such herbs as are ready should be gathered in season, either
for drying or distillation, and all dead flower stems must be cut off,
as they are unsightly.
Collect all the materials you can for the compost heap, and do
not let weeds grow upon it, as they not only sap its value and
strength, but fill it with bad seeds.  Manure-heaps of fermenting
materials are but little injured by such seeds which are killed by
the after fermentation, but never mix them into old and already
fermented manure.
Gather the fruit on the espaliers as it ripens; remove all wormy
and decayed fruit and leaves. I have already described the treatment of such fruit; it will be abundant through the month.
Read over the "kitchen-garden," of other months, as directions
have sometmes referred to the work of August.
Particularly, clean, repair, and renew the hotbeds, and cold frames.
Many persons think this the best month for making Strawberry
beds. But it is not. When cultivated on a large scale, the best
plan is to treat them as an annual crop.  Plant early in the spring,
in rows; cultivate between the rows, gather the fruit next year,
then plough them in and take a late crop of vegetables from the
same land. In this way you will have a new bed each year, and
no weeds.
Continue to summer prune fruit trees, and thin the fruit. Look
out for insects, particularly for nests of autumn caterpillars; they
do little harm but are very unsightly.
735 
CHAPTER LXXIX.
ORCHARD.
THE orchard in August makes no demand upon the labor of the
farmer, beyond that of gathering the fruit as it ripens.
The earliest Apples and Pears are now ripe, and should be eaten
or sold as soon as possible.
The fodder in the orchards is now very forward, and affords
constant and ample supply for the cows. The orchard enclosed
and sown for the pigs, is verifying what was predicted with regard
to good food and rapid fattening. Give the pigs also an abundance
of skim, sour, and buttermilk, as nothing makes young pigs thrive
better.
It is not, as I have before said, very good for the orchard to be
highly cultivated, but it is allowable in the management of a farm
to sacrifice one part to another, if we keep the general balance
even, and if our fodder crops are profitable as they should be, they
will more than compensate for some loss on the trees
One fact will, I think, be admitted by all Apple growers, that
those Apples which keep the best, are the firuit of trees in old
pastures where, although pruned, they receive little other cultivation. And another fact is equally established; that the more highly
an orchard is cultivated the more rapidly the trees grow and the
later in the season; consequently their wood is not so well ripened,
and is much more liable to sap and frost blight, and to be nipped
by early spring frosts. The more tender the bark the more sensitive to all changes of climate.
But do not on this account fail in care and attention to the trees;
do not allow them to overgrow or overbear; as soon as they have
too much wood, not only is the fruit impaired, both in quality and
quantity, but the tree contracts disease.
As you review the directions for the orchard given through the
736 
ORCHARD.
year, you will see clearly that I would have you take great care
before planting your trees, to select the most approved kinds, and
then to spare no pains in planting and cultivating. If you do this
your orchards when in bearing, even of Apples, will give you an
average profit of $50 an acre per year.
The Apples which ripen in August are Early Harvest, Red
Astrachan, Summer Queen, Williams, Sops of Wine, Early Strawberry.
Pears; Blood-good, Bartlett, Dearbon's Seedling, Jargonelle.
Look out for insects and caterpillars.
62*
737 
CHAPTER LXXX.
THE FARM.
THE farm work for this month is a continuation of that for July,
with little change.
On those farms which have meadow lands, either salt or fresh,
their Hay is generally to be made now. It is rarely made earlier.
RECLAIMING MEADOWS. - Fresh meadow grasses, if cut when
growing, and still young, make quite nutritious and succulent Hay,
on which, with some Roots, dry cows and store cattle live and gain;
but if left till grown and nearly ripe, it is dry, chippy, and worthless, and is no better for animals than so much brush.
It is to be regretted that farmers take so little pains to inquire
into the value of Hay, as differing with times of cutting and methods of making. They are guided by prejudice rather than by the
well-established principles founded on experiments, and consequently- they annually suffer a loss of from 25 to 75 per cent on
the value of their crop.
Salt Hay, also, should be cut young. Some kinds, as Black
grass, and others, are as much injured by standing as the best
quality of English Hay.
Want of space forbids my discussing the varieties of these grasses
in detail, and the methods of improving them. It is enough to
know that drainage of both kinds of land is extremely valuable.
Salt meadows which, undrained, yield only coarse rushes and bedding, will, when drained, soon give a large burden of Black and
Goose grass, and other kinds valuable for food. Fresh meadows,
reclaimed, as I have already shown, become most valuable land.
And if too wet for thorough reclamation, they may be so far drained
and cleared as to permit many improved kinds of natural Grasses
to come up and replace the worthless.
o~~~~~~~3
738 
THE FARM.
Foul-meadow is a grass which makes a hay nearly as good as
English, and may be induced to grow luxuriantly in such meadows
with a little care.
I think, in most cases, such meadows, with some little expenditure of capital, could be more profitably cultivated in Cranberries
than in grass, and they can generally be flowed during frosty
weather, and even if they cannot, Cranberries may often be grown
with certainty and much profit. Whether for grass or Cranberries, the first treatment is about the same.
First cut down all bushes and trees, and dig out their stumps and
roots; next make a drain round the edge of the meadow, which
will cut off the water that runs from the adjoining high land.  Conduct this drain to some outlet, either natural or artificial; cut a
main drain through the middle of the meadow to some outlet, and
into this main carry enough side drains to remove the water rapidly. I am supposing the case of a bog, where covered drains could
not discharge the water; such cases are few, as although a bog
may seem to be like a sponge, laying in a perennial supply of water
(only that it cannot like a sponge be taken up and squeezed out),
yet in all but the most desperate cases it will be found possible, by
lowering the outlet enough, to draw off the water by underdrains.
So your sponge will be gradually squeezed, but, unlike its prototype, it will, instead of expanding with its freedom, shrink up.
But drainage alone will not thoroughly reclaim a bog without
some mechanical change in its texture, for its matted fibres and
vegetable matter will still hold water to an injurious extent. As
soon as the drains are made, and bridged, if open, gravel must be
carted on to the bog, to the depth of at least two inches. This will
cost, probably, about $30 an acre. The gravel can be best carted
in when the ground is frozen. Before spring spread it. If you
choose not to plough immediately, leave it, and it will gradually
work into the bog, its stones and sand opening the vegetable matter,
thus draining it still more, and admitting the sweetening air. And,
on the other hand, the carbonic acid, which is in excess in the peat,
will seize upon the stones, and dissolve out of them lime, potash,
etc.
739 
AUGUST.
Grass seed may be sown over the gravel. Fowl-meadow, Red
Top, and other grasses, which, rooting in the gravel, will soon
choke out the wild grass. In a year or two the meadow will be
so far drained and settled as to receive the plough.  Plough as
deep as possible.
If it is soft the horses should have meadow-shoes, called rackets,
to keep them from sinking in. These shoes are at first troublesome
to the horses, but are indispensable in the culture of all reclaimed
meadows, even when well drained.
As you plough give more gravel or sand, if you can, and spread
from 50 to 300 bushels of lime to the acre, or 5 to 25 bushels of
common salt, or 5 to 50 bushels of ashes. 50 bushels of leached
ashes would be a large dose; but of unleached a small one.
When you have well ploughed, sow liberally the best Grasses,
or cultivate the hoed crops for a few years, or introduce a regular
rotation, the best plan of all. When this is done, give dressings
of guano, urine, night soil, or other highly ammoniated manure, and
barn-yard manure, if you have it in abundance; but it is the poorest
for such soils.
Were you to plant Cranberries upon this land at the time of
gravelling, several different methods might be pursued. Sods of
Cranberries may be cut and set in rows, more than 3 feet apart
each way, and kept hoed and clean for a year or two, till they cover
the soil. Or vines may be taken and cut in a hay-cutter, and then
be sowed broadcast and harrowed into the ground. Or seed may
be sowed.
Whatever crop is grown upon a meadow, it should be frequently
rolled, especially grass.
The reclamation of salt meadows is a different matter.   By
means of dykes and gates they may be reclaimed for general culture, as thoroughly as the firesh, and more easily, but usually nothing more is done than to cut narrow, open drains through the soil,
to facilitate the discharge of water as the tide runs out. These
drains are cut straight from the shore, or some side drain, to the
main, with a common peat or turf knife, and not more than 6 inches
wide, and generally only the width of the turf-cutter. Some per
740 
THE FARM.
sons cut two spits or lengths of the cutter deep; the upper as wide
as two cuts of the knife; the lower, one. Such drains are rapidly
and easily cut.
The peat removed from a salt meadow, and the mud of salt
marshes, although not often used in the compost heap, is of very
great value, and much more active in compost than the mud
of fresh meadows. The mud of salt meadows is almost always
rich with shells of shell fish, which give it its value as manure.
August is the month in which farmers generally undertake the
reclamation of meadows; and it is best to continue the work through
all the unoccupied time that intervenes before winter.
GRAIN CRors. - In the course of this month the Grain crops
will be harvested, and land laid down both to Grass and Grain.
We cannot on our place sow Grain before September, as we have
Potatoes in No. 3, and the rest of the field is in Roots, which will
postpone planting grain till spring.
Dig the Potatoes as soon
as ready, and when they
are well removed from the
field plough with the deep
tiller plough as deeply as
possible, following with the:.~ 
subsoil plough.  The land -
is smooth and in good order, and should be ploughed in ridges by
the poles, as described, and immediately harrowed lightly.  Or,
better still, follow the plough with the cultivator.
Harrowing of some kind seems to be a necessary evil; we must
reduce the surface to considerable smoothness to secure a good
spread of seed and braird, or even start and growth of grain. But
the action of the harrow is just that which is most undesirable in
culture. Those who pack snuff in bladders, have a method of
stuffing the bladder fuller, after it seems to be as full as possible;
they ram into it a pointed iron, which being withdrawn leaves a
hole in the compacted snuff; this hole filled, another is made and
filled likewise, and so on until the iron can no longer enter.  The
harrow acts in just this way upon the soil.
741 
AUGUST.
Our soil is a fair gravelly loam and will fall down closely enough
under the harrow, and during the winter will become as compact
as even Wheat can desire. If it were clayey, it should be rolled
with a clod crusher after ploughing to break up the lumps which
the plough would leave.  If sandy, it should be harrowed several
times.
We are now ready to sow the Wheat.  The ordinary amount
of seed per acre, is 12- to 2 bushels if sowed broadcast, and 1
bushel if drilled. Less than one in drills, will answer.
It is not necessary to quote the numerous experiments which
have been tried with Grains, but the majority prove conclusively
that the yield is generally larger with thin than with thick seeding,
particularly when the sowing is in August and September, and
there is time for it to cover the ground well before winter.
Three pecks of seed per acre has given in many cases more
Grain than 2 bushels, and at no greater cost. Any Grain when
drilled may be weeded and cultivated if we choose, with a horsehoe and cultivator, with a return enough larger to pay an ample
profit on the labor, and with a saving of from $2 to $3 per acre
for seed.
In our Western States the sowing of winter Wheat is rapidly
falling into disuse, owing to the ravages of insects in summer. But
this pest seems to be travelling westward, and it has been found
that in parts of the country for many years valueless for winter
Wheat, it may now be sowed without danger.
Careful experiments upon the depth at which seeds will germinate, have shown that it varies with different seeds; the proper
depth for winter Wheat is 14 or 2 inches.
Observe that sowing in the drill saves the cost of harrowing.
Follow the Grain with Grass and flat Turnip seed; sow seed in
proportions already given. An English receipt is 9 lbs. Foxtail;
2- lbs. Cock's foot; 32 lbs. Meadow Fescue; 42  lbs. Hard Fescue; 4- lbs. Italian Rye Grass (this will do with us only when sown
in the spring); 3 lbs. Red Clover; 4 lbs. Yellow Clover; 4 lbs.
White Clover; 8 lbs. Timothy; 2 lbs. Orchard Grass: 1 lb. Yarrow. (Omit all the Clover till spring). This great variety is recommended as making better and more permanent pasturage, and an
742 
THE FARM.
imals will fatten upon it with more certainty. In laying down land
to be kept in grass for several years, I should decidedly recommend the use of a large variety.  See "Flint's Grasses" for a
good history of American and foreign Grass, and for a good mixture for permanent pasture.
Our farmers give one-half bushel Herd's-Grass or Timothy;
one-half bushel Red Top; 12 pounds Clover in spring. I think
for Grass in rotation these will be the best, but I recommend one
bushel rather than one-half of Red Top, and 16 pounds instead of
12, of Clover in the spring, or three kinds.   Also I have no
doubt that for the first year a liberal allowance of Italian Rye
Grass would prove profitable. Italian Rye Grass is the staple
Grass in England, and instances are given of its yielding 10 tons
of Hay to the acre; the best varieties are annual, and with irrigation and liquid manure it is an unrivalled fodder crop. It has been
but little used in this country, and the experiments made with it
have been so badly planned and unsystematically executed that
they have by no means decided whether it will do well here or
not. Sow with the Grass 4- pounds of purple topped Turnips.
The seed may be evenly and advantageously spread in drills, or
broadcast from the seed-sower, or by hand.
If sowed by hand, either Grass or Grain, the seeds must be
well mixed. Let the sower tie a good sized apron or small sheet
about his neck, and gather up the farther end in his hand. Fill
the pouch thus formed with seed; set up the poles, and walk slowly
towards them sowing the seed. If Grain, take a handful and sow
slowly and evenly by swinging the hand backward and forward.
A few experiments will be necessary to a beginner in order to ascertain how much grain to throw at each swing of the hand. To
sow Grass seed, it is better to take less and sow with the fingers,
with more rapid motion. Grass seed is light and easily blown by
the wind, and should be sown on a still day. If sown as early as
August, there will be no need of a top-dressing, but if later, sow
100 pounds to the acre of guano with the seed, to give it a quick
start and early growth. In the spring with the Clover, sow 150
pounds more. If no manure is spread in the fall, sow in the spring
200 pounds to the acre with the Clover.
743 
AUGUST.
The seed sown, harrow it in with a light harrow, and then roll
Rolling is necessary only in order to bury the uncovered seeds out
of the way of birds. I have tried both methods, with rolling and
without, and could see no difference in the rapidity of starting, or
evenness of growth, and I do not recommend a bush harrow; I
think it a relic of barbarous farming. The fine branches of the bush
gather the earth into ridges, bury some seed too deep, and sweep
other places bare. The best method, if labor would admit it, would
be to rake the surface with hand rakes and roll; and on light, wellploughed, clean land, Grass seed might be sown without harrowing.
Numerous experiments have shown that Grass seed does not
need to be covered more than one-fourth inch deep, and often seed
not covered at all, but rolled, has come up quicker and grown better than any other.
During the autumn weed, if weeds appear. If sowed with the
drill without Grass, Grain may be horse-hoed or cultivated with
ease. Grain sowed early will tiller over the whole surface. Should
it show any inclination to run up to head, feed it down with cows.
The Turnips sowed with Grain or Grass, will need no extra
labor and will give 300 to 600 bushels per acre. The manure
that they extract will not injure the Grain crop in proportion to
their own value. If fiat Turnips are to be sowed alone, as on the
pasture No. 1, break up the land with the Michigan plough; harrow; sow the seed with sower or in drill, with 150 pounds superphosphate, or guano, 200 pounds ground bone, or the same value in
unleachedashes; rows 24 inches apart; single to 8 inches in the
row; cultivate till they cover the ground. Top in the fall, and
house, either in trenches, or in the cellar. As they keep very well
in the ground through the whole winter and often start a new
growth in the spring,, it would be good farming on such land to
fold sheep during the autumn after October, and through the winter and early spring where the ground is not covered with snow,
as in England, and let them eat the Turnips off. 1,000 sheep
folded on an acre of ground all night is a liberal manuring for the
acre, and the unconsumed parts of the Turnips would enrich it
still farther. There are good wire and wooden fences for folding.
744 
THE FARM.
MANURES. - I have already discussed the subject of manures
at some length, but have as yet only entered upon it. I cannot
close this book without saying more.
I have given a list of manures, among which urine occupies a
high place. It is undoubtedly the richest of manures, and were
all the urine of a family carefully saved and sowed over the
ground,- either soaked by a compost or in a liquid state,- large
crops would follow.
One part of the urine of a man is equal to 13 parts of the manure of a horse, or 16 of a cow.  The solid and liquid feces of
each person are capable of producing, if applied to the soil and
covered, food enough to support the individual a year.
The water-closets and privies of every house should be so arranged that the solid and liquid excrement of the family could be
readily and neatly saved and applied to the soil. Many persons
who annually pay large sums for manure, think they cannot afford
the permanent investment necessary to arrange their buildings for
this purpose. They are penny wise, and pound foolish.
The seat to such places needs to be but little raised over the
apparent vault, which should have a bottom rapidly sloping to a
well-built and capacious drain, which leads to a cesspool at a proper
distance from the house. This cesspool may be excavated in the
gravel, and made by cementing the gravel, or may be brick or
stone, laidin mortar. It may be arranged so as to mix muck,
loam, and road scrapings, or to use the liquid alone. The urine,
as I have shown, is made more valuable by mixing with it an
equal bulk of water. Run into the vault of the water-closet the
spout of the sink, and allow all the soapy liquids from the sink to
wash out the vault and mix with the feces in the cesspool.
This will enrich the manure by its own constituents, besides
supplying the water for admixture. If you have but scant means
for constructing the cesspool, let your drain empty into an oil butt
sunk in the ground. Haul near this oil butt a large quantity of
mud, loam, sawdust, shavings, leaves, straw, any kind of vegetable
matter, and even chopped brush, and forming a compact heap, or
a basin, according to the material, with a long-handled dipper; as
often as the cesspool or butt is full, dip it out on the heap. When
63
745
t 
AUGUST.
the heap is saturated, mix it up, and haul it away and put more in
its place.
A cheap dipper for this purpose is a butter firkin, with a handle
carried through it and made fast by pins. The waste of a family
of six persons, well saved and managed, will thoroughly manure
two acres of land, and as the net value of the most profitable crops
on well-manured land is at least $50 per acre, we have $100 as
the value of the waste.
I will not pursue this subject farther, as it has been so often dis   cussed that information upon it is abundant.
In discussing manures in April, I went upon the supposition that
there must be returned to the soil every year just what is taken
away. But in the long run this is not necessary, if land is well
farmed, for every manure that we apply has a surplus of some   thing, which is added to the capital in the soil for future use, and
may therefore be omitted in the next application. I put the case
strongly, as the aim of the farmer should be to preserve the balance
true, and this must never be lost sight of.
If we add this year a guano rich in phosphates and poor in am monia, for a special crop, we may next year add ammonia in a
similar excess, or lime, or soda, with a deficiency of phosphate.
But what I wish to impress upon you is the importance of every
cultivator's understanding the soil and its constituents, and the
constituents of the crop and the manure, so that he may always
act upon principles.
Farming may, in most cases, be compared to a blind mall sitting
down to an entirely unseasoned dish for dinner. Near him are
pepper, salt, and other condiments, and he is to help himself; but
as he has no guide, the resulting taste alone can decide whether
he helps himself wisely or not.  So the farmer, blind to all knowl   edge of principles, can decide only by experiment upon the appli   cation of seasoning to his soil, and he will get first too much pepper,
then too much salt, and may think himself fortunate if his mistakes
are not irreparable. But the farmer who knows before he acts just
what the composition of his soil requires, and just what applica   tions will supply the requirement, works with his eyes open, seasons
accurately by his eye, and is in no danger of spoiling his dinner.
746 
THE FARM.
I might enter into the details of the application of the various
manures, but I cannot even describe that of the principal ones, for
want of room; the subject is almost inexhaustible.
Lime, for instance, upon which volumes have been written, is a
sine qua non to some lands, but worthless to others, and where it is
of value, its application varies from 5 to 300 bushels per acre, according to the length of time since limeing before. If this has
been done within 5 or 10 years, 50 bushels is ample; if not for
40 years, 300 will be necessary. I must refer you to other books
for the details of experiments and results.
Let me close the subject by saying that the best farmer is he
who cultivates his land in such rotation as to enable each crop to
take something from the soil that the preceding crop did not want,
who grows those crops which will give most milk, wool, flesh, and
return the best and largest amount of manure; who so husbands
this manure and combines it with all the refuse, animal, mineral,
and vegetable, that his place affords, as to make it sufficient for all
his land; who, if he cannot do this, buys special manures, and does
not try to manufacture them; who so drains, subsoils, and irrigates
his lands, as to give his manures and crops the best chance; and
finally, who so expends his profits as to develop and cultivate his
own mind and the minds of his family, that they may draw support
and strength, beauty and nourishment, from all around them; from
nature and art, from society and books, from science and religion.
PROFITABLE BUT NOT GENERALLY CULTIVATED CROPS. -I
have already alluded to these crops, in the kitchen-garden of a
previous month, and they may with equal appropriateness be described under the head of Farming.
We are as much behind the times with regard to this culture, as
to that of Roots, and to the rotation of crops.
Chicory, or Succory, is the first that I shall mention.  Its use as
a substitute for coffee, and for other purposes, gives the crop great
value, and it may also be used for fodder. The land should be prepared by ample manuring; if fall ploughed, plough again in the spring
and drill in the seed at the rate of 4 pounds to the acre, in drills 12
747 
AUGUST.
inches apart.  Cultivate through the season.  In the fall, draw the
roots, clean, slice, and kiln-dry.
For a fodder crop, sow 12 to 14 pounds broadcast, and cut as
soon as it is well grown; three or four times during the season.
All stock are fond of, and thrive well upon, it.
Flax and Hemp may next be mentioned; they are somewhat
largely grown in the Western States,.and would grow in New
England. Ten years ago they were about as much cultivated in
Old England as now in New, and at that time an agriculturist
spoke of it in the following manner, and his words might all be applied to our American agriculture of to-day. It is to be observed
that Hemp may be added to Flax each time that he mentions the
latter, as they are alike in all the respects in which he mentions it.
"The cultivation of Flax, although it holds out a prospect of
considerable advantage to the farmer, and that neither very doubtful or very distant. is yet, like most things that are new, beset with
certain difficulties at the outset. The preparation of the land, and
sowing of the seed, are not, however, of the number, for those are
simple; but the gathering and managing of the Flax, after it has
grown to maturity, the drying, scutching, hackling, and preparing
it for market, all require some training and some skill in the persons who carry through these several operations; and the great
difficulty lies in obtaining the requisite practical knowledge in these
matters at first; once established, the whole will be plain and easy."
"In addition to the profit, which, in a pecuniary sense, would
arise from the cultivation of Flax in this country, another very important advantage would be obtained;  it would afford a large
amount of employment, especially for females, in those rural districts where employment is at present most needed. The various
operations connected with the management of Flax require many
hands, and much of the work may be performed by females."
"It has been said that Flax is a very exhausting crop, but it certainly is not more so than any of the usual green crops, neither
does it require a very rich soil; indeed, a rich or highly manured
soil is injurious, causing the plant to grow too strong and luxuriant,
and rendering the fibre coarse and less valuable.
748 
THE FARM.
"Flax is grown on light land in Belgium and Holland, and I
have seen it growing on mere bog in Ireland."
"The general introduction of Flax culture would constitute a
new and most valuable element in the rotation, and would enable
the farmer to vary and extend his successions, which is in itself a
highly important consideration; the water in which Flax has been
steeped is highly fertilizing when applied to the land, and the seed,
when properly sowed and prepared, constitutes excellent provender
for cattle and milch cows; it may be safely asserted, therefore, that
a Flax crop, rightly managed, is not only valuable as affording increased means of employment for our agricultural population, and
highly profitable for the purposes of the manufacturer, and for the
feeding of cattle, but that it, moreover, returns to the soil, in the
shape of mauure, as much, if not more, than any of the Grain
crops; in addition to this it ought not to be overlooked by the agriculturists that Clover always does well after Flax.
For Flax the land should be ploughed deep and lightly harrowed,
enough to reduce it to a fine and uniform condition; the seed may
be broadcasted or drilled; if the former, sow 21 to 3 bushels to
the acre;'sowed thickly, the fibre is finer and better. But thick
or thin are relative terms; each person must settle how much seed
he needs, by practice. When cut in blossom, there will be no
seed, but double the weight of fibre.
Cut in the seed, 200 pounds of Flax to the acre is a good crop.
In either ease the Flax is pulled up by hand, and laid in bundles
till somewhat dried, and when well dried stored until it is time to
rot it.
COST OF A CROP OF FLAX GROWN UPON 1IVS ACRES.
1 1-2 days ploughing,............................................
1-2   "  harrowing and sowing,.................................
6    "  pulling Fl a x........................................
2    "  threshing and cleaning seed............................
1    "  spreading and raking in..............................
1    "  drawing to mill,......................................
1 1-2 bushels seed, at $1.50,.......................................
Dressing and marketing,........................................
Interest on land...............................................
$3.00
1.00
6.00
2.00
1.00
2.00
2.25
15.95
10.50
$43.71
63*
749 
AUGUST.
CREDIT CROP BY
233 pounds clean seeds,.......................................  $35.50
798 pounds dressed Flax...................................... 79.80
$115.30
Deduct cost.................................................... 43.71
Net value crop,............................................... $71.59
or $46.42 per acre.
Hemp is grown to some extent at the West; it needs strong
land, and is a paying crop. Sward land should be ploughed both
fall and spring; plough deep and harrow well; sow broadcast or in
drill; if the former, 1I bushels seed to the acre, from  1st April to
10th May. Cut it when the blossoms are falling off.
In the same book the following cost and profit of Hemp in Missouri, per acre, is given. The estimate was sent to the Patent Office.  Cost per acre, $20; gross profit, $40; net, $20.  The same
crop grown in our country, with our care in cultivating, would give
a much larger gross and net profit.
For details of culture I must refer you to special treatises. The
estimate is given of the cost and value of an acre of Flax and
Hemp, in "Fox's Text-book of Agriculture," to which I am indebted for many valuable facts.
"Liquorice, another valuable and profitable crop, little known, is
annually imported in large quantities, though grown to a small extent here. It needs a deep, rich soil, and occupies the land for 3
years; is grown from sets (small side shoots on the main roots),
trench the land 3 feet deep, and, if it is not rich, manure with a
large dressing of well-rotted dung; throw the land into beds 31
feet wide. In the middle of these beds, in the last of April, plant
the sets 18 inches apart, in dibble-holes 8 inches deep. As soon as
they appear above the ground keep them clean. When the leaves
and stalks die in the fall, cover the bed with a dressing of wellrotted manure, which is to be carefully and lightly dug in in the
succeeding spring. Treat this year as before, and the same the
third year; in the fall of the third year, after the stalks are dead,
begin-at one end and trench the bed over, throwing all the roots on
the surface. Small side branches of the roots, with eyes, are to be
kept in a place rather cool and dry till spring, for sets; the others
750 
THE FARM.
are washed, tied in bundles, and sold. Its gross value is not less
than $500 per acre."
Lucerne and Sainfoin are two fodder crops not much known
among us, but of great value to the milk farmer and the stall
feeder. They have been carefully tried in this climate and proved
capable of cultivation. Sow the seed in May in clean earth, in
drills; cultivate and hoe; cut two or three times in a season. The
bulk of fodder which may be cut is enormous. English - and
still more, Flemish and French- farmers, consider them to be allimportant crops. They last for 3 years, are long, tap-rooted plants,
and when the land is afterwards ploughed, their roots contribute a
large amount of manure.
From the cultivation of Madder large profits might be made.  I
do not doubt that any farmer who will cultivate this crop in the
best manner for the next 20 years, will make money as fast as any
merchant. Madder, like Liquorice, must be grown from sets, as
its seed rarely ripens with us. It is a dye-stuff, and great quantities are annually imported from Europe and used. The roots are
ground and in that condition sold to the manufacturer who extracts
his own coloring matter. The land should be rich and deep without many stones.  A  stream near by, in which the roots can be
washed is a convenience, but if overflowed for a day or two in the
growing season the crop would be destroyed. Trench thoroughly,
and then plant sets either in beds like Liquorice, or in drills 3 feet
apart and cultivate with care for 3 years. The entire cost of the
crop may be estimated at $100 per acre; a fair yield is 2,000
pounds (ground Madder) to the acre. The difficulty of grinding
the root has been one objection to its culture, but now there are
persons ready to buy the roots in the ground at a price which will
pay the cost of grinding and a profit; at 15 cents per pound for
ground madder the net profit would be $200 per acre, making the
large allowance of $100 per acre for cost of culture.
Rape is valuable for forage and for its seed.  It may be sowed in
the spring to be fed off in the autumn by sheep. It grows rapidly
gives a large quantity of food, will grow on much poorer soil than
751 
AUGUST.
the Turmnips, and needs less culture and manure; may be sowed
broadcast or in drills. In the latter case 2 pounds of seed per acre
are enough. The seed of Rape is worth for its oil, one-half the
price of Linseed. It is rather liable to injury in cold winters, and
consequently will not be grown extensively for seed here, but the
experiment has never been fairly tried. To get seed, sow on a
clean stubble ploughed in drills, 24 inches apart, in August. Cultivate in the autumn. In the spring it will cover the ground before
the weeds spring up; reap the straw the last of June; dry and
thresh; the yield will be from 30 to 50 bushels per acre, and is
worth at least $1 a bushel.
Rye Grass I have already commended. Too much cannot be
said for it, and where there is a command of water4 or liquid manure, the produce per acre is almost incredible. It is often cut 5
times and will yield 20 feet in height, if we add the lengths of the
several cuttings, and 20 tons per acre of fodder may be, under
such circumstances, relied upon. 
Silk seems to have been tried and exploded, and whoever recommends it, incurs a suspicion of entertaining some sinister design,
and yet without doubt no more valuable crop can be grown in
Southern New England, if proper care is taken of the worms and
their food, and they are managed carefully and economically, and
without the hope of an immediate fortune. The worms should
be tended by children and women, and if the culture were begun
on a small scale and gradually enlarged as the management proved
profitable, the growers of the worms would be amply repaid for the
time and capital invested.
Sugar beets. Were I to be asked what culture would best repay
an enterprising farmer, who had capital and good loamy and moderately level land, I should say, that rotation which should introduce the Sugar Beet most largely and most frequently.  It is
another instance of a crop which has been hastily tried and condemned by many persons, and yet which promises to the grower
extraordinary profits. The causes of failure are easily seen. In
the first place as in the case of other Root crops, the imported seed
must be acclimated before the crop can equal the cultivator's ex
752 
THE FARM.
pectations, and although great benefits arise from the interchange
of seeds between different countries, yet in most cases this benefit
does not come in the first sowing.
Then, in the second place, this crop needs constant attention, and
the best of culture, a good soil, plenty of manure, deep  drainage,
good subsoiling, and if possible, liquid manure or irrigation. The
important point with this Beet is not enormous size of the roots,
but a heavy yield of moderate, uniform-sized roots.
Thirdly, there is in general a deficiency of proper machinery
fbr the extraction of the sugar.
Fourthly, a general want of faith in its value and the large
quantity of refuse left after the sugar is expressed.
The difficulties with regard to seed, soil, and culture, are easily
remedied. Imperfect machinery has now been perfected, and above
all, two large sources of profit have been discovered in the waste;
for it proves excellent food for store cattle, and is found to be
superior stock for' all coarse papers, so much so that the time is
approaching when it will be impossible to provide too great a
supply for the demand of the paper makers.
It was first cultivated for sugar in France, under Napoleon, war
having put a stop to the importation of cane sugar, and at first it
needed protection to enable the cultivator to make  it.  Now  the
case is reversed, and so simplified has the process become, that it
can be produced enough cheaper than cane sugar to undersell it in
the market, when the latter is not protected by a discrimninating
duty. The vast, loamy, fertile plains of the West, and all the
alluvial and river soils of New  England are well adapted to the
culture of this Beet. It has the farther advantage of being equal
to any other Root crop, as a food for stock, having by analysis
more nutritive qualities.
Teasels are somewhat grown in New  England and the West.
Their price varies much, so that they are of rather uncertain value.
They need deep rich soil, and thorough cultivation. Ploughl deep a
well-manured fallow, and then harrow down; sow the seed in drills
3 feet apart, 6 pounds to the acre; when the plants are fairly distinguishable, thin to 6 inches; hoe and cultivate through the season.
In the autumn leave the field clean. They begin to grow the next
753 
AUGUST.
spring, and come into blossom in July; as the heads become fit to
gather (which is known by the ready separation of the seed), cut
them; several cuttings are necessary to secure all the heads in the
right condition. Dry them on floors made so as to admit air from
below; lay them 6 inches deep on the floor. When ready for sale
they may be tied in bundles according to the quality, or packed in
boxes.
There are several varieties of Teasel; the best are imported
from Germany, and the best alone should be cultivated. The wider
our woollen manufactories spread, the greater will be the demand
for Teasels, as their little elastic hooks do a work which cannot be
equalled by any machinery. Machinery has been invented to supercede them, and is often used, but cannot do their work perfectly.
The profit on Teasels ranges firom $25 to $150 per acre, according to the yield and the market. Severe and continued cold does
not seem to injure them, but rapidly alternating cold and heat,
winter thaws and late spring frosts are very destructive.
Tobacco.  It is with some hesitation that I say any thing to increase a knowledge of this poisonous plant, but its commercial value
is so great, and the profits of the culture so large, that it must not
be omitted in this connection. It was formerly supposed that it
would grow only in hot countries, and the most delicate varieties
seem to need a large amount of heat to draw forth their peculiar
properties. I extract the following with regard to its culture from
the Text Book of Agriculture: 
"A seed bed is prepared as early in April as possible, for which
the richest and best land- moist but not wet- is chosen.  It is
manured, dug deeply, pulverized and rendered fine and smooth,
and the seed sown broadcast at the rate of one table-spoonful to
the square rod, before the earth becomes dry.
"After this it is raked, but the seed is not buried, it is rolled or a
man treads it in, rendering the surface of the bed as hard as pos sible; weeds must be carefully extirpated. When the plants have
leaves two or three inches long, they are ready for transplanting,
about the beginning of June. The field to be planted should be
well manured, and ploughed at least twice, harrowed and rolled,
704 
THE FARM.5
and left as smooth as possible; the rows are marked out for 3 feet
or 3 feet 4 inches apart, according to the variety grown; and on
these rows small hills are formed for the reception of the plants at
2 feet or 221 feet apart.
"To makefine Tobacco it is important to plant early, so that the
leaves may be cured when the weather is warm and dry.
"If it rains at setting out, advantage is taken to plant as many as
possible; if not, about half a pint of water is poured into each hill
and the plants immediately set. The plants should be set with a
dibble; make a hole, set in the plant, fill the hole with water, and
and then press the earth in compactly about its roots. After this
the field is examined several times, and where the plants are dead
or injured by the worm, others are set.
"As soon as they stand well, they are either carefully hoed and
the vacant places filled with new plants, or the cultivator is merely
passed between the rows. After this the plants are kept clean
with the cultivator or hoe, being hoed 3 or 4 times without hilling;
the plants are frequently and thoroughly examined for the Tobacco
worm, which must be destroyed or the crop will be greatly injured.
Turkeys are very serviceable for this purpose; if a large flock is
turned into the field, they will soon rid it of the worms.
"When in blossom and before the formation of the seed, the plants
are topped about 32 inches from the ground, leaving from 16 to 20
leaves on each stalk.
"If there are late plants in consequence of resetting, break them
lower down and they will grow and ripen sooner. All suckers
must be broken off. When ripe, the leaf is spotted and thick, and
will crack when pressed between the thumb and finger. It may
be cut any time in the day after the dew is off; left in the row till
wilted, then turned, and if there is a hot sun, turned often to prevent burning. After being wilted it is put into heaps of six or
eight plants and carted to the sheds for hanging.
"Here it is hung with cotton twine on horizontal supported poles
12 feet long, about 20 plants on a side.  It must hang until the
stem of the leaf is thoroughly cured to the stalk; from 6 to 10 weeks.
"It is then taken down on a damp day, to prevent the leaves from
crumbling, and placed in large piles, by letting the tops of the
755 
AUGUST.
plants lap each other, leaving the buts of the stalks out.  It remains in these heaps from 3 to 10 days before it is stripped, depending on the state of the weather, but it must not be allowed to
heat. When stripped, it is made into small bunches, called hands,
the small and broken leaves being kept by themselves."
"When fit for market it is pressed in boxes of about 400 pounds
each.  The crop varies from 1,000 to 2,700 pounds to the acre.
In France, 4,000 pounds is got to the acre. An acre of Tobacco
in Massachusetts cost $67.50, it sold for $160-  nett, $92.50.
"To save seed, allow a few of the strongest plants to produce
their flowers, which will ripen in September as much seed as will
stock half a dozen acres. The best soil is a light, sandy loam, or
a light soil rich in organic matters, having a portion of sand mixed
with it. Clay soils are not adapted to it, and pretty steep hill-sides,
if light and rich, are better for the production of Tobacco than
level land.  The manure for the crop should be highly ammoniated, and abundantly supplied but both the manure and urine of
horses are objectionable, as they seem to give the Tobacco a bad
taste."
"Tares or Vetches come here in alphabetical order, as a valuable
fodder crop.  Hogs may be fattened entirely on them; milch cows
give more butter when fed on this than on any other food, and
horses are very fond of them. It should be sowed in a regular
rotation, and take the place of late fodder, particularly where tlhe
late Grass is often deficient. The land must be clean and well
cultivated. It will grow on any soil. Sow broadcast 3 to 4 bushels of seed to the acre.  If sowed with Oats, - as is very common, - sow 1-2 to 2 bushels Tares, and 1 bushel Oats. "The
Hopetown or White-flowered Tare, is the best variety."
As fodder, cut after the pods are well grown, but long before
they are ripe.  If for seed, let them stand till ripe, and then cut
with the scythe and treat like Peas.
Willows are a crop but little known in this country, of which
several millions of dollars are annually imported, yet they might
be cultivated with profit in many classes of soil, and in many
places otherwise waste. 
THE FARM.N
There are seven varieties.  The best single varieties are Salix
purpurea, Salix Forbyana; S. triandra is excellent. Salix viminalis is generally cultivated in England, with several sub-varieties, all of which thrive but poorly in our climate. The Yellowskin Willow (S. vitellina) and the White Willow (S. alba) are
both good and natives.
The farmer about to cultivate the Willow, should make inquiries
and satisfy himself as to the best kind for our market. The indispensable requisites in a soil for a good plantation of Willows, are
richness, depth, moisture, arid ease in cultivation. The many reclaimable and reclaimed meadows of New England, would make
the best of land for the purpose. A long continuance of standing
water is not desirable, but the land should be so circumstanced
that the roots may penetrate through a rather dry surface into a
wet subsoil. Having well drained the land, prepare it as for
Corn; insert cuttings 2 feet long perpendicularly into the soil,
leaving 2 inches above the surface.
"Plant in rows, 4 feet apart, and 1 foot between  the plants;
keep clean of weeds, by plough, hoe, and cultivator, for two or three
years. At the end of the second year, the osier is ready for cutting."
There is a difference of opinion as to the proper time for cutting;
some advising fall and winter, after the sap has ceased to circulate,
others the spring, when it is first starting.  When cut in winter,
they are tied in bundles and set upon their buts in water till spring.
Cut the osier about 2 inches from the stock. Peel them with this
very simple instrument. It is merely a
round stick of hard wood, about an inch
thick and a foot long, quartered about half
the length of the stick, and the two oppo                       site quarters cut off, so that it will leave a
sharp edge upon the remaining two.  The
tool is taken in the right hand, and the
Willow inserted in the slit with the left,
and pulled through, the bark coming off.
Lay them to dry, and when dry, sell by
weight.   Some  persons who have  tried
their culture, have got much  more profit
64
f57 
AUGUST.
from the Willow, than from all the rest of the farm. Some varieties sell as high as 8 to 10 cents a pound.
The last crop which I shall refer to is the Grape for the manufacture of wine. The culture of the Grape is on the increase
throug,hout the country, both as a fruit, and for its juice. For
the latter use, the method followed is quite different from any
hitherto described. The best land for them varies much with the
country, the aspect, the kind of Grape; and the best method of
making the wine differs in like manner.
Slight changes of soil and climate make so much difference in
the Grape and its juice, that no exact directions can be given for
it. As I have said once before, its cultivation is a specialty, and I
must refer those interested in it to special treatises on the subject.*
* There is a manufacturer of brandy and wine in Boston, on somewhat a
large scale, who buys all the native Grapes he can obtain, so that our common
wild Grapes, well cared for, and harvested at the right time, may be made a
source of considerable profit, without the trouble and expense of manufacturing the wine.
758 
CHAPTER LXXXI.
ORNAMIENTAL GROUNDS.
SOME trees not mentioned in July may occasionally be of service
and value, but they will be so at rare intervals; and I do not
recommend the proprietor of a small place to plant them, even for
the purpose of making an Arboretum (collection of all species of
trees). The number of varieties is too great to admit of such a
collection having a good effect within small limits; but in all large
estates, especially in public grounds, a portion could be set aside
for this purpose. It seems proper that the love of the beautiful
should sometimes be sacrificed to the advancement of knowledge,
in large cities and towns (provided deformity be not put in the
place of beauty); and it is very important that the people should
learn the shapes, appearances, and uses both of our native trees
and of those foreigners which will endure our climate. I have already said enough against planting trees in rows, except from necessity; but where rows are deemed necessary, as beside malls or
avenues in public grounds, it is better not to confine them to one
kind, but to use several varieties; for instance, one family, the
Oaks, would furnish species enough to line quite a long avenue, and
interspersed with the Walnut and Ash, all somewhat similar in
habit, would form avenues, while they gave valuable information.
Very few, even of our country folk, know all the varieties of the
Oak, and city people seldom know the difference between an Oak
and an Ash.
But I no more recommend that all the rows we plant should be
devoted to science, than that planting in rows should be general,
for no one better loves the grand effect of a fine avenue of a single
variety, of Elms or Maples, or of Elms alternating with Pines or
Hemlocks. The beauty of an avenue is a separate and important
consideration.
759 
AUGUST.
The row, however, is not the best form in which to plant an Arbor etum. The real habit and character of a variety can not be so well
seen in a single specimen, by the side of an avenue, as in a group.
Grouped trees are better seen from all points of view, than those
unrelieved by any companion. And, besides, the object being to
familiarize people not only with the individual, but with the family,
several specimens are necessary.
I have several times alluded to a doctrine       advanced by Gi)in
and others, to the effect that but a few varieties should be introduced
in ornamental landscape, and they in great numbers, in order to
'secure the characteristic effect, whether of Oak, Ash, or Pine.
Now by planting in a well-disposed group one of each species of
Oak, the best Oak effect can be produced, and as the filmily is large,
quite a wood can be formed, with a pleasant variety of individuals,
and yet a certain unity of effect. This may be heightened by contrasting and joining with the Oak wood on one side, or perhaps running into it Hickories, they again blending with Chestnuts, which
in their turn combine with Beeches.   The Hickory and Beech are
more alike than the Hickory and Oak, or the Beech and Chestnut,
so that considerable contrast would be secured. At proper points
the species - small in number- of Hornbeam and Hop Hornbeam, eould be grouped to contrast their light and pliant branches
and small leaves, with the sturdy and gnarled Oaks. The Hazel,
varying in size from a mere shrub to a low tree, should be planted
near the edges of the group, to fringe it, and combine Grass and
trees.
Thus, without going out of the deciduous trees, we may produce
very beautiful and strongly contrasted effects, and in such a way
as to mark decidedly the scientific character of the material used.
We have joined the two families of Cupulifere and Juglandacee,
and have made the beginning of a properly arranged Arboretum.
The shrubs and flowers which inhabit woodlands vary with the
variety of trees forming the wood. I do not mean that shrubs,
flowers, and ferns will not live except in particular woods, but that
they have strong preferences, by humoring which we may gain
both in beauty and scientific interest. And different species of
trees are the home of different and partilcular species of Lichens,
'
760 
ORNAMFENTAL GROUNDS.
Liverworts, and Mosses, while others of these plants live on all
trees alike; another branch of botanic science may thus be illus
trated.
To return to the trees; the spiry branches and small leaves of
the Hornbeam are very like some kinds of Elm. The resemblance
at once suggests the point with which to connect the Elms. These
vary much in character.  The English Elm is a stately, close tree,
more like the Oak, a strong contrast to the American Elm,  and
these are not the only members of the faimily which contrast. To
a group of them, the Englishl Elm in the middle, tall and sturdy,
will give body and vigor; along the edges we shall be attracted by
the rough bark of Ulmus suberosa, the cork-bark Elm; at a wellchosen point the grace and beauty of the Ulmus Americana will
convince the most complete monomaniac on the subject of caterpillars and canker-worms, that we should rather be more careful in
its defence, than inclined to discourage its use. Connecting the
Elms and Hornbeams, we might introduce the Nettle-tree (Celtis
occidentalis), that queer hybrid which seems to be an Elm-tree
bearing blue cherries, whilst Celtis pumila is the shrub pertaining
to the family.
No need to multiply examples; enough has already been said to
show how science and beauty may both be made prominent in groups
of deciduous trees. If we wish for contrast between deciduous and
evergreen trees, we can have it by blending Hemlocks or Spruces
with the Beeches or Elms, by the introduction of a few Birches arind
Larches, a gradation pleasant and yet productive of striking contrast; or we may boldly push our White Pines up to the Oaks and
Ashes, sure that the fall coloring will justify our practice, even to
eyes which can see no justification in the likeness between the stem
and branches of the stately and pointed Pines and those of the Ash
and Oak. In short, the scientific character and connection of our
forest trees may be shown to as much advantage as their beauty, in
groups and copses.
I use the word ygroup for want of a better. The popular idea
of a group or clump of trees is a bunch of trees planted in a circle or square, or some forms as close together as possible originally.
Frequently directions have been given for making such groups;
64 -
761 
AUGUST.
to plant the trees as closely as the quality of the soil will allow,
surrounded by a fence to protect it from the browsing of cattle.
The beauty of the fringe along the edge of plantations is certainly much reduced by the browsing of cattle, and there is no
protection like a fence.  But fences are expensive,  and  consequently increase the cost of the plantations; therefore, if the trees
are to be protected with a fence, there is an almost irresistible inclination to draw the trees into some close and regular shape
which will need but little fencing.  It being plain that the resulting group will be stiff, the planter argues that when grown, the
trees can be cut out so as to produce an irregular shape. But the
argument is very specious.   Trees grow  so slowly, that it but
rarely happens that he who plants, lives to thin them, and how can
that unity of design and execution which is so essential to the success of landscape gardening-especially in plantations, its most
important feature- be secured, if the work designed and commenced by one person is continued and completed by another?
When trees are planted, it should be in accordance with a well-digested plan. In order that they may be perfect when mature,
their mature perfection should be distinctly seen in the imagination
of the designer. He will then plant each tree where it will stand,
so for as the outline of the group is concerned. Its interior may
be cut out without greatly altering the effect; not so the outside.
A
~;~~
$#~ j# 
~ 
I
762 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS
Another reason why the plan of cutting these crowded groups
into shapeliness can never be realized, is found in the fact that
trees thus planted can never attain the complete beauty of their
variety.  Every one knows that trees grown in masses, with the
exception of those on the edges of the plantation, lose their lower
branches; those branches only develop fully which are open to air
and light. A great beauty of an irregular plantation is, that its
trees feather down to the ground. Let A be a group of' such outline as we want 20 years after planting it. What we want can be
obtained only by planting it in this shape. Surround it with a
fence as in the cut, and lose for Grass, pasture, or tillage, all the
unoccupied land within this fence; let it go cheerfully as part of
the price, without which you cannot have a fine group.
When it is necessary to form a group by cutting it out of trees
already well grown, much may be done to relieve the nakedness
sure to follow, by setting tall and quick-growing shrubs along its
edges; they will soon protect and fringe the trees.
In such cases, select shrubs that will bear the drip from trees, to
stand nearest the group.
To protect new plantations from cattle, without a fence, the
English planters fill in among the trees with thorns of various
kinds, of a rapid habit of growth. They may afterwards be left,
or cut away, as the beauty of the group demands.
A mistaken assumption with those who recommend that trees be
planted in close groups, to be afterwards cut into shape, is, that the
owner will thin out the trees when they are well grown. By the
end of 20 years he will become accustomed to the arrangement,
will hardly believe that it can be improved, and will have a decided repugnance to cutting down his trees. Those who plant or
own ornamental trees, acquire so blind an affection for them, that
they cannot allow any thinning, however much their plantations
might gain in beauty by it.
Never plant a group in a circle, or other regular shape, unless
from some imperative necessity. You may lay it down as a rule
that the same amount of material may be used more pleasantly in
some irregular form. You cannot mend a regularly shaped group
by planting up to it hereafter; it is as unapproachable as an ice
763 
AUGUST.
A  berg.  B is a circular group.  After it is well
H     i    grown, approach it as you may with trees and
~'-~ 1:d'>-       shrubs, you cannot disguise its originally hard
shape.  If it stands alone, -  as on a lawn, - it
is equally bad from all sides; no more play of
B         light and shade, no more variety of outline, than
a barrel!  If in the corner of a fence, - as in the cut, - it is
irreconcilable with the surrounding lines, and cannot be relieved.
The first glance shows
that the treatment of C
or D  is infinitely better.
In  B, even the beauty
of the individuals is lost,
whilst in C and  D, each
tree is improved by its
neighbor.
".    X                   V
The recommendation frequently given to use the bushy tops of
young Evergreens in marking out groups for planting, is good.
They may be cut 3 or 4 feet long, and pointed at the but, so as to
be easily thrust into the ground, where they are so prominent as
to give the character of the group at once. Stakes are rather
small and inconspicuous. But be careful not to be guided in
marking out your group by some fancied beauty or picturesqueness of outline; it will lead you into errors as bad as a ring fence.
The outline is but a secondary consideration in a group; the aim
of the planter should be to exhibit the beauties and peculiarities
of the trees he uses to the best advantage; and, accordingly, he
should so arrange the outline of the group, that each individual
may have just its appropriate place.
The outline of a wood may be formed on the same principles as
that of a group, but their interiors must be differently managed.
The interior of a group should be as closely planted as is consistent with the proper development of the trees; but in a wood, there
is a great charm in the firequent recurrence of grassy glades, dells,
bits of water, groups of shrubs, openings with a single tree standing in them; and this must be borne  in mind when a wood is
made. If there are trees enough to give a wood or forest effect,
764 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
to shut out the world, make these openings within, wherever the
surface will allow; they not only contrast pleasantly with the general denseness, but they admit sunshine, and are rich with wild
flowers and green grass. In such a Wood, the depth of a hollow
or a mere dimple may be much  increased by planting its edges
with trees of rather dark and sombre character, with marked, contrasting horizontal branches; whilst any little knoll may be raised
decidedly by planting it with pyramidal and fastigiate trees.
To  conclude this branch of my subject, I must refer you once
more to Nature's practice. Possess yourself of the spirit with
which Nature disposes trees, rocks, hill-sides, valleys, and when
the opportunity offers, practise the lesson she is so ready to teach.
SHRUBS. -I have repeatedly dwelt on the beauty and capacities of shrubs. They may be used almost without limit. WVere
the number of trees planted about our suburban houses reduced
two-thirds, and replaced by well-selected shrubs, the general gain
would be considerable. Few persons know what size and beauty
groups of good shrubs acquire, when standing alone. There may
be such a gradation in size as to carry them from the grass almost
up to trees, and when varieties are properly combined, they give a
succession of blossoms through nearly the whole  growing season.
Many shrubs, too, like Barberry, Privet, Black Alder, Snowdrop,
produce berries quite as beautiful and striking as their blossoms,
and which take up the beauty where the flowers leave it, and
carry it on to midwinter. Groups of Rhododendrons, Laurels,
Hollies,- particularly in favorable spots  in the deep wood,have a beauty of foliag,e unsurpassed by any tree or plant, while
the color of the flowers of the two former, and the berries of the
latter, equal the richest garden display. The inhabitants of the
deep woods are many and various, and well pay for the trouble
of making their acquaintance.
The following list includes many of the best native and foreign
shrubs:- -
Size in feet.    Color of flowers
or berries.
20,         lon,,   tassels            buff,
"    Amorpha fruticosa,
765
Country. Name.
Time of
flowering.
April,
Native, Alder, 
AUGUST.
Country.      Name.             Size in feet    Color of flowers   Time of
or berries.     flowering.
Native,    Indigo shrub,             3,            purple,           July.
"   Andromeda,        1 to 6, many
varieties,    white and red, Apr. to Sept.
Nat. and for., Azalea,                  "          many colors,   May to Aug.
Of wonderful beauty. Azalea Viscosa of our swamps is large, bears the
shade of trees well, likes damp places and any kind of culture, and is deliciously firagrant.
Foreign,    Althea,               3 to 12,   many  varieties
and colors,    Aug. to Oct.
sev. varieties-    May, June,
Nat. and for., Barberry,               yellow  flowers; berries  thro'
Nat. and for., Barberry,        "* 
red berries; red  rest of  sea                                               leaves in fill,   son.
"   Bearberry,
A trailing vine, adapted to rocky and bleak places.
Native,    Bayberry,                 3,           berries,
"   Bignonia,              vinle,     yellow and or
ange,        midsummer.
10 to 20,        white,         midsummer
6  till   winter.
6 to 15,      brown ball,       August.
vaigtd
"      BButton Bush,
Foreign,   Box,
Excellent for e
Native,    Cornel,  many
varieties.
Clethra,
Cinque  Foil,
(shrubby,)
Nat. and for., Cleinatis,
"   Currant,
Imported,   Daphlne,
Native,    Elder,
E" uonymus,
Ferns,
Forsythia, viridis
"  Ground Nut,
Nat. and for., Honeysuckle,  v
"   Holly,         a
English,   Hawthorn,      6
Native,    Hazel,
Nat. and Eng., Ivy,            v
Dwarf Juniper,
* Native,    Kalmia,
Leatherwood,
,o"      Ledum,
Foreign,   Lilac,
Native,    Osage Orange,
"      Privet (extra),
Evergreen.
6,  rose colored (extra), June and July.
3 (wet land),                        June,
3,             pink,            July.
3 to 15,    several colored, May and June.
20,         for hledges,
3 to 6,    for   hedges
white and black
berries,    June to winter
766 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
onry.   Name.             Size in feet    Color of flowers
or berries.
e,    Roses,           already described.
Rhododendron,   "            "      like Kalmia.
Rhamnus-Buck-                     hedge -  black
thorn,               10,           berries,
Tamarix,               4,            white,
Spice Bush
(fragrant),        2 to 6,         purple,
St. John's Wort
(shrubby),           5,            yellow,
for., Spirea,             3 to 6,       many colors,
Sweetbrier,    already described
Smilax (very
thorny),            vine,        very thorny.
Snowdrop.               5, white and red berries,
Snowdumach, 20, white and red berries, Aug. to winter.
Sumach,                              20, red berries, cu
"nwdp                   5, white and red berries, Aug. to winter.
rious wood,       "
"  Vaccinium,        3 to 6,   white, fragrant
berries,    June to Sept.
Wigelea,            5, red, white, and yellow,    "
Wisteria (beautiful), vine,     purple,        May.
"  Virginian Creeper,  vine,  called hitherto Woodbine.
HEDGES are not well understood. They are too often considered a part of the ornamental treatment of a place. Now a hedge
is a fence, is good or bad as it answers the purpose of a fence, as
it is luxuriant and well kept, or thin and neglected. When good, it
is certainly much more pleasing than most close fences. Where
fencing material is scarce -as at the  West- hedges should be
much used as fences.
Few shrubs are well adapted to make a close fence. The Osage
Orange is the best for farm purposes, where protection is desired, and
the climate is not severe. It will flourish in any part of the Middle,
Western, or Southern States, and after the first year or two as far
North as this book applies. No plant is more easily cultivated.
It is best to place your hedge - of whatever plant - on the hither
side of a ditch, so that animals may be prevented from charging
the hedge at full speed;  its thorns will protect it from any mild
attack. Dig the ditch to suit yourself, beyond 4 feet wide and 18
inches deep, nothing less is much  of an obstacle to cattle.   The
earth dug out should be placed on the hedge side of the ditch,
sloping as in the cut. Sow the
seeds, or set young plants of the                                    -
Osage  Orange  from  12 to 18  
inches apart; the seed may be                     -.
767
Col
Na
Time of
flowering.
autumn.
June.
September.
May to Sep.
Nat. and 
AUGUST.
put closer, and afterwards thlinned; the soil should be rich, and
be deeply dug,, ploughed or trenched first.  If you use young
plants, cut them within two eyes of the surface of the ground, and
in the following spring cut down  as much in proportion; do not
try to get the hedge quickly. The second year after plantingsay in June- cut the sides of the hedge to the shape you swish.
~A  B      The  conical is best as  offering most  resist   A       B                                       Z
ance to the action of snow, (A).  B  is more
~;~~        X common, and poorer.  The third year, cut back
G o          enough to ensure a good hedge.  If it is 6 feet
high at the end of 5 years, you do  well.  And
if it reaches 6 feet by slow growth, it will turn a mad bull.
Buckthorn and other hedges are made and managed much in
the same way.
In some respects Bucktlhorn is the best hledge plant. It grows
rapidly, is perfectly hardy and uninjured by any insect. Hawthorn, the common English hedge, is not well adapted to our climate, and is also liable to be attacked and destroyed by borers.
Other varieties of the Crategus, Cockspur Thorn, Crusgalli, and
Cocinnea for instance, are better for our general use. Every portion of our country has thorns admirably adapted for the purpose.
Privet makes a beautifiul hedge. It never grows large but is
perfectly hardy and almost evergreen. When a few years old it
will, if well managed, both blossom and bear berries, and hold its
leaves till December.
Hornbeam, Beech, Roses, Cat Briar, and many other plants, are
used for the same purpose.
Cat Briar (Smilax rotundifolia), makes a capital hedge for disputed boundaries, edges of ponds, brooks, etc.; grows fast, needs
no pruning, and in a few years presents a perfectly impervious
fence to men and animals, while it is a favorite haunt for birds. The
easiest'way is to set bushes, dead or alive along the line, and plant
among them either the roots or the seeds of Cat Briar. Plenty of
roots may be got firom a Cat Briar thicket, and each joint will
grow. A few years will turn your bushes to an unequalled hedge.
Keep the roots well cut back, as they spread badly.
All these deciduous hedges may be started in three ways.  1st,
768 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
from plants set in a single line, 6 to 48 inches apart, according to
the size reached by the full grown plants; 2nd, from plants in a
double line, the lines I foot apart, the plants in them alternating,
not opposite each other, 6 to 48 inches apart; 3rd, from seeds.
Draw a line down the middle of a trench and drop the seeds along
it, two or three in a place at the same distance apart as the plants;
or a single berry may take the place of the 2 or 3 seeds. Plant
in the fall to get the benefit of the frost; cover one-half to one
inch deep. They will generally make their appearance during the
next summer; keep clear of weeds.  Under either method the soil
should be well trenched, and the hedges be cut back like the Osage
Orange, and carefully pruned in July and August of each year.
They then commonly make two growths, the second of which restores roundness and smoothness to the clipped surface.
Evergreens make beautiful hedges, and where a fence would be
used as a screen, they are the best plants to take its place, affording as they do shelter both in winter and summer, and being more
beautiful than ordinary deciduous hedges. Arbor Vita, Hemlock,
Red Cedar, Norway Spruce, are the common evergreen hedges.
The American Arbor Vite makes the quickest growing and stoutest hedge, and is liable to but few accidents. At times a single
plant dies from cold or heat, or disease, but as a class they are safe
and hardy. In 8 or 10 years they make a hedge 6 to 8'feet high
a perfect screen from wind and observation. Set the plants from
18 to 36 inches apart, according to size.  Prune once a year into
the desired shape. The best time for pruning is just before they
make the new growth which will cover all signs of the shears.
The Siberian and the Chinese Arbor Vita are smaller than the
American and rather more beautiful. They make excellent division fences for flower garden and shrubbery, and never attain the
height of the American. Treat like the American.
Norway Spruce makes a stout, quick-growing, impenetrable
hedge; plant 2 or 3 feet apart, and prune frequently.  They may
be allowed to grow  10 to 15 feet high and wide in proportion.
Probably no better high hedge is known.
The Red Cedar makes a very pretty hedge; plant 2 feet apart.
65
769 
AUGUST.
But when used as a hedge plant it is liable to be winter-killed and
to die from other causes and is never stout enough to resist cattle.
The Hemlock makes the most beautiful hedge that I am acquainted with; its delicate spray and foliage are always lovely,
particularly when making their new growth, when the light green
tips seem like thousands of blossoms bespangling the hedge. Of
its appearance when gemmed with rain drops I have already
spoken. Plant and treat like the Red Cedar.
Many other plants are used for hedges. A beautiful effect may
be got with Pyrus Japonica; a hedge composed entirely of it
seems like a line of fire when in blossom; combined with Hemlock or Arbor Vitse it is still finer, the evergreens presenting a
beautiful contrast to the flowers.
Roses, Altheas, Barberries, Guelder Rose or Snow Ball are all
good for this purpose. The Black Alder is particularly fine with
its lively scarlet berries in winter, but not so good for fences or
screens as the preceeding, which are hardy and easily managed.
Care will make a good hedge of almost any plant, and those best
adapted to the purpose depend greatly on the gardener's attention.
All hedges need deep rich soil, and regular care in digging, manuring and pruning.
The varieties of hedge are so many, and they are so differently
treated iri different regions, that it is useless to attempt a minute
discription of each. When they grow old and die out badly at the
bottom, they may be renewed by cutting them down within a few
inches of the ground; the strength of the old roots will enable
them to make a strong growth in a single season. Manage them
afterwards like a new hedge. When a single bush in the hedge
dies, remove it and set a new plant in its place; weave into the
space above the new plant plashings of old thorn branches, to fill
the gap till the plant grows to the level of the hedge. Or, in such
a case, you may introduce the seeds or young plants of Smilax.
The usual mistake in managing hedges is to stint manure and neg lect pruning. It is folly to neglect pruning in the hope of getting
a large hedge sooner. To be a perfect fence a hedge must be thick
at the bottom, and this can only be the case with one which is cut
back closely when young, and thus forced to throw out an abun
770 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
dance of low branches. And by after-pruning to the shape I have
advised, the hedge may be made to keep itself thick below; but
the hedge which is widest above shades and kills out the lower
branches.
To allow some of the plants or trees to grow up above the hedge
at regular intervals, is bad practice. The stronger growing tree
saps the ground, and robs the roots of the hedge near it, beside
killing it with its shade. It is robbing Peter to pay Paul.
WOODLAND.- I have tried to block out rudely the rules for
planting trees so as to produce good effects, but have not yet considered wood as a crop. No better cultivation can be applied to
much of our waste land than to cover it with wood.   I have mentioned that waste, sterile land, abandoned to the growth of wood, is
fertilized by the annual deposit of leaves, until we may not only
cut a large amount of wood, but have left after it land that may be
cultivated with profit.
In all parts of our country there are towns like Duxbury, in
Plymouth County, Mass., whose soil naturally light and sandy, has
been exhausted by long culture, till it has become really barren.
A very small outlay would make this land the source of large
profit.  In midsummer it should be ploughed, or even harrowed,
and sown with the seeds of White Birch, Poplar, White and Yellow Pines, American and Scotch Larch, Scotch Pine, some acorns
of the White and Red Oaks. This seed should be sown very
thickly, as much of it will be eaten by birds and insects. Then
harrow again, and roll, if the surface admits of a roller. During
the next spring much of this seed will germinate, and for several
years afterwards new plants will appear. Growth will be slow at
first, but will increase as the young trees shade and fertilize the
ground. Rev. Morrill Allen, of Pembroke, Mass., recommends us
to cut back the seedlings, especially of Oak, during their first or
second year, in order to strengthen the roots. The trees will soon
cover the ground, too thickly if the seed germinates freely; thin
and prune according to the growth, paying the cost by so doing.
After four or five years of little apparent progress, the young plantation will grow rapidly, and in 20 years it will give 20 cords to
771 
AUGUST.
the acre, worth not less than $2 per cord-  $40.  And if cut al
that time, it will leave the land in good heart.
If left longer, the wood will rapidly increase in value, at the annual rate of six per cent of its value, according to reliable experiments in measuring the relative growth and expansion of many
trees. If left for 40 years, this land will not only yield 40 cords of
wood to the acre, but will have paid during the time a fair interest
in thinnings, fence-poles, etc.
Not an acre of land in this Commonwealth is too poor to be thus
improved. Of course every acre cannot be made of the best quality, but every acre can be improved.
The above method of planting costs less at first than any other,
but is not the best or surest.  The best way would be to plough
thoroughly with a Michigan plough, and sow the seed in a drill in
rows 3 or 4 feet apart, with 300 pounds guano, super-phosphate, or
similar material, to the acre, to hasten the young growth.
The lands we speak of are dry and sandy, and are burned by
the summer suns. The trees give some shade, even in their earliest
years, and more as they increase, until they materially diminish
evaporation. Their leaves enrich the surface; their roots draw up
food from the subsoil, and entirely change the character of the soil.
A liberal supply of kelp and muck at starting will make the growth
more sure and rapid.
It is not absolutely necessary that any attention should be paid
to such plantations for 40 years; but in that case the growth will
be much slower and the yield less, for the trees crowd each other,
and there are too many mouths for the food. Gradually the weaker
trees, and the lower branches of the stronger, die.  Trees stretch
their boughs eagerly to the air, and never grow freely when they are
deprived of sunlight. The proper method is to thin and prune annually after the fifth year. The weaker plants and the lower
branches of the stronger should be removed; the amount of thinning must depend on the rapidity of growth and other circumstances, only to be met by the judgment of the forester. Cut at first
every third or fourth tree, afterwards those which do not thrive or are
over-crowded; but remember that all trees have not the same rate
of growth. Poplar, Birch, and Larch grow much faster than Oak
772 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
and Pine; the Pine quicker than the Oak and yet the slow-growing
trees will in the end prove most valuable. It should be our aim to
remove first the quicker-growing and less valuable trees, and retain the Oaks and Pines as the permanent plantation. The cost
of preparing and planting need not be more than $5 to $8 per
acre, and the expense of cultivation will be paid by the thinnings.
The profit will come in the last years of the operation, and will
be 20 to 40 per cent on the whole undertaking. There will be an
additional gain in the improved appearance of the neighborhood.
This thinning is an essential part of the proper treatment of all
wood-lots. Farmers who cut all the wood from a lot, regardless
of size or quality, whether for use or sale, are managing as ill as
can be imagined. They might thin in such a way as to get a large
yearly profit, and yet get more for the remaining wood than for all
which they now cut off at once.
Suppose an acre to be covered with 500 trees of 30 years
growth, standing 10 feet apart, both hard and soft, of slow and of
quick growth.  If all are cut at once the wood will not be firstrate for fuel, as it is mixed. If we cut out 250 trees judiciously,
remembering that a soft-wooded, quick-growing tree impoverishes
as much soil as the best varieties, we retain 250 trees of the best
quality. Next year these will have twice as much light and air
as they had before, and almost twice as much earth to feed in;not quite twice as much, because the stumps of the trees felled
will throw up suckers which need some food.  The natural increase
of unthinned wood is 6 per cent; of wood well thinned 20 per
cent, but we will call it 15. Next year we can cut 15 per cent of
the remaining trees, (37 trees,) as a clear profit, getting the value
of 537 trees for the 500 originally standing on the acre, and in the
same ratio in after years. Continue thus till all are cut, when the
saplings of the first cuttings will have become quite large trees.
In this way a farmer may make his wood lot perennial, both for
fuel and beauty, and the eye would not be offended each spring by
the sight of thin, bare fields, where were beautiful groves the year
before. One of the most forbidding and desolate features about
our country towns is the mark of this yearly devastation which is
65,
773 
AUGUST.
quite unnecessary.  By thinning properly you "have your cake
and eat it too."  By cutting clean, you "eat cow and calf together."
It is strange to see men leaving their country homes to perpet ual sterility, and gathering wealth in cities to be lost in bad
investments or invested at low rates of interest, when -by trans forming, their native plains and pastures into woods, they might
beautify their birthplace, make it the pride of the country, and at
the same time invest their capital at the best of rates.
A secondary profit will arise from such a course; every year
we see men of wealth leaving the cities in summer to buy houses
in the country; however wrapt in money making, they are not in sensible to rural beauty. Country towns properly improved will
become exceedingly attractive; their lanes and by-ways through
woods and along water courses, will make drives of uncommon
beauty; the places will draw summer residents whose money will
give employment to many persons, and contribute to the permanent
enrichment of the little community. The more the number of such
persons who visit a town, the more land increases in value.
I have heard the past and present inhabitants of decayed and
sterile towns bemoaning the departed glories of their birthplace, and
contriving means for restoring that glory.  They would foster manufacturies for which the people have no taste, or the place affords
no facilities; they would build ships for which there is neither
sale nor use; would start banks without depositors, mills without corn whilst they leave untried the readiest means to enrich
themselves, the soil, and the town.
The woodland shown on the ground plan of our place is variously planted, and divided into evergreens, deciduous trees, shrubs,
arboretum, and general planting, as shown by color and index. It
lies mostly about the pond and entrance, and at the foot of the
lawn. Our house stands on rising land, with comparatively few
trees about it. The treatment proper for the home in the matter
of trees and woods, varies with the character of the estate and
neighborhood. If it is in the skirts of a town or on a little estate,
set it among trees if possible, for the sake of privacy, contrast and
shelter. If it is in the country or on a large place, set it out of the
woods and group trees about it for better effect, as a relief to the
774 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
house, and to give shade at those hours of the day when it is most
grateful. Here we want contrast with the surrounding country,
we want to look out over the landscape and give free entrance to
sun and air. There should be woods so near that we can easily
walk to them; but we do not care to live in them, and being at a
little distance they become an attractive and a pleasant termination
to our walks.
In this way they not only add to the general beauty of the estate, but give us a point to walk to, an object of interest for
strangers to visit. I repeat that the location of the house is a
very nice matter, and in deciding it, the peculiarities of the place,
the neighborhood, and the proprietor, must be taken into consid
eration.
When woods border on water, as ours do, there is a vast increase
of beauty. Their shadows and reflections often make us doubt
whether the real wood above or the mimic wood below is the most
beautiful.
WATER. - Perhaps the most difficult, certainly the most often
ill-manag,ed part of the arrangement of ornamental grounds is the
ornamental water, whether artificial or natural.  No subject connected with landscape gardening has been so often and so lengthily
discussed, and none is less understood. Among the contradictory
theories and rules, each person is compelled to block out his own
course.
The pleasure which the sight of water gives is natural, and the
wonder is not that the fondness for it is so general, but that it has
not a stronger influence. In its simplest forms water has a marvellous individual beauty. Even the closest, most every day and
prosaic familiarity with it, cannot deprive it of its charm as the
most lovely and bewitching of fluids, even when it stands in or falls
from a single glass vessel. Its spontaneous motion, in the fountain, the stream, the rising tide, makes it still more fascinating.
When to its inherent beauty is added the grace and life of motion with all the resulting music, it becomes the principal charm of
whatever spot it inhabits.
775a 
AUGUST.
Its treatment in ornamental grounds depends on the forms in
which it appears, and for convenience let us divide these into fountains, still water, and running water.
It may be either a primary or a secondary object. Secondary,
when it is used to heighten the general beauty of the place, as
when we own, perhaps enclose, a pond, brook, or fountain. Primary, when it determines the treatment of the rest of the place, as
when we bound on a river, a lake, the ocean, or have a waterfall
on our grounds or in full view. In such cases the grounds are to
be used to enhance the beauty of the water, and so far as we may,
to bring it into our presence.  If it be the ocean that we bound
upon, we should open our plantations in one place so as to draw in
as much as possible of the ocean view, and thicken them in another, where we approach our neighbor's, that we may shut out all
that speaks of narrow boundaries, and is out of keeping with the
illimitable. Our improvements must be adapted to the character
of the shore. Where that is low sand beach, and our land is level,
our plantations must aim to give broad views of the ocean, and
shut out all that is disagreeable. Our lawn should slope and undulate gracefully to the shore, so that the repose of lawn and
beach may harmonize with the summer peace, or contrast with the
winter rage of the sea.  So, too, on the edge of lake or river.
Men value most things in proportion to their rarity, and to the
amount of their own ownership in them. Distinct from all meanness or selfishness, there is an inexpressible pleasure in owning a
beautiful thing.  We feel ourselves nobler and better by the beauty
we have, and are sure that we are enriching friends and visitors
when we show it. Much as I love fine views of the ocean under
any circumstances, I would choose that sea-shore residence which,
being on a promontory, or on the side of a bay, seems to give a
kind of proprietorship in the ocean. Our aim, then, must be to
increase the appearance of embracement. Good planting will serve
to carry our land into the water and bring the water into the land.
As we leave the trees and lawn and come to the shore, the question arises, what shall be done with the water boundary. Let one
rule never be forgotten: preserve or restore the original character
of the shore. If it is a sand beach, no matter how great the in
4
776 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
roads upon your lawn made at times by the swelling surf, never
bound yourself by a wall. If a stone boundary is necessary, give
a sloping, broken shore of shingle (loose stones of all sizes), never
shutting or walling out river, lake, or ocean. Here pre-eminently
the true art is to conceal art. Nothing is more repulsive than a
fortified shore. I admit that it is not pleasant to have one's lawn
washed away, or one's trees undermined; but neither is necessary.
Follow your sand shore along and you will come to some place
where the sand is replaced by shingle. This shingle has assumed
some definite and permanent slope from the water's edge to the
land above, or to the top of a ridge, which is not deranged by the
action of the waves. Here is your lesson. Begin at your imperrilled boundary and fill out with shingle, large rocks at first, and
smaller beyond, at the same slope far enough to protect you. Do
not attempt to make a perfect work at first, or to lay a pavement;
throw the stones loosely into the general shape you wish them to
take, and leave them to the action of a winter's surf. Before spring
the waves will pack them into the best possible shape.
If you wish to change the water boundary by digging bays or
carrying out a mole or promontory, go and see how nature does it.
You can find some place like the proposed improvement.
Perhaps, however, you have to deal with a piece of marshy,
sedgy, low land, repulsively muddy. Make no wall or gravel bank,
unless they can be so skilfully made and screened that the change
between the natural and artificial will be imperceptible; dry your
immediate shore by underdrains; plant the outer edge with such
trees and shrubs as like brackish waters. The Button Ball, Beach
Plum, some kinds of Vaccinium, Cornel, Bearberry, Wild Rose,
Ivy, Woodbine, Cat Briar will combine to fringe the marsh.
Amongst them, and on the shoreward side, plant the Golden Rod
and some of the Asters. Near and among the shrubs set Tupelo,
Sassafras, Red Cedar, some of the Oaks, and, as you come farther
in, any tree or shrub.   This fringe will shut out disagreeable
sights, and join your place to the marsh and sea gracefully and
naturally, and its roots will soon make a fence able to resist the
slowly moving tides of the marshes.
But perhaps your shore is bold and rocky, like those of Nahant,
777 
AUGUST.
Gloucester, Cohasset, Newport. Then remember that these shores
are the most wonderful and awful of Nature's works; they are the
solid, impregnable fortress set up by her as the limit of old ocean's
power.  They are rugged, massive, sublime; in them there is no
debatable ground between the beautiful, the picturesque, and the
sublime. The view from them may be beautiful; their combined
effect may be picturesque; but in themselves they are sublime.
The hottest, most enervating summer day never tames them.  We
may sleep on them, hunt through their crevices for seaweeds and
shell-fish, visit them daily, but we never venture on famniliarities.
They may be as calm to look at as the war-battered cannon in an
arsenal; but as it is only necessary with the cannon to look into
its throat, or glance at the truck splintered by hostile balls, to feel
that it is a terrible thing, which one may indeed walk about and
examine, but only with hat in hand, and a mood of awe and reverence; -so with these glorious rocks. Their wonders of science,
their beautiful fringes of algae, their delicate and graceful inhabitants, the rattle of the shingle upon them as the tide rises and falls,
their rich deep color, may instruct, delight, and soothe; but the instant rejection and destruction of the tiny waves of summer tell
us, by the spray borne to our faces in refreshing showers, of the
awful battles which are fought there in winter storms, when the
thick gray mists hang low over the leaden sea, when the war-blasts
of the gale howl and sweep round them, when the blinding rain,
and the terrible, the seemingly irresistible waves are alike reduced
to the finest spray the instant they strike the solid shore. We cannot be for a moment on such a shore without feeling that it is the
field of a never-ending battle. The water-worn pebbles, the holes
indented into the rocks by the blows of monster mallets, the fragments of wrecks strown about, all keep the mind subdued and
awed.
Stand on the rocks at Newport, towering above the sea, where is
dashed the whole weight of the Atlantic waves, swelling on from
Spain to New England, with a roar and rattle that would drown
the loudest artillery, and dare to devise plans for their improvement! It seems incredible that a man should be found brazen
enough to talk about laying out and improving such a spot.'Tis
778 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
true we might introduce a tuft of Golden Rod or Aster in some
cleft, where, sheltered from storm-winds, the gold or gray would
lend color and softness; or we might fill a sheltered hollow with
the wild Mountain Bearberry, a plant that springs and thrives amid
the battles of earth and sea; if soil and exposure allowed, we
might plant Red Cedars to bend under the blasts, and, as along the
Jerusalem road at Cohasset, stretch their weird arms inland, as
though sheltering the earth from the terrible sea; we might set
here and there the low-growing Juniper, or group in proper places
such deciduous evergreen trees as the genius of the place tolerates; but to do as has been done on that same Newport shore,
terrace the earth banks, cut the rocks into carriage roads and arches,
scoop out and plant beds of flowers, the ladies of the garden, in the
hollow of rocks, from whose bald heads the salt gales have swept
away every vestige of grass, and whose only covering against the
elements is their grizzled beard of sea-weed, is too monstrous and
sacriligious to be the work of any one who dares even mention the
word taste in his dreams. It is a sad mockery as a carouse in a
graveyard; it is sacrilege in the eyes of every reverential lover
of the beautiful. But it has been done even on the glorious Newport shore; one of the most sublime parts of the coast has been
converted, by years of labor, and thousands of dollars, into a burlesque on nature.
Whoever is about to arrange grounds bounding on large bodies
of water, should give long and careful study to the original character of the surface and the landscape, and should endeavor to appreciate its peculiar spirit. When really beautiful landscape surrounds an estate, it is rare that improvements can be happily made
which are of a different style of beauty, as where the general tone
is beautiful, we can with difficulty make our own place decidedly
picturesque; nor among sublime  scenery should we attempt to
make a place beautiful. I am aware that my use of these descriptive words is somewhat arbitrary, and it must of necessity be so.
Burke, in defining the difference between the sublime and the
beautiful, has left no intermediate ground for the picturesque.  He
calls all objects sublime which are capable, directly or indirectly,
of awakening emotions of terror, however slight in degree; other
779 
AUGUST.
and pleasing objects he calls beautiful, or rather other objects capable of arousing emotions of taste. I have no idea of entering the
lists against Burke and his school, but will state in what sense I use
the terms sublime, beautiful, and picturesque.
The sublime in nature or art is that which can, directly or indirectly, awaken awe. I do not say terror, as that is an active
emotion. Niagara, the Alps, volcanoes, glaciers, the ocean, a thunder-storm, a gale at sea, a tornado, are sublime. In them we must
recognize a power which has overthrown or can overthrow man
and his devices. They are the active manifestations or the evident
results of a divine power. Every line in them combines to inspire
these sentiments.
The beautiful may accompany the sublime, or even be a part of
it, as where the quiet lake or valley is found among rugged mountains.  The gentle flash of the waves along a sea-beach in summer,
the champagne country, all of whose lines are smooth and easy,
where hill, water, and wood blend easily and harmoniously, are instances of the beautiful. It has no abrupt contrasts, no startling
combinations; "the line of beauty" prevails; curves predominate;
in the prominent features no sharp angles appear; the trees are
rounded and full, as Oak, Ash, Elm, White Pine.
The picturesque is the result of the sublime. The lightning is
sublime, as it cleaves its way earthward through the black bosom
of the thunder-cloud, and strikes and blasts some noble tree in a
moment. The blasted tree remains a picturesque monument of
the tempest. The noble ship, borne helpless with her precious
Preight of life, adds a fearful interest to the sublimity of the gale
which sweeps her on to the rock-bound coast, but becomes picturesque
when weeks or months afterwards she lies on the shore, with tattered sails and loose ropes flapping in the breeze, and broken ribs
and planks, forcing the image of the skeleton of a sea monster on
our imagination. Time smooths into picturesqueness the fearful
traces of the avalanche; as it gives the beautiful the courage to
creep up to and twine about the feet of the sublime, the place of
meeting receives something from each, and the result is the picturesque. The curves of the beautiful are there mingled with the
straight lines and sharp angles of the sublime. Harmonious con
780  
VIEW FROM TIHE GROUNDS OF II. WV SARGENT, ESQ., FISIKILL, N.Y.
I 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
trast is the leading feature of this scenery. Through the light,
sweet music of the beautiful we hear the deep bass of the sublime,
ever true to the harmony.
Among trees the Norway Spruce, Hemlock, Larch, Tupelo, are
picturesque.
After this explanation, the reader cannot fail to understand
though he may not approve, my use of the terms in question.
To resume; the landscape gardener must appreciate the kind
of beauty which surrounds any place, on which he is to exercise
his art, and must work in harmony with it. Though contrast is
the life of rural improvements, it can only be pursued with success
within certain limits, a knowledge of which is essential to the artist. For instance: in an estate some miles in extent, situated in a
decidedly beautiful country, picturesqueness may be gained by introducing so many trees and other objects of a picturesque character and by so altering the surface and water as to afford a marked
contrast to the general landscape; but no conceivable amount of
art can make any portion of the estate sublime.
In comparison with the sublime, the picturesque and the beautiful are as quarried stones to the everlasting hills. We may
do what we will with the stones, may construct what we please;
our edifice and masonry may strain the limits of human skill; but
in comparison with Nature's works they are mere trifles. We may
create the beautiful, may carry it toward the sublime till it becomes
picturesque; but then our limit is reached. Unless it be thought
that the magnificent is a step farther, when a skilful addition of
objects stately but more artificial, as fountains, architecture, broad
and brilliant masses of color, gives our estate the character in
question.
Of the way in which a home situated at the foot of a mountain,
on the sea-shore, at the head-waters of a river, or in the gorges cut
b    y      it -  in short among sublime scenery - may be made picturesque by the tasteful use of the beautiful, I know no better instance
than  the place of Mr. H. W. Sargent, on the Hudson river, opposite Newburg. The river has just come out of the Highlands, and
with the forest-clad mountains makes a scene truly sublime. On
the home-side of the estate, the landscape gardener has most skil
66
781
0 
AUGUST.
fully introduced the beautiful. On the opposite page is a view
taken from these grounds.   So well is that which was under
control adapted to that which was beyond it; so well is the landscape drawn into the place, that the whole seems at times purely
beautiful.
Another instance of proper adaptation of improvements to the
prevailing tone of surrounding country is given in the view of the
Fisher Place near Philadelphia.  All the scenery of the neighborhood is beautiful, and with this the grounds are so in harmony
as to greatly enhance both their own effect and that of the surrounding,s.
The house and grounds of Washington Irving, give another
instance of judicious  and pleasant contrast.   This quaint old
Dutch house with fantastic gables and wild draping of most luxuriant vines is very picturesque from the home-side. Taken in
connection with the wild country lane that leads to it, the rude
entrance, the banks covered with shrubs and wild vines, it is as
picturesque as any specimen of landscape gardening to be seen in
this country. Yet things outside the place, the Hudsona with low
banks and broad bosom, the far-off mountains, are beautiful rather
than sublime.
There are several other views in different parts of the book,
which illustrate the opinions thus briefly stated, and which tell their
own story.
PONDS AND BROOKS.-  Let us now turn to the consideration
of bodies of water, which are wholly or partially under the control of the proprietor of the estate. The water may be artificial
or natural, in the form of brook, pond, or fountain. In the two
former cases it may be on so large a scale  as to be worthy the
name of river or lake; the latter like the gigantic fountains at
Versailles, or the jet on Boston Common, may throw so large an
amount of water that the cause is lost in the effect; but whether
large or small the same principles apply to them.
When water is artificial, one of two things should be decidedly
done; either the art should be carefully concealed and converted
into a semblance of nature, or it should be made so prominent as
782
6 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
to draw attention both to the beauty of the material and the skill of
the workman.  For skill is a thing by no means to be lost sight of
in a beautiful work. Though it be the highest art to conceal art,
the second place should be assigned to that which teaches impressively that man is the greatest of God's works, and that to him it
is granted in many cases to increase the beauty of the minor
things which are put under his control by their Maker. Evidently these two degrees of art have entirely different spheres for
their exercise.
The pond, or stream which skirts a lawn, gleams in a wood,
leaps down a hill; the water wllich gushes from a ledge of rocks
by man's contrivance, can hardly be satisfactory unless they seem
in place, unless they combine naturally with all about them, earth,
grass or trees.  Naturalness is a primary and essential element in
their excellence; but in fountains, fish ponds, aquariums, which
stand in flower-gardens or on esplanades and terraces, naturalness
is quite a secondary matter. We know instinctively that the presence of water under such circumstances is due to art alone; and
accordingly the art should be made prominent; it lends to the
effect rather than detracts from it. We may build the pedestal
of our fountain of mossy rocks, in imitation of sylvan grottoes or
mountain springs, and may, perhaps, thus increase its beauty,not because we believe that the arrangement is the work of nature,
but because we admire the art which could present so charming a
thing as water in such a way as to add the agreeable association of
woods and mountains, mosses and ferns.
Or take an instance on a larger scale. Occasionally we meet
with a natural and perennial stream of moderate size, winding
through a hilly country.  It may be wise to execute an idea suggested by the precipitous hill-sides, or by our preference for the
grand effects of a mountain, lake, or tarn, over the attractions of
any ordinary mountain brook (where the soil is of too poor quality
to deter us on economical grounds); and to dam the stream  and
flood its waters back till they form such a pond as we like.  The
first step is to ascertain at what point the hills approach each other
enough to allow a dam to be built with most economy and the best
effect. Do not imagine me to mean least cost by economy; I mean
783 
AUGUST.
to the best advantage, and may as well say here that cheap water
works are a plague to an estate and its owner; if you attempt to
deal with the subtle and insinuating element, remember that halfway work is ruinous, and that the cheapest work is that which is
most thorough from its first general conception to the last detail of
execution. To return; by following the valley along, we may
find a point where the approaching hills will permit a dam to be
made easily, and this is the point at which to pause and decide
whether to give the dam a natural or an artificial appearance. In
both cases the work must be equally well done.
First examine the valley and the views of it, as seen by the
imagination, filled with water, which may be got from different
points. Consider these views carefully. Though it be sometimes
well to make ponds for boating, bathing, fish culture, and yet more
for the beauty they reveal to us when on their shore or their surface, the wonderful variety of light and shade, the shadows sleeping in their depths, still in most cases these considerations are not
the main inducement to make the dam. The views of the water
which may be got from the windows of the house and from different points on the ground, the general beauty at a distance, are of
equal importance with the nearer attractions. Consider the pro
posed water from all these points. If you examine faithfully, you
will perhaps see that by cutting down or raising a small hill, by
breaking a ravine through a ridge, eradicating or creating a wood,
you may give your pond much greater charms. Pause now and
inquire whether you are able not only to make the pond, but to
reconstruct the landscape. There no art must appear. In dealing
with the water and earth works it may be allowed to show itself;
in the other changes, never. Study the soil; make the acquaintance not only of the trees and shrubs, but of the wild flowers, of
the grasses even, which grow there, and must be reproduced if
you remove them.
Having assured yourself that you can do this, take levels from
the bed of the brook up the sides of the valley, along the hills,
into the meadows; try the different heights. If your dam is 15
feet high, the pond will stretch along here and there; 5 feet more
would give a beautiful bay or inlet, winding river-like behind the
784 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
hill or wood, or through yonder valley, or would bring the sheet
up to the view from this or that distant point. Another rise would
connect it with another pond or stream. Try all these things.
Then return to the dam. To make the pond with a dam of 10
feet, will cost a certain sum. The earth-work must be of sufficient
strength and slope to bear the pressure of 620 pounds to the square
foot at the base. 5 feet more in height involves an additional pressure of 310 pounds to the square foot, and consequently much more
solid embankments, at a corresponding increase of cost. These
facts should be carefully ascertained and estimated by a competent
engineer, and what matter if his bill swells the expense by one or
two hundred dollars, if thereby the value of the improvements is
increased many fold, or the cost being thoroughly ascertained, the
decision can be understandingly made whether the work  shall be
undertaken or abandoned?
You have now settled the question of where, how high, and how
solid the dam is to be.
The resistance of water is overcome by giving the dam a slope
on the inside and out. A dam with a perpendicular wall of masonry a, necessitates either an
increase in the size of the   / 
earth-work b, or that the ma- 
sonry should be very heavy
and costly.  A  much  more'' 
bB
secure and less costly method,
is to make the whole dam of earth, as in the cut B.
But before you can settle the question of the mater ial to be used
in the dam, you must decide what kind of fall or outlet the water
is to have. The waste-way or fall may be made to suit the fancy
and the supply of water. Under the lowest part of the dam there
must be a flume to discharge, by which the pond can be drained at
any time. This question of the waste-way or fall, brings us back
to the consideration of the size of the pond.
Evaporation is nearly constant from every sheet of water. A
stream which winds through a bog and  along a cold shaded bed
through the whole year, screened from evaporation under sun or
wind, and maintaining a steady though small stream, may, if con                  6f)*
785 
AUGUST.
verted into a pond, be unable to do more in summer than supply
evaporation. Thus we are compelled to take into consideration
the amount of evaporation which our pond can support without
shrinking into insignificance or uncomeliness.
The rule is sometimes laid down that an artificial pond, which
does not at least remain permanently full, is worthless.
I do not agree.  It is by no means necessary that it should stagnate when low, a misfortune not inseparable from a want of outflow, as appears in Jamaica Pond, a little lake of some three miles
circuit, near Boston, which has no visible inlet and outlet, and
what is true of a large pond, holds, under similar circumstances,
for small ponds. It is urged that the water line left on the stemns of
trees and shrubs along the shore of a pond low in summer droughts,
the rugged banks, the growth of sedge, etc., are unsightly and intolerable, and more than neutralize its beauty during the rest of
the year. To argue the point would be to waste breath. What
can be said to him who will not admit that half a loaf is better
than no bread? It is true that the beauty of a full pond in summer is very greatly increased by the coolness it imparts to the air,
and by the pleasures of bathing and boating. But lovers of na ture know that the three hot months when ill-fed ponds shrink, are
but one-quarter of the beautiful year. They know that such a
pond in the early spring, when it reflects the tassels of the Alder,
Hazel, and Birch, is decked with the floating flowers of Red
MNaple, and the keys of Maple and Ash, has a wonderful attrac tion. They know, too, that never is it more beautiful than when
it catches and returns intensified the purple and gold of MIaple and
Ash, or is ablaze with the October fire of the Oaks and Walnuts.
They know that in winter its outlet will be a mystery of icy stalac tites, that the sides of the waterfall will be fluted with frozen organ
pipes, whence the music of the brook below seems to flow. They
know that in stinging mornings the warm breath of the brook will
rise through the bitter air, and be caught and held in lacework by
every twig and branch, till the silver wood rivals the summer
glories.
They, like me, think half a loaf better than no bread, and we
agree to make a pond, though it be full only half the year.  When
786 
ORNAMIENTAL GROUNDS.
it is low, its edges, or even its bare bed, may in a few weeks ex hibit a new beauty.  As the water shrinks, sow the moist margin
with the seed of Canary Grass; it will immediately germinate and
keep the shore green all summer, and as it is not aquatic, will dis appear soon after the water returns. But do not suppose that this
is the only compensation with which the owner of a shrunken pond
can console himself. To me the g,reen covering is no more needed
than are clothes on the naked limbs of the Greek slave.
Having made the dam, raise the water to mark the water line,
and then draw it off. The same line may be marked by grade
stakes, and the trouble of letting on and drawing off the water
saved; but in that case you fill the pond with imaginary water,
and the impression left on the memory is not so vivid, and cer tainly not so reliable, as by the real pon(d.  Before you draw off
the water, rowv over it in a boat, study every point and inlet. If
you are not familiar with the shores of any beautiful pond, find
one, and study it. You will then discover how little you know of
the minute effects that the mossy rock, upturned stump, gnarled
knuckles of the roots whose reflected beauty you so often admire
are not absolutely and independently beautiful, but depend for
their effect upon that which surrounds them, and what you admire
is not the individual, but the toit ensemble; they are a part of the
whole construction of the place, and adorn it, and are as relative
to it as the ribbons and laces are to a lady's dress.
Let the pond be drawn off a few inches while still in your boat,
and again study the shore firom the water side. First there are
large stones, some bare, some covered with minute infusoria and
larger algae.  Among  them spring Pontederia and Potamogeton,
Sagittaria, Sedge and Bulrushes, then Grass and tufts of bushes,
Viburnum and Cornel, the Button Bush, Alder, Elder, Clethra,
and Andromeda. Or the stones and pebbles retreat under an overhanging bank, bound together by the roots of trees and shrubs.
The gentle fingers of the wavelets have picked out the earth fiomt
between them, and the fibrous roots hang like a veil over the little
cave within. Or the retreating water exposes the solid rock,
which, as it heats in the sun, will be alive with basking frogs and
turtles. Or the roots of a gnarled old Oak project abruptly. In
787 
AUGUST.
another place the bank towers up overhead, covered with ferrins
and low shrubs, rich with Violets, Hepaticas, Anemones, or gay
from bottom to top with Cardinal Flower and Golden-rod; and
farther along, a strip of sand beach is left sloping slowly to the
shore, to be lost in grass, or to open into a cattle track or roadway.
HIither the cows will saunter lazily in the summer noon, and wading knee deep, will stand through the hot hours, beating the flies
fiom their sluggish sides with their wet tails.  The irregular flapping, tihe measured chewing of the cud, the patient waiting, all so
in keeping with the surroundings, have attracted the artists of successive generations, and moved them to hand down to posterity the
sweet rural scene in pictures, which they hoped posterity would
never cease to love.
Does not the study of this shore prove that the retreating waters may add rather than remove something, and that for variety
an occasional subsidence is desirable.
I cannot give minute directions for making your )poid's edge; it
is a matter of feeling rather than of rule.  Each pond has its own
character and should be treated accordingly.   When you are at a
loss what to do, I can only give you my former advice: hunt out a
similar natural pond and catch its spirit. The country is full of
beautiful ponds, of dells with pools in the bottom, where lessons
unteachable in books may be learned.
So, too, if you want islands. You know Nature makes them
from a kind of necessity; peninsulas are cut quite into islands;
on accumulations over snags aquatics start, shrubs take root; and
the resulting islets are among the greatest chliarmis of the  water.
They may be the same in artificial water, may close or
lengthen vistas, fill up openings that are too large, make bays;
they become the ret,ort of water fowl, and increase the number
and variety of reflections.  If you make your ponds as directed by
damming a brook, you will probably produce islands unawares;
some parts of the valley being higher than the rest will be cut off
from the main land as the water flows back.
By making the outline of the pond in this way you will get a
variety and fitness beyond the reach of the most artistic designer,
however elaborately he measures and levels, and thus made it will
788 
ORNAMIENTAL GROUNDS.
have double the beauty it could have, if made in the same place
by line and rule.
Where the shore of either pond or island is exposed to the wearing of a current, it may be fortified by stones, as directed for the
sea-shore; but never surround your water with a stone wall, unless
necessity requires it. The basin in a flower-garden may be stoned
because it is a basin; and for the reason that the pond in a lawn or
woodland is no basin it should never be converted into a washbowl
by a stone margin; the outrage is almost as bad as terracing the
seashore.
THE FALLS OF BEAVER BROOK, AT BELMONT, MASS.
789 
AUGUST.
But to the dam again; to the outlet, now that the extent of the
pond is determined. Whatever our original prejudice for or against
a regular or a broken fall, we must first consider the amount of
water which will run over it during the months when it is full.
No words are needed to set forth the grandeur and beauty of a
single, unbroken sheet of water, when upon the scale of Niagara,
and even at the dam of a mill-pond there is no small charm in its
regularity and glitter. But I confess that where the supply is not
very large, there is to me no comparison betwen a well-broken fall
and a regular sheet.  The very mention of the two suggests the
difference in the character of the dams.   For the sheet there must
be an uninterrupted descent from the top to the bottom, which can
be obtained only by a confessed wall of masonry, or by an abrupt
ledge, real or artificial.  If the ledge is available, and the sides of
the valley narrow to the very fall, and is planted with appropriate
trees and shrubs and ferns, the single sheet may be made very
effective; and when the stream is small and little or no water
wastes, the solitude of the glen, the luxuriant vegetation, the ferns,
lichens, and mosses, which will spring out of the crannies and
crevices of the ledge, make an exquisite and impressive combination. There is a pleasure in studying the water-worn face of the
ledge, and we can better realize how grand the fall is after a thorough
inspection of its parts. A fall of this kind seen through a veil of
trees with its concentration of water toward the outlet, its noiseless
glide over the brink, the hesitating of the little drops left on the
outside by the greater weight within, the dashing, foaming plunge
below, has a solemn beauty, which may well rouse the feeling that
there is nothing more to desire in the way of a fall,- unless a wellmanaged broken fall can be seen near by.
But if you decide to have a sheet, try so to combine the stones
in the masonry of the dam that they may resemble the ledges near
by, particularly if these crop out in the hillsides which descend toward the pond.  A  little study of the peculiarities of such outcropping ledges will teach you not only the intrinsic difference
between different rocks, but how their characteristics can be imitated, and how artificial rock-work can be pushed toward, or
even up to them.
790 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
Limestone, Slate, - indeed all the secondary rocks, - are decidedly laminated; they lie in strata and according to the dip of
the strata is the appearance of the outcrop. In the three varieties a
'is    _   WN   t____
~~  ~~~~..<~,,,-..~, ~~-,~~~:~~'.l?
%:   ~'-..    3?~~'~'...~II1t~'? —~
b c, of such ledges we see how the treatment of a dam should vary, as
it is in the neighborhood of one or the other; a is easily imitated,
as its stones lie in the position which masonry most commonly
takes, and if the pieces of rock are well selected and the sides of
the ravine well managed, the dam in a few years after it is made
will seem to inhabit the place. But in general these ledges are of
varying softness, so that they break irregularly. The formation at
Trenton Falls is of this character. In the interspaces there may
be some long mosses and lichens, but rarely ferns or flowers, as the
crannies offer no hold for the roots. For the same reason that a
is good, b is bad for the single sheet; and yet when exposed to the
eye for a considerable portion of the year b and c, are the most
agreeable forms of stratification, because their crevices offer abundant foothold to ferns, wild flowers and shrubs, and the glen which
is faced by them will soon be wild, verdurous, and a haunt for
birds and lovers of nature.   The perpendicular stratification c,
breaks off on its outer laminations into irregular heights, (see cut), and can be easily
adorned.
Another class of rocks, the primaries and
volcanics, of which our New England is largely
composed (granites, sienites, porphyries, con.
glomerates), lie in heavy solid masses dipping
into the earth at various angles, but the strata
being very thick, their outcrop seldom shows
much stratification, is more often a bold smooth,
water-worn surface, covered with some kind of
791.'
U-,
AWb
i I 
AUGUST.
lichenose vegetation, but rarely giving much foothold for plants.
Among such formations the dam for the single sheet must be' made
as solid as possible and of stones native to the place, showing as
little mortar as may be, trusting to the growth of trees and bushes
near by, and the water lichens etc., to cover their face.
To whichever of these formations the dam is to be assimilated,
if the native ledges do not come near it, set large masses of rocks
into the neigboring banks, in imitation of the peculiar natural
ledge, in order to blend earth and dam more kindly.
Your dam must be made after the habit of the natural fbrmation,
be your preference what it may; no other arrangement will harmonize well with the landscape. It is among horizontal or obliquely
inclined strata of secondary rocks that the abrupt fall obtains; the
water constantly wears upon and cuts them back. Not so with the
hard rocks of the volcanic and primary formations; they offer a
resistance too solid to be much affected by the wear of an ordinary
stream. The streams which find their way through these rocks is
so obstinately met and turned back, that they work hither and
thither, and take advantage of every slope and inequality of the
surface, finding it necessary to be guided by the original form of
the stone instead of cutting their way throulgh it; and to me such
falls are always the finest, because they are always active and interesting. In them a very small stream is turned, twisted, and tormented before it can escape; at one point its impetuous rush is
stopped by a projection of the rock; its waters roar and foam as
they are crowded back, they eddy and boil till they find an escape
at a lower point, or until they gather volume enough to swell over,
when away they go! all foam and roar, to be again tortured and
fretted. All is hurried beauty. Cries of pain at being dashed
against hard rocks, and torn by sharp points, combine with the glad
laugh of triumph as the water at last escapes and blends in the
deep undertone of the current below, which has all the while been
hastening on to its final leap. It is rich in variety; bushes fringe
and dip into it, and sway with wind and current; trees root at the
edge of eddies, where their seeds have been caught and whirled
till they found a resting-place. In the winter each point is seized
by the frost as a fortress, whence it throws out bastions and breast
792 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
works of ice to stop the stream.  The  constant  dashing sends up
unexpectedly large volumes of spray to clothe the trees. And
when in summer the channel is nearly or quite dry, its "potholes,"
where stones have churned deep into the rock, its jagged points and
polished surfaces, the little hushes and flowers which have clung
tenaciously to the cracks, the flicker of light and shade make the
bed of the fall almost as attractive as when full of water.
A broken fall like this gives the largest amount of beauty possible from a small supply of, water, and will not generally be so expensive to build as the other. The bulk of the dam can be of
gravel and clay, much less expensive than masonry, and only so
much stone used as is necessary to receive and turn the water.
The fall several times referred to, and of which a sketch is given
on page 789, is a notable illustration of the points just insisted
on. It is on Beaver Brook, Belmont, Mass. In a distance of 200
feet it falls about 50 feet. The outlet of the pond is over a common mill-damn, 10 feet high, where it is caught in the jaws of a
rocky ravine; the ravine narrows rapidly, and the compressed
water foams and boils, but soon escapes; running some 50 feet,
among rocks and trees, it meets a perpendicular barrier of rock,
fringed with Ivy, and shaded by Elms, where it turns at a right
angle, falling quite rapidly through a course of about 20 feet;
then turns again at a right angle in another ravine, glides over some
15 feet of rapids and rocks, and makes its final leap of about 20
feet. This cold description can give no clear idea of even the
mechanical formation of these falls, much less of their beauty at
all times. In all parts but the outlet of the pond it is natural, and
I mention it to show how nature makes falls among the primary
rocks. By these turns of the channel a little water is made at all
seasons to assume the character, give the foam and spray and music
of a large fall, whilst in a fieshet it rises from beauty to grandeur.
It comes down, a torrent, with a body and violence that seems to
threaten the solid rock, and sweeps along large fragments of rock
like pebbles. In the ravine about the fall the high sides, outcropping ledges, sturdy trees, and views over the distance, give the
scene a mountainous character; and almost within sound of the
bells of Boston is a bit of wild beauty and real grandeur not often
67
793 
AUGUST.
surpassed in the mountains and forests of Vermont and New
Hampshire.
I have said that the dam of the broken fall may be made of clay
and gravel mainly. A close, hard gravel, puddled or intermingled
with clay, is the best material to resist water. It packs together
under the pressure of water, and unless there are too many large
stones in it, prevents its escape. In gravel dams great pains should
be taken to entirely surround all large stones with fine material.
Water is very insidious; it will work along a stone, clinging to its
surface, dissolving all soluble particles, and will gradually creep on
to the next, so that if many lie near together, or in a somewhat
direct line through the dam, it will not be long in making its appearance on the other side.
There is hardly a pond which is not at times very much fuller
than usual. During freshets, the water is far above its usual level.
To make a pond capable of holding this excess would not only
necessitate a much higher and more costly dam, but leave a large
empty space after the freshet was over. The emergency may be
as well met by the waste-way before mentioned, which should be
quite narrow at bottom, with a wide flare as its sides rise. Let a
b be the waste-way. At all ordinary times the water will not rise
much above a, but in a freshet there may be a great and sudden
rise; but water seeks its level, and a foot's rise in the pond is a
foot's rise in the waste-way, and the flare of its sides allows a much
greater amount of water to escape as it rises, so that the rapid and
increased flow will counteract the tendency of the pond to fill, the
escape being in the ratio of the rise, and experience shows how
difficult it is for a pond with such a dam to rise inconveniently.
The great drawback to the gravel banked dam is the danger of
being mined by muskrats, in their desire to get into the pond during
winter, or to descend thence into the bank for a home. This may
be met by vigilance and good traps.
794 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
I do not propose to give minute directions for building dams any
more than greenhouses; one is the province of engineering the
other of carpentry.
I have said that the undisguised appearance of art in masonry,
is sometimes agreeable in water-works. This depends on locality
and circumstance. If a large stream is to be used to flood a
valley, it is nearly impossible to check it unless with expensive
works of engineering, to disguise which into a semblance of nature
would be enormously expensive. A case might occur where such
disguise would be in good taste and worth the cost, but it would be
the exception.  Masonry may be made beautiful to look at, and is
certainly beautiful in its suggestive power,- as the work of man.
When a darn is obviously artificial, a road or path may cross it, the
waste way being spanned by a bridge, rustic or elaborate according to the character of the shores. Thus we seem to invite inspection and to appeal to the perfection of the work for our justification.
In laying out and improving grounds, the avowed object is to
create beauty, and we may therefore put up on the shores of our
ponds and islands rustic houses for boats and aquatic birds, bathing
houses, rustic seats. Islands should be. connected with the main
land, waste ways, inlets and brooks spanned with rustic bridges,
both for their convenience and the beauty of their reflections. The
line between good and bad taste in such structures is very fine, and
beautiful natural scenes are often terribly disfigured by carpentry.
Rustic bridges and seats are perhaps no more beautiful in themselves than elaborate carpentry. We often see archways over
gates in a flat, sandy country, devoid of all similar objects; arbors
in town gardens, and the like, evidently considered beautiful by
their owners. They are just as bad and incongruous in such places
as the carpenter-work in the woods and by the water. There is a
fitness which we all recognize as an important element of beauty.
The rough bark, and irregular, contorted roots and branches woven
into rustic seats, bridges, and arbors, assimilate in color, form,
character to the surroundings; they harmonize well with shrubs
795' 
AUGUST.
trees, and vines.  Vines seem to have a liking for them, will climb
along the bark, garland the rough knots, festoon the hand-rails as
though they loved them; the irregularity of wild vines, shrubs, and
flowers seem to need irregularity in all wood or stone work to feel
at home, and however nicely, beautifully, luxuriantly, ivy or
flowering vines may cover the wall of a stone house in town, the
gardener's hand is evident; they give no idea of the free growth
of these climbers in the forest or waste, where they trail over
bushes to look at themselves in the still waters, or dip in the running stream.
But even into wild scenes rustic ornaments are not to be introduced at random. It by no means follows that because some tree
stretches its arms widely that we ought to set a rustic seat under
it. or because there is a point reaching out into a pond that it should
not terminate in a boat house, or because a path crosses a brook
that it should have a bridge. AIany objects of this kind tire, and
remove the feeling of fitness.
As for bridges they should be introduced only where depth of
water necessitates. Shallow spots are much more agreeably crossed
by stepping-stones, round which the waters may purl and babble in
a thousand little bubbles to catch the sunlight as they sail down the
stream, and where in a June morning we may sit and paddle
barefooted.
It is impossible within these limits to do 1more than hint at the
various beauties of water.  One quality it has in common with
green meadows: horizontality. It is sometimes said that the beauty
of level meadows is attributable to their resemblance to a sheet of
water, but the truth is that the beauty is due to the horizontality
common to both, a quality always attractive, and also to their contrast with the irregular forms that surround them.  The truth of
this statement may be demonstrated in winter. Visit the most
beautiful shieet of water you know, when frozen and covered with
snow, and you will find that the charm you have been accustomed
to connect with water solely is not peculiar to it. Now that the
charm of sparkle and reflection are gone, you will surely derive a
greater pleasure from the horizontal surface than when water was
796 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
in the place of snow and ice. In the summer there is a perplexing superfluity of wealth, which prevents any fair analysis or recognition of the attraction of the quality under consideration.
Ponds may sometimes take the place of grass meadows. I am
an advocate of ponds great or small, wherever they will heighten
effect, and can be economically made, and kept reasonably full.,
One can often drain a bog into a pond dug out in its centre, or can
carry all the underdrains from the grounds into some dell or hollow,
where a little pond may nestle; a pond thus supplied will be perennial. In most ponds thus made in bog-soil, there is a tendency
to noisome vegetation.  Make your pond on the principle of an
aquarium. First dig out enough of the original soil to give the
proper depth; upon the bottom lay several inches of clean stones,
(shingle from the sea-beach is best), over this lay several inches of
clean sand from river or beach; put in snails and little fish, but
never aquatic birds, unless you can have a perpetual stream running through the pond; they will eat the snails and little fish, and
leave the confervt and algae, which in tilme will fill the pond.  In
some cases it will be cheaper to pave the bottom, leaving openings
where springs exist for their water to come up  through.  Clear
away the autumnal leaves; if left they will sink to the bottom,
causing considerable impurity. In very small ponds it may be well
to surround the edge with stones to prevent the bank's caving, etc.,
and if the stones are old and mossy they may be a great ornament; but as surely as a pond larger than a basin in a flowergarden is bordered with hewn stones, unless avowedly used for a
horse, duck, or fish-pond, good taste is inexcusably outraged.
In connection with fish-ponds, a word on the subject of ponds for
breeding fish. They should be stocked with such fish as are native to similar soil, water, and surroundings. At small expense
they will, in a year or two, give the fisherman both sport and profit.
Those who wish to know more must consult special treatises.
By referring to the plan of 6ur place you will see in the large
pond in the lawn many dotted lines connecting the shores at
different points. These in connection with the true shore lines,
show the shape of the pond when we took it.   By  the other
67*
797 
AUGUST.
water lines you  see that if the water were  raised a little at
the dam, it would be sent into many little dells and would cut off
some promontories. It was by raising the dam 3 feet that we got
the present pond.  This increase of size makes a second bridge
upon the avenue necessary, but it is evident that the bridge and its re,flection will be a pleasant object. By the enlargement we get three
pretty islands and many bays, and add to4the extent of the water
even more in appearance than in reality. You see by the direc tion of the little arrows, how from various points there are large
water views, no two alike. These extensive but different views
from points so far separated give the pond all the merits of a large
lake to one who strolls along its shore.
The dam is supposed to be 10 feet high and with a broken fall
situated just where the land narrows abruptly, and planted princi pally with evergreens.   In fact it is an evergreen wood.   No
path has been carried to it, for the pleasure of a stroll in the woods
is often heightened by the absence of paths and a sense of
untrammelled freedom.
There should be as many paths on a place as possible without
showing to one who walks along them, more than the portion of
the one he is upon which is just before and behind him. Where
many are visible at once the place seems cut up and pathy.  Yet
a plan may look pathy without being so, for upon it every wood or
path is seen at a glance, while on the ground they wind in and out
among hills and valleys and are screened by trees or even by slight
inequalities of surface. You should never pronounce on a plan in
this respect, till you know the surface which it represents well
enough to be a competent judge of the degree of concealmnent it
affords, or unless the topography is so well shown on the plan as to
tell its own story.
BROOKS. From the dam you descend to the brook. The most
difficult matter in the managemenf of ornamental water is to make
a natural brook, one which shall be neither canal nor ditch. The
course of brooks is naturally devious, bending hither and thither to
avoid roots, stones, hard pan, and this gives them much of their
798 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
beauty; they are still more indebted to the bushes and flowers that
fringe them, and not a little to the music they make as they run
over stones.
To attempt to give directions for making brooks in the abstract
would be like painting the portrait of a person one had never
seen.
The general principles laid down for the treatment of water apply to the brook. Make its banks like the shores of a pond, after
the style of other brooks. Its bed must vary with the soil it traverses; its bends and curves may suit your fancy; only remember
that here, as elsewhere, no one line is always right. Sometimes
the straight line is best, sometimes the abrupt, sometimes the gentle curve. As before, learn of Nature; visit many brooks, become
familiar with them; fill your mind, too, with the theories and principles advanced about other kinds of water. Then carefully try to
make your brook.   If it prove successful, you are more  than
fortunate; if unsuccessful you could hardly expect more; and at
worst, it will be better than a ditch or canal, if you made any
effort for variety.
The course of a brook through a rapidly changing and steep
surface may occasionally be varied by a little dana to spread it in
some hollow or make a little fall whose deep tones shall give body
to the song of the lighter ripples.   All the devices of taste and
skill may be exhausted and the result be only a very poor brook.
Beware of the serpentine! the tendency is toward it; brooks are
capricious, and rarely move in regular curves, often in abrupt
twists and bends
Following our brook through the farm you come to the cattle
pond near the barn, where the brook was dammed to give water to
all the animals, and a swimming-place for water-fowl.  Where
the pond bounds the farmyard its edge is carefully made and
sloped with shingle to give a gradual and safe descent.  The
opposite side is protected by a wire fence, to prevent the animals
crossing at will into the pasture beyond.
There now remains only the consideration of water in
FOUNTAINS.   Where it varies according to the supply and to
799 
AUGUST.
the fancy of the maker.   In their proper place all kinds are
beautiful, from the jet single or combined, that leaps a hundred
feet into the air, to the  weeping  or oozing fountain  whose
supply is hardly enough to sustain a constant overplus and keep
the water plants at its base in a healthy state.  Every form into
which they can be put has its charms and has its due of praise,
till we come down to the squirt; - here we must stop. Nothing
is more pitiful than to see in front of some expensive mansion, in
the centre of a broad lawn, or of a glowing flower garden, a little
intermittent jet, flickering and wavering in the air a few feet above
its basin, without sufficient vitality to withstand a mild zephyr, and
so slender that we must bring it into relief against some dark
object to assure ourselves of its existence. This kind of pretension is truly painful and reprehensible. The same weakness in a
different form, leads men of small means to ape the vices and
extravagances which disgrace men of fortune. Such abortions are
the more to be regretted, as the same amount of water could make
a very pretty weeping fountain. To get the squirt, the pipe of
discharge and supply must b)e narrowed to the smallest possible
opening. Were the opening slightly increased, the stream would
instantly topple over like a ricketty child, and disappear.
— i....         Thle  weeping fountain  is
generally a large basin of fan.... ~:......    -   ~tastic form, raised on a pedes                                   tal which in its turn is sur
t rounded b   a lower       basin
filled with water, and perhaps
containing gold-fishl or shining
pebbles. The  force with which
thewater bubbles up is in pro                                  portion to the supply, and it
then escapes over the sides
into the lower basin.  If the
upper one is well designed,
the lower may be built with
~'~                               rough, mossy blocks of stone,
and in their crevices may be
800 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
planted tufts of Fern, Lobelia, Mysotis, etc., which will be nour ished by the water from above. A wide field for ingenuity is
opened, and with a very small amount of waste water a great
deal of beauty may be produced, which is impossible with the
squirt. It is not my purpose to describe larger fountains, as they
are familiar to every reader, in one form or another, and where
there is a free supply of water they may be fashioned after the
most beautiful devices.
The base, or the part, by whatever name it be called, used as
the means of discharge, is too often the expensive part of a fountain; people are very apt to think that the water should be secondary to the shell of the fountain.  This is a pity! the most beautiful fountains are the simplest; the single or complicated jet rising
from the middle of a pond pleases everybody more than the most
elaborate device. The weeping fountain, with a boiling, irregular
jet in the middle, is much prettier than a larger jet, which lacks
the picturesqueness of base, which should always accompany the
weeping fountain. The latter may be introduced into conservatories and flower-gardens with the happiest result. Be careful to
know well what will be the supply and head of water before you
begin the fountain; upon these two things its importance depends.
If you can do what you please with the water, the flower-garden
should be subordinate to the fountain; but if the supply is too
small for any thing but a vase, the fountain must be subordinate to
the flowers. On a slope the same water may be used several times,
if it can be brought out upon the top of the slope to advantage.
At first it may appear as a jet, next as a weeping fountain at some
turn in the path, shaded by dark pines, or under a bank; again as
a rill bursting from the top of a ledge, or from under a projecting
rock; at another turn it may seem to be a cool spring,, surrounded
by moss and wild-flowers; and it may often happen that by careful
designs this variety may be produced with little trouble and no appearance of straining. A Hydraulic Ram is very useful in all
these cases.  By means of it a small brook may be made to force
itself to a very high point, whence the water may be again distributed over the whole place, to return finally to the brook which
gave it birth. The improved Hydraulic Ram will raise water 10
801 
AUGUST.
feet for each foot of fall; it is mentioned in the Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1851, that one with a fall of 6 feet lifted 60,000
gallons per day 60 feet.
Another means of raising water is by a wind-mill, which may
be made quite a picturesque ornament to any place.
All machines of this kind, however, are liable to get out of
order, and will try the proprietor's patience.
By whatever means a good supply of water is secured, it is a
great acquisition to any place.
ARBORS, ETC., IN GARDENS. - My reason for objecting to carpenter architecture for little structures in the rural parts of an estate; viz., that it is not in harmony with surroundings, may be
supposed to imply an approval of it in the more enriched and artificial grounds near the house; and it is true that arbors, seats, etc.,
in and about a flower-garden should be more elaborate; but let
them be used sparingly. It is common to see a little garden, with
starveling flower-beds and a few shrubs, bestridden by an elaborate, expensive edifice, miscalled a summer-house, miscalled an
arbor, properly called a nuisance. If a place is wanted for shade,
rest, as an out-of-door sitting-room, in a small garden, it should be
at one side, and of humble, unpretending character. A seat under
the shade of a tree, or overrun with roses or other vines, is appropriate and often convenient. No one cares to sit about in a flowergarden, unless after the sun is low, or before he rises high; when
the shadows are long, no especial structure for shade is needed;
and in 99 cases out of 100 no arbor or garden structure should be
built in a suburban garden. When a simple building can be
partly hidden by a group of trees, relieved by rising ground near
by, or otherwise fitly placed, it is well enough to have it. It becomes a support for vines, and perhaps a favorite place for children
to play in.
Another popular delusion is the idea that empty urns and vases,
painted china sets, ugly statues of mythological deities are appropriate to square plots of grass and patches of flowers. Suburban
gardens are often spotted with these things, which are seldom either
ornamental or useful. A rich urn or vase filled with flowers
802 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS. 
is a beautiful sight, and may sometimes be used with excellent
effect, but when and where must remain an open question. Some
persons contend that the antique vases, copies of which are commonly used for this purpose, were not originally intended to hold
flowers, and that it is a perversion to put them to this use in our
gardens. Grant that such use is a diversion from their original
purpose; it may not be a perversion. The real question is, Why
introduce them at all? if to show them as in a gallery of sculpture, then treat the surroundings accordingly; but if the vase is
used as a flower-garden ornament, the flower-holding property is
its attraction, and constitutes its fitness. If it is not appropriate
for this, and cannot receive from graceful vines and brilliant flowers as much beauty as it gives to them, it is badly chosen, and
should be changed for a better.
Earnest appeals have been made to the love of art in man not
to desecrate the sacredness of art and antiquity in this way. The
alarm is unfounded. A vase in the middle of an open space, gigantic, surrounded by impressive architecture, may fitly concentre
on itself all the beauty and solemnity of the place. A reduced and
imperfect copy in plaster or iron, which can be carried in a wheelbarrow and set where we please, is quite another thing, is to be
judged from another stand-point, and is by no means desecrated
when used to show plants and flowers to the best advantage.
Having thus passed in review the principal features of the
country place, having considered how economy and beauty, business and pleasure, may 4be combined, it is with great regret that I
leave the subject, since the fact is now thrust upon me, which I
indeed foresaw, but could not realize, from the beginning; viz., that
however minutely I have followed the subject, I have only touched
upon it, and that what is said is but as the cropping out of the
ledge in comparison to the vast stratum beneath the surface which
has not even been uncovered.
It must, however, be apparent that none but a man of expanded
views and noble aims can be the best farmer and gardener; that
these occupations have an interest not surpassed by any other;
803 
AUGUST.
and that the arrangement of a country place is a very difficult and
elaborate, though a charming work.
You see that no book can convey the minutiae and details which
give finish and fitness to ornamental grounds. Bring to the work
of arranging such grounds the best agriculture, horticulture, engineering, architecture, and there yet remains  a subtle sense of
natural beauty, of harmony and fitness in details, which are to the
whole place what the "atmosphere" is to a picture, or the cuticle
which covers the nerves is to the organism; without it there will
be harshness, and an indefinable want; with it, rich, harmonious
perfection. This spirit of landscape gardening cannot be committed to paper; the artist who possesses it seldom has an opportunity to give it full scope, he is cramped and fettered by the
economy of his employer, who thinks it quite enough to pay for
time he sees expended in producing obvious and large results, and
cannot be persuaded that time spent in giving his place those last
touches, which would be to it what glazing and varnish are to the
painted landscape, is worth any farther outlay of money.
804 
S U P P L E M E N T.
CHAPTER I.
lTE GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY.
INCE "Country Life" was first published, very
many new green and hothouses have been con              structed and we ought to expect a correspond                  ing improvement in heating, ventilating, and
the use of materials; and, although great im                  provements have been made over the common
practice of former times, a careful examination
of the. plans and theories herein presented will
~~ j   \    f     Xshow that " Country Life" is still in advance of
the times. We gladly welcome every new house,
whether erected for purely commercial  pur                  poses or for private gratification; for, besides
the pleasure their fruit and flowers give their
owners, they exert a liberalizing and humaniz                  ing influence on every one who comes into
contact with them. The most earnest lover of nature and flowers,
who will readily walk miles in the fields and forests for the pleasure of association with nature, or to procure some favorite flower,
who knows the delight with which one finds a rich bed of Epigsea
in blossom, a bank of Violets, a tuft of Pogonia, a hedge of wild
Roses, or the fringed Gentian, feels a still keener pleasure when
he enters in winter a planthouse full of blossoms.
We seem then to especially realize the value and beauty of
flowers; and but few persons are so stolid or careless as not to
wish, when they visit a greenhouse, that they too might have
plants in blossom during the winter. The contrast between the
cold silence of nature out-of-doors, and the rich glow and fra                                                        805 
GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY.
grance within, compels us to recognize the real beauty and significance of the flowers, which we are too apt to neglect in the profusion of summer.
Keeping pace with the increasing number of planthouses, many
families of plants have been greatly increased, and have sprung
from the minority to the majority in point of numbers. This
change is most conspicuous in the plants with variegated leaves,
which have become sufficiently numerous to demand special accommodation; these plants have an advantage over others in the contrasts of color in their foliage, which make them interesting when
not in blossom; some indeed are more valuable for their leaves
than their flowers. The following list of the most desirable variegated plants, for a private collection, was made for me by Jonathan French, Esq., of Roxbury, Mass., who has been a very successful cultivator of these plants: -
BEGONIA, - rex, reichenhernia, grandis, argentea, Queen Victoria,
Madame  Roy, Madame  Crouse, velvetiana, Madame R. L. Stewart,
verschaffeltii.
CALADIUM, -argyrites, bellemeyii, barraquinii, chantini{, bicolor
picturata, Newmanii, pictum, pecile, hastatum, Wightii, bicolor.
FERNS,- plais, argyroea, tricolor, cretica alba lineata.
CROTON,- picta, variegata, noblesse.
MARANTA, - zebrina, regalis, alba lineata, fasciata, eximea.
ANCCTOCHIILUS, -  argenteus, Eldorado.
POTHOS,- argyroea
ANANASSA, - sativa variegata.
PANDANUS,-javanicus argenteus.
DIFFENBACHIA, - seguina picta.
ASPIDISTRA,- lucida variegata.
APHELANDRAm, - leopoldii
DRACENA, - terminalis, picta.
HOYA,-  variegata.
ERANTIHEMUM lenconervum.
BILLBERGIA,-  zebrina, gesnera splendid.;ima.
DIOSCOREA, - discolor, zebrina.
AGAVE  AMERICANA variegata.
LEDUM, - carneum, variegatum.
HYDRANGEA,-  variegata.
806
0 
CHIAPTER II.
FLOWER-GARDEN.
THE flower-garden has been sensibly affected by the increased
interest in horticulture: the number of genera of flowers has not
been increased, but the number of species has expanded immensely.
Whole exhibitions of our horticultural societies have been
given to special plants, such as the Gladiolus, the Cape Bulb, the
Japan Lilies, Verbenas, or Petunias, which a few years ago were
content to occupy a very small space. For many years it was supposed that new varieties of plants could be produced only by a
kind of legerdemain; for instance, Tulips, we were told, would
change their color if we drew different colored silken or worsted
threads through the bulb, that the color of thread might pass into
the circulation and change the petal; there were also minute
directions for special composts and watering solutions, which, applied around the growing plants, would change color and form.
None but special gardeners cared to try to bring new varieties for
seed; Tulips and Gladiolus bore seed, but it was supposed they
could not be expected to blossom from the seed under five or seven
years. All this has changed, and we have every year increasing
numbers of seedlings, some better, others not so good as their parents; the seedlings, generally, seem less reliable and permanent
than the old varieties, and many of them are never heard of after
a year or two.
Tulips can be produced from seed in three years, instead of
seven, as formerly believed.
Gladiolus seeds, planted the year they ripen in peaty soil, and
carried through the winter in a greenhouse or pit, will blossom in
two, or, at most, three years; and, starting from the pretty, but not
especially interesting  G. Byzantinus, the beautiful but weakly
807 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
G. Cardinalis,- the G. Psittacinus, the brilliant G. Gandavensis,
several hundred new and magnificent varieties of Gladiolus have
been produced, which are so varied in color and form that one
might well be excused if he devoted himself to their culture to
the exclusion of all other flowers; grown singly, tied up to stakes,
nursed in beds, retarded to give a succession of bloom, there is
really no bulbous plant which repays so bountifully the care expended upon it.
The Gladiolus requires no special culture. A rich, light, welldrained garden soil will produce splendid flowers; its worst enemy
is the mealy bug; if any bulbs are found to be troubled with them,
burn the bulbs at once.
The bulbs should be taken up as soon as the leaves turn yellow,
be dried rapidly, and kept in a cool place until spring; never plant
it in wet land, or clayey loam, on a clayey subsoil; if your soil is
wet, drain and surround the bulb with sand; wet produces rust,
which soon burns the foilage and plants; when in favorable soil, the
bulbs often produce two or three spikes of blossoms, giving a great
quantity of blossoms for several weeks.
When the bulbs are lifted and dried, remove the bulblets which
will be found at the base; put these bulblets in dry paper bags,
and lay them aside for at least a year; then plant in pots in the fall,
or in the earth the succeeding spring, and you will get plants
which will, at maturity, give the same variety as the parent; by
the bulbs, therefore, we may produce like, and by seeds unlike
varieties.
The list of beautiful species is numerous; and, as they are constantly changing by new seedlings, no list can be of permanent
value. I shall therefore only give names of twelve. Their colors
will enable the amateur to select according to the effect he may
wish to produce.   Planted in the  beds of city areas (see  pp.
880-9), as succession to spring bulbs, I think they would be equal
to any bedding plants.
1. Ceres, pure white and purple.
2. Napoleon III., bright scarlet, striped.
3. Brenchlyensis, vermilion-scarlet.
4. Solfaterre, pure yellow.
808 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
5. El Dorado, pure yellow.
6. Ophis, yellow, spotted with purple.
7. Pluton, deep scarlet, spotted with white.
8. Hebe, carnation, striped with carmine.
9. Madame Vilmorine, rose, white centre, striped with carmine.
10. Purity, pure white, lower petals marked with rosy-violet.
11. McMahon, cherry-orange (very bright).
12. Azlaie, salmon-rose, shaded.
Gladiolus Byzantinus, Communis  and Roseus are sufficiently
hardy to be planted in the autumn, and, well covered, will come up
and blossom in the spring.
Hyacinths have always been favorites as spring bulbs, both in
the garden and the house. New varieties are yearly introduced
to replace those which have deteriorated; for even when the bulbs
are carefully taken up each spring,, after flowering, and replanted
in the autumn, they seem to lose vigor, making it necessary for
those who would keep up with the times to purchase new bulbs or
propagate for themselves.
The precautions are to have rich, loamy, well-drained soil, and, as
with the Gladiolus, to surround the bulb with sand if the land is
inclined to much moisture. Where Hyacinths are left in the ground
unremoved for several years, they will continue to blossom, but less
perfectly each year, as the tendency of the bulb to make offsets
increases, and at last the offsets consume the parent; these offsets,
taken and treated like the full, grown bulb, will in time produce
perfect flowers of the same species.
To all these bulbs the same rule may be applied: if you desire
to surpass in the quality of your flowers, you may make a soil just
suited to them,- and all require about the same,-  an equal mixture of loam and cow manure and one-quarter common sand.
These bulbs are grown in the house in the winter, in rather deep
and narrow pots about four inches in diameter, with good drainage,
made of broken charcoal, soil like that just described. Set bulb in
sand, and cover top one half-inch deep; as they grow, move in to
the light. Occasionally the bulbs may be watered with nitrogenous
guano-water or any other form of ammonia; when in bloom give
plenty of water.
68*
809 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
When Hyacinths are grown in glasses, be sure to use dark colored glass, and change the water sufficiently often to keep it pure;
if the roots get slimy, the slime should be removed and the water
changed; pieces of charcoal in the water help keep it pure, and
you may add very little guano or ammonia to the water to stimulate the plants. Set the bottom of the bulb one-quarter of an inch
above the water; keep them in the dark until the roots get a couple
inches long, then remove to the light. After Hyacinths have blossomed, either in pots or glasses, you must be very careful to dry
them thoroughly, and then lay them aside to be planted in the
ground next autumn; but they seldom blossom as well a second
time, though after a year in the garden the bulbs recover much of
their size and firmness.
The same objection applies to lists of Hyacinths as to Gladiolus. The subjoined list of twelve varieties is made by R. McCleary
Copeland, who has been for many years a very successful exhibitor
of Hyacinths before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
Lord Palmerston, grayish blue, shaded with purple.
Robert Fortune, reddish pucy-mauve.
Thorwaldson, bright azurean blue.
Josephine, rich crimson.
Von Schiller, deep red, striped.
Macaulay, deep rose-pink, full centre.
Ida, clear yellow.
Heroine, yellow.
Creesus, deep yellow.
Sultan Achmet, white.
Mont Blanc, white.
General Cavaignac, white.
I could easily fill pages with detailed descriptions of different
bulbs, the treatrent varies but little, all wanting attention, rich,
dry, light soil and good drainage, and earnest amateurs will soon
find what particular care each variety requires to bring it to perfection. I can safely say that there is no variety of plants which
will not compensate the cultivator who brings them to their perfect condition.
Many of the tender Cape bulbs would become acclimated if suf
810 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
ficient care should be taken with them. Mr. Sargent, in his very
thorough appendix to Downing's Landscape Gardening, describes
the careful experiments he has tried in acclimating tender and half hardy evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs; planting them,
in the first place, in sheltered situations, the first winter he would
surround them with boxes and straw, the second with straw and
canvas, the third with canvas, and at last leave them unprotected.
In some such'manner he has brought several specimens to endure
a temperature which would have been fatal at first.
Such experiments teach a lesson of value: we cannot make any
given bulb more hiardy by planting it year after year, but we may
produce seedlings which in a few years would become hardy. The
beautiful Cape bulbs, now only fit for the greenhouse, or the heated
and protected border, to be started in pots under glass and removed
to shelter before winter comes, would be very much more valuable
if we could treat them like Hyacinths or Tulips; as there is sure
to be trouble and vexation in every horticultural operation, and
every effort should be made to reduce the sources from which
trouble and vexation are liable to arise.
Cyclamens are very charming little plants, the most patient and
enduring bulbs we can have in the greenhouse. There are many
species which are very tender and fit only for the greenhouse, whilst
there are others which in England are as hardy as the Crocus, such
as C. Coum, C. Europieum, C. Ibericum, C. Lalifoliuin, C. Linearifolium, C. Littorale, C. Neapolitanus, C. Verum; being hardy there,
it only needs patience to acclimate them or their seedlings here.
These plants offer as good a field for the amateur florist as the
Gladiolus did a few years since; and to show what are the elements necessary to commence their culture, I will give a brief account of the English method. " It would be folly to deal with
hardy Cyclamens as we deal with most other hardy spring flowers,
because, if exposed to all the rigors of the early season at which
they bloom, nothing but disappointment is to be expected." Those
who grow Ixias, Sparaxis, and oth3r of the newly hardy Cape
bulbs out-of-doors are in just a proper position to do justice to
hardy Cyclamens. A border facing south, sheltered with a back
wall or greenhouse, or enjoying some of the surplus warmth from a
811 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
stove or furnace, and consisting chiefly of peat and leaf mould, in a
warm and well-drained subsoil, is the place for Cyclamens, Tritonias,
Ixias, the hardy Amaryllises, Alstrimerias, and myriads of the
choicest flowering-plants known, which need not so much the help
of artificial heat, as moderate protection against the scathing blasts
and perishing sleets of our spring. We can promise our readers
who will make up a border for plants of the kind first named, an
amount of enjoyment far surpassing all that they have ever derived
from the pursuit of gardening according to the established plan of
making a grand summer display, and devoting every possible energy to the development of the bedding system.
If the position is well drained, all that hardy Cyclamens require
is a mixture of turfy peat, leaf mould, and yellow loam, equal
parts: this must be eighteen inches deep; and, when the bulbs are
planted, cover them with two inches well-rotted dung. Plant in
October, and take up and replant every succeeding October; plant
in a little sand, and set C. Coum an inch below the surface; the
others press in slightly like onions; cover the bed in "winter with
four inches of tan."
The varieties of greenhouse Cyclamens must be refused water
as soon as out of bl9om until the leaves turn yellow; then keep
the plants moderately dry until you wish to start them anew.
The Cyclamen will ripen seed freely, which easily germinates
when sowed in rich earth; they will blossom in three years from
seed. In our hot summers the bulbs might dry too much, which
can be prevented by setting them in a box of loam or trench,
where they could be occasionally moistened; this would keep the
bulbs full and plump until wanted.
This English advice is not directly applicable to this country,
but it teaches the direction in which our efforts should be made.
The same reasoning applies to the other Cape bulbs, and I believe
that in the small and protected gardens of city areas, warm borders
under hedges, and indeed whenever there is sufficient interest to
provide good quarters, we may hope to propagate seedlings of these
plants which will become in time perfectly hardy.
The Tuberose is another illustration of the rewards bulbs will
give the patient cultivator. It is a most beautiful flower, and deli
812 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
ciouslyfragranrt. Their qualities have induced many persons to try
to grow them in the open ground, but with little success; when they
received the best skill of nurserymen, only about half the bulbs
could be made to blossom, throwing up stalks with fifteen to twenty
blossoms on them.
Mr. E. W. Buswell, an enthusiatic admirer of flowers, living near
Boston, tried tuberoses year after year, and found that the purchased
bulbs would rarely throw up flower stems, although they made many
small bulbs as offsets. This awakened his curiosity, and induced
the belief, that if he should remove all the offsets, and every appearance of them, by gouging out the eyes which could be seen
on the bulb, that he could drive the vigor of the bulb into the
flower stem. HIe according purchased some new bulbs, carefully
selecting those which were hard at the top, showing that they had
not blossomed the preceding year, and which showed neither scars
of old offsets, nor many indications of new ones. Knowing that
roots must precede the leaves, and that the more roots at first, the
more vigorously the flower stems would push when they should start,
he prepared a compost, as directed on p. 809; he selected mediumsized pots, and filled them one quarter full of broken, very dry cow
manure, picked up in the pastures; over this he placed the loam,
and planted his bulbs; to promote growth at the roots, he set the
pots in an active hotbed, watered them moderately, and covered
them from the light. As soon as the point of the new growth began
to appear through the soil, and he found that the roots had got to
the manure, he gave water freely, admitted light, and kept the
plants covered with glass; in this warm and moist air, they pushed
rapidly, and soon required to be set in deeper frames to give the
ascending stalks more room; he continued to water freely, and
when the weather got warm enough, transferred them to an old
hotbed frame in the open air, where the plants blossomed abundantly, eighty per cent blossoming, giving thirty blossoms on a stalk.
During the entire growth, he watched for offsets, and, on their first
appearance, pushed his knife down, and cut them off so that the
bulb had nothing to do but blossom.
This success shows what can be done. Doubtless, the tuberose,
started in pots in the house, in April, would,'with attention, be
813 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
ready to go into the open ground by June. Set them over some
fermenting horse manure to give a little bottom heat, and water if
the weather should be dry, a very fine bloom may be expected,
not so large a percentage as Mr. Buswell got with his hotbeds,
but sufficient to repay all the care and trouble.
The following list of perennials, bedding plants, and annuals was
prepared by Mr. John C. Hovey, of Cambridge, and member of
the Flower Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
The plants and flowers here mentioned can be relied upoanas being
really the best for a small collection: -
TWENTY-FIVE BEST PERENNIALS.
Aconitum Japonicum.
Adonis vernalis, yellow.
Caltha palustris, fl. pleno, yellow.
Campanula carpatica, blue.
Campanula persicefolia, alba plena (white).
Clematis erecta, white.
Delphinium formosum, deep blue.
Dielytra spectabilis, rose and white.
Epimedium macranthum, white.
Genista Siberica, fl. pleno, yellow.
Gypsophila paniculata, white.
Helleborus Niger, white.
Iberis saxitile, white.
Iris superba, light blue.
Lathyrus latifolius, dark rose.
Lychnis, viscaria, fl. pleno, red.
Orobus verna.
Papaver Orientalis.
Ranunculus aconitefolius, fl. pleno.
Salvia azurea, blue.
Sedum denticulaturm, red.
Spirea fflipendula fl. pleno, white.
Spirea japonica, white.
Trillium grandiflorum, white.
Yucca filimentosa, white.
814
Iq 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
BEST TWELVE NEW PERENNIALS.
Arabis lucida, variegata.
Clematis erecta, fl. pleno, white
Dielytra spectabilis alba, white.
Doronicum caucasicum, yellow.
Gaillardia grandiflora.
Iberis tenoreana, purple.
Orobus, verna rubra, red.
Pentstemon grandiflora, lilac.
Phlomis abasicus.
Platycodon grandiflorum, blue.
Tradeseantia pilosa.
Verbena montana
TEN BEST PHLOXES.
Augustin Lierval, white, with crimson eye.
Julie Roussel, white, carmine eye.
La Volupte, dark crimson.
Madame Marseau, white, purple eye.
Madame Suer, white, crimson eye.
Triomph de Twickel, white, and crimson stripe.
Madame Vilmorin, crimson, dark eye.
Madame Lierval, violet and crimson.
Madame Rougiere, white, rose eye.
Madame Henricq, rose.
BEST TEN HERBACEOUS PEONIES.
Festiva maxima.
Rosea lutea.
Victor Leman.
Madame Vilmorin.
Comtesse de Morny.
BEST TEN TREE PEONIES.
Maxima plena.
Ottorius.
Rosea odorata.
Splendissima.
Triomphe de malines.
815
Camille Caillot.
La Negres.
Lutisciana.
Officinalis pleno.
Tenuifolia pleno.
Banksia.
Athlete.
Alba plena.
Carnea plena.
. Fra,-,rans. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
BEST TEN DAHLIAS.
Loveliness, white, tipped with purple.
Lord Palmerston, crimson and scarlet.
Mrs. Turner, corn color and yellow.
Peerless, golden-yellow.
Triumphe de Peck, dark maroon.
Mrs. Pressley, white and purple.
Gold-Finder, golden-yellow.
Pioneer, deep scarlet.
William Dodds, deep yellow.
Miss Watts, white.
BEST TEN CHRISANTHEMUMS.
Golden Hermione, golden-orange.
Golden Trilby, fine yellow.
Lady Hardinge, light rose.
Chevalier Domage, deep yellow.
Mrs. Slade, fine white.
August Mie, carmine, tipped with yellow.
Progre, rich crimson.
Le Phare, deep red.
Little Harry, golden-amber.
Gold queen, sulpher yellow.
BEST TEN POMPONE CIRISANTHEMUMS.
Bob, deep maroon crimson.
Stella, golden-yellow.
Solfaterre, light yellow.
Nelly, white, yellow centre.
Bernettianum, white.
E1 Dorado, golden-yellow.
John Salter, orange red.
Henrietta, blush.
Rose pompone, rose color.
Sunset, dark orange.
TEN BEST NEW ANNUALS.
Coreopsis coronata.
Callirhoe pedata.
Aster, Dwarf Chrisanthemum, fl. pl.
816 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
Dianthus heddewigii.
Nasturtium, Tom Thumb.
Portulaca, double.
Palafoxia Hookerina.
Whitlavia grandiflora alba.
Tagetes, signata pumila.
Zinnia, new double.
BEST TEN NEW VARIETIES OF VERBENA.
Blue king, light blue.
Sunset, rosy scarlet.
Decorata, scarlet.
Blue flag, blue and white striped.
Sir Harry, rich purplish blue.
Boule de nege, pure white.
Lucy Gray, crimson, yellow centre.
Miriam, pink and white striped.
Bouquet, blush, crimson centre.
Victor, light scarlet.
BEST TEN PETUNIAS, SINGLE.
Countess of Ellsmere, dark crimson.
Union flag, striped.
Striped Gem, striped.
Wyoming, crimson, white blotched.
Evening Star, dark, veined with maroon.
DOUBLE VARIETIES.
Rubra pleno, crimson.
General McClellan, crimson, white blotched.
Alba Magnifica, white.
Bostonia, purplish-crimson.
Viola, blush.
The following list of picotees and carnations was prepared by
Mr. James McTear, of Boston, who has made these plants his 
speciality: -
69
817 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
EIGHTEEN CHOICE CARNATIONS.
Lady Peel.
Mayor of Nottingham.
Splendor.
Tenby Rival.
James Kirtland.
Sir Joseph Paxton.
Fanny Garden.
General Simpson.
Queen Boadicea.
BST EIGHTEEN VARIETIES PICOTEES.
Mrs. Norman.
William Summers.
Sultana.
Countess.
Prince of Wales.
Mrs. Dodwell.
Mrs. Lochner.
Mrs. Hovey.
Parsee Bride.
BEST EIGHTEEN HOLLYHOCKS.
Macrantha.
Princess.
Prince of Wales.
Lucifier.
Chrysolite.
Hesperus.
Cynthia.
Lady Dacres.
Queen Victoria.
The following list of roses is recommended by Mr. Francis Parkman, of Jamacia Plain, near Boston, as having been grown by him,
and are adapted to our climate. The most of them will be found
in the list of roses, on pp. 611 to 622, "Country Life," with their
colors and habit described:
Moss, Reine blanche, pure white, large and full.
818
Apollo.
Lively Ann.
Admiral Curzon.
Christopher Sly.
Royal Scarlet.
William IV.
James the Second.
Merrimack.
Lord Gooderich.
-Rosetta.
Princess Helene.
Jemima.
Mrs. Holbeek.
Finis.
Prince Albert.
Ada Mary.
Cedo Nullii.
Ophelia.
Acrue.
Warrior.
George Young.
Princess.
M;ncrva.
Decision.
Rev. J' A. Dix.
Invincible.
Carus. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
SIX CLIMBERS.
BOURSAULT,- amadis, crimosa.
AYRSHIRE, - ruga, splendens (needs protection in exposed situationrs in winter and spring).
EVERGREEN,- felicite' perpetue', (cover).
PRAIRIE QUEEN.
BALTIMORE BELLE.
HYBRID PERPETUALS.
Auguste Mie, fl. pleno.
Baronne Prevost, fl. pleno.
Caroline de Sansel, fl. pleno.
General Washington. 
General Jacqueminot, fl. pleno.
Gloire de Santenay.
Jules Margottin.
La  Reine, fl. pleno.
Lord Raglan, pleno.
Maurice Bernardin, fl. pleno.
Sensteur Vaisse, fl. pleno.
Souvenir de Reine d'Angleterre.
Triomphe de l'Exposition.
BOURBON ROSES,- NOT ABSOLUTELY HARDY.
Blanche Lafitte. 
Dr. Berthet.
Dupetit Thouers.
George Peabody, fl. pleno.
La Quintrine.
Monsieur Jard.
Prince Albert.
Reveil.
Sir J. Paxton.
Souchet.
Souvenir de Malmaison, fl. pleno.
Louise Odier (these are especial  ly autumn roses).
C=UNESE  ROSES.
Archduke Charles.
Cels Multiflore.
Cramoisie Superieure, fl. pleno.
Eugene Beauharnais.
Fabvier.
Madame Breon.
These roses are most valuable for planting in masses or in beds,
where succession is wanted.
819
o
v
Madame Bureau.
Mad. Bosanquet, fl. pleno.
Carmine Superb.
Napoleon.
President d'Olbeeque.
Prince Charles. 
FLOWER-GARDEN.
List of perennials especially recommended by Mr. Parkman.
Achillea, ptarmica, double white.
Aconitum versicolor, variegated blue and white.
Aquilegia Alpina, blue and white.
Aquilegia formosa plena, blue and maroon.
Betonica grandifiora, rich purple.
Cerastium tomentosum, pure white.
Delphinium formosum celestinum, white and sky-blue.
Dianthus florii, deep rose.
Dielytra spectabilis, red and white.
Funkia Sieboldii variegata, blue variegated leaf.
Gloxinia flowered Digitalis, white, with black and purple spots.
Iberis caridifolia, pure white.
Lychnis Haageana, scarlet and red.
Lychnis viscaria splendens, deep vivid red, double.
Platycodon grandiflora, blue, very large, drooping bells.
Platycodon WVahlenbergia, white, very full.
Pyrethrum Carneum, flesh-color, yellow centre.
820 
CHAPTER III.
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
THE most important improvement connected with the kitchen
garden, is the publication of" The Field and Garden Vegetables of
America," by Fearing Burr, of Hingham, Mass. This is the most
valuable contribution to horticultural literature for many years.
Mr. Burr has not only collected into one volume a careful description of all the vegetables which can be cultivated in this climate,
but has grown most of them himself; so that we know that his
judgment upon any particular variety is formed upon actual experience.
We have long needed such a book, because the diversity of climates and soils in this country permits the cultivation of a great
variety of fruits and vegetables; and yet but few persons can hope
to know all the plants they might profitably cultivate. In this
book of six hundred and forty pages, the reader will find all the
genera of vegetables, and most of the species, with their character,
value, and methods of culture, carefully described.
Mr. Burr disagrees with the direction given in p. 625, "Country
Life," where the cultivator is directed not to tie up his tomatoplants, but to leave them on the ground until they are well grown,
and then to work some meadow hay under them to protect the fruit.
This practice is certainly the best in field culture, as obviously to
make trellises or supports for an acre or two of tomatoes would be
more troublesome and costly than the profit of the crop would warrant. In his article on the tomato, he advocates confining the vines
to trellises, as a means of hastening the maturity of the crop.
This seems very reasonable; and as it is of the utmost importance
to get tomatoes early, where early fruits may be expected, I will
quote his directions for forcing the crop on p. 640: "The ripening
of the fruit may be hastened by setting the plants against a south
69*                                         821
_
m 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
wall or close fence: as the plants increase in size, they must be
nailed or otherwise attached to the wall or fence; and, if the weather
be dry, liberally watered. When the first two trusses of bloom
have expanded over each shoot, the shoot should be stopped by
pinching off the portion which is beyond the leaf above the second
truss, and no more lateral shoots should be suffered to grow; but
the leaves must be carefully preserved, especially those near the
trusses of bloom. The number of trusses on each plant will vary
with the strength and vigor of the particular plant; but three or
four will be quite enough, leaving about half a dozen trusses of
fruit."
"As the fruit ripens, it must be well exposed to the sun.  There
will be nothing gained by allowing a great many fruit to ripen:
the number above given will be sufficient, and the tomatoes will
be much earlier and larger than if they were more numerous."
By growing them on trellises or within loops, supported by
stakes, the vines can be more easily controlled, and the fruit more
readily gathered.
The best varieties are, for general field culture, the large red
tomato: this is the most productive variety, but not so early by a
fortnight as White's Extra Early. "The plants are moderately vigorous and readily distinguished by their peculiar, curled, and apparently withering foliage. In order to retain this or any other
early variety in its purity, seed for planting should be saved
from the smoothest, best-formied, and earliest-ripened fruit."
In strawberry culture, there has been no mater;al chbn e. The
practice recommended on p. 735, " country Life," of growing it as
an annual crop, is increasing, and is universally advocated by market-gardeners near Boston. Nor is there very much change in the
varieties about Boston for market: fIovey's Seedling continues on
the whole the favorite. Wilson's Albany, though more prolific,
is too sour to be desirable, and the Jenny Lind lacks firmness of
berry to stand transportation.
Mr. W. H. Locke, a well-known market-gardener of Belmont,
Mass., the headquarters of successful strawberry culture in New
England, gives the following list of the strawberries cultivated in
Belmont:
822 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
Jenny Lind; Early Virginia; Cutter's Seedling, a good bearer,
hardy, but fruit too soft for market; Brighton Pine, a fine berry,
but difficult to cultivate; Wilson's Albany; Hovey's Seedling;
Jenney's Seedling; Austin's Seedling; Triomphe de Gand; La
Constante.
The two latter are generally conceded to be the best of the imported varieties. Mr. Locke recommends for three varieties, Jenny Lind, Hovey's Seedling, and La Constante, ripening in the
order in which I have named them; La Constante exceeding the
others in sweetness and flavor.
A new berry, widely disseminated and highly praised, The
Agriculturist, has not yet been sufficiently tried to enable one to
speak definitely of its qualities; it is claimed to be the best new
strawberry: as there are many beds of them which will fruit this
year, its merits will soon be known.
Currants have been improved by two seedlings of Mr. Dana, of
Roxbury; but, for general use, the old Dutch currants continue to
be favorites. There has been little change in the other small fruits:
each year gives new varieties; but there is no need to discuss them
here.
The profit attending the culture of the small fruits is strongly
brought out in a report of the New-Jersey Fruit-growers' Association, published in 1864. 
This report gives the number of acres under strawberries in
three towns, Burlington, Chester, Cinnaminson, as three hundred
and fifty-four; yielding 12,5 6G bushels strawberries, which were
sold at the average price of three dollars and sixty cents per bushel.
Two hundred bushels have been raised to the acre under favorable circumstances; the common error is, not adapting the variety to
the soil. Early Scarlet, May Queen, Iowa, Denner's Prolific, succeed well in light sandy soil; Triomphe de Gand, Scarlet Magnate,
Lady's Finger, require rich and heavy soil. Set the vines, eighty
thousand to an acre, beds three and a half feet wide, plants twelve
inches apart, in rows five inches apart, eighteen inches between
beds."
They give the yield of raspberries on forty acres as an average
of thirty-three bushels to the acre, sold at four dollars and sixty
823
ir 
KITCHEN-GARDEN.
four cents per bushel. The varieties grown were Old Purple Cane,
two kinds Allen, Kirtland, and Black.
There were ninety-nine acres of blackberries, yielding an average of fifty-three bushels to the acre, sold at three dollars and
thirty cents per bushel; varieties grown were New Rochelle and
Dorchester.
An interesting fact elicited in connection with market-gardening is, that of all engaged in that occupation, twenty-five per
cent get rich; twenty-five per cent make a living; twenty-five
per cent just get along, and the remainder fail. There is no other
occupation, not even general farming, which gives so favorable a
return to those who follow it.
824 
CHAPTER IV.
ORCHARD.
THERE is little to say about the orchard, although there is no
branch of my subject which possesses a wider interest. Near Boston, cultivators, having met with so many discouragements in
peaches, gave up their general culture; but a few who have observed the theories and directions given in s Country Life," pp.
296-299, have found the peach steadily improve under their
hands: and, during the past year, the peaches shown at the Boston Horticultural Society were as fine as in the good old days, when
every garden  could boast of its abundant  and perfect fruit.
Throughout the West, the peach-crop failed. Occasional failure
of peaches from late frosts, and from early warm weather in the
spring, must ever be expected; but where cultivators are careful
to get healthy trees, and take good care of them, the peach will be
found, one year with another, a very profitable crop.
In Eastern New England, the apple-tree has been so infested
with canker-worms for several years, that it seems almost impossible
to secure a reasonable yield of fruit; and farmers are in manx cases
cutting down their trees to cultivate pears, grapes, and vegetables:
. but through the rest of the country, the apple continues to pay the
grower perhaps better than any other kind of fruit. The lists
already given of apples are as well suited to general culture as any.
A meeting of eminent fruit-growers, in New York, to decide to
what varieties of fruit the Greeley prizes should be awarded, gave
the first premium, of a hundred dollars, to the Baldwin Apple.
As the best six apples after the Baldwin for general culture, -
For Summner -Red Astrachan, Primate.
Autumn -- Gravenstein, Porter.
Winter- Northern Spy, Hubbardston.
825
= 
ORCHARD.
The same committee awarded the first prize for pears to the
Bartlett. Best six -
For Summer - Manning's Elizabeth, Rest.
Autumn - Shelden,'Seckel,
Winter -  Lawrence, Hovey.
This committee of eight gentlemen, from different parts of the
country, in making these selections were obliged to leave out many
first-rate varieties of fruit.  They first agreed upon the points of
excellence which a fruit should have to make it perfect; and then
classified the fruits in the order in which each variety covered the
greatest number of these points. The result of their vote showed,
that, in the judgment of the committee, no collection can be complete which does not comprise at least twenty-four varieties of
pears.
In conclusion, I will give two receipts for grafting wax, which
have been found very valuable by many persons.
DR. WARD'S RECEIPT.-  One part of tallow, two of wax, four
of rosin; if too stiff, add tallow; too soft, rosin; keep bottled, and
apply with a brush.
WATSON'S RECEIPT.- Two parts of rosin, two of black pitch,
one of white turpentine, one of tallow, one of beeswax; apply when
melted with a brush; keep warm when using, in a bottle or jar of
hot water.
LIQUID GRAFTING WAX.- One pound rosin, five ounces ninetyfive per cent alcohol, one ounce beef tallow, one tablespoon spirits
turpentine; melt the rosin over a slow fire; then take from the fire,
and stir in the beef tallow with a perfectly dry stick or wire; when
cooled, add spirits turpentine, and last, the alcohol, in small quantities, stirring constantly; if the alcohol cools too much, so that a
lump forms, reheat until it melts. Keep it in a corked bottle, and
lay it on with a brush.
826 
CHAPTER V.
GRAPERY.- GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
I DO not intend to devote any space to the culture of grapes
under glass, as the directions previously given are sufficient; but
the interest in the culture of out-of-door grapes has greatly increased: in every village there are many who now grow them for
their own use or the market, and very many vineyards have been
planted in different parts of the country in order to make wine.
In California, grape culture and wine making seem as certain
as anv other kind of cultivation, whether owing to peculiarities of
atmosphere or rarity of rains; but east of the Rocky Mountains,
the vine has suffered from a variety of enemies, which have proved
in some cases too powerful to be overcome, until many vineyards
have been pulled up, and the soil devoted to other purposes.
Immense efforts have been made, and are now making, to find
or produce some grape which will be hardy in all sections of the
country, not liable to mildew and rot, and which shall be sufficiently
spirited for the table and sweet for wine. Several grapes have
been pupa.tet whlichl it was h>eJ woulid prove ail that counl:
be desired, and have been very extensively sold; but none has
yet proved equally valuable in all parts of the country.   If
such a grape can be found, it will be an incalculable benefit to the
country; but I think our cultivators ask too much, and have set
too great a stint for themselves.
No one grape has ever been the favorite in Europe, where there
are a great variety of wines of entirely different qualities, and
made from very dissimilar grapes. Some of the best wine-grapes
prove very inferior for the table.
Our country affords very dissimilar soils and climates for the
vine; and if man, with his infinite capability of self adaptation,
827 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
finds it so difficult to move from the east to the west, and continue
in the same health and vigor, do we not make an unreasonable demand on the vine.
The grape which would be perfectly satisfactory in the cool,
changeable climate of New England, where we rarely have a hot
moist interval in summer, so very common in Cincinnati, would
find itself unable to contend with the Ohio climate; whilst, on the
other hand, a grape which would find in the long, hot summer of
the West the time to develop and perfect its sugar, and to ripen
its wood, would be crude and unripe here: it might make a fine
wine on the Ohio, and a poor vinegar in the environs of Boston.
Grapes have two distinct uses,  to be eaten, and to make wine;
and their value as a crop in any locality depends on the manner in
which they are to be consumed. Near cities and large towns, they
are most valuable for the table. At five cents per pound net, grapes
will sell in any city, if well grown and ripened, faster than they
can be brought into the market.  It is the rarest thing that we can
buy a nicely flavored and well-ripened grape in our markets:
there are plenty of sour, ill-ripened grapes, which are sold at five,
ten, fifteen cents per pound, whilst the perfect article can rarely
be purchased at any price.
Supposing that a gardener should establish a vineyard solely to
grow table-grapes; grown to stakes or espaliers by any good method
the fruit will average, when he gets a crop, ten to twentyfive pounds per vine, which at five cents per pound, and this
generation will not see well-ripened, good quality of grapes at a
less price, would give at least eighty-four cents net per vine.
Setting the vines one to every forty-eight square feet would
give nine hundred vines to the acre, or a net profit, under favor able circumstances, in grapes of seven hundred and fifty-six dol lars per acre. Such calculations and realizations as these are veiny
tempting, and certainly enough to stimu!ate an immense culture.
And it is to the fact that men have made money in grape-culture
that we owe the increased interest in new varieties of the grape.
With these figures before their eyes, men have established vine yards with the reasonable belief that a great deal of money could
be made; and, when the heavy first-cost of starting the vineyard
828
W; — 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GL.OW THEM.
has been incurred, it is a great sorrow as well as loss to have the
crops cut off by some insidious disease.
Every new vine is asserted to have all the required virtues, and
to be exempt from disease; but in time it is found but little better
than its predecessor.   When the first edition of "Country Life"
was prepared, the interest in grapes was commencing, and the
"Concord" was the great favorite; every thing was predicted for
it: but so many fine grapes have been since produced, that it is
difficult to decide which is really the best.
In order, if possible, to ascertain what grape or grapes are really
best for general culture in the Northern and Western States, and
to enable me to succinctly state the most important facts about the
vine and its culture, before commencing to write this article, I
wrote to many of the leading cultivators of the grape in all parts
of the country, asking them the same questions, as to best varieties, frequency and cause and cure of mildew and rot, best soil and
method of pruning, and other similar questions. I have received
a large number of replies embodying the most important information from Mr. Huseman, Hermann, Mo.; Mr. Huidekoper, Meadville, Penn.; Mr. Meehan, Philadelphia, Penn.; R. A. Grider,
Bethlehem, Penn.; J. A. Deliot, Sing Sing, N.Y.; R. Buchanan,
Cincinnati, O; Dr. Grant, Iona Island, N. Y.; Professor Silliman,
New Haven, Conn.; J. Fiske Allen, Salem, Mass.; W. C. Strong,
Brighton, Mass.; and E. A Brackett, Winchester; and the views
which I shall give in the following pages are those in which all
these gentlemen, or a majority of them, coincide. I do not propose
to write a minute treatise on the vine, its propagation, profits, diseases, &c. I have no space in which to do so, nor does the able
treatise of Mr. Andrew S. Fuller of New York leave much room
for a new comer; for the same reason, I cannot enter into any
extensive discussion of varieties and various methods of treatment.
I shall confine myself to the general plan of this book, and give a
simple statement of what I esteem to be the best method of cultivating the viae, a summary of the facts about its diseases, &c.,
and the most valuable varieties in which, as I have said before,
these distinguished cultivators coincide.
Many varieties of grape have been discovered which blossom
70
829 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
late enough, and ripen early enough, to escape frost; so that the
chief enemies to grape-culture are black rot and mildew. The rot
is more injurious at the West than the East; but, wherever it
exists, it is attributed to excessive moisture, either at the root, or
in the atmosphere, and to sudden changes of temperature. It is
nearly sure to come with a hot, moist condition of the air; and when
these periods occur at the West, in the infancy of the berry, the crop
is sure to be lost. There seems to be no cure for the disease, other
than planting vines on high and dry land, and selecting those varieties of grapes whose constitution will not be affected by it. Different grapes in the same vineyard will be affected differently, some
varieties escaping entirely, when all the rest are ruined; and singularly enough the grape ruined this year may escape next. The
natural precaution is to plant in each vineyard several varieties of
grape, selecting those which common experience has most often
shown to have escaped the destroyer. In the East we are but little
troubled by black rot. Professor Silliman finds the Catawba and
Isabella rot in New Haven; Mr. W. C. Strong, the Catawba and
Concord, in Brighton, Mass.; and J. Fiske Allen, the Diana, in
Salem, Mass.; but these agree with other cultivators, that, at the
East, the rot is not as yet a dangerous enemy. In Missouri, Mr.
Huseman complains of the Catawba, Isabella, Garugues, and To
Kalon, as most subject to rot and mildew; Mr. Buchanan, of the
Catawba, Delaware, Norton, and Ives; 3Ir. Grider, Bethlehem,
Penn., finds Concord, Maxataway, and Clinton very great sufferers,
whilst the Franklin escapes from disease. On the Hudson at Sing
Sing, Mr. Deliot finds Catawba, Anna, and Concord most injured.
The West has suffered more because vineyards have been more
extensively planted in that region, but every cultivator at the East
has lost his crop at some time by blighting diseases.   Mr. Grider
states that vineyards frequently escape both mildew and rot for
several years; but at last their time comes nearly irrespective of
locality and varieties of grape. Mildew seems to act very capriciously, attacking some plants standing near to each other in a vineyard, and leaving others of the same variety, equally near each
other, untouched; sweeping off all the fruit from some variety, and
leaving all of another uninjured; whilst the next year it will affect
the vines left uninjured this year, its former victims escaping.
830 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM,
What all the causes of mildew are is not yet ascertained, though
some and the worst are well known. All agree that sudden changes
of temperature, unequal currents of cold or warm air, radiation
from the leaves of the plants at night when the temperature becomes
unusually cold, standing water about the roots of the plants, badly
drained land, are sure to cause mildew; or at least plants exposed
to these conditions always suffer from mildew.
It is possible, in the cold or warm grapery, when the vines are
growing rapidly and the temperature is high, to produce mildew in
a few hours by leaving the sashes open so as to bring rapid currents of cold air over the surface of the leaves, but mildew under
glass may be checked and removed by the free use of sulphur
dusted over the leaves, and exposed on the flues. Brushing the
vine over before it commences to grow with a mixture of sulphur
and lime-water is found to be very beneficial. Under glass, none
but careless persons need suffer from mildew; but sulphur applied
out of doors is of doubtful benefit, for in the open ground we cannot control the currents of air.
Professor Silliman, reasoning from the effects of cold currents
of air in graperies, and from the fact that vines growing on fences
or house walls rarely mildew where there is a projecting roof over
them which moderates nocturnal radiation, believes that this disease
can be controlled by planting vines against such supports as will
enable us to throw out a light roof or shelter over the top of the
vine, thus checking or retarding upward currents of air, and reducing the radiation. This would be beneficial, but it does not cover
another class of causes. Mr. Allen of Salem has frequently found
grapes out of doors ruined by mildew after being enveloped for
twenty-four hours in a dense fog, against which no projecting roof
would be any defence.
Others of the gentlemen I have referred to have found that
those vines are sure to be the victims of mildew which are of
weakly habit of growth, whether produced by over-pruning, overbearing, moisture, sterility of soil, or currents of air; and here I
think lies the root of the matter, -mildew is a consequence of
enfeebled vitality; the seeds or spores of this fungus are always
floating in the air, ready to take root and develop whenever a suit
831 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
able soil is ready for them: we all know that any vegetable matter
laid in a damp and ill-ventilated place will become mouldy very
quickly. Vegetation suffers from fungitic growth, whenever any
cause renders it sickly, weakens its vitality, suddenly checks its
vital processes whether currents of air, nocturnal radiation, or excessive moisture. As soon as the vine ceases to progress or maintain its integrity, it commences to decay; for growth and decay are
simultaneous processes in all living matter, the animal absorbing
oxygen and giving out carbon at the same time, and the plant doing
just the opposite. When therefore from any cause you check the
advancing processes of vegetation, you uncover the decaying processes to the seeds of the fungus, which is mildew or mould.  If
the vine's progress is but momentarily arrested, it may start on
again, and suffer but little, its leaves perhaps become spotted; but,
if the adverse condition is continued long enough, the leaves and
fruit are both blighted.
We therefore see that there are two methods for us to pursue
with the hope of ultimate success: first, so to arrange the vineyard that its aspect, shelter, soil, moisture, shall afford to the vine
a perfect condition of health; second, as we can rarely insure all
these conditions, we must try to produce vines'of such varieties
as shall have particularly hardy constitutions, and be in themselves able to resist adverse influences.
It is a mistake in growing new varieties, which we may hope will
be able to resist mildew, &c., to suppose that the wild grape of
any portion of the country is the best stock to commence with,
because sometimes wild grapes suffer from these diseases, quite
as much as cultivated; during the last year, for instance, wild
grapes in many parts of the country were entirely cut off by mildew.
We must follow the same plan which cultivators of other plants have
proved to be the best, propagate from the best cultivated varieties
you can get, for cultivation brings with it new diseases and conditions, and the best cultivated varieties will have overcome many
dangers, which will threaten new comers from the field and forest.
These considerations enforce the importance of seeking new varieties of grape adapted to particular localities; the climate of the
East may be expected to attack vines from the West, and vice
832 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
versa; and, whilst we may reasonably expect to produce a vine perfectly adapted to one district where the conditions are always relatively the same, it is almost impossible to believe that one can
be found whose constitution can equally resist the unfavorable
influences of climates and atmospheres of widely separated localities.
I will now give a list of the grapes which the gentlemen I have
referred to believe to be the best for the part of the country in
which they reside.  The following are the six grapes on which the
greatest number of persons have united; perhaps if a still larger
number of persons were consulted the verdict might be different;
but these gentlemen are well-known authorities in horticulture,
and their opinion is as likely to be fair as that of any other set
of men.
1. DELAWARE - Grant, New York; Silliman, Connecticut; Strong,
Allen, Brackett, Massachusetts; Hiuidekoper, Pennsylvania; HIuseman,
Missouri; a qualified commendation, Meehan, Deliot, in rich soils, Buchanan (10).
2. CONCORD) - Silliman, Hluidekoper (thinks it vigorous, prolific, but
crude), Hiuseman, Meehan, Deliot (in poor soil), Grider, Buchanan (7).
3. IONA - Grant, Silliman, Strong, Allen, Brackett, Deliot (all Eastern men), (6).
4. DIANA - Grant, Strong, Allen, HInidekoper, Meehan (5).
5. ALLEN'S HYBRID - Sil]imanr, Strong, Allen (Eastern) (3).
6. CREVELLING - Strong, Brackett, Meehan (3).
CLINTON - Meehan, Deliot (poor soil), Grider (Middle States).
HARTFORD PROLIFIC - Silliman, Huseman, Grider.
This tabular view shows us that the Delaware is a favorite in all
parts of the country, to which may be added the opinion of Mr.
Fuller, who in his "Treatise on the Grape" says, "It (the Delaware)
is a purely native variety, and probably a seedling of the Catawba,
or one of that group."   "If I could have but one variety for my
own use it certainly would be the Delaware, as it is the highest flavored native grape known."  "All that it requires is a good rich
soil, with fair culture, to produce the best results."
"Bunch and berries of a medium size, skin thin of a beautiful
dark red color when ripe, flesh tender and juicy and scarcely any
70*
833 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
pulp, exceedingly sweet, but still brisk and vinous, never cloying
to the taste, vine very hardy, moderately vigorous and productive,
ripens the first of September."
Mr. Hiuseman of Missouri, whose first favorite is the Concord,
says, " The first season the Delaware attracted great attention by
its fruitfulness, seemingly healthy habit, and excellent quality of its
fruit; but the two following seasons it has been badly affected by
leaf blight, and seems too feeble and delicate in its habit to become a paying fruit here compared with others."
The Concord, which is second in number of advocates, is a
hardy, vigorous, and productive grape, though found to be more
liable to rot and mildew than some of the other grapes. Its fine
color, a rich deep purple, and largish berries make it a very attractive market fruit, for which it will be a favorite until purchasers
shall learn to discriminate in buying between looks and flavor, as
its juicy, pulpy, sometimes acid and foxy, though thin-skinned
berry is decidedly inferior in table qualities to several other varieties; it ripens from 10th to 20th September.   Mr. Huseman finds
it the best grape in Missouri for table and market, and third for
wine purposes.
Third, the Iona, which is also a seedling of the Catawba, which
Mr. Fuller " considers the most promising of all the new varieties;
the vine is strong, vigorous, short-jointed, and hardy; berries large,
round, semi-transparent when they begin to ripen, growing opaque
as the color deepens; skin thin, pale red, with deep small red veins
at first, changing to dark red when fully ripe; flesh tender with
very little pulp; sweet brisk flavor; ripens 10th to 20th September.
Fourth, Diana. This grape has been twenty-six years before the
public, and has been always praised; but owing to its being more
tender than some varieties, and more liable to rot and mildew, it
does not rank as high as formerly; medium-sized branches; me dium-sized, though often uneven berry, pale red with thick skin;
flesh tender though more pulpy than the two former; keeps well
after being gathered; ripens from 15th to 30th September.
Fifth, Allen's Hybrid is considered to be a cross between our
native and the foreign grape. Bunches medium to large; berries
round, good sized; skin thin, amber-colored; flesh tender, pulpless;
834 
GRA.PES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
very fine vinous flavor; ripens 1st of September; rather tender,
needing some covering to thrive in the Northern half of the
Northern States, therefore not so good for the vineyard unless in
well-protected situations.
Sixth, Crevelling. This is a Pennsylvania variety of grape
which is very highly praised by those who have cultivated it, but
has not been generally cultivated.   Berries round, black, rather
large; flesh juicy, sweet, and rich flavored; good bearer, vine
hardy and vigorous; ripens from 5th to 20th September.
For the eastern half of the Northern States this list is undoubtedly all that one can wish who only proposes to plant half a dozen
varieties; there are many others very popular and doubtless very
valuable. First, the Adirondac, a seedling of the Isabella, which
Mr. Brackett of Winchester, Mass., places second in his list of
grapes. Bunches large; berries large; skin thin, nearly black,
with a delicate bloom; flesh tender, little pulp, sweet flavored;
ripens 1st to 20th September. Strong and vigorous grower. Second, Israella, seedling of Isabella, much like the Adirondac, ripens 1st to 10th September. Third, Rogers No. 15, which some
cultivators think the best of the new seedlings; bunch rather large;
berries loose, large, round, amber-colored, tender, juicy, pulpless,
rich flavor, earlier than the Concord; vine vigorous and but little
affected by mildew.  This grape is constantly increasing in favor;
but the great number, more than forty seedlings, grown by Rogers tends to create confusion, and some of the inferior varieties
have been taken for No. 15, which has injured its reputation.
As we get farther West there is less unanimity of sentiment as
to the six best grapes, because of the greater number of varieties
which thrive in the different localities, and the smaller interest
felt by cultivators in comparing and testing their individual experiences.
Mr. iHuseman, of Missouri, recommended in an essay published
by him in 1863, for wine, Norton's Virginia, Herbement, Concord; for table and market, Concord, Herbement, Hartford Prolific, Blood's Black, Union Village, North-Carolina seedling, or Mary
Ann.
I should consider any cultivator unwise who should stock a vine
835
w 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
yard of whatever size with one or two varieties: he should have
at least half a dozen, in order to take advantage of all circumstances; but where one can grow only a single vine on some fence,
house-wall, or post, then let him select of the foregoing six varieties the one he prefers, sure that it will be as good as any grape
yet discovered.
Leaving the varieties, we will now come to methods of cultivation. The first condition of success is thorough drainage; and
whether the vine is to be in a city area or a country vineyard, no
one can have reasonable hope of success who does not thoroughly
secure good drainage.
Where otherwise there is no appearance of surplus moisture, a
close, clayey subsoil almost prohibits success, as it is, like the copper bottom of a basin, almost impervious to moisture; and a sudden
summer rain which does not appear on the surface may be collected in the subsoil like a pond, and give the vine, by its cold evapo- 
rations, a sudden check and mildew. 
Second, Soil.  Many specific soils have been recommended for
grapes; in the grapery under glass, whether the border be with'in the house or outside, the soil and border must be rich, as the
roots are compelled to draw their support from a limited surface.
In garden or field culture, the best soil is a light rich loam, which
must be thoroughly worked by trenching or subsoiling.   If it is
rich, it is an advantage to have a tendency to sand, and that a rich
soil is rather stony is in its favor.
If the soil is poor, it must be enriched by well-rotted barnyard
manure or special manures, of which the two best are ground bone,
ashes and gypsum.
Third, Situation. First let it be sheltered, to reduce as far as
may be the injurious sweep of cold winds. The garden or the
vineyard, protected on the north, west, and east by high evergreen woods and hedges, is most likely to be healthy. When
a side-hill well sheltered, and with the other conditions se cured, can be obtained, it is the best, as the atmospheric conditions
are more uniform, there is less tendency to stagnation of air,
cold currents, and low temperature than on level land.
When a vineyard is to be made on a side-hill, select the side
836 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW T        EM.
facing east or south if possible, the west last, and north not at all,
as it does not receive sufficient sun early and late in the day or in
the year to give the vine its necessary stimulus.
If vines are to be grown in city areas, where the soil is on the
shady side of the yard, procure a vine with a long cane, plant on
the shady side, and lay the cane down under the bricks or flags of
the yard, and bring it up on the sunny side; or plant your vine, and
let grow the first season as long a cane as will ripen its wood;
then stop it, and lay it down as before. You will also gain in this
way more active root-surface, as the vine under the bricks or walk
will root freely, and will obtain a much larger feeding ground: if
the soil is rich and well drained, the roots will thrive under the
pavement about as well as in the open ground; they will be protected from the direct evaporation, and, if they get less direct rain,
will lose less by evaporation.
Fourth, How to plant.  Prepare the ground thoroughly, not
merely where you are to set the vine, but the entire surface to be
used for the culture; by deep spading or trenching (see pp. 88, 89,
C. L.), adding at that time such manure as you desire, carefully
incorporating it with the soil. The soil ready, dig your holes
eight feet apart, three feet in diameter, in rows six feet apart, deepest on the edges, say one foot on the circuniference, shoaling to six
inches in the centre, which enables one to spread the roots evenly,
and give their ends a suitable downward tendency. When you
plant in the open ground, set the stake in the centre of the hole
first, lest it should injure the roots by being thrust in afterwards.
Select good red cedar, locust, chestnut stakes, about three inches
square or diameter; char the lower three and one-half feet; then
drive them in three feet deep, leaving seven feet projecting above
the surface; then set the vine, first softening the surface around
the stake on the surface of the hole with a hand fork, as directed
on pp. 157 to 160, " Country Life."
Select in preference two or three year old plants, and, before setting them, prune their roots carefully, and cut the cane back to
four or six buds; after planting, leave the surface of the ground
fine and smooth; if you plant in the fall, cover the ground with
well-rotted top-dressing of manure, drawing the mulch or some
837 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
earth about the stem to protect buds; during the first season, the
vines which grow feebly should be stimulated with liquid manure
or guano, in order that all may be equally ready for pruning
and training the second year.
If the vines are to be grown on espaliers, you may make the
whole espalier when you set the vines, or only set the posts, leaving the completion of the espalier for the time when it is needed.
Where the vines are to be trained on walls or fences, there will be
no need of any long stakes. Light stakes one inch square may
be set as a support for the vine for the first year or two.
When the buds break after planting, select the strongest, and rub
off the other buds that all the strength may go into it, and, when
it has made a few inches' growth, cut off the naked stem of the remaining old cane an inch or two above the new shoot: this shoot
may be left to trail over the ground, or be tied up to the stake.
About the first of August, pinch off the end of the cane to
check its growth and ripen the wood. One or two new eyes may
break below; if so, when they have grown a few joints, pinch
them; the vine may now be left until time for pruning. The best
season for pruning is from the fall of the leaf to the middle of
winter.
It is best for all young vines to be lightly covered with
some kind of litter during the first winter; and therefore convenience will induce one to prune before the cold sets in. Cut
away the long cane, leaving two buds at any rate, and, to avoid accidents, it will be well to leave three or four. In the spring, before the
vines have started, you can rub off the weaker buds. Save the
canes you cut off to propagate new vines.
If your ground is not rich enough to maintain a permanent vineyard, top-dressing of manure may be dug in between the rows;
best do this in the fall, and use well-rotted manure, as green manure, or too much of it, is likely to over-stimulate the growth when
applied in the spring, driving the vine too much to wood, producing larger but not so well-flavored fruit.
We are now ready to start on the second year of the vine, and
must commence by deciding in what way our vine is to be pruned.
Experience has shown that vines left to themselves will grow
838 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
every year longer, and farther from the ground, with a long interval of naked stem of no possible good, at the top of which is the
new growth and the fruit; and where the vine is left to run urnpruned, the fruit will be large and fine at the top of the vine, and
nearly worthless below.  Pruning, therefore, is simnply a process
by which man brings the fruit-bearing portion near the ground,
saving labor, and, as it proves, increasing the crop, by compelling
the sap to feed all the fruit-bearing buds alike, producing fruit
equally good in all portions of the vine. This is the principle; the
application has varied with different cultivators, but the variations are easily reducible to two: the long-cane system, in which
the vine throws up a cane this year which bears fruit next, and
at the same time produces a second cane; next year the fruitbearing cane of this year is cut out, and the succeeding or third
year the cane of the second year bears fruit, and makes a new
cane to replace the fruit-bearing cane of the same year. I will
dispose of this method at once, by saying that although it has
some advantages it is wasteful, more troublesome and inferior to
the second system or spur-pruning. On pp. 116, 117, 118, you
have the cuts of the method of spur-pruning applied to the grapevine as it is carried along the rafters of the grapery: the principle is the same when enforced out-of-doors, though the management is different; but even though I may repeat myself I shall
go through the treatment of the vine for the first four years.
Having decided upon  spur-pruning, we  must next decide
whether the vines are to be grown on posts or espaliers, and we
should remember that the wall of a house or a fence are the same
as espaliers. It has been found best, in order to secure the greatest
amount of fruit with the least expenditure of vital force, and to
insure the even breaking of all the buds and a uniform supply
of fruit, to bend the vine considerably out of the perpendicular,
as thereby we retard the sap, and are enabled to produce uniformity in the length of the new wood, which insures an equal
distribution of sap to all parts of the vine, and therefore a uniform development and quality of fruit.
When vines are to be grown upon espaliers, the first step is to
produce for the second year canes which can be bent at a consid
839 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
erable angle, if not a right angle, and carried along the espalier;
the posts of the espalier being set eight feet apart, the vines may
be set opposite them or half way between: in either case it will
have eight feet in length by one-half the height to cover with
fruit-bearing wood, and the simple problem is how this may be
most perfectly done.
By referring to the plan annexed, you will see the method of
pruning and training for several years; after the fourth year the
method of pruning is the same, unless spurs become too old or
chance to lose their buds, in which case they must be cut back
to the arm. In time the arms themselves get too old to produce
as vigorous fruit as when younger; in that event cut one out at
the fork, when a new one can be developed from many latent or
concealed buds which are always present at the base of buds
formerly developed and removed, and which will grow whenever
there is a chance; after one arm is renewed treat the other in the
same manner.
s&~Th~:
_    -2    O r                        X j 01b ~    END 91-.,                        Mt 
-i'         L        SiSt1  -  I-11 at
i= i    
Fig. 1.
To return to our vine with four buds left at the comnmencement
of the second year, let the two most vigorous buds grow, and
rub off the others; as they grow, bend them down to the ground,
or tie them to stakes, keeping them always very carefully bent.
840
I
",FT// SIPRINC I
-IN, 9 all I
-g&,f7ll
-',W SE.IOh,9
C4                        13
16 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Pinch the vines when they have made five feet growth; prune them
back to four feet in the autumn, and lay them down and cover
them up as the first year. At the commencement of the third year
tie them to the espaliers at A and C; the buds will break at each
eye; rub Off all but those you wish to preserve, and tie them up
to the espalier as they grow; when they have made three to four
feet growth pinch them; they will then be in the condition shown
by the left side of C. Prune them to two buds; besides these two
buds, B and C, shown in fig. 3, there will be several base
buds, D, E, F; leave them all until spring.
In pruning the vine this and succeeding years be careful to cut
the right hand-spurs so that they will incline to grow to the left,
and the left vice versa, to ensure the espaliers shall be covered
evenly, - this is best effected by leaving that bud as terminal for
growth which has the right inclination.
/ F
J
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Plate No.  2 shows the condition of the buds on the arms
at the end of the second year. Plate No. 3 at the end of the
third year.
The fourth year there will be two shoots, one starting from
B or E, plate No. 13, for fruit; and one for growth of new
cane from C, D, or F, according to which of these buds  is the
strongest and has the best inclination; all other buds but the two
will be rubbed off.  B, in plate No.  1, shows on its left side
the condition of the vine at the end of the fourth year, and on
its right, when pruned at the commencement of the fifth.
71
841
_ 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Plate No. 4 shows the con                    ~B  I    dition of the spurs  at  the  end
of the fourth year, the right hand
,I2 lip    ~cane B developed from bud E, in
fi. 3, and produced fruit; and
cane D was developed from bud D
in same  plate, which was  the
strongest of the base buds; after the
cane B had grown two buds beyond
a  U      i1Ithe fruit, it was pinched, and D was
pinched at three feet; in the au                             tumn, all the fruit-bearing, spurs
were cut off at H, in fig. 4, and
the other shortened back to two
'~~ —=~~~~buds  of base.
Fig. 4.              Remember that the object of this
method is to keep the spurs short as possible, by constantly bringing up the new canes from as near the arm as the buds will permit. When the vine is pruned in the autumn, it is safe to leave
one more bud than we mean to retain to enable us to cut it off
later in the year, when the frost of winter may have chilled the
upper bud; as I have said in another part of this book, the pruning should always be made midway of an internode to leave a bit
of cane above the bud as its protector.
Plate No.  1, at D, shows the vine at the end of the fifth,
and pruned for the commencement of the sixth year: there
is a difference between A and B, C and D, in that B and D are
trained on the upper half of the trellis; to get the vine up the
extra height, generally requires another year.  When at the beginniilng of the second year the two buds grow into two shoots,
and are bent down, in order to produce B and D, we remove one
shoot and carry it up to the place where it is wanted, stop it a little
beyond, and, when ripened, prune the wood back to the point at
which you wish to have it commence growing the third year, rubbing off all the buds below; from that time the treatment is the
same as A and C.
This method enables one to carry a vine on the side of a house
or as high as he desires, and spread it where he wants it, either
842 
GRAPES, AND IIOW TO GROW THEM.
to get it into the sun or out of the way of thieves: this method
of pruning once fairly understood, the cultivator can do what he
pleases, carry his vine where he pleases; if he wants to lay a
tender vine down and cover it each year, he can carry one cane
the second year diagonal to the espalier, and the third year carry
out his spur from one arm instead of two; then, when the fall
comes, he can untie the vine and cover it as he thinks best. When
vines are grown on walls or houses singly, they may be allowed to
make longer arms and spurs than when in vineyards, as the vine
has more room for its roots to feed.
Plate number five shows a spur
which has grown too old and clumsy
to give vigorous canes and the best of
fruit: remove it at the line A, B, but
not smooth with the wood, as the la                          tent buds are more readily developed
from the base of the spur, a little
above the arm, than from the surface
of the arm itself.
Fig. 5.             Espa].iers for the support of the
vine are but rarely used in the vineyard, where it is usual to tie
the vines to stakes.  The vines are allowed to grow about six feet
high, and are then stopped, and pruned according to the shortspur system. This is cheaper, and very often a more convenient
method; but, unless the vine is twisted, in order to retard the flow
of sap, the upper buds will be over stimulated, and produce the
best fruit. There are many ways for doing this, but by far the best
is that practised by Mr. E. A. Braekett, of Winchester,
who, taking the two eyes and canes of the second year,
winds them in opposite directions in a spiral around
his stake, keeping the two canes about four inches
apart, and stops the growth by pinching when  the
vine has reached the top of the stake.  The spiral
vine is in much the same condition as the horizontal,
and is pruned by the short spur method.  A secondary   _ 
advantage of this method is, that as the vines acquire 
age, they become rigid, and ultimately can dispense
with a stake.
843 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
How long vines can continue to be pruned in this manner and
yield profitable crops has never been ascertained. But there are
some in Europe more than one hundred years old, still bearing
vigorously every year. As vines acquire age and stretch their
roots indefinitely, they could be allowed to carry out their arms
much farther, and in such cases the alternate vines should be re moved to give room on the espaliers to the remainder. As the cost
of vines in the new vineyard is large, the proprietor should, as
far as possible, propagate his own vines; and I should not do jus tice to this subject, were I to leave it without briefly setting before
the reader the best methods for their propagation.
If our object is to get new varieties, plant the seed selected
from well-grown and perfectly ripe grapes of the variety to be cul tivated. The seed must be kept from drying, or their vitality will
be injured, which may be prevented by drying the grape into a
raisin, which will keep the seeds moist until spring, or by planting them in the fall, in open seed-beds, or boxes of loam, or sand,
which are to remain under cover: as grape seeds very often do
not germinate until they have been in the ground two years, the
cultivator must leave the bed in which he plants them undisturbed
for two years, unless as many vines come up the first year as he
wishes. The seed should be sowed in drills one foot apart, seed
three inches apart, and half an inch deep: plant in a light, rich,
loamy soil; when the seedlings come up, shade the young foliage
in its infancy from the scorching rays of the sun; the plants will
soon grow strong enough to need no protection; they may be allowed to grow together in a mass until fall. When they have made a
few leaves, tie the little plants up to small sticks, and pinch them
after they have made six or eight good buds; in the fall take them
up, cut back the wood to four eyes, leave the tap-root of a moderate
length, and either plant them at once in rows four feet apart, plants
four feet apart in the row, or cover them up, tops and all, in a
trench until spring; if they are planted out, they should be covered with a protection of light litter until spring.  In the spring
tie them up, and let them run from four to six feet, then stop them,
and cut them back in the autumn to four eyes, when they will be
ready to be set out in a permanent position. The fruit continues
844 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
to improve for several years, so that it is not possible, until the vine
is mature, to decide upon the success of the experiment.
But if you want to increase the number of plants of the kinds
you now have, it must be done by cuttings, either of a single eye
or of several eyes, or by layers.   In layering the vine, you do
not need to tongue it as is directed on p. 289. When it is laid down
under the soil, it will root at every bud, and if the buds are near
the surface, each eye will break and throw up a cane; when well
rooted, cut the layer off the main stem, and treat like a new vine.
Single eyes will give the greatest number of plants in the shortest time. Cut buds off with a piece of the internode on each
side as in plate 12, taking them from wood of the last year's
growth: you may set the bud in that condition in the soil, covering
the bud about a quarter of an inch; or you may slice off the lower
part of the wood under the eye, nearly or quite to the pith; or
you may cut the bud away from the internode at the upper end, and
taper the lower end, leaving it an inch or two long. In the first
two cases the bud is laid horizontally on the earth, in the top of
the pot, and then covered over; in the other the pointed end is
pressed down into the earth in an oblique direction, until the bud
is covered as deeply as before. On p. 292 of " Country Life,"
you will find its after-treatment indicated. It is quite necessary
in order to succeed with single eye cuttings to have bottom heat
until the plants have got well established, when they may be potted
off into small pots, or be at once set in an open frame or bed in
the ground, to be treated like seedlings. You can get bottom heat
by the hotbed where there is no greenhouse.
Cuttings of two or more eyes may be set at first in the open
ground: when the vines are pruned in the fall, cut the prunings
into two, four, or six buds, according to the number of plants you
need; two will answer. Pack them in sand or loam, and keep them
during the winter where they will be moist, or bury them in the
garden; prepare the cuttings by removing the wood smoothly at
the base of the lower bud, and two inches above the top of the
upper bud. In the spring make a trench of good soil, with a sloping side deep enough to take the cuttings; set them in four to six
inches apart, and cover all but the top eye with soil; return all the
71*
845 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
earth back, and press it compactly about the cuttings. If the
weather should be very dry, occasionally watering to keep the
ground moist might be necessary; they will very soon commence
growing, and frequently make three to six feet the first year. Tie
them to stakes as they grow, and pinch the ends of the vine as in
other cases; in the autumn take them up, prune back to four
buds; you will find roots have started out from each bud which
was below the ground; cut off the root-stem below the strongest
roots, and then cover the vines till spring, or set them in their
proper places.
Another method of increasing vines is to graft old or worthless
stocks with new varieties; the method in " Country Life," on p.
562, is not the best; it has been proved that grafting the root or
lower part of the stem by the cleft method is more successful, cutting the vine off just below the surface of the ground, or as near
it as is convenient, using but one scion of one year's wood, shaping
it as you would an apple-scion: insert it so as to bring the edge of
the inner back of the scion and root together; cover the head with
grafting clay, or merely return the earth close about it. Mr.
Fuller recommends, when this is done in the autumn, settingan
inverted pot over the top of the scion to protect it when we remove the covering in the spring, and then to cover the whole
with earth and litter.
Cuttings may be made of the immature wood, but thley are
more troublesome, and some think can never make healthy vines,
though there is no reason why they should not, after they once
become established; the cutting is made and treated as is described on p. 284 to 286; cut a piece of the vine with two eyes
upon it; cut away the cane smoothly below the lower eye, and a
short distance above the upper, leaving the leaf that is opposite
the upper eye; the cane should be taken off smoothly below in
order to offer as large and smooth a surface of the cambium layer
as possible, out of which the new roots will be emitted; set these
cuttings in pots like that shown on p. 284, and treat as is there
described; when they are well rooted, transplant to open beds,
frame, or small pots, and treat them as heretofore described.
With these directions I must leave the subject, believing that I
846 
GRAPES, AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
have simply and succinctly stated the leading facts, and given the
important directions about the vine which will enable any earnest
person to cultivate grapes successfully. There will be, of course,
many questionings occurring to every one which I have not answered; many cases to which my directions do not seem to apply; but I
have given the principles, which, like the foot rule, may be applied
by intelligence to all cases.
Different localities will require different treatments, and will be
exposed to very dissimilar obstacles; men who live near great
sheets of water, as on the islands in Lake Erie, will be able to
grow grapes with a perfection unknown to the main land, the great
body of water producing a more equable condition of atmosphere.
The vineyard on a' side-hill or upland will escape some of the trials
which annoy those in valleys; but each grape-grower will learn
how best to contend with his own enemies, and at length sufficient
knowledge will be gained to enable us to overcome the principal
obstacles to grape-culture. Before many years, we may reasonably
hope to see grapes adapted to every locality, which will funish an
abundance of fruit and wine.
847 
CHAPTER VI.
THE FARM.
DURING the past six years, there have been many improvements
in farming tools and stock; by the aid of improved tools, the old
men, women, and children of the Northern United States have
cultivated and harvested full crops, with as much ease as the entire
male population before the war, and with greater profit.
I shall not recount the changes in tools, for they are still progressing, and the tools which are seemingly perfect this year may
be surpassed next: in "' Country Life," I described and gave an
illustration of a very excellent mowing and reaping machine, which
is antiquated now; and the same would be true in a few years of
the best mnower or reaper of the present day.  Great as the advances have been, there is an immense field still open in the application of steam-power to cultivation: many steam-ploughs, field
and road engines, have been invented, but none which can do the
work with sufficient economy. The time is near when all the work
of the farm will be done by steam: the farmer will make a fire
under his engine, get up steam, ride to his field, plough, harrow,
hoe his crop, cut and harvest his hay and grain, gather it into
wagons, and move it away by steam; nor would such power reduce the value of cattle and horses, or the rates of labor. Nothing in human economy is more remarkable than that every
simplification of process, every invention of labor-saving machinery, has increased the demand for labor, and the rate of wages.
The Spanish Proverb says, " It takes a mine to work a mine;"
and it certainly takes a machine to repair and utilize each new
machine, and men to supervize, control; and use them.
The improvement in stock-breedingc, has been in sheep, rather
than cattle. The greatly increased demand for wool for the past
six years has made sheep more valuable than formerly, and of
848 
THIE FARM.
course as fast as sheep become Important, men try to develop
them into their most valuable form and condition.
Wise sheep-breeders have been at work for twenty years, lay ing the foundation of the new and improved varieties of sheep,
and were ready to meet the inquiry for them, when they were
wanted; and, stimulated anew by the rapid and profitable sales
they made of their improved animals, they have continued breeding with care until we now have an American merino sheep,
which is better than any other variety of sheep for wool, and
although carefully bred from Spanish imported stock, have so
far outstripped their progenitors that our sheep are carried from
America back to Europe to give the flocks there fresh start and
better blood.
What variety of sheep is best for this whole country cannot
be settled in a word. There are many considerations latterly overlooked by sheep-breeders, which will yet qualify the estimation
in which the merino is held, and which will raise other varieties,
if not to its level, to at least a very high point in the general
estimation.
Sheep are valuable for mutton and wool; and the greatest profit
seems certainly to lie in a sheep which will make the best and
most mutton, and the best and most wool, at the same time. With
the usual enthusiasm of Americans, who believe that what is good
for one part of the country must be for the whole, some breeders
have assumed, that, with sufficient care and time, such a sheep
may be produced.
But there are certain indisputable facts which contradict this
theory: all sheep do not produce the same kind of wool; there is
as much difference between the wool of a merino and Leicester or
Cotswold as between the feathers of a turkey and eider-down.
The merino wool, whether long or short, is very fine, and each
separate fibre is crimped or curled; whilst the wool of the Cotswold is coarse and straight, with few, if any, curls and crimps.
These distinct characters never vary, and are of great importance,
as firom the fine wool broad-cloths and fine cloths are made; whilst
blankets, shirts, alpacas, and similar goods, are made from the
coarse; and neither kind of wool can be made into both kinds of
cloth.
849
0 
THE FARM.
This fact leads to another. In England there are several
breeds of sheep, which have been in that island so long that
they are called native. These sheep are all long-wooled, though
some, like the South-downs, are shorter and finer wooled than
the others; and, though bred for years side by side, the fine and
coarse-wooled sheep have maintained their differences. They
have also differed in size, the coarse-wooled being the largest.
Many breeders have tried to combine these two kinds, and various cross breeds have been made, some lasting for a time; but
all the valuable improvements have been made in the direct line
of the same variety as coarse or fine wool, or rather, as they call
it, long and short wool. Besides the difference in the wool, there
is a marked difference in the quality of the mutton; the shortwooled or South-down sheep having always had the highest reputation for the quality of their mutton. Certain English breeders
have improved the quality of the coarse or long-wooled sheep.
They have increased the tendency to fatten, reducing the coarseness of structure, replacing bones by fat, and substituting a
rounded outline, and skeleton capable of taking on flesh, for the
gaunt, leggy, bony animals which yielded but little mutton or
wool.
The old Leicesters are described as large, heavy, coarsegrained animals, the meat having little flavor, and no delicacy;
the carcass was long, thin, flat-sided, with large bones and thick
legs; the fleece was heavy, long, and of coarse quality.  The
sheep were slow feeders; and when sent to market, at two and
three years old, weighed about one hundred to one hundred and
twenty pounds each. Mr. Bakewell by care produced from these
sheep the new Leicester, a sheep without horns, with white
faces and legs, head small and clean, eye bright, neck and shoulder square and deep, back straight, deep carcass, hind quarters
tapering towards the tail, and somewhat deficient in this respect
when compared with the Cotswold sheep; legs clean, with fine
bone; the flesh is juicy, but of moderate quality, and is remarkable for the proportion of outside fat it carries. They are not
considered so hardy as the other large breeds, and require shelter
and good keep. Early maturity and an aptitude for fattening
850 
THE FARM.
are the principal characteristics of the breed; wethers at twelve
to fifteen months old weighing from eighty to one hundred
pounds, and at two years they average one hundred and twenty
to one hundred and fifty pounds each; fleeces averaging seven
pounds each. I have quoted the Leicesters, not because I should
propose them to our farmers as the sheep for us, but to show
what has been done.
The merino sheep, with all its wool, and all its good qualities,
is inferior in flavor, and quality of mutton to the best coarsewooled sheep; and no amount of breeding has ever changed it
materially in this particular: it is just as inferior to the improved English long-wools as they are to the short-wools. Were
fine the only or the best wool for manufacturing purposes,  it
might be best to content ourselves with poor mutton, and make
up in the wool.  But this is not the case; the long-wools are
equally important, and some of them, for special purposes, sell
higher than the fine wool. The obvious conclusion is, that long
wool and good mutton are to be set against fine wool and poor
mutton. Nor is the weight of fleece of clean wool in favor of the
merino in all cases. Owing to the large amount of yolk in the
merino wool, their fleeces average much heavier than the longwooled sheep; but from fifty to seventy per cent of the weight
will scour out when it is cleansed against thirty to forty per cent
of the weight of the long wool; and therefore, in many cases,
carefully bred long-wooled flocks will beat fine wools in weight.
Generally, however, the flocks of full blood or grade merinos
yield a greater average weight of wool than any other sheep.
Therefore where sheep are raised for wool, as they must be
where distant from market, the merino is preferable; but where
the market is convenient, the long-wooled and fine-muttoned
sheep may be made more valuable to the breeders. I do not
mean what are now called mutton-sheep in New England and
Canada, any more than when I say merino I mean the merino
sheep of 1850, whose average fleeces would weigh three pounds
against five pounds to-day, but the mutton sheep which will be
bred by some competent person who will improve it, as Hammond
and others have improved the merino.
851 
THE FARM.
The merino has certain qualities for New England, and much
of the Northern United States, which are invaluable: they are
good workers, not being willing to feed in the same pasture, however fertile, unless it has considerable range; they will walk over
the surface, cropping the bits they like, until they get back to
the hills and sterile places, seeming to find in the stunted herbage
food exactly adapted to them; and, as we know, they improve
the poor land by feeding upon it. They thrive on lands that
would be only a burying-ground for the improved Leicester or
Cotswold. The merino also are very quiet; and though inclined
to ramble for their food, they are not unruly, and are restrained
from jumping by very moderate fences, whilst the old-fashioned
mutton sheep could be controlled only by six or seven high bars.
Careful breeding has changed these sheep in shape, wool, and
mutton; has reduced the wild flocks of former times to the quiet
and contented animals which follow their master whenever he
appears.
The number of sheep in Vermont, the headquarters of the merino,
has not increased in the last ten years in proportion to their
quality; but the yield of wool to the head has doubled. The
credit for this change is due to a few men who, though, at first
prejudiced against the Spanish merino, soon saw their good
qualities, and purchased full-blooded animals from the importers,
and have carefully bred them since; never mixing any impure
blood with their flocks. The Vermont merinos originated from
two families of Spanish sheep, called, in Spain, Paular and Infantado; names belonging for many.generations to large families of
sheep which were carefully bred, and kept from any intermixture
with other families. These sheep were driven every year from one
part of Spain to another, seeking pasture; making a march of
eight hundred miles a year, for so many generations, that the sheep
became great travellers, and, according to the Darwinian theory
of development, acquired a constitutional capacity for enduring
labor, and a disposition to work for their living, of great value
to us. Imported into America at different times, most of the
merinos were mixed with the common sheep; but some of the
Infantado fanmily passed into the hands of a Mr. Atwood, in
852 
THE FARM.
Connecticut, who kept them pure, and from whose sheep the improved Infantado or Atwood merino is derived.
The Paulars were brought to the United States by Mr. Jarvis
at about the same time with the Infantados. Some were kept
pure; others mixed and disappeared amongst other sheep. A
few full-blooded Paulars went into Vermont, and are still bred
there, but have failed to find as many admirers as the Infantado
or Atwood sheep, which, as improved by Mr. Hammond, of Middlebury, who has done for the merino what Mr. Bakewell did
for the Leicesters, are certainly the beau-ideal of fine-wooled
sheep.
I cannot give the details of their breeding, or enter into minute
descriptions of these sheep. They have been described in the
Patent-Office Reports, in Randall's " Practical Shepherd," and
elsewhere; and it is enough for my present purpose to say, that, as
merinos, they stand first, and have been sold for fabulous prices.
Mr. W. R. Sanford, of Orwell, sold twenty-three two-year-old
ewes, in 1863, for $15,000, and they were soon sold a second
time for an advance. Mr. N. T. Sprague, of Brandon, Vt., a celebrated breeder of these sheep, has a buck which he values at $20,000. Bucks have been sold withip the past two years for $5,000
to $7,000 each; and offers of $10,000 have been refused; and
ewes for $1,000 to $8,000. These prices seem fabulous and purely
speculative; but it is not speculation alone, rather the real merit
of the animal, which sells them.  One of these extra bucks
taken West, and crossed on any flock of coarse-wooled sheep,
would, in two or three years, double and perhaps treble the yield
of wool, without increasing the cost of producing it, and at the
same time perhaps give rise to a lamb as good or better than
himself.
Nor is the improvement imaginary: it is conceded by those
who have grown sheep, and who for years kept only the common varieties, that the present merino is better than the old
sheep in all particulars. Their wool is finer, more uniform in
all parts of the body, equal in quality, is stronger, makes stronger
and more durable cloth; the sheep are less liable to disease, are
better shaped, more compact; every part of the body is covered
72
853 
THE FARM.
with wool, the head and face, all but the top of the nose, and the
legs down to the dew-claws, just above the hoof. More wool
can be cut from the parts of these sheep which used to be naked,
than came from the whole body of the old common sheep.
The wool is worth from ten to twenty per cent more in quality,
besides its increased quantity; the average of most flocks now being from five to seven pounds per head, and many going as high
as twelve pounds per head. Mr. Sprague cut from ten yearling
ewes, eight of whom had born lambs, which always reduces the
wool, one hundred and seventy-two pounds, thirteen ounces,one shearing nineteen and three-fourths pounds, unwashed wool.
Mr. Darwin E. Griswold, of Orwell, who has been several
years breeding these sheep, estimates the improvement in the average yield of Vermont wool to be two and a half pounds per
head. The coarse sheep have been improved by Spanish merino
blood, making, their wool finer and heavier; whilst the Saxony
sheep, a smaller variety, which yield very fine wool, have gained
in size of body and fleece, losing some of the fineness of the fibre
by the same cross.
This improvement has resulted from the constant care of the
breeders, who have never sold their best sheep, but preserving
the best to make their flocks better, and selling only the poorer
sheep; and we may reasonably believe, that, if they adhere to
this practice, these sheep will be still further improved, until the
culls of the flock will be as good as the best are now.
To bring the merino to their present condition, it has been
necessary to keep them from storms in cold weather, and feed
and water them generously. Formerly, sheep were left to shift
for themselves all winter, the farmer tossing some hay or straw
to them every day, or letting them eat at a stack, without shelter
or care.   I have seen large flocks, which have remained out
through sleety storms in winter, perfectly cased with ice.
The barns provided for their flocks by good sheep-farmers of
the present day are models of convenience and comfort; the
sheep are sheltered from all severe storms between the first of
October and Mlay. In the winter they are fed with the best hay,
have free access to pure water, and are kept warm in good cel
854 
THE FARM.
lars or barns; their lambs now come in March, when they can
be easily watched and provided for by the shepherd, instead of
being scattered far and wide in bleak pastures, to be hunted up,
or left to die if exposed to a severe storm. The sheep'are
sheared in May, and sheltered from bad weather until their new
wool grows enough to protect them, and then turned into wellfenced pastures, which are not overstocked. During the summer
they are carefully watched, salted, their noses kept tarred, to drive
away the fly, and then, as autumn's storms come on, are carefully
protected.
It hardly seems as if all this increased cost could pay; but it
does. Mr. Daniel B. Buell, a careful breeder in Orwell, Addison County, Vermont, who has been brought up with sheep, and
has kept them in all ways, considers that the present price of
wool, fifty to fifty-five cents currency, pays for all the extra trouble. He considers that the better the sheep are fed, the more
profitable they become.   He turns his sheep into his best fall
feed, to bring them into the barn in good condition, and then
keeps them well during the winter, giving a peck of oats and
corn to fifty sheep per day, with abundance of best hay, and pure
running water. Too much care cannot be taken to provide water
in abundance. Sheep do not drink much, but often. They do
not need grain all winter: it is best to give it them at first, when
changing from grass to hay; and when they become used to hay,
and are thriving on it, the grain may he withdrawn, until towards spring.
The breeding ewes should have grain, oats and shorts being
best, six weeks before lambing, and turnips or some roots, in
order to increase their milk. A variety of food is of great importance to them; many careful experiments have been tried, in
England and America, with different varieties and mixtures of
food; and the result has been always in favor of mixed food in
which there was a large proportion of roots.
Strang,ers to the merino are frequently surprised at their
wrinkled appearance, and do not understand how the many folds
of skin sheep-fanciers desire to produce, can be of any value.
The original merino was a nearly smooth-skinned sheep, with a
855 
THE FARM.
tendency to folds of loose skin about his neck; these folds were,
of course, extra skin, and caused just so much more wool-surface.
As the sheep were improved, the tendency to wrinkle increased,
and it was soon considered a proof of improved blood; this induced some breeders to try to increase the wrinkles on their
stock, until sheep are produced that have twice as much skin as
their carcase would warrant. Wrinkles are by no means a
proof of good blood, nor are they especially desirable; the wool
of very wrinkly sheep is generally shorter and less valuable,
though it is equally true that some of the best sheep are very
much wrinkled. Wrinkles belong to no one famlly; and Mr.
Sprague, who has kept them sixteen years, thinks they are rather
a proof of mongrels, or mixed families of merino.
The merinos are less subject to disease than common kinds
of sheep, which seems contrary to analogy; as we should expect
that increased care and protection would make them more
tender. Sore lips, sore eyes, a kind of colic called stretches, and
foot-rot, are the principal diseases. Grub in the head is very
troublesome sometimes, but may generally be prevented by tarring the nose in the summer, to drive away the fly which seeks
to lay its eggs in the sheep's nose. If the eggs are laid, the
grub, after it is hatched, creeps up the nostril, and attaches itself
to the upper part of the mucous membrane, causing the sheep
great uneasiness, and sometimes, when their numbers are excessive, death.
Sore mouth and lips generally come from eating some pernicious weed in the grass or hay; lambs are frequently very much
distressed by sore lips after the winter sets in, when hay is their
principal food. Whether due to hay or other causes, this sore
mouth generally yields to a few applications of healing ointment
of any kind, even common mutton-tallow. Sore eyes, ophthalia, and the like, will generally pass away without any permanent injury, after bathing the eyes a few times with luke-warm
water. Some shepherds recommend many kinds of violent treatment, but they are useless, and often injurious; Nature will
effect a cure with the most simple treatment.
Foot-rot, the scourge of thousands of flocks in Europe, is well
856 
THE FARM.
known in America, but has not yet become a great evil here.  It
is an inflammation of the foot, which first shows itself in tle
skin between the cleft of the toes at the top of the hoof; this
skin is commonly as fine, " sound, smooth, and dry as the skin
between a man's fingers; the first symptom of hoof-rot, is a disappearance of this smooth, dry, colorless condition of the naked
skin at the top of the cleft over the heels, and of its coolness;"
the skin becomes chafed, a little corrugated and moist, and, as
the disease increases, hot. The part first attacked becomes sore,
discharges a very foul-smelling, water, and soon ulcerates; the
ulcer extends between the horn on the inside of the cleft and the
inner sole or core of the foot, and increases very rapidly; if not
cured soon, the inside of the foot will become entirely rotten,
and at last the hoof drop off.
As soon as a sheep is seen to be lame, it should be caught, and
examined; if there is any appearance of rot, dissolve some
green-vitriol in hot-water, making  a strong solution; then lay
the sheep on its back, holding it partly between your knees; pare
the inner-sole, or side-horn, as thin as you can, and not bring
blood; cut the diseased horn entirely away if possible. Return
the sheep to its feet, but set the diseased feet into the hot solution of vitriol, taking care that it shall not be scalding hot; let
the sheep stand on its feet, resting its weight as much as possible on the feet in the solution; so that the pressure may open
out the hoof, giving the vitriol a chance to get into every part.
Let the sheep stand three to five minutes, and then take it out,
and turn it into a dry place, where it should be kept for a day
out of the wet.  Very bad cases will be cured by one immersion,
if it is thoroughly done; many specifics are advertised to cure
foot-rot, but none will be found more simple or effective than
this.
Foot-rot is attributed to many causes; changing from a light
and dry to a low and wet pasture; too much rank, green food in
the autumn, producing general derangement and inflammation
of the system; contagion, filthy yards, wet straw. Whatever its
origin, it should be watched with care; a lame sheep should be
examined as soon as seen, and isolated from the rest of the flock,
857 
THE FARM.
as it is certainly contagious; and common sense should teach
every one to keep their sheep in clean and dry quarters. It has
so often appeared in flocks which have been removed from high
and dry summer-pastures to low and damp meadows in the fall,
that I suppose we must believe it is often originated in that way;
but it appears in flocks not subjected to such changes, whilst
flocks in wvet meadows often entirely escape. I believe, that,
although often due to locality, it is also hereditary, like the gout;
and that descendants of flocks in which the hoof-rot has been
will always be subject to it.
Where a flock of sheep, or an individual, shows the hoof-rot,
it is very desirable to change their food, and clean their yards
and stables at once, as so violent a disease cannot fail to affect
the general system, and no local treatment will dispense with a
proper attention to food and cleanliness. No good sheep-farmer
will ever allow his yards and folds to get filthy, but will clean
them as carefully as the horse-stable, and permit no accumulation of manure or litter.
858
iru 
CHAPTER VII.
FARM.
IN order to present to those of my readers who are not farmers or stock-raisers a clear idea of the management of sheep,
I will follow a flock through a year, and will commence with
them in January, when they will have become accustomed to
winter food and treatment.
The amount of food, whether hay or grain, which sheep or
other animals require to keep them thriving, depends on the condition in which they were when they were brought into the barn,
and the kind of building in which they are kept.  It has been
found, that, when sheep commence the winter fat, they can be
kept so with very little extra care; first-rate hay and plenty
of fresh water is enough for most of the winter. But, if they
come in poor, it is very difficult with any amount of feeding to
get them fat, or keep them improving. To insure the best condition, some farmers give their sheep a little grain every day,
after the frosts set in in the fall, to replace the sweetness of the
herbage, as it withers under the frost, - a gill of oats per day
per head would be ample for this purpose.
A perfectly warm barn may be made above the surface of the
ground; but the best way to secure warmth is to dig a cellar in
a side-hill which faces to the south or east, selecting a place to
which water from a spring may be readily brought through pipes.
Build a solid wall on the west and north, and board up the east
and south, leaving large windows, which must be carefully glazed,
as sunlight is of great importance to the health of the sheep.
Carry a drain under the walls and across the floor of the cellar
to keep it perfectly dry. Over the cellar erect a suitable barn to
hold hay and grain, but not for'stabling cattle, as their water
would leak through,  and injure the wool.  The room may be
859
4 
FARM.
divided into as many small apartments as is desirable by using
racks for holding the hay, as division fences, taking care to set
them in such a manner that the hay sent down through a tunnel
fromnt above can be easily distributed to each rack without extra
labor, and without carrying it over the sheep, sprinkling hay and
seed on their wool, which is very injurious, dirtying the wool,
and causing irritation in the skin, which induces the sheep to
tear out their wool with their teeth, or by rubbing against projecting surfaces in their efforts to allay the itching. Set the watertubs convenient to each apartment, so that all may drink at will;
if the racks are properly made, hay and grain can be fed in the
same rack with economy. Shut off a small space, which should
be built up for bucks, like a room. When they are allowed to
run with the sheep, their long horns catch in the wool; and as
they are often cross, they bunt the other sheep, perhaps killing
a pregnant ewe, or destroying her lamb. In such a cellar as
this, the sheep will be warm all winter, and ewes can be permitted to lamb in March with greater security than out of doors
in lMIay, as the young lambs are protected from the damp ground
and cold currents of air. One hundred per cent in lambs may
be reasonably expected, whereas the merino left to lamb in the
fields rarely give over eighty per cent.
The cellar should be connected with extensive yards on tlhe
south and east, to which the sheep should be admitted whenever
the weather will permit, in order that they may get as much
exercise as possible.   Want of exercise is very injurious to
breeding-ewes in particular, some flocks having been nearly
ruined by confinement.
By January, the sheep will have become accustomed to their
winiter-food; and if they are in good condition, and the hay is
of the best quality, their grain may be slowly reduced until
none is given. Keep salt with a little sulphur in some accessible place: the sheep like it, and its free use is thought by many
to counteract the tendency to stretches. The feeding should be
perfectly regular in time and amount; in winter, feeding three
times in the day, and once in the evening, would be none too
much; and, every day, all the remaining hay, straw, and stubble
0
860 
FARM.
should be cleaned out of the mangers, and given to colts or
horses.
Early in February, the sheep should be sorted;  all the lambs,
wethers, barren ewes, being removed from the breeding-ewes.
If the ewes were properly marked when tupped, it will be
easy to know when to expect them to lamb, as they are regular,
rarely exceeding one hundred and fifty-two days.
Strong ewes rarely need any assistance in labor, but the
lambs often come weak, and, if they are born on a cold night,
might die before morning.  To prevent mishaps, good shepherds
visit the flock once, and better twice, between the last feeding
and morning. The new-born lamb will soon get sufficient
strength to stand up, and will immediately try to suck: if he
once gets his stomach full of his mother's milk, he will take care
of himself; but if he seems to be unable to find the teat, or the
mother will not stand still, the shepherd turns the ewe's head
into a corner, stands over her, holding her tight between his legs,
his face towards her tail. he moves the lamb up to the mother's
udder, and inserts the teat into its mouth; if it does not incline
to suck, by inserting his finger a little way into its mouth, and
tickling the tongue, or roof of the mouth, it will be induced to
try. If it really makes a vigorous pull, it will soon learn to
take care of itself; milking a few drops into its mouth will
sometimes stimulate an unwilling lamb; but it often happens that
all is useless, and it will not suck: for this case, the bottle is the
only remedy. A common pint-bottle with an India-rubber nipple is the best for convenience. The milk of a new milch cow
warmed to the temperature of the body, sweetened with molasses or brown sugar, and stiffened with a few drops of whiskey,
should be ready; and rather than tire lamb, mother, and shepherd by ineffectual attempts to make it suck, give it a good feed.
It will soon gain strength, and compel its mother to stand for
it. In very cold nights, lambs should be wrapped in a piece of
old carpet, buffalo, or be well covered with straw: they are easily
chilled, and yet may often be saved  by timely care.  I have
known a very valuable sheep grow up from a lamb, which was so
far gone with cold and hunger, that he was wrapped up, placed
861 
FARM.
in a warm oven, and fed with whiskey and milk from a spoon for
several hours, giving a few drops at a time, until it could run
round, and bleat as loud as the best lamb in the pen. As soon
as the lamb is able to run about, all solicitude is over, for they
will gain very rapidly.
Within a fortnight of their birth the lambs' tails should be cut
off about two joints or vertebra from the body. This is done by
laying the tail on a block of wood; press the skin back as much
as possible, so that when the bone is cut the end of the skin will
project beyond it; after cutting the tail, the two flaps of the
skin may be drawn together with needle and thread to check
bleeding. The tail should be cut with a quick blow, of a dull
chisel; if bleeding is profuse, the end of the tail may be seared
with a hot iron, which effectually stops bleeding and saves the
lamb's strength, which often suffers from the loss of blood, but
when the operation is made just right, there will be very little
bleeding, which can be neglected.  The older the lamb is, the
more he will bleed and suffer from it.  The male lambs not to
be preserved for bucks should be castrated within a few days of
the docking, so that the lamb need have nothing farther to impede its growth.
Running with their mothers, the lambs will early learn to eat
some hay, grain, &c., and will thrive if the mothers have sufficient milk. Some over-zealous breeders feed their choice lambs
with cow's milk for some weeks, by which they increase the
size of the lamb.
After the lambs are all born, there will be but little for the
shepherd to do until shearing, other than the regular routine of
feeding and tending. In old times shearing was postponed until June; now the sheep are sheared early in May, before they
are turned out to pasture, which saves the trouble of tagging.
If the sheep are to be turned into the pasture before shearing
they must be tagged; that is, the wool on both hind legs, from the
roots of the tail down, should be cut off. The change of food
from dry to green will cause the sheep to scour, and if the long
wool is on the legs it gets very much injured in value; the tags
are laid aside in the wool-room until shearing, when the clean
862 
FARM.
wool is rolled in with the fleece, the remainder put with the
sweepings of the wool-room floor, to be sold as dirty wool.
When the sheep are not sheared until June, they suffer from
the heat through May, and sometimes shed their wool; and,
after shearing, the hot summer sun blisters the skin, and often
checks the growth of the wool for the year. When sheared
early in May, they must be sheltered at night and during cold
storms; in a fortnight, enough new wool will have grown to defend them against any ordinary weather.
Whether sheep should be washed before shearing is a mooted
point: we know that a large percentage of the weight of wool
is dirt and grease for which the buyer does not want to pay; if
this could be thoroughly washed out the remainder should command a high and corresponding price. But to wash completely,
the sheep should be soaked in warm water with potash in it,
and then be carefully scrubbed until every vestige of dirt is
removed. The usual practice, merely dipping the sheep it. cold
water, or letting a stream run over them, an attendant squeezing
the water out as fast as possible, can remove but little dirt.
Buyers careless or ignorant pay alike for all kinds of washing,
and of course discriminate against the good work. If wool is
not washed, the buyer takes off a third of the weight from all
wool alike, which is also indiscriminating and unjust.
A sheep kept well in clean stables, with no exposure to hayseed, mud, or filth, will get but little dirt into its wool, and
whilst some sheep are full of coarse heavy yolk, properly called
grease, others having only a light, soft oil, of course the wool
of the latter has less waste than the former; but if all unwashed
fleeces are shrunk alike, the heavy wool is most profitable to the
farmer. Sheep sheared early should never be washed, as they
are liable to take bad colds from carrying a heavy wet fleece until it drys; besides the rough handling which they must undergo
is bad for them.
Every physiological argument is against the practice, and
nothing in its favor but the cost of the dirt to the buyer.
When the time comes that men who buy are really good judges
of wool they will pay for wool according to its quality, which
863 
FARM.
will encourage farmers to take pains to produce a really good
article.
The clean floor of any room or barn is selected for the shearingplace, and when there is no suitably clean floor, sheets or canvas
may be spread under the sheep. As whoever reads this book
will either be a shearer or have to employ one, it is needless for
me to enter into any details of the process.  When the fleece
is removed the sheep is set upon its legs, its toes cut short with
a chisel or toe-shears, and its owner's initials and its own number are stamped in lamp-black or venetian-red on the sheep's
hind-quarter or side as fancy may dictate.
Sheep-breeders who wish to sell in the succeeding autumn are
careful not to cut the wool close, but leave rather a thick covering of wool, say one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch on the
forehead, along the legs, and about the scrotum, wherever, in
fact, it is desirable to have a sheep look well wooled when he is
offered for sale. This is not a fair practice, unless the buyer is notified, for it is impossible to judge in the autumn of the sheep's
capacity for fleece. Ewes are not as often treated in this manner as bucks, as they are usually judged by their general appearance and lambs; but a buck may sire many lambs, and whether
he is worth five or five hundred dollars depends on particular
points of merit, a thick and uniform fleece being one of the
most important.
Too many merino buck-lambs are raised in Vermont at present; the number of breeders has largely increased, and every
farmer hopes to sell his buck lambs or yearlings for great prices,
and therefore, instead of converting all but the undoubtedly
most valuable into weathers, all passable bucks are permitted to
grow up, with the hope that some few may sell the whole lot for
high prices; as a consequence, they become a drug, and are peddled
about the Western country, and often sold for a trifle at last,
and when sold can do very little to improve the stock of those
who purchase them.
As soon as the fleece is removed, the folder of the wool gathers it up in his arms, and lays it down on a large, clean table, the
inside down: he carefully spreads it out to its full size, cleans it
864 
FARM.
from dung and other impurities, turns over the two sides to
meet in the middle, folds over the ends, and then doubles it all
together, and ties it in a firm square bundle with stout twine.
As this is rather a nice job, and must be firmly and well done
in order that the discolored surface may all be carefully closed
in, and the fleece be neat and white, wool-boxes have been invented into which the fleece is laid after the ends are folded up.
String being first laid across the box, the sides of the box are
then pressed together, compressing the wool into the smallest
compass; it is then tied with the strings which lay under it. A
cheap and good box may be made as follows:  Take a board,
a, b, c. three feet long and one foot wide,
;    i-. -— "cut it into three equal parts, and attach
~:;~~ ~ J;~:    ia a-  nd c to b by hinges, then attach two
boards same size d and e to b by hinges,
3.         [screw two small hooks to a and c: when
0~n ~    I:IPthe fleece is twice folded lay two strong
strings lengthwise of a, b, c, and two
- ) _:._,L I across d, b, e, at equal distances.   Lay
3~           the fleece in the box, covering the central
part; raise d and e to a right angle with b, then raise a and c to
a right angle also; fasten the sides a and c into d and e by letting the little hooks attached to a and c drop into the notches
made for them in d and e; thus the whole will be held compact:
tie the strings tight, open the box, and you have the fleece solid
well shaped;  store the wool in a cool dry place; cover well
from dust.
Merino sheep, partly owing to their thick, close wool, are but
little troubled with ticks: such as there are will take refuge
in the lambs as soon as they are admitted to the company of the
old sheep after shearing. In a week they will be all in the lambs,
and may then be all killed by dipping the lambs into a decoction
of tobacco, which may be made by steeping " five pounds of
tobacco to every one hundred lambs in hot water until the tea
becomes strong enough to kill a tick as soon as it is immersed:
or three pounds of white powdered arsenic are dissolved in six
gallons boiling water, to which add forty gallons of cold water;"
)3
865 
FARM.
in either case stir the solution, and immerse the whole lamb in it,
saving the eyes, nose, and mouth. Keep it in the water long
enough to soak the wool; then take it out and set it on a grating
over the tub to drain; one dose will kill the vermin; it is a good
plan to dip the old sheep in the same manner, as additional
security.
When the ewes are sheared, their number, weight, and quality
of fleece, and quality of lamb should be entered in the Sheep Register, that we may know in the fall to what kind of bucks the
ewes should be bred.  Ewes vary very much in their qualities;
and by carefully noting the variations, we may increase or diminish any given characteristics by using bucks of like or unlike
peculiarities. Vermont farmers often carry their ewes many
miles, and divide their flocks amongst several different bucks,
and are exceedingly particular as to the merits of the animals
they use.
When the sheep are sheared, marked, and dipped, they are
turned into pastures, where they are expected to range during
summer. In some convenient place set a box, with some tar in
its bottom, into which sprinkle salt and a little sulphur; or put
in it only a lump of rock-salt and a little sulphur, so that the
sheep may lick it as often as they wish; or salt them a little
every week. Sheep will do very well in good pastures where
there is no water, as they get the dew in the morning and evening feeding, and the juices of vegetation reduce their thirst; but
water is very grateful to them, and they thrive better if they can
get it.
With the exception of salting the sheep and occasionally tarring their noses, they are left to themselves until August, when
the lambs are separated from the ewes, leaving with the lambs
one or two dry ewes, or cossets, to keep them tame, and teach
them to follow the shepherd. The lambs should be turned into
the best pasture which can be given them, and far enough from
their mothers not to hear them calling. In a fortnight they will
have ceased to miss the mothers' milk, on which they have, of
course, depended but little for some weeks.  After the lambs are
taken away, the ewes should be carefully watched lest their bags
866 
FARM.
swell: when they do, bathe the bag with warm water, and grease
it, and draw a little milk out; they will then soon dry up.
As the feed on the hill-pastures gets short, move them on to
the after-grass in the meadows. If the grass is very rank, let
them stay at first only long enough to fill themselves with it, and
then drive them back to the hill until their stomachs become accustomed to the new food, and their eagerness for it abates,
when they may be left on the meadows until winter.  It is
very desirable throughout the season to change the sheep from
one pasture to another; they improve more rapidly if their pastures are frequently changed, thereby being able to get a greater
variety of food.
When the lambs are taken off the ewes is the usual time for
looking over the flock, and drafting out by themselves the inferior
animals, and the fat sheep which are to be sold during the fall.
About the 10th October, if the ewes have not got fat since lambing,
give them a little grain daily up to the time of buck-service, and for
a week after.  They are more sure to conceive and give their
foetus a vigorous start if they are themselves in good condition.
The 20th October is time enough to begin to serve the ewes: a good
adult buck will serve one hundred and fifty to two hundred ewes
at the rate of five or six a day without harm, if he is well managed. He should be fed well, and only allowed to serve the ewes
once; as the ewes come in heat at different times, the flock must
be examined every day; and the quickest and best method is to
put the ewes in a pen, connected by a door with a pen or room
in which the buck is. Let them in one at a time, and as soon
as they have been served, or prove not in heat, remove them; if
served, mark them on one side with the day of the month, and
record it in your register against the ewe's number. Ill this way
you can examine a flock of ninety ewes in an hour easily, and
save all the hurry, bustle, and injury to the ewes which is liable
to occur when the buck is turned in to the entire flock: the ewes
should be returned to the buck until the seventeenth day after
service, as they will come about again within that period if they
have failed to conceive the first time.
During the summer, the bucks must be kept away from the
867 
FARM.
ewes; if the bucks run together, they will fight more or less, but
gradually get used to each other, and the weaker decline fighting
with the stronger animals. About a month before their working
season commences, begin to feed the bucks grain, half a pint a
day, and increase until you give a quart of corn and oats mixed,
with plenty good hay and fresh water. When serving-time is
over, gradually discontinue the grain to the minimum which will
keep him vigorous: good hay and a few roots during winter will
be sufficient without grain.
After the middle of September, careful farmers house their sheep
every night, and take them in whenever there is a prospect of continuous or severe rain. This practice may be carried too far, and
the sheep's vigor be diminished by too much sheltering: they are
able to contend with any reasonable weather; and unless one
wishes to sell his sheep, and fears that rains will wash the wool,
removing the yolk, and make the wool look dry and towy on
the ends, he had better leave his sheep out during all moderate
weather until winter.   Carefully-sheltered sheep get to look
almost black; the oil in the wool collects dust and dirt on the outside of the fleece and crusts it over, so that some very oily sheep
would seem to have been painted with lamp-black; but when
they are painted or rubbed with lamp-black to impart an artificial
blackness, it is apparent upon careful examination; for, however
severe rains a sheep may have been in, an oily sheep will be sure
to show it under the belly and legs, and in all sheltered spots between the wrinkles, whilst no amount of blacking can make
those places greasy.
I have described the year's management of a flock of merino
sheep; but there would be no material difference if they were
mutton and long-wool sheep. I have entered rather lengthily
into the merits of the merino, because it is the best known, and
because I believe that over the immense plains of the South and
West, where the carcass is of little value, they will prove the
most profitable. But there is unquestionably a field open to longwool and mutton sheep of no less importance in the thickly settled parts of the country. Whether Leicester, Cotswold, Southdown, Oxfordshire, or Flemish sheep are to be the source from
868 
FARM.
which the American mutton-sheep will arise, time will show;
but nothing is clearer than that, whoever can produce a sheep
which will come early to maturity, yielding lambs which will
weigh eight to ten pounds to the quarter, and sheep fifteen to
twenty-five pounds to the quarter, which is hardy, a good worker,
adapted to our rough hills and briery pastures, will realize as
great profits as Mr. Hammond, and will find an immense sale
for his stock.
There are several gentlemen now engaged in the business, with
various success. Most of them are too rich to feel the acute interest in the subject which makes a man keenly alive to all the
considerations which affect stock-raising. Not by any means
every man who loves animals and keeps them is competent
even to begin to raise an improved breed of any kind: it requires a peculiar quickness to see and appreciate the good and
bad points of animals; a readiness to remember how each animal he has bred resembled or differed from the rest; a power of
combining facts connected with his own and others' breeding,
and deducing from them the theories which can be followed to a
successful conclusion.
The man who is to make an improved breed of sheep will
very likely know nothing else: he will see sheep, think sheep,
dream sheep. They will be always present in his mind; and
such a man will yet be found to produce the American-mutton
sheep, and he will reap a golden reward.
An improver of foreign sheep, in adapting them to America,
will find many unexpected obstacles, in climate, soil, and food;
and when he has overcome them all, he will very likely have an
animal widely differing from the parent stock. The merinobreeders, after having attained great excellence, thought they
could, perhaps, get on faster by importing new and superior animals from Spain; and several competent persons went to Spain
and other European countries to examine the flocks in their native localities, ready to pay any price for first-rate stock; but no
importations were made which were equal to the sheep already
here. This seemed strange, and unaccountable upon any other
theory than that the sheep had deteriorated in Europe.
72*
869 
FARM.
Some of the Spanish breeders claimed that the French invasion had broken up the flocks, mixing varieties; and that,
since that invasion, no breeders had taken sufficient care to restore their animals by careful management. I do not believe
that this is the cause of the apparent depreciation. Our best
farmers are satisfied that their sheep can be much more surely
improved by keeping them in small flocks, and will divide even
fifty sheep into three or four flocks, when they have room. By
this plan, each sheep gets a better chance at the food than when
many are pushing at the same time. The shepherd can easily
study each individual, learn its defects, and decide how to breed
to improve its progeny.   During the season, each sheep is
studied carefully, and defective animals sold; but in Spain, the
flocks vary from hundreds to thousands, owned by a few rich
men, and managed by hired shepherds. Although the best men
are got for shepherds that can be hired, no hired man can be expected to take the care of his master's sheep, and feel the intense
interest in improving them that he would feel in his own, where
every improvement would give him money and reputation.
If a few extra sheep were to be imported from the best of the
Spanish flocks, and divided amongst men like the Atwoods,
Humphreys, Hiammonds, Spragues, Buels, Griswolds, and Campbells, who have improved the American merino, in another
forty years there would be sheep derived from them so greatly
in advance of the imported progenitors, that they would seem to
have been of an inferior variety, could they be compared with
their descendants.
Improvement in stock-raising in America is the most promising and profitable business to which any farmer can turn, and
will prove a surer mine of wealth and fame than the gold, coal,
oil, and copper-mines, which seem to our farmers to be the short
and tempting roads to prosperity.
870 
CHAPTER VIII.
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
IN the first edition of " Country Life," I have discussed very
fully the advantages of living in the country, the beauty we may
find there, the principles which should govern us in selecting our
homes, and arranging them afterwards; but I said little or nothing about cities. It might seem that cities were to be denied
all participation in natural beauty because they are the places in
which men live for the convenience of business and social intercourse; but this would be a very narrow view of the subject. I
believe every city offers abundant opportunity, if it is well improved, for the cultivation of flowers and flowering-plants; and
often, in their parks and public gardens, may be found the finest
opportunities for producing beauty with earth, grass, and trees.
As I propose to devote some space to this branch of the subject, I will first draw the reader's attention to some of the prominent defects in the present treatment of public grounds in cities;
and, as I am best acquainted with Boston, I shall apply my criticism to that city, conscious that what is true of one is applicable
to all.
The necessity of large and frequent open places in cities to
promote the health of their inhabitants is universally admitted;
and when land is set aside for such purposes, it has always been
considered proper to plant it with trees; but hitherto very little
care has been taken that such plantations should be made with
any other view than to furnish abundant shade. It has been
taken for granted that a variety of trees will not flourish in cities;
and, therefore, the plantation is always of the same kind, and of
very few varieties. Elms, lindens, horse-chestnuts, and latterly
maples, are planted in endless repetition; and either indolence
or ignorance prevents any earnest attempt being made to plant
871 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
the many other forest trees, some of which are more beautiful,
and less liable to the ravages of insects and premature decay.
Let us consider, first, the Boston Conimmon, a very undulating and beautiful surface, of about fifty acres, with several hills
of considerable elevation. Nature seems to have given man a
chance here to produce something beautiful; and, according to the
reverential enthusiasm of generations of Bostonians and New
Englanders, man has done so. But, in truth, man has done nothing towards improving this beautiful surface. Regardless of the
undulations which imperatively demand that the foot-paths shall
follow the hollows, or gently wind up the hills, every path was
carried as straight as the compass could run it, careless of how
or where it should strike the hills, or cut the valleys. If such
straightness came awry to a valley, and made an awkward hole,
the surveyor ruthlessly filled up the valley, and destroyed its undulatory beauty.
The lesson that Nature teaches us, that the cattle practise, that
is the foundation of the river's pliant power, has been neglected:
the crookedness of Boston streets, which are a real inconvenience
to traffic, are shamed by the straightness of the walks and paths
over the broad field which has been preserved for the health and
beauty of the city.
The broad, straight malls, with their double rows of trees, were
well enough: their stately formality bordering the noisy streets
seems to bring us by gentle gradation into the presence of the
quiet beauty of the Common itself; but with the malls, the demand for straightness and formality ceased. When we look at
the surface, and see how by planting the trees in groups on the
hill-tops and sides, winding the paths around, rather than forcing
them over the undulations, we might have broad lawns and open
grassy play-grounds, ornamented by trees and shrubs, which,
well placed, would have made the surface appear still more diversified, all now sacrificed to the straight paths which have been
cut across it, each defended by rows of lindens or maples, like
so many grenadiers on guard, we feel that man has thrown away
the whole to take a part.
The plea of convenience does not weigh in the argument, be
872
F.F 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
cause we all know that a curve is no shorter when it stands upon
its diameter, as a base, than when it lies on its side. Paths,
which would have wound their way through the hollows, gently
ascending the hills at the easiest angle, would have been as short
as those which now go straight from point to point, and would
have cost less and have granted opportunities for skilftil planting
now gone forever.
The ignorance or carelessness which made these paths has
been farther exhibited in the plantation, which is mainly composed
of three species of trees, the elms, maples, and lindens; and
lest these trees might really be too beautiful, the city causes their
stems to be yearly scraped and painted with a filthy mud-wash
which removes all the color and variety -of the lichens from their
trunks.
No one can deny that the tops of the elms in their dignity and
grace, with their beautiful tracery of branch and twig against the
sky, are truly beautiful. The foliage of the maples and lindens
is very refreshing in the hot summer days, and the dullest person
must feel real pleasure in seeing on some bright spring or summer evening, the gay children, happy people, bright sky, blue
water, golden yellow grass, rich green foliage of the Common;
but all this is only a part of what might have been, and should
teach us the more loudly to condemn those, who, from ignorance
or design, have mutilated the beautiful pleasure-ground we might
have had.
When the artistic world is startled by the discovery of some
grand old Torso, or fragment of Grecian sculpture which has
lain under the dust and ruin of ages, but which, when exhumed,
shows us how great was its conception and execution, do you
think it is admired the more because it is mutilated? Far from
it. The artistic soul enjoys the beauty which remains whilst
mourning the mutilation.
This should be the sentiment with which we should think of
such wasted opportunities as the Common. Why are elms, maples, and lindens planted row upon row? Because they are the
only trees worthy our love and admiration?  Beautiful as the
elm is, the Venus of the forest, shady as the linden with its
873
iw 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
sugar-loaf of foliage, glowing and grand the maple with its redundant wealth of autumnal colors, like a painter's palette, on
which are gathered together the yellow and red of the brilliant
summer sun, yet stationed in rows, with no grouping of one
against the other, lending and receiving no new glories by harmony and contrast, they are deprived of the largest part of their
power and beauty.
What have the oaks done, so sturdy of limb, rich in leaf,
grand in outline, earnest in autumnal color, to be shut out, especially when they do not bring worms to spin their gay cocoons,
filling the air with swinging acrobats, whose crowning feat is to
catch on the bonnet and hat and dress of the passer-by? Why
have we no knowledge of the beeches, whose sumptuous green of
summer is turned to a still more sumptuous yellow in the autumn, making our northern hills golden for many weeks?
Have the richly clad hickories, whose irregular and graceful
branches and lithe ascending stems are of surpassing beauty, committed the deadly sin, and been therefore excluded? Is the fact
that they bear nuts to condemn them to the orchard, and exclude
them from the ornamental grounds?
For what faults of omission or commission are the feathery
pines, the picturesque and kingly hemlocks, the graceful Norway spruce, shut out from the sight of Boston men, women, and
children?
There are thousands in that city, whose only idea ofevergreen
is the trimming material brought in to decorate the churches at
Christmas, or to make the Christmas-tree; who, if they think
of a tree at all in winter, think of it only as stripped of its
clothing of leaves to offer as little resistance as possible to the
wintry wind. Transport them into one of our pine or hemlock
forests in winter, where the thick branches sift the sharp cold
out of the winter wind, and they would think they had been the
subjects of a conjurer's hocus-pocus.
Men who plant public grounds are often ignorant themselves
of what trees are; they have often only seen to know by name,
the elms, maples, and lindens of city streets, and when successful business or politics have placed them in authority to dictate
874
I 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
as to the laying out of public grounds, they naturally desire the
only thing they know about. It is a positive wrong committed
on the public, who cannot go out into the country to learn its
beauties, and see the trees and shrubs.
One who plants for the public ought to be true and generous
to his employer, and instead of wilfully deceiving him as to what
he might have, giving only the easiest got and commonest varieties, he should try to bring together a good collection of the
beautiful inhabitants of our woods. There is no reason why we
should not plant every variety of trees on a large area, like the
Common. The narrowness of the street, the too great shade of
the houses, which may be quoted to prevent the planting of some
kinds of trees in the streets of cities, are no argument here,
where every tree and shrub of New England would grow and
thrive.
South of the Common is an area of about twenty-five acres,
called the Public Garden.   This garden is a vigorous effort of
an enthusiastic person in the wrong  direction.   The original
surface was a dead level, much of it made from deposits of city
rubbish. Conscious of the mistakes made in the Common, where
the irregular and graceful had been sacrificed to the straight,
and not comprehending that under some circumstances the surface demands straight lines as imperatively as in another curves,
the designer of the improvements, taking before him a piece of
paper, the surveyor's plan of the surface, laid out thereon a
series of ovals, circles, and curves, meaning nothing, leading nowhere, the paths serving rather as a bewilderment and aggravation than either a convenience or pleasing effect.
The reader of the previous pages of this book needs not be told
here, that I believe in sometimes treating level surfaces with
graceful lines, curves, and irregularities; but I have laid down as
an axiomatic principle, that curved lines on level surfaces are
justified only by real or apparent necessity.
If you have no hill or variety of surface to cause you to bend
out of the straight line, a group of trees or shrubs, a building or
flower-bed, some real obstruction, should be created to give a real
as well as apparent reason for the deflection.
"875
c — 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
But in this design no such idea prevailed. An oval or a circle,
or some geometrical figure, looked nicely on paper, and they
were therefore transferred to the ground; what was to be done
with them afterward seems to have had nothing to do with their
first conception.
Nor is there any harmony of detail.  This design could only
be excused by the dead level of a Dutch tea-garden, where petty
conceits and surprises, paths leading nowhere or ending in a
seat or bower, a place to be enriched by frequent flower-beds and
architectural ornaments, and to have all the peculiar elaborate
details of the artificial French school, is considered the height
of perfection. Into this plan has been introduced, apparently
borrowed from some design for an irregular surface, several moderate alterations of the surface, and a pond of regular irregularity
of outline, which serves to utterly distort it, and destroy what
merit it originally possessed.
As has been said, it is perfect'y legitimate to wish to introduce
a variety into a level surface. Taking the dead level as a base,
laying out a pond of such shape as seemed best, giving the shore
variety by raising it in some places, leaving it natural in others,
carrying the raised portions back into little hills or undulations
to give a surface, around and amongst which paths might wind
giving new charms by the variety produced, would have been
legitimate; but the heterogenous combinations of the Public Garden are inexcusable and very ugly. The Common is great in
spite of its abuses: the grandeur of the surface will make itself
conspicuous, and compels admiration however much it has
been distorted; but in the Public Garden the deformity cannot
be concealed, and is as incongruous as the fool's motley over a
parson's surplice.
When we leave the arrangement of the surface, and come to
the planting, there is no improvement, the previous faults sink
into insignificance. The first excuse of the changes of surface
from a level is to get places on which to raise plantations above
the usual surface, by which, with well-selected groups and varieties of trees, we may increase, indefinitely, the real variation. By
taking advantage of each change, however small, we may pro
876
4 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
duce an effect perfectly incomprehensible to the uneducated mind;
but in this garden no such thing has been done: indeed, the word
plantation has no meaning when applied to it. In spring and
summer there are gay flowers and bright grass, and some very
common trees and shrubs, some roses, some azalias, some, I
should say much, of many things arranged with no more eye to
harmony, contrast, and combination than if they had been
sprinkled from a pepper-pot.
Nor is the poverty of design compensated by richness and variety of material. I have never seen so many ordinary, cheap,
and poor shrubs and flowers got together, excepting in a nursery;
the shrubs are mostly lilacs, snow-balls, syringas, common roses
like the boursault, spireas, and herbaceous plants of the most
ordinary character.   In summer, there are rich bedding-plants
and a profusion of bloom; but the general material used for
planting seems to have been bought at a miscellaneous auction,
because it was cheap; and having been purchased, it must be
used somewhere, and, alas, here was the spot!
I would not deny the beauty of color anywhere; it is as glorious and enchanting as music; and nature will be beautifill in
spite of man's efforts to prevent.   The delicate or rich green of
the newly-shaven grass, the sparkling water, the rich masses of
salvia, geranium, heliotrope, and verbena, make the Public Garden an attraction not to be lost from the Boston world, and they
do much to reconcile one to its obvious failure; but, granting
it all, it is a pitiable apology for what might have been.
This area, which will be surrounded by the finest archlitectural
dwellings money can produce, should have been so arranged with
groups of trees, conservatories, rich gardens, open play-grounds,
fountains, basins, shrubberies, that it could have rivalled any foreign garden of its size, and been a spot to which a Bostonian
might gladly take an acknowledged master of the art of landscape gardening, sure of his approbation.
Stretching away from the Public Garden is the broad Commonwealth Avenue, of sufficient width to permit a continuous
line of planting in its centre. In the original plan for the avenue, it was proposed to introduce through its entire length a se               74
877 
ORNAMENTAL GROUNDS.
ries of little openings,-  I hardly know what specific name to
give them. To add still more to its glory, the houses are all to
be set back from the very broad side-walks, leaving large areas
in front of every house.
The avenue is partially completed; and although, so far as it
is made, it is planted in the usual way, there is still left an opportunity for a grand treatment. Of course, every one can suggest that these centres should have some plantation; but to be
content with introducing a double row of trees, as is now proposed, through its length, is partially throwing away a chance for
one of the finest effects.
Let the avenue be treated as a whole, the sides as well as the
centre; although each one of the areas is small, plant them artistically. Supposing, for instance, that it has been decided that
in the centre we are to have nothing but trees; introduce, in successive groups, all the trees which will endure our climate. In
the first space a group of pines, next hemlocks, alone or mixed
with other trees of the same genus, or the Norway spruce; then
a group of maples, then oaks, then beech and walnut, then a
combined group of several varieties, then the many members of
the ash family, and so on. Or, better still, devote some of these
spaces to shrubbery; bring in groups of shrubs among the trees,
thus breaking the monotony of trees, and again combining
shrubs and flowers, and at another place shrubs, flowers, and
trees.
At the same time, carry the hand of culture and nature's decorations to the areas in front of the houses, which afford, as I
shall show, a field for a great deal of pleasure and beauty.
The Public Garden should have been laid out and planted so
as to produce the utmost beauty the space could afford, and then
have been connected by the grand avenue with some large park,
yet to be made in the new land near Roxbury, where there could
be a large basin of water kept ever fresh by the Charles River
or the changing tide.
Treated in some such manner, the beauty would increase
each year; and, eventually, the combined avenue, trees, shrubs,
flowers, parks, and buildings would have become a splendid
ornament to the city and the surrounding country.
878 
ORNAMENAL GROUNDS.
The question of how best to treat our cities is not to be passed
by carelessly; we are planting towns and embryo cities every
year, and their future health and prosperity, as well as beauty,
will depend on their being laid out and planted in the best manner. It is worth our while to consider the question at once,
both in the old cities of the land and in the villages which are
springing up everywhere, some of which are certain, in time, to
rival the most populous cities of the present day.
879 
*
CHAPTER IX.
CITY AREAS.
I WILL now give some directions for the treatment of small
city areas, the few feet in front of houses which are often catchalls for scraps of paper and rags, and tenanted by a little rank
or half-starved grass. A primary objection to the culture of
plants and flowers in cities, is, that they will be broken and
stolen by thieves; but, first, I do not believe they would be stolen; second, this is not a treatise on police management.
The directions I shall give are based on the belief that what
is worth doing at all is worth doing well, and that we know
that any kind of horticulture is attended by difficulties. Whoever wishes to have his house adorned by flowers, shrubs, and
vines, must realize at commencement, that he will have a great
deal of trouble and labor. You cannot thrust a few bushes into
the ground, set a vine against the wall, attach a plant-box to a
window, and then give yourself no further concern about them.
When you have planted you must cultivate, prune, train, and
protect, sure, if you do not, that all previous preparation was
wasted, and that, if you do, you will have a great amount of real
pleasure.
Again, my directions will not apply indifferently to all kinds and
styles of houses;  a small and unpretending house, such as the
thousand live in, may be clothed with shrubs, flowers, and vines, it
mattering but little how they are carried over the surface. A
costly house, with rich architectural finish and ornaments, should
be very carefully approached, and only those plants applied to it
which will harmonize with its style of architecture; and, whatever we plant must be carefully pruned and trained, each year,
so as to remain subordinate to the architecture.
880 
CITY AREAS.
But for expensive houses and rich owners I shall give no directions; if they want aid, and the presence of natural beauty,
they can afford to get advice when they need it, and thus they
make sure to produce a harmonious result. Nor can I give, at
the same time, directions for the shaded and sunny sides of the
same street; houses erected on the south side must treat their
front areas differently from those on the north side of the street.
Moreover, the space allotted to houses differs in every street;
in some they are flush with the side-walk, no space being left
even for a vine; in others there will be ten, in others twenty
feet of area, and I shall not give details for all; but this, I
think, may be assumed, that what is possible for the area of
twenty by thirty is proportionately so for ten by thirty, and
when there is but a foot or two, although the resident must
dispense with the flowers and shrubs, he can have the vines, and
plant boxes that his more lucky neighbor uses as a part of his
improvement.
In the few square feet of a city area we must not strive for
grand effects, but must rest content with pleasant color, fragrance,
and variety.   Though in a small way, in our beds of bulbs and
bedding-plants, even in cities we can get contrasts and harmonies
of color.
It may seem, when one examines the plans I have subjoined,
that I have overcrowded the space; but I expect that constant
_B   _         care and pruning will keep all the
~        |i,.  ~  ll1'  tplants and  shrubs in their  proper
,!'" ~ "~~.l'kl~1bounds,  and  many  of the largest
I  il   I     ~shrubs,  as  the  cydonia  japonica,
' lt,I;;,    could  be  trained  directly on the
fence, like an  espaliered fruit; its
I I iithorns would  deter any thief from
11putting his hand through to gather
the flowers, and its rich coral blos                           soms in the spring, and dark green
leaves in summer, would be very
beautiful. A, B, represents corner of fence and stem of cydonia.
74*
881 
CITY AREAS.
In order to get the utmost beauty from the city street, several
persons living in contiguous houses should combine together to
arrange and plant their areas according to a definite plan, one
person giving especial predominance to roses, another to azalias,
another to flower-beds of bedding-plants, another to evergreen
shrubs. In the spring, one devoting most space to hyacinths,
another to tulips; and later, one to the gladiolus, another to Japan
lilies, another to Cape bulbs, another to verbenas or petunias.
The small plots planted in this way would be like the flower-beds
of a large garden, and though the different owners would have no
right to gather each other's flowers, they would share the pleasure of seeing them, and could try experiments and produce a
variety of plants utterly beyond the efforts of one or even ten
persons.
The same method should prevail in treating the house-front or
facade; let one plant against the house be running roses, another
honeysuckles or woodbine (Virginia creeper), or bignonia, &c.
If we extend this kind of improvement to its utmost capacity,
by attaching hanging boxes of plants to the windows of the houses,
we could make many a city street more varied and beautiful than
any country village.
If trees are wanted, plant them in the same manner; take care
not to put the trees so near as to over-shade the flowers and shrubs,
and select such a variety as the space permits, which would give
the street a great interest to strangers and residents, and teach the
dwellers in cities, how varied and beautiful our fresh trees are.
I will give a detailed treatment for a large area, - where I suppose the houses to have a front of thirty feet, and to be thirty feet
back from the street, with walks leading to the house six feet
wide; the fences separating the different houses and areas are to
be used as trellises for various vines, as well as the front fences
and the wire fences separating each walk from the area belonging
to the same house.
8,82 
CITY AREAS.
Fw
imperial; 3, polyanthus; 4, crocus, all around the
edge; 5, iris; 6, jonquils; 7, narcissus; 8, hya-  ~
cintli; ri vase for trailing plants; fl basket for
trailing plants; flowers to follow bulbs, edge with                         a
gazania splendens, centre with Mexican sage,ver.     -
benas next edge, then heliotrope and geranium; 
10, climbingroses; 11, cydoniajaponica; 12, ivy on    ~fence; 13, mahonia; 14, standard rose; 15, traillug rose; 16, double flowering almond; 17, spirea
prunlfolia; 18, perpetual roses; 19, woodbine;
20, cobea scandens; 21, rose.
Shrubs for B: 1, spirea punifolia; 2, forsythia
viridissima; 3, spirea gracilis; 4, rosa acacia;
5, clethra; 6, azalea pontica; 7, perpetual roses; 
8, black alder; 9, woodbine; 10, tropeolum; 11,
wigela rosea; 13, woodbine; 14, trumpet creeper; 
fl vase. Flower beds of B and C: crown imperial next fence; then narcissus and jonquil, small
beds; hyacinths and sundries; large circle, edge
with polyanthus; then tulips and white and Japan lilies against fence. 
Shrubs to C: 1, prairie rose; 2, honeysuckle;
3, honeysuckle; 4, privet; 5, roses; 6, mahonia;
7, shrubby cinquefoil; 8, azalea pontica; 9, cydonia; 10, phlox; 11, Roxbury wax work;  12, 
honeysuckle; 13, Dutchman's pipe. Between C
and D, on fence:  1, rose; 2, honeysuckle; 5,
woodbine; 6, ivy.
Ml Zh
D, after bulbs: Centre with salvia, next scarlet geranium, heliotrope, points with verbena,
gazania, nierembergia and mignonette; bulbs, 1,
snowdrop; 2, polyanthus; 3, jonquil; 4, crocus; 5,
hyacinth; 6, tulips; 7, crown imperial, after these
in place or with bedding plants use Japan lilies,
gladiolus, amaryllis, and other Cape bulbs; 8,
honeysuckle; 9, roses (running); 10, wigelea; 11,
woodbine; 12, clematis; 13, cobea scandens and
woodbine; 14, roses; 15, azalea pontica; 16, daphne mezereon; 17, black alder; 18, snow ball; 19,
clethra; 20, English privet; 21, roses; 22, spirea;
23, tropeolum.
I
i
883
i     _
'  ~~~~~~~'
I  t
Lo             co~ 
CITY AREAS.
Many of the evergreen shrubs, and
particularly the new variegated kinds,
would be especially interesting to city
amateurs, but I should recommend
them rather for the shady sides of the
street; and I fully believe that on the
shady side, the most beautiful rhododendrons and, kalmias, and where the
space would permit, pinus cembra, ilex
laurifolia, American  holly, andromedas, juniper, would live and thrive. As
city gardening is a novelty, there
would be constant opportunity for experiment, and we should undoubtedly
find many shrubs doing just as well in
the city          as the country; whilst others,
of which we had reason to expect better results, would die, unable to contend
with the dust, smoke, and confined air.
1, perpetual roses; 2, holly; 3, black alder; 4,
euonymus; 5, privet; 6, kalnia; 7, clethra; 8,
wigelea roses; 9, azalia pontica; 10, roses; 11,
spirea prunifolia; 12, deutzia scabra; 13, rose
acacia; 14, cydonia (on fence); 15, spirea corymbosa; 16, standard roses; 17, daphne mezereon;
18, forsythia viridissima; 19, shrubby St. Johnswort; 20, barberry; 21, double flowering almond; 22, fuchsia; 23, snowdrops.
In this plan, by turning the paths
out of the right line, we are enabled
to get masses of shrubs together, which
would be very effective. We might
introduce some  of the small  evergreens, like pinus cembra or deciduous
trees, like  chionanthus  (the fringe
tree), cornus florida, halesia (silver
bell), cranberry tree, the snow ball,
magnolias, and others.
I
884
'.e'o.,w
>cur e WJg 
CITY AREAS.
I have given, first, two arrangements of large areas; now let us
turn to the front of the house, where the vines are to be trained
over the surface. To relieve them from the heated radiation from
the bricks, a simple wire-trellis like that shown in the cut should
be  made, covering  the brickwork, and raised four or six
inches from its surface.   The
construction of the trellis is very
simple: drive in between the
bricks, eye-bolts, or pins of stout
wire, say one-eighth of an inch in
diameter, sharpened at one end
to drive in, and turned into an
eye or loop at the other; drive
one at each side of the lower
window, and one between, just
at the edge of the  underpinning; drive again at same relative positions over the windows
of each story.   Then  take a
wire about one-tenth of an inch
r
=
I11
.ilil.
in diameter, and fasten to the top eye-bolt; bring it down through
the others, and fasten at the bottom; you can cross wires as
often as the vines need. Paint these wires dark-brown, and they
will be inconspicuous) and yet answer the purpose of supports to
the vines perfectly; and as there will be sufficient' air-space between the trellis and the wall, there will never be any danger of
burning the foliage of the vines. The only danger to apprehend
is the over-stimulating effects of the spring sun, which, as I have
before described, causes the destruction of our partly acclimated
plants, by starting the sap too early, which freezes, thus bursting
the sap-vessels when the cold returns before the mild weather is
fully established.
Under each alternate window of the different stories, suspend a
box, which may be made as graceful in shape as you please, of twoinch plank, or of common boards; the box to be supported by
clamps from the window-sills, or brackets of wrought iron, let in
885;
IV 
CITY AREAS.
to the brick-work. Such plant-boxes should be about two feet deep
and wide, and as much longer
than the window as one can          Hi b.
easily reach from either side. 
Fill six inches of the boxes   with  broken  crock  or
stones  for  drainage;  then'
three inches of broken bones  
and pieces of leather; over
this fill a rich, light loam; to
make sure of its quality, it
would be well to prepare a 
compost similar to that de-         
scribed on page 10 of this 
book. In such a box, we
can grow what we please, -plant along its front edge, verbenas,
nierembergia, gilia, mignonette, maurandyia, and let them hang
down in the air, showing their beauty of form and color, as a
fringe to the box. We might commence the season with a collection of spring bulbs, to be followed by Cape bulbs, like ixia,
cyclamen, amaryllis, sparaxis, homeria, nerine, tuberose.   All
these bulbs should have been started in some greenhouse, and be
set in the boxes after the spring bulbs have gone.
In lieu of the bulbs, use the bedding-plants or annuals; set at
the corner of the boxes, tropeolum, or convolvulus, to cling to
the nearest wires. Be careful to select only those climbingplants which will run of their own free will when once they are
attached to the vine, as it would be troublesome, and to a careless
person dangerous, to get out by ladder, or painter's window-jack,
to train the vines.
It needs but a feeble imagination to summon up the rich picture such a house would present to the eye of the owner or of a
stranger. Were there no back area to be improved, we could get
from the front, end, or side of a house a great deal of satisfaction and a large quantity of flowers.
I will now introduce a plan for a series of houses, with but ten
feet front area, the length of the house, or say two hundred
square feet.
886 
CITY AREAS.
14    IN
@..).1
Crocus, on the edge; 2, groups of polyanthus; 3, jonquil and narcissus;
4, hyacinth; 5, tulips; 6, snowdrops; 7, cydonla, on fence; 8, plants on
staging in pots; 10, rose; 11, rose and honeysuckle. The corners next
the house could be occupied by staging for plants carried as high as the
owner wishes.
,       1    1, roses; 2, honeysuckle, on fence; 3, privet, on fence; 4, forsythia
~r-~    viridissima, on fence; 5, mahonia.  In a very small area, large shrubs, un         less well confined to the fence, would crowd, and lose their beauty be           low, only showing leaves and flowers on the top. In the crowded space,
* _[dirt and rubbish would collect.
1, snowdrops; 2, cobea scanden; 3, black alder, trained against fence;
4, deutzia scabra variegata, on fence; 5, trumpet creeper;  6, sweet
briar, on fence; 7, cobea scandens; 8, Dutchman's pipe; 9, lilies of the
c    valley.  Stand of flowers against house with five steps; verbena, roses,
____:___ geranium, heliotrope, fuchsia.
~
1, roses; 2, spirea prunifolia; 3, privet on fence: 4, clethra; 5, rose
acacia; 6, crocus, on the edge; 7, polyanthus, in groups; 8, hyacinths; 9
tulips; 10, rose; 11, honeysuckle. If the area is depressed much below
sidewalk, bedding plants or annuals might suffer from want of sun, in
which case, a raised flower-bed should be made to bring them up to
th    e       l      ight.
i
i
8 &7
-    co
m,.L
2o
-
"Iss 
"It xa
I.,s  
CITY AREAS.
But there are areas not more than fourteen feet square, and
some smaller; the greater the depth in proportion to the length
the better the chance for planting.
I give one now fourteen by fourteen, with walk to house fourteen by five feet.
<  20 ~.      >4.  Flowerbed, bulbs followedby bulbs or bedding plants:
2                   1, ivy; 2, woodbine;  3, honeysuckle and bignonia; 4,
. — ~''  - Broses; 5, tropeolum; 6, honeysuckle;  7, woodbine; 8,
l 6 \   A    5 ~rosea; 14, symphoria zacemosa; 15, dielytraspectabilis,
variegata; 16, variegated tartarian  honeysuckle; 17,
standard rose; 18, mahonia; 19, kalmia; 20, roses on
~.ls l7 l      vfence.
For areas on the shaded side of the street, the treatment must
be entirely different: we can have snow-drops and lily of the
valley; and probably some of the other bulbs, like the hyacinths,
will blossom pretty well; but the want of sun would be a fatal objection to most flowers.
But shade would be no objection to evergreen and variegated
shrubs; of these, many varieties have been introduced to notice
during the last five years, and the shaded side would be especially
favorable for ivy. You must not expect the blossoms of any
plants, even evergreens, to be as brilliant in the shade; but the
foliage will be very rich, for it is not the severe winter cold that
kills our evergreens, but the sun of spring and late winter. On
the contrary, it is the sun of summer which kills many of the
leaves of the variegated leaved shrubs. The white places in the
leaf are practically diseased portions from which the chlorophyl
or coloring matter is absent; when these leaves are exposed to
the hot sun's rays, they are burned up.
I venture into this part of the subject with diffidence, because
this experiment has never been carefully tried, although analogy
is decidedly in its favor; for in the country we always select the
north sides of hedges, groups of trees, and the like, as the best
positions for both these evergreens and variegated plants.
All the variegated shrubs require only good, well-drained common garden soil. The evergreens do better for having incorpo
888 
CITY AREAS.
rated into the soil lumps and fine particles of peat; but both should
be well drained.
....d ^<>S=      Plan for shaded side of street: 1, ivy; 2,
2:%                woodbine; 3, ivy; 4, snowdrops; 5, lilies of
~,9,~?,?gi    4-    ~! the valley; 6, mahonias; 7, rhododendron; 8,
_,       5     5~        rhodora canadensis;  9, kalmia;  10, golden
1   5      5 ~ig 5  $'l   box, evergreen euonymus (half hardy, covered
4     55            in winter);  12, sweedish juniper;  13, rhodo   _F~x-:'-~   ~~~'   q.~   dendron; 14, ilex laurifolia; 15, silver box;
-:~ ~?   t:o S  Wrtg17, kalmia. Wherever I have given kalmia, I
+ f <<,Bt   mean K. latifolia.
In these several plans I have used the same scale, twenty feet
to the inch. I have planted the shrubs too thickly, were they to
be left unthinned, as they would ultimately crowd and injure
each other; but I have set them thickly to get an early effect,
believing that the planter will have sufficient sense to cut out and
prune closely before the plants begin to crowd each other.
I have been thus precise and full in my treatment of the front
areas, because they are generally most open to the sun; but I do
not forget the back of the house, where there is generally much
the largest space. The back areas are very often deeply shaded
by high fences and surrounding houses. Whatever room there is
should be improved. On the sunny sides, I should prepare the
soil thoroughly, and plant grape-vines and fruit on espaliers. In
the ground at the roots of the trees and vines; we may have bulbs
and flowers; but the necessity of using most of the back area for
household purposes generally forbids the introduction of shrubbery.
Mr. R. MeCleary Copeland, the Librarian of the Massachusetts
Historical Society, has shown triumphantly, that great success in
special culture may be had in the city.  He  has cultivated for
many years in a small back yard, hyacinths so successfully as to
take the first premiums offered by that society.  These beautiful
flowers were grown in a grape-border, an Isabella grape occupying
the wall above it; the hyacinths being replaced, when their time
of bloom had passed, by Japan lilies and other bulbous plants,
and later by pot-plants, which had passed the winter in the house.
In a very confined area not nearly as large as the one first shown,
75
889 
CITY AREAS.
Mr. Copeland has raised great quantities of flowers, and, as he says,
"plenty of grapes."
In plan on p. 884, I omit the planting of bulbs, as from what I
have said any one can combine for himself; also, I have made
the plan more simple by using the same numbers to designate
the same plant on the four plans.
There is no need for me to dwell any longer on this part of
my subject. I have given details in the earlier portions of this
book which will readily teach whoever wants to improve his
back-yard, how to do it; on the shady side we can only hope to
succeed, as on the south sides of the streets, by planting those
things which do not require sun.
Let us now go up on to the roof of the house, not for the view,
but to see the opportunity it affords for greenhouse, conservatory, or even garden-culture. I do not mean the roof of the six
or seven-story house, but of the projecting L, and the lower parts
of the house.
Many city houses have a long, low shed, and often a two-story
elevation over the whole or a part of the back yard and kitchen,
which may be used for garden or green-house; in the latter case,
heat might be supplied from the kitchen-range, or the furnace.
In as small space as twenty by fifteen feet, we could have a collection of plants, a cold grapery, or a cold peach-house, that
would be perfectly satisfactory; or, if we do not want to be
troubled with glass, make the roof strong enough, and lay out a
garden there.
Suppose A, B to be the slanting roof of such projection; B, C the
front of the house to the
.:~ ~    ~  ~.~  yard.   Carry up the posts
A, D, and lay a strong floor
;11:,<r..~s!1No          Eover the area B, D   then
plank up the sides D, C, E,
[~~ \ //F, eighteen inches or two
feet deep; lay a bottom of
coarse materials and bro                         //:: \ ~-  ken bones for drainage, and
/ / /_____   __:_ -  -      fill with  compost.   Any
thing will grow here, and
890 
CITY AREAS.
you can make the house-top as perfect a flower or vegetable garden, so far as its size permits, as if it were on the ground. I
know there are objections: first, the weight on the walls of the
house, - strengthen them; weight and trouble of snow in winter, - shovel it off; trouble in getting up the materials and watering, - generally it would be watered by the rain, and the
materials once carried up would be there forever.
Many of the far-famed hanging-gardens of Babylon were,
doubtless, made in this way; and it requires but a feeble effort
of the imagination to see the beautiful addition such gardens
would be to city houses.
I do not give minute details for this arrangement, because the
simplicity of the garden is obvious; and when any one wishes to
have a greenhouse, or other planthouse, he would naturally get
advice at the time, as the peculiar shape of each roof, and its
exposure, would require special arrangement.
891 
CHAPTER X.
HOW TO PLANT TREES.
I HAVE spoken of the overcrowding of city areas, and in the
earlier part of the book (see pp. 760, 763), of the evils of overcrowding plantations in the country, but I think, before leaving
the subject, a little more might be said; for there is really no
more serious mistake made in ornamental planting.
Whether one plants for himself or employs a landscape-gardener, he wants to get as immediate an effect as possible. Life
is short, and very uncertain for all; and when a man has reached
the age of forty to forty-five years, and but few Americans are
ready to make a country home at an earlier age, his chances of life
are less than those of younger men. But take heart! seven years
will make a plantation where the trees will be from fifteen to
twenty feet high: good trees, well planted, grow very rapidly;
and, if the trees have been well combined with shrubs, in seven
years we may convert an open field into a thicket.
Few men believe, when they plant trees, that they shall be unwilling to cut them down at a suitable time; but when the tree
we have loved and protected gets lusty and well developed, it
seems almost a sacrilege to cut it down. Nor can many men
realize how much beauty and protection may be got from wellgrown and well-selected shrubs; they have always associated the
idea of trees and country together, and they do not understand a
plantation which does not give shade.
Shade is very desirable in hot, summer days, and we should be
carelfl to provide it somewhere near the house; but a little will
answer for comfort, and, having secured that, we should arrange
the remainder of our plantation with a strict regard to the beauty
we can produce.
892 
HOW TO PLANT TREES.
Many persons, who have made plantations within the last ten
years, and who thoroughly love and understand trees, and who
thought their trees were far enough apart, are already compelled to
cut them down, or cut off the leading shoots to delay their growth,
and devise all kinds of plans to prevent the trees they do not remove from injuring each other.
This difficulty could be avoided in small places, by planting
only the low-growing trees and tree-like shrubs, such as
EVERGREEN SHRUBS.
RHODODENDRON, - varieties.
KALMIA, - latifolia.
ILEX,-  laurifolia, scottica.
MAHONIA, -  aquilegifolia.
ARBOR VITE,    varieties.
JUNIPER, -varieties.
Box,- varieties.
PRIVET,- varieties.
ANDROMEDA,  - floribunda.
COTONEASTER,-  buxifolia, microphylla, margniata.
VARIEGATED EVERGREENS.
BOX.
PRIVET.
TAXUS, - argentea, aurea, and variegata.
THUJA,- variegata.
EUONYMUS, -japonica, half hardy (could be covered with straw).
VARIEGATED DECIDUOUS SHRUBS.
WIEGELIA,- rosea nana, dwarf, two to three feet high.
LONICERA, -brachypoda reticulata, climber, six to ten feet.
PHIIILADELPHUS,- variegatus, six feet.
SYMPHORIA, - racemosa, four feet.
DEUTZIA, - gracilis, six inches to two feet.
SAMBUCUS, - aurea (golden elder), eight feet; argentea (silver),
three feet.
893
E —
I 
HOW  TO PLANT TREES.
DECIDUOUS SHRUBS, - see lists on pp. 766, 767.
Then we might use for the low-growing evergreen trees,
PINUS, - cembra.
ARBOR VITa, - varieties (some new and fine).
CRYPTOMERIA,- generally tender.
ARAUCARIA, - in shade.
ABIES,- alba nana.
BIOTA,- pendula (weeping Arbor Vitre), nepaulensis, tartarica, and
Siberian.
CEPHALOTAXUS, - drupacea, also Irish yew.
JUNIPERUS,- suecica, communis, hibernica, squamata (scaly leaved),
very fine.
TORREYA,- taxifolia (rather large).
With these shrubs and low-growing trees, we should not need
the larger trees, either evergreen or deciduous. I do not wish
to be understood to discourage all tree-planting in small places,
because there is a pleasure in trees which shrubs cannot give.
Nor do I think that trees are satisfactory only when grown singly, and as specimen trees.  I admire them as much  in the
grove, and well combined in groups, as single. Indeed, I think 
it is only by grouping, so as to get their mutual effects, that we
can ever understand the full beauty and capacity of trees and
shrubs.
There are many persons who only appreciate a tree when it is
grown like a specimen-plant in the conservatory, perfectly developed and balanced.   In order to produce such trees, much
more room must be allowed to each, and we must indulge ourselves with less in quantity or fewer varieties. I like variety as
well as perfection, and should prefer to crowd a little, if I must
choose between perfect trees and shrubs and few varieties, and
groups with less perfect specimens.
The important point when we commence is, whether we shall
plant for ourselves or posterity. If for the latter, arrange your
plan so as to leave ample room between the trees as they are to
ultimately stand, and fill in with such trees and shrubs as you
will be willing to cut out when their duty as nurses is at an end.
75*
894 
HOW TO PLANT TREES.
If we plant for ourselves, decide whether we want specimen trees
and shrubs, or close groups and immediate effects. If the
former, we must wait patiently for the effect, which will come
with time, and compel ourselves to cut down whatever grows too
fast, and destroys the harmony of the plan we have laid out.
Latterly, great interest has been felt in growing in the greenhouse and in the open grounds plants with variegated leaves.
It is a foreign taste, especially developed in Japan: the Japanese
have several hundred varieties. The variegation is an unhealthy
absence of the coloring matter of the leaf, and is curious rather
than pretty; very often such leaves cannot stand the intensity of
our summer sun; but when they will bear our climate, they are
interesting as varieties; and some of them should be planted in
all ornamental grounds.
The following list of variegated trees (of both kinds), as well
as the list of variegated evergreen and deciduous shrubs, last
given, was  made  by Mfr. Francis  Parkman, a most  successful horticulturist, of Jamaica Plain, near Boston, who has
found those he names hardy in his grounds, and they will doubtless prove hardy throughout our Northern States. The spotty
foliage of these plants, valuable only as curiosities, will not permit them to be used in masses; they should always be grown
with plenty of room, as specimen plants.
VARIEGATED DECIDUOUS TREES.
HORSE-CHESTNUT, - sixty feet high.
OAK,- forty feet high.
WILLOW, - ten feet high.
ACER NEGUNDO,- twenty feet high.
GINGO,- (Salisburia) twenty to thirty feet, rare.
ASH.
VARIEGATED EVERGREEN TREES.
CUPRESSUS, - lawsoniana.
THUJA, -. occidentalis.
THUJA, - dolobrata.
CHfIAMACYPARIS.
RETINOSPERA, - aurea, argentea.
895 
HOW  TO PLANT TREES.
The growing interest in horticulture will insure that all new
varieties will be tried, where one's grounds are extensive, and
there is room for experiments; but for our thousand country
homes they are of little value.
The commoner varieties of trees and shrubs are more accessible
and cheaper, and are the best for general culture; no newly discovered trees have yet trenched on the merits of the white pine
and hemlock, the oaks, maples, elms, and hickories of America;
and whoever plants the known and loved trees and shrubs of our
native land, giving them good soil to grow in, and good care in
their infancy, need not envy his neighbors their foreign or variegated trees. He can produce effects with them which will make
his home very beautiful, and capable of enduring the most careful criticism.
The secret of successful landscape-gardening lies in thoroughly
understanding the various shrubs and trees which we can plant
in any given place, and the effect they will produce alone and
combined in groups. No matter how skilful one may be as an
architect, how careful and successful as an engineer, unless he
thoroughly knows and loves natural beauty, and understands how
to produce it, he cannot hope to arrange a country place successfully. Too many persons suppose that how and where roads and
paths are directed, flower-beds marked out, and kitchen-gardens
planted, are the essential parts of laying out a place: these are
essential as the canvas, the frame over which it is stretched, the
palette, the brush, are the essentials of landscape-painting; the
success of the landscape painted depends on the knowledge and
use of color in the painter, combined with skill in drawing.
Inness, with a few rapid dashes of his brush, owing to his wonderful knowledge of color and memory of effects he has seen in
nature, combined with a peculiar instinctive knowledge of the
results of certain combinations of form and color, will make a pieture of great beauty and lasting value in a few hours; other men
may use his brushes, his palette, canvas, and colors, and be withal
splendid draughtsmen, and yet work hours and days, and fail not
only to produce a decent result, but even be utterly unable to
copy successfully Inness's picture, which they have taken as a
896 
HOW  TO PLANT TREES.
study. On pp. 581 to 587 of this book, I have briefly sketched
the elements which should enter into the composition of one who
would make landscape-gardening his profession; and the experience of many years convinces me that I did not set the standard
too high.
Landscape-gardening in America will never attain the position
it deserves; for most of the work a landscape-gardener may do
will be ruined by the neglect or caprice of the owner, the accidents
of time, or the necessities of a growing population, which in a
few years compel the destruction of places laid out with cost
and skill. Where there are so many accidents, and when as a
necessity much time must elapse before under the most favorable
circumstances the perfected design can be realized, it is obvious
that men of other professions, who lay out grounds to put money
in their purses when their own business will not support them,
and who are in no wise inspired with the enthusiasm of the art,
may get good reputations; for they will probably make few mistakes in the skeleton of paths, roads, and gardens which are permanent, and the world will be but slowly educated up to the appreciation of true success in ornamental planting, which is the
real test of the landscape-,gardener.
Men will be employed to lay out grounds, not so much because
they are thoroughly acquainted with the subject as because they
are at hand, or cheap. Occasionally there will be a man who
knows what a truly beautiful country place, park, or public garden is, and who will give the real artist a chance to produce the
best result nature will permit; and for such rare opportunities
the landscape-gardener must wait, content in the mean while to
do whatever he can to improve the public taste.
897 
GRAPG-CULTURE.
The following letter from Mr. R. A. Grider was received too
late to be noticed in the "Essay on Grape-culture," and as it seems
to give valuable directions and advice for these parts of the country where the thrip is an annoyance, I have subjoined it, copying
it in full.
BETHLEIHEM, PA., Feb. 25, 1866.
To ROBERT MORRIS COPELAND, Winchester, Mass.
DEAR SIR,- Fruit-growers suffer much from bugs, worms, and other
insects, but experience teaches that the larger-sized bugs, although destructive, are not as much to be dreaded as the small sized, which almost
always appear in great nnmbers, while the former are comparatively
few; the larger can be readily found and destroyed, but the smaller are
not easily found, and are harder to extirpate. I need not give you a
long description of losses caused by the thrip or grape-vine hopper, an
insect of minute size, which is found on the young shoots of the vine,
early in spring, when they first begin to sprout. They deposit their
eggs on the young leaves and shoots.   When  first born, they can
scarcely be seen without a magnifying glass, but soon legs appear and
the perfect insect comes forth.
Whenever an egg hatches, it leaves a wound caused by the eating of
the insect; the wound turns rose color, then purple, brown, and finally
black. As the vine expands in growth, so does the wound in like proportion, and, although one wound does but little damage, many wounds
cause great damage, as they not only destroy the growing, crop, but
sometimes every young shoot over acres in extent; and, of course, destroy the wood for the coming season, leaving the vines covered at first
with festering sores, and then looking as if fire had passed, and left all
black and desolate. Such is the experience we have had of that insignificant little hopper, known by different names.
We made many experiments ere we learned how to destroy the eggs,
but now find it perfectly easy to do so.  To destroy the eggs, powder
them with air-slacked lime, which can be readily done in early summer before the foliage has expanded.   This should be frequently done
early in the morning, while the dew is on.   After the leaves expand to
about one-half their size, provide free-burning torches, and, when the
weather is warm and the evening dark, let two persons, -one to agiate the vine, and one to carry the torch,-  visit the vineyard; one
shakes the vine, the other passes the torch under and about it, the insects start as soon as disturbed, and fly into the fire. Care must be
taken not to heat the foliage, but it should be passed to and fro; if this
898 
GRAPE-CULTURE.
is done a few times, the thrip will be destroyed. They gain great headway only in the early part of the season; later in the season their enemies thin them out.
Many excellent practical fruit-growers believe that the black spots on
the vine are caused by the sun's rays acting on drops of water after a
shower, and, being condensed by the drops, burn the surface on which
they rest.
Charlton, in his work on grape-culture, examined the subject, and accounts for the spots by the drops of water, which form a lens and burn
the shoots; but as the wounds are found on the lower part of the shoot,
this theory does not answer; as the rays of the sun cannot be concentrated there, the sun is not the cause.
I have stated these facts at meetings of fruit-growers, and have asked
them to test the matter and correct me, if wrong, and have been so far
confirmed.
I am, yours respectfully,
R. A. GRIDER.
899  
INDEX.
Acacias, their characteristics, 716.  Where to  Apples, varieties of, 39, 142.  Harvesting. 39,
plant, 717.                                      140, 141.  How to prune, 205, 206.  Barrels
Accounts, farm, ought to be kept, 568.             of, to be kept closed, 268. Trees, how grafted
Achimenes, the, 95, 227, 298, 723.                 when  without  wax,  561. Windfalls  deAcorns, when to plant, 146.                        stroyed by pigs, 565.  Generally keep best
Adlumia Cirrhosa, 467.                             when come from uncultivated trees, 736.
Aeration, 96, 97.                                  Which ripen in August, 737.
Ageratum, description of, 663.                   Apricots, under glass, 304, 305, 306, 307, 626.
Agriculture, the processes of, an endless chain,   Ripening of, 309.  On espaliers, 36.
527. Processes of, time to commence varies  Aquarium, 249-255. How to make, 253. How
with latitude, 1, 2  Treatises on, when of a    to manage, 252-255.
general character difficult to prepare, 2.        Arbor Vitees, where to use, 718.
Air, currents of, beneficial, 99,100. Full of Arboretum, how to plant, 759, 760.
elements of vegetable life, 99. Currents of,  Arbors, rustic, when to be introduced, 795.
remove insects, and add to the efficiency of Arbors, in gardens. when to use, 802.
the syringe, 99.                              Artichokes, 406, 407, 551, 734.   Chard, 33,
Alderney cattle, the, 390, 391.                    132.  Jerusalem, 407, 408.
Alexanders, 134.                                 Artificial water, treatment of, 222.
Alisanders, 551.                                 Ash, its character, 92. Mountain, its characAlkalis, some one predominates in each soil,   teristics, 714.  How to plant, 714.
526.                                          Ashes,  of wood, valuable as manure, 522.
Amaranths, globe, 8.                               Salts contained in them essential to vegetaAmaryllis, the, 181, 466.                          tion, 524.
Ammonia, 524.  Sources of, 500.  Amount  Asparagus, autumnal treatment of, 38. Seeds
constant in the soil, 500.  Amount of, sup-    of, 199.  Bed, where  to place, 198.  Bed,
plied to an acre by the air, 503.  Amount    how to make, 199.  For forcing, 188.  How
of, which re-evaporates, 504.  Much of, in    to treat in September, 38.  How to force,
rain-water runs intothedrains, 504. Chem-    352, 353, 403.  How  to treat in May, 550.
ical constitution of, 497.  Is the source of    Do  not cut for too long a time, 624.  For
nitrogen in plants, 497.  Carbonate of, how    seed, 784.
affected by Plaster of Paris, charcoal, etc.,  Association an aid in agricultural improve  492.  Its action, 514, 525.                     ments, 377.
Ammoniacal gas, favorable to vegetation, 355,  Atmosphere, cooling  of,  176.  Laws which
356.                                             govern the, 177.
Anagallis, 663.                                  Auriculas, 28, 457, 654.  HIow to cultivate,
Analysis of Soils, 495, 496, 497; of Beans,    464.  When in blossom, treatment of, 580.
498; of Clover. 498; of Oats, 498; of Rye,    When  out of blossom, treatment of, 531.
498,  of Potatoes, 498; of Turnips, 498; of    Repotting of, 658.  Treatment of when re  Wheat, 498; of Crops, by Boussingault and    potted, 658.  Soil for, 659.
Way, 499.  Any one, which neglects an im-  Avenue, how to make, 81, 83, 759.
portant element, worthless, 501; of human  Ayreshire cattle, the. 390, 391.
urine, 504, 505; of cows' urine, 505; of  Azalias, 14, 165, 228, 293, 396.  How to cultl  soils, is of but little practical value, 507; of' vate, 229, 230. To be cut back in May, 529,
sheep, cow, and horse manure, 512, 513,    530.
514; of barnyard manure, 515; of peat, 515,  Banks, how to make, 86, 87.
516; of wood-ashes, 522.                      Bark, uses of, 419, 420.  Outer, a protection
Anemone, 180, 402. 654.  How to cultivate,    from cold, 420; of plants, varies with the
465. Treatment of, when out of blossom, 532.    species and locality, 421. Washes, no beneAnimals. bones and blood of, are dependent    fit to, 421.  Lichens and moss a benefit to,
on plants for their mineral constituents,    422, 423.
494.  Care of in cold weather. 213.           Barley, kinds of, 483.  Time for sowing, 483,
Annuals, seeds of often sown broadcast with    486.  Amount of seed to the acre, 486.
guano, 462, 468.   Which  grow  well in  Barns, for the farm, their location. 388. Our
masses. 463.  Seeds of, when to sow, 537.    description of, 148, 149, 455.
Depth at which to sow seeds of, 537. How  Beans, 33.  Lima and  Sieva, treatment of
to sow seeds of, 538.  Arrangement of, in    554.  Lima, how  to ripen their fruit, 387,
flower-garden, 538.  Lists of, 544, 545, 546,    735  Seed, 37. Time to sow, 491. Distance
547.                                            apart of rows, 491.  Seed to the acre, 491.
Antirrhinum, description of, 664.  How to    Value as fodder. 491.  Should be cracked
propagate, 665.                                 before fed out, 491.
W —= 
INDEX.
Beautiful, effect of the, on the mind. 273. 274,
275. The, its best exhibitions unexpected
and fleeting, 542.  The, definition and de   scription of, 779, 780, 781, 782. The, may
be created in sublime scenery, but not the
reverse, 781.
Beauty, its universality, 161-163, 171, 172,335   346. Its cultivation profitable' 264, 265.
Bedding plants, 25, 26, 28, 591.  Roots of, to
be well spread out before planting, 591.
Watering of, important, 591. To be care  fully trained, 654.
Beeches,  their characteristics,  712.   Best
adapted to rocky ledges and hill-sides, 713.
Beef, when to cure, 267.
Beets. when to plant, 552.  Time to sow, 642.
Sugar, their value and culture, why hither  to neglected, 752.
Birches, their characteristics, 713.
Birds, the amount of insects consumed by. in
the course of the year, 473.  Crows, 473.
Blackberries, 133.  HIow to increase the quan  tity of fruit, 685.
Blossoms of plants preserved by being shaded
from the sun, 532.
Boiler, our, 123.  How to calculate size of,
122. Surface for, how to calculate, 122.
Book farming, not to be condemned, 379, 799.
Bones, as manure, profit of, 447.
Borecole, 413.
Borers, how to destroy, 300.
BOUSSINOAULT, advocate for the use of ammo  nia, 498.
Box, edgings, time to clip, 725.
Bridges, rustic, when to be introduced, 795,
796.
Broccoli, 33, 188, 375, 413, 550.
Brooks, secondary water; 782.  The most diffi  cult kind of artificial water to treat, 796.
The same principles apply to, as to other
artificial water, 796. Beware of the serpen  tine, 799.  Our, 799.
Buckthorn, for hedge, 145, 768.
Buds, blossom, and leaf, how to distinguish,
306.
Budding,  728.   Time  to commence,  686.
Similar to grafting, 728. Time for, depends
upo    n  the condition of the bud  and of the
stock  728.   Usual  tim e  for,       728.  All buds
not fit for use,  7 28, 729.   Treatment
of the bud for insertion, 729.  Rapidity
essential to the success of the operation,
730.  Knife for,  description of, 730. Deb  scription of  th      e        process of, 730, 731.   How
to ascertain whether the bud has taken,
732. Buds inserted in the summer, 732.
An easy means of increasing the number
and variety of our cultivated plants, 732.
Can only be successful when similar species
are budded upon each other. 732.
Bugs, injurious to vines, 624.
Bulbs. 106, 531, 588. How to cultivate, 107.
Varieties of, 107. Compost for, 107. How
to pot, 107. Indication of growing season,
107. Pots for, 107. Treatment of, 9, 164,
347. When to plant beds, 25, 26, 725.
Depth at which to plant, 26. Succession of
bloom, 26. Proper distance apart to set
different varieties. 26. From seeds, how to
propagate, 225, 226. Litter ot beds to be
removed in April, 461. Fall flowering of,
591.  Care of, in November, 180.  Winter
culture of, 181.
Butter. how to make, 633.  How  to preserve
a long time, 634.  Best of salt for, very im  portant, 634.  Mrs. Winchester's method of
making, 633, 634.
Buttonwoods,   their   characteristics,  715.
Where to plant, 715.
Cactus, 224.
Cabbages, 32, 37,186.403,475,550, 734.  Hlow
to preserve, 187.  Early, treatment of, 686.
Fal l, treatme nt  of, 132. Improved by trans  p lanting, 624, 25.6
Calceolarias, not good bedding plants, 662,
663.
Cal las, 8, 1       65,
Calves, 631.
Camelias, 8, 13, 14, 96, 16 5, 395, 397, 532, 587.
H ow to cultivate,      171, 228,. 229, 293.
Candytuft, how to be used, 662.
Cankerworms, 142, 564, 416. Traps  for, 416,
417.
.Capital, want of, the  cause of  our infer ior
culture, 438.
Caraways, for seed,       552.
Ca rbonic acid, amount  of  supplie d to the  land
by the   ai r, 500.
Carbonaceous  matter, in excess,  injurious,
510.
Carbon, in manure, of  but little value,  518.
Cardoons6,33, 186, 187, 375, 403, 408, 409, 551,
623.
Carna tions, 8h, 6, 2, 1 65, 227,  8, 181, 288,
531. Varieties of,   655.   Kinds of,  655.
Time to propagate, 655. How to propagate.
655. Soil for,  655. Ho   w  to  force,  656.
How to insure perfect  flowers, 656.  Wire  w orms, des tructive to,  656. Preparatio n
of the flower for exhibition, 656. A per  fect o ne, 657. Layers of,    treatment of, 657.
Carrots,  time to so w, 6 42. Soil for,   643.
Cat briars, for hedge, 768.
Caterpillars. to be destroyed in the spring,
471. How to destroy, 471, 564. Birds their
greatest enemy, 472.
Cattle, breeds of, 390. Time requisite to pro  duce a new breed. 389. Differences between
large and small, 390 Circumstances which
render fattening profitable, 429, 430. Neat
not profitable to the feeder through their
earlier years, 431. How to fatten profitably,
431. Indications in an animal easy to fat  ten, 431. How fattened at Sedlington,
450.
Cauliflowers, 132, 375. 403.  How to preserve,
187, 188. Glasses for, 414. Perfect flowers,
indications of. 414, 550, 686.
Cedar, red, its characteristics, 719. Its beauty,
719. Its winter beauty, 720. Where to
plant, 719, 720.
Celery, how to house, 33, 408, 684, 186, 187.
When to plant, 553. How to cultivate,
625.
Cesspools. 67, How  to arrange, 745. All
waste water of the family to be conducted
into, 745. Materials to be mixed with waste
water, 746.
Cheese, how to make, 635. How to treat, 636.
Coloring of, 636. Room for, where located,
902
p
evil 
INDEX.
Treatise),  631.  Calves unpromising, 631.
How to raise calves economically, 631, 632.
Heard's method. 632.
Cranberries, how to cultivate, 740.
Cream, to make butter, should  not be very
sour,  633. Te mperature of, for c hurning,
633.   essels for keep     ing in, 634.
Cresses, 133, 411.
Crocus, autumnal,  466.  (Se e  Bu lbs.)
Crocks, 11.
Crops, which of them to be marketed, 153.
The  value of, for cultivation, to be  deter  mined by the  net profit, 436  The    profit s
of, greatly increased  by drainage, 438.
Ratio of profit th me  same  i Ameri ca as Eng  land, 443. Mineral elements of, exist  i     n.
all soils,  523.  Those obtained, by careful
culture,  without  m anuring, 526.
Crows. (See Birds.)
Cucumbers,  623. In May,   550,  554.  Beds
for, 352.
Cultivation. relative to latitude, 2.
Cuphea, description of, 663.
Curd, how to treat, 6 35.
Currants, fall treatment of, 133. Where to
plant,  198.  How to impro ve the    berries,
684 Time to prune and propagate, 688.
How to propagat e, 688. Never plant suck  ers of, 688.  Much benefit  ed b y thorough
pruning, 688.  N     ew varieties 6f, 689.  O4e
of the  most profitable of fruits, 689. Bushes
should be reset often, 689.
Cutting s, 588. List of  pla nts so propagated,
288, 289, 290, 291, 292. How to transport,
289, 292. How to learn whether they have
str uck,  285. Time  to make,  395, 728. For
fa ll stock  of plants, time to make, 653. Of
Chinese hollyhock and double scarlet lych  nis, 725.  Pot an d repot, 725.
Cut branches, ce ment for, 209.
Cyclamen. 8, 165, 227.
Cyprus, 716.
Dahlias, summer treatment of, 659. Cultiva   tion of, 25. 131, 456, 466.
Daisies, 95, 186. 227, 457, 532.
Dams, bulk, 785. Elevation, 784. Character,
790   Material, 785, 790, 791, 792. Arti   ficial, 794, 795.
Dandelions, 410.
Daphne, 13, 228, 231.
Day-lily, 467.
Devon cattle, 390, 392.
Dew, origin of, 175,176,177.
Dibbles, 34.
Dielytra, 293, 466.
Dill, 134.
Disagreeable objects, how to conceal, 328.
Drainage, important in the cultivation of
plants,  10   Universally applicable, 57.
Profit from. 447. Doubles the value of
land, 439.  Relative value, 437.
Draining, 47-55. 436. Reasons for. 48, 49.
Instruments for, 62. Effects of, 440.
Drains, catch, 54, 55, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63, 67, 75,
78, 79. Depth of, 54, 63. On side hills, 60.
Point of discharge, 758. Cost of. 64, 66.
Time  to make, 80. Tiles for, 66. V, 62.
Discharge of water into, calculations by
Parks and Shedd, 54, 55, 66, 67. Peat, 67.
Open, 68. Importance of outlet!  57, 58,
636. Profitable, if well made, 636. Many
methods for making, 636.
Cherries. 203. Pruning of, 209. Under glass,
304, 305, 306, 307. 308, 309.  How to pro  tect from birds, 626.
Chestnuts, when to plant, 146  Their charac  teristics, 713Chickens, in the shell, never try to release,
637.  Treatment of. when young, 637 638.
Early and late broods most profitable, 640.
Chicory, for forcing, 33, 188.  Its value, 747
Its culture, 747.
Chrysanthemums, 8, 28, 95, 96, 227, 529,
531.
Churn, kind of, 633.
Cinerarias, 8, 95, 165, 293   Description of,
663.
Climate, differences of, 2.
Clays, how benefited by drainage, 55.
Clover, how to make, 44.  Seed for, 44, 45.
White, produced by wood-ashes, 470.  Red.
produced by a top-dressing of sulphate of
lime, 470.  Seed to be sown in April, 482
Amount of seed to be sown, 482.
Cockspur, thorn, 768.
Cold, to be especially provided against in glass
houses in April, 457, 458. Grapery, 178
Work in, 23 Pits, 227.
Color, how to produce effects of, in the flower
garden, 539. 543, 544, 665. Nice gradations
of, not possible in the flower-garden, 543,
544. A love of, to be cultivated, 540.
Compost  10, 182   Materials for, 515, 523,
735, 740. Seventy per cent of water, 517.
Conservatory, what constitutes a. 18. Work
in, 111,112, 228 How to make beds in, 21,
112. Management of, 18, 19, 113, 114
Plan of, 18-20. Cost of, 21. Work in, in
January, 294.  Work in, in February, 351
Work in, in March, 395  Work in, in April,
456.  Work in, in May, 533.  Sashes to be
removed, 588-  Pits in, time to renew and
repair, 723. Work in, in August, 723.
Work in, in Sept., 18-20. In Oct., 112-114.
In Nov., 171.  In Dec. 228-255.
Conservative pit, how to make, 165, 166,168,
169, 235, 236. Plants in, how to treat, 166,
167, 170, 238. How to heat, 238, 239.  Cost
of. 240.  Fuel for, 240.  Treatment of. in
May. 531.  Time to plan and start, 587,
723Corn salad, 186.
Corn, for seed, 37   How to harvest, 150, 151,
152.  Different methods of harvesting, 151,
152.  Treatment of, in June, 641.
Corn, Indian, its culture, 488.  Amount of
seed to the acre, 488.  Manuring of, as a
means of laying down land to grass, 488.
Amount of seed to the acre, 488. Time for
sowing, 488, 489. Time to plant, 576.
Corn, sweet, for table, when to plant, 553
Corydalis, 467.
Country places, the important features in
their laying out, 647.
Courage, the want of, prevents New England
farmers from improving their farms, 446.
Covers, for greenhouses, 103.
Cows, 46. Treatment of, and food for, 153,
630, Manure of, 153. 154.   New-milch,
treatment of, 154. How to select (Guenon's
903 
INDEX.
438.  Angle to join, 59.  Blind, 62.  Dis  tance apart, 55, 56, 57.
Drive, or walk, how to make, 647. Principles
of laying out, 647.
Ducks, treatment of, 638.
Durham cattle, 390.
Duxbury, Mass., land in, how  to improve,
771.
Dwarf trees, how to make, 207, 208.
Earth, impoverished by removing leaves, 213.
A sponge, 10.
Edgings for beds, 201.
Editors, agricultural. their duty, 452.
Egg crop, value of, 429.
Eggplant, 556.
Elements of plants, soluble and insoluble,
499. 500.
Elm, form of, 91. American. beauty, 332.
English and others, 761. How to plant,
714.
Endive, 33, 134, 409, 686, 784.  For forcing,
188, 875.
English best farming. 381.
Erica, 108,109, 229, 587, 723
Espaliers, 123, 124, 133, 138  Hlow to make,
192, 197.  Fruit on, 36, 557.  Varieties of
fruit fit for, 36.
Espaliered trees, how to prune, 627  Treat  ment  in August,  723.  Mulching,  627,
628.
Estate, size of, 3.
Euphorbias, treatment, 14, 529, 587.
Evergreens, pruning, 43, 717, 718.  Trans  planting, 42, 43.  Shrubs, treatment in
winter, 181. 182.
Evaporation, cold caused by, in soil, 49, 50,
52.
Exotic bulbs, 531.
Experiments, what they are, 577.
Fallows, 433, 434.
Farm, 46, 47. Work in September, 44, 45; in
October, 147; in November, 211; in De  cember, 266; in January, 344-346, in Feb  ruary, 376, in March, 429; in April, 481;
in May, 566; in June, 630; in July, 690; in
August, 738.  How to select and arrange,
386
Farms, English, iike manufactories, 448. 
Farming, AmeriCan, 437;  English, 446-451.
Advantages of, 269   Profitable, 271, 272.
In New England, 382.  Value of crops, 429  English, applicable to America, 436. High,
profitable, 448. English, most profitable,
450.  Profit of, 448-451.
Farmer, what   constitutes  perfection  of,
378   Crops of each, important, 430  Re  investment of profits, 446. If poor, 444.
Our character,  445.  Inertness of,  451.
The best, 747.  His education, how affected
by surroundings, 335-346.
Frmers' clubs, 378.
Fattening cattle. 155, 429-433.
Feeding cattle, 266, 432.  Regularity impor  tant, 216.
Fencing, 384.
Feering poles, 570.
Ferme Ornee, 3, 4.
Figs, 139. 203, 262, 558.
Filberts, 133.
Fir balsam, 717.
Flax, value and culture of, 748, 749.
Flow meadows, 76
Flower-garden, in September, 25; in October.
126; in November, 180; in March, 402; in
April, 460; in May, 537; in June 591; in
July, 654, in August, 724   Plans for, 461.
Not too large. 463 Grass and shrubs in,
463.  How  to plant, 467, 468.  Pot plants
in, 468.  Its perfection short, 541   None
perfect in this country, 547.  Annuals re  moved from, 724.  Seedlings of perennials
and biennials, 724, 725. Reasons for hav  ing, "731. Urns and vases, 802. Fountains,
797, 798, 799. Our plan of, 726. 727
Flower-bed. in shrubbery, 127  How to stake
out, 28, 29, 30, 31. Perfect one, 464. Shape
of, 28, 29, 659-665.
Flowers, new varieties should  not supplant
old, 462   Should be often cut, 659.  How
to arrange in bouquets and dishes, 541.
Florists', 28. The  culati vatio n  of, conducive
to mental culture, 232-234
Food, influence o         n  ma nure, 445.
Fodder, g    reen, 567.
Forcing, house, 22, 115,  117.  178, 399, 400,
535   When to begin, 22, 23, 374.
Forest,  planting, growth. management, an d
profit, 771-775.
Founta i n  s, 799-802.
Fowls, fo r table,  47.  Fattenirg and feed ing,
213,  267.  Should lay in  their house, 636.
Setting, 637. Treatment of, in cold weather,
213
Frames, cold, 167, 457.
Fringe tree, 714.
Fruits, on espaliers, 193, 460, 686, Trees in
tubs, 260. Under glass, 295, 296.
Fruit trees, in grapery, 124. Trees, how to
dwarf, 298. Thinning of, 297, 686. Shoots,
303
Fruit, ripening of, under glass. 536. How to
protect from birds, 626   Trees,  time  to
bud, 730   Profits ofculture 427  Houses,
257 261.
Fumigation. 225, 226, 308
Fumitory, 467.
Fuchsia, 8, 14, 232, 293, 529, 723.
Furrows, 571. Slice, 574.
Garden, reserve. 547
Gardener, landscape, 580-582. Competent,
uncommon, 589.
Geese, 639, 640.
Geranium (see Pelargonium), varieties of,
654.
Germination, 706.
Gilia. 227. Tricolor, 661.
Gillyflower, 8, 180, 529.
Gladiolus, 181, 466.
Gloxinia, 227, 293, 587, 723.
Glass houses. (See "Cold.") Heating, 7.
Gooseberries, fall treatment, 133, 262.'Where
to plant, 198. How to improve, 122, 684,
687 Time and methods to prune and
propagate, 687, 688. Mildew, to avoid, 687.
Best varieties, foreign and domestic, 687.
Goslings, 639, 640.
Grain crops, August, 741. How to sow, 743
Drills, advantage of, 441. Winter and
spring, 483. Importance of weeding, 489.
Stacks, 700. Cutting and harvesting, 702
904 
INDEX.
Heating glass houses, 7, 352, 353.  Polomaise
system of, 355.
Heaths, 529. 530, 587.
Hedges, 767-770
Heliotropes, 8, 18, 529, 661.
Hens, keep close, 321. Setting, 637.
Herbs, treatment of, 133, 138.  Place for, 200,
201
Hereford cattle. 390.
Hemlock, roots, 700, 708.  Characteristics of,
718.
Hemp culture. 748-750.
Hyacinths, 548, 549.
Hi ckory,        character  of the,   91, 712.
Hill pastures for  s heep,  384, 385.
Hoeing, advantage        s  o f, 624.
Holes  for t r ees  and shrubs, 90.
Holl yhock,  292.  Chinese, 725.
Home  spirit,  386, 387
Honeysuckles, 144.
Hornbeam, 761.
Hor se-chestnut,  c ha ract er o f, 92. When  to
plant, 146.
Horseradish, 138, 406, 551. Winter   t reat  ment,  188.  How to cultivate, 200.
Horse, Morgan, 392.
Horticultural, processes   of, t ime  to      begin
varies with latitude, 1  2. Treatises.  (See
Agriculture. )
Hotbeds, 170, 262, 317, 403. Ho  w to  m ake,
348, 349 350, 362. Materials for, 350. IMeat
in, 351-353.  Heat e d by water,  355    Polo  maise system, 3 55. Best, 357. Range of, 361.
For strawberries, 362. Work in,  in March,
395;  in April, 462.
Hothouse, 17, 105.  List  of plantsfor,110.
H7ot-water pip e s, how to   calculate amount
neces sa ry,             2 121,122.
House, location of, on small place, 319, 320.
IIuDsos, Mr. John,  of Castle  Acre Farm,
448.
Humus, source of carbonic acid, 524.
Hyacinth, 27, 180, 548.
HHybridizing o  d,  8 how to do, 285, 286, 287, 291
292. By insects, 292.
Hydraulic rams, 799.
Hygrometer, 174, 176.
Inarch, how to, 396.
Insects, to destroy, 33. Not removed by
scraping, 118, 119, 415-424. Harmful, un   der glass, how to remove, 307, 308. Killed
by wood-ashes, etc., 470.
Iris, 465.
Irrigation, method and benefit of, 48, 68, 69,
77. 453,'702. In England, 70, 76, 77; in
Scotland, 70; in New England, 76; in Swit   zerland, 77. First method of, 74, 75. Sec   ond method of, 77. Rteasons for, 69-72.
Water of, when to apply, 482.
Ixias, 9, 95.
Japan lily, 227, 293, 347.
Jessamine, Cape, 13.
Judas tree, characteristics, where to plant,
714.,
June, charms of, 650-652.
Kitchen-garden, how to select, lay out, and
make, 189-202, 263, 264; fruits in, 33; work
in, during September, 32; in October, 132;
November, 186; December, 262;- January,
316; March, 402; April, 475; May, 550;
704. More exhaustive than roots to soil,
434.
Grape, value and culture of, 758.  Varieties,
40.  List for forcing house, 313.  In pots,
118, 119, 310   Borders, 124, 125, 205, 460.
For retarding house, varieties. 174. Garden
culture of, 204. Trough culture of, 311,
312.  How to grow from cuttings, with sin  gle eye, 292, 293.  How to keep, 179.  For
general planting, list of, 313.
Grapery, 22, 119, 120, 121, 173, 256, 295, 372,
459, 722.  Description of, 119-125.  Work
in, in September, 23. Work in, in October,
115-119.  Temperature in, 372, 374, 399,
459   Preparations for forcing, 374.  (old,
121, 459, 535, 536.  List of grapes for, 313.
Attractive, 587.
Grafting, wax, 209, 561.  Clay for, 559.  To
begin, 428 474.  Roses and Camellias. 562.
Herbaceous plants, time for, 563.  Cleft,
the vine, time for, 562.  Scion for, 563.
Cleft, 560. Crown. 562. Whip, 559. Sad  dle, 560.  Shoulder, 563.
Grass crop, value of, 429.  Seed, time and
quantity to sow, 484, 743.  Seed, weeds in,
705.  For seed, 705.  English, 742.  How
to lay down land to, with Indian corn, 489.
Experiments on, with  artificial manure,
578, 579.  Lawn, treatment of, in June,
645 Best time to cut for hay, 691. Mowed"
why it cures slowly, 692 How to sow, 743.
Turnips with, 744. Italian rye, 743. Treat  ment after sowing, 744.
Grasses, Flint's book on, 743.
Gravel and clay, retentive power of, 54, 55.
Green crops as manure, 99.
Greenhouse and conservatory, plants in, how
to group, 95.  How to protect against cold,
103, 104 In September, 6, 14; in October,
95, 224; in November, 164; in December,
224; in January, 280; in February, 347;
in March. 395; in April, 456; in May, 528;
in J qne, 587; in July, 653; in August, 722.
Temperature, etc., in. 108, 224, 304, 347,
457.  Plan. and description of, 6-15.  What
constitutes, 116.  List of plants for, 110,
111.
Grounds bordering on water, 776.
Groups of trees, natural and artificial, 90-94.
Variety in, 330, 331. Groups of trees and
shrubs, how to make. 92, 94, 710, 761.
Growth of plants controllable, 9
Guano, 12.  Advantages of, 484; in kitchen
g            arden, 479;  and disadvantag es  of, 493.
Harrow. brush, 744.
Harrowing, unscientific, 741
Hawthorn, time to plant Seeds of, 145.
Hay and fodder to be cut, 267; cured in cock,
44. Value as feed. compared with turnips,
443.  Importance of being well made, 694
Ventilation, 695. Salt, 694   Time of cut   ting, 736.  Danger of being too salt, 699.
Varieties of, 738. How preserved in Europe,
699.  Value  of, dependent  on  time  of
cutting, 738. Varieties of fresh and salt,
738. Covers for, 693; description of, 695,
696. Rakes, 693. Making, 690-705. Ma   chines for making, 697. Ropes, 698. Stacks,
697-700.
Haying, not hard work, 690.
68* 
INDEX.
Manure,  211, 415.  Effect of food on, 154.
Effect of, on crops, even in small quantities,
518, 519. Cow, a type of manures, 514.
Amount made in a year, 514.  Horse, the
most valuable in compost, 513.   Sheep,
very valuable, 513.  Escape  into subsoil
when applied at beginning of rotation, 521.
Contact of, harmful to roots of vines, 125.
RPound cold frames, disposition of in spring,
457.
Manures, value of ammonia  to, 524, 498, 501.
Ammoniated, etc., stimulating, 524.  Arti  ficiaf, 445 492, 521 522:  list of, 523; should
be applied each year  521; why costly, 522;
test of value, 493.  Barnyard, amount per
acre, 490; its value  and  constituents, 501,
511, 512.  Value of moisture in, 512. Gases
of, how to absorb, 492.  IIeating or fermen  tation of, in pile, the cause and cure, 492.
Treatment of,  in spr ing, 491, 492.  Appli  cation of, in summer, to grass land, 702.
Mineral extraction of, from rocks, by the
slow  process of atmospheric  action, 502
value relative  to amount  of salts in, 498.
Saline, highly fertilizing, 501; how  to im  prove, 511; liquid, 13; effect of, 521, 606;
value and varieties of, 745; in a family, 746.
(See " Liquid" manure.) Special cost of, 520,
521; value of, 577; time to apply, 577; for
rotation of five years, 519-523; value of,
relative to barnyard and animal manures
necessary, to same crop, 519-523.
Manuring, successful principle of, 493; theory
of, 746
Market gardening, 383.
Maples, characteristics of, 712.  Norway, 716.
Marling, practice of, in England, 447; in  stances of, 447.
Maurandy-ia, 663.
Meadows, reclaiming, 738. After cultivation,
738.  Ben-efited by gravel, 739.  Salt, re  claiming, 740.
Melons, 133, 403, 623; in May, 550, 553. Beds
(see'Cucumber"), 352. Varieties of, 36,554.
How to force, 352.  Ripeness of, how to as  certain, 37.
Mignonette, 8.
Mildew, consequence of imperfect drainage,
10. Ho, to prevent, 23.
Milk, of large cattle, 391.  Summer and win  ter  value  of,  567.  How long it should  s et,
634, 635. 6Roon, 633.
Millet, 645, 649, 705.
Mimulus, 663.
Mowing, 690 Machines for, 691, 692, 701.
Mulching, 627, 628.
Mushroom beds, 134-137: 624; spawn, 135,
137, 138.
Mustard, 133, 410, 411.
Nasturtiums, for pickles, 553, 663.
Nature, the study of, a great aid to mental
culture, 335-346.
Neat cattle, 385.
Nectarines, on espaliers, 36; in orchard, 40;
under glass, 304-309.
Nemophila, 95, 165, -27, 662.
Nettle tree, 761.
Nieremburgia, 95, 227, 662, 529.
Nitrogen, its importance to vegetation, 407,
525; in food, 501; in manures, 525.
June, 623; July, 684; August, 734. Treat  ment of, 132.
Labor, price of, no argument against root
crops, 443.
Land, all its fertile elements not directly avail  able, 502. Fertile, exhausted by cropping
without manure. 506. ttow to keep in good
heart, 506  Why benefited by small amounts
of manure, 507. Free fertile elements in:
small in quantity, 508.  Stubble and sod,
how to plough, 573.
Landscape gardener (see "Gardener ") must
have executive as well as aesthetic qualities,
581.  Education never complete. 583. His
mind like the painter's sketch book, 584.
Services, why costly, 584.  Ad vic          e from, and
economy of, 584, 585; should be followed
minutely, if                                        a  at all, 585. Works of, perfec  tion  not attained  for                         years, 585. Effect
sought                       relative, 582.
Landscape gardenin   g, an  art  by  itself, 581  583   Plans for, 646. Care ful preliminary
survey     s essential to,  646.  A      rchitectural,
inappropriate to this country, 583 As
showing  the    spirit of the improver, 804.
Lantana,  26,      95, 227, 529, 663.
Laperousias, 9.
Larch, Eu ropea n            and American,  their charac  teristics, etc., 716.
Laurestinus, 13.
Lawn, how to make 88, 89, 647-649.  Car         e of
in a      utum   n. 222 Importance                         of manure
to, 649. Ho w to make  permane   nt in a si        ci  gle year, 647-649.
Layering,  in autumn, 146. Me tho     d        of, 289,
291.  Season for, 291.
Layers, of      carn ation,     etc., time to make, 72 5.
Lea, or, grass, land,  suffers  from  cut-worn7s,
487.
Leaves, action o f, 97; for bedding,  211.
Lemon, 165.  Propagation of,          397.
Lean to, 15.
Lettuce, 32,  132,  186,  4  75, 734.   T      ran splant  in g, 6   24.
L evel for laying   o           ut drains, 80.
LIEBIG, on saline man ures,  499.
Lili       es, 181, 466.
Lima beans, 37.
Lime,                           essential to vegetation, 470; value of
to, 747. Sulphate of, to fix ammonia, 503.
Linings. should be protected from loss of heat,
353, 354.
Liquid, amber, characteristic, etc., 714. Ma  nure, 12, 13, 14, 521,  606,  745, 746.
Strength of, how to regulate, 12. Its effect
on roses, camelias, etc.
TLiquorice crop, value of and culture, 750.
Lobelia, 95, 227. Varieties of, 662.
! ocust, 716.
Lucerne, value and culture of, 751.
Lychnis, double, 292. Double scarlet (see
"Cutting"), 725,
Machine, mowing, importance of; how to use
it, 691, 692; wvheu inapplicable, 692; de  scription of, 701Madeira vine, 181.
Madder: value and culture of, 751.
Magnolia, characteristics of tie, etc., 714.
Mahonia, 181.
Mangrold wurzel, 148, 642, 643.
906 
INDEX.
Nursery, 145; in September, 41; American, 
610.  How to make a, 706.  By amateurs,
709. Men, 712.
Nut harvest, 144.  Time to plant, 145.
Oak, character of, 91.  Characteristics of the,
712.  Seedling, 771.
Oats, kind of, and time for sowing, 483, 486.
Seed to the acre, 486. Straw as fodder, 703.
Ocean Shore, 778.
Okra, 33, 555.
Oleander, 230, 231, 289.
Onions, 33, 132, 186.  For spring, 734.  For
seed, 133, 552, 557, 686.
Oranges, 165, 653.  Propagation of, 397; in
May, 530.
Orchard, October. 140; November, 203; De   cember, 266; March, 415; April, 470; May,
559; June, 628; August,  736.  How  to
plant, 425.   Effect of high cultivation of,
736. 
Orchids, list of, 105, 106. How and where to
cultivate, 105.
Ornamental grounds, September, 80-85; Oc   tober, 156; November, 222; December, 273;
March, 470; May, 580; June, 646-660; July,
706; August, 759.   Harmony with land   scape, 779.       Pl  an tations, 760. Trees, 585.
Oy ster plant, 188, 406, 555.
Oxalis, 8.
Pansies,  8, 293, 26. 28,  180, 457, 532.  Sum   mer treatment of, 659, 660.
Pa ste,                            ure, our, 567.
Parasites, 419, 420, 424.
Parsnips, winter treatment  of, 188. Time to
sow, 642; soil for, 643.
Parsley, 132, 551.
Passion flower, 16.
Paths, 84, 84,  t 19 2, 222, 26 3-265, 276.  Seem
crowded on plan, 798.
Peaches,  145, 198. 256.  Cause         of decay in
trees, 296, 297, 425.  Peachhouse, 257-261.
Espaliered, 36. In orchard, 40. Under
glass, 296-308.   In tubs, 304-306.   Soil
for peach-trees, 298.   Borders for, 299.
Profitable. 421. Pruning and cultivation
of under glass, 299-308.
Pears, 203, 627. Artificial impregnation of,
306. Root, pruning, of, 309. Espaliered,
36. Dwarf and standard, 198. In orchard,
39. How to harvest, 142. To prune, 205,
206, 686. List of, 143. Culture of, 426, 427.
Trees, distance apart in orchard, 427.
Which ripen in August, 785. List of, 39.
Best method of gathering and preserving,
39, 142.
Peas, 38, 138, 555. Time to sow, etc, 491,
624. 685, 734. For seed, 37.
Peat, 509, 510, 515, 516, 518.
Pelargoniums, 26, 95, 165, 280-287, 293, 529,
654, 660, 664, 723. Varieties of, 281. Soil
for, 281. Underpotting of, 282. Cuttings,
how to treat, 283-285.  Varieties, how to
produce, 285-287.
Peonies, 466.
Peppers, red, 555.
Perennials, list of, 127-1.30, 182-185, 537.
Damask, 606. Plants, 41. Hardihood of,
606. Soil for, 606. Arrangement of, 130,
185.
Perspiration of plants, 97.
Petosporum, 228.
Petunias, as bedding plants, 662.
Picturesque  the, definition and description
of, 780-782.
Pictures, a s seen on  canvas,   rare ly cr eate d on
ornamental grounds 582, 583.
Pickles,  37, 133. For seed, 485, 486, 577. For
crop,    t i       me t o plant, 624, 685.
Pigs,  fattening, 47, 55.  Green fo dder  for,
564, 565. Pigs, 393.
Picotees, 28, 654.
Pine, white,   charactristics,  710.  Red, char   acteristics, etc.,   717.  Yellow, 718. 
Pinks, 227, 288.  V      arieties of, 657.  Propaga-t
tion of, 657.  How   they show to advantage,
657.
Pips,  or pipings, 288.
Pirus, japonica as       hedge,  770.
Pit, 188.
Place, small, what constitutes, 710.
Plans for  year's work,  382.
Plantations,  of tree s, f or winte r as we ll as
summer, 709. Native trees in, 709. Should
vary with size of place,  710.
Pla nting,  o rnamental, pr inciple s o f, 9 1-94,
759-765.
Plants, arrangement of, 95. Perspiration of,
97. Fed by air,  98, 99, Treatmen t of, when
chilled, 104.  List of,  for greenhouse,  110;  f or conser vator y,  113. Pres erved by freez  ing, 170, 458.  How to group, 185. Atten -
tion when young, 588. Pro pagation of, laby
leaves, 288. List of, to  b e so treated, 288.
For layering, 291.   Stock, reporting a  nd
pruning, 13, 14, 587. Treatme nt of, when
newly potted,  8. Time to house, 9. Shape
of, should decide  the kin d of roof for, 16.
Benefited by guano,.when  injure d young
by bugs,    e tc., 47 9.'Bedding, 529.  Stock,
529, 530, 587.  Seeds for fall stock. et c., 658.
Plough, Michigan,   487, 488, 8, 573, 574. Sub  soil. 575.
Ploughing, proper method, 569, 570, 572, 573.
Plums, 40, 145. Under glass, 304-309, 627.
Poinsettias, 529.
Polyanthus, 28, 181, 531.
Ponds, 782-795. Secondary water, 782.  Be  fore making, dam to be considered, 784.'
Evaporation, 785. Not permanently full,
786, 787. Shores of, 787, 788. Islands in;
788. Ponds made by damming brooks, 788.
Stone wall about, 788. Outlet of, 792. How
to make, in level places, 797. Should be on
principle of aquarium, 797. Liability to
stagnate, 797.  Stocking with fish,  797.
Our, 797.
Pork, when to cure, 267.
Potatoes, hills to acre, 568.  Culture of, 491).
Time  to plant, 491.  How  to force, 4041.
Size of, to plant, 405. Treatment of, when
ripe, 37, 46.  Varieties of, 46, 405, 491.
Tops of, 150. Varieties of, for seed, 568.
Sweet. 556, 686.
Potash, essential to vegetation, 47'0.
Pot-herbs, 552, 623.
Pots for large plants, 398.
Potting, 11.
Poultry, preparation of, for market, 640
Primrose, Chinese, 8, 520, 531.
Pruning, 586. Of grapes, 115-117, 204.  Of
907
m - 
INDEX.
604. Bourbon, 606.  Perpetuals, improved,
604.  Budded, 604.  Pruned, 604.  Moss,
606. Scotch, 606. Musk, 607.  China and
Tea Monthly, 607.  Saffrano, 607.  McCart  ney, 607  Miniature, 608.  Noisette, 608.
How to group, 603. Soil, 606. Suckering,
to prevent, 605.  Dying, to prevent, prun  ing, 605.  Disbudding and pruning,  598,
599.  Knowledge of families important, 608.
Downing's lists of, 611, 612; Mcintosh's,
612-622.  Trade sales for, 610.  New vari  etie of, 670.  How to produce, 670.  Points
sought, 673   New varieties affected by pa  rent, 674. Pillar and climbing, 609, 680,
681.  Should be pinned to ground in order
to break buds well, 680. Weeping, how
made, 681, 682.  Autumnal, effect of sum  mer pruning on, 683. Old, how renovated,
682. Habit of, varies much, 680.
Rotation of crops, 98, 297, 434-453, 444.  Our,
481, 566.
Rowen, how to make, 44, 45.
Rust, etc., parasitical fungi, 479.
Ruta Bagas, 642, 643. Leaves of, as fodder,
149.
Rye, 47.  Time for sowing, 483.  Seed of, to
acre, 486. 566.
Rye grass, value and culture of, 752.
Straw, value of, 486.
Sage, Mexican, finest in towns, 661.
Sailcloth, 103.
Sainfoin, value and culture of, 751.
Salads, 375, 551.  Fall treatment of, 32, 133,
262.
Salisfy, 555. (See "Oyster" plant.)
Salt and lime mixture, 203.  Destructive to
weeds, 725.
Salts, amounts of, in fertile soil, 500.
Salvias, 8, 529.  Summer treatment of, 654,
661.
Sap ripened by delay, 310.
Sashes, revolving, 101, 102.
Scraping trees, 417-425.
Scorzonera, 555.
Sea-kale, 33, 134, 188, 375, 411, 551.   For
pots, 412.
Sea-shore, how to treat, 777-779.
Seed for lawn, 89.
Seeds, ripe, 37.  Autumnal planting of. 32.
144. How to improve, 476.  Deterioration
of, 477.  Germination of, 145.  Cultivation
of, 625.  How to make beds for, 708.  Sow  ers of, labor saving, etc., 440  Thinly sowed,
best, 441, 478.  Perfect, only.when kept
apart from similar species. 477.  List of, for
one acre, kitchen-garden, 478. Mixture of,
with weed seed, 478, 479  Importance of
freshness of, 479. Of parasites, 479. Drills
for sowing, 485.  Proper depth to sow, 485.
Germinate soonest when  sown as soon as
ripe, 724.
Seedlings. treatment of, 708.
Sedlington, the farm at, 450.
Selling plants, amateurs warned against, 240.
Shagbarks, how to harvest, 144.
Sheep, 393.  Growing, in Scotland and Swit  zerland, 384. Management of, 630. Merino,
393.  Fattening,  43. ate 63  Man ure   of, 450.
Shrubs, native and foreign, list of, 711, 712,
765-767.
pears, 2       05, 206   In summe,  195.  Season
for,  196.  A  means of chang             ing time    of
blossoming, 599, 600. Root, 11, 309.
Quassia, 594.
Quinces,     143.
Radishes, 33,133, 475, 550, 734.
Rain water, number         of inches remaining   in
soil,         63.  Qu ant ity     and    weight of, to the
acre, per annum, 52.
Railways  in fruithouses, 305.
Ranunculus. 28, 180, 402, 457, 465,  532, 654.
Ra spberries, 551 552,  685. Fall        treatment   of,
35, 133.'
1Rape, 751, 752.
ued spiders i        n       forcing-house, 535.
R.etarding-house, 23, 115, 121. 173, 375, 400,
459.  H    ow t o t rain v     ines in, 375
Rhododendr ons 47 9,181, 229, 231.
Rhubarb,  134, 551.
Ridgfe, an          d  furr ow,  sash. 16;  roof, 364-370.
Ro ads in fall, 1 53. Method  of making, 83, 84.
How  to lay out, 276. Variety important,
277-279.
Rocks, disintegra           ti      on, 502.
Roofs of hot-beds, 363, 364.  Ridge and fur  row     udi, curvilinear  and  flat,  1 6., 364-37  0.
Co nst          ruct io n, 36 5. Rain  water on, 366.
Resist ance to hail, 367.  Ventilation, 369.
Root crops, 37.  Thinning, 625, 642. Sowing,
642-644.   Distance  apart in  row,  644.
Manures for, 644. Earth not ridged for,
643.  Summer  culture of, 640, 641. T            reat  ment of,      in              September, 45. How  to har  ves          t, 147.  How to preserve, 188   Soil
enriched  by, 433.  Derive  nourishment
from air, 434. Profit of, 435. Followed by
grain, 487. Cellars for, 148. Time to plant,
577.  Cutting, 289. Culture of, in America,
452.  Cost of, per acr      e, 443.
Roots, depth of descent of, 56, 57. Pruning
of, 11, 309, 158. Of cankered stock plants,
530. Fatten stock, 453. Prejudice against,
why, 690.
Rose, the, natural home, 598. Beauty in
masses of, 598. Cuttings, time to make
for greenhouse, etc., 728. Time for, 725,
730; disbudding, a kind of pruning, 683,
599. Principles of, 683. Pruning, 598,605.
877;  According to Paul, 677; close, 679,
long, 678; annual, 682; summer, 683. To
what varieties applicable, 677.  Gardens,
plans for, 666, 667; from Jardin des Plantes,
666; English, 667-670. Plans by author,
670-672.   Seeds, how  to produce, 674.
Seedbed., 674, 675. Seedlings, 674, 675.
P~oses, 14, 16, 18, 95, 145, 529, 165, 227 Va rieties of, 595-604.   Treatment of, in win  ter, 181. 182. Soil for, 594. Insects harm  ful to, 592, 593. Diseases of, 594. Propa  gation of, 595.  Sweetbrier, 596.  Prairie,
596. Cherokee, 596. Cinnamon, 597. Moss,
599. Hybrid China. 599, 600. Monthly, 95.
June, 595. 597. Wild, 595, 597. Bourbon
Hybrid, 600. Perpetual, 600, 601. White,
600. Damask, 600. Scotch, 601. English
Sweetbrier, 601. Yellow, 601. Boursault,
etc., 602. Prairie, 602. Multiflora and
Banksia, 602.  Evergreen, 603.  Hybrid
Climbing, 603. Arvshire, 603. Damask,
606.  Half-hardy, 604. China and Bengal,
908 
INDEX.
Shutters, 103.
Silk, value and culture of, 752.
Skirret, 134, 555.
Snow drops, 465.
Soap, whale oil to make, 593.
Soda,                    e        ssential to vegetation, 470.
Soil, for plants, 9, 10. Action of                       atmosphere
on, 98. Weight of an ac              re of, one  foot i n
depth, 495. Element s o f the,        removed by
wheat, 497.  Fertile salts in, 500. Classifi  cation of, 508.  Texture of, 509. Mechani  cally improved.  how, 509.  Chemically,
how, 509.  Clai, 509.  S         andy, 509. Effect
of standing  water on,  48.  Tem        perature of,
49-51, 53.
S8olomon's                             seal, 466.
S        oot     as man ure, 588.
Span roof, 15. Advantages and desc          riptio n
of,          16.
Sparaxis, 95.
Spinac            h, 32, 33, 686, 734.
Spring, its effect on the mind, 533, 534.
Spruces, 718.
Spurs, 118, 399. D      is t    ance apart, 178.
Squashes,  38, 553, 554. Summer, 38, 686.
Squill, 467.
Stacks, hay   and grain, 697, 698. Roping and
thatching, 699.
Stall-feeding 430, 431.
Stephano,tus, 587.
S    teppi ng- stones, 796.
Stock, farming, 8383-390. Stall-feeding, 430,
431. Bre eds of, 388, 390.  Tenweek, 165. 
Straw, hardness of co at of, cause, 500. Rye,
486.                                                         
Strawberries, 262. Plant                             ing of, 34, 35, 551.
Varieties of, 385.  T o force,  139, 188, 375.
Old beds of,  how                            renovated,  684.  Mulch  ing beds with                    tan, 685. As field-crop, 735.
Stubble   and sod, how to plough, 573.
S    ublime, the definition of, 779-782.
S    ubsoil- 575, 576.
Succory, 410.
Surface, irregularities      of, obviated in  plant  ing, 765.
Sweet Alyssum, 8.
Syc amore, Eu     ropean, 715.
Tallies, 41.
Tank, system, 356.
Tap, roots, 706-708.
Tares, culture of,  756.
Tas   te, good, 581.
Teazles, 753, 754.
Temperature of soils, 50-54. Temperature,
176. Animal, 211, 212. In glass houses,
225, 238, 239.  In grapery, 256, 295.
Terraces, 86.
Thanksgiving, 219. 221.
Thimbleberries, fall treatment, 133. Propa  gation, 685.
Throw crooks, 698.
Tiger-flower, 465.
Tiles, 67.
Toads, value in flower-garden, 593, 594.
Tobacco, culture, etc., 754-756.
Tomatoes, 403, 555. Treatment of, when ripe,
37. Plants, 623. Protection against frost,
133.
Tools, list of, for kitchen-garden, 479. Care
of, in winter, 214, 215.
Transplanters, 34.
Transplanting, when to commence, 156.
TRESGOLD, formula for calculating hot-water
pipes, 121.
Tree peony, 227.
Trees, how to plant, 157-160.  IhIow to pre  pare  for, 90.   Varieties  of,  not  to be
planted in the fall, 160.  Removed from the
forest, 421.  Fruit of, benefited by alkalies,
470.  List of native and oreign, 711, 712.
Weeping, 715.  Evergreen and deciduous,
contrasted, 761.  Voices of,  720.  Groups
of, how  to make, 762.  How  to improve,
763.  Thinning, 763.  Protection against
cattle, 763.  In corner of, 764.  Interior of,
762, 764.  Trees and shrubs planted  to  gether, 765. For shores near salt water,
777-779.   Boxing roots of, in fruithouses,
124.  Area occupied by their roots, 707.
How to protect when newly planted, 224.
Trellises, for vin      e s, 123
Trenching, 88, 89.
Tubero       se, 8,181, 4 56,
Tuberous-rooted   pelargomums, 287, 288.
Tulips, 27, 180.  Protection  of the blossom of,
548. Out of blossom, 549.
Tulip-tree, 714.
Tupelo, 714.
Turkies, se ttin g, 638. Consume worms, 755.
Poults of, 638.
Turnips,  38, 551,188, 734.  Early, 38. Seed
sown with grass seed, 705. Thinning and
hoeing, 442. Diseased, 446.
Underpotting, 282.
Undercuttings, 284.
Urine, 505.
Vases and urns for flowers, 802.
Variety. an important element in the beauti  ful, 330-333.
Vegetables, fall planting of, 82. Forcing,
extra early, 317. April sowing of seed of,
475. Protection of, by fences, 315. Early
and successive crops of, 550.
Vegetation fed from the air, 97, 98. Produced
in sand, 99. Constituents of, gaseous and
saline, 494. Under glass, 536.
Ventilation, 96, 97. In greenhouses, 100,101.
Nocturnal, 102. Essential to fruit-culture
under glass, 257.
Verbenas, 8, 11, 14, 26, 95, 227, 293, 529.
Village-garden, 317-333.   List of vines in,
327, 328. Paths in, 323-326. Fruit-trees,
326.
Vines, in forcing-house, 115, 116. Treatment
in autumn, 116, 117. ttow to disbud, 173.
How to prune, 174, 178. On trellises, 182.
Young, not allow to bear, 23. Injured by
exposure to heat, 375 Thinning, 400, 401.
Rust, 401. Shanking, 401. Equal break  ing of buds, 115, 116. Age when planted,
116. Sulphur mixture for, 116. Methods
of training, 115, 118.  Treatment second
year, 117. In April, 459. Ornamental, 549,
650 Flowering, 592. When to plant, 600.
Violets, 165,180, 457. Neapolitan, 8, 95, 227.
Virgilia, 714.
Wages of laborers, 269.
Walks, 182.
Wall, flowers, 180, 529. Skirting the water,
always disagreeable, 777.
90,9 
INDEX.
Walnuts, 144.
Water, evaporation of, 66, 67.  Heat neces sary to convert into vapor, 52.  Table; the,
53, 55, 57.   Effect on the temperature of
soils, 50-54. Supply of, to stock, 217, 219.
Removal of condensed, 372. Artificial and
ornamental, 775-779. Inherent beauty of,
775   A primary or secondary feature in
landscape,  776.   Skirted  by  wall,  777.
Boundary, how to change well, 777, 778.
Water in flower-gardens, 783. Works, 783,
784.  Falls, 789 791.  Artificial, should fol low nature, 789.  Natural, modified by
rocks, 790   Regular, preponderate among
perpendicular ledges, 790.  Broken, 790.
How disguised, 788   At Beaver Brook, 789,
793.   When to ornament artificial, archi tecturally,  795.   Horizontality  of, 796.
Use of small quantity of, on estate, 797, 801.
Watermelons, 553.
Weeds, 441, 449, 557, 626. Never hoe in
cloudy weather, 691.
Weeping trees, 715.
Wheat, kinds of, and time to sow, 483, 484.
How improved,  476, 477.  Grains of, to
bushel, 476, 477.  Soil for, 484, 487. Thin
seeding, 742. Depth of seeding, 742.
Willow, 714, 715, 756, 757.
Window-gardens,  how to make,  242, 243.
Plants for, 243.  Temperature of, 243.  Fu migition of, 244.  Cost      of, 245.
Wire fences, 193. Instrument for tightening,
194.
Wood, as crop, 771-774.
Woods, about house, 774.
Woodland, how planted, on plan, 774.
Year, beginning of the, 5.
INDEX TO TREES IN VILLAGE-GARDEN.
See plan of Village-Garden, p. 316.
1. White Ash.
2. Red Ash.
3. Sugar Maple.
4. White Oak.
5. White Pine.
6. American Elm.
7. Norway Spruce.
8. Larch.
9. Laburnum.
10. Judas Tree.
11. Red Oak.
910
12. Tulip Tree.
13. Roses.
14. English Elm.
15. FriDge Tree.
16. Hemlock.
17. Spruce.
p. Pears.
c. Currants.
g. Gooseberries.
Q. Quinces. 
INDEX TO SUPPLEMENT.
PLATES.
Grapes on espalier, 840.
Single eye of grape, 841.
Spur, end of the third year, 841.
Spur, end of fourth year, 842.
Old spur, 843.
Brackett's method of spiral training.
Wool-box, 865.
Cydonia on fence, 881.
City areas, plans for, 883, 884.
Plan of trellis on house, 885.
Plant-box for fronts of houses, 886.
Plan    of city areas, 887, 888, 889.
Plan of roof garden, 890.
Front of city house, with vines, flower  boxes, and shrubs in front area.
GENERAL INDEX.
Acclimatization of bulbs, &c., 811.
Adirondac grape, 835.
Allen's hybrid grape, 834.
Annuals, list of, 816.
Apples, list of best, 825.
Areas in cities maybe used for gardening
purposes, 880; plans for laying them
out, and lists of plants and shrubs for,
883, 884, 887, 888, 889; back areas, treat  ment of, 889.
Atwood, sheep, 852, 853.
Avenues in cities, planting of, 878.
Bedding-plants  for flower-beds and city
areas, lists of, 883, 884, 887, 888, 889.
Belmont, strawberries cultivated at, 822,
823.
Blackberries, cultivation of in New Jer  sey, and lists of, 824.
Boston Common, defective arrangement
and planting of, 871, 872, 873.
Boston Public Garden, how laid out and
planted, 875 87876, 877.
Brackett's method of training grapes, 843.
Bucks, stable for, 860; lambs, too many
raised, 864: management when serving
ewes, 867.
Bulbs for flower-beds and city areas, lists
of, 883, 884, 887, 888, 889.
Bulbs, compost for, 809.
Burr's (Fearing) treatment of tomatoes,
821.                                [813.
Buswell, E. W., tuberose, cultivation of,
Cape bulbs, treat ment  of, 807, 811, 812.
Carnations, list of, 818.
Cities, opportunities  offered by for landrscape-gardening, 870.
City areas, - see areas.
Clinton grape, 833.
Compost for bulbs, 809.
C     oncor     d  g rap e,  834.
Copeland's (R.  McClear y) hyacint hs,  list
of, 810- treatment of back areas, 889.
CotswolA sheep, 850.
Currants, 823.
Cuttings of grapes, 845.
Crevelling grape, 835.
Cyclamens, cultivation of, list of, 811.
Cydonia, how trained on fence, 881.
Chrysanthemums, list of, 816.
Dahlias, list of, 816.
Delaware grape, 833.
Diana grape, 834.
Diseases in sheep, 856.
Espalier, grapes on, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844.
Ewes, breeding, food for, and care of, 855;
treatment of when lambing, 861; dis  crimination to be used in breeding, 856;
time for buck service, 767.
Evergreens in city areas, 888, 889, 893, 895.
Foot-rot in sheep, cause of and cure for,
856, 857, 858.
911
awo., 
GENERAL INDEX.
Grafting wax, receipts for, 826.
Grafting of grapes, 846.
Grapes, how to grow them, 827; profits
of, vines per acre, 828; best grape for
general culture, 829; diseases of, 830;
rot in grapes, varieties most affected by,
830; list of best six, 833; Huseman's
list, 835; conditions for successful cul  tivation, 8:36; soil, situation, 836; culti  vttion of in city areas, 837; how  to
plant, 837; age of plants, 837; on espa  liers, 838; treatment of first winter, 838;
manure for, 838-  pruning of, 839, 840,
841, 842, 843; spiral method of training,
843; to what age profitably cultivated,
844; seeds of; 844; seedlings, how to
raise, 844; layers, 845; cuttings of, 845;
grafting, 846; single eyes, propagation
by, 845; grow best near large bodies of
water, 847.
Gladiolus propagated from seed, 807; cul  tivation of, list of, 808.
Grider, R. H., letter on the thrip, 898.
Hartford prolific grape, 833.
Hollyhocks, list of, 818.
Hovey John C., list of perennials, 814,
815;       of                    phloxes, 815;  of p oeonies, 815; of
dahlias, 816; of chrysanthemums, 816:
of annuals,       816; of verbenas,                       817; of
petunias,  817.
Huseman's list of grapes, 835.
Hyacinths, how to cultivate in pots and
glasses, 809; list of, 809.
Infantado sheep, 852.
Iona grape, 834.
Israella grape, 835.
Lambs, management of when first born,
861; docking of, castration of,   862; treat  ment when removed from the mother,
866.
Lambing, period of, 855.
Landscape gardening, the essentials of,
896, 897.
Layers of grapes, 845.
Leicester sheep, 850.
Level surfaces, how to be treated, 875,876.
Locke W. H., list of strawberries, 822.
MacTear (James), list of carnations, pico  tees, and hollyhocks, 817.
Market gardening, profits of, 824.
Merino sheep, 851, 852; varieties of, 853;
value of, 853; care of. 853, 854; wrin  kles in, 856; diseases of, 857, 858; why
the merino is better than the Spanish,
870.
Mildew in grapes, 830, 832,833; causes of,
831; prevention of, 831, 832; wild grapes
affected by, 832.
Mutton sheep, best variety yet to be found
869.
Ornamental trees, suitable for city plant   ing, 873, 874, 875.
Poeonies, list of, 815.
Parkman Francis, list of roses, 819; of
perennials, 820;  list of  trees an d  s hrubs,
893,,             894, 895.
Paular sheep, 852.
Perennials, list of 8,  814, 8 015,  820.
Petunias, list of, 817.
Plants,  variegated for Con ser vato ry, list
of, 806.
Plant-box,  for fronts of   city houses, 886;
list of  bulbs for,  and plants  in, 886.
Planting  trees,   generall y  too  thickly
planted, 892.
Phloxes, list         of, 815.
Picotees, list of,  818.
Pruning of grapes, 839, 840, 841, 842,
843; spur-prunine, 839.
Raspberries, cultivation of        in New Jer  sey, and lists of, 823.
Rogers, No. 15,           grap e, 835.
Roof gardens,   how to  make a  nd how to
manage, 890, 891.
Roses, list of, 818, 819.
Rot in grapes, 830.
Seedlings, of grape, 845.
Sheep, American  merino, 8 49; differences
in wool, 849, 850; Southdown, 850; Lei  cester, 850; Cotswold, 858; fattening
qualities, 850:  weight of fleece, 851;
merino, qualitie s o, 851, 852; varieties
of, 853; value of, 853; care of, 853, 854;
wrinkles in, 856; diseases of, 857, 858;
buildings for, 859, 860; tagging of, 862;
shearing of, 863, 864; washing, 863;
treatment during summer, 866; in au  tumn, 867.
Shrubs, lists of, 883, 884, 887, 888, 889, 893,
894; variegated, 888, 893.
Southdown sheep, 850.
Steam, use of in farming, 848.
Strawberries, cultivation and lists of,
822, 823; in New Jersey, 823.
Ticks in sheep, how to destroy, 865.
Tomatoes, cultivation of, 821.
Thrip, injurious to the grape, how de  stroyed, 898.
Trees, evergreens for planting in cities,
874.
Trees, variegated, deciduous, evergreen,
895; generally too thickly planted, 892;
relative advantages of planting singly,
or il groups, 894; native the best, 896.
Trellis, for vines on city houses, 885.
Tuberose, cultivation of, 813.
Tulips, propagated from seed, 807.
Variegated,-see plants and shrubs.
Verbenas, list of, 817.
Wax, for grafting, receipts for, 826.
Wool, differences in, 849, 850; yolk or
grease in, 851; increased value of meri   no, 853, 854; weight of fleece per head,
854.
Wool-box, 865.
Wrinkles  in sheep, no proof of blood,
856.
912