5 1 I l_ I,~~~~F~OR ~~~ / jWITH 4*0 ENGRAVINGS.. A~LBANY:~ LUTHER TUCKER & SON, 1860. AQ ~ ^~yc~"~-~;J~lLylk RURAL AFFAIRS: A PRACTICAL AND COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED REGISTER OF RURAL ECONOMY AND RURAL TASTE, INCLUDING COUNTRY DWELLINGS, IMPROVING AND PLANTING GROUNDS, FRUITS AND FLOWERS, DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND ALL:5'.A.)a 1dND C+__IDX8I3T ~15OCESSES.. By J. J. THOMAS, AUTHOR OF THE "AMERICAN FRUIT CULTURIST," AND "FARM IMPLEMENTS," ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF THE " COUNTRY GENTLEKMAN" AND " CULTIVATOR." VoL. II. FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY ENGRAVIN S. ALBANY, N. Y. LUTHER TUCKER & SON, 397 BROADWAY. PREFACE. I; offeiring to the public the Second Volume of " RURAi, AFFAIRS," the Publishers cannot do better than repeat the following paragraphs forom the Prefac5 of the First Volume, with the remark that, they have kept the same aims in view in its preparation, and expressing thle confident hope that it will be found worthy of the same favorable reception awarded to its plredecessor. This work is not a compilation. Far the larger portion was written by the accomplished and tasteful author exclusively for its pages, and the remainder, —with the exception of a very few selections, all of which are accompanied by due credit,-is mainly fiom his previous l'ritings. While the volume is thus an original on(e, in the strictest sense of the word, its contents cover a wide and interesting Iield. The construction and arrangement of Farm Buildings-including the Homestead-so as to secure their greatest comfort and convelience, and at the same time throw an aii of simple beauty about the whole; suggestions to assist in a plicturesque or graceful disposition of the Grounds, to awaken an interest in Flowers and Shrubs, and aid in their selection and management; directions of the most intelligible and reliable kind in relation to the planting and care of Orchllard's. the smaller fruits and kitchen vegetables; the advantages and, principles of good Implements, the importance and'benefits of the best Stock, —of draining, rotation, and systematic and tlhorough Farming-in fine, Rural Economy in all its processes, Rural Taste in all its branches, are included in the design; and it has been the endeavor of the Aulthor to treat them as plainly and concisely as possible, while no expense has been spared' on the part of the publishers, in securinrg profuise and appropri'ate Illustrations. The whole is emrbraced in a; compass within the means of all;' and wlhile it i's hoped that the hints presented may enable every fairmer in some respects at least,. to effect important improvements, it is believed thla4t they will also, prove serviceable to towns-people, with little, if any m:ore than a village or city lot at their command, and that both the A'N. $), xii PREFACE. Engravings and the substance of the book will aid in increasing the profits and the pleasures of Rural Life, and in rendering Rural Homes more comfortable, tasteful and attractive. It may be added that the ANNUAL REGISTER OF RURAL AFFAIRS will continue to appear, as heretofore, toward the close of each year. The Series was commenced in 1855, and, as far as yet issued, including the Number for 1860, has been embraced in these Two Volumes of " RURAL AFFAIRS." All' the N.mlbersl are for sale separately in paper covers, for 25 cents each, and the new Number for 1860 offers especial attractions to A-elits alld the Trade. To Arricultural Societies wishing valutable books for premiums, to-Nurserymren and Seedsmen, Implement Dealers, and all who are directly or indirectly interested in promoting Agricultural and Horticultural Improvement, both the ANNUAL REGISTER for 1860, and: these Two Volumes of " RURAL AFFAIRS," separately or together, are particulalrly commended; the most favorable terms will be given to purchasers in quantity, for which, and any other desired particulars, address LUTHER TUCKER & SON, Publishers of the Country Gentleman and The Cultivator, ALBANY, N. Y. IND E X. Animals, Care of in Winter,........ 109 Bees, Cells of,....................-. 37 Domestic, Choice of,.,-........ 137 Feeding, --------------------- 111 Experiments in Feeding, -------- 108 Management of, ---------------- 36 Feeding Hay to,...............; 322 Three Kinds of, --------------- - 36 Rules for Fattening, -........... 108 Blackberry, Culture of,-........... 312 Shelter for,.111 Blackberries Recommended by AmeTo Repel Flies from, 113, 129 rican Pomological Society, 71 Apple, Baldlwin, -. —------- 308 Bushel, Dimensions of, -------------- 117 Apple-Seed Washer, ---------------- 204 Weight of, of Different Grains, 117 Apple Borer, To Destroy,.-........ 314 Business, Rules for,. —------------- 323 Apple, Root-Grafting the, -........ 315 What shall I Follow, -----—. —-- 324 Apple Trees, Bark Lice on,-. 314 Butter, Packing, 322 Borer in, To Destroy, -,-. —--- 314 Winter, 321 Productive,-. 228 Cabbage, Cauliflowers, &c.,,- 87 Apples for Cooking, - -------------- 63 Carriage-House, No. 1, ------------ 92 for Domestic Animals, -... 228 o. 2 - 94 for Market, Discussion on,... —- 306 No. 3,.. 283 for Virginia,.I. —-—........... 308 Carrots in Succession, -------------- 119 for New-England, -------- ---- 308 Carriages, Care of,. —----------- 324 List of Best ]Market, ------------ 307 Cattle, Improved Jersey, ------------ 103 {Molasses from,-, —-----------—. 63 Relieving Choked,. —----------- 118 Productive Orchard of, -..- 63 Suffolk, ------------------------ 104 Recommended by American Po- Wintering, -------------------- 322 mnological Society, —. —------- 68 Celery, Culture of, ---------------- 88 Select List for the West, ------- 199 Raising and Keeping, ---------- 203 Select List for Northern N. York, 199 Cellars, Construction of, ----—. —--- 224 Apricots, Recommended by Ameri- Cement for Broken China,.........112 can Pomological Society, ---- --- 70 for Leaky Houses, ------------- 113 Arched Gateway,-, 29 for Cracked Stoves, —-—. —----- 321 Bags Marking,.-. —- --------. 320 Chairs, Iron, 154 Baiam Fir Tree.. —- --------- - - - 252 Cherries, List of Best, ------------- 191 Barns and Stables, ------------------ 282 Recommended by American PoChester County, ------------ 95. mological Society, ----------- 70 for a Small Farm,. 283 Select List of forthe WTest,.- -- 200 for Horses and Cattle, -........ 284 Chain Pumps, How to MIend,- 114 Horse and Carriage,.-. 92 Chimneys, Soot ino -, —------- ---- 113 Another Horse and Carriage, 94 Cistern Pumps, To prevent Freezing, 112 Another Horse and Carriage, -- 283 Country Dwellings, Chapter on,. —- 255 Two-Story Sheep, -------------- 95 Designs for, ----------------- 141 Beans, Peas, &c., Culture of, %. 8 Luxuries of, ----—. --.... 35 Bedsteads, Iton, ---—. —----------- 157 Country Residence, Complete, ----- 21 Bee-Hives, Size of. ----------------- 38 Map of, —--------------------- 23 Glass Boxes for, -------------- 38 Cows, Food Consumed)y..... 108 Ornamental, ---------------—. 39 Feeding Pumpkin Seed to,-.- 118 Bees, Care of,..... —---------—. 99 Garget in,. 118 - A& Xiv INDEX. Cows, Stabling, —----------------- 321 Fences, Iron, ---------------------- 160 Wintering Village, ------------ 3Z2 Post, -.... —-----—. —-.. 271 Corn-Stalk Binder,............... 109 Remarks on, ------ —. 136 Crops, Garden, Rotation of,.. —---- 102 Watson's Improved, --------—.. 276 Good Rotation of,. —------- --- 100 Wire,_...... —-.-.......... 159 Importance of-Rotation, -----—. 139 Feeding Hay to Animals, 322 Curculio, Protection from, 64 Flies, To Repel. — --------- 113, 129 Cultivator, Shares', 298 Flowering Shrubs,. —-. —---. —--- 27 Sayre & Remington's,-2........ 297 Flowers, Annual, Culture of,........ 72 Currant as a Bush and Tree, 63 Descriptive List of,-.-.-..... 72 Effect of Cultivation on -------- 62 List of Choice,_, -............ 78 Recommended by American Po- Fodder, Green and Dry, -.. —------ 322 mological Soc ety, ----------- 71 Food, Grinding or Crushing, ------- 107 Varieties of -------------------- 61 Friction Matches,....-.. 113 Dairy Economy,. —-------------- 321 Frost a Cheap Laborer,. —-------- 101 Milk, Effect of Damp Stables on, 321 Fruit Bottle, Yeomans',............ 201 Treatment of Milk in Winter, -- 321 Directions for Using, -....... 202 Domestic Economy, - -. — --------- 112 Wax and Corks for, -........ 202 Door Latchss, Hints about,. —- --- 113 Fruit Crop of Massachusetts,-...... 308 Draining, Advantages of, ----------- 164 Fruit Ladders -, —, ---------- 66 Chapter on, ---- -----------—. 164 Fruit Trees, Failure of Western,.... 309 Cost of,. —----------------- 164, 175 Re-Grafting Old,.............. 59 Directions for,. —-------------- 167 Renovating Old, -..-. —. ---- 200 Heavy Dividends on,............ 101 Sprouts about,. —. —--------- 59 Irregular Surfaces, -------------- 170 Soap-suds, &c., for,.-........ 114 Leveling Instruments for,- 172 Transplanting Small, -------—. 304 Orchards, ----------—. ——. 228 Fruits and Fruit Culture,__-. 303 Partial, 171 Fruits for Wisconsin,. —........... 309 Lengthens the Season, ---------- 324 Hints on Culture of, ---------- 57 Plows for, —------------------ 295 Hardy at the West,.-........ 198 Tile, Kinds of,.................. 175 Preserving Fresh,.............. 201 The Most Perfect,.............. 327 Protecting Young,-,.... 204 with Btrush,. — 177 Furniture, Iron, - - --------—.... 153 with Stone, --------------—. 176 Garden, Compost for,.-............ 228 Drains, Depth and Distance of,..... 174 Dwarf Fruit,.-. —------------- 28 Laying Out, -------------------- 166 View of,.-... 29 Mode of Cutting, - -------------- 174 Fruit,....-. 30 Mode of Filling, -. —------------ 175 Kitchen,. —-------------------- 29 Sizes of, -. —-. —--------- 172 List of Vegetables for,........ 91 Evergreen Hedges,. —---------------- 268 Management of, ------------ 84 Evergreen Trees, ------------------- 251 Plan of,.-. —-------------—. 85 European Larch,. —--------------- 251 Rotation of Crops for, ------- 112 Experiments in Feeding Animals, —. 108 Garden Structures, - -----------—. 80 Farm Buildings, Chapter on,. —----- 92 Gardens, Plans of, ------------------ 247 Plan of, ---------------------- 32 Gates, ConstructioA of, -... 277, 280 Farm Management, Chapter on,.... 125 for Farms, ------------------ 136 Farm Operations in Order of Time,_ 140 Farm,.-.... 277 Product of a Fifty-Acre, ----—. 133 How to Hang, ---.............. 278 Product of a Thirty-Acre,. —-- 326 Hinges and Latches for, ------- 279 Farmers, Double-Minded, -...... 111 Ornamental,.-. —-----------—. 55 Farming, Capital Requisite for,.- 129 Robinson's Farm, ----------—. 280 Farmer Thrifty's, --------— _-_-. 126- Wire,. 163 Importance of Order in, ------- 129- Wire with Wooden Frame ---- 282 Implements Necessary for, -.. — 131 Good and Bad Management, -. —---- 124 Live Stock for,................ 131 Gooseberries Recommended by Ame. Squire Slipshod's,. —------—. 125 rican Pomological Society,.-... 71 To Make Profitable, - - -- 330 Grafting Knives, — 3 —--------------- 325 Farms, Laying Out, - -..........., 133 Grafting Shears, -.. ——.. —-. —---- 65 Size of, --------------------- 132 Grafting, t Root,. —----------- —. 315 Fence, How to Build Rail, --------- 110 Grafts, Sending by Mail, ------------ 315 Fences and Fence-Making, --------- 271 Row to Preserve, ——.. 227 Cheap, ------------------- 120, 275 Time to Cut,..-. 227 Construction of, -.............. 161 Granary and Wagon-Rouse, - 97 A Fancy, — - ------—, 274 Grain, Weight of, -117 for Town or City Lots, -------- 164 Grape-House, Cheap,. —----------- 80 Hurdle, -------------------- 163, 275 Grapes, Culture of, ----------------- 313 How to Make Board, -------- -- 272 Best Hardy, -. —--—. —--------- 60 INDEX. XV Grapes, Keeping in Winter,- 61, 202 IHouses, Square Brick,. —-----—.. 148 Recommended by American Po- Small, 144 mologic~al Society,.. —--—. —- 71 Selection of Site for, —-. —----- 231 Grass Lands, Im proving, 100 Views of,.. —-------.. —------ 26 Green-I-louse, Cheap, ------------—. 81 with a Neat Front Yard, -------- 236 Common-o-,- 82 Working Men's Cottages, —--- 257 Ornamental at Kew, -_........82 Ice House, To Get Ice for,.-. —. —. 110 Ground Stoppers, To Remove, ----- 114 Implements for Tillage, ------- 291 Groullds, Ornamenal, —. —--------- 24 The Best should be Used, —----- 137 Baldness of New, 246 Iron Furniture,..................... 153 Grouping Trees, ---------------- 233, 234 Knitting Heels,.-................. 113 Harms, How to Cure, ---------------- 112 Knowledge, Application of, -------- 114 To Keep in Summer, -—. 114 Lawns, Plans of,. —------------ 237, 238 Harrowing Inverted Sod, ----------- 102 Preparation of,.- -----—. ——.- 242 Harrows, Brush, -------------- - 292 Shrubs, &c., for-... —----------- 27 Scotch —, —. 293 Legacy, The Best,. 324 Geddes', 293 Locust Seed, To Vegetate, —-------- 110 Shares' oulter, --—. 293 M anures Enriched by Grain -,...... 102 Hat Tree, Iron -------------- - 156 Farm, Management of, --—. —-. 138 Hay Fork for Horse Power,.-. —-. 298 Long and Short,................ 101 Ilay, Feeding to Animals, ----- ---- 292 Value of Straw in,. —---------- 101 Hledges, Clhapter on, -----—. ——. 267 Waste of, -.. —- ---- 71 Evergreen. — -. —--- 31, 268 Melons, To Raise Early, -.-...... 327 Trimming, --------—. —- - 269 Milking in Silence,- ---------- 327 Horse Power, Cheap, —. -. 226 Young Cowss, ----------------- 328 Cost of,. —-... —- -------- 303 Mills, Joice's Farm, —------—.... 301 Labor of, —... —------- - 302 Nectarines Recommended by AmeriHorse Hoe, Wetherell's, - -—. —- 298 can Pomnological Society, -...... 70 Horses, Ieaves in, ------—. --- - 118 Nurseries, List of in United States. 205 Over-reachLitng, -. 119 Principal in Europe, -..... 215 Stables for, Rutles for Construct- Supplementary List of,-, 318 ing, ------------------—. 109 Orchards, Draining,. —------------- 228 Stalls for, 285 Plant Apple,.................. 303 Hot Beds, Construction of,.... —---—...... 89 Ornamental Grounds, Improvement Houses, Attractive,................. 230 of -. —.. 253 Btick Farin, -.- -—. - — 142 Planting, 229 Brick Vill. —------------ - 131 Owls, To Catch, -. —-—.. - 113 Battened Country, _ ----- 153 Peaches Recommended by American Bracketed Farm, -----—. —----- 50 Pomnological Society,-, 70 Complete Country, ------—. —- 21 Ripening Successively, -....... 192 Construction of,. —- 22 Pear Orchard, Varieties for,.-..... 28 Coutntry, Chapter on,, —------- 41 Trees, Fire Blight in, -........ 63 Cottage, Gothic, ---------------- 47 Productive, - ---—. ---- 64 Cheap Farm,. —-- 48 Pears, Best for Malrket, -----—. 310 Cottages, Laborer's, No. 1, ----- 42 Best for Pear Stocks, 181 No. 2,. —-- 43 Best for Quiince Stocks, --------- 182 Construction of,. — ------ 44 Best for Both Pear anid Quince No. 3,. —-------------------- 257 Stocks,.-.. 182 No. 4, -- - 258 Culture of, --..-. - 178 No. 5, - -. 259 Dwarf, Length of Roots of,.... 312 No. 6,. —-- 260 Gathering and Marketing, 190 Farm, Design No. 1,.. —-. —--- 261 Hardy,.. 310 No. 2, —-------—. —-- ------ 262 Kinds which Do Not Crack, 190 No. 3, ---- 263 Most Liable to Fire Blight, - 190 No. 4,. ——. 265 Newer Varieties of, ---------—. 182 No. 5, ---- 266 Profits of, -----------------—, 178 Gothic Mansipn,. —--------- 55 Ripeing, 64, 310 Italiani Farm, ---- 52 Recommended by American PoIrregular Country, ------------ 146 mological Societ-y, -------—.. 68 Octagon,.- --. 143 Select List of for the West, ---- 200 Of the Man who Cares Nothing Select List of for New-England, 308 for Looks,. —---------------. 230 Select List of New, ---------—............. 311 Rules for Exterior Designs of, -- 35 Piggery, Plan of,............... —-- 33 Sumerne-.- - - 26 Plan of Front Yard, —---- —, 237 Swiss Cottage, ---------------- 45 of a Village Residence, —---- 238 Stone Cottage, ------------—.......... — 46 of Grounds for a Farm ResiSmall Farml..... —....... 46 dence,..................,- - 239 _ _ e,J''""''"' XVi INDEX. Planting, Ornamental,.-. —------ 229 Stalls for Horses,. —------------. 285 Timbier Lauld.,,,,,,,-,,,,... 110 Stables, Damp, - --—. —------------ 321 Plow, Hildreth's Gang, ---—. —----- 225 Stalk Cutter, Hickok's,. —---------- 301 Michigan Double,. —-----— _ 294 Sticking Salve, Recipe for, ------ 1 — 12 Plowing Wet Land,-.. 101 Stings land Bites, Cure for, ---------- 113 Plows, Ancient and Modern,. 291 Steamer for (Jooking Feed, -------- 115 Ditching, -295 Stoves, Paste for Cracks in, -...... 321 SLubsoil,. —-. —------------- 295 Strawberries, Best for Western NewPlums, Best New,. —-—. —----- 312 York, -. 313 for Northern Illinois, —. 312 Strawberries, Peabody's Seedling, -. 197 Recommended by American Po- Recommended by American Pomological Society, ------------ 70 mological Society, -......... "71 Select List of, 192 Select List of, ---------—. —- 198 Pork, Cost of,. 108 Transplanting, ------------—. 194 Postage Stamps, To Make Stick, —-- 114 The Hooker,. -----—. —--------- 197 Potato Digge, Allen's, ------------ 301 Wilson's Albany, -------- 197, 313 Potatoes, Heavy and Light, -------- 101 Summer Iouse, - ----------- 26 Keeping in Winter,-.............. —----- 116 Swine, Chinese, ------. —- 107 Poultry Houses, Plans of, ---- 34, 220 Experillents in Feeding,....... 108 Poultry, Coops for, ------—. —------ 222 Portuguese,.................... 106 Feeding Trough,. 222 Tillage, Various Facts in, 100 Fattenin-g,.-.. 223 Toast, A Good one, ---------------- 83 Hens, To Make Lay in Winter,. 111 Tomatoes, Culture of,. —----------- 88 Keeping Dressed, ------------ - 113 Supports for, -.8 —--- -- 83, 88 Management of, -------------- 218 Tools, Importance of Good, -....... 109 Pruning SY ears,.. —--------------- 65 Painting,.. 320 Pumps, Cistern, To Prevent Free- Transplanting, Autumn and Spring, 326 zing, —. —-—. —------------ 112 Trees, Balsam Fir,.-.....,........ 252 Chain, How to Mend, ---------- 114:European Larch,................ 251 Racks for Cattle,. 288 Examiple in Grouping, 233 for Sheep, -...... —---------- 289 for Streets, ---—. —-------- 225 Raspberries Recommended by Ame- Grouping Elms, -............... 234 rican Pomological Society,. —- 71 HIoney Locust,.-......... 254 Rat Trap, -—.. —-----------—. 113 Monotonous Grouping, 234 Rats, To Drive Away, -------------- 118 Norway Spruce, —. —-—......... 253 Razor Strops, Coating of, 320 Ornamental, ---------—. --- 250 Requisites for Success, - 323 Packing for T'ransportation,. —- 331 Rook XWork and Rustic Objects, _ —- 247 Weeping Ash, -—., 254 Root Crops for Gardens,.- -------- 86 Umbrella Stand, Iron,. 158 Root Grafting the Apple, ----------- 315 Vase, Iron, -... 158 Root Slicer, Wiillard's, ----—. —--—. 300 Vegetables, Culture of, - -------- 91 Roses, Supports for Climbing, -.. —- 27 Select List of,.-.-. 91 Rules for Business, -------—. —----- 323 Ventilation, Chapter on, ——. —----- 121 Rural Econonmy,. —------ ------ 109, 320 Verbenas. Culture of, --—. —---- 216 Rural Structures of Iron, ----—. —- 153 Walks, Construction of, —----------- 244 Rustic Seats,.. 25 Laying Out, -—.. —-------------- 25 Rut;a Bagg, Storing, ---------------- 119 Wash Stand, Iron, -—. —---------- 150 Settees, Iron, ---------------- 155 Water, Pumping up a Slope,. —. —- 330 Sheep, Cheviot,. —----------------- 105 Wells, Bad Water in, -------------- 320 French Merinos. ---------------- 105 Wheat, Cleaning Seed, —------------ 329 Fattening, 118 Crop of, Improving, - ----- ---- 100 Silesian Merinos,. 104 Depth of Sowilng,.. —--------- 100 Stretches in,. 118 Time of Harvesting, --------—. 329 Smoke-House anid Ashery,_-. ---- 32 Wire, Comparative Sizes of, -------- 163 Soils ald their Manlagemetlt, ----- -- 137 Wood, Diryingl, --------------—. 321 Speculating Gettinlg Iti(h by, —-... 323 Quality of Different Kinds, ---- 320 Squashes, To Raise Early, —---- 327 Wool Table, - 328 Stalls for Cattle,,... —---------- 286 Work Shops in Stormy Days,-....... 223 OB2 a-, /~~~c~~~~~-~< INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Ashery and Smoke-House, --- 32 Chairs, Wire Arm,................. 155 Arched Gateway,-.. —-— __ 29 Cattle, Bad Management of,........ 124 Apple-Seed Washer, --—. —------—. 204 Good Management of,. —-- --- 124 Apple Trees, Uncared for,.......... —- 57 Jersey Cow,.................... -- 103 Well Cared for,.-...... —- 58 Stalls for, 286, 287, 288 Baskets for Early Plants,-.-... —-- 327 Suffolk Cow,..................... 104 Bees, Cells of,..............- 37 Cellar Wall, Section of,............. 24 Drone,..........-......... 36 Curves, Laying Out,............. -25 Queen,......30............. 36 Curculio Catcher,.................. 64 Swarming,............ —------------------—. 40 Currant, Cherry, 62 Worker,........-.... 36 Effect of Cultivation on........ 62 Bee-House, -................ 36 White Grape,..............- 62 Bee-Hives, Construction of,. —-—,- 38 Conservatory at Rew,.. 83 Glass Boxes for,.-.. 38 Corn Shock Binder,................ 109 Ornamental,............... ------- 39 Crib, Iron,-......................... 158 Hoof and Stand for,.-. 39 Cultivator, Shares',.-............ 298 Bedstead, Iron,...................... 157 Sayre & Remington's,.......... 297 Brace for End Posts of Fence,... —- 161 Drawing Ice out of Water,.....-.. 110 Barns, Chester County,.-.......... 96 Draining Hill-sides,............166, 169 End View of do.,............. 97 Errors in,.. 167 and Carriage-House, —-------—. 92 Irregular Surfaces,............. 120 Ground Plan of do.,. 93 Leveling Instruments for,.. —- 173 Another Carriage-House and Sta- Partial,-......... 175 ble,..... 94 Scoop Hfoe for,.-..... 174 Ground Plan of do.,..-....... 94 Draining Tile, Pipe,.-. —---------- 175 Cattle, Stalls for,. —-.. 286, 287, 288 Horse-Shoe, - - ------—... 175 for Horses and Cattle, -.. —- 284 Horse-Shoe with Sole,-... 175 Hay Car for,- 284 Draining Tile Works,. 175 Oat Discharger for, 284 Drains, Brush,. —------------------ 177 Farmer Thrifty's,.-. —--------- 126 Mode of Filling, -.............. 175 for a Small Farm, 283 Position of, -................... 168 Plan of do.,.-.-. —---- —. —- 283 Stone,..-.. 176 Horse,.-................ 283 Ellwanger & Barry's Dwellings for Ground Plan of do.,.......... 283 Laborers, -. —-----------—. 208 Horse, Stalls for,................ 285 Nursery,.-.................. 207 Squire Slipshod's,.............. 125 Back View of do.,........... 208 Two-Story Sheep,.-. 95 Packing Shed, -—.....- -.......... 207 Carriage-House,. —- --.. —- - 92 Farm Buildings, Map of-,.-. 23 Plan of do.,. —--------------- 93 Range of,..................... 32 Carriage-House, Ornamental,., 94 Fences, Cheap, --------------------- 120 Plan of do.,...... —-........- 94 Building,..... 273, 274 Chairs, Grape,. —-. —-. —-. —---- 154 Corrugated Railroad, ---------- 160 Hall,...-..... 154 Flat Rail,-.-........ 160 Morning Glory,................. 154 Fastening Wires to Posts of,.. 161 Traveling,...................... 155 for City Lots,................... 164 rViii INDEX. Fences, Fancy,. —..... —----------- 275 Rouses, Country, Views of, -.21, 26 Brace for End Posts of, -------- 161 Plans of, —----—. —-------- 22 Hurdle, --------------—... — 163, 275 Cheap Farm, ---—.... —-------- 49 Iron with Flat Rails,.I.-.....160 Plans of, —-- - ---- 49 Posts for Wire --------- 162 Farm, Design No. 1, ---—. ----- 261 Posts for Iron Rail,. —---------- 162 Plan of, —----—.... —--------- 261 Rural Wire,. ------------------ 160 Farm, Design No. 2-,. —------- 262 Wire with Wood Posts, -------- 159 Design No. 3,- -................. 264 Wire with Iron Posts, ---------- 159 Plan of, ------------------—. 264 Wires Fastened to Posts of:.-.. 162 Farm, Design No. 4............ -- 265 Wires for, -....... 163 Plans of —,......, —-------- 265 Watson's, Farm, ---------------- 276 Farm, Design No. 5, ----- -.. 266 Fruit Ladder, -..........66 Farm Residence, - --- 242 Folding do., -----—. —---------- 67 Gothic Mansion,. —- ----- 56 Fruit Bottle, Yeoman's, --------—. —- 201 Plans of, —-—.-...... —----- 56 Fruit Trees, Cared for, ------------- 229 Italian Farm, ---—....... —--- 52 Uncared for, ----------------- 229 Plans of —,......, ——. —-- 52 Flowers, Dwarf ConvoIvulus,.-..... 77 Irregular Country, -. —. —----- 146 German Ten-Week Stock, -. 75 Plans of, -........ —------—, -- 147 Lupinus nanus, ---—................ 74 Laborer's Cottage,.........- 42 Petunia punctata, -—. —------- 72 Plan of, -....... —------------ 43 Purple Candytuft, —. —---------- 73 Another Laborer's Cottage,.. —. 43 Portulacca -, —----------------- 79 Plan of do................... 43 Phlox Drummondii,.. —-------- 76 Construction of,.. —-. —----- 43 Rocket Larkspur, —-. —--------- 78 Octagon, ------- ------- 143 Verhena, 217 Plans of-, —---—. —--- -.143 Frost & Co.'s Nursery, —-------- 209 Plain Gothic Cottage, —.. —---- 47 *iGates, Good Farm, ------------- 277 Plans of,-. --—. —- 48 Hanging, -......... 278 Swiss Cottage,% —. —----------- 45 linges for, --—.... —. —------- 279 Plan of,, —. —---- --------- 45 Latches for,.- ----------------- 279 Stone Cottage, —- - 46 Ornamental, —--------------- 55 Plan of.., —-.-., ------ 46 Robinson's Farm, —- -.... 280 Small Farm House, -... —...... 46 Squire Slipshod's, -------------- 126 Plans of,......................- 47 Wire, ---------------—. —-- 163, 282 Smoke House --—. —---—, ----- 32 Wire with Wooden Frame,-.... 282 Small Farm,.................... 144 Green-House, Cheap —, —--------- 81 Plans of, —-- - 144 Common,.. —---—...... 82 Small Country, -. —------------- 145 Grape, Rebecca, - ---------— 60 Plans of-, —---- - - - -145 Grapes, Preserving, ------—. —----- 61 Square Brick, -. —. —---------- 149 Grape-House, Cheap, -.......80 Plans of, —-----—.- - 149 Grafting Knives, —. —-------------- 325 End View of,. ——. —-------- 150 Shears, ------------ 65 Unattractive,.. —..... 230 Granary and Wagon-Rouse, --------- 98 With Neat Front Yard,. —.. —- 236 End View of --------- 98 Working Men's Cottages: Plan of, -. —-... —----------- 99 Design No. 1, -. —-. —------ 257 Harrow, Brush,.....- —.. —---- 292 Plan of do........ 258 Geddes', 293 Design No. 2, —----------- 258 Scotch, ----------- - 293 Plans of do.,.............. 259 Shares',- 293 Design No. 3, -------------- 259 Hat Tree, Iron, -..........156 Plans of do., —.............. 260 Hay Fork, Horse, —----------------- 299 Honey Comb, —---—. —------------- 37 Ray, Unloading by Horse'Power,,.. 299 Hot-Bed, ----- ------- - 90 Redges, Badly Pruned,. —---------- 269 Hurdle Fence, —-----— _ —. —-- 163, 275 Evergreen,. —---------------—. 268 Horse-ioe, Wetherell's, ------------ 98 Trimming, ----------------- 31, 269 Horse Powers, Cheap, --------- 226, 227 Well Pruned ---------- 269 Horses, Farmer Thrifty's,.......... — 127 Houses, Attractive, ---------------- 230 Squire Slipshod's,- -- ---—. 127 Bracketed'arm,'50 Hildreth's Gang Plow-, —---- 226 Plans of, --------------------- 51 Ice, Drawing Out of Water, -—. —-. 110'Battened Country, —. —--------- 54 Indian Corn, Farmer Thrifty's, —.....129 Plans of, --------------------- 54 Squire Slipshod's, —........... 129'Brick Farm, ------------------- 142 Kitchen Garden. — — 85!Plans of, -.- —......... —----- 142 Leveling Instruments,, —----------- 175 Brick Villa, - ---—.. —-. —- ---- 151 Laying Out Farms,. —--------- 134, 135 Plans of, ------------------- 152 Mill, Joice's Farm, -..... —--------- 311 R oof of, -. —---------—.. —--- 152 Orchardist's Crook,................. —. 67 x t INDEX xi) Orchards, Farmer Thrifty's-,..... 128 Poultry, Coop for,... ——.... —------ 222 Squire Slipshod's, --- -- 128 Feedinlg Trough for. —---—. —. 222 Pear Garden,. —-. —- --—. -—. z9 Pruniig Shears,.................... 65 Pears, Beurre Clairgeau,. —-----... 181 C0nstrtlotion of, - -—................ 66 Beurre Nantais,....- ---....... 182 Pumping Water Up Hill, -—........... 330 Comte de Flandre,. - —. —----- 183 Rack for Cattle,.- -.-. ——... 289 Des Nonnes - -, -. ----- ------—. 184 Racks for Sheep, -------------- 289, 290 Doyenne Robin, -------------- 185 Root Grafting,-. ---.-I-, I —--—.. 316 Doyenne Sieulle, - —. —-----—. 186 Root Slicer, Willard's,.-............ 300 Farmer Thrifty's,..... —...... 128 Roses, Supports for Climbing,.-..27 Laure de Glymes,.-. —------—.- 187 Roots of Trees, -................ 180 Ontario,. 188 Rustic Seats,-.. —------. —- 25, 248 Squire Slipshod's,. 128 Rustic Chairs,.-... ___._-_. 154 Theodore Vail Monos,........- 189 Rustic Settees,.- --—. —--------—. 155 Zepherin Gregoire, --—. —--—. 190 Rural Scene,..... 229 Packilng Trees,.. -. 331, 332 Saul & Co.'s Nursery, ------ ---- ---- 210 Piggery, Plan of, —.. 33 Seats, Rustic,.-.-.. 25, 248 Picturesque Garden,... 250 Stalk Cutter, Hickok's, 301:Planting Trees, -- ------- --- 233 Settee, Grape,. 155 Examples in Grouping,......... 233 Gothic,........................ —----------- ---- 157 Grouping Elms,. 234 Rustic,.-.... 156 Mlonotnuous Grouping, ------- 234 Sheep, Cheviot,- ----—. 105 Natural Grouping, - ------ 235 French Merino Ewes, ---------- 105 Plans of Grounds: French Merino Ram,....... —- 106 Front Yards for Village House,. 237 Silesian Merino,................ 104 Farm Residence,. —------- - 239 Steam Boiler, 115 Front Yard of Large Size,. —--- 237 Street Trees,.-.................. 225 Garden and ornamental Grounds, 240 Strawberries, Hooker's Seedling, - 195 Garden, 249 Wilson's Albany,.-. —--—, 196 Large Places, ---------------- 243 Peabody's Seedling -—, —-----—, 197 Village Residence........ 238 Summer-House, Rustic,......... 26, 248 Plowing by Different -'lows,_ - 294, 295 Thatched, -................: 247 Plows, Baden,. 292 Swine, Chinese,.-.................. 107 Chase's,.-.. 292 Portuguese, -................... 106 Ditching, 296 Thomas & Herendeen's Nursery, --- 211 Gang,-,.-............. 226 Tomato Plants, Supports for, 88 Kooloo,. 291 Tree Seat, 25 Michigan, - 294 Trees, Balsam Fir, -.-..... 252 Moorish, ---------------------- 291 European Larch,. 251 Punjab,.......-. —- -----—. 291 Honey Locust, -.. —----- 254 Subsoil- _..-. _ —-- - -..__ —-—.. 295 Norway Spruce, -........ 253 Plums, Fulton,... —----................. 193 Renovating Old, --- --- 200 Imperial Ottoman,. 193 Weeping Ash,.................. 254 McLaughlin-,. —-—. —-., 193 Umbrella Stand, -.-................. 158 Schenectady Catharil-, --------- 193 Vase, Iron,. 158 Potato Digger, Allen's, 302 Vines, Supports for, --............. 28 Poultry-House,.................... 34 Ventilation,.1. z2 Plan of,.. —--- ------- ------ 34 Vignette, -----—. —-. ------------—. 125 Vertical Section of,-.. 34 Walks, Construction of,. —--------- 244 Poultry-House, Another, 220 Laying Out Curved,............ 245 Cross Section of, ------------ 220 Wash Stand, Iron,.................. 156 Plan of, —------- ---------- 220 Wintering Tools, -.-............... 127 Poultry-Yard,...................... 221 Wool Table,........................ 328'4v ~ _____..~'4 THE ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER OF RURAL A FFA IRS. A COMPLETE COUNTRY RESIDENCE. RIN G I N G together all the luxuries which a complete country residence may afford, with all the comforts and conveniences which may be combined in a single place, is of very rare but by no means difficult attainment. Such a place must comprise, besides the best household conveniences, trees and plants for the en~.~ Wtire circle of fruits; a first-rate kitchen garden, for a full supply of the best early, medium, and late vegetables; fresh meat and poultry; and lastly, and by no means the least, the wholesome fascinations of ornamental planting. Throwing aside the costly fruits of hot-house culture, all these may be easily had at a moderate expenditure of means. The residence of which the description is here given, includes no more than is within the reach of a large portion of farmers. The house is less in size than would satisfy many occupants; but the owner prefers to abridge his house-room by five hundred dollars in retrenchment, and expend this five hundred in fencing, ditching, deepening the soil and manuring his grounds; in planting fruit and ornamental trees; and in giving the whole that constant attention and culture, without which the best and most profitable results can never be reached. ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER The general design, and the relative size and position of each part, are readily understood from the accompanying plan (fig. 4, p. 23) of the whole. The portion of the farm covered by this plan, is about five acres. The house is seven rods from the public road-on the right are three-fourths of an acre devoted to ornamental planting; and on the left about the same is occupied with an orchard of standard pears. Immediately back of the ornamental grounds, is an acre devoted to dwarf fruit trees, currant, gooseberry and raspberry bushes, and to vegetables between the rows. Still further back is the fruit garden of standard trees, occupying nearly two acres. THE DWELLING. The plan of the house is shown in the accompanying cuts. It fronts the south. There are three principal rooms and a bed-room below, and four /T 0ESN BED ROOM 1/B6x A tE P4OR ROOM,2 17x16 Fig. 2- FLOOR. DAFig. -CHAMBERS. Fig. 2-FIRST FLOOR. Fig. 3-CauAMBERS. bed-rooms above. The space, although small, comprises many conveniences. But little room is consumed by the hall, although it extends through the house, and affords every facility for ventilation in summer. No room is entered through another, but all open to the hall. The chimneys, being near the center of the house, economise the heat. A sufficient steepness is given to the roof (see view p. 21) to prevent all danger from leakage at the receding corners. Special attention has been taken with the cellars-as the safe and perfect preservation of the large supplies of apples and winter pears, and of winter vegetables, is a matter of great importance. In order to keep it easily clean and sweet, a perfectly smooth floor of water-lime is laid. This is done by first paving it with small stones, and then covering these with a coat of water-lime cement, and then a second coat to render it smooth and level. Precaution has been taken to build the wall so as to prevent rats from entering, which they sometimes do, even with a waterlime bottom, by undermining it till it breaks away. The wall is laid on a base of flagging or flat stones, a few inches below the bottom of the cellar, the base projecting from the face and rear of the wall. Whenever rats burrow down for passing beneath, they invariably work close to the stone face; and when they reach the projecting flagging, they can go no farther and give up the job. c i~ ~~~~~~ ~~CUlLTIVATED FIEIS., r~ I L te, o L 7er m roa,, b L bg LibLi\\\ Xb LP L&4 IWft LOL Le Le Le Lo- L LO L r F H4 [9 -t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 9}t@ Lt Lt 1 lob Lt L W t r r Eggi'-+ -'' C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e bE b 2 \Cr b b $b t lu 1o }f b~ b b b b b 13 15 b b S i~ d4 LO 4 4 LO 45 L 4t 6 46 b i t i b b~~b 6 i t b b 10 b b 4 fe i t / / FiS~t~bblebv bb6b bbb bb ic g Lb j~LBff c4 b~~~~~~bbb~bbb b h job Bb b bb b bb b 6 bb L L i: bb b(,Z b b*SD 6 b b 113 asva b _' i. ".......... Z. }" ~~~~~~3 ~~~~~~~~'S(IIHIJI (IHIVAIII'Ma1I C 24 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL, REGISTER To secure the cellar from freezing, without the common disfigurement of banking up, that portion of the wall above ground, is built doublethe inner wall being brick four inches thick, with a space of air two inches, and, an outer wall of stone fourteen inches thick, making twenty inches in all. The brick wall is stiffened by an occasional binder across to the stone; and the vacant space is filled with ashes. Tan or sawdust, or even sand, would have probably done nearly as well. The cellar windows are all furnished with double sash for winter, admitting light, but not CZTLAR PBOrTOM frost. The outer of these sashes, is re_ -Am=T~- -- moved; as soon as the season for severe cold is past, and the inner one being hung Fig. 5-SECTION OF CELLAR WALL. on hinges, may be hooked up inside whenever fre'sh air is desirable. To prevent the ingress of anything from without, frames exactly the size of the outer windows, are made, and covered with wire netting; these replace the outer windows during warm weather. This cellar is eight feet deep, and is always clean, with a pure air; and the temperature may be very nearly controlled at all times. It will consequently keep apples two or three months longer than many cellars used for this purpose, or until the season for early strawberries and cherries, so that fruit is always on hand at all seasons of the year. Fresh winter pears are preserved in the finest condition through the winter, thus prolonging the entire pear season to about nine or ten months. A spacious rain.-water cistern occupies the rear of the cellar, from which water is drawn by a pump into the kitchen above, and by a stop-cock into the cellar. This cistern is built square, of masonry, and lined inside with three coats of water lime. It is six feet deep, and is covered on the top with two-inch plank, which may be removed in part for cleaning it out. This house may seem too small; but as three cheap laborers' cottages have been built on another part of the farm, the hired men all board and lodge themselves, and no provision for accommodating workmen is necessary. Plans of some of these cottages will be found in a subsequent part of this number of the Register. THE GROUNDs. About three-fourths of an acre are devoted to the ornamental grounds. With the exception of walks and flower beds, this is green turf. The soil which it occupies was in the first place made about fifteen inches deep, by subsoil and trench plowing, and was made fertile by manure. After most of the trees were planted, it was rendered as smooth as possible, and sown A early in the spring with a bushel and a half of grass seed, brushed or H e - ~~~~~~~~~~~~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 25 lightly harrowed in. A few weeks gave it a handsome and very dense turf. During the season that grass grows most rapidly, it is mowed closely once in ten days; later in the season, once in three weeks keeps it equally short. The young trees, for a few years after setting out, were well spaded and mulched. The gravel road for the carriage-way, is twelve feet wide. After passing to the front of the house, and around a fine piece of shrubbery, it leads to the carriage house, the nearest of the range of farm buildings. The foot-walks are five feet wide, and pass around nearly the whole of the ornamental grounds. One opens to the public road, and thus affords a convenient and nearly direct passage to the house. The curves in all these walks, constantly varying in abruptness, were laid out in the following manner. Their general position was first determined, by laying off by measurement from the plan furnished, a few of the principal points. The curves were then marked out, by first laying a straight pole upon the ground, in the direction which the walk takes at the start. A peg is stuck into the ground at the first end, and. another at. the middle; the pole is then moved a little from its position,.the middle remaining the same,.when another peg is stuck in at the other end.. The pole is then moved forward, Fig. 6-LAYING OUT CURVES. with the same slight side movement accurately measured; and so the process is repeated, till the walk is laid out, and marked by the curved line of pegs (fig. 6.) A greater or less side-movement of the pole will make the curve long or short. If the curve is uniform, the measurement at each time will be the same. But in passing from a short to a long curve, or vice versa, each successive side-measurement, must exceed or diminish-by a certain amount the previous one. The ornamental grounds are most thickly planted towards the boundaries, where likewise there is a considerable proportion of evergreen trees / ~.c _ interspersed,.for the purpose of shelter. A nearly open view is left from the house diagonally o across it, towards the rustic seat at a, so as to show the extent of the grounds, without exhibiting more than a portion of the whole at a time; and from this seat there is a pieFig. 7 —RUSTIC SEAT, turesque view of the Fig. 8 —TREE SEAT. house. This seat is made of red cedar boughs, closely fitted together at the joints, and is represented in fig. 7. A tree-seat, nearly in front of the 3 23 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 9-VIEw ACROSS THE FLOWER GARDEN. house is shown in fig. 8. 8. Another open view extends from the dwelling across the flower garden to the summer house at b. The flower beds line the walk which passes in that direction, and are cut out of the turf, and kept in the form of neatly trimmed circles, ovals, and arabesque figures. A view across a portion of this flower garden towards the house, is shown in the above figure-(fig. 9.) The summner house at b, is a very simple but neat and tasteful structure, (fig. 10,) made by first inserting into the ground eight round red cedar posts, with the bark on, in the form of a circle. These are about eight inches in diameter, and seven feet above ground after being set. They are then sawed off at an equal height, and connected together by well ~1~ i |x fitting pieces of horizontal plank, nailed on the top, and an eight-sided roof of rough boards is then added, corresponding with 4 ethe octagonal fr to tthe otagonal form of th e structure. Lath!;~uffi "~ | I is nailed diagonally from post to post, form-:-th ing lattice work, except in front, where Fig. 10-SUMMER HOUSE. space is left for entrance. A board seat passes around the interior, being supported by brackets beneath, nailed fast to the posts. The structure as thus made, did not cost ten dollars, every part except the seats being rough, (the boards unplaned,) to which three coats of whitewash made brown by a mixture of ochre, had been applied in as many successive years. A more rustic as well as ornamental appearance might have been given to it, by employing the rustic mosaic work described in the last number of the Register. Except in the more remote parts of the of namental grounds, large trees 'I- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 27 9 are not planted, as they xvoukl ultimately become too large for a limited space like this, but such mediumnl-sized and small trees as the following:The large and red-flowering Horse Chestnut; the Dog-wood and Aronia, (the two last eminently beautiful for their profusion of early spring flowers,) the common glutinous, and honey Locust; the Siberian Crab; the double-flowering Apple; the flowering, weeping, and golden Ash; the Virgilia, Cercis, Mountain Ash, Laburnum, &c.; and the smaller evergreens, as the White Spruce, Red Cedar, Juniper, Dwarf Scotch Pine, and others of similar size. Norway and Balsam Firs, are largely planted'towards the boundaries. The oval bed in front of the house, the oblong space between the two walks near the small entrance gate, and two or three other places, are chiefly occupied with the following shrubs:For E arly Spring Flowering-the Pink andWhite Mezereon; the White and Scarlet Japan Quince; the Dwarf Double-flowering Almond; and the Fig. 11. SUPPORTS FOR CLIMBING ROSES. Fig. 12. Missouri and Scarlet-flowering Currant. Late Spring Flowering-Tartarian Honeysuckle, pink, white and striped; Philadelphus, the large and the fragrant flowered; the common and Siberian Lilac; Silver Bell; Aza/ lea; Fothergilla; Barberry; Rose Locust; White Fringe Tree, &c. Ea'rly Stumnmer Flowering-Snowball, several Spirseas, Colutea, Laburnum, Fly 9 28 ILLUSTRATED.ANNUAL REGISTER Honeysuckle, &c. Late Summer Flowesrig-Hibiscus Syriacus (Althea), Magnolia glauca, Ceanothus, Dwarf Horse Chestnut, Yellow Jasmine, Spixra tomentosa and Douglassii, &c. The early summer roses create a brilliant display in their season, and the hybrid perpetuals, and some of the hardier bourbons and noisettes, continue in bloom till cold weather in autumn. The prairie roses are in a few instances trained as pillars, according to the manner shown in the figs. 11 and 12. The more delicate climbers are provided with such structures as fig. 13. The flower beds. I l early in spring show a display of flowering bulbs, as snowdrops, crocuses, squills, colchic ums, &C., succeeded by hyacinths, tulips, narcissus, and other hardy and showy kinds. These are followed by annual flowers, which bloom - profusely later in summer and in autumn. An- other portion of the flower beds is devoted to'-a, 4 ~3 herbaceous perennials, which bloom at an interFig. 13-SUPoaRT FOR VINES. mediate season. (For more particular lists of flowering plants, the reader is referred to the two previous numbers of the Register.) PEAR ORCHARD. On the left or west side of the dwelling, is an orchard of forty standard pear trees, mostly of the autumn or winter sorts, early varieties not being so appropriate for so frequented a place. The following comprise these, and the number of each,-most of which being symmetrically growing trees, and planted in the hexagonal form, produce an ornamental effect, suitable for near proximity to the house:-10 Virgalieu, 5 Seckel, 5 Sheldon, 5 Lawrence, 10 Flemish Beauty, 5 Buffum. Several winter sorts are planted largely in the dwarf pear garden, among which are the Glout Morceau, Easter Beurre, Winkfield, &c. This pear orchard is protected from the west winds, and separated fiom the farm road, by a screen of Norway firs, which in five years from setting out, attained a height of about fourteen feet. Another screen, mostly of evergreens of several different species, to impart variety of appearance, separates the ornamental grounds from the dwarf fruit tree and kitchen garden. The inner line of this screen is straight and kept sheared; the outer is irregular in outline, to harmonize with the rest of the planting on that side. This screen forms a fine shelter on the north side of the flower garden. THE DWARF GARDEN Is entered near the house, and also from the ornamental grounds at the 0 summer house near b, through an arch made by training two trees together OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 29 Fig. 14-VIEW OF THE DWARF PEAR GARDEN. overhead-(fig. 15.) This garden occupies an acre, and contains in the first four rows, (counting from the west,) 80 dwarf pear trees; in the fifth row, 20 dwarf ap-,, pies; in the sixth, 40 cur- ~-, rant bushes; in the seventh, 40 gooseberry bush-~- ~~es; in the eighth, 15 rasp~f~~~'"'e.~~~ ~berry bushes or stools,and 15 New-Rochelle black-,,. ~i~i~~~ | Xberry; and in the ninth, 15 dwarf cherry, and 15 quince bushes. A row of grapes is planted between the first and second rows of trees. FMig. 15-AiRHED GATEWAY. These rows of dwarfs, &c., are placed one rod apart, giving plenty of space for cultivation between, which spaces are occupied by garden vegetables, and constitute THE KITCHEN GARDEN. The rows of dwarfs, running north and south, do not shade the plants growing between them, except an hour or two in the morning, and for the same length of time before sunset; and as dwarfs generally have very short and numerous roots, they do not operate as standard fruit trees in withdrawing nourishment from the:soil;for some distance off. The strips of land between the rows of dwarfs are a rod wide, but only about ten feet are planted, leaving three feet next the trees on each side. More than half an acre of actual space is thus allotted to the kitchen vegetables,-which, with the exception of a few of the very smallest, are all planted in drills or double drills, and cultivated by horse labor. One strip of soil between two rows, is devoted to beds, occupied with radishes, 34_ 30 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER lettuce, spinach, onions, and other crops of smaller growth; and after this strip is deeply plowed in spring and planted, it is afterwards cultivated exclusively by hand. All the rest, planted with beans, peas, melons, potatoes, beets, parsnips, and even asparagus and strawberries, are cultivated with a horse, and in this way at least four-fifths of the ordinary labor for kitchen gardens is saved; while this rapid means of stirring the soil, keeps it more thoroughly mellowed than could be effected by hand, and as a consequence the crops are larger and better. The cultivator used for this purpose is one which admits of contracting its sides to within one foot of each other, fitting it for narrow drills. This mode of cultivating is especially adapted to farmers' grounds, and not to small village gardens, where horse-labor cannot be so well applied, and is not easily obtained. It has another two-fold advantage;-in manuring for vegetables, the dwarf trees get their share, so essential to success; and in cultivating the vegetables, the trees are not likely to be neglected. THE FRUIT GARDEN Lies immediately back of the vegetable garden and farm buildings. It is occupied with two rows of plums, 18 trees, (beginning on the west side, and running north and south,) one row of apricots and nectarines, 9 trees; three of early standard pears, 27 trees; two of cherries, 18 trees; four of peaches, 36 trees; and three of early and autumn apples, 27 trees; the latter not only for table use, but to supply the large quantities which are consumed for stewing and baking. Pigs and poultry are allowed to run freely in this fruit garden during the season of the setting and growth of the fruit; and when these are insufficient to destroy all the fallen and wormy fruit, special attention is given to the two rows of plums and one of nectarines and apricots, by running a temporary or hurdle fence at the place indicated by the dotted line, so that enough of these animals may be placed in the smaller enclosure to destroy all the curculios that drop in the punctured fruit. More room is given in the fruit garden to the apple than to other trees, by placing the rows wider apart, without disarranging the rows in both directions, or preventing the free cultivation of these trees by horse labor -so essential to their healthy growth, and to the quality of the fruit. A large orchard of winter apples grows on a more remote part of the farm. The fruit garden, and the dwarf and vegetable garden, are both surrounded with an excellent Osage Orange hedge, which no fruit-stealer can pass. By keeping the soil deep, dry by draining, and well mellowed by cultivation, a good barrier was formed in four years. The usual error of not cutting down was carefully avoided in training this hedge. A good beginning was made at the commencement, by shearing off the first year's growth (a) within three inches of the ground-(fig. 16, a side view.) The thick mass of vigorous shoots springing up from this shearing, was OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 31 Fig. 16-SE Na DoN 7-P-'ROPERLY TRIMMED' ig. 18 —BADLY TRIMYOUNG HEDGES. HEDGE-(end view.) MED HED GE, (end view.) cut again four inches higher about midsummer, and similar and successive cuttings, each a little longer, in the two following years, brought the hedge up to its full height. The form adopted in shearing is shown by the cross-section in fig. 17, the upper part terminating in a sharp ridge, and growing wider towards the bottom. In this way the lower part preserves its growth, vigor, and denseness, and is not thinned by the shaiding of the broad top, so commonly seen, and exhibited in fig. 18. A Fig. 19-NEGLECTED HEDGE, (side view.) neighbor, who made a good beginning with a hedge of the Osage Orange, could not be persuaded to cut off " the fine growth" after the first season, as represented in fig. 16; his hedge consequently never thickened at the bottom, and now presents the appearance shown in the side view-fig. 19. OUT-BUILDINGS. Immediately behind the dwelling, and fifteen feet from it, is the building containing the wood-house, dairy and ice-house. The inconvenience of a separate wood-house, is balanced by the advantage of exclusion from the noise of cutting and sawing, which would be more annoying in immediate contact with a small house. The dairy, although fronting the south, is kept cool by several dense evergreen trees on its south-west corner, and by the ice-house in its rear. The privy, P, is flanked by evergreen trees, and the passage to it is lined on both sides by Norway firs, which meet over head, and are kept sheared next to the path which it covers, thus forming at all times a sheltered green avenue. The smoke-house, s, (fig. 20,) is behind the ice-house. It is built of brick, with a stone basement for ash-pit, the latter being about four feet b high, plastered smoothly with water-lime inside, and with a loose plankcovering or floor, partly separating the ash-pit from the smoke-house!, 32 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER above, and through which the ashes may be poured down. For smoking the meat, a fire is built on this ashes, where it may be perfectly controlled, and the. - e A smoke rises above. A ventilator closed or opened at pleasure, to prevent the dampness so common otherwise with brick smokehouses, on the one hand; as well as a too free escape of smoke on the other. West of the smokehouse is the circular revolving! - clothes-line frame. Fig. 20-SMOsE-H0ocsS AND ASnERY. The range of Farm Buildings, is nearly explained by the annexed enlarged plan, fig. 21. The nearest corner is occupied by the piggery, for convenience in emptying -'~- i * -— T. -- I:~ sswill from the dairy Catf p, 7 7' o~ e::. and kitchen. Aplan _ ol1 l e:: of this buildingf is shown in fig. 22, ya.' See/ yelard - where the larger 9_2' _.......... feeding pen and lodging room, on the right, are occupied by the larger ani-!' als; those of meal I Sootr B-, dium size on the left, and the smaller ones by the central pen. An end or east view of this building is m-n:it shown in-fig. 23, ex-,: s i~:3 ~_~ | —0.- hibiting the large ventilator to pre< ~~wff ATo;n Amae & serve pure air, EM. ~ir _.11' I, behind the cook-.. ing-room chimney. 60ft. to a?&'no A Great pains are taken to keep all the Fig. 21 —RANGE OF FARM BUILDINGS. pens dry, clean, and suitably littered. The wagon-house, next on the left, is forty feet long, so as to afford RA~ —.I —L / OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 33 ample shelter to wagons, carriages, and other vehicles, which may be driven through, and X PBED E BED # out at the opposite door. A short alley, under I the same cover, allows the horses as soon as _they are taken off the wagon, to be led directly X to the stable, without passing out of doors. ) FEED- NG EEDING A lean-to is built on the north side of the wa-.PEN O_ ROOM | PEN gon-house, occupied by a tool-house opening to it, and apartments for eight milch cows, which are kept thus near and convenient for milking in winter. The mangers of this cowstable are filled from the hay-loft over the waFig. 22-PLAN OF PIGGERY. gon-house, by simply thrusting it down an opening directly over them. The barn itself is 30 by 45 feet, and is built on the usual plan, with a floor in the center, and bays on each side; a portion of the inner bay is,it reserved for straw, which is kept dry and clean, for both &C2; iih -o litter and chopping into cattle feed. The threshF'ig l'D VIWuF IGERing is mostly done in winter, by means of a small A. f. thresher driven by an endless chain horse power; and -__~..: -~ -: usually only half 4a day's threshing Fig. 23-END VIEW OF PIGGERY. is done at a time, as freshly threshed straw is better liked by cattle than if old and in large heaps. This horse power, placed on the barn floor, is also used for cutting or chopping hay and straw for cattle and horses; and when removed to the wood-house in summer and autumn, is employed for driving the dairy churn, the grindstone, and for sawing wood for winter and summer use. It will be observed that teams may enter the barn and pass out on the opposite side, from the farm road, with but a slight variation from its direct course. The range of horse stables on the nearer side of the barn, and of the cattle stables on the other side, may be entered, or supplied with grain or other food, by a covered passage from the barn floor. The calf and sheep pens explain themselves-an open yard being attached to each. All this C c4:2 34' ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER range of builcings for z:Lies and shelter (except the wagon-house and barn,) are about of equal height, and have ample hay-lofts over them, from which the hay is thrown down into the racks and mangers, through openings, with great facility. They form a hollow square, enclosing the barn-yard, —which is thus sheltered well from south, west, and north winds; and all the water of the roofs is kept from washing the manure, by means of eave troughs passing into three ample cisterns, (shown by the circles) from which horses, cattle, and sheep are readily watered by means of chain pumps. These cisterns are several times larger than cisterns colmmonly made for the purpose, and from the extent of roof which supplies them, afford at all times an ample supply of water for domestic animals, although a good well has been dug near at hand for such animals as are not accustomed to drink rain water. All the stables are kept in the neatest order, and when in use are always cleaned at least twice a day. The hen-hozase is the last building in the further range, an enlarged plan and elevation of which is here given. Fig. 24 is the elevation or view of the south end, and the house is amply and almost wholly lighted at this end, by four large windows, one of which also serves as the entrance door - a strong light, from the warm side beinu 24-END VIEW OF HEN HOUSE. especially necessa- Fig, 25-VERTICAL SECTION' ry and useful to a hen-house. Fig. 25 is a vertical,=.....-....cross section-the middle enclosed portion being the "common room," with feeding boxes, trough i 0for water, and a large box of sand for the hens to li foI[ ] play in. This room is covered by a board roof, = two and a half feet below the outer roof, and over this board roof, seen endwise, are the roosting M II I l; poles. The droppings from these poles fall upon ~,11;11,[ ~[~ J li~t I the board roof, and roll down it till they come to _[!! [. the trough at its lower edges, where they are retained, and from which they are easily scraped or _ lil swept into a basket and carried to the compost H heap. The board'walls on each side of the common room, form secluded passages behind them, where two tiers of boxes for nests run their whole 2..6-PLAN OF HEN HosE length, as shown in the plan, fig. 26. From this 26-PVLAN OF.I.EN JHous. ~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 05 hen house, the inmates are at any time readily let loose into the fruit garden behind it, the latter at most seasons of the year forming the poultryyard. The poultry-house is provided with a copious ventilator, which may be opened or closed at any time by a rod extending down within reach —free ventilation being of great importance to preserve the comfort and health of fowls, and without which the roosts would become excessively hot in summer nights. Among some of the luxuries which this place affords, are the following: By means of a hot-bed, the earliest vegetables are obtained almost as soon as ordinary growth commences, and a constant succession in large variety is kept up till winter, after which a supply is still maintained of the winter varieties, such as winter squashes and winter radishes, celery, cauliflower, beets, parsnips, and other roots. The circle of firuits commences with the Early Scarlet and Burr's Pine strawberries, and the early cherries; which are followed by other varieties of the same kinds, continuing the supply till a month or two later. These are immediately followed by raspberries, the new blackberries, early pears, apples, and apricots, and soon after by the earliest plums and peaches. During the whole of autumn, there is a profusion of the different sorts; and winter apples and winter pears usually last till early strawberries the following summer, through the assistance of an excellent cellar. Grapes are kept in the best condition through most of the winter, packed in boxes and jars. Honey from the bees, eggs and fresh poultry from the poultry-house, the richest milk, cream and butter from the dairy, are not omitted in their place. Rules for Exterior Designs for Houses. 1. In all cases study beauty of-form and proportion, and not ornament. Tasteful simplicity is better than fanciful complexity-as a statue in simple drapery is better than one bedizzened with feathers, ribbons, and unmeaning gewgaws. 2. Proportion may be shown in the smallest cottage as well as in the most magnificent palace-and the former should be carefully designed as well as the latter. However small a building may be, let it never show an awkward conception, when a good form is more easily made than a bad one. 3. The general outline of a building should not only exhibit good proportion, but every part. The height of a room, of a door, a window, should accord with its breadth; and the distance and distribution of these should observe the same rule, and should correspond with the expression as a whole. ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER! TIHE APIARY. EVERY prosperous swarm of bees must contain one queen and several thousand workers, and part of the year a few thousand drones. The queen (fig. 28) is the mother of the entire family; her duty appears to be only to deposit eggs in the cells. She is longer than either the Fig. 28-QUEEN. Fig. 29 —ORKEP. Fig. 30-DRONE. drones or workers, but her size in other respects, is a medium between the two; in color, darker on the upper side, and her legs and under side somewhat yellowish. All labor devolves on the workers-(fig. 29.) They range the fields for honey and pollen, secrete wax, construct combs, nurse the young, &c. The drones (fig. 30) are large and clumsy, and of the least value. They are reared by strong swarms when honey is abundant, and destroyed soon after its failure. In spring and first of summer, brood is reared more extensively than at any other period. The hive soon becomes crowded with bees, when they commence queens' cells (fig. 31, a, b,) preparatory for swarming. When Hg ~OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 37 MEp Fig. 31-TEIE THREE KlisDS OF CELLS. one or more of them alre advanced sufficiently to be sealed over, (c,) the old queen with the first swarm leaves. The young queen matures in eight or ten days, and leaves the cell, (d,) and if bees and honey are sufficiently abundant, she leads off a second swarm. In a day or two after, the third often follows. When it is decided that no more are to issue,. whether one or three have left, all supernumerary queens are destroyed; such as are in the cells are removed prematurely, leaving it like e in fig. 31. PRACTICAL RULES. Each good early swarm of bees in ordinary seasons, will store more than is needed for their own consumption in winter. This surplus, with proper arrangements, may be taken from them.without detriment to their i future prosperity. This principle lies at the foundation of all profit in ( modern Bee culture. tC>9 g <;Second or after swarms someq times as early as seven, and as.-;~ late as five. All swarms should -— _ be hived soon after clustering. It is not very important what lFig. 36-SWARM ISSUING. process is adopted; when con-'venient, they are readily dislodged and caught in the hive, and that set,upon a board on which are small sticks to raise it an inch. Sometimes |a portion will remain on the outside of the hive-these may be made to:enter by gentle disturbance with the feather end of a quill, or a slight sprinkling with water. When they have entered they may be carried at once to the stand,-the front side to be raised half an inch, and the whole hive effectually protected from the sun. First swarms are usually large enough for one colony, and when practicable should be kept separate. Second rswarms are generally half as large as the first, and when near one:time, two may be united. Third swarms are still less, and should have'their queens taken away from them and returned to the parent stock, or several such united. This secures strong colonies, which will repel any;attack firom the moth more effectually than small ones. The principal secret of success against this enemy is in this point-strong colonies. In the fall as soon as honey fails in the flowers, every stock and swarm should be examined, and all, not-strong enough to defend their stores from robbers on -the start, should be at once removed-they cannot be wintered,.and leaving them longer will only give rise to vexation and loss-it is hbetter and much easier to prevent an evil here than to cure it afterwards. In the spring weak stocks with proper care may recover and be worth,something. The apiarian should know which they are, and close the enltrance, allowing only one bee to pass at once. This will give a weak fatnily that has energy, a chance to repel all strangers. Sone but strong healthy stocks should be selected for winter. If left out-doors, a free admission of air must be secured; at the same time the mice must be kept out. Wire cloth is a good article for the purpose, cut into suitable pieces and fastened with small tacks over the entrance in / such a way that the bees may pass, but not the mice. It is safer to have ( them ill the sun, than wholly shaded during long terms of cold weather. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 41 Where a large number are to be wintered, a warm dark room or dry cellar of suitable size to hold them conveniently, is probably the safest place. At the becrinning of severe weather they are to be housed. To prevent the combs fromn mouldiIlg, the hive should be turtned bottom up and the holes in the top opened. Smnall blocks of wood an inch square, are first put down to hold the hive. One row is pult down on the bottom on one side of the room; a shelf a few inches above receives another row, and now still another above, when another commencement is made at the bottom, and continued in this way till the room is full. The shelves should be loose and put in as needed; and taken out as the bees are removed. They will then not be in the way in placing the hives, as sudden jars are to be avoided. The first fine days of March or April, they can be set out. The snow is no objection, if it is only a little hard; about a dozen only should be taken out at once. In an hour or two, most of the bees will have been out and returned, when as many more may be set out; choose the warmest part of the day, and if practicable each hive should occupy its old stand. For the sake of brevity, many of the reasons that have dictated these rules are not given. Many important points are unnoticed, others only glanced at; they are valuable to some extent, and the reader who wishes to realize the most profit from his bees with the least trouble and expense, will find the hive here recommended valuable, M. QUINBY, author of "ThLe JIysteries of Bee-Keeiring Explai'ned." COUNTRY HOUSES. No greater drawback to the comforts and attractions of country life exists, than in the drudgery and discomforts to which farmers' wives and daughters are subjected in boarding and lodging large numbers of hired men. Laborers' and mechanics' wives have a comparatively easy life, having but small families to provide for; but the wife of the large farmer, who must supply hearty meals for fifteen or twenty persons, at least three times a day, passes a life of hopeless drudgery. No wonder then, that we so frequently see them broken down with premature old age, while the mechanics' and merchants' wives are straight,'blooming, vigorous and active. No wonder, that farmers' sons turn away from such scenes of discomfort, to the " learned professions," and that young women generally, but especially town ladies, look upon it as a sort of state-prison-punishment to be compelled to marry a young farmer, especially if he cultivates many hundred acres. Nothing would sooner render agriculture respectable, honorable, pleasant and attractive to young people, and profitable to all, than the practice C) 42 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER of erecting good laborers' cottagres, (such as industrious and respectable laborers would like to occupy,) so that farm hands may board themselves, and the owner's family may einjoy the quiet and exclusion to which they are as fairly entitled as other men's families. The writer speaks from long and ample experience in saying, that by thus employing married men chiefly, better hands may be had, and at less total cost, than by any other way. It is for these reasons especially, that plans of LABoRERS' COTTAGES merit a full share of attention among those of Country Houses generally. Fig. 37-LABORE1"S COTTAGE. The design here represented, is one of Downing's. It is simple, cheap, andl substantial. The mode of building is distinctly shown in the view; the battened vertical boarding being as cheap as thin horizontal clapboards, more durable, and stronger-on the whole better adapted to buildinrs of this character. A considerable amount of expense is saved by using s-ough boards, which are rendered equally ornamental with planed boards by a coating of light brown oil paint. It is proper to remark, that the windowhoods should be made of plank at least two inches thick. An improvement of the plan (fig. 38) may be made by placing a door so that; the bed-room shall open directly into the living-room, and by en O RURAL AFF FIRS. 43 laroginc the wood-room in tile rear. The cellar stairs 2 are under the entry 0Ds R00 i. M Wtagirs=, so that ready ac1Z X l 1 0 COess is obtained to the i~. | t m~lIVING GM | chlar from the livingII -. cu X12 o 18 Molm; while n outdoor i II a neitl'nce is placed under ~~1L 1.14 the pantry windclow. EN- RY. t6 There are two comforta-'ble rooms above. The cost of this cottage Fig. 38-PLAN OF IABORER'S COTTAGE. well built, with brick filling and with cellar under the whole, is,aout three hundred to three hlndredrl and fifty dollars. WV ithout the cellar, it would be sixty or seventy dollars less. It may be built in a cheaper manner, without brick filling, and of poorer lumber, for two hundred, omitting the cellar. rig. 39-LABORER'S COTTAGE. This cottae w as built of small frame timber the two wings fitrmly hunde d f t bracing the central porstion,,~, ~~ c e t~lL ~la four inch scantling being found quite large enouo'h for this purE8 C{TCItEN PRINCIPAL BED pose. The plank siding formed d l.[ ROOM ROM the only connection in the framell ig anof 16 X16. orxe between the plates and sillslessening the cost. The exte-, Fig. 40-PLAN OF LABORE2eS COTTAGE. rior is rough, and is occasionalFig.40-PLAN OF LABORER's OTTAGE. ly whitewashed-obviating the lcp o s, Te ln sdn fre - f~ ut ag nouhfrthspr 44 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER expense of painting the large exterior surface. The actual cost of this cottage, built when lumber was cheap, was less than two hundred dollars. The plan (fig. 40) will show the internal arrangement. A cellar is situated under the kitchen; and a spacious chamber over the principal room) may be divided into two small bedrooms. The kitchen ceiling is lathed on the rafters,-the chimney is built on the floor of the chamber in the principal part, so that the pipe from the cook stove passes horizontally into it. The pipe from the stove in the principal room, passes through the floor above into the same chimney. The floors for the kitchen and chamber are made of rough boards. The mode of constructing the eave troughs is shown in fig. 41, and they are found cheap and good. 3:o! A represents the eaves simply, a being the lower end of the rafter, resting on the plate b, supporting the edge of the roof-board BT c, which projects about 3 eight inches. B exhibits e /s2 / I Ithe same with the eave-./' a trough attached; which is done by placing a sound and durable inchand-a-half plank, d, directly under the roofboard,and projecting sev/......... ported by the brackets,f. \ /.........\....../ The strip e, is added by matching, forming the Fig. 41-EAvE TROuGHs. trough. A coat of good paint completes it. A lining of tin-plate, or zinc, would be more substantial. D, shows the mode in which the two-inch plank, for.brackets, is cut up without waste. The cross lines are for the saw, the dotted lines where the wood is separated by splitting. C, is a finished bracket. A SWIss SUBURBAN COTTAGE. The Swiss cottage, as commonly built, is hardly adapted to the purposes of a residence in this country. Its picturesqueness may be retained, however, without copying its defects. The view here presented, (fig. 42,) has the boldness of the Swiss style much subdued, and is accompanied with more neatness of expression than is commonly found in this style. It exhibits a cottage, built on the grounds of E. P. PRENTICE, Esq., of Albany, and OF R URAL AFFAIRS. 45, Fig. 42-SwIss SUBURBAN COTTAGE. accords well with the hillside.4 10 co scenery where it stands. <-L.C7't* The plan (fig. 43) shows that, this was not intended for an ordinary farm house, but for a LLI xl o! msmall suburban residence for a - cl:C XO person doing business in the adjacent city. The second story.I C AT has three bed-rooms. A cellar'q J _extends under the whole. * ~ ~g x The external covering is shingles, cut to an ornamental pato, ~ tern; the frame being first covi X X ered with rough boarding, on.. —-. *,-.. which is laid tar-paper, before the shingles were applied. Shini *igles form quite a durable outside, and the whole taken toIL, gether makes a warm and dlry,.:.............. -.-.. house. It is well painted of a Fig. 43-PLAN OF SWISS COTTAGE.'light drab color. 46 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 44-STONE COTTAGE. This is a neat cottage, for a small farmhouse, or for the betW~ a 1 10 I2 ter class of laborers' l |KLTCHEN 3 4 l -dwellings. It may be built of cobble stone or block stone for aTYBED ROOE i bout four hundred dollars. The entry may ~{:X_ LIVING ROOM ~ wbe converted to an additional bed-room, by opening an entrancedoor into the livingroom at the side, next Fig. 45 —-PLAN OF STONE COTTAGE. this wing. AFig. 46-A SMALL FARM HOUSE. A correspondent has furnished the accompanying plan (fig. 47) of an improvement of the design on page 28 of the Register for 1855, the al OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 47 terations giving the two principal rooms a square instead of an octagonal form, by placing the closets between them instead of at the coroB 8 ~ ai, Iners. The two small bedrooms which flank the kitchen, afford important additional room at little increased cost. The perspective view L.. 4 iof this house is repeated in order that the whole may be seen together. Six or seven hundred dollars would build this dwelling, in a good and plain style, with Fig.47-PLAN OF FAmI BeOUssV. the larger rooms 15 by 16 feet, and 8,1 feet high. Fig. 48-A PLAIN HOUSE IN THE COTTAGE GOTHIC STYLE. The accompanying design was furnished by a correspondent, with a request for the suggestion of improvements. The most obvious defect is the direct passing from without through single doors, into the parlor and library. This objectionable feature may be removed by converting the central portion of the veranda into an entry or vestibule, opening into these two apartments. It will constitute a good farm-house, and if built in a cheap substantial manner, with the lower apartments nine feet high, will cost about fifteen hundred dollars. The following is the description of the plan furnished by our correspondent: Enclosed is the plan (figs. 49, 50) of a country house, lately drawn for a friend who is about to build, and who wants a house with four rooms and a kitchen on the first floor, and one story high. A house built on this plan, would be both comfortable and convenient, and at the same time, as ornamental as a farmer who did not wish to be thoulght "fireakish," would like to build in western Pennsylvania, where you will frequently see fire walls, or perhaps a roof extending over the gable just far enoughl to cover a three-quarter inch 48 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Y "barge board;" high grecian porticos, and chimneys invariably in the outside walls. The main building will be 82 by 34 feet; the kitchen 12 by 16, with two porches 4 feet wide-the pantry and coal-house connected with the Vf7;4WrRY ~-7 kitchen, will be 8 by 20 feet. There is a door s8 2 opening out of the kitchen into the pantry,.' and from the porch into the coal-house.'K11 - HEN i The building will firont the south-east, andI CISPER1l i | 12 x s from the bay window in the sitting-room, will r'"',.y 1>',:"~ be visible three-fourths of the farm; from the parlor bay will be seen part of the orchard and BED ROOM - D INIG the shrubbery. 4.2 15- ROOM E;1 ach room is provided with one closet or, — | ~wardrobe; the library with a permanenlltz hI PARLOR LiRaAiRsY 1 book-case. All the I" -X G SITTING ROOM windows in the se- cond story open on 16.PORC.-17X-' hinges; the one to the north-east into a Fig'. 49-FIrST FLOOR. small balcony with Fig. 50-SECOND FLOOR. light iron railing, 4 by 6 feet, which is sheltered by the roof, projecting over the wall two feet. The window at the opposite end has a railing attached to the outer edge of the wall, three feet high. The lowerl story, besides the dining-room, library, and parlor, contains one large ttd-roonl. The second has two good bed-rooms, 12 by 16 feet, and if necessary, a bed could be placed in the middle room, which is 8 by 16 feet, extending to the front wall. The stories are each 10 feet high. The stairs ascend between the chamber and dining-room; the cellar stairs are under them. Every room except the middle one in the second story, is provided with a fire-place. The roof is steep, the apex being 16 feet from the second' floor; this leaves room for a high ceiling in the upper bed-rooms, and for a small ventilating window at each end, above the ceiling, which permits a free circulation of air between the plastering and roof. A CHEAP FARM HOUSE. This plan (figs. 51, 52, 53) was furnished by a western correspondent,. and is intended to combine as many of the common, every-day conveniences of a farmers' dwelling, in a well-arranged and compact form,. as can be afforded for a given sum. The absence of a parlor will strike some eyes as an obvious deficiency; but for a farmer of moderate means, the less that is kept for show and the more for comfort and convenience, the better. A neighbor, who is a farmer of good means and superior intelli- gence, has reserved one room as a parlor-but it has been kept shut up as dead property, and to our certain knowledge. has been used but twice t OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 49 Fig. 51-A CHQEAP FARM HOUSE. in fifteen years,-once for a quilting party, and once for a wedding. The owner, to have more room, added in the first place a kitchen to his main building, so as to have a dining or living room, and " save" his parlor; WOOD ~ ReiOOF CLOSETS LIVING &JITCHEN r sic JR)Cf5, BED nx eale ro BED. ROOM j 15.X a54 |R00 ROOMi ROOM I ~ —-~ Fig. 52-GROUND PLAN-30 by 33 feet. Fig. 53-SECOND FLOOR. next, the kitchen was converted into a dining-room, and the wood-house was lathed and plastered for a kitchen; and several successive additions have been since made-the parlor remaining in solitary loneliness. Now, if this room, kept for show, but never made visible, with its furniture, cost $500, then its use once in seven years must cost, writh interest, decay, &c., about four hundred dollars for each occasion. At the same time there are some serious domestic inconveniences that might be remedied for a fourth part that sum, and some glaring exceptions to neatness outside, which a tenth part would remove. These remarks are intended to apply only to cheap houses, where a limited expenditure of means should be applied first to procure such ac 50 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER commodations as are in constant use, if convenience and show cannot be had at the same time. The plans exhibit the whole arrangement. The wood-room is devoted to the storage of wood, after it has been cut ready for stove use. It will be observed that the wood-room, pantry, kitchen, and living-room, although sufficiently separated, are in near and convenient proximity, and that common household labors will be far more easily performed in such a house as this, than in some large establishments, where comparatively long journeys must be performed to pass from one apartment to another. It is intended that the cistern pump discharge into the sink, and that the well be equally near at hand. The cost of this house, with a variation in the cost of materials, and in finish, will be from nine to twelve hunmdred dollars. Fig. 54-]BRACKETED FARM HOUSE. A comfortable, spacious, and symmetrical farm house, is represented in the view and plans here presented, the exterior of which originally appeared in one of Dowrang's books. It is one of the best of his many designs. The plan is mainly copied from Loudon. As it is a simple parallelogram, it may be cheaply built, and with little waste of material. The roof has no receding angles, and is therefore free from danger of leakages. ) The entrance hall (-fig. 55) opens to the parlor, living-room, and through $7 -- _ _ _ _ _ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 51 the back transverse passage to'all the kitchen apartments, except the sculler-y, which mav be a wash-room or back kitchen, and xwhich is entered thlroucjh the back door. Exactly opposite this back door, and in:~,t,>-_:':__,-_.o..n4.-_ ~_~ the inner parti[, 2-=~-"- _''-''" tion of the scul-. ii 1l x 8 gler,, a wvindow SCULLx tORiY6 E sllould be placed eDAIRY PANT. tSULLERY KITCHCEN fr hghting the passage firom the kitchen to the dairy. Those wvho prefer having the'~!'^aO t.,v,,~-a. dairy in a sepPARLO O R L IVI N G- RI arate building, 21 _ 21 1may convert this apartment into a bed-room. In this case, the pantry PO RCH 1may be converted into a milkroom, and a panFig. 55-PLAN OF PaINCIPAL FLOOR. try taken off the.scullery. The position of these kitchen appendages is such as to afford unusual facilities for any modifications of this sort. The second story (fig. 56) is divided into six bed-rooms of ample size, all of which are entered from the upper hall antd passage. The steepness of the roof is sufficient to afford an IJX /8 i II X18 I anmple garret, for 15 x 18 3 the various purposes required by the farmer. If neces-. sary, three or four bed-rooms for ~~I0X17 I bl ~~ This house,built in the vertical.....2l ~.^__|. b~ oarding style as Fig. 56-PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR. represented in the view, or with common horizontal clapboarding, which will cost the same, might be finished in a good substantial manner, filled in with brick, for $1800 to $2000. Q 52 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER,. / 5 Fig. 57 —ITALIAN FARM House. This design is intended to exhibit a dwelling expressive of an air of modest and refined neatness, free from any bold or prominent peculiarity of architecture. Its general air is that of the Italian style, presenting the varied outline and freedom from stiffness for which this mode of building is distinPANTRY ~guished, but without a rioid adherence to NURSERY i' KITCHEN architectural rules.. It is intended for an 0fi L DINING intellectual family in ERCNTRYE FASSAGE ROOM moderate or comfortable circumstances, LIBRRY and either as a farm or suburban resiacPORCH dence. Without any attempt at costly or-:Fig. 58. nament, it aims to give a tasteful extePANTRY B rior. A profusion of ENTR CLOSET D INNG. - NURSE.RY 1 decoration, or as. I-_ I commonly termed, L ROOM - ~, < r "gingerbread work," KITCN -EN R Y.. CLOSEE is one of the most L 1! commonfaultsinour P A R LO newer country dwellLIBRARY, ings, much oftener POR- CH showing a want of architectural taste 6() Fig. 59. than its presence. KC s OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 53 The simple elegance of a statue, with the plainest drapery, is infinitely more pleasing than if bedizzened with flashy ornaments, ribbons, poppies, and peacock feathers; and more taste ma.y be shown in the form and proportions of a log dwelling, than Horace Walpole exhibited by his splendid erection at Strawberry Hill, which was in fact only a glittering jumble. The plan (fig. 58) needs but little explanation. The library may be devoted to books, papers, objects of natural history, optical instruments, &c., and would form an interesting resort for the younger members of the family, or for the pursuit of their home studies; or it might be occupied as a business office. We have given modifications of the plan in the accompanying figures. In fig. 58, the nursery and library both open (through a small entry, so as to exclude the direct cold air of winter,) upon the veranda, that the children and young people may enjoy its full benefit. The dining-room, entered through the side passage, is freely accessible from both kitchen and parlor, and may be used as a snug, retired and comfortable living-room. For those who prefer a parlor opening on the veranda, the second plan (fig. 69) is given, the dining-roonm and veranda of fig. 58 being made to change places with each other, so that the nursery and parlor both open by means of an entry, upon the veranda-this mode of access through an entry being more secure from cold, and better adapted to a house of this character than windows opening as doors. If desired, the veranda may be replaced with two bed-rooms, for a larger or increasing family —a very common circumstance. The plan of the second floor is not given, as it very nearly resembles, in its general form, the plan below. It may be made into six bed-rooms, by dividing the space over the kitchen in the first plan, and over the diningroom in the second, leaving the necessary passages for this purpose. Those who lodge hired men may prefer a separate stairway to the two back rooms, in which case narrow stairs may be placed at one side of the kitchen, directly under which the cellar-stairway may descend. The dairy occupies a separate room in the cellar, with a free access to pure fresh air. The roof over the hall only rises to the eaves of the side wall, thus avoiding the usual leakages of re-entering angles in roofs. As it is, however, more nearly horizontal than the rest, it should be covered with a metalic coating of the same color as the rest of the roof. This house, built on a moderate scale, or with the four larger rooms about 15 by 17 feet, and 10 feet high, perfectly plain in its finish, may be completed for about eighteen hundred dollars. With larger rooms, more massive and durable walls, and higher finish, it might be made to cost three thousand to three thousand five hundred. BATTENED COUNTRY HouiSE. This is a spacious, convenient, and symmetrical design for a suburban residence or farm house of the better class, and is well adapted to pictu- j 54 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER It,,z I.M i -Qf 1 - Fig. 60 —BATTENED COUNTRY HOUSE. resque scenery. The plan (fig. 61) is original; the view was designed some years ago by R. V. DE WITT, of Albany. The entrance hall opens separately into the living-room, nursery, parlor, and library. The pantry, as should always be the case when it combines.3A ig. 61-PLA OF BAT D NURSERY PARLOR 12X18 i8 X s X8 X, being accessible to both nursery and kitchen, is in the most convenient stion the frer, admy beral s lid wit ware er,. 10XA8 IS. is o) F RWURAL AFFAIRS. 55 Y from the latter. The small chinmey for the kitchen stove, surmounted with one of Mott's ventilators, is omitted in the elevation or view. By a slight alteration in the partition between the library and parlor, these two rooms may be varied to suit cilherent wants and pnr'poses. A living-room and parlor may be made of these, with folding doors, the chinlmey being omitted, and warmth imparted by means of a hot-air fur- nace. Or, the library may be converted to a bed-room; or, the partition may be moved back, so as to give the parlor in front, and leave room for a bed-room back, according to the nature of the exterior view, the best prosport being reserved for the parlor windows. In either case, it opens by a double door on the veranda. The second floor is subdivided like the first, and may be made to form four or six bed-rooms, according to their size; and any desired amount of space lmay be devoted to closets, by'~~~ / $ X separating the rooms by means of two partitions three feet apart, and forming two closets of this space, each opening to its appropriate room. A large closet for bedding may be left at Fig. 62 —ORNAMENTAL GATE. the back end of the upper hall. The space over the pantry and bath-room, and over the nursery, is devoted to bed-rooms entered by the kitchen stairs; and beneath these stairs is the entrance to the cellar. The exterior walls of this house are wood, boarded vertically and battened, and rendered warm for winter and cool for summer, by brick filling. A better expression would be imparted by larger chimneys. The cost of this house would be about $2,200 to $2,500. AN ENTRANCE GATE, adapted to the expression of this house, is shown in fig. 62. A GOTHIC MANSION. This design of G. WHEELER, presents a neat, graceful, and elegant exterior of a mansion in the Tudor Gothic style, suited to the more wealthy class of country residents. It will be observed on comparing the view and plan, that the former is a side view, the entrance being at the right end of the figure, under the angular porch. The plan (fig. 64) nearly explains itself. There is an unusually large provision for the entertainment of company, more than many will desire, but suited to the wants of others. The rooms, except the library and kitchen, are fourteen feet high, and large in proportion. 56 LLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 9 lFig, 63 —GOTHIO MANSION. 2|R DIDI~NC RDONI 16 sS+~4, Wa(3 Q > t. I/AL! -VE~STIEBL. lIT 01CE Fig. 64LA O' AS. - RFTI, ORAWINU ROVM UJ 4 25 X 22 1iX1 A g tBROb i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~1/A) j \SX Fig. 64-PLAN OF (IOTHIC MANSION. i OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 57 NOTES ON FRUITS.* CULTURE OF FRUITS-FAMILTAR -IINTS. IT is not necCessary at the present time, when almost everybody is planting fruit trees, to go into a long argument to show its advantages. A contibued and most convincing proof is furnished by the fruit itself,whether it be from the single loaded plum or apricot tree in the pinchedup kitchen-yard of thel townsman,,-or the broad orchard bending under the myriads of delicious specimens on the spacious grounds of the farmer. But an inquiry is made-imuch oftener than it is rightly answered"how shall we manage our young trees, from the moment they are received from the nursery, so that they may speedily come into profitable bearing!"-or, " how long will my young trees have to grow before I shall get fruit from them " As the time required for their fruiting depends very greatly on their management; while the quality, even more than the amount yielded, is influenced by the treatment they receive, it is well worth some pains and labor to give them every advantage. Is it not strange, that while every man knows so perfectly well that half-starved cattle cannot possibly thrive, so many expect young fruit Fig. 65. trees not only to thrive and grow, but to yield good crops, when not receiving even a tenth part of the attention that is bestowed on a balf-neg* For directions in relation to the Culture and Mana ement of Fruits, see REcIs'raER for 1855-for careful and complete Descr iptions of the lest Varieties, and an article on the Propagation and Pruning of the Grape, see,RIlcia, s', for 1856-for SLaggestions on Laying Out and i>lan ting Orchards, and on the Smyall Fruits. see REGISTER for 1857 K\ -while many other notes in connection with the subject will be found in all three of themi. ( C?2> F::7_ 58 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ) lected herd of cattle. Crowded, in the first place, into small holes, dug into hard soil; and afterwards suffered to be overgrown and choked by weeds and grass, they are quite sure to refuse the injustice of repaying with a good crop such negligence, not to say utter starvation at the roots. It is not difficult to see plenty of just such trees, of the apple, for instance, in passing through some parts of the country, of which the acolnpantying portraits are tolerably fair representations-(fig. 65.) Now, it is nothing whatever but this neglect that has reduced them to such a condition; with good cultivation they might have been just such healthy, vigorous, handsome, prolific specimens as these below, (fig. 66,) which happily are becoming more and more common every succeeding year. In reply to the inquiry as to the best treatment for trees-The first thing is to get a good soil. To set good trees on bad land, is like building a house without a foundation,or ~~9b ~~- /.. alike sitting down to dine at empty dishlegall es; there is nothing __?; to support the growth of the tree -no food to supply i t with proper nourishment. If, therep fore, the soil is not already such as to yield a crop of sixty or seventy bushels of Indian corn per acre, it should be made so, if -J~-'~-~-_ ~ ~~-:?~ ~trees are expected to flourish in the Fig. 66. finest manner. The first thing is to obtain sufficient depth of soil,-to enable the roots to extend themselves freely, and to hold moisture without drying up in protracted drouths. This may be obtained by digging very large holes, say eight feet in diameter, an-d a foot and a half deep, and filling them with rich earth. But a better way is to plow the whole surface to that depth, and to enrich it well by manuring. A common plow will descend six or seven inches; by passing another plow in the furrow, that is by trenchplowing, the soil may be loosened to ten inches or a foot. But by means of a good subsoil plow in the common furrow, a depth of fifteen to eighteen inches may be attained. Now, to work the manure down to that'( depth, and make the whole one broad deep bed of the richest soil, it must OF -.RURAL AFFAIRS. 59 be first spread on the surface evenly after the whole has been well subsoiled, then harrowed to break it fine and mix it with thle top soil, and then thrown down by a tlorIough tlench-plowing. For although the trenchplowing can hardly be worked a foot in depth of itself, yet after a good loosening with the subsoil plow, it may be at once extended down a foot and a half. If this is clone in the fall, and another good plowing given in spring, the whole will be in finle condition for the reception of trees. Does this seem like a gre at deal of cost and labor? It is the very cheapest way of getting fine crop.s of the best fruit, for the way in which strollng, long, and healthy shoots will run up even the first year, will seem like nothing short of magic; andc thle short time in which such trees will begin to hang out their ruddy or golden treasures, and tlhe size, beauty, and richness of the fiuit afihrded from such an orchard, kept well cultivated during its early years, will astonish those who have never seen any but slip-shod culture. After a tree is well set ont in such an admirably prepared soil, the subsequent treatment, although of the greatest importance, is very simple. It consists merely in keeping the soil mellow, by repeated stirring, and prevelnting the growth of aiiy vegetable fot several feet from the tree, whether it be weeds or the growth of a crop. A hoed crop is however admissible, as being next best to clear mellow ground, because most of the surface is still kept well stirred during the operation of tillage. A sowed crop, grass, or weeds, is ruinous to young trees. These hints, we are aware, are not new to many; but it is often better to repeat an old and important truth, till all practice it, than to search only for what is new. SPROUTS ABOUT FrtUIT TR.EES.-These often become troublesome and unsightly. It is a common practice to cut them off' at the surface of the ground. But this leaves many dead stumps, and the sprouts soon sprinlg up again. The best time is to remove them early in summer, when they will be less likely to grow again; and if they are not too large, they meay be pulledl off with the hands, assisted by one foot (in a thick boot,) placed between the sprout and tree. If they are too large, or too low down, to be taken off in this way, then the earth must be scraped away so that they may be cut off closely to the tree. PE-GRA FTING OLD TREEg.-The late GEORGE OLMSTED of Hartfordl Ct., was very successful in grafting new tops into old trees. His rule w as always to begin at the top and graft one-third of the tree in each year — three years being thus required to complete the entire head. By grafiting at the top first, the grafts are not shaded bly the remaining branches; while the necessary reduction throws the sap into the remaining side A limbs, and gives them vigor for grafting the next year. A tree sezventyfive years oZd, was successfully treated in this way. The fourth year afterwivards it bore 10 bushels of apples; the fifth year 8, and the sixth 281.) A'-_.....k. 60 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER THE GRAPE. THE BEST HARDY GRAPES. —This rapidly-growing, quick-bearing, delicious fruit, is every year attracting increased attention. The hardy varieties are especially inquired for. Among these, the following are the best. The Isabellac and Catawba,,widely-cultivated and well-known sorts. Neither of them ripen well ordinarily at the extreme north. - Unlessfully ripe they are not themselves. The bunch of a well-ripened Isabella breaks easily from the vine, almost with a touch. The Diana is much smaller than either, copper-colored or pink, two weeks earlier than the Isabella, and of a delicate, s we e t and excellent flavor. Thle Concord ripens about the same time as the Diana, is large and showy, near"(K: { t a ly black, and of a good, but not of the best flavor. The YTork kiadeira is much like the Isabella, but less musky and with less pulp, smaller, and a few days earlier. The Clinton is two weeks earlier than the Isabella, the bunches and berries are small, the flavor rather acid, but the vines are very hardy, * % 4 < ) of vigorous growth, and productive. The Delaware is a small, brown, and excellent grlape, Isabella, and is hardy. The Rebecca grape (fig. 67) is quite new, bul promises high value; its color "white" like that of the Sweetwater, and its flavor very finle; the vine has proved quite hardy. Both the two last have much of the delica — Fig. 67-THE RPEBECCA GRAPE. cy of the exotic sorts. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 61 KEEPTING GRAPES.-A new method of keeping grapes in winter has been adopted to some extent in France, consisting essentially in hanging up the bunches separately by the smaller end, on wire hooks. Small wires, of sufficient stiffness, and a few inches in length, are bent into hooks in the shape of the letter S; one end is passed into the smaller end of the bunch, and the other placed upon a suspended hoop, as shown in fig. 68. The position of the bunches causes every berry to hang away from its neighbor, and consequently they are less liable to rot by contact, than by any other arrangement. The hoops are suspended by three cords or wires to a button overhead, like the hook of a baby-jumper; and i E X S any convenient number of hoops may'-~~ ~ % 8P B Jbe hung successively under the first. The center of the fruit-room may be thus occupied; and the walls may be covered by passing horizontal wires i around the walls, and about a foot from them, to receive the hoops for the susFig. 68. pension of the bunches. This will be found much more perfect than the more common practice of keeping grapes upon shelves or in drawers. It is hardly requisite to remind those accustomed to the successful keeping of grapes, of the necessity of careful picking, the removal of imperfect or decayed berries, and of avoiding too much moisture in the fruit-room on the one hand, and of such a degree of dryness on the other as to cause wilting. The necessity of excluding frost is of course obvious. GRAPES AROUND BOSTON.-Some years since the product of exotic grapes, in glass grape-houses, within ten miles of Boston, was estimated at forty tons yearly, and of late years great additions have been made. THE CURRlANT. VARIETIES OF TIIE CURRANT.-The old red and whiite currants, if well cultivated and pruned of old wood, so that new wood may constantly spring up and bear, will be five times as large as on neglected old bushes, and are good sorts. The Red and White Dutch, generally regarded the best on the whole, are much like these old ones, except that the bunches are much longer. The Cherry cu'rant (fig. 69) is the largest red currant, about half an inch in diameter, is often a moderate bearer, sometimes a great bearer, and the bunches are short. The White Graqpe (fig. 70) is 62 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER the largest white currant, being nearly half an inch in diameter if well cultivated, with long bunches, and excellent flavor. The Victoria, a late, // N Fig. 69-Ci-HERRY CURRANT. Fig. 70-WRtITE GRAPE CURRANT. ries. Knight's Sweet Red, is a tolerably good sort, called sweet because more in[(I jj J JiA~zsipid than most others. The Black Engish is well known for its high scent and - musky flavor, liked by some, and much disliked by most. The Black Naples is like it, but larger and better. (. ii J /y advantage to any kind of Fig. 74. shears for pruning. The above figure (fig. 74) represents this instrument as used for grafting. 66 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER The thin blade A, two or three inches long, is set at an angle with the handle B, of about a hundred and twenty degrees, and for this very reason, when the shears are closing, the blade makes a draw-cut towards the concave bed C, which is placed against the stock to be cut. A tree an Fig. 75. inch in diameter is clipped square off. -.. by this tool, with as much ease as a jackknife will clip a carrot. This grafting instrument may be at once transformed o into shears for pruning, by substituting for the bed-piece C, another and blunt- Fig. 76. er blade-(fig. 75.) In order to makeithe principle of the working part of this instrument more clearly understood, we annex two simple figures, (fig. 76,) the one representing the objectionable mode sometimes adopted, of placing the pivot at the angle in the blade, the dotted lines (which are nothing more than circles described around the pivot a as a center,) clearly showing that this blade cuts only at right angles, and consequently does not possess the power of the other blade, where the pivot being placed below the angle, the cut is made obliquely,-it has the draw-cut. FRUIT LADDERS. Convenient fruit-ladders greatly facilitate the gathering of fruit, prevent its becoming bruised, and save it from mutilation by chafing. A very simple, cheap, and convenient self-sustaining ladder, is represented in fig. 77, the legs and cross-rods of which may be about the size of, or slightly larger than those of a common chair. The small plank plat*Fig. 77. form at the top may be six by nine inches. The whole may be-about three feet high, and will be nearly as light as an ordinary chair, and it A -= will be found extremely useful amongthe smaller trees, Fig. 78. or for the lower parts of full-grown ones. The form represented in filg. 78, having two folding legs, like those of a tripod, turning on joints, may be from 6 to 10 feet high. An improvement of the latter has been made by continuing the two OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 67 sides of the ladder to a point, a, fig. 79, which the more readily enables the operator to thrust it up among the branches, and often enables him to support himself by holding to it. The legs turn at the hinges, b, and may be folded up to the ladder when not in use, as in the preceding instance. The Orchardist's Crook, (fig. 80,) consists of a light rod, with an iron hook at one end, and a piece of wood made to slide along it. It enables the operator to draw down the flexible branches of fruit trees within his reach, and retain them there while the fruit is picked from them. In using it, the operator draws down the end of the branch with the hook, and fastens it by the sliding piece to another branch below. The slider passes freely along the rod when not in use, but ceases to slide by the friction of the side-strain, when fastened to the branch. Fig. 80. The Folding Ladder may be closed together with the facility of a pair of compasses; it Fig. 79. then becomes a round stick, easily carried in one hand. It is made of strong light wood, and its construction may be readily understood by figure 81, representing the ladder as open, as half-closed, and as closely ( shut. An enlarged longitudinal section shows the manner in which the rounds lie in the grooves or concave beds in the sides or styles; above which is a cross-section ex-. libiting the semi-oval form of the styles. The ends of the rounds turn on iron pins, slightly riveted outside. The rounds resting on shoulders, when the ladder is opened, render the whole stiff and firm. A ladder of this construction is found very useful, not only in fruithouses, where a common ladder could not be conveniently car- ] Fig. 81. ried, but in pruning standard trees, 68 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER because it can be thrust through the branches like a round pole, without the least difficulty, and when once there it is easily opened. LIST OF THE BEST FRUITS. The following list of the best sorts of fruits, has been adopted at the several sessions of the American Pomological Society, and is perhaps as perfect a selection as could be made for general application. But different cultivators, in particular localities, will perhaps prefer leaving out some of them and adding others which experience may prove better adapted to those localities. No two persons would make the same selections throughout, and the list may therefore be modified to suit all. A P P L E S. VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Autumn Bough, American Summer Pearmain, Broadwell, Baldwin, Coggswell, Benoni, Carolina June, Bullock's Pippin, Fallenwalder, Danvers Winter Sweet, Genesee Chief, Early Harvest, Jonathan, Early Strawberry, Jeffries, Fall Pippin, King of Tompkins County, Fameuse, Ladies' Sweet, Gravenstein, Monmouth Pippin, Hawley, Mother, High Top Sweeting, Primate, Hubbardston Nonesuch, Smith's Cider, Lady Apple, Smoke House, Ladies Sweet, Wagener, Large Yellow Bough, Winter Sweet Paradise, Melon, Winthrop Greening or Lincoln Pip. Minister, FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. Porter, Canada Red, Primate, Esopus Spitzenburgh, Rambo, Newtown Pippin, Red Astrachan, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Yellow Bellflower. Roxbury Russet, FOR GARDENS. Summer Rose, Garden Royal. Swaar, Vandervere, P E A R S. William's Favorite, (except for FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. light soils,) Ananas d'Ete, Wine Apple, or Hays, Andrews, Winesap. BeIIe Lucrative, or Fondante d' FOR NOTHERN LOCALITIES. Automne, Ribston Pippin. Beurre d'Anjou, OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 69 Beurre d'Aremberg, VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. Beurre Diel, Adams, Beurre Bose, Alpha, Beurre St. Nicholas, Beurre d'Albret, Bloodgood, Beurre Clairgeau, Buffun, Beurre Giffard, IDearborn's Seedling, Beurre Kennes, Doyenne d'Ete, Beurre Langelier, Doyenne Boussock, Beurre Nantais, Flemish Beauty, Beurre Sterckman, Fulton, Beurre Superfin, Golden Beurre of Bilboa, Brande's St. Germain, Howell, Brandywine, Lawrence, Chancellor, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Charles Van iooghten, Madeleine, Collins, Manning's Elizabeth, Comte de Flanders, Paradise d'Automne, Conseillier de la Cour, Rostiezer, Comptesse d'Alost, Seckel, Delices d'Hardenpont d'Belgique, Sheldon, Delices d'Hardenpont d'Angers, Tyson, Doyenne d'Alencon, Urbaniste, Dix, Uvedale's St. Germain(for baking,) Doyenne Goubault, Vicar of Winkfield, Duchesse d'Orleans, Williams' Bon Chretien or Bart- Duchesse de Berri d'Ete, lett, Emile d'Heyst, Winter Nelis. Epine Dumas, FOR CULTIVATION ON QUINCE STOCKS. Fondante de Comice, Belle Lucrative, Fondante de Charneuse, Beurre d'Amalis, Fondante de Malines, Beurre d'Anjou, Fondante de Noel, Beurre Diel, Iosen Schenk, Catillac, Jalousie de Fontenay Vendee, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Kingsessing, Easter Beurre, Kirtland, Figue d'Alencon, Limon, Glout Morceau, Lodge (of Penn.,) Long Green of Coxe, Niles, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Nouveau Poiteau, Napoleon, Onondaga, Nouveau Poiteau, Osband's Summer, Rostiezer, Ott, Beurre Langelier, Philadelphia, Soldat Laboreur, Pius IX., St. Michael Archange, Pratt, Urbaniste, Rouselette d'Esperen, Uvedale's St. Germain, or Belle St. Michael Archange, Angevine, (for baking.) Steven's Genesee, Vicar of Winkfield, Striped Madeleine, White Doyenne. Theodore Van Mons, 70 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Van Assene, or Van Assche, Knight's Early Black, Walker, May Duke, Zepherine Gregoire. Reine Hortense. FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. VARIETIES WHICH PROM3ISE WELL. Grey Doyenne, American Amber, White Doyenne. Bigarreau Monstreuse de Mezel, Black Hawk, P L U M S. Great Bigarreau of Downing, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Rockport Bigarreau, Bleeker's Gage, Hovey, Coe's Golden Drop, Kirtlancd's Mary, Green Gage, Ohio Beauty, Jefferson, Walsh's Seedling. Lawrence's Favorite FOR SPECIAL CULTIVATION. Lombard, Napoleon Bigarreau. Monroe, Purple Favorite, AP RIC O T S Prince's Yellow ~Gage, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Purple Gage, Breda, Reine Claude de Bavay, Large Early Smith's Orleans, Moorpark. Washington, McLaughlin. VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. N E C T A I N E S Braz dshawi, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Duane's Purple, Downton, Fellenberg, Fellenberg, Early Violet, General Hand, Euge. German Prune, Ives' Washington Seedling, P E A C H E S. Munroe, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Pond's Seedling, Bergen's Yellow, Rivers' Favorite. Crawford's Early, St. Martin's Quetche, Cooledge's Favorite, White Damson. Crawford's Late, FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. Early York, seqrrated, Imperial Gage. George IV., ------ Grosse Mignonne, C H E R R I E S Morris White, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Early York, large Belle d'Orleans, Hill's Chili, Belle Magnifique, Large White Cling, Black Eagle, Teton de Venus, Black Tartarian, Oldmixon Free, Downer's Late, Oldmixon Cling. Coe's Transparent Early Purple Guigne, VARIETIES WAIICH PROMISE WELL. Governor Wood, Gorgas, Elton, Hill's Chili, Early Richmond, (for cooking,) Madeleine de Courson, Graffion or Bigarreau, Susquel-hnna. FRAIUA OF RURAL AFFAIRS 71 FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. Red Antwerp, Heath Cling. Yellow Antwerp. VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. G Rt A P E S. American Red, FOR OPEN CULTURE. Cope, Catawba, Catawissa, Diana,. Ohio Everbearing, Isabella. Orange, UNDER GLASS. Thunderer, Black Hamburg, Walker. Black Frontignan, Black Prince, S T R A W B E R R I E S. Chasselas de Fontainebleau, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Grizzly Frontignan, Boston Pine, White Frontignan, Hovey's Seedling, White Muscat of Alexandria. Large Early Scarlet. VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. VARIETIES WHICH PROMISE WELL. Delaware, Genesee, Concord, Hooker, Rebecca. Le Baron, Longworth's Prolific, G OO S E B E R RI E S. McAvoy's Superior, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Scarlet Magnate, Crown Bob, Trollope's Victoria, Early Sulphur, Walker's Seedling. Green Gage, FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES. Green Walnut, Burr's New Pine, Houghton's Seedling, Jenny's Seedling. Iron-Monger, Laurel, CURRANTS. Red Champagne, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Warrington, Black Naples, Woodward's Whitesmith. May's Victoria, Red Dutch, R A S P B E Rt R I E S. White Dutch, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION, White Grape. Fastolff, Franconia, B L A C K B E R R I E S. French, FOR GENERAL CULTIVATION. Knevet's Giant, New-Rochelle, Orange, The Dorchester Blackberry. WASTE OF MArURE.t-Hercules was evidently a poor farmer. He turned a river into the Augean stables (containing many years of accumulated manure from thirty thousand cattle) and washed the contents all away. n This is like the man who most ingeniously built his hog-pen across a brook, into which the cleanings could be dumped, and carried off without "trouble." $I( A~~~-~ _~~~ t79~~ -~~- I 72 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ANNUAL FLOWERS, WITH DESCRIPTIVE LISTS AND METHOD OF CULTURE. WRITTEN FOR THE REGISTER BY EDGAR SANDERS. AN annual is a plant, which, from seed, springs into and perfects its growth and seeds, and perishes during the same season; while a biennial lasts two,; and a perennial many seasons. Annuals are very generally d;stributed over the whole habitable globe, and form no inconsiderable portion of economical as well as ornamental flora. They also comprise many of our most troublesome weeds, as purslaze, chickweed, &c. Those ordinarily cultivated, are natives of many different countries, being more or less hardy according to the part of the world in which they are found indigenously, and /I~ ) ~~~are known to florists by the terms hardy, half-hardy, and tender. California is \ [d~ / tvery rich in showy annuals, as is the Swan River Colony. ok Quite a number have been vastly altered and improved by florists, from the normal type, or as they are found in a state of nature, and transformed into flowers of the richest description,as asters, stocks, marigolds, balsams, larkspurs, poppies, &c., all of which have exceedingly double flowers instead of single. Others, as morning glory, phlox drummondii, portulaccas, zinnias, &c., have had their flowers much enlarged and otherwise beautified. These results should act Fig.. 82-PETUNIA PUNCTATA. as a stimulus for trial on others; it requires only a little patience, and a careful saving of seed from the best or curiously altered flowers. I Many annuals are admirably adapted to planting in masses, (that is one sort only in a bed,) especially such kinds as Portulacca, Phlox, Nemophila, and others; and any of them may be made to adorn mixed borders, OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 73 and fill up all gaps of early-flowering plants, as spring bulbs, or any plant dying down before midsummer. The dwarf kinds, as Portulacca, &c., make the showiest of edgings, either to walks, or for a ring on the outside of other plants. A few do well mixed together, as Clarkia and Mignonette, the latter hiding the naked stems of the former. The same of the White Alyssum and Purple Candytuft, the Dwarf Gillia and Blue Pimpernel. MODE OF SOWING.-First sow one kind evenly over the bed, not too thick; then the other; when they come out into rough leaf, or as soon as they can be handled, thin them out so that they stand equally at regular distances over the whole bed. They may also be sown ribbon fashion, that is, by taking a certain number of kinds, those having the primary colors for example, and which will arrange for height, and sowing, if in a circular bed, in concentric, equi-distant rings, havi.ng a patch of a conspicuous color, as brilliant scarlet or white, in the center, which plant if considerably taller than that chosen for tihe outside, so much the better. Any other device may be as readily adopted as circular, but none pleases so well. In sowing patches in mixed borders, (or indeed in any place,) always take a strong rake and loosen up the soil if not recently dug, and sow the seed wide enough to fill up the whole space required; draw the rake once or twice gently over the seed, and then give the soil a patting with the head of the rake, and all small kinds of seed will be buried deep enough. Lupins, Sweet Peas,and similar seed, require planting about one inch deep; other seed in Fig, 83-PURPLE CANDYTUFT. proportion. It is far better to leave such tiny seed as Lobelia gracillis, lying on the ground, than to bury A too deep. 0 In sowing edgings for straight walks, stretch down the line for a guide. ( 4 74 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER It looks very slovenly to see a crooked edging to a straight walk. Curves E should be regular for the same reason. If a neat thin row is required for an edge, draw a pointed stick along close to the line, and sow in the mark; if a wider edging, a practiced eye will be able to give the seed a wider berth without drill. In light loose sandy soils, give the surface a gentle patting with the back of the spade after sowing. If a dry spell of weather intervene, the soil must be moistened with water each evening until the plants are above ground. 3Many kinds bear transplanting with the best redull or showery weather, particularly quite early in the season. The finest bed of Portulacca we ever had,was ___________ ifrom those transplanted six inches asunder, flower": ing better and later in the season than beds sown and allowed to stand thicker.? /~' The following kinds never do well transplanted, hence should always be sown in the bed they are to remain: Candytuft, Catchfly, Dwarf Convolvulus, Lupins, Malope, Poppies, Ve| nus' Looking-glass. tNever be afraid to thin out annuals. Many give up their culture as'a failure, simply because they allow them to grow too thick, and so choke each other. The Fig. 84-LuirNus NANUS. larger kinds, as Balsams, are finest standing separately, and should never be less than one foot from each other, nor more than three in a hill planted triangularly. None but the very smallest sorts should be less than six inches asunder. Remember, if given plenty of'room, May-sown annuals of many kinds will continue in flower until frost comes, while if they stand thickly, they soon exhaust the soil, cease flowering, and look unsightly the last of the season. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 75 SEED SAVING must be seen to systematically; that is, the seed must be watched and collected as it ripens; and if only for home growth, select only the finest and plumpest seed,usually that first ripened. Put it away in small bags of brown paper made for the. Ik M purpose,-a nice occupation for evenings, —and mark legibly its common name at least, with any remark as to certain variety, &c. Wheni all col-.g / ~~~ drying influence of a stove or heater, or where it is at all likely to be damp. SorL.-Most garden soils will grow annuals, but some kinds do better in sandy soils, while others prefer it stiffer. It should be well spaded up in the fall or spring; if the former always to be stirred again deeply before sowing in sprling. There are but few * 2 t but require moderately rich soil, hence are gereally benefited by turning in some maIn the absence of ordinary /manures, a substitute can be always obtained in guano, pigeon or other dung, &c. 9Aj < ~Mix in six or eigllt times its bulk of sand or soil, and 4igL~,~ ~ Aspread broadcast-a handful C ~4 ~ to every two or three square Fig. 85-GERMAN TEN WEEK STOCK yards. HARDY ANNUALS may be sown in April, May, or early in June, according to the earliness of the season in the different States; but to avoid faili~re, never sow too early-not until the earth is sufficiently warn to in~~~~~~~~~~~firdbtunginsmma ~~~~3~~~~~~~~~~1 2'~ ue 76 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER sur'e a speedy germination. Many lay the fault to the seed, when it is more than probable the seed perished for want of the necessary warmth for germination. In this region of country, the first or second week in May is about the best time to sow hardy annuals. In a month, more or less, they will be fit for transplanting, if required to be done-if not, they should then be properly thinned, giving each individual plenty of room. For transplanting, choose a dull or rainy day, and take up carefully with a trowel, so that they may receive as little check as possible. Be Fig. 86-PHLOX DRTMMONDI. sure, in sowing or transplanting, to observe the height each kind grows, and act accordingly, keeping the dwarfest near the eye, and the tallest in the back-ground. This class of annuals do finely if sown in September, so as to get strong enough to stand the winter, and Rocket Larkspurs better in this way than any other. TENDER ANNUALS require sowing in pots placed in a warm window, green-house, or better yet, a gentle hot-bed, in March. Those who aim at complete success in this department, will, as soon as the plants become strong enough, transplant them into small flower pots, three in a pot, to Ax-\ / OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 77 be transferred to the open ground the same time that other pot plants, as Heliotropes, &c., are. It is only by doing this) that the more delicate tender annuals, as the curious Sensitive Plant, and a few others, can be ]made to ripen seed in this northern latitude. In case the hot-bed is too expensive, or sowing in pots objected to, any of the tenderest will grow and flower if sown the last of May in the open ground, although not so finely. HALF-HARDY ANNUALS are generally treated as the above, except they need not be kept so warm. In fact, with the assistance of a frame only, perhaps the best success can be obtained with these. The _ transplanted if possible-if ____ benot removed with all the or 6 inches, the size of the kitchen window, may be made to produce quite a quantity of choice asters and stoclks, with very little care. As the days get warm, thehbox should be placed in the open air to har_ den off the young plants, or else the window opened quite Fig. 8i-DwARF CoNvoLvuLus. wide. There are some few flower seeds usually sold with annuals, more strictly green-house plants, such as Petunias, Verbenas, &c., but the latter plant being now so easily obltained in pots, it is hardly advisable to sow it as an annual except with the hope of new varieties, when of course choice seeds should be selected. There are a few annuals frequently grown as green-house plants, and quite valuable for that purpose, as they help to enliven it, and afford cut flowers in the dreary imonths of winter. Of these may be named Mignonette and Sweet Alyssum, for their fragrance; the Nemophila insignis and maculata, for drooping plants, either in pots, vases, or hanging baskets. The best time to sow for this purpose is August and September, in the pots they are to grow, or elsewhere, to. be afterwards taklen up and potted. The following list contains onlythose of first-class character, and about all really worthy of general sowing. The remainder (much the larger portion) being pretty, without great claim to notice. If our choice hads The s t 78 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER to be still further curtailed, we should choose only Phlox Drummondii, Stockgilly, Asters, AJignoncdite, Rocket Larkspzcrs, Portulaccas, Balsams, Zinnias, Convoliwdus, Four O'Clocks, Gillia, Alyssumn, Candytsft and Petunias. LIST OF CHOICE ANNUALS. Those marked H., hardy —H. H., half-hardy-T., tender. Alyssum maritinum, or Sweet Alyssum-H., white, excellent for greenhouse-6 inches. Aster Chinensis, or China Aster, a well-known H. of many colors, and very beautiful. Amaranthus caudatus, or Love-liesBleeding, and A. hypochondriacus, Prince's Feather-two H. plants, red -well adapted for the back of mixed borders —3 feet. Balsainia hortensis, Balsam or Lady Slipper, known by every body —1 to 2 feet. Cacalia coccinea, or Venus' Painti brush-H.-scarlet, 1 foot. Calendrina discolor, rosy purple-very pretty for massing —H.H. —l1 feet. Celosia cristata, Coxcomb-scarlet, very showy —T.-l to 2 feet. Cl-arkia elegans, C. pulchella and C. alba-three very showy plants with rose, purple and white flowers-H. — ~ to 1. feet. Collinsia bicolor, two-colored, and C. grandiflora, blue, Collins' Flower-H. -useful annuals —i foot high. Convolvulus major and minor-the well-known Morning Glory (twiner with many colored flowers)-and Blue Bindweed, very pretty-trailing. Calliopsis bicolor, formerly Coreopsis tinctoria or Fair-eye-a very gay plant — I., and flowers best sown in the fall; C. Drummondii, yellow —1 to 2 feet. Dianthus chinensis, or China Pinkmany fine double varieties, remarkably pretty-H.H. — foot. ( Fig. 88 —OcKET LARKSPUR. Delphinium ajacis, Rocket Lark 9 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 79 ri spur —nany varieties-superb if sown in fall —when in flower almost equal to a bed of Hyacinths. Esclscholtzia crocea, orange, and E. californica, yellow-two pretty dwarf H. plants. Erysimum Perowffskyanum-Hedge Mustard-a bright orange cruciferous plant-1 foot high-H. Gilia tricolor, G. capitata, blue, and G. achillefolia, large blue-three very pretty II. annuals. _ H Hi/ Gomphrena globosa-red and white globe Amaranthus or Everlasting~//xt Eshould be sown for dry flowers in Iberis amara, White Candytuft, ~ umbellata,purple,and odorata, white, \ ~i~ ~ ~ sweet-scented —three very free blooming plants —1 foot-H. Ipomma quamoclit,' the wellknown Cypress Vine-fine twiner, with white and red flowers-T. —good for covering arbors. Lathyrus odorata, or Sweet PeaFig. 89-PORTULACCA. many varieties. Lupinus, many varieties-they require to be partially shaded. Lophospermum erubescens and scandens-two fine creepers with rose colored flowers, like a fox-glove. Malope grandiflora, large red flowered, and white-good plants for back borders-H-.H.-2 feet. Mathiola annua, the well-known ten-week stocks, very showy and sweet-scented. Maurandia Barclayana, blue, semperflorens, pink, and alba, whitebeautiful climbing plants for pillars. Mimosa sensitive, or Sensitive Plant —grown for its curiosity-T. Nemophila insignis, blue, and maculata, dotted-two very pretty lowgrowing plants-like the shade-H. Phlox DrUmmondii, of many colors-the finest annual of all-creeping. Petunia, many varieties-rich decorative plant. Portulacca splendens, purple; Thorburnii, yellow; alba, white; elegans, crimson; and Thellusonii, red-flowered; -a very rich H. annual. Reseda odorata-the well-known and highly-scented Mignonette. Schizanthus-several varieties of beautiful flowers. Shortia Californica-very showy-H., with yellow flowers. Tagetus or Marigold-many very showy flowers. Zinnia elegans-very showy plants, with many colored flowers-H.H. -2 feet. 80 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER GARTDEN STRUCTUIRES. A CHEAP VINPRUY,-It is long since skillful gardeners in this country have attempted to raise the finer and more delicious exotic grapes in the open air. All the best sorts may be easily brought to perfection in a cold house, or one without fire heat, although by an artificial increase of temperature. they may be ripened some months earlier in the season. Fig. 90-CHEAP VINERY. In a former number of the Register, a design was furnished of an elaborate and costly vinery; the above is a view of one of a cheaper character, and within the means of nearly every land-owner. The back and ends are simply upright boards or plank, and are secured to posts like those of a common tight board-fence. It would be better and warmer, if the outside were clapboarded, and the space filled in with tan or sawdust. Such grape-houses as this are sometimes placed against the south side of a carriage-house or other out-building, thus saving room and the cost of erecting a back wall. The following may be recommended as convenient dimensions, admitting, however, a few feet variation according to circumstances: —Height of back, 9 feet; of front, 3 feet; width, 10 to 11 feet; length 20 or 30 feet., OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 81 The border is best outside, to receive rains, but a portion may. be inside; and must be three feet deep, well drained, ten or twe.lve feet wide, and filled with the richest materials. The chief cost of this vinery is that of the sash and border. Fig. 90 exhibits the interior of this grape-house. A'CHEAP GREET-HOUSE.-For those Who are fond of flowers, there is nothlng more interesting than their culture during the dreary months of winter. A few kinds will flourish well in the dry, hot, and changeable air of ordinary stove rooms; but it is not always convenient nor practicable to occupy the limited space of living-rooms in this way, and most plants will not succeed so well here as in a cooler and more uniform temperature. An ordinary green-house is a somewhat costly structure; and regulating the fire during a whole. winter is quite a formidable task. For green-house plants, properly so called, or those which do best in an air but few degrees c, a ___ C- *, above freezing, we have ib A lately adopted a plan w hichl we find to sueFig. 91. ceed admirably with but little care, and without the cost or attention of fire-heat. Although this plan is not altogether new, we believe a description will be useful and acceptable to many of our readers. It consists of an extension made to an ordinary cellar, on the south side, and covered with a sash like that of a cornmon green-house. Fig. 91 is a section, a being the _If I.11'f }l hh!!!'t}]t'}II';l ls $ cellar; b,the ordinary - 7:w171;;~1'/L-///~ II~~~~' Euv place of the south cellar wall, which is removed, leaving the space open.,.,;, -,.. to the gieen-house extension; c c are the walls, Fig. 92. and d the sash. Fig. 92 represents the external appearance of this contrivance, showing the sloping sash, and a portion of the cellar wall, w, and siding of the building, s. ee~ AIn order to obviate the ne=________________ =_______ cessity of fire-heat, it is requisite that so large a surface of Fig. 93. sash should be double-glazed. Fig. 93 exhibits a cross-section of this double sash, e e being the sash-bars, and n nt the p'nes. The bars are made on both edges in the same form that ordinary sash is made on the glass side for the reception of the panes. We have had cross-bars made between these sash bars, An,/ >,,. _ A n4 82 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER like ordinary window-sash, so that the lower panes are set in as in common windows, the upper or lapping panes merely resting on these crossbars. This arrangement makes the window rather more secure from the passage of air, but is not absolutely necessary. This structure being attached to an office where a fire above the cellar is not regularly kept up, sometimes needs a very small fire in a stove when the thermometer sinks to zero; but if connected with a dwelling constantly occupied, no artificial heat would be ever needed. {tlm~I~III-I, Fi 1 III[ 1{ and simple hut commodious construction. Our limited space will not alFig. 94-COMMON GREEN-1O0US-E. THjE COMMON GREEN-HousIJ (fi1~. 94) is a more costly erection,,of which the above cut represents one with double or span roof, of plain and sinlple but commodious construction. Onr limited space will not al107o us to enter into the details of its structure, or general manacrement. A MAGNIFICENT GREEN-IOcUSE, or rather conservatory, is that of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, in England, which are thrown open to the public, and occupy some 200 acres. Among other things which these gardens contain, are over twenty glass structures for plant houses, the largest of which is the enormous building containing the palm trees, which cost about $200,000. It is thus described in the Horticulturist: "It consists of a center and two wings, (as you will see by figure 95.) The whole length is 362 feet; the center is 100 feet wide, and 66 feet high; and the wings 50 feet wide, and 30 feet high. It is entirely constructed of iron, stone, brick, and sheet glass-not a particle of wood beinr about it. The roof is circular. The iron posts are inserted in great Cornish granite blocks. It is heated by 12 furnaces, and by hot-water 0 7- >g OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 83 pipes and tanks, carried beneath the floor. The aggregate length of these pipes is about five miles. The smoke from the furnaces is conveyed throtugh a subterranean flue, in a brick tunnel, 6 feet high, (through which one may conveniently pass,) to the distance of about 400 feet, where an ornamental shaft or tower is erected, 96 feet high. In the top of this Fig. 95-CONSERvATORY AT MoEW. chimney and tower is a reservoir, to supply the houses with water; and at its base is a coal yard, and from this the coal is conveyed on a railroad through the tunnel alluded to. In the center of the building is a gallery 30 feet high from the floor, ascended by a spiral staircase. From this gallery the plants are easily watered over the top; and the taller plants arie more easily examined, alntd appear to much better advantage than from the floor level. It is really a charming sight which you. have from this gallery, looking down on magnificent Palms, S.gar Canes, 6ocoanmt' Trees, the great Strelitzia augusta, and many rare a2nd beautiful tropical trees, in the most healthy and luxuriant condition. "It affords one some positive idea of tropical vegetation. The plants are all in tubs, so that each one is placed where it ought to be, and can be moved about as circumstances may require. All the pillars in the house are clothed with climbing plants of variety and beauty." TOAATOES.-Short, thick, spre-ading bushes, sharpened and put into the ground by first making a hole with a crowbar., serve as an admirable support for the stems of the tomato plant, which, when loaded with its fruit among the spreading branches of the bushes, look like dwarf trees in full bearing. A GooD ToAsT.-R. C. Winthrop furnished the U. S. Ag. Society, the following toast: " The farmers of the United States-may their policy and () practice be such that we may never see America clothed in weeds." gC C$D 43 Y -84 T.ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER THE K ITCHI EN G ARDEN. HINTS FOR ITS MANAGEAMENT, TOGETHER WITH LISTS OF THE KINDS OF VEGETABLES BEST TO BE GROWN. [Written for the Register by EDGAR SANDERS.] THE KITCHEN GARDEN is so named from its being the spot where all kinds of vegetables are grown for the supply of the table. Its value is of the first importance, taking precedence of either fruit or flowers in well regulated households. The three, combined in just proportion to the wants of the family, constitute (or should do) one of the prime luxuries of a country over a town life. To be able to grow one's own asparagus and pie plant early in the season, and from that time out enjoy all kinds of vegetables and fruits in due season, and inhale on one's own homestead, the perfume of a " thousand flowers," is a treat and luxury that all in the country may have, and yet how few do so. Those who really enjoy to the full, the luxuries we speak of, must in the very nature of things possess an enviable home, while the very opposite is to be expected fiom those who neglect the opportunity. It is altogether desirable to locate the culinary department by itself, excepting small fruits, which, from the advantage of a rotation of crops, are usually grown in the kitchen garden. It is injudicious, to say the least, to mix flowers with vegetables, as, if there is any room for flowers, and there always should be, it can as well be so arranged to have the flowers by themselves and nearer the dwelling. Besides, straight lines should prevail in the vegetable department, and hence in the case of city or small amateur gardens, the two departments should be defined, and slightly separated by an evergreen hedge, or some shrubs do well for the purpose. In the way of a choice of soil or situation, it does not often happen to be a matter to decide on; when it does, a gentle declivity to the south or south-east is the most desirable, while a retentive loam forms the best basis for a good soil.'But never let a clay or driving sand even, deter you from the good work, as the former is easily subdued by draining, thorough exposure to the fiosts of winter by means of ridges, and applying all light loosening materials that can be got at, as coal ashes, sand, road or street sweepings, refuse fiom the woods, and similar material. Blowing sands are also to be' improved by the opposite practice. In all cases, draining of soils inclined to be wet at certain seasons, should be among the first operations. Its form is best a square or parallelogram, the outside boundary furnished with a board fence six feet high, which can be covered with cur- ( OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 85 ig-." I IE RS c rsVNc.. E IAN. rants 00 <_g -f, o ats c, drt my b a | s It must* be_ recollected that t e hedge or fence performs o ie b e yd @Q D io, ei su to aEA N S c wis. Na 4 wV, feature in bei th nrhwetinds. N' - N E N:- i % O k 4 b t P EAc S t, to e t is au Garden j 4 s o 4a tt o t i to 4 m aeu rs, 0 a. usuall SfiWEET g,9A(s' irD,) NI It must be recollected that the hedgee, or fence performs one office beyond shelter of evergreen trees planted a short distance off, is another useful one acre, thoroughly tilled, can be made to produce an immense amount of stu a while not a few families would find it difficult to use all that store vegetables to be otherwise provided for. Gardens of small extent, or those belonging to amateurs, are usually cultivated by the spade, and may have th e walks extending around ther pieae 7 to 10 feet from the outside, with cross-walks each way in the cencultivated with the plow. Walks in gardens under the plow, interfer e m uch with its thorough execution; hence it is best to have only a few permanent walks, alley ways beGna provided for attention among the crops. ta Deep cultivationes and manure without stint, are the price of the richest pic. -o.0 gee.rl~t~ usd,~ihcoswlsec a ntec 9 86 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER I kind of vegetable growing; hence trenching or subsoiling should be so arranged that the whole Night come eiery three seasons under its influence. ROTATION OF CROPS also forms a good opportunity of changing the soil, or rather the crop to the soil, every third year or so. Thus, if the root crops for example, are kept by themselves and changed each year,. the act of taking them up will answer the place of a good soil-loosener. The same holds true of celery. Quick growth suits vegetables; hence a rich soil or one made so by abundance of manure, is a point of the first importance. Artificial manures, whether applied in a liquid form (which is best) or otherwise, will be a powerful stimulus to any crop thought to be on too poor a soil. Having said thus much preliminary to our subject, we now come to speak of the different kinds of vegetables, and the mode of treatment suitable to them. For the sake of condensing as much as possible within prescribed limits, we will arrange them under the following heads, viz: ROOT CROPS. These include carrots, beets, parsnips, scorzonera or oyster plant, to which may be added onions, although entirely dissimilar, which crops require to be all sown about the same time, usually as soon as the land gets into workable condition in the spring. These crops do best in deeply pulverized soil; hence, if kept together, the piece intended for them can always receive extra digging or subsoiling, and by changing the soil each year, a rotation is secured, and the land at stated periods subjected to deep cultivation. Sow in drills one inch deep, from nine inches to a foot apart-in large field operations fifteen inches is better.:Each kind can be tlrown into a separate bed of eight or more feet wide, for convenience of weeding, but this is entirely optional, a point of greater importance being to. form the land' into beds for the onions and carrots at least, with an alley between, deepenough to carry off all surface water, in cases where the land gets water-logged at certain seasons. Thin out all but the onions to six or nine inches apart in the row. Onions may stand much thicker; in fact, if they are so thick that there is not room for each other to swell, they will crowd and ride in very rich land, and produce abundantly. If, however, onions of equal size are wanted, thin out to four or six inches apart. The onions will come off in time to receive a crop of cabbage or other vegetable. If the latter, they should be planted before the onions are quite ripe. Among root crops, must not be forgotten turnips and ruta bagas. July and August is the time to sow them; hence early crops may be taken off the ground previously.. The above are the main crops, principally for winter use; besides these;, quite ri pe. OF V URAL AFFAIRS.. an early sowing should be made of beets, (turnip-rooted,) Early Horn carrot, and a bed of Early Stone turnip, on the warmest border in the garden, to come in for first use. In very early sandy soils, the seed may frequently be sown by the last of March or beginning of April, and if the young plants are protected with a few boughs, some litter, or the like, a very early crop will be the reward. Do not forget to make a sowing of onion seed very thick, to furnish " sets " for another year. By being so very thick they ripen off' in July; if they do not, they must be pulled up, dried, and stowed away till next spring. Root crops are stowed away in dry sand in the vegetable cellar for winter use. The sand keeps them plump and fresh. BRASSICA OR CABBAGE TRIBE. This is one of the most important, and includes cauliflower-sown in September for early spring use, and in May for fall use, and is a vegetable of the very first character. Brocoli is similar to cauliflower, but hardier, and comes in use in the fall-not quite so delicate, but still rich and good. Brussels sprouts, Scotch and other kales also, must not be forgotten, all of which are sown in May, planted out in July, and fit for use in fall and winter. Lastly, but by no means least, comes the cabbage, too well known to require much description. These should always be in supply from year's end to year's end. Those intended for first use to follow the winter-kept ones, being kept all winter along with cauliflower and brocoli plants, in pits or frames. Plantations should be made of this tribe, at short intervals from May to August, to keep up succession. Dig the soil up well, and do not fear to use strong manures. Night soil, slaughter-house manure, and the like, are excellent for this crop. For keeping over winter, sow in September, and plant out in spare frames, pits or cold vineries, when large enough, and protect slightly in severe weather. In the spring, as soon as the days are favorable, transplant carefully into good rich soil. For fall and winter use, sow in Maytransplant when large enough into well prepared soil. The fly is very troublesome to this tribe of plants. Nothing is so effectural to destroy them as tobacco dust applied in the morning from a very fine sieve. Cabbages keep finely if suspended in a cold cellar to the beams. Those wanted for spring may be laid in the ground, roots up, covering the cab bage some six inches. Brocoli or cauliflower will head readily ir winter in a shed or cellar. 88 ~ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER BEANS, PEAS, &c. Another quarter of ground may include the various kinds of the above crops, along with which may be planted sweet corn, and perhaps squash, and a few early potatoes. Potatoes, usually, are freest from disease in fields; hence it is best to reserve the garden for other crops, where there are fields to grow the store potatoes in, growing enough only to last till digging-up time. Lima beans, to economize space, may be grown to single poles skirting the main walks, or to a trellis covering the same, thus forming a shady arbor. Three to a hill is plenty. If in rows plant four feet apart. Bush beans are sown every three weeks until August, which gives successional crops-have the rows two feet apart. Cucumbers may be sown between the Limas. Peas will require sowing three separate times, at intervals of two or three weeks apart, which will carry this crop until the sweet corn comes in, when it is cared little for, and what is more, fails to do well during the hottest weather. Peas may be interlined with some of the cabbage tribe, or lettuce, radishes and spinach. OTHER CROPS. Tomatoes require sowing in a hot-bed, window or green-house, in February or March-afterwards potted into three, then six-inch pots, and finally planted in the open ground the middle of May. In limited areas, plant them MI in a row-one fifty feet long - ij -,,,a, God will grow as much as an ordinary family will use. _ Keep them tied up to a support-(fig. 97.) We put in some stout stakes, seven feet high, and nail slats lengthways to them. Wire strung from stake to stake, does equally well, as does Fig. 97-SUPPORT FOR TOMATO PLANTS. an open sunny fence,to train them to. Once the fruit begins to set, pinch all the growing shoots beyond the fruit. It encourages fruiting very much. A slight thinning of the foliage hastens the maturity of the fruit. Lettuce, and other kinds of salads, should be sown for succession the whole season,-endive taking the place of lettuce during dog days, and turnip-rooted the place of long radishes. The crops can occupy any spare ground, or the borders on the outside. Celery lust -be sown the end of April or beginning of May-transplant_ a OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 89 ed once before final planting in July or August. No ground need be specially provided, as rows can be planted between peas, corn, &c. One of the best ways to keep celery perfectly good all winter, is to select a dry piece of ground, and open a trench a foot wide, and deep enough to take the celery standing upright. Shovel out the crumbs, and stand in the celery, roots and all, as thick as it will stand together. Press the soil up close to the heads at the side. Get some short pieces of board, and lay across the trench to rest other boards on, which will entirely close them in. Pile over the soil, and without any other covering it will keep perfectly fresh till spring. To get at a portion any time, cover over with long dung. Enough should be got out each time to last a month. This may be kept in sand in boxes, standing upright. Squashes, cucumlbers, and melons, will also have to be provided with a patch of laadi, which crops are best, sown in small oblong boxes, covered with a pane of glass to keep them from the yellow-striped bug and other insects. It is well to sow a few pots of each of these kinds in the hotbed, to be afterwards transplanted, to come into use a little before those sown in the open soil. Peppers of various kinds, egg plants, ochra and other fancy vegetables, require to be sown in a hot-bed first, or in its absence a warm window or green-house. When large enough, re-pot into small pots, three in a pot, and finally transplant to the open soil the middle or end of May, according to the season. The latter crops, together with many of the sowings of lettuce and other salads, a few herbs, as thyme, savory, parsley, &c., should not be sown or planted on the large square patches or quarters, but kept to the small borders on the outside. H O T-B E ). This is a very necessary part of kitchen garden arrangements, and should be possessed by every one who has a rood of ground. A threelight frame will be a useful size, and one large enough for ordinary private use. The dimensions of such are about six feet one way, by nine or twelve the other-generally glazed with six by eight glass. Having the box (usually called frame) ready, towards the end of February or early in March, collect some stable manure together, and let it heat for about a week before using. Choose a sunny aspect-south-east is best-and mark off a space one foot larger than the size of the box. Over this space build the manure precisely as though it was a hay-stack -that is, layer after layer, even all around, until the desired height is obtained-generally from two to three feet. Press it down pretty firmly, and set on the frame and lights. Take the fork and well knock in the sides of-the bed, which will materially assist in preserving a uniform heat. Let it stand a few days, and if the heat has risen, put in six to nine inches of soil. Insert a " trial 5~-_ iC -.. _t 90 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER stick," and when on withdrawing the same it is found comfortably warm, the seed may be sown.,,:lr~~;~ i Fig. 98-tHOT-BED. The seeds usually required to be advanced, are Early and Red cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce radishes tomatoes, peppers, egg plant, and sometimes ochra and martinias. Level down the soil, and sow the above, or any portion, and in just such quantities as the family requires. One light might be of cabbage and cauliflower, another of radish and lettuce mixed, while the third can be equally divided among the rest. Cover with half an inch of soil; press the soil gently with a piece of board, and water sufficiently to settle the soil. Air must be given in sufficient quantities to keep the temperature under 65q, without sun heat. Directly the plants begin to appear, give air quite liberally every warm day, and ultimately take off the lights altogether, first in the day, then in mild nights. This prevents the plants becoming spindly and weak. All the above, except the radishes, are intended to be transplanted to the open soil, as soon as the soil is sufficiently warm. In addition to the above, sow a pot or two of cucumbers, and when up into rough leaf, pot off three in a pot and nurture along in the warmest part of the frame, giving them a shift into larger pots if they require it. A portion of these are intended to plant out in the frames as soon as the other things can be got out of the remainder to be planted out in a warm spot in the open border. Before planting in the frames, loosen up the soil, and add a little fresh around the plants, for the young rootlets to work into. Keep the frame pretty close, and the plants occasionally picked back to induce a stocky _j f goh Wnh RURAL AFFAIRS. _1. growth. When the vines have filled the box, raise it, and allow them to grow outside; gradually inure them until the frames and lights are all finally removed. Fruit will be fit to cut in June, and by the time these are done, those planted outside will be in, and by that time those sown in the open soil. Some like to have half a dozen pots of melons to plant out in the same way. Asparagus, pie plant, and sea kale, come under the head of permanent crops, and therefore are not mentioned in this treatise. SELECT LIST OF VEGETABLES. The following is a list of choice kinds of vegetables, all of known and tried value. The first of the different kinds mentioned in the list are those best for sowing in a hot-bed: BEANS-Snap, Early Mohawk, Refugee, and White Bush Cranberry, and Large White Lima. BEETS-Early Turnip or Bassano, and Long Blood. BRocoLIS-Early White, Walcheren, and Purple and White Cape. CABsAGEs —Large Early York, Early Dutch, Late Bergen, and Late Flat Dutch. CARROTS-Early Horn, Long Orange, and Altringham. CAuLIFLowERS-Walcheren and Large Asiatic. CELERY-Red and White Solid. LETTUCE-Ice Coss, Curled Silesia, and Cabbage Head. PARsNIP-Guernsey or Hollow Crown. PEAS-Prince Albert, Champion of England, Bishop's Dwarf, and Blue Prussian. RADISHES-Scarlet Short Top, and Red and White Turnip. SPINACH-Round Leaved, and Prickly. SquAsi —Summer and Winter Crook Neck, and Boston Marrow. SWEET CoRN —Early Sweet, Stowell's Evergreen, and Old Colony Sweet. TOMATo —Large Red Smooth. TuRNIP-Early Dutch, White Short-leaved, Red Top, and Improved Swede or Ruta Baga.,BRUSSELS SPROUTS, KALE. ONIoNs-Large Red, Yellow Dutch and White Portugal. EGG PLANT, ENDIVE, PEPPERS. THREE POINTS are to be especially observed, in cultivating successfully Garden Vegetables. First, perfect freedom from weeds; secondly, thinning out where they have come up too thickly, for a superabundance of such plants retards the growth and development of the rest, in precisely the same way as weeds; and thirdly, keeping the ground mellow and the crust broken, by very frequent pulverization, especially if the ground is rather clayey. C —-...... W,,.,A 92 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER FARM BUILDINGS. ORNAMENTAL CARRIAGE HOUSES. CARRIAGE HOUSE CONNECTED WITH AN ITALIAN DWELLING.-We often notice, in works on Landscape Gardening, directions for concealing from view by trees, the barns and other out-buildings of the farm, with the evident understanding that they are and must be unsightly objects. We believe these directions to be founded in error, because among the most important comforts and conveniences of a country establishment, are good and commodious out-buildings. Indeed, they may in some degree be regarded as forming a union between the dwelling and the farm, in a manner somewhat similar to that by which a union between the house and ornamental grounds is maintained by means of architectural embellishments. At all events, a total absence of farm buildings would not be a pleasing sight on a fine and well cultivated farm, which should be conspicuous for all the comforts of home. Hence the true course, is obviously to improve those buildings, so that, at least, partly visible through trees, they may add to, instead of defacing the scenery. Fig. 99-ORNAMENTAL CARRIAGE HOUSE AND HORSE BARN. With the object of calling attention to the architecture of barns, we give a plan and view of a carriage house and horse barn, erected by a gentleman in the western part of the State. It is built in the Italian style, and required only a small expenditure for the completion of all its parts, above what is usually needed for buildings of this kind. In the ptlan it will be seen, that one part is for carriages, and the other a stable for horses, with several closets for oats, harness, saddles, whips, curry0lo. ~() OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 93 Y combs, carriage grease, &c. A part of these m-ay be omlitted, and more room left for carriages. The perspective view (fig. 99) will be understood without much explanation. The part exhibited faces the dwelling, or the more frequented. II H~ i 1 ~ part; the back is mostly hid by trees. There are two false doors on the starmD S | If Soble part, to add Lo the ap-, n-=i F spearance, the actual enji -- 1,;" trance being near the corCIO ner. The chimney ventilator is an. essential part. El, a:: 13It should be remarked that the brackets, door-frames, projecting eaves, &c., are all made substantially of Fig. 100. three-inch plank. In the plan, (fig. 100) A is the room for carriages, B for horses, there being four stalls, the mangers C C containing two upright semi-circular racks for hay. The passage D, for feeding horses, is three feet wide, and E, three and a half. F is the entrance door to the stable, and G the manure door. The carriage-house doors H H, are each 8 feet wide, consisting each of two four-feet-wide doors. The height, 15 feet, leaves a spacious chamber for hay, the larger entrance to which is nearly over the manure door, G, and not shown in the view. CARRIAGE-HOUSE TO ACCOMPANY A GOTHIC DwELLING.-The accompanying well arranged and convenient plan of a carriage house and stable, possessing Gothic characteristics, was first given in the Hoirticulturist:Th;s stable (figs. 101 and 102) is intended to produce a picturesque effect externally, and to contain internally all the convenience demanded in a building of this class. The central portion contains the carriagehouse, with-space for four vehicles, and a harness-room at the end of it. On one side of this is the stable-the stalls 5 feet wide, with rack supplied with hay through wells, over each rack, in the floor of the hay-loft above. A flight of stairs leads from the end of the stable to the hay-loft above, and is placed here in order to prevent any dust from the hay-loft from finding its way into the carriage-house. On the side of the carriagehouse are a tool-house and work-shop. All the doors in this stable slide upon iron rollers running upon a piece of plain bar iron above the door. These iron rollers ame attached firmly to the door by iron straps, and the door, being thus suspended, not only runs much more easily and freely than if the track were at the bottom, as is usually the case, but the track is not liable to get clogged by dust or other matters falling upon the floor. ~door,~ beH~~~~~~~ine 94 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 101-CARRIAGE HOUSE AND STABLE. o;) Ero 10. HARNESS. RO FOM O E TOOL-HOUSE _R CARRIAGE HIOUSe - 210Xe 2L2 R WORK-SHOP INCLINE E ig. 102 —GROUND FLOOR. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 95 Besides this, a sliding door in a stable, when opened, gives the largest possible egress in a given space, and can never stand in the way to the injury of horses or carriages passing in or out on either side. The high roof of this building gives a good deal of room in the hayloft, and the ventilation at the top keeps this space cool and airy at'll seasons. The whole is built of wood, the vertical boarding battened i.n the ordinary manner, A SHEEP-BARN.-The barn here represented (fig. 103) is used by S. W. Jewett, of Weybridge, Vermont. It has two floors, thus doubling the accommodations. Such a building, 18 by 26 feet, with thirteen-feet posts, will afford room for two flocks of 60 each, including the space occupied by the feeding boxes, The apartments are lighted by side wvindows. o Fig. 103-Two-SaTORY SHEEP BARN. " Some of these sheep-barns," observes S. W. Jewett, "I build of'sufficient size to contain hay at one end. The cut here given shows one of this class, 25 by 34 feet; 12 feet at one end is occupied for storing hay; the door represented at A is the pitching hole. The basement is construnted with double doors of sufficient width for backing in a cart or sled. To accommodate in loading the manure from above, we raise a plank in the floor. Some of these sheds are erected near our hay-barns, where we can take advantage of the rising ground to obtain access for the sheep to the upper story. At other places the ground is artificially raised at one end, as in the accompanying draft." It is proper to remark that the uppcr floor should be so tight that the manure and urine should not fall on the sheep below, as it would injure their fleeces. CHESTER: COUNTY BARN.-A correspondent in Chester county, ta., gives the following minute description of a large and commodious grain, hay, and stock barn, which combines many important advantages:Such a barn will require a locality inclining towards the south. Let the main barn, facing southerly, be 60 feet long and 40 wide, with a lean-to overshot extending in front 20 feet. I estimate this to contain near 100 ACHY`Z o96 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 9 tons of hay, &c.; then let hay-houses extend 20 feet in width and height, in the form of an L, from the west end of the barn, of such length as to afforcl the additional storage necessary-say forty feet each. NORTH n c -AY IHO SE: T MAIN BARN A Lj7_ LA E~ OVERSHOT Fig. 104-PLAN OF STABLES IN BASEMENT. The ground floor of the main barn to be divided into stabhling, is represented in fig. 104. A, horse stables, 12 feet in depth, with mangers 2feet wide for hay, and small troughs at the side of each stall, for grain. B, cattle stalls, hung with swinging gates, opening sideways. C, the same, but each stall having a separate gate entering direct from the yard. E, main entry, 8 feet wide, to hold feed-chests, &c.; e, entry 5 feet wide, with steps up to door I), at the north end, and having an entrance into the horse stables at each end, the entries to be laid with small stone and mortar; the remaining space under the barn and overshot to be open to the yard, and furnished with box cribs, so that out-door stock can have their fodder placed under shelter in stormy weather; in cleaning out stables, the manure may also be placed under here for protection from the weather. If additional staZl room is desired, the twenty-foot hay houses might be divided by a five-foot entry on the outside, and stalls opening to the yard, as C; or the under story might be open to the yard, as additional shelter to stock and manure. Fig. 105 gives the elevation of the west end of the main barn, 40 feet; oirershot 20-the former having in front the large doors, 16 feet, and bridge wall; height to the square, 30 feet-to the second floor, 8 feet; this covers a granary extending through the center, 14 feet wide, boarded at the sides, and the hay-bins each side of it, 20 by 60 feet. It is lighted! t by two windows in front, and has a door and window at the north end. It is partitioned on one side into bins for grain; the front end included OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 97 in the overshot will make a good work-shop. The third or threshing floor, eight feet higher, extends 14 f('et in width (same as granary, which it covers,) from the bridge-wall to the front of overshot, and is lighted MAIM ARN — OVERS Fig. 105-END VIEW FROTM THE IWEST, BEFORE THE HAY-BINS WERE ADDED. by a small dormer in front of overshot —(this may be scaffolded over head after the side mows are filled, for grain,) the large doors at the north end opening into a dormer covering the space between the bridge-wall and barn. Each of the main, hay mows should have a funnel four feet square, to pass hay to the entries below, and each of the overshot mows one to the yard. Grain fronm the threshing floor is passed into bins in the granary through three-inch square holes, stopped with wedge-shaped plugs. And now, as to the advantages of this plan, which I believe are greater than enlbraced by any other that has come under my observation. Roofing is one of the most expensive parts of building-here is the greatest amount of storarge, stabling and other accommodation, under the same surface; the hay not descending to the ground floor, is less liable to be affected by danmp, and affords a much less harbor for rats and other vermin. In the hulrried season of harvest, produce can be disposed of in the deep bays in one-fourlth of the time required. to pitch it upwards, and in winter can be dropped immnediately where wanted below-while the stables can all be slut tight ill cold weather, to keep them warm. The hay funnels act as ventilators to carry off impure air; grain, when threshed, is put away in the granary without any labor of bagging and carrying; the horse stables are entered without passing through the cattle-yard, and the cattle stalls are as conveniently arranged as in other plans. The space under the bridgeway may readily be converted into a carriage or wagonhouse; hay-houses, as proposed, or sheds in their place, would afford comfortable protection from north and west windsl. I suppose the main barn to be built of stone at least as high as the third floor, except in front; the overshot may be of frame, on pillars level with the granary floor, or its ends may be a continuation of the barn walls. The above general plan, varied in size and details, receives the general sanction of the practical farmers of Chester county. GiRANARY AND WAGON-H1ousE.-The accompanying excellent plan was furnished by T. B. ARDEN, of Putnam- Co., N. Y., for the Country GenA nd _ _ _ 4 Z E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A: () 98 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER tleman, and the building it describes would prove a valuable one for every large grain farm. The following is his description: —!t[i'i, l II1 tL. Fig. 106 —GRANARY AND WAGON-HOUSE. You will observe the posts are placed upon blocks of granite. These are sunk three feet in the ground, and rise fifteen inches above it; the former is to resist the action of frost; the latter to prevent decay in the foot of the post, from the effects of moisture from the earth, this having been determined as the necessary height..Directions for Building.-Building to stand north and south, for purposes of ventilation. One window in each end, 12 lights 9 by 12, under gallows girt. The space d, (fig. 107,) in elevation of end, to be floored for storage purposes. The braces c, c, to be dispensed with in the, two middle bents. The bins to be lined with half-inch stuff, jointed only..._........_...._....The bin posts;Fig. 107-ELEVATION OP NEND. should be plowed, that the bin boards on the hall may be taken out, or slide freely up and down to lessen the labor of filling and taking out grain. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 99 The floor timbers should have a slight camber on the upper edge, to prevent the floor from becoming concave by the burthen it may have to sustain. The building should be well framed, to enable it better to resist the force of the wind, to which it is very much exposed by its peculiar build. _: __ P 1 As O FLOUOR Fig. 108. The posts are to be provided with a belt of tin one foot below the interties. The sidinc of the corn-crib at n, (fig. 108,) to be made of strips, 21 inches wide, and placed one inch apart, same as floor. The corn-crib should be placed in the south-west corner, if possible. or better perhaps, in that exposure which would best protect it from the prevailing storms of the district of country. The stairway is closed by a trap-door, the steps hung between the two first-floor timbers, which are placed three feet apart for that purpose; hooks are secured to the end of each side strip, and caught into staples on the inside of the timbers. These serve as hinges; and the other end is sustained by a counter-weight, when they can be let down or put up at pleasure, thus cutting off access to rats and mice. CARE OF BEEs.-Bees should be examined once a week all winter, to see if all is right. This is much easier than to attend to pigs, sheep and cattle three times a day, which no good farmer complains of. What is termed luck with bees, is another name for careful and skillful management. P, 100 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER VARIOUS FACTS IN TILLAGE. DEPTII,OF SOWING WHEAT.-Wheat may be sowed too shallow as well as too deep. The depth must vary with the nature of the soil. A thinner covering is required in a close heavy soil, than in one light gravelly or sandy. The following experiments were made by Petri, the results of which would vary with the moisture or dryness of the soil. They are given as a specimen of trials of this kind, which if often repeated by farmers, would afford them much valuable information. Seed sown to Appeared above Number of plants a depth of ground in that came up. 1-2 inch.......... 11 days...... 7-8ths. 1.......... 12................ all. 2 ".......... 18 "................. 7-8ths. 3 ".......... 20 C"................ 6-8ths. 4 cc.......... 21 e"............... 1-2. 5 C".......... 22" Cc................ 3-8ths. 6 ".......... 23 c"................ 1-8th. GOOD ROTATION.-A successful farmer, who has enriched his farm, while he has enriched himself from it, pursues the following course: First, he takes especial pains with MANURE, wastes none, saves all, mixes well in the yard, (not by forking over, but) by a proper distribution of straw, stable cleanings, &c. Next, he makes corn his leading crop, as affording both grain and fodder, and as being all returned to the soil, in feeding all to animals, except what is sold in beef, pork, &c. The fisrst year, the corn has all the manure in spring, at about 25 loads per acre. The second year, oats, barley, or spring wheat follows. In the autumn, sow winter wheat, which constitutes the thi'rd year's crop. This is seeded down to clover, which (being plastered) constitutes the fourth anlld fifth year's crop in meadow or pasture. THE WHEAT CROP IHPROVING.-John Johnston of Geneva, N. TY., is one of the best farmers in the country. He first of all UNDERDRAINS; he then feeds his land well (with manure) and this enables his land to feed his large herds of animals; their manure feeds the land again; and both feed him and fill his pockets. He said, at the close of the year 1856, after all the unusual disasters which had happened to the wheat crop for some years previously, " My own wheat crops for the last eight years, have averaged more than they ever did in the same length of time for thirty-fivte years." The reason he gives, he has sown no wheat on undrained land-added to the good farming described above. GRASS LANDs.-No farmer should be satisfied with less than two tons of hay per acre friom his meadows, and his pastures should be as good. There are several means of improving grass lands. If the land is wet, springy, or holds water in the subsoil, it should be drained. This may be easily determined by digging a hole two feet deep in spring of the OF R.URAL AFFAIRS. 101 year, and if underdraining is needed, water wilt stand in it. We have known meadows greatly improved by draining. Next in order, are manuring and deep plowing, for previous crops. Last, but not least, is heavy seeding. We have succeeded in doubling the product of grass, by quadrupling the seed-and this paid well. We have known five tons of hay per acre, by sowing a bushel of seed per acre. HEAVY DIVIDENs. —If one of our railroads should be known to pay thirty per cenrt. dividend aiinnally, fromn its regular earnings, and the stock could be bought at par, what a furious rush would be made for it! Yet there is a way that'arinlers lmay invest in stocks at home, on their own lands, that will pay thirty to fifty per cent. yearly. This is in systematic tile-drai?,ein.. We have known many who have tried it, and they generallys say that it is paid for by the increased crops in twYo years. They are good fare zer s, however. HEAVY AND LIGHT POTATOEs.-A. B. Dickinson states in TMoore's RPural New-Yorker, that the heavier a potato, the less liable it is to rot, without regard to the age of the variety or its color. I-fe tries their specific gravity by brine, of different degrees of strength, in as mally vessels, some sorts of potatoes sinking quickly while others float. The only exception to this rule is the " Irish Cup," a heavy potato, but more liable to disease than any other of its weight. PLowING WET LAND.-Underdraining is the great cure for the evils of wetness-but when underdraining has not been performed, it is important to know what is next best. Sward ground may be always plowed wetter than any other, without subsequent baking. Other land may be plowed when considerably wet, if it is left to dry before the harrow touches it; indeed it will generally dry more rapidly after plowing than before, if not plowed too wet. Plowing always tends to loosen the earth; and harrowing to render it more cormpact unless dry enough to crumble. M'iore caution is therefore required not to harrow wet land, than in any other process of cultivation. CHFAP FAR I-LABORER.-Farmers find. it difficult to get laborers; but there is one chap, who so far as he goes, is an admirable worlkman, whose services may be had for nothing. This is Jack Frost-who if allowed to operate, will reduce much hard, clayey soil of autumn, into a fine mellow condition by spring, if turned up by the plow for his harrow to pulverize. This tool of his is remarkable for its myriads of fine, needle-like teeth, which enter between the minutest particles and tear thoml asunder into powder. LONG AND SHORT MANurE.-One great objection to using fresh or unfermented manure, is the difficulty of working its long fibres into the soil, and mixing it fineluy with the ea'rth, a most essential operation. All } these difficulties are surmounted, by cutting all the straw used for bedding. It need not be cut very short. If all the corn-stalks fed to cattle, 102 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER were first cut finely with a machine driven by horse power, the animals would eat much more, and there would be none of that peculiarly unmanageable manure occasioned by large corn-stalks. A friend of ours cuts all his stalks with a four horse power-an hour's cutting lasting a long time-and finds great profit in it every way. VALUE OF STRAW IN MANURES.-It is found by careful chemical examination, that different kinds of straw possess quite different values, to work up into manure. This relative value is very nearly determined by the quantity of nitrogen they contain. Barley straw is the poorest of all; oat and rye straws are about one-third better; wheat is nearly double in value to barley; buckwheat is rather better than wheat; meadow hay and corn-stalks are far ahead of any of these; being five times as rich in nitrogen as barley straw; and red clover hay and pea-straw are each about eight times as rich as barley. Whether these substances are mixed directly with manure, or eaten first by animals, they produce their relative effects. MANURE ENRICHED BY GRAIN.-Nearly every farmer is aware that the food controls the quality of manure, and that, for instance, dung from horses fed high on oats is quite a different thing from the droppings of grass-fed horses. Some kinds of grain contain more nitrogen than others, and of course impart more fertilizing power to the manure. Barley is the poorest, Indian corn a little better, and oats better than either by about 20 per cent., the three not being very unlike. HIARROWING INVERTED SoD.-Farmers often find harrowing inverted sod to tear up the turf, and make grassy tillage. The double Michigan plow is a perfect cure, but not always at hand, and sometimes it may not be advisable to use it. Grass land which has been inverted by the colmmon plow late in autumn, and which has been underdrained or is otherwise dry enough, may be harrowed very early in the spring, without the least disturbance of the sod, if done when oilly a few inches of the surface has thawed, and while the grassy portion of the sod is chained fast by ice. GARDEN ROTATION.-The following enumeration of the different families of garden vegetables will enable the gardener to plan a rotation, so that similar plants will not occupy the same soil in successive years-those classed together should not succeed each other. 1. Peas, beans. 2. Cabbage, cauliflower, brocoli, turnip, radish. 3. Carrot, parsnip, parsley, celery. 4. Potato, tomato, egg plant. 5. Cucumber, melon, gourd, squash. 6. Lettuce, salsify, endive, chicory. 7. Onion; garlic, shallot, leek..} >n OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 103 H ImvIPROVED DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Although some of the finest imported specimens of domestic animals have been purchased at high, and apparently very extravagant prices; yet there is probably no way in which an expenditure of money effects a more extensive benefit. by diffusing and multiplying improved blood throuolhout the whole country, than by the introduction of these animals, however unprofitable it may prove to the importer or owner. Accurate and well executed portraits of fine animals, assist in forming the judgment for deciding on their merits, and impart valuable information through the medium of the eye, as to their character, to those who cannot avail themselves of the sight of the animals themselves. With this object in view, the readers of the Register are furnished with representations of a few select specimens. (___, _ /I,i Fig. 109-IIMPROVED JERSEY COW. The above figure is a portrait of Col. Le Conteur's celebrated cow "Beauty," of the improved Alderney or Jersey breed, which are a great improvement on the old Alderney cattle. This cov produced 11 lbs. 13 ozs. of butter weekly-giving 19 quarts of milk daily. Larger products have been obtained from some other individuals of this breed-a breed remarkable for the richness of the milk they afford. The SUFFOLK cattle, although less highly improved than some other,5 \ is. —----— ~i 104 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER.-~_ --- tFig. 110-SUFrOLR COW. breeds, have some desirable qualities. They are one of the best of all the hornless cattle, and have been long noted as furnishing some excellent milkers; authenticated instances having occurred where thirty quarts have been given in a day. Fig. 111 —SILESIAN MERINO S]HEEP. SILESIAN MERINO SHEEP-(Fig. 111.)-The admirable representation exhibited in this cut is engraved from an accurate daguerreotype likeness. This kind of Merino is remarkable for its fineness of fleece, being scarcely -inferior to the Saxons, without a corresponding diminution in the weight. J — —: aC OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 105 F 19ig. 113-12 —C ME EWESr dwoo breeds. Thew r ()abeling, thatthey hre fouthytof orae 4rls. 5 nos. ea Cvo i.1. S p r ofi t.'ei Fgin. somTve oces riA fr'om the sale of mutattention is directed wool breeds. Their cross es with some of b t h e y othe hardier Merinos ~j~~~' this country; yet their,1:i: &~~'5* , 1 06 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig, 114-FRENCH MERINO RAM. FRENCH MERINO SHEEP AND RAM.-The annexed cuts represent imported French Merinos, belonging to G. Campbell of Vermont. The ewes (fig. 113) weighed about 125 pounds each. Their fleece averaged about 12 pounds each. The ram (fig. 114) when figured, was three years old, and weighed the winter previously 261 pounds. His fleece was one year old, and after losing a portion on the sea voyage, sheared 20 lbs. 12 ozs. Fig. 115-PORTUGUnSE SWINE. PORTUcUESE SWINE-(Fig. 115.)-The Portuguese much resemble the A Chinese, except in color. Several importations have been made; and among the rest those belonging to A. E. Beach of New-York, from which the engraving is made, are of a dark red. -,) OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Io, Fig. 11'6-CHINESE SWINE. CHnITESE SwiE —a(Fig. 116.)-There are several distinct varieties of swine in China, some of which have a remarkable tendency to fatten, anld have been the source of the principal improvement which has been made in the aboriginal stocks of Great Britain, from whence most of our stock has been derived. The Chinese swine are frequently very prolific, producing from twelve to fifteen pigs at a litter. One of those herewith delineated, was suckling thirteen pigs when the portraits were taken. [In previous numbers of the IREGSTER, portraits have been presented of Short-horn, Devon, Hereford, Ayrshire and Alderney cattle; of Black Hawk and the English cart horses; of South Down, Leicester, Spanish and French Merino Sheep; and of Suffolk, Berkshire, Essex and " Landpike " pigs-also several articles on their care and management, and on the prevention and cure of the diseases to which they are most frequently liable.] GRINDING oR CRUSHING FooD.-Chemical experiments have proved that the outer skin of grain is nearly insoluble by the gastric juice of animals. Hence, when grain passes through them whole, it imparts but a small portion of nutriment to the animal. But if only broken before feeding, or by mastication, the whole of the kernel is digested, and the skin only passes away. Bf,' 9 10)8 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER EXPFRIMENTS IN FEED ING ANIMALS. SELLING CORN IN PoRa. —If the farmer can get as much for his corn by first making it into T)ork, as by a sale of the grain itself, it is best to convert it to flesh, provided the manure is worth more for his land, than the labor of feedin;. Hunt's Merchant's Magoazine gives several expeliments, showing the cost of pork-mlaking. In one, 100 hogs were fed 100 days with as much corn as they could cat, and each bushel of corn gave an increase of 10 1-2 lbs. of animlal, or 8 2-5 lbs. of dressed pork; or in other words, 1 lb. of pork required 5 3-4 lbs. of corn. In another experiment with 58 hogs, 1 lb. of pork required 6 1-2 lbs. of corn. The coril was fed in the ear. Accordlinl to these experiments, 3 cenlts per pound for pork is the same as 25 cents pei bushel for corn; 4 cents per pound is 33 cents for corn; 5 cents per pound is 42 cents per bushel; and 6 cents per pound is 50 cents for corn. This would not pnay in many places, without fattening hogs nmainly on apples, which many farmers do at a great profit. A smaller experiment was made with cooked meal which required a little less than four pounds for a pound of pork. (We know several farmers who estizate cooked food as twice the value of unground grain.) Different breeds would doubtless give quite different results. We want many experiments of this kind —the knowledge thus acquired would be worth in practice many times its cost. Why do farmers keep blundering on in the fog of guess-work 1 ANOTHERl EXPERIMIENT WITH FEEDING HoGs.-Six hogs were shut up to fatten the first day of autumn; they were fed one month on 29 bushels of corn (58 bush. ears) and increased 386 lbs., or 12 2-3 lbs. gross weight, for each bushel of corn. The next month they were fed 68 bushels, and gained 336 lbs., or 10 lbs. per bushel. The last month they consumed 56 bushels and increased 272 lbs., or nearly 10 lbs. per bushel. This result was quite similar to the first-mentioned above, and this may be taken as about the average results of judicious feeding in the ear. FooD CONsUMErD BY Cows.-Prof. S. W. Johnson says that aecording to experiments made in Bavaria, cows to give the greatest quantity of milk, must consume daily one-thirtieth of their live weight in hay, or other food of equivalent value. More food increases flesh and fat, and less diminishes milk. RULES FOR FATTENING ANIMALS.-1. Let them have good, clean, nourishing food. 2. Feed them with the utmost regularity as to tinme-for "hope deferred" wastes flesh by fretting. 3. Feed often, and never give a surplus. 4. Let the pen or stable be kept clean and sweet-dirt or filth is always adverse to thrift. 5. Let the air be fresh and pure. 6. The water they drink must be pure. 7. They should have q-est most of the OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 109 time, and only very gentle exercise. 8. Keep them tranquil, and avoid fright and anxiety. If all these are carefully observed, they will make a vast difference in results, RUIiRAL EC ONOM~Y. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING HORSE STABLES.-1. For good ventilation, and to prevent horses striking their heads in any case, against the roof or floor above, the height should not be less than nine feet. 2. From the manger backwards, the floor should descend at least one inch in four feet. 3. Each stall should be five and a half feet wide, and fourteen feet long including the whole space behind the horse. 4. The partitions, made of strong plank, and scantling frame, should extend back eight feet, and be seven feet high at the head, and five feet at the rear. SIMPLE QUESTIONS AND SIMPLE ANSWERS. —IS there any farmer who never used an old rusty hoe, and a smooth and bright one, without observing the great diffbrence in the amount of work he could do by each? Two hours more each day for the bright one? This would be five days for every month of hoeing. What does this fact teach? It teaches the importance of keeping tools in their places, well sheltered from, the weather, and to have them brushed clean and bright whenever they are put away. CORN SHOCKS.-A great deal of good corn-fodder is spoiled, because the shocks are not well bound together, and storms soon throw them AL down. Large shocks of the husked stalks may be firmly secured, by first bringing them firmly together with a rope, attached to a simple contrivance shown in the annexed figure. A small piece of board, A, has three holes bored through it; and a sharp, round, and tapering stick, B, has a crank attached. One end of a ten-foot rope, is then passed through one hole and Fig. 117-CoRe-SnOcK BINDER. fastened to the crank; the board is placed against the shock, the sharp stick thrust through into the shock, and the rope passed around the shock, and hooked on an iron hook at the other hole, as shown in C. A few turns winds up the rope, binding the whole closely together, when a band is placed around, and the rope unhooked for the next. ANIMALS IN WINTER-Farmers do not sufficiently sub-divide their yards in winter. Large and small animals are turned in promiscuously together, and as every farmer knows, the larger ones are very ferocious and domineering towards those much inferior, but careful not to provoke 10 110 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER the wrath of such as are nearly equal. Turn those together which are of similar size, and they will be more quiet all round. Calves generally are too much neglected,-and come out small and puny in spring. A good manager has constructed a spacious stable for calves in one of his sheds, moderately lighted, and well sheltered from all currents of wind. This apartment is kept clean, the calves fed on good hay, and supplied with good water. They present a very different appearance from other calves in spring. FILLING ICE-HousEs. —A good deal of labor is sometimes lost, by not adopting the easiest mode of lifting the ice out of the water. After the blocks are sawn in the water, (which should be done by accurate measurement, so that all may pile up solid, like hewn ICE= DICE stone, and leave no.: - -- -.. crevices,) they are Fig 118-DRAWING ICE OUT OF WATER FOR ICE-HOUsE. very easily and quickly drawn out by means of a light, stiff plank, having a cleat across one end. This plank is thrust with its cleat end into the water, and under the block of ice; the cleat holds it, when the plank is drawn forward, and thus lifts it out. To BUILD CoMMoN RAIL FENcE.-Begin at the bottom of all hills or ascents, and build up-this will make the fence stand much better against the wind and all disturbing causes. PLANTING TIMBER LAND.-It is said that thirty years, at the present rate of cutting and slashing, will sweep off all trees fit for lumber east of the Mississippi. We MUST raise young timber. If we allow second growth to spring up, ten acres of fertile land, well managed, will supply a family with fuel: five more will fence a medium farm. On poorer soils, more will be required. It is to be cut once in twenty years. But in spontaneous growth, we have not a choice of the best timberwe have to take it as it comes, good and bad. It is better, also, to, plant in srows, and; then a wagon may be driven easily through any part, in drawing out the timber. Plant alternate rows of locust, chestnut, and European larch. If one does not happen to succeed well, the others will have a chance, and the land will still be occupied. By planting in rows and cultivating the trees while young, they will grow five to ten times as fast. They may alternate with hills of potatoes or beans on the start, and two rows of potatoes between each row of trees. The next two years the same, or keep the ground clean, mellow, and bare. Then corn, if the trees don't shade all the ground, as they probably will. Locust seed will not grow, unless boiling water is poured on, and allowed to remain some hours. The swollen seed will grow; the rest must be.o _ Ai OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 111 scalded again. Chestnuts will not grow if the shell becomes dry-keep them. mcist from the first and they will. Both should be planted in hills like corn, and thinned out, but not transplanted. European larch may be had chedply from English nurseries. SHELTEr.-There is one truth which every farmer who ever winters a herd of any kind of animals, should fully appreciate,-and that is, that "Shelter is cheaper than fodder." Exposed animals will consume a third more food, and come out in the spring in worse condition. The loss of animals by death in wintering, when suffering from all the severities of piercing winds, drifting snows, and cutting sleet, is sometimes greater in two or three years than the cost of substantial and comfortable buildings for protection; and the loss of fodder consumed in any case, would in a few years pay for their erection. DOUBLE-MINDED FARMERS.-One great principle for success in business, is learning a trade well and then sticking to it. It requires a long time to know everything connected with successful business. An acquaintance, a seed-dealer, stated that for the first five years, he could not ascertain that he made anything. But he was learning. Before ten years, he was clearing five thousand dollars per year. Another was doing well in manufacturing ropes. But he was unstable in mind, and although his friends advised him to " hang io the ropes," he was not getting rich fast enough, and he meddled with business he had not learned sufficiently, bought a mill, bought grain, and then broke a bank by his large failure. Some farmers come to the conclusion that cows are the most profitable; purchase animals, erect buildings, and begin well. But being new business, they do not succeed as they expected; they might, if they would stick to it. The next year they sell their dairy, and buy sheep. The price of wool is low that year; and they hear that much money has been made by raising tobacco. Thus they go on, changing from one thing to another, and never succeeding in any. Stick to your business. To MAKE HENS LAY IN WINTER.-Provide, 1. A comfortable roost; 2. Plenty- of sand, gravel and ashes, dry, to play in; 3. A box of lime; 4. Boiled meat, chopped fine, every two or three days; 5. Corn and oats, best if boiled tender; 6. All the crumbs and potato parings; 7. Water, not cold, or blood warm. This treatment has proved quite successful-and hens which, without it, gave no eggs, with it immediately laid one each, on an average, every two days. FEEDING BEEs.-Honey in the comb is best for this purpose; next, strained honey, if not too old, poured over empty comb; next two pounds',d (of sugar with one pint of warer, heated to boiling to remove the scum, 9) c _ H 112 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER and then poured over comb. To feed, take them into a room or dry cellar, turn the hive bottom up, cover it with a porous cloth to admit air, then gently move the cloth and place the comb within, and the bees will feed from it. Once a week, turn the hive gently back again for twelve hours, for the bees to work out dead bees, &c. PREPARATION OF HAMS.-B. P. Johnson, of the N. Y. State Agricultural Society, found on a recent visit to Maryland, hams far superior to any he had ever met with in New-York-and received the following account of the mode of preparing. We can fully endorse all that is said in favor of this mode of preparing and cooking, having used substantially this mode for many years:To every 100 lbs. of hams, take 8 lbs. of fine salt, 5 ounces of saltpetre, 5 ounces of brown sugar, half a pint of molasses, and an ounce of African red pepper; first sift and powder the saltpetre, and pass the salt and sugar under a rolling pin, and then mix all together. Rub this well on the skin side, and slightly on the flesh side, putting as much as possible into the hock. Place them on a platform for six weeks. [We repeat the rubbing two or three times.] Smoke with hickory wood. If the hams are large, they must be boiled six hours-if small, or if but half a one is taken at a time, four or five hours will do. Keep the pot filled, supplying evaporation with hot water. [The directions state that after the first boiling, the pot should be partially withdrawn, so as to allow simmering merely, but we do not see any special advantage, as simmering and racipdly boiling water are both at 2120 of the thermometer.] DOMESTIC ECONOMY. CEMENT FOR BROKEN CHINA.-Stir plaster of Paris into a thicik solution of gum arabic, till it becomes a viscous paste. Apply it with a brush to the fractured edges, and draw the parts closely together. In three days, more or less according to dryness and temperature of the air, it will be perfectly dry, and the article cannot be broken in the same place. It is white, and does not show. To MAKE STICKING SALvE.-Three pounds rosin, half a pound mutton tallow, half a pound of beeswax, and a table-spoonful of sulphur; melted, poured into cold water, and worked and pulled an hour. To PREVENT CISTERN PUMPS FREEZING.-Cistern pumps often are made to bring up the water through curved or inclined lead pipe, so as to conduct it to any desired place in the kitchen. They usually have a valve to open by a stroke of the pump-handle, and let all the water down again, so as not to freeze. But careless hired girls frequently omit this, and the lead pipe is filled with ice, which often splits the lead and spoils the OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 113 pump. A safer way, therefore, is to place a small splinter of wood under the lower valve, to let the water leak out in about five minutes, and drain the pump. This is to remain only during winter. The best pumps are now made so as to screw off the base in a few seconds, laying the lower. valve to view. If pump tubes become actually filled with ice, they may be quickly thawed by pouring hot water directly on the ice, through a small lead or other tube, which must settle as fast as the ice thaws. Ice may be thus thawed a foot per minute-but without this tube it could not be thawed in a whole day, for the hot water being lightest, remains at the top. To REPEL FIES. —Paint the walls with laurel oil. It will keep flies off of picture frames, &c. To KNIT HEELS.-To knit the heels of socks double, so that they may thus last twice as long -as otherwise, skip every alternate stitch on the wrong side, and knit all on the right. This will make it double, like that of a double-ply ingrain carpet. A RAT-TRAP.-A writer in bMoore's Rural, says he fills a swill-barrel full of good swill-the rats soon learn to come and eat. After a few days, six or eight inches of the swill are dipped out, when they still find their way into the barrel, but not out. Sixteen rats were thus caught in one night. To CATCH Ows. —Set a steel-trap on the top of a pole, near the henroost, and he will certainly be caught. LEAKING HoUEs. —There are very few common houses built of wood, that will not after a long season of drought, leak badly at some places, when heavy rains occur. The best cement for stopping all cracks or openings where the rains enter, is a mixture of sand and white lead paint. KEEPING POULTRY.-Judge Buel kept poultry irpwinter more than two months in a perfect state of preservation, by filling them after they were dressed, with powdered charcoal, and then hanging them in an airy loft. CURE FOR STINGS AND BITES.-Venomous bites and stings generally, owe their virulence to a poisonous acid. Wet saleratus will cure a bee sting in a few minutes, and a poultice of wet ashes has quickly cured a rattle-snake bite. DooR LATCHES will work easily and with little noise, by touching them lightly once a week with a little oil or tallow. SOOT IN CHIMNEYS, by taking fire, and dropping burning cinders on dry shingle roofs, causes many conflagrations. Most fires in the country originate in this way. Be particular to clean or burn out soot at least once a year, when the roof is wet. FICTION MATCHES should never be left where mice can get them-they have sometimes carried them in among their nests of shavings and papers, i and slight causes have set them on fire and burned houses. A lady was and — - 10* Pd 114 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER nearly burned to death, by the fire from a match which had been carelessly thrown on the floor, and which she fired by treading on it. POSTAGE STAMPS, to stick well, should be wet on their face, after they are applied-this effectually prevents the corners from curling up. To KEEP HAMS IN SUMMER.-Wrap each in paper, pack them in a barrel, filling all the interstices between them so that they may not touch or come in contact with each other. Then cover the barrel tight to exclude insects, and keep in a dry place, and as cool as convenient. APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE.-A very valuable pocket-knife was once dropped into a twenty-feet well, half full of water. "H How shall we get it out. Shall we have to draw all the water from the well." The writer proposed to use a strong horse-shoe magnet, near by, suspended to a cord. "But we can't see where to lower the magnet to, so as to touch the knife 2" V "Throw the sun's rays down on the bottom of the well by a looking-glass," was the second answer. It was done, the knife rendered visible from the top of the well, the magnet brought into contact, and the knife brought up-all being accomplished in a minute of time. ANOTHER EXAMPLE.-The two parts of a pump bucket screwed together, were to be separated in repairing it, so as to introduce a new leather packing. But it was old, rusty, and firm. and the force of three stout men, with levers affixed to it, could not start it a hair's breadth. But what strength could not do, brains did. The outer part, or socket, (into which the other was screwed,) was heated, and the inner kept cold -the heat expanded it, made it larger, and a force of less than ten pounds separated the two portions. Ground stoppers sometimes are fast in bottles, and hard to move-the heat of the fingers, in working at them, renders them still more so-but if the neck of the bottle is warmed, (by a cloth in hot water, by hot ashes, &c.,) the stopper will loosen immediately. Nuts on large screws are sometimes in a similar fix, and may be removed in the same way. A nut required to keep its place firmly, if first heated may be fastened on more securely, and with less injury to the thread, than by the most forcible screwing. To MEND A CHAIN PUMP WITHOUT TAKING IT up.-When the chain breaks; uncover the well and hook up one end of the chain. Tie a long cord to this end, and the other end of the cord to a large cork. Drop the chain with its cork down the pump tube, when, as soon as the cork passes the lower end, it will pop up to the surface of the water in the well. Draw it up and with it the cord, and with the cord the chain, when the chain is readily united, and the circuit made again. DISH-WATER AND SOAP-SUDS, instead of being appropriated to the formation of an interesting puddle at the kitchen door, should be poured at the roots of young fruit trees, raspberry and currant bushes, and will accelerate their growth and augment the size of the fruit. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 115 STEAMER FOR COOKING FEED. A western correspondent, remote from facilities for procuring boilers and cooking apparatus from the east, inquires for a cheap and efficient contrivance that may be manufactured nearer home. A cheap and good boiler may be made of two-inch plank, made into a box, halved together at the corners, and secured by nailing on sheet-iron braces. This box should be of such a size that a single sheet of large sheet-iron may form the bottom, by projecting two inches on each side, so as to be bent up and nailed against the sides of the box. This is set Fig. 119-STEAM BOILER. on brick-work, forming a place for the fire beneath; the fire striking against the sheet-iron only, and the flue far enough off to secure the wooden part of the box from burning. A board, fitting the inside of the box horizontally, has cleats nailed across the under side, so as to keep it about three inches above the sheet-iron bottom; and these cleats are hollowed up in the middle, so as to rest only on their ends. The board has several holes bored through for the passage of the steam. About three inches of water are poured into the box, the roots or other substance are then placed upon the board, till filled; the tight lid is buttoned down, and heat applied beneath till the steaming is completed. A box of greater length may be used, the sheet-iron covering only a part of the bottom, provided sufficient care is taken to niake it tight where joining the wooden portions of the bottom, the iron part only, as a matter of course, being over fire-place. Or, two sheets of iron maly be joined together by lapping like the joints of stove-pipe, and the box thus made double the capacity. The fire-place will economize the fuel in the best mac ner, if built so that a thin sheet of flame will pass beneath the whole bottom, like that in Mott's furnace. A steamier was described many years ago in one of the earlier volumes ( H) 116 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER of The Cultivator, which possesses several important advantages on account of the ease with which its contents are transferred from one place to another. It is represented in figure 119, where the box on the left is the boiler set on the brick fire-place as already described, but with the flue placed at one side, so that a door may open at the end. The right hand box is placed on small wheels or rollers, which run on horizontal rails, running into the boiler, where it is enclosed by the tight door. This box (with holes bored in its bottom,) is run along the rails under the bin of roots, and is quickly filled through a trap-door. It is then run into the boiler, the door closed, and heat applied. The three inches of water is quickly made to boil, and the steamning prlocess goes on rapidly. WVhen completed, the box with its cooked contents is run out (by hooking into a ring) on the rails, and an iron pin withdrawn which opens its bottom downwards, and discharges its contents into another box placed beneath, and standing beside the feeding-trough. If the rails are of some length, several such boxes may be filled successively, and allowed to cool. No safety-valve is required, as a sufficient quantity of waste steam will escape at the door, even if list is applied around its edges to make it tight. If~ necessary, a stop-cock or two may be inserted into the lower part of the boiler, to show the amount of water, as in the common boilers of a steam engine. The door is set about four inches higher than the bottom of the boiler, to allow space for water. We cannot state from experience the value of this apparatus, but if there is no drawback, it must save a great amount of labor in handling roots and other food for cattle, which, being daily performed, constitutes a large item in a year. KEzPING POTATOES IN WINTER.-Potatoes spoil in winter, if buried, from three causes. First and greatest, want of ventilation. Secondly, and nearly allied, dampness. Thirdly, and more rare, freezing. Farmers find most of their potatoes spoiled at the top of the heap, where they suppose they became frozen; but this is not the usual cause; the damp, foul steamy air ascended there, and could not escape, and this spoiled them. A hole made in the top, with a crowbar, and closed with a wisp of straw, would have allowed egress to the confined air, and saved the potatoes. The best way to secure potatoes out-doors, is to make large heaps, say 50 or 60 bushels; see that they are dry and clean, by digging before wet weather comes on; cover them all over with one foot of packed straw, and three inches of earth. The straw will prevent dampness, and the few inches of earth will favor ventilation. A farmer who raises many potatoes, and practices this mode, does not lose a peck, on an average, in 50 bushels. 01~~~~~~ VWC>';W OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 117, WEIGHT OF GRAIN In a former number of the Register, in a large number of tables of Weights and Measures, a few lines were devoted to the weights of different kinds of grain per bushel. These were furnished by a high standard authority, giving briefly the average number of pounds per bushel in various parts of the country, as nearly as could be furnished in so small a space. Since that time, legislative enactments in some of the States have materially changed a few of the weights, and in order to give the best infrmation in our power at the present timne, we copy the following table from the Genesee Farmer of 1857, the weights being furnished a firm in Rochester by the Secretaries of the different States-in which table we have made such alterations as the last law of New-York, recently passed, requires. The letter m indicates sold by measure. ~~~ d ~~~~ U C,~~~~~~ ~Q0 - ci c ARTIcLES. 0' ~ ci,c.S ~.- c'. Wh.et, lb.,. 60606060606060605660.. 60.606060.60 Rye, 551 56/56 56 56 54 56 56/561 56 56 561 5656 Corn,..........58 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56. 56 56 56 52 56 Oats,.......... 3232132 32 32 353 32 28 30 33 30 32 mi34 Barley,......../ 48 48 47 48 48 48 44 48../46 48 48 46 m/48 Buckwheat, 48..1 48 50 42 52 40 42 45 461 52 50 46 i 48 Clover seed,... 60 64. ". 60 160 60 0/ 60.. 6064 m 60 Timothyseed,~ 44 42..45 45..m n.. 45 " " m 48 Flax seed,.. 5556. 56.56 m.m.56.55. r56 teinp seed, ~ 44.... 44.. 44.. Blue-grass seed, 14.. 14 14 Apples, dried, 22 25 28 24 28 i II22 Peaches, dried,. 32 33... 28 33 "l 28..22 Coarse Salt, 5 5... 56 50 85.. 5 70. 5.5056 Fine Salt,......56 50 62 50 50. 700 50 5056 Potatoes.......60 6.. 600.. 601 ) 60.. 60.. Peas,. ~~ - ~~ 60 60.... 6.6..0... 60 Beans,. - 6256..6 60.. 60..60..60 Castor Beans,. 46 4 46 Onions........ 57 57 57 50 50 Corn Meal,.50.. 5.. Mineral Coal, ~ ~7 ~:..... 70 A law of New-York, in force at the present time, adopts the United States bushel of measzire, as already given in the Register for 1,57, viz: 2150.42 cubic inches per bushel, 1075.21 half bushel; and the wine gallon, 231 cubic inches. To reduce cubic feet to bushels, struck measure, divide the cubic feet by 56 and multiply by 45. 118 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER VARIOUS REMEDIES, TREAT1MENT, &Ce., RECOMMENDED FOR TRIAL. RELIEVING CHOKED CATTLE.-It is said that pouring into the throat half a pint, more or less, of sweet oil, (or lamp oil,) will so lubricate the obstruction, that rubbing the throat briskly outside with the hand will soon remove it-sliding it up or down according to its position. In arly case, the oil is a useful auxiliary to other means. FEEDING PUMPKIN SEED TO CATTLE.-It is asserted by some good farmers, that pumpkin seeds have a certain specific effect on cows, causing them to dry up their milk; and that when the seeds are taken out before feeding, it will be found they yield a larger quantity. GARGET OR INFLAMED UDDER IN Cows.-It is stated on good authority, that whenever this disease is caused by a cold, a few drops of aconite in solution, will soon effect a cure. It is dropped into water, and a piece of bread then soaked in it, and applied. FATTENING LAMBS.-A correspondenf of the Maine Farmer, says that lambs will soon learn to eat oats, if left before them, at about three weeks of age; and that it will cause them to grow and fatten rapidly-more so than by any feeding to the dams. Two boards are nailed together for a trough, and short boards nailed on the end, so as to raise them about six inches high-in this the oats are placed. The troughs are in a yard or barn, to which openings are made just large enough for the lambs to pass, but too small for the sheep. STRETCHES IN SHEEP.-An eminent and skillful manager of sheep, says that he seldom fails to cure sheep of this disease in a few minutes, by placing a spoonful of tar in the mouth, and holding it shut till the tar melts and runs down. Lard and castor oil produce a slower and less certain effect. DRIVING OFF TIIE RATs.-The Farm Journal gives an experiment performed with chlorine gas. A dish of manganese and muliatic acid, for producing this gas, was placed under the garret floor, and on the lathing below it, the floor board being replaced. The gas, being' heavy, descended in every direction between plastering and walls, and being exceedingly pungent, produced a " great sensation." " All night long, it would seem as if Bedlam had broken loose between the partitions." They decamped, big and little, and stayed away three months. Chloride is a poisonous gas, unless in minute portions, and great caution is required not to breathe much of it. It should be well confined within the walls. It is an admirable purifier, at least. The best rat trap or rat poison we ever found, is a good cat. HEAVES IN HoRSEs.-Well cured corn-stalks, cut before frost, are the best fodder for horses that have the heaves. Cases taken in time, have been ultimately cured by constantly feeding on them. Hay, cut fine., and tAOAd OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 119 wet before feeding, will greatly alleviate all symptoms of heaves; and even Iin old and incurable cases, the disease will be often suspended while horses are thus fed. OVER-REACHING HORSES. —A writer in the N. E. Farmer, who is a black-smith, cures over-reaching horses, and increases their trotting speed fifteen or twenty seconds per mile, by the following mode of shoeing, which increases the motion of the forward feet and retards the motion of the hind ones. He makes the toe-caulks very low, standing a little under, and the shoes set as far backward as convenient, on the forward feet, with high heel-caulks, so as to let them roll over as soon as possible. On the hind feet, the heel-caulk is low and the toe-caulk high and projecting forward. Horses shod thus, travel clean, with no click. REPELLINO FLTEs.-A writer in the Farm Journal pours two pails (24 quarts) of boiling water, on five pounds each of walnut and tobacco leaves (refuse tobacco), and washes his horses, oxen and cows with this decoction-when dry, he rubs the horses down with walnut leaves. He affirms this will repel flies for two weeks (if not washed off by rains, we suppose.) A decoction of wormwood is said to have the same effect-and probably many other plants would be equally efficacious. ROOT CROPS. STORING RUTA BAGAS.-These roots heat easily, and they require most thorough ventilation. Next, to be kept as cool as practicable, without fieezing-a little frost will not hurt them, if thawed very gradually. If stored in a cellar, they must not be placed on the bottom of the cellar, but kept a foot above, on a coarse wooden grate, which may be made of rails. This will admit air freely. If heated, they become pithy and comparatively worthless. If kept out-doors, they should be placed in,ridges, not over three feet wide, and as steep as they will pile, and as long as convenient. Cover well with straw, then with a few inches of earth-in the northern States six inches will do. Pat the earth smooth with a spade, to drain off rains. Then make a hole with a stake or crowbar, every six feet, and put in a wisp of straw-this allows ventilation. CARROTS IN SUCCESSION.-In some parts of Massachusetts, four or five successive crops of carrots are taken from the same land, without a diminished product. The editor of the New-England Farmer says lhe has raised four successive crops, with a gradual increase. All crops must exhaust land more or less, unless a part or all is left on the land; but in this instance, it appears that the annual manuring imparted more fertility than the crop took away. 5)1 20 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER C I E AP FENCEa S. In most of the newer portions of the country, the old-fashioned zig-zag rail fences still prevail, and where timber is abundant, do not cost onethird the amount required for good post and board fence. Many of them are made wholly of rails, without any protection at the corners, and are consequently easily thrown down by cattle, colts, and the wind. A firmer fence consists in the addition of stakes and riders; but the stakes projecting two feet beyond the fence, the whole occupies a strip of land at least ten feet wide. Placing the stakes upright at the corners, and connecting the two opposite ones near the top by means of a loop of annealed or small telegraph wire, is a great improvement, occupying FigeJffk. X but little more than half the ground required for the former. Another modification, equally efficient and as saving of. ~ig'. 83, A land, consists in placing the riders, (for which long poles are best,) in a straight line on the top and at the center of the fence, and then placing upright stakes in each ~"ig.~ < > / \ < inner corner between the rider and the fence, the lowel end merely resting on the ground, and the nf g5s > < other wedging closely between the top rail and riders. The accompanying figFig 120-GROUmND PLANS OF FENCES. ures, showing a ground plan of each fence, will serve to make their construction plainer, and to exhibit their several advantages. Fig. 1 represents the simple zigzag fence, as seen on careless farmers' grounds, without any stakes. Fig. 2 is the common C" staked and ridered " fence, somewhat substantial, but occupying too broad a strip of land. Fig. 3 is a better arrangement, with upright stakes placed at the' AC >>,K~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 121 opposite corners, and the two connected and held closely to their places by a loop of annealed wire. Fig. 4 is similar to the last, but is better, inasmuch as the stakes are placed in the acute corners, and therefore maintain their places better, and brace the fence more firmly than if placed in the obtuse angles, as in fig. 3. In fig. 5 the bracing is still more perfect, but the fence has not the neat appearance of fig. 4. In the two last, the stakes need not enter the ground, but may rest merely upon the surface, and hence short pieces of timber, broken rails, or any sticks five feet long will answer, provided they are connected by wire about two-thirds or three-fourths of the height of the fence. These two modifications, then, are more economical in construction as well as in the length of the stakes, no holes being required for the insertion of their lower ends. Less strength of wire is needed for these, as the stakes are more securely held in the acute angles. VENTI LATION. Some of our readers may recollect the speech of the old-fashioned deacon, on the occasion of the introduction of a stove into the place of worship, after the congregation had endured the unsoftened cold of winter from time immemorial. They had always done without a fire in winter, until some of the younger portion of the church, with their newfangled notions, out-voted the conservatives, and a stove was introduced. After the lapse of a few weeks, the deacon requested the congregation at the close of the services, to remain in their seats, as he had important business to lay before them. The subject of the stove was then broached. " If," said he, in conclusion, " you are resolved to keep the stove in the church, then pray get one large enough to warm the whole house; for as it now is, the stove is only large enough to drive all tlhe cold back into the remote parts of the house, where myself and others sit, and we are now colder than before." This remark was considered by some as especially absurd; but after all, he was right, although the rationale was rather fallacious. One fact to illustrate our meaning. We have gone into a room in winter where there was no fire, and where every door and window appeared to shut so closely that not the least current could be perceived from any crevice. A fire has then been built in the fire-place, and immediately the shrill singing of air currents entering crevices before unknown, showed that the rapid draught up the chimney required supply from without, and l that the cold air was rapidly rushing in for this purpose. Of course, A near these window currents, it must be colder than before. Precisely in /, () the same way, the - deacon above spoken of, found that the cold currents ( 11 122 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER from without had increased by the introduction of the stove; the draught of the fire requiring a constant supply of air. This fact furnishes some important suggestions on the subject of ventilation. There is no question that the air in many of our rooms in winter, becomes close, and unwholesome to breathe; bft where there is a strong draught, either up the throat of a fire-place or through the pipe of a stove, the circulation is quite sufficient to maintain good fresh air for all the ordinary purposes of breathing, provided the circulation is in the right direction. The _NrA. air rushes in through window crevices, and " (jpasses directly towards the fire. These entering O/ currents immediately descend, because, first, l they are much heavier than the air of the room. The experiments of Gay Lussac proved that air l' It. o.0/., A,few degrees below freezing, (about 24~ Fah.,) is about one-tenth heavier than air in a room at 68Q. These cold streams must of course, as soon Fig. 121. as they enter, fall like streams of water towards the floor. They immediately descend, because, secondly, the air current which feeds the fire must go as low as the fire, which is generally within a foot or two of the floor. Fig. 121 exhibits those descending currents. For these reasons, all the cold air of a room, and all the fresh air, surrounds only the feet and legs of the occupants. All in the upper portions is stagnant, and has no means of becoming purified. The head is thus kept hot, and the feet cold; foul air is fed to the lungs which ought to have fresh, and fresh cool air is kept around the feet, where its purity is useless, and its coldness detrimental to health and comfort. Every thing is exactly wrong, although there is enough of fresh air pouring into the room for all healthy breathing purposes, and enough of combustion going on to keep the room abundantly warm, if the heat were only properly distributed. Any one may satisfy himself on this point, by placing a thermometer at the floor and then at the ceiling, allowing fifteen minutes for it to settle. A difference of about twenty degrees between the two places at the same time, will generally be observed. A partial remedy for this difficulty consists in placing a Register (a, fig. 122) in the chimney near the ceiling, to admit the escape of the foul A-.,,l~~_~~~ -. -* upper air, at that place. This may be opened or closed at pleasure, according to the necessities of the case. Sometimes, for instance, the wind may drive the smoke downwards through this opening, Fig. 122. and it will be important to keep it closed at all such times. Boynton and Richardson, of Broadway, New-York, manu / fcreieieo OF RURAL AFFA9IRS. 123 facture a register for this purpose, which under ordinary circumstances remains open and admits the free escape of the air; but a downward current of air instantly closes it. The chimney register affords, however, but a partial remedy. Although it serves to purify the upper air, it does not prevent the cold currents at the feet. We are inclined to think that some radical change in the construction of fireplaces and stoves must be made before all the. existing evils can be removed. A hot-air furcace obviates the defect completely, the hot _,:: > air entering from below, and the air of the room passing out through all the crevices FU-RNACE./ - through which cold currents usually enterL (fig. 128.) But hot-air furnaces, if well made and durable, are costly and inconvenient to Fig. 123. feed; they cost much to erect, and consume much fuel; and being placed in the basement or cellar, they are troublesome to superintend. In all farm houses which have no cellar kitchen, stoves are cheaper and far more convenient for small or moderate families; and we propose a new mode of setting them, to prevent the footbath of cold air referred to. Perhaps they will need to be constructed on purpose for the proposed arrangement. A space shall be left in the floor, so that a hea~rth of bdrick may be laid some inches below the surface -(fig. 124.) On this hearth the stove shall be directly set, without the intervention of legs. Just above this hearth, and below the floor, a wooden " tube shall lead to the air outside the Ae. l house, the portion next the stove being.. "'d I t sheet-iron, and supplying air for com-.._ oR. ~ \ | bustion by passing directly into the stove. This will entirely obviate the necessity of cold streams of air from Fig. 124. window cracks, to feed the fire. The air through another tube, or a portion of the same, may be admitted on different sides of the stove, and in contact with its lowest portions, for becoming heated to warm the room. This would also tend to obviate cold currents, because the fresh air coming in from below, would pass out through higher crevices, instead of entering them. The addition of a register near the ceiling would, if necessary, render the ventilation complete. There would be another important advantage in this arrangement, on the score of economy. We have found by experiment, that a stove placed on a stand two feet high from the floor, required twice as much fuel as when placed down level with the floor, to render the room equally com 12 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER. fortable, so difficult is the descent of heated air. If, therefore, the stove were placed actually below the floor, the lower stratum of air next the floor, would be warmediwith still greater facility. This contrivance would afford the conveniences of a hot-air furnace already mentioned in this article, with less consumption of fuel, without unduly warming the cellar, and without the trouble of running down stairs every time the fire needs replenishing or regulating. GOOD AND BAD MANAGEMENT. We have sometimes thought that if farmers could see before them in all their distinctness, bad winter management on one hand, and good management on the other, side by side, it might serve as a stimulus to adopt the one and avoid the other. The bad farmer throws his fodder on the ground, to be trodden under foot, or to be worked into the mud. The good farmer provides good but cheap racks, where all is saved. The bad farmer allows his cattle and sheep to feed in the open fields, swept by every wintry tempest, or storm of sleet and snow. The good one provides good, clean, comfortable shelter, where the animals thrive and keep fat, and saves a large portion of the feed otherwise required to to keep up their animal heat Fig. 125. Fig. 126. The poor farmer lets his calves run wherever the older cattle drive them, and by spring they look very much like fig. 125; the good farmer gives his calves the best chance of all his cattle, feeding them with meal and hay, and keeping them well stabled by night and properly sheltered by day, and in spring they look like fig. 126. The bad manager permits his winter swine to procure their own lodging where they can best find it-in the corner of the barn-yard, in the manure heap, or under some transient pile of straw, exposed to rains and snowdrifts. The good manager provides a comfortable hog-house, and takes especial pains that they have good dry bedding, and that everything \ about them is kept clean.' .V./v/f - - - w f TIHE ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER OF RURAL AFFAIRS. FARM MANAGEME NT.:iew - T is an interesting subject for inquiry, why different' f'~~ men with the same opportunities, variously fail or succeed, after years of equal labor. One will bea;-. X come rich, the other poor, on the same piece of i ~: — G Kland. One has had continued prosperity, and, doubled or tripled his capital. The other has met''" S \a' with nothing but difficulty, misfortune, and "hard -A.'" ~~ >times." Instead of increasing his capital, he has F become heavily involved in debt. His farm has run down and diminished in value. Altogether, he has come to the conclusion, that except with a lucky few, farming is a very hard, slavish, non-paying occuHis successful neighbor on the other hand, has adopted a very different opinion. His crops are good, with scarcely an _4N }~ &~a"q! 1 IY//~ J'~11 Il lly exception —his fences impenetrable - his fields without a weed —his farmm ildings anrd barn-yards, *-=. ~'"' ~' models of neatness-his SQUIRE SLIPSROD'S BARN. cattle and sheep richly Ac~ —---------— j1 126 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER marked with improved blood, in fine condition, and eagerly sought in market at high prices-his fruit trees are bending under their rich loads, and his dwelling and door-yard a gem of rural beauty. He has " not quite yet" concluded to give up the business of agriculture for feverish speculation, nor for the close, pent-up, and anxious life of city trade. There is no lack of examples of both of these kinds of farming. The writer knows two men, now under fifty, who began active life in farming at about the same period-the first with very little property, the other with a beautiful hundred-acre farm. The first in less than twenty years had accumulated enough to buy seven hundred acres of the best land in that fertile region, and his average nett profits were between four and five thousand dollars a year. The other, with the fine hundred-acre patrimony, has worked equally hard, but he had not an acre left him, and was insolvent. FARMER THRIFTY'S BARN, AS SEEN IN WINTER FROM HIS BACK DOOR. Nearly all our readers are acquainted with two similar cases-those of Farmer'hrifty and Squire Slipshod. They will therefore recognize at once some of the accompanying roughly sketched portraits. Squire APRYL). Slipshod's barn was' originally the. —. i best in the neighborhood, but motives of economy have compelled 1t:[ -"i~}~ him to omit some repairs he would' I.fl'lg1 1, An. ~'~ _.~_have otherwise been glad to make e ='" g =-~ _ ~, —and he has become disheartened since he has discovered that boards:=31.me:= I- =-;:~- and shingles become detached __________ Imoire easily than from the buildTHE SQUIRE'S DOOR-YARD GATE. ings of his neighbors. He has:adopted a cheap fastening to his barn-doors, which, from its security, compels him to leave his wagons and tools outside. He especially wonders why Farmer Thrifty's barn and fence "keeps in such good order." The Squire's door-yard gate is the best gate on his premises; although the hinges are a little imperfect, causing it to diverge from the post at 9 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 127 the bottom-the only inconvenience of which results from the street pigs, which are constantly thrusting themselves through. The carriage-gate V, jy.is scarcely inferior to the one just described, but!^ - 1 possesses opposite qualities, gaping open at the top instead of the hottom. His mode of wintering'v'';, tools and implements is not peculiar to him, but has some advantaYes, the main one being a saving of care CARRIAGE GATE. and labor. The Squire will not admit that his favorite horses are in any respect inferior to others, except it be that Farmer Thrifty's are a little fatterwhich advantage is more than balanced by the high feeding and pampered keeping which the former has to give his team. On two points he confesses - to have been unlucky. One is -____l_ < in his young orchard, which has never flourished so well as that of his more successful %...... neigbor, but he will not believe THE SQUIRE'S MODE OF WINTERING TOOLS AND iMPLEMENTS. that this difference arises from anything else than luck^, although he never gives his orchard any cultivation. Raising pears he regards as a humbug, as such varieties as he has planted, with his peculiar management, which he thinks " good enough," has given him specimens like this-(see fig. 9.) He THE SQUIRE'S HORSES. FARMER THRIFTY'S TEAM. cannot, however, account for the good luck of his neighbor, whose entire crop was similar to fig. 10. 128 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ( VL {- ob-,,W a1 THE SQUIRE S YOUNG ORCHARD. FARMER THRIFTY'S YOUNG ORCHARD. The other point in which he admits his inferiority, is in his corn crop, from which, although his land is comparatively fertile, he obtains only about ten bushels of corn per acre, while the Farmer usually gets from fifty to seventy. ife a.,,,.(" MANAGEMENT.~ti' I-'t\ Now the question i'?,' " -:. lo. what should cause sob,c bors —one always pros- re,,t.dl eroes, the o ther question "' unif rmly unsuccessful.:: The answer is an interesting and important one, namely, dfierenene in MANAGEME'NT. It is inot the amount of Ittbor Fig 10 expended, but the way in which this labor is directed. A man may work hard for days together, in carrying a hogshead of water, by repeated, journeys, in an egg shell; or by efficient applianes it may be conveyed OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 129 / the same distance in a few minutes. One may fatigue himself to no purpose by taking hold of the wrong end of the lever, while its proper use may overcome any resistance. It is this bad application of labor that THE SQUIRE " UNLUCKY " WITH HTS CORN CROP. causes heavy loss to hard-working, badly managing farmers. It is the object of these remarks to point out the causes of failure, and the requisites for success. ORDERa.-The good performance of a single operation, does not constitute a successful farmer. If he raises a hundred bushels of corn per acre,. while his other crops do / s t, $ }vnot pay cost; or if he sells a young colt for two,~ -~.{~ t hundred dollars, and 4. sinks five hundred on X <2:}\\t Dq v1t^;Eiother animals, he is a poor manager. The pera skillful attention to every par4 —a proper arrangement of the zhole. nverything must be (lone, not only in the best man-',~~ h ier, and at the proper'yG/ViO time, but with the most THE FARMER'S CORN. effective and economical expenditure of money. All must move on with clock-work regularity, without hurry or confusion, even at the most busy seasons of the year. A comprehensive plan of the whole business must be devised. In maturing such a plan, several important branches of the subject are to be carefully examined, under the various heads of Capital, Laying Out the Farm, Buildings, Choice of Implements, Selection of Animals, Rotation of Crops, and arrangement of operations in the Order of Time. CAPITAL.-The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude, is to " count the cost." The man who commences a building, which to finish would cost ten thousand dollars, with a capital of only five thousand, is. 2 A A d~ — 130 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER as certainly ruined, as many farmers are, who, without counting the cost, commence on a scale to which their limited means are wholly inadequate. One of the greatest mistakes which young farmers make in lthis country, in their anxious wish for large possessions, is not only in purchasing more land than they can pay for, but in the actual expenditure of all their means, without leaving any even to begin the great work of farming. Hence, the farm continues for a long series of years poorly provided with stock, with implements, with manure, and with the necessary labor. From this heavy drawback on the profits of his land, the farmelr is kept long in debt; the burthen of which not only disheartens him, but prevents that enterprise and energy which are essential to success. This is one fruitful reason why American agriculture is in many places in so low a state. A close observer, in traveling through the country, is thus enabled often to decide from the appearances of the buildings and premises of each occupant, whether he is in or out of debt. In England-where the enormous taxes of different kinds, imperiously compel the cultivator to farm well, or not farm at all-the indispensable necessity of a heavy capital to begin with, is fully understood. The man who merely'enxts a farm there, must possess as much to stock it and commence operations, as the man who buys and pays for a farm of equal size in the best parts of western New-York. The result is, that he is enabled to do everything in the best. manner; he is not compelled to bring his goods prematurely to market, to supply his pressing wants; and by having ready money always at command, he can perform every operation at the very best season for product and economy, and make purchases, when necessary, at the most advantageous rate. The English farmnler is thus able to pay an amount of tax, often more than the whole product of farms of equal extent ill this counttry. The importance of posse ssilg the means of doing everythin(g at exactly the right season, cannot h)e too hilhir appreciated. One or two illustrations may set this in a clearer light. Two farmers had each a crop of rutabagas, of an acre each. The first, by hoeing his crop early, while the weeds were only an inch high, accomplished the task with two days work, and the young plants ther grexw vigorously and yielded a heavy return. The second, being prevented by a deficiency of help, had to defer his hoeing one week, and then three days more, by rainy weather, making ten days in all. During this time the weeds had sprung up six to ten inches high, so as to require, instead of two days, no less than six days to hoe them; and so much was the growth of the crop checked at this early stage, that the owner had 150 bushels less on his acre, than the farmer who took time by the forelock. Another instance occurred with l an intelligent farmer of this State, who raised two fields of oats on land' of similar quality. One field was sown very early and well put in, and yielded a good profit. The other was delayed twelve days, and then / OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 1310 hurried; and although the crop was within t'wo-thirds of the amount of the former, yet that difference was just the clear profit of the first crop; so that with the latter, the amount yielded only paid the expenses. Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it becomes an object to know iwhelt else is needed, and at what, cost, before cultivation is commnenced. If the buildings and fences are what they should be, which is not often the case, little immediate outlay will be needed for them. But if not, then an estimate must be made of the intended improvements and the necessary stum allotted for therm. These being all in order, the following items, requiring an expenditure of capital, will be required on a (good farm of 100 acres of improved land, that being not far fiom the size of a large majority in this State. The estimate will of course vary considerably with circumstances, prices, &c. LIVE STOCIx. —This will vary lmuich,wNith the character and quality of the land, its connection with market, &c., but the following is a fair average, for fertile l:lnd, and the prices an average for different years, although lower than they have recently been:3 horses, at 1!00, $300-1 yoke of oxen, $100,. —-------------- $400 8 milch co-ws~, $25, $200-10 steers, heifers and calves, $100,. —----- 300 20 pigs, $5, S'100-100 sheep, $2, $200,. —-. —---- -—. —-------------- 300 Poultry, lCc.,- - -- ---—.. —------ -.. -------- 10 $1010 IMPLEIENTS..-To farm economzically, these must be of the best sort, especially those that are daily used. A plow, for instance, that saves only one-eighth of a team's strength, will save an hour a day, or more than twvelve days (worth $24,) in a hundred-an amount, annually, that would be well worth paying freely for in the best plow. A simple handhoe.-so well made that it shall enable the laborer to do one hour's more work daily, will save twelve days in a hundred, —enough to pay for many of the best made implements of the kind. These examples are sufficient to showv the importance of securing the best. 2 plows fitted for work, and 1 small do., $25-1 cultivator, $7,.- - $32.00 1 harrow, $10-1 roller, $10-1 seed planter, $15, ---------------- 35.00 1 fanning mill, 1 straw cutter, $40-1 root slicer, $28,. —----------- 68.00 1 farm ewagon, 1 ox-cart, one-horse cart, with hay-racks, &c., --- 180.00 HIarness for three horses,...............................-. 50.00 1 shovel, 1 spade, 2 manure-forks, 3 hay-forks, 1 pointed shovel, 1 grain shovel, 1 pick, 1 hammeir. 1 wood saw, 1 turnip-hook, 2 ladders, 2 sheep-shears, 2 steelyards, (large and small,) 1 halfbushel measure, each $1, -----------------—. —------------- 20.00 1 horse-rake, $85-2 grain-cradles, 2 scythes, $12,. —---------------- 20.00 1 wheelblarrow, $5-1 maul and wedges, 2 axes, $6.50,.. —---—... 11.50 1 hay-]knife, 1 ox-chain,.. —---------—. —---- 6.00 1 tape line, forl measuling fields and crops,. —-----------—...................... ------ 2.00 1 grindst.one, $3-1 crowbar, $2-1 sled and fixtures, $0,. —------ 35.00 Hand-hoes, hand-rakes, baskets, stable lantern, currycomb and brush, grain-bags, &c., say.....................-............ 15.00, The addition of a subsoil plow, sowing machine, mower and reaper, threshing machine, horse-power for sawing wood, cutting straw, &c., 132 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER would more than double the amount, but young farmers may hire most of' these during the earlier periods of their practice. A set of the simpler carpenter's tools, for repa iung implements in rainy weather, would soon repay their cost. Besides the preceding, the seeds for the various farm crops, would cost not less than $75; hired labor for one year, to do the work well, would probably be as much as $350; and food for maintaining all the domestic animals from the opening of sprillg until grass, and grain for horses till harvest, would not be less in value tkhan $100; $525 in all. ]For domestic alsilllals, -- -.- -. —-------------------- -. - - - - $1010.00 " implements, 474.50 " seeds, food and labor, —----------------------------------- 525.00 $2009.50'Thus, two thousand dollars are required the first year for stocking and conductinlg satisfactorily the operations of a hundred acres of good land -a much larger sum than is commonly supposed to be necessary, but none too much for the most profitable management. If this sum cannot be had, let the farmer purchase but fifty acres, so as to leave him a larger surplus of money, that he may till his land well. SIzE OF FARMs.-The great loss from a superficial, skimming culture, has been fully shown. Take the corn-crop as an illustration. There are many whose yearly products per acre do not exceed 25 bushels. There are others, skilled in good management, who obtain as an average, not less than 80 bushels per acre. Now observe the difference in the profits of each. The first gets 250 bushels from ten acres. In doing this, he has to plow ten acres, harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres, find seed for ten acres, plant, cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten acres, besides paying the interest and taxes on this extent of land, worth about five hundred dollars. The other cultivator gets 250 bushels from about three acres-and he only plows, plants, cultivates and hoes, this limited piece to obtain the same amoulnt-and from the fine tilth and freedom from weeds, this is much easier done, even on an equal surface. The same reasoning applies to every part of the farm. Be sure then, to cultivate no more than can be done in the best manner, whether it be ten, fifty, or five hundred acres. Two well known neighbors owned, one four hundred, and the other seventy-five acres-yet the larger farmer admitted that he made less than his limited neighbor. There is a rule to determine the proper size for a farm, that can be scarcely ever misapplied, namely, to reduce its dignension0s until the labor expended shall perform every thing in the best mansner. If, for instance, the farmer now lays out one thousand dollars yearly on three hundred acres, and finds the sum insufficient, then dispose of such a portion as will allow the thousand dollars to accomplish the very best cultivation. This will give the greatest nett proceeds, even if l it be but a huadrled acres. l As an example of what may be obtained from a small piece of land, (, A,~ — -. _ - -s ithe folowngp OF RURAL AFFAILS. 13Q the following products of fifty acres are given, and are not more than have been often raised separately by good farmers, with economical culture, and are much less than some premium crops obtained at; higher cost:10 acres wheat, 35 b.ushels per acre,-. —------- --------— $ —- 350 5 corn, 90 " 50c., ------------------------- 225 2 " potatoes, 200" " 35c., -------------------------- 140 1 " carrots, 500 " " 15c.,-. 75 6 " winter apples, 200 bushels per acre, 25c.,. 300 6 bay, 3 tons per acre, $6, -. —--------------------------- 108 10 " pasture, worth- - ------------------ ----- --- --- 60 5 barley, 40 bushels per acre, 50c., -------------------------- 100 5 " oats, 50 it " 35c., ----------------------- 87 Total product of 50 acres of fine land, —-------------------- $1445 Good land could be brought to this state of fertility, including complete underdraining and ample man,'ring, at less than a total cost of one hmuldred dollars per acre, where land is at an average price for the northern. and middle States; it would then be incomparably cheaper than many poor farms at nothing; for while fifty acres could be tilled for four huncdred dollars, leaving over one thousand dollars nett profits,. large, poor farms, hardly pay the labor spent upon them. A proprietor of such a farm declared, " It takes me and my hired man hard at work. all the year, to raise enough to pay him only."; LAYING OUT FARMS.-This department is very much neglected. The proper disposition of the different fields, for the sake of economy in fencing, for convenience of access, and for a full command of pasture and protection of crops at all times, has received comparatively little attention fiom our agricultural writers and from farmers. Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of; that a very few minutes, or hours at most, will enable a man to plan the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is a great error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on a flat uniform piece of ground, many things are to be borne in mind in laying it out. In the first place, we all know that thefentcing of a moderately sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very desirable to do it well, and use at the same time as little material as possible. To do this, much will depend on the shape of the fields. A certain length of fence will enclose more land in the form of a squcare, than in any other practicable shape. Hence fields should approach this form as nearly as possible. Again, the disposition of lanes is a matter of consequence, so as to avoid unnecessary length and fencing, and occupy the least quantity of ground. But these rules may be materially affected by other considerations. For instance, it is very desirable that land of similar quality may be in the same enclosure. Some may be naturally too wet for anything but meadow or pasture; some may be much lighter, and susceptible of plowj ing, while others are not; some may be naturally sterile, and need unusual manuring with green crops. All these should, as far as practicable, be 12 (1''34 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER included each in its own separate boundary. The sitnation of surfacedrains, forming the boundaries of fields, may influence their shape; facilities for irrigation may have an essential bearing; convenience for watering cattle is not to be forgotten. Where, in addition to all these considerations, the land is hilly, still morecare and thought is required in the subdivision, which may possibly require years of experience; but where fixed fences are once made, it is hard to remove theim; hence a previous thorough examination should be made. A farm road, much used for heavy loads, should be made hard and firm, and cannot be easily altered; it should consequently be exactly in the right place, and be dry, level and short-the shape of adjoining fields even conforming to these requisitions; but a road little iused should not interfere with the outlines of fields. A specimen of laying out a farm is given in the annexed plan. It is of the very simplest kind, or a right-angled parallelogram, on -- -. _........ nearly level land —a form that often occurs. It lies on one side of a public road, which is lined with forest trees. The middle enclosure on the road contains the dwelling, the barn, and other outbuildings. It is planted with trees for shade, ornanment, and domestic.-'Fy- Lxamp *... enjoyment-not set' all in a row" but in the graceful or picturesque _____ ___, i' style which distinguishes a beau-!9;r5s//1&* ~tiful natulral landscape. On one...... I1' SA.:G;CPt~ [I ~r side are the fruit, kitchen, and flower gardens-the lot containing.. them being oblong, to separate Fig. 15. certain portions of the fruit garden for pigs-the sovereign remedy for the curculio; the orchard may occupy the opposite lot. The remainder of the farm is divided into fields nearly square, each being entered from the lane by a good gate. These fields may be increased or lessened in size without altering the position of the lane. They should always be sufficiently numerous to admit a good rotation, and to separate at all times the pasture from the tillage land. A In laying out a farm with a very uneven surface, or irregular shape, it would be best to draw, first; a plan adapted to smooth ground, as the one An\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~! OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 135 ma -;i just given; and then vary the v.,~ A | size and shape of the fields, >k~&.~; t l the distance of the lane from the center, its straightness, 0Id ~:t. g i). --. &c., according to the circum-.,"~ "X, fstances of the case. i\X\\A\gitJ ~Fig. 16 exhibits an instance l —-----— ~~~; of modification to suit an uneven surface, where A is a l XSiltlSSJ&. —/ ---- high and broad bill, and B I.' "')'I'b ~ opposite direction. To avoid:y \.; plow around it, as in the last exampie, the fields are so divided as to be yg]Pio advantageously entered, and the plowing must be done with hill-side plow. The upper portion of A is accessible at a, and the lower part )Fig. 17. from the public road; B is entered >.. ~_. —-/ 136 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER at b; and C: is like A. The road from the barn to these fields being ascending, is well graded and rendered hard; and the descending road from the barn to the principal lane, is made with equal care, as most of the crops and manure pass over this portion. Some farmers, who care little for proximity to the public highway, would for convenience prefer to place the house farther back, out of sight, and nearer the center of the farm. FENcES.-The kind of fence used, and the material for its construction, must depend on circumstances and localities. A good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one; though it cost mlore, it will -more than save that cost, and three times the amount in vexation besides, by keeping cattle, colts, and pigs, out of fields of grain. A thriving farmer, whose whole land, except a small part with stone wall, is enclosed by common rail fence, with upright cedar stakes and connecting caps at the top, finds that it needs renewing once in six years. HI-e accordingly divides his whole amount of fences into six parts, one of which is built new every year. All is thus kept systematically in good repair. Stone walls, if set a foot below the surface to prevent tumbling by frost, are the most durable fence. Hedges have not been sufficiently tried. GATES.-Every field on the farm should be entered by a good selfshutting and self-fastening gate. A proper inclination in hanging will secure the former requisite, and a good latch, properly constructed, the latter. Each field should be numbered, and the number painted on the gate-post. Let the farmer who has bars instead of gates, make a trial of their comparative convenience, by taking them out and replacing them without stopping, as often as he does in one year on his farm, say about six hundred times, and he cannot fail to be satisfied which is cheapest for use. BuIaDINus.-These should be as near the center of the farm as other considerations will admit. All the hay, grain, and straw, being conveyed from the fields to the barn, and most of it back again in manure, the distance of drawing should be as short as possible. This will, also, save much traveling of men and of cattle to and from the different parts of the farm. The buildings should not, however, be too remote from the. public road; and a good, dry, healthy spot should be chosen. The dwelling should be comfortable, but not large-or it should, rather, be adapted to the extent of the lands. A large, costly house, with small farm and other buildings, is an indication of bad management. The censure of the old Romani should be avoided, who, having a small piece of land, built his house so large that he had less occasion to plow than to sweep. The barn and out-buildings should be of ample extent. The barn should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It is a matter of great convenience to have the straw for littering stables, housed, and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of snow. There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all domestic animals. This provision will OF RURAL AFFAIR:. 137 not only save one-tlhird of the fodder, but stock will thrive much better. Cows will give much more milk-sheep will yield more and better wool- and all will pass through the winter more safely. The wood-house near, or attached to, the dwelling, should never be forgotten, so long as comfort in building fires, and economy in the use of fuel, are of any importance. A small, cheap, movable horse-power, should belong to every establishment, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving washing machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw and slicing roots. CHOICE OF IM PLE dM.ENTS. —Of those which are much used, the very best only should be procured. This will be attended with a gain every way. The work will be easier done, and it will be better done. A laborer, who by the use of a good hoe for one month, can do one-quarter more each day, saves, in the whole time, an entire week's labor. CHOICE OF ANIMTALs. —The best of all kinds should be selected, even if costing something more than others. Not "fancy" animals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be productive of milk, and of a form adapted for beef; oxen, hardy, and fast-working; sheep, kept fine by never selling the best; swine, not the largest merely, but those fattening best on least food. A Berkshire or Suffolk, at 200 pounds, fattened on 10 bushels corn, is better than a " land-pike " of 300 fattened on 50 bushels. Having now taken some notice of the necessary items for commencing farming, it remains to glance briefly at SOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. The chief distinction of soils, in ordinary practice, is into heavy and light, wet and dry, fertile and sterile. A volume might profitably be written on their management, but space can be afforded here for a few brief hints only. Heavy (or clayey) soils are easily distinguished by their adhesiveness after rains, by cracking in drought, and by frequently presenting a cloddy surface after plowing. They are not sufficiently porous for natural drainage, but when thoroughly tile-drained, they become eminently valuable, as they retain manure better, and may be made richer than any other soil. Sandy or gravelly loams have less strength, and may be more easily worked. They do not retain manure a long time. With a hard subsoil, they also require drainage. Sandy soils are easily tilled, but are not strong enough for most purposes, possessing too little clay to hold manure. Peaty soils are generally light and free, containing large quantities of decayed vegetable matter. They are made by draining 1nev and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian corn, broom corn, barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great absorbers, and great radiators of heat; hence they become warm in sunshine, and cold on clear nights. For this reason, they are peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, consequently, be put in late-after spring frosts are over.:Corn is} ~ ~ aL cabs-2 138 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER should be of early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but ripen early. Each of these kinds of soils may be variously improved. Most of heavy soils are much improved by draining; open drains to carry off the surface water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. An acquaintance covered a low, wet, clayey field with a net-work of underdrains, and from a production of almost nothing but grass, it yielded the first year;forty bushels of wheat per acre-enough to pay the expense; and admitted of much easier tillage afterwards. Heavy soils are also made lighter and freer by manuring; by plowing under coatings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck; and in some rare cases, by carting on sand-though this is usually too expensive for practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial, both in wet seasons and in drought; the deep, loose bed of earth it makes, receiving the water in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above, when needed. But a frequent repetition of the operation is needed, as the subsoil gradually settles again. Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of lime, and by frequently turning in green crops. Leached ashes have been found Ilighly beneficial in many places. Where the subsoil is clayey, which is often the'case, and especially if marly clay-great advantage is derived from shoveling it up and spreading it on the surface. A neighbor had twenty bushels of wheat per acre on land thus treated, while the rest of the field yielded only five. MANuaREas.-These are first among the first of requisites in successful farm management. Th.y are the strong moving power in agricultural operations. They are as the great steam engine which drives the vessel onward. Good and clean cultivation is, indeed, all-important; but it will avail little without a fertile soil; and this fertility must be created, or kept up,'by a copious application of manures. For these contribute directly, or assist indirectly, to the supply of nearly all the nourishment which plants receive; it is these, which, produced chiefly from the decay of dead vegetable and animal matter, combine most powerfully to give new life and vigor; and thus the apparently putrid mass, is the very material which is converted into the most beautiful forms of nature; and plants and brilliant flowers spring up from the decay of old forms, and thus a continued succession of destruction and renovation is carried on through an unlimited series of ages. Manures possess different degrees of power, partly from their inherent richness, and partly from the rapidity with which they throw off their fertilizing ingredients, in assisting the growth of plants. These are given off by solution in water, and in the form of gas; the one as liquid manure, which, running down, is' absorbed by the fine roots; and the other as air, escaping mostly into the atmosphere, and lost. The great art, then, of saving and manufacturing manure, consists in,,.~ ~0 X OF R1URAL AFFAIRS. 139 retaining and applying to the best advantage, these soluble and gaseous portions. Probably more than one-half of all the materials which exist in the country. are lost, totally lost, by not attendling to the drainage of stables and farm-yards. This could be retained by a copious application of straw; by littering with saw-dust, where saw-mills are near; and more especially by the frequent coating of yards and stables with dried peat and swamp muck, of which many parts of our country furnish inexhaustible supplies. I say dried peat or muck, because if it is already saturated with water, of which it will often take in five-sixths of its own weight, it cannot absorb the liquid portions of the manure. But if it will absorb five-sixths in water, it will, when dried, absorb five-sixths in liquid manure, and both together form a very enriching material. The practice of many farmers, shows how little they are aware of the hundreds they are every year losing by suffering this most valuable of their farm products to escape. Indeed, there are not a few who carefully, and very ingeniously as they suppose, place their barns and cattle-yards in such a manner on the sides of hills, that all the drainage from them may pass off out of the way into the neighboring streams; and a farurer is mentioned, who, with pre-eminent shrewdness, built his hog-pen directly across a stream, that he might at once get the cleanings washed away, and prevent their accumulation. He of course succeeded in his wish; but he might, with almost equal propriety, have built his granary across the stream, so as to shovel the wheat into the water when it increased on his hands. All neat farming, all profitable farming, and all satisfactory farming, must be attended with a careful saving of manures. The people of Flanders have long been distinguished for the neatness and excellence of their farms, which they have studied to make like gardens. The care with which they collect all refuse materials which may be converted into manure and increase their composts, is one of the chief reasons of the cleanliness of their towns and residences. And were this subject fully appreciated and attended with a corresponding practice generally, it would doubtless soon increase by millions the agricultural products of the country. But there is another subject of scarcely less magnitude. This is a systematic ROTATION OF CROPS.-If manuring is the steam engine which propels the vessel, rotation is the rudder which guides it in its progress. Unlike manuring, rotation does not increase the labor of culture; it only directs the labor in the most effective manner, by the exercise of judgment and thought. The limits of this article do not admit of many remarks on the principles of rotation. The following courses, however, have been found among some of the best, to be modified according to the various crops adapted to each region of country: S14i0 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 1.-1st year. Corn and roots well manured; 2d year. Wheat, sown with clover seed, 15 lbs. per acre; 3d year. Clover, one or more years, according to fertility and amount of manure at hand. 2. —lst year. Corn and roots, with all the manure; 2d year. Barley and peas; 3d year. Wheat, sown with clover; 4th year. Cloy er, one or more years. 3.-1st year. Corn and roots, with all the manure; 2d year. Barley; 3d year. Wheat, sown with clover; 4th year. Pasture; 5th year. Meadow; 6th year. Fallow; 7th year. Wheat; 8th year. Oats, sown with clover; 9th year. Pasture or meadow. The number of fields must correspond with the number of the changes in each course; the first needing three fields to carry it out, the second four, the third nine. As each field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole number of fields collectively comprise the entire series of crops every year. Thus in the last above given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in summer fallow. OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIM.E.-The vital consequence of doing every thing at the right season, is known to every good farmer. To prevent confusion and embarrassment, and keep all things clearly and plainly before the farmer at the right time, he should have a small. book to carry in his pocket, having every item of work for each week, or each half month, laid down before his eyes. This can be clone to the best advantage to suit every particular locality and difference of climate, by marking each successive week in the season at the top of its respective page. Then, as each operation severally occurs, let him place it under its proper heading; or, if out of season, let him place it back at the right time. Any proposed improvements can be noted down on the right page. Interesting experiments are often suggested in the course of reading and or observation, but forgotten when the time comes to try them. By recording them in such a book under the right week, they are brought at once before the mind. Such an arrangement as this will prevent a great deal of the confusion and vexation too often attendant on multifarious cares, and assist very essentially in conducting all the farm work with clock-work regularity and satisfaction. In reviewing the various items which are most immediately essential to () 61,_ C F9 RURAL AFFAIRS. 141 good farm management, some of the most obvious will be-capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it well; to select a size compatible with these requisites; to lay it out in the best manner; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buildings; to select the best animals and the best implements to be had reasonably; to bring the soil into good condition, by draining, manuring, and good culture; to have every part under a good rotation of crops; and every operation arranged, so as all to be conducted systematically, without clashing alnd confusion. An attention to all these points would place agriculture on a very different footing from its present condition in many places and with most farmers, The business then, instead of being repulsive, as it so frequently is, to our young men, would be attended with real enjoyment and pleasure. But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth must not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected without diligence and industry. We must sow in spring, and cultivate well in summer, if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn. When we see young farmers commence in life without a strict attention to business, which they neglect for mere pleasure, well may we in imagination see future crops lost by careless tillage-broken fences, unhinged gates, and fields filled with weeds-tools destroyed by heedlessness, property wasted by recklessness, and disorder and confusion triumphant; and unpaid debts, duns, and executions, already hanging over the premises. But, on the other hand, to see cheerful-faced, ready-handed industry, directed by reason and intelligence, and order, energy and economy guiding the operations of the farm-with smooth, clean fields, and neat, trim fences-rich, verdant pastures, and fine cattle enjoying them, and broad waving meadows and golden harvests, and waste and extravagance driven into exile, we need not fear the success of such a farmer —debts cannot stare him in the face, nor duns enter his threshold. COUNTRY DWELLINGS. IN addition to the many designs furnished in former numbers of the Register, we give the following, which we hope will contribute towards a supply of the almost interminable demand for plans of farm-houses and rural residences, now felt in every part of the country. The first is a design for a brick farm-house, a sketch of the plan of which was furnished by a correspondent. The perspective view (fig. 18) is added. The advantages of this plan are: the three rooms most used, are in direct contact with and easily accessible to each other; the family bed-room. (B) although near the kitchen, (K) is sufficiently secluded, not opening to the latter; the bath-room, as should always be the case, opens to the bedroom and to the kitchen, at a convenient point for both hot and cold, 142 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 18-BRICK FARM-HOUSE. water; the kitchen stove (marked s,) stands remotely from the pantry and living-room doors, rendering these cooler in summer; the dish-closet (D. c.) is accessible to both kitchen and living (or dining) room-to the latter it may be by a more opening and slide. The cellar is entered from Wspor>,I the kitchen beneath the front or hall Woo stairs, and is thus quite accessible S 13X13 10X 13 33X 19 I7 n LV L,/, PRINCIPAL FLOOR SECOND FLOOR to both the kitchen and dining-room. The back stairs start at the back end of the hall, and land over the pantry. The garret stairs start from the passage at the head of the back stairs, and the garret is thus reached without passinlg through the front rooms and hall. " A flue," observes our correspondent, "1should ascend into, or up the side of the living-room cOF RURALI AFFAIRS. 143 chimney, to ventilate the cellar. The bath-room floor may descend toward the corner next the sink, where the water can pass out, and flow off with that fiom the sink and well." The cistern for rain-water is in the cellar, directly under the sink, where it may form a square apartment built of masonry, extending up nearly to the joists and covered with plank. A pumip passes up through the floor, and flows into the sink, and a tube with stop-cock may pass through the side wall into the cellar. The well (w) is just without the kitchen door. The back door of the living-iroom opens by means of a double door, with a space of air enclosed on the back veranda (V.) It may probably be built in a plain ancd substantial manner, for a suln not exceeding $2,200 —the cost would vary $500 with the dearee of finish and varyincg price of materials in different localities. If made of wood, it may be afforded for $400 less, at the average relative price of btick and lumber. SMALL OCTAGON HOUSE. The plan of this house was furnished by a correspondent-we have added an elevation. The octagon form gives the greatest amount of interior space for a given surface,I__ uof outside wall, and the obi ject of this plan bas been to arrange a house for a small jct tw __t ela wafamlily wherie the mistress eihrmo i sap b does her own work, or imnlediately superintends it. Our A- l' ", correspondent remarks:"The house is erected on FT.WID - what is called a balloon firame. The lower rooms are? 8 feet 8 inches high, the upper Fig. 21 —SALaL OOTAGON HoUSE. rooms 8 feet. Roof to project two feet. Cellar wall 18 inches above ground. Weather boards either common clapboards or vertical inch boards battened. The plan explains itself, and is KITOHEN thought to be very con- 13E/ ROOM _ 1s "X. venient. Cellar stai.rs un-. i2X...a,E ROOuMi der hall stairs. Chimney UPPER ROALL HALL io the center. -all t) T.wDf: FRLOR liob-lted as other rooms SeC ROOM M.'MG.' CL ~Y from the side, rendering L. the cupola unnecessary. Fig. 22-PRINCIPAL FLOON. Sides 138 feet long in- Fig. 23 —CHAMsnz PLAN. side. Built with four-inch scantling, it is about 83. feet from outside to outside." [ 144 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Our correspondent thinks this house might be built in the cheap way described, for seven or eight hundred dollars-with larger rooms and more substantial naterials and better finish, it would cost twelve to fifteen hundred. Many attemnpts have been made in designing larger octagon houses, the principal object being to economize in the amount of exterior wall-but all that; we have seen are encumbered with serious defects, either in the plan or in the exterior appearance, this form rendering it especially difficult to combine neatness and convenience. PaAN OF A SMALL MHOUSE. This plan is for a small and cheap house, and combines convenient arrangement with a compact disposition of the apartments. On account instead- of its simplicity, but litF77> B tie explanation is neces- 14X i. IITI-EN sary. The entry is small, Anoe. c o and occupies but little o n bi., ai space, yet furnishes ready OaR v DINING access to all rooms in I 4go lnOOM. oi X. thehouse but the kitchen. 12X.12 => The upper entry may be Fig. 25-FIRST STORY. lighted by a dormer win- Fig. 26-SECOND STORY. dow, or by the omission of one of the closets at its side. Closets may be made under the stairs, for the two rooms, right and left. PLAN OF A SMALL COUNTRY HOUSE. On page 28 of the Rural Register for 1855, a plan and perspective view are given of a small house, possessing much convenience for a building of that size. A correspondent has since furnished the accompanying improvemenllt, (fig. 27) differing by giving the two principal rooms a square instead of an octagonal form, by placing the closets between them and not at the corners, and also flanking the kitchen with two small bedAnother correspondent has still later given us another modification, shown by fig. 28, and of which he furnishes the following description: a" ving noticed a plan for a small house, (fig. 27) I will give you the, plan of a house I built last summer. It is much the same as the plan J OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 145 referred to, with the addition of two small rooms, viz: a bathing-room and pantry, which, I am satisfied, can be added to the first plan without increasing the cost over $15, as it takes no more outside Nwall to enclose the building with these two rooms than - without them, and two angles less. BATH. PANTRY K V EDRO M 0 BEDROOM LIVING ROOM PARLOR II POt~IaCO i Fig. 27. Fig. 28. " In maturing a plan, I kept steadily several objects in view. First, how many rooms and what size a small family would need; and secondly, what form I should build on to get the greatest amount of room for a certain expense, and in the most compact form. I was satisfied the nearer square I could build, so as to give the rooms proper shape, the better, as it would enclose the greatest amount of room with a certain amount of outside wall, with the least number of angles, and in the most compact form possible. My house is 27 by 33 feet, one story 10 feet high, with steep roof, so that I have two good bed-chambers on the second floor 14 by 16{ each. On the lower floor there are 7 rooms, 2 small halls, 1 closet, and 1 wardrobe under the stairs,' opening into family bed-room, and 2 fire-places. Had I plenty of money to spare, I would have had all the rooms larger and the story 12 feet high, but for a small family they do very well." Fig. 28 is copied from the sketch sent, which we think a very successful attempt in arranging the apartments of a moderate sized house; the roof having no receding angles, is consequently not subject to leakages. The only material defect we observe, is, that the kitchen is lighted and aired on but one sidce-windows on opposite sides, like those in fig. 27, being more favorable to a pure air, and that cleanliness which is best secured by ample light. Its position, however, would make it warmer in winter; but also warmer in dog-days. Most of the plans hitherto given in the Register, are for cheap houses. The following several views and plans of dwellings of a more costly character, are taken from CALVEzRT VAUX's work on " Villas and Cot-. taiges," a very complete and perfect treatise on the better class of Country I~\ Iouses, and possessing the rare merit of combining compact and conve-.T)nient plans With neat and picturesque exteriors. The plans we have /[I nient~~~~1 ( 146 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER selected are only fair specimens of the many which are given in this excellent work. Fig. 29 —IRREGULAR COUNTRY HOUSE. Th6 first view is of a moderate-sized country house, and the whole of the following description is copied from Vaux: "This design was prepared and executed for a gentleman of Newburgh; and the general idea of the plan includes so much that is called for by the American climate and habits of life in the Northern States, that it will probably be better worth the attention of those who wish to build a moderate-sized cheap house, with a kitchen above ground, than many other plans of more pretension. It possesses one convenient quality, which some other styles of plans cannot be arranged to include, for it admits of mnany modifications, without sacrificing its advantages. It may be completely altered in outside appearance, and doubled in extent of interior accommuodation, and yet be in reality the same plan. It can be adapted to almost any situation by a proper arrangement of the roofs. Thus, for example, on an elevated and somewhat open site, such a one as this house occupies, a roof of only moderate pitch is desirable. On level ground, or in a valley, a high-pitched roof should be preferred. It is also an economical plan for the accommodation afforded, as will be seen by the particulars of cost that are annexed. The house, as now finished, is constructed with an eight-inch brick wall, furred off outside, and covered with clap-boards in the ordinary way followed in a wooden building. This plan of constru-ction was adopted in accordance with the special request of the proprietor, who preferred it to; any other method. Its A advantages are, that it secures to a certainty a: perfectly dry interior wall., On the other hand, it seems undesirable to lhave a brick house, and to () give it the appearance of a wooden one, as brick is the superior and more (9 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 147 durable-looking material. The accommodation may be thus described: A verandia-porch on tle east provides a covered approach to the front door. The principal hall, 11 6 by 10 feet, gives access to the parlor and library, both of which are on t!le south of the house, and also to the dining-r1oom. Alothel-rl door opens on to a staircase-hall, which is L KITGE easily accessible either from the < i1o S Ip)rincipal rooms or from the kitchen wing. This is desirable, - as the scale of the house would not warrant a second staircase. L1 BRAR$ f 1 An1 east and a south velranda are f LI26/0DRARY supplied to tie principal roonls,.2og 6 x1 i5INI~ gR but each has windows that are N'M EI rlunobstructed by any veranda. >HIALL T-r rhe dinino-room connects 6> C PARLOR FI "x/cs throngrh a pantry with the kitchen 20o-x n wing, which is also approached [ I n D VERANDA from the main body of the house n___ _t,~_=_ _:...... - l ~ under the staircase. A lobby PLAN OF PRINCIPAL FLOOR. opens on to a kitchen veranda, facing south, that provides a servant's entrance, and is convenient for hlat/lial oult clothes under cover in raily eatherll. A kitchen, 17 by 13, fitted iup with closets, wash-trays, and stole-room, co/lpletes the accommodation o01 the imail floor and wvigo. By this Iplall the disadvantages of livilAg in tIle basement arte entirely avoided, and the lady of the house can superintend her serva/nts nwith case and comfort. "In the chamber plan will be found five bed-rooms, and a bath-room and wvater-closet; and in the wing two bed-rooms, a linen-press, and a houlse-D.R 4 BED 0 ~ hF _ r -LLAI -R- n m-. - }?F__L I.....,,, UL L A R_ I /iI Fig. 31-BASEaMEIT. Fig. 32 —(HAMBER PLAN. Fig. 33-PLAN OF ROOF. maid's sink. All these rooms are supplied with registers near the ceiling,, that communicate with foul air flues sepalrate from the chimney-flues. In J) the garret over the bath-room is a large well-lighted linen-room; and as this is planned on the half-landing, it is very easy of access from the rA Ir""" _" "', \\ """ 148 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER chamber floor. A large store-room, the size of the bed-room over the dining-room, is finished off under the roof in a common way, and is secured with a door after being enclosed from the stairs by a plastered partition. The remainder of the space is open and unplastered. It makes a very roomy garret, with plenty of headway all over it; but the windows in the peaks are, of course, close to the floor, and it was never intended that any bed-rooms should be fitted up here. The roof is covered with shingles, the flat being floored and covered with canvas. In the basement are cellars and furnace-room, the kitchen-wing foundations not being carried down farther than was necessary to keep clear of frost. In this house special precaution was taken, by the proprietor's request, with regard to the plumber's work. All the pipes, hot, cold, and waste, were enclosed in a tin envelope fitted tolerably closely to the pipes. As the work proceeded, this tin case was soldered up every here and there, and particularly where the pipe is led through the wall, in the first instance, and where it starts from the boiler. By this means the little insects that work their way from below, and are often found about water fixtures in rooms, are prevented from crawling up and down, and breeding among the warm pipes, as they are tempted to do in many situations. " The carpenter's contract for this house was taken at $3500; the mason's at $2500; the remainder of the work was done by the day. " After the contracts had been made, the proprietor left the work entirely in the hands of the architect; and, with the exception that. hard walls were substituted for brown walls throughout, and that some trifling alterations were made in the arrangements for the linen-press, the plans, as signed, were faithfully executed for the contract amount, without any difficulty whatever. The carpenter's and mason's extras, which amouted to $350, included the change from brown wall to hard finish, and all the work appertaining to a large outbuilding at some distance from the house." It will be perceived that this house, which cost about G6000, might have been built mluch cheaper of brick in the ordinary way; and at a still less sum, or at one-half its actual cost, if built of wood only. We do not recommend it for its mode of erection, but for its admirable plan and fine exterior views. SQUARE BRICxI COUNTRY HOUISE. This house, (fig. 34) with the exception of a small central projection, is nearly a square, and it consequently possesses the advantage of omuch enclosed space for the amount of wall. Its otherwise monotonous appearance is relieved by the projection in front, and by the iliregularity of its roof. Those who desire a more irregular outline, may apply the plans here given (figs. 35 and 36) to the accompanying neat and pictu-, resque exterior-(flg. 37.) The plan, which combines many excellences, is thus described by TVaux: 9A N OF RURAL AFFAIRS. C149 B Fig. 34.SQUARE BRICK COUNTRY HOUSE. " The house is entered by a recessed porch, with a covered balcony overhead. This upper balcony being also recessed in the brick-wvok, and enclosed at the sides, is Flwrays in shadov, and nratewialll helps to relieve what would othlerWise be a mronotonous front. This space is fitted te, VERANDA B4LGY KlTyl I-I rc- M i BEDROOM i 6SER V o lo/ BED, BED R. R HAL L, HALL DRAVJIMNGROOM I. 8DO, DIING ROOM 20o0ox,6o 0D ROOM 1 I 16 OX 14' 6 12-6 B DD ROOM RES 1 PLAN.OF PRI NCi PAL FLOOR PLANOF CHAMBERS. Fig. 3s5. Fig. 36. with a glazed flame i.thie winter, the porch being enclosed with foldingdoors'as soon as the cold weather sets in. Theblall extends through the house, and communicates with a parlor and bed-roomn, a dining-room, and. A a veranda in the sear. The main staks are in this open hall, amd on the i half-landino is a connection, through a French casement window, with a i () balcony over tlhe veranda, from whichl a pretty view is gained. The ~~r~~T 3 C'=- - - X,*~3'.. 150 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER parlor has a large bay-window in it, the cornice of the room being carried round the recess that it forms. There is a private door from this room to the bed-room adjoining. "It is not generally a desirable plan to give up the space necessary for a bed-room on the principal floor; but circumstances occur in which it is a very great desideratum, and this study may serve to show how, in a d.,:.,j~ g~f~ simple house, the idea may be developed. It will be perceived that a portion of the veranda is enclosed for a small dressing-room to this bed-room, thus making it a far more conmmodious sleeping apartment than it would othS.W.VIEW. erwise be. The dining-room connects Fig. 37. with a pantry, and is also supplied with a large china-closet. The pantry is fitted up with hanging-shelf, drawers, and closet, and connects with the kitchen, which is thus shut off from the living-rooms, although under the same roof as the rest of the house. An enclosure of the veranda, similar in size to that on the opposite side, supplies a space for a pantry and sink-room. The servants' entrance is quite convenient of access from the road, but, at the same time, is shut off by its position from interfering with the privacy of the veranda. A door, whlere shown near the hall door to veranda, encloses the basement stairs for the use of the kitchen, and a compact flight of stairs from the kitchen itself, provides a separate access for the servants to the bed-rooms above. This staircase occupies a very small space, and is a great addition to the convenience of the house. In the basement is a wash-room under kitchen, with an outer entrance, close by servants' entrance, for convenience in carrying out clothes to dry. The remainder of the space is not finished off, and furnishes cellars and furnace-room.'A straight veranda enclosed on both sides would not, perhaps, be thought sufficiently airy, and a projection is therefore made, as will be seen on reference to the plan, to increase its size and give it a more open effect. This arrangement also adds somewhat to the external appearance of the design, at but little additional expense, while it is calculated to insure privacy in a suburban house; and in common houses the notion is carried out frequently, in a simple way, by lathing up the ends of verandas, to prevent them from being overlooked by next-door neighbors. Such a veranda as is here shown, will be almost as retired as any of the rooms inside the house. " Up stairs are three full-sized bed-rooms, and a small bed-room, or dressing-room, a bath-room, and water-closet, a linen-press, and two servants' bed-rooms, the latter disconnected with the other apartments. This arrangement is made with the idea that the attics are to be left entirely tAE _ at OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 151 unfinished for a time, the house being occupied by a small family; but the plan has been, from the first, so arranged that three or four airy, welllighted rooms can be fitted up at any future time, and if this should ever be done, the two servants' rooms shown on chamber plan, might be converted to the use of the family, and the servants' rooms arranged above." The actual cost of this house, which was erected for a gentleman at Newburgh, with the addition of all ornamental fence, and a moderatesized stable and coach-house, was over $7000-but the same plan may be used for a simpler and cheaper structure, or for a good farm-house of wood, that mioht be erected for about half that sum. Fig. 38 —BRICK VILLA WITH TowER. For beautiful picturesque effect, this exterior view is one of the finest in Vaux' "Villas and Cottages." It is especially adapted to a somewhat varied surface of country, or where moderate hills predominate, and it should stand at somne distance from the road and other dwellings. It had not been erected when Vaux wrote his work, and the cost was therefore only estimated, at over $7000. The following is his description:'A recessed porch, large enough to serve as a morning veranda, provides access to the principal hall, which is only of snmall dimensions, but it is provided with cloak-closets, and contains the doors to the three principal apartments, and to the staircase. The library is in the lower story of the tower, and the design is so arranged that this tower can be omitted entirely when the first contract is made, without a disagreeable 4 ( appearance being the result; and although the interior accommodation Q 152 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ( m-aterially redliced unlVERANDAH clei these cireumstan_,,f'stances, thie design would still be faior and c1nllllecte, allt tie athle - PARLOUS DN.. tion coultd be made at 19,A;,s..0 a0.6X13c G,'Id ~J ~.'",C aly tiune. A I:al'lor...........B U~,,~~~E e and diinrlg-rooml oT)en 1 AsPA's ift intr r KITCNF s the dilimil -tooi is a IPORCH fr _i_ vce acl d dIoolr to the *Ar.S -Pro lARitcel), w lich is inl a 1 ite, a l.inr, buifldi-i. Yi F igc 3. " 3'Thle cllaunber plais Xsy W-~ sul:)plies fouLr bedc-rooms, and a ftits in tie uIlper story of thfi | BALCONY l!1,(Vtower, also a bath-room aind w;ater-closet, a iI1en-p1ress anId two o scrvtm's lbedC-roorss.. Th.e | < AED ROOM BED ROAR observatory is convenielntly; a.......o...s-.O..s o ~' ~ rteIeh,;d(a b3y contilmrinr tile stcaircasec tlhat leads to tower betdDO room.. l!e roof is' arrang'ed as |.,'......I: s*how 011 the p lan. The iLtcni i'- SA'-2z.40(16'riS Iy>6>.;S l tion in tiils tdsi)n is to insure, iZC-iii as far as pos'sible, as irregaular ilictulresqule elf-ctt, withlout any RLAN OF CI4#,AMARERS. sacrifice of colvenlience or a large out;lay of mlollney. As the I house is to be built on somluewhat of a higlland, it seems undcsi-'I t liable to use an acute pitchll for t. he roofl for tlse trees tlhat sur|'' - 1lloulId the site lroposed for the /i j liii11ih liolnus0, alttliouth vigorous atid j |# 0 -/9/X @01ll well-shapedl, ale solmewhat scatteredl alndl of Ilo great msaglil > 3' tig1 l i i t.,l1cie.'llet T mTould, tlhelrdre, V ".~~s ayecelv t' te, Is r prper sha /i 21ti I!''iii in the gene ral.1 colmposition, if''),I PgArN OF ROObFS. the roof wmere umate too promio- - OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 153 nent a feature. Considerable judgment is needed in settling on the exact position for a house like this, so as to realize all the advantages that the site affords. It must not seem to overhang the descent, or the effect will be crowded, and will give the idea fiom the road of a small, restricted property. Neither should it retreat very far from the brow of the hill, or the house will be shut out of sight, and altogether lost on a tolerably near approach to the premises. A happy.medium, both in the location of the site and in the pitch of the roof, is the desirable point to aim at under such circumstances." a,, Fig. 42. The above design of a partially enclosed veranda, was used in screening from view a kitchen and other portions of the out-buildings too much exposed by their side-hill position. The trellis-work here represented, freely admitted light to the kitchen, and secured at the same time a proper degree of privacy, by excluding the view from the garden and ornamental arounds. Similar contrivances may sometimes be used to great advantage for like purposes. Furniture and nural Structures of Iron. A beneficent provision for the wants of man is shown in the large existence of iron. It is incomparably the most abundant metal found in nature. At the same time it possesses strength greatly superior to that of other metals. It is nearly twice as strong as copper, three times stronger than silver, and has nearly four times the tenacity of gold. It is almost the only metal that can be worked by welding. Its combinations with carbon in the formation of cast-iron and steel, greatly enhance its value; and its magnetic properties are indispensable to navigation. The introduction and use of iron has kept nearly even pace with the 154 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 4I'R0-ETA7SCS Fig. 43-GRAPE CHAIR. Fig. 44-MORNING GLORY CHAIR. Fig. 45. HALL CHAIRS. Fig. 46, OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 155 Fig. 47-TRAVELING CHAIR. Fig. 49-WIRE ARM CHAIR. Fig. 50-GRAPE SETTEE. progress of civilization. With the ancients it was a comparatively scarce metal. In 1740, its production in England had risen to 17,000 tols. l England at present produces 3,500,000 tons-an increase of snore than one hundred and fifty fold in a century. The whole production of the q world is estimated at 7,000,000 tons annually-enough to load a line of common wagons reaching around the circumference of the earth. In 1810, j. 4' A d Am -:! sC TaLLtSTATED AL rIST Fig. 52-IIIT TR OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 157 Fig. 54-GOTHIO SETTEE. )W; d ~ Fig. 55-IRON BEDSTEAD. the United States produced 54,000 tons-now the annual product is a million tons. The consumption of iron has been said to be a social barometer,-showing the relative height of civilization among nationswhich is corroborated by the fact that while Great Britain and the United States manufacture two-thirds of fhe whole amount in the world, Spain and Norway each manufacture but one-three hundredth part, and Italy butit a hundredth. The different uses to which iron is applied, are almost innumerable, from minute cambric needles and delicate watch-springs, to iron roads stretching over thousands of miles, and ponderous bridges of many thoui sand tons. A bar of iron worth $5, may be increased in value by working into horse-shoes to $10; into pen-knife blades to $3000; into shirt buttons to $29,000; and into the balance-springs of watches to $250,000. We, b?} pass over all these multifarious uses, and confine ourselves at present to rural structures and household furniture. (9 158 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 56-CRIB. l~. 11118'"iii11111.1,.. Fig. 57-MBRELLA STAND. Fig. 58-VASE. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 159 Fig. 59-WIRE FENCE WITH WooD POSTS..n 1': Fig. 60-WIRE FENCE WITH IRON POSTS, For these two purposes, there are several extensive manufactories in this country, some of the largest of which are in the city of New-York, and among them is that of HUTC soINSON & WICKERSHAM, (312 Broadway,) who furnish all the articles here named, and for the convenience of our readers, we have procured and appended the prices at this establishment, as the knowledge of the cost is an important desideratura to those who wish to procure them. HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE.-Among the various kinds of iron chairs, we may enumerate the " Grape Chair," (fig. 43, $5)-the " Morning Glory Chair," (fig. 44, $6)-and the two Hall Chairs, (figs. 45 and 46, each $4.50) the preceding being of cast-iron; and the following wire chairs, namely, the Folding or Traveling Chair, (figs. 47 and 48,.$4.50)-one representing it as closed for carrying, and the other as open and standing for use. The wire Arm-Chair (fig. 49) is sold at $8. Among the Settees, the Grape pattern (fig. 50, $9 to $15) is an especial favorite; the Rustic Settee (fig. 51, $10) is of lighter form, and the Gothic Settee (fig. 54, $17 to $20) is best adapted to places where Gothic architecture prevails. A neat Umbrella Stand is shown in fig. 57, ($1.50 to $6)-and iron Wash Stand, (fig. 53, including crockery, $7,) with looking-glass. A new and improved Hat-Tree is exhibited in fig. 52 ($16.) Many other forms of hat and umbrella stands are manufactured. (. And~~~~~~ —c 9 160 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 61-IRON FENCE WITH FLAT RAILS. Fig. 62-FLAT RAIL AND CORRUGATED POST -FENcIE. FIi 63 —1CRCAE IRA AD()RRl EF t. Fig. 63-(1) CORRUGATED RAILROAD AND (2) RURAL WIRE FENCE. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 161 Fig. 64 —BRACE FOR END POST. Fig. 65-MODE OF FASTENING WIRES OR BARS TO WOODEN POSTS. Iron Bedsteads possess two most important advantages over those of wood,-first, in their almost endless durability, and secondly in their entire freedom from bugs. They should, however, be substantially made, as the desire for a cheap article often induces a weak and flimsy structt're, which does not stand firmly, and is liable to become bent by use. Fig. 55, when made of stout bars, is the simplest and one of the very best in use, although not so ornamental as some others, ($4 to $6.) Others of more elaborate patterns are made, ($7 to $9.) Fig. 56 ($10) shows a Crib, the sides of which are left out. RURAL ORNAMENTS AND STRUCTURES.-Cast-iron vases are very durable ornaments on the more finished parts of grounds, and require only occasionally a small application of paint. Fig. 58 represents a neat vase of this character with its pedestal. The prices of these vases vary with their size, friom $5 to $20, and the pedestals are about $5 each. Fences.-Wire fences have generally failed in consequence of endeavoring to make them cheap. We believe that none capable of withstanding cattle, can be made in open ground for much less than $2 per rod. A lower price reduces the size of the wires, and renders them inefficient. Fig. 59 represents one of the simplest kinds of Wire Fence, with wooden posts. The screws for leugthening and contracting the wires for heat and cold, are shown between the posts; and the brace to sustain the end-post, pw29C~ - Gr ~ ~ 4gr 1 162 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 66-POST FOR WIRE FENCE. Fig. 67-POST FOR IRON RAIL FENCE. Fig. 68-WIRES FASTENED TO THE POST. placed in a short sill at the bottom, is represented in fig. 64. This fence costs, if five wires high, $1.33 per rod, besides the posts, and 20 cents per rod for each additional wire. Fig. 60 shows a similar fence with iron posts set in cedar blocks, the cost of which for five wires is $2 per rod, and for ten wires, so as to exclude pigs, turkeys, geese, &c., $3 per rod. Fig. 61 represents the rails of fiat iron, instead of wires, which cost but little more, and by being more visible, prevent cattle fiom striking it. The flat bars are not so liable to sag. An ingenious mode of fastening these wires or bars to wooden posts, is shown in fig. 65; and Wickersham's Patent Corrugated Iron Fence-Post, for each of these kinds of rails, is represented by figs. 66 and 67. Fig. 62 is a more distinct figure of the Flat Rail and Corrugated-Post Fence., I Fig. 63 is a still more distinct exhibition of the same, the right-hand por. A tion. showing the II Rural Wire Fence," the cost of which is from 40 to 75 cents per running foot. Figs. 69, 70, 71, and 72, represent the exact OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 163 size of vwire of different sizes, and may be useful to those not familiar with the dimensions, designated by numbers. No. 0. No. 3. No. No. 11. Fig. 69-5-16 inch. Fig. 70-1-4 inch. Fig. 71-3-16 inch. Fig. 72-1-8 inca. The mode of passing the ends of the wires through the post, and securing them to their places, is shown by fig. 68, where the square outline is the cross section of the iron post. It has square openings or slots made for each wire. Loops are made as represented, and the loops foI each ivire are both passed through one slot, and then turned so as to lie horiFig. 73-IURnuRLE FENCE (WITH FLAT BARS) AND GATE. zontally. In this position they cannot be withdrawn, and if the short end of the wire be befit out, they are held so as not to draw out on! either side. This figure shows the exact or natural size of the post and of the wire, which is No. 83, the'smallest that should be used in fence- U AGED c>d 164 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER makling. The end posts must be braced in the most secure manner, or a larcge tree may be used-the intermediate posts may be set in a hole made with a crowbar, and gravel firmly rammed about them. A hurdle fence made of flat bars, (with a gate,) is represented by fig. 73. Its cost is $2.50 to $5 per rod. The rails are bars an inch wide, and an eilghth of an inch thick. The posts are six feet apart, terminating at the bottonm in three prongs, each a foot long, which entering the ground at right angles to the fence, hold it firmly in its position. This fence is easily moved, and one man may set up sixty rods in a day. Fig. 74 — ENCE FOR TOWN OR CITY LOT. A more elaborate and costly iron Fence, intended for the sihall lots of towns and cities, is shown in fig. 74. The left-hand portion of this fence varies in cost from $2 to $3 per running foot; the central is $1.75 to $2.75; and the right-hand portion $1.75 to $2. U N D E R-D A I N I NIN G. There are very few of the best soils that do not need artificial drainage. Lands that are tenacious enough to hold manures well, do not allow water to pass rapidly through them. Eight inches of such soil, saturated with water in spring, cannot quickly become dry, if all this water must creep slowly and silenltly downwards through the particles of earth on a broad ten-acre field. It has been shown that a single acre of soil a foot deep, holds at a wet season a su tplhs of more than two thousand barrels of water, which if discharged would leave the land moderately moist, and right for vegetation. The only way to get rid of this flood proniptly, is to provide artificial channels for its discharge. There are some sandy and gravelly soils that do not require drainage, but they can never be brought permanently to the highest state of fertility, as they do not contain clay enough to absorb and hold manure. There are also some heavy soils which have a natural drainage of porous gravel or fissured rocks beneath; but these are rare instances. As a general rule, then, every farmer whose lands are not thin sand or hungry gravel, should prepare for the thorough and systematic underdrainage of his whole farm. OF RURAL A'FFAIRS. 165 The adantages are great in many ways. 1. The land when thoroughly drained Mlay be worked at almost any time, the owner not being compelled to wait till the best time for sowing or cultivating has past. 2. Crops may be planted early, and sometimes doubled firom this cause alone. 3. Less labor will manage the farm, as there will be less time lost in waiting tediously for water to flow off. 4. Draining prevents very effectually all iinjury from drought, becaise if the soil does not become soaked and muddy, it keeps mellow and does not bake hard. 5. The soil thus being always mellow, it allows roots to penetrate it freely, and promotes the rapid growth of crops. 6. It admits the thorough admixture of manures through the mellowed mass, and its effect is thus much increased. 7. The soil, from its porous character, is a better non-conductor of heat, and the roots of plants are less injured by freezing in winter. 8. Drained soils do not heave by frost, and plants are not thrown out by freezing. These and other advantages are so great, that many farmers who have underdrained their lands uniformly and thoroughly, have asserted that the expense (which is usually about $30 per acre) has been fully returned to them by the increase in the two first crops. John Johnston of Geneva, N. Y., says these two crops have always repaid him; and on very wet land, the first crop has more than paid the expense, by its increase. He generally has on his drained and well-tilled land, over thirty bushels of wheat per acre, while his neighbors who cannot afford so expensive an operation, have repeatedly lost more than half theirs by the weevil, in consequence of feebler and later growth. Although the cost is $25 or $30 per acre, yet he can drain a large farm for $400 or $500-as follows: This sum will drain 20 acres the first year; in two years it will be returned in the increase, when twenty more will be c6mpleted-and so on till all is done. Gov. Wright of Indiana, said-" I knew a farm of 160 acres that was sold five years ago for $500, but after an expenditure of less than $200 ini draining, the owner refused $3000 for it." He had a neighbor " whose extra crop of corn paid the whole expense of drainini the first year." An instance occurred some years since, where a four-acre field yielded the first year after thorough drainage, forty bushels of wheat per acre, that was only fit for a wet pasture before. The impossibility of producing large crops, even by high manuring, on wet lands, has been amply proved, and a case is mentioned in the Transactions of the New-York State Agricultural Society, where seven acres of low, wet land, although manured annually at the rate of twenty-five loads per acre, produced per acre only thirty-one bushels of oats; but after thorough underdrainage, the manure which had been locked up by the water which enveloped it, was immediately rendered effective, and the first crop, without additional manuree, was eighty-nine bushels per acre. [ To ascertain where draining is required, dig holes into the earth two to three feet deep (post-holes often answer the purpose,) and observe if / Dr - ____ _ _ 166 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER water remains in these holes during the wetest periods. If it soaks away within twenty-four hours through the porous subsoil, and leaves the bottom dry, then draining will be wholly unnecessary. But if the water remains several days, then artificial channels will be required to carry it off. LAYING OUT DRAINS. Laying out the course of the drains to relieve the land of its surplus water, is an operation of great importance. If it is judiciously done, the water will be quickly and safely conducted away; if badly performed, much labor and expense will be lost, and the water, if reached, only carried from one place to flood another. There are different modes of laying out drains, which may be comprehended under the two general heads of SIMPLE AND EASY; and, COMPLEX AND INEFFICIENT. The former consists in adopting one general rule for all cases, namely, to run parallel drains by the shortest and steepest course down the natural slope of the land, at regular distances, usually about thirty feet apart. The latter requires an examination of the seams and strata of the soil and subsoil, and the position of springs and wet spots, and the adaptation of various crooks and side courses in the drains to meet all these points, without any regular system. The former, if applied to a gradually descending field, or to the side of a hill or slope of a valley, can scarcely ever fail of effecting a complete and thorough drainage of the whole surface,-for generally the surplus water at wet times is distributed evenly over the whole surface, and it will be carried off evenly and uniformly by this regularly distributed system; and even where there are springs, they will be approached within a few feet, and be generally tapped before reaching the surface, by some one or other of these drains. Many pages have been written, in applying geological principles to the operation of draining; but with a few rare exceptions, all the rules thus developed have only served to make the subject more difficult to beginners, and more inefficient in practice. One of the leading characteristics of A). this mode is to examine the strata, ascertain through what seams the waQz,<~:.ter oozes out at the surface, and by judicious side ditches, running obliquely downwards, to tap and cut off Fig. 75. these streams. The annexed figure (fig. 75) exhibits the mode by which this is done, as described in standard works on draining. The dotted portion represents gravel or porous soil, alternating with hard, impervious layers. The ditch at a, cut through into the hard bottom, intercepts all the water from the upper gravel bed, and prevents it from inju ing the soil below; while the ditch b is of no use, as it does not extend down far enough to reach the water which flows OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 1 6 ) over the second hard layer. This reasoning appears well on paper, but is defective when applied in practice; for if these ditches have any descent, as they must have in order to discharge, they must cross the hard strata, and can be therefore carried as the figure represents them, only for a very short distance. Incomparably better and more efficient is the practice of cutting through all these strata at right angles, directly down.+~-:.:z:~.::::,~v the hill, as shown in fig. 76, each drain thus made forming a complete dis-~\\\\ charge for every accumulation of water. In extreme cases, very short Fig. 7o. side drains or branches may extend laterally to cut off any unusual escape of water to the surface. A mistaken practice is often adopted, by running drains obliquely instead of directly down hill, even in soils where there are none of the Z B seams or layers just I A described, but where'I:"I / A the subsoil forms a uniI.IX 1 / - form substance, for the l imits, j.;/ retention of wvater. it ~,,i I lj; \// 1j i ure (fig. 77) will serve + this practice, A A A ) i / llXltll l/channels of moisture, i,; ~~~11!y / Xas they leach down-.',6 A"!,li ward through the soil. C The shortest descent Fig. 77. down the sloping surface is from B to C, the drains being placed at an oblique angle of about forty-five degrees. We shall suppose these drains to be two rods apart. Very little, obviously, of the water in the soil will pass into the one next above it, but will nearly all flow into the one below. Then, as from a to c is two rods or 33 feet, the distance from a to b will be 47 feet, or nearly three rods, which is the furthest distance for the water of the soil to soak into the ditches. Let us now examine the other mode of laying the chanels, oiamely, directly down hill by the shortest course. B C, Fig. 78, is the direction of the descent, down which the drains foare laid two rods asunder. Te shall suppose thes water equally on both sides, apart. Vthe effect of each drain exter ing half way, or to the straigh dotted next threlines. The direct distance is consequently but one rod, as shown by c; soak 168 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER but as the moisture must flow obliquely to reach them, the distance becomes greater according to the, D - B - 1 - / degree of obliquity. If this',.^~ // \ /z 1\ A1\obliquity is folrty-five degrees, \ i\\/J f t\;,,' shown by D D,) d e being this D. distance; even in this case d e. a E would be only about 37 feet, or a little over two rods,being tenfeet less than in the former mode. It may therefore be laid down as a safe rule, that the perpendicular drains would be as efficient at two rods apart, as the oblique ones at twothirds of this distance. But there are other influences still more in favor of the perpendicular mode. When the drains are oblique, the water does not find so ready a passage down them, and consequently if tile is used they must be of larger size. The passage througah them being some=, __ what obstructed by a want of descent, the water after it has filled them, tends to leak out on the lower side, (fig. 79) and if the subsoil Fig. a. is pervious, thus to add to the amount of water in the soil below, instead of draining it. But when it once enters the perpendicular drains, it never passes back into the soil, but escapes by the channel thus made for it. The question is sometimes asked, why the water will flow sidewise for reaching the perpendicular drains, and if it will find its way at all into them q The answer is, water always tends (unless an obstruction is presented,) to pass from a soil filled with it, to one that is dry or empty, in the same way that it will run out on all sides of a basket; and as soon i as that portion nearest the ditch' becomes drained, more remote portiol-.s flow in to fill the vacancy, till all escapes. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 169 An eminent standard work gives the accompanying figure (fig. 80) of the mode for draining the sides of a hill. It is true that the drains repFig. 80. resented co.lld hardly fail to carry the water safely down so steep a: descent; but a more complete way is shown in fig. 81, where the water not only descends more readily and directly, but the drains are more Fig. 81. evenly distributed, and the same result is therefore effected at less cost. In fig. 80 there are many angles or corners with a drain on each side Fig 82 Fig. 83. &~-~- a5 (.2c:>, ~ ~ ~ ~~~1 170 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER unnecessarily near; in fig. 81 there is no surplus work of the kind, and hence-it is more economical. Laying outt Drains on I'rregular Surfaces.-Where there is a continued slope from one side of a field to the other, nothing is easier than to determine the position of the drains, as, for example, in fig. 82, the descent being direct from a to b; or in fig. 83, where the slope, although diagonal, is uninterrupted from a to b. In the latter instance, if the JI -.~..;.....;' b..........^...................................................... Fig. s8. Fig. 85. drains may be continued on into the next land, they may simply pass the boundary as at d; but if another owner possesses the adjoining field, it may be necessary to collect a part of the drains in one larger one, as at e. If the field occupies a hollow or valley, as shown in fig. 84 by the profile beneath, a large main drain must be made through the bottom of the valley, and the other drains conducted into it. A more irregular surface is shown by the profile at the bottom of fig. 85, and the drains are seen Xas ccrresponding to this surface. a In order to determine at what angle the side drains should enter the main one, the e. e relative rate of descent of each must be ascertained. If, for example, the descent of the main drain a b (fig. 86) in the bot- e - tom of a hollow, is one foot in ten; and d.J also the slope of the sides, c to e, is one foot in ten; then the side drain mnust make an angle of forty-five degrees, or form the diagonal of a square between the two, c to d. But if, as in fig. 87, the Fig. 86. descent from a to b is one foot in ten, Fig. 87. and from c to e, two feet in ten, then the angle must be sixty-seven and one-half degrees, or the side drain form the diagonal of a parallelogram twice as lonu as wide. The same, rule will apply to any other degree of descent. The reader may understand the subject more clearly by partly sorl \. i9 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 171 opening a book, and representing by the facing leaves the sides of the valley. PARTIAL DRAINAGE.-It sometimes happens that land is made up of wet hollows and dry knolls, irregularly distributed; and it becomes absolutely necessary to drain the wetter portions at once, in order to cultivate the field with any pIofit. Fig. 88 represents such a field, and the double FBig.. 88. Fig. 89. dotted lines show the position of the drains for carrying off the water from the hollows. If these bollows are not more than two or three rods wide, and the hills are of porous or gravelly soil, this may be all the drainage required; but if the hollows are wider, short branches at regular i-i. i intervals will be needed, and if the hills are of a heavy or clayey nature, the benefits of complete drainage cannot be expected till side drains relieve the slopes, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 89. The natural course of streams as seen on a map, or the unobstructed descent of water on the surface of the land in a hard shower, may be nearly copied in laying out drains. When the face of a country has a regular slope towards a lake or river, the streams are nearly parallel, and take the most direct course downwards —they do not run obliquely, as some woueld lay their ditches. Aof ton hills anford through iregula holfrlos, the natural water-s. If thesame hollos are notificial channels should wibe; and the shiurplls wate i a violent rain takes precisely the same direction dowilln the sides of a valley, and enters the brook at the bottom at the same angle as already pointed out, allowance bein for accidental cose of streams as seen on a m, or the obstructions. escent oF THE Bon the sur.-The roer size of the tile for drains, to carry off the water freely, founded on an accurate estimate, appears never alleo l, ave been treated of by any founditer on an draining It is therefore hoped that the following suggestions may be useful. ]jin It is necessary, first, to ascertain the amount of surplus water existing in an acre of soil, at the wettest period. This will vary considerably with _ 172 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER the nature and depth of the soil, but it may be laid down as a general rule that the soil and subsoil down to the depth reached by drains, when heavily saturated with water, contains a needless quantity, at least equal to a depth of three inches over the whole surface, which would be more than one thousand hogsheads per acre. The drains should be of such a magnitude as to carry this off in twenty-four hours. If each drain relieves a space of a rod on each side, or a strip of land two rods wide, it must be eighty rods long for an acre of this breadth, and carry off fortytwo hogsheads every hour, forty-six gallons per minute, or three-fourths of a gallon per second. A tubular tile, two inches in diameter, and perfectly smooth and straight, would accomplish this if it had a descent of one foot in twenty. With ordinary imperfections, it would require a descent of about one foot in ten or twelve. If the descent was only one foot in fifty, it would require a three-inch bore. The size of the drain is controlled by three causes: its rate of descent, its length, and the number of branches it receives. The length and number of branches may be included together, for three branches, each ten rods long, would be the same as a single channel thirty rods long. In all estimates, therefore, the aggregate length of the branches may be taken as that of a single drain; and the area they cover will readily show how much water is to be carried off, allowing, as before, one thousand hogsheads per acre. By the use of the following table, which the writer of this article has calculated for this purpose, and which is sufficiently accurate for ordinary use, the size of the bore for different areas and slopes may be readily determined. A deduction of one-third to one-half must however be made for imperfections in the tile and laying. Velocity of iogsheads disDiameter of Bore. Rate of Descent. Current per Sec'd. charged in 24 hrs. 2 inches.-....... 1 foot in 100. —------- 22 inches........... 400........ — 50 ---------- 32 ---------- 560 cc --------- It 20 --—. —--- 51 c ---------.900'......... " 10 73 c.......... 1290 g inches. —------- " 100 27 " ---------- 1170 it ------ - so 50 ---------- 38 c ---------- 1640 -.-.-.-. —-- c 20 ---------- 67 c ---------- 3100..... cc 10 84 3. 600 4 inches......... 100 ---------- 32 " 2500....... " 50 ---------- 45.. --------- 3500 ".......... " 20 ---------- 72. ---------- 5600 C......-... c 10 ---------- 100 cc ---------- 7800 For very short drains the preceding table would not answer, as it requires some length to give the water its full velocity. LEVELING.-Where land is nearly level, it becomes important to measure the descent accurately, in order to lay the drains where they will be most effective; and where the descent is considerable, it is desirable to know the degree of slope, in selecting tile of the proper size, according to the preceding table. Novices in draining often follow no other rule than to " cut and try "-that is, after the ditch has been cut, they turn the water in, and if it forms pools along the bottom, they have to re-dress (1 ftbtiteae OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 173 it; but if the water happens to run the wrong way, they may be compelled to dig the whole over again. This is a bungling and costly way o! doing the work. A ditch should be so laid out, that the owner will know confidently before-hand what will become of every drop of water that enters it. A few minutes previous attention may save days of labor. The simplest level for drains is the span level, shown in fig. 90. It is especially convenient for giving a uniform descent to the bottom. Two narrow strips of board are fastened together as represented, with a bar or brace connecting them. The plumb being suspended from the top, it is first placed on a perfectly level floor or sheet of ice, and a mark made on the cross bar. A block an - A ---— 2 inch thick is then placed under Fig. 90. one leg, and another mark made. The leg is then raised another inch, for a third mark. In this way the cross bar is accurately graduated. By measuring the distance of the two legs apart, the rate of slope may be now accurately determined. If, for instance, the legs are eight feet three inches or half a rod apart, the first mark will indicate a descent of two inches per rod; the second, four inches, and so on. Where greater accuracy is required, as in long and nearly level ditches, the " water level " may be used. It may be made of a lead tube about three feet long, bent up an inch or.......-.................. two at each end, and stiffened by A~ —--- - -- - -------— ~ IB fastening to a wooden bar, A B(fig. 91.) Into each end is ceC /2xnmented, with sealing-wax, a small and thin phial with the bottom broken off, so that when the tube is filled with water it may rise freely into the phials. If ir the tube be now filled with water colored with cochineal or any dye-stuff, and!l Fig. 91. then placed upon the tri- Fig. 92. pod, C, by looking across the two surfaces of liquid in the phials, an accurate level may be obtained. When not in use, a cork is placed into each phial. " Sights " of equal height, fastened to pieces of cork floating on the water, as shown in fig. 92, give a more distinct line for the eye. The siahts are formed of fine threads or hairs stretched across the square openings. To ascertain whether these threads are both of equal heights ( Icky p 9~~~~~~1 1X 1T4 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER above the water, let a mark be made where they intersect some distant object; then reverse the instrument, or turn it end for end, and observe whether the threads cross the same mark. If they do, the instrument is correct; but if they do not, then one of the sights must be raised or lowered until it becomes so. DEPTH AND DISTANCE OF DRAINS. —Experience has determined that twenty-five to thirty feet apart, for compact or clayey soils, and thirty-five to forty for light and porous soils, are proper distances for accomplishing speedy and effectual drainage. Three feet is the most economical depth. When draining was first introduced into some parts of Britain, the drains were made one and a-half or two feet deep, and eighteen feet apart. After many thousand miles were laid, they became defective. They were then made about three feet deep, and twice as far apart. This cost less, and was more efficient. A greater depth and distance was again found unfavorable. MODE OF CUTTING DRATIN.-British works, and American copied from them, figure and describe twenty or thirty different kinds of tools for cutting ditches. Some of them as usually made, are heavy and awkward, and others are very rarely used. A spade for common earth, a shovel for loose earth, a pick for hard subsoil, a narrow spade for the deeper portions of the drain, a long-handled pick for the operator to work the narrow bottom while standing above, and a narrow scoop-hoe for Fig. 93. cleaning out the narrow bottom, (fig. 93) are all that are commonly required. These will enable the digger to cut a ditch three feet deep, a foot wide at the top and four inches at bottom, (which is wide enough for tile,) by the removal of less than half the earth needed for the free use of the common pick and spade, the workman standing in the bottom. Where, however, stone are used for filling, a greater width is required. The labor of cutting drains will be.greatly lessened, by first plowing two furrows from each other, and aftefiyards repeating them, and then shoveling out the loose earth. A subsoil plow will next loosen up the earth for sl5oveling, down to a depth of more than two feet. Plows, like subsoilers, made on purpose, and capable of running down three feet deep, have been manufactured in different places, and have been fouand to save nearly one-half the labor in hard soils, by obviating the use of tie pick. The cost of cutting drains varies greatly with the soil. In very hard and strong subsoils, the work cannot be done for less than thirty cents per rod, if all done by hand; while in common or easy soils it may be performed for twelve or-fifteen cents. C >:C OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 1754 Ditching mnachines, as yet constructed, have proved too costly for common farmers, and are not applicable to stoney land. MODE OF FILLING DRAINS.-Tiles form the most perfect channels for underdrains. They may be tubular, as shown in fig 94, and laid in the bottom as represented by fig. 95; or they may be in the horse-shoe form, like fig. 96, which answers a good purpose when placed -FBig. 94-PIPE DRAIr. on a very hard or rocky bot-. i tom; or if the bottom be not hard, which is most usually - the case, plates of tile, termed ". Fig. 96 —IIORSE-SuOE TrLhs. soles, are first laid, to prevent the heavy weight of earth':. above from sinking the edges into the soil-(fig. 97.) This,.7 Fig. 97 —HORSE-S}OE wITe SOLE. is, however, complex and ex- Fig. 95. pensive, and hence the tubular tile is now generally used. They are most rapidly and easily laid by means of the tile-hook, (fig. 98) which is simply placed within the bore, and they are lowered to their place. A little earth is then rammed down on each side, to keep them straight until covered. Fig. 98 —TILE 1HOOK. Where the soil is quite soft, they must be laid upon flat stone, tile soles, or narrow boards of durable wood. They may be first covered with straw, small brush, gravel or small stone, or if collars are placed on the joints, inverted turf may be laid in direct contact with the tile. If in hard, clayey earth, small stone alone will answer, with straw or turf placed upon them before the earth is filled in. But if the subsoil approaches the nature of quicksand, more care will be required, and fine gravel, with a heavy coating of straw, may be necessary. The importance of filling most of the ditch above the tile with stone, is sometimes urged, under the belief that water cannot find its way down to the bottom through three feet of earth. But a inoment's thought will show the fallacy of this objection, for if the drain will carry off the water lying one rod distant horizontally, it will convey away with far greater ease what happens to be only two or three feet directly above. It was once the practice to perforate tile with small holes, to let the water pass into them; but it has been since found that the joints at the ends will admit all that is required. Cost.-Tubular tile, with two-inch bore, (which is large enough generally, except for main drains or those nearly level,) usually costs about ten dollars at the manufactory, for enough. to lay sixty rods, and forms the cheapest filling. It is true that stone may be often had upon the fields l for the picking; but the increased width required for the drain, and the additional time in laying them, will usually be found more than ten dollars'( 1ti 76 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER for the sixty rods. Tile usually forms the most durable drains. John Johnston of Geneva, N. Y., found those which had lain eighteen years, as perfect as the day they were laid. Tile, hoiwever, is not always to be had; and it is often an important object to get rid of stone; hence stone draills may sometimes be advisable. They are occasionally made by throwing small stone promiscuously into the ditch; but unless the descent is very steep, or the quantity of water extremely small, they drain slowly and(i imperfectly, the water filling them up several inches. The most common way, and usually the best, for filling stone drains where the stone are nearly round, i.s shown in fig. 99, made by just laying a row of small stones on each side of the bottom, leaving an open channel between them about three inches wide, and then covering this channel with fiat stones, and filling the ditch with small ones promiscuously Fig. 99. FigN 100. Fig. 101. thrown in, to within about 15 or 18 inches of the surface, so as to be below the reach of the plow-and the remainder with earth. It is hardly necessary to remark that the upper surface of tlhe stone must be either covered with coarse gratel or slmall flat stone, and then with stlraw or inverted sods, to exclude the earth firom the stones; and if the soil is nearly free fi'om clay, more calre in this respect will be needful, —and perhaps a covering of hard-wood slabs will be necessary to keep the earlth to its place. If the bottom of the drain inclines to quicksand, a layer of flat stones must be first laid on the bottom. The chief objection to the mode jlust described, is the necessity of cuttillng a ditch nearly a foot wide at the bottom, to allow laying the channel. Flat stones, on the conltrary, obviate the labor of cutting a wide ditch; the channe. bLeloeg constructed by placing three fiat stones together, as shown in fig. 100. The bottom of the ditch is cut with a pointed spade, so as to have an angular trough; flat stones are then selected, all of the same width and fitted into and meeting each other at the bottom, and then covered by a third flat stone reaching across them. Th ae ditch above this is partly filled with irregular fragments of stone, and covered as already described. p1c.I h oto ftedaniclnst ucsnd ae ffa OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 177 A still better way is shown in fig. 101. The ditch is cut with the narrowest kind of spade-a mode familiar to EngIish ditchers, and which they execute with great expedition. Flat stones, without regard to their exact width, are placed against the sides, open at the top. Into this opening, one or more thicker flat stones are thru.st, as represented in the cut, and the drain then filled as before mentioned. The advantage of this mode is in obviating the necessity of selecting the stone, as almost any width will answer. The two last modes, if well made, will last as long as tile-drains; as the earth cannot fall into them from the sides, nor rise fiom the bottom, even if of a quicksand nature; and in the last described, the stones being mostly vertical, admit the free descent of the water from above. BRUsn DRAINS, on land easily dug, and which affords a rapid descent, have been found to answer a good purpose. As they cannot carry off never be very long, nor 1, luch w,i They should never be emtiw'"''.;'"'"'-/~,ployed on nearly level, — II.. land. Being nearly exFig. 102. eluded from air, the brush will last many years. Some kinds, as cedar, will last much longer than others. The drain for brush is dug like any other drain, but is best if a foot or more wide. The brush may be cut a few feet in length, and should not be more than an inch or two in diameter. If the branches are straioht and nearly parallel, they may be larger alnd longer than if crooked and::.,, i,{ljii,}ll spreadina —in the latter instance they I,,[.;?9-!il:.~'',e j?'l' namust be cut quite short, or they will;: > "-~~ ~ not lie well. Commence always at the Thisa ~~ - -— ~=-~~- -'- -~=-~:~'~"~-' the bottom of the drain, with the tops Fig. 103. poilntinr upwards, or fqromn the descent. This position tends constantly to throw the descending water to the bot;tom or lowest part of the drain. If a sufficient quantity of brush be laid in to fill the ditch, (fig. 102) it will occupy, after being trodden clown and the earth filled in, only about one-third of the ditch-(fig. 103.) Inverted turf forms a good cover for the brush before throwing the earth in. The sides should be nearly perpendicular, or the brush will not settle well. Timner, in the form of scantling and narrow boards or slabs, has been sometimes used for drains, but it is costly, decays in a few years, the air 4/ entering the channel freely, and is to be recommended only in extreme cases, or where other materials cannot be procured.' 4 c 178 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER CULTURE OF TI-IE PEAR. On several accounts, the pear possesses advantages over other fruits. The first is its delicious quality, as found in the finest varieties-its buttery or melting texture, and its delicious and perfumed flavor. In this respect it greatly excels the apple, and keeps nearly as well. Even the peach is scarcely superior, while it lasts only two or three days. But the pear, like everything highly desirable and valuable, cannot be had without attention, labor and skill. There are only a few exceptions to this general rule. The relative prices of the apple and pear being about as one to ten, show at the same time the superior value of the latter, and the superior skill required to bring it to perfection. The first questions that occur to every one commencing any branch of cultivation, are in relation to the probability of success, and the real value of the crop. The best answers are given by pointing to those who have made the experiment. If some have been unifornlly and eminently successful, their mode of treatment must be examined. If others have as signally failed, the causes of their disappointment are not less worthy of attention. The market value of good pears is a good indication or measure of the amount, of attention which this fruit deserves. The following are a few examples. Dr. C. W. Grant of Newburgh, gathelel 400 specimens from a tree of the Flemish Beauty only eight years planted, which lie sold for $30, or 13 cents each. T. G. Yeomans of Walworth, N. Y., sold in 1857, nearly his entire crop from several hundred trees of the Angouleme, at $14.50 per barrel, or 12 cents each by the barrel. Very large specimens of this variety have in some instances retailed at a dollar each. Austin Pinney of Clarkson, N. Y., sold some of his pears in 1857, at 10 cents each, or $18 per bushel. J. Stickney of Boston, obtained for his crop of the Louise Ionne of Jersey in 1856, $10 per bushel. John Gordon of Brighton. near Boston, sold Bartlett pears rai'setdwith the highlest cultivation, and witllh sillful management in preparing for market, for $10 per biuslhel, while good ones, with more conmmon care, brought only $3 per bushel. Ellwanger & Barry of Rochester, sold their best well-ripened Glout Morceau pears in winter, at $3 per dozen, and others have done the sa llle. There are very few if any old bearing orchards of standard pears in this country; but single trees in numerous instances have yielded for successive years, $20 or $30 per tree-which would be at the rate of three or four thousand dollars per acre, if a whole orchard was equally successful. / The reason of this deficiency of old orchards, is the long t;me required to bring orchards into a full bearing state, nearly all that have been set (, out being yet youngr But as dwarf pears come quickly into bearing, we (f rriZUCLVC~VUV~IIV~I J~INLJ VI~~ YCIVI~I ~-L~IV vrurs~ ] OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 179 have already many examples of their great success. Among them are the following: T. R. Austin, near Boston, (says Col. Wilder,) set out 500 dwarf pears, about twelve years since. They commenced bearing in about three years, anrd have borne regular and abundant crops ever since. An account was kept of the saies from theml for the past six years, which amounted to $3,408. They occupy about an acre. Ellwanger & Barry of Rochester, have a large continuous number oI trees of Louise Bonne of Jersey, set out oeight years, which the writer found yielded one to one and a half bushels per tree, or at the rate of at least 500 bushels per acre. Three dollars per bushel was the lowest price on the tree —which would be $1,500 for an acre in one year. The two previous years the crop was nearly the same. When four years old, they yielded at the rate of $500 per acre. They also had a larger plantation of dwarf Virgalieus or Doyennes, which gave the fourth year at the rate of $500 per acre, and about the same the sixth year. W. P. Townsend of Lockport, had about an acre of dwarf pears of different sorts, that bore the fifth year from the bud, forty-one barrels, selling at $10 per barrel, or $410 for the acre. The quince stocks on which they stood had been set out seven years before, and had. not been sellemoved. T. G. Yeomans of Walworth, N. Y., has large plantations of dwarfs, l about eight years old. They-are eight feet apart, and are cultivated and the soil kept perfectly clean by two horses walking abreast, at less cost than a corn-crop requires. They have yielded from half a bushel to a bushel per tree, and have sold for $14 per barrel-which is at the rate of about $2,000 per acre. The preceding examples are purposely selected as a few of the most successful, to show what may be accomplished by good treatment. Those varieties were chosen for the experiment, that long experience had proved best for growing on the quince; and good and enriching cultivation was given. The expense, however, after the plantation was made, was not greater than is required to keep a field of corn or potatoes in good condition, —horse or hand labor being employed on both. The question now occurs,-Are these fair samples of the success usually attending the planting and culture of dwarf pears. The answer is,-Very far from it! A tree-salesman of extensive observation, lately gave it as his opinion that not more than one dwarf pear tree in a hundred was treated with that care that insured successful bearing. Doubtless this was an over estimnate; but so great is the general neglect that probably not one in twenty fully succeeds. X The causes of failure are worthy of examination. Formerly there were many losses from working those sorts on the quince that were entirely unfitted for the purpose. In other instances poor stocks were used, none _ AL \. as —---- 180 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER but the large and late-growing French varieties being of much value. But the greatest of all causes of failure has been and still is neglected cultivzation. There is a diseased public habit in relation to the care of all fruit trees, that appears to be incurable. Planters listen to admonitions on the subject, admit the full force of all that is said, and then, as they do in case of common sermons, go and immediately practice the contrary. The writer has just met with a farmer who set out dwarf pears, and sowed oats among them! He was asked if he would sow oats among his corn l. "Why, no; I s'pose this is a very bad way to treat them, but you know every body does so!" An intelligent cultivator of other crops wondered greatly why his orchard of dwarf pears did not flourish, although he spaded a circle around each as they stood in grass, as often as once a year. HIe might with equal propriety have been surprised that his horse grew poor, although he never omitted feeding him once a month! It may be laid down as an unalterable rule, that no young orchard can flourish/, and that one of dwarf pears cannot live, unless a complete system of broadcast cultivation is ap2plied to it. Digging circles with the spade is wholly insufficient. As commonly performed, this practice does not benefit a tenth part of the roots, often not a hundredth. Writers generally say that the roots spread as wide as the spread of the branches; while in reality they cover a surface ten times as great as this rule would indicate. The nearest general rule is that the roots run as far fiom the foot of the stem as the height of the tree. If, therefore, the tree (fig. 104) is ten feet high, the extent of the roots from a to b will be twenty feet. A young or- / chard of such trees, therefore, planted twenty feet apart, will have a b Fig. 104. Fig. 105. already covered the whole surface, and to dig small circles about the tree, as shown by the shaded portions in fig. 105, and the black part in fig. 104, would be to leave the great mass of the roots wholly unreached by cultivation. Dwarf pears, it is true, have shorter roots than most other sorts, but they are still far beyond the effect of these narrow rings. The mode of pruning has been distinctly described in former numbers of the Register. ( OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 181 VARIETIES. The older varieties are well known. In making extensive plantations, these should in all cases constitute the largest number, and none of them should be planted in large numbers, which have not been well proved in that particular locality. Some heavy losses have occurred by neglecting this caution. A. sorts which promise to be valuable, more particular descriptions will be A desirable. A.,.!:'ii:-' /, sorts which priomise to be valuable, more particular descriptions will be kdesirable. For Pea0 r ~ tocks eaclusively. —The Bartlett is perhaps the most certain Q 182 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER and valuable, after which may be named the Seckel, Sheldon, Belle Lvr c ratze, Flemish Beauty, Lawrence, Witnter Nelis. The Washington, Autumn Paradise and Beurre Bosc, are fine pears, growing only on pear stocks. For Quince Stocks exclusively, -Louise Bonne of Jersey, Duchess Angouleme, Bcurre Diel, Easter Beurre, Glout Morceau. Growing well on both Pear and Quince, are Virgalieu or Doyenne, Buffum, Rostiezer, Urbaniste, Winkfield, Tyson, Beurre d'Anjou, Madeleine, Nouveau Poiteau. Belle Lucrative does well for the first ten years. TIE NEWER VARIETIES. —Among the many hundred new sorts introduced and examined of late years, some will doubtless prove of great value. A portion have been tested extensively for several years- others are less known. The great interest felt in. relation to these newer sorts, has induced the preparation of the following list. Beu'rre Clairgea.-The large size, great beauty, fine qualilty, productiveness and late ripenibng of this new pear, and the handsome pyramid it forms onl the quince, have given it great celebrity. A want of sufficient hardiness, indi.catedc by the effects of winter, in some localities, has somewhat lessened its high reputation. This defect may, i however, on further trial, prove of comparatively small importance. zxz/ I~ It is large, Obovate, pyri-' l////,/i / form, the larger specimens generally distinct pyriform; skin yellow when /' fully ripe, sometimes nearly clear and smooth, and / ///:.\ at other times, and partic- " i l ularly with larger speci-' i:it,... mens, coarsely dotted, and nearly covered with russet, often with a handsome crimson cheek towards the sun; stalk an inch long, not sunk at insertion; caflesh buttery and melting, lex in a msderante basin, Fg10-B ) sometimes granular, with Fig. 107 —BEURRE NANTAIS. RA s.~~~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 183 4 a " very good" perfumed flavor. The quality is somewhat variable -from " good" to nearly "best." On quince, the fiuit is of larger size and of better quality than on pear stock. Bewrre Gijffard.-Although the growth is slender and straggling, this is one of the best and most valuable of all early pears, ripening immediately after the Madeleine. BeuR'oRe Lan.elier.-A large, light green paar, becoming pale yellow; fine grained, juicy, melting, with a rich flavor; ripening early in winter. Grows best on quince. Beur-re Nanrtais or Beurre de N2antes.-This pear promises to be of much value. The tree is an erect and vigorous grower, both on pear and quince, comes early into bearing, makes a fine pyramid, and is very productive. It has been cultivated many years in France, its place of origin, but not until recently have its merits become appreciated in this country. It is rather large in size, (the drawing being made from a quite moderate specimen,) pyriform or pyramidal, neck narrow; skin greenish- yellow, with minute dots; stem neary an inch long, not sunk; calyx in a modet. i-y"7/,> "XWWS | late rather narowv ba-.-.~. ~t>,/,/;Ad \\\\->At | sin; flesh buttery and melting, with a rich, F.0- DRipenst about the middle - or Duehesse d' Orleans. -~~ Zi -A rather large pyri-'ii.:I form fruit, and when l well ripened, delicious; i\\ II~. it is generally regarded!i? ~.......~''Rpas among the most vaiu____ -o/// able new autumn sorts. ~,E~~'= —-/// Beuarre Ster.cman.Fruit of. medium size, short obovate, flesh. melting, very Juicy" Fig ies COMTE DS FLANDRE. with a rich "vious suai ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER sub-acid, perfumed flavor. Season after mid-autumn. Tree vigorous and productive. Beurre Sutpes[fin.-Size medium, flesh exceedingly juicy, buttery, melting, with a brisk sub-acid flavor. Ripens about mid-autumn. Tree a vigorous and handsome grower, and does finely on the quince. Brandywine.-One of the finest early pears-size medium, pyriform, partly russeted, flesh very juicy and melting, with an excellent flavor. It forms a fine pyramid on quince. Church.-A fruit of medium size, the flesh buttery, melting, and with an exceedingly rich, sweet, and highly perfumed flavor, unvarying in quality. It is uniformly productive-a large tree of this variety at NewRochelle, N. Y., affords fifteen to twenty bushels annually. Comte de Flandre.-Rather large, pyriform, oblique; skin greenishyellow, becoming yellow at maturity, with numerous small dots, and marked with thin russet; stem an inch long, set under a lip, with little or no depression; calyx in a shallow basin; flesh very juicy and melting, with an agreeable, refreshing flavor; quality "very good." Tree vigorous and productive. Season late in autumn. Although this pear is. hardly so high flavored as some of our finest varieties, yet when well ripened, its juiciness and agreeable aroma / 7I render it one of the most delicious sorts. I' Des X~onnes. —Of this pear, described by Charles Downing as Beurre de Brignais, we have been furnished fine specimens by TRnRp, SIITH & HANCHETT of Syracuse, who have firuited it for several years. Should Fig 109-DES NONNES 9>0 ~OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 185 it prove aiways fair, it will undoubtedly be a great acquisition. They have stated that it is a vigorous grower, good bearer, and that it succeeds finely on the quince. We know of no pear that, all things considered, has a more delicious flavor than the specimens sent us. In size it is medium —formn roundih turbinate, obtuse. Skin greenishyellow, becoming a clear yellow, with numerous greyish brown dotssometimes with a faint tinge of red towards the sun.r Stalk an inch and a-half long, moderately slender, set in a slight depression. Calyx rather small, often closed, in a small wrinkled basin. Flesh juicy, and exceedingly melting when at perfection, very sweet, perfumed, and with an rc~v exquisite flavor best." Ripens rather before mid-autumn. It is probable that its extreme delicacy requires that it should not only he wellgrown and ripened, to attain its highest perfection, but that the precise - point of uafltirity should be chosen when it shall have attaimed fully itsa fine meltin'a textuere. d en h Doyenne dAlencon or Doyenne d' Nvver NOUVeau.-This is one of t Ae 186 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER most valuable of all the new winter pears. It is mediumn or rather large, obovate-pyriform, dull yellow, and when well ripened of excellent flavor. D)oyenne Goubalt.-Size medium or rather large, flattened-obovate and acute, dull pale-yellow, stern short and thick, flesh melting, juicy, with a sweet, rich, aromatic flavor. First half of winter-its value depends on being properly ripened. Doyenne Robin.-Size above medium, round, nearly regular, or obscurely and obtusely ribbed; skin pale yellow, usually russeted about the crown; stalk an inch and a-half long, generally set in a rather deep smooth cavity, sometimes merely planted on the surface; calyx in a smooth Fig. 111- DOYENNE SIBUaL "very good" flavor-not equal to that of the Virgalieu nor so sweet. Tree a free grower and very productive. Season mid-autumn. Doyenne Steulle.-This pear, although well-known here for some ten or twelve years to several American pomologists, may properly be ranked among the newer sorts. The tree is an upright and vigorous OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 187 () grower, and very productive; while its good quality, and period of maturity through the latter part of autumn, and often nearly to mid-winter, render it quite valuable. It is rather large, roundish, slightly obovate; color a rich yellow when ripe, often reddlened towards the sun; dots on the surface rather small and not conspicuous; stem an inch and a half long, rather deeply set in a frequently wide and somewhat ribbed cavity; basin quite small, wrinkled; flesh nearly white, fine grained, buttery, with a mild, rather aromatic flavor; " good " or "very good." IHowe-l.-A large, fair and very productive variety, the tree coming into early bearing, and likely to prove one of the best for market. although the flavor is not often of the highest quality. Fondante de Noel.-Medium or rather small, obtuse-pyriform, pale greeninsh-yellow, with a red cheek, flesh whitish, melting, juicy, very good. A seedling of the Passe Colmar, ripening earlier, and of similar flavor-a fine late autumn sort. Josephine e 2aliwnes. —Medium in size, sometimes small, flesh melting, juicy and rich-ripens in winter. The tree is vigorous and productive, and forms a fine pyramid on quince. Lausre de Glymes (of Bivort.)-This is a new European variety, which has not yet been much tested in this country, but so far appears to be worthy of attention. It is a good grower on quince, and productive. It is medium in size, conical-obovate, regular, the whole surface nearly covered with a russet, which becomes a rich light orange at maturity-scarcely reddened towards the sun; stem three-fourths of an inch in length, inserted without de-.~7 ~ ~' ~X~~ />,?pression in a fieshy base; calyx moderately sunk in a smooth basin; flesh yellowish-white, Aslightly granular, buttery, not melting, with a high and somewhat perfumed flavor —quality lvery good." it is problable tiillt I lIthat the quality of this pear may vary considerably, or be found to range, under the various circumstances of cultivation, soil and season, from "good" to "best." It ripens () wE\ig. 112 —lAUnRE DE GLYMES. Sabout the middle of autumn, Fig. 112 —L E D LYMES. sometimes continuing quite late. 9 188 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Nouveau Poi[,cau.-A vigorous grower, productive, forming a fine pyramid on quince. Fruit rather large-. obovate pyriform, with a juicy and melting texture and fine flavor. This pear promises to be quite valuable. Ontar-io.-We ha~ve received specimens of this fine new native variety firom W. T. & E. SmIea of Geneva, N. Y. It is a vigorogs and productive sort, and promises to be valuable for market. The quality is " good " or "very good "-not quite equal to the Virgalieu or Doyenne in its high aromatic flavor, but well-grown and well-ripened specimens are not much inferior. In form it considerably resembles the Bartlett, but is of smaller size, and we are informed it is a seedling of the Canandaigua; if we were to guess its origin, without any knowledge except from the specimens, we should think it was a cross from the Bartlett and Doyenne. Fruit medium or rather large, oblong-pyriform, sometimes very faintly and obscurely ribbed, and generally somewhat irregular. Skin pale yellow, with numerous -very small dots,' Stalk about an inch long, mostly curved, with a fleshy ring at -base, and inserted in an. irregular depression, Calyx open or partly closed, in a wrinkled basin. Flesh white, buttery, becomingmelting,, withl a rather sweet, -mild, plea- sant, agreeable flavor. Ri-?' pens a little -before mid" autumn. Sheldor. - Medium to large, roundish-obovate, re- i"',' ry obtuse; skin pale green,i russet, becoming a rich' brownish russet; stalk shorit, f r, stout, flesh very melting and 1! juicy, with a high, rich, p-, culiar, and excellent flavor.''\7 One of -the most valuable of 4,$ /i all new pears. Middle and \\ late autumn. Origin, Wayne - county, N. Y. T'heodore Van Hton s. Medium to large, obovatepyriform, regular, greenishyellow, more or less covered Fig 113ONTARIO. OF I RURAL AFFAIRS. 189 with distinct patches of russet; stem an inch long, scarcely sunk; calyx large, open; (basin, none)-sometimes closed in a small basin; flesh granular, juicy, and melting —sometimes slightly astringent Varying from " good " to " very good." This pear is likely to prove valuable on account of its vigorous growth and great productiveness, when worked on pear or quince. Van Assche, or Van Assene.-Rather larae, conic-obovate, yellow, with a fine touch of red; flesh juicy, melting, and often excellent. Tree vigorous and productive. Middle and late autumn. Walker.-Fruit large, long pyriform, flesh rather coarse, rich, with a peculiar almond flavor. The last half of autumn. Zepherin Gregoire;-.-Inferior to some as a fine grower, but marked for the high excellence of its quality. It is very productive-the growth of the tree rather slender. Its lateness,-ripening through the latter part of autumn,-increases its value. It is medium in size, roundish-obovate, light green, reddened when fully exposed to the sun; stem an inch and a-fourth long, fleshy at insertion; calyx open, in a narrow basin; flesh buttery, very melting, finegrained, with an excellent perfumed flavor-" best." PEARS RIPENING IN SUCcEssioN.-The following list will give a continued'/,'~i/sf \ \ N in the Northern States at /D//// r/'7k \', mid-summer, and continning through summer autumn and winter, into /~~~~~~ " ~spring: Madeleine, Doy/71> [";?.i l! /enne d'Ete, Skinless, Gif) FfarVd, Bloodgood, Osband's:,',,::.i Summer, Rostiezer, Ty"i " \ i. son a, Brandywine, Kirtland, Bartlett,' Washingv \\\\\ ~~ton, Andrews, Bilboa, Belle Lucrative, Buffum, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Stevens' Genesee, Howell, Urbaniste, Beurre Bose, Autumn Paradise, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Beurre Fig. 114-THEODORE VAN MONS. d'Anjou, White and Gray' 190 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Doyenne, Sheld on, Beurre Diel, Noiveau Poiteau, Lawrence, Sieulle, Winkfield, Beurre Clairgeau, Beurre Langelier, Columbia, Josephine de Malines, Winter Nelis, Prince's St. Germain, Beurre Gris dHliver Nouveau, Doyenne d'Alenrion, Easter Beurre. VARIETIES OF THE PEAR MOST LIABLE TO FIRE-BLIGET.-Jlladeleine, Bartlett, Passe Colmar, Stevens' Genesee, and Gloutt Morceau, and Winkfield while young. Among those least liable, the Seckcel stands at the head, and the following are less liable than those first named: Louise Bonne of Jersey, Angouleme, Flemish Beauty, Sheldon, Virgalieu, Easter Beurre. All are, however, more or less affected in different places, and sometimes the order here given is reversed. VARIETIES WHICH DO NOT CRACK. —The cracking of some sorts is becoming a formidable evil. It becomes, therefore, desirable to zelect those least affected. At a large pomological meeting held at Buffalo in 1857, none had ever known the Lawrence, Doyenne d'Hiver, Ba~rtlett and Ananas d'Ete to crack. Only one had seen the Angouleme and Louise Bonne of Jersey affected. The Flemish Beauty was rarely injured. GATHERING, KEEPING, AND MIARKETING PEARS. -Some cultivators have been greatly disappointed in the deficient quality of their fruit; and others, who raise for market, at the; low price receivced. This disappointment resuits either from the careless manner of gatherin, //, from improper ripenllilg, or from a bad selectionl of a purcha.ser or (dealel. Nearly all varieties should' lit; f be picked several days before fully matured, in order to secure the best flavor and appearance. \ The utmost care must be, taken to avoid bruising,,, for indented spots will - nearly destroy their sale. The Bartlett and some 1k-' other sorts, if gathered a:Fig. 115-ZEPEERIN G(REGOIRE. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 191 week or more before maturity and kept in a dark place, will become marked with a fine red cheek, adding much to their attractive appearance; while they would only present the common yellow skin if ripened in the light. Some varieties depend almost wholly on the best mode of ripening, for perfecting their flavor, without which they would be nearly tasteless. This has been especially the case with winter pears. Some of these, being kept in too warm a place before the proper period of maturity, ripen too soon, and mid-winter varieties become soft by the close of autumn. Others are withered while yet green, after which they never can become excellent. This difficulty is partly owing to imperfect development in growth in consequence of neglected cultivation. The very best treatment must be given to the trees of winter varieties. And the fruitroom must be cool, and n.ither too damp nor too dry. As the period of maturity approaches, they are to be placed in a warmer apartment. Great care has been taken by some cultivators to keep their pears in dranwers or on shelves, in single layers; but of late years more success has resulted from packing away in tight barrels, as practiced for winter apples. They are not then subjected to the changes effected by currents of air, nor changes of humidity. The apartment must, however, be quite cool. In some instances they have been very successfully kept in the center of barrels, surrounded with apples. All bad odors should be carefully excluded; excellent fruit has sometimes been ruined by them. Wrapping them separately in paper or cotton, is found to abstract a portion of the flavor. John Gordon, a very successful pear-raiser near Boston, finds that woolenz cloth, placed between the successive layers of the fruit, assists most perfectly in ripening. His general skill in the process of maturing, together with his excellent cultivation, enables him to sell Bartletts at ten dollars perbushel, while his neighbors, with ordinary management, received but three dollars. Those who send fruit long distances to market, should be careful to have it packed when sufficiently hard to endure the journey before softening; to pack it tight in barrels or boxes, with coarse and elastic matting around the interior, so as completely to prevent rattling; and to consign them to a commission salesman of character and responsibility, who understands his business thoroughly, who knows when the right period of maturity has arrived, and who can dispose of them to the best advantage. SELECTION OF CHERRIES. —P. BARRY, one of the four greatest American pomologists, made the following selection of cherries, at the meeting of the Fruit Growers' Society at Rochester in 1858: Early sorts-Early Purple Guigne, Belle d'Orleans, Gov. Wood, Mayduke, Black Tartarian and Black Eagle. For a late sort, Reine Hortense, and very late, Belle Magnifique. /' For market, he would add Napoleon, Rockport Bigarreau and Elkhorn. 9 '192 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER P/EAC H E S. The following selection of the most highly esteemed varieties, will furnish a succession lasting about two months:-Serrate Early York, Cooledge's Favorite, Large Early York, Crawford's Early, Nivette, Oldmixon Free, Bergen's Yellow, Druid Hill, Crawford's Late, and Heath Cling. The last named, (in the Northern States,) if picked just before frost, and kept on shelves in a cbol room, will remain in good eating condition for some weeks, and specimens have been kept till winter. Crawford's Early is the most reliable for uniform and good crops through different seasons, and Cooledge's Favorite has been found remarkable for its hardiness. There are other varieties, ripening at the same time as some of the above, and nearly or quite as good in quality, which might be substituted for them. For example, the Early Tillotson is quite as early as the Serrate Early York, and in some localities, particularly in the Southern States, is higher in flavor and more valuable. George the Fourth and Grosse Mignonne ripen nearly with Large Early York. Morris White ripens at the same time as Nivette. P LU MS. The following valuable or excellent old and new varieties, are carefully arranged according to their order of ripening, and they furnish a succession of fruit from the middle of summer until after the middle of autumn, or for about three months. Primordiaz-small, yellow, flavor moderate, tree a slow and slender grower, but good bearer; valuable for its extreme earliness, ripening a little before the usual time of harvesting wheat. Imnperial Ottoman and Royal Hative, are very early plums, of medium size, and good quality. Peach Piuhm, a very large and showy variety, of second quality. Iludson Gage, a new sort, of medium size, and of a rich and fine flavor, the tree thrifty and productive. Prince's Yellow Gage, remarkable for its hardiness and productiveness, the fruit above medium size, and usually juicy and with a fine flavor. Dtuane's PzrlpZe, a very large and showy fruit, but of second-rate quality. Green Gage, well known for its unequalled flavor, the tree a slow grower; Lawrence, a large, green, and excellent plum; and Red Gage, a very productive and fine medium-sized plum, all ripen about the same time. The Lombard, a very hardy and reliable sort, of good quality, is \ scarcely later. >1 - 0it OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 193 0190 Smith's Orleans il'mediately fol- i i lowVs the Washington. It is a large, Ovral, purple fruit, and the tree is Fig. 11 —ISOENECTADY OTOHEINE. Fig. 117 —MFULTON Washgto, very aige and showy when well-grown, is a great and growtene ral favorite, but a serious dr awback on its value is liability to rot on the triee. mis O leas ihandsomediately fol-s next in lows tle Washington. Itis a lae, oval, pmkpe fi'uit, and the tree is',.,)B~leee1er's Gage, a productive arid reliable plm; Red Diaye~r, lairge,. U 194 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER showy, and excellent, but a slow grower; and Columbia, a very large, handsome and showy, but rather coarse plum, all ripen together. Nearly at the same time is the McLau.ghlin, one of the finest of all the new plulms, the tree being vigorous and very hardy, and the fruit large, and scarcely inferior in delicious quality to the Green Gage. The Inperial Gage-well known for its rapid growth and enormous productiveness; and the Bingham, a large, handsome, productive and excellent plum, ripen about the same time or immediately after the preceding several sorts. The Schenectady Catherine is small in size, but is valuable for its excellent quality and profuse productiveness, but more particularly for the extreme hardiness of the tree and its endurance of severe winters. Reine Claude de Bavay, one of the best new late varieties, productive, and a vigorous grower. Goe's Golden Drop, a very large and excellent plum, but requiring a warm season to ripen it at the north. Euldton, a new variety, large, of a rich, high flavor-the tree vigorous and productive, and the fruit hanging long after ripe. Coe's Late Red, a good, late, medium-sized plum, tree thrifty and prolific. THE STIAWBE1RIY. TRANSPLANTING STRAWBERRIES.-The best time is always early in spring, as, at that time, we have only to set out the plants with ordinary care, for all to grow. They will bear abundantly the second season, and if kept clean and cultivated, for two or three years afterwards. If allowed to run the season of transplanting, and not cultivated except in the early part of the season, they will give a full crop the next year, but not afterwards. Some good cultivators think it best and most economical of labor to plant a new bed every year, and to let the bed run full of plants, for only one year's bearing. They find it easier to plant out a new bed in spring, than to cultivate the old one through the season. The crop is not, however, so fine, when thus treated. Transplanted immediately after bearing, and while the plants are somewhat exhausted and consequently in a partially dormant state, strawberries will do well, and afford as good a crop next season, as by spring transplanting, but more care and labor are required. The ground is first to be prepared by properly enriching it, and making it clean and mellow. The amount of manuring must depend greatly on the previous character f\ and condition of the soil. If naturally fertile, and if it has been well previously manured, little need be applied; if not largely composed of ) OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 195 I, 1 Fig. 120-HOOKER STRAWBERRY. vegetable matter, a quantity of leaf-mould or well-prepared peat will be found very useful. Where much manure is needed, a compost with a large proportion of such vegetable matter is always best. The plants should be selected from the youngest well-rooted runners of the previous year. They should be lifted out with a spade and the earth shaken off, and not pulled out, as is often done to the injury of the roots. All the fully expanded leaves are to be clipped off, leaving only the small, half-open ones. The roots are then to be dipped in mud made in a pan or pail for this purpose, thick enough to leave a coating on them about the fourth of an inch. They are then to be transplanted, spreading out the fibres as much as may be convenient, and taking care not to cover the crown. If the soil be dry, they should all be watered heavily, and an inch of mellow earth drawn over the watered surface, to fill up the set- tied earth. A mulching is then to be applied about an inch or an inch and a-half thick, of fine, partly-decayed stable manure. This will prevent V 196 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER VIN \ Fig. 121-WILsoN's ALBANY STRAWBERRY. -the surface from drying and becoming hard and crusted; and if watering should afterwards be necessary, which, however, can only happen in extremely dry weather, this mulch will keep the surface moist and in proper condition. Treated in this manner, all or nearly all the plants will live, and furnish an abundant crop next year. THREE NEW STAMINATE STRAWBERRIES. The opinion of some eminent strawberry cultivators, that pistillate varieties only can be relied on for uniform productiveness, is now fully disproved. Two new profuse-bearing staminate sorts of great size, have been produced within a few years, that are likely to supersede all preceding ones. These are the Wilson, which is perhaps the most prolific of all known strawberries, and the Hookcer, superior in quality, but less.,).,. -.' OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 197 P hardy than the Wilson. They have been already briefly described by Charles Downinc and some other writers. The size given in the accompanying engravings, is the result of exact measurement of the fruit as grown in Western New-York, with ordinary cultivation. Unusual care would doubtless afford larger berries. The HooKER strawberry varies in size when fully grown, from an inch to an inch and a-third, and sometimes an inch and a-half in diameter; it is roundish and obtuse-conical, the berries remarkably well filled out in every part, very dark crimson, flesh soft and juicy, witli a sweet and excellent flavor. Staminate (or hermaphrodite) and uniformly a great bearer. The writer has picked berries an inch and a-third in diameter, from plants set out seven weeks previously. It has two drawbacks-its softness,unfitting it for distant marketing,-and its tenderness, resulting from the protrusion of the crowns of the young plants above the surface of the earth, but which rarely causes their destruction. It is destined to supersede wholly Burr's New Pine and other sorts, hitherto so largely raised for family use. Origin, Rochester, N. Y. WILsoN's ALBANY is not less in size than the Hooker; it is extremely hardy, the plants early in spring presenting a remarkably deep: healthy green; and is unequalled for its crops, in the several places hitherto tried, both in the State of New-York and further west. Two or three hundred bushels of fruit might unquestionably be raised on a well-cultivated acre. The berries are roundish-conical, sometimes roundish-oblate, and occasionally coxcombed, full and obtuse, dark crimson, moderately firm, but becoming tender when fully ripe, flavor very good, but not of the highest excellence. Probably the most prlofitable market sort at present known. Crops, that for other sorts would be considered good, have been produced seven weeks from the time of setting out in spring. Origin, Albany, N. Y. Both of these varieties being staminates,;,X3\/X9F 3 An 620)4 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER APPLE-SEED WASHER. Nurserymen and others often inqure for the best mode of washing appleseed from the pomace. The following, adopted by J. M. MATTISON, is one of the best, by which two men will wash half a bushel of seed or more in an hour: Make a box 5 feet wide, 8 or 9 feet long, the quantity of water pouring into the and 10 inches deep; leave the lower edilJ; box may be easily controlled. one inch lower than the sides, for the wa- One man stands on the board e which ter to flow over. Place this box in the extends across the box; and the other bed of a brook or stream, on crossbars or carries and deposites the pomace (well scantling, with a dani above to collect the pounded to )ieces,) into the box at d, one water ilto a trough, carrying the water or two bushels at a time, The man on ilnto the box, and projecting six inches the box then stirs the pomace rapidly with orer it. This trough should be made of a four-tined fork, and throws out the boards 12 inches wide, nailed together, straws. Thepomace foats overthelower and the stream should be large enough to end(which is an inch lower than the sides) nearly fill it when flowing gently. To and the seeds fall to the bottom. A few back strokes from the lower end of the box assist in the separation of the remaining ~-I pomace. In washing a"cheese" Iib 1llulill~li lil11ll othat contains a bushel of seed, - Ii! sq _ - -a —,, it is usual to wash it two or ~~ ~~i ~ " ~~~three times, by using a scoopF —ii.! d shovel. Afterwlars, the last cleaning process is given to..~l,"iiiillllji5- it by placing the whole inI a box, and then scratching a four-tilled fork through it B ig. 126-APPLE-SEED WASEHER. 1 a few.times. A little experience will enable any one to prevent the water from dashing into the judge accurately of the proper quantity of box too furiously, two boards are first water to turn on, so as to make rapid nailed together as shown at b, one board work, and not carry the seed over the box. being 18 inches by two feet, and the other The pomace, fresh from the cheese, 18 inches by 1 foot. The longer board is should be drawn and placed on a boardplaced on the top of the spout, and the platform beside the box, and then plenty shorter at right angles across the lower of water thrown upon it, until it is thoend of the spout. This serves to throw roughly soaked. This rill render it easily the water perpendicularly downwards beaten to pieces with a hoe. The pomace into the box, and at the same time serves should never remain in the cheese over to spread it out into a thin sheet. By twenty-four hours, as it soon ferments moving this board up or down the spout, and the seed is spoiled. PROTECTING YOUNG FRUITS.-Hardy as well as tender strawberries should be covered for winter, because if hardy they will make an earlier start, and ripen their crops sooner; and if tender will often escape destruction. Coarse litter is good, but evergreen boughs are better. Trimmings of nuasery trees spread over the bed and covered with straw, make a good protection and give the plants more air. The cultivated raspberries and blackberries need protection, where the largest and earliest crops are desired. The latter may be most readily covered with two inches of earth, first bending and pegging them down; and to prevent breaking, making a small mound of earth against the foot of the stems, of which only five or six of the best should be left in each stool. or RURAL AFFAIRS. 205 OF THE UNITED STATES A ND CANADA. No part of the following is copied from other lists of nurserymen previously published, but it is wholly made up from an extensive correspondence. In most cases the information it contains was derived fiom the proprietors themselves. Their statements, when examined, have in nearly all instances been found correct, and the list is therefore believed to be unusually accurate. There may be a few good nurseries contained in other lists, which are omitted in this; but there are also a great num. her excluded which are insionificant and unworthy of notice, have ceased to exist, or never bad an existence except on paper. The -number of acres indicates, nearly, the extent of operations. There are a few exceptions to this rule, some nurseries near large cities occupying but little land, but containing extensive ranges of green-houses, and doing a large business. A few others occupy miuch land with scattered specimens, and thus overstate their operations. The extent is in all cases intended to indicate the land actually under growing trees. A good anld well-managed nursery of hardy trees requires, on an average, one laborer for every two or three acres; the sales will average $250 per acre annually; and, on account of the necessary lapse of several years before cash rctirns are made, the nett profits should not be less than 40 per cent., (which is less on the capital invested than 5 per cent. for the tradesman who makes semi-annual sales.) By applying these numbers, the reader may readily determine very nearly the annual sales, cost, and profits of any good nursery, its extent being given. Thus, for example, a nursery of 100 acres managed in the best malnner, requires from 30 to 50 hands, sells yeally $25,000 worth of trees, and clears $10,000 in money, There are a few that have occasionally exceeded these aimounts; but many more have fallen below; while a great multitude, and especially those who enter the business with but little knowledge and experience, fail entirely. There are some nurseryn:en who understand the business very superficially, and some are entirely unworthy of confidence. To point out such, and to name those also who are strictly reliable, and perfect masters of their occupation, would render the list more valuable, but it would be impossible in the present state of information. [The dates give the time the nursery was commenced, and the post office address follows the name.] MAINE. NEW-HAMPSHIRE. John W. Adams, Portland, (2 miles from, Levi Burt, Walpole. at Westbrook R. R. Station)-1849-& B. F. Cutter, Pelham, 4 miles from Lowell acres-a large dealer in native ever- -4 acres, mostly forest and shade trees. II greens. Joseph Pinneo, Hanover. A S. L. Goodale, Saco. vERMONT.,H).t Little & Co., Balgor. R. T. Robinson, Ferrisburgh. 206 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER MASSACHUSETTS. RHODE-ISLAND. Anthony & McAfee, New-Bedford. C. & D. P. Dyer & Co., Providence. Barnes & Washburn, Hlarrison Square, Silas Moore, Providence-1-841 —18 acres. Dorchester. CONNECTICUT. B. K. Bliss, Springfield-chiefly green- T. C. Austin, SuLfield-1838-10 acres. house and ornamentals. P. & 1-I. A. Dyer, Brooklyn. A. Bowdich, Roxbury. Stephen Hoyt & Sons, lNew-Canaan. Breck & Son, Brighton. S. Lyman, Manchester. James Brewer, Springfield. J. Mlason & Co., (formerly C. S. ~Mason & DI. C. Brewer, Springfield-30 acres. Co.,) Hartford-1853-3 acres, mostly E. W. Bull, Concord. small firuits, ornamentals, and greenW. C. Capron & Son, Uxbridge-4 acres- house plants. an. old establishment. H. S. Ramsdell, West Thomnpson, Ct.Asa Clement, Lowell (3] miles from)- 1836-5 acres. 1848-10 acres. Geo. Seymour & Co., South NorwalkS. I-i. Colton, Worcester-1839-12 acres, small fruits and New-Rochelle 31lackfiuit and ornamental. berry. H. H. Crapo, Neew-Bedford. Wmin. HI. Starr, East New-London —H. E. Fl'ancis Dana, Roxbury. Chitty manager. L. Eddy, Taunton. Paphro Steele & Son, Hartford (3 miles Evers & Co., Boston. from.) Isaac Fay, Cambridge. F. Trowbridge, New-Haven — does not Ebenezer Gray, Bridgewater. raise trees, but an extensive and perma0. B. Hadwen, Worcester-2 acres-buys nent dealer for 12 years. most of his trees. Alfred Whiting, Hartford (3 miles fronm) John A. flail, Raynham. -10 acres. Hovey & Co., Boston —nurseries at Cam- E. A. Whiting, Hartford (5 miles west bridge —extensive and widely celebrated from)-10 acres closely planted-coln-large and line ranges of green andchot- menced about 20 years ago with one houses-and very extensive orllhards of acre, at which time the question was specimen trees, especially of the pear. often asked, "Where will you find a S. & G(. Hyde, Newton. market for all your trees?" —this, and J. F. C. Hyde, Newton Center. two acres adjoining, being the largest in John A. Kenrick, Newton-old and ex- the State. tensive. Henry Willis, West Meriden. D. WV. Lincoln, Worcester-4 acres-buys NEW-YORE. most of his trees. S. H. Ainsworth, West Bloomfield, OnRtobert Manning, Salem, "Pomological tario Co.-1848 —26 acres - land thoGarden "'-established in 1823 by the roughly cultivated, costs about $3000 elder Robert Manning, who soon made cash per year, and sales more than the best collection of specimen trees double this sum. then in America-8 acres, and 3 acres Silas Boardman, Brighton, 3 miles east of specimen trees closely planted-widely Rochester-1828-fruit trees generally. known for its accuracy and the pomolo- J. W. Bailey, Plattsburgh. gical skill of its proprietor. J. Battey, (agent for owners,) Keeseville, Cheever Newhall, Dorchester. Clinton Co.-12 acres. Dexter Snow, Chicopee -a very exten- C. P. Bissell & Salter, Rochester (nursery sive and successful cultivator of the on lE. Avenue)-1855 - mostly small Verbena. fruits. J. C. Stone, Shrewsbury-6 acres. H. H. & J. HI. Bostwick, Auburnl-1848. W. C. Strong, Nonantum Hill, Brighton, Anson Braman, Ithaca-1848-12 acres. 5 miles from Boston-50 acres closely D. Brinckerhoff, Fishkill Landing, Dutchplanted with a general assortment of ess Co. fruit and ornamental trees, and green- Bronson & Merrill, Geneva-1854-40 house plants. Special attention is given acres, mostly fruit trees. to the new grapes. Wm. B}rocksbank, Huadso — 1886 -15 Henry Vandine, Cambridgeport. acres. Samuel Walker, Roxbury-1834-17 acres Joseph Caldwell (manager for owner)-pears predominate, which are raised Troy, (on Mt. Ida, east of city.) 7 acres. with great success-one of the most S. P. Carpenter, New-tRochelle-1850- ] reliable nurseries in the Union. mostly small fruits. B. M. Watson, Plymouth. Henry Collins, Auburn (2 miles south of) Marshall P. Wilder, Dorchester-celebra- -15 acres-one-half fruit trees, and the ted for its collection of pears, the speci- rest ornamentals, the latter mostly evmen orchards of which are probably ergreens. unequalled in America. William Collins. Smyrna, Chenango Co. Geo. W. Wilson, Malden. -small. r~~o _ v~ 0 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 207 Fig. 127-Ellwanger d Bany's przncipal Packing Shed, during the Selling Season. J. R. Comstock, Hart's Village, Dutchess C. Dubois, ~Fishkill Landing. Co.-7 acres-hardy fi'uits generally. Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester (1 miles J. D. Conklin, Locke, Cayuga Co.-small. south of) —1838- 440 acres — probably John HI. Corlning, (formerly H. Snyder,) the most extensive nursery in the Kinderhook-P. 0. address, Valatie, worlcl. The wide celebrity of this great Columbia Co. — 138 —25 acres —pear establishment, its extent of business, trees of successful growth a speciality and the interest generally felt to know Alvah Covey, Penfield, Monroe Co.-1845 its operations, require a notice of cor-30 acres. respoinding fullness. Cowles & Warren, Syracuse. The FRUIT DEPARTMENT occupies 350 John Dingwall, Albanly-green-houseand acres, in about the following proportion ornamentals. of the different kinds:-Standard pears, J. Donnellan & Co., Hanford's Landing. 69 acres-Dwarf do., 51 acres-Standard v ~ II a i I,. s o t.se5 l300aeo o0',,.....,-s O i,~ H' ilnl G.oea0 5sssaao o i Gii a coa. A D ~ns EU I:,Fig. 128ome Grounds of Ellwanger Barry's Nursery (about one-thirtieth part of Fig. 125-Home their Home Nurses y) —froeting Mt. isope Avenue. lA. part of Dwarf Pear specimen grounds-B. Part of warf Cherry specimesn 1 Trees-C. Hare:Evergreens, &c.-D. Herbaceous Perennials-E. Dahlias-F. Busi] ness Office-OG. Cold Grapesy-H H H. Green and Hot Hlouses-I. House for Propagating Grapes-K. Propagating Htouse-L. Sheds and Working Cellars-M. Resi-.dene of G. Ellwanger-N. Residence of P. Barry., t''Q QI i i iI I _, 208 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Tg -N y Fig. 129-Back View of Home Nursery of Ellwanger 4 Barry. Residence of P. Barry on the left-Business Office in the center-Packing-He sses, and Residence of G. Ellwanger on the right. apples, 72 acres-Dwarf do., 31 acres- acres; the Magnolias, of which ti-ere are Standard and Dwarf cherries, 25 acres- more than an acre in one plot; the 5000 Standard and Dwarf plums, 20 acres-and trees of the great Sequoia, or Kgant tree 82 acres of other fruit trees, seedling of California; and the great nuImber of stocks, &c. cuttings of roses and other shribs in cold In the above-named department, the frames, exceeding 100,000, more than half following items are more particularly of which were well-rooted by midworthy of notice. A fine 8-acre block of summer. dwarf and standard cherries, containing The GLASS STRUCTURES f r plants and 120,000 trees, two years from the bud; propagation cover 15,500 sq tare feet. 12 acres of standard and dwarf pears in The PaIsoNGl-Houses an I SHEDS, conabout equal quantities, two years from sist of one packing-house 75 by 80 feet, the bud, containing 130,000 trees of beau- two stories high, with cellars beneath —a tifulgrowth; another block of 20,000 plum shed 150 by 24 feet-and numerous temtrees from last spring's grafts, on 3 acres porary sheds erected at the commernce6 acres of currants, chiefly White Grape, ment and removed at the end of each Cherry, and Victoria, 200,000 plants; 4 selling season. Besides these, there are acres of Houghton's Gooseberry, 70,000, several large stables-work-rooms for 3 acres of New-Rochelle and Dorlchester both departments-and sheds for sashblackberries, 100,000 plants; and 100,000 frames when out of use, pots, &c. hardy grapes on 3 acres. The men employed are about 225 to 250 The ORNAMENTAL DEPARTMENT OCCU- in the season, lend about 80 through winpies 90 acres, about as follows:-24 acres ter. Three men are constantly employed of evergreen trees, 50 acres hardy deci- in book-keeping, correspondence, &c., in duous trees and shrubs, 8 acres roses, 3 addition to the extensive labors in coracres dahlias, bulbs, and herbaceous respondence performed by the proprieplants, 5 acres specimen trees, &c. tors themselves. They have opened and The most remarkable items in this de- built a street, which is exclusively occupartment are:-The evergreens, which pied by their foremen, head workmen, &c..exceed half a million in number; besides There are 25 horses employed for cultithis year's seedlings; the 8 acres of roses; vating the nursery, &c. the weeping trees, covering alone over 2 A single season's budding numbers Fig. 130-Newt Street opened by Ellwanger 4 Barry in front of their Honle Nursery and occupied woholly with Dwellingsfor Foremen and principal Wor kmen. 1 _' ^ E,) OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 209 i_ if about 700,000 in the fruit department, growing nursery trees, the remaining 60 and 100,000 in the ornsanental. To inslure 20ei9g l equl ecl f~l tn e otation,:n d notv cornplete accuracy, one of the proprietors in prelparation for future planting. cuts all the buds, which he immediately Chiefly ftiuit trees, slnall fruits, aid passes to a number of hands who accom- seedlbng stocks. There are extensive panry him, vwho remove the leaves, wvhen specimen groullnds of trees, 2 to 10 years they are marked and transferred to the old. For the past 5 years, they have foremen of the respective budding comr- annually planted 12 acres of apples with pallies. about 10,000 root glrafts; 3 acres with Farnum & Halasted, Lockport (2 ims. west 40,000 quince stocks for dwarf pears; of)-hbegun 1841 at L. Ontario, removed 1. acres with 20,000 peIar stocks for 1865 —25 acres. standard pears; 1' with 15,000 Mazzard B. Fi;sh & Soni, Rochester, (11 ms. w. of cherry stocks; half an acre with 5,000 city) —1854-0 acres. Mahalebs; 2 acres with 25,000 peach Hlenry Fellows I& Son, Penfield, Monroe stocks; one acre with 10,000 plum Co. (7 ms. e. of Rochester) —l848 —40 acs. stocks; and half an acre with 5,000 William Ferris, Throgg's Neck, West- transplanted grapes. besides 2 acres of chester Co.-SO or 40 acres, largely of cuttings of the grape, currant, and evergreens and other ornamentals. quince, 3 of seedling stocks, 2 of ornaFreeman & Kendall, Ravenswood, L. I.- mentals, evergreens, &c., and 3 of strawsilall fruits only. berries anld raspberries for bearing. A. Frost & Co., Rochester, (south of and With the exception of during the sellnear the eity)-1848-200 acres-one of ing season, only about 20 meni are emthe largest and most complete nurseries ployed, care being taken to accomplish in the Union., with extensive ranges of as much labor as possible with horses. green and hot honses, and a rich assort- Hooker, Farley & Co., Rochester, have an meat of fruit trees and ornamentals. extensive wholesale nursery of over a The proprietors are eminently success- hundred acres. ful in raising evergreens from seed, of S. P. Hough, Albany —2 miles n. of city. which they have an extenlsive supply, W. M. Hoyt, Brighton (near Rochester)and in the propagation of new black- mostly apple. berries, raspberries, and other small Isaac Jacobs, King's Ferry, Cayuga Co. fruits. S.'. Kelsey & Co., Great Valley, N. Y. E. C. Frost, Havana, Schuyler Co.-1842 William King, Rochester-mostly orna. -a general assortment of fruit and or- mental, roses, &c. namental trees. Silas B. Kelly, Brighton —30 acres. Graves & Warner, Syracuse. Geo. D. Kimber, Flushing, L. I.-10 acres T. E. Hayward, Pittsford, Monroe Co.- -new and thrifty. 11 acres. King & Ripley, Flushing, L. I.-establishD. Higgins, Flushing, L. Island-40 acres. ed in 1798 by James Bloodgood, and S. H. Hfigley, Port Byron-3 acres. covered 12 acres up to 1829 —now occuiP. Hildreth & Co., Watkins, Schuyler Co. pies 70 acres-hardy trees. -35 acres, fruit and ornamental. A. Loomis, Batavia-remnoved from ByT. Hogg, Jr., Bloomingdale, (near.New- ron in 1857-8 acres-a large share of York,) Westchester Co. small fruits. H. E. Hooker & Co., Rochester-home Manley & Mason, Bulffalo —etensive. nursery on E. Avenue —commenced McCarthy & Carter, Penfield, Monroe Co. A 1830 by a former proprietor. Whole Matthew Mackie, Clyde-1840-12 acres. number of acres devoted to nursery, James Mattison, Jacksonville, Tompkins 152, of which 90 are actually under Co.-25 acles —nursery and greenhouse..7t,_ —--------------------— I. )z 210 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER T. C. Mlaxwell & Brothers, Geneva —( m. propagation is conducted with great west of)-1848-140 acres-chiefly fruit success, and roses on their own roots, trees and stocks for nurserymee, with ae d rare coniferous plants andtrees, are a portio-n of ornamental trees-land a specialities. strong loam, all tile-drained at a cost of Penfield i Burrell, Lockport. $25 to $30 per acre. It is confined ex- W. R. Prince & Co., Flushing, L. I.-an clusively to hardy trees, and is conduct- old and celebrated establishment, comed with much energy and success. menced about a hundred years ago, and Maxwell, Bristol & Co., I)ansville (late long famed for the fine varieties of fruit Maxwell, Ramsden & Co.) —1853-50 which it extensively disseminated duacres-frulit trees, excelliig iin pear and ring the early history of American Poplum. mology, and while in the hands of its Lewis AMenand, Albany-2 miles north of early proprietors —60 or 70 acres. the city-green-house and ornamentals. C. Reagles & Son, Schenectadyr-1830-50 lMoody & Son, Wir igt's Corner, Niag. Co. acres-fruit trees generally; the plum Isaac Moore, Brighton, near Rolhester. thriving-finely, is largely cultivated, and Samuel Moulson, Rochester (i.BE. of city) 400,000 are stated to be in different sta-hardy trees, extelsive. ges of growth. INelson &, Barkler, Brighton, near Roches- C. J. Ryan & Co., Rochester-north of ter —185-24 acres, all fruit trees. city-fruit and ornamental. Fig. 132-Etrance to A. Saul 4 Co.'s Nursery, and Residence of A. Saul. Outwater & Cuddeback, Wilson,Niag.Co. A. Saul & Co., (successors to A. J. DowvnParsons & Co., Flushing, Long Island- ing) Newburgh —first commenced about 1848-upwards of 100 acres, a first-class 1816-in the hands of the present proestablishment. There are ten glreeni- prietors stice 1847-40 afres, a general houses, most of them 100 feet long, assortment of fruit trees and ornamonhaving 14,000 sq. feet of glass, besides tals-has very extensive specimen orthe franmes and pits, of -i-hich there are chards in bearing, and among them several thousand feet-land having pro- about 500 varieties of the pear. bably the most extensive rages efg glass J. Sloan, mnanager for owner, Albany-2 A structures among American Nulrser ies. Niles south of citv.A This nursery is particularly rich in or- W. T. 8 E. Smith, Geneva, (4 m. west of) namental trees and shrubs. Th asulti- — ov er 100 acres, with a green-house; ~ vation of trees and plamts of difficult fruit and ornamentals generally-tho b havn -40~ aq feto Debsds tl-ha eyetnieseie OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 211 Y whole conducted wnith much industry speciality-and extensive and successand energy. ful orchards of dwarf pears. Stone & Cook,(Stonebout wvithdrawing,) Nw-JERSEY. Hinmanville, Oswego Co.-. R. Sta- Edwin Allen, New-Brunswick-1845-912 tion, Lamuson's-20 acres, mostly apple. acres. -_ r~-~L~L ~ _ I~-~-~-;~- -----— iL-J;I io''=d.f'-F=Q..F G us _ Fig. 133-Nursery of Thomas' Herendeen, Macedon-Entrance and Business OfficeDistant View of Nursery,,-c. Thomas & Herendeen, (formerly J. J. David J. Griscom, Woodbury-largely of Thomas,) Macedon, rWayne Co.-1838 — evergreens. hardy fruit and ornamental trees-a A. Ilance & Son, Red Bank, Monmouth nursery of standard pears containing Co. about 150,000, and other trees, lately L. J. Harvey, Newark —1835-17 acres. planted at Union Springs, N. Y., where W/m. Parry, Cinnalinison-mostly small standard pears flourish with great suc- fruits. cess-whole nursery at Macedon and Isaac Pullen, Higlltstown —1825-42 acres, Union Springs, about 50 acres, closely nearly one-half of which are dwarf and,planted with growing trees. standard pears. Thorp, Smith rs Hanchett, Syracuse-es- Samuel Reeve, Salem-14 acres-comtablihed by A. Thorp in 1830, by plant- mnenced by the father of the present ing nearly 5 acres to ilursery-whole proprietor soon after the Rtevolltion. land now devoted to the business, 250 William Reid, Elizabethtowin-35 acresacres. Of this extent, fiuit tr ees grleatly remarkable as a neatly kept, accurate, predominate, and among these the apple and successful nursery. andc peari20 acres are devoted to the George C. Thorburn, Newarr. smaller fruits; 15 to evergreens~ 5 to PENNSYLVANIA. ornanmental trees; 8 or 10 to shrubs and Bockstoce & Sumner, Pittsburgh. roses and ornamental plants. Thliere is W~illiam P. Brinton, Christiania, Lancasan extensivegreen-house,a propagating- ter Co. —5 or 6 acres, new and thrifty. house, and a rose-house. This is the Robert Buist, Philadelphia-a celebrated largest nursery in central New-York. establishment, with extensive ranges of W. P. Townsend, Lockport-excellent glass-roses a speciality. specimen orchards connected with the Alan W. Corson, Plymourth Meeting P. nursery. O., Montgomery o. —1845-7 acres-a W. Webb, Buffalo-grieen-house, &c. miscellaneous nursery, with more than R. White %k Co., Newarka, Wayne Co.- usual botanical accuracy. Thorp, Smith & Hanchett of Syracuse, J-. L. Darlington & Co., (late Paschall joint proprietors; R. PWhite, resident Morris & Co.,)-West Chester-1845manLager-50 acres, al! fruit trees. about 100 acres-a general assortment, Williams & Chapman, Malllius,Onon. Co. mostly fruit,of wvhich the larger portion Johni Wilson, Albany.-een-h ouse and is apples. ornamentals -lailly.', WinV. P. Fisher, IUnionville, Center Co.T. B. Y-ale & Co., Brighton, near Roches- 1843-several acres. ter-about 80 acres, nearly all apple. Josiah Hloopes, (Cherry Hill Nursery,) T. G. Yeomans, Walworth, Wayne Co.- West Chester-184-20 acres-equal 1842-about 75 acres —dwarf peasa a portions of fruit and ornamental trees 212 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER and shrubs-greatest, peach trees-a sMIssrSSIPPr. grieen-house, 3-acre arboretum, and fine Thomas Affleck, WVashington. specimen orchardll W.. A. Witfield, Shelby, Bay St. Louis, Thomlas M. Halrvey. Jennersville, Chester on the Bay of St.. Louis —185'i-23 acres, Co. —1840 —20 acres in lursery, and 10 mostly peach and pear. acres in specimen fruit trees-one-half KENTUCK'Y. fruit trees, half ornamentals, largely of Peter f. Barker, -Greenville-1856 —20 acs. everlgreels —green-house pilants, &c. Carey, Peters & Carey, Louisville (7 ms. Peter Keiffer, Andora —4 acres. east of,)-1856-22 acres. Peter Kuser, BoySertown1-3 acres. Geo. S. Curtis & Co., Maysville-1856 —30 Samuel WV. Lukens,Willow Grove-3 acs. acies, andcl gree-house-new. Lyte S Hough, Enter prise, Lancaster Co. M. J. S. Downer, Elkton. -n ew. Hobbs, WValker Co., Williamson, JefferThomas Meehan, Germa-ntown. Co. (12 ns. east of Louisville by R.R.;) David Miller, Ir., nearl Carlisle-1842 —25 -1853-40 acres-a general assortment, acres, with ten nore of specimen g'iids. fiuit trees, evergreens, &nc. Samuel Miller, Lebanon, (2 miles from) Jacob Johniso1n, Cedar Creek, Jefferson Lebanon Co. —1850-6 acres-good spe- Co. —1850 —8 acres. cimen grounds. OHIO. Henry A. Mish,H Iarrisbumgh-1856 — 6 acs. M. B. Batelam z.Co., (Proprietors, M. B. Johnls Muldoch, Jr., Pittsburgh (2, and 3- Bateham al-ld Ellwanger & Barry,) Comiles friom,)-1843-about 20 acres and lunmbus-comlmenced spring of 185 —20 2 green-houses. acres planted that year, and 20 each James M. Price, Oakdale, Delaware Co. succeeding year, now 80 acres-m-mostly -mostly small fruits —nevw-10 acres. fruit trees, but ornamental department R. Waring. Tyrone, Blair Co.-1850-4 acs. extensive, asnd importations of everWtin. G. Waring, Boalsburg, Centre Co. greens made yearly from Europe-a -1857-6 acres. hot-house and conservatory, and extenMrARYLASD. sive specimen grounds-a first-class John Feast, Banltimnore. western nrLisery. W. Feast, Baltimore. E. Bonsall, Jr., Salem-1846-20 acres, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. fruit aid ornIamental, and green-house Joshua Peirce, (Linnean Hill,) near -5 acres of evergreens. Washington. Win. Case, Clevelal-d-1848-conducted John Saul, Washington-seed warehouse \wholly by C. Weiges, foreman. 390 SeveDth-st.; nulrsery on Seventh-st. Clarke & Stalter, Lancastel-1 846-25 acs. road-1953 —80 acres, mostly new —a J. S. Cook, (Waslnut Hills,) Cincinnati — genieral miscellaneous collection-large 1846-20 acres, and greenl-house. importations made from Europe. Edmonld Craig, Cheviot, Hamilton Co. (5 VIRGINiA. ms. n. w. of Cincinnati)-1848-30 acres Geo. D. Curtis, Moundsville, (- m. east of. in compact nursery —nardy frnits anld 12 miles below Wheeling) —10 acres. ornalmlentals. Franklin Davis, Staunstoin-new e. Wm. Curtis, Brighton, Cuyahoga Co.| Clalkley G-illinigham, Woodlawn, near Mt. 1851 —6 acres. Vernon. George Dana 3i Son, Belpre-1817-10 acs. Miller, Pl]oak &. Co.,Lynchb'g, 1855 —12 acs. Jalues Edgerton, Barnesville,Belmnont Co. Yacrdley Taylor & Son, Purcelville, Lou- 1t850 —15 acles. don Co. —1833 -mostly apple and peach A. Fahnestock & Sons, Toledo-about 70 -orn amentals and green-house plants- acles, a part new; and a part the Old 10 acres. Toledo Nulssery-a general miscellaNOMRTt CAROLINA. neous collection. Moses Evans, Abbott's Creek, Davidson J. Gallup, Cleveland-an old nursery. Co. —1845-20 acres, and an extensive J. L. Galloway Milford, Clermoitt Co.experimental orlcard. 1855-n8 acres. Westbrok & Mendenhall, G0reensboro'- -I. N. Gillett, Quaker Bottom. 1853-5- 0 acres-a general collectios of Joseph Harris, St. Clairsville, Belmont ifruit trees and ornamentals, apple ald Co.-6 acres. peach predomninating-a large green- Wm. Heaver, Cincinnati., house, and extensive experimental or- James Houghton, Cleveland-5 acres, a cllarlds-mnuch has be'en done to test part of Morse & Hought c's former southern apples. nursery. GEORGTA. S. S. Jackson, Cincinnati. F. A. Mange, August;a —nr' sery consists M. Kelly & Co., Cincinnati. chiefly of roses on their own roots. WV. B. Lipsey, Cardingtdn (2k ms. e. of,) Peters, lIarden & Co., Atlantsa. Morrow Co. P..T. Berckmnns & Co., Augusta-30 acm. A. Mcintosh, Cleveland-1854, and before J. Van Btren, Clarksville. — 8 acres, chiefly ornamental. -Z,.'l OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 213 S. B. Marshall, Massillon —184 —8 acres. A. S. Coe, Port Byron, Rock Island Co. T. WV. Morse. (a part of former Morse & Colmna & Drake, Bloomnington-10 acres, Houghton's,)-5 acres. all apple. L. Nicholson, East Rockport, Cuyahoga E. B. Colman, Peoria-somewbat extenCo. (4 ms. west of Cleveland)-1850-25 sive, and green-house and orchards. acres. John A. Cook, Pavillion-1850 —10 acres. A. Robinet & Sons, Bedford, Cuyahoga Dent & Verner, Wellona, Marshall Co.Co.-1844-12 acres, and good specimen 1853-11 acres apple, 30 acres Osage trees in bearing. hedge plants. John Sayers, Cincinnati. Robert Douglass, Waukegan, Lake Co.Dr. Edward Taylor, Cleveland-1856-35 1847-28 acres. acres-a general collection of fruit trees Michael Doyle, Springfield-(2 ms. w. of,) -a vigorous young establishment. -chiefly fruits, some ornamentals, Toledo Nursery Association, Toledo. green-house & pits. J. T. Warder, (formerly Warder & Gil- M. L. Dunlap, Leyden, Cook Co. more,) Springfield (1 mi. e. of,)-25 acs. Samuel Ednards, Lamoille, Bureau Co. I. W. Weld, Richfield, Summit Co.-1846 30 acres nursery, and 12 strawberries-quite small. a well known establishment. Williams & Lewis, Dayton-1855-15 acs. Lewis Ellsworth & Co., Napierville, DuSamuel Wood & Son, Smithfield, Jeffer- page Co.-1849-75 acres —40 acres apple son Co.-1816 —15 acres, and extensive -fruit and orDamentals, green-house grounds of specimen trees in bearing. and propagating-house. A branch of MICHIGAN. the same, 15 acres, at Wheaton, same Wm. Adair, Detroit (east side of,)-1842 county. — 25 acres, 12 of which is in trees, the Emmert & Wheeler, Freeport-new esrest in vegetables for rotation-the pear tablishment. a speciality. Isaac B. Essex, Drury, Rock Island Co.D. Cook, Jackson. 1847-7 acres, and good bearing speciHubbard & Davis, Detroit (2 ms. w. of,)- men orchard. 1846-20 acres, 16 under trees-a green- 0. B. Galusha, Lisbon, Kendall Co. house and propagating-house —ageneral John Garner, Nova, Jo Daviess Co.-8 or and miscellaneous collection. 10 acres. Inglefit & Bentley, Monroe. Havens & Austin, Cass-1855. Wmin. L. Randall, Adrian —1856-7 acres. William T. Henning, Palo-6 acres. B. W. Steere, Adrian-1851-10 acres of R. Herring, Durand, Winnebago Co. select sorts and a good specimen or- C. H. Hibbard, Marengo, McHenry Co. chard. N. & C. G. Hotchkiss, Belvidere, Boone Tomlinson & Brother, Battle Creek (n m. Co.-1850-14 acres. e. of R.R. Station,)-1854 —20 acres. J. Huggins, Woodburn, Macoupin Co.INDIANA. 1854-10 acres. Geo. H. Andrews, Laporte. J. A. Kennicott & Sons, West Northfield, John J. Conley, Richmond. Cook Co.-fruit and ornamental-exJonathan Coggslall.Jonesboro',Grant Co. tensive and well known. W. T. S. Cornett, Versailles. D. F. Kinney, Rock Island-1853-8 acs. I. N. Davis, Connersville, Fayette Co. I. S. IZuowltoii, Byron, Ogle Co.-1847Peter Fulhart, Mluncie, small and new. 12 acres. Hill, Goldsmith & Co., Indianapolis. J. T. Little. Dixon-1850. Gardner Mendenhall, Richmond. Tyler McWhorter, Millersburg, Mercer Griffith Mendenhall, Richmond. Co.-extensive specimen orchard. Thomas B. Morris, Cambridge City-7 Manly & Lowe, Marshall, Clark Co.-1857 acres. — 10 acres. Railsback & Hutton, Pi chmond-25 acres. Dr. I. D. Maxon, Henry, Marshall Co.J. C. Teas, Raysville, Henry Co.-1843- (formerly W. Mann.) 25 acres, hardy firuits and ornamentals. Otis Marble, Thompson's, Lake Co. E. Y. Teas, Richmond-1857-6 acres. S. G. Minkler, Kendall-1852-11 acres. ILLINOIS. Luman Montague, West Point, StephenVerry Aldrich, Tiskilwa, Bureau Co. (3 son Co.-small. miles from Bureau Station)-1852 —10 J. Moore, Dimond's Lake, Lake Co. acres, and bearing specimen trees. E. Ordway, Freeport. I. C. Allen, Lena, Stephenson Co.-20 acs. Overman & Mann, Bloomington-fruits H. N. Bliss, Buda, Bureau Co.-1852. and Osage orange-the largest Osage Arthur Bryant, Princeton, Bureau Co.- plant and seed dealers perhaps in the extensive nurseries and orchards. Union-have raised in some seasons John B. Burbach, Princeton, Bureau Co. twelve or fifteen millions of plants, and -6 acres. had 1000 bushels of the seed-an enerJabez Capps & Son, Mt Pulaski, Logan getic and intelligent firm. Co. Thomas Payne, Fremont Center, Lake U...... 214 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 4 Co.-extensive grounds of specimen I S. R. Boardman, Lyons-1854-20 acres, trees. mostly apple. L. S. Pennington, Sterling, Whiteside Co Reuben Braickett, Lewis, Cass Co. -1842-30 acres, and large collection of Gustavus B. Brackett, Denmark, Lee Co. specimen trees. -1842-12 acres. F. K. Phcenix, Bloomingtol-1852,and for A. W. Comstock, (formerly Avery & many years before at Delavan, Wis. —50 Comstock,)Burlington —40 acres —apple. acres-extensive specimen orchards. John Evans, Davenport, (5 ms. east of)Rog'ers, Woodwarc & Glass, Marengo, 1846-3 acres, small fruits and ornamenMcHenry Co.-1853-12 acres. tals. A. Ross, Ottawa-1856. Finley & Dwire, Davenport, (a few miles Edgar Sanders, near Chicago —1857 —or- west of) —extensive. nainentals, &c. Foster & Negus, Muscatine-extensive. D. C. Scofield, (of the firm of Stephen Horr & Beebe, Dubnque-1848-20 acres, HIoyt & Co., New-Canaan, Ct.,) Elyra, mostly apple. Ill. -40 acres. Wm. Laer, Garden Grove, Decatur Co.Henry Shaw, Tremont, Tazewell Co.- 1854-4 acres. 1849-20 acres. David Leonard, Burlington-30 acres, J. S. Sherman, Rockford-1854-20 acres. nearly all apple. E. H. Skinner, Marengo, McHlenry Co. — Wm. Longworth, Dubuque —1848 —20 21 acres. acres, mostly apple. H. Strickland, Roscoe, Winnebago Co.- Neally, Brothers &z Bock, Burlington-1851 —10 acres. 1846-30 acres, nearly one-half ornaStuart & Sons, Quincy and Payson, mentals and small fruits-2 acres roses, Adams Co. —extensive Pomological 3 of evergreens-50 acres more of orgrounds. chard and specimen trees. Nursery on John R. Tull & Son, Pontoosac (21 miles Mississippi bluffs, and pear and apple from,) Hancock Co.-1847-15 acres,and grow to great perfection. many bearing specimen trees. W. H. Plumb, Ft. Dodge-4 acres. S. J. Wallace, Carthage, IHancock Co.- James Smith, Fort Des Moines. 1857. Saunders & Co., Decatur City. C. C. Wamsley, Palo-1851-12 acres. James Weed, Muscatine. A. R. Whitney, Franklin Grove, Lee Co. Wm. Zimmnierman & Co., Oskaloosa. -50 acres or more-one of the largest [Apple trees are largely raised at Burand best western nurseries, with exten- lingtor, and probably a million trees are sive bearing orchards. now offered there for sale.] Willard Brothers, KIewanee, Henry Co., MrINNESOTA. 30 acres-green-house and hedge plants. [During the past eight years, about Msson0RnI. twenty nurseries have been commenced Husman & Manlwaring, Hermann. in different parts of Minnesota, but owing John Sigerson & Brother, St. Louis (a few to the severity of the climate and other ms. s. of city)-1843-200 acres devoted causes, most of them have been relinto niursery, besides 36 acres ini straw- quished.] berries, and 30,000 bearing fruit trees- L. M. Ford & Co., St. Paul (between St. green-houses, &c. One of the largest Paul and St. Anthony)-1850-the most nurseries in the West. extensive on the lMississippi above DuWISCONSIN. buque —mostly hardy fruits-the cliJ. C. Bryitton, Aztalan, Jefferson Co. mate too seve-re for peaches, but grapes Colby & Willey, (formerly Charles Colby) and all small firuits do well-40 acres are Janesville-1848-20 acres. devoted to seeds an d m arket gardening. E. B. & J. F. Drake, Janesville. Robert Goodyear, Mankato —small —new. F. Drake & Co, Raciile. A. Stewart, Le Seur —1856 —10 acres. N. C. Gaston, Delavan, Walworth Co. KANSAS. (begun in 1843 by F. K. Pheenix,) 10 acs. Geo. C. Brackett & Co., Lawrence. Charles Gifford, Milwaukee. NEBRASKA. A. G. Hanford, Waukesha. Joel Draper, Nebraska City-new. J. C. Plumb & Co., Lake Mills. James H. Masters, Nebraska City-1854 J. S. Sherman, Richmond, Walvworth Co. -a general assortment of fruit trees and Levi Sterling & Co., Mineral Point-new. ornamentals-extensive. Stickney & Loveland, Wauwatosa, Mil- CALiFORNIA. waukee Co -1855-8 acres. [Nurseries generally in this State reWilliarn Von Baumbanch, Milwaukee- quire irrigation for successful growth.] 10 acres. G. G. Briggs, Brigg's Ranclh, Maysville- IOWA. 1852-extensive, mostly peach. From rl Owen Albright & Co., Keokuk. the extensive market orchards connectJohn W. Bennum & Co., Prairie Grove, ed with this nursery, there were sold Clark Co. $22,000 of fruit from 240 peach trees in )j OF RURAL AFF-IRSE. 215 1857-67 peaches weighed 65 lbs., and James Flemming, Yonge-st., Toronto, sold for $48.75. nurseryman and seedsman —1842-exA. HI. Myers, Alameda, Alameda Co.- tensive green-houses. 1853-15 acres, fruit and ornamental. J. WV. Gilmour, Peterboro', C, W.-1851 L. Prevost, San Jose, Santa Clara Co.- -20 acres, fruit and orna mental, and 1 1854-4 acres, fruit and ornanmental. good green-house. Reed & Co., SacramuJlto City-185 —40 John Gray & Dr. Gwyne, Toronto-1850 acres, fruit trees. -10 acres-green-house. A. P. Smith, Sacramento City —1853. James Greig, Pickering, C.. —1848-15 Smith & Wilchell, San Jose, Santa Clara acres. Co. —1853 —40 acres, mostly fruit, greater E. Hubbard. Guelph, C. W.-1848-10 part apple. acres, all fruit trees. Winm. eely Thompson & Co., Napa, Na- E. Kelly & Co., Hamilton-1840-60 acres, pa Co.-1853-extensive. chiefly fruit trees-a vigorous estabCANADA. lishment. Charles Arnold, Paris, C. W,-1852-5 George Leslie, Toronto, C. W.-1844-75 acres, all fruit trees. acres, three-fourths fruit trees, the rest Thomas Burgess, London, C. W.-1854- ornamentals. There are two large 10 acres. green-houses-one of the most extenRobert Cairns, Galt, C. W.-1851-10 sive nurseries, if not the most so, in acres, all fruit trees. Canada. J. Caldwell & Br-other, Waterloo, C. W. B. Losie, Cobourg, C. W. —1854-10 acres. -1848-40 acres, chiefly fruit trees-1 I. P. Lovekin,:Newcastle, C. W.-1848green-house. 30 acres, mostly apples and cherries, James Dougall, Windsor, op'site Detroit. and a share of ornamnentals, chiefly Dunning, Camrpbell & Co., Wellington evergreens. Square, C. W.-20 acres. D. KNichol & Co., Lyre, near Brockville, Fairchild & Kelsey, Mohawk P. O., Grant C. W.-1854-8 acres. Co., C. W.-1849-14 acres. J. P. Thomas, Belleville, C. W,.-1852-8 D. Fisher, Bowmansville, C. W.-180 — acres, fruit and ornamentals. 20 acres, fruit and ornamental. John S. Walker, Erie, C. W. PRINCIPAL NURSERIES IN EUROPE.* ENGLAND. J. Griffin, Bath-the largest nursery near J. Backhouse & Son, York-extensive- this city. largest and best nursery at that city. H. Groom, Clapham Rise, Surrey-bulbs. G. Baker, Windlesham, near Bagshot, J. A. tHenderson & Co., Edgware Road, Surrey-American plants a speciality. MIiddlesex-new and rare plants —a neat Bass & Brown, Sudbury, Suffolk. and extensive establishment. Chandler & Sons, Wandworth Road, Sur- E. G. Henderson, St. John's Wood, Midrey-extensive ranges of glass-collec- dlesex-new plants, doing a large woholetion of camellias unsurpassed in Eng- sale business. land. W. Holland, Brompton, Middlesex-exJ. & J. Cranstone, King's Acre, Hereford- tensive in fruit trees. shire-extensive in roses. G. Jackman, Woking, Surrey-American G. Cunningham & Son,Liverpool-a large plants, &c. general nursery. W. Jackson & Co., Bedale, Yorkshire. J. Cuthill, Camberwell, Surrey-small Jackson & Son, Kingston, Surrey-greenfruits and superior vegetables, &c. house plants, &c. F. & J. Dickson & Sons, Manchester- H. Lane & Son, Great Beekhamstead, forest trees, evergreens, &c. Herts-extensive in roses. Donald & Soil, Woking, Surrey. J. & C. Lee, Hammersmith, near London Fisher, Holmes & Co., Sheffield and -an old and celebrated plant nursery of Handsworth, Yorkshire. great extent and richness. Garraway, Myers & Co., Bristol —acele- H. Low & Co., Clapton, Middlesex-very brated-and extensive establishment, in extensive in glass and green-house the green-house and out-door depart- plants. ments Lucombe, Pince & Co., Exeter, DevonR. Glendinning, Turnham Green, near a large general nursery. London-rare green-house plants. W. Maule & Sons, Bristol. l J. SAUL of Washington City, and ELLWANGER & BARRY of Rochester, have furnished important materials for this list. 216 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Osborn & Sons, Fulham, Middlesex-rare SCOTLAND. and fine trees, &c. Cunningham, Frazer & Co., Edinburgh. A. Paul & Son, Cheshunt, Eerts.-famed Dickson & Co., for its roses, hollyhocks, conifers, &c. J. Deikson & Sons, T. Rivers. Sawbridgeworth, Herts —70 Downie & Laird, acres-the most extensive cultivator of P. Lawson & Son, fruit trees in England-a vast collection Stewart & Sons, Dundee. of roses, &c. W. Urquhart & Sons, " Rollinson & Son, Tooting, Surrey-vast FRANCE, BELGIUM, HOLLAND, ETC. ranges of glass, with orchids, heaths, Andre Le Roy, Angers, France-a gene&c., in great perfection. ral and very extensive nursery. J. Salter, I-Iammersmith, Middlesex —fl'st. D. Dauvesse, Orleans, France —a general WV. Skirving, Liverpool-a great nursery, nursery. with vast collections of evergreens. Jamin & Durand, Paris-fruits. G. Standish, Bagshot, Surrey-celebrated E. ~Yeidier & Son, Paris-roses, poeonies, for rhododencdrons, &c. &c. C. Turner, Slough, Bucks-a general es- Thibout & KIeteter, Paris-plants. tablisllment, and the smost extensive in L. Van Iloutte, Ghent, Belgium-plants. England in florist collections, as dah- Ad. Papeleu, Wetteren, Belgium —hardy lias, hollyhocks, pansies, carnations, trees. tulips, &C. A. Verschaffelt, Ghent, Belgium-plants. J. Veitch & Son, Exeter, Devon,?the J. De Jonghe, Brussels, Belgium -fruit J. Veitch, Jr., Chelsea, Middlesex, trees. greatest collections of new and rare J. Linden. Brussels,Belgium —rare plants, plants in Europe. a great collection. J. Waterer, Bagshot, Surrey-American A. Mielliez, Lille-new sorts of chrysanplants and a general nursery. themu-ms and other flowers from seeds. Waterer & Godfrey, Knaphill, Woking, Ernst & Von Spreckelson, (successors to Surrey — oeneral and extensive —peat J. Booth & Co.,) Hamburg, Germany. plants a speciality. Krelage & Son, Harlaem, Holland-bulbs. J. Weeks S Co., Chelsea, Middlesex- De Lange & Sons, " " " rather new. F. Van Velson, Jr., " Youell & Co., Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. E. C. Van Eden & Co., " " DEXTER SNOW ON THE VERBENA. [The following excellent practical remarks on the treatment of this beautiful plant, were furnished by DEXTER SNOW, the most eminent and skillful cultivator of the Verbena in this country, and who carries on an extensive business in its propagation and sale.] There is probably no flower that will afford more real pleasure or satisfaction for the outlay of money and labor, than this little gem. The brilliancy and great variety of its colors, the long-continued season of bloom, and its adaptedness to our hot summer sun, renders it the most valuable of all bedding plants. Many varieties are also admirable for vase or pot culture, and when properly managed as a house plant, will bloom profusely from January to May. To grow them successfully, whether in-doors or out, they must be fully exposed to the sun, as they will not thrive without it. When grown as a house plant, they should be placed near the glass where the sun may reach them the greater part of the day. Give them a good airing each A mild sunny day, by partially raising the window for an hour or so. This is quite indcispensable to the health and stocky growth of the plant. The temperature of the room in the vicinity of the plants should average OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 217 Fig, 134-VERBENA. about 600 in the day-time and 459 at night. High night temperature causes the plants to spindle up and grow weak and sickly. Water the plants only when actually necessary, or when the soil appears dry; and then do it thoroughly, taking care to pour off what falls into the saucer. Shower the foliage occasionally, to keep it clean and free from dust. In all cases use rain water for house plants. Fumigate with tobacco as often as th6 Aph4is or green-fly appears. This may be done by placing a dish of coals under the plant stands, and throwing on a handful of tobacco; or to avoid having the smoke in the sitting-room, set the plants in a group upon the kitchen floor; place a few chairs about them, over which throw an old quilt or carpet-let it reach: the floor, so as to retain the smoke; place the coals and tobacco underneath, but not so near the plants as to scorch them. Ten or fifteen minutes smoking will destroy all the insects. As a fertilizer for the Verbena, the sulphate of ammonia is excellent, ~, giving to the foliage a dark-green, luxuriant and'healthy appearance. It is economical, clean and easily applied' Prepare it tlie evening before gt-, - - i — 1 n ~ $s=~1 218 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER using, by dissolving one ounce of the ammonia in two gallons of water. It may be applied once a week with safety. A good fertilizer may be made by dissolving one pound of guano in ten gallons of water, letting it stand twenty-four hours before using. Apply it once a week. For garden culture, the ground should be prepared in the fall by throwing it into ridges, and spreading over it a quantity of Cdd and well decomposed manure. In thus exposing the whole to the action of frost, the worms and larva of insects are in a measure destroyed, and the soil becomes pulverized, and receives a share of ammonia from the snows and rains of winter. In preparing the beds or mounds in the springy care must be taken not to get them too high, or the plants will suffbr from drought. The ground should be spaded deep and the manure well worked in. Let the plants when put out be young, strong and healthy. Get them out as early in the season as the weather will permit, so that they may get a good start before the hot weather comes on-they will then keep out of the way of the root-louse. In very dry weather the plants should be thoroughly watered every evening,, and occasionally with guano. Keep the soil well worked about the plants, to prevent its becoming baked. For a select list the following are very desirable, being strong growers, firee bloomers, and showing large trusses of flowers that will stand the sun. Those with stars prefixed are very fine for vase or pot culture: * Geant des Battailles-Deep scarlet crimson. * Charles Dickens-Rosy Purple. * Imperatrice Elizabeth-Striped; should be in every collection. * Mrs. II. Williams-Pure whllite. Metropolitanl-Bluish purple, fragrant. Purple Perfection-Maroon purple. Defiance-Intense scarlet. * Madam Abelt-Deep purple maroon. * Mfrs. Archer Clive-Ruby crimson. * Etoile de Venus-R;osy pink, very large. Lord of the Isles-Clear deep rose. Gen. Simpson-Rose red, tinted, with carmine.: MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. BY D. S. HIEFFRON OF UTICA. On introducing the subject of Poultry to the readers of " The Annual i Register of Rural Affairs," it may not be out of place to say, in justification, that the breeding of domestic poultry is valuable as a source of profit, as a means of a cheap and healthful amusement, and as affording a fruitful-i field of instruction. Poultry may be kept on a small scale, in village, city or country, by almost every family. It is only when the stock is large that it requires! more skill to make it " pay." Yet in England, Ireland and Friance, there are large sections of country where the raising of poultry for the city maret cos OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 219 markets constitutes tile principal employment of the poorer and middle classes of the inhabitants, and is the only means of support of many. Most persons have some time in life, been interested in feeding, watering, and caring for some feathered " pets." But while cage birds are not accessible to all, and some of them require much care and make no moneyed returns, poultry-keeping offers a self-supporting and healthful recreation and enjoyment to all classes of society. Our clergymen, teachers, lawyers, editors, merchants, bankers, as well as those who toil in the machine shop, the factory, or the furnace, each and all daily need some such light, amusing, recreative and healthful employment. Mowbray says:-" There is yet another point of view from which to hail the increasing and extended taste for poultry-rearing, so recently sprung up, as being calculated to produce effects of the highest social importance. We mean the humanizing (we had nearly said civilizing,) influences it cannot fail to exercise upon the teeming masses of our industrious town populations." Poultry, by their early maturity and reproduction, afford one of the best opportunities to study the transmission of hereditary forms, colors, diseases, instincts and peculiarities, the influence of climate, food, &c., &c. One of the first considerations to such as are about to commence poultrybreeding, is to select a suitable site for a poultry yard and house; for we think that fer families in city. or country, are so situated that they call keep any considerable number of fowls profitably, if they have not a suitable yard where they can be restrained at pleasure from doing damage to the garden and field. A gravel or a sandy soil, with a porous substratum, is the best of all soils for such a purpose. If it has an inclination to the south or east, all the better. But a poultry-yard must be dry to secure the health of the fowls; so if the soil is clayey, or retains moisture from any other cause, it must be properly drained; and it would improve it m:ch to raise it by carting on a liberal quantity of sand and gravel. The size must of course vary with the number of fowls to be kept, but the larger the yard the better; and it is especially desirable to have a grass plat at one end. The Spanish, Dorking and Shanghah fowls will bear confinement in small yards remarkably well, if the yard is dry, and the birds are fed daily with some kind of green food, as cabbage leaves, lettuce, white clover, and other tender grasses. The Hamburgh family, Polish, and most Game fowls are impatient in restraint, and do much better wherever they can have a wide range. Fig. 135 is a cut of a poultry-house, (first published in " The Cultiva-tor,") which is a model for cheapness, is very neat in its appearance, and quite as convenient as many much more expensive houses. The length of such a house may of course be made to vary according to the number of fowls to be kept. If a ventilating tube should be put 4t into each end of this house, it would very comfortably accommodate fifty.~c~-. g) —---— ~= ~c~2, 220 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER -rI ~f i________ Fig. 135-POULTRY-IOUSE. fowls, twenty-five in each apartment; though if it were so heavily stocked, the droppings should be removed daily, as much as the horsestable or the cow-stable should be cleansed daily.:We give the ground plan and section below, which exhibit the arrangemeilt so clearly that any mechanic could easily build one like it. cedi. 5tt ooms 7zesits I 17n.esitsI,Fig. 136-GROUND PLAN. Fig. 137-CROSS SECTION. We should prefer to make the house one foot wider and a foot higher. This would give room enough to stud the house with three-inch studs, and to line it with one-inch matched boards. It should also )be covered with narrow, sound, matched boards, and battened. Then fill up the space between the studs with dry tan, and nothing more is needed for warmth. Such a house would protect fowls with the largest combs from the influence of severe frosts, and beside, would furnish a large dividend on the additional expense, by daily installments of fresh eggs all winter. The best material for the floor is a mixture of sand and gravel pounded down very firmly. The floor should be raised from 10 to 12 inches above the earth on the outside of the building, so as to guard against moisture. Bricks should never be used for paving the floor, as they absorb so much moisture fromi the earth that they keep constantly wet, and poultry cannot bear cold, wet feet much better than unfeathered bipeds can, without becoming rheumatic and gouty, and even roupy. In winter every poultry-house should be furnished with a low box filled with dry wood ashes, and if mixed with a little dry sand, all the better. /\ ~~~~~~~53c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ~~~ L OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 221 In summer this "dusting bath" should be removed to the yard, and placed under an open lean-to shed, where it can be kept dry. Such a shed is easily made in one corner of the yard, by placing a -few short boards over a frame, (made by driving four stakes into the ground, and nailing two cross strips to the tops about three or four feet from the ground.) This would also provide suitable shelter'for the fowls in rainy weather. In winter, another box, filled with old dry lime mortar,calcined bones, pounded oyster shells, and dry gravel, should be placed in the feeding apartment of -the house. Every house in winter, and yard in sumrmer, should hacve fresh water once or twice daily. By whitewashing the inside of the house two or more times each year, it may be kept free from all kinds of parasites. Below we give a plan of a very convenient poultry-yard, divided so as to accommodate four varieties of fowls. The house, which should be built in the rear, would have to be 32 feet long by 8 or 9 feet wide; it should have four front windows, and should be divided into the same. ia-'":' -_ I i, -— number of apartments by tight Ad a C D partitions made of nmatclled _ _ {; - boards. Each apartment should have a ventilatingc6himney. The Ereferences will explain it better than any description. F.9x~s -.9 la IA B C D. Divisions of the ponl-.....F~~~~~I _-=,trv-house, 8 -by 9 feet-E F G H. Fig. 138-PLAN OF FOWL HOUSE AND YARD. Yards. The yards should be tight-boarded, about two feet high, with slats above four feet, making the whole six feet high. The whole plan covers but 25 by 50 feet. It is better to have the yards larger, if the fowls are to be kept in them constantly. If a large number of fowls of any variety is to'be provided for, it is far better for the health of the Birds, to'build several small, separate houses than one large one. Whenever a hen becomes broody, and it is proposed to give her a setting of eggs, it would be well to examine the top of her head and under her wings, and'if any lice are found, either discard her, or rub on these places some kind of soft grease or oil. Then give her a fresh nest, and only a moderate number of eggs, so that they may be well covered at all times. She should be protected from the annoyance of laying fowls while sitting. When about to hatch, grease these parts again, and then leave her until all her brood of chickens are omut. Remove'the'young brood and mother to a clean dry coop, free from vermin. If they come off early in the season while the ground is cold and damp, () a part of the coop at least should have a board bottom, so that the hen Qc>_Z~__ li*t. ~ D cn c ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER can carefully brood her young in a dry place. The hen should be fed, and supplied with fresh pure water at this time, as it is probable that she did not leave her nest for at least forty-eight hours before the chicks were all out. But the brood will need no feeding before they are twenty-four hours old; then feed some dry bread pounded fine. Soon a little pounded wheat, finely cracked corn, and hulled barley may be given to advantage. Some persons always feed young chickens with fine corn-meal, wetted up with water into a kind of dough. This food is strongly condemned by others; for if any of it is fed after standing until it begins to soulr,. it is known to be a positive injury. It is better not to feed it at all unless it is cooked; then lmix it with a few boiled potatoes mashed finely, and it'makes an excellent article of food. Curd of milk in limited quantities, is good food for young chickens. If too much trouble to prepare the curd, milk, either sweet or sour', may be freely given to fowls at any age with very beneficial results. Some breeders recommend that fresh meat be given in small quantities two or three times each week. We think it better to give the chickens when small the range of the garden, where they can catch their own meat and do good beside. Every one will of course see the propriety of feeding chickens friequently and regularly, runless the hen can scratch for them; beside, they must have fresh waterm in shallow pansto prevent accidents, or the water vessel if kept full, may be covered with a coarse wire screen. POULTRY Coop.-This coop (fig. 139) is made by nailing short pieces of matched boards t cygether, as indicated in the accompanying cut; then board up the rear end tightly; nail nar- row strips of boards or.... lath in front; put a floor ~ of boards in the back- Fig. 139-POULTRY COOP. part of the coop, large enough for the hen to brood her young upon, tfan lay a wide board in front to feed upon as long as the width of the coop, and we have as good a coop as can be made. The coop should be at least two feet high and from two to three feet deep. The board in front may be turned up at night to protect the young against rats, cats, &c., and should remain in the morning until the dew is off from the grass. The coop should be moved every two or three days to a clean place. PoL'rRLT FRnPIrNG-TrouGs. —The feeding-trough here represented (fig. 140) is very cheap and conve- / nient. It is made by nailing.iiiiii together two pieces of boards - on one edge, in form of two (sides of a triangle; one piece Fig. 140-POULTRY FEEDING-TROUGH. shoul bex OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 223 should be six and the other seven inches wide, and then finish by nailing on the end pieces, which should be about, eight inches wide and twelve long. To keep the fowls from getting into it with their feet, put a grate over the top, (made by nailing cross slats to two or three laths running lengtllhwise. The grating should be fastened so that the trough can be cleaned at pleasure. FATTENING FOWLS. If it is desired to fatten fowls in a very short time, they should be confined in small coops. Baily says:-" A coop for twelve fowls (Dorkings) should be thirty inches high, three feet loing, and twenty-two inches deep; it should stand about two feet from the ground, the front made of bars about three inches apart, the bottom also made of bars about an inch and a-half apart to insure cleanliness, and made to run the length of the coop, so that the fowl constantly stands, when feeding or resting, in the the position of perching; the sides, back, and top may be made the same, or the back may be solid." Some writers think it better to make half of the floor a little inclined, and to cover it with a board. Troughs for feed and water should be fastened around the edge of the coop, and the whole placed in an out-building, as a barn or shed, away from other fowls. For the first twenty-four hours give water, but no food. On the second day commence feeding regularly three times daily with the most nutritious food, such as oatmeal mixed with milk, boiled wheat, &c., &c. The troughs should be cleansed daily, and a plenty of fresh clean water given; and the fowls must be fed very early in the morning, and all they will eat at all times. In from fourteen to twenty days they will be in their best condition, when they should be killed, for if kept longer they soon become diseased. Poultry may be fattened quicker and more perfectly by stuffing, but it is aln unnatural as well as an inhuman practice, and we cAnnot recommend it. Dorkin g, Spanish, Game, lIamburgh~ and Polish chickens hatched the last of May, in latitude 430, will do well to fatten when three months old, but Shanuhte, Malay and Java chicks should be at least a month older. l VWORKP-SIHOPS AND STORM:nY DAYS. Every farmer who has boys should provide them a worok-shop. It may be a building erected on purpose, or else partitioned off from the carriagehouse, corn-house, or other out-buildhldi. Let it be neatly made, and not unpleasantly situated, for it should be attractive and not repulsive to those for wvlrom it is is intended. It should be tight, and furnished with a small stove, so as to be comfortable in winter. It should betlprovided with a work-bench and vice, a shaving-horse for using the diawing-knife, and perhaps a small foot-lathe. The two latter are convenient but not essential. ~ The tools should be two or three planes, augers of different sizes, a VI5...,V- t 224 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER few chisels, a brace-bit, drawing-knife, saw, and hammer. A small part of these will answer, and others may be added-the cost of the tools varying from five to twenty-five dollars. Such a work-shop will afford several important advantages. The greatest is the assistance it will render the cause of practical education. The best inheritance any man can leave his children, is, not wealth to support them, but the ability to help and take care of themselves. A young man, whose natural ingenuity is so developed by practice that he can at any moment repair a rake, adjust a scythe, fit in a new hoe-handle, set a clock in running order, sow a broken harness, make a door-latch fasten easily, set a gate in good swinging condition, sharpen a pen-knife, give edge to a pair of scissors, mend an umbrella, repair a cistern-pump, whitewash a ceiling, paper a room, stop a leaky roof, make a bee-hive, bottom a chair, and black his own boots, will pass through the world more comfortably to himself, and profitably to those around him, and be far more worthy of the hand of the finest young woman in the country, than the idle and sluggish pretended gentleman, with pockets full of cash earned by his father, and who is obliged to send for a mechanic for all these things, which he is too helpless to perform himself. Dr. Franklin said, "if you want a good servant, serve yourself;" and,' if you wish your business done, go; if not, send;" and these sayings apply with especial appropriateness to such as have those jobs to perform, commonly known as " odds and ends." Another important advantage afforded by such a work-shop is its moral influence in furnishing pleasant employment to boys during rainy or stormy weather or other leisure hours, and lessening the temptation to frequent taverns, and to attend places of diversion-often leading to the most pernicious habits. Another, is the actual saving of expense to the farmer, in having around him ingenious boys, who will repair immediately any broken article, and save the cost of carrying it to the neighboring village, and the delay and inconveniences, often much greater, of waiting till it is mended. They will be able also to manufacture many of the simpler wooden implements required for farm use. To keep every part of a farm and premises in the best and neatest order, cannot be accomplished unless the owner or his sons are of ready and active lhands. Those who depend on hired men to perfornm the inIumerable little services which this condition of a farm requires, will'find that these services must be connected with an amount of constant observation and thought which cannot be secured by simply paying wages. It is therefore essential to educate the young managers to use their own hands, and become habituated to hand-work and thinking together; aid the various operations connected with the work-shop will be found a most important auxiliary in accomplishing this very desirable result. C> —--- ~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 225 STREET TREE E S. No words are needed to show the beauty and refreshing appearance of fine shade trees along the streets of towns and villages. But, to secure success in all instances, more care is needed to preserve them when newly planted. To prevent the rubbing of cattle (which by the way generally do ten-fold more mischief in streets than the value of their i "'. " pasture,) some structure must be erected to shield them. After trying several modes, we find none equal to that JO"<"' ~-~-'shown in the annexed cut, (fig. 141,) neither in cheapness <' noi in neat appearance. It is well known to some of our readers, and consists, first, of two stout pieces of board, about five inches wide, and eight or nine feet long, which are inserted with the lower ends a foot and a half into the earth, and nearly upright or a little inclined towards the tree on each side. These are connected by four crossboards nailed on horizontally, as shown in the figure; ~and the intermediate space has strips of common lath nailed on at intervals of three or four inches. These strips parallel with each other, but not quite horizontal; and being placed at opposite inclinations on the opposite sides of the structure, give a neat lattice-like appearance. The long upright pieces will be strong enough if of stout fence-boards; but would be more secure if inch-and-aFi-g. 141. half plank. They are most easily set before the hole is filled; but may be inserted afterwards by partially hewing them sharp, and driving themn into crowbar holes. If there is any danger from sheep, the lath may be nailed on the whole space, so as to enclose the tree from top to blottom. As street trees cannot be cultivated, they should be copiously mulched for the first few years, in a wide circle at least five or six feet in diameter. Sawdust or old tan answers a good purpose. I- IJLD RE TEI'S GAN G P LOW. Eivery implement which enables the cultivator to control more corncompletely all his operations, becomes a positive benefit. There are some kinds of work which are better executed by the gang plow, than in any other way, and hence it is occasionally of great value to every farmer. Sod ground, which has been deeply plowed late in autumn, may be reduced to a very mellow surface by the use of the gang plow, leaving tihle sod undisturbed below. A thin coating of yardl manure, or a thick dressing of compost, may in the same way be turned under and rendered U - )22;6 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER available for corn planted on the sod. Corn stubble, plowed in fall, may be seeded very early in spring by covering the seed with this implement. There is still another use, of value to small farmers. A seed drill, costing nearly a hundred dollars, is too expensive a machine i..... for a five-acre wheatfield-the gang, costing only twenty-five - dollars, forms a use-' ful and convenient substitute. Hildreth's Fig. 142 —HILDRETH'S GANG PLOW. gang plow, (made by Hildreth & Charles at Lockport,) which in our own use we have found exceedingly convenient, is furnished with a seed-box, as represented in the accompanying cut, which sows any desirable quantity of seed from a peck to three bushels per acre, and the plows cover it at one operation; and in this respect it possesses an important advantage over the wheat drill, which requires complete previous preparation. Hildreth's machine is made entirely of iron except the tongue; the depth of cutting and the width of slice may be regulated with complete accuracy; and two horses plow three furrows at a time with ease, the friction friom the weight of the machine and of the earth, being obviated by the wheels which sustain the plows and on which they run. It is liable to clog in wet stubble, and always performs more perfectly in clean ground. A CI-I E AP HORSE POWER. The admirably constructed endless-chain powers of Emery, Wheeler, Pease, and others, have proved machines of great convenience to moderate farmers, who do not wish to be dependent on itinerant eight-horse power threshers, requiring several extra horses and extra hands. It is both independent and economical to be able to thresh grain within doors, in I _ winter, or during stormy -l —l i..l..iiiHlllli....iIl weather. The chief ob- - jection to the endlesschain power is its cost. We have lately examined Fig. 143-HILDRMTH1S HORSE POWER. a horse-power manufactured by Hildreth & Charles of Lockport, N. Y., and furnished much cheaper, or at less than half the price of the endless OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 2i27 chain powers. Fig. 143 gives a fair representation of this power, needing little further explanlation. It is best secured to its place and kept solid by wedging into mortises in two logs, set in the earth, across which it is placed. It is usually for two horses, but strong enough for four. In addition to threshing, it may be employed in sawing wood, pumping water, driving straw-cutters, cap-augers, slitting saws, for turning grindstones, or churning. The "tumbling-rod" revolves about a hundred times in a minute-a suitable velocity for a cross-cut saw for cuttingu logs into stovewood. A larger, more dumaible horse-power, manufactured at the same establishm nent, is shown in fig. 144. It;Fig. 144 —HILDRETH'S HORSE POWER. is wholly iron, very neat and compact, and so durable that some have been run for years without the expenditure of a dollar in repairs. The whole gearing is covered with a cap, so that the driver cannot be injured, and the wheels are protected from dust. It is adapted to eight or ten horses, and the cost is $110. CUTTING GRAFTS. There is no better time to cut grafts than at the commencement of winter. In cutting and packing them away, there are some precautions to be observed, In the first place, let them be amply and distinctly labeled, as it is very annoying to find the names gone at the moment of using them. For this purpose they should be tied up in bunches, not over two or three inches in diameter, with three bands around each bunch-at the ends and mid'dle. The name may be written on a strip of pine board or shingle, half an inch wide,. a tenth of an inch thick, and nearly as long as the scions. This,. if tied up with the bunch, will keep the name secure. For convenience in quickly determining the name, there should be another strip of shingle, sharp at one end, and with the name distinctly written on the other,. thrust into the bundle with the name projecting from it. If these bunches or bundles are now placed on ends in a box, with plenty of damp moss between them and over the top, they will keep in a cellar in good condition, and any sort may be selected and withdrawn without disturbing the rest, by reading the projecting label. We have never, found sand, earth, sawdust, or any other packing substance, so convenient, C! -...............!~~~~~~~~~~~als 228 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER clean, and easily removed and replaced, as moss, for packing grafts. It I is needful, however, to keep an occasional eye to them, to see that the proper degree of moisture is maintained-which should be just enough (and not a particle more,) to keep them from shrivelling. They must, of course, be secure from mice. Plum grafts, which are sometimes injured by intense cold, are generally better if cut before the approach of the severest weather, and securely packed away. CoMPosT For GARDENS.-Pr'incipal ingredients-Stable manure, more or less, and turf from fence corners; these laid in alternate layers, a few inches thick, and occasionally added as other materials increase. Au.ziliary ingredients-Weeds, litter, rakings of leaves, potato tops, wood and coal ashes, soapsuds, dish-water, refuse hair, dust from house sweeping, chicken and fish bones, gutter scrapings, and nearly every thing else that would be " dirt " elsewhere. Rotted a year in a heap, and these ingredients will form a valuable compost, to the benefit and neatness of the premises. APPLES FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.-Sweet apples are of great value in feeding almost any kind of farm animals. Hogs fatten rapidly on them, as well as on those that are acid. Cows, fed moderately at the start, on well cracked or cut apples to prevent choking, will increase in milk and improve in condition. Apples form an excellent succulent food for horses in winter. Varieties should be specially sought for feeding animals, combining hardiness, thriftiness, and great bearing qualities. Among the best now known are Corlies' Sweet, Pumpkin Sweet, and Haskell Sweet for autumn-and Green Sweet for long keeping. At the west, the Hightop or Summer Sweet is the best early sort, and the Sweet Pearmain and Sweet Romanite for autumn and winter. PRODUCTIVE APPLE TREES.-For early,, and great and continued bearing, the Baldwin will probably stand first-five or six-year trees often affording three or four bushels of fruit, and old trees sometimes yielding forty or fifty bushels. Next to the Baldwin, stands the Jonathan — a most excellent and very handsome apple, but rather small in size. The Rhode Island Greening, and Tompkins County King, are also great bearers, but do not give such early crops as the Baldwin or Jonathan. DR1ANIaTG ORCHARDS.-It is best to place underdrains between the rows of trees-because, first, the large roots sometimes run down and injure or derange the channel; and secondly, because it is the space between the'rowvs that is covered by the great mass of small fibrous roots, which furnish the nutriment to them. As dwarf pears do not send roots so far nor I so deep, they may be set directly over the drain if desired. C ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTERE OF RURAL AFFAIRS. O RNAMENTAL E' ANTING. @.,''i.;iif 0 U N T R Y homes are of two kinds-the rel I 05:!'kq pulsive and t1he beautiful. The fornomer are occu-'-; pied by those whlo krlnow nothin of d(omestic ernjoymeiit, and wrho seek lapytiness in tlhe barroom and grou-sliho. They ncever see any clharms in the Nworks of naturte-ornamental fl6 ". l1 shrubbery to thlem is " brusll," and flowers are only "weeds." They never plant a rosebush nor a shade tree. They sometimes set out a few apple and cherry trees. But these are left to take care of themselves, and -what emain after ten years,, appear like those shown.. in figurle 1, instead of attaining the perfection seen in figure 2, as Fig. 1. Fig. 2. tley would have lone if well manoaged and properly cultivated. They have an especial contempt for all ornamental trees, and exclaim,( / N - 20 ol. I1.. +/230 YILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER FERGUSON ALX y Fig. 3 —Premnises of the Man "' who Cares nothizng for Looks" nor for the Comforts of Home. "What! set out trees that don't bear anything fit to eat —that are only good to look at!" Their dwellings are blealk. and desolate. There is nothing about them attractive to their children, who grow up with no attachment to home, and with little appreciation of the social virtues. The first figure on this page, (fig. 3,) is a representation of all that is invitingr in. the homes of their childhood, and where from the earliest:-_I2_=~- 1 U ".. 4-emises of the Man ho 011e He attractive to hi Children; Fig. 4 -Pemoses of the Man who makes Home attractive to his Children; edawn of their forming minds, they have received most of their impressionls of life. Few of them have been able to surrount these disconraaina iifluences, and they have become coarse and unintelligrent. How different mnight have been their character if they had been brought up under the J1 influences of the other home represented on thet same page! This ineat cottage (fig. 4) cost no more in the first place than the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _~...A> OF RURALT, AFFAIRS. 231 dilapidated one. Its owner kept it in perfect repair, and planted and cnltivated thle encircling groundas duringo those spare moments that his neighbor whlo lives in tle otlher, occupied at the tavern. Each house cost nearly a tlhousal dollars in buildini; while the planting and cultivation of the groutlds about tlhe latter, did not require an expenditoure of fifty dollars. There is now scarcely an intelligent mind who does not admit for the above reasois, the real and substantial value and utility of ornamental planting. Added to its utility, is tle fascinating employment of imitating the most beantiful natural groupings of objects, by planting and arranging trees. With all these inducements, great and increased attention should be given to the subject, and it would open a world of exalted enjoyment to those who pursue it. Most fortunately, it does not require necessarily a profuse expenditure of money. As much skill may be employed in dlecorating the limited grounds of a cottage, at an expense within fifty dollars, as in laying out and planting a magnificent park of hundreds of acres, costing many ten thousands. GiMuch money is wasted in attempts to ornament the grounds of a dwelling before a well digested plan has been adopted. Alterations alone have solmetimes cost more than the execution of a complete well arranged design. We have known owners to expend more in excavating and in building terraces, with a real injury in appearance, than others would in effecting the most finished improvement. In one instance the owner of a suburban residence, with the constant labor of two gardeners, succeeded in accompllishiig less in the way of neat and beautiful appearance, than anotlher with the services of a single gardener but two days in each week. The art of ornamental. placlting cannot be learned in a sillngle day, but like any other a.r't, requires muchI thoughllt anld stu(dy, with all the assistance that.maly be derived from the etxlerience of others. Those who wish to llderstand the sulject completely are referred to Downing, Sargent, anid Kelmp, tbr full instrluctions; but a short article like this may perhaps afford(l maly useful hintls to those who cannot give so much time to the subtject, or whose moderate grounds and limited means may not warrant great exp)edi ture. In olffihing suggestions oni this subject, it will be best to begin at the begillilling, anlld lay dowvl briefly a fiew rules for selecting a site for a dwvellin. The following requisites may be regarded as important nearly in the order in wh llich they are named, but some will transpose them more or less, according to their preferences. 1. Healtllfulness. 2. Neighborhood. 3. Soil and climate. 4. Suitable site, convenience of access, &c. 5. Scenery and views. 6A3 2 32 ILLUSTRATED. ANNUAL REGISTER The first is all-important, as no lhome comforts can atone for ruined health. The second is scarcely iltfeirior, for a family possessingl civilization and refilnement cannot properly einjoy thlemselves when constantly exposed to the petty anlnoyallces of vulgar and pilfering neighbors, alld who are shit out entirely fromn the social enjoyment of such as are of a congenial chlaracter. Where a whole neighborhood unites in works for public belleit and moral improvement, t;he very atmosphere seems purer and more delightful, than where serni-barbarism anld selfishness are the ruling influences. A fertile soil is all-essential to the resident who would obtain the necessaries and comforts of life from his own land; and a climate favorable to the cultivation of the finer fruits is equally so to every one who expects to enjoy a constant circle of these most wholesome and delicious luxuries. The site, and suitable conveniences for access, are important considerations. A low, foggy place, will be unhealthful; a high one, without shelter, will be-bleak and cold; if very near a public road, it will be explosed to noise, dust, and obtrusive observation; jf remote fronl the road, much needless traveling will be required, and not a little inconvenience will be found in time of deep snows. A gentle eminence, and a moderate distance from the public road, and the shelter of evergreens on the side of prevailing winds, wvill obviate most of these difficulties. A quiet side-road branching from a main highway, will often be better than dlirectly on a great thoroughfare. Comparative nearness -to places of public worship, to schools, a post-office, mill and railroad station, are each of considerable importance, a.n(l should all be taken ioto consideration. The value of fize scenerqy will be variously estimated; some would prize it as all-essential, while otlhers would sca'rcely think of it. Some woultd merely covet a shwlly situation as seen fr'om the nearest highway, irl order to draw the admniratioin of travelers others, discarding sucll molltives, w11ould only desire beautifull viewvs from time windlows of the, dwellintg or from-tlle surrouiling groullds, in ordler to make their homes interestinla anid attractive to t;heir children. The site lhavinc been selected, the next step is to build the house. This portion of lab,,r (les liot beloiing to our presenlt sublject, but the plan and intentions sllould'bel'wcell uliderstood before the exact spot for the house is fixed iloln, anlid its frolltilgs deternilled. This precaution is essential ill ordelr to sectre the finest views, alnd to furnlish protection from w\ViCds, or frol unldesirable odors or unsightly objects. Great, pro(ress has been made within a few years in the art of ornamental plantiLg, but it is still so commonn to witness defects, that to point out some of these def(ects in the first place, will more fitly prepare the way for specific directions. The most common error of past years, but now rapidly disappearing, is the practice of planting only in straight lines or geometric figures. Ab)solute stiffiess reigned supreme, in the attempt to avoid any approach OF RURAL APFFAIRS. 233 towards irregularity. A neighbor, intelligent in otler things, when he saw the first specinien of the natural mode of planting, exclaimed, "Why, Mr. T.! you have none of your trees in rows!" He considered a want of straiglht lines a strikinc evidence of a bungler. The geometric style not only required this formal regularity, but symmetry, as it was termed, demanded that every object should hIave its corresponding one. A tree on one side must oppose just such a tree on the other side; a row on the right was to lhave its accolmpanying row on the left. It is stated tllat the old gardener of the Earl of Selkirk, was so strongly imbued with this mania for symmetry, that when he shut up the thief who stole his fruit irl one summeti1r-house, he was compelled for thie sake of symmetry, to put his own son in the othler opposite. How imlmeasurably more pleasing and beautiful than this stiff and artificial motle, is the sinmple imitation of the beautiful and picturesque in nature, which constitutes the modern or natural style of planting. It is not a.n unfrequent error to suppose that the modern style consists merel in ir'regularity. But irregularity without arrangement, is not taste-conlfusion is not the beautiful in nlature. The peJfectio'a of art consists in produclinry a pleasing efihet, while the art which produced it is concealed froll thle eye of the spectator. Tile scenery whichl artificial planting produces, may 22appear to be the accidental arrlangment of agreeable parts or objects; but it must really be the result of close study and a carefiul'eye-in the same way that the roughllly dashed work of a skillful painter, where every touch, rude and accidental as it mayp seem at first glance, is found on taking the whole together, to produce a most perfect and complete combillation of different parts. And one great excellenlce of the modern style consists in its complete adaptation to all grades of residences-it does not require costly embellishments, nor a profuse outlay-the cottage resident may show' as much skill in a tastefel sinplicity, as the owner of the magnificent park in the disposition of his broad lawns and majestic forest trees.' In order to produce the best effect in grouping trees, these requisites are essential-unvity, harmonty, and variety. The following is an example'ig. 5-EBxample in Grouping. in illustration (fig. 5)-and the scene represented in fig. 6 on the following 0 page, exhibiting -a natural group of elms, possesses everythlling agreeable 3 I- I 2 2O-* 6~ ~= a2B )234 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER S.. Fig. 6-Grouping Elms. but variety-and it possesses much of this quality so far as the arrangement of the trees is concerned, but it lacks variety from the trees being all of one kind. For thi reason the preceding example (fig. 5) is free frionm olbjection. The next figure (fig. 7) affords an illustration of monotonous irregalarity; and presents the same appearance that some grounds do after they have grlown up with trees which have been planted all over w\ithout regard to effect or to open portions of lawn, or distant views Fig. 7-Monotonous Grouping. towarda beautiful objects. On the other hand, the two following figures present fine examples of natural grouping; the first (fig. 8) exhibiting the advantag e which may be taken of slight undulations in the ground, in increasing the picturesqne variety which it may afford; and the second (fl,. 9) a fine and exceedinagly varied sky outline produced by a group of dissimilar trees, yet all supporting each other and har'monizing together. \ No error is more common with those who have " a little knowledge",on the subject of planting anld designing grounds, than in attomptfing to combiine within the limits of a small place, all the different objects that OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 235 Fig. 8. can be introduced only in extensive grounds. Neat and harmonious simplicity is sacrificed to incongruous confusion. This propensity is Fig. 9, sarcastically exhibited by Lowell in his account of the "Rural oft of ilMr. ZKnott," a dwelling "' Twixt twelve feet square of garden plot, And twelve feet more of lawn," containing meadow and upland, a Nat-r view, (consisting of pump and trough,) aLnd a woodland made up of,'Three pines stuck up askew, Two dea-d ones and a live one." The house was built cheaply of wood, and painted in imitation of stone; but so nmach was expended on odd conceits and flimsy ornaments, that Ire many dctys poor Inott began but somuh All ways-except up chimney; 2.36 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER The house, though painted stone to mock, With nice white lines round every block, Some trepidation stood in, When tempests (with petrific shock, So to speak,) made it really rock, Though not a whit less wooden." Among other errors often committed in the attempt to crowd many objiects within a small space, is the construction of a multiplicity of walks, beyond what is useful or essential; planting trees over the whole surface, renderiing the grounds uniformly spotted with them; introducing too malyv flower beds; making artificial mounds or terraces, instead of mlerely softenlin oft the naturally varying surface; placing rustic objects in immlediate connection with the house, the architecture of which does not at all harnmonize with them; and especially to be avoided is the error of introducing shncms, which will be discardcld by every person of correct taste. Among these, as Kemp observes, are " artificial ruins, mere fronts to buildinllgs, bridges that have no meaning, and for which there is no necessity," to which we may add all puny attempts at artificial rock work, which are only small heaps of stones. Persons of more moderate pretensions, including a large portion of such as live on medium-sized farms, fall into another error. They devote to ornamental plantingl a square plot of ground exactly in front of the dwelling, and varying from half an acre down to two rods square. This is -- MR —- - -.... - FERGUSeM ALBANY Fig. 10-Residence with a Neat F? ont Yard only. enclosed with a picket fence in the form of a tight pen, with one straight walk passing through the center from the front door down to a small gate opening into the public highway. Very few ever pass through this gate or enter through the front door; but carriages, wagons, and foot passengers go in at the large gate just without this square yard, and enter the house by a side or back door. The square yard is therefore often allowed to grow up with grass or weeds, and is shaded by a few cherry trees, one or two lilac bushes, and a few hollyhocks. Occasionally it is seen in much better order, with a straight and neatly-kept gravel A walk lined with shrubs and flowers, and with rows of cherry and pear O' RURAL AFFAIRS. 237 trees on either side —(fig. 10.) This is, however, the olly neat portion of the whole premises; for the worm-fence enclosures on the right and left, and the baclk yard, cofntain a numlerous collection of cord-wood, old rails, empty boxes, barrels and barrel hoops, unburned brush, plows and sleds, wagons and carts, pails and kettles, chipts, slop puddles, &c. It appears, however, like a nleat and comfortable residence to the traveler who is careful to look at it only at the moment when he is exactly in front. PLANS OF GROUNDS. A small town or village residence, with only a few feet of ground, may be laid out as represented in the accompanying figures. Fig. 11 exhibits a fiont yard about,:twice the breadth __~ /iA ~of the house, and ____ ____|_____ _w vith aLbout fifteen the front door to the street. Instead....;'''.... ~'"~'~ — //~ of the straight narJill r"I II iow walk too often ~,',~',',',~:~;,', ~ seen, this is broad, ____ ___ ____ ___ n ~ with curved sides, Fig. 11. passing on the left to the garden, and on the r illt to the kitenen and baln. A small gate on the right admits entralce to the kitchen without passing up the front walk, and the curved pasi ['',":..... ~%~~)"'"'i: sage from this sidel'~ "',:j/' /: 1 g ate bei'ng closely p lant ed withl everJ' LOi Zi r grecens, is rendered.......':2,,: Fig. 12 is a larger place, admitting o!;.:le/ re,-'d."J'~,',~.,,':,' greater vatriety in x":I" ~;;; I ~~the form of the........ hwalks, aid several greens& standing ~ n earabesque flower Ird beds cut in thile smooth shiavenl i nor is planited with the largyer shrubFig. 12. bery or trees, ever-,aieens standino, neaiest the boundary, and growing thickly where it is desired to conceal any unsialitly neighboring building or other undesirable 238 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTEB object, and leaving an opening where the view is of a pleasing character. In grounds of the limited extent of these two residences, perfect neatness should prevail; the soil should have been previously made deep and rich, that tile trees and shrubs may grow freely with rich foliage; the part covered with grass should be smooth, (the grass seed having been sown very thickly, or at tile rate of two or three bushels per acre,) and the grass mowed twice a week within half an inch of the surface, during the early part of the season, and once a week later; the gravel walk should be as smooth as a floor, slightly convex or curved upwards, and trimmed with a true curve at the edges. Fig. 13 exhibits a plan for the grounds of a village residence, varying from half an acre to an acre, and where a horse and cow are kept. The front portion, as far back as the dwelling, is occupied with lawn, kept,P,Vl!..........-. closely shaven, with trees and shrubs,,..;;4 a-and a few flower-beds bordering the iYARD I Ic',' j 1,::;.{~ walks. In the rear and on the left is a A small orchard, through which the car%: raige road passes; and in the yard i which it enters is the horse and carriage;., Hjh, barn, the cow-house, and poultry},:!?,c iiI?,; i!:[/: house. On the right is the fruit and I kitchen garden. This is laid out so as ii.::b'~: I to adnmit of plowing at least once a Jia Q,: t j1'' year, as vell as horse-cultivation so![,:i;> far as may be desired. The rows of fruit trees alre dwarfsfs, with currants Jv6 i / al. ~ rr1and (oosberries atlnd the otlier smaller. ^.,. l.-;: < | fruits. The boundary of the kitchen ardenl is planlted with roses and flowelin shrubs, through which a nleatly W: -..:X1s:i:. lkept walk passes, thuls giving thle.-i[~/ advantagZes of a wider extenlt of orfi: X~,Sna'melltal grounds. Convertillng the 13-Grounds of a Village Residelnce. kitchen garden into a lawn, and providilng a kitchen garden by extending the grounds to the left, would form a more perfect place. A design for the grounds of a farm residence, where half an acre to an acre is devoted to ornamental planting, is exhibited in fig. 14. The carriage road enters nearly in front of the house, bending slightly, and forming a sweep for turning-from this the carriage may return to the road, or pass to the carriage-lhouse in fiont of the barn-yard. On the )\ left is a pear and cherry orchaid planted in the quinicunx manner; in front and to the right is the lawn, kept smoothly shaven and planted with )trees and shrubs. These grounds are traversed by a curved walk five - 8u3 OF R~URAL AFFAIRS. 439.bonaisrmothclpltdwe g tah s sire d distant s el t a h, n -s Inati rear of h e gros is he, wi -.0 B.0'r> 4) ~-r f'it garnfarai, a -d 4m m ani a-half feet wide, wlace is bordened with several floter'-beds. The boundaries ale most thickly planted wrea the view is undesidable ceyond; and the viewr acoss the lawn is left nearly unobstructed towarcs the most isthant poitsc ndomesti, toars the seat, and the sllle-hos se b. In the rear of te arounds is the aavden, wrich combines te kitcheen and f'uit iardenh for doarf trees. They are planted in rows, andcOnSiSt ofa dwarf pears, dwarf apples on toucain stock, rooseberides, curarLts adl England, an0 give)n. vated by hoalss, the gaw dee veetables being planted in dlrills to ads it the passage of a narrow cultivator. There is perhaps an impelfection in this plan. To constitute it a flnished speciwncen of landscape lardening, the ornamebu tal poatiOd of te grostnd shoilnd es more in the rea frod the public road. A resider-ue with orearofentah grounds only towah ds the hichway, c as a shallow and ambitious appear arce-ireicati y moare desie to be ai mir e by straigers, tdarf to secure dwo lestic comfont, pd inacy, ang rural beauty. This defect, hoerer, is rot hery pronminent in the present plan. Fin. 15 iss the plan of about three ac tes occupied as a garden an ona- t wmental grounds, lbeloncridnl to a gentleman residina near Liserpool, Engfland, arid given in Kemp's Landscape Gardening. The public road U 2 40 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER IFig. lfi. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 241 of a beautiful natural scene. To the right of the house (1) the view is entirely obstructed by trees, which shelter from the westerly winds, and which also partly conceal the carriage-house and stables, (4) leaving a small entrance fiom the circular sweep to the carriage yard (3.) The carriage-sweep passes rounnd a large ash tree. The conservatory (6) lies towards the kitchen garden (9.) The portion of the grounds nearest the dwelling, (shaded in the design,) is planted with trees, and kept as a smoothly shaven lawn; it is separated from the white or unshaded part by a wire fence at the curved dotted line, the latter being used for a sheep or other pasture. The wire fence being invisible at a short distance, the whole appears from the windows as one continuous lawn. At 10 is a fountain at a low place in the grounds, surrounded by a few regular flower-beds and beds of dwarf evergreens. These might be omitted in a place of less costly and finished character. The boundary, it will be perceived, is mostly concealed by trees, a boundary fence seen at any point being an undesirable object. The walk which extends around the pasture, and passes through the kitchen garden, is perhaps nearer this boundary in some places than true taste would admit; but it will be observed this is not only intended for purposes of utility as a pasture, but as an arable field when desired. Hence too broad a strip of land should not be taken for the passage around it. It will be seen that this plan possesses one very important advantage over that given in fig. 14, in the broad view which it furnishes by connecting the lawn with the pasture; while the ornamental grounds in fig. 14 are narrow and limited, and obstructed by its thickly planted exterior. Where the selection can be made, the most desirable site for a residence is where the public road passes on the north side, from which there is a slight ascent towards the house, and afterwards a considerable descent in an opposite direction and towards the finest views. This gives a more secluded character to the place, furnishes a more unobstructed and rural view across the grounds, and affords a warmer aspect for the garden and plantation. Planting and keeping such a home as this need not be expensive. The portion immediately contiguous to the dwelling, may be neatly kept sheared once a week with the scythe. A wire fence may separate this part from the more extensive pasture beyond, which may be made to assume the character of a park by being planted with ornamental and shade trees. The view (fig. 16) at the head of the next page, represents a farm residence of the better class, surroandecd with about an acre of neatly kept lawn, beyond which there are twenty or thirty acres interspersed with fine spreading trees of the chestnut, oak, black walnut, maple and ash, and which affords valuable pasturage for sheep, which 2 keep the grass trimmed short. The reader is requested to contrast the 21 Q 2452 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 1&. trees here seen, with the appearance the same would present if planted in stiff geometric rows. The plan (fig. 17) on the following page, also copied from Kemp,* exhibits a place where a small lake is emnbracecl within this wire-fence bonndary. This lake, which covers an acre and a-half, was Imade in a curious manner. Its place was occupied by a nunmber of old marl-pits filled with clear water. These were bordered with old oaks of stunted growth, and picturesqcue masses of thorn, furze, andl other brushwood. M'any would have looked upon this as a most unsuitable place for the front of a filne ansioln. With a little excavation, the pits were thrown into onle for the lake; the islands beitig formdcl out of unremoved portions of the division banks. A little dressina converted the wild growth of the trees and shrubs into appropriate clothing for the islands and banks. The islandls with their coveringi served to diversify and conceal the boundaries of the lake, and impart magnitude, as trees alone perform the same office in an enclosed lawn by hiding the exterior. The house was built on a bank above the level of the water, towards which the lawn gradually sloped, and the lake formed a characteristic foregroundc to th:e somewhat level country beyond, terminated by blue hills fifteen miles distant. TAnrotUS DETAILS. LAwNrs. —The dry smnmmers of this country preclude the greenness and freshness of the perfect lawns of England; but by deepeninlg andl enriching the soil to causea: free growth of the grass througShout the season, a great improvement' may be made. In providing a lawn, therefore, the W ~re arle indebted to the liberality of JOHN WILEY, fo-r euts of sevelral of! the plans in Kemp's admirable Treatise on La.ndseape (aarcdelrinrg, and to A. 0. / 7l\ Moonli _& CO. for several figures of trees from Downing;s Lar3djcape Gardening and Loudon's Arboretum. ~:~ C~'s-, f OF RURAL Ad FFBIRS. 23 U ~~ l: \N _ tr I:/~-:~_,.~/,,/,,, -~ -- ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ——.~~.~~~ __ I _ _ _ S /l 0 Us I O 40 5t1 fU 150 v1 01Z 244 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER first thing is to prepare the soil by trenching or subsoiling, with the addition of fine, pulverized manure, equally mixed throughout. It is of great importance that the manure should be very evenly applied, as dark and light spots occasioned by its irregular application, destroy the beauty of a piece of grass. The seed should be sown at the rate of at least two or three bushels per acre-otherwise a fine close velvet turf cannot be secured. White clover and red-top are an excellent mixture, and the grass continues green through the summer-and to this mixture a portion of the English lawn grasses may be added, if within reach at the seed stores. Never seed down a lawn in connection with a grain crop, but sow alone, early in spring, and roll the surface, which will cover the seed if the ground is previously fine and mellow. It is scarcely necessary to urge the importance of a perfectly even surface, free. from knobs or furrows. This remark does not, however, apply to the easy and graceful undulation which may be given to the ground where nature has deviated from the perfect level. No lawn can be satisfactory unless kept constantly shaven. Some who have first allowed the grass to grow several inches high, are disappointed on mowing it, to find a brown and bare appearance of the new surface. The lower portions of the grass having been shaded by the growth above, lose their greenness. But if allowed never to reach more than an inch in height, the blades will be numerous, and green down to the very roots, and the whole will appear like a dense surface of fine moss, or like velvet. WALKS.-If the soil is light or gravelly, never retaining any water, a space may be dug out the width of the intended walk, and filled, first with coarse gravel, and afterwards with finer for the surface. But in most soils the walk will need additional preparation. If the surface ever retains water, the walk should be dug at least a foot deep and filled within a few inches of the surface with small or broken stone, which will form a solid and dry bottom to the gravel. Provision should be made for the |( ~. -~~~- ~ ~ ~~~~~~~-~.~~ ~:. free escape of any water ( which may settle among these stones, by suitaFig. 18. ble underdrains. A solid stone foundation is still more important for a carriage drive covered with gravel; but to prevent small stones working up, these should be put at the bottom, and larger stones, point u2wcards, be evenly laid, between which the gravel will become wedged in by the roll of the wheels, and form a hard mass, (fig. 18.) AFig. 19. The above figure (fig. 19) represents a section of a gravel walk, being a little lower than the grass at the edges, and rising by a slight convexity \v) ~~r K OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 245 about two inches in the middle. In order that this convexity may be perfectly uniform, and the surface smooth, a gauge-board cut with a corresponding curvature, is used in finishing the walk. It must then be rolled hard with a cast-iron or stone roller, It is essential to good appearance, that curved walks be entirely free from all appearance of angles or abruptness at any point. When the curve is made to increase or diminish, it should be done gracefully and uniformly. It is usually accomplished in practice by first drawing the plan on paper, and afterwards transferring it by measurement of its principal points to the ground. This is not difficult, if drawn accurately to a definite scale; short pegs being used to mark the points. Intermediate curves may be laid out with much accuracy, by sticking short pegs of:- - -, wood into the ground at equal dis-,, ~'- ~......~ ~tances firom each other, but instead of being in a straight line, let each Fig. 20. one deviate a certain uniform distance from the right line, and a true curve will be formed. When it is desired to change from a short to a longer curve, gradually increase the distance between the pegs, (fig. 20.) The following rules for designing curved walks should always be observed: 1. They should never follow closely a boundary fence, and where they pass near it, it should be hid by the foliage of trees, of which that of evergreens is most dense. 2. They should never bend without an obvious reason-either to avoid a change of level, a group of trees, a mass of shrubbery, a flower-bed, or to reach a distant object not lying directly before the spectator. Unmeaning curves, or zig-zag undulations, should be especially avoided. 38. Where short curves occur, the walk should be hidden except il-lmediately before the spectator; otherwise the increased distance may appear tiresome. 4. Walks running nearly parallel should be entirely hidden from each other. 5. They should have some definite object to reach, as a summer-house, arbor, or interesting point of view. " A walk that leads nowhere," says a late writer,' or ends in nothing, is always unsatisfactory." 6. Planting should be dense along such parts of the walk as require the concealment of unsightly objects, and open whenever fine prospects may be brought into view. 7. A rise or fall in the surface of the ground where suitable, may be made to add much to the variety of the scenery; but a sudden rise or depression should be carefully aivoided. 8. If walks separate, the branch should pass off at an outward curve, and they should take, as Repton observes, a decided turn from each other, 321 i216 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER so as not to seem as if they would soon unite again. This rule is not applicable to a mere temporary diversion, as around a cirular bed or mass of shrubbery. THE BALDNESS OF NEW PLACES.-The remorseless manner in which the native trees have been totally cleared away from country residences, has left most of them in a very bleak and unsheltered situation. A neighbor had a fine natural oak grove before his house, but being strongly imbued with the cut-and-slash mania, chopped them all down, and then planted a row of maples in their place, which would require about thirty years to attain the size of the oaks. Sir Joshua Reynolds said he would paint Folly in the shape of a boy climbing over a high fence with an open gate close at his side. IHe might have done it more effcctually by represenlting an American land-owner cutting down all his native shade trees, that he might enjoy transplanted ones thirty years afterwards. There are, however, many places where a thin natural growth of trees may be found, and among which a residence may be built. Yet with a most singular fatuity, such land-owners avoid these beautiful natural parks, and build in an open field adjacent. We witness frequent instances of this folly. Where trees have grown up thinly, their heads have become rounded and well developed, and nothing is easier than to remove those possessing the least beauty: or which may stand in the range of fine landscape views. Even such as have grown closely together, and have shot up bare trunks, may be greatly improved in appearance in a few years, by heading them down soon after thinning out, as low as a good supply of side branches will admit, and gradually bringing them down into a fine form in successive years. The addition of other trees by planting, will soon greatly improve the appearance of the whole, and impart to the wildness and crudeness of nature, the grace and finish of an embellished landscape. Where necessity leads to the selection of such places as have no trees, the most rapid mode of supplying the deficiency is, first to prepare the soil in the best manner by trenching or deep subsoiling, at the same time working in large quantities of old manure or compost. Then plant 1moderate-sized, thrifty trees, which have been carefully taken up, and keep the soil bare and mellow for a few years, foregoing the pleasure of a green turf for the sake of a more rapid growth of the trees. Large trees when set out present a more conspicuous appearance at first, and some may be interspersed, but in a short period the smaller ones will have outstripped them, and will then present a richer, more dense, and far more beautiful foliage. By selecting a portion of the most rapidlygrowing sorts, as the Silver Maple, the European Larch, and the Abele, among deciduous trees; and the Norway Spruce, Scotch PineI and Austrian Pine, among evergreens, a more speedy effect will be ( secured. ( OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 247 ROCKWORK AXD RUSTIC OBJECTS. —The grounds in immediate connection with the house should present a neat, graceful and finished appearance -unless the house itself partakes of the picturesque character of architecture, and be of small size and in the rural Gothic style. Rustic structures, rockwork, and climbing plants, and a tangled wildness of growth, should be at a distance, and be sparingly introduced unless there is a (good deal of diversity in the surface of the ground, as a glen, a steep ascent, or a rocky bank. We have seen a rustic arbor, thatchled with straw, most singularly out of place almost in front of a Grecian dlwellinlg, and not unflrequently pillars and festoons of climbing and trailing plants in nearly the same relative position. The latter, with a few occasional rustic structures, may occupy a remote portion of any ground, even if quite level, provided the planting is less trim and finished and more firee and wild, in that direction, so that the transition may be gradual finom one to the other. A neat rustic summerhouse is shown in the annexed plan and elevation, (fig. 21,) copied from Kemp. It is made of nunbarked laich, aind thatched, the seat being plank. It is about eight feet in diameter. The posts may be s(et in the ground, the tops sawed off even, and thle rustic firame attached. One quite similar to this, but with a board roof, is sliown in fig. 10 of the Register for 1858. A less formal and more picturesque structure, is represented by fig. Fig. 21. 22 on the following page; and another somewhat similar, but still more rustic in character, and embracing the trunk of a spreading tree, in fig. 23 on same page. Rustic seats, for placing under the shade of trees, are shown in figs. 24, 25, 26 h and 27. o PLANS OF GARDENS.-The geometric style for flower gardens, not only .248 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER requires a large expenditure of labor, for it must have constant dressing, shearing, and trimming —but it always tends to convey to the spectator an impression of a smaller extent of ground than really exists, with the still farther disadvantage that the eye sees and compreFig., 26.ends the whole at once, after which there is little or no variation in the expression as seen.,I ~ from every part. But a garden in the modern or graceful style, requires far less labor to keep it, for it may be mostly Fig. 22. green turf, with occasional elliptical and arabesque flower-beds cut in this turf, and it affords a constantly varying scene from every point of the walk, and by Fig. 24. Fig. 23. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. C: ~ -- ~ —- -~~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 249 (),,if.!Ii!ill ll,!ili!i! t,,,!llltfll li,,ll, t,,,,uli' lijlll iliiIll liY i I itii~ Fig. 28. 250 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER this perpetually changing scene greatly increases the apparent extent of the arounds. The most easily managed alrden is one where the beds are chiefly planted with hardy shrubs and with the larger and more vigorous growing herbaceous perennials. The mode of treating beds of this kind is pointed out on pages 201 and 299 of the first volume of Rural Affairs. A very neat and somewhat regular garden is represented on the preceding paRge, (fig. 28.) It is separated by a wire fence (shown by the dotted, X5 Q>~KF?/- ^ line,) from the larger portion of the lawn containing trees, and kept grazed - by sheep. The outer portions of this 1g> ~.2 ~ garden are planted with small trees and large shrubs; the circular and oblong b; beds contain small flowering shrubs and herbaceous perennials, including the more brilliant bulbous species for early flowering, followed.by transplanted annuals. In this design the house is at 1, green-house 2, fountain 5, kitchen garden 6. \\, ~ ~ A.'Fig. 29 represents a picturesque garden planted wholly with trees and shlrubs, having an uneven surface of'"'~::q m~.) i K'~2', ground. The parallel walks being conFig. 29. cealed from each other, either by dense I planting or by intervening ridges, the effect of great variety and extent is produced, although but lalf an acre is occupied. The summer-house, represented at thle upper right corner, is on anl eminence, and commands all extensive prospect. TREES. The limiits of this short article forbid anything more than a faint allusion to the endless variety of expression which may be produced by a coml)ination of cdiifient trees. If time whlole landscape were willows, or if all were Lomblardy poplars, and placed on a dead level, the prospect would be dull in the extreme. This subject has already been alluded to on a previous page; but the labors of the artist may be facilitated by observing the special character of each. The outlines of trees may be classed under several diffbrent heads. They are -olund-headed like the walnut, oak and chestnut, (fig. 31); spir-y-toppled, as in the larch and several species of spruce, (figs. 30, 31, 32); oblontg-headed as in the Lombardy poplar; and dr-oopjing, as in the weeping willow, weeping ash, &c. All degrees of modification in tllese general divisions, furnish a great diversity of outline. ('The following clear, practical and. interesting directions from Downing, v