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I lrri!uSi?!I -Tc9'~"nsinima.igp2-rrwn ih L'*Zil\n116YYYYYYYYYYY ftft =" —:'-'' a z-;,"" r_ ~rc;=TSE~bRBIIPatZB`%;i;;;,-'-Iz- 5- ij IPai'y~;bffiPYaain-~.c- C 4 -Tnn II; —— LT 111 [' I '3~ —Ijl* "iJC~ 1 — r7h~?y;C;'`J CITP OF DUBLIN 1N THE TIME OF CBARLEG I. THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD: GOOPRISING A GENERAL HISTORY, BOTH ANCIENT AND MODERN, or ALL THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE GLOBE, TIEIR RISE, PROGRESS, PRESENT CONDITION, ETC. AUTHOR OF THE TREASiURY OF KNOWLEDGE7 BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY, ETC. INCLUDING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES TO THE PRESENT TIME, ALSO, THE LATE WAR WITH MEXICO, CALIFORNIA, ETC. EDITED BY JOHN INMAN, ESQ THlE WHOLE EMBELLISHED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, (SOME OF WHICH ARE BEAUTIFULLY COLORED) REPRESENTING BATTLE SCENES VIEWS OF CITI, THE CRYSTAL PALACE, FLAGS OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS, CORONATIONS, PROCESSIONS, COSTUMES, ETC. ETC. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. (SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION.) NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY HENRY B I L L. 1854. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852. BY HENRy BLL, in the Clerk's Office of the Distrizt Court for the district of Comlecticut. CONTENTS OF VOL. II. THE HISTORY OF IRELAND. CHAPTER I..........13 CHAPTER II............ 16 CHAPTER III......-.... 21 CHAPTER IV...... CHAPTER V.... 30 CHAPTER VI.... 3 THE HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. CHAPTER I.-First Settlement. 49 CHAPTER II.-The House of Stuart... CHAPTER III. —The reign of Mary.-House of Stuart.. 63 CHAPTER IV.-The accession of James the Sixth of Scotland, and the First of England.. 71 CHAPTER V.-From the accession of Charles I. to the death of William III. 74 CHAPTER VI.-The Union of the two Kingdoms.... 76 THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. Gaul, under the Romans... 78'The Merovingian Dynasty, or First Race... 80 The Carlovingian Dynasty, or Second Race. 81 FIRST BRANCH.-The Capetine Dynasty, or Third Race.... 81 SECOND BRANCH.-House of Valois..83 The House of Valois-Orleans.......84 The House of Valois-Angouleme....84 THIRD BRANCH.-HIOUe of Bourbon.... 5 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.1. The Limited Monarchy... 89 2. The Republican Government... so 3. The Consular Government.......93 VI CONTENTS. THE HISTORY OF SPAIN..11 THIE HISTORY OF PORTUGAL... 14 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY, comprising the AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, GERMAN STATES, &C,.......... 154 HUNGARY....... 164 THE HISTORY OF PRUSSIA.. 166 THE HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, comprising HOLLAND and BELGIUM.. 72 THE HISTORY OF SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND NORWAY. BWEDEN. i * 186 DENMARK.............193 NORWAY.......... 198 THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 199 rHE HISTORY OF POLAND....... 214 rIlE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND.... 2 THE HISTORY OF ITALY........ 23U THE HISTORY OF VENICE....24 THE HISTORY OF ROME. Aneient Rome.. * 256 The Roman Republic........... 263 The Roman Empire......... 271 Papal Rome, or States of the Church... 280 NAPLES.... 2 82 SICILY..... 285 CONTENTS. vii THE HISTORY OF GENOA.. 287'HE, HISTORY OF SARDINIA. 238 THE HISTORY OF BAVARIA....289 THE HISTORY OF HANOVER.. 290 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. Chapter I.,.292 Chapter II.. 296 Chapter II.. 299 rHE HISTORY OF THE OTTOMAN, OR TURKISH EMPIRE. 311 She Rise and Progress of Mohammedanism.. 318 THE HISTORY OF INDIA... 324 THE HISTORY OF PERSIA.. 344 ARABIA. 352 THE HISTORY OF CHINA. Chapter I.....354 Chapter II............. 359 Chapter III... 365 Chapter IV........372 Chapter V...........377 THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.~. 379 THE EAST INDIA ISLANDS. Ceylon............. 382 Sumatra............ 383 Prince of Wales' Island. 384 Java..............384 Borneo.............385 Celebes............ 385 The Moluccas, or Spice Islands. ~.... 36 The Banda, or Nutmeg Isles.. 387 The Philippine Islands....,. 38 Viti CONTENTS. THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE, and more particularly of the Jzws 387,The State of the Jews since the Destruction of Jerusalem. 392 Armenia.... 394 Albania... 395 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT, -with SYRIA..... 39 Alexandria........403 Antioch..405 THE BARBARY STATES..407 Algiers.. 403 THE HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. AUSTRALIA.. 413 New Holland.... 414 New Zealand..415 POLYNESIA............. 416 Ladrones, or Marianne Islands..... 416 Friendly Islands.... 417 Society Islands.. 417 Sandwich Islands.... 418 THE HISTORY OF ICELAND -.... 4L9 THE HISTORY OF1 AMERICA......42f NORTH AMERICACanada..422 Newfoundland............423 Greenland...423 Mexico........ *. *..424 SOUTH AMERICAPeru.....426 Chili..........427 Brazil... ~...... 42-8 The Republic of La Plata, or United Provinces... 429 Colombia...... 430 Bolivia..... 431 Guiana..... 431 Amazonia..... 439 THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. Cuba.... 432 Hayti or St. Domingo.. 433 CONTENTS Porto-Rico......... 437 Barbadoes....38 St. Christopher's; or, St. Kitts........ 439 Nevis.............49 Antigua.............439 Montserrat............. 440 Jamaica....... 440 Martinique.............442 Guadaloupe............442 St. Lucia.. ~... 443 St. Vincent..... 444 Dominica..... 445 Grenada....445 Trinidad.....6 St. Eustatius............ 46 Tobago........... 446 The Bahamas.........447 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. —To the close of the Revolutionary War. 448 CHAPTER II.-The Administration of Government.....462 CHAPTER III.-The War of 1812-14....... 475 CHAPTER IV. —From the Treaty of Ghent -to the present time.. ~ 499 OUTLINE HISTORY OF THE DIFFERENT STATES. Virginia........... 647 New-York.......... 652 P'ennsylvania.......... 656 Massachusetts........... 658 New-Hampshire...... 664 Rhode-Island.......... 666 Connecticut.......... 668 New-Jersey....... 67 Delaware..........671 Maryland...... 672 North-Carolina....... 674 South-Carolina.......... 675 Georgia..... 67 Maine....... 679. Vermont.......... 680 District of Columbia..........681 Kentucky.., 682 Tennessee.........683 Ohio.......... 685 Indiana........*...686 Illinois......... - 687 Louisiana.......... 688 x' OONTITSM. Mississippi... 689 Missouri..... 690 Arkansas.. i..692 Alabama.......... 693 Michigan.............. 694 Florida........ -. 694 Texas..695 Iowa.......... 696 Wisconsin........696 Oregon............ 697 Minesota........ 698 Sketch of California......... 01 New Mexico...... 734 Utah.....737 Statistics.... 740 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOLUME II. To face page CITY OF DUBLIN, IN THE TIME OF CHARLES I....1.........3 CITY OF LIMERICK................................... 44 VIEW OF KINSALE.................................. 44 VIEW OF CARLISLE.................... 55 THE FORTH, FROM CAMBUSKENNETH CASTLE................ 65 CASTLE OF ST. ANDREW'S...................65 VIEW OF PERTH. 70 fTIRLING CASTLE....................................... 70 IEW OF THE TYROL.................................... 96 VIEW OF ST. HELENA............... 103 THE CHEVALIER BAYARD................. 120 CITY OF UTRECHT................... 132 NAMUR........................... 172 HONG KONG, FROMI THE OPPOSITE MAINLAND............... 354 CORPUS CHRISTI. 590 POINT ISABEL......................................... 591 FORT BROWN................... 594 VIEW NEAR MONTEREY.................................. 596 CHARGE AT BUENA VISTA...................., 607 MEXICAN FUNERAL............................... 625 A SERIES OF SEPARATE HISTORIES, (CONTINUED.) THE JHISTORY OF IRELAND CHAPTER L THERE is no other country in the world the history of which has been written and commented upon in so unjust a temper and tone as that of Ireland. And, strange to say, the persons who have been most frequently wrong in their statement of the evils of Ireland, and their proposals for remedying them, have been precisely those who have made the loudest professions of desire to serve her. It is not worth while to say how much of this mis-statement has arisen from their want of correct information, and how much from a deliberately bad spirit; certain it is, however, that Ireland has few worse enemies than those who in ignorance or in evil temper attribute motives and feelings to England and English statesmen of which they are quite innocent, and who assign for Irish poverty and Irish suffering causes which have really had no part in producing them. Unwise laws of centuries long passed are quite coolly cited as proof of a partial tyranny of Ireland by England; yet a single glance at English statutes, a single reflection upon the punishments which to a very recent date were allowed to disgust the wise and brutalize the bad, would show that Ireland was not a jot less mercifully governed than Kent or Yorkshire, and that the cruelties of English law, whether administered in L1ondon or in Dublin, were no proofs of English dislike of Ireland. The early history of most countries is so uncertain,-that but little more credit is due to it than to any other romance; and when we read of the splendours of a country which during the whole period of its authentic history has been poor; of the power of a country which during all the period of its authentic history has been divided, turbulent, and weak; and of the learning and civilization of a country which even now has less of diffused learning and civilization than any other country in Europe, it is quite consistent with the severest logic and with the utmost charity to look upon the relations of the historian as being founded rather upon fancy than upon fact. The best authorities agree in stating Ireland to have been peopled froan the Spanish colonies of the partly trading and partly piratical Phcenicians, and this statement, credible from the unanimity of authorities otherwise conflicting, is still farther strengthened by the facts of the Phoenicians having been well known to have traded largely with the British isles, and of the frequent finding, even at the present day, of ornaments and utensils which are indubitably of Phoenician manufacture. That gold and silver mines existed in Wicklow and some other parts of Ireland is asserted very positively, but we think with far more positiveness than proof; certain it is, that a recent attempt to find gold in a district in which it was once said to abound, proved to be a complete and lamentable failure. If. 14 THE TREASURY OF HISTOLRY as seems to be certain, Ireland was once, colonized by individuals of a people so wealthy as the Phoenicians, that fact would at once account for the valuable articles so frequently recovered from the soil. But it by no meansgoes to prove that Ireland in the early ages could boast of either learning or civilization of the high order claimed for it. It is not the most refined or most learned class that will venture into far and foreign lands to war with the wild animals, to reclaim the morass, and to level the primeval forest. The hardiesthe he rudest, the least civilized, those who have the most to hope for and the least to lose or to fear, are the men who usually go forth to colonize strange lands;. and the Phoenicians who seized upon Ireland as their abiding place, were in all human probability the hardy and resolute rovers of the sea for many a long and strife ful:year beforesthey became dwellers upon and' cultivators of the land.. That they came from Phcenicia, a civilized, ingenious, and wealthy land, proves literally nothing as to their own civilization or their own wealth, as any one may perceive who will take the trouble to observe the majority of the colonists who leave the civilized and luxurious nations of our own day, to build cities in, the desert, and to place palaces and thronged marts stored awith costly wares, where, even within the memory of man, the dense forest sheltered only the wild animal or the scarcely less savage man. The Phenician colonies of Spain were at once eager speculators:- and bold seamen; visiting the British coast as traders, especially in order' to procure tin, they could'scarcely fail to admire the soil and climate of Ireland, and could have but little difficulty in'subduing or destroying the mere handful of poor and all but actually savage aborigines, who must have been a mere handful, destitute as they were of commerce or manufactures, and warring, as we know that they did. at a much later date, with the wolf and the hill-fox who disputed the swamp and the forest with them., When historians tell us that'splendidly-manufactured and extremely costly articles are frequently excavated from the Irish soil, we do not dispute the accuracy of the statement, but'we'deny its cogency as proving that the early colonists of Ireland were learned,.or civilized, or even wealthy. A magnificent ornament or a costly and ingenious machine taken from France or England to the arid desertpof Africa or the swampy flat of the Swan river,: wold prove that the country had bben visited by people from a wealthy and civilized land, but certainly not that the individuals were themselves either the one or the other; in short, as a general rule, the very fact of emigration would be decisive on the opposite state of the case. That the Phoenicians were the dominant people in Ireland-anciently called Ierne, or Erin, which signifies the western land-and that the magl or priests of the fire-worshippers of Persia, were the actual governing authorities, both lay and religious, as the Druids' were in Britain, there is abundant proof. From the far East, indeed, Europe seems to have been supplied with its early superstitions, as well as with the fierce swarms of nomade and desperate barbarians, who, entering Europe on the north, at length found even the vast steppes and forests of Scandinavia too narrow for them, and whose furious assaults levelled cities and terminated the stern rule of ages, only, in the end, to found nations at once mightier in conquest, wiser in law-giving, and possessing, as it should seem, as great s superiority in permanency, as in extent, of empire. As the aborigines, if such existed when the Phoenicians colonized Ireland, had made way for a mnore civilized, wealthy, and luxurious people, so these in their turn were soon obliged to make way for or submit to a fiercer and more hardy people. The Scoti, one of those Scandinavian hordes, which under the various names of' Northmen, Sea-kings, Danes, and Saxons, defied un THEf TiREASURY OF HISTORY. 15 navigated seas and natural barriers to prevent them from overrunning the fairestand' richest portions of Europe (B. c. 200), sent forth-from the north of Spain, where they had been colonized, a powerful and'fierce horde led by Milesius. Hence these Scotl are more commonly called Milesians, athe term Scoti being generally confined to another swarm'of the same.fierce race, which at a later date. endeavoured' to settle, also, in'Ireland; bhut,,unable to effect thefr purpose, departed northward, and founded' the powerful Scots, who, now at war with the Picts a'nd now in alliance with them against the comparatively civilized Britons, were so long noted for strength, courage, and perseverance, before they were famous for aught else; and who taught evedithe Roman legions to respect them as foes, ages before they had any of those arts of peace which the Roman eagles had heralded into many other lands. That the vast immigrations which have changed the face of all Europe originated in the east of the world, and that the north of Europe, by what ever tribes nominally peopled, was, in fact, but the resting-place and nu - sery of such immigrants, very many circumstances go toprove; but-perhaps none more strongly than the general resemblance in both the politlcal and the religious rule of tribes nominally and directly coming from distant parts and settling in distant parts. TIhus we find that the Phleni cians direct from the east of the Mediterranean strikingly resembled, in mriny points, both civil and religious, the Scoti or Milesians of the Spanish::coast who certainly had settled there from the north of Europe, where, it is nearly as certain, they had originally halted-on their march from the eastern quarter of the world; and these, again, in like manner resembled the Britons. Between the Magi of the Ph(enician Irish, (those priests of the false faith' of Zoroaster who were perfectly undisturbed in their rites. or rather who were continued in their power as priests, sages, seers, and statesmen by the fierce Milesians), and the Druids of Britain, there were so many and such striking resemblances, that the Milesians called their priests Magi and Drpids indiscriminately. The dark grove and the unsparing sacrificial knife of the stern and unquestioned priest marked both offshoots or corruptions of the fire-worshippers; and the mysteries, cruelties, and sacrifices, from the $rst fruits of the earth to the first-born child of the idolator's family, 6f the Druids were, with but such difference as long journeys and distant residence will easily and fully account for, the mysteries, the cruelties, and the sacrifices of the Magi too The dreadful and fierce sacrifices of the Druids were put an end to in Britain by the Romans; but, strange to say, that mighty and enterprising people seein never to have visited Ireland, where the Magi exercised their terrible rule,quite undisturbed duri'ng all the long lustres of the Roman sway in Britain. Yet, geographically' speaking, Ireland was well known to the ancients. The Greeks called it Ierne, the Romans Hibernia; and it was also called the Holy or Sacred Isle, not, as has been with much defiance of chronology and common sense affirmed, on account of its owing its Christianity) to one of the immediate disciples of the great founder of our faith, but tb the precisely opposite reason that it was notorious as the residence of the Maggi; and as the scene of their terrible rites long, after those rites had disappeared elsewhere before the all-conquering and all-reforming Roman. The Scoti, or Milesians, whether intermarrying with the Phceniciati first colonies, or annihilating them, are the real ancestors of the Irish people; and yet we are'asked to believe in wealth, learning, anla civilization, among this horde of'semi-savages'; these contemporaries and coequals of the other Scandinqvian and Scythian hordes who, probably during ages, had been wandering' by slow degrees and in savage guise from the steppes of Tartary to the forests of Germany, and from the bleak north, with its ice-chained rivers and piercing blasts, to the luxuri2 2 THE TREASURY, OF HISTORY ous coasts of Spain and Portugal, and -the voluptuous plains and rivers of Italy! These were the real ancestors of the Irish people; these were the "ancient Milesians" and "Irish of the old time" in, whose gold and gems, in whose piety, learning, and delicate breeding we are called upon to believe. Had Ireland been so learned and civilized at this early day, we should surely not be even now ignorant whether the round towers were Phcenician temples or beacons for the Scoti, the Danes, and the other hostile settlers or piratical visitors of Ireland; and had Ireland been so rich at that day, the Romans would never have left her in contempt and in unvisited security, while ruling and reforming Britain for nearly four centuries. We conclude this chapter, then, with stating.and with begging particular attention to the statement-that the early history of Ireland is as fabulous in all that relates to glory, learning, wealth, and heroes, as any other early history whatever: that, in the case of Ireland this fabulous turn of early writers has been made the foundation of great injustice committed by later writers, and by orators and.statesmen, too, as to England; that though% no doubt, lnglish kings and their advisers in past days may have unwisely decreed or, unjustly acted in Ireland, as in any'other country, yet Ireland never began to be civilized, populous, learned, wealthy, or important, until connected with England; that English connexion has done much, and is still doing much, to make Ireland both prosperous and happy, and would do far mo:e but for the fierce party spirit of some, and the equally fierce but still more: disgraceful personal selfishness and ambition of others, which are constantly and throughout that torn land at work to perpetuate the grossest prejudices and the basest feelings. CHAPTER II. WtHEN the ancient kings and the ancient glories of Ireland are spoken of, inexperienced readers are apt to picture one king of Ireland swaying the whole territory from the Giant's Causeway to Cape Clear, and from Galway-bay to the Hill of Howth. This, however, was so far from being the case, that within that island there were five separate kingdoms, always jealous of each other, and frequently at open war. The five provinces or kingdoms of Ireland were Meath, Leinster, Munster, Connaught, and Ulster. The first named was considered the chief sovereignty; at the hill of Tara, famed alike in true history and bard's romance, which was situated in that kingdom, were the great assemblages of princes and chiefs; and the other four kings were nominally tributary to the king of Meath. just as the tanists, or the chiefs of septs, in their respective kingdoms were to them. The bards, an idle, imaginative set of men, were not merely the diverters of the chieftain's hours of recreation and wassail; the chieftain's bard was also his recorder, and we may-cease to wonder at the exaggerations that have come down to us, when we consider that these marvels were originally: said, sung, and written-if written at allby men whose comfort depended upon the complacent feelings of him whose deeds they sang, and who, therefore, were under no very great temptation to observe a too rigid adherence to paltry realities. In one'of the piratical excursions made by the Irish, Mac Nial, a petty king, landed on the coast-of Brittany, and brought spoil living as well as dead, human as well as brute. Among theq captives was a youth of some sixteen years of age, wlb(, on arriving in Ireland, was sold as a slave and employed in herding sheep. This youth was the: afterwards celebrated St. Patrick. Naturally of a thoughtful turn, the mountain track and THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 17 forest glade in which his vocation caused him to spend much of his time deepened his meditative habits, and gave zeal and fervour to native refigious impressions. He looked upon the land and saw that it was good; but he saw that it was peopled with idolaters and polluted by cruelties. Even amid the bitterness ofris own situation, a slave and a captive in a foreign land, he felt that it would be a great and a Christian deed to open the eyes of the blinded among wholh his lot was cast, and save their minds from the bondage of a false faith, and the lives of their first-born from being sacrificed in torture at the flaming altars of senseless and graven idols. Fortunately, Patrick had scarcely attained the age of manhood ere he escaped and got safely-back to France, and for upwards of twenty years applied himself with diligence to learning, such as was then attainable.. But neither lapse of years nor pride of cultivated intellect could banish from his mind the recollection of the state of the Irish, or his early determination to make the attempt, at least, to enlighten their minds and raise their social condition. A. D. 432.-Accordingly, in the year 432, when about forty-five years of age, he applied to the pope for permission to preach the gospel in Ireland. Such a permission was willingly granted, and Patrick, accompanied by a few French monks whom he had interested by his descriptions of the character and condition of the Irish,. landed in Ulster, after an absence of nearly or quite a quarter of a century. The foreign garb and striking ap. pearance of Patrick and his companions filled the peasantry whom: they first encountered with the notion that they were pirates, and preparations were made'for driving them back to their vessels. But their quiet demeanour, and the earnest and simple assurances given by Patrick, in the language of the peasants, that he and his companions had. arrived on an errand of peace and good-will, slpeedily converted hostility into admiration and confidence. The hospitality of the principal people was heartily bestowed upon the disinterested strangers, and Patrick and his companions presented themselves at Tara attended by a numerous and enthusiastic cortege. The mild and venerable aspect of the preachers gave full weight to the sublime and benevolent doctrines which they propounded. King and people listened at first with interest, and then with full credence; and in an incredibly short time idols and idol-worship became.hateful to the people; Christian doctrines were everywhere received, and churches and monasteries arose where flames had.but recently licked up the blood of shrieking and expiring human victims of ferocious error. About the close of the eighth century the Northmen began to send as many as a hundred vessels laden with fierce warriors into the Boyne and Liffey. The monasteries, both as being the wealthiest places in the island, and as being the abode of the teachers of the faith of hated Charlemagne, whose prowess and whose sternness had made.his name odious to the northern marauders, were the especial objects of their cupidity and vengeance. Built chiefly of wood, the monasteries when plundered were committed to the flames; and crowds of terrified monks and nuns escaped from the swords of the enemy only to-perish of hunger, or the inclemency of the weather, amid the woods and morasses. From conducting expeditions farther and farther into the - bosom of the island, the northmen.at length proceeded to attempt a permanent settlement. And early in the ninth century (A. D. 1815), they succeeded in planting a colony in the district of Armagh. Between this colony and the neighbouring Irish there were frequent and desperate struggles; but about thirty years after it was olanted, Turgesius,, a Norwegian of great fame and power among the northern pirates, brought a powerful fleet to its aid, carried death and dismay into all the accessible parts of the country, and assumed the title of king of Ireland (A. n. 845.) Having erected strong forts on well chosen parts of the,,coast, he wielded his usurped authority most sternly. The' 2 18 THE TREASURY OF HISTORltY. native kings were made to consider themselves as his *mere tributary tanists; and upon each he levied a tribute, in the nature of a poll.-tax, upon their subjects, which, from the punishment of its non-payment being the amputation of the offender's nose, was called nose-money. Turbulent towards their own titular kings of Meath, it might have been expected that the singularly haughty chiefs of Ireland would be stung to desperation by the sweeping tyranny of a foreign pirate. Many attempts at throwing off his yoke were unsuccessful; but at length the art and intrepidity of O'Malachlin, an Irish king, put an end both to the reign and life of the usurper. As though the. whole power of the northmen had been centred in one man, this death was the signal of a general rising of the Irish. The lukewarm grew zealous, and the timid brave 1 everywhere the Irish sword gleamed for Ireland, and the massacre of the northmen was so extensive that the country might once more be said to be free from all enemies; but this freedom was soon interrupted. In larger numbers than ever, with vengeance animating them, the hordes of the north poured in under three famous sea-kings, Sitric, Olaff, and Ivar. Waterford, Limerick, and Dublin were seized upon, and, as is generally observable, the energy of unprincipled conquerors gave a commercial and trading consequence to those cities such as they had never before possessed. Merchants from foreign countries repaired thither, with articles of both use and luxury; and an observable impulse was, given to the civilization and refinement of the country, through the medium of the invaders to whom thousands of the inhabitants owed misery and death. In truth, the situation of the native Irish during this occupation by the Danes may be compared to that of the Britons under the early, rule of the Saxons, so graphically depicted by Bede. But neither the influence of the commercial spirit nor the foreign luxury introduced by the Danes, had the effect of subduing the Irish turbulence or coura(re. Even wlten, laying, aside for a brief time their petty quarrels for local supremacy, they turned their arms against the northmen, their endeavours were more creditable than suctessful. But a king of Munster at length arose, to show the northmen that the power of an invader is precarious, and may be shaken long after the most timid of his followers have ceased to fear, and all save the best and bravest among the oppressed have ceased to. hope. A. D. 990.-Brian Borohme, whose talents and courage even romances scarcely rate too highly, was the king of Munster, contemporary with Malachi, king of Meath. The latter, though in title the chief kingdom, was at this time scarcely the superior of Munster, the-kings of which occasionally asserted their equality by a refusal to pay the tribute. Though rivals, Malachi and Brian had one common feeling of hatred to the foreign rule of Irelahd; and the former, a brave and able general, was in a mere military point of view more completely the liberator of their commona country than the latter. Disputes having arisen between the king of Meath and the Danes, who had now rendered Dublin very populous and wealthy, a battle took place between them - in the vicinity of the hill of Tara, in which the Danes were so completely routed that they were glad to accept Malachi's terms for peace. But Brian Borohme, conscious not only of warlike ability but also of capacity for civil rule, aimed at the sole sovereignty of Ireland; Malachi, equally ambitious, resisted his pretensions. A severe and, passionate contest ensued, in which Malachi was subdued, and compelled, in that hall of Tara which for centuries had witnessed thetsudpremacy of his ancestors, to do homage to the rival whom he had brafely though lucklessly resisted.. Brian Borohme's first acts showed that, however blameable the course by which he had obtained the chief regal place, his genius was admirably adapted to it. Without losing time in idle show and ceremony, he at once THE TREASURY OF fifSroRtY. 19 set out on a tour of pacification, receiving the submission of the chiefs aild demanding hostages for the loyalty of those who had given cause for suspicion. Nor did he confine his cares to protecting himself; he also made laws preventing the people from being scourged by the cosherings of their rulers. His well known talents, and the sternness with which he imprisoned those chiefs who ventured to infringe his laws, had a salutary effect; and in his reign Ireland was a better ordered and more happy and peaceful country than it had ever before been. The strongholds and religious tlouses, which had suffered so much at first by the violence of the northmen, were repaired, and new ones founded. The Danes themselves, dreading to provoke him, busied themselves solely with trade, and did not for many years commit any violence. A. 1014.-The king of Dublin suddenly and without, provocation led his northmen into the kingdom of Meath, plundering without limit,, andmurdering without mercy. As if to show that Irishmen were never to see the misfortunes of their country without doing their part towards inflict ing them, the king of Leinster joined his forces to those of the northmen. Malachi and Brian Borohme put themselves at the head of the other kings to oppose the host of foes that had thus suddenly sprung up. Ightly believing the native more guilty than foreign ones, Borohme dispatched a large force under his son Donough,-to overrun the kingdom, of Leinster. This service the old warrior judged his son could effect in three days, to which period he limited his absence. But treason was inl the camp of the brave Borohme, whose gallant son Was no sooner beyond recall, than some deserter made the northmen Aware how much the Irish were weakened by this detachment, and they at once forced a general engagement. Borohme formed his troops in battle array, and though four-score years iad blanched his hair and abated his strength, he rode along the ranks and shouted his exhortations in the eloquence of which, in former times, he had so often witnessed the effect upon troops who had followed him to victory. Bearincr a cruci-fix in his left hand, as he brandished his familiar sword in his right, he called upon them to follow where he should lead, and strike for the religion of the saints, with the firm hearts and vigourous arms of men who knew how to die as Christians, but never to submit to heathens in heart, name, or alliance. Shortly after day-break, on the 23d of April, the venerable king and warrior thus addressed his army, who responded to the address by commencing the fight, which lasted the "whole day. As the shadows of night fell deeper,dhe was obliged to seek rest in his tent. At length the shouts of the'Irish proclaimed that the foe was broken beyondlhope, and the king's tent in the general joy, was left unguarded save by a stripling page. He was recognised by a flying party of the enemy a few minutes after, and in an instant his enemies were upon him; the loud shriek and feeble blow of the young page delayed the sacrifice not a moment; Brian Borohme, the terrible in battle, the wise.in council, was slain, with many and ghastly wounds, even as he knelt in thanksgiving for the victory he had done iso much towards obtaining for his country. The defeat of the northmen was complete at Clontarf. The invaders fled {o their ships and sought safety in flight; and the northmen who were naturalized in Ireland, despairing of any farther aid from beyond sea, had nc recourse but to live in peace with their neighbours, with whom the inteymarriages of a few generations so incorporated them, that all distinction was lost between the two people. Malachi, who had bravely distinguished himself on this occasion, was now by common consent called again to the chief sovereignty, which he enjoyed in peace and honour until his death. A. D 1022.-Full of years and honours, Malachi expired in 1022; and the death of that monarch was the signal for the renewal of those shameftlJ 20. THE TREASURY OF HISTORY civil wars, from which the strong mind of Brian Borohme had so long kept the country free. The renown of'Malachi had caused all the kings to hail him as the successor of Brian Borohme, but the relatives of those two princes could not so easily agree as to the successor of the former. Many competitors appeared and sanguinary struggles ensued; buth at length the field was cleared of all but two. These were Donough, king of Munster, heir of Brian Borohme, and Turlough, great nephew of the latter and nephew of the'former; both, it will be perceived, claiming in hereditary succession to him who had been to aH intents an usurping king, however good and abl. The struggle between these two princes was long; but Donough was vanquished, and almost immediately resigned his kingdom of Munster, and set out on a pilgrimage, to Rome Arrived at " the eternal city," he entered into a monastery, and there obscurely finished his life.Turlough, on mounting the throne, proved that he inherited with it much of the ability and courage of his great uncle, together with a double portion of his resolved self-will. Much as he owed to the inferior kings and chiefs, he-imposed upon them unusually heavy tributes; a tyranpy the full weight of which was felt by the unfortunate kerne, or peasantry, from whom it was of course wrung by their- tyrants. From the natives, Turlough turned his strong hand upon the northern settlers and traders. Even under the firm rule of Brian Borohme, these people were allowed to' follow, their peaceable pursuits, and their towns had Seen governed by their own laws, administered by governors of their own race. One of these, Godfred, king of Dublin, was banished almost immediately after the accession of Turlough, who filled the vacancy with Murkentach, his own son. A similar tyrannic course was followed to all the Danish towns. At this period Ireland seems to have obtained considerable improvement as to wealth, if not refinement. Mention is frequently made of gold in payment of tribute, where formerly it was paid in kine; and to its former exports of wheat, wool, hides, and cattle, we now find timber added. A. D. 1086.-After an active and generally prosperous reign, Turlough died. His kingdom was partitioned among his three sons; the hereditary principle being set aside, but on this' occasion with. at least the colour of justice, inasmuch as the principle of equal division-though including the most distant male relatives —was that of the Brehon laws in-the palmy days of the Magi. One -of the sons dying, a contest arose between the two-survivors, Murkentach-already mentioned as succeeding Godfred the northman in the government of Dublin-and Dermot. The latter was defeated and driven into exile, and Murkentach now claimed and was about to assume the whole kingdom. But a rival was set up against him in the person of a chieftain of the old blood-royal, named Donald MacLoughlin, who was extremely popular among the princes both on account of his personal qualities and his descent; and again the unhappy country-was visited by a civil war. For eight years the old scenes of rapine and misery bade fair to undo all that invaders had done towards improving it; and after all this strife and misery, the rivals agreed to divide the regal spoil between them. The southern moiety of the' kingdom was given:to Murkentach, and bore the title of' Leathmogh, or Mogh's share; and the northern moiety to MacLoughlin, and bore the title, of Leath Cunnin, or Conn's share. Even this seemingly equitable arrangement did not restore'a lasting peace. Perpetual encroachments were made by one or the other, and a series, of sanguinary and mischievous battles terminated in the utter defeat of Murkentach, who retired from the contest in 1103, and sought refuge in a monastery, where he terminated his days. During the obstinate struggle between the Irish kings, the coastward THE TiREASUIRY OF HISTORY.. 21 parts of the country were repeatedly annoyed by the Norwegian, Magnus. His prowess and audacity had possessed him of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, and under the title offthe Lord of the Isles he struck ter~ror and dismay far and near. Emboldened by the senseless dissensions of the Irish, he sailed up the Liffey, ravaging and destroying, and at length possessed himself of Dublin, where, having fallen into an ambush, he lost his life. CHAPTER III. THE various wars in Ireland did not prevent the island from being still divided intom.the. five chief kingdoms of which mention has already been made. The titular chief royalty passed now to Roderic O'Connor, King of Connaught. But all his energies were required to enable him to govern Connaught, and he was incapable of either composing the differences of the other kings, or of uniting them all under his own authority. In a w6rd, Ireland was in the 13th century as divided as ever it had been; and only so far improved in wealth as to tempt aggression by exciting cupidity. Heathen Rome and Christian Rome alike had allowed the semi-barbarous people of the " sacred island" to fight and destroy at their -own good pleasure. But the time at length came when Christian Rome, already enthroned as the arbitress of the temporal and spiritual princes of the earth, looked with a longing eye upon the fertile island on which prosperity had begun to dawn. Ireland's near and ambitious neighbour, Henry II. of England; it was who immediately drew the attention of the pontiff to her value and capabilities.. Attracted by the fertility of Ireland and its contiguity to his own kingdom, he applied to the papal court for its sanction to his subduing Ireland. A. D. 1116.-Pope Adrian III., who then filled the papal chair, was doubly glad to receive this request. An.Englishman by birth, he was naturally anxious for lhe aggrandizement of his native country; and, as pope, he could not but be rejoiced at having from the king of England this emphatic acknowledgement of the temporal as well as spiritual supremacy of Rome. The pope having shown that Ireland ought to be conquered, and that Henry is appointed conqueror, "exhorts him to in. vade Ireland, in order to extirpate the vice and wickedness of the natives, and oblige them to pay yearly, frogm every house, a penny to the see of Rome; gives him entire right and authority over the islaid, commands all the inhabitants to obey him as their sovereign, and invests him with the fullest power,' all for the glory of God and the salvation of the souls of men.'" The state of Ireland soon after this bull was issued, was precisely such as its foreign foeman might have desired it to be; one of the intestine brawls breaking out just then with even more than usual virulence and fury. Dermot Macmorrogh, the king of Leinster, who was remarkable for his gross immorality, had greatly provoked the chief men of his- kingdom. Unaware or contemptuous of the general feeling that existed against him, he wantonly added to it by abducting the wife ot Ororic, prince of Breffney, during her husband's absence. Prince Ororic, on his return to the bog island in which he had, as he imagined, secured the safety of his wife, was roused to the utmost rage by- the information that Macmorrogh had made a descent upon it and- forcibly carried her away. Morality at that time was so low, that nearly any man but the king of Leinster might have abducted his neighbour's wife, without running serious risk of incurring enmity or censure beyond that of the injured h.sbanld and his immediate friends and followers. But Macmorrogh', 22 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. character was so generally detested, that the prince of Brenney met with warm and unusual sympathy. Among those who hastened to assist him was Roderic, king of Connaught; and so powerful a force was speedily led to the punishment of the ravisher, that he was fairly driven from the territory he had so scandalously misgoverned. Chastised but imnpenitent, the exile wentto Franc.e, where Henry II. of England then was, and solicited his aid. Delighted at having an additional excuse for his meditated invasion, Henry affected to give -full credence to the version of the story which it suited Macmorrogh's purpose to tell; especially as he offered, if restored to his kingdomr, to hold it as vassal of the English crown. Just at that moment, however; Henry was too busily engaged in Guienne in quelling the rebellious spirit of his French subjects, to be able to go personally to the aid of his Irish supplicant. Nevertheless he cordially promised him puissant support, and furnished him withIttters-patent by which all subjects of the king of England were empowered and encouraged to aid the exile king of Leinster in his attempts to recover his dominion. With this important document Dermot Macmorrogh hastened to Bristol to raise a force. For a time, however, he found even the king's letters-patent insufficient to induce men to volunteer for Ireland, where, according to the general notion, hard blows were likely to constitute the principal booty. It is likely Macmorrogh Would have been still longer without reaping any benefit from the king's letters-patent, had he not fortunately met with a ruined noble of the house of Clare, who by a furious course of pleasure and extravagance, had so reduced himself, that he would gladly have shared in even a less promising adventure. Richard, surnamed Strongbow, earl of Strigul, was easily induced to enter into the cause of the king of Leinster, on being promised his daughter Eva as a wife, with a present portion and the reversion of the father's dominion. Having secured this potent ally —for Strongbow was a good and approved soldier —Macmorrogh left his new ally and proceeded to Wales, where by liberal promises he produced two other allies, Maurice Fitzgerald, and Robert Fitzstephen, constable of Abertivi. Having thus rsecured abundant aid, he made arrangements for future proceedings with the three leaders, and then clandestinely re-entered his kingdom of Leinster, and secreted himself in the monastery of Fernes, of which-so little had the founding of monasteries at that time to do with religious feelingthis tyrant and ravisher was the founder. It is probable that Dermot Macmorrogh had only his own revenge in view when he sought the protection and aid of the English king. Yet when he thus proposed to introduce foreign troops into Ireland, and, like Count Julian of Spain,'who introduced the fierce Arabs intohis country, called the-foreigners to look at onice upon the fertility and the feeblness off the land, it seems scarcely possible he could have been wholly without a presentiment of the natural result. Robert Fitzstephen, with thirty knights, sixty esquires, and three hundred archers, was the first of the friends of Dermot to make his appearance in Ireland. The archers, besides being completely armed, were for the most part men who had seen service, and their compact and orderly march struck terror wherever they appeared. Ten knights, thirty esquires, and sixty archers having, under the leadership of Maurice de Prendergast, joined this force, an.attack was was made upon the town of Wexford, which had been greatly improved and was chiefly inhabited by a party of Danes. The town was carried, and here the adventurers awaited the arrival of Maurice Fitzgerald. Ile joined them soon after with ten knights, thirty esquires, and a hundred archers; and the whole force of the adventurers was now fully equal to the task of defeating any force that Ireland could draw to one point. Roderic, king of Connaught, who had taken so signal a part, in expelling THE TREASURY OP HISTORY. 2s the guilty and detested Macmorrogh, made a gallant resistance, but was beaten at all points; and Macmorrogh now, looking beyond -the mere restoration ofthe authority from which he had so deservedly been driven, began to project the dethroning and exile or death of Roderick, and his own elevation to the dignity of chief king of Ireland. While these things were being enacted, Strongbow had made his way to Normandy, where, as we have before said, Henry ll. at that time was. Though a gallant knight, Strongbow too well knew the waywardness of his royal master, not to feel anxious for a more direct and personal permission to act; lest he should by chance run counter to the king's private wishes while acting under his openly-expressed authority. Henry confirmed in person the permission given in the letters-patent, but did so with a coldness and ambiguity which showed him by no means over pleased with the success of the king of Leinster. Having first dispatched Raymond, with seventy archers; who made good their landing in spite of three thousand Irish by whom they were furiously attacked near Waterford, Strongbow himself soon afterward landed with two hundred horse and a body of archers. Having secured Waterford, Strongbow led the English force to Dublin, which place they carried by assault. Roderick, king of Connaught, enraged at the prowess of the English, put to. death a natural son of Maacmorrogh's, who was one of the seven hostages held by him. Both at Waterford and Dublin, the triumph of the English and their treacherous ally was also marked by circumstances of awful barbarity. Hasculf, the Danish governor, with his wife and children, were fortunate enough to escape from the sack of Dublin; but the slaughter among the common people was frightful. Strongbow now received, as had been stipulated, the hand of Eva, the natural daughter of MIacmorrogh; and this latter personage dying shortly afterwards, Strongbow became possessed of the kinodom of Leinster, and prepared to extend his possession to the whole of Ireland. PRoderick, instead of hastening to the relief of Dublin, employed that critical time to arrest the progress of the English in a desultory expedition into Meath. He now became sensible of: the error, and being joined by other Irish princes, advanced with thirty thousand men-an. immense army for Ireland at that time-to besiege Dublin. But Strongbow was not a man to be pent within the walls of a beleaguered city. At the head of ninety knights, with a proportionate number of men-at-arms, he sallied out and inflicted such a sanguinary defeat upon this large but undisciplined host, as to impress all Ireland with an opinion that the English were absolutely irresistible. Just at this juncture the brave Fitzstephen, who had been closely hemmed in at Carrick, sent to entreat aid of Strongbow. The latter hastened, at once to the support of his friend; but before he could arrive Fitzstephen had allowed himself to be tricked out of his libertv. A messenger sent by the people of Waterford, to whom he was especially obnoxious, informed him that Roderick had taken Dublin; that Strongbow, Fitzgerald, and other knights of name had perished, and that Roderick was now marching towards him with the avowed determination to spare neither sex nor age of the English. Fitzstephen, confident that a barbarous country like Ireland would- be easily subdued, had brought over his wife, and children with him, and was now, on their account, struck so with terror, that he readily gave credence to the intelligence. The messenger perceiving the impression his false tidings made upon Fitzstephen, persuaded him to allow himn to guide him to a shelter, together with his family and immediate followers. In an evil hour his anxiety for the sa.fety of his wife and children caused him to abandon the strong fort in which he could, at the.worst, have held out for some time, and place himself and family.in.the hands of his bitterest enemies. He discovered ti. error almost as soon as he had committed it. Many of his most 24 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. valued followers were put to death on the instant, while he, and the rest were committed to prison and closely guarded.. But how greatly was his'hagrin increased when he heard of the splendid success of Strongbow at Dublin; and that he was hastening to Carrick for the express purpos-e of affording that aid which Fitzstephen's own precipitancy had now rendered useless. The people at Waterford, well knowing what fate they might expect should they fall into the hands of the terrible Strongbow, gathered up every portable part of their property, set fire to the town, and then, carrying their prisoners with them, took shelter in a little island near Waterford harbour. Thither Strongbow pursued them, with threats of taking the most signal and terrible vengeance; but just as he was about to attack the island, he was induced, to depart by solemn assurances that the landing of his first man should be the signal for striking off the head of every English prisoner.Henry II., as soon as the state of affairs would admit of his doing so, was on his way to Ireland at the head of a numerous force. Strongbow hastened to England and met the king in Gloucester, where he had assembled a very powerful force. Henry at first refused to admit Strongbow to his presence; but on the earl urging that he could clearly show that, in all he had done, he had acted solely for the king's service, and that he would not even stir a step in the Irish expedition until he had received a particular'permission from the king, he was admitted. And he boldly affirmed, on being admitted tothe.royal. presence, that he aimed at Irish conquest only for the king's service, and that for himself, he should be content with whatever reward his royal master -might deign to bestow upon him. Pacified dy a submission so complete, and seemingly so disinterested, the king accepted the surrender of. Dublin and all other ports and fortresses conquered or to, be conquered in Ireland; and granted to the earl and his heirs for ever, all his other Irish acquisitions to be held as fiefs of the Englishcrown.A. D. 1171.-The conciliatory policy of the shrewd earl having thus averted the storm of royal wrath in which he and his fortunes would otherwise have probably suffered shipwreck, Henry hastened his preparations, and, accompanied by -Strongbow, landed at Waterford about the middle of October. The large force by which the king was accompanied, and the gallant appearance of the knights, armed cap-a-pie, procured him a degree of respect from the natives which they probably would hate withheld from. the name of king, which was too common among them to have much of that prestige which attached to it elsewhere. No opposi-'tion was made to his landing, and as he progressed through the country, kings and chiefs' flocked to him to tender their homage. To each who thus came to surrender his possessions and authority, Henry instantly restored both on the'easy condition of homage being done and vassalage confessed. Even Roderick O'Connor, the original opponent of Dermot, peaceably submitted, and without a single battle Henry II. of England became also king.of Ireland. Having held a council at Cashel, in which special provisions were made for the support and protection of the clergy, upon whose exertions the king well knew that the peaceable maintenance of his authority would depend, and in which a variety of other laws for the regulation of marriage, wills, and succession of property were propoinded, the king proceeded to celebrate the feast of Christmas at Dublin. The city possessed no apartment large enough to serve for the royal banqueting room on this occasion, but a temporary pavilion was erected, in which Henry feasted O'Connor and the other principal Irish princes in a style of profuse and costly hospitality such as they had "never before witnessed. The king appointed a'lord-high-cotfstable, an earl-marshal, and a high steward; and distributed vast tracts of Irish territory among English nobles, but on the strictest feudal principle. Thus, for instance, by way of THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 25 preventing the great possessions of Strongbow from being predominant, in Ireland, the king gave the whole of Meath, so long the seat of the chief Irish royalty, to'Hugh de Lacy and his heirs forever, on the tenure of fifty knights' service. Having thus provided for the future government and security of Ireland as an integral part of his dominions and made such minor arrangements as chanced to occur to his mind or to the minds of his advisers, Henry departed from the scene of his easy conquest —if conquest, indeed, that could be called in which he never had occasion to strike a blow-in April, 1172, having been in Ireland barely six months; and on landing in Wales,i proceeded immediately to St. David's church to return thanks for a success of which he seems to have felt all the importance. CHAPTER IV, A. n. 1172.-The profuseness with which Henry had parcelled out Irish lands among English soldiers, and the jealous rigour with which each English pale or settlement repressed the slightest Irish disturbance, soon caused deep and fierce hatred. While the king and his formidable army remained, the Irish affected the most cordial feelings; nay, perhaps, while the king's presence acted as, a check upon the haughty: tyranny of the conquerors, the conquered actually did entertain the hope of being allowed to live in peace and good-fellowship. But the king had no sooner departed than the fiercest animosities began to display themselves. The natives, especially those who were in the immediate neighbourhood of the palatinates, and who therefore were especially subjected to the insolence and oppression of the English, looked -with detestation upon these.possessors of countless acres which they had forcibly wrested from the rightful inneritors. From murmurs they proceeded to actions; rebellions on the one hand: and unsparing severity on the other, ensued; and again this luckless lan'd seemed doomed, to long centuries of petty but ruinous wars. Strongbow was the principal man among the new comers, and was known to be the soul of their councils; so against him the animosity. o the natives was especially directed. To render his situation still more perilous, his own followers, who, justly or not, had acquired so much through his daring and skill, began to show strong symptoms of insubordination. His appearance was -hailed with less cordiality; his orders obeyed with less promptitude. A chief cause of this among the English soldiers was the strictness of Fitzmaurice, who had the immediate conimand. He was a good soldier, and being desirous that the natives and the English should, for the sake of both parties, live in peace and the mutual performance of good offices, he strictly forbade all plundering and brawling, to which the English showed themselves only too prone. This strictness, which the licentious soldiery considered all the more unreasonable, inasmuch as they were most irregularly paid, at length led to an openly-expressed determination of the soldiers to abandon Ireland altogether, unless the command were taken from Fitzmaurice, and given to Ravymond le Gros, an officer'who was altogether popular among them. IRaymotnd le Gros, perceiving how important his support was to Strongbow, ventured to ask the hand of that nobleman's sister Basilia, a very beautiful worman, of whom Raymond had long been enamoured, but whom his comparatively humble fortune would probably never have allowed him to seek in marriage, but for the adventitious importance into which he was lifted by the mutinous spirit of the soildery. Strongbow was far too acute not to be aware of the delicacy and even peril of his situation: but he was oround as he was brave, and without hesitation refused Raymond both'the hand of the lady and constableship of Leinster, which he also demanded. 26 TI-IH TREASURY OF HISTORY. Raymond immeciately embarked, taking a considerable portion of the army with him. Their departure was the signal for an outbreak of the natives: while the English were so much weakened by the sudden loss of so large a body, that Strongbow found it necessary to dispatch, a mes. senger to Le Gros, who had landed in Wales, promising that his double demand should be immediately complied with if he would return with the soldiers. He did so at a most critical moment; arriving just in time to save the garrison of Waterford, of whom the Irish had vowed not to spare a man. Le Gros received both his bride and his appointment, and then hurried to meet a vast force of Irish whom O'Connor was leading against Dublin. As usual, the superior discipline of the English overcame the tumultuous though brave Irish. Roderick sought safety in flight, and Raymond le Gros indulged his victorious followers in all the disorders of semi-barbarous warfare. Though defeated on this particular occasion, O'Connor was not subdued. Often routed, he as often gathered his wild followers to a head again, and his persevering and desultory attacks defied even the skill of the brilliant Le Gros. At length O'Connor entered into a new treaty, by which he engaged to hold his -rightful dominions as the liege vassal-of the king of England; and in consideration of his having the chief sovereignty of Ireland exclusive of the English pale, he undertook to secure the peaceable conduct of the other native princes; to-whom Henry assured the peaceful enjoyment of their respective territories on condition of their regular payment of tribute, consisting of a hide for every tenlhead of cattle slaughtered. Roderick O'Connor, therefore, was king, in vassalage to England, of all Ireland except the English pale, which included Dublin, Waterford, Leinster, Meath, and the,whole extent of coun try from Dungarvon to Waterford. A. D. 1175. —Strongbow died in 1175, leaving his daughter Isabel de Clare heiress to his immense wealth, with the exception of certain lands with which he endowed the priory which, in compliance with the quasi devout spirit of the age, he had founded at Kilmainham. At the death of Strongbow a new governor, Fitz-Adelm, went to Ireland. In his train was a knight, of no great previous notoriety, named De Courcy, who, in pursuanode of a singular fancy, lighted up the flames of war in a part of the country which, amid all the recent bloodshed had remained at peace. Lying towards Scotland, and being inhabited chiefly by Scotsmen and shepherds, the province of Ulster might have long remained undisturbed, but that a headstrong English knight conceived the plan of fulfilling an Irish prophecy, at no matter what expense of blood, Scotch, English, or Irish. The prophecy ran that Ulster should be conquered by a knight from over sea, riding on a white horse and bearing birds on his shield. De Courcy had come from over sea; he speedily provided himself with a white horse, and though his shield bore not birds but bees, yet as the latter as well as the former have wings, he was decidedly of opinion that he was tout-a-fait the very knight alluded to in the prophecy! And to this mere whim of a foreigner, who in more sober times would have been laughed at as a coxcomb, or shut up as a dangerous lunatic, the unhappy people of Ulster were to see homes and lives sacrificed. In despite of the express prohibition of the governor, Fitz-Adelm, De Courcy mustered a numerous band of followers, and with pennant flying, and trumpets sounding, galloped at day-break into the streets of Downpatrick, the capital of Ulster. The pope's legate, Cardinal Viviani, who was in that province, endeavoured to dissuade De Courcy from violence; but the cardinal's eloquence was powerless against the prophecy. rThe cardinal then becoming indignant at the senseless and unprincipled conduct of De Courcy, advised the king of Ulster, O'Neil, to oppose him in armis. In the first engagement O'Neil was defeated, but subsequently De Courcy, though generally successful in pitched battles, was frequently THE TREASURtY OF HISTORY. 27 educed to gai.at straits; and on one occasion he only escaped capturewhich in his case would have been inevitable death-by flying before his enemies for two days and nights, without other sustenance than -water and wild berries. The petty and mischievous warfare which De Courcy had commenced in Ulster naturally led to similar disturbances in other parts. Fitz-Adelm, the governor, was detested; and Henry imagining that a more popular governor would perhaps succeed in restoring and.preservingathe peace of the country-a peace which was indispensable towards making the possession of the country a source of revenue to England-removed FitzAdelin, and gave his post to Hugh de Lacy, the lord of Meath, whom he instructed to take all possible means to conciliate the natives, but at the same tinme to exert himself in the erection of castles sufficiently strong and advantageously situated for the defence of the English pale. Nor did the king's efforts to secure the peace of Ireland stop even here. He applied to Rome for permission to crown- his son Prince John as king ol Ireland, though of course in vassalage to England. The court of Rome, which even only with reference to Peter-pence, and still more with reference to future contingencies, had a deep stake in the-tranquillity and prosperity of Ireland, readily gave the permission required. But, whether from already perceiving something of John's real nature, or from some other unexplained feeling, the king did not avail himself of it, but merely sent him over as lord of Ireland, where the prince arrived in the year 1185 Prince John was at this period about nineteen years of age. Arrogant, heartless, and destitute even of the prudence which would have taught him to imitate the affability of manner by which his father had contrived to conciliate the testy but warm-hearted chieftains, John by his first act disgusted those who approached him for the purpose of renewing their allegiance to the English crown. The flowing yellow garments and long. hair and beards of the Irish presented a very odd appearance, no doubt; though, as the Irish were a singularly well and powerfully made race, one would imagine that the peculiarities of costume tended to make their appearance imposing rather than ludicrous. But when they were introduced to Prince John, who seems to have been surrounded by persons as young and ignorant as himself, they were received with'peals of laughter, and some of theyboy-courtiers are said to have gone so far as to pull the beards of these fieryi'and veteran warriors. The Irish nature was precisely such as it would be safer to injure than to insult. Burning with rage, the chieftains departed with the deepest determination to leave, no effort untried towards shaking off the English yoke. They who had been the most sincerely desirous to show themselves faithful to the absent king of England, now joined those of their fellow-countrymen who were already in arms against him, and an insurrection of the most extensive description forthwith broke out. The English army, beaten at various points, was in a measure destroyed, and the Irish even made themselves a passage into the English pale, plundering and burning many of the houses and butchering the inhabitants. Si extensive was this revolt, and so deadly the animosity felt towards John, that it is likely Ireland would have been wholly lost to England, had he longer continued in that island. Fortunately, genuine information, not always procurable by even the most powerful kings, reached the ears of Henry, and he instantly recalled his incapable son and gave the government to De Courcy, earl of Ulster. He, probably, combining both civil and military talents, and possess. ingl enormous property and proportionate influence in Ulster, was the fittest man then in Ireland to overpome the difficulties and danger consequent upon Prince John's absurd conduct. Hugh de Lacy, who had for: merly replaced Fitz-Adelm, would have been a still more efficient governor, but he had recently been murdered in cold blood, by an Irish labourer, THE TREASURY OF HIST(YORY. while superintending the building of a castle in. his iordshp of Meath, De Courcy, well knowing the propensity of Irish princes to make war upon each other, so skilfully exerted himself to foment quarrels among them, that he easily broke up their league; and, at once separated from their common object, they weakened each other so far that he had but little difficulty in quelling their desultory attacks upon the English.' A. D. 1189.-Henry the Second, after a reign of thirty-five years, the latter portion of I., the husband of Maria Theresa. He died in 1765, and was succeeded by his eldest son, 160 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY.'oseph II., who had been elected king of the Romans the preceding yeai When this prince attained to the imperial dignity, he was considered as distinguished by a steady and active attention to every department of government'; and he actually introduced a varietyof bold and salutary reforms in the state. A noble liberality of mind, and enlarged views of politics, were imputed to him when he rendered the condition of the lower orders of men in his hereditary dominions less wretched and servile, by alleviating that cruel vassalage in which they were held by the feudal lords of'the soil; while a free and unreserved toleration was granted to all sects and denominations of Christians; but these hopes were frustrated by a more full developement of his character, in which, activity without. efficiency, enacting laws and abrogating them, forming greatdesigns and terminating them in mean concessions, appeared conspicuous. On the death of the elector of Bavaria, in 1777,,the emperor laid claim to,a considerable part of that electorate, founded on a vague right which had been set up, but'not contended for, so long ago as the.year 1425, by the emperor Sigismund. The king of Prussia, as elector of Brandenburgh, opposed these preten.. sions, on the ground of protecting the empire in its rights, privileges, and territorial possessions, against all encroachments upon, or diminutions of them;' but the emperor not being induced by negotiation to relinquish his designs, in.1778 the two most powerful monarchs in Europe led their formidable armies in person, to decide the dispute by arms; nearly half a million of men appearing in the field, to fight for a territory which would have been dearly purchased at. the sum expended on one year's.support of those vast armies-so little is the ambition of princes regulated by the intrinsic worth of the object at which they aim! The kingdom of Bohemia was the scene of action, and the greatest generals of the age commanded; as, Marshal Count Laudohn, on the side of Austria; Prince Henry of Prussia, and the hereditary prince (afterwards duke) of Brunswick, on the side of Prussia. The horrors and the eclat of war were then expected to be revived, in all their tremendous pomp, but the campaign was closed without any general action, or any brilliant event whatever; and during the following winter the courts of Petersburgh and Versailles interposing their good offices to make up the breach, terms of peace were soon ad-;usted at Teschen, in Austrian Silesia. The territory acquired to the house of Austria by virtue of this treaty extends about seventy English miles, and in breadth is about half that space. The court.of Vienna, being thus put into possession of this territory, renounced, in the fullest and most ex. plicit terms, all other claims whatever on the electorate, by which every latent spark that might kindle future contentions and wars was supposed to be extinguished. In the year 1781, the court of Vienna endeavoured to procure'for the archduke Maximilian, brother to the emperor, the election to a participation of the secular bishoprics of Cologne and Munster, together with the reversion of -the former: this measure was strenuously opposed by the king of Prussia, who remonstrated against it to the reigning elector, and to the chapters, in whom the right of election is lodged; but notwithstanding the power of the prince who thus interposed, the house of Austria carried its point. After this the views of the emperor were directed to the restoration of the commerce formerly carried on by the ancient city of Antwerp; and also to invite foreign ships to the port of Ostenq, by which he hoped to render the Austrian Netherlands flourishing and opulent; nor was he less attentive to abridge the power of the clergy and the authority of the church of Rome, in every part of his hereditary dominions. Joseph II. died February 20, 1790, in the 49th year of his age, and was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II., then grand duke of Tuscany, who became emperor of Germany, and king of Hungary and Bohemia. This ri-~nce severely felt the thorns which encompassed a diadem: although a THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 16] lover of peace, he was compelled to wage war with the French republic: while ie sav his sister, the queen' of France, degraded from her raink, kept a close prisoner, and in continual danger of an untiniely end; but death closed his eves upon these conflictive scenes in March, 1791, five months after his advancerlent, in the forty-fourth year of his age. Francis had. no sooner been declared emperor, than he joined-in the hostilities carrying on against France, on account of his hereditary states, as well as the empire. He soon lost the Netherlands; and the empire all its territo'ry west of the Rhine; the Austrian possessions in Italy followed in 1797. The progress of the Frtnch arms was arrested only by the treaty of Campo Formio. A congress was afterwards held at Rastadt, which continued sitting for many months, and at length broke up without procuring peace. During the year 1799J Lhe Austrians, joined by the Russians under Suwarrowv, penetrated into Italy, and deprived the French of the greater part of their conquests acquired by thie military skill of Bonaparte. In 1800, Bonaparte having returned fhao Egypt, raised an army, and crossed the Alps, with a view to recoer, Italy, lost in his absence. Fortune favoured his arms, and all the possessions of Francis fell into his hands by the famous battle of Marengo. Piedmont also submitted to the conqueror, and was, with Parma, Placentia, and some imperial fiefs, incorporated with France. The peace of Lur/eville, in 1801, made the Rhine the boundary between France and Germnnany; the, latter thus lost more than 26,000 square miles of territory, and nearly 4,000,000 inhabitants. The Austrian monarch founded the hereditary empire of Austria in 1804; and the first consul of France was declared emperor of the French, under the title of Napoleon I. Austria and Russia soon after united against Napoleon; and the peace of Presburg, which took place on the 26th of December, 1805, terminated the war, in which three states of the German empire, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Baiden, had taken part as allies of France. In the following year, sixteen German princes renounced their connexion with the German empire, and entered into a union under the name of the confederation of the Rhine, which acknowledged the emperor of France as its protector. This decisive step was followed by a second. The Gerv.man empire was dissolved; the emperor Francis resigned the German crown, renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and declared the hereditary dominions separated from the German empire. T'he first year of the existence of this " confederation" had not elapsed, when its armies, united with those of France, were nmarched to the Saale, the Elbe, and the Oder, against the Prussians, and afterwards to the Vistula, against the Russians. After the peace Qf Tilsit the confederation was strengthened by the accession of eleven princely houses of northern Germany. The kingdom of Westphalia was established, and Jerome, the brother of Napoleon, put upon the throne. Four kinds, five grand-dukes, and twenty-five dUkes-and other princes, were united in the new confederation. The peace of Vienna increased its extent and power. The north-west. ern parts, however, and the Hanseatic cities, Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck, were united with France in 1810. When Napoleon, in 1812, undertook his fatal expedition to Russia, the contingents of the Rhenish confederation joined his army; and not less than 100,000 Germans found their graves in the snows of Russia. The Russians pursued their advane tages to the frontiers of Germany. Prussia, wearied with her long suf-. ferings, joined them with enthusiasm, and, at the same time, some of the states of the north of Germany united with them. Lubeck and Hamburg rose against the French, and all Germany was animated with the cheering hope f liberation.. Austria next joined the grand alliance; and the war, owing to the enthusiasm of the people, soon assumed a most favourable appearance for the allies. On the 8th of October, 1813, Bavaria joined the - LI -162 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. allied arms: and, ten days afterwards, the battlq of Leipsic destroyed the French dominion in Germany, and dissolved the confederation of the Rhine. The king of Wirtemberg, and the other princes of the south, soon after followed the example of Bavaria; and after the battle- of Hanau, Oct. 30, the French arms had retreated over the Rhine. Everywhere in Ger many the French power was now annihilated; neither the kingdom ol Westphalia nor the grand-duchy of Berg any longer existed. Through. out Germany immense preparations were, made for the preservation of the recovered independence. The victorious armies passed the Rhine on the first days of the following year, and all the territory which the French had conquered from Germany since 1793, was regained and secured by the events of the campaign in France and peace of Paris. It was stipulated, by the articles of the peace, that the German states'should be independent,-but connected together by a federative system. This provision of the treaty was carried into effect by the congress of Vienna, Nov. 1, 1814, and by the statutes of the Germanic confederation in 1815. In the new system of Europe, established at the congress in 1815-, and by the treaty concluded with Bavaria, at Munich, in April, 1816, the Austrian monarchy not only gained more than 4238 square miles of territory, but was also essentially improved in compactness; and its commercial importance was increased by the accession of Dalmatia and Venice. The influence of this power among the states of Europe, in consequence of the congress of Vienna, as the first member of the great quadruple alliance (changed, by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, to a -quintuple alliance,) and as the head of the German confederation, has since been gradually in. creasing. Of the foreign affairs of the government, which have been conducted by the prince Von Metternich, the most important is the connexion of Austria with the German confederation. The termination of the war with Russia, or, as it is called in Germany, "the war of liberation," restored Germany to its geographical and political position in Europe, but not as an empire acknowledging one supreme head. A confederation ot thirty-five independent sovereigns and four free cities has replaced the elective monarchy, that fell under its own decrepitude. In the choice ot the smaller princes, who were to become rulers, as well as of those who were obliged to, descend to the rank of subjects, more attention was paid to family and political connection than to the old territorial divisions under the empire. The clerical fiefs, and the greater part of the free imperial %ities, were incorporated into the estates of the more powerful princes, upon the dissolution of the empire, and were not re-established Only four cities remained in the enjoyment o ftheir political rights. The following territories, with the population of each, according to the statistics of 1838, are comprised in the present German confederation: States. Population. States. Population. 1. Austrian empire... 11,713,950 15. Grand duchy ofSaxe-Weimar 245,590 2. Kingdom of Prussia. 10,903,810 16. Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Gotha 140,040 3. Bavaria.. 4,338,490 17.... Saxe-Meiningen. 140,590 4. Saxony. 1,605,590 18....Saxe-Altenburg. 121,590 5... Hanover. 1,737,500 19. Grand duchy of Mecklenburg6.... Wirtemberg 1,646,780 Strelitz..... 87,820 7. Grand duchy of Baden 1,237,260 20. i..... Oldenburg and 8. Electorate of Hess... 721,550 Kniphausen.... 267,660 9. Hesse Darmstadt... 793,130 21. Duchy of A-nhalt Dessau 61,480 10. Duchy of Holstein 476,950 22..... Bernburg... 46,924 11. Grand duchy of Luxemburg 184,760 23. Duchy of Kothen.... 40,206 i, Leinburg. 147,530 24. Principality of Schwarzburg12. Duchy of Brunswick.. 269,000 Sonderhausen.... 55,810 13. Grand ducny of Mecklenburgh 25...... Rudolstadt. 86,130 ScweritA'... ~. 478,800 26.. Hohenzoltern 14. lucby of Nassau.... 387,490 Hechingen 20.200 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 163 States. Population. States. Populatio5n. 7.... Lichtenstein. 6,520 33. Principality of Lippe Detmold 82,970 28...., Hohenzoltern- 34. Landgravate of Hesse-HomSigmaringen 42,990 burg... 23,400 29.. Waldeck,. 56,480 35. Free, city of Lubeck.. 47,200 30.. Reuss (elder 36. Frankfort.. 64,570 branch),. 31,500 37..... Bremen... 57,400 31;... Reuss (younger 38.... Hamburg. 153,50' branch). 72,050 32.... Schaumburg- Total.. 38,715,600 Lippe.... 27,6001 The present emperor, Ferdinand I., succeeded his father, Francis I., on the 2nd of March, 1835. The accession of Ferdinand to the throne has been marked by a tendency on the part of the Austrian cabinet to an enlightened course of domestic and foreign policy, the steady prosecution ot which must prove of incalculable advantage for the empire and for Europe. Of the provinces which make up the grand imperial dominions of Austria, many of them have constitutions different from each other. Hungary, as.an hereditary and limited monarchy, has been in the house of Austria ever since the year 1437, when the archduke, having married the only daughter of King Sigismund, succeeded to the crown. The nation, however, shares the legislative and executive power with the emperor, who exercises his authority only through the medium-of the states, a kind of parliament assembling at fixed periods for the transaction of public business. The Hungarian nobility also possess great power; and they alone, in state language, are included under the appellation of the Hungarian people, the rest being included as an inferior race of beings. Bohemia, Moravia, and the Tyrolese, also have an influence in the general government, and possess, to a certain degree, the privileges of Hungary. But in most of the -provincial diets, the authority of the crown is so great, that the' representation can determine little else than the mode of raising taxes, so that the emperor is in a considerable degree unlimited in his sovereignty. In the ancient diet of the empire, Austria, independent of her electoral vote for Bohemia, had seven votes in the college of princes for the seven states of Austria Proper, Carinthia, Styria, Brixen, Trent, Tyrol, and Carniola. In the new diet, or "confederation of the sovereigns and free towns of Germany," Austria, without having any superiority over the other states in point of rank, was declared by the congress of Vienna, to have the presidency with a vote. In the general assembly Austria had now four votes. The executive government consists of four great departments, established at Vienne, organized originally by the councils of Maria Theresa. One of these regulates the internal concerns of the empire, another its foreign affairs, a third its military conduct, and the fourth the government of Hungary. These different parts of the administration are identifiedin numerous boards, chanceries, councils, ministries, &c. The laws and jurisprudence of his imperial and royal apostolic majesty's dominions are, taken altogether, very vague and complicated. Bohemia and Moravia are divided into circles, each under a separate court of judicature, from which lies a right of appeal to the supreme tribunal in the, provincial capital. Every county in Hungary has its ruling, assembly and court of justice, subject to an appeal to the district judicature, thence to the royal tribunal at Buda, and thence to the king irt person. A new code of mild and salutary laws was, however, drawn up at the instance of the government, in the early part of the present century; which are made the universal code of jurisprudence for the Austrian empire. "'The importance of Austria in a political, not less than in a commercial point of view," says Mr. M'Culloch, "is evident; and as that importance depends altogether upon her power and the judicious developement of her resources, the western states are deeply interested in her prosper, t64 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. ity. From the nature of the various states united under the imperial sceptr6, it is clear that Austria divides the rule over the Sclavonic nations of Europt with Russia; it must consequently be for her interest to attach to her sway so numerous a portion of her subjects, who have a strong band of sympathy with a growing and -very powerful rival. A mild government and a sincere attention to the material as well as moral condition of her subjects, will prove the best means of -linking together provinces differing so much from each other, and each of which is too powerful to be long retained by any other than gentle means. The conduct of the cabinet at Vienna justifies the expectation that its leading members are aware of the part which they are called upon to play, and of the true sources of their own influence, and of: that of the, nation in European politics. If unity at home be promoted, and the material and moral condition of the people be improved, the power of Austria will be such that she need fear nothing even if she had to contend single-handed with Russia or France. The variety, however, of her, population, and the different, or supposed different interests, of her various provinces, are sufficient guarantys to the rest of Europe, that-the power of Austria will not be abused. The pacific policy which her cabinet has generally observed is dictated by the peculiar composition'of the state, and cannot safely be departed from. While Austria may thus be looked upon as a most useful ally by the other states of Europe, and as their grand bulwark against the power and ambition of Russia, her friendship will be courted in proportion to her increase of power. Fler worst enemies are those, who, by fostering disunion at home, or keeping her people in ignorance of their true interests, weaken her influence, and prevent her from attaining a position to command th-; respect of her neighbours without exciting their apprehensions." HUNGARY.'As this country now forms a part of the Austrian empire, but a short notice of it is necessary in this place. The Huns are described by the old historians as a nation of ferocious savages, emanating from Scythia, or Western Tartary. They lived upon roots, and flesh, half raw; they had neither houses nor-cities; and their wives and children dwelt under tents They fought without order, and without discipline; and trusted much to the swiftness of their horses. They do not appear to have been known to the Romans, until about the year 209 of the Christian era, at which time the Romans called them Pannonians. The people of Hungary consist of seven distinct races, viz: Magyars, Slowacks, Croatiags, Germans, Wallachians, Rusniacks, and Jews; of whom the Magyars are by far the most considerable. In their own country their oriental denomination of Magyars is usually given to them, the name of Hungarians being used only by other nations. Under Attila, they penetrated into Gaul, and became masters of the finest cities; and were approaching towards Paris, when Actius, the Roman general, defeated them near Troyes, in Campagne. After this battle Attila retired into Pannonia; but as soon as he had repaired.his losses, he ravaged Italy; and was preparing anew to enter Gaul, when death put an end to his vic-,tories, in the year 454. TIIE TREASURY OF HISTORY 16 Attila was really what he had named himself, " the terror of men, and the scourge of God." After his death, great divisions took place among the Huns, who no longer kept that name, but assumed the appellation of Hungarians; but of their history during the time of the Western and Eastern empires, and the various wars and invasions which are said to have taken place between the third and tenth centuries. there is no information upon which reliance can be placed. They began to embrace Christianity under the guidance of German missionaries; Stephen, chief of the Hungarians, who had. married the sister of the emperor Henry, was baptized at the beginning of the eleventh century.. Tile pope bestowed upon him the title of " apostolic king;" and idolatry soon after disappeared in Hungary. Stephen, thus honoured by the pope for his services in converting the heathens, endeavoured to strengthen his kingdom by the power of the hierarchy and the aristocrary. He established ten richly endowed bishoprics, and divided the whole empire into seventy counties. These officers and the bishops formed the senate of the kingdom, with whose concurrence King Stephen granted a constitution, the principal features of which are still preserved. The unsettled state of the succession to the crown, and the consequent interference of neighbouring princes, and of the Roman court, in the domestic concerns of Hungary; the inveterate hatred of the Magyars against the Germans, who were favoured by Peter, the successor of Stephen; the secret struggle of paganism with Christianity, and particularly the arrogance of the clergy and nobility, long retarded the prosperity of the country. The religious zeal and bravery of St. Ladislaus, and the energy and prudence of Colomann, shine amid the -darkness of this period.. These two monarchs extended the boundaries of the empire; the former by the conquest of Croatia and Sclavonia, the latter by the conquest of Dalmatia. They asserted with firmness the dignity of the Hungarian crown, and the independence of the nation, against all foreign attacks; and restored order and tranquillity at home by wise laws and prudent regulations. The introduction of German colonists, from Flanders and Alsace, into Zips and Transylvania, by Geysa II., in 1148, had'an important influence on those districts; and the connexion of Hungary with Constantinople during the reign of Bela III., who had been educated in that city,'had a favourable effect on the country in general. The Magyars, who had previously passed the greater part of the year in tents, became more accustomed to living in towns, and to civil institutions. On the other hand, Hungary became connected with France by the second marriage of Bela with Margaret. sister to Henry, king of France, and widow of Henry, king of England. She introduced French elegance at the Hungarian court, and at this time we find the first mention of Hungarians studying at Paris.; but these imnprovements were soon checked, and the kingdom was reduced to a most deplorable condition by the invasions of the Mongols in the middle of the 13th century. After the retreat of these wild hordes, Bela IV. endeavoured to heal the wounds of his country. He induced Germans to settle in the depopulated provinces, and elevated the condition of the citizens' by increasing the number of the royal free cities. The king, Ladislaus, having been killed in 1290, by the Tartars, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, pretending that Hungary was a fief of the empire, gave the crown to one of his sons; but, in 1319, Pope Boniface VIII., supposing it to be his right to dispose of the kingdom, invested Charibert, who supported his appointment with his sword. Under him Hungary became powerfpl; he added to his kingdom Croatia, Servia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and part of Dalmatia. In 1437, Albert of A.ustria ascended the Hungarian throne. Under him commenced the intestine divisions which, joined to the irruptions of the 166 -:. THE TREASURY OF; HISTORY. turks, almost- depopulated the country. The civil war between the peo. ple and the nobles, in the reign of Ladislaus V. and the Corvins, weakened it so much, that it was not in a state to resist the Ottoman power; and the army of Solyman entirely destroyed that of Hungary in 1526; when-: the sing, Louis II;, was killed. Two hundred thousand captives were taken away by the Turks. Ferdinand I., empleror of Germany, was elected king of Hungary by the states in 1527. He found the country weak in population, very poor, divided by the catholic and protestant factions, and occu pied by the Turkish and:German armies. It was in a deplorable state under all the kings of the house-of Austria, but more particularly so under Leopold, elected in 1655.:In his reign, Upper Hungary and Transylvania were the theatre of revolution, bloody war, and devastation. The Hungarians defended their liberties against, Leopold; and the consequence was, the death of the principal nobility on the scaffold, at Vienna. A man named Emeric Tekeli, whose father and friends had fallen under the hands of the executioner, in order to avenge their deaths, raised a force in Hungary, in 1683, and joined Mahomet IV., then besieging Vienna. John Sobieski, king of Poland, Charles, duke of Lorraine, and the princes of the empire, had the good fortune to oblige Mahomet to retire, and thus relieved the emperor and his capital. Leopold was resolved -to be revenged on the Hungarians; he erected,a scaffold in the month of March, 1687, and it remained until the close of the year, during which time vic. tims without number were immolated by the hands of the executioner. The shocking butcheries which the Hungarians saw_ practised on their countrymen, filled them' with horror and intimidated them. The Turks were twice repulsed and Hungary submitted. Transylvania was conquered, and in possession of the Imperialists. The crown, which, since the time of Ferdinand I. had been elective, was now declared hereditary; and Joseph, son of Leopold, was crowned king at the close of the year 1687. It continued in the possession Of the Old Austrian House until the death of Charles VI., 1740. After his death, Maria Theresa, his daughter, who had married into the House of Lorraine, and was by right heiress to his hereditary states, was in great danger of being deprived. France and Bavaria overran her dominions; but at length she overcame all her difficulties; her husband, after the death of Charles VII. of Bavaria, was also invested with the joint sovereignty. She dying in 1780, her son, Joseph II., emperor of Germany,. succeeded. He dying in 1790, his next brother, Peter Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, became king of Hungary; but died five months after his elevation, and: was succeeded by his eldest son Francis. By the constitution of Hungary the crown is still held to be elective. This point is not disputed. All that is insisted on is, that the heir of the House of Austria should be elected as often as a vacancy happens'1THE HISTORY OF PRUSSIA. THE name of Prussians was unknown till the tenth century; and Its etymology is very uncertain; some authors suppose that the former innabitants, alluding to their proximity to the Russians, called themselves Porussi, or, bordering on the Russians; for po, in the old Prussian lan THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 167 guage signifies near. In that age the king of Poland took great pains, and even made use of fire and sword, for the conversion of the pagan Prussians to Christianity. Boleslaus I. began with chastising the Prussians for the murder of St. Albert, or Adelbert, called the apostle of that nation. His successors had also several quarrels with the Prussians; and Boles laus IV. who committed dreadful ravagesin this country, lost his life in an unsuccessful battle in 1163. In the thirteenth century, the -Prussians ravaged Culm, Cujavia and Masovia; upon which Conrad, duke of Masovia, was obliged to apply for assistance to his allies, who all wore the cross, which emblem they carried into the field against the Prussians, whom they considered as the enemies of the Christian name. But all their efforts proving ineffectual, the duke applied to the German knights of the Teutonic order, and strongly represented the great importance of defending the frontiers:. Accordingly, in 1230, they obtained the palatinates of Culm and Doberzin for twenty years, and afterwards forever, with the absolute authority over any future conquests in Prussia. These knights, after a long and bloody war, during the space of fifty-three years, by the assistance of the swordbearing knights, subdued the whole country. A war afterwards broke out between the Teutonic knights and the Lithuanians, which was attended with the most. dreadful outrages. These knights made religion the cloak of their ambitious views, and, under the pretence of propagating the gospel of peace, committed the most inhuman barbarities; nay, it is generally agreed, that they extirpated the native Prussians, and planted the Germans there in their stead. Their territory at that time extended from the Oder along the Baltic, to the bay of Finland, and contained cities like Dantzic, Elbing, Thorn, Culm, &c. But, in 14i0, their savage zeal received a terrible check; for after a most bloody battle they were wholly defeated. In 1554 half of Prussia revolted from its obedience to the Teutonic order, and declared for Casimir III., king of Poland. This occasioned a fresh effusion of blood: till at last a- peace was concluded in 1466, by which it was agreed, that the part now called Polish Prussia should continue a free province under the king's protection; and that the knights-and the grand-master should possess the other part, acknowledging themselves vassals of Poland. The knights soon endeavoured, but in vaq, to throw off this yoke., In 1519 they raised new wars, which were termiqated in 1525 by a peace concluded at Cracow; by which it was agreed, that the margrave Albert, grand-master of the Teutonic order, should be acknowledged duke or sovereign of the eastern part of Prussia, which he was to hold as a fief of Poland, and which was to descend to his male heirs; and upon failure of male issue, to his brothers and their male heirs. Thus ended the sovereignty of the Teutonic order in Prussia, after it had subsisted three hundred years. The new duke favoured the introduction of the reformed religion into his dominions, and founded the university of Konigsberg. The elector Joachim added the duchy of Prussia to the electoral house of Brandenburg, with which it had been closely connected. The reign of the elector George William was unhappily distinguished by the calamities of a thirty years' war, in which Prussia suffered much from the ravages of the Swedes. Frederic William, called the "great elector," from his extraordinary talents as a general, a statesman, and a politician, obtained, in 1656, by a treaty with Poland, an extinction of the honiage heretofore paid to that kingldom; and he was acknowledged by the powers of Europe, a sovereign independent duke. He made firm his right in Juliers; obtained Cleves; recovered part of Pomerania; and increased the popula. tion of his country by affording an asylum to the refugees of France, after the impolitic revocation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. Frederic, his son, raised the duchy of Prussia to a kingdom; and on the 18th of 168 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY January, 1701, in a solemn assembly of the States of the empire, placed the crown with his own hands, on his own head and that of his consort; soon after which he was acknowledged king of Prussia by all the other Christian power$. His son, Frederic William I., who ascended the throne in 1713, greatly increased the population of his country by the favourable reception he gave to the distressed and persecuted Saltzburgers, as his grandfather had done by making it an asylum to the Huguenots, when driven out of France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the year 1684. He was wise, bold, and economical; his principal study the aggrandizement of his kingdom. This monarch was succeeded in 1740 by his son Frederic II,, then in the 29th year of his age, who rendered his kingdom formidable, by his valour and his prudence, and promoted the happiness of his subjects by an amendment and simplification of the laws, the increase of commerce, and many wise regulations. His depredations on Poland, and his arbitrary and unjust violation of the guaranteed privileges of Dantzic, as well as the oppressions which the: city of Thorn endured, though they might serve to aggrandize his kingdom, sullied his name in the eyes of an impartial posterity.- On the death of the emperor Charles VI., in the same year, Frederic led a large army into Silesia, to a considerable part of-which duchy he laid claim. He for some time maintained a war against Maria Theresa, daughter of the late emperor, who was married to the grand-duke of Tuscany;but on the 13th of June, 1742, a treaty between the queen of Hungary and the king of Prussia was signed at Breslau.; by which the former ceded to the latter Upper and Lower Silesia, with the county of Glatz in Bohemia, and the king of Prussia engaged to pay certain merchants of London, the sums which they had advanced to the late emperor, commonly called "the Silesian loan;" and'at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the contracting powers guaranteed to him whatever had been thus ceded. His father had ever paid peculiar attention to his army, but the attention of the son was more judiciously and effectually directed: for, in the year 1756, he had 150,000 of'the best troops in Europe. At that time a league was formed against him by the empress-queen, and the court of Versailles; Augustus, king of Poland and elector of Saxony, had secretly become a party to this confederacy, the object of which was to subdue the Prussian dominions, and partition them -among the contracting powers. Frederic obtained early and authentic information of his danger from Saxony, and proceeded with no less spirit than effect to avert it. He marched a powerful army into that electorate; compelled the troops of the elector to lay down their arms; became master of Dresden; entered the palace, got possession of the corespondence which had been carrying on against him, and published to all Europe the authentic documents he had thus obtained; which fully justified him in the hostilities he had thus commenced. The war soon after raged with great fury, and the empress o! Russia joined the confederacy against this devoted monarch; but his unparalleled exertion, judicious measures, and personal bravery, which were powerfully supported by the wealth and arms of Great Britain, finally baffled all the attempts of his enemies, and the general peace which was ratified in 1763, terminated his labours in the field. The Great Frederic, long regarded as the hero of the Prussian monarchy, and par excellence the hero of the age, brought to perfection what his father had so successfully begun. He resisted the power of half Europe, and, by his- conquests and the wisdom of his administration, he doubled the number of his subjects, and almost the extent of his territories. He was as great in his projects as he was fortunate in their execu. tion; he was a legislator, a general, a statesman, a scholar, and a philosopher. Indeed it may be said, he was one of those men whom nature only nroduces at long intervals; but at the same time, it must not be forgotten f['HE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 169 that, instead of exercising a paternal care for his people, he regarded the Prussian nation as a foreign general regards the army under his command; his sole thoughts, in fact, appearing to be constantly centred in the love of fame and power. We collect from the writings of Dr. Moore, the following description of this extraordinary personage, as he appeared at the time the sketch was written: " The king of Prussia is below the-middle size, well-made, and remarkably active for his time of life. He has become hardy by exercise and a laborious life, for his constitution seems originally to have been none of the strongest. His look announces spirit and penetration; he has fine blue eyes. and his countenance, upon the whole, may be said to be agreeable. His features acquire a wonderful degree of animation while he converses. He stoops considerably, and inclines his head almost constantly on one side; his tone of voice is the clearest almost imaginable. He talks a great deal, yet those who hear him regret that he does not say a great deal more. His observations are always lively, very often just, and few men possess the talent of repartee in greater perfection. He hardly ever varies his dress, which consists of a blue coat lined and faced with red,;.3nd a yellow waistcoat and breeches; he always wears boots with hussa; fops, which fall in wrinkles about his' ankles. From four or five o'clock in the morning till ten at night, this king dedicates all his hours, methodically, to particular occupations, either of business or amusement. He seldom appears at the queen's court, or any place where women form part of the assembly; consequently he is seldom seen at festivals. All his hours not employed in business he spends in reading, music, or the society of a few people whom he esteems. The only repose which the king allows to himself, is between the hours of ten at night and four in the morning; the rest of his time, in every season of the year, is devoted to action either of the body or mind, or both. While few objects are too great for this monarch's genius, none seem too small for' his attention. Although a man of wit, yet he can continue methodically the routine of business with the patience and perseverance of the greatest dunce. The meanest of his subjects may apply to him in writing and are sure of an answer. His first business every morning is the perusing of papers addressed to him. A single word, written with his pencil in the margin, indicates the answerlto be given, which is afterwards made out in form by his secretaries. He sits down to dinner precisely at noon; of late he has allowed more time at this repast than formerly; it is generally after three before he leaves the company., Eight or nine of his officers are generally invited to dine with him. At table, the king likes that every person should appear to be on a footing, and that the conversation should be carried on with perfect freedom, It is absolutely inmpossible for any man to enjoy an office in the king of Prussia's service, without performing the duty of it; but to those who know their business, and perform it exactly, he is an easy and equitable master..,The king understands what ought to be done, and his servants are never exposed to the ridiculous or contradictory orders of ignorance, or the mortification of caprice. His favourites, of whatever kind, were never able to acquire influence over him in anything regarding business. Nobody ever knew better than this prince how to discriminate between the merits of those who serve him in the important departments of the state and those who contribute to his amusement. A man who performs the duty of his office with alertness and fidelity has nothing to apprehend from the king being fond of the company and conversation of his enemy; let the one be regaled at the king's table every day, while the other never receives a sin gle invitation, yet the real merit of both is known; and if his adversary should ever try to turn the king's favour to the purpose of private hatred or malice, the attempt would be repelled with disdain, and the evil he intended for another would fall upon himself. The steady and unwearied 170 THE TREASU RY OF HISTORY. attent on which this monarch has bestowed, for more than forty years, to he discipline of the army, is unparalleled either in the ancient or modern history of mankind. This perseverance of the king, as it is without example, so it i's the most remarkable part of his extraordinary character. That degree of exertion which a vigorous mind is capable of making on some very important occasions, Frederic II. has made during his whole reign at a stretch, without permitting pleasure, indolence, disgust, or disappointment to interrupt his plan for a single day; and he has obliged every person, throughout the various departments of his government, to make the like exertion as far as their characters and strength could go. In what manner must such a king be served! and what is he not capable of performihng! Twice every year he makes the circuit of'his dominions. This great prince is so perfectly exempt from suspicion and personal fear, that he resides at Sans Souci, in his electoral dominions, without any guard whatever; an orderly sergeant or corporal only attends in the daytime, to carry occasional orders to the garrison at Potsdam, whither he alway returns in the evening." Frederic died in 1786, and left to his nephew, Frederic William II. (by some called Frederic III.) an extensive and prosperous kingdom, a large and well-disciplined army, and a well-filled treasury; but he possessed none of those commanding talents, that energy, or that patient perseverance, which so eminently distinguished his predecessor. The finances of Prussia were soon exhausted; and in consequence of the high rank among the European states to which Frederic the Great had elevated her, she was obliged to take a prominent part in the most important affairs of -the continent, which, without his genius, could not be maintained. Frederic William II. died in 1797, and was succeeded by his son Frederic William IlI. By the partition of Poland in 1792, and its final dismemberment in 1795, Prussia acquired a great extension of territory, including the important city of Dalltzic, and upwards of two millions of inhabitants. In 1796 the Prussian cabinet made a secret treaty with-France; and after many sinister and vascillating movements, Prussia resolved upon the maintenance of a strict neutrality, which, in the state of Europe at that time, was impossible. In 1803 France occupied Hanover; and in 1805, when a third coalition was forming -against France, Prussia wavered more than ever Alexander of Russia appeared at Berlin, and brought about the convention of Potsdam, Nov. 3, 1805; but after the battle of Austerlitz, Prussia sought for and obtained peace with France, and was consequently compelled to submit to the conqueror. Again, when Napoleon had concluded the confederacy of the Rhine, Prussia stepped forward to arrest his gigantic power; but the battle of Jena disclosed to the world iow impossible it was for her to contend against the emperor and his confederated allies. The peace of Tilsit reduced Prussia to half its former dimensions, which half had to support 150,000 French soldiers until the end of 1808, and to pay 120 millions of francs, while French troops were to retain possession of the fortresses of Strettin, Kustrien, and Glogau. The minister Von Stein, who was long at the head of affairs, was a most uncompromising enemy of France, and being in consequence compelled by them to quit Germany, Baron Hardenberg was placed at the head of the government as state-chancellor. The dontinuance of French oppression at length roused the spirit of the people. After Napoleon's Russian campaign the population rose en masse, and to their zealous efforts in the cause of oppressed Europe, the completeness of his discomfiture may be mainly at tributed. The part which Prussia played in this great game of war wt have elsewhere related, and it is not consistent with the limits of out work to make needless repetitions; it is sufficient to state, that at til general peace of 1815, Prussia became more powerful than ever; for. al THE TREASUi %Y OF HISTORY. 171 though a portion of her Polish dominions passed into the hands of Russia, it was more than compensated by valuable acquisitions in Saxony, Pome. rania, &c. In June, 1840, the king died, and was succeeded by his son, Frederic IV., a prince possessing many amiable qualities. His majesty has since paid a visit to Queen Victoria, and was sponsor to the infant prince of Wales. The following observations are so explanatory of the present influence of Prussia in the scale of European politics, that we unhesitatingly adopt them, from "' The Brittannia;" and in transferring them to our pages, beg to acknowledge their worth: "Since the peace of 1815- Prussia has been tranquil. Her tremendous suffering in the war closed in a triumph of the most exalting and memorable rank. Of all nations she alone had the preeminent honour of sharing in the consummate victory which extinguished the French empire; and since that period she has advalced in a course of tranquil but progressive prosperity. Prussia is a despotism, but the beau ideal of a despotism. As Plato imagined a republic, the future Plato who shall adopt the cause of despotism might refer to its reality as the most expressive instance of a government directed by the sole will of an intelligent, active and patriotic king. Bacon, we think, says that if an angel were on the throne, despotism would be the finest government in the world. This' is true, for the unity of council. the decision of conduct, the power which prevents tumults, and the impartiality which provides for justice to all, are the first essentials to all government. But, since men are not angels, and the best of kings cannot be security for the principles of his successor, we are compelled to find that security in constitutional restraints, in laws regulating the conduct of kings as well as of subjects, in coronation oaths, which are obligations, and in penalties which protect those obligations. The chief immediate expenditure of all European nations is in their means of defence, whether military or naval. In England it is enormous. At this moment of universal peace, a peace, too, of twenty-five years, the expenses of the fleet and army are not under twelve millions of pounds. It is worth our wonder to know, that the whole expense of the military force of Prussia, 500,000 men, is not much more than half the expense of the force of England, or 90,000. This is by the simple but admirable arrangement of dividing the whole force into two parts, the standing army and the landwehr. The landwehr is a standing militia, which forms the reserve of the army, and is augmented from the ranks of the regular troops, instead of supplying recruits to them. This system is peculiar to Prussia, and is thus organized. The standing army, is merely the military school, and the landwehr forms the nucleus of the army. The landwehr of the first class perform the annual exercises with the regular troops, and the eye of a military observer would detect no difference in the manceuvres of either corps. The second levy consists chiefly of soldiers who have been drafted from the standing army to the first levy, and from thence to the second, when arrived at the requisite age. The number of men required for the regular army is taken from those between 20 and 25 years of age, the remainder of whom are enrolled in the second levy (or landwehr of the second class). The period of service in the army is for three years; but young men of any station in life are allowed, instead, to enter the army as volunteers, and serve as privates for one year, without receiving any pay. At the end of one year they go over to the reserve, in which they continue two years; the others, after three years in the army and two in the reserve, are sent into the levy of the first class; and after twelve years' service in the army, the reserve and the landwehr of the first class pass into the landwehr of the second. The -horses for the cavalry of the landwehr are furnished by the landed owners of the Circle during the continuance of the annual exercises. W hen arrived 172 THE TRlEAStYRY OF HISTORIY. at the age of 39, the soldiers of the second levy are incorporated in the landstrum, where they remain until the age of 50; they are then released from all military service. We believe that Louis Philippe is as perfectly sincere in his wlsh for peace, as England is. But the people with whom he has to deal have none of his good sense, and the conquest of the Rhenish provinces is the dream of every cobbler in France. We agree entirely in the opinion that France would much more probably lose than gain by an attack on those provinces. Supposing England to be wholly passive, which it is notorious that she would not be, nay, could not, or that Russia would look on, German resistance, in its present state of preparation, would be formidable. The former facility of French conquest on the Rhine arose almost wholly from the weakness of the little Rhenish principalities, too small to resist separately and too jealous to unite. But the greater portion of those states are now consolidated into the Prussian sovereignty, and rest under the immediate direction of Austria." The-principal part of the Prussian dominions lies continuously along the south shore of the Baltic, between Russia and Mecklenburg. The inland frontier of this part of the monarchy on the east and south is sufficiently connected; but on the west side its outline is very irregular, some small independent states being almost entirely surrounded by the Prussian dominions.. But exclusive of this principal portion, there as an extensive Prussian territory on both sides of the Rhine; which is separated from the eastern part of the kingdom by Hesse-Cassell, part of Hanover, Brunswick, &c. The canton of Neufchatel, in Switzerland, and some detached territories in Saxony, also belong to Prussia. Considering the importance of making Prussia a first-rate power as a counterpoise to Russia on the one -hand, and to France on the other, it is to be regretted that at the congress of Vienna her share of Poland was diminished, and that her territories were not rendered more compact. THE HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS COMPRISING HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. THE NETHERLANDS, or Low Countries, which now form two populout kingdoms, though of second-rate importance when compared with the great European powers, were at the commencement of the Christian era mere dreary marshes and dismal forests of vast extent, which were frequently overflowed by the sea. This inhospitable low track was thinly inhabited by people of German origin, called Batavians and Frisians, many of whom lived in miserable huts, raised on wooden piles, or built upon mounds of sand, to secure them above the reach of the tides. But it is not to be understood that the entire region was of this description; although it has been graphically said, that whole forests were occasionally thrown down by a tempest, or swept away by inundation-that the sea had no limits and the earth no so.idity. The higher grounds, extend i Iin,/. i i.I iil,:. i iiit.. i, ii''li, Intel.~~~~~~~~;i ~lt ~~'~', i i. i i i','..'- %-T,, i! " I Ii! /Ii I jail dijli fjJ " i i,..., ~..!~ilz j j,II )Il t I J -~~ ji'it~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 173 ing from the Rhine to the Scheldt, including that vast extent of woody country, the ancient forest of Ardennes, were inhabited by various tribes of the German race, who subsisted by agriculture and the chase. They had towns and villages in the heart of the forest; their country produced abundant supplies of corn and cattle; they were courageous and uncivil-.zed; the rites of Druidism were observed, as in Britain; and the people consisted of two classes, chiefs and slaves. When the Romans under Julius Caesar subdued the Gauls, that warlike nation turned their arms also against the people we have just spoken of, whose country they denominated Gallia Belgica, or Belgium; but they did not pursue their conquests farther towards the north, thinking probably that the desert plains and patches of land rising, as it were, from their watery bed, were scarcely worth the trouble of exploring, much less of contending for. They accordingly offered peace and alliance to that part of the Netherlands now called Holland; while the Frisians were left to struggle with the Roman legions for their liberty. From the writings of Caesar we learn that Flanders was occupied by the Menappi and Morini, Brabant by the Atuatici, Hainault and Namur by the Nervii (so remarkable for desperate courage as to excite the wonder of the veterans of Rome), Luxemburg and Limburg by the Eburones, &c. Caesar emphatically describes the Belgians as the most warlike of the Gallic tribes, and observes thlat in stature and bulk they surpass the Romans. But though they fought with an energy and determination which nothing co:ud exceed, the discipline and military skill of the Romans eventually obtained thf mastery. In subduing this brave people the Romans had recourse to the most barbarous practises of ancient warfare; and for a time either exterinlnation or expulsion seemed to be necessary to conquer their fierce and valiant spirits; thus we read, that in Caesar's celebrated battle with the Nervii, near Namur, the army of the confederated tribes, amounting to 60,000 men, was reduced to 500, and that on taking the town of Tonigres he sold 53,000 of the Atuatici for slaves. By degrees, however, they became incorporated with their conquerors, adopted their maliners, and served in their armies, proving themselves, in many memorable inlst;l[ces, the ablest auxiliaries that ever fought by the side of the Romlna legions. In this state they remained for about four centuries, during which time the Belgic population underwent considerable changes from the successive invasions of the Franks from the north, whose progress westward terminated in their establishing the Frankish empire in Gaul. We have already had occasion more than once to notice, that when the Romans subjugated any country, the inhabitants, however barbarous, gradually became acquainted with the arts and advantages of civilized life, and that the subsequent prosperity and rank to which they attained in the scale of nations may justly be attributed to the connexion which subsisted between the conquerors and the conquered. Thus it was with the Belgic provinces. From the Romans they learned how to redeem their inundated lands from the briny flood, by constructing dykes, embankments, and canals; and as they were naturally an active and intelligent people, they drained their marshes, and prepared the land not merely as pasture for cattle and the growth of corn, but for the cultivation of choice fruits and vegetables; while towns and villages were built on higher ground, and the country, instead of being a dreary waste of bog-land and water, presented to the eye a varied prospect of fertility, and an industrious population. Towards the declension of the Roman empire, when its rulers were compelled to withdraw their troops from the provinces, Gallia Belgica shared the fate of the rest; and it was successively overrun by the various tribes from the north of Germany. But notwith. standing these serious disadvantages, the spirit of improvement kept pace with the age; more land was reclaimed from the ocean, and ren 174 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY dered both productive and habitable. The maritime lowland descendants of the Menapii, now blended with Saxons and Frisians, coltinued to prosper in commerce and agriculture. Large towns had been NIuilt, and many arts and manufactures, brought from other countries, were carried on with credit and success. Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and other towns rose into importance, and the commercial importance of the Flemings was universally acknowledged. At what precise time the Christian religion was introduced it is impossible to speak with certainty; but we know that, previous to the reign of Charlemagne, the conversion of the people had become general, and that churches and monasteries existed in various parts of the country. But no trace of the fierce and valiant warriors of former days remained; their swords had, indeed, been turned into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, but feudal institutions had converted the free sons of the soil into abject vassals, who now toiled only to enrich the baronial lords and haughty priests, whose powers and possessions were immense. This state of vassalage did not, however, extend to the towns, the inhabitants of which were mostly merchants and manufactures, enjoying all the advantages of free citizens. Their industry and ingenuity not only made them wealthy, but obtained for them attention and respect; and, in the course of time, they elected their own magistrates, made their own laws, fortified their cities, and organized a regular militia from among themselves, so that they were able to maintain their privileges and defend their liberties against the encroachments of foreign princes or their own powerful nobles. At the period to which we are now referring, the maritime commerce of the Flemings had made a great progress with, Spain and England, from whence they had obtained large importations of wool. Their skill in the manufacture of wooleni stuffs and cloths had established for themna market in every foreign port; the herring-fishery was also a great source of wealth; and to these they added a large trade in corn, salt, and jewelry. In the eleventh century the country was divided into duchies, counties, and imperial cities: Brabant, or Lower Lorraine, and afterward Luxem. burg, Limburg, and Gueldres, were governed by dukes; Flanders, Holland, Zealand, Hainault, Artois, Namur, and Zutphen, by counts. Friesland Proper remained a free lordship; Utrecht became a bishopric, the secular authority of the bishop extending over Groningen and Overyssel. Of all these realms, the counts of Flanders were the most powerful, and, after their possessions had passed, in 1383, to the more powerful house of Burgundy, the latter, partly by marriages, partly by force or cession, obtained possession of the largest part of the Low Countries. During the crusades the Flemish burghers obtained great advantages, owing to the mania with which many of the nobles were seized to join the holy leaguers. In order to raise money for equipping armies to combat against the Saracens, they were induced to part with their lands and to grant great privileges and political powers to their wealthy tenants, who thus were enabled to purchase independence and a jurisdiction of their own, as we have before mentioned. "The people, conscious of their power, gradually extorted from their rulers so many concessions, that the provinces formed, in reality, a democracy, and were only nominally sub ject to the monarch of France and his nobles. When the rest of Europe was subject to despotism, and involved in comparative ignorance and bar. barism, the court of the counts of Flanders was the chosen residence of liberty, civilization, and useful knowledge; and when the ships of other nations scarcely ventured beyond the sight of land, those of the Flemish merchants traversed the ocean, and Bruges and Antwerp possessed the commerce and wealth of the north of Europe. In this state the provinces.ong continued, until they came under the dominion of the duke of Burz TUE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 175 gundy, about the middle of the fifteenth century. Previous to this event, we find only unconnected duchies, counties, lordships, and towns, with innumerable rights, claims, and privileges, advanced and enforced now by subjects and vassals against each other or against their lords; and now by lords and vassals against the monarch, without the expression of any collective idea of Belgium as a nation. Under the Burgundian dynasty the commercial and manufacturing towns. of the Low Countries enjoyed a remarkable prosperity. The famous order of the Golden Fleece was instituted in 1430; and before the end of the fifteenth century the city of Ypres had 4,000 looms, and the city of Ghent 50,000 weavers. Bruges and Antwerp were the great marts of the commercial world, and contained each about 200,000 inhabitants. In the Flemish court of the duke of Burgundy, named Philip the Good, about 1455, luxurious living was carried to a vicious and foolish excess. The wealthy were clad in gorgeous velvets, satins, and jewelry, and their banquets were given with almost incredible splendour. "This luxury produced depravity and crime to such an extent that, in one year, 1,400 murders were committed in Ghent, in the gambling-houses and other resorts of debauchery. The arts were cultivated with great success. Van Dyck invented the beautiful oil colours for which the Flemish school is renowned. Painting on glass, polishing diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes were also invented in Belgium at this period. Most of the magnificent-cathedrals and town-halls in the country were built in the 13th and 14th centuries. History, poetry, and learning, were much cultivated, and the University of Louvain was the most celebrated in Europe. In 1477 Belgium passed under the dynasty of the empire of Austria; and after many years of contest between the despotic Maximilian and the democratic Flemings, the government, in 1519, descended to his grandson, Charles V., king of Spain and emperor of Germany. In his reign the affluence of the Flemish burghers attained its highest point The city of Ghent contained 175,000 inhabitants, of whom 100,000 were engaged in weaving and other industrial arts. Bruges annually exported stuffs of English and Spanish wool to the value of 8,000,000 florins. The Scheldt at Antwerp often contained 2,500 vessels, waiting their turn to come to the wharfs; her gates were daily entered by 500 loaded waggons; and her exchange was attended, twice a day, by 5,000 merchants, who expended 130,000 golden crowns in a single banquet given to Philip I[., son of Charles V. The value of the wool annually imported from England and Spain exceeded 4,00t,)00 pieces of gold. This amazing prosperity experienced a rapid arid fatal decline under the malignant tyranny and bigotry of Philip. The dc~trines of the protestant reformation had found very numerous adherents in Belgium; Luttleranism was preached with phrenzied zeal by several popular fanatics, who drew around them crowds amounting sometimes to 10,000 or 15,000. Parties of iconoclasts also appeared, and demolished the ornamental property of four hundred churches. Protestant persecution by the Inquisition had been commenced by Charles V.; but by Philip 11. it was established in its most diabolical extravagance. He filled the country with Spanish soldiers, and commissioned the duke of Alva to extirpate, without mercy, every protestant heretic in Belgium. Volumes have been written to describe the proceedings of this able soldier, but sanguinary persecutor, who boasted that in less than six years he had put to death 18,000 men and women by the sword, the gibbet, the rack, and the flames. Ruin and dread of death in its most hideous forms drove thousands of artisans to England, where they introduced the manufacturing skill of Bruges and Ghent. Commerce and trade in Flanders dwindled away, many of the rich merchants were reduced to beg for bread, the great cities were half deserted, and forest wolves often devoured the scattered inhabitants P' desolated villages." 176 THE TREASURY OF HISTORPY. These oppressions being exercised with the most tyrannical fury by Ferdinand of Toledo, duke of Alva, whom Philip had created governor, the Netherlands made a strong effort for their freedom, and William, prince of Orange, in conjunction with his brother, Count Louis of Nassau, undertook the defence of the inhabitants, in their noble struggles for religious and civil liberty. Accordingly, the states of Holland, in their own names conferred the stadtholdcrship, a title equivalent to lieutenant, on the former, and several other tbWns and provinces declared for him. He first united them, in 1576, in one general association, under the title of " The Pacification of Ghent." But this union being soon dissolved, the prince laboured to the utmost of;his power to form a more durable alliance, which he happily accomplished in 1579. In that year the celebrated league of Utrecht was concluded, which gave name to the United Provinces and became the basis and plan of the constitution. The prince of Orange was afterwards on the point of being nominated the sovereign of these countries, but was treacherously shot by an assassin named Belthazar Gerhard, who had assumed the name ofFrancis Guyon. This man was supposed to have been hired to perpetrate the murder by the Spanish ministry, but no tortures could force a confession from him. The United Netherlands, however, continued to maintain, sword in hand, that liberty to which they had raised themselves; and Elizabeth of England took them under her protection, and rendered them essential assistance. When the earl of Leicester, the favourite of the queen, was sent over by her to the Netherlands in the year 1685, the states appointed him governor and captain-general of the United Provinces, or in other words the stadtholder; but his haughty carriage, and unskilful manner of conducting the war, soon rendered him unpopular, and the next year he returned to England. The Dutch, being afterwatds better supported by the English, baffled all the attempts of the Spaniards; and their commerce arrived at such a height, that in 1602 their celebrated East India company was established, Spain, being both weakened and discouraged by the ill success;of a tedious war, in 1609 agreed to an armistice for twelve years, and in the very first article of the treaty ackno.wledged the United Netherlands to be a free and independent state. During this truce the republic attained to a degree of power which it has never since exceeded. Compelled by necessity to make war against the Spanish fleets, the republicans soon became excellent sailors, and enterprising, indefatigable merchants, who visited every sea, and to whom no port was too distant, no obstacle too discouraging. The commerce of Cadiz, Antwerp, and Lisbon, fell into their hands; and in this way the United'Netherlands were, in the middle of the 17th century, the first commercial state and the first maritime power in the world; for, with about one hundred vessels of war, they bade defiance to every rival, while England and -France rejoiced in the humiliation of the dreaded monarchy of Spain. The Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, conquered islands and kingdoms in Asia; and with about two hundred ships, they carried on a trade with. China and even with Japan. They alone supplied Europe with the pro. ductions of the spice islands. The gold, the pearls, the precious jewels of the East, all passed through their hands. The West India Company was not so successful, on account of the jealousy of England and France. Holland, nevertheless, for a long time maintained the dominion of the *sea. Van Tromp and De Ruyter were victorious,: and Louis XIV., who had laid a deep plan for humbling the daring republic, was finally exhausted, and obliged to sue for peace. These signal successes were principally obtained by the able conduct of Prince Maurice of Nassad, the second son of the first stadtholder; and to the same dignity this prince was chosen when only twenty-one vears THE -TREASURY OF HISTORY 177 of age. He conducted the affairs of the states, during twenty years, with great ability anll success. The latter, part of this prince's government was sullied by cruelty and ingratitude; for he procured the condemnation and death of the pensionary Barnevelt, to whose influence he owed his elevation. This man, who was an Armenian in religion and a republican in politics, was sacrificed to his opinions; but his death caused the political principles for which he suffered to spread more widely. Those who opposed the stadtholder were afterwards called'" the Louvestein party," from De Witt, burgomaster of Dort, and five other members of the states-general, being imprisoned in the castle for maintaining such sentiments. In 1621 the war wast again renewed" during which the stadtholder Prince Frederic. Henry, youngest son of the first William (who succeeded on the death of his half-brother, Prince Maurice, in 1625) greatly distin guished himself. This war was brought to a period in.648, by the peace of Munster, by which treaty Philip IV., king of Spain, renounced all claim to the tinited Netherlands. Frederic was succeeded by. his only son William, who was fourth stadtholder, being twenty-one years of age, He appears to have been ambitious, as was his father. In 1652 a war broke out between the United Provinces and England, the latter country being under a republican form of government: this war was terminated two years after,'by a treaty*, in which the states of Holland engaged forever to exclude the house of Orange from the stadtholdership of their province. In 1665 another war was kindled with England, at which time that country had regained its-regal constitution; this war continued until the treaty of Breda. The states of Holland and West Friesland then passed an edict, by which they abolished the stadtholdership in their province. This, was effected by the grand pensionary De Witt. M When France formed a design to seize, on the Spanish.Netherlands, the United Pro. vinces entered- into an alliance with the crowns of England and Sweden for the defence of those countries; by which France was, in 1668, compelled to agree to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; but soon took a severe revenge by breaking that alliance, and inducing England, with some other powers, to enterinto a league against the United Provinces; on which a war ensued. In this critical juncture, the republic, in ~672, nominated William, the young prince of Orange, captain and admiral general; and the populace compelled the states of Holland to invest him with the stadtholdership, which two years after was declared hereditary in his family. He was the fifth stadtholder and the third of that name; he married the princess Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, and became king of England. In the year 1678 a peace was concluded with France, at Nimeguen but it was of no long continuance, for, in 1688, the states supporting their stadtholder in his expedition to England, with a- fleet and a large body of troops, France declared war against them, which was terminated by the the peace of Ryswick in 1697. At, length, on the death of Charles I. king of Spain, in the year 1700, the Spanish provinces fell to the share of the house of Austria, and the republic became involved in a war respect mg that succession, which continued till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. William died king of England and stadtholder of the United Provinces, in 1702. HIe appointed John William Frizo, prince of Nassau Dietz, his sole heir, who was born 1687, and was drowned in crossing an arm of the sea at Mardyke, 14th July, 1711. Three months after his death his widow was delivered of a son, who was christened William, and afterwards became stadtholder; but on the death of W'illiam III. that office was laid aside, until, in 1722, the province of Guelders elected him their stadtholder, notwithstanding.the remonstrances of the other provinces. On the decease of the emperor Charles VI. the Dutch assisted the queenr of Hungary against France, which drew on them the resentment of th;.12 78 THE TBREASURY OF HISTORY. power; and in 1747, the French making an irruption into Dutch Flanders the republic unanimously declared the above mentioned William, prince ol Orange, stadtholder, captain-general, and admiral-in-chief, making those dignities hereditary in his family, even in the female and collateral branches. In the general war which broke out in -Europe in 1756, the Dutch, taking no part in the quarrel, were perhaps the greatest gainers, by supplying the belligerent powers with naval and military stores; and when the dispute between Great Britain and, the American colonies re kindled the flames of war, the most essential assistance was procured both to America and France, by means of the Dutch settlement at St. Eusta tius, and of the freights brought by their ships. At length it was discovered by the capture of an American packet, that a treaty between the American States and the province of Holland was actually adjusted, and that. Mr. Laurens, formerly of the congress, was appointed to reside at Amsterdam in a public capacity. This occasioned the court of London first to cancel all treaties of commerce and alliance which then subsisted between that kingdom and the United States, and soon after, in December, 1780, to issue a declaration of hostilities against the republic. The resentment of Great Britain proved extremely fatal to the possessions and wealth of the Dutch; the island of St. E-ustatius, with a large fleet of valuable merchant ships, fell an easy prey to a naval and military forcer under the command of Admiral Rodney and General Vaughan; several homeward-bound East India ships, richly laden, were either taken by the English or destroyed; Negapatam, on the Coromandel coast, and their chief settlement on the Island of Ceylon, were wrested from them; and a fleet of merchant ships bound to the Baltic, convoyed by a squadron of Dutch men-of-war, under the command of Admiral Zoutman, were obliged to return to the Texel, and one of the 74 gun ships was sunk in a very sharp action which happened with a British squadron under the command of Admiral Hyde Parker. In the mean time the emperor of Germany, attentive to the improvement of his dominions in the Low Countries, and desirous of procuring for his subjects the advantages to be derived from the extension of their commerce, determined to oblige the Dutch to allow a free navigation on the Scheldt, which river, by the treaty of Munster, in the year 1648, they possessed exclusively. To procure this, a ship, bearing the imperial flag, proceeded down the Scheldt from Antwerp; the captain being ordered not to submit to any detention or examination whatever from the ships belonging to republic of the Seven United Provinces, or to make any declaration at the custom-houses belonging to the republic on that river, or to acknowledge them in any manner whatever. At the same time another vessel was ordered to sail from Ostend up the Scheldt to Antwerp. They were both stopped by the Dutch on their passage, which the emperor construed into a declaration of war on the part of the republic, although by the 14th article of the treaty of Munster, entered into with Philip IV. of Spain, it was stipulated that the Scheldt should remain shut; in consequence of which that river had remained guarded by two forts, Lillo and Lieskenshock, assisted by guard-ships. An army of eighty thoutsand men was now assembling; and some imperial troops, with a train of artillery, advancing towards Lillo, the governor ordered the sluices to be opened in November, 1784, which laid a large extent of circumjacent country under water. A war between the emperor and the republic seemed to be inevitable; but the interposition of the courts of Versailles and Berlin prevented that evil; and the emperor at length agreed to give up his claims, on receiving a very large sum of money from the Dutch, to indemnify him for the expenses which hadobeen incurred by his prepartations for war. Williamn V., the seventh stadtholder, on the death of his father in 174i-. THE TREASURY OF -HISTORY. 179 succeeded to that dignity when only three years of age; the princess-dowaget, his mother, who was princess-royal of England, (being the eldest daughter' of George II.), was appointed governess and guardian to the young prince; the prince of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel acted as captaingeneral and lord-high-admiral during the minority, which continued until the year 1766, when the prince' having attained to; the age of eighteen, tookl upon himself the administration of public affairs. The year following he married the princess Fredelica Wilhlelmina of Prussia. The amiable manners and benign disposition of this prince'procured him general esteem, while the absolute ascendancy w;hich the duke of Brunswick had acquired, during so long'a minority, over-the mind of a prince in whom gentleness and acquiescence were such prevailing qualities, caused him still to retain his plenitude of power. It was not long, however, before the people began to complain that-the most undisguised partiality was shown to- foreigners in the appointments to offices. One of the chief favourites about the person of the prince of Orange was Capellan Vander Marsh, who had been advanced from a low origin to the station of chamberlain, and ennobled.'This man having continual opportunities of conversing with the prince in private, represented to him the necessity there,was for him to interfere, by exerting that authority which -the states had vested in him, and. no longer to delegate it in so unqualified a manner. The prince acknowledged the justice of the suggestion, and promised to act'upon it; but when instan'ces were pointed out in which he might render himself highly popular by appointing certain persons to vacant offices, he found the restraints in which he had ever been accustomIed to be held too strong to be broken. This led Capellari to desert the -ause of his master, and to join the republican party. Soon after' the duke of Brunswick resigned his employment and quitted the country., The republican, or anti-stadtholderian'party, which, as we have already seen, had subsisted in the provinces ever since the year 1647, or from the death of Maurice, the second stadtholder, found in the ministry of France the most effectual support which intrigue and a lavish distribution of money could render. More thana million of money had been issued from the treasury of the court of Versailles to further the interests of this party. However secretly these practices might be carried on, they were not concealed fi'om the courts of London and Berlin, who were no less strenuous to support the Orange party.. Dissensions thus fomented by foreign interference, rose to a destructive height; and each party imbibed the most rancorous spirit against the other, insomuch that it was thought to be no longer safe for the prince and princess, with their family, to reside at the Hague; they therefore, in September, 1785, retired to Nimeguen. In this posture of affairs, the princess of Orange, who possessed an elevated mind, great abilities, and an enterprising spirit, determined on a very bold and. decisive measure; which was, to proceed, without the prince, and with only two or three attendants to the Hague, to make the experiment how far her presence and address could be rendered serviceable to the cause of the prince her husband. As she was proceeding on her journey on the 28th of June, 1787, she was stopped near Schoonhoven, byv a commandant acting under the republican party, detained there during the succeeding night, and absolutely restricted from proceeding any farther. This indignity determined her to return to Nimeguen, qnd a representation of the treatment she had received was immediately transmitted to the king of Prussia, her brother, who had succeeded " the great Frederic" on that throne. The king supported the cause of his sister with great warmth; but the states of Holland not being disposed to make any concessions, the reigning duke of Brunswick, nephew to the duke who hiad filled the high offices in Hoiland, was placed at the head "of an army of Prussians, amountihg to eighteen thousand effective men, whom he 180 THE TREASURY OF HISTOPIf. led on the 13th of September into the province of Guelderland, for tile express purpose of restoring the princee of Orange to his rights. The judicious distribution of the troops, and the vigour of their opera Lions, ieflected the highest credit on the commander. A general panic seized the republican party; only the town of Goream, which was commanded by Capellan, sustained a bombardment for about an hour; the other places of strength opened their gates at the first summons. Even the strong city of Utrecht, in which were ten thousand men in arms, and whose fortifications had been greatly strengthened, instead of meeting with firmness the approach of the enemy, was deserted by the whole republican party, with all the precipitancy of desperation. These rapid successes of the duke caused the Orange partylto gain the ascendency at the Hague; but the city of Amsterdam remained determined to- resist to the utmost; relying upon'the prodigious strength of the place, which both nature and art, it had ever been-supposed, contributed to render impregnable. The duke, however, made his arrangements for attacking the city in various directions, leading on his choicest troops to the most perilous assault in person. After a very obstinate conflict, some of the most important of the outworks were taken, which'gave the besiegers a secure lodgement, and threatened the city with a destructive bombardment; the magistracy of the city finding themselves thus placed, thought it high time to submit to terms. After this event, nothing material occurred till the invasion of.the French revolutionists, which changed the whole aspect of affairs both in Holland and Belgium. In 1792 the national assembly sent General Dumouriez, at the head of a large army, to invade Belgium, it being an object of first rate importance to deprive Austria of that country; and, in November, the French general gained a great victory at Jenappe, in Hainault. In a few days afterwards Dumnouriez made his triumphant entry into Brussels. The party who favoured the French was made too strong, conjointly with the invaders, for the friends of the'house of Orange to resist the invaders with any chance of- success; accordingly, in a very short time, all the principal towns of the Netherlands submitted to the French; and it was pompously asserted by the latter, that it was the wish of the Belgians themselves to throw off the government of Austria, and -be incorporated with the French republic. That many really wished this, there can be no doubt; but though the turbulent and disaffected were numerous, such an union was not desired by the majority of those who had anything to lose. Although by a very easy conquest the French had gained possession of the'Netherlands, the emperor of Austria took immediate measures'iwith a view to its recovery. A large army, under the archduke Charles, joined by the duke of York and the prince of Orange, at the head of their English and Dutch troops, contended for a time with the armies of France; but after two years of warfare, in which the allied troops, but more particu larly the British, suffered very severely, the cause of the stadtholder grew hopeless. When, therefo.re, in 1794,,the victorious banners of republican France waved on the frontiers of Holland, the malcontents again rose. Pichegru, aided by the severity of the winter, in 1795, and by the favom of,the popular party towards the French, made an easy conquest of Hol. land. The hereditary stadtholder fled with his family to England, and the Batavian republic was formed, May 16, 1795. The old provinces were now merged into one republic; the legislative power, in imitation of the French, was given to a representative asse — bly; and the executive to a directory of five. The new republic was obliged to cede to-France some southern districts, particularly Maestricht. XVenloo, Limburg, and Dutch Flanders; to form a perpetual alliance with that state; pay a sum of one hundred millions of guilders; and allow the French troops to occupy its territories. Six years after, it was found :I'P1 TR'EASURY OF JISTORPY, 181 Liccesay to alti r-)-his constitution. The republic waes againm divided into 1h old01 provincecs in additiorn to which the land of the generality" was'b1rm-cd into ina eia Phtho The administration of the government was" sima Ilified;`bho!egisjatives assembly diminished to tihirty-five depnties; and,he ex:cucti'e pow"e was extended to a council of state of twelve men. t 1ithsi'oj'' ese alter ations, thee Batri an rep'blie, incapable of fcoing it ends A vithh the feeble remains of its strength, saw its flects cverpov Cerei.- by tlose of England; its colonies laid waste; its commerce limite" to, coasting teade, and to the domestic consumption; and the'bank oJ f A sterda uindm By t.he pence of Amiens, in 180`f, it'was de5pi:vec or Ccyson, o::.e of its richest colonies~ When ipeace hC11d been conn cluded l, et een GC.isat' Britain and Francel and the hopes of be[ttes tiimes venre' just alwaenedo, dIhe halcyon itdream yes suddenly dipselleds and. the thu.de.,: of Iwa ag'ain resounded on the shores of' s-Tollando Its ports iwere blo0kaided iOs feets " Ler e annihi lted, nd its distant colonies fell into tihe cowe" oc dtuhe:British; its prosperity, indeed, seemed forever gone; it was treated as n conquered country, and all the ad.vantages p roised[ by its "en';ubican sa'ies _pvied a nc e ch ime'ae In 005, th-e DIutch constituion was ch i.ged i the third tim: b ibut so ir firom any improvement ct akicg place in the condition of tihe comnitry, it constinued to Cow veeorsee and thei only remedy that 1now seemed to preo sert itself cwas th icorporaetion of HIollanidc withl thIe Frenchli empire. Tis accondini'ly took- plice in 306C, tthe mode in whlich it was aecomolished mbeins by ereicting it into a kingdom, of whlich Louis Boniaparte,, onee of N"ape!eo i's bsotti_'s,.sv/a invested withl the sovereim'nty' But itHolland was equally u11fortnteals k1ingdo1, as whe t i as adesignnated thle Bai:.:. n "ebunbh.ieo 1ou:!,'y aC tieaty' iah Frainee I(ice' Louis poss":'ca he rihc of a tonstitoutoioal monarch and swas disposed to exoecise his tltho with Vi' mildness aCnd impartial'ity, he was niade the eme"' inl:~;h'um~en' ~ of _Napo! on~ It is true that he hiesitated iin enforcing, if he dmi -o ro 4 s'[ the arbci t'ary odecees of tile emlperor, andu that hie incurred no0 ma n"!! share of hi s disabpp Io batio n il conlsequence bu n his efiorts to promote Itis weal of his subj"cts proved wholly ineffectual, so thoroughly'onti'o!lled wac as hi'S the powier to whom lie owed his regali elevation..UI-olla'id cwa excl.'idled from thr e commercial privilg'eso of FiriiMcc, incciugll i1 lad to follow' aol the war's of Napoleon. Thle nlational debt was aug':ne1 ed ci a00,000000'nidsers. The only'neans by which the imer"hanlt -o ld obtain a scpprt walas the smuggling trade withi Enlgland. AbNi/acost all'tl:'me r'luries of prosperity were, obstructed; and wnien Nlajpole.on's olilan decsre" (0of INav. 11, 1801) was proinulgated, and lthe Duntel'portsi ier/o 0hut 1i1 aogainist British commerce, ithe tlade of Iollanid wasi Cotally ruineid. The ell-disposed king, lamenting evils which he ihad no power %o remedy, and anding that if he retained the sovereignty he must becnme a tysant agadinst his own wvill, voluntarily and unexpectedly abdid cared the crown, in faiour of his eldest son, a minor, July 1, 1810, and cwithdrecw itso the A' ustrain territory, as a private individual. Napoleon didc ot, liowever, sancltion his brother's measures~ The encl tiroops at onCC occupied Amsterdam, and a decree was passed for annexinig is ol!and to the French emrpire; six senators, six deputics in the couiel of state, two judges in the court 01 casationc, and twenty-'five depu tie s in the legislative body, beimng assigned to it.''he continenital sysemn vwas then more strictlyr ediforced, the taxes weere augmented, and the conscription laws were introduced, whereby husbainds, sons, and brothers were comnpelled to fioht; for a cause against which they had formerly con.l testedo TiIh c e cpaaciments, which lhad alreadyhben for ied in tie time of tihe kingdonm, o constituted two nilitajry divisions; and all tile Se:ve.neen provinces of the oNetherlands were united under the dominion P'F ranceoAt TanbgfiI the fortunbes of Bonsoaarsa'stst bh'an to dec!,le, alnd 38 2 qIT.E TREASURY O i lHISTORl-Y''he peo'ie looked forward with the hope that their worst days l ad passed, The prlince of Orange had died in England, in 1806; but his son wi:, iUving, and on him the hopes of the nation were fixed. The Riussian h sia paimg:nl of S129 so fatal'to the ambition of tile French emperor, was 1 re. ngardedc by the Dutch patriots as the advent of their deliverance uP Bonin parte was still in power, and lmost of the lfortresses in thel NetlErla rds were garrisoned with the French soldiers. vd'ent, tlhbmefoyre, as, dlleir feeelings were, and anxious as werse their bopze, shey p tientl)' -watchlled hat portentous cloud -I hich appe ared in the politital horizion. and which. at!ast burst with desolatig tury on the hosts of Nap(oleon a Leipsie, That important battle, mnay be said to have,decidled. the fiate o_ elgeiunr! ancld Htolandl' the alrnies of the allies advanced anainst Frallnee a cotm.bined Prussian and Rssiasin 0fote, under BElow, was sent against the Netheiltrl.lnds, anld was,oined by a detachnment fronm Engla. nd li ucniez' gJeriell GCaamil Atl. the nlieat towns now deecllared f o 1 William, m)rin tC~ of Oiranige h-o10, on the 13th of November', 1813, arriived at the H'tleg, anrl enas wne!coned with the slncerest tokens of joy and afeencion. HeT ironediiitely epairecd to Amsterdami, w0here he 0as proclaimned king1 the peon -le beifn llunanimously desirous that the stailtholderb j te should be changed into an hereditary monarchyo It was not long before the whole ncauntrw;as enctirely freed from the presenee of the hF`rench, and the new sosve. relign, (tihe si:xth in descent from the illuistrious fountder of the republic', was solerinlny inaugurated on the 30th of -:Marchb, f814, and proclainmed bh the title of WiVlliam I9 By a vote of tee congress of Velnna. the Be]gce provilAces were un`ite ievnitl lthe United Netherlands, to fo rm one.kinlgdomn anld William.n. Xv(A ATeeoguised by all the powers as sovereign king of the Netherlands~. At Ehe toiwe of this arranigemenl t a treaty wiias made witih Great Eritain, whicli poTwer ao reed to restore all the eolonies it had taken fTron tlhe D)ut(h, exicept the Cape of Cood Hope, Ceylon, Essequibo, Berbice, anl, Denme.?a'a This union by no means gave entire satisfaction; inlneed. there had never been naoy cordiality between thl two people, onwinw and Berne gained posession of the Pays de Vaud. At the same time, the reformed doctrines were propagated from Geneva by Calvin. By the peace of Lausanne, in 1564, Savoy first renounced her claims upon the Pays de Vaud, and was thus driven from Helvetia,'as Neuburg had been before. About this time (1555), Berne and Friburg divided between themselves the territories of the counts of Gruyere, so that, in all Helvetia, no great family of the ancient nobles retained its patrimonial estates, except- that of Henburg. The Swiss, however, were distracted by religious and political controversies. Ariqtocracy and democracy struggled for the superiority, and the intrigues of Spaii filled the people of the Valteline (1617-21) with a spirit of fanaticism. In foreign, and especially in the French service, the Swiss adopted foreign manners: they sold their blood to foreign masters; and the ancient Swiss purity and simplicity retired to the remote vallies of the higher Alps. At the same time, the connection of the confederacy with the German' empire> became less and less close, while the cantons obtained the confirmation of their rights from the emperor Maximilian II. But the influence of France soon became predominant, and Rome swayed the minds of its adherents by means of Jesuit colleges at Lucerne and Friburg; and particularly through the papal nuncio at Lucerne. In the thirty years' war, the confederates maintained a prudent neutrality; and, by the peace of Westphalia (1648), the complete separation of Switzerland from the German empire was at length solemnly acknowledged. In 1663, France renewed her alliance with the Swiss, and asserted that they had no right to form alliances with other powers. The conquest of the Franche Comte, in 1674, and the siege of Rheinfeld, in 167%, by the French, together with the erection of the fortress of Huningen, in 1769, excited the apprehensions of the Swiss.' They, however, happily maintained their neutrality, even in the war of the Spanish succession. During the persecution of the protestants in France, to whom they readily gave an asylum and pecuniary aid, they paid as little regard to the remonstrances of Louis, who viewed the reformers as rebels, as he did to the intercession of the protestant Swiss cantons in favour of their brethren in the faith. T'he Swiss had little influence In foreign politics during the eighteenth century; and, until towards its close, they suffered little from foreign interference. Tl'his tranquillity, which, however, was often interupted by internal dissensions, was alike favourable to the progress of commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, and to the arts and sciences. In almost every department of human knowledge, the Swiss of the eighteenth century, both at home and abroad, acquired distinguished reputation, -as the names of Haller, Bonnet, Bernouli, J. J. Rousseau, Lavater, Bodruer, Breitinger, Gessner, Sulzer, Hirzel, Fuseli, Hottinger, John von Muller, Pestalozzi, and many others, bear witness., The people of the democratic cantons enjoyed an almost unlimited freedom, and took a large share in the affairs of government. Those places which were under the general protection of the whole confederacy, were not burthened by excessive taxes; they enjoyed a high degree of civil freedom, and numerous municipal rights. The larger, cantons, as Berne and Zurich, in which the government was administered by the capitals, or by a body of citizens, who enjoyed many peculiar privileges, were also in a flourishing condition. There were no oppressive taxes; but almost everywhere the government was conscientiously conducted; tile administration of justice was cheap and simple, and benevolent instiutions were numerous. Nothwithstanding all these favourable circumstances, internal dissensions still continued, and new troubles arose in 228 THE TREASUMiY OF HISTORY. 1790, which shook the political fabric; blood was often spilt, and punisf.. ment rendered necessary. Although the Swiss had at first firmly maintained their neutrality in the wars of the French revolution, French power and-'ntrigue' gradually deprived them of their former constitution; and, after incorporating several portions of Switzerland with the French and Cisalpilie republics, the French converted the Swiss confederacy into the Helvetic republic, one and indivisible, under an executive directory of five persons. The legislative power was divided between -a senate and a great council, to which each of the fourteen cantons elected twelve members.. It was in vain that some of the democratic cantons attempted to prevent this revolution. They were speedily overpowered. But the weak. and corrupt men who were raised to power, soon made the new offices contemptible. Aloys Reding, a man of enterprising spirit, whose family were celebrated in the annals of his country, formed the-plan of'overthrowing the central government.: Underwalden, Schweitz, Zurich,:( lars, Appenzell, and the Grisons wished to restore the federal 9onstitution; and Reding imagined that Bonaparte himself, who had just withdrawn the French troops from Switzerland, would favour his plan. The smaller cantons, in their diet at Schweitz (August 6, 1'802), declared that they would,not accept the constitution which had been forced upon them, and that they preferred a federal- overnment. The consequence was a civil war. Zurich was besieged to no purpose' by the troops of the Helvetic republic, against whom its gates were shut. Rodolph von Erlach and General Auf der Maur, at the head of the insurgents, occupied Berne and: Friburg. The Helvetic government retired to Lausanne. Aloys Reding now summoned a general assembly, which was held at' Schweitz, September 27. Threo days after, the first consul of France offered to the cantons his mediation; but the small cantons, guided by Reding and Hirzel of Zurich, persevered in their opposition. Twelve thousand French troops entered Switzerland, under Ney, and the diet separated. Reding and Hirzel were iniprisoned. In, December, both parties sent deputies of the eighteen cantons to Paris, to whom Bonaparte transmitted by Barthelemy, Fonuch6, and Roderer, the act of mediation of February 19, 1803, restoring the cantonal system, but granting freedom- to the former subjects of the cantons. The cantons were now nineteen in number:-Aargau, Appenzell, Basle, Berne, Friburg, Glarus, Grisons, Lucerne, St. Gall, Schaffhausen, Schweitz, Soleure, Tessin, Thurgan, Underwalden, Uri, Pays de Vaud Zug, and Zurich. The republic of Valais was changed by a decree ol Napoleon, in 1810, into a French department; and as'early as 1806, he granted Neufchatel (which had been ceded to him by Prussia, but which was underthe protection of Switzerland), to General Berthier, as a sovereign principality. Napoleon assumed the title of " mediator of Switzerland; and the military service required of the Swiss became oppressive. They were obliged to adopt the'continental system, and the canton Pt Tessin- was garrisoned by French troops. In 1818, when the theatre;of war approached Switzerland, France permitted the Swiss to maintain their neutrality; but the allies expressed themselves ambiguously, and large armies were soon marching through the country, in various directions, to France. Their arrival excited a fermentation in many quarters. The act of mediation was annulled, December 29, 1813, at Zurich, and several cantons, of which Berne was the first,( laboured to revive their old con. stitutions. Through the influence of the allied monarchs, the cantons were finally prevailed on to assemble a general council; but revolutions and counter-revolutions agitated several of the cantons. A diet was at length assembled at Zurich, and new articles of confederation were agreed upon by the cantons, September 18th, 1814. They resenrbled THE TRlEASUtRY OF HISTORY. 229 the old federal pact in many respects. This confederacy was acknowledged by the congress of Vienna. The bishopric of 1Basle, with Bienne, was given to the canton of Berne, excepting the district of Birseck, which fell to Basle, and a smnall portioni which fell to Neufchatel. The. former relations of the latter place to Prussia were restored, and, with Geneva and the Valais, it joined the confederacy of the Swiss cantons, making their number twenty-two. August- 7, 1815, the compact' of Zurich was publicly and solemnly adopted, after the deputies of the confederacy at Vienna had given in theil accession to the acts of the congress of Vienna, so far as they related, to Switzerland. Soon, after, SWitzerland became amember of the holy alliance. i3ut the political state of the,Swiss cantons as settled by the congress of Vienna, and jealously watched by thte holy alliance, gare, rise to much disaffection in the great body of the people. In this state of things, the general demand for reform, in the electoral assemblies of Tessin (one of'the small cantons), compelled the council, June, 1830, to yield to the public voice, and establish a system of direct elections, and of publicity of proceedings in the great council, and to guarantee the liberty of the press, and the inviolability of persons, as parts of.the constitution. This event, and the French revolution of July, 1830, set the example for general risings in various parts of the country. In the new cantons, the popular demands were generally so readily complied with as to prevent any serious disturbances, and the'democratic cantons took hardly any part in the troubles; but in the old aristocratic cantons, the opposition was stronger and more systematic.. - Still, as many of the town's-people,'ere favourable to mo~e popular institutions, the governments, even in these cantons, generally yielded, with little opposition, to the wishes of the citizens; and in Friburg, Berne, Lucerne, Soleure, Schaffhausen, the revision of the constitution, the abolition of privileges, the extension of the right of election, abolition of censorship of the press, &c., were among the concessions to popular rights. In Basle alone,- where' the peasantry are more ignorant and rude than in the other cantons, the insurgents were not satisfied with the concessions; and a second insurrection, in the summer of 1831, was Inok put down without bloodshed. The ordinary session, of the diet took place at Lucerne, July, 4, 1831, and the common concerns of:the confederacy, both in its foreign and domestic relations, were found to be in a satisfactory condition. But towards the close of 1831, the canton of Neufchatel was disturbed by risings of some portions of the population, who renounced the authority of Prtussia, and demanded a new constitution.'J'he insurgents were put down; and from that time to the present there hlas been nothing to disturb the general tranquillity of the country, although some ebullitions of national feeling were apparent on two or three particular occasions. In conseqence of the revolutions that had taken place in Poland, Ger. mnany, Italy, and Sardinia, a number of refugees from those countries found an asylum in Switzerland, where they were received with kindness, and public subscriptions made for their support. In 1834, a considerable body of these emigrants formed a conspiracy against the Sardinian government, and invaded Savoy, in the hope of exciting an insurrection there. But in this attempt they were foiled, and driven back with considerable loss. The governments of Sardinia, Prussia, arl Austria: hereupon demanded their expulsion from Switzerland; but the Swiss, though greatly annoyed at having been drawn into a quarrel through the conduct of those whom they had generously protected, reo; sed to comply with the, demand, and it was at length agreed that. inay should not in future harbour any foreigners detected in belonging tIo secret societies, or. concerned in disturbing the peace of other countries. in order, therefore, to appease the offended powers, and at the same -time to keep faith with 230 THE TREASURY OF —HISTORY. those individuals who now' relied oil their protection, an arrangement was effected with the king of the French. for granting them passports to pass through his dominions, on their route to America, or any other country to which ihey chose to resort. Another instance occurred in 1638, on the return of prince Louis Bonaparte from America, whither he had been sent about two years before foi attempting to raise a rebellion at Strasburg. On his return to Europe he made choice of Switzerland, for his residence, and possessed an estate in the canton of Thurgau. The proximity of Switzerland to France was, however, a reason for Louis Philippe to demand his expulsion, which being refused by the Swiss, there was every reason to expect a war between theim and the French, had not Louis voluntarily departed' for England, and thereby prevented a rupture which might'halve been fatal to.Swiss independence. THE- HISTORY OF ITALY. THIS delightful region of Europe, as celebrated'for its genial climate, as for being the seat of that mighty empire which of old gave laws to the world; this classic land, where all that is noble in-art and science have flourished; though shorn of its former glorieS, still claims' the traveller's homage and the attention of the historian. Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of ltaly,'this country was thickly inhabited, and for the most' part, by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Samnites, and Latins, endeavoured to find safety by forming confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called. Magna Grecia. Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the states situated in the vicinity of the Po; the second extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples; -which formed the third. At present, it is divided into the-following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any political.tie:-1. The kingdom of Sardinia; 2. Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan, and Venice); 3. the duchy of Parma; 4. the duchy of Modena (including Massa); 5. the grand-duchy of Tuscany; 6. the duchy of Lucca;-7. the republic of San Marino; 8. the Papal dominions; 9. the kingdom of Naples, or the two Sicilies. Italia did, not beoome the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Ausonia, Saturnia, and (Enotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acquainted. The name Italia was at first merely a partial name for the southern extremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country. The modern history of Italy begins with the fall of the western empire. Romulus Augustus, its last feeble emperor, was dethroned by his German guards. Odoacer, their leader, assumed the title of king of Italy, and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. But this valiant barbarian. could not communicate a spirit of independence and energy to the degenerate Italians; nothing but amalgamation with a people' THE TREASURY OF HISTORY..231 In a state of nature could effect their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers- of Italy. T'heodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, instigated by Zeno, emperor of the East,-overthrew the kingdom of Odoacer, in 493, and reduced all Italy..His Goths spread from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriatic alone, some fugitives, who had fled from the devastations of Attila,- maintained their freedom.' Theodoric, who combined the vigour of the north with the cultivation of the south, is justly —termed the Great. But the-energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corruption. Totila, for ten years, contested in vain the almost comnpleted conquest with the military skill of Belisarius. He fell in battle in 552; after which Italy was annexed to the eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. But -the first exarch, Narses; sunk under the intrigues of the Byzantine court-, and his successor neg. lected the defence of the passes of the Alps.'The -country was then invaded by the Lombards, who, under Alboin, their chief or king, conquered the territory which afterwards received its name from them. The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Alboin also created the duchy of Benevento, in Lower Italy, with which he invested Zotto. The whole of Lombardian Italy was divided into thirty great fiefs, under dukes,-counts, &c., which soon became hereditary. Together with the new kingdom, the confederation of the:fugitives in the lagoons still subsisted in undisturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Anafesto, in 697, established a central government, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of, the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five maritime cities (Rimini, Pisaro, Fano, Sanigaglia, and Ancona), and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek nation, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the emperor. The slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century, when Leo, the Isaurian, exasperated;the orthodox Italians by his attack of images. The cities expelled his officers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed the power, but a certain patenal authority of its bishops, even in secular affairs, in consequence of the respect which their holiness procured them. The popes, in their efforts to defend the freedom of RFome against the Lombards, forsaken by the court of Byzantium,. generally had recourse to the Frank ish kings. In consideration of the aid expected against king Astolphus, pope' Stephen III., iti 753, not only anointed Pepin, who, in the preceding year, had been made king of the Franks, with the approbation of pope Zacharias, but with the assent of the municipality of Rome, appointed him patrician, as the imperial governor had hitherto been denominated. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him prisoner in his, capital, Pavia, united his empire with the Frankish monarchy, and eventually gave Italy a king in his son Pepin. -But his attempts against the duchy of Benevento, the independence of which.was maintained by duke Arichis, against the republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, Amalfii, and-Gaeta, in particular, had become rich by navigation and commerce, were unsuccessful. The exarchate, with the fiv6 cities, had'already been presented to the pope by Pepin, in 756, and Charlemagne confirmed the gift; but the secular supremnacy of the popes was not completed until the pontificate hf- Innocent III., about the year 1200. Their rank, however, among the ecclesiastics of the west, and the temporal power now acquired, gave them an ascendency ver the clergy End laity in Europe, which they failed not to improve until ey'were acknowledged as the Infallible heads of'the church. 232 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. Leo III. bestowed on the king of. the Franks, on Christmas day, A. P. 800, the imperial crown of the west, which needed aCharlemagne to raise it from nothing. But dislike to the Franks, whose conquest was looked upon as a new invasion of barbarians, united the free cities, Rome excepted, more closely to the eastern empire. -Even during the lifetime of Charlemagne, Frankish Italy was given to his grandson Bernard; who, however, having attempted to become independent of, his uncle; Louis the Debonnaire, was deprived of the crown, and had his eyes torn out. Italy now remained a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, till the partition of Verdun, which took- place in 843; wheii it was allotted, with the imperial dignity, and what was afterward called Lorraine, to Lothaire I., eldest son of Louis. Lothaire left thegovernment to his son Louis I1., the most estimable of the Italian princes of the Carlovingian line. After his death, in 875, Italy became the apple of discord to the whole family. Charles the Bald, of France, first took possession of it; and after his death Carloman, lying of Bavaria: who Was succeeded, in 880, by his brother Charles-the Fat, king of Suabia, who united the whole monarchy of the Franks for the last time. His dethronement, in 887, was the epoch of anarchy and civil war in Italy, Berengarius, duke of Friuli, and Guido, duke of Spoleto (besides the. marquis of vtrea, the only ones remaining of the thirty great vassals) disputed the crown'between them. Guido was crowned king and emperor, and after his death (894) his, son Lambert. Arnold, the Carlovingian king of the Germans, enforced his claims to the royal and imperial crown of Italy (896) but, like most of his successors, was able to maintain'them only-during his residence in the country. After the death of Lambert and Arnold, Louis, king of Lower Burgundy, became the competitor of Berengarius I.'; and this bold and noble prince, although crowned king in 894, and emperor in 895, did not enjoy quiet till he had expelled the emperor Louis III., and vanquished another competitor, Rodolph, of Upper Burgundy; he was even then unable, on account of the feeble condition of the state, to defend the kingdom effectively against the invasions ofthe Saracens and the l-lungarians.' After the assassination of iBerengarius, in 924, Rodolph II.'relinquished his claims to Hugh, count of Provence, in exchange for that country. Hugh sought to strengthen the insecure throne of Italy by a bloody tyranny. His nephew, Berengarius, marquis of Ivrea, fled from his snares to Otho the Great, of Germany, assembled an army of fugitives, and returned and overthrew Hugh in -945, who was succeeded by his son Lothaire. Berengarius became his first counsellor.'But, after the death of Lothaire, in 950, (poisoned, it was said, by Berengarius,) the latter wished to compel his widow — the beautiful Adelaide-contrary to her inclination, to marry his son. Escaping from the prison to which he had consigned her, she took refuge in the castle of Canossa, where she was besieged by Berengarius II. She now applied for aid to Otho I., king of Germany, who passed the Alps, liberated her, conquered Pavia, became king of the Franks and Lombards,;and married Adelaide. To a prompt submission, and the cession of Friuli, (the key of Italy,) which Otho gave to his brother Henry, Berengarius was indebted for permission to reign as the vassal of Otho. But the nobles of Italy, preferring new complaints against -him, ten years after, Otho returned in 961, deposed him, arid led him prisoner, to Bamberg; and, after having been himself crowned king of Italy with the iron crown, in 961, united this kingdom with the German. Otho gave the.great imperial fiefs to GermanA, and granted to the Italiancities privileges that were the foundation of a free constitution, for which they soon became ripe. The growing wealth of the papal court, owing to the munificence of the French kings, which had, promoted their influence, on the government,- so beneficial under Leo IV., and popes of a sim'lar character, became. through the corruption of the Roman court, in the tenth century, the first THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 2. 33 cause of its decline. The clergy and the people elected the popes according to the will of the consuls and a few patricians. Alberic of Camerino, and,his son Octavian, were absolute masters of Rome, and the latter was pope, under the -name of John XII., when twenty years of age. Otho the Great, whom he had crowned emperor in Rome, in 962, deposed him and chose Leo VIII. in his stead; -but the people, jealous of their right-of election, chose Benedict V. From this time, the popes, instead of-ruling Ithe people of Rome, became dependent upon them. In Lower Italy, the republics of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, still'defended their independence against the Lombard duchy of Benevento, with the more ease, since the duchy had been divided, in 839, between Siconolphus of Salerno and Radelghisius of Benevento, and subsequently, among a great number; and, since, with the dukes, they had had a common enemy in the'Saracens, who had been previously invited over from Sicily by both parties (about 830) as auxiliaries against each other, but who had settled and maintained themselves in Apulia. The emperors Louis: I. and Basilius MIacedo0had, with combined forces, broken the power of the Mussulmans; the former was, nevertheless, unable to maintain himself in Lower Italy, but the Greeks, on. the contrary, gained a firmer footing, and.formed, of the regions: taken from the Saracens, a separate province, called the Therma of Lombardy, which continued under their dominion, though without prejudice to the liberty of the republics, upward of a hundred years, being' governed by a captain, or governor-general, at Bari. Otho the, Great himself did not succeed in driving them altogether from Italy. The marriage'of his son, Otho IL., with the Greek princess Theophania, put-an end to his exertions for this purpose, as did theeunfortunate battle at Basentello, to the similar attenmpts renewed by Otho II. (980.)' ( In.opposition to the designs of the count of Tusculum, who wished to supplant the absent emperor at Rome, a noble Roman, the cohsul Cresceltius, in 980, attempted to govern Rome under the semblance of her ancient liberty. Otho II., king since 973, occupied with his projects of conquest in Lower Italy, did not interfere with this administration, which became formidable to the vicious popes Boniface VII. and John XV. But when Otho Ill., who had reigned in Germany since 983, raised his kinsman G(regory V. to the popedom, Crescentius caused the latter to be expelled, and John XVI., a Greek, to be elected by the people. lIe also endeavoured to place Rome again under the nominal supremacy of the Byzantine empire. Otho, however, reinstated Gregory, besieged Crescentius in the castle of St. Angelo, took him prisoner, and caused him to be beheaded, with twelve other noble Romans, A. D. 998. But the Romans again threw off their allegiance to the emperor, and yielded only to force. On the death' of Otho.III. (1002) the Italians considered their connection with the German empire as dissolved. Harduin, marquis of Ivrea, was elected king, and crowned at Pavia. This was a sufficient motive for Milan, the enemy of Pavia, to declare for Henry II. of Germany. A civil war ensued, in which every city, relying on its walls, took a greater or less part. Henry was chosen king of Italy by the nobles assembled in Pavia; but disturbances arose, in which a part of the city was destroyed by fire (A D. 1004.) Not till after Harduin's death, which occurred in 10!5, was Henry recognized' as king by all Lombardv.'He was succeeded by Conrad II. At a diet held at Roncaglia, near Placenza, in 1037, Conrad made the fiefs hereditary by, a fundamental law of the empire, and endeavoured to give stability and tranquility to the state, but without success. The cities, which were daily becoming more powerful, and the bishops, were engaged in continual quarrels with the nobility, and the nobility with their vassals, which could not be repressed. Republican R6om, under the influence of the family of Cressentius, could be reduced to obedience neither by Henry II. and Conrad II., nor 234 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. by the popes. When Henry III., the son and successor of Conrad, en. /tered Italy in 1040, he found three popes in Rome, all of whom he deposed, appointed in their stead Clement 11., and ever after filled the papal chair by his own authority, with virtudus German ecclesiastics. This reform gave the popes new consequence, which afterward became fatal to his successor. -Henry diedin 1056. During the minority of his son, Henry IV.,.the policy of the popes, directed by Hildebrand (afterward Gregory VII.) succeeded in creating an opposition, which soon became' f6rmidable to the secular power.- The Normans also contributed to this result. As early as 1016, warriors from- Normandy had established themselves is Calabria and Apulia. Allies, sometimes of the Lombards, sometimes o0 the republics, sometimes of the Greeks against each other and against the Saracens, they constantly became imore powerful by petty wars. The-great preparation,-of Leo IX. for their expulsion terminated in his defeat and capture. (1053.) On the other hand, Nicolas 1I. united with the Norman princes, and, in 1059, invested Robert Guiscard with all the territories conquered by him in Lower Italy. From that time, the pope, in his conflicts with the imperial power, relied on the support of his faithful vassal, the duke of Apulia and Calabria, to which Sicily was soon added. While the small states of the soqth were thus- united into one large one, the kingdom in the north was. dissolved into smaller states. The Lombard cities were laying the foundation of their future importance. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were already powerful. In the small republics of the north.tof Italy, the government was, in most cases, divided between the consuls, the lesser council, the great council, and the popular assembly., Petty feuds developed their youthfal energies. Such were those that terminated with the destruction of Lodi by Milan, in 1111, and the ten years' siege of Como, by the forces of all -the Lombard cities, which lasted from 1118 to 1128. The subjugation of this city rendered Milan th9 first power in Lombardy, and most of the neighbouring cities were-her allies. Others formed a counter alliance with'her antagonist, Pavia. Disputes between Milan and Cremona were the occasion of the first war between the two unions (1129) to which the contest of Lothaire II. an'dConrad of Hohenstaufen for the crown, soon gave another direction. This -was the origin of the Ghibelines (favourers of the emperor) and the Guelfs (the adherents of the family of Guelfs, and in general the party of the popes.) In' Rome the love of liberty, restrained by Gregory VII., rose in proportion as his successprs ruled with less energy. The schisms between Gelasius II. and Gregory VIII., Innocent II. and Anacletus II., renewed the hopes of:the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, formerly proscribed for his violent attacks against the luxury of the clergy in that century, was their leader. Aftei' eight years, Adrian IV. succeeded in effecting his execution. Frederic I., of Hohenstaufen (called Barbarossa) crossed the Alps six times, in order to defend his possessions in Italy against the republicanism of the Lombard cities. Embracing the cause of Pavia, as the' weaker, he devastated the territory of Milan, destroyed Tortona, and was crowned in' Pavia and Rome. In 1158, he reduced Milan, demolished,the fortifications of Placenza, and held a diet at Roncaglia, where he ex-'tended the imperial prerogatives'conformably with,the Jtfstinian code, gave the cities chief magistrates, andproclaimed a general peace. His rigour having excited a new rebellion, he reduced'Cremonia to ashes, compelled Milan to submission, and,'having driven out the inhabitants,'demolished the fortifications. When the emperor entered Italy in 1163, without an army. the cities concluded a union for maintaining their freedomn, which, in 1167, was con verted into the Lombard confederacy. The confederates restored Milan and to'hold in check the Ghibeline city of Pavia, built a new city, called, THE TREASURIt OF HISTORY. 235 in honour of the pope, Alessandria. Neither Frederic's governor, Christian, archbishop of Mentz, nor he himself, could effect anything against the confederacy.; the former failed before Ancona, with all the power' of Ghibeline Tuscany; and the latter before Alessandria. He was also de feated by Milan, at Legnano, in 1176. He then- concluded a concordat with Alexander III., and a truce with the cities -at Venice, and a peace, which secured their independence, at Constantinople (1183.) The republics retained the podest' (foreign noblemen, now elected by themselves) as judges and generals. As formerly, all, were to take the oath of fealty and allegiance to the emperor.. But, instead of strengthening their league into a permanent confederacy (the only safety for Italy,) they were soon split into new factions, when the designs of the Hohenstaufen,on the throne of Sicilv drewsFredericand l1ellnry: VI. from Lombardy.- During the minority ot Frederic II., and the disputes for the succession to. the German throne, Innocent III.,.who was Frederic's guardian, succeeded in re-establishing the secular authority of the holy see in Rome, and the surrounding country, and in enforcing its claims to the.-donations of- Charlemagne and Matilda..He also brought over almost all Tuscany, except Pisa, to the party of the Guelfs. -A blind hereditary hatred, rather than a zeal for the cause, inspired the parties; for when Otho IV. ascended the'imperial throne, the Gu'elfs became his party, and the Ghibelines the pope's; but the reversion of the imperial throne to the house of Hohenstaufen, in the person of Frederic II., soon restored the ancient relations. In Florence, this party spirit gave pretence to the disputes of the Buondelmonti and Donati with the Uberti and Amadei, originating in private causes; and most cities were thus -internally divided into Guelfs and Ghibelines.'The Guelf cities of Lonibardy renewed the Lombard confederacy, in 1226. The Dominican, John of Vicenza, attacked these civil - wars: and the assembly at Paquara seemed to crown his exertions with success; but his attempt to obtain secular power in Vicenza occasioned his fall. After the emperor had returned from his crusade, in 1230, he waged war, with varying success, against the cities and against Gregory IX., heedless of the excommunication; While Ezzelin da Romnano, under the pretence of favouring the Ghibelines, established, by every, kind of violence, his own power in Padua, V.erona, Vicenza, and the neighbourhood. The plan of Gregory IX. to depose Frederic, was successfully executed by Innocent 1V., in the council of Lyons, (1245.) This completely weakened the Ghibeline party, which was already nearly under mined by the intrigues of the mendicant orders. The Bolognese united all the cities of Italy in a Guelf league, and, in the battle of the Panaro, in 1249, took Enzius prisoner, whom they never released. In the Trevisan Mark alone, the Ghibelines possessed the supremacy, by means of Ezzelin, till he fell before a crusade of all the Guelfs against him, in 1255. But these contests werefatal to liberty; the house Della Scala followed that of Romano in the dominion; and Milan itself, with a'great part of Lombardy, found masters in the house of Della Torre. Tyrants everywhere arose; the maritime republics, and the republic of Tuscany alone remained free.After Charles I. of Anjou had become, by the favour of the pope,' king of Naples, senator of Rome, papal vicar of Tuscany, and had directed his ambition to the throne of Italy, (a policy in which his successors persevered,) the names of Guelfs and Ghibelines acquired a new signification, The former denoted the friends, the latter the enemies of the French. To these factions were added, in the republics, the parties of the nobilit3 and the people, the latter of which was almost universally victorious. The honest exertions of Gregory X. (who died 1276) to establish peace were of no avai.; those of Nicolas III., who feared the preponderance of Charles, were more efficient; but Martin IV., servilely devoted to Charles t36 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. destroyed everything which had been effected, and persecuted the Gh!belines with new animosity. A different interest-that of trade -and navi. gation-impelled the maritime republics to mutual wars.'The enoese assisted AIichael Paleologus, in 1261, to recoyer Collstantinople from the Venetians, and received in return Chio;. at Meloria, they annlhil.ted the navy of the Pisaiis, and c6mpleted their dominion of the sea by a victory over the Venetia'ns at' Curzola, which took place in 1298. Florence ren. fdered its democracy,complete by the punishment of all the nobles, and strengthened the, Guelf party by wise' measures; but a new schism soon divided the Guelfs in'Florence and all Tuscany into two factions-the Neri (Black) and Bianchi (White).. The latter were almost all expelled by the intrigues of Boniface VIII., and joined the Ghibelines. In Lomn. hardy, freedom seemued to have expired, when, the people, weary of the everlasting feuds of'their tyrants, rose in most of the' cities, and expelled them. Henry VII., the first emperor who had appeared in Italy for sixty years (1310) restored the princes to their cities, and found general submission to' his requisitions, peace among the parties, and homage to the empire. Florence alone undertook the glorious part which she so nobly sustained for two-centuries, as the guardian of ltalian freedom; she chose Robert of-Naples, the enemy, of Henry, her protector for five years, and remained free while the other parts of the kingdomni were divided into factions -and destroyed by intestine wars. In 1330, John, king of Bohemia, suddenly entered Italy. Invited by the inhabitants of Brescia, favoured by the pope, elected lord of Lucca, everywhere acting the part of a mediator and peacemaker, he could have succeeded in establishirng the power at which he aimed, had he not been opposed by the Florentii-es. Ont his second expedition to Italy, in 1333, Azzo Visconiti, Mastino della Scala, and Robert of Naples, united against him and his ally, the papal legate, Bertrand of Poiet, who aspired to the dominionof Bologna. A fter the downfall of both, in 1334, when the Pepoli began to rule in Bologna, Mastino della Scala became master of half -Lombardy.'Florence led the opposition against him, and excited a war of the league, in which it gained nothing but the security of its liberty. In Rome, Cola- Rienii, in 1347, sought' to restore order and tranquility, he was appointed tribune of the people, but was forced, after seven months, to yield to the nobility.' Having returned, after seven years of banishment, with the legate-cardinal Albornoze, he ruled again a short time, and at length was murdered in an insurrection. The Genoese, tired of the perpetual disputes of the Ghibeline Spinolas and Dorias with the Guelf Grimaldi and Fieschi, banished all these families in 1339, and made Simon Bocanegra their first doge. In, 1347 Italy suffered by a terrible famine, and a still more terrible pestilence in the year following, which swept away two-thirds o6f the population. No less terrible was the scourge of the bande (banditti), or large companies of soldiers who, after every peace, continued the war on their own account, ravaging the whole country with fire and sword. Pope Innocent VI. succeeded in conquering the whole of the states of the church, by hmeans of the cardinal-legate, Egidius Albornbze (1354-60); but, reduced to extremities by the oppressions of the legates, and encouraged by Florence, the conquered cities revolted in 1375. The cruelties of cardinal Robert, of Geneva, (afterward Clement VII.,) and of his band of soldiers from Bretagne, produced only a partial subjugation; and the great schism, the freedom of these cities, or rather the power of their petty tyrants, was fully confirmed. The Visconti, meanwhile, persisting in their schemes of conquest, arrayed the whole strength of Italy in opposition to them, and caused the old factions of Guelfs and Ghibelijnes soon to be forgotten in the impending danger. Genoa submitted -to John Vis. THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 237 conti, who had purchased Bologna from the Pepoli in 1350: but his enterprise against Tuscany failed through the resistance of the confederated Tuscan republics. Another league, against him, was concluded by the Venetians with the petty tyrants of Lombardy. But the union of the Florentines with the Visconti against the:papal legates, continued but a-short time. In Florence, the Guelfs. were divided into the parties of the Ricci and the Albizzi. The sedition of the Ciompi, to which this gave rise, wa's quelled by Michael di Lando, who had been elected gonfaloniere by themselves, in a way no less manly than disinterested. The Venetiatis, irritated with Carrara, on account of the assistance he had given the Genoese in the war at Chiozza in 1379, looked quietly on' while John Galeazizo Visconti deprived the Della Scala and Carrara of their possessions; and Florence alone assisted the unfortunate princes. Francis Carrara made himself again master of Padua, in 1390, and maintained his advantages till he sunk under the enmity of the Venetians (in 1406), who, changing their policy, became henceforth, instead of the opponents, the rivals of the ambitious views of the ViSconti.. In 1395, John Galeazzo obtained from the emperor Wenceslaus the in. vestiture of Milan as a duchy, purchased Pisa (which his natural son Gabriel bargained away. to Florence, 1405), from the tyrant Gerard of'Ap. piano (who reserved only the principality of Piombino), and subjugated Sienna, Perugia, and Bologna; so that Florence, fearfully menaced, alone stood against him in the cause of li!berty. On his death, in 1402, the prospect brightened, and during the minority of his sons, a great portion of his, states were lost. When Ladislaus of Naples, taking advantage of the schism, made himself master of all the Ecclesiastical States, and threatened to conquer all Italy, Florence again alone dared to resist hiin. But this danger was transitory; the Visconti soon rose up again in opposition. Duke Philip Maria reconquered all his states of Lombardy, byn means of the great Carmagnola (1416-20). Genoa also, which was sollmetimes given up, in nominal freedom, to stormy factions of the Fregosi,,Adori,. Nontalto,- and Gtarco, at other times was subject to France, or to the marquis. of Montferrat, submitted'to him in 1421.'Florence subse-queltly entered into an alliance against him with the Venetians (1425)-; an.d by means of Carmagnola, who had now come over to them, they conquered the whole country as far as the Adda, and retained it il the peace of Ferrara (1428). After Milan had been enfeebled by the Venetians and Florentineis, and'while Alphonso of Arragon was constantly disturbed in Naples, by the Anjou party, no dangerous predominance of power existed in Italy, tllough mutual jealousy still excited frequent wars, in which two parties amotig the Italian mercenary soldiers, the Bracheschii and the Sforzeschi, conltinued always hostile to each other, contrary to the custom of those mercenary bands. After the extinction of the Visconti, in 1447, FrancisSforza succeeded in gaining possession of the Milanese state. Thle Ven etians, who aimed at territorial aggrandizement, having formed a colinection with some princes against him, he found an ally in Florence, which, with a change of circumstances, wisely altered her policy. - About this time, the family of the Medici attained to power by their wealth and talent.'Milan, where the Sforza had established themselves; Venice, which possessed half of Lombardy; Florence, wisely managed by Lorenzo. Medici; the states of the church, for the most part restored to the holy see; and Naples, which was incapable of employing its forces in direct attacks on other states, constituted, in the fifteenth century, the political balalnce of Italy, which, during the manifold feuds of these states, permftted no one to become dangerous to the independence of the rest, till 149)4, when Charles VIII. of France entered Italy to conquer Naples, and Louis Moro Sforza played the part first of his ally, then of his enemy, while the pope 238 THE TREASURY OF IISTORY Alexander V., eagerly sought the friendship of the French, to promote the exaltation of his'son, Casar Borgia. A long succession of military contests now took place, which were- chiefly excited by invasions frorr Germany, or by the efforts of party leaders at home to usurp power, oveI the free cities; but we must pass by these, and merely obser-ve that the Medici family ultimately succeeded in establishing their sway.'The brief tranquility of Italy, however, was soon destined to be disturbed -by the grasping ambition of the warlike pope, Julius lI., who completed the sub. jugation of the states of the church, not, indeed, for a son or nephew, but in the name -of the,holy see. He concluded with Maximilian I., Ferdi. nand the Catholic, anfd Louis Xlf, the league of Cambray (1508), against the ambitious policy of the.-Venetians, who succeeded in dissolving the league whiteh threatened them with destruction. The pope then formed a lea'gue with the Venetians themselves, Spain, and the Swiss, for the purpose of driving the French'from Italy. This holy league did not, however, th'en attain its object, although Julius was little affected by the French and German council hfeld"at Pisa to depose him. Maximilian Sforza, who had re-acquired:Milan, relinquishe'd it' without reserve to Francis I., in 1515; but'the enmperor Charles V. assumed it as a reverted fief of the ampire, and conferred i't'on Francisco Sforza, brother of Maximilian, in 1520. This was'the cause of violent wars, in Which the efforts of Francis were always unsuccessful.,- He was taken prisoner'at Pavia, and, with' his other claims, was compelled to renounce those on Milan, which remained to Sforza, and after his death, was granted by Charles V. to his son Plilip. The Medician.popes Leo.X. and Clement VII., were bent, for the most pait, on'the aggrandizement of their family. Charles V., to whom all Italy submitted after the battle of Pavia, frustrated, indeed, the attempts of Clement VII. to weaken his power, and conquered and pillaged Rome in 1527; but, being reconciled with the pope, he'raised the Medici to princely authority. Florence, incensed at the foolish conduct of Pietro towards France, had banished the Medici in.1494, but recalled them in 1512; and was compelled to take a station among the principalities, under Duke Alexander I. de Medici. Italian policy, of which Florencee had hitherto been the Soul, from this period is destitute of a common spirit, and the history of Italy is therefore destitute of a central p)oint. After the extinction of the male branch of the marquises of Montferrat, Charles V. gave this country to Gonzaga of.Mantua. Maximilian II. subsequently raised Montferrat, to a duchy.'The Florentines failed (1:537) in a new attempt to emancipate themselves after the death of Duke Alexander, who fell by the hands of an assassin. Cosmo I. succeeded him in the government, by the influence of Charles V. Parma and Placenza, which Julius 11I. had conquered for the papal see, Paul III. erected into a duchy, 1545, which he gave to his natural son, Peter Alois Farnese, whose son Ottairo obtained the imperial investiture in' 1556. Genoa, subject to the French since 1499, found a'deliverer in Andrew Doria (1528). He founded' the aristocracy, and the conspiracy of Fiesco (1547) failed to subvert him. In 1553, besides Milan, Charles V. conferred Naples on his son Philip II. By the peace of Chateau-Cambresis, in 1559, Philip 11., and Hlenry 11. of' France,' renounced all their claims to Piedmont, wllich was restored'to its rightful sovereign, Duke Emanuel Philibert of Savoy, the brave Spanish general. The legitimate male line of the house of Este became' extincrt in 1597, When the illegitimate Caesario of Este obtained Modena and Reggio from the empire, aid Ferrara Was confiscated.as a reverted fief by the holy see. In the second half of the sixteenth century:, the prosperity of Italy was increased by a long peace, as much as the loss of'its commerce allowed Henry IV. of France having, by the treaty of Lyons, ceded Saluzzo, the TLHE TREASURBY OF HISTORY. 23 ast French possession in Italy, to Savoy. The tranquility continued till the contests for the' succession of Mantua and Montferrat, after the extinction of the Gonzaga family (1627). Misfortunes in Germany com-' pelled Ferdinand II. to confer both countries, in 1631, as a fief on Charles of Nevers, the protege of Fiance,'.whose.family remained in possession till the war of the Spanishsuccession. In the peace -of Chierasco (1631), Richelieu's diplomacy acquired also PigneroI an'd'Casale-strong points of support in case of new invasions of Italy, though he had to relinquish the latter, In 1637. By the extinction of the house Della IRovera, the duchy of Urbino, with which Julius II. had invested it, devolved, in 1631, to the papal see. In the' second half of the seventeenth century, the peace of Italy was not interrupted, excepting by the attempts of Louis XIV. on Savoy and Piedmont, and appeared to be secured by the treaty of neuitrality at Turin (1696)', when the war of the Spanish succession broke out. Austria having conquered Milan, Mantua, and Mlontferrat, retained the two first (for Mahntua'was forfeited by. the felony of the duke), and gave the latter to Savoy. In the peace of Utrecht, Austria obtained Sardinia and Naples; Savoy obtained Sicily,,'which it exchanged with Austria fir Sardinia, from which it assumed',the royal' title. Mont' Genievre was made the boundary between France and Italy. The house of Farnese becomintg extinct in 1731, the Spanish infant Charles obtained Par ma and Piacenza. - In the war for the Polish throne, of 1773, Charles Emanuel of Savoy, in alliance with France and Spain, conquered the Milanese territory, and received therefrom, in the peace of Vienna (1738), Novara and Tortoha. ) Charles, infant of Spain, became king of the two Si6ilies, and ceded Parma and Piacenza to Austria. The Medici of Florence, entitled, sinc6 157.5, grand-drkes of Tuscany became extinct in'1737. Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, now received Tuscany by the preliminaries of Vienna, and, becoming emperor in 174r, made it the appanage of the younger line of the Austro- Lorraine house. In 1745, the Spaniards conquered -Milan, but were expelled thence by Charles Emanuel, to whom Maria Theresa ceded, in reward, some Milanese districts. Massa and Carrara fell't Modena, in 1743, by right of inheritance, The Spanish infant, Don Philip, conquered Parma and Piacenza in his own name, lost them, and obtained them again as-a hereditary duchy,'by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,. in 1748. At the er. of the French revolution, Italy was divided between the principality of Savoy, the Ecclesiastical States, the republics of Venice and Genoa, the grand duchy of Tuscany, and the small principalities "of Parma and TModena. Naples and Sicily were governed by a king belonging to the house of Bourbon; and Mantua, Milan, and some other places were in the possession of Austria. In September, 1792, the French troops first penetrated into Savoy, and planted the tree of liberty. Though expelled for some time, inll 1793, by the Piedmontese and Austrians, they held it at the end of the year. The National Convention had already declared war against Naples, and the French advanced into the Piedmontese and Genoese territories, but wereexpelled from Italy in July, 1795, by the Austrains, Sardinians, and Neapolitans. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte received the chief command of the French army in Italy. He forced the king of Sardinia to conclude a treaty of peace, by which the latter was obliged to cede Nice and Savoy to France; conquered Austrian- Lombardy, with the exception of Mantua; put the duke of Parma and the pope under'contribution; and struck such consternation into the king of Naples, that he begged for peace. After Mantua had also fallen, in 1797, Bonaparte formed of Milan, Mantua, the portion of Parma north of the Po, and Modena, the Cis;ldpine republic. France likewise made wart-on the pope, and annexed Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna to the Cisalpine republic (1797).:y' the peace of Tolentino. The French then advanced towards Rome, overthrew the 2J40 THE -TREASURY OF HISTORY ecclesiastical governlnent, and erected a Roman republic (1798). In ('enoa, Bonaparte occasioned a revolution, by which a democratic repuolic was formed after the model of the French under the name of the Ligurian irepublic. The French had, meainwhile, penetrated into Austria, through the Venietian territory. The Venetians now made comrlnonl cause with the brave Tyrolese, who gained advantages over the Frenlch in the Alps. Bonaparte, therefore, occupied Venice without striking a blowv, and gave. the republic a democratic constitution; but, by the peace of Camp o-FoVrmio (17th- ctober, 1797), the Venetian territory, as far aW the Adige, was relinquished to Austria, and the rest incorporated with the Cisalpine republic. T'he king of Sardinia concluded a treaty of alliance and subsidy with France, October 25; but, iii 1798, the directory, assailed in Rome from. Naples, deeme'd it expedient to- compel him to resign his territories on the main land.. Notwithstanding its treaty of amity with France, Naples concluded an alliance, in 1798, with Britain and Russia. The French, therefore, occupied Naples, and erected there'the Parthenopean republic. The grand duke of Tuscany had likewise formed an alliance with Naples and Britain, and his country was, in return, compelled-by the French to receive, like Piedmont, a military admini'stration. After the congress of Radstadt was broken off, Austria and the German empire, under Russian support, renewed'the war against the Frenchl, who again left Naples and Rome to theBritish, Russians and Turks. The king and the pope returned to their capitals in Lombardy; the French were defeated by the Austrians, under Kray and Melas, and by the Russians, under Suwarrof, and lost all their fortresses, except Genoa, where Massena sustained a vigorous siege, while his countrymen had to evacuate all Italy.- But in the meanwhile, Bona parte was made first consul after his return from Egypt. He marched, with a new army to Italy, defeated, the Austrians at the memorable battle of Marengo (1800), and compelled them to capitulation, by which all the Italian fortresses were again evacuated. By the peace of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801, the possession of Venice was. confirmed to'Austria, which was to indemnify the duke of Modena, by the cession of Brisgau The duke of Parma received Tuscany, and afterwards, from Bonaparte. the title of king of Etruria. Parma was united to'France. The Cisalpine and Ligurian republics were guaranteed by, Austria and France, and with the Ligurian territories.were unitedthe imperial fiefs included withir: their limits. T'he king of Naples, who had occupied the states of the church, was obliged to conclude peace at Florence.'By Russian medi ation, he escaped with the cession of Pi6mbino, the Stato degli Presidj, and his half of the island of Elba, together with the proiljse of closing his harbours against the British. The other half of Elba, Tuscany had already relinquished to France. But the whboe island was obstinately defended by the British and Cor.icans,' with the armed inlhahitants, and not evacuated until autumn. The Stato degli Presidj France ceded to Etruria, September 19; but strong detachments of French troops remained both in Naples and Tuscany, and their support cost immense gums, Too the-republics of Genoa and Lucca- the first conlsul gave new constitutions in ld601. But, in January, 1802, the Cisalpine' republic was transformed into the Italian:republic, in imitation of the new French constitution, and'Bonaparte became president>.' -Genoa also received a new constitution, and Girolamo Durazzo for doge.'Piedmont, however, was united with France. After Bonaparte had become emperor, in 1804, he attached (March;l7, 1805) the royal crown of Italy to the new imperial'crown; he promised, however, never to unite the new monarchy with France, and even to give it a king of its own.: The new constitution was similar to'that of the French empire, Napoleon founded the order of the iron crown, and hav THE TtEHASUIRY OF HISTORY. 241 Ing placed the crown on his own head, at Milan, he appointed his stepson, EugeneBeauharnais, viceroy of.Italy, who laboured with great zeal for the improvement of all branches of the government, of industry, and the arts. Circumstances, however, rendered the new government oppres. sive, as the public expenses, during peace, amounted to 100,000,000,00 francs, which were all to be contributed by less than 4,000,00 people.'No European powerrecognized, expressly, the Italian kingdom of Napoleon The emperor continued to strengthen his power against the: active ene. mies of the new order of things, and gave:to his sister Eliza the principality of Piombino, and to her husband, Pasquale Bacciocchi, the republic of Lucca, as a principality, both as French fiefs. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were incorporated with the French empire, July 21st. The pope was obliged to sanction the imperial coronation by his presence. Austria now acceded to the alliance of Russia and Britain against France. Naples, also, again suffered the British and Russians to land. But.,the success of the Austrian arms was frustrated by the defeats at Ulm and Austerlitz; after which the peace of Presburg completed the French sue premacy in Italy..Austrian Venice, with Istria and Dalmatia, were united to the kingdom of Italy; and, this, with all. the French institutions, Italy recognized.' The kingdom had now an extent of 35,450 square miles, with 5,657,000 inhabitants. Naples was evacuated by its auxiliaries, and occupied by the French, notwithstanding the attempts of the queen to excite an unit versal insurrection.'Napoleon then gave the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph. In 1808, the widow of the king of Etruria, who conducted the regency in behalf of her minor son, was deprived of her kingdom, which was united with France. Napoleon, moreover, appointed his brother-in-law,,the prince Borghese, governor-general of the departments beyond the Alps,i and he took up his residence at Turin. As Napoleon had, meanwhile, given his'brother Joseph the crown of Spain, he filled the throne of Naples with his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, until that period grand-duke of Berg, who entered Naples Sept. 6, 1808. In 1809, the emperor gave Tuscany to his sister Eliza, of Piombino, with the title of grand-duchess. In the same year, Austria made new exertions to break the excessive power of France ~ but Napoleon again drove her ti'oops from the field, and appeared once more victorious in Vienna, where he proclaimed (May 17) the end of the secular authority of the popes, and the union of the states of the church with France. Rome became the second city of the empire,. and a pension of 2,000,000 of francs was assigned to the pope. After the peace of Vienna, by which Napoleon acquired the' Illyrian provinces, Istria and Dalmatia were separated from the kingdom of Italy, and attached to them. On the other, hand, Bavaria ceded to Italy the circle of the Adige, a part of Eisach, and the jurisdiction of Clausen. The power of the French. emperor was now, to all appearances, firmly established in Italy. While the Italian people were, supporting French ar. mies, sacrificing their own troops in the ambitious wars of Napoleon in reinote regions, and were obliged to pay heavy taxes in the midst of the total' ruin of their commercel all the periodicals were full of praises of the institutions for the encouragement of science, arts, and industry, in Italy. After the fatal retreat from Russia, Murat, whom Napoleon had personally offended, deserted the cause of France, and joined Austria, (January 11, 1814), whose army penetrated into Italy, under Bellegarde. The viceroy, Eugene, continued true to Napoleon and his own character, and offered to the enemies of his dynasty the boldest resistance, whic. was frustrated by the fall of Napoleon in France. After the truce of April 21, 1814,- the French troops evacuated all Ital-, and most of the provinces were restored to their legitimate sovereigns. The wife of Napoleon, however, the empress Maria Louisa, obtained the 16 242 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, with reversion to her son, and Napoleon himself became sovereign of Elba, of which he took possession, May 4. But before the congress of Vienna had organized the political relations of Europe, he effected his return to France, March 1, 1815. At the same time, Murat, king of Naples, abandoned his former ambiguous attitude, and took up arms, as he pretended, for the indepen. d'ence of Italy. But his appeal to the Italians was answered by a declation of war by Austria. Driven from Bologna by the Austrian forces, and totally defeated by Bianchi Tolentino, he lost the kingdom of Naples, into which the Austrian general Nugent had penetrated from Rome, and Bianchi from Aquila, seven weeks after the opening of.the-campaign. He embarked from Naples, with a view of escaping to France. Ferdinand returned, from Palermo, and Murat's family found an asylum in Austria; Murat himself made a descent on Calabria, from Corsica, in order to redover his lost kingdom.'He was taken prisoner at Pizzo, brought before a court martial, and shot, (Oct. 13, 1815). Meanwhile, the-congress of Vienna, by the act of June 9, 1815, had arrangedd the affairs of Italy:-1. The king of Sardinia was reinstated in his territories, according to the'boundaries of 1792, with some alterations on the side of Geneva; for the portion of Savoy, left in possession- of France by the peacea of Paris, of May 30, 1814, was restored by the treaty of Paris, of Nov. 20, 1815. To his states was united Genoa, as a duchy, according to the boundaries of that republic, in 1792, and contrary to the promises made to Genoa. —2. The emperor of Austria united with his hereditary states the new Lombardo-Venetian provinces formerly belonging to Austria, the Valteline, Bormio, and Chiavenna, separated from the Grisons, besides Mantua and Milan. Istria, however, was united with the Germanic-Austrian kingdom of Illyria; Dalmatia, with Ragusa and Cattaro, constituting a distinct Austrian kingdom.-3!. The valley of the Po was adopted as the boundary between-the states of the church and Pafrma; otherwise, the boundaries of Jan. 1, i792, were retained. The Austrian house of Este again received Modena, Reggio, Mirandola, Massa, and Carrara.-4. The empress Maria Louisa received the state of Parma, as a sovereign duchess, but, by the treaty of Paris, of June 10, 1817, only for life, it having been agreed that the duchess of Lucca and her descendants should inherit it. —5. The arch-duke Ferdinand of Austria became again grand.-duke of Tuscany, to which were joined the Stato degli Presidj, the former Neapolitan part of the island of Elba, the principality of Piombino, and some small included districts, formerly fiefs of the German empire. The prince Buoncompagni Ludovisi retained all his rights oI property in Elba and Piombino.-6. The Infanta, Maria Louisa, received Lucca, of which she took possession as a sovereign duchy, 1817, with. an annnuity of 500,000 francs, till the reversion of Parma.-7. The territories of the church were all restored, with the exception of the strip of land on the left bank of the Po; and Austria retained the right of maintaining garrisons in Ferrara and Colnmacchio.-8. Ferdinand IV. was again recognized as king of the Two Sicilies. Britain retained Malta, and was declared the protectress of the United Ionian Islands. The knights of Malta, who had recovered their possessions in the States of the Church and in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies; for a time made Catania, and after 1826, Ferrara, their residence. The republic of San Marino, and the prince of Monaco, whose mountain-fortress the Sardinians, and before.them the. French occupied, alone remained unharmed amid the fifteen political revolutions which Italy had undergone in the course ot twenty-five years. The Austrian predominance was thus more firmly established than ever in Italy. We shall now proceed with a history of VCNICE, its political and coin. nertcial eminence having rendered it for many centuries lby far the most important of the Italian states. THE HISTORY OF VENICE, OF all the republics of Italy, Venice is that whose history is the most anteresting and singular;, it has all the startling brilliancy of romance, and fully justifies the poetical remark-" Truth is strange, stranger than fiction." Even the termination of her independent.existence differed from that of other states; it was only in the expiring throes of her once vast power that the springs of the policy which were created. and so long maintained by that power, were laid bare to the world's gaze. The policy of other states was obvious in their acts; but until the last vestige of Venetian power and -independence was annihilated by the-iron hand of Napoleon, the results, only, of Venetian policy were to be seen, the process never. In looking with stedfast eye upon that proqess it will be impossible- to avoid a feeling -of disgust and indignation at many of the individual acts of the government; but equally impossible will it be to withhold praise from its general wisdom. -The tyranny to which some of the noblest and best blood in Venice was sacrificed we must detest; but the stern severity with which the domestic traitor was put down, and the keen policy by which the foreign foe was hoodwinked, we cannot but admire and approve. The history of Venice is now, more than ever, interesting to us; for it is in our day that a blow, as swift and crushing as the thunderbolt, has struck out of the list of independent states this ancient republic, so remarkable in site and in institutions. At the northeastern extremity of Italy, between the Alps and the northwestern coast of the Adriatic, there was settled from a very early age a people called the Heneti or Veneti, from whom the, fertile district in queswas called Venetia. From their position at the extremity of Italy it might be reasonably inferred that they were originally some nomade tribe of Northmen, and among the latest, if not the very latest of the early colonizers of Italy from that quarter. But a very great difference of opinion exists as to their actual origin. Both poetically and popularly they have been supposed to be the Heneto-Paphlagones, mentioned by Homer, who, having lost their leader in the Trojan war, were led into Europe by Antenor, and, having arrived at the head of the Adriatic gull, expelled the Euganei, and settled there. Strabo thinks differently, und believes them to have been originally from Gaul-there having been a Gallic tribe of that name. But Polybius states, that though the Veneti undoubtedly resembled the Gauls in some of their manners and customs, they differed from them. in language. Moreover, it is well observed by a modern historian, that whatever might be the resemblances between the Veneti and a Gallic tribe of the same name, as to manners, customs, and even'dress, there is one striking part in the history of the former which may be looked upon as almost irrefragable evidence that it is not in Gaul that we must look for their origin. It is this: that, having a Gallic colony in their immediate neighbourhod, the Veneti constantly-took the part of Rome against that colony in all. occasions of dispute. That the account which makes them the Heneto;Paphlagones of Homer is correct, Seems by no means improbable. We may, easily suppose, having crossed the Bosphorus, they passed over the plains of Thrace, skirted the Danube and the Save into Croatia, and at length halted on the northawestern shore of the Adriatic, and either expelled or subjected the people whom they found there. Whatever the origin of the Venetians, it is quite certain that at a very early period they were extremely prosperous and powerful. The ,44 THE TREASU-RY OF HISTORY. very nature of the country would indicate this, as well as account for the long independence of Venice; an independence which lasted during some of the mightiest desolations of the world; which witnessed the expiring agony and downfall of the mighty empire of Rome; the rise of the French empire in the West,,when Clovis conquered the Gauls; the rise and fall of, the Ostrogoths in Italy and of the Visigoths in Spain; 6f the Lombards who succeeded the former, and of the Saracens who supplanted the latter!'The Comte Figliosi, a learned modern'historian of Venice, very clearly shows that in the most distant times the people which occupied the country since called the Venetian states of the Terra Firma, also occupied Rialto and its sixty neighbouring islets; and that from that circumstance arose the titles of. Venetia Prima and Venetia Secunda, the first being applied to the continental territoryf the second to the Venetian isles. The fertility of the former naturally inclined the inhabitants to agriculture; the situation of the latter in the: midst oft canals, at the embouchure of rivers, and'near the Grecian islands, as naturally disposed them to navigation and commerce, and led to maritime skill, and the wealth and power of which that is invariably the creator. It is not until the fourth century after the building of Rome that we find any mention made of'the'Venetians as a people; but the manner in which they are then mentioned by Polybius, shews that their prosperity and strength must even then have been of long standing, and arrived tt a very.high pitch. We have it on the authority of that historian, that the very existence of Rome may be said to have been preserved by the Veneti, on an occasion when the G'auls had' made themselves masters of every foot of the eternal city, with the exception of the capitol. The Gauls, a restless, bold,'and greedy people, were still, even in the fourth century of Rome, an almost nomade people. Polybius tells us that they were scattered about in villages unenclosed by walls. Of furniture they knew not the use. Their way of life was simple as that of the most unreclaimed savages; they knew no other bed than the grass; nor any other nutriment than the wild animals which they hunted down or ensnared. The arts and sciences were wholly unknown to them. Their wealth consisted of gold and cattle: the sole things which could with facility be removed from place to place as vagrant fancy or pressing conjuncture might demand. Such. was the people who, in the year 364 from the building of Rome, defeated the Romans in the pitched battle of Allia, marched upon the city itself, beating the Romans in every skirmish durng three successive days, and obtained possession of all but the capitol. tself. At this most critical juncture the Veneti poured into Gaul with a fury which speedily relieved Rome of her foes, who hastened to defend their families and possessions.. Much difference of opinion has existed as to whether the Veneti were at this time the allies or the subjects of Rome'; but we are disposed to think that they were the former, or Rome would not have sent a formal embassy to acknowledge and thank them for this timely and important service. It was not thus'that haughty Rome treated those who were already subjected to her. But powerful and wealthy as the Veneti already were, not even their power and wealth could permanently keep them independent of the daily increasing power and profound policy of Rome. Friendly allies probably in the first instance, the Veneti, whether from force, fear, or in the well-founded hope of protection, at length became dependent upon Rome. They' furnished a contingent force to' Rome in the second'Punic war, and Rome, onthe other hand, defended Venetia as one of its T ropeit provinces. In truth, it is of little consequence how Venetia passed: frorm alliance to subjection; from voluntarily serving a neighbour, to marching under the orders of a protector and master. Such sate inevitably awaited the smaller and weaker of the neighbouring sttes; THE TREASURY OF HISTORtY. 245 and the subtle policy of Rome was little likely, to overlook the importance of adding to its provinces a district which contained fifty cities, and a population of fiom a million to a million and a half; a district too, which, in addition to its fertility as a grain-growing country, could boast a breed of horses which frequently carried'awa3y the Olympic victory from the swiftest steeds that Greece herself could produce. However subjected, it is certain that in the years of Rome 652-3, just after the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius, Venetia became a part of the Roman province called Transalpine Gaul, and was governed by.a prwetor. From this time forth we must, for some centuries, speak of it in connection with Rome; of whose disasters we shall see that fertile Venetia Prima was the desolated victim-and the maritime Venetia Secunda the glorious and mighty consequence. Continental Venice, if subjected to the power of Rome, was at the same-time admitted to its privileges and made participator of its advantages. Governed by a Roman praetor, they also voted in the Roman assemblies of the people; and furnishing a contingent of men and money when the affairs of Rome demanded it, they also had the aiA of Roman taste and Roman wealth in improving and beautifying their cities, as numerous remains, especially in Verona, show at this day. From the annexation of Vepice to Rome, antil the end of the fourth century of the Christian era, it is in Roman history that the reader must took for such slight nlention as is made at all'of the affairs of Venetia; wee pass, therefore, in the present' sketch, to the commencement of the fourth century of the Christian era. The fierce northern people known by the name of Goths, being expelled by the no less fierce and still more powerful Huns, about the year 376, were allowed to settle themselves in the vast plains of Thrace. Actuated partly, perhaps, by gratitude to Rome, but still more by hatred of the Huns, the Goths were of signal service to the western empire, to which the Huns were a dreaded and perpetually troublesome enemy. Alaric, the Gothic leader, who the: most distinguished himself -in this auxiliary warfare, was far too acute not to perceive the weakness of the once,mighty' people of which he was the temporary ally and the seemingly grateful guest: and he was far tooambitious and restless in his nature, to see that weakness without design. to take advantage of it. From merely aiding Theodosius the Great to repel the Huns, Alaric easily got leave to assist in putting down the rebellions of Argobastes and Eugenius, who aimed at the imperial purple. This interference in the internal affairs of Rome at once increased Alaric's insight into her actual' condition, and his desire to become the master of that empire, of which hitherto he had only been the sheltered guest or the:paid servant. A considerable territory in Thrace and high honorary ranlk in the Roman army should.have been deemed by Alaric himself a sufficient reward for all the services he had rendered to Rome; especially as:Rome had sheltered the:Goths as distressed fugitives long before she asked. their aid as warlike allies.' But a plea was necessary to justify the auxiliary in biecoming the foeman; and accordingly as soon as Alaric saw that the state of public affairs was such as to promise him success, he began to-call men and angels to witness how faithfully, and boldly he had served Rome, and how scantily and ungratefully she had rewarded his good services. Both courts, the eastern and western, abounded with men who wished to see confusion- and warfare in the- midst of their'country. Rufinus, though he -was tutor'to young Areadius after the death' of Theodosius the Great, was the most active traitor who wished for the success of the barbarian malcontent; and aided him not only with secret advice and information, but also with considerable sums of money. Thus aided and.encouraged, Alaric overran Pannonia, Macedonia, and those parts o0 246 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. Thrace which were adjacent to his settlement and sufficiently wealhy to be worth his destroying labour..Stilicho, the general of Honorius, who then reigned over the western empire, was for a time successful a-gainst Alaric; but by an unfortunate. over-confidence gave the able barbarian opportunity of retaliation, which he so effectually used, that Honorius was fain to recall his general from aiding the Greeks, and con'vert the Goth from an enemy into an ally, by giving him the sovereignty of al} ll1yria. The, increase of power which Alaric necessarily obtained from increase ofterritory was little likely to'decrease either his enmity to Honorius, whose general had temporarily defeated him, or his desire to overrun the western empire, which promised much richer spoil than the Grecian territory he had already ravaged. Causing himself to be elevated upon a shield-the ancient enthronement of a warrior king-he was proclaimed, amidst Jthe shouts of his fierce soldiery, king of the Visigoths. Increasing his already immense army by-recruits- from the banks of'the Danube, he pointed to Rome and'the smiling Italian lands, and promised their spoils to his followers; and, unfortunately, his fierce hatred of Rome and love of bloodshed and plunder were fully-equalled by the timidity and irresolution of Honorius. That feeble monarch was speedily convinced of his inferiority to his barbaric opponent; and was from the outset of the war worsted by him, in despite of a literally innumerable army, cormposed partly of veteran troops:and partly of barbarian levies from the very extremities of the empire. Stilicho, the man who, of all the emperor's friends-and advisers, was most likely to have proved the successful defender of the empire, had been sacrificed, partly to that vague hatred which the multitude of all times and all ages bear to towering talent, and partly to the timidity and treachery of Honorius himself, who had learned to fear ability by mere dint of profiting by it. With such- an emperor, just such a people was joined as was least likely to be permanently successful in resisting a bold, greedy, and hardy race of barbarians led on by an Alaric or an Attila. The individual hardihood and pride of manhood that had characterized the Roman of the republic, and the serried discipline; and national pride that had so often given prey'to the Rom-an eagle, under the Roman emperors who were worthy of that name, had passed away before a luxury and effeminacy which would be incredible were they not related to us by the pens of indignant Romans who describe the scenes which, loathing, they lived amidst and witnessed. AmmianuS Marcellinus, more especially, describes the luxury, pride, and effeminacy of the rich as being more than eastern. ".If," says he, " on a hot day they muster courage to sail in their painted gallies from the Lucrine lake to their elegant villas on the sea-coast of Puteoli and Cayeta, they compare the exploit to the expeditions of Alexander and Caesar. Yet should a fly settle on the silken folds of -their umbrellas, or a sunbeam penetrate some unguarded chink, they deplore their hard fate, and protest, in affected language, that'twere better to have been born in the land of the Cimmerians, the region of perpetual clouds and darkness." - Innumerable instances might be given of this effeminacy as to the upper orders of Romans in the commencement of the fifth century; and abundant proofs might be adduced of the, state of want, dependence upon public alms, or still more enthralling dependence on individual patronage, of the lower orders. But enough has been said to show that the state of Rome, alike in government and. people, was precisely such as to invite, nay, to require, the rude purfication of successive and successful invasions of hardier races. Alaric again and again ravaged the Roman territoies, Honorius and his ministers literally inviting him to do so by their pusillanimity on some occasions and empty threats on others. Adolphus, brother-in-law of Alaric, who awfully realized his truculent boast that where his horse once trod the grass never grow THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 247 ravaged Italy in every direction; and perhaps no part of the empire, if we except Aquilea, which was so utterly destroyed as to be even without traceable ruins, suffered more than Venetia Prima, or Continental Venice, Concordia, Oderso, Altino, and Padua. For three years the inhabitants of these places were never for an instant free from the presence of the stranger and the oppressor, on occasion of the second inroad of the Gothic Alaric; and many of them, even during the tyranny of that comparatively mild tyrant, took refuge in the various islets which were grouped'around Iialto. This island, which was already the port and entrep6t of the commerce of Padua, was naturally that which was earliest and most resorted to; and we find that as early as the year 421 the inhabitants of this little islet were numerous enough to allow of the building of a considerable church, which was in that year dedicated to St. James, in pursuance of a vow made during the progress of a great fire which consumed twentyfour houses. It is possible that the retreat of the great majority of the fugitives from the main land to the isles was merely temporary, and that when their proper country was abandoned by the barbarians, they would be led, eitherby a pining after their fertile and beautiful land, which would be remembered with the greater regret by being contrasted with the flat and dreary shores of the isles, or by a vague hope of finding, some remnants of plunder left behind by the barbarians, to return to the continent. But that the number of permnanent emigrants to the isles even at this time was very considerable, is evident from a document which we believe is not quoted, if even referred to, by any modemrn historian of Venice, except Daru. The document in question is an old and only partially perfect manuscript in the convent of St. Micliael- aild is a collection of "various notices relative to the origin of Venice," which was, formed by Fulgentius Tomasellus, an abbot of the house, and since translated by one of its librarians, Father Mitarelli. It bears date in the year of Christ 421, and the last year of the papacy of Innocent I.; and the chief passage, of it that was sufficiently legible to be: translated into Latin by the learned librarian, is a decree of the consuls. and the senate of Padua, for erecting Rialto into a chief city, in' which the scattered population of the whole of the adjacent islands might congregate, not merely for their own greater comfort, and the convenience and prosperity of their own port, and the patron city of Padua, but likewise, and especially, that they being thus concentrated might keep an arned fleet, and thus defend alike themselves and the neighbouring continent against the recurrence of the destruction by fire and sword, which this region had already, and to so fearful an exs tent, experienced at the hands of "Gothorum cum rege illoruin Alarico," "Reliquum legere non potui," says the translator, the rest is not legible; but enough appears to show, that the earliest inhabitants of the isles were comparatively few in number, scattered hither and thither without judgment and without common polity, save such as necessarily resulted from' their common dependence upon Padua, as fishermen, carriers, and traders in general: and that the invasion of Italy-by Alaric, and the subsequent and ruinous occupation of the cities and plains of Lombardy by his fierce people, so much increased the populousness of the isles, as to lead the Paduans -to order, the concentration of the inhabitants and the constitution of a central seat of population —in short, of a chief city of the islets, to which it was inevitable the rest should become morally, as in the end they also were physically), united and subjected. Imitating upon a,small scale the immemorial policy of Rome herself,.the Paduans, while they assuredly took the course which was best calculated-to promote the interests of the settlers on the islands, and:to make them importantly useful to northeastern Italy, should its fate ever depend upon maritime warfare. did not allow the islanders to forget that they were dependents 248 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY as traders, and, in some degree, as colonists; and, accordingly, the new town- or state was governed by officers appointed by the Paduans, with the title of consuls. Rialto, or Rivo alta, the deep river,- which was thus made the chief town of the isles, was subsequently connected' with the opposite bank by abridge which bore the same name, and this island subsequently had built upon it, too, the exchange, also called Rialto-; this last being at once the homage paid to the chief island, and surest guarantee, in a puiely commercial-or maritime state, for preserving the'chief resort and influence to it. The peculiar situation of the Venetian isles being considered, the obstacles which their difficult navigation must have presented to foreigners and barbarians in the then rude state of the maritime art, their con, nection with so fertile and (populous a portion of continental Italy, would prognosticate immense prosperity immediately, and great, if not preponderating power ultimately, to the new state, in the event of that ruin falling upon the Roman empire, which every circumstance, within and with. out, indicated to least careful and a'ttentive observer; even should no other external circumstances favour the islanders. Such other circumstances, however, were not to be wanting in: the causation of Venetian greatness. A new scourge for Italy appeared in: the shape of a multitude of Huns, who were led from the depths of Scythia' by Attila;' a leader fierce and able as Alaric in the field, and far more cruel and unsparing when the field was won. Having carried fire and sword throughout Macedonia, Germany, and Gallia, from which last he found it prudent to retreat, the alarm was suddenly given that he was leading the Huns and their swarming barbarous allies towards the Julian Alps, threatening new destruction to the beautiful lands of Venetia,-and new miseries to the Venetians of the main land.'In the year 452 Attila appeared before Aquilea; and that city still preserving some of the spirit of old Rome, of which it was a colony and offset, made a defence so brave —though insufficient to save it from the fierce host that assailed it-that when it was at length, in sheer necessity yielded, the enraged barbarian literally left not one brick or stone standing upon another. The fate of Aquilea,' and the terrific character of its destroyer, naturally struck terror into the inhabitans of the neighbouring cities of Padua, Altino, Concordia, and Oderso; who hastily gathered together all their property that was moveable, and hastened to take refuge in -the isles; the difficult navigation of which, and the n)aritime habits of the long settled and proper inhabitants of which, gave, a promise of safety from pursuit and destruction, which the example of Aquilea but too'plainly showed to be hopeless upon the main land. The cause of this new irruption of Attila and his Huns, as being also a principal cause of the wealth and power of Venice the Superb, must not be wholly omitted here; we mean the treason of Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III. This princess, having dishonoured her rank and family by iher intrigue:with, a coiurtier, which intrigue was aided by the carelessness of her own mother, who had always acted as if she was regardless of the'education and moral conduct of her daughter, was placed under the most rigid surveillance.: Naturally of a gay, perhaps we might even say of a licentious turn, this restraint wearied her to such a pitch of desperation, that she contrived to send a ring to Attila, as a pledge of love and good faith-; and with it a pressing message demanding his support -and aid against her own family, and requesting to be admitted in the number of his wives. Honoria was reputed to -be very beautiful, and to female beauty the barbarian chieftain wvas by no means unsusceptible. But he devised a considerable improvement upon the proposition of the princess; he preceded his new advance upon the empire with a demand, not only if the hand of the lady, but also of half the provinces of the empire. The ~THE TREAS'URY OF HISTOlRY. 249 refusal hen met with, and his rage thereupon, led to the destruction of Aquilea, and to the taking refuge of the inhabitants of that and the neighbouring cities in Rialto and the dependent Venetian isles. If not so wholly destroyed to their, very foundations as Aquilea, the neighbouring cities -were,: however, so completely pillaged and so considerably devastated, that a vast number of the inhabitants not merely sought shelter in the isles during the actual and threatening presence, of the barbarians upon the main land, but were so wearied by the losses they had already sustained, and so completely dispirited by the apparent probability of a frequent recurrence of similar inflictions, as-to take up their permanent residence in the comparatively inaccessible isles, where they had at first sought only a temporary shelter. Some would doubtless return to the main land, in hope to find their homes undestroyed, whatever might have befallen the homes of their neighbours; but being as poor as the poorest of the islanders, and far less favourably situated as to the future than the islanders as a body, it was not at all reasonable that the former'should claim any continuance of the Paduan authority over the isles; the more especially, as no one knew how soon a new incursion of the barbarians might once more render the isles the only place of safe refuge to the dwellers upon the -main land. The authority of the, old' towns being thus tacitly but effectually terminated, the islanders and refugees consolidated themselves together, and organized, perhaps, the very best kind of society for'the circumstances in which they-were placed. The extent of the immigration had made: it impossible for the chief islet, Rialto, to accommodate more than a very inconsiderable portion of the fugitives. The remainder had of necessity distributed themselves amid the other islets, all of which were now populated more or less densely. Each of the larger of these islands, containing a sufficient population to give it the necessary weight and importance in the new state, it was agreed to elect a tribune. This magistrate, whose term of -office was limited to one year, was chargedwith the administration of justice in his own isle, and was accountable only to the general assembly of the colony, which alone -could decide upon the affairs of the isles en masse. In a word, the islanders formed a federative republic; the whole governed as to external affairs and affairs of common import, by an authority delegated from the whole; each internally and in matters peculiar to itself governed by the tribune of its own election. For a long time their chief commodities for sale were salt and fish, but those are articles peculiarly profitable where the commerce in them is very large; however, the islanders could not fail to accumulate- riches, the great source, when wisely used, of political power —exempted as they were from the evils to'which the cities on the main land had become the victims. The invasion of Italy by'the Heruli under Odoacer, in 476, when the army sent by Augustulus was vanquished, and' its general slain by Odoacer's own hand; and the subsequent invasion of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, who dethroned and put to death Odoacer, the dethroner of Agustulus, caused a new increase of population to flow into the Venetian isles; and when the insular republic had barely a hundred years of existence, it already began to be respected for its industry and numbers, and admired for a prosperity so strikingly contrasted with its small number of natural productions. Fish and salt were all that Venice seemed to poseess; and it was not yet known how far better a nurse commerce is to a state than war. The disasters to which the empire had been subjected both in the east! and in the west, and the blots which barbarian success had cast upon the escutcheon of Rome's supposed invincibility, added to the utter destruction of the cities of Venetia Prima, probably caused Rome's power to be held in comparatively light estimation even by those 250 THE TRIEASURY OF lIISTORY. who returned to the main land and rebuilt their destroyed homes. And the isolation of the inhabitants of the isles, their early poverty, and,'above all, the hardly practicable sea-walls that stretched around them, would seem to make their independence of disorganized and distracted Rome a matter beyond dispute. It has, however, been disputed, and by a high authority, but we think on very inadequate grounds. Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, wrote a highly flattering letter,-a letter penned with most oratorical art and care, and evidently with great anxiety as to its success, —requesting the Venetians to effect by means of their vessels the transport of a supply of wine and oil from Istria to Ravenna. The very care and polish that are- lavished upon this letter seem to us to be quite decisive as to Rome having no recognized, stated, or easily'available al thdrity over the Venetians of the isles. It is quite true, as has-been re marked by the learned count Daru, that notwithstanding: the urbanity of the letter, it yet evidently contains an order. It seems to us, that the politely-couched order of such a neighbour as Rome, can scarcely be said to prove aught against the actual political-independence of such a state as Venice, and at so early a stage of its existence. It would seem far more correct to consider that tome couched a demand, which she knew was not strictly just, in terms which she judged would be agreeable to her nascent neighbour. Even in her decline, Rome was far too formidable a neighbour not to feel at liberty to make even, unreasonable requests of a community of fishermen and small merchants, comparatively prosperous as that community might be. %With,, increase of population and of w-ealth, the Venetians, by which name we shall, to save circumlocution, henceforth designate only the islanders, began to feelanxious about that which was their chief and cheap safeguard, the difficult navigation of the lagunes; and the navigation was forbidden not merely to strangers in general, but even to that Padua which once was the metropolis and nursing mother of the island republic.'When we consider the horrors to which the cities on the main land had been exposed by the barbarian invaders, and reflect how probable it was that new invasions would occur, which only the difficulty of the navigation and'the superiority this insured to the vessels of the islanders could prevent from extending to the isles, we can scarcely wonder at the stern and jealous rule adopted by men who had only become islanders and fishers after they had been ruined agriculturists, flying in haste and in terror from one of the loveliest and most fertile of earth's lovely and fertile spots.'Nor was it long ere the Venetians had good reason to congratulate themselves'upon the care they had bestowed equally upon acquiring dexterity in the navigation of their narrow and difficult creeks and shallows,- and preventing a like dexterity from being acquired by others. The Slavi, a barbarous and warlike people, had established themselves in-Dalmatia. That country, however, had already been so often overrun and plundered, that it afforded by no means a sufficient' amount of booty to satisfy so numerous and so greedy a people. They consequently availed themselves of the numerous ports and creeks their new country afforded them, to imitate the piratical example of the Illyrians, by whom the country had formerly been occupied, and speedily. became a name of terror to all who had occasion to be upon the sea in that direction. The Venetians, perpetually pursuing their commercial and carrying avocations In their light vessels, were especially subjected to the attacks of these daring marauders, to whom the portable but valuable freights brought by the Venetians from the ports of the eastern empire, with which they car ried on great commerce, were an irresistible temptation.: The hardy hab its and active life of-the fishers and merchants of the Venetian isles had given new vigour and courage to the people, who, while' living in colnparative luxury upon the main land, had abandoned all their possessions THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 251 to the barbarians, rather than struggle to possess them at the risk of losing life also. Mustering their vessels, they boldly encountered the pirates, beat them, and, compelled them to respect the liberty of the seas as far as Venetians were concerned therein. -This, in addition to many other circumstances, seems to have'been a link in a long and unbroken. chain of causation of the prosperity and power of Venice in her subsequent palmy days; for while the success with which the traders encountered the terrible and notorious pirates was especially well calculated to obtain a high and chivalrous name for the Venetians, even at the outset of their career, the very struggle and warfare in which they were from time to time engaged with so fierce a people, and with everything at stake upon the issue, must have had a mighty share in increasing the energy of the Venetians, an-d in forming their national character to that striking comrnmixture of commercial industry and warlike spirit and skill to which their subsequent and long-contihued greatness -may so greatly be ascribed. In the year 568 the bombards invaded Italy, and so successfully, as completely to cut off all connexion between it and the eastern empire. The Lombards;. who came-from Pannonia, like'all the other barbarian scourges of Italy, commenced their destroying and plundering career in Venice on the main land. And now again, the misfortune of the main land brought benefit to the isles. Not/only were the people of the newly rebuilt habitations on the main lalnd glad to abandon -their incomplete cities, and take refige in the isles; not only did the islanders see the inhabitants of even Padua, their former patron city, imploring shelter, but even the clergy settled among them, and permanently, too; for the Lombards'established'Arian preachers in the towns of continental Venice; and the consequence was, so fierce and sanguinary a war and such ceaseless schisins, that the clergy who had found a refuge in the isles did not think of quitting it. Though the Lombards persecuted the catholic faith -professed by the Venetians, the former, who were at that time neither a commercial nor a maritime people, were to a very' great extent dependent upon the islanders for their supply of all such necessaries or luxuries as came from foreign countries; and in this particular superiority of the' Venetians to the' Lombards,- and subsequently to Charlemagne and his Franks, the attentive and thoughtful reader will scarcely fail to see yet another great element of the permanency and power of the insular state of Venice. - Eginard, the contemporary and. historian of Charlemagne, makes -emphatic mention of the coarseness of the apparel of that monarch.and his court, as compared to the.fine stuffs and rich silks brought by the Venetian traders from the ports of Syria, the Archipelago and the Black Sea. It was in the inevitable nature of things, that the very increase of population which tended so greatly to the increase of the prosperity and consideration of the comparatively new state,, should bring in its train such a diversity of interests, such a difference of proportion in the numbers, wealth, and power of the numerous insulated members of the federative republic as should call aloud for a'change' in the political system. Most important changes afterwards took place; and it is to Venice as an acting and not merely growing state, that we have henceforth to direct our attention. But we perceive that we have already greatly trespassed on our limits, and must endeavour to finish this sketch with a rapid pen. The- original form of Venetian government was purely democratical; magistrates were chosen by a general assembly of the people, who gave them the, name of tribunes; one of whom was appointed to preside on each island, but to hold his office only for a year. This form subsisted for about one hundred and fifty years; it then appeared expedient to make choice of a chief magistrate, and on him the title of duke was conferred, which has since been corrupted,to doge;i this dignity was elective, and neld for) life; he was even entrusted with the.power of nominating to all b 52 THE TREASURtY OF HISTORY. offices, and of making peace and declaring war. Paul Luke Anafesto the first duke, was elected in the year 697; and such was the confidence which the people reposed in their duke, that he was at' liberty to use his own discretion how far he would avail himself of the advice of the citizens. In the councils which he called on any matter of importance, he sent messages for those citizens for whose judgment he had the greatest esteem, praying that they would come and assist him with their advice. This form was retained by succeeding doges, and the citizens so sent fol were called pregadi (from the Italian word pregare, to pray).: The third doge, whose talents- for war had proved successful in extending the powei of the republic, at length meditated the assumption of a more absolute sway, wishing to render the supreme authority hereditary in his family, but such, conduct excited general alarm in the people; he was assaulted in his palace, and there put-to death. This event caused the government of Venice to be new modelled, and a chief magistrate, Who was now called "master of the militia," was elected annually; but his power while in office was the same as before. Such form of government continued only five years, when the title of doge was revived (A.D. D. 40, in the person of the son of him who had been assassinated. About the latter end of the tw'elfth century, when every other part of the Christian world was seized with a frantic rage for recovering the holy land, the.enetians were so far fiom contributing any forces for the crusades that they did not scruple to supply the Saracens with arms, ammunition, and every other necessary. As the power of the state became augmented by the acquisition of Istria and many ports of Dalmatia, tile jealousy of the people towards their doge became stronger. At that time the only tribunal at Venice consisted of forty judges; these were called "the council, of forty;" but in the year 1173, another doge, named Michieli, being assassinated in a popular insurrection, the council of forty found means to new model the government, by gaining the consent of the people to delegate the right of voting for magistrates, which each citizen possessed, to four hundred and seventy persons, called councillors, who received the appellation of "the grand council;" and, acting as delegates of the people, became what the general assembly of the people until that time had been. By this artful innovation (which the people were cajoled into an acquiescence with, by-retaining the right of- electing these councillors annually), the democracy became presently subverted; and an aristocracy, in its fullest and most rigid form, was introduced, by restricting the power of the doge, and instituting a variety of officers (all of whom were, ifn a short time, chosen from among the nobility) which effectually controlled both the prince and the people. Ziani was the first doge elected after the government had received, what the event proves to have been, its permanent modification; and during his administration the singular ceremony of espousing the sea, which has been annually observed ever since, was first adopted, and took its rise from the assistance which the Venetians gave to the pope Alexander III when hard pressed by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, and the signal vic. tory they obtained over a formidable fleet under the command of Otho son of Frederic, in which the admiral and thirty of his ships were taken. Alexander, with the who-le city of Venice, went out to meet Ziani, the conqueror, on his return; to whom his holiness presented a ring, saying "Use this ring as a chain'to retain the sea, henceforth, in subjection to the Venetian state; espouse her with this ring, and let the marriage be solemnized annually, by you and your successors, to the end of time, that the, latest posterity may know that Venice has acquired the empire of the waves, and holds the sea in subjection, in the same -manner as a wife is held by her husband." During the continuance of the republic this cere. any was performed by the doge dropping a ring into the sea, pronoun TIIh TREASURY OF HISTORY. 253 cing at the sam-e time the. words, Desponsamus te, Mare, in signum veri perpetuique dominii. This emblem of its former power and independence is now forever gone; and, in the language of the poet, " The spouseless Adriatic mourns her lord." The Venetians having extended their territories into Lombardy, Istiia, and Dalmatia, became masters of many of the islands in the Archipelago, particularly the large and impor.tannt. one of Candia; they were masters of the Morea; and, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, Dandolo, their doge, when more than eighty years of age, in conjunction with the French, took Constantinople from the' Turks. It was about this time that they engrossed the lucrative trade in the manufactures and productions of the East. Indies, which they procured at the port of Alexandria, and conveyed to every market of Europe. Under Marino Morosini was introduced the latest form of electing the doge;'and at this juncture jealousy and envy occasioned the war with Genoa, which, after continuing a hundred and thirty years, was at last concluded by a treaty in 1381.' During this war, Peter Gradonigo,. the doge, procured a law to be passed, that none but the nobility should be capable of having a seat in the grand council; and thus' the government became altogether- aristocratical. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Venetians extended their. pos sessions in Lombardy, and, in 1473, the last king of Cyprus appointed the' state of Venice his heir. Towards the end of the fifteenth -::century the commerce and power of the Venetians began to decline; forthe Portu. guese having doubled theCape of Good Hope, and found a way to the East Indies by sea, that valuable trade was acquired, first by the discoverers and afterwards by the Dutch and English. In the beginning of the sixteenth century (A. D.'1509) the pope, the emnperor,.France and Spain, joined in the famous league of Cambray, which threatened the subversion of the Venetian state; but the republic made a brave stand against its numerous and powerful enemies, and the Venetians retained their independence, although with the loss of all their possessions in the ecclesiastical state and:the Milanese. They also suffered much from the Turks, who drove them out of Cyprus. In the seven. teenth century a sharp contest arose between the government, the clergy, and the pope, in which, however, the former had the advantage.' Venice was also long engaged in fierce wars with the Turks, during which they, lost Candia, but gained part of Dalmatia and all the Morea; the latter, with other places and districts, the Turks recovered in the wars which' were waged during the early part of the last century. The Venetian government, in the year 1737, having shown'particular marks of respect to the prince, who was generally called in England the pretender, when he visited the city, under the character of count of Albgny, the British court took great offence, and the Venetian resident at London was ordered to depart; but proper concessions being.made by the state, a friendly intercourse was re-established, and in the year 1745 the earl of Holdernesse was sent ambassador extraordinary to Venice. In the year 1763 the Vc netians found it necessary to pay a subsidy to the dey of Algiers, to preserve their commerce from the depredations of those corsairs; but they subsequently carried on a war with some other of the piratical states, nearer to them, on that coast. Thus did the republic of Venice continue upwards of thirteen hundred ears, amidst many' foreign wars and intestine commotions. Its grandeur, as we have seen, was chiefly owing to its trade; and, after the dedine of that, its strength and power suffered considerable diminution. No republic in the history of the world has subsisted for so long a space of time; and, as its independe'nce was not founded on usurpation, no-x cemen.ed with blood, r-n its descent fromn that splendour and power which 254 THE TREASUtIY OF HISTORY. it had once attaineo, instead of degrading, reflects the highest honour on them. None of the caqses which subverted the famous republics of antiquity effected the decline of Venice. No tyrants enslaved, na dema. gogues deluded, no luxuries enervated them. They owed their greatness to their industry, bravery, and maritime skill; and their decline, to the revolutions which successful pursuits of science had produced in the nations of Europe. For many years they withstood the whole force of the Ottoman empire by sea and land; and, although their treasures were eventually exhlausted, and theirpower weakened, their enemies have experienced consequences scarcely less fatal. No government has been more attacked by deep-laid and formidable conspiraces than that of Ven.. ice: many of which have been brought to the very eve of execution without discovery or suspicion. Bst though the entire subversion of the state has been, at times, impending fr6m some of these plots, yet until the era of the French revolution, they have been constantly rendered abortive, either by the vigilance or good fortune of the senate. One of the most remarkable of these conspiracies was formed by a doge named Marino Faliero, in the year 1355, who at that time was eighty years of age; but, conceiving a violent resentment against the senate, he formed a plan in order to assassinate the whole body. The design was timely discovered, and the dignified traitor brought to trial, found guilty upon his own confession, and publicly -beheaded. In the great chamber of the palace. where the portraits of the doges are' placed, there is a vacant space between the predecessor an'd successor of this man, where appears this inscription, " Locus Marini Falieri decapitati." "'Trhe place intended for the portrait of Marinus Fallierus, who was beheaded." The year 1618 is liso distinguished by a no less remarkable conspiracy, the contriver and principal agent ina which was the marquis Bedamar, the Spanish ambassador residing there. The'elegant pen of the abb6 St. Real has transmitted to posterity this very curious instance of superior talents and consummgte; artifice, which were, for a long course of time, exercised in plotting the most atrocious deed; being no less than the total destruction of the republic. Otway has formed a very pathetic tragedy upon this story, in which the character of Belvidera, and, the love scenes between her and Jaffier, are the only fictions of the poet. The college, called "thre seigniory," or supreme cabinet council of the state, was originally composed of the doge and six counsellors only, but to those at different periods were added, six of the grand council chosen by the senate, who are called savii (sages), then five savii of the Terra Firma,' whose more immediate department it was to superintend the business of the towns and provinces belonging to the republic on the continent of Europe, particularly what regarded their troops; at one time there were also five savii for maritime affairs, but after the state had lost its'commercial importance, five young noblemen were chosen by the senate every six months, who attended the meetings of the seigniory without having a vote, though they gave their opinions when asked' this was designed as an initiation into public business. To these were added the chiefs of the criminal court of " forty." This college was at once the cabinet council and the representive of the republic. The cornsirlio di dieci, or "council of ten," was the high penal court, which consisted of ten counsellors; the doge, as president, and his six conglieri, or counsellors. It was supreme in all state crimes, and possessed the power of seizing any one who was accused before them, of committing him to close con finement, and prohibiting all communication with his relations and friends., of examining and trying him in a summary manner; and, if a majority ofi the council pronounced him guilty, of condemning him to death; they also might order the execution to be either public or private, as. they thought prper. This formidable tribunal wvas estahlislied in the veat TIHE TREASURYi OF HISTORY. 258 1310. About two centuries after,: a still more despotic power was en trusted to three individuals, always chosen from the above council of ten, and forming the court called the state Inquisition. The inquisitors likewise kept the keys of chests which are placed. in several parts of the cucal palace, enclosed within the open jaws, of lions' heads' carved in the walls; through which notes were conveyed by any one who was disposed -to drop them; and thus notice was secretly given to the government of whatever might concern it to know. The history of Venice furnished a dreadful instance, in the beginning o. the seventeenth century, of a number of confederated villains, who con. certed their measures so artfully` as to) frame false accusations against some of the Venetian-nobles, which, in the opinion of their judges, convicted them of treasonable practices against the state, and one at least was publicly executed.. At length the frequency of accusations created suspicions, which led to a full detection -of the infernal scheme; upon which every possible reparation was made to the manes of the innocent victim,. the/honour of whose family was fully restored; but the tribunal, which decreed- the sentence, was suffered to possess the same unlimited power; the only alteration being that anonymous information was somewhat more cautiously received; for it was a political maxim in Venice, that "it is of more importance to the state to intimidate every one evenJ from the appearance of crime, than to allow a person, against whom a presumption of guilt appears, to escape, however innocent he may be." How different this from the merciful spirit of those laws which hold it better ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent person should suffer! The history of Venice furnishes two instances -which bear a strong similarity to the conduct of the Roman Brutus. In the year-1400, AntonioVenier being doge, his son having committed an offence of no great enormity, was condemned in a fine of one hundred ducats, and to be imprisoned for a certain time. During his confinement, he -tell sick, and petitioned to be removed to a purer air. The doge rejected the petition, declaring that the sentence must be executed literally, and that his son must take the fortune of the rest in the same situation. The youth was much beloved, and many applications were made that the sentence might be softened, on accojunt of the danger which threatened him, but the father was inexorable, and the son died in prison. Fifty years after this, a.son of another doge, named Foscari, being suspected of having been the instigator of the murder of a senator, who was one of the " council of ten," was tortured, banished, and on his application to the duke of Milan, soliciting him to exert his interest for his recall, was brought back to Venice, for the purpose of again undergoing the torture, and being closely confined in the state prison; the only mercy shown him being that of granting permission for the doge, the father of the unfortunate youth, to pay him a visit in his confinement.'The father, who had held his office for thirty years, and was very old, exhorted his son to support his hard fate with firmness; whilst the son protested not only his innocence, but that he was utterly incapable of supporting the confinement to which he was doomed. In an agony of grief he threw himself at his father's feet, imploring him to take compassion on a son whom he had ever loved with the fondest affection, and conjuring him to use his influence with the council to mitigate their sentence, that he-might be saved from the most cruel of all deaths, that of expiring under the consuming torture of a broken heart. secluded from every creature whom.he loved. This melting intercessionhad no other effect upon the father than'to draw from him fthe following reply:-" My son, submit to the laws of your country, and do not ask ol me what it is not in my power to obtain." After this interview, the miserable youtb languished for a while. and then expired in prison; but the 5 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. violence which his father, as a magistrate, did to his paternal feelings, terminated his life somewhat sooner. A short time after this catastrophe, a Venetian of noble rank, being on. his death-bed, confessed, that, urged by private resentment, he was the murderer of the senator whose assassina tidn had given lite to this tragic scene. THE HISTORY OF ROME. IF it is hard to carry back our ideas of Rome from its actual state to the period of its highest splendour, it is yet harder to go back in fancy to a time still more distant, a time earlier than the beginning of its authentic history, before the art of man had completely rescued the soil of the future city from the dominion of nature. Here also it is vain to attempt accuracy in the details, or to be certain that the several features in ourdescription all existed at the same period.'It is enough if we can image to ourselves some likeness of the original state of Rome, before the undertaking of those great works which are ascribed to the late kings. The Pomcerium of the original city on the Palatine, as described by Tacitus, included not only the hill itself, but some portion of the ground' immediately below it; it did not, however, reach as far as any of the other hills. The valley between the Palatine and the Aventine, afterwards the site of the Circus Maximus, was in the earliest times covered with water; so also was the greater part of the valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline,,the ground afterwards occupied by the Roman forum. But the city of the Palatine hill grew in process of time, so as to become a city of seven hills. Not the seven famous hills of imperial or republican Rome, but seven spots more or less elevated, and all belonging to three only of the latter seven hills, that is to the Palatine, the Calian, and the Esquiline. At this time Rome, already:a city on seven hills, was distinct from the Sabine city on the Capitoline, Quirinal, and Viminal hills. The two cities, although united under one government, had still a separate existence; they were not completely blended in one till the reigns of the latter kings. The territory of the original Rome during its first period, the true Ager Romanus, could be gone round in a single day. It did not extend beyond the Tiber at all, nor probably beyond the Anio; and on the east and south, where it had most room to spread, its limit was between five and six miles from the city. This Ager Romanus was the exclusive property of the Roman people, that is of the houses; it did not include the lands conquered from the Latins, and given back to them again when the Latins became the plebs, or commons of Rome. Well may the inquiring historian exclain, "What was Rome, and what was the country around it, which have both acquired an interest such as can cease only when'the earth itself shall perish?" The hills of Rome are such as we rarely see; low in height, but with steep and rocky sides. Across the Tiber the ground rises to a greater height than that of the Roman hills, but its-summit is a level unbroken line, while the heights, which opposite to Rome rise immediately from the river, under the names of Janiculus and Vaticanus, then sweep away to some distance from it, andreturn in their highest and boldest form at the Mons Marins,;ust above the Milvian bridge and Flaminian road. Thus to the west the vcwi is immediately bounded; but to the north and north-east the eve THE TRIFASURY OF-HISTOR7. 2`7 ranges over the low ground of the Campagna to the nearest, line of the Apennines, which closes up, as with a gigantic wall, all the Sabine,- Latin, and Volscian lowlands, while over it are still distinctly to be seen the high summits of the central. Apennines, covered& with snow, even at this day, for more than six months in the year. Soutriand south-west lies the wide plain of the Campagna; its level line succeeded by the equally level line of the sea, which can only be distinguished from it by the brighter light reflected'frOm its waters. Eastward, after ten miles of plain, the view is bounded by the Alban hills, a cluster of high bold points rising out of the Campagna, on the highest of which (about three thou'sand feet) stood the temple of Jupiter Latiarius, the scene of the common worship of all the people of the Latin name. Immediately under this highest point lies the crater:like basin of the Alban lake; and on its nearer rim might be seen the trees of the grove of Ferentia, where the Latins held the great civil assemblies of their nation. Further to the north, on the edge (if the' Alban hills, looking towards Rome, was the town and citadel of Tusculum; and beyond this, a lower summit crowned' with the walls and towers of Labicum, seems' to connect the Alban hills with'the line of the Apennines, just at the spot where the citadel of Praneste, high up on the mountain -side, marks the opening into the country of the Her nicans, and into tne valleys of the streams that feed the Lyris. Returning nearer to Rome, the lowland country of the Campagna is broken by long green swelling ridges. The streams are dull and sluggish, but the hill sides above them constantly break away'into little rock cliffs, where on every ledge the wild fig now strikes out its branches, and tufts of brobom are clustering, but which in old times formed the natu'ral strength of the citadels-of the numerous cities of Latium. Except in these narrow dells, the present aspect of the country is all bare and desolate, with no trees nor any human habitation. But anciently, in the early times of Rome, it was full of independent cities, and in its population and the careful, cultivation of its little garden-like farms, must. have resembled the-most flourishing parts of Lombardy. Such was Rome, and such its neighbourhood. The foregoing topographical observations appear to be necessary, before the reader enters upon even a brief recital of any of those circumstances which —whether legendary or, strictly true, whether fabulous or merely exaggerated-have been handed down from age to age as' the veritable history of Rome. We are told,:in the first place, that )Eneas, after the destruction of'Troy, having arrived in Italy, married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, fifth king of the Latins, and succeeded his father-in-law, after having deprived Turnus, king of the Rutuli, first of,his sceptre and then of his life. Ascanias, after the death of Eneas, his father, united with it the kingdom of Alba, of which he was the founder. We cannot, however, proceed without remarking, that whatever relates to the origin of Rome is. attended with the greatest uncertainty; and that the- records of some of the ancient writers are more worthy of a place in the.Aneid' of Virgil, -than the page of history. In illustration of this remark, we shall take the liberty of quoting the,.' Legend of Romulus." " Numitor was the eldest son of Procras, king of Alba Longa, and he had' a younger brother called Amulius. When Procras died; Amulius seized by force on the kingdom, and left to Numitor only his share of his father's private inheritance. After this he caused Numitor'sonlyson to be slain, and'made his'daughter Silvia become one of the virgins who watched the ever-burning fire of the goddess Vesta. But the god Mamers, who is called also Mars, beheld the virgin and loved her, and it'was found that she was going to become the mother of children. Then Amulius order ed that the children, when born, should be thrown into the river. It happcled that the river at that time had flooded the country; wlhen, therefore 17 258 THE TiREASURY OF HISTORY the-two children in'their basket- were thrown into the river, the waters carried thdm as far as the foot of the Palatine hill, and there the basket was upset, near the roots of a wild fig tree, and the children thrown out upon land.'At this, moment there came a she-wolf down to the Watei to drink, and when she saw the children, she carried them to her cave hard by, and gave them suck; and while they were there, a, woodpecker came backwards and forwards to the cave, and brought them food. At last one Faustulus, the king's herdsman, saw the wolf suckling the children;'and'when he went up, the wolf left'them and fled; so he took them home to his wife Laurentia, and they were bred up along with her own sons on the Palatine hill; and they were called Romulus and Remus. i -- " When Romulus and Remus grew'up, the herdsmen of the Palatine hill chanced to have a quarrel with the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled their cattle on the hill of Aventinus. Numitor's herdsmen laid an am bush, and Remus: fell into it, and was taken and carried off to Alba. But when the'young man was brought:before Numitor, he was struck-with his noble air and bearing, and asked him who he was. And when Remus told him of his birth, and how he had been saved from death, together with his brother,~Nuniitor marvelled, and thought whether this might not be his own daughter's child. In the meanwhile. Faustulus and Romulus hastened to Alba, to-deliver Remus; and by the help of the young men of the Palatine hill, who had been used to follow him and his brother, Romulus took the city, and Amulius was killed; and Numitor was made king, and owned Romulus and -Remus to be'born of his own blood. The two brothers did not wish to live at Alba, but loved rather the hill on the banks of the Tiber, where they had been brought up. So they said that they would build a city there; and they inquired of the gods by augury, to know which of them should give his name:to the city. They watched the heavens from morning till evening, and from evening till morning; and as the sun was rising, Remus saw six vultures. This was told to Romulus; but as they were telling him, behold there appeared to him twelve vultures. Then it was disputed again, which had seen the truest sign of the god's favour; but the most part gave their voices for Romulus. So'he began to build his city on the Palatine hill. This made R6mus very angry; and when he saw the ditch and the rampart which were drawn round the space where the city was to be, he scornfully leapt over them, saying,' Shall such defences as these keep your city.' As he did this, Celer, who had the charge of the building, struck Remus with the spade which he held in his hand, and slew him i; and they buried him on the hill Remurfia, by the banks of the Tiber, on the spot where he had wished to build the city., " But Romulus found that his people were too few in numbers; so he set apart a place of refuge, to which any man might flee, and' be safe from his pursuers., So many fled thither from the countries round about; those who had shed blood, and fled from the vengeance of the avenger of blood, those who were driven out from their own homes by their enemies, and even men of low degree who had run away from their lords. Thus the city became full of people; but yet they wanted wives, and the- nations round about would not, give them their daughters in marriage. So Romtuius gave out that - lie was going to keep a great festival, and there were to be sports and games to draw a multitude together. The neighbours came to see the show, with their wives and their daughters; there carrie the people of Canina, and of Crustumeriuin, and of Antemna, and a great multitude of the Sabines. But while they were -looking at the games, the people of Romulus rushed out upon-them, and carried off the women to be their wives. Upon this the people of Caenina first made war upon the poeple of Romulus; but they were beaten, and Romulus with his own THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 259 stand slew their king Acron. Next the people of Crustumerium, and of Antemna, tried their fortune, but Romulus conquered both of them. Last of all came the Sabines, with a great army under Titus Tatius,,their king. There is a hill near to the Tiber, which was divided from the Palatine hill by a low and swampy valley; and on thjs hill Romulus made a fortress, to keep off the enemy from his city. But when, the fair Tarpeia, the daughter ofthe chief who had charge of the fortress, saw the Sabines draw near, and marked their bracelets and collars of gold, she longed after these ornaments, and promised to betray the hill into their hands if they wouldgive her those bright things they wore upon their arms. So she opened a gate, and let in the Sabines; and they, as they came in, threw uponher their bright shields which they bore on their arms, and crushed her to death. Thus the Sabines got the fortress which was on the hill Saturnius; and they and the Romans joined battle in the valley between the hill and the city of Romuljus. The Sahines began to get the better, and came up close to one of the gates of the city. The people of Romulus shut the gate, but it opened of its own accord; once and again they shut it, and once and again it opened. But as the Sabines were rushing ill, behold there burst forth from the(temple of Janus, which was near the gate, a mighty stream of water, and swept away the Sabines, and saved the city. For this it was ordered that the temple of Janus should stand evernopen in the time of war, that the god might be ever ready, as on this (lay, to go out and give aid to the people of Romulus. "After this they fought again in the valley; and the people of Romulus were beginning to flee, when Romulus'prayed to Jove, the stayer of flight, that he might stay the people; and so their flight was stayed, and they turned'again to battle. And now the fight was fiercer than ever: when, on'a sudden, the Sabine women, who had been carried off, ran down from the hill Palatinus, and ran in between their husbands and their fathers, and prayed them to lay aside their quarrel. So they made peace with one another, and the two people became as one: the Sabines with their king dwelt on the hill Saturnius, which is called Capitolium, and on the hill Quirinalis; and the people of Romulus with their king dwelt on the hill Palantinus. But the kings with their counsellors met in the valley between Saturnius and Palatinus, to consult about their common matters; and the place where they met was called Comnitium, which means' the place of meeting.' Soon after this, Tatitus was slain by the people of Laurentum, because some of his kinsmen had wronged them, and he would not do them justice. So Romulus reigned by himself over both nations; and his own people were called the Romans, for Roma was the name of the city on the hill Palatinus: and the Sabines were called Quirites, for the name of their city on the hills Saturnius and Quirinalis was Quirium. The people were divided into three tribes; the Ramnenses, and the Titienses, and the Luceres: the Ramnenses were called from Romulus, and the Titienses from Tatius; and the Luceres.were called from Lucumo, an Etruscan chief, who had come to help Romulus in his war.with the Sabines, and dwelt on the hill called COlius. In each tribe there were ten curire, each of one hundred men; so all the men of the three tribes were three thousand, and these fought on foot, and were called a legion. There were also three hundred horsemen, and these were called Celerians, because their chief was'that Celer who had slain Remus. There was besides a council of two hundred men, which wvas called a senate, that is, a council of elders. Romulus was a just king and. gentle to his people: if any were guilty of crimes, he did not put them to death, but made them paya fine of sheep orof oxen ".In his wars he was very successful, and enriched his people with the spoils of their enemies. At last, after he had reigned nearly forty years, it chanced th*t one day he called his people together in the field'of Mars, near the Goats Zt'0 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. Pool; when, all on a sudden, there arose a dreadful storm, and all, was dark as night; and the rain, and thunder and lightning, were so terrible, that, 11 the people fled from the field, and ran to their several homes. At last the storm was over, and they came back to the field of Mars, but Romulus was nowhere to be found; for.Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven in his chariot. The people knew not at first what had become of him; but when it was night,. as one Proculus Julius was-coming from Alba to the city, Romulus appeared to him in more than mortal beauty, and grown to more than mortal stature, and said to him,' Go, tell my people that they weep not for me any more; but bid them be brave and warlike, and so shall they make my city the greatest in the earth.' Then the people knew that Romulus was become a god; so they built a temple to him, and offered sacrifice to him, and worshipped him evermore by the name of the god Quirinus.': But to quit the hyperbole of legendary lore and speak in plain terms, it amounts to this —Romulus- the grandson Of Numitor, king of the Latins, joined with his brother Remus in an attempt to re-establish hits grandfather in-the possession of his throne, and Amulius, the usurper, was put to death. Having thus far succeeded, the tcwo young heroes next assemr. bled a number of the lowest orders of the people, and built a city on'the Aventine hill, to which Romulus gave his name; and' soon after becoming.jealous ofi his brother, caused him to be assassinated. We turn to the pages of Dr. Arnold, who, after referring those who desire to go deeply into the whole question, to the'immortal work of Niebuhr,' very justly observes, that "'the first question inl th'e history of every people is, what was their race and language. the next,'what- was the earliest form of their society, their social. and political organization."' The language of the Romans was not called Roman, but Latin. Politically, Rome and Latium were clearly distinguished, but their language appears to have been the same. This language is different from the Etrus can, and from the Oscan; thus the Romans are marked out as distinct from the great nations of central Italy, whether Etruscans, Umbrians, Sabines, or Samnites. On the:-other hand, the connection of the Latiit language with the Greek is manifest. Many common words, which n-) nation ever derives from the literature of another, are the same in Greeik and Latin; the declensions of the nouns and verbs are, to a great degree, similar. It is probable that the Latins belonged to that great race which, in very early times, overspread both Greece and Italy, under the various names of Pelasgians, Tyrsenians, and Siculians. It may be believed, that the Hel]enians were anciently a people of this same race,: but that some peculiar circumstances gave to them a distinct and superior character, and raised'them so far above their -brethren, that, in after ages, they disclaimed all connection with them, But in the Latin language there is another element besides that which it has in common u ith the Greek. This element belongs to the languages of central Italy, and may be called Oscan.'The terms relating to agriculture and domestic life are mostly de rived from' the Greek part of the language; those relating to arms and war are mostly Oscan. It seems, then, not only that the Latins were a mixed people, but that they arose out of a conquest of the Pelasgians by the Oscans; so that the latter were the ruling class of the unit.ed nation, the'former its slibjects. The Latin language, then, may affordl ius a clue to the origin of the Latin people, and so far to that of the Rornans. But it does not explain the difference between Romans and Latins, to which the peculiar fates of the Roman people owe their origin. We must inquire, then, what the Romans were which the other Latins were not; and as language cannot aid us here, we must have recourse to other assistance, to-geography and national traditions. And thus, at the same mrne, we shall arrive at an answer to the second question in Roman his THE TREASURY OF- HISTORY. 26 toly, what was the earliest form of civil society at Rome pe If we look at the map, we shall see that \Rome lies at the farthest extremity of Latium, divided from Etruria only by the Tiber, and having the Sabines close on the north, between the. T'iber and the Anio. No other Latin town, so far as we know was built on the Tiber; some were clustered on andround the Atlban hills, others lined the. coast of the Mediterranean; but from all these Rome, by its position, stoop aloof. Tradition reports that as Rome was thus apart from the rest of the Latin dities, and so near a neighbour to the Etruscans and Sabines, so its population was in part formed out of these nations, and many of its rites and institutions borrowed from the other. Tradition describes the very first founders of the city as the shepherds and -herdsmen of the banks of the Tiber, and tells how their numbers were presently swelled by strangers and outcasts from all thekcountries about.'It speaks of a threefold: division of the Roman people, in the very earliest age of its history; the tribes of the Ramlnenses, Titienses, and Luceres. It distinctly acknowledges the Titienses to have been Sabines.; and in some of its guesses at the origin $f the Luceres, it connects their name with that of the Etruscan Lucumones, and thus supposes them to have been composed of Etruscans.. We know that for all points o detail, and for keeping a correct accoutrt of tirne, traditionis worthless. It is very possible that all the Etruscan rites and usages came in with the Tarquinii, and were falsely carried back to an earlier period. But the mixture of Sabines with the original people of the Palatine hill, cannot be doubted; and the stories of the asylum, aid of the violence done to the Sab;ne women, seem to shew that.the first settlers.of the Palatine were a n ixed race, in which other blood was largely mingled with that of the Latins. We may conceive of this earlier people of Mamers, as of the Miamertini ofk a more historical period: that they were a band of resolute adventurers from various parts, practised in arms, and little scrupulous how they used them.'Thus the origin of the highest Roman nobility greatly resembled that of the larger band of adventurers who followed the standard of William the Norman, and were the, founders of the nobility of England. The people or citizens of Rome, were divided into the three tribes of the Ramnenses, Titienses, and Luceres, from whatever circumstances they may have risen. Each of these tribes was divided into ten smaller bodies called curi-e; so that the whole.people consisted of thirty curire: the same divisions were in war represented by the thirty centuries which made up the legion, just as the three tribes were repre. sented by the three centuries of horsemen; but that the soldiers of each century were exactly a hundred, is apparently unfounded. We see, then, that this city, which: afterward became the mistress of the world, was at this time but a large village. Its principal,inhabitants laboured with the plough inn unproductive soil. Every one made choice of the spot he meant to cultivate; and, until the taking of Rome by the Gauls, 364 years after its foundation, it was rather to be called a-mass of separated dwellings than a regularly built city. Whereas, the circumference of the walls, in the time of Augustus, was thirty thousand paces, without including the part that approached the Tiber, which was twenty thousand; independent, also, of the suburbs.- Its embellishments were superb and prodigious.' But to return to the first foundation of Rome. There were very few women at this time among the Romans; and their neighbours being unwilling to marry their daughters to these heroic robbers, Romulus caused, public games to be exhibited, at which many of the Sabinie women were present, who were seized by the Romans. This conduct produced a war between ~the two nations, which terminated in their union. Romulus being acknowledged king,:endeavoured to-civjlize his new subjects; and, having ascertained their nurnber, which was, 3,00 men, he divided thern into-three tribes of 1,000 each, and each tribe into 262 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY ten curire of 100 each. He employed by turns force and address to complete the work he had begun: he formed a body of cavalry, consisting of three hundred men; and chose for his council one huudred old men, or at least such as had experience to recommend them. To these he gave the name of senators. Romulus! governed happily during five years with Tatius, whom he had associated in the government: but Tatius being killed at Lavinium, Romulus was left sole possessor of the sovereign power. He conquered the Fidens and the VeienteS; and cemented, by salutary laws, the strength and tranquility of RQme; but afterward, aiming to become a despot, he was assassinated in the senate. After an interregnum, Numa. Pompilius was elected king. The amiable and humane disposition of this prince softened the warlike and ferocious temper of the Romans.! To restain them from outrage and barbarity, he pietended to have received his instruction from the nymph Egeria; an artifice which had the desired effect. His reign was pacific throughout: he inspired the people with a love of religion: and peace; he encouraged agriculture; amended the calendar; moderated the laws relative to paternal authority; created the pontiffs,-the vestals, &c., and died justly regretted by the people, who lamented him as a father and a king. it was Numa -who established the different religious ceremonies and orders of priests; namely, thirty curiones, or priests of the curice, one for each; three fiamens, or priests of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus; three hundred celeres, or sacrificers-; a body of augurs, who interpreted signs, dreams, &c.; four vestal virgins, priestesses of Vesta, leading a life of continence, and preserving a perpetual fire in the temple of the goddess; the salii who had charge of twelve sacred shields, suspended in the temple of Mals; feciales, or heralds; and pontifices, who presided over all religious affairs. The latter formed a college, the head of which was termed the pontifex maxi mus, and was generally some eminent person in the state, as the king, consul,-or emperor. There was another class of ministers of religion, called haruspices, who pretended to foretell events by inspecting the entrails of beasts offered in sacrifices; but Numa did not allow such sacrifices in his reign. Tullus Hostilius, his successor, was an ambitious and intrepid prince, who delighted in war; he defeated the Fidenates and the Sabines, and demolished Alba. The Horatii and the Curatii were chosen to fight three against three: two of the Horatii being killed, the remaining one had recourse to stratagem, and by that means conquered his adversaries: after having gained the victory, he killed his sister for shedding tears for one of the Curatii. Tullus Hostilius is said to have died by a thunderbolt, but more probably by conspiracy. The fine disposition of Numa reappeared in Ancus Martius, a friend to the arts, to religion, and to peace. The Latins, mistaking the character of Ancus, made war upon him; but were soon taught that he was equally capable of humbling his enemies as of making his people happy; he subdued the Veientes, the Fidenates, and the Volscians. He embellished Rome, built public prisons, and founded the port of Ostia. Tarquin the Elder, descended' from an illustrious family of Corinth, was elected as the successor of Ancus. The introduction of plebeians into the senate, the decoration of Rome with superb' edifices, and the foundation of the'capitol, were the principal events of his reign. Ser vius Tullius, a man of obscure birth, succeeded Tarquin in the Roman throne. He subdued the enemies of Rome, enacted salutary laws, en. larged the city, established quit-rents, and a body of magistrates to judge particular causes. Having formed the design of making his subjects free it was his intention to change the form of government from a monarchy to that of a republic; but, being murdered by Tarquin, who succeeded him on the throne, this generous resolution was prevented from fulfilment. He reigned gloriously, and cemented the union between Rome and the THE TREASURY.OF HISTORY.: 263 neighbouring states. He was the first Roman king who stamped coin. Tarquin the Superb, a proud and ferocious tyrant, mounted the throne after havinog murdered Servius Tullius, his wife's father. He formed projects disgraceful to his country. He delighted in luxury and debauchery; paying little regard to the established laws, he oppressed the people and endeavoured.to destroy the senate, a body instituted with so much wisdom, and who already began to be the immovable rampart of the liberty of the people. The Romans in bthis reign triumphed over the Sabines and the Volscians, and finished the capitol. The excesses and despotism of Tarquin and his sons increased so much the public hatred against him, that he was precipitated from a throne which he disgraced. ~ It is observable, in this sketch of the Roman history, that the Greeks were, in every respect, superior to the Romans when their state was in its infancy; the Romans never Iquitting thleir huts upon the seven hills, but to make captives of women, and pillage the neighbouring villages.. The Greeks, on the contrary, were occupied in defending their liberties: they repulsed large armies and fleets of the Persians; and they cultivated ahd brought to perfection the fitie arts, of which the Romans were almost totally ignorant until the time of Scipio Africanus. The ferocity and spirit of rapine which prevailed among the first Romans, one might suppose would have induced the surrounding nations to exterminate them: but the necessities Which urged them to commit depredations, animated their courage, and rendered their acts of injustice irresistible. They were successful in war, from being inured to it; and, at the end of four centuries, they had conquered all the nations from the Adriatic Gulf to the river Euphrates. TIE ROMAN REPUBLIC. This republic, hereafter so celebrated, commenced with the expulsion of Tarquin, the last king of Rome; and it having been declared by the senate that he had forfeited theiroyal dignity, they, elected two chief magistrates, called consuls, whose power was to last only one year. The consuls had several other magistrates subordinate to them, such as prntors, magistrates whose office it was to. render justice: tribunes, the magistrates of the people: they might oppose all the resolutions of the other magistrates, and their persons were held sacred and inviolable: quaestors, officers who took charge of the public money: ediles, officers who superintended the buildings, and the exhibition of public games: ~censors, officers whose business it was to rate the people, and inspect and correct their manners: proconsuls, magistrates commissioned to govern, provinces with consular authority; and, on particular occasions, a dictator was appointed, who possessed sovereign authority.,This revolution was the epoch of the, glory of Rome. Each consul exerted.himself for the benefit of his country during his short administration, in order to merit a future election; but the jealousy of the people demonstrated itself from the first consulates. Valerius, famous for his victories, became suspected; and, to satisfy the plebeians, a law was made, which permitted an appeal to the people, after condemnation from the senate and consuls, in all cases where the; punishment of a Roman citizen was intended. In the meantime theTarquins were busy in soliciting the neighbouring nations to avenge their quarrel. Porsenna; king of Etruria, marched against Rome, and reduced it to the greatest extremities, but the spirit shown by the republicans astonished their enemies,.-who could no longer resist their impetuosity; and from this time the Tarquins lost all hope. The jealousy which had hitherto subsisted between the patricians and tie plebeians augmented rather than abated: the latter 264 THE TREASURY OF HISTOXtY. thought the power'invested in the consuls too great, although it had beeln considerably lessened by the Valerian law. They accordingly retired to the s-acred mountain, and violent measures were used in vain to reduce them; but the mild'and simple eloquence of Menenius Agrippa induced them to'listen to terms of accomodation. They demanded a magistrate, whose business it'should be'to keep a watchful eye over their interests, and defend them against the intrigues of the consuls and the senate; accordingly, tribunes were created, and established by a law, denominated sacred, and which in some measure relieved them from the- yoke -of aristocracy, now: become nearly as h'eaVy as the despotism of their kings. The Roman people continued'to'be everywhere successful in battle; but their intestine divisions brought them frequently into the most imminent danger. Coriolanus, one of the-most' illustriots generals, was Lanished by a popular faction, and his services wholly forgotten. Enraged at their ingratitude, he put himself at the head of the Volscians., marched against his country, and would probably have- become its conqueror, had it not been that the entreaties of his- mother prevailed on him to desist from his enterprise. Spurius Cassius, aspiring at tyranny, proposed the agrarian law, and thereby opened a new source of discord; he was thrown from the Tarpeian rock, the death destined for the punishment of traitors. Soon after this, Cincinnatus quitted his plough for the good of the republic; he left his field for the city; and his peaceful rustic employment for the rude clamour of war. This celebrated character suppressed, during the consulate, the factions of the tribunes; and, while dictator, defeated the enemies of the republic. After having performed several other actions which added glory to his character, he augmented it by another superior to them all; that of returning to his plough without ambition, but with the honest pride of having served his country.'The imperfection of the laws in a nation so addicted to war as the IRomans, obliged the people of Rome to borrow, from those of Athens, the laws of Solon.- The decemvirs, to whom the examination of these laws was committeds adopted those which appeared to them most eligible; profiting by the sagacity of the Greeks, as the Greeks had done by the Egyptians. After having digested them, they delayed to put them in force, arid governed with despotic authority. The ill success against the Equites and Sabines; the murder of Siccins Dentatus, a man of great valour, but obscure birth, who had opposed their tyranny; the reciprocal hatred subsisting between the army and the senate; and, lastly, the death of Virginia, stabbed by her father to save her from the dishonour intended her by Appius, gave the finishing blow to their power and despotism; and the same crime which had provjed fatal to moilarcly, was the ruin of the decemvirate., Trle consuls and the military tribunes succeeded each other alternately during seventy-eight years, in which time the enemies- of Rome reaped considerable advantages from their internal dissensions. Camillus, who opposed the tribunes concerning the agrarian law, was banished. Rome was soon after attacked by the Gauls, who plundered and burnt great part of it. Camillus was recalled, and made dictator: he entirely defeated the invaders and Rome arose from its ashes with additional splendour. The people, pro~nDted by the tribunes, were on the point of quitting Rome, and transferring the republic to the Veientes; but Camillus opposed the design, and turned their restless thoughts toward military achieve ments. He began with the Samnites, a fierce and warlike nation, hitterto unconquered. A long and bloody war took place. The senate punished with extreme severity, the treason of some of the Roman troops, who charmed with the climate of Padua, Where they lay in garrisn, forinmed a design of murdering the inhabitants, and establishing themselves in the possession of their country. Manlius had his son put to death, althougb THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 265 a conqueror, for fighting without orders. About the same time the famous war of Tarentu.m called the celebrated Pyrrhus into Italy. Active and restless, he was continually forming schenmes, and occupied himself more in the affairs of others"than in his own. He was a perfect master of the military art, but! totally ignorant of that of governing. In addition to the opposition of his army to that of the Roman, he introduced elephants into the field, which being new to the Roman troops, was the cause of their discomfiture. But, being aware; of the unconquerable spirit of his oppoments, he solicited an alliance with them through the means of the orator Cyneas. He attempted to corrupt, by presents, the virtue of Fabricius. He passed into Sicily, with a view to succour that island against the Carthaginians. An/d afterwvards returning to Italy, he abandoned them entirely, filled with veneration for a people whose courage and constancy he was unable even to shake. Rome now began to fix the attention of strangers. It received amrbas sadors from, and accepted an alliance with, Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, the enlightened protector of the arts and sciences. About this time luxury was first introduced among the Roman people, the source of all their future misfortunes. It destroyed republican virtue; it debilitated their courage; and was thus, eventually, the-cause of the downtfall of Rome.: The siege of Messina by the Carthaginians, and their union with Hiero, king of Syracuse,-caused the first Punic war. Hiero soon'after formed all-alliance with the Romans, and remained ever after faithful to their cause. The love of glory rendered them as unconquerable on the sea as they had before been on the lv.nd. Sicily, the object of'their'ambition, was the witness of their naval victories. Africa herself trembled at the sight of her fleets. However, Xantippus, the Lacederionian, whom the Carthaginians; with the basest ingratitude, deprived of his life, defeated and made prisoner the brave but unfortunate Regulus'. The Carthaginians demanded- peace, and Regulus himself, who was one of the ambassadors, opposed the treaty, and fell a, victim to the love of his country: he returned to Carthage to meet the most horrid death that enraged Carthagipians could inflict. Hamilcar was afterwards defeated, which terminated the first Pvnic war. The siege and conquest of Saguottim, a city in alliance with the Romans, gave birth to the second Punic war. Hannibal, already famous for his brilliant success in Spain, who had from his infancy been taught to regard the Romans with detestation, advanced towards Italy at the head of an army; crossed the Rhone; traversed the Alps in. the midst of winter; defeated Scipio on the banks of the Vesin; was conqueror at Trebia, Thrasymenus, and Cannwe;'and filled Rome itself with alarm. The pleasures of Capua, it is said, where he had the'-imprudence to winter, saved Rome from destruction. It gave the Romans time to recover from the'consternation which his rapid progress had occasioned; they collected all their force, and rose more terrible than ever, by their constancy, their discipline, their courage, and their policy. Their numerous victo ries astonished Spain and Sicily. They declared-war against Philip, the ally of Carthage; took Syracuse, Agrigentum, anrid Capua; defeated Asdrubal; and all Spain submitted to the younger Scipio. This general went'into Africa, and, by his successes, obliged Hannibal to quit Europe and return home. T-he interview between these two great generals has — tened the battle of Zama, wheie every'manceuvre in the art of war was displayed. Scipio was thte conqueror, and the Roman senate dictated the conditions of peace. This victory augmented the already immodgrate ambition of Rome,-which threatened the world with slavery. ]Iannibal, after having passed some time at the court of Antiochus, king of Syria, whom he had engaged to declare war against the Romans returned to Bithynia; but fearing that he should be' delivered UD to his in 266 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY veterate enemy, he put an end to his existence by poison. The war with Philip, king of Macedon, and afterwards with Perseus, his son, was a remarkable epoch. Philip, after having suffered great loss, madle peace with the Romans; but Perseus, with a view of recovering back what his father had lost, renewed a war which deprived him both of liberty and life, and reduced the kingdom to a Roman province. Antiochus, king of Syria, who had declared war against the Romans in compliance with the wishes of Hannibal, was likewise obliged, in order to obtain peace, to cede all the'country he possessed on the western side of Mount Taurus. The Romans beheld with pain the existence of Carthage, and eagerly sought an occasion to commence hostilities. An opportunity soon presented itself. The Carthaginians being at war with Massinissa, king of Numidia, the Romanls armed in his favour, and sent a strong force against Carthage itself. The Carthaginians defended themselves courageously; but the Roman commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio, becoming master of it, reduced it to ashes, and carried with him its riches to Rome. Thus ended the third Punic war; and thus fell Carthage, the ancient and powerful rival of Rorme, B. c. 147. Carthage was originally a colony from Tyre, founded on the coast of Africa, about 70 years before the foundation of the city of Rome. It was a commonwealth, governed by a senate and magistrates, annually elected; and had risen to great wealth and power by its commercial enterprise, at the commencement of hostilities with Rome. Upon a philosophical examination of these two republics, it will be found that a variety of causes contributed to give Rome the superiority over Carthage: —lst. Two opposing parties continually divided the senate of Carthage: the rich were constantly advocates for peace; the poor for war, expecting thereby to enrich themselves by its spoils. 2dly. Avarice dictated all their deliberations; they conquered but to amass wealth. 3dly. Carthage, not having any allies, had not the assistance of auxiliaries. The only advantage which they possessed over the Romans, consisted in the superiority of their marine. 4thly. The state was poor, and individuals were very rich. At Rome, the love of war was the spirit that animated all orders of the state. Every man was a soldier; glory decided every thing. They were ambitious of the empire of the world; they opposed to undisciplined troops, citizens on whose courage and virtue they could depend; and they had allies without number dispersed around them. The destruction of Carthage increased the ambition of the Romrnts. Trhey marched an army against the cities of Greece, which were in league against their power, and obliged them to submit; but not before the city of Corinth had been taken, and destroyed. The Spaniards, who had revolted about the same time, were defeated; and the taking of Numantia br~ought all Spain under their power. To these triumphs abroad, intestine divisions often succeeded. Tiberius Gracchus, and afterwards Caius Gracchus caused the plebeians to revolt against the aristocracy. Jugurtha, king of Numidia, being dissatisfied with the manner in which MicipAa, his father, had disposed of the kingdom,-liaving divided it between himself and his two brothers,-caused them to lie put to death; and found means, for some time, by presents, to render the Romans favourable to his schemes; hut being attacked by them, Metellus took several places from him. At length, Marius, a man of obscure birth, but of great military talents, being elected consul, put an end to this war; and Jugurtha was led in captivity to Rome, where he died of hunger. Marius defeated the Teuto.i, the Cimbri, and other northern nations, who had made irruptions into Gaul, Spain, and Italy and during the war, which was carried on twelve years, signalized himself by his ability and his courage. The people of Italy took up armli, against Rome, for having refused them the rights of citizenship. This: insurrection was the more difficult to overcome, as the insurgents were THE TREASUtY OF HISTOR, 267 perfectly acquainted with the military discipline of the Romnans The senate disarimed a part of them, by an acquiescence with part of their demancs; atnd this mistaken policy was the occasion of a civil war. it was followed by that of Mithridates of Pontus, the civil war of Marius and Sylla, and that of the gladiators. Mlithridates, king of Pontus, powerful and proud, yet brave aiid active, and as implacable in his hatred to Rome as Hannibal, detenrmined, if possible, to humble that haughty republic~ He began by a general massacre of the Romans weithin his territory: he next reduced severald Rollan provinces in Asia., and caused a Roman gem-. eral to be mxurderede Sylla, the consul, was charged with the conduct of this'ar; bhot Nl arius, by his intrigues, not only caused thix to be removed, but obtained the appointment for himself. This proceeding brought on the civil waxr t:o destructive in its consequences both to Italy and Spain: to tht lsatter S ertorius, the partizan of Marius, had retiledo Sylla joined to courcag e and activity immenrese wealth and suavity of manners, which gave hinm comnsiderably the advanltage over Marius, who died in the second year of the, civil war. MAithridates having been defeated both by sea and land, solicited peace, which was ganted to him: but Murena, one of the lieutenatnts of Sylla, having infringed the treaty, the war recommencedo xithridates prevailed upon Tigranes, king of Armenia nMajor, to engage in the quariel: by his assistance, he defeated the Romans, and invaded Bitlhyniao T~he consul Lucullus then marcedo against Milhridates, entirely dis3concerted his measures, anld obliged him to retire into Armenia IVwo successive victories, which he gained over the Armenians, would ilave furnished him with the means of (lictating the terms of peace, ii Glabrion bhad noL been appointed in his place. Under this consul. Mithridates recovered his losses, aiid ravaged Cappadocia: but Pompey, already rendered famlous for his bravery in the war acainst the pirates of Cilicia9 which he termilnated in forty days, beinog appointed to the command, drove Adlithridates out of Pontus, pursued himn to Armenia, and defeated him on the balnks of the Euphrates, where, in a paroxysm of despair he put an end io his existence i Thus tertminated a war which had lasted, with unabatino fury,7 twenty years. Pompey returned to Rome crowned with. aurel Iand possessed of immense riches. During tIe tinie of Rome's victories abroad, great dissensions prevailed at home Thee slaves, contrary to their inclinations, had been compelled'o become g'ladiatolrs Spartacus, one of them, found means to escape rom thle school at Capua, arnd assemble a considerable army, whose standards bore the wxord, " liberty," as a miottoo H-e defeated the Romans in several. enllagemrents; but was at length totally routed by Licinius Crassusn. Spartaculs, perceiving the alternative was no other than to be malde a prisooner, or to die, was killed in battle, fiohting heroically. A new conspiracy exposed Rome to the greatest danger~ uIcius Sergius Catiline, a man of high birth, but plunged in debauchery and debt, had formed a design of becoming master of Romeo Cicero, the orator, discovered the ploto The armny raised for his nefarmiou purpose, wIas routed, Catiline killed, and the greater part of his accomplices taken and beheaded Syvlla, oa.tlclg set a bad example, seveal Rormans there were9 who, poseS'ailngo eI o bically his ambition, but wanting his abilities, aspired at sovereig:i authority lBut Pompey, Crassus, and Cmsar, more bold and more active Lbhal- their corpetitors, divided the government between them~ This coalition wanas termed the first triumvirate. Cesar, hovwever, would have no equal; Pormpey disdained to have a superior; anrd the rivalry of these two powerful men soon occasioned the ruin of the state. Cmsam obtained the consulate, and with it the government of Gaul for five years. Pom-pey and Crassus remained at Romne, while COsay was busied in extending his h onquests, and laying the foundation of his future greantess, I-Ie attached Pomlpey to his intercets, by givinag him his daughter in maiw I' (_; S THE THEASU~Y O F -1tR3TO( Y. iag e anid, ioinling valour with policy, he cignalized hinself by the great est nilitary enterprises. He defeated the Swiss, -who hlad endeavoured to establishi theiuselves in Fraeiche Conlt6; subdued Ariovistus, king ol the Gernailns, ho i-had invadeld that province. conquered thle Be-lgians or Flenainioo;, a:td reduced with wonderful facility the whole of Gaul. He invaded rit;ain, and imposed a tribute upon the ilhabitants. All these aclhieiveml ts twere perforimed in the space of eight years. Crassus hawv ing been killed in a battle with the Parthiaant, and thte daughter of C.;esa-r thie wife of Pomipey being dead, Ponmpey beheld with a jealcous eye the bhillialnt a.cticns of his father-inl-law and sought by every nieans in his power, to render iti obnoxious to the people; he eUven endeavo-nrllred to depriie Oirmn of his governimento Cm sar, assured of the fidelity of his troops, 1,arched directly to Rome, when Ponmpey and.his partizans iimme diately,banldoned it. Casar had now become a perpetual dictator; he graiced the people by his bouitiies, by lhis, valour, and his wvisdom, aind intimid'ated hi3s eiemies le pursued Poinipey to Greece. After several events, those great rivals iBeat Oil tle plaiis of Pharsalia; and victoty declared in favour of Cicsar, wshIno wxav as remarbkable for his clemency after the battle, ai he had been for his 1ravery durming thle engagement IJbhe vanquished Pompey retired ini;o Eg ypt, _tPtolemy, king of that country, thiiking therley to mnake his cournt to,cear, had him assassinated, anld sent his head to thet conqueror, wlo could nlot r -efrai from shedding tears to the ximemory of so great a man. i t at this period that Cwsar became acquailited with tCleopatra, whoI su e caused to be proclaimed queen of Egypt, her brotheir, Ptolemy, havirngl 5bee drowinled in the Nile,, le marched against Phareaces, the sonl of diit midxtes whomtu he conquered xwith so much ease that he thougaht thcAee wotdos were sufficient to announce his victory-=i Venti, vi'i, vicim" T-Ao sona, o PPonlpey endeavoured to revenge the death of theor father; but foritue ni was unpropitious to their cesig1ns~ after an obstinate battle, their arti was defeated~ Caius Pompey, the eldest son, was ktilicd; and it was wvi. extrelme difficulty that the youngest escaped the hands of the coniquero. it xvais in this wvar that Cato, disdaining to survive i~berty, put an ead to his existence at Utica. Cawsar returned to Italy but, inlated writh his extraordinary sucess, diplayed inore ostentation and pride than lie had hitherto doneo Rome grmoaied under the inltolerable yoke the had imposed' and a conspiracy having been- fortmed against hin1A lie was assassinated by Brutus in the senate~:Lepid,1us inid Anitony, lieutenants of Cwesar, breathed extreme vengeaines Antony exalnirlied lthe will of the dictitor; and by it he had adopted Oe tavius, the son of his sister Julia. ie bequeathed his gardens to the people, and a suin of mnoney to each particular citizen~ There were likewise lea'c(ies to several of the conspirators, particularly to Brutus, wvith 1eversioi0 to Octavius. The funeral oration delivered on this occasion, the app earance of the veterasn soldiers in teals, who threwv their arms and Crowns upon thle fuleral pile of their illustrious general, and the cries of thoe oliman ladies, transported the people vith rage against the conspira-. tot s, whose houses alld property they burnt~ It was thusl that thle people lald tiee foundation of their future misery and slavery. Octavius, wiho was ai C-meee at tii-e time of his uncle's murder, did not, on his -eturn to Rtome. find Antony disposed to relinquish the powver he had assumed in his absene ec Brutus possessed the governlenmt of Gaul, which Antony m1OW ohbtined of the people, contrary to the will of the senate, and he marched, aided by Octavius, against Btutus, in order to dispossess hism thereof by forc e'This conduct ofifended the senators. Antony being defeated, went to Lepidus, then in Gaul; and the senate confirmed l3rutus in his ofdiceo Octavius, hilghly offended at this action of the seniiate, formed at,ilifane with Antony and Le'pidus; andl this union formed tele second TIlL THEASUIRY OF H1121, )T k 1.rtA. uJli:,e it; was agreed between tfhem, that Italy9 and( t[he coast, shoull be in iommon; that Antony should commiand it,, Gul, Leidus in Saain, and (ctavius in Africa and Sicily~ Lepidus remr-inld (at liolne to defenld Italy while Antony and Octavius were employed irn coirib;ting assiltes arld lBrtius Thus all their common enemies were immolalted in tie cause of the triumvirate, and their particular friends were saeriffi;ed to the: resentdezet.ti of each trinlmvir. Octavius destroyed Cicero, His head a.nd hal. ds being severed from his body, were fastened to the tribune, whert: thabt g:ea.; ordator had so often astortished Rome by his etoqucet ce. Avntoeny abacl-Xdoned his uncle, Lepidus his brother. Tlhree huntidre senaorS9, a.tcd fouli thousand knights, were proscribed. T'hus Rome became,hue t, heat:e oi hortro and infarmy alnd the cruelties were renewed that Bad bere heiretcofore practised in the contest between Ma.riuds 11and Sylla it tble meanti eLe, Cassius and Brutus were defeated at IPhilippi: and each of thel- pttt an. end to his existence, in order to avoid falling iiito!;he blnds of' the conqueror. Octavius returned to Rome; Antoniy weelt I.to.sint.? Ie there cited Cleopatra to appear before his tribunal, for l-vin!,i tiakeL. parit with the assassins of Cd(sa.r; becoming enamoured with her b(ea:ty, he sacrificed thereto his glory and his ilterestt He did not retun:i to Italy ort upwards of a year, wchee he married Octavia, sister to Octavius, and. widow of MIarcelluse A. new division of the empire now took place; al1 the eastern parts vere ceded to Antony, the western. to Ocr aavijs, and f./ frica to Lepidus, xwho contested Sicily.with Octavius. Leo pidus, deserted by his friends, was exiled to a small tovwn in Latiumo.tt(ioey, fasciinated by the charms of Cleopaltra employed his time il givitnvi superb entertaiimnents, instead of attendirng to the cotncerns of his ariry o Fle enidea-votmred to justify his conduct to the senate-; but they were irncensed at his neglect, and declared war against him T'ihe armies maet it Actiu, wheire Octavius gaiiled lhat celebrated victory, which aede hi e miaster of the whole Romlan republic~ Cie lup-rt, ala-rmed, set sail fir the -Peloponnesus; and Aritoty abandoned his leet, llid the ernpire of half the worldl, to accompany his mistress to Eli!r:ypot Being pursued by hlis conqueror, he fell upon his swvird, and thereby put an end to his lit'e Cleopatra shiut herself withint the temnple of IlAitotyi, e-tere she applie d art asp to her bosom, aid expired at the, base of t!i t st.,lat;e of hier ist'atestated a.direri Octavius nowv returned to _.tome,,ll fld t'cc d a public triumph during three days. HavinTg eco;me sole I;maste,'t. th reigned a desire to res'igt his authoirity, and demanIded the advic e o)f Agippa and i;tee"m, na. ihe form ner advised hiln to reoestablish the republic; but the opinio. of'the latter being contrary, uand Octaviius aiding' hy it, the slavery of Ron-e wa.s decidedo He left some appearance of authority yet in the ha.nds of the;enate, it dividin writh them tlhe provictces of the empire; but reserved to himself all those in which the troops were statiorned, that he nigrht at all tit.acs be master of the army. Thus coeolenei"d thle meighlt;iest monarchy that atly age has produced. It will, perhaps, be inlterestintg to investigate the cause of thae astonishing 3and rapid el.evation of the Roman empire lest.'le indignity wit ith hich they treated all those whom the fortune of war had plac1ed within their powere being as amrbitious of becomiaing masters of their persons as of their dornitrions, in order that they might load thenm wvitl chitins, dr ag them in triumlph after their chariots, and put them to ionominious deaths; and as these princes were, almost without exception, devoted to luxury and e reminacy, they beheld Rom.ne witll terror and humaility; and the presence of an army of veterans was etioug'h to reduce them to servtid(le. 9nd. Experience having taaight the R30oman senate how miuch the lople of Euirope were better adapted to war than those of IAsic, it prohi:ited entirely the people of Asia from coming into Europe, and the Eiuropeans fromsi going innto Asia. 3rd. The extent of their jurisdictiomi being all lthe 7~0'7THE TREASURBY OF HISTORY tlheni ki,own world, the senate decided, before their own triblunals, all tS i quarrels w hich took place between thle dependent kings arlid theirt Eun.eets, anld between different nations. These they terminated accordiug to toeid pleaslure, alwrays enfeebling those from whom they had anything to fear and, oil tlie co!ltrary, supporting those from whom they had anytiJinc to o pe~ 4t. th. When any two nations, over whose quarrels the. senate had no nirntoluate right of decision, comnmenced w-var with each other, the Rlomlnans altways declared thelmselves in favour of the weaker per'ty, wherhe their assistrance had been inplored or notL The stronuer being reoduced, iie one through fear, and the other through gratit.ude, sublmsitted to chains imposed by the conqueroro They then assulned to themselves the titles of' proteetors of the distressed, supporters of the weak, and the avengers of wrongs; and thiese brilliant titles contribated as iuch to'xtend and confirm their authority, as it miaide them beloved by those,hom tI hey ihad it in their power to seive and feared b-y those who dread-d theinr punishmlent. 5th, I'The senate always accusomred itself to speak in the haughtiest maamer to the ambassadors of the diffierent nations to -hotXn they gave audietnce; and if, in return, the i omeans were treated vith conltempt, they coimlplained loudly of the violation of their rights, and of the itlsul offred to the majesty of the Roiman people. Thus they deo. hca-ed war against those who wvould not submit to their insolence or flatter;their piideo 6th. When they were determiniled to nake war upon any!nationl, [lhey allied themselves wvith some of their nleighbours, at whose!charge it was carried on. They alwcays htdl in taheir neinghbolrhood a;econd army, before they risked a battle with the first; and a third in oxine, readyv upon all occasions; these inportant pre(tautiotls rendered i;heir leriolls inexhaustible. 7th. Wlhen t hey fircestaw a probability of heavincr to encounter two nations at the sainie time, they nergotilted with the weakeist who generally accepted, vith aildity, the offet of peace II was, thlre fore, very difficult to forml a powerful leagule ag-ainst the ltomans, because, as they Nwere implacable in theot resenitmenllts ao'aitist their enemice, they initimida-ted, by their approach, all those x hto had fortied plalns inimicail t!, the interlest of the republict'he seciate, althougth proud, and ddictedl to vetngeanrce, were, nevertheless, pet fet inasters of thle art of' dissilmtlation, when it was not in their power to reVeiie an iujut ry thiey aomeit-tles even refused sufficient satisfaction when ofltredi it i, ci a time tlhey wveire oerwise emiployed, that tie right of reprisal ili-ht still remain, and nwhici they initended to exercise, wvieii a mIore Cavoturable opportunity presenltetl itself Thlus they never made war bult wxhen it wxas c onvenient to their interests~ 8th. If any geneial, af'ter havlilg -received a check. nacde an illoriotus peace, the senate alxtlys refused to ratify ito Thus the prisonlers of wxar, 7which the conquero;rs had spared, aned released upon'their paoote, appeared again iai arms undet lnew chiefi These xvere the more terrible, as they had to effa ce, by their valourl' thea disutrac'e which they had iortnerly sustained. The greneral who tOwas the authior of the treaty, w-xs delivented tip to the enemny and this wras terted, by the senate% at respect to thte rig'lts of th.e people. 9tho If, on1 the tontrary, tile enemy, enfeebled by defeat, demanded pictee, the senate appeared satilsfied wittd the coilitionis thiey offered, and accepted their temlnsis in the inleititnle, having rectified t-heir legious, thety wxould express a dislike to som-e of the larticles,f the 1tegneytiatio, ausld offerCI othters xwith wvhich they kIew the v1nemly wvould lnot coi,plyo The walr thent recntom'eleed' and thle enemy, in hopesC of peace, having neglected their armyn wvere presently subdued.!0th. a\heon the ltolnaiis were at war with a prinee, if his childreti betrayed him, his subjects revoled, or his allies deserted hint, tole senate afforded them an asyluin, and declared themt their allies: this title reiedered sacred,all those wiho received it, and it protected tlhene in thle counmission of all i' rimes that mihitl be useful to the state. lthl Every treaty of peace T'lU TREASURY OF HISTOLORYo. 71 w%.as conllcel8ude0 with an alliance; that is to say, an ho torable servitude; because the dallies of Rome were obliged to assist her in all her wars, and eould not anlderta.ke any without her participation, and against her enenieso Thus orne nation conquered anoither, weakening' theimselves, and strenotlecini-, P,,o Rumeo This species of alliance was, nevertheless, courted, as the R e(orns aould not suffer any other nation to oppose these whoml ithey rit',tecteL. o l'th. The first conldition of every treaty, vwas a stipulatioin ~r a e ibute to'Rome; with which, however exorbitant, the other oontreactinllr party was obliged to comply, or deliver up, as a security for so doilng, thei frontierso 13tho That the repetition of conquest should not diminish the thirst of glory among the troops, the greatest part of the plutnder tekeil was divided among them; it therefore appeared as if the senate made wiar no1L t enrich themselves, bat for the benefit of those wllo vo1untarily enlisted in their serviceo The Roman dominion was thereby extended v ith the greater certainty, and, as it were, insensibly; being hid undei the eXterior antd seducing names of fiiendship, of protection, and of i bera ityo 1y4thl The nations submitted'to the Roman armns with less reltictance, because there seemed nothing terrible in the yoke they imposed; they were left in the possession of their laws, manners, and lan ua ge thus they appeared liberal as friends; but the eniire subjection of their trihutaries, although progressive, was positively certlain. Thus war, and a strict adherelice to political maxims, by deurees raised L.omnc to ali-ost universal monarchyo Theib success was viewed with as m!lich astonishinmenit by the nations which they subjugated, as we regard, with vonder, the exploits of their Scipios, iheir Syllas, aId thelir Cesars tIE eRoVMiAN EmlrInou W'Vie hlave c'edtn resar, the conqueror of Pompey, in the fields of Phars-alia, ietirn trilumphant to Rome, a nd assassinated by Brutus and Cassius in the senbae, Antony, tiunder the pretence of avenging his death, united limnself wvvithl 1Lepidus and Octavitis the nephew of Cmssar. Octavius, disdllinirig a divi.ion of the empire, found means to quarrel withl thern both, defef;ed the-an in succession, returned crowned withi victory to JtRome, and sUsuvtued lthe niame of Augustus. From the time of Julitus C;,sar, the rep'ubli(c tool ele na'me of empire; and those who were at the head of its:rovernment v ere denomiinated emperors. The first twelve assumned the riamne of C'ar,S r that is to say, fronI Julius Cemsar to Donlitialn. Augustus, the first emperor, nras a most fortunate warrior, and a profoand politician. His liberality to the people, his fidelity to his friends, atid his love of the;rts and scienees, obliterated from the minds of the people the proscriptions which alid ftaken place during the wars which ha;dd distractel the empire rlt the comrmencement of his career, l)nring his reign, B3iscay, almrantilt, iE'ypt, Pannonia, Aquintaine, llyricum, Iu-tltia, the country of the Vindeliclal.s, and all the maritime towns in Pontus, becamer subject to:.ae UIoman state. Kle defeated the Germans, the Piarthiatii, and the I})acsm, land died nwith the reputation of a happy m-lonarcho The reign of Autistus vwas remarkable for literary characters, amoing whoml were Virgil, aatithor of the _illeid; Horace, of Odes, Satires, and ip'stles; and )vi(i, of tehe teliletamlortphoses, and other poemns. It lhas sicle become a 0,roverbial expression to call any period, when the literature of a nation is particulalny cultivated, its Auoustan acre. The rei'g-n of Atiirstus was ilso distingt.ished by the birth of Jestus Christ, which tookl place in the reven hundred anid fiftyofourth year from the foundaitioa of Ronme, and it, h.1e thirtieth year of the reign of Augustus. Tiberitis, who had married tile daughter oft Auoustus, and by whom he had heen adnpted, abandoned himseilf to oI'rluptuotisness, and governed by his ministers Hi-s cruielt'.rid avaice re an"dered himt an object of gneal detastauiono f1ecapabl( of 272 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY distinguishing himself in the field, he left the conduct of his wars to his generals. Germanicus defeated the Germans, and Tiberius rewarded his services by ordering him- to be poisoned. This monster of perfidy, ingratitude, and cruelty, died at Campania, in the seventy-eighth' year of his age. In the eighteenth year of his reign,-Jesus Christ was put to death at lerusale m. The Prxtorian Guards were a' body of: ]0,000 menl'under the especial orders of the pritor of Rome, who was usually also onie of the consuls, or subsequently the emperor.'hey were quartered by Augustus, in small detachments, in different parts of Italy;, but Tiberius brought them all to Rome,, and fixed themin its neighbourhlood in a fortified camp. They soon found the unarmed and timid populace of Rome too feeble to oppose them, and took upon themselves the nomination or disposal of the emperors. Caius Caesar, called also Calig'ila, was the sonl of Germanicus, grandson of Drusus, and-great nephew of Tiberius; and succeeded to the imperial dignity in the twenty-fifth year of his age. His life was a continued scene of debauchery, worse, even, than that of- his predecessor. He made war against the Suabianl Germans, without displaying the least pro. mise of military talents. -He was killed in his palace, in the twenty-ninth year of his age. Claudius, uncle and successor to Caligula, gave by turns, symptoms' of good sense and moderation, folly and cruelty. He made war upon Britain, which he reduced: at.his return he had a triumph, and took the name of Britannicus. He, died at the age of seventy-four. He was the husband of AMessalina, so -dishonoured by her licentious life. Nero, the son of Domitian Xnoharbus and Agrippina, daughter of Ger. manicus, and sister to Caligula, began his reign by aspiring to virtues which he did not possess. This seeming goodness was, however, of short duration; he threwv offthe mnask, and appeared to the people in his true character.- He- tarnished the reputation, and diminished the power of the Roman empire. He never undertook any military expedition; but suffered the Parthians to make themnselves -masters of Armenia, and obliged the Roman legions'to fpass under the y'oke. He had Rome set on fire, and put his own mother, his preceptor, and several other persons to-death in the most wanton and cruel manner. At length the senate declared himn an enemy to his country; and he was condemned to be -conducted, quite naked, with his. head between the prongs of a pitchfork, through the streets of Rome; then to be whipped to death, and afterward to be thrown from a high rock into the Tiber. Nero saved, himself from this sentence by self-murder, at thle house of one of his freedmen in the country, at the age of thirty-two years, and the fourteenth of his reign. In his person the family of Augustus became extinct. Sergius Galba, a senator, of an ancient and noble family, was, at the'age of sixty-three, proclaimed emperor by the Spaniards and the Gauls;- and his election was approved by the whole army. He possessed somre virtue, but it was eclipsed by hi~ cruelty and his avarice. - He fell into the snare which he had laid for Otho,; and was killed at Rome in the seventh month from his election. Otho succeeded as emperor. He united in his person the extremes of valour and effeminacy. Having been overcomne in. battle by Vitellius, his competitor, he stabbed himself, being in the thirty-eighth year-of his a(re, and the ninety-fifth day of'his reign. Vitellius moointed the imperial throne'after the death of Otho. IHe reigned without lonour, and wvas cruel in his government. He killed Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, and burned huimh with the capitol. He was an extremle glutton; and wasikilled by an officer inl the service of Vespasian, in the fifty-seventh yeartof his age, havingr reigned eight months and one'day. His body, after having beeni dragged through Rome, was thrown into the Tiber. Vespasian succeeded. to the purple.'He brought under the Roman yoke many powerful, nations; he took'Jerusalem,'and' entered it in THE TRPEASURY OF HISTORY. 273 trtumph with his sonil Titus. -His deatn was much regretted by the senate and the people. He was good-tempered, moderate,-humnane, witty, capable of friendship, and,'on the,whole, the greatest emperor since Augustus Titus succeeded his father; he was perfectly a master of his passions, and governed' the empire so admirably: as to gain the name of'the'" Love and delight; of the Humran Race." His eloquence, his valour,- and his moderation, where the charms by which he gained the hearts of his subjects. He died in the forty-first year of.his age, having reigned two years, eight months and twenty days. Domitian, the younger brother of Titus. ascended the throne. He abandoned himself to.every vice, and was c.a pable of every crime. He raised many considerable edifices in Rome; and was killed;in his palace, by his domestics, in the fifteenth year of his reign. Nerva, already advanced in age, was next elected emperor. He governed with justice, -and chose Trajan for his successor. -He died at Rome at the age of seventy, having reigned four months and eight days, regretted by a people whom he had rendered happy. Trajan, by birth a Spaniard, succeeded Nerva. He was a successful soldier, and extended the bounds of the Romian empire. He was just,-and an enemy to flattery and envy; he was friendly, and loved his subjects; and it has been said that his only defects were a love of war and wine. He died- in Asia in the sixty-third year of his age. Adrian was raised to the throne by the means of Plotina, the wife of Trajan.'He had a happy disposition; was/ a protector of the arts, and of artists; and his greatest ambition was to have the reputation of being learned. He was' a perfect master of the Greek language, and jealous of those who spoke or wrote better than him. self. He abandoned many provinces conquered by Trajan, and built a temple. in honour of Venus on mount Calvary. He died in the Campania of Rome at the age of sixty-two years.. Antoninus Pius, of Nismes, succeeded Adrian. He treated his subjects as his children. Liberality, clemency, and affability, formed only a part of the good qualities of this prince;; his wit was polished, his sentiments noble. He defeated the Britons by his generals. -He repulsed the Mfoors, and took part of Egypt. His death took place at a country seat -called Lorium, four leagues from Rome, in the sixty-third year of his age. Marcus Aurelius, the successor of Antohinus, took Lucius Verus as his colleague in the empire; they made war upon the Parthians. Lucius Verus intended to command in person, but stopped at- Antioch, and gave his orders'to his lieutenants, who defeated the Parthians, and' took Seleucia, one of the finest cities in Syria. Lucius Verus returned to RomeI and had a triumph. He did. at Venice, of apoplexy, or poison, having reigned nine years. After the death of Verus, Marcus Aurelius governed alone, with all the wisdom which characterizes a good prince. He overcame several northern nations, and sold the most precious part of his property to compensate his soldiers, rather than oppress the people. This crowned philosopher would serve as a perfect model for princes, if his extreme kindness had not sometimes degenerated into weakness. He died at the age of sixty-one. Commodus, son of Aurelius, but unworthy of such a parent, succeeded his father to the throne. He made himself detestable by his debaucheries; bi-t;::arried on a successful war against the Germans. After having practised the cruelties'of a Nero, and the wickedness of a Caligula, by sacrificing the wisest among the Romans, and murdering his wife and his sister, he died, as is supposed, by poison. Pertinax, prefect of Rome, succeeded Commodus, at the age of seventy. He was originally a schoolmaster in Liguria, which he quitted for a military life. In endeavouring to establish dicipline in the army, he was killed by the soldiers of his own guard, after a reign of twenty-fiur days. Julian usurped the empire after the death of Pertinax; but he was -defeated by his rival, Septimus Severus, and was slain in his palace in the 18 274 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. seventh month of his -reign. Severus, who had already assumed the title'of emperor in Illyria, succeeded Julian. He defeated and killed Pescennius Niger, who had been proclaimed emperor in the east. He also defeated Clodius Albin, who had assumed the title of Coesar in Gaul. He subjugated the Parthians and the Arabs, and joined to his military skill the reputation of learning. In England he built the famous wall in the north, which extended from sea to sea,-and which is in part remaining at this hour-in order to prevent the inroads of the Picts and Scots. He died at York, after having reigned gloriously eighteen years and four months. / Caracalla and Geta, the sons of Severus, were elected emperors. Caracalla having killed Geta, whom the senate had declared an enemy to the republic, reigned alone. He governed tyrannically, and abandoned himself to the most infamous and degrading vices. He carried on a war with some success'against the Germans; and was preparing to march against the Parthians, when-he was killed at Edessa, at the age of fortythree years; after having reigned six years and two months, the detestation of the Roman people. IHere we date the decline of the Roman empire. Macrinus and Diadamenis, father and son, were placed on the imperial throne. They were killed by the soldiers, after having reigned fourteen months. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, surnamed Heliogabalus, priest of the Temple of the Sun, was proclaimed emperor by the army He was a monster of lasciviousness; and was, with his mother Semiasyra. killed by the soldiers, after having reigned two years aid eight'imonths. Alexander Severus, cousin to the last emperor, mounted the throne at the age of fifteen years. The army gave him the'name of Caesar,, and the senate of Augustus. -He gained a signal victory over the Persians;' and was noted as a patron of the arts and sciences. He was killed in Gaul, by a soldier whom he had raised from the ranks, after a reign of thirteen years; during which he consoled the empire, by his virtues and his kindness, for the tyranny of the preceding reigns. Maximinian,,of the Gothic race, elected emperor by the soldiers, was the son of a poor peasant, and, from the station of a common soldier, alrose step by step to the first dignities in the empire. He was eight feet higfh, and a most voracious glutton. He commenced his reign by the murder of his best friends, and was himself murdered by his soldiers. Gordian was placed upon the imperial throne by the soldiers. He appointed his son as his colleague, whom he sent into Africa against Capellian, governor of Numidia and Mauritania. The younger Gordian was vanquished and killed by the Numidians, at the age of forty-five years. Gordian the, elder died with despair, at the age of eighty,. in the third year of his reign.' Maximus and Balbinius, the first the son of a smith, and the latter of noble origin, had been during the life-time of Maximinian elected emperors bythe senate, and now assumed the throne. But the soldiers, dissatisfied with their eleetion, entered their palaces and massacred them. They then set up the grandson-of Gordian, whom the senate had also declared Cmsar after the death of his grandfather. Gordian II., invested with the purple, opened the temple of Janus, and carried on a successful war against the Parthians and Persians. He pursued Sapor to the confines of Persia, where he was killed through the treachery of Philip, whom he had constituted his lieutenant. The Romans, for his virtues, ranked him among the gods. The two Philips, father and son, were proclaimed emperors. The father was the son of an Arab chief of robbers. Before he came into Italy, he had made his peace with Sapor. He abandoned some of the provinces of the empire; visited Arabia; and built, at the place of his birth, a city which he called Philipopolis. During the reign of the Philips, was celebrated at Rome, with great magnificence, the year one thousand from the foundation of the city. Philip, the father,,was killed THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 275 at Verona, and the son at Rome, after 1having reigned- about six years. Decius and his son, who had been sent against the Scythians, being successful, receivod... ——....-2 _..... C.::'~~ -'................ ~ —- -- -- -. ___ j~~~~~~~~~ A~~~~~~~~-'~~~~~~K V~~~~~~~ -_ —----- THE- TREASURY- OF HISTORY. 355 being much struck with the beauty and fertility of the land, he eventually settled. As the Chinese, contrary' to the practice of almost all nations, have rarely, if ever, sought to conquer other countries, their annals for many ages -furnish nothing remarkable; and although they -date the origin of their imperial dynasties (excluding those of the fabulous times) two thousand years before the Christian era, we find that the country was long divided into several states or independent sovereignties. Twentytwo dynasties of princes are enumerated as having governed China from 2207 B. c., to the present day. the reigning emperor being the fifth monarch of the twenty-second or Tai-Tsin dynasty. What may be termed the authentic history of China does not begin till the time of Confucius, who flourished about five centuries before the Christian era, and who must be regarded as the great reformer of China. He endeavoured to unite in one great confederation the numerous states which harassed each otheir by. mutual wars, and constructed a moral code for the government of the people, He forbore to dive into the impenetrable arcana of nature; neither did he bewilder himself in abstruse researches on the essence and attributes of a Deity, but confined himself to speaking with the most profound reverence of the First Principle of all beings, whom he represented as the most pure and perfect Essence, the Author of all things, who is acquainted with our most secret thoughts, and who will never permit virtue to go unrecompensed, nor vice unpunished. It is not until B. c. 248 that Chinese history begins to be at all developed. Che-Hwang-te, the founder of the Tsin dynasty, in that year succeeded to the throne, and the petty princes of China, as well as the Huns who inhabited the immense plains beyond the Oxus, speedily found that they had a warrior to deal with. Whenever these princes ventured to meet him they were infallibly defeated, until he completely subdued all the states, and consolidated the empire. Having provided for his power within the empire, he next turned his attention to its regular and efficient defence against foreign invaders. The very desultoriness of the attacks of the Huns made it difficult to subdue them. When he could meet and force them into a pitched battle, he never failed to give an excellent account of them; but they were no sooner dispersed than they rallied; no sooner chastised in one part of the empire than they poured furiously down to repeat their offences in some other. Whether the monarch himself, or his able general, Mung-Teen, conceived the grand idea of-surrounding China-as it was then limited —with' wall, it would now be no easy matter to ascertain; certain it is that the wall was erected under the superintendence of the general. This perfectly stup'enduous monument of human skill and industry (which is one thousand five hunded miles in length, thirty feet high, and fifteen feet thick on the top), could only have been completed by an ab. solute monarch. The emniperor of China had only to will and be obeyed. He ordered that every third man throughout the empire should aid in the vast work. Like the Israelites in Egypt, and like the native builders of the vast pyramids, the builders of the great wall of China were but slaves, whose slavery only differed from that of purchased slaves, in that it was but for a time they were purchased, and that the price paid for them was riot in cash or merchandise, but the sic volo, the absblute will of the emperor. A curious calculation has been made, showing that if this wall were pulled down, anid a new one made of the materials, twelve feet high and four feet thick, it would be of sufficient length to encircle the globe. By the stern exercise of his power, the emperor had this mighty wall, with embattled towers at convenient distances on the top, completed, and the towers garrisoned, so as to serve at once for watch towers and fortresses! But though he was a spirit id prince, and had a-chivalrous desire to protect his empire from the rapint of its barbarous enemies. his reign THE TREASUiY OF HISTORY was by no means free from cause of censure: for we find he, ordered the destruction of the whole body of Chinese literature, in the disgraceful hope of destroying all traces of Chinese history previous to the commencement of his dynasty! The works of Confucius were alone secreted, by some man of well-directed mind, and were found, years after the emperor's death, by some workmen employed in repairing a house. On the death of Che-Whang-te, his son Urh-she, less politic or less powerful than his father, found it impossible to prevent few outbreaks among the princes who had been reduced to the position of mere nobles'and lieutenants of the emperor. Whether leaguing against the commands of the emperor, or assailing each other, they filled the land with strife; entire cities were in some cases destroyed, and- the annihilation of the empire seemed at hand; when there arose in-the land one of those mern of iron nerve and hand who never fail to appear during great revolutions, and always precisely when the myriad-evils of anarchy can only be put an end to by a man who possesses the- talents of the soldier joined to the will of the despot. Lien Pang, the man in question, was originally the captain of a, band of robbers, and notorious in that character alike for his boldness and success. The -distracted state of the country opened the'way to his joining the profession of a leader- of free lances to that of a robber, and, at first in alliance with some of the princes, and subsequently in opposition to all of them in succession, he fought so ably that he subdued the whole empire, changed his name to that of Kaon-te, and ascended the throne, thus founding the Hang dynasty. Though thus successful within, he was greatly annoyed by the Huns; and so far was his usual success from attending him in his endeavours to free the empire from them, that he bought their quietness with many and costly presents, which on his death and the succession of his son was changed to a stipulated annual tribute. During several years there were no events worth recording in the history of China; but, in the reign of Woo-te, the empire was assailed by a succession of misfortunes and calamities. Owing to a long continuance of heavy rains the Hoang-ho river burst its banks, sweeping away every thing in its path, and causing a destruction, not only of property but also of human life,, that was truly terrible. During the same reign the cultivated lands were left completely bare by the invasion of a vast army of those destructive creatures, locusts.; and a fire occurred in the capital which burned property to a frightful extent, and was only extinguished after it had consumed a great portion of the city, including almost the whole of the imperial palace. To counterbalance these great national calamities, this reign had one piece of good fortune of the highest consequence. The Huns had made their appearance again in vast numbers; they were completely routed in a great battle, by the Chinese under their general, Wei-sing, who took many thousands of prisoners,;together with the whole of the tents, stores, and baggage of these nomadic plunderers. So thoroughly humbled were the Huns on this occasion, that for very many years they did not again make their appearance; they even paid homage to the emperor, Senen-Te, against whom, however, they broke out as fiercely as ever towards the close of his reign. In the first year of the Christian era Ping-te ascended the imperial throne. He only reigned about five years, and being a weak prince, was even during that period rather the nominal than the real emperor, for both he and the empire were completely ruled by Wang-mang, a prince of great energy, who, on the death of Ping-te, took actual possession of the throne, of which he had long been the virtual owner.'Many princes espoused the cause of the displaced dynasty; but though they perpetually made war upon the able usurper, he kept possession of the, throne during the remainder of his life. Wang-mang died A. D. 23, and was succdeded THE TRIEABSUY OF HISTORY. 357 by Hwac-yang-wang; he died in A. D. 58, and was succeeded by KwangWoo.'his reign is chiefly remarkable on account of the introduction into China, from the neighbouring country of Eastern India, of the Buddhist religion. In the year 89, and the reign of Ho-te, the Tartars, who as well as the Huns ard -the Cochins, were the perpetual pest of China, again made their appearance. They were worsted in several encounters, and many thousands of them perished. They were- driven, broken and dispirited, to the Caspian, and only then escaped owing to the fear with which the mere prospect of a long voyage inspired the Chinese. For several years after this event the affairs of China were in a very pitiable state; the Tartars, returning again and again, added by their ravages to the distress caused by bad seasons; and just under those very circumstances which made the rule of a vigorous and able man more than ever desirable, it, singularly enough, chanced that reign after, reign fell to the lot of mere children, in whose narries the kingdom was of course gov erned by the court favourites of the existing empress; the high trust o. the favourite arising naturally more from the empress' favour than foi his fitness or integrity. Drought, famine, plague, and the frequent curse of foreign invasion, made this part of Chinese history truly lamentable. In the year 220, the empire was, divided into three, and with the usual effect of divided rule in neighbours between whom nature has placed no boundary of sea, or rock, or impracticable desert. In the year 288, the emperor Woo-te succeeded in again uniting the states into one empire. He died about two years later, and was succeeded by Hwuy-te, who reigned seventeen years, but was guilty of many cruelties, and consequently much disliked. The history of no fewer than one hundred and thirteen years, terminating A. D. 420, may be summed up in three wordsconfusion, pillage, and slaughter. Either native generals, and native armies fought, or the fierce Hun and still fiercer Tartar carried death and dismay throughout the empire. Years of bloodshed and confusion at length inclined the more important among the native competitors to peace, and two empire,- were formed-the northern and southern-the Nan and the Yuh-chow. Lew-yn, or Woo-te, emperor of the southern empire, though he was far superior in the wealthiness of his share to the prince of the north, was originally the orphan of parents of low rank, who left him in circumstances of such destitution, that his youth was supported by the actual charity of an old woman, who reared him as her own son. As soon as he was old enough he enlisted for a soldier, and subsequ'ently made his way to the empire by a succession of murders upon members of the royal family, including the emperor Kung-te, who was the last of the Tsin dynasty. Lew-yn, or Woo-te, compelled that unfortunate monarch publicly to abdicate in his favour. The prison of deposed kings is proverbially synonymous with their grave. The case of Kung-te was no exception to the general rule; he was put to death by poison. Woo-te died in 422; his son, Ying-Yang-Wang succeeded him, but was speedily deposed in favour of Wan-te. This prince issued an edict against the Buddhist doctrines, which in the northern dominions, where the prince just at that time was possessed of far more power than his southern brother, proceeded still more harshly. All Buddhists were banished; the Buddhist temples burned, and many priests put to death or cruelly tortured and mutilated. Wan-te, learned himself, was a great frienld and promoter of learning. Several colleges were founded by him, and his exertions in-this respect were the more valuable, as they were imitated by the prince of the north. Wan-te having sharply reproved his son Lew Chaou, for some misconduct, and threatened to disinherit hlim, the son brutally murdered him at the instigation of a bonze or priest, who represented that act as the only THE TREASURY OF HISTORY, means of preventing the father's threat from being carried into effect. The guilt of both the, prince and his priestly instigator met withIts fitting reward. Lew-senen, h'alf-brother- to the prince, raised a powerful army, and attacked Lew Chaou, who with his whole family were beheaded,-and all his palaces razed to the ground.: Fei-le King-Ho has been aptly enough compared to the Caius Caligula of Rome; bloodshed appeared to he his greatest delight; to be privileged to approach him was at the same time to be in constant peril of being butchered; and he swas no less obscene than cruel, an immense and gorgeously decorated hall being built by him, and exclusively devoted to the most disgusting and frantic orgies. The reign of so foul a monster could not be otherwise than short. The very officers of his palace could not tolerate his conduct. and in the yea) following his accession tothe throne he was dispatched by. one of the eunuchs of his palace. Ming-te Tae-che succeeded to the throne, A. D. 466. What he might have proved if his accession had been unopposed we can but guess; but, being opposed, he was aroused to a rage perfectly ungovernable.- Those of his relatives who actually, took up arms against him were not. more hateful than those of them who did.not, and many of the latter were put to-death by him. His whole reign was passed in warfare -with one or more of the princes of -his family. This state of things lasted for nearly six years, and caused so much misery to the people, that there would have been a general rising for the purpose of dethroning him, but for his opportune death. Anarchy and war marked the two following reigns,,of Chwang-yu.wang, and Shun-te; the former was dispatched by a eunuch employed by an aspiring general, who -also compelled Shun-te to abdicate in his favour, and soon afterwards assassinated him. In 479 the aspiring and reckless general, Seawu-Taduching, ascended-the throne, under the title of Kaou-te-now; he reigned but two years, and the succeeding princes of this dynasty, Tsi, which terminated in 502, were engaged in continual war with the prince of the north, but performed neither war. like nor peaceful services to merit notice. A new dynasty, the Leang, was now commenced by Woo-te, who ascended the throne in 502. Under him the old wars between the northern and southern empires were continued. - Nevertheless, though warlike and active at the commencement of his reign, he showed himself a great admirer and patron of learning. He revived some learned establishments that had fallen into decay. and founded some new ones; but probably the most important -service that he- did it was that of publicly teaching in person. We mnay fairly doubt whether-such a prince was not better skilled in the arts of war, as then practised, than in studious lore; but his example tended to make learning fashionable, and he may therefore be said to have afforded it the greatest encouragement. Whatever his actual at. tainments, his love of study seems to have been both deep and sincere; for while yet in the prime of mental and bodily vigour, he abandoned the pomp and power of the throne, and retired to a monastery with the avow. ed intention of devoting the remaind r ofohis life to study. This, however, had such mischievous effect upon public affairs, that the principal mandarins compelled him to quit his peaceful retirement and re-ascend the throne; but the rest of his life was passed in strife and tumult, which eventually broke his -heart. His son and, successor had scarcely commenced his reign, when hebwas p1t to death, and succeeded by Yuen-te. This emperor also was fond of retirement and study, and greatly neglected the affairs of his empire, which, distracted as it constantly was by the violence and intrigues of the princes of the empire, required a stern and vigorous attention. Shin-pan-seen, w1ho was not only a prince of the empire, but also prime minister to the emperor, raised a rebellion against his confiding and peaee THE TREASURY OF HISTOBRY. 359 ful master, whose first intimation of his danger.was given to him by the fierce shouts of the rebel force at the very gates of his palace. On hearing those boding sounds, the emperor, awakened from his delicious reveries, calmly iclosed the book he had been so intent upon, put on his armolur, and ascended the ramparts. A single- glance showed him that it was too late for resistance; he returned to his library, and, setting fire to it, abandoned his sword, and resigned himself to his fate. The library of this unfortunate monarch, who would probably have been both powerful and glorious had he ruled over a less divided and turbulent people, is said to have contained one hundred and forty thousand volumes; an immense number to have been collected even by royalty at such a time and among such a people. The next emperor worthy of any mentions however slight, is Wran-te, whose short reign was so vigorous, prudent, and successful, that he must be considered to have been the chief cause of the re-union which occurred soon after his death between the northern and southern empires. He died in 566, and was succeeded by his son, Pe-tsung, who was speedily dethroned by his uncle and the empress dowager. The throne was then filled by Suen-te. During his short reight, of less than three -years, he fought boldly and constantly against his opponents, and did much towards promoting the fast approaching union of the two empires. On the death of Suen-te, in the year 569, he was succeeded by How Chow, a mere sensualist and idler, whose debauchery and indolence disgusted and angered his people more, probably, than hardier and more active vices would, even though they had been productive of a fiercer and more obvious kind of tyranny. A powerful and warlike noble, Yangkeen, put himself at the head of the disaffected nobles and their followers and laid siege to the imperial city. The inhabitants, who, as might be expected, were even more disgusted with the effeminacy and profligacy they had witnessed, than the beseigers, threw open the gates almost without e struggle. The immediate advisers of the emperor and the notorious companions of his profligate revels were sternly put to death, and search was then made for the emperor. That cowardly sensualist had taken refuge with -all his family in a dry well, whence he was dragged out half dead with terror, and expecting no less than instant death at the hands of the victorious rebel leader. But Yang-keen, either in mercy, or with the politic view of placing an additional obstacle in the way of all other pretenders that might arise, spared both him and his-family. On usurping the throne, A. D. 572, Yang-keen's very first act was to consolidate the northern empire with the southern. In this he found little difficulty. WVei, the last really great prince of the northern empire, was both'so well able to war, and so little inclined to do so without ocTasion, that he made his state at once feared without, and peaceful and prosperous Within. He was poisoned by his own mother, a woman of high but cruel spirit, and of great talents but most restliss disposition. Both she, while she acted as regent to her grandson, and the latter when he had taken the reins of government into his own hands, plunged the state into all the venomous and mischevious wars of the imperial princes; and this fatal departure from the peaceful polity of the) former ruler, and the absence of any improvement in his military power, struck.a blow atthe: safety and integrity of the northern empire,: which,- after a separate existence of upwards of a century and a half, was re-annexed to the southern empire, almost without an effort, CHAPTER II. YANG-KEEN having been so successful in obtaining the throne and consolidating the empire, turned his attention to restraining the violence and 360 - THE TtREASURYY: OF HISTOIR rapine of the Tartar chiefs.. His reputation for skill; valour, and firmness, here did him good service. Bold and rapacious as the Tartars were, they were too well aware:of the character of the monarch whom -they now had to deal with, to hope that he would overlook any of the advantages he possessed. -They professed themselvyes desirous rather of his friendship than his enmity; and to show the sincerity of what they called their amity, but what would have been far morie correctly termed their terror, they went so far as to pay him homage. With his usual shrewd policy Yang-keen gave one of the imperial princesses in- marriage to the princi-. pal Tartar chief. Nor was he ill-rewarded for the facility with which he permitted himself to substitute alliance for strife. During his reign, his people remained free from the incursions of'the Tartars, which had previously been as frequent as the natural tempests,, and far more destructive. On the death of Yang-keen, in 604, the heir to the thrpne was strangled by a younger brother, Yang-te, who, having committed the fratricide and removed all other obstacles from his path, ascended the throne in 605. The means by which, this prince obtained the throne, common as such means are in despotic and but partially civilized nations, deserve all the detestation that we can bestow upon them; but if he obtained the throne shamefully, he filled it well,- Th'ugh eminently a lian of taste- and pleasure, he was no less a man of judgment, enterprise, and energy. In' the early part of his reign he formed extensive gardens, which for magnitude and tastefulness were never before witnessed in China; and in these gardens it was his chief delight to ride, attended by a retinue of a thousand ladies, splendidly attired, who amused him with vocal and instrumlental music, and with dancing and feats of grace and agility on horseback. This luxurious habit did not, however, prevent him from paying great attention to the solid improvements of which China at that time stood so much in-need. It would be idle to remark upon the importance (to both the prosperity apnd the civilization of a people) of good and numerous means of communic4tion between all the extremities of their land. Many of his canals and bridges still exist, as proofs both of his zeal and judgment in thisi most important department of the duty of a ruler. But his talents, energy, and accomplishments, could not save him; he had been on a tour, not improbably with a view to some new improvement in the face of the country, when he was assassinated. This melancholy event, it seems probable, arose from the successful artifices of Le-yuen: he was both powerful and disaffected; had previously signalized himself by the most factious conduct, and immediately after the assassination, put himself forward to place King-te upon the vacant-throne. What motive Le yuen had in making this man the mere puppet of sovereignty for a brief time it is difficult to conjecture:; but it is certain that King-te had scarcely ascended the throne, before Le-yuen caused him to be strangled and assumed the sovereign power himself. It is strange that ill-acquired power is sometimes used with wisdom and moderation, as though in the struggle to obtain it the evil portion oi the posessor's nature had been exhausted. Le-yuen, or rather Kaou-tsoo, which name he took on ascending the throne, was a remarkable instance of this. Nothing could be more sanguinary or unscrupulous than the course by which he became master of the empire; nothing could be braver, more politic, or, as regarded his internal administration, milder, than his conduct after he had obtained it, For some years previous to his usurpation, the Tartars, had returned to their old practice of making in. cursions into the northern parts of China, on some portion of which they had actually proceeded to settle themselves. Kaou-tsoo attacked them with great spirit,.and in many severe engagements made such slaughter among them as to impress them with a salutary fear of pushing their en. croachments farther. Looking with a politic and prescient eye at tihe THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 36state of other nations, IKaou-tsoo was- extremely anxious about that -sin gular and ferocious people, the Turks, who about the commencement of his reign begain to be very troublesome in Asia. - Dwelling between the Caspian sea and the river iHypanis, the Turks. werefa sylvan people, hardy, and living chiefly upon the spoils of the'chase. Thus prepared by their way of life to the hardships of war, and having their cupidity excited'by the- rich- booty of the caravans, which they- occasionally rushed upon from their peninsular lair to plunder, this people could not fail to be otherwise than terrible, when, under a brave and politic leader, they went forth to the, conquest of nations instead of. the pillage of a caravan, and appeared as a great multitude instead of a mere ~ isolated handful of robbers. To China they -were especially hateful and mischievous; for they were perpetually at war with the Persians, with whom just at'that tirme, far the most valuable part of Chinese commerce was carried on. The Persians fell before the Turkish power, and that restless power endeavoured to push their conquests into China. It might probably have affected this had a different manl ruled the empire; but the emperor not merely repulsed them from his own -territory, but chastised the disaffected Thibetians who had aided themr and pushed forward into China, whence he expelled the Turks. After a victorious and active reign of twenty-two years and a few months, this brave and politic emperor'died, and was succeeded by Chun-'tsung, whose effeminacy was the more glaringly disgraceful from contrast with the brave and active character of his predecessor.- The single act for which his historian gave him any credit, is that of having- made it necessary fior the literati, who by this time exercised"pretty nearly as much influcqce in both private and public affairs in China as the clergy did in Europe during the- middle ages, to'sustain a rather severe public examination. Of the next seventeen monarchs of China there is literally nothipg recorded that is-worthy of transcript; nor during their reigns did, anything of moment occur to China beyond the civil dissensions, which were frequent, and indeed inevitable, in a country where effeminate' princes committed'their power to intriguing eunuchs, who scarcely ever failed to prevent" a resumption of it, by the d.agger or the poisoned cup. Chwangtsung, son of a brave and skilful general. founded the How Tang dynasty, and, at least at the outset of, his reign, was a bright contrast to his predecessors. He had from mere.boyhood shared the perils and hard ships of his father, whom he had accompanied in many of his expeditions At the -comnlencement of his reign he gave every promise of being the greatest monarch China ever saw. In his apparel and diet he emulated the frugality of the meanest peasant and the plainest of his troops. Lest he should indulge in more sleep than nature actually required, he was accustomed to have no other bed than the bare ground, and, as if this luxurious way of lying might lead him to-waste in sleep any of that precious time of which he was a most rigid economist, he had a bell so fastened to his person, that it- rang on his attempting to turn round, so' loudly as to awaken him, and after if did so he' immediately rose, to repose no more until his usual hour on the' ensuing night. Extremes are proverbially said to meet; but certainly one would never have suspected that- so Spartan a youth would have heralded a manhood of exceeding luxury and even licentiousness. But so it was; his companions Were among the most profane wassailers in his empire, and he emulated their conduct. Yet thoughhe —departed'from the,- perhaps, too rigid severity.of his manners, he was to th-e last a brave and active man, and was' slain at the head of his troops in a battle:-fought in 926, having in spite of some personal defects of character already' noted, been on the whcle one of the most respectable of all the native Chinese emp.De rors: 362v> TIHE TREABURY OF HISTORY. The next was Ming-tsung, who reigned for only seven years. Bul if his reign was short it was active and beneficent; and if there are Inany greater names in the imperial annals, there is not one more beloved. His people looked upon him as a parent, and his whole reign seems, in fact, to have been the-expressiqn and achievement of a truly kind and paternal feeling. He died. in 933, with a character greater monarchs might envy. Min.te succeeded to the throne in 933. He only reigned one year; but in that' very brief space of time he contrived to deserve, if not to obtain, -the execration of the Chinese women, not only of his, own time, but up to the present hour. He it was who established the truly barbarous practiee of confining \the feet of female children in such a manner that the toes are bent completely under the soles of the feet, which are, it is true, rendered very diminutive in appearance by this abominable method, but are at the same time rendered almost useless; The loitering and awkward gait of the women would be sufficient to make this practice deserving of all abhorrence as a matter of- taste merely, but when we consider the exquisite torture which the: unhappy creatures must have suffered in girlhood, it is really, wonderful that such a practice should so long have existed in any nation possessing even the first rudiments of civilization. Min-te died in 934, in the first year of his reign, and was succeeded by Fei Tei, who paid- the fearful price of fratricide for the throne. He possessed, it would seem, a great share of merely animal courage, and like the generality of persons who do so, he was distinguished for his exceeding barbarity.. Even the Chinese, accustomed as they were to despotism in all its varieties of misrule, could not endure the excess and wantonness of- his cruelty. A formidable revolt broke out; and finding himself hard pressed by his enemies, and abandoned every moment by h:s troops, he collected the whole of his family together, and, like another Sardanapalus, set fire to his palace-his wealth, his famiiy, and himself being con sumed in the flames. Kaou-tse now ascended the throne, being the first of the How-tsin dynasty. He was more the nominal than the real monarch, hils minister, llung-taieu, usurping a more than imperial power. The minister, in fact, is in every way more worthy of mention than the monarch, for according to the most credible accounts the invention of printing from blocks was a boon conferred by him upon China in the year 937.. Both this reign and that of Chuh-te, which closed this short-lived dynasty, were occupied in perpetual battling with the restless Tartars, who for ages seem to have had an instinctive certainty of having,'sooner or later, the rule of China, as the reward of their determined and pertinacious inroads. In 960, Kung-te, a child of only six years of age, being upon the throne, the people arose and demanded his abdication. Of maternal and eunuch misgovernment they-'certainly had for centuries past had abundant experience. How far the successful aspirant to the throne was concerned in rousing their fears into activity and fervour does not appear; but it is certain that the revolt against the infant emperor, and the election of Chaou-quang-yin as his successor, were events in which the people showed great unanimity of feeling. This founder of the Sung dynasty did inot commence his reign under the most promising circumstances; for on tihe ceremonial of- his acceptance of the throne, he actually ascended in a state of intoxication. Nevertheless, this prince, who on his elevation to the throne took the name of Taou-tsoo, was in reality one of the best-of the Chinese monarchs, both as a warrior and a domestic ruler. The imbecility or infancy of some of his predecessors, and the pernicious habit into which others fell of leaving the actual administration of affairs il; the hands of eunuchs, and other -corrupt favorites, had caused the court expenses as well as the, c,ourt retinue to be swelled to a shameful extent. The new- emperor, immediately after his accession, caused the mos THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 36 rigid enquiry to be made into the expenses of the state; and every use less office was abolished, and every unfair charge sternly and promptly disallowed. In effecting this great and important reform, the emperor derived no small benefit from having formerly been a private person, as in that capacity he no doubt would have the opportunity to.note anv abuses which could never be discovered by the -emperor or anyof the imperial princes. His frugality seems to have -been as-impartial as it was wise; for though he raised his family, for four generations, to the rank of imperial princes, he at the same time insisted upon their being content with the most moderate revenue that was at all consistent-with their rank. When we bear in mind the long and indefatigable endeavours of the Tartars to obtain a footing in the interior of the Chinese empire, and couple that fact with their no.w leaguing with the Chinese- revolters against the newemperor, we shall not be presumptuous,if we affirm that the opposition to him was infact' more foreign than native. The emperor made immense levies of. men throughout the provinces that were faithful to him, and marched against his enemies. The, subsequent conflicts were,dreadful; Ithe troops of the prince of Han well knowing that they had little mercy to hope for if taken prisoners, fought with the fury and obstinacy of despair, and they were well seconded by the Tartars. Thousands fell in each engagement.; and though the emperor was a warrior and a, brave one, he is said to have often subsequently shed tears at the mere remembrance of the bloodshed he witnessed during this war. The overwhelming levies of the emperor, and perhaps, that "tower of strergth," the royal name, which the adverse faction wanted, made him completely successful. Having put down this opposition, he next proceeded against the prince of Choo, whom he captured and deprived of his dominions. Among' the millions of souls whom he thus added to his subjects was an extremely numerous and well-appointed army. This he forthwith incorporated with his owqp, and thus strengthened in force, marched against Kyang-Nan and southern Han. -Here again he was completely successful, and he now. turned his attention to the chastisement of the Mongols of Leaon-tung, who had joined the prince of Han in the former war; but the issue of this-expedition was still uncertain when the emperor died. Though engaged in war from the beginning to the end of his reign, this emperor was attentive to the internal state of his. empire. When not actually in the field he was at all times accessible; to the humblest as to the highest the gates of the imperial palace were open, and in giving his decision he knew no distinction, between the mandarin, and the poor labourer. This conduct in his military and civic affairs, produced him the enviable character of being the "terror of his enemies and the delight of his subjects.":1'ae-tsung, son of the last-mentioned monarch, ascended the throne at the death of his father, whose warlike measures he proceeded to carry out, and whose warlike character and abilities he to a great extent inherited. During his entire reign hle was'. engaged in war;;now with the Mongols, at that time the most threatening of all the enemies of the empire, and now with this or that refractory. native prince. It is strange that the:emperors never thought, so far as we can perceive- of the policy of concentrating their forces upon the positions of individua' princes, and on every decisive advantage demanding such a contribution in money as would effectually impoverish him; at the same time demanding as hostages not only sonie of the more important of his own family, but of all the other great families connected with him, These measures, though severe upon individuals, would have been merciful as regards the great mass of both contending parties. After twenty-one years of almost perpetual warfare, with many successes and comparatively few de THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. feats,% Tae-tSung died, in 997, leaving- behind him a'character only less honorable than that of his predecessor, inasmuch as he paid less constant and minute Attention to the internal. or'derof the empire and the indi. vidual welfare of his subjects. Chin-tsung now succeeded. to the empire, a princewhose character and conduct strangely contrasted with those of his two immediate pre decessors. The bonzes or priests; were the only persons who had reason to like him; and even, their liking, excite'dr though it was by personal advantage, must h.aye been'mixed with no slight feeling of contempt. There was no, tale that they could tell' him which was' too extravagant for his implicit belief; no command tooabsurd for his unqualifi-d obedi-.ence. Every morning the imperial szany was busied in relating his overnight dreams, and it need' scarcely be said -that the bonzes took especial care to interpret those dreams so as to tend to'confirm the' weak-minded and hypochondriac'monarch'in his fatuous' course, and' to make that'cqurse as profitable as possible to'themselves i'ndividually,'and as favourable as.possible to their order at large. The warlike and shrew-d Tartars speedily perceived'the difference betwixt an emperor who divided his time between dreaming and listening to the interpretations of his dreams —leaving the empire and its vast complicated interests to the'care,lor carelessness of eunuchs and time-servers —and the warlike and clear-headed. emperors with whom they, had''to deal during the two preceding reigns. They poured in upon the empire with a fury proportioned to the ineffective resistance they anticipated, and their shrewd conjectures were amply justified by the event. Resistance, indeed, was made to them on the'frontiers; but instead of their being driven beyond the frontiers with a message of moLirning to thousands, of Tartar families, their absence was purchased. Great'stores of both money and silk were paid to them by order of the Chinese court, which, liked the Roman, when Rome had become utterly degenerate, was fain to purchase the& peace it dared or could not battle for. -Ying-tsung, Shin-tsung, and Hwity-tsung, the three immediate successors of the weak princeof whose reign we have just spoken, followed his impolitic policy of purchasing peace. WVe emphatically say impolitic, because common sense tells us to yield tribute once, is to encourage the demand of it in future. The tribute once secured, the, hardy and unprincipled Tartars again returned to the charge, to be again bought' off. and to derive, of course, renewed assurance' of booty.whensoever they should again think proper to apply for it. Hwuy-tsung, the third of the emperors named above, having a dire perception of the erro' committed by himself and his three immediate predecessors, determined to adopt a new course, and instead of bribing the " barbarians" who so cruelly annoyed him, to hire other barbarians to expel them, thus adding to the folly of buying'peace the still farther folly of giving the clearest insight into the -weakness of'his condition, to those who, being his allies as long as they received his wages, would infallibly become his enemies the instant he ceased to hire them. This prince engaged the warlike tribe of Neu-che Tartars in the defence of his territory.' They ably and faithfully performed what they had en. gaged; but when they had driven out the Nien-cheng Tartars they flatly refused to quit the territory, and made a hostile descent upon the provin. ces of Pecheli and Shansi, which they took possession of. At'the same time the Mongols were pouring furiously down upon'the provinces of Shau-tong and Honan,; and the terrified and unwarlike emperor saw no other means of saving his dominions, than by'coming to immediate terms with his late allies and present foes, the victorious and imperious Neu-che Tartars. He accordingly went to their camp, attended by a splendid retinue of his chief officers, to negotiate not only for a peace, but also for their active and prompt aid against the Mongols. But the emperor had THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 365 so long left the affairs of the empire in the hands of-intriguers and venal sycophants, that he was not sufficiently acquainted with his actual position to take even ordinary precautions;'he- was literally sold by his mihisters into the hands of his enemies; and on reaching the Tartar-camp, he found that he was no longer a powerful prince treating for peace and alliance with an inferior people, but-a powerless prisoner of war, in the hands of his enemies, and abandoned by his friends. Abandoned he indeed was, by all save his soni. That spirited prince, faithful to his fallen father, and indignant at the treachery practised against him, put the ministers to deati, and gathered an immense force pgainst the Mdngols, Who, in the meantime, had been making the'most rapid and terrible advances,. Rapine and fire marked their path whithersoever they went. The emperor's gallant son made admirable but useless: efforts to-approach them. Leaving devastation and misery in their: rear, they rapidly approached the capital,' laid siege to the imperial palace itself, butchered thousands of the irlhabitants, including some of the imperial family, and sent the rest- into captivity. CHAPTER III. KAOU-TSUNG II. at this period-reigned over'the southern provinces. When the barbarians overran the northern parts of the empire4 he- made noble and able attempts at, beating thein off from his domniniolns; but they were far too warlike and nunerous for his limited resources. To the northern provinces and to thle captive emperor he was unable to afford any assis tance by force of armn, nor could his humblest and most, tempting offers to the savage foes induce them to liberate a prisoner or evacuate a rood ot Land. All that he was able' to gain from them was permission to retain his own rule in peace, on paying an, annual tribute and ackniowledging his subjection. Inl 1194 the celebrated Genghis Khan was at the head of the Mongol Tartars. At the outset of this warrior's career his peop!lerevolted from him, excepting only a very few families, on the ground of hisbeing, at the death of his father, too young to rule a numerous and extremely warlike people. But the youth displayed so much talent and courage, and his earliest essays as a warrior were, so entirely andstrikin gly successful, that the tide of opinion speedily turned-in his favour; and an oldand venerated Mongol chief having, in a public assembly of the people, prophesied that the youth, then known by his family name of Tellujia, would, if supported as he deserved to be, prove to be the greatest of their khans — Genghis Khan (the' Mongols words for the greatest king) was immediately made the youth's name by acclamation, and the bold but barbarous' and vacillating people as unanimously submitted' to him now, as formerly they had seceded from him. It was to this chief, who had already made his name a name of terror far beyond the banks of the Selinga, the native abode of his fierce race, that Ning-tsung, the then emperor of China, applied for aid to drive out other Tartars, by whom, as well as by native malcontents, the nation was very sorely oppressed at that period. Genghis Khan, already inured to conquest and thirsting for extended dominion, eagerly complied with the impolitic request of Ning-tsung. During the reign of that monarch, and Le-tsung, by whom he was, at his death in 1225, succeeded, the Mongols passed-from triumph to triumph, the unhappy natives suffering no less from the barbarians who were hired to defend them than from the other barbarians who avowedly entered the empire for purposes of rapine and bloodshed. Le-tsung, a prince whose natural iiduilence was increased by his superstitious atta~chment to the 366 THE fREASURY OF HISTORY. most superstitious priests in his empire, was a voluntary prisoner in his palace. The atrocities committed in what the Mongols seemed bent upov making a war of extermination, were dreadful; the most authentic accounts speaking of the slaughter among the'people as amounting to hundreds of thousands,. Genghis Khan'dying, was succeededby a grandson named Kublai; and Le-tsung also0 dying, was succeeded by Too-tsung. This last named prince was a' debauched as his predecessor had been superstitious;, and wholly taken up with the' gratification of his sham-efu. sensuality, he saw, almost without a care or struggle, the Mongols under Kublai proceeding with their ravages, and Kublai at length become master of the northern provinces. Thus far successful, it.was not likely the conquering chief would forbear turning his attention to the southern provinces; which, as we learn' from'Marco Polo, was considered by far the most wealthy and splendid of the'kingdoms of ithe east.' The very wealth of the southern empire, and itS'comparatively long exemption from war,:rendered pretty certain that it would easily be overrun by him who had conquered the hardier and more experienced warriors of the north. Province after province and city after city was taken, without the experience on the part of the' Mongols of anything approaching to a severe check. With rapid'and sure steps they approached the city of Kinsai,.the capital and royal residence, and wealthy to an extent not easily'to be described. The then emperor, Kung-tsung, seems to. have despaired of successful defence against a foe so long victorious, and to have'supposed his. empress could more successfully appeal to. a victor's mercy than he could to the fortunes of war. He accordingly got together all the treasure that could be at all conveniently embarked on board his fleet, gave the command of it.t6 his mnost experienced naval commander and put out to sea.'The fact of the defence of Kinsai being committed to a beautiful- woman, did not' prevent Kublai from ordering his generals to use their utmost exertions in bringing the siege to a speedyconclusion. Such orders ensured an activity which reduced the garrison to most alarming distresses,; but the empress consoled herself under every new disaster by a prophecy which had been made by a court -astrologer-a kind of cheat very popular with most of the Chinese monarchs-that Kinsai could only be taken by a general having a hundred eyes. As such a specimen of natural history was by no means likely to'appear, the empress allowed nothing to daunt her, until, on enquiring the name of a general whom Kublai had entrusted tormake a new and vigorous assault on the city, she was told that it was Chin-san ba-yan. These words-which mean the hundred-eyed-seemed in such ominous agreement with the requirement of the prophecy, that the empress allowed her hitherto high courage to give place to a superstitious horror, and she immediately surreodered the city; on receiving from Kublai assurance, which he very honourably fulfilled, of treatment and an allowance in conformity with her rank. Sa-yan-fu, which' was a far stronger city than the capital, and against which no superstitious influence was brought, held bravely out against the efforts of the Mongols forU pwards of three years. Marco Polo and his brother Nicolo, the Ita'lian travellers'and traders, anxiotus to illn ratiate themselves with the formidable and prosperous Kublai, supplied him with besieging engines which th'rew stone balls of'the tremendous weight of one hundred and twenty pounds. Such missiles soon made practicable breaches in the hitherto impregnable walls. The town was storned, and Kublai, enraged'at its long anld-obstinate resistance, gave it to the mercy of his troops. The fugitive emperor found in some distant and strongly fortified islets, a shelter for his treasure, but -not that safety for himself which he had,ought with,so much sacrifice of dignity and character. He had not long THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 367 been at his post of security, when ne was seized with an illness which speedily terininated-his life. The empress, wh6 seems, to have been altogether as brave and adventurous as her husband was timid, strengthened the fleet at Yae islands, under the command of the emperor's favourite admiral, Low-sewfoo, proclaimed Te-ping; her son, emperor,.and repaired with him on board the.fleet. The Mongol fleet, after attacking anton. hove in sight of the imperial fleet, when a tremendous action commenced and continued for an entire day. The Mongols, though even their loss was dreadful, were victorious, and the Chinese or imperial fleet was so much shattered that Low-sewfoo found it impossible to get his crippled >vessels through the straits. Dreading the very worst from the resentment which Kublai was likely to feel at this.new resistance on the part of the empress, that! brave but unfortunate woman committed suicide by jumping overboard. Her terrible example was followed by several of her principal attendants, including the admiral, who leaped overboard: with the young emperor in his arms.'So disastrous a day as this could not fail to be decisive; all the comparatively small part of the south that had hitherto held out was quickly overrun, and the whole empire was now under a Mongol emperor concentrated into One. Under the title of Shi-tsu, Kublai ascended the imperial throne in 1279, and in so doing laid the foundation of the Yuen dynasty. Shi-tsu having obtained the mighty and vast empire of China, now determined to use its resoitrees, n adding Japan to his already unwieldy possession. But this time he Was fated:to a fortune very different from that which usually attended him. The Japanese, instead of shrinking at: the approach of a force that from its previous successes might Awell have made them paulse as'to the prudence of resistance, fortified their forts in the strongest manner time would admit. One being at length taken, the-re-sistance of the garrison was, punished by the butchery of every man, without exception, eight of the number being beat to death with clubs. The real reason of this-cruel distinctioin being awarded to the eight unhappy persons was, most likely, that they were.distinguished in their rank or the zeal and determ;nation oftheir resistance. But the fondness that exists for the marvellous has caused this occurrence to be attributed to the somewhat inexplicable mechanical impossibility of putting them to death by decapitation, on account of iron chains which they wore round their necks. Before the terror such barbarity might possibly have carried into the hearts of. the other garrisons, had time to produce weakness or treachery, a tremendous storm arose by which a great portion of the Tartar, or rather Tartar-Chinese, fleet was wrecked. The extent of the injury so'alarmed'the commanders, that they hastened home with the retnainder- of their ships, abandoning many-,thousands of their followers to the vengeance of the Japanese. Shi-tsu died in 1295; and it was not until his grandson, Tching-sung, ascended the- thronei and began to imitate the ambitious and warlike conduct of his great predecessor, that anything worthy of even, casual mention occurred-in the history of the subiugated peorle of China. - Tching-sung is better known in Europe as Timour the Tartar, or Tamerlane, wvhose,treatment of his opponent Bajazet has'been made the.sub. ject of so many dramas and tales. His name of Timour (the iron) seems to have been exactly suited to his energetic, untiring, and unsparing nature. Fixing the imperial residence at Samarcand, he appears to-have formed the project' of carrying oti the work of subjugation to the utmost possible ext nt in all directions. Persia, Georgia, and Delhi, speedliy felt and succumbed to his power; he drove the Indians, quite to the Ganges, and utterly destroyed Astracan and other places in that direction. Baiazet, the Ottoman monarch,,seems'to us to have hod the most just cause imaginable to arrest the course of a man who was evidently deter 368 THE TREASUPY OFP BISTORY. mined upon making himself, if possible, the sole monarch of the east But the Ottoman was far inferior to the'Tartar in that strength which is as important to success-as even a good cause itself. We are assured that while Bajazet had only 120,000 men, his opponent brought 700,000 into the field. Probably the force of xTamerlane has been much exaggerated, though there can be no -doubt the army of Bajazet very greatly, ex ceeded, that of lis opponent. The day on which this tremendous battle was fought M as sultry in the extreme, yet- so obstinate were both parties, that the- contest c6ntinued from the morning until a late hour at night. The comparatively small army of Bajazet was in the end coinpletely routed, and - the unfortunate monarch himsrnelf taken prisoner. The conduct of Tamerlane on this occ~asion was such as would cast.disgrace on the most,ignal courage and& talents. Instead of allowing the sympathies of a brave man to soften.him towards his singularly braver though unfortunate opponent, he had him put into an iron cage and carried from place to place with him in all his excursions, exhibiting him as one would-a wild beast, and at the same time displaying on his own. pairt a temper far more- like that of a wild beast than a brave and successful.warrior. The unfortunate Bajazet lived in this most pitiable condition until thefyear 1303, when he died, as tradition says, and as was' most likely, of a broken heart'. Tamerlane during his various and extensive expeditions had committed the internal government of his' empire to certain princes of his housenis grandsons and nephews. Their authority and character being far less respected and feared than his own, several insurrections took place, anfd Tamerlane, orTchin-sung, now,marched towards China with the avowed determination' of inflicting severe chastisement; but as he was advancing with forced marches for that purpose, he was seized with an illnress which terminated both his prospects and his life in 1305. His descendants kept up a perpetual scramble for the empire, in which they contrived the utter ruin of the high character they owed to him. A.se ries of revolts and intrigues followed'each other during the strifes of succeeding emperors and pretenders; and the next event necessary to give any account of, is an embassy sent from Persia to China in the reign ot Yung-lo, also called Ching-tsoo. Trhe account of this empassy is' the more interesting, because it gives us considerable insight into the manners and state of society in China at that time, and mentions what Marco Polo does not-tea, to which, more than aught else, China owes its importance in the eyes of the modern inhabitants of Europe. Even at this early pe. riod the. Chinese seem to have had all the modern jealousy of the entrance of strangers into the so-called "Celestial Empire." Before the embassy in question was allowed to set foot upon the boundaries of the empire, an exact list of all persons belonging to the embassage was required, including the humblest: attendants, and the ambassadOrs-in- chief were called upon to swear to the truth and exactness of the: list.' Chinese jealousy being satisfied thus far, the' embAssage commenced its toilsome journey of one hundred days towards the capital. It is only fair to add, however, that after'their first suspicionwas formally and officially silenced, there seems to have been a most: liberal hospitality shown'in the way of substantial good fare, accompanied by-an unstinted supply of excellent Wines. The capital of China, CambUlu, now known far better by the name of Pekin, is spoken of as being even -at that time a city of great magnitude and opulence. It would seem not unlikely that the silly absurdity of the Chinese, in speaking of such people as the English, Dutch, and othid highly civilized Europeans,: vnder the opprobrious name. of outside barbarians, is an absurdity which'others besides the Chinese are unfortu-. tely guilty of The way in which modern writers allow themselves to THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 369 speak of the Chinese is in many things to be'equally reprobated. The long intercourse with Jesuits, missionaries, and others specially sent there, with a reference to their science, judgment, and aptitude for the difficult business of hommunicating, not merely knowledge itself but also the desire for it, could scarcely have left the Chinese so much behind the rest of the world, in invention and practice in the higher productions, even had no progress been previously made by them. But when so early as the 15th century, we hear of such an achievement as the Turning Tower, of which we are about to give a description, who will consent to believe that above four centuries later they are the backward and ignorant people they are called. That really wonderful structure, is stated by shrewd and intelligent observers to be worthy of — the visit and careful examination of every smith and carpenter upon the face of the:earth. What, in fact, are we acquainted with of merely human construction, that can for an instant bear comparison with a tower fifteen stories high, each story twelve cubits high, and the whole edifice twenty cubits in circumference, having a total height of 180 cubits, which turns round upon a metal axis;,and that with little,. more difficulty than if it were merely a child's toy l Assuredly, the people who even in whim could erect such a structure as this at a period of more than- four centuries ago, cannot now be the incapable and unprovided race which many late. accounts would represent them. The emperor's palace at Pekin is described as being extremely rich, spacious and grand. While the ambassadors and their suite were there, it was constantly surrounded by about two thousand musicians, playing and singing anthems to the praise of the emperor, whose throne was of solid gold, ascended-by a flight of nine silver steps. On the emperor ascending this, rare and gorgeous throne, the chiefs of the embassy were introduced; and -after a brief and very formal audience, at which they did not prostrate themselves in the Chihese fashion, but bowed in that of the Persians, they were reconducted to the apartments provided for them, where a sheep, a goose, and two fowls, with fruit, vegetables, and tea, were daily served out to every six persons! An evil deed, whether of man or nation, rarely proves -other than an evii seed. The unprovoked aggresion of the Chinese-Tartars under Kublai, was not only productive of great injury to the Chinese fleet.at the time, but led to very many subsequent losses and calamities. Favourably situated as Japan was for the maintenance of a fleet, it w.as a power upon which such a piratical attack as that of Kublai could not be made without incurring serious danger of heavy reprisals. Tin.tsung, an extremely well-inclined prince, found the attacks of the Japanese so frequent and so fearfully injurious to his people, and to the'i!mperial fleet, that his earliest care was directed to that subject. The' Japanese, an essentially sea-faring people, had, according to the least exaggerated accounts, from six to seven thousand vessels of various sizes, manned with their most daring and unprincipled people, not a few of them ready for piracy and murder as a part of their proper trade. Running suddenly into the Chi*nese ports, the daring adventurers committed acts not merely of robbery but of the most wanton.destruction of property and life,, firing whole towns and villages, and retiring with immense booty.. During the eleven. years of his reign the emperor Tin-tsung was so spirited and. incessant in his opposition to these.daring rovers, that he would probably have permanently rid his country of them, had his life not been so early ternlaaated Suen-tsung, who succeeded the last named emperor, was but barely al lowed to ascend the.throne when he was about to be dethroned bysome of the grandees:of the empire, among whom was his own uncle. Fortu nately for the emperor, his army was more faithful to him than the grandees; and after a most obstinate engagement between it and the force 24 70 THEr TREASURY OF H1STORI. of the insurgents, the latter were completely overthrown. With a far greater lenity than would have been shown by some monarchs after being so early and deeply offended, the emperor spared the lives of the ringleaders, though, aS a sheer matter of self-defence, he reduced some of them to the rank of commoners, and confiscated the estates of others. Though the commencement of his reign was thus stormy,.e was very little disturbed by revolts afterwards, to the timeof his death in 1436. He was succeeded by Chin-tung, a minor; the empress-dowager being his guardian, and the real State authority being divided between her and her chief adviser, the eunuch Wan-chin. This latter personage seems to have had nobler and more spirited notions of government than were commonly displayed by the effeminate and venal court favourites. He not only took prompt and active measures for repressing the Tartars, who annoyed the Tartar-Chinese with as much impartiality as though they had been still E purel'y Chinese people and government, but also took the field in person Both. he and the youthful emperor were taken prisoners, and matters began to look very prosperously! for the Tartars, who were not only more expert in the use of the newly introduced fire-arms, but also invariably used them, which upon certain solemn days the Chinese, from superstitious notions, refused to do. As a matter of course, the Tartars always sought every chance of taking them at so great a disadvantage, and made fearful havoc whenever they contrived to do so. But the bold spirit which Wanchin had infused into the councils of the imperial court, soon turned the scale; The imperial authority was assumed by King-tae, who, however. subsequently showed that he had assumed such authority in the truest spirit of, a loyal subject and most honourable'man. He advanced against the Tartars, and 6pposed them with such skill, courage, and tenacity, that he completely defeated them, compelled thenr to restore the young Chin tung to liberty, unransomed, and then immediately descended from a dignity that has'so often been obtained by the commission of the most detestable crimes, and placed upon the throne the young, sovereign whom his valour and conduct-had already restored to liberty. The remainder of the reign of Chin-tung, about ten years, was comparatively peaceful and prosperous. The early part of the 16th century produced' an event of which even yet the consequences are but partially and dimly seen-the appearance of the Portuguese at China. They went there merely aS adventurous mariners and keen traders; but it is quite within the pale of probability that before such another space as three hundred years, the, whole vast popula tion Inay as a consequencee mbrace Christianity. To India the Portuguese had already made their way by the Cape of. Good Hope, and had an extremely flourishing settlement. The governor-of the Portuguese in India determined to send a somewhat imposing embassy to China; accordingly, Andrada. and Perez, two ambassadors, sailed to Canton, their own vessels being under a convoy of eight large ships, well manned and armed. Perez and Andradja, with two' vessels, were allowed to proceed up the river on their embassy. While they did so, the crew and merchants who were left with the other vessels in the Canton river, busied themselves in endeavouring to trade with the natives. As usual, wherever a turbulent body of seamen is concerned, the laws of meum and tuum were frequently set at nought, and this one-sided system of free-trading so greatly enraged the Chinese, that the little fleet' was surrounded by the Chinese war junks, and only escaped capture by'the opportune occurrence of a severe storm. Perez, though far up-the country, and personally innocent, was seized by the Chinese as the scape-goat of his fellow countrymen's offences. He was hurried back to Canton with the utmost ignominy, loaded with irons, and put into a prison, from which he never again emerged until death set him free. THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 371 On the accession, in 1627; of Hwae-tsung, the Tartars, who, during the comparatively quiet seven years' reign of this emperor's immediate predecessor, had been preparing themselvesffor war, broke out fiercely and suddenly. The time was peculiarly favourable to the'ir anticipated overthrow of the erppire, which was overrun by'two robbers, whose armies were not only more numerous than that of the- emperor, but had already so far beatenJit:as to have obtained possession of some important provinces. City after city had fallen before these fierce rebels, and the imperial troops were in some places reduced to such an extremity of famine, that the bodies of executed criminals'formed a portion of their disgusting food, and human. flesh was, without shame or remark, exposed for sale in the open market. The imperial general was at length so l)ressed by the rebel troops, that being'at once in despair of successful resistance,.and determined not to surrender, he caused the dykes to be clt through which retained the river Hoang-ho from inundating the country in which he was encamped, and at one feel swoop? he and the'whole of the troops and inhabitants, in call above two hundred thousand, were drowned. If the affairs of the empire were desperate before, the loss of this- force could not fail to complete the ruin.: The rebels and robbers Whto had alone been so formindable, now united with; the wily Mantchoo Tartars, who had so well known how to " bide their timrne" The unfortunate emperor finding that there was no longer any hope or safety for him' even in'his own palace, strangled hilnself. The last city that endeavoured to make head against the victorious, and formidable Tartars and robbers was Tae-yuen. The inhabitants, and. a comparative handful of imperial troops, defended this with a stern obstinacy, which, under a different state of things in the empire at'large, would have been very likely to save it; the Tartars were repulsed again and again, until the very numbers of their slain enabled them to fill up the ditches and mount. Inste'ad of admiring the gallantry of their conquered opponents,- and treating them with mercy, the Tartars savagely put the inhabitants to the sword, and then gave the devoted city to' the flames. Woo San-quei, an able politician, as well as a brave general, did not, even now that the emperor was slain, and the most precious parts of the empire in- the hands of the Tartars or rebels, despair of retrieving affairs. By a lavish distribution of rich' presents he engaged the Mantchoo leaders to abandon the cause of the rebels, and to join with him against their chief. Woo San-quei's- policy succeeded in procuring him the alliance of the Mantchoo Tartars; and, aided by,them, he vanquished their former allies, the rebels, after a series of achievements on both sides,. that equal anything recounted in the wars of the most distinguished generals of ancient times..But a new proof was now -exhibited of the kdanger of, purchased allies, who, like the elephants used in Indian warfare, are liable to become as formidable to their friends as totheir foes. The Tartars havina put down the rebels, took possession of Pekin (or Cambulu), which they expressed their determination to "protect," a word to which armed protectors attach a meaning very different from that assigned to it by the protected. They proclaimed Shun-che, a son of their own monarch, emperor of the northern provinces of China, the seat of his government being Pekin, while the princes and mandarins of the southern provinces proclaimed Choo-yew the seat of whose government was at Nankin. CHAPTER IV. THERE oeing a northern and southern empire, and the thrones being respectively filled, by a Tartar and a Chinese, it might easily have been forseen that war and bloodshed would once more vex the unhappy peob'e 372 THE TREASURY- OF HISTORY. of both empires; and the opposite natures of the two emperors, far Irom decreasing, increased this probability.' The emperor of the south was un, worthy of his high station, and ill-calculated for, its peculiar exigencies His indolence and gross sensuality, added, no doubt, to the tyrannies of the subordinates to whom he committed the cares of state, while he abandoned himself to his indulgences, caused a spirit of revolt to show itself, which the northern emperor was not slow to' avail himself of. Marching rapidly upon the southern provinces, he possessed himself of the capital, Nankin, and after a long series of successes, became master of the whole empire, with the exception of some few comparatively unimportant portions *and the princes of leven' these may be said to have been his tributaries rather than independent rulers. Shun-che wa,9s the first emperor of China who came into direct hostile collision with the Russians, who, in his reign made their way to the great river Amur on the borders of Tartary. The Russians seized upon Dauri, a fortified Tartar'town of some strength, and in several battles obtained signal advantages. But subsequently the Chinese recovered their ground, and a treaty was entered into by which- all the northern bank of the Amur, together with the sole navigation of that river, wvas assigned to the Chinese, and Tobolsk was fixed as the neutral trading ground-of the two nations. Busily and successfully.as Shun-che was engaged in war, he seems to have been by no means insensible to the'importance of the arts of peace. Th'e Portuguese and other missionaries and scholars who, in despite of almost innumerable obstacles, had by this time settled themselves in China, in considerable numbers, found at the hands of this warlike monarch a degree of friendship and patronage highly creditable to him., He not only prevented them fromn being subjected to any annoyance, but even appointed one of them, Adam Schaal, to the post of superintendant of mathematics, a post at that time, of some importance in Germany, and one that gave opportunity, of which Schaal in the next reign very skilfully availed himself, of obtaining;the highest influence in the state. Shun-che,i though an energetic man, as is evident by his warlike achievements, and a sensible man, as we may judge both from the favour he showed to learned: foreigners, and the readiness'with which he accepted of their instruction in many branches of learning, was, at- the same time somewhat of a sensualist.. Towards the close of his life he devoted an undue portion of his time to pleasure, and his death, which took place in 1661, is said-to have occurred through excess of grief, occasioned by the death of a favourite concubine; of which, had we not so many instances on record of human inconsistency, one -would have supposed it impossible for a, man of his stern and martial nature to be guilty. Kang-he, who now ascended the throne, was a minor; fourrprincipal personages of the empire forming the regency.-, The German, Schaal, was appointed to the important post of principal tutor. Such was the iinfluence Schaal acquired in this position, that he was virtually for some time prime minister of China. But the abilities of Schaal and the other missionaries, though they could raise them to power and influence, could not guard them from envy. The Chinese literati, and even the regents themselves, at length became excited to anger by the very learning they had availed themselves of, and by the influence it procured for the foreigners, through Schaal; for among the many services he had rendered to the state, it is said that on one occasion he actually preserved Macao from destruction. But envy was afoot, the most absurd charges were made against the missionaries, and they were at length deprived of all employment, while many of.them were loaded with chains and thrown into prison. Schaal, who was now far advanced in years and- very infirm, sank beneath his afflictions soon after their commencement, and died at the age of seventy-nine. It is much to the credit of the young emperor that he THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 373 dad so welt profited by the instructions of his foreign friends, that as soon as he attained his majority he restored them to theirinfluence and appoint-ments, the place of the deceased Schaal being bestowed upon the missionary Verbeist. We must, perhaps, blame rather the barbarous cruelty of, his time and country, when we add, that on discovering that his four guardians and regents of the empire were the chief instigators of the dis grace and suffering that had been inflicted on the missionaries, he confirmed the horrid decree of the tribunal, which sentenced not only the offenders, but also their unfortunate families, to be cut into a thousand pieces. We have previously alluded to the skill and courage evinced by the general Woo San-quei when the Mantchoo Tartars and the rebels caused so much misery to the empire, when the Mantchoo Tartars, after aiding him inputting down the rebels, had fairly established the Mantchoo dynasty upon the throne, the general was appointed governor of Kweichow and Yun-nan. His position in the north-west of the empire, discontent with his command, distinguished as it was, added, perhaps,:to a natural restlessness and love of warfare, caused him now to levy war.upon the neighbouring places. His military skill and his great resources speedily enabled hiin to make himself master of the southern and western provinces. His success was at once so great and so rapid, that the emperor and his court where thrown into consternation, and Verbeist, who among his numerous abilities- incluided that of a founder of great guns, was applied to to superintend the csting of some. From some inexplicable. motives he declined. To suppose a religious scruple, in the case of lein so ambitious as the missionaries had shown themselves, and so pliable as they had been in far less justifiable courses on the part of the court' is difficult; and yet on no other ground can we reconcile Verbiest's refusal on this occasion with his sanity. Certain it is that he not only refused, but persisted in so doing, until significant hints showed him that his life would not be safe did he not comply with the emperorls wishes. Cannon were then cast, and the speedy consequence was, that Woo San-quei, who, probably, would in a brief space have been master of the capital and the throne, was beaten back within safe limits. Woo San-quei, after another unsuccessful endeavour at usurping the empire, died in 1679, and was succeeded in what-remained of his power, by his son, who shortly after put an end- to his own life. I n 1680 the Mongol Tartars assailed the emperor, but the cannon with which European skill in the great game of manslaughter had furnished him, enabled him to beat off these enemies with greater ease. He had the same success over the Elenths on the north-western frontier of the empire. Successful in war by the aid of the missionaries, he was no less so in commerce: the czar, Peter; the Great, would in all probability, but for their mediation, have been prevented from concluding a peace with China; and though the commercial advantages.which resulted from that peace were not immediate, they were vast and certain. As a whole, the reign of this emperor may be considered by far the noblest of all spoken of in his country's annals. As a military sovereign he will bear comparison even with the daring and hardy Kubllai; while; like England's Elizabeth, he-had the rare merit-scarcely inferior to genius itself-of skill in dis. covering genius, and of steady support to ministers possessing it, regard less of court intrigue and court jealousies. Canton, in his reign, even more than it has ever been in our time, was a port open to all nations, and by commerce with all nations was China enriched; and his people had real cause for grief when he died, in the year 1722., Yung-ching, who now ascended the throne, began his reign by an act which held out but little hopes that he would distinguish himself by wisdom like that of his predecessor. It has been seen that in the preceding 374 THE TREASURY OF HISTORYL. reign-the missionaries had performed the most important services. In doing so, and in enjoying the fhigh imperial favou.r which those services secured to them, it was to be expected that they should incur many enmities; and had the new emperor been as wise as his predecessor, to such. enmities would hlie have attributed the host of complaints which now assailed his ears. But the emperor was at least equal to any man in his vast dominions in fierce and bigoted hatred of Christianity; and he gladly received -and implicitly listened to all complaints against the missionaries and their native converts, who at this time probably numbered a quarter of a million. Orders were issued for the expulsion of the whole of the mis sionaries, with the exception of a few whose mathematical attainments ren dered their services- of the utmost consequence to the court; and there were a few sheltered -at the imminent risk of both parties by the more zealous of their pupils, and thus enabled to evade the edict and in some measure to preserve the leading truths of their teaching among the native converts. But it was a very insignificant number of these missionaries that remained in China owing to both these causes, and the whole of their chapels and stations were either sacked and- destroyed by ferocious mobs, converted into public offices, or perverted to idolatrous worship. The excessive violence which this emperor displayed toward the catholic missionaries caused the king of Portugal in 1726 to dispatch an tmbassy to the emperor on their behalf. The ambassadors were received with distinction; but, though; general promises were given even with profusion, the converts to Christianity derived not the slighest practical benefit from their interference on their behalf. The persecution of Christianity in China was, indeed, no,exception to the general rule-for the more the persecution raged, the more numerous did the proselytes become. It would seem that the -errors of their heathenism were in too many cases blended by the converts with the truths they were taught by the missionaries; and even the most intelligent of the higher classes were seen, to worship the images of saints, as formerly they had had wor-, shipped the idols of their native superstition. Christian charity demands that we should attribute this unfortunate confusion of ideas to the obstinate and ineradicable superstition of the converts,'rather than to neglect or design on the part of the teachers. Unhappily, in the year 1726 a new and more terrible persecution took place. Both torture and imprisonment, the former in most cases terminating, after the most frightful agonies, in the death of the sufferers, were now resorted to in every corner of the land where a Christian could be discovered. Deep policy, however, was mixed up with the vengeful spirit; arid to avoid the persecution it was only necessary to declare reconversion to Confucius or Buddha. It may easily-be supposed that, under such circumstances, the number of Christians was, nominally, at least, soon reduced to a mere handful. One of the causes of this terrible persecution was a dreadful famine which occurred in the previous year, and which was still attributed to' the sin of conversion to Christianity. With the usual inconsistency of fanaticism, it was quite overlooked, that of the hundreds of thousands who perished, not one in a thousand had ever even heard of Christianity. The year 1730 was marked by an event, which Yung-ching's worst 1latterers could not, after his'two terrible persecutions of the Christians, venture to attribute to any undue encouragement of the new faith. The whole province of Pecheli-in which Pekin is situated-was shaken by an earthquake. The imperial city was for the most part laid in nins; and the emperor, who was at the time walking in the garden, was violently thrown to the ground.'In Pekin alone upwards of ten thousand souls perished by this lamentable occurrence, and at least thrice that number in other parts of the province. Tihe emperor distributed upwards THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 375 of a quarter of a million of money for the relief of the survivors. The bigotry and cruelty of this prince can scarcely be excused on the plea of beingo ill-advised, for,it is certain that he was personally aware of the great benefits that the calumniated and persecuted missionaries had conferred upon his people. The best that cafl be said of this reign is, that it was a peaceful one; and the interval of peace would have been infinitely more valuable than it was, had the Christians and their foreign and highly intellig nt instructors been allowed to improve it to the best advantage. eie died in the year 1735. Tthe throne was now filled by Keen-lung; whose first act' was to recall the princes and courtiers who had been banished by his father. This done, he put down some revolts among the Elenths and other tribes. on the north-western frontiers. Probably it was the vigour with which he executed this latter measure, that caused a deputation to be sent from Russia to settle the disputes which were perpetually breaking out as to the trade between the twoocountries. Ragusinki, who was at the head of the Russian embassy,,acquitted himself with so much address, that he obtained a treaty by which a Russian caravan, not to exceed two hundred in number, was to visit China -for'the purposes of trade once in every three years; a church was to be erected; and a limi-ted number of Russians were to take,up their permanent abode in the Chinese capital for the - purpose of acquiring thle language. In this treaty, which is called " the treaty of- Kiachta", the Chinese authorities, urged no doubt by sound considerations of mercantile profit, -conceded much, yet they could nol forbear from giving one characteristicespecimen of their extreme jealousy of. their national polity, Thus, though a caravan was permitted to visit the capital, it was to halt upon the frontiers until the arrival of'the proper officer to conduct it through the empekor's people. The nrext important event of this reign was the expedition sent by the emperor in 1767 against the Burmese. rThis expedition seems to have originated wholly in the most wanton lust of war on the part of the Chinese, who, inl the sequel, were very deservedly punished. An army of above 100,000 men marched into Burmah; but no regular army appeared to oppose its progress. As it penetrated farther, however, every foot ot country, and especially where swamp or jungle rendered the route natu-;ally more difficult, had to be traversed with active and daring hordes of guerillas hovering upon its rear and flanks, cutting off stragglers, pour-:ng down suddenly upon weak detachments or divisions-such as the very nature of the country made inevitable; and, in short, acting with such efficient destructiveness, that the Chinese lost upwards of 50,000 men without coming to a general engagement! Incredible as it would seern in European warfare, of the immense army of 100,000 men, only 2,000 returned to China-the rest were all killed or taken prisoners; and all in the latter category were naturalized and settled in Burmah. Even this horrible loss of life did not prevent. the emperor from persisting in his unjust scheme. He sent a still greater force under his favouritegeneral A-quei, who was, as fond of war and as ferocious as himself. Choosing what he thought a less difficult line ofmarch, A-quei had scarcely entered the Burmese territory when he found that if he had fewer-human enemies to contend against than his predecessor, he had a still more deadly and irresistible enemy, the jungle fever. He saw his men perish around him by thousands,' and he was glad to hasten from the deadly place with even a diminished army, rather than remain to see it wholly annihilated. And the result of all this loss was, that China was obliged to agree to a treaty which confined her dominion within her natural frontier, thereby giving to Burmah rich gold and silver mines which otherwise would have remained undisputed in the.possession of China. Keen-Lung was engaged in several minor warfares originating in en 376 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. deavours ot the more distant northern and western tribes to throw ofl their yoke. The Mahometan Tartars, a brave and bigoted race, made an inroad into the provinice of Shen-si;, A-quei, who was sent against them, called upon them to surrender, the city in which they had entrenched themselves, and, on being refused, took it by storm,:and put every human being he found within the walls to the sword, save a few of the chiefs whom he sent to court. T-he emperor, whose blood-thirsty nature was such that he was accustomed to have icriminals tortured in his presence, ordered these unhappy chiefs to be tortured before his assembled court, and then cut to peices and thrown to the dogs,! Not content with.this sanguinary act, the monster gave orders to A-quei to march upon the Mahometan -Tartars, and -put all to the sword who were above fifteen years of age. Many, very many, rebellions took place during this reign; among them was that, of the people of the island of Formosa. -The mandarins who acted as viceroys in'this island were guilty of the most shameful exactions and cruelties. On one occasion they put to death a mandarin who. had ill-treated them. The viceroy of Fuh-keen, being commissioned to avenge- the death of the mandarin, sailed: to the island and sacrificed victims to his manes, without regard to the guilt or innocence of those he immolated. The Formosans soon became so enraged that they rose en masse, butchered every Chinese and Tartar in the island, and were only at length induced to return to their yoke-after having bravely beaten off the imperial fleet — on being indemnified for their losses, and assured against a recurrence of the tyranny of which they complained. As though fairly wearied out with the s-trife of sixty years of perpetual w-arfares, Keen-lung abdicated the throne- in favour of his son Keaking. Though he never personally commanded his armies, he caused more bloodshed than probably any modern:commander, with the excep. tion of Napoleon. Kea-king's first use of his power was to renew those persecutions of the catholics, which, in the(last reign, had seemed to be falling into disuetude. Torture and death were the fate of many; still more were sentenced to wear the cangou or wooden collar during their lives, or were banished to Tartary, which last was a singularly impolitic punishment, as the Tartars needed no discontented- men to incite them to revolt. A rebel lion of a very threatening nature, inasmuch as some members of the imperial family, and other principal persons were — concerned in it, was planned in 1803. By some fortunate accident, or, still more probably through the treachery of some of the confederates, the plot was discovered ere it was ripe for execution. Many of the principal conspirators were put to death, and others only escaped to suffer the confiscation of their property, which was peculiarly acceptable to the almost empty treasury of the emperor. In 1793- Lord Macartney was sent by George III. as ambassdor to China, to endeavour to establish trade with that country upon a better and surer footing, and more especially to obtain for.the British factory a cessation of the insolence and extortion of the viceroy of Canton. The embassy was productive of but little good effect. The insolent and extortionate viceroy was recalled, it is true, but his predecessor was not long in office ere he went far beyond him in both of those bad qualitiesThe ambassador was blamed at home for having been too high and unbending in his demeanour;,but the truth is, that the time had not come for a proper understanding to exist beltween the Chinese and any Euro-. pean nation. When in 1808 it was feared- that Bonaparte would aim at the eastern trade of Great:Britain, Admiral Drury was ordered to Macao: but after amuch wordy disputation between the Chinese authorities there and the admiral, the latter retired after a slight collision. The Chinese pretended to have gained a great victory, a magniloquent account of the sarne THE TREAsURY OF HISTO1RY. 377 was sent to Pekin, and a pagoda actually erected to commemerate it. In 1816 another ambassador, Lord Amherst, was sent to China, but his mission was to the full as unsatisfactory as that of Lord, Macartney. -It was qabout this time that the opium speculation began to grow to something like a noticeable extent-but on that head we shall have to speak at length in the next chapter. After twenty five years' reign, marked far more by despotic temper than by the talent necessary to render it effective, Kea-king died, in.the year 1820, and- was succeeded by the present monarch. CHAPTER V. THE reigning emnperor of China, Tameu-kwang, is the second ion of the preceding monarch, and owes his rise to the throne, in preference to his elder brother, to the great resolution and attachment to, his. father displayed by him on an occasion of a revolt. The parties concerned in it had proceeded. to such an extent, that some of them actually forced their wav into the palace with the avowed intention of putting Kea-king to death. Taceu-kwang, with a mere handful of the imperial guards, repulsed tile conspirators, two of whom he shot with his own hand.; Since his advancement to the throne, however, he -has by no means displayed the vigour that'might have been anticipated. He has for the most part committed the management of affairs to his ministers and favourites, and given himself up to effeminate pleasure in the- seclusion of: his palace. The Mah~ometan inhabitants of eastern Turkestan and the Formosan islanders have revolted, but have hitherto been subdued. Their discontents, however, will probablyat no distant time have great effect upon the destinies of the empire. The Chinese, to a man,,are said to detest the Tartar race; and though the vast population of the empire would at first sight appear to render. its subjugation now by any people an event of great improbability, the clashing opinions and interests of -the constituent portions of the -population may, at some future time, possibly render the vastness of the empire a principal cause of an entire alteration in both its political and religious condition. A strong proof that strength is not necessarlly the consequence of the numerical superiority of China, was furnished a; few years since. A serious revolt occurred in ~the province of Canton, where, from its facility of communication -with "the' outside barbarians," revolt was especially to be feared, and to be put down, whensoever occurring, with the sternest promptitude.- But though the Celestial Empire boasts its standing army-of a million of fighting men, the general Le, who was' ordered to quell this revolt, could barely: muster a few hundreds'of ill-armed and ill-disciplined troops, and bhe was obliged -to resort to the Chinese panacea of paying a pecuniary bribe to the rebels. The trade of England as well as of all other nations, with China, has ever been subject to'such restrictions, and been liable to so many interruptions, from the caprice of -the Chinese and from the insolence with which these caprices have been acted upon, that, it has of, necessity from time to\ time very much partaken of the:character of smuggling — even as regards articles to which no moral exception could by possibility be taken. During the memorable "opium" dispute, this fact seems to have been much neglected by many of the leading political writers of England. They have looked at the question rather as a moral than a nolitical one, and have blamed political resistance' to national insult, because that resistance happened to be made upon a point in which a moral question was' artfully mixed up with it by the Chinese. No sane man will pretend to vindicate the trading in opium otherwise 378 THE TRtEASURlY OF HISTORY. thfian as a very important article of materia medica; no one will say that it is otherwise than highly desirable that the use of this "insane" drug as a means of intoxication -should be prohibited. But, we repeat, though collision with the Chinese has chanced to arise upon the question of' the importation of opium,: the moral consideration as to'the sale and use of that drug are really quite beside the question: had' the article of trade been Yorkshire cloth or Birmingham thardware, the same collision might have taken place. Opium was imported into China as early as the 17th century, and it was not until the close of the 18th century that Kea-king prohibited it. We applaud him for doing this. It was high time to put some check on the use of it; for though it was professedly imported only as a medici nal drug, it was-imported to the extent-of 1000 chests per annum as early as 1767,and the importation had been perpetually increased in amount up to 1796. Up to this time, be it remembered, the traffic was strictly legal; it paid a duty of five mace per catty, and was for the most part delivered to and bonded by the government.. It is clear that from 1796 the trade'in this drug was mere smuggling, equally clear, that whether John'Tomkins or "The Company" was the trader, that trader was a smuggler. We will go farther. When the East India Company, having the monopoly of the eastern trade, compelled the ryots of Pekin to grow -opium instead of rice, and compelled the ryots of' divers other parts of the Anglo-Indian territory to do the same, the act was one- which'the English press ought loudly to have denounced, and which the English senate ought tfo have put a stop to, on pain of the loss of the Company's.charter. All this is clear as noonday; but there is another consideration. - The government of China is essentially paternal: from the emperor to the loWest:office of his state, link connects link, as from the father of a family to his youngest child or his nearest servant. Thetrade in opium was forbidden fronm time to time by edicts true; but the very officers who were charged with the duty of enforcing these edicts were themselves the virtual importers of opium! Had the Chinese authorities of Canton,and along the coast not connived at the trade for enormous bribes, or, as was more frequently the case, been themselves actual traders in the article, the trade would have been at an end years ago, and when only a comparatively small portion of British capital was involved in it. It appears to us that the public prohibition of a drug of which the consumption was hourly increasing, and the aid given to its importation by the very persons- appointed to carry that prohibition into effect, are merely "part and parcel" of the settled Chinese policy of fleecing barbarians to the utmost possible extent, on the one hand, and of always having a con. venient pretext for such a stoppage in trade. as circumstances might make convenient in the way of temporarily making the fleece longer and finer It would -be -an instructive lesson for politicians to con-the difference of -profit to China,'between -the one hundred chests imported in 1776 at a fixed duty of five mace the catty, and that upon the forty thousand chests smuggled in 1840 —at whatever profit the unscrupulous authorities could extort! It was not until 1839 that anything in the shape of a real determination to put down the trade was exhibited by'the Chinese; for the occasional stoppages of trade and blustering manifestos, as already said, we look at as mere -measures for fleecing. Lin appeared at Canton, in- that year, a "high commissioner"-an officer. possessing almost dictatorial powers. and one who had not been more than thrice -previously appointed during the present dynasty. In an edict he said, "I, the commissioner, am sworn to remove utterly this root of misery; nor will I'let the foreigr vessels have any offshoot left for the evil to bud forth again." The Brit THE''tEASURtY OF HIlSTORY 379 ash commissioner. and between two and three hundred British subjects were then'thrown into a state of close confilnement; -the guards placed over them heaped every insult upon them, and threatened them with being deprived of provisions and- water. Captain Elliot, the British superintendant,'under such circumstances, saw no means of evading the demands of the Chinese; and upwards of twenty thousand chests of opium,,valued at twenty millions -of dollars, were delivered- to commissioner Lin for de-. struction. Ill 1840 war was declared by England against the qhinese. The leading events, however,. which followed, being related in the history of that country,,it would be superfluous, to repeat them -here. We will merely add what has, transpired since that was written. All differences'being finally adjusted, and his celestial majesty being on terms of the strictest amity with her Britannic majesty, a ratification of the treaty between the two countries was announced on the 27th of July, 1843. From that day the Hiong merchants' monopoly and Consoo charges were to cease; and the conditions upon which trade was in future to-be carried-on, appeared in a notice issued by Sir Henry Pottinger, the British plenipotentiary in China; who published an export and import:tafiff, and also a proclamation in,which he trusts that the commercial treaty will be found; in practice, mutually advantageous, beneficial'and just, as regards the interests, honour, and the future augmented prosperity of the governments'of the two mighty contracting empires and their subjects; and he "most solemnl y and' urgently calls upon all subjects of the British crown,., not only to strictly conform and act up to the said provisions of the commercial treaty, but to spurn, decry, and make, known to the world any base, unprincipled and traitorous overtures that may be made to them, towards entering into any collusion or scheme- for the purpose of evading, or acting in contravention of, the said provisions of the commercial trtaty." In the proclamation issued by the imperial commission, after referring to the tariff, &c., it says, "Henceforth, then, the weapons of war shall ever be laid aside, and joy and profit shall be the perpetual lot of all; neither slight nor few will be the advantages reaped by the merchants alike of China and of foreign countries. From this time forward all must free themselves from prejudice and suspicions, pursuing each his proper avocation, and careful always to retain-no inimical feelings from the recollection of the hostilities that have before taken place; for such feelings and recollections can have no other effect than to hijnder the'growth of a good understanding between the two people." It also contains a perfect amnesty, and the remission of punishment for all who have served the English soldiers with supplies, &Sc., in days past, and concludes by stating that, "From henceforward amity and good will shall ever continue, and those from afar, and those who are near, shall:perpetually rejoice together'" THE HISTORY OF JAPAN.JAPAN is a general name given, by Europeans, to a great number ot islands, lying between the eastern coast of Asia and the' western coast of,America, and which together compose a large empire, extending from the 30th to the 41st degree of latitude, and from the 130th to the 1.47th degree o80 THE TRIEASURY OF HISTORY, of east longitude. The inhabitants call this empire Nipion, which is the name of the largest.island belonging to it. It was discovered by the Portuguese about. the year 1452. The religion of the Japanese is paganism, divided into several sects, who live together in harmony. Every sect has its own temples and priests. The spiritual emperor, or dairi-sama, is the chief of their religion.: They acknowledge and honour a Supreme Being; and the temples are open to every individual, whatever his creed or country. Christianity had once made-a considerable progress in Japan, under the auspices of the Portuguese and Spanish Jesuits, among whom was the famous St. Francis Xavier-; but it-ended tragically, owing to an ill-con. ducted conspiracy of the fathers against the state. This proceeding pr6. duced a persecution'of forty years' duration, and terminated by a most. horrible massacre, scarcely to be' paralleled in hist6ry. After this, not only the Portuguese, but Christians of every nation, were totally expelled the country, and the most effectual means taken for preventing their return. In 1611, the Dutch had the liberty of a free commerce granted them by the iinperial letters patent, and established a factory at Firando. They were then at war with Spain, and Portugal was at that time under the Spanish government.' The former, by taking an homeward-bound Porthguese ship, found a traitorous letter to the king by a captain Moro, chief of the Portuguese in Japan. The Dutch immediately forwarded this letter to their protector, the prince of Firando. This letter laid open the whole plot which the Japanese Christians, in conjunction with the Portuguese, had laid against the emperor's life and throne. In consequence of this discovery, in the year 1637, an imperial order was sent to the governor of Nagasaki, to admit no more Portuguese into the empire. Notwithstanding this proclamation, the Portuguese found means to carry on their trade two years. longer, hoping to obtain. leave to stay in the island of Desima, hand there continue to trade; but they found themselves disappointed; -for the emperor, on the assurance given him by the Dutch East India Company, that they would' supply him in'future with all the articles heretofore supplied by the Portuguese, declared them, and the Castilians, enemies of the empire; and they were totally expelled the country in. 1640. Their extirpation, and with them the Christian religion, was so complete, that not a vestage'can now be discerned -of its having ever existed there..The government of the Japan empire is an hereditary, absolute monarchy. The imperial dignity had been enjoyed, for a considerable time before the year 1500, by a regular'succession of princes, under the title of dairos. Soon after that epoch, a civil war broke out, which:lasted many years. During the destruction it occasioned, a common soldier, named Tayckoy, found means to. raise himse'lf to the imperial dignity, and the dairo was obliged to submit to terms. This revolution took place in 1517. Tayckoy reigned several years, during which he made excellent laws, which still -subsist. At his death he left the crownl to his son; Tayckossama, then a minor; but the treacherous prince under whose guardianship he was left, deprived him of his life before he bec-ame of age. By this murder the crown passed to the family of Jejassama, in which it still continues. The Japanese must be placed rather among the polished nations than otherwise. Their mode of government, their skill in agriculture, in manufactures, arts, and sciences-their politeness, good-nature, prudence, frankness, and courage —entitle them to this distinction. They seem to possess niothing of the vanity of Asiatics and Africans.; but are careful onlyto provide themselves, from- the productions of their own country, with those necessaries and comforts of life, so desirable to euiightened numan beings The language of the Japanese has some afarfity to the THE TIREASURY O1F HISTORY. 381 Chinese; though it appears, from its various dialects, to have been a kind of compound of that and other languages, derived from the various nations that first peopled these islands. Their manner of writing, and their architecture, are similar to those of China. The internal trade of Japan is very extensive, and their industry will bear comparison with. that of the Hindoos, or even Chinese. Foreign commerce, however, is vigorously opposed by the government, in consequence of the supposed Portuguese treachery before mentioned, and the attempts of the Jesuit misionaries to Christianize the' people. The number of Dutch. vessels allowed to come each year, and the quantity of each description of wares to be sold, are strictly defined. The ships, immediately on their arrival, are strictly searched, and the crews are kept, during their stay in port, completely secluded from the natives; while all the business transactions are conducted by the Japanese, who also -unload and re-load the vessels. Nay, so rigid are they in preventing- their subjects from having intercouse with other nations, that it is a capital offence for the natives -of Japan to travel into'other. countries; and their seamen even, when accidentally cast on foreign shores, are, on'their return, subjected to vigorous examination, and sometimes tedious imprisonment, to purify them from the supposed pollution contracted abroad. The cautious and ceremonious way in which the Japanese transact their business with the Dutch merchants is thus described:-,About the time when the Dutch ships are expected, several outposts are stationed on the highest hills by the government; and they, are provided with telescopes, and when seen at a distance, notice is given to the governor of Nagasaki. As soon as they anchor in the harbour, officers go on board with interpreters, to whom is delivered a chest, in which all the sailors' books, the muster-roll of the whole crew, six small barrels of powder,'six barrels of balls, six muskets, six bayonets, sixpistols, and six swords, are deposited. This is supposed to be the whole remaining ammunition, after the imperial -garrison has been saluted. These things are conveyed on shore, and housed; but returned again on the day the ship quits the harbour. The beginning of the year is the time observed for holidays, or days of leisure and enjoyment; and at this time the ceremony of trampling on images, representing the cross, and the virgin and child, is performed. The images are of copper, about a foot long. This ceremony is intended to impress every individual with hatred of the Christian doctrine, and the Portuguese, who attempted to introduce it; and also to discover whether any remnant of it is left among the Japanese.. It is performed in the,places where the Christians chiefly resided. In Nagasaki it lasts four days; then the images are carried to circumjacent''places, and afterward are laid aside till the next year. Every person, except the Japanese governor and his attendants, even the smallest child, must be present. The population of Japan is supposed to-exceed fifty millions. The army in time of peace consists of one hundred thousand infantry, and twenty thousand cavalry: the force during the war being increased by levies from the different provinces to four hundred thousand infantry, and forty thousand cavalry. The arms used by the former are the musket, pike, bow, sabre, and dagger; those of the mounted troops, being the lance, sabre, and: pistol. Their artillery is very inconsiderable. THE EAST INDIA ISLANDS. C-E-Y L O N. CETYLON is a large island of the East Ind.es, separated from the cotftb nent by the Gulf of Manaar and- Palk's Straits, near the southern extremity of Hindostan. It is two hundred and fifty miles'in length from north to south, and averages about one hundred in breadth. The conquest or this island was the first attempt of Albuquerque, the celebrated Portuguese admiral. He found it well peopled, and inhabited by two different nations; the Bedas in the north, and the Cinglasses, or Singalese, in the south., The former were very barbarous; but the -latter in some state ot civilization. These, however, derived great advantage from the mines of precious stones, and also from their pearl fishery, the greatest in the East. It is said that the proper name of the island is Singhala, and that part of the population called- Singalese have a tradition that their ancestors came thither from the eastward nearly two thousand four hundred years ago; but many authors suppose them to be a colony of Singhs or Rajpoots, who arrived five hundred years B. c. From the ruins of cities,'tanks, aqueducts, canals, bridges, temples, &c., at Trincomalee and other places, Ceylon has evidently been at some remote period a rich, populous, and comparatively civilized country. The Portuguese not only conquered, but tyrannized -over them to such a degree, that they assisted the Dutch in expelling them from the island in 1658, after a bloody and obstinatewar,,by which all the Portuguese settlements fell into the hands of the Dutch East India Company. The wars with the king of Candy, the most potent, if not the sole sovy ereign of the island, were very detrimental to Holland.. In a sanguinary war, which ended'in 1766, the Ceylonese monarch was driven from his ca~pital, and the Dutch made a very advantageous treaty. Their sovereignty was acknowledged all over those parts of the country they possessed be. fore the war, and that part of the coasts held by the natives was ceded to them. They were allowed to gather cinnamon in all the plains; and the court stipulated to sell them. the best sort, which is produCed-in the mountains, at a very moderate price. The government- also engaged to have no connection with any foreign power, and even to deliver up any Europeans who might happen to come into the island. In return for so many concessions the king was to receive annually the value of the produce of the ceded coasts; and from thence his subjects were to be furnished, gratis, with as much sait as they had occasion for.'Matters e rele in this situation when the English attacked the Dutch-in 1794, and conquered Trincomalee, and all'their settlements in the island; and it after. ward became a part of the price of the peace of Amiens in'favour of England. The English had no sooner taken possession, than they unhappily were involved in a war with the king of Candy, owing to some misunderstanding relative to certain articles ofcommerce; and the lives of many brave men were sacrificed to it; rather, however, by the treachery and bad faith of the Ceylonese king and his minister, than by fair and hnourable warfare. The population of Ceylon, independently of the colL u'vts.O;1o have a THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 383 various times possessed themselves of the coasts, consist of —1st, the native Singalese or Ceylonese, one branch occupying the Candya.n territories, and the other the coasts;'2nd, the Veddahs, or aborigines, who, in an altnmst savage state, inhabited the mountainous regionfs and unexplored astnesses; 3rd, the Moors, who are found in all parts of the island; and 4th, the Malabar and other Hindoos, who dwell chiefly on the northern and eastern coasts. Of all these races the Candyan Ceylonese differ least from Europeans in form, feature, and physical power.- The Singa. lese are more timid and effeminate; but it may be observed-that although some assume a haughty and in'dependent bearing, yet indolence,'deceit, and revenge are'the generally prevailing qualities of these islanders. There are also some Caffres and Javanese, a few Chinese and Parsee traders, and a considerable number of English, Dutch, and Portuguese; besides a hybrid population from the, intermixture of all these and the native races. The upper'classes among the Singalese profess Christianity, and many are converts to Mohammedanism; but the general religion is Buddhism. The government is vested in the hands of a British governor, assisted by a council of European civil servants;but all laws, before being acted upon,- are published in the official gazette, for. their general diffusion and translation into the native languages., SUMATRA. SUMATRA is a large island in the Indian Ocean, being, next to Borneo, the largest in the eastern. seas. It is about one thousand Iiiiles in length, from north-west to south-east; but in ge-neral, not more than one hundred and fifty in breadth. This is the first of the islands which form the great East India Archipelago; and it is separated from the peninsula beyond the Ganges by the straits of -Malacca; which is the usual passage from the.hay of Bengal and the Coromandel coast to. Borneo or China, and, consequently to the Gulf of Siam, Cambodia,. Cochin China and the Gulf of Tonquin. Gold dust is an article of considerable traffic, and ig brought by merchants from the interior to the sea-coast, where it is bartered for iron tools, and various kinds of East Indian and European manufactures of silk, cotton, broad-cloths, &c. But the most valuable and important production of the island is pepper, the average produce of wVhich at this time is supposed to amount to thirty millions of pounds a -year. Tumeric, cassia, ginger, coffee, and many kinds of scented woods are also produced here. After the capture of the Moluccas by the British, in 1796, the nutmeg and clove were introduced at Bencoolen, but though large quantities were raised, the quality was inferior to similar products obtained from Amboyna and the Banda isles. The Sumatran camphor is-in'high estimation. Cocoa-nut,' betel, bamboo, sugar-cane, various palms, and an abundance of tropical fruits, are indigenous. At Bencoolen, on the west side of Sumatra, is the English factory, belonging to the East India Company.. The factory was once entirely deserted, through the frequent quarrels and, bickerings of the natives and the English; and had not the former found thattrade decreased in consequence of the absence of the latter, they never w:ould have been invited tc settle there again. :84 TIM TREASURN' OF HISTORY. PRINCE OF- WALES' ISLAND. PRINCE OF WALES' Island, or Pulo Penany, is situated in the straits of Malaacca, about two miles from the west coast of the Malay peninsula. The India Company in 1784, came to the resolution of establishing a settlement there. The island is about seventeen miles long, by ten broad its northern extremity runs nearly parallel with the main land, at a distance of about two miles, by which a fine channel is formed, where the largest fleet may ride in perfect safety; the height of the surrounding mountains acting as a barrier against the force of the prevailing winds. In fact, the advantages attending this island, both in a political and commercial view, are obvious. J$A V A. JAVA is a large island, extending in length nearly seven hundred miles, and averaging in breadth ninety; and it is separated from Sumatra by the strait of Sunda. Toward the close of the sixteenth century, Cornelius Houtman, a Dutchman, conducted four vessels to Java by the Cape oi Good Hope;- and his prudence procured him an interview with the pritici pal king of the island; but the Portuguese created him some enemies. Having got the better in several-skirmishes in which he was engaged, he returned with his small squadron to hIolland, where, though. he brought but little wealth, he raised much expectation. He brought away some Negroes, Chinese, and inhabitants of Malabar; a native of Malacca, a Japanese, and Abdul, a pilot of the Guzerat, a man of great abilities, and perfectly acquainted'with the coasts of India. The account given by Houtman encouraged the merchants of Amsterdarn to form the plan of a settlement at Java, which, at the same time that it would throw the pepper trade into their hands, would place them also near the islands that produce the more valuable spices, -and facilitate their communication with China and Japan. Admiral Van Neck was therefore sent on this important expedition with eight vessels, and arrived safe, at Java, where he found the inhabitants prejudiced against his nation. They fought and nego'tiated by turns.\ At length they were permitted to trade and, in a short time, loaded four vessels with spices and linens. The ad miral, with his fleet, sailed to the Moluccas, where he learned that the natives of the country had forced the Portuguese to abandon some of the places in which they had settled, and that they only waited for a favour able opportunity of expelling them from the rest. He established factories in several of these-islands, entered into a treaty with some of the kings, and returned to Europe laden with riches. In 1602, the states-general formed the Dutch India Company. It was invested with authority to make peace or war with the eastern princes, to erect forts, maintain garrisons, and to nominate officers for the conduct oi the police and the administration if justice. The company, which had no parallel in antiquity, and was the pattern of all succeeding societfts of the kind, set out with great advantages; and, soon after its establishment, they fitted out for India fourteen ships and some yachts, under the command of Admiral Warwick, whom the Hollanders- look upon as tht founder of their commerce, and- of their colonies, in the East. He built a factory in this island, and secured it by fortifications. He had frequent engagements with the Portuguese, in which he generally came off victorious. - A sanguinary war was the consequence of these hostilities be tween the two nations, n which the Dutch were successful. THE' TREASURY OF HISTORY. 3A Batavia, which, from a small beginning, has become the capital of ahl the Dutch possessions in Ifidia,!has one of the best and safest harbours in-the world. - he city is surrounded by a rampart twenty-one feet in thickness, covered'on the outside with stone, and fortified with twenty-two bastions. Trhis rampart is, environed by a ditch, forty-three yards over, and full of water. The river Jucutrap runs through the. midst of \the city, and forms fifteen canals of running water, Adorned with evergreens. The inhabitants consist of Dutch, French, Portuguese, Javanese, Chinese Malays, Negroes, and many'others. Coffee,,sugar and spices are produced here in great abundance: and,jtogether, it may hbe said to be one of the most valuable colonies belonging to any European nation. The island was taken by a, British force fromn India in 1811, and held till 1816, when it was restored:to the Dutch. BORNEO. BORNEO is one of,the largest islands in the world, being fifteen hundrea miles in circumference. It is, seated under the equator, and occupies nearly the centre of the eastern archipelago. The west and northieast sides of it are a 4esert and the east is comparatively- little known. The inland parts are Inounatainous and the south-east, for'many leagues together, is ahn uniwholesorne morass. The Portuguese, who first discovered Borneo, had been in the Indies thirty years before they knew anything of it more than the name and its' situation, by reason of their frequently passing by its coast: At length Captain Edward Corral had orders to examine it with attention. From thence becorrming acquainted with its worth, they made'frequent voyages thither. They found' the coast inhabited by Malayan Moors, who had certainly established themselves there by conquest; but the interior and part of the north-west coast are peopled by-a savage race, beli6ved to be' the aborigines, and called Dyaks. They use long shallow panoes hollowed out of a single tree; and kilt wild animals for their food, by shooting them with arrowvs blown through a tube. They wear very little clothing, and have all the habits and superstitions of the most savage tribes. Borneo is rich inl valuable minerals, and it is the only island of the eastern archipelago where diaihondo are -found. The climate is similarto' that o0 Ceylon, and those parts of the island which are under cultivation are decidedly fertile. -CELEBES. THIS is a large island, under,the equator; the length and -breath have not been accurately computed; but the circumference, taken at a medium, is about eight hundred: miles. The principal Dutch settlement is Macassar, which contains Fort Rotterdam, the residence of the governor: they have also- a-fort at a place called' Jampandim. - There are several independent tribes-or nations of Celebes, each having their peculiar form of government. Among them the Tuwadju tribe, inhabiting the hody. of the island, are distinguished as an enterprising and ingenious people. Thefts, robberies, and murder are common with all the' tribes. The island was taken by the British in t814, but restored to, Iol. land in 1816. 25 386 THE TREASURIY-OF HISTORY. THE MQLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. THEESE consist of Amboyna, Ternate, Fedor, Motyr Ciloloo, and several other small islands.' The Portuguese were the first Europeans who pose sessed them,nbut were obliged to share their advantages with the Spaniards and at length to-give up the trade almost entirely to them. These two na tions joined to oppose the Dutch in their first attempts to gain a settlement but the Dutch, assisted by the natives of -the country, by degrees gained the superiority. The ancient conquerors were driven out-about the year 1615, and their place supplied by others equally avaricious, though less turbulent. As soon as the Dutch had established themselves in the Moluccas, they endeavoured to get the exclusive trade of spices into'their own hands; an advantage which the nations'they had just expelled were never able to procure. They skilfully availed themselves of the forts they had taken, ana those they had erected, to draw the kings of Ternate and Tydor, who were maslters of this archipelago, into their schemes. These princes, for - a small sum of money, (little more than X3000)'agreed to root out ali the clovu and nutmeg trees in the islands under their dominions; and a garrison of seven hundred men was appointed to secure the performance of-the treaty. At Amboyna they engrossed the whole cultivation of cloves. They allotted to the.inhabitants fourthousend parcels of land- on eachof which they were compelled to plant one hundred and twenty-h-te trees, amounting, in the'whole, to five hundred thousand: and the collective produce averages about one million of pounds. Amboyna is about thirty-two miles long and ten broald,and is divided into two parts, a greater and a lesser peninsula: the former is called Hiton, and the latter, Letymor. The massacre of the English at Amboyna, by the Dutch, in 1621, was attended with much'cruelty. We have before observed, that the Dutch dispossessed the Portuguese of Amboyna in 1615. They did not, how ever, become masters of the island at once. The English hl;d here five factories, anid lived under the protection of the Dutch castle;, holding themselves safe, in respect of the friendship existing between the two nations. But great differences arose between the English and Dutch colonists; at length a treaty was concluded, in 161,'by which the concerns qf both were regulated, and, certain measures agreed upon for preventingfuture disputes. Some short time after, the Dutch pretended that the English and Amboynese had formed a conspiracy to dispossess them of one of their forts. The plot, it was alleged, had been discovered by a Japanese and Portuguese in- the English service, who' were most inhumaniy tortured into such -confessions as their cruel inquisitors thought proper. Upon this evidence, they immediately accused the English factors of the pretended conspiracy. Some of them they imprisoned; and others they loaded with irons, and' sent on board their ships; seizing at the same time all the English merclhandise,with their'writinlgs and books. These acts of violence were followed by a scene of'horror unexampled in the punishment of offenders -The torments to which they put the innocent factors, are too shocking to rela/te; and those who did not die Under the agonies of pain, were consigned to the executioner. The whole of the transaction affords testimony that the Hollanders did it with no other'view, than of monopolizing the'trade of the Spicq Islands. They acted a similar tragedy,at Poleron, about the same time, where they put to' the torture one hundred and sixty-two of the natives, whom they likewise charged'with a pretended conspiracy. Until thb French revolutionary war, then, the Dutch enjoyed in peace these invaluable islands, when Amboyna, and the other Moluccas, submitted to the English Hte T4,AiSURY OF HISTORY. 38t THE BANDA,, OR NUTMEG ISLES.' TuV Banda Isles is the general name of tWelve.small,islnds in the Fast Indian Archipelago. TWvo of them are uncultivated, and almost uninhabited;'the other,three claim the distinction o tbeing the only islands in the world that prodcce the nutmeg. if we except this valuable spice, the islands of Banda':are' barren to -a dreadful degree. The land will ]not -produce'any kind of corn, and the pith of the sago serves the nativeiof( the country instead ofqbread. This is the only settlement in the East Indian isles, that can be; con sidered as a European colony: because it is the' only one where the Eu-,ropeans are proprietors of lands. The -Dutch company finding that the inhabitants of Banda were savage, cruel, and treacherous, because they were impatient under theiryoke, resolved to exterminate them: and their possessions were divided among the people, who procured slaves from tome of the neighbouring islands to cultivate the lands. The climate of Panda is particularly unhealthy; on which account the company attempted to transfer the culture of the nutmeg to Amboyna: but all the experiments that have been made have proved unsuccessful. The Banda Islands were discovered by the. Portuguese in 1512, and colonized in 1524; but were taken by the Dutch in 1599.'. The English possessed themselves of them in 1810, but restored them to the Dutch in 1814 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. TimE Philippine Islands are a large group belonging to the eastern archtpelago, the principal of which is Luzon, a long, irregular, and narrow island. They were discovered by Magellan, in 1521, who called -them the archipelago of St. Lazarus,;as the discovery was made on that saint's day. But they were subjected, or rather part of them, to the Spaniards, by Don Louis de Velasco, in 1564, int the reign of- Philip II., and derive their present name from him'. The natives are supposed to be of Chinese extraction. Ma:nilla, the capital of the island of Luzon, and all the Philippines, is situated on the: south-east part of the island, where a large. river falls into the sea, and forms a: noble bay, thirty leagues in compass. On the 6th of October, 1762, the English under General Draper and Admiral Corriish, took Manilla by storm, after a siege of twelve days; but, to save so fine a city from destruction, they agreed to accept a ransom, amtounting to a million of pounds sterling, part of which, it is said, was never pain. THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE, AND,2 IOMT R XPARTICULARLY OP THE JEWS. By the variousnames of Hebrews, Israelites, or Jews, were this most illustrious people of ancient times known, who dwelt in the land thea 388 THE TIREASUiRY 01F HISTORY. called Canaan. Contrary to the obscurity in. which the origin of othu, nations is veiled, we have the evidence of Holy Writ for the rise, progress decline and frall of the Jews. They deduced their descent from Arphax ad the son of Shem; and'we have it on record that Abraham, the sixth ill descent from Eber, the grandson of Arphaxad, dwelt ili Assyria, but removed ipto. Canaan or Palestine; with,his' family, to the intent thaw the true relioijon of God should be preserved by them, his "chosen people" amid the coiruptions of the idolaters by whom they were surroundted. The period of which we are now speaking was about two thousand years before the birth of Christ. At that. time the inhabitants of Mesopotamia and Syria appear to have been partly nomadic, or wandering, like the Tat tars-,or Scythians; for we find that Abraham and his descendants sojournedin different parts of Canaan and Egypt, until the time of their protracted residence in the latter country. Abraham at his death transmitted the inheritance of the "promised land" to his son Isaac; and Isaac was succeeded in the -patriarchate by his younger son Jacob, also called Israel. Jacob had twelve sons; ihe descendants of wlhom remaining distinct, constituted the twelve tribes of the Israelites in after-time. Joseph, the youngest but one of these sons, having unconsciously excited the jealousy of -the rest, was sold by them as a slave, to some Arabian merchants, and carried into Egypt; there, as we reed, he became known to the king, and was made his chief minister; and in a time of famine, for which his foresight had provided, he was the happy means of providing his aged father and the whole of his family an asylum in the fertile district of Goshen (B. de. 1702). The. pathetic and interesting story of "Joseph and his brethren," as narrated in the Bible, requires no comment in this place; but, we may, perhaps, be allowed, slightly to digress, in order to illustrate the case ot Josegph's memorable rise from the condition of a slave to that of the chief rulerlof Pharaoh's household. European notions of slavery very naturally picture to the mind all that is horrible, cruel, and revolting; and it would seem next to an impossibility that, by any chance, one so helpless and degraded as a slave could become an officer of trust, or-more wonderful still-the chief minister and adviser of a monarch of a mighty kingdom. It is, however, remarked by Marshal Marmont, who some years ago travelled through Turkey, &c.,- and who evidently paid great atten tion to the condition of the people, and the customs of the countries hevisited, that slaves in the East are far from being in the condition we might suppose; and it is therefore-not unreasonable to believe that the kindness with which they are treated at the present day is derived from immemorial custom. He observes, "the most docile slave rejects with indignation any order that is not personally given him by his master; and he feels himself placed immeasurably above the level of a free or hired servant. He is a ctiild of the house; and it is not unusual to see a Turk entertain so strong a predilection for a slave he has purchased, as to prefer hinm to his own son. He often ov'erloads him with favors, gives him his confidence, and raises his position; and, when the master is powerful, opens to his slave the path of honour and public employment." As peaceful dwellers in the rich and fertile valleys of Goshen, the israelites in process of time became sufficiently numerous to excite the en vious alarm of the JElgyptians; and they accordingly underwent many persecutions, until the Almighty raised up Moses as their deliverer. The miracles he was empowered to work, the murmurings and backslidings of the people, their idolatrous propensities, and all other particulars relative to them'while travelling through the parched and- arid deserts of Arabia, form interesting portions of the sacred volume; we shall therefore pass on briefly to the death of Moses, and the delegation of power to Joshua, the acknowledged chief of the Jewish nation, B. C. 1451.'Joshua was THE TIREkSURYI OF HISTORY. 389 now ninety-three years of age, and had,under his command six hundred thousand men capable of bearing arms, besides the aged and infirm wo m-en, children, and servants. -On every-side were warlike nations, some of them represeited as containing men of gigantic stature and immense personal' prowess; their towns were well fortified, and everynecessary preparation had been made to repel invasion. The veteran leader was owever, undismayed; and relying on that protecting Power who had delivered the people from Egyptian bondage, and brought them safely to the frontiers of Canaan, he went on:"conquering andto conquer At length, after subduing the " promised land," and establishing its-tranquility he divided it among the twelve tribes; charging them, at the same time, to give a tenth part of their goods to the tribe of Levi, who were consecrated solely for the priesthood: and. hence proceeds the origin of tithes. Having ruled Palestine as wisely-as he had conquered it, bravely, and being an' hundred and ten years old, the aged warrior resigned his breath. Joshua was no sooner dead than the Jews gave themselves up to analchy,by which means they shortly fell under the power of Cushan. king of Mesopotamia. After a servitude of eight years, Othoneel became judge of Israel; at whose death, Eglon, king of' Moab, reduced them to his obedience: and under his yoke they continued eighteen years. Ehud then ruled as judge of Israel, in whose time they fell under the government of Jabin, king of Canaan, who held them twenty-nine years; when Deborah and Barak, jointly, judged Israel for thirty-three years. A fourth servitude, of-seven years, then:followed under the Midianites. Then Gideon and his successors, to Jair,, ruled Israel as judges thirty-six years; when in the fifteenth year of Jair, the fifth servitude commenced, under the Philistines and the Ammonites. Jephtha succeeded as judge, and was followed in his office by four successors, the last of whom was Sanmson. (whose superhuman strength was exerted with such terrible effect on his enemies, the Philistines). In his time, however, the Israelites fellt again under their oppressor's yoke, and were ruled by them forty years. Eli then became judge, wh9 being nearly a hundred years old, his two sons, Hophni and Phineas, who acted under him, tookadvantage of his-weakness to'commit the most profligate abominations. They were, notwithstanding, by no means deficient in bravery: but having sustained a great defeat by the Philistines, in which they lost their lives and the- sacred ark, their aged parent was so overcome on hearing the fatal tidings, that he fell backward from his chair and instantly expired. Samuel, at that time but a youth, though divinely inspired, was then chosen judge of Israel; and during the latter part of his administration, the land was in'a more peaceful state than it had been for many previous years. - When Samuel had been judge of Israel about twenty years, the people, wishing to imitate the example of their neighbours, demanded that they should have a king to rule over them. Samuel accordingly selected Saul for that high office, and on presenting him for their acceptance, "all the people shouted and said, God save the king!" Although many of the Israelites were afterwards discontented with having a king who had been their companion and equal, the numerous proofs which Saul gave of his military qualifications checked their murmurs. He attacked and defeated the forces of the different nations who harassed the frontiers of his kingdom, and took signal vengeance of their old and implacable enemies, the Phiilistines. As a warlike monarch he reigned with glory, but put an end:o his life. The judges of Israel are to be considered the defenders of religion, and the protectors of the laws; they decided upon war and peace, and were at all times magistrates and warriors. Saul- was succeeded by David, a shepherd of tne tribe of Judah, under whom the government gained con siderable strength. He was succeeded by Solomon, his son, celebrated 390 " THE TREASURY OF HISTORI. for his wisdom and his magnificence: he rendered the people happy by continual peace,-and the encouragement of commerce; he had the reputation of being a wise prince,- and his writings and hislaws were received and esteemed in the most distant countries, with all that veneration they deserved. His son, Rehoboam, an insensible despot, ruled the Israelites with an iron rod. Ten of the tribes separated themselves from the government, and c.hose Jeroboam for their'king. Palestine now became two kingdoms; the one called Judah, and the other Israel. A difference in religion was soon after introduced; that called the' Samaritan or Israelite, was embraced by the ten tribes; while Judah and. Benjamin kept to-the ancient usage of their forefathers.. Under Hosea, king of Israel, the ten tribes were carried away captive to Ninevieh, by.Salmanezer.' -Nebuchadnezzar very soon placed the people of Judah in the like unhappy situation:of the people of Israel. After having conquered Jerusalem, he transported them to Babylon, the capital of his empire.. Thiscaptivity lasted seventy years, when Cyrus gave them the liberty of returning -totheir country. Great numbers accepted the.offer, conducted by Zerubabel, Nehemiah, and Esdras..'They re-built Jerusalem and the temple. They -re-established their state, and lived under their own laws, paying a small tribute to the kings'of Persia; and suffered idolatry no more to supplant their devotion to'the true God. The Jews were subject to the kings of Persia at the time Alexander made his conquest:of that empire. At his death, his vast dominions were divided between his principal captains, and the king of Syria had a part of Judea: but lying, as it were, upon the frontiers of both Syria and -Egypt, it suffered severely from- alternate invasions. Jerusalein, after the Babylonian captivity, had- no particular governors,who took upon themselves the title- of king; the high priests held the interior admninistration, and.were respected as nluch as-if they had actually been in possession of the'the throne. Ptolemy Soter besieged Jerusalem, and carried away one hundred thousand captives, whom he dispersed through Egypt, Libya, and'the country about Cyrene, where their posterity for many centuries after continued to exist.". During this period, Simon surnamed the'Just, was high-priest;a man not'less remarkable for his merits,as a governor, than for his eminent piety. Under his direction.the canon of the Old Testament was completed, and thenceforward transmitted to future generations without further revisal: E. c. 202. It was about this time that the sect of the-Sadducees arose, who denied the existence of a future state They were,; however, inferior in numbers and popularity to the Pharisees, who entertained a decided belief in the' resurrection, and in the doctrine of future rewards and punishments. Under the patronage of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek, for the benefit of the Jews (residing in Egypt. This version is usually called the Septuagint, becaiuse,- according to tradition, the translation was entrusted to seventy persons. The situation of the Jews under the Syrians was various., Antiochus Epiphanes, wishing to. alter their religious opinions, took the power of the disposal of the high-priesthood into his own hands, which he alternately disposed of, and dispossessed, according to his caprice.. He pillaged the temple, and put Eleazer to death; and also the seven brothers, Maccabees, with their mother.' He also caused to be put the sword, on the sabbathday, all those that had assembled together for the purpose of devotion. This cruel and unjust persecution caused the Jews to rebel: they were headed by Mattathias; and, after his death, by his son, the celebrated Judas-Maccabeus, the defender of the religion, and the saviour of his country. That hero being killed in battle, was succeeded by Jonathan, who united in himself/the spiritual and temporal powers. His brother Simon THE TREASURY OF HISTORY., 391 succeeded, and was, equally celebrated for his wisdom as his virtues, and' was the first of his nationwho had governed Judea peaceably and abso lutely, since the return from Babylon. He was killed at a banquet, and was succeeded by his son, John Hlyrcanus, who was succeeded by Judas, surnamed Aristobulus, assuming'to-himself the title of king. Alexander Jannueus was. the next king, a hero very little inferior to Da. vid.- E-e left two son's, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. The former held the sceptre during the life of Alexandra, his mother.; but soon after the death of that princess, Arist0bulus declared war against his brotiier, and deprived him of-his kingdom. Judea having become a Roman province, Pompey the Great, its conqueror,' re-established Hyrcanus in the government, and took with him Aristobulus to Rome, to heighten the glory of his triumph. Phraates, king of Parthia, deposed; IHyrcanus', and put in his place Antigonus, son of Aristobulus. -Soon after Herod, surnamed the Great, an Idurmean by birth, and patronised by Anthony, obtained permissions from the Romans to assume the title' of king of the Jews. This prince, although a tyrant to his subjects and to his family, added lustre to the Jewish nation; he repaired Jerusalem, rebuilt the temple, and procured to himself successively the favour of Cassius, Caesar, Antony, and Octavius; augmenting his power by the art which he possessed of pleasing those of whom he,held his crown. In this reign JESUS CHRIsT was born. After the death of Herod. Augustus divided the government of Judea between the sons of Herod: he bestowed one half upon Archelaus, and- the other half upon Herod-Antipas and Philip. Nine years afterwards,'Augustus, being dissatisfied Wvith their conduct, sent them into exile, -and placed the government of Judea under the pro-consul of Syria. The governors' appointed by the Romans over the Jews were for the most part tyrants, which, served to strengthen in them the' piopensity for revolt. They had been taught that a descendant'of the house of David should deliver them from oppression; they believed that the time was nearly arrived, and their insolence increased as the fulfilment of the prediction, in their opinion, drew near. They were almost in'continual sedition; and although severely punished for their turbulence, their ardour in a cause wherein they supposed their own liberties, and those of their posterity depended, was not in the least diminished. In the year 66 after Christ, the standard of revolt was set up. Jerusalem was besieged by Cestius, whom the Jews compelled-to retire. Nero, who was then in Achaia, no, sooner heard of that event, than he sent Vespasian into Palestine, for the purpose of effecting that conquest which Cestius had been found unequal to obtain. Vespasian, who -had already distinguished himself in Germany and Britain, entered this devoted country with a well-disciplined army; and as he encountered everywhere a fierce resistance, he put-to the sword men, women, and children. All the cities and towns that,lay in the way of his march, were taken and plundered. Those-persons who escaped the cruelty of the conqueror, fled to Jerusalem, then in the hands of two furious parties, each of whom persecuted; their opponents with unfeeling cruelty. Civil' war and assassination became the consequence of their unbridled rage, and the-priests themselves were not exempt from the popular fury.' The siege of Jerusalem was suspended by the death of Nero. Three emperors mounted the throne; Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; al11 of whom died violent deaths. At length Vespasian was elected to the purple. He immediately'sent his son, Titus, to Jerusalem, to finish the war which he had so-successfully begun. Titus having arrived before Jerusalem previous to the feast of Easter, took his station on the mount of Olives, and, investing the city, he surrounded it with a xwall, flanked with thirty towers. The magazines had been-destroyed by fire, and a most cruel faWmine 392 THE'ITREASTURY OF HISTORY. raged within the city; but, notwithstanding their terrible situation, the Desieged refused the advantageous conditions offered to them by the Roman general. At length he became master of the city, which was nearly reduced to ashes, and also of the temple. A scene of butchery then comrn menced, and was continued for several days, until Jerusalem was left altogether desolate. 7. According to Josephus, eleven hundred thousand persons perished dur ing tthe siege, and at the capture; and those that were taken prisoners were made slaves. The misfortunes of:Jerusalem were not confined t(, the Jews of that city, but extended to the whole of that people under the Roman power; some were thrown to ferocious beasts at the public games, and others sold into bondage. The sufferings, indeed, of the devoted inhabitants, fraught' as some of the scenes- are with thrilling interest, are such as humanity shudders to contemplate, and over which pity is, glad to throw a veil. THE STATE OF THE JEWS SINCE THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. THE Jews, obliged to quit their country, irritated and provoked by the cruel treatment they had received, meditated to avenge themselves of their enemies. -They began to put their murderous designs into- execution at the city of Cyrene, in Lybia, and in the island of Cyprus, where, since their flight, they had increased considerably. They were headed by an enterprising but artful man, named Andrew, under whom they not only committed the greatest excesses, but also gained some advantages over the Egyptians, and even over the Romans. The emperor Trajan found himself obliged to march an'army against them; but they were not reduced until -after several engagements, maintained with the greatest obstinacy; they were at length overcome, and were treated by the Romans: rather as enemies of the human race, than; as rebels against the power of Rome. Lybia became so far depopulated in this conflict, that the Ro mans deemed it necessary to send a colony to repeople the waste. The Jews,'notwithstanding their recent misfortunes in rPalestine, again revolted. Adrian, the successor of Trajan, sent Julius Severus against them. This general (according to Dion), killed five hundred and eighty thousand in different battles; and, he further asserts, they could not reckon those that perished by famine, or otherwise; so that very few Jews escaped in this war. They razed (continues Dion), fifty fortified castles,' pillaged and burnt nine hundred and ninety-five cities and towns, and made such a general massacre of the'inhabitants through -the country, that all Judea was in a manner converted into a desert. Before this massacre the number of Jews, according to calculations made under Nero, and estimating those destroyed under Titus, amounted to two million five hundred and forty-six thousand persons. Adrian, after having ruined and massacred, the greatest part of the remaining number, prohibited, by a solemn edict, confirmed in the senate, any of those that had escaped the sword, from returning into their own country; and from that time this unfortunate people have been entirely dispersed. Notwithstanding the prodigious numbers which perished in the succes sive overthrows of the Jewi.sh nation, it is clear that very considerable colonies of them settled in different countries, as the travels of the apostles alone amply testify. In Rome, Alexandria, and many other places, there were flourishing communities. Some, devoted'themselves to the cultivation of the arts and sciences, others pursued handicraft trades, marry practised as physicians, but most of them turned their attention to c, umerciai speculations, and soon became notorious for their wealth and THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 393,verreaching cupidity. Ill the fifth century thbey were banished from Al exandria, where they had been estabhshed from the time- of Alexander. They rendered themselves the ridicule of all nations by their enthusiasm in favour of a false ~Messlah, who appeared at the time- in Candia. This impostor,; who was named Moses, and pretended to be the ancient legislator of the Jews, asserted that he had descended from Heaven, in order to enable the children of Abraham to enter the Land of Promise. A' new revolt in Palestine, in the sixth century, served to show the turbulent disposition of the Jewish race, and the increase of the massacres of that people. Phocias drove them from Antioch, and Heraclius from, Jerusalem.. While some of the scattered families resorted to Egypt, Babylon, and other polished countries- in the East, there were others who settled in Arabia, penetrated to China, or wandered over the European continent. But many still' remained in Palestine. After the conversion of the Roman empire to Christianity, Judea became an'object of religious veneration, and the empress Helena repaired thither in pilgrimage, and built various splendid temples. A crowd of pilgrims resorted thither subsequently from every part of the world; the most numerous arriving from the west, over which the church of Rome had fully establishedits domination. In the commencement of the sixth century, however, an entire change took place, Judea was among the countries first exposed to the fanatical, followers o Mahomet, and soon fell under their sway. But when the Turks poured in from the north, they no longer observed the same courtesy.. They profaned the ho!lyplaces, and the intelligence of their outrages being conveyed to Europe, roused the religious spirit of the age,into those expeditions called the crusades. All Europe seemed to- pour itself upon Asia; the -Saracen armies were routed, Jerusalem taken by storm, and its garrison put to the sword. The.leader of the first crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made king; and a petty Christian sovereignty established, which endured for above eighty years; the' Holy Land continually streaming with the blood of Christian and Saracen. The Mahometan states, whose resources were all at hand, gradually, however, regained the ascendancy. In 1187 Judea was conquered by Saladin; on the decline of whose king-'dom it passed through various hands, till, in the 16th century, it was eventually swallowed up in the Turkish empire. Great calamities to the Jews occurred' during the crusades. Wherever the fanatical soldiers who'were on their way to Palestine passed, they pillaged and murdered the scattered inhabitants'of the once happy land of Canaan, and the people of the nations among whom. they dwelt robbed them of their valuables without rembrse. Thepersecution was general, their furiouis enemies endeavouring, as it were, to extirpate the very name of Israel. It should be observed, liowever, that both Mahometans and Jews being animated by a like hatred of the Christians, we often find them acting in concert,'especially during the Saracenic conquest of Africa and Spain. Nay,'under the rule of'the Spanish Moslems, the Jews not.only enjoyed toleration, but they cultivated science, and were entrusted with the high- offices of state.. In the twelfth century, Philip Augustus, king of France, banished them twice from his kingdom; and during the reign of Philip le Bel, they were accused, and not without justice, of cruel exactions and usurious extortions. They were also accused with having committed outrages against the host, of having crucified children on Good Friday, of having insulted the image of Jesus Christ, &c. They were put into the hands of the judges; and, although no proof whatever was brought forward to substantiate their guilt, they were delivered over to the populace to be dealt with according to their pleasure. Philip banished them entirely from France in 1308, and confiscated'all their effects. Louis X., his successor, permitted them to re-establish themselves in his kingdorp, 394; THE TlEASURIY. OF H1STORY on' condition of their paying him- a large sum of money. In the reign of Philip the Long, brother and suecessor of Louis, they were massacred and pillaged. In 1395, Charles V. banished them and confiscated all their property. This was their fourth and last banishment. in 1393 they experienced in Germany a treatment similar to that which they had re-'ceived in France. In Castile they purchased their peace at a high price; but in Catalonia, Arragon, and the other parts of Spain, they were most horribly persecuted, and nearly- two hundred thousand of tern were compelled to embrace the Christian religion, or at least appear-so to do. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Jews established in Portugal underwent all' the mischief with which Moses menaced their nation In 1506, during three days successively, they were barbarously massacred-at Lisbon: yet as if- not content with taking away their lives, they took those among them whom they had' mutilated: or mortally wounded and burnt them by heaps in-the public squares. Two thousand perished in this manner. The fathers not daring to weep' for their children nor the children for their fathers, they were mutually overcome by despair on seeing each other dragged away to torment. In the eighth century we find them the pr-jperty'of the Anglo-Saxon kings, who seem to have exercised absolute power over both' their lives and goods. rIn this abject state they remained under the Norman princes and the early Plantaganets, who harassed them by the most cruel exactions, and often treated them with great barbarity. In proof of this, we need only refer to the reigns of Richard I., John, Henry IIl., and Edward I. If we pursue their history in other European countries, we shall find that if we except the Italian republics, and Spain while under the dominion of its Arab conquerors, the Jews everywhere found themselves the objects of persecution. On the introduction of the Inquisition into Spain and Portugual, that dread tribunal condemned thousands to the flames, before it commenced its diabolical proceedings against those Christians who differed from the see of Rome': and it was not until the Protestant states were strong enough to break asunder the shackles of religious intolerance, that the Jew had any chancd of ensuring his personal safety. We thus see that in different ages the Jews have suffered the most dreadful persecutions and massacres: but though the annihilation of the race seemed inevitable, their numbers were still very considerable; and they exercised then, as they do at the present time, no little influence in the affairs of civilized nations. Since arts and learning have revived in Europe, they have -felt the benefit of that humane enlightenment, which has extended all over, the globe. France, Holland, Austria, ahid most of the German states, allow them the rights of citizenship; England and Prussia tolerate and protect them-; in many of the British colonies they are among the principal merchants and traders; and in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, hey are at least' suffered to reside unmolested. The attention of the British nation has of late years been particularly directed towards the improvement of their political condition and their conversion to Christianity But upon the latter topic, as well as the probable restoration of the Jews to the land of their fathers, it is not necessary to offer an opinion; both are concealed from mortal ken by the impenetrable veil which enwraps futurity.' - ARMENIA. THE] ancient' history of this large and warlike people is connected witt that of the several mighty nations who in turn filled the world with the terror of their-names. Its first king appears to have been Scython, the next Barzanes, after whose death the kingdom was divided into several THE- T'RItAgUItY- OF HISTORY. 39fi petty kingdoms. The Medes under Astyages subsequently subdued Armenia, which was reduced to a province under- Persian, governors. It wa - afterwards divided into Major and Minor, by Artarias'and Zadriades, who having united their fbrces, established each himself -in his respective province, indepenoent of his:master; the former possessing Armenia Major, the other Minor. They were contemporary with Hannibal, who, planned for Artarias the celebrated town of Artarata. Assisted by the Roman alliance, these usurpers maintained their power in spite 6f the several attacks of their former- master, Antiochus. After their death, the Arme-' nians suffered considerable loss in a war with the'Parthians. Marc Antony put Artavardes,' the sovereign.of Armenia, to death, to' make room for Alexander, his own son by Cleopatra; others say that he led him captive to Rome in golden chains. Trajan reduced Armenia to a Roman province; but in the reign of Constantine the Great; and his successor, it had its own kings, dependent on the emperor. Although St. Bartho). Omew is said to have introduced Christianity into Armenia, there can be no doubt that it was Christian in the beginning of the fourth century. The Saracens subdued, it in A. D. 687, who gave way to the Turks about a century afterwards. It was tlien called Turcomania. Armenia partially recovered its independence, but was again subdued by Occadan or Heccate, son of Genghis, first khan, of the Tartars,. A remnant of the royal family of Armenia still remained; and we find one of them, Leo, came to England to solicit the aid of Richard II. against the Turks, by whom he had been expelled from his throne. Armenia was again made a province of the Persian empire in 1572. SelimII. reduced it to a'Turkish province, in 1522; the' greater part of which still remains subject to the Crescent. ALBANIA. ALBANIA was nominally a province of the Turkish empire. Its history is diversified, and mixed up with the various fortunes of the surrounding nations. Looked upon as barbarous by the Greeks and Romans, because Very slightly explored by them, Albania, better known to those celebra ted people as Illyricum, and Epirus, still retains the simplicity of primitive habits, ~so that it is emphatically called the Scythia of the Turkish empire. The ancient historians describe the inhabitants of this country as peculiarly fierce and intractable. The remoteness of its situation, and wanut of union among the several tribes which inhabited the country of Albania, rendered the valour of its people of little consequence to the general affairs of Greece, and accordingly we find them but slightly mixed up with Grecian politics. Under the conduct of Pyrrhus II., one of the most consummate- generals of antiquity, who waged a bloody war with the Romans in Italy, the Albanians, or Epirotes, routed Antigonus, king oif Macedonia, and held: that'country in subjection; but their conquest ended with the death of their commander, and they in turn-fell under the power of the Macedonians.:The Ronlans made some settlements in their country, and availed themselves of the many fine harbours to be found along its coast. At.their decline, along with other portions of: that once mighty empire, Albania fell a prey to Alaric and the Goths, although some of their descendants afterwards regained possession of the northern district. Sigismaund, one of its kings, was celebrated for his alliance with Theodoric, the victor of Clovis and Odoacer, A. D. 526. Albania now became the prey of the Sclavonian nations, till it was settled within its present limits, under the Bulgarians, in 870. As the Greek empire declined the Alba 396: THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. nians again rose to distinction,, and at last re-established their Independ' ence, in spite of the most strenuous exertions of the Bulgarians, who were masters of all the neighbouring districts of Greece. Forming a fourth division of the-army of Nicepliorus Basilices, A. D. 1079, they greatly distinguished themselves. During the next century, the period of the crusades, there were several settlements on their coasts by the Sicilians, Franks, and other nations. After the conquest of Constantino. ple, 1204, Michael Angelus established an independent government in, this district. -Albania has cut some figure in the annals of the last forty years, chiefly through the enterprising spirit and politic conduct of Ali Pacha, who raised himself to a degree of power which long kept the Turks, whowere nominally his masters, in a state of fear to attack- him. After amassing immense treasures,.and keeping up independent alliances with the European powers, he was, in 1822, finally cut off by the Turkish officers. whe modern name of Albania is Arnaout THE HISTORY OF EGYPT. (WITH SYRIA.) THE early history of Egypt, like that of China, is so involved in obscu. rity and fable, that for many ages it must be passed over in silence; for it would be an insult to common (sense, in a work professedly historical, to narrate the marvellous actions ascribed to Osiris. Isis, Typhon, Apollo, and a host of ideal personages who, as we are told, over Egypt "once held sway." After those purely fabulous ages, the first kIing who makes his appearance, in the times called heroic, but without any certain date, is Menes, who is by some considered the' same with Misraim, the son of Ham.,He drained the lower part of Egypt, converting that which was before a morass, into firm ground; turned the course of the Nile, so as to render it more beneficial to the. conntry, that river having before his time washed the foot of a sandy mountain in Lybia; built the city of Memphis; instituted solemn festivals and other religious rites; instructed his subjects in many valuable arts, and accomplished a variety of wonders usually attributed to the founders of kingdoms. It being impossible to follow the succession of princes, it must suffice to state, that after the death of Menes, Egypt was divided into several dynasties, or principalities; but its most natural and permanent divisiona appears to have been into three portions, sometimes under one, and sometimes under different kin'gs. The most southerly portion was called Up. per Egypt, or Thebais, the capital of which was Thebes, Still remarkable for the extent and magnificence of its remains. The central part, or Middle Egypt, had Memphis for its capital, situated opposite to the mod ern capital Cairo. Lower Egypt was the country along the branches of the Nile, as it approached the sea; many large cities were built in this tract, one of the chief of'which-was Heliopolis. We, learn that some ages afterwards (B. c. 2084), Egypt was invaded by the Hycsos, a pastoral tribe from the north, who penetrated to Nubia, and established themselves in that country, and in Egypt, as the sovereiglc THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 397 power. These are known as "the shepherd kings,)' and they were eteen tually expelled by Amosis, king of Lower Egypt, B. c. 1825. Various princes succeeded, who all bore the title of Pharaoh. The Israelites settled in Egypt, and were reduced to a state of slavery,- fiorn which they were delivered by-Divine interference; and, as we are further,nformed in Holy Writ, one of the Pharaohs, with all his host, was drowned in the Red Sea. The most distinguished prince of this race was Sesostris, who marched victoriously through both Africa and Asia, -s far as-to the countries beyond the Ganges, and enriched Egypt with the booty he acquired. Afterhis return, he divided the country into thirty-six districts or governments. In 725 B. c., Sabachus, king of Ethiopia, conquered Egypt and left the throne to his natural successors; but after the reign of Tharaca, his grandson, a period of anarchy followed, and Egypt was divided amohg twelve kings; one of-these, Psammetichus, with the assistance of the Greeks, subdued his competitors, and became sole monarch, B. c. 670. After his death, the Egyptain kings continued in frequent hostilities with the neighbouring nations of Judca and Assyria, attended with various success, and were at last reduced to Persian subjection by Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, B. c. 525. The Persians remained masters of Egypt until the year327 B. c., when it was conquered by Alexander the Great, who was -re-,ceived with joy by the Egyptians; the Persians havingmade themselves odious to the people by their exactions', and by their contempt of the Egyptian religion. Alexander, as great in the cabinet as in the field, permitted the conquered to enjoy their own laws and customs. -He founded Alexandria, which soon became the deposit of the commerce of the. East; and it ceased not to flourish until the discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of GOod Hope. After the death of the Macedohlia hero, Ptolemy Soter, one of his generals, took upon himself the government of Egypt, and his descendants enjoyed it till the year 30 of the Christian era, when it was conquered by the Romans;:and it became a province of that empire after the defeat of Marc Antony, and the death of Cleopatra. The Ptolemies governed Egypt for 293 years., The first four of the family were active and wise princes, who promoted the prosperity of their country, and encouraged literature and the arts. Ptolemy Soter, the soand successor of Ptolemy Lagus, established an academy of learned men at Alexandria, and founded the celebrated library at that city, which, at the Roman conquest, contained seven- hundred thousand volumes. It was partly destroyed by fire in Julius Cesar's attack on Alexandria; but the losses were replaced in succeeding centuries, until the 7th after Christ, when it was totally destroyed by order-of the Mohammedan caliph Omar.'For nearly seven centuries Egypt belonged to the Roman and Greek empires, and was for a lengthened period the gralary, as it wrere, of Rome. It then remained under the power of the Mohammedan caliphs till:the beginning of the 12th century, then they were expelled by the Turcomans, who in their turn gave way to the Mamelukes, 1250., The ancient kings of Egypt were always considered subject to the lawb of.the empire, and their manners were, in some particulars,- regulated by set rules; among which, the quality and quantity of the provisions for their tables were allotted. If a king, during his reign, governed arbitrarily, or unjustly, his memory was condemned after his death. No people were ever more idolatrous or superstitious than the Egyptians. Men, animals, and even plants were the objects of their worship; but the deities Isis and Osiris were in the greatest repute, and adored generally throughout the country.. They also especially- worshiped Apis, a bull, dedicated to Osiris, at Memphis; and Mnevis, a similar bull at Heliopolis. But every city had its sacred animal; a stork, a cat, -amonkey, a crocodile, or a goat; - any irreverence to which was severely punished, a-nd an irn. 39f8- THE TREASURY OF HISTORY..jury-held deserving of death. The tribunal of,Egypt was composed of thirty judges, chosen from among the priests of Heliopolis, of Memphis, and of Thebes; who admlinistered justice to- the people gratuitously, the prince allowing them a sufficent revenue to enable them so to do. The Egyptians had two kinds of writing; one sacred, and one cornmmon. The former was the representation of ideas by -figures of animals, or other sensible objects, called hieroglyphics; many incriptions of which still exist, as do inscriptions and writings in the common character. The priests were held in the highest reverence, and the hieroglyphics were known to them alone. Philosophy was early cultivated by the Egyptians, and the doctrine of the Metempsychosis taught in their schools, to which many of the Greek philosophers repaired. They also made great progress ill astronomy and geometry, and in the arts, particularly of architecture, of which the whole. country.still offers extensive columns, obelisks, and those stupendous specimens of humnan labour, the pyramids..We now return to the history of Fgypt after it became possessed by the Mamelukes, of whom it;may be as well to speak. Accordipg to M. Volney, they came originally from Mount Caucasus, and were distinguished, by the flaxen colour of their hair. The expedition of the Tartars, in 1227, proVed indirectly the means of introducing them into Egypt. Thesef merciless conquerors, having slaughtered till:they were weary, brought along with them an immense number of slaves of both sexes, with whom they filled all the markets in, Asia..: The Turks purchased about twelve fhousand young men, whom they bred up/in the profession of arms, which they soon excelled in; but, becoming mutinous, they deposed and murdered the sultan Malek, in 1260. The Malnelukes having thus got possession of the government, and neither understanding nor valuing anything but the art of war; every species of learning decayed in Egypt, and a degree of barbarism was introduced. Neither was their empire of long duration, nottwithstanding their martial abilities; for as they depended upon the Christian slaves, chiefly brought from Circassia, whom they bought for the purpose of training to war, and thus filling up their ranks, these new Mamelukes, or Borgites as they were at first called, in time rose upon their masters, and: transferred the government to themselves, about A. D. 1382. They becamelfamous-for ferocious valour; were almost perpetually engaged in wars either foreign or domestic; and their dominion lasted till 1517, when they were invaded by Selim I., the Turkish sultan. The Mamelukes defended themselves with incredible bravery, but, -overpowered by numbers, they were defeated in almost every engagement. Cairo, their capital, was taken, and a terrible slaughter made of its defenders. The sultan, Tuman Bey,.was forced to fly; and, having collected all his forces, he ventured a decisive battle. The most romantic efforts of valour, however, were insufficient to cope with the innumerable multitude which composed the Turkish army. Most of his men were cut in pieces, and the unhappy prince was himself taken and put.:to death. Witli him ended the glory of the Mamelukes. The sultani Selim commenced hjs government of Egypt by an unexamn pled act of wholesale butchery. Having orderedra theatre to be erected on the banks of the Nile, he caused all the prisoners (upwards of thirty thousand), to be beheaded in his presence, and their bodies thrown into the river. He -did not, however, attempt the total extirpation of the Ma. melukes, but proposed a new form of government, by which the power being distributed among the different members of the state, should preserve an equilibrium; so that the dependence of the whole should be upon him. self. With this view, he chose from among those'Marnmelukes who had escaped, the general massacre, a divan, or council of regency, consisting of the pacha and chiefs of the seven military corps. The former was t, notify to this council the orders of'the porte, to asend the tribute -to Con THE iTREASURY OF HISTORY. 399 stantinople, and )rovide for the safety of government both external and internal; while, on the other hand, the members of the council had a right to reject the orders of the pacha, or even of deposing- him, provided they could assign sufficient reasons. All the civil and political ordinances must also be ratified by them. Besides thik, he'formed the whole body inlto a kind of republic; for which purpose he issued an edict, stating,.Though, by the help of the Almighty, we have conquered the whole kingdom of Egypt with our invincible armies, nevertheless our benevolence is willing to grant-to the twenty-four sangiacs of Egypt a. republican government," &c. The conilitions and regulations then follow, the most important of wbich are those which make it incumbent on the republic to provide twelve thousahd troopsat its own expense in time of peace, and as many as may be necessary for its protection in time of war'; -and-:also to send to the Sublime Porte a certain sum in money annually as tribute, with six hundred thousand measures of corn, and four hundred thousand of barley. Upon these conditions the Malmelukes were to have i' free government over-all the inhabitants of Egypt, Independent of the Turkish lieutenant. Thus the pewer of the, Mamelukes still continued in a considerable degree, and gradually increased so much as to threaten a loss of dominion to the Turks; but, singular as it may seem, notwithstanding a residence of nearly six centuries, they. never became naturalized in the country. They formed no alliance wih the females of Egypt, but had their wives brought from Georgia, Mingrelia, and the adjacent countries; so that, according to Volney, their offspring invariably becaume extinct in the second generation; they were therefore perpetuated. by the same; means by which they were first established; that is, their ranks were recruited by slaves brought from their original country. Indeed, as many writers have remarked, the Cire-cassian territories have at all timles been a nuirsery of slaves. Towards the end of last century, when they constituted the whole military force, and had acquired the entire government of Egypt, the Mamelukes,' together with the Serradijes, ia kind of mounted domestics, did not exceed ten. thousand men. Some hundreds of them were dispersed throughout-the country and in the villages, to maintain the authority of their corps and collect tribute; but the'main body constantly remained at Cairo. "Strangers to each other, bound by no ties as parents or children, placed among'a people with whom they had nothinfg in common, despised as renegades by the Turks, ignorant and superstitious fiom education, ferocious, perfidious, seditious' and corrupted by every species of debauchery, the disorders and cruelties which accompanied their\licentious rule may be more easily imagined than described. Sovereignty to them was to have the means of possessing more women, toys, horses, and slaves, than others; of managing the court of Constantinrople, so as to elude the tribute'or the menaces of the sultan; and of multiplying partisans, countermining plots, and destroying secret enemies by the dagger or poison. But with all this, they are brave in the extreme. Their beys, and even the common soldiers, distinguished themselves by the magnificence and costliness of their accoutrements, though these were in general clumsy and heavy. Being trained from infancy to the use of arms and horsemanship, they were admirable horsemen; and used the scimitar, car bille, pistol, and lance, with almost unequalled skill and vigour." - About the year 1746, Ibra'iim, an officer of the Janissaries, rendered himself in reality master of Egypt, having managed matters so well, that 9f the twerity-foui beys, or sangiacs, eight were of his household; so that by this means, as well as by attaching the officers and soldiers of his corps to his interest, the pacha became altogether unable to oppose him, and the orders of the sultan were less respected than those of Ibrahim. At his death, in 1757, his family continued to rule in a despotic manner; but walagg way among each other, Ali Bey, who had been a principal actor In 400 THE TItEASURY -OF HISTORY. the disturbances, in 1766 overcame the rest, and for sometime rendered himself absolute master of Egypt. This remarkable man was a Svrian by birth, and -had been purchased when a youth in the slave market at Cairo; but being possessed of great talents, and of-a most ambitious turh of mind, he, after a variety of extraordinary adventures, was appointed one of the' twenty-four. beys of Egypt. The Porte, being:at that time on the eve of,a d'algerous war with Russia,' had not leisure to attend to the proceedings of'Ali Bey; so, that he had an opportunity of vigorously prosecuting his designs. His first expedition was against al Arabian prince named Hamman; against whom he sent his favourite Mohammed Bey, under pretence that the former had concealed a treasure entrusted with him by Ibrahim, and that-'he afforded protection to rebels. Having- destroyed this unfortunate prince, he next began to put in execution a plan proposed to him by a young Venetian merchant, of rendering Gedda, the port of Mecca, an emporium for all the commerce of India; and he even imagined he should be able to make the Europeans abandon the passage to the'Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. ~With this view, he fitted out some- vessels at Suez; and, manning them with Mamelukes, commanded the bey'Hassan to' sail with them to Gedda, and seize upon it, while a body of cavalry under Mohammed Bey advanced against the town. Both'these commissions were executed according to his wish, and Ali became quite intoxicated with his success. Nothing but ideas of conquest now occupied his, mind, without considering the immense disproportion between his'ownforce and that of the grand seignior. Circumstances were then indeed very favourable to his schemes. The sheik Daher was in rebellion'against the Porte in Syria, and the pacha of Damascus had so exasperated the people by his extortions, that they were ready for a revolt. Having made -the necessary preparations, Ali Bey dispatched about five hundred Mamelukes to take possession of Gaza, and thus secure an entrance into Palestine. Osman, the pacha of Damascus, however, no sooner heard of the invasion than he prepared for war, while the troops of Ali Bey held themselves in readiness to fly on the first attack. Sheik Daher hastened to their assistance, while Osman fled without:even offering to make the least resistance:; thus leaving the enemy masters of all Palestine. rPhe combined armhy of Ali Bey and Sheik Daher afterward marched to Damasctls; where the pachas waited' for' them, and on the 6th of June, 1771, a decisive action took place: the Mamelukes and Safadians (the name of Daher'?s subjects) rushed on the Turks with such fury, that, terrified at their courage, the latter immediately fled; and the allies became masters of the country, taking possession of the city without opposition. The castle alone resisted. Its ruinous fortification had not a single cannon; put it was surrounded by a muddy ditch, and behind the ruins were posted a few musqueteers; and'these klone were sufficient to check this army of cavalry. As the besieged, however, were already conquered by their fears, they capitulated'on the third day, and the place was, to be surrounded next morning, when, at daybreak, a. most extraordinary revolution took place.' This was no less than the defection of Mohammed Bey himself, whom Osman had gained over in a conference duringthe. night. At the momeint- therefore, that the signal of surrender-was expected, this treacherous general sounded a retreat, andt urned toward Egypt with all his cavalry, flying with as great precipitation as'if he had been pursued by asuperior artny. Mohammed continued his march.with such celerity that lhe report of his arrival in Egypt reached Cairo only-six hours before him. Thus Ali Bey found himself at once deprived of all his expectations of conquest; and, what was indeed galling, he found a traitor whom lie d'rst not punish, at the head of his forces. A sudden reverse of for tune now took place. Several vessels laderi with corn for Sheik Daher THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 40, wele taken by a Russian privateer; and Mohammed Bey, whom he designed to have put to death, not only made his escape, but was so well attended that he could not be attacked. His followers continuing daily to increase in number,; Mohammed soon became sufficiently strong' to march toward Cairo; and, in April, 1772,, having defeated the troops of Ali in a rencontre, entered the city sword in hand, while the latter had scarcely time to make his escape with eight hundred Mamelukes. With difficulty he was enabled to get to Syria, by the assistance of Sheik Daher, whom he immediately joined with the troops he had with him. The Turks under Osman were at that time besieging Sidon, but raised the siege on the approach of the allied army, consisting of about seven thousand- cavalry. Though the Turkish army -was at least three times their number, the allies did not hesitate to attack them, and gained a complete victory. Their affairs now began to wear a more favourable aspect, but ~he military operations were retarded by-the siege of Yafa (the ancient Joppa), which -had revolted, and held out for eight months. In the beginnlng of 1773; it capitulated, and Ali Bey began to think of returning to Cairo. For this purpose Sheik Daher had promised him succours, and the Russians, with whom he had now contracted an alliance, made him a similar promise. Ali, however, ruined everything by his own impatience. He set out with his Mamelukes and fifteen hundred Safadians given him by Daher: but he had no sooner entered the desert which separates Gaza from Egypt, than he was attacked by a body of one thousand chosen Mamelukes,wh-o were lyipg in wait for his arrival. They were commanded by a young bey, named Mourad, who, being enamoured of the wife of Ali Bey, had'obtained a promise of her from Mohammed, in case he could bring him her husband's head. ~ As' soon as Mourad perceived the dust by which the. approach of Ali's army was announced, he rushed forward to the attack and took prisoner Ali Bey himself, after wounding him in th'e forehead with a sabre. Being conducted to Mohammed Bey, the latter pretended to treat him with extraordinary respect, and ordered a magnificent tent to be erected for him; but in three days he was found dead of his wounds,: as was given out; though some, with equal probability, af firmed that he was poisoned., Upon the death of Ali Bey, Mohammed took upon himself the supreme dignity. At:first he pretended to be only the defender of the rights of the sultan, remitted the usual tribute to Constantinople, and took the customary oath of Unlimited obedience; after which he solicited to make war upon Sheik Daher, against whom he had a personal pique.-'In February, 1776, he appeared in Syria with an army equal to that which he had formerly commanded under Ali Bey. Daher's forces despairing of being able to cope with, such a formidable armament, abandoned Gaza, of which Mohammed immediately took possession, and then marched toward Yafa, which defended itself so long, that Mohammed was distracted with rage, anxiety, and despair. The besieged, however, whose numbers were diminished by the repeated attacks, became weary of the contest; and it was proposed to abandon the place, on the Egyptians giving hostages. Conditions were agreed upon, and the treaty might be considered as coneluded, when, in the midst of the security occasioned by this belief, some Mamelukes entered the town; numbers of others following their example, attempted to plunder. The inhabitants defended themselves, and the attack recommenced; the whole army then rushed into the town, which suffered all the horrors of war; women and children, young and old men, were all cut to,pieces, and Mohammed, equally mean and barbarous, caused a pyramid, formed of the heads of the unfortunate sufferers, to be raised as a monument to his victory. By this disaster the greatest terror and consternation were diffused everywhere. Sheik Daher himself fled, anll Mohammed soon became master of Acre also. Here he behaved wAbt 26 402 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY his usual cruelty, and abandoned the city to be plundered by his st fiery. But his career was soon stopped, his death just at the time occurring through a.malignant fever, after two days' illness. Soon after Iohaiammed's death a contest arose among several of the beys, as to who should succeed him. But the chief struggle lay between Mourad and Ibrahim, who, having ultimately overcome the rest, agreed in 1785, to share the government betNween them, and continued to rule as ioint pachas for many years. From that time we have no account of any remarkable transaction in Egypt, till the French invaded that country in 1798; which we shall as concisely as possible relate, and then take a brief survey of some striking events that have occurred more recently. When Selim II. ascended the Ottoman throne, the French revolution was just breaking out; but until Bonaparte's memorable invasion of Egypt and Syria, its effectswere not much felt in that quarter of the globe. The two Mameluke beys, Mourad and Ibrahim, were at that time at the head of the government. The French landed near Alexandria on the 1st of July, 1798; and that city was taken by assault on the 5th, and plundered by the soldiery. They then marched to Cairo, but were met by an army of Mamnelukes in the plains near the Pyramids, where'the French gained a signal victory, which was followed by their occupation of the capital, and the subnmission, in general, of the inhabitants. The destruction of the French fleet, by the English under Nelson, in the bay of Aboukir,:'wvas the next event of importance; yet, notwithstanding this great calamity, Bonaparte was not deterred. from pursuing his original design, but set out at the head of ten thousand men to cross the desert which separates Egypt from Pale'stine. On his arrival in Syria he conquered sev'eral towns, one of which Wvas Jaffa. The defence of Acre, however, by Sir Sidney Smith, put a stop to the future proceeding- of Napoleon in that quarter. The most remarkable person connected with -Egypt aftel the period of which we have been speaking, was Mehemet Ali, the Turkish pacha of that country. This chief, who has since become so prominent in Egyptian and Syrian, history, was ambitious of making himself independent of the Ottoman Porte; butt as-this could not be effected while the Mameluke beys retained their power and influence, he determined on their extirpation by a cold-blooded act of treachery. He accordingly invited them to a'grand festival, to be given in honour of his son Ibrahim, who had just been ap. pointed commander-in-chief of an expedition against the Wahabites of Arabia. Wholly unsuspicious of the trea herous design of Mehemet Ali, the beys arrived at the castle -on the appointed day, (March 1st, 1811). each attended by his suite; but they had no sooner entered than they were seized and beheaded. The execution of all the chief Mamelukes throughout the country immediately followed; and Mehemet now, though nominally a vassal of the Turkish empire, exercised all the functions and privileges of an absolute sovereign prince. In the histories of' Turkey' and' Greece,' will be seen how large a share Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim had in fomenting and carrying on the war between those countries. It will also be seen in its proper place, in the history of'England,' that Mehemet Ali had provoked the insurrection in Syria, and but for the interference of IEngland and hercontinental allies, would have wrested Egypt and Syria from the Turks. But the allied fleet, under the command of Sir R. Stopford and. Commodore — Napier, bombarded and captured the whole line of fortified places along the coast of Syria, ending their operations with the destruction of St. Jean d' Acre. This place is renowned for scenes of desperate valour. A heavy cannonade for three hours was kept up, by which time the guns of the forts were silenced; when, owing to one of the bomb-shots failing on the enemy's powder magazine, an awvful explosion'ook place, and twelve hundred human beings were hlows THE TREASURY OF HISTOtY. 403 into the air. This decided the- fate-of the war; and Meherflet Ali, after a long negotiation, in which the allied powers of Europe took part, was reinstated in his viceroyship of Egypt, the government of that- country to descend in: a direct hereditary line, A. D. 1841. That Mehemet Ali is a man of superior talents, and that under his administration of affairs, Egypt has made advances in -arts and arms, and in the improvement ol those natural advantages which she possesses for securing her inteinat prosperity, no one can entertain a doubt; but, at the same time we caiino forget, that many of his actions prove him to be despotic, cruel, ani reVengeful. ALEXANDRIA. ALEXANDRIA, now called Scanderia, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt, occupies a prominent position in the annals of history, even from its first foundation. Perhaps there is no'place whose records present to a maritime people more interesting details. Founded by the Great Alexander, whose mind was comprehensive as his valour was unequalled; the very cause of its existence was commercial, and its history for eighteen hundred years shows how well the Macedonians appreciated the advantages of maritimen resources. The strength of. Tyre, which cost him so long and so dear a contest, probably suggested to him the value of commnerce. Accordingly, after the city "wvhose merchants were princes," had fallen before his banners, and Egypt received his yoke, he formed the design of building a city, in which commerce might find a shelter, and from which his vast empire might derive riches and strength. No sooner was the design conceived than executed; and Alexander, whose new commercial dep6t was situated alike convenient for the trade of the east and the west, died A. D. 385. - Amidst the convulsions which shook his empire to pieces a hfter his death, Alexandria continued to rise in greatness and magnificence under the fostering protection of the enlightened Ptolemies, the friends of commerce and science —whose capital it became, A. D. 304. But such is the natural -proneness of human things to decay, that wealth begets luxary, and greatness is its own destroyer. For-three hundred years during which Alexandria was subject to the Ptolemies, the canker of corruption bloated its magnificence, and fed upon its,luxury. The name of Ptolemy Physcon is synonymous with vice and cruelty. His savage brutality made Alexandria-almost a desert about one hundred and thirty years before Christ. The desertion of sages, grammarians, philosophers, and other masters of the liberal sciences, whose presence had shed a, lustre over the capital of Egyjpt, was followed by the influx of people of various nations, invited by a general proclamation of the tyrant. An inhuman massacre of all the young men of the city shortly afterward took place, and Alexandria was for some time the scene of commotion and anarchy. In 48 B. c., the conqueror of the West visited the city of the victor of the East, in pursuit of his defeated rival, where he arbitrated between Ptolemy XII. and Cleopatra. His military conduct was no less conspicuous here than it had been previously in Gaul, Britain, and the plains. of Pharsalia. With a small band of Romans, assisted by -some forces of the Jews, he defeated the whole army of Ptolemy. Whilst hisory records with exultation the exploit of Caesar, who swam across the Nile bearing his Commentaries aloft safe from the waters, she droops over the conflagration which accidentally consumed the library of the Bruchion, consisting of four hundred thousand volumes. For it must be remembered that the city of Alexandria was originally designed, atn a'txIally proved, to be the mart of philosophy and science. 4(14 THE TREASURY OF HISTOILY. The emperor Caiigula had designed Alexandria as the seat of his empire in the event of his massacring the chief senators and knights of Rome. In the year A. D. 40, the Jews, who, to the amount of a million, had for many years enjoyed a variety of privileges, were, by an edict of Flaccus, now declared strangers in Alexandria —and underwent, as, one of the signs of thetime of their approaching destruction and the complete dispersion of their nation, grievous privations, losses, and cruelty. It was within a fe,0years after this, that the gospel of Jesus Christ was promulgated in Alexandria, and received by many. The names of Pantnenus, St. Clement, and Origen, are found as presidents of a Christian school of considerable eminence founded in this city. The admixture, however, of the philosophy which distinguished Alexandria, with the tenets of Christianity, and the dogmas of Judaism, tended materially to corrupt both trutl and wisdom; and the eclectic philosophy proved the foundation of the Jewishl cabbala, -and many corruptions of the Christian faith. Undel Claudius, Alexandria again reckoned thle Jews as citizens.- It was the first place which hailed Vespasian emperor, A. D. 69; and here he- abode whilst his generals -and armies were deciding his cause against Vitellius The account Adrian, who visited the. city A. D. 130,.gives of it, is characteristic of the industry and enterprise of commerce, as well as of its worst and most pernicious effects upon the inhabitants who thrive upon its riches U'nder the'emperor Severus, Alexandria obtained several immunities and privileges, A. p. 202,; a'grateful' sense of which was manifested by a mon. ument erected to him. Different, however, was their fortune under the despicable Caracalla, who. rewarded their entertainment of him by a general massacre of the inhabitants, A. D. 215; by abolishing the societies of learned men, who were maintained in the museum; by the plunder of temples alnd private houses; and by separating'different parts of the city from one another by walls and towers. During the reign of Gallienus, Alexandria. suffered most severely both by water and pestilence. But history, here, records with admiration the conduct-of two Christian bishops, Eusebius and Anatolius, who, like the good Samaritan, bound up the wounds of the wretched, and, like their heavenly Master, were un wearied in alleviating the distresses of their suffering fellow-creatures. Their conduct sheds a lustre over the annals of this city, far transcending the most brilliant exploits which emblazon its heraldry. -Alexandria was now almost depopulated. It, however, again recovered somewhat'of its former greatness, again to feel the unsparing havoc of war and. dissension, in the reign of Dioclesian, who having captured it from Achilleus, the usurper of Egypt, gave it up to indiscriminate pillage and plunder, A. D. 296 He made some retribution for this'severity by establishing certain salutary regulations, amongst which may be reckoned, his establishment for the perpetual distribution of corn, for the benefit of this city, A. D. 302. iUn der Constantine, Alexandria again flourished by its trade and commerce A dreadful and almost universal earthquake, July 21, 365, shook this citj to its very foundation, and swallowed up fifty thousand of its inhabitants Although the second capital of the Roman empire, Alexandria was cap tured by the Moslems, under Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar, De cember 22, A. D. 640. Bloody and obstinate was the siege: amply sup plied with provisions, and devoted to the defence of, their dearest rights and honours, its inhabitants bravely withstood the astonishing efforts and unwearied bravery of their enemies; and had Heraclius as promply seconded their resolution, the crescent of Mahomet had not then reigned in bloody supremacy over the Christian cross.; It was invaluable to Heraclius, and its loss was'a source of great inconvenience to Byzantium. to which it had been the storehouse. Since, in the shortspace of five years, the harbours and fortifications of Alexandria were occupie4 by a fleet and army of Romans, twice did the valour Of its conqueror, Amrou, expel THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 405 them; but his policy had been to dismantle several walls and towers, in pursuance of a- ow he had made of rendering Alexandria as accessible' as the home of a prostitute. In the year 642, the library of Alexandria was destroyed by order of the caliph Omar-; and so extensive was it, that its volumes of paper~0r parchment sufficed to light the fires of the four thousand baths which were in the city, for more than six months So waned the splendour and glory of this mighty city. The dominion of the Saracens withered its energies, and Alexandria gradually sunk from its high estate, so that in the year 875, its extent was-contracted to rialf its former dimensions. Mournful, but still majestic in its decline,(it still' retained the Pharos, and part of its public places and monuments. In 920 its great church, called Cosarea, which had formnirly been a pagan temple, erected by Cleopatra, in honour of Saturn, was destroyed by fire; and two years after, this second, or Arabic, Alexandria, was taken by the Magrebians, who, after various vicissitudes, at length finally lost it to the Moslems, A. D. 928, when more than twohundred th-ousand of the wretched inhabitants perished. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1499, completed the ruin which had, for some centuries, been advancing under the Turkish-dominion; and Alexandria ceases from-that time to possess any particular interest for the historian, until the close of the last century The first cons'ul of France, whose name will be reckoned up with the Macedonian Alexander and'the Roman Cesar, like these two great prototypes of his ambition, displayed in Alexandria his skill and prowess. It fell to his army July 4, 1798, after a defeat of the Arabs and, Mamelukes. The thunders of the British navy, braving defeat and discomfiture through the ships of France, at Aboukir, were heard at Alexandria, and the British ensign waved triumphant over its walls-in the year 1801, as again in -1806. Among the nlames of various heroes connected with this once mighty city, that of Abercrombie, who died there in the arms of victory, shall live enrolled in the annals of history. ANTIOCH. THE history of this interesting place is pregnant with great and impoltant events connected as well, with profane as sacred history. It was founded by Antigonus, and called Antigonia, a name soon after changed for Antiocha, in honour of Antiochus, father of Seleucus. The seat of empire for the kings of Syria, and of government for the Roman officers, Antioch was a place of considerable imnportance. It contained four distinct cities, and was therefore called Tetrapolis. Another city, built in its suburbs, called Daphne, superceded it in magnificence and-luxury so much, that, not only did " to live after the manner of Daphne" become proverbial, but Antioch was termed Antioch near Daphne. Its history is confiaed pretty much to the various calamities of war and pestilence which, at different times, have visited and scourged this city. By the assistance of Jonathan, the leader of the Maccabees, king Demetrius punished the contumacy ofrhis dissatisfied subjects by slaying ten thousand of then, v. c. 145. An extraordinary earthquake laid it in ruins in t~he reign of Trojan, A. D. 115; the'emperor himself being with difficulty saved from de-tvuction. Antioch rose from its ashesunder the auspices of Trajan, arc, was again nearly consumed by fire in 155. It was restored by Anton!.nus Pius, but was dispossessed, A. D. 177, by a severe edict of his. Of all i's sicient rights and priviliges, as a plnishment for abetting the f-ietinn of Ovidius'Cassius, governor of Syria, a measure, however, which was soon annulled. l In 194 Severus, to punish the part which its natives t(,',K in the -faction between him and Niger, passed a similar edict, an 0oe THES TREASURY C F HISTORY. subjected Antioch, reduced to the level of a village, to Laodicea, but the next year he revoked his sentence. In the meanwhile Antioch had been distinguished for some events connected with the spread of Christianity, which, it is said, was established here by St. Peter, in the year 38. It was here the followers of the Redeetnerswere first called Christians, and an assembly of the apostles was held in 56. There have also been several councils convened in Antioch at different, periods. Fromr its situation, it was necessarily exposed to severe attacks during the wars between lthe Persians and the Romans, when the power of the latter began to decline. It was three times taken by the Persian monarch, Sapor,- who, after its last capture, plundered it and laid all its public buildings prostrate. In-331 it was visited by a severe famine. Sixteen years afterward its importance was increased by Constantine II., who, at an immense expense, formed the harbour of Seleucia for its convenience. During the residence of the emperor Julian here, on his way to the PerSian empire, there occ;irred throughout the Roman provinces a severe famine, which visited Antioch more severely than other places, from the establishment of a corn-law by the emperor. In 381, two great scourges appeared, plague and famine-; the former soon subsided, but on the continuance of -the latter, Libaniu-s, the bishop, entreated assistance from Icairus, prefect of the Ea~st, who answered the entreaty with brutality and insult.' A commotion ensued, which, however, terminated without bloodshed. Six years afterward, a tremendous tumult took place, in con sequence of a: tax imposed upon the people by the emperor Theodosius, in commemoration of the tenth year of his own reign, and the fifth of that of his son Arcadius. The governor of the city with difficulty escaped the frenzy of the populace; and great indignities:were offered to the emperor's statues by the people, who were made to-atone for this offence by the most cruel punishments. St. Chrysostom distinguished himself on this occasion by preaching homilies to the people, which tended very much to reform their-dissolute and corrupt practices. Severe measures were on the point of being executed against Antioch by command of Theodosius, when they were averted by the united entreaties of St. Chrysotom, some hermits; and Ftlavianus, bishop of Antioch. But there was no defence to this ill-fated place in the year 598 against the awful visitation of an earthquake, Vwhich, on September 19, laid desolate the most beautiful quarter of the city. - A similar visitation occurred in 525, in the reign-of Jnstin. Neither was the fury of man long withheld from working de,struction to Antioch. In540 it was captured by Chosroes, king' of Persia. The churches were pillaged, and, like another Nebuchadnezzar, he ap. propriated their gold and silver to his own use. Rapine, pillagge, and Ate in her fullest insubordination, were let loose. Antioch had not a dwelling left; her people were scattered, slain, or carried into captivity. Once more, ph-cenix.-like, it rose from its ruins, to experience another earthquake ~n 580, which destroyed thirty thousand persons. A new enemy now appears on the page of its history. The Saracens took Antioch in the year 634, and retained possession-of it till 858, when again it was annexed to the Roman empire. The Turks next became masters of it; and they in turn lost it to the Crusaders, who made a principality of Antioch, in 1098, under Bohemond, prince of Torento. lie was taken prisoner by the Turks in 1101, but-liberated in 1103. Meanwhile Antioch had been governed by Tancred, who died the year after his appointment. The whole of the principality of Antioch, excepting the city, was overrun by the sultan Noureddi-n in 1148, who in the year 11 60 took Bohemond III. prisoner. On his liberation in 1175, he was created knight by Loni. VI. of France, and died in 1201,. The principality of Antioch was dissolved in 1268 by the capture of the city by Bibars, sultan of Babylon. It then became a portion of the Turkish empire. which it has sin(e con THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 407 tfnued, having experienced during that period two, earthquakes —one in 1759, dnd the other in 1822. Antioch has listed to the march of empires; the splendors of the Macedonian, the majesty of the Roman, the voluptutousness of tihe Persian, the vigour of the Saracenic, and the tyranny of the Osmanic, have in turns revelled in her palaces, and adorned or degraded her beauty; while the voice of (hristianity has whispered in her temple, and the thunders of the Incomprehens-ible Deity have spoken in awful prodigies, and awed her inhabitants by pestilence, famine and earthquakes. THE BARBARY STATES. BARBARY is a vast territory of Africa, containing the states or kingdoms of Algiers. Morocco, Fez, Tunis, Ttipoli, and Barca. It stretches entirely across the northern shores of Africa, from the Atlantic Ocean on the western boundary of Egypt, taking almost the whole range of the south. ern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In width it is various, and bounded by the " great desert." The Romans obtained possession of Barbary in the time of Julius Caesar, and remained masters of it till A. D. 428. At that time Bonifacius, the Roman governor, revolted, and called in to his assistance Genseric, king of the Vandals, who had been sometime settled in Spain.'hey agreed to divide the country between them: Genseric was to have two-thirds, and Bonifacius one-third. Genseric set sail in May the same year, w.ith an army of; eighty thousand men, together with their wives, childeren, and effects. Genseric had no sooner effected;his landing, and secured- apart of:the country, than he turned his arms against Bonifacius, defeated him, and obliged him to shelter himself in Hippo, which place he besieged in May, 430; but was under the necessity of retiring from famine. The Romans sent an army into Africa, under the conduct of the celebrated Aspar, from Constantinople; a dreadful- battle ensued, and Genseric became the victor. rlThe Vandals were by this-victory rendered masters of Africa. Cirtha and Carthage were the only,strong places possessed by the Romans. In 435, peace was concluded between the Romans and the Vandals. The former gave up part of Numidia, the province of Procon Salariz and'Byzancene, for which a yearly sum was to be paid to the emperor of the East. However, in 439, the Romans being engaged in- a war with the Goths of Gaul, Genseric took this-advantage to seize Carthage, by which he considerably enlarged his African dominions. On the taking of Carthage, Genseric made it the seat of his empire; and, in 440, made a descent on the island of Sicily, plundered it and returned to Africa. Being now become formidable to both empires, Theodosius, emperor of the East, resolved to assist Valentinian against so powerful an enemy. Accordingly, he fitted out a fleet of eleven hundred ships, filled with the flower of his army, under Arcovindus. Genseric now pretending a desire to be at- peace with both empires, amused the Roman general with pacific proposals, till the'eason for action was over. Theodosius being obliged to recall his- forces to oppose the Huns, Valentinian found it necessary to conclude a -peace with the Vandals, yielding them quiet possession of the countries they had seized. - Genseric was now become so powerful, or 408 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. rather so low was the power of the Roman empire reduced, that, in 455, he took the city of Rome, and plundered it; and after his return to Africa' made himself master of all the remaining countries held by the Romans in that -part of the world. The kingdom of the- Vandals in Africa was now fiully established; and Genseric made himself master of Sicily, as well as all the other islands between Italy and Africa, without opposition from the western emperors, who were now,too feeble to resist him, A. D. 476. Genseric made his dominions a scene of blood,-and died in 477, after a reign of forty-seven years. [le was succeeded by his son Hunneric, who proved a greater tyrant than his father, persecuting the Christians with the utmost fury; and during his short reign of seven years and a haff, he destroyed more of them than Genseric had done- during the whole of his life. The successors of Hunneric, Gutamund, Thrasamund, and Hilderic, of whom we know very little, except that the latter was deposed, in the seventh year of his reign, by Gelimer, a prince of the blood-royal, who proved a greater tyrant than any that had gone before him, and was held in abhorrence, when the emperor Justinian proposed an invasion of Africa. Accordingly, he sent a powerful fleet and army against Gelimir, under the command of the celebrated Belisarius. Gelimir committed the management of his army to his brothers, Gundimer and Gelanlmnd: they attacked the Romans; the engagement was long and bloody, but at length the Vandals were defeated, and the two princes slain. Gelimer headed a fresh army, which was also defeated, and the loss of Carthage followed. Another defeat followed close upon the former. Gelimer fled into Numidia, and an end was put to the Vandal power in Barbary. Gelimer was afterward brought in gold- chains before Justinian, whom he besought, in the most submissive manner, to spare his life. This was readily granted by the emperor; and a handsome yearly pension was also allowed him. Barbary remained under the Roman power until the caliphate of Omar, when it was reduced by the Saracens. It continued subject to the caliph till the reign of Haroun al Raschid, when Ebn-Aglab, the governor, assumed independence. The house of Aglab was driven out by Al Mohdi, the first Fatimite caliph. Al Mohdi reigned twenty-fouryears, and was succeeded by his son, Abul Kasem, who took the name of Al Kayem Mohdi. During this reign we read of' nothing remarkable, except the-rebellion of Yesod. He was succeeded by his son Ishmael, who took upon himself the title of Al Mansur. Al Mansur was succeeded by his son, Abu Zammin Moad, who assumed the surname of Al Moez Ledenillah. This caliph conquered Egypt, and removed the caliphate to that country. The other material events that have taken place in the Barbary States'will be found in the historical notice of Algiers. ALGIERS. ALGIERS, a country of northern Africa, and which was regarded as the most powerful of the Barbary states, has long been the subject of European indignation for its piratical practices, and the ignominious slavery to which all Christians who fell into its power were irrevocably doomed But the hour of retribution has at length come; and the events of late THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 409 years have greatly contributed to call the attention of the civilized world to-its past and present history. There is a variety of opinions respecting the original'inhabitants: some contending that they were the Sabeans who plundered the patriarchJob; others, Cananites who were driven out of their country by Joshua. -Be this is it may, the Algerine kingdom formerly made a considerable part of the Mauritania Tingitania, which- Julius Caesar reduced to a Roman province. The Algerines shared in the fortunes of Rome; for, at the decline of its empire, they fell to the Vandals, who in turn were expelled by the Saracens -about the middle of the seventh century. From that period they were subject to the Arabs, till the year 1051, when Abubeker ben Omar, by the agency of his, marabouts or saints, assembled a large force of malcontents in Numidia and Lybia. His followers were called Morabites, and the kingdonl which he founded is distinguished by that appellation, Religious frenzy seems to have imparted resolution and -strength, the sinews of victory, to these combatants;* whilst a. variety of favourable circumstances,'arising' from the absence of the most powerful of the constituted authorities, enabled Abubeker to vanquish the several sheiks who opposed him, and atlength reduce the whole of Tingitania under his sway. Hiis successoreYusef, or Joseph, founded Morocco as-the capital of the Morabitish kingdom. An event which at first seemed to threaten his project with annih,'ation,'turhed out to the increase of his power, and the consolidation of his empire. In order to strengthen his new dynasty, he sent anibassadors to a powerful sect of the Mohammedans, called Zeneti, whom he wished to bring back to what he called the true faithl who not only murdered his emissaries, but with a large army invaded his kingdom. Fearful and terrible' was the retribution he exacted from them. He ravaged their lands with fire and sword; and, assisted by the inhabitants of Fez, who refused the Zeneti the succour they had expected from them when they retreated upon their city, he almost annihilated the whole tribe,,to the amount of nearly a million of souls, including women and children. Their desolated country was soon repeopled by colonies from Fez; and Joseph, forgetful of, the efficient support he had received from the Fezzans, attacked and subdued both them and the remaining Arab sheiks, who, relying upon their supposed impregnablt- fortresses, had not yet submitted to his authority. The dynasty of. the Morabites, founded by the influence of the marabouts, fell before the power of Mohavedin, a marabout, in the middle of the twelfth century, whose priestly tribe was expelled by Abdular, governor of Fez. Thus did the conquered become conquerors, only to fall before the renovated power of the descendants of those very princes whom Abubeker in the eleventh century had stripped of their power. Their descendants divided their new conquests into several kingdoms or provinces, dividing the present kingdom of Algiers into Tremecen, Tenez, Algiers Proper, and Bujeyah., The alliance of these four kingdoms was so well cemented,,that mutual amity reigned amongst them for nearly three centures. It was, interrupted by the aggression of the king of Tremecen, who was in conserquence attacked, and subjected by the potentate of Tenez, Abul Farez. He left his power divided amongst his sons, which occasioned discords, and afforded the Spaniards an opportunity of attacking them. Ferdinand of Spain having driven the Saracens from Europe, followed them into Africa, and, in 1504 fnd 1509, took possession of Oran, Bujeyah, Algiers, and other places. The successes of the count of Navarre struck such terror into the Alterines, that they sought the protection of Selim Eutemi, an Arabian prince. This alliance however, though actively exerted, did not save them fromn becoming tributary to their European invaders, who raised a strong fort,in a small island opposite the city, in order to-deter the maraudings of the corsairs. The death of Ferdinand, in 1516, seemed the signal of their 410 THE TREASURY OF HISTOR' liberty; for they solicited, with larger offers, the succour of Ameh Barba. rossa, whose valour and success had rendered him the most redoubtable captain of that period. Barbarossa readily answered their call, andc marched with a powerful army to Algiers, having first reduced and then treacherously murdered Hassan, an ther celebrated corsair, whose follow. ers, consisting of Turks, he compelfed to follow in his ranks. The whole populace of Algiers, with the prince Selim Eutemi at their head, received this accoml)lished butcher with every'demonstration of gratitude and honour; which he repaid by causing the prince to be murdered, and himn self to be saluted by his licentious followers with'" Long live king Ameh Barbarossa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the oppression of the Christians." This part of the acclamation might have beenacceptable enough to the Algerines in respect of the object for which they had' sought his friendship; but the concluding words, "destruction to all who shall oppose, or refuse to own,him as their lawful sovereign," struck such terror into them, that they acknowledged his pretensions and -received him as their king. His treachery,to Selim was followed by brutal insults to'Zaphira, his widow, who having vainly attempted to stab the tyrant, poisoned herself. The reign, of Baibarossa, began in treachery and usurpation, was continued by havoc and bloodshed. The signal barbarity he exercised over some conspirators whom he had detected, effectually repressed all similar plots against him in those who disliked his authority, whilst his uinbounded liberality to those who followed him obtained the favour of others who sought their own private advantage in preference to their country's liberty. An attempt, fomented by-Selim, son of the prince whom Barbarossa had murdered, proved abortive, although backed by ten thousand Spaniards under the command of Don Diego de Vera. The king of. Tunis also, at the head of ten thousand'Moors, was defeated: by the Algerine autocrat, with only one thousand Turkish musqueteers and five hundred Granada iMoors, his capital taken and pillaged, himself deposed, and Barbarossa made sovereign in his stead. This victory, which he owed to the use'o fire-arms, which had now began to lend their terrible assistance to the deadliness of war, was followed by an embassy from Tremecen, in which place also he was chosen king. His tyranny in Tremecen led to his destruction, for the expelled royal family having obtained the assistance of the Spaniards, and being joined by the reftugee Algerines, under the guidance of prince Selim, pressed the monarch so closely, that in his attempt to escape he was overtaken, and after a resistance distinguished by the.nost uncompromising valour of his followers, was slain by his pursuers, in the forty-fourth year of his age, A. D. 1520. The death of Barbarossa did not deliver the Algerines from' the Turkish authority; for Hayradin, his brother, was appointed king.: To strengthen his power he sought. the protection of the Grand Seignior, from whom he received a confirmation of his office, and such reinforcements;that he both compelled the acquiescence of the Moors and Arabs to his sway, and was enabled also greatly to annoy the Europeans by sea. He captured the Spanish fort of Calan, and by employing thirty thousand Christian slaves on the work without intermission for three years, he built a strong mole,.as a protection for his shipping. And not only did he provide this defence for himself, but, by repairing and strengthening the captured, Spanish fort, he effectually kept out all foreign vessels. He strengthened, by the assistance of the Ottoman sultan; all the weak places of his kingdom, anrd was at length rewarded by him with the dignity of bashaw of the empire; whilst Algiers,,now completely tributary to the Porte, received Hassan Aga, a Sardinian renegade, as the Turkish deputy.. From this period the history of Algiers for about a hundred. years is one bloody ser'is of piracy abroad, and sanguinarvy commotions at homn tHE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 41) Uhzsan gave the Spaniards no respite. He ravaged not only their coats - but even those of -the Papal States, and other parts of Italy. A most for midable armament was fitted out against him by the emperor Charles V. at the instigation of fPaul III., the pope of. Rome. This expedition was, in some respects, like the armanda wvhich threatened England with Spanish bigotry in the reign of Elzabeth,'and was attended with similar success. Confident in his-numbers and equipments, Charles pushed-his projects with every probability of success, whilst Hassan, dispirited by the weakness of his fortifications and the paucity of his garrison. was on the point of surrender, when the predictions of a mad prophet, named Yusef, encouraged him to a more desperate resistance. The predictions of the approaching ruin of the Spaniards were soon verified. The war of, elements-storms of wind, hail, rain —a general darkness-and violent earthquakes, combined to wreck the proud ho-pes of the Spanish monarch. His army, the finest, perhaps,.Europe had seen for many.an age;,was scattered, destroyed, or taken captive; his navy.in a few.minutes was swallowed up, and the great deep closed over the relics, and arms, and human beings with which it was amply furnished; and he himself with dificulty escaped from the general destruction which pursued his ill-fated attempt. This extraordinary event took place on the 28th of October, 1541. The Spaniards never recovered from this loss, and their attempts to annoy the Algerines were henceforth inconsiderable. This may be considered as the most splendid victory which this freebooting state ever: acquired. In 1555, the Algerines under Pelha-Rais,; the successor of Hassan, captured Bujeyah, which had beenf in possession of the Spaniards for fifty years. A period now occurs thickly clustered by names. of those who.were bashaws for brief periods; amongst which we find Hassan Corso, who was- murdered to make room for Tekeli, who in turn was assassinated by Yusef Calabres, and he was- bashaw for only six days. Then came Hassan, the son of Hayradin, who defeated another attempt of the Spaniards with the loss of twelve thousand men. This Hassan was deposed by the aga of the Janissaries; then reinstated; again deposed by Achmet: and a third time made bashaw, when he undertook the seige of Marsalquiver, near Oran, with a powerful army, but which he was compelled to raise on the approach of the celebrated Doria. He was again recalled from his government, and died at Constantinople, A. D. 1567. His successor, Mahornet?, showed prudence, and:by his wise regulations laid the foundation of Algerine independence. He was deposed by the notorious renegado Ochali, who reduced Tunis to the subjection of Algiers, only that in a few years it might be made a pachalic of the Porte, in 1586. in the preceding year, the enterprising spirit of these pirates carried them through the straits of Gibraltar as far as the Canary islands, which they plundered. In the beginning of the following century the Algerines effected one leading step toward independence, in obtaining from the Porte permission to appoint a dey of their own; but the sultan still retained a bashaw, whose office was confined to watching that' the interests of his master did nrot suffer. Their power, augmented by an influx of the Moors who were expelled from Spain in 1609, was now formidable; and the states of Europe, with the exception of the Dutch, quailed before them. Alliances were formed against them; and to the honouof France be it said, that her new navy was the first which dared openly avenge the cause of insulted Europe and suffering humanity. In 1617 the arms of Gaul fell with violence on the insolence of the pirates. In 1623 Algiers declared herself independent of the Porte, and for the next thirty years pillaged without distinction whatever vessels of the Europeans fell in their way; then another collision took place between them and the French navy; and soon after a large fleet under Hali Pinchinin, tfter carrying off immense booty from the Italian coast, was defeated byv s~12- THE TRIEASURY OF HISTORYthe Venetians under Capello, with very considerable los?, which greatly crippled their power. This relapse was but for two years; when, as it were, renovated by the misfortune, they scoured the whole sea with a fleet of sixty-five sail, and compelled the Dutch, the French, and English to court their favour. Louis XIV. at last, in the year 1681,-provoked by some outrages which the pirates had committed on his coasts, ordered a powerful fleet and armament to be fitted out, with which he destroye several of their vessels in the isle of Scio. In the following year It bombarded Algiers, and but for a sudden change -f,wind would have de. stroyed it. The return of the- yeas saw the French' admiral Du QuesnDe again'before Algiers, who desisted not from his attack till he had completely humbled the Algerine audacity, by reducing their city to a heap af ruins. They sued for peace, which was,granted, and all Christian captives were set at liberty. Taught a lesson by this humiliation, the Algerines paid some.respect to other nations, and the English' in particular were admitted into a treaty with them; who further enforced respect from the pirates by the capture of. Gibraltar and Port Mahon.'The-eighteenth century presents little' that is interesting in the history of this piratical state, except the union of the office of the Algerine dey and Turkish viceroy, in 1710; the capture of Oran in 1708; and its recapture in 1737. On the 18th of August, 1816, Lord Exmouth, with a'fleet of four ships of war, four frigates, and several vessels, bombs, &c., appeared before Algiers, to exact punishment for the barbarous massacre of a num ber of Europeans at Bona, on May 23, by two thousaid'of the Alge rine infantry and cavalry. On the 27th of August, his lordship corn menced an attack, which was completely successful. The whole of the Algerine navy was destroyed, and half the town demolished. Like the defeat received from Du Quesne one hundred and twenty-three years be fore, this disposed them to accept the terms offered by the British admiral. Christian slavery was abolished, and full reparation made; and on the 1st of September was beheld the proud and gratifying sight of the fulfilment of the conditions. Algiers disgorged its Christian slaves, and a large payment of money for the use of the several states which had suffered by its depredations. This was one of the' most honourable tri-. umphs- achieved by the British flag. Since that time the dey has been embroiled with.the Austrian states; but its most signal chastisement was left for the French to inflict. During a conversation that took place between the dey and the French consul at Algiers, the former had the ill-mannered temerity to offer the Frenchman an insult, and even struck him. Redress was, of course, demanded; but so far from complying with the demand,'the dey displayed a hostile feeling, and demolished the French post at La Call6. This being tantamount to a declaration of war, France fitted out a powerful armament, including a land force of thirty-eight thousand men, with a forrii. dable train of artillery, under the command of General Bourmont. Os the 14th of June, 1830, the French troops effected a landing, and after s feeble resistance, Algiers capitulated on the 5th of July. The French found in the treasury of the dey, gold and silver to the amount of nearly fifty millions of francs besides an abundant supply of stores of various kinds. The towns of Oran and Bonra soon after submitted. But the French subsequently met' with considerable resistance from the bey of Oran, who, how.ever, after a series of contests and negotiations, submitted, in 1837; and agreed to abandon the maritime parts of the province, and recognize the supremacy of the French in Africa. The occupation of Algiers (orx, as it is now generally termed, ALGERIA) has been a work of nore difficulty than its Gallic conquerors anticipated, and thousands of Europeans have annually perished by sickness and the sword since tk THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 413 territory has been wrested from the fierce Arabs in whose possession it had so long remained, unmolested. The government is at present administered by the commander-in-chief of the French forces in Algiers, who holds the rank of governor-general. It was previously vested in a dey, or pacha, who was at the head of the Turkish soldiery, and who exercised absolute power. The religion of the state is-now Roman Catholic, and many mosques have been converted into Christian churches; but the great bulk of the people profess Mohammedanism; and although the French have established schools of instruction in all the principal towns, the Moors show no desire to read any other book than the Koran. The language is mostly Arabic, but mixed with Moorish and Phcenician words. VWhat effect the introduction of European laws, arts, and sciences into this part of Africa may have, time alone can show; but if we consider how great were its population and influenccin distant ages,-and how formidable it'has since proved under the domination of a brutal horde of pirates, we may fairly expect- that the fruits of a superior civilization will, ere long, appear. THE HIS TOR Y OF AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. AUSTRALIA UNTIL the last century it was believed that a great continent existed in the Southern Ocean, to'which the name of -Terra Australis was given; it being inferred that the differeht points of land discovered to the south of the islands of Java and Celebes, and of the Cape of Good Hope, afforded ample proof of such a theory. The discoveries of modern geographers, however, go to invalidate the hypothesis that there is any continent south of America. Under the name of Australia (or Australasia) and Polynesia, is comprehended a maritime division of the globe, in contradistinction to the older terrene divisions' of Eulrope,'Asia, Africa, and America, being altogether a classification of islands, including no one continent under a general name, like the other divisions of the world, in which various kingdoms are circumscribed by one shore; and so far it is an anomaly in geographical classiffication. We shall first speak- of the more important division, now known as AUSTRALIA. This includes the semi-continental mass of land hitherto known as New Holland, and the islands of New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Queen Charlotte's. Islands, Solomon's Archipelago, New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Admiralty Isles, and Papua or New Guinea. In no part of the globe can greater extremes of barrenness and fertility occur, thanin the various islands comprehended in Austialia. On:he 1]4 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. shores of New Holland, its most prominent feature, we find fruitful plains covered with verdure eastward, and on the south and south-wcstern coastnothing but naked hillocks of. sand. This island, if such in',eed it is to be called, almost equal in size' to the whole of continental Europe, pre. sents of itself an unequalled and almost unexplored field for -geologicalenquiry. The natives of Australia, are, for the major part, of a negro character, and nowhere is human nature found in a more depraved state. An enormous head, flat countenance, and long, slender extremities, mark their physical cohnformation, together with an acuteness of sight and hearing. Captain Cook's description of th's race has been verified by every succeeding observer. "The skin," -says he, "' is the'Colour of wood soot, or what is usually called chocolate color. Their featurest are far from disagreeable; their noses are: not flat, nor are their lips thick: their teeth are white and even, and their hair naturally long and black; it is, however, cropped short." It seems that a decidedly inferior variety of the human race is found in Australia, and has spread itself a considerable distance north and east among the islands of Polynesia and the eastern archipelago. T,he Australian is puny and weak compared with-the African negro; and his intellectual attainments are quite on as low a scale as nis physical powers.. NEW HOLLAND.. THE Portuguese and Spaniards appear to have visited this region in the sixteenth' century, but it was the Dutch who fi'rst made it kiiown' to Europe. In 1605 they coasted it along the western shore as far as 13~ 45' of south latitude; the farthest point of land in their map being called Cape Keer- Weer, or Turn-again. In 1616 the west coasts-were discovered by.Dirck Hartag, commander of an outward-bou'd.vessel from Holland to In.. dia; and in the year 1801 there was found, by some of the navigators by whom that coast was visited, a plate of tin, with an islcription and dates, in which it was mentioned that it had been left by him. In 1618, another part of the coast was discovered by Zeachen, who gave it the name oi Arriheim and Dieman; though a- different part from what afterwads received the name of Van Dietnan's Land from Tasman. In 1619, Jan Van Edels gave his name to a southern part of New Holland; and another part received the name of Leuwen's Land. Peter Van Nuytz gave his name, in 1627; to the coast that communicates with Leuwen; and another pairt bore the name.of De Witt's Land. In 1628, Peter Carpenter, a Dutchnran, discovered the great Gulf of Carpentaria, In 1687, Dampier, an Englishman, sailed from Timor, and coasted the western part of New Holland. In 1699, he left England, with a design to explore this country; as the Dutch suppressed whatever discoveries had been made by thern. He sailed along the western coast of it, from 15 to 28 degrees of latitude. He then returned to Timor; from whence he sailed' again; examined the isles of Papua; coasted New Guinea; discovered the passage- thai bears his name, and also New'Britain; and sailedback to Timor along New Guinea. This is the same Dampier who, between the years 1683 and 1691, sailed round the world, by changing his ships. i Notwvithatanding the attempts of all these navigators, the eastern part, of this' vast country was unknown till Captain Cook made his voyages, and, by fully exploring that part of the coast, gave his country a title to the possession of it; which it accordingly took, under the name of New South B ales, in 1787. An act passed in parliament, in 1779, to establish a colo(,v in it, where criminals condemned to be transported should be sent to pans their time of servitude. THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 416 NEW ZEALAND. THIs is a group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, which was discovere' by Tasman, in 1642. He traversed the eastern coast, from latitude 34 to 43 south, and entered a strait; but being attacked by the natives soon,after he came to an anchor, in thie place to whieh he gave the name of Murderer's Bay, he did not go on shore. He called the country Staten Land, in honour of the States General;, though it has been generally dis tinguished, in maps and charts, by the name of New Zealand. In 1770, it was circumnavigated by Captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands; the northernmost, called by the natives,.Aienomawie; and. the southernmost, Tovaipoenammoo separated by a strait which he named after himself. The coast is indented with deep bays, affording excellent shelter for shipping. There are also several rivers, particularly in the northern island, capable of receiving large ships, in which the spring-tide rises ten feet perpendicular. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots:of ground with European garden seeds; and in 1777,"in several of these spots, although totally neg lected and overrun with weeds, were found cabbages, onions, leeks, parsley, radishes, mustard, &c., and a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change- of soil. In other places everything had been rooted out to make room for temporary-villages. Captain Cook also introduced European poultry; and on his last visit had the satisfaction to find them increased, in a wild and domestic state, beyond all danger of being exterminated. From that period, the coasts were occasionally visited by whalers, and some communication was held with the natives; but until 1815, when a missionary station was established there, no permanent settlement appears to have been made by any people. At the general peace, the right of Great Britain to these islands was recognized; but no constituted authority was placed over New Zealand till 1833, when a sub-governor from New South Wales wvas sent to reside there. Meantime the shores had become infested by, marauding traders and adventurers of the worst class, who attempted to obtain from the natives large tracts of land by the most fraudulent means. In order to remedy this evil as far as possible, and to put a stop to such practices in future, New ZealaUd was, in 1840, constituted a colony dependent on New South Wales, and a- governor appointed; a commission was'also appointed to inquire into-the validity of all claims to land, &c. The New Zealanders are tall, strong, active and well-shaped.; being superior in every respect to the negro race of Australia and the eastern Archipelago. Their colour is in general a dark chestnut, though many bear a resemblance to the gipsy, and some have even the complexion of a European brunette. Were it not for the disgusting practice of occasionally feasting on the prisoners they take in battle, and the crime of infanticide-both of which'barbarities are said to be rapidly on the decline-it might be said the New Zealanders were less addicted to the vices of savage life than most other-savages. These islands lie between the 34th and 48th degrees of south latitude, and between the 166th and 180th degrees of-east longitude, being the antipodes of London and other parts o' Great Britain.-The other isles belonging to the Australian divi. sion are too unimportant to render4 a description necessary. POL YNE S IA THIS name, as we have already observed, is given.by modern' geogra pliers, to-various groups of islands in the Great Pacific, Ocean, lying east of the Asiatic isles and Australia, a.nd on both sides of the equator; stretching through an'extent of about 5100 miles from north to south, and 3600 from east td west. Everything bespeaks their submarine creation, and in many are positive evidences of volcanic agency. They are sometimes divided into Northern and Southern Polynesia, and classed in the following. groups: —Pelew Islands; Carolines; Ladrones; Sandwich Islands; Friendly Islands; Gallapagos; Admiralty Isles; New Ireland; New Britain, and New -Hanover; Solomon's Isles; New Hebrides, and New Caledonia; Queen Charlotte's Islands; Navigators' Islands; Society Islands;,Marquesas: Pitcairn Island, &c. Of these we shall only mention a few; as they can hardly be said to come within the scope of a work professedly historical; though their entire omission might be regarded as a defect. LADRONES, OR MARIANNE ISLANDS. THE Ladrones are a cluster of' islands belonging to Spain, lying in tne North Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st degrees of north latitude, and about thie 145th degree of east longitude.,~They were discovered by Magellan, who -gave them the name of Ladrone Islands, or the Islands oj rThieves, from the. thievish disposition of the inhabitants. At the time of this discovery, the natives were totally ignorant of any other country than their own, and, as it is said, were actually.unacquainted with the element of fire,' till Magellan,'provoked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their villages. At the latter end of the 17th century, they obtained the name of the M-ariann'e Islands,- from the Queen of Spain, Mary Anne of Austria, mother 6f Charles II., at whose expense missionaries- were sent thither to propagate the Christian faith. Though plunged in the deepest ignorance, and destitute ot everything valued by the rest of mankind, no nation ever shewed more presumption, or a greater conceit of themselves, than these islanders; for to use the words of an old voy'ager, they -looked on themselves as the only sensible and polished people in the world. As Japan lies within six or seven days sail of them, somee have been induced to believe that the first inhabitants came from that empire; but, from their greater resemblance to the inhabitants of the Philippine' Islands, than to the Japanese, it is more probable that they came from the former. Commodore Anson visited the Ladrones in 1742, and describes Tirrian, one of the group, as abounding with everything necessary to human subsistence, and presenting at the same time a pleasant and delightful appearance, where hill and Valley, rich verdure and spreading trees, formed a happy intermixture. -Subsequent navigators, however, found the island to have been deserted, and become an uninhabited wilderness. The natives of the the Ladrones are tall, robust, and active, nmanaging their canoes with admirable adroitness. Guajan is the largest island in the group, and the population consists of settlers from Mexico and the Philippine Islands. THE1 TREASURY OF HISTORY -417 FRIENDLY ISLANDS. -Tn' Friendly Islands are agroupor cluster of islands, said tobe up wards of onle hund:ed.in pumnber, in the South Pacific Ocean. They received their nlame froni the celebrated Captain Cook, in the year 1773, in consideration of the friendship which appeared to subsist among the inhabitants, and frolm,their courteous behaviour to strangers. The chief islands are Analnooka, Tongataboo, Lefooga, and Eooa. Abel Jansen Tasman, al- emmiien t Dutch navigator, first touched here in 1643, and gave names to the principal islands. Captain Cook laboriously explored the whole cluster, w- hch 1he found to consist of upwards of sixty. The tFree isllands which Tasman saw, he named Amsterdanl, Rotterdamn and Middleburg. Tongataboo is the residence of -the sovereign, and the chiefs. These islands are fertile, and in general highly cultivated. Eooa is described as a beautiful spot: the land rising gently to a considerable height, presents tihe eye with an extensive view. Captain Cook and some of his officers walked up to the highest point of the island. "While I was surveying this delightful prospect," says -the Captain, ".I could not help flatteringg myself- with. the pleasing idea, that some future navigator may, from the same station, behold these meadows stocked with cattle, brought to these- islands by the ships of England; and that the completion of this single benevolent purpose, independent of all other considerations, would, sufficieltly mark to posterity, that our voyages had not been useless to the general interests of humanity." Of the nature of their government, no iriore is known than the.general outline. The power of the king is unlimnited, and the life and property of the subjects are at-his disposal; and instances enouggh were seen to prove, that the lower order have no property, nor safety for their persons, but at the will of the chiefs to whom they respectively belong. SOCIETY ISLANDS. - THE Society IslaiIds, in tthe Pacific Ocean, are eight in namber;vlz., Otaheite, Huaheine, Ulitea,- Otaha, Bolabola, Maurowa, Toobaee, TabooW yamsanoo,' They are situated between the latitude of 16o-10' and 160~55' south, and between the longitude of 1500 57' and 152~ west. The people, religion, language, customs and manners, soil and productions,, are nearly the same as Otaheite, —which was discovered by Captain Wallis in 1767, who called it King George the Third's Island. Bougainville, a Freneh circumnnavigator, next -arrived at it, in 1768, and stayed ten days. Captain Cook, in the Endeavour, next visited it, in 1769, in company with Mr., Banks, Dr Solander, and other learned men, to observe -the transit of Venus, and staid three months; and it was visited by Captain Cook in his two succeeding voyages; since which time the~ Spaniards and other Europeans have called there. It consists of two peninsulas; great part of which is covered. with woods, consisting of bread-fruit trees, palms, cocoa. nuts, and all tropical vegetation. -The people of this- and the neighbour"~ ing islands, were the most honest and civilized of any in the'Pacific Oceati: but it appears certain that the inhabitants have degenerated rather than improved since Cook's time. SANDWICH ISLANDS. THE -Sandwich Islahds, in the North Pacific Ocean, consist of eleven in number. They are called- by the natives Owyhee, Mowee, Ranai, Moro27 THE TREASUIRY1O 1 HISTOMbY. toi, Taboorowa, Woakoo, Atooi, Neeheeneow, Orehowa, Morotinne, and Takoora; all inhabited except the last two. They were discovered by Captain Cook in ]777 and 1778. Goats, and European seeds, were left by the English at their dppaiture the first time; but the possession, of the goats soon gave rise to a contest between two districts, in which the breed was entirely destroyed. The inhabitants are undoubtedly of the same race as those that possess-the islands south of the equator; andin their person ard manner, approach nearer to the New Zealanders than to their less distant neighbours, either of the Society or Friendly Islands. Tattooing the body is practised by the whole of them. As these islands are'not united under-one government, wars are frequent among-them. The same system of subordination prevails here as at the other islands, the same absolute authority-on the part of-the chiefs, and the same unresiSting submission on the partof the people.; The government is monarchial, and hereditary. Owyhee, the eastermost- and largest ofthese islands, was discovered by Captain Cook, on the 30th November, 1778,: on his return from his voyage northward. Ilaving circumnavigated the island, and anchored in a bay, called Karakakooa,:he found great alte'ation iin the: conduct of the natives, and a general disposition 0t theft. Still no hostilities were commenced, honours were paid the commander, and on going ashore, he was received with- ceremonies. little short of adoration. A vast qiantity-of' hogs,-and other provisions, were procured for the-ships; and on the 4th of Febrtuary, 1789, they left the-island, not without most magnificent presents from the chiefs, such as they had never received in any part of- the world. Unluckily, they encountered a storm on the 6th and 7th of the same month, during which the Resolution sprung the head of her foremast in such a; manner, that ht they were obliged to return to Karakakooa bay to have it repaired. On the 13th, one of the natives being detectedin stealing the tongs from the armourer's forge ii the/Discovery, was dismissed with a pretty severe flogging: in the afternoon of the same day, another having,snatched up the tongs and a chisel, jumped overboard with them, -and swam for the shore, and having got on board of a canoe, escaped. These tools were soon after returned, through the means of Pareah, a chief. But Captain Cook was not satisfied with the recovery of the stolen gpods; he insisted upon having the thief, or the canoe which carried him,by:way of reprisal. This brought on hostilities, The Indians at. tacked the sailors with stones, and drove them to their boats.: And although the difference appeared to be presently adjusted, the jealousy of the,natives subsequently broke forth in a furious assault, on an attempt to induce theI King of tile, Islands to go on board one of the ships. On this occasion, Sunday, 14th February, 1779, Captain Cook was, killed. ~ ICELAND. TIS is, alarge island in the:northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the 63rd and 67th degrees of north latitude, and between the 16th and 23rd degrees of'wvest longitude from London.. It is of a ve'ry irregulah shape, anid contains about fifty-six thousand'inhabitants. At what time the island was first peopled is uncertain. The Icelandic chronicles go no farther back than the arrival of the Norwegians, about the year 861, when Naddodr, a pirate, was driven on the coast.'In 864, Garder Suafarson, a Swede, encouraged by the account given by Naddodr, went in search of it, sailed round it, and gave it thename" of Gaidersholmer, or Garder's Island. - Having remained in Iceland during the winter, he returned in the. THE TREASUIRY OF HISTORY. 419 spring to Norway, Where he described the new-discovered island as a pleasant, well-wooded country. This excited a desire in Floke, another Swede, reputedM the best navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither. Floke staid the whole w-inter in the island, and, because he found great quantities of floating ice on, the north side, he called it Iceland, which name it has ever since retained. In 874, Ingolfr, and his friend Liefr, established.a ~colony, and in sixty years the whole island was inhabite,. The tyranny of' Harold,king of Norway, contributed not a little to the population of Iceland. Besides the - Norwegians, new: colonies arrived from" di fferent. nations In 928 they chose a chief; but his powers were inconsiderable, and the Iceianders began.to wage war against each other. They remaihed, however free frown a foreigni yoke till 1261, when they became, subject to the- Norwegians. Afterwards celand, together with Norway, became subject to l)enrmark. Iceland is'famous for the volcanoeswith which it. abounds, appearing, indeed, to owe'its existence to esubmarine volcanic agency, and to have been upheaved at: intervals from the bottom of the sea. Tracts of lava traverse the island and almost in every direction; besides which the country abounds with other mineral' masses -indicative of an igneous origin. The burning mountains, so dreadful in their effept, seldom begin to throw out fire without giving warning. A subterraneQus noise precedes the eruption for severaldays, with a roaring and crackling in the place:from whence the fire is about to burst forth. The immediate sigul' is the bursting of the mass of ice, or snow, which covers the mountain, with a dreadful noise. The flames then issue forth, and stones, ashes, &c. are thrwn, out to vast distances. Egbert Olassen relates, that in the eruption of Kat'tle-gia, in- 1755, a stone weighing twO hundred and ninety pouids was thrown to the distance of twenty —four English miles. Besides more than-thirty volcanic mountains, there exists an immense number of small cones and craters, from, which streams of melted substances have been poured forth over the surrounding regiols. Twenty-three erupti(nMs of Hecla are recorded since the occupation of the island by Europeans; the, first of which occurred in 1004. It will be sufficient to give an account of that which happened in 1783, andwhi w, from its violence, seems to have been unparalleled in history. I rst signs were observed on the first of June, by a trembling of'the earth in the western part of the province of Skapterfiall; it. increased gradually till the eleventh, and became at last so great, that the inhabitants, quitted their houses and lay at night in tents on the ground. A continual smbkq, or steam, was perceived rising out of the earth in the northern and'uninhabited oarts of the country. Three fire spouts, as they were called, broke out mn different places; one in Ulfarsdal, a little to the east of the river Skap-:.a; the other two were a little to the westward of the river Ilverfisfiiot. The three'fire spouts, or streams of lava, united in one after having risen a considerable height in the air, arrived at last at such an amazing altitude as to be seen at the distance of upwards of two hundred miles; the whole country, for double that distance, being enveloped in the- densest smoke and steam, while the atmosphere was filled with sand, brimstone, and ashes, in such a manner as to occasion continual darkness. Considerable damage, was done by, the pumice-stone, which fell red-hot in great quantities. Along with these, a tenacious substance, like pitch, fell in abundance. This shower having' continued for trree days, the fire became very visible, and at last arrived at the amazing height already mentioned. Sometimes it appeared in a continual stream, at others in flash6s, with a perpetual noise like thunder, which lasted the whole summer. The obscurity occasioned by this' extraordinary eruption, seems to have reached as far as Great Britain; for. during the whole summer of "'83, a haze or dullness appeared to darken the atmosphere. The wholh ex 420 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. tent of ground covered by the lava, was computed to be ninety miles long, by forty-two in breadth; the depth of the lava being from sixteen to twenty fathoms. Twelve rivers were dried up, twenty-one villages were de. stroyed, and'two hundred and twenty-four persons lost their lives After this eruption, two new islands. were thrown up in the sea; one of about three miles in circumference, and about a mile- in height, at the distance of a.hundred miles south-west from Iceland, in one hundred fathoris water. The other lay to the north-west, between Ilceland& and Greenland. Both these islands subsequently disappeared.Iceland. abounds also with'hot and boiling springs, called geysers some of which -throw.the -water into the air to the surprising height of from two hundred to three hundred feet. These are, indeed, therost remarkable phenomena in Iceland. The great geyseX, or principal fountain of this kind, rises from a tube orifunnel, seventy-eight feet in perpendicular depth, and from eight' to ten feet in diameter at the bottom, but gradually widening till it terminates in a capacious basin.. The jets take place at intervals of about six hours; and when the Water, in a violent state of ebulition, begins to rise and fill thb basin, subterraneous noifes, like the distant roar of cannon,,may be heard, the earth is slightly shaken, and the agitation'increases, till at length a column of water is suddenly thrown up, to a vast height, as already stated.. After playing for a time like an immense artificial fountain, a column of steam rushes up with great violence, and a thundering noise term nates the eruption. Al) the hot wat'ers have an incrusting quality; in some places they taste of sulphur, in others not, but when drank as soon Was cold, they taste like common boiled - water. This island is committed to a governor, who resides at Bassa-stadr; he has under him a bailiff, two laymen, a sheriff, and twenty-two sysselmen, or magistrates, who superintend small districts; and almost everything is decided according to the laws of Denmark, to whom it belongs.At a period when most parts of continental Europe were in a state ol rude ignorance, the inhabitants of this remote island were well acquainted with poetry and history. The niost flourishing period of Icelandlc literature appears to have been from the twelfth to the end of the thirteenth century; but even during the last three centuries, Iceland has produced several eminently learned men. At present there is no want of disposition on the part of the people to apply to literature, but they wisely attend more to solid branches of learning than to the lays and legends of their ancient sages.'Domestic education is universal; there are few among them who cannot read and write, and many among the better class would bedistinguished by thuir taste and learning in the most cultivated society........ THE HISTORY -OF AMERICA. ro.s vast continent comprises nearly one halfof the habitable globe. it is supposed by some who have given thd matter a particular investigation, to have been pattially kn6wn to the ancients;.but,'bthat as it may, she glory of its discovery in modern history belongs totChristoval Colon, a na;tive of the republic of Genoa, better known to us asPChri topher Columbus. This enterprising man, after many fruitless attempts to obtain assistance to enable him to prosecute his elaborate speculations in geography, discovered the' island of St. Salvador, oct. 12th,'1492; and six years afterwards he reached the main continent at the mouth of the Qrinoco, Augqst 1st, 1498. The discovery of the north continent of America-belongs to the family of the Cabots, Venletian by-Pirth, but who were residing in Bristol.., The fOhr adfd three sons set out,in the year 1497, stimulated by the fame of Columbus, and under the patronage of Henry VII. of England. They discovered-several islands, and coasted the whole of the mainl4and-of the northern continent down to the Floridas. Strange as it ma/,ppear, the honour of giving a naine to these immense discoveries, was gained by Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, who accompanied Alonzo de Ojeda', as pilot and on returning-published the first account of the several countries; from which circumstance the newly-discovered world was called America. The. BRAZILIAN coast was first approached by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese'admirl, in 1500; and FLORIDA by Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, in 1512. In the eastern part of the peninsula, called YUCATAN, the fiatives were found clothed in cotton garments, and exhibiting other marks of civ: ilization, by Hernandez Cordova, A. D. 1517.' The- expedition which followed this discovery led to the conquest- of MpEXIco, The spirit of- discovery was now- active, and all the great Europeah courts emulated one another in affording facilities to carry-into effect the enterprising efforts of numerous able and adventurogsyavigators, who successivelygprosecuted the attempts and immortalized their names by the successes which they gained. The history of the principal colonies and states which arose from these discoveries svill be given in due course. America is divided into NORTH and SOUTH. The principal colonies of the first were made by England and France; those of the South by Spain and Portugal. The distinguishing spirit of the respective mother coutntries seenms to have been infused into the infant states; for while the southern division is rent by crude aspirants after liberty, the greater part (of North America stands conrspicuous —a-mighty nation, growing in all the essentials of greatness, and already worthy to rival the leading Eutopean states. The vigour of the UNITED STATES is that of youth; while the strength of the European dynasties assimilates very closely to the condition of Age-some of them strong, it is true, in their gray hairs, but others effete, and tottering to decay. BRITISH POSSESSIONS. CANADA. THIS is. thle most important' province possessed by Great Britain in Norti America. Its history is closely interwoven with that of the United States, with the people of which it has'been, both under its original'and present masters, in almost constant.collision. Founded by the French, in 1608, the colonists were for many years in danger of being overwhelmed by the native Indians, with whom at length they entered into treaties,- which enabled them to annoy very mnhaterially the'neighbouring states: under the British jurisdiction. Twenty years atier the founding of Quebec, the right of trading with Canada was granted exclusively-to a company of Frenchl merchants, who, i the following years, were dispossessed of Quebec by Sir David Keith.': This conquest remained in the hands of the British till' it was ceded at the treaty of St. Germaine. In 1663 the West India Company obtained the exclusive right of cnri merce for forty years,. and Canada for thirty years enjoyed trailquillityJ and its concomitant, prosperity; which were interrupted by a bold but unsuccessful expedition Qf the people of, New England, consisting ofone thousand two hundred or one thousand three hundred men under-the corn mand of Sir William Phipps. This attempt was repeated about seventeen years'afterwards (1'11l), on a larger scale, but shared the same result, al. though four thousand veterans British troops were employed. Little occurs in the affairs of Canada deserving notice, till the breaking out of the continental war, in 1756,' when Canada became the theatre of military.scenes, which ended, three years afterwards, in the conquest of it by the British.'The English general, Wolfe, though defeated. i. his first operations by-the French, at length, after an'action sustained by equal gallantry on both sides, obtained possession of Quebec, In this exploit:'the opposing generals, Montc-alm' and Wolfe, are'equally renowned for spirit. and courage; one did not survive the mortification of defeatthe other only lived to'hear the shouts of victory. This conquest was ratified to. the'English by the treaty of 1763. Since that period it long enjoyed comparative peace; for with the exception of one unsuccessful expedition sent against it during the revolutionary war, under General Montgomery, who'was killed, Canada wyas exempt from military operations till the last American war,-when. it'became the theatre of several bloody frays, but resisted by means of the British troops, the reiterated attacks of the.Americans;. Canada'is:now rising in importance. The facility ot commerce' is increased, and it may be hoped that this colony will be a valuable acquisition to the British crown Sir Charles Metcalfe, the present governor, who was appointed on the death of Sir Charles Bagot, in 1843, is a man of great experience and ability. "From the first moment of his assumption qofthe vice-regal of. fie," says the Montreal Gazette, "Sir, Charles Metcalfe, who had been used to represent the crown of Englaid with honour and success, in other parts of the globe, found'himself, and most naturally so, in a state of antagonism,'-as they very, correctly phrase it, with.those who-were converting Canada into a democracy, and nullifying,the royal power. He found the whole power-of the provinces united and centralized by the act of Lord Sydenham,Land. the royal and paternal influence abdicated by that of Sir-Charles Bagot. He found a democracy concentrated in one chamin ler and ruled by one cabal; claiming the right despotically to introduce THE, TREASURY; OF HISTORY- 423 into the other chamler. any number:of new members necessary to register its decrees —ay, and exercising it. too; demanding-,that the power of the crown and of the, mother country should- be a mere nullity, and asserting that the only duty of their representative was to transfer its patronage tothem for: the purpose of perlJtually confirming their own. Such. was the system which Sir Charles MAetcalfe found.in full operation; to, which, from the first, he intimated -himself to be in a state of' antagonism;' to which heopposed himself under the great, difficulties which circumstances had arrayed against him; against which he has now taken his stand,'and called on everything that is loyal and constitutional, on every man who loves the Brilish connexions and respects the principles of constitutional Liberty as distinguished from mere denmocracy, to. rally around him."'.We make no mention in this place of the internal insurrections and piratical iinvasions of Canada' in the years 1838 and 1839, but -refer the reader to the "History- of. England," p. -739, and1 they "History of the United States," p. —, et seq. NEWFOUNDLAND. Tis- large island' of North Am-erica, situated near the Gulf of- St. Lawrence, is s.pposed to. have been first discovere dby the Norwegians, about the beginning of the 11-th century; be it so or not, it was not generally made known till John Cabot visited it in 1497, and gave it its present. name. Immediately after this, we find that an extensive fishery was carried on, by the Portuguese and French, on the neighbouring banks; but no sucsuccessful attempt at a settlement was made till 1623, when Lord Baltimore established a colony on the south-east part of the island,'and appointed his son governor. In 1633 some colonists arrived from Ireland, and in 1654 a few English settlers -came over, having the authority of a parliamentary grant. The Newfoundland fishery has for nearly a century "been the occasion of disputes between the English, Fre'nch, and Americalls; though for a great portion of the time the English were enabled to monopolize the trade. Since the peace of 1815, however, it has been very different; the French and Americans enjoying the greatest share of ii. The other British Possessions in North America are NEW BaRUDSWwIi NOVA SCoTI'A, CAPE B3RETON, and PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND; but want of space prevents us-from entering on the particular history of either. GRE ENLAND. UNDER the name of Greenland is denoted the most easterly parts or kmerica, stretching towards the North Pole, and likewise some islands to the noithward of the continent of Europe, lying in very high latitudes. This countWr is divided into West and East Greenland. West Greenland hadlong been consideredto be a part of the continent of America, but recent geographers seem to think it an island. It is bounded on the West by Batin's bay, on the south by Davis' straits, and on the east by,.he North Atlantic Ocean. TPhis country was first peopled by Europeans from Iceland, headed by Eric Rande in the eighth century; and a regular intercourse was:,main- aiedE between Norway and Greenland till the year t406; from: that rme all, correspondence was cut off, and al knowledge of Greenland -t24 THE TREASURY OF HISTSRY. buried in oblivion. It is supposed that a nation called Schrellings, whose descendants still inhabit the western part, got the betterof:the settlers and exterminated them. All that can be learned from the most authentic records is, that Greenland was divided into two districts, called West Bygd, and East Bygd; that the western division- contained four parishes, and one.hundred villages; and the eastern district was still more flourishing.,This colony, in ancient. times, certainly comprehended twelve extensivei parishes, one hundred and ninety villages, a bishop's see, and two monasteries. Many attempts have been made to re-discover the east country, without effect, by the Danes and the English.~ - The land has been seen, but the ice has always prevented any approach to the shore. The Greenland,Company, at Bergen, -in Norway, transported a colony to the- west coast; and in i712, the Rev. Hans) Egede, and others, endeavoured to reach the eastern district by coasting, but -were obliged to return, owing to continual storms. That part of West Greenland which is now settled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between the 64th and 68th degrees of north latitude; and thus far, it is said, the climate is temperate. To the northward of -the 68th degree, the cold is prodigiously intense; and towards the end of August all the coast is covered with ice, which never thaws till April or May, and sometimes June. Thunder and' ightning rarely happen; but the aurora borealis is very -frequent and splendidly lumninous. The Greenlanders are constantly enlployed either in fishing-or hunting; at sea they pursue the whale, morse, seal, fish, and sea-fowl, and on shore they hunt the rein-deer. THE HISTORY OF OMEXICO. Tins rich and interesting country may be regarded as altogether a Spanish colony, though it is no longer dependent on Spain, having become a federal -'republic, Discovered by Fernando Cortez, A. D. 1519, it was by him taken possession of in the name of -the Spanish government. The exploits by which he made himselfmaster of. this country, seem rather to belong to romance than history; the circumstances of the age, and the nature and character of the opposing powers, throw an air of universal interest over operations so multiform and diversified-as the conquest of a.great and powerful state by a body of- men hitherto unseen by them, possessing all the advantages of skill and experience in war, and resolution and enterprize in action. The first conquest made by Cortez was on the river Tabasco; after which, landing at St. Juan de Ulloa, he erected a fort, where he received two ambassadors sent by the emperor of Mexico with offers of assistance. A haughty answer was the reply of Cortez; and gifts of the most costly character -were heaped upon him by the natives, in the hope of conciliating peace and preventing his further advance. Dangers, however, encom. passed his steps. Sedition broke out in his own camp, which he had the address not only to quell, but turn to his own advantage. A new town was founded, called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. Still a more alarming mutiny showed itself, which he again converted into the means of executing a measure fraught with imminent risk, but calculated to superinduce the deadly courage of despair. This measure was the destruction of the. fleet. Soon after this, being joined by one of the native caciques, with a force' of little more than one thousand men, fifteen horses, and'six cannons, he entered the state of the Tlascalans, whom, after a desperate THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 425 resistance of fourteen days, he subdued, and converted intjo allies. At Cholula he massacred six thousand' of the natives in revenge for their treachery. SSuccess now wafted, his banners, and the capital of the empire lay before him.. Received by the emperor Montezuma at-the head of his nobles, Cortez was conddcted to a house in the city, which he fortified in the strongest manner possibte. It appears there was a prediction among'tle NMexicans,,that a strange people should come to chastise them for their sins'-a piece of superstition:of which Cortez availed himself. By treachery he obtained possession of the,'person of MILontezuma, whom he, kept a prisoner forsix months. W'.orn out at length,the, Mexican emperor acknowledged ihimself- a vassal of: the Spanish throne.- In the meanwhile Cortez lost no opportunity of strengthening his power, by surveys of the country, and dividing the spoils among his followers. He was again on the point of losing the fruit of his exertions; for Velasquez, who'commanded the expedition from -Which Cortez had'been despatched from Cuba, hearing of his success, sent out a large force under Narvaez, to seize him,'and take possession of Mexico. This formidable'danger'Cortez frustrated, as'well by'bribes as the rapidity of his movements, al-not without bloodshed.' But this he-observed gave fresh spirit to the Mexicans, who attacked him on his return, and wounded him in'his fortress. The wretched Montezuma-a, who htd been placed in the van'to deter -the assailants from prosecuting their attacks, was wounded, and died of a broken heart. Cortez was compelled to'.evacuate the place secretly, but only to return with a larger body of forces at the expiration of six months. We shortly afterwards find his head-quarters at Tezcuco, where, with the assistance of the Indians, he built a flotilla of thirteen ships. Reinforced with two hundred men, eight horses, and some military stores, he renewed the siege. Gallantly was the capital defended by Guatimozin, the new emperor, and Cortez was once taken prisoner, but rescued at the expense of a severe wound. Seventy-four days did the city hold out, although the ranks of Cortez were augmented by one hundred thousand Indians. -August 12, 1512, beheld Guatiniozin'a prisoner, and his capital in the hands of themrerciless invaders-merciless to him they were, for Cortez stained the lustre of his glory by putting the brave but ill-fated monarch to the torture., But there is even in this world a retributivejustice; and worldly minds, however sublimed by courage and enterprize, generally encounter reverses similar in character to their own conduct. Success had- excited envy; and Cortez was doomed to find that no courage and enterprize can be altogether free from reverses. Created captain-general of New Spain, (the name he had given.to his new conquest) even after an order had been issued, but not executed, for his arrest-established in high favour and honour with the emperor, his native master-endowed with agrant of large possessions in the New Worltdhe had the mortification, to find-himself possessing only military command. The political government was vested in a royal ordinance. His enterprising spirit led him to the discovery of the great Californian gulf, but his glory was on the wane; irritated and disappointed, he returned to Europe to appeal against the proceedings of the royal ordinance, but w, ithout success; and he, who had barbarously tortured the gallant emperor of Mexico, died twenty- six years afterwards of a, broken heart, A. D. 1547, in the 62nid year of his age. Abstracting the interest which attended the discoveriy and first conquest of Mexico, or New Spain, the historian finds a tame succession of events which claim but a very vague notice,'From the vear 1535 to 1808 there was a succession of fifty viceroys, one alone an Ame;rican by birth. At the latter period a spirit broke forth, elicited by centuries of oppression and exclusive favour to Europeans, which led the Mexicans to offer resistance to the disunion of Spain. The dissensions were headed by Hlidalgo, an enthusiastic patriot, who was proclaimed generalissimo, Sen 426 THE TREASUIRY OF HI-STORY. tember 17, 1810. He unfortunately halted in his advance towards the capital, which gave the royalists time to rally, and enabled them to defeat his intentions a few months, and p!ut hiin to death. But with him the spirit of independence vanished not., Morelos, a priest, assumed the command, and several princes were completely ensured to the side of liberty. A congress of forty members was called. but after the defeat and execution of Morelos, it was:dissolved by General Teran, wio succeeded him. After languishing for some- time, the revolt was entirely quelled in 1819. The change of system introduced into Spain by the cortes alarmedthe ecclesiastics in Miexico, who, for their defence, elected iturbide, under whom a bloodless revolutionswas effected, and Mexico maintained in al its rights, independent of the.Spanish dolinion, A. D. 1822. After an usurpation of' the title of emperor- for little more than one year, Iturbide was compelled to lay down his usurpation, and he retired to Leghorn. A federal goverment wvas now formed, and sworn to, February 242 1824. Still commotions arose, in one of which Iturbide, who had been induced to return, lost his life. Thenceforward the government has been -almost in a continual turmoil, adverse parties fightingl for the rule, and' alternately overthrowing each other. The generals Pedrazzo, Guerrero, Arenas, Arista, Urrea, and others, rapidly succeeded in-grasping after the shadow 6f power, were exalted, andl debased,: Bravoe, Bustamente, and Santa Ana, more successful because more unscrupulous tyrants, managed for n time to monopolize what there wa-sof authority. Each of them being in turn-banished, General Herrera wag, in 1845, elected president S OUTH AME RICA. ~PERU. THE PeruNians have strange traditions that their progenitors were instructed in the arts of government and society by a man and woman, named Manco Capac and Mama Oello, from an island in a lake south of Peru. Under-their instructions their kingdom was established, the royal famnily instituted,,and success and power heaped upon them. This was about the thirteenth century; and previous to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1524, there had been fourteen successive monarchs or incas. On the arrival of the Europeans, Huana Capac was the reigning inca, who was taken prisoner and put to death by Pizarro, the discoverer of the country, although he'had paid as much gold' for his ransom as filled the place of his confinement. Pizarro likewise defeated his successor, and was created marquis of Atibellos, with large possessions in his conquest. His associate, Ahnagro, was also-amply rewarded. The city of Lima was founded by Pizarro, in 1533, but the Peruvians again to9k up arms under their inca, Manco Capac, and obtained some successes. A division took place between Pizarro and Almagro, the latter of whom having sustained a defeat, was taken prisoner and beheaded by his conqueror; who, two years afterwald, was assassinated by Almagro's party. Various insurrections eensued with various successes, in which were conspicuous Vasco de Castro, Blasco VeIa, G'0nzales Pizarro, and Pedro de la Gasca, a priest. The royal authority of the Spaniards was at length established by the surrender and execution of the last inca. Tupac Amaru, by Toledo, the viceroy at Cuzco,, A. D. 1562. Peru re THE TREASURY OF HISTORY.:427 mained in a state of uninterrupted vassalage b'tbe Spanish crown, till the year 1782, when a descendant of the last inc., on being refused a,.title which had been'granted' his ancestor,: Sayu Tu ac, reared the standard of independence, round which' the natives rallied with spirit, and in great numbers. For two years the war continued wit alternate success. At last Jose. Gabriel Condorcanqui was defeated, aiI with the rest of his -fanmily, excepting his brother Diego, put to death. The surviving brother shortly'afterward shared the same-fate, on suspicion. f being engaged in a revolt at, Quito. Peru escaped awhile the rising spirit of insubordi&ation, which co-nvulsed the other colonies; but in 1809. commotions: t nsued, and juntas were established in the cities of Quito and La Paz, but were suppressed. tIn1813 the independents,of Chili? were subjugated, but- their efforts were triumpha7nt in 1817, under General San Martin, and Chili was not only evacuated by the Peruvian army, but sent an-army to retaliate upon Peru. Lima capitulated on July 6, 1821, and San Martin held levees in the viceregal palace. The'independence of Peru was solemnly proclaimed on the 28th of the same month, and San Martin was proclaimed protector.. This office he laid down, after calling together a constituent and sovereign congress, on the 20th of September, 1821. Disinterested as was this abdication, it was not followed by prosperity to the country. The, inadequacy of the junta appointed by the congress soon became manifest: the patriots were defeated early in 1823; the congress was dissolved, anarchy predominated,.and Lima surrendered to the Spanish troops in July of the same year. They' were partially dispossessed by Bolivar'and the: Chilians shortly afterward; and Peru, though safe from Spanish subjugation, was like a vessel tossed by every casual wave, unsafe, and exposed to conflicting-dangers. C HILI. THIs country was subjugated in 1450, by the Peruvians, who, retained possession of'it till they were- driven out by the'Spaniards under Almagro, in'1535.. The Spaniards were driven out by a general rising-of the natives three years afterward. -Pizarro attempted to colonize the country in' 1540, and though opposed by the natives of Copiapo, he succeeded in conquering several provinces, and founded the city of -Santiago, February, 1541.' In attempting to extend.his conquest -he:exposed his settlement, for six years, to the strong and repeated attacks of the. Mapochians, in whose district Santiago was.' His lieutenant, Pedro de Valdivia, to whom this extension was entrusted, made the Promancians his allies, and, surmounting various attacks and oppositions from the-natives, founded'the cities of Concepcion, Imperial, and Valdivia. He was'shortly afterward defeated by his old enemies tie Airaucanians, who took him prisoner, and he was at length despatched by an old chief with the blow of a club.' These Araucanians kept the new colonies, for several years in a continual state of alarm and distress;,and ~so far succeeded in avenging their former defeats,' as in 1598 to capture Vallansa, Valdivia, Imperial and other towns, and form the cities of Concepcion and Chillar. Nor were these the only losses sustained by the Spaniards. The Dutch plundered Chiloe, and massacred the garrison. The feuds between the Araucanians and Spaniards were settled':by a treaty of peace in, 1641, which lasted for fourteen years; then came a war of ten years, and another peace. In 1722 a conspiracy for the extirpation of the whites was -happily frustrated. The colonists were gathered into towns, the country divided into provitnces, and-several new cities founded by the governor Don Josef Manto, e I....g.v..n.r, 428 THE TREASURY OOF HISTORY. 1742. A similar attempt by Don,\ Antonia Gonzago, in respect of tne ArauCanianis, relighted the torch of war, which blazed three years, when harmony wasf restored. Nor does anything of particuilar niornent occur in the history of Chili, till 1809: then a successful revblut:onary'moVement took.place,- and for four or five years fortune favoured the cause of independence but in 18i4, a royalist party from Peru nearly'extinguished the flame of liberty. Success (in 1817) returned with General San Martin, who brotlght them freedom; D. Bernado O'Higgins was made director of the j unta; and a fatal blow was struck at the power of the royalists on the 5th of April,, 818, when a large tract of coast'was declared in,a state of blockade by the Chilian navy under Lord Cochrane. In 1820, as stated in the history of Peru, the Chilian army under San Martin, liberated Peru from the Spanish'thraldom, and San Martin retired into the rinks of private life in Chili. His example was followed.by O'Higgins, who resigned the: dictatorship, January.28,i1823, and was succeeded by General Freire, the commander-in-chief. The royalist'flag, which was hoisted in September, near the city of Concepcion, was pulled down after a short period, and a free constitution appointed, with a popular government., BRAZIL. rHE honour- of discovering this country is contested between Martm Behem, and, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, at the close of the fifteenth century. It was originally called Santa Cruz by'Cabral, but afterward Brazil, from the name of a wood produced there. It was first colonized by some refugee Jews, in 1548, banished from Portugal, and was fostered by the able' guidance of Governor de Sonza, and the blandishments of the Jesuits. In 1624, San Salvador was taken possession of by the Dutch, who were in turn defeated by an armament of Spaniards under Frederic de Toledo. The Dutch, in 1630, succeeded in making themselves masters of Demerara, Paraiba, and Rio Grande. Maurice of Nassau added Scara, Sefegipee, and the greater part of Bahia; and the whole of Brazil was on the point of yielding,to their arms, when the revolution, which drove Philip IV. from the Portuguese throne, afforded an opportunity for both the Dutch and Portuguese to expel the Spaniards from Brazil. By an agreement between them, the country received a plural title, being called Brazils from the circumstance that both the Dutch and Portuguese possessed almost equal parts, of it. By conquest and treaty the whole at length fell to Portugal. In 1i86, the royal famfily of Portugal, driven from' Europe by the invasion of the French, migrated to Brazil, which fromn that period has risen rapidly in importance, independence, and strength. In 1817, a revolution broke out: in Pernambuco, which'failed..A free constitution was passed, and the king returned to Lisbon. Subsequently the prince-regent, on his birth-day, October 12, 1822, was proclaimed: constitutional emperor ot Brazil, independent of the Portuguese throne-a measure which has since been formally recognised by the -government of the parent country. THE REPUBLIC OF LA PLATA, OR UNITED PROVINCES. rHE title of the United Provinces is of modern date, as the foll1wing brief outline of the history of this part of the New World will exhibit. Juan Diaz-de Solis, a Spaniard, is said to-have been the first adventurer who explored the country, and took possession of it, A. D. 1513. lebuh THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 429 tian Cabot, in 1526, in the La Plata, discovered the island of St. Gabriel, the river St. Salvador, and the Paraguay. Buenos Ayres wasfounded in 1535, by Don Pedro de Mendoza.. This didslot flourish much, on account of the restricted state of commerce, which was, however, /gradually relaxed, and in 1748 the annual flota made its last voyage. A free trade with several American ports began in1774, and an extension to the Spanish ports was granted in 1778.' Under a viceroy, trade-augmented, and commercial prosperity -ensued.' Buenos Ayres was. captured in 1806 by General Beresford, with a British army, which was in turn coinpelled:to surrender a few weeks afterward to General Liniers, a French officer, at the head of a body of militia. Sir Hone Popham, with five thousand men, having.captured Fort Maldonado, attacked -Monte Video, without success; but, reinforced by Sir Samuel Auchmuty, at length -carried the town by storm. The operations were extended under General Whitelocke and -General Crawford, who with twelve thousand menl renewed the attack upon Buenos Ayres, but were defeated and capturedby the native militia. tiniers, who had contributed-so largely to this defeat, was raised by the people to the viceroyalty, upon the expulsion of Sobremonte for cowardice. The United Provinces escaped not the swell of that storm which the French invasion stir-red up in Spain.. After various intrigues. and plots, Ferdinand VII, was at length proclaimed in Buenos Ayres by the address of -Don Josef de Goyeneche., A rising of the people (August 1809) was suppressed by Liniers, who was shortly after deposed and sent into exile. Rapid were the convulsions which now shook this unhappy country; till, on May 26, 1810, the people rose, expelled theviceroy, and appointed a provisional junta of nine' persons.' In vain the provinces of Cordova, Paraguay, and Monte Video refused their co-operation; they were compelled to go along with the tide. In vain Liniers and General Nieto assembled armies; they were defeated, and beheaded. Shortly after the district of Potosi fell into the'hands jof the patriots, who deputed, in 1814, a special mission to Ferdinand, on his restoration to the Spanish throne, with conditions of submission. These, happily for them, were rejected. In the same year a small cloud -passed over the hopes, of the patriots by General Artigas, which was dispelled by the capture of Monte Video, the last stronghold of the Spaniards. After two, years of carnage and confusion, in 1816, a sovereign congress met at Tucuman, and on October 6, the same year, the act of independence was ratified, D. Juan Martin Pueyrsedon being dictator." Monte Video was taken by the Portuguese under the Baron de Leguna, who had seized on the most valuable part ot anda Oriental. Petty dissensions and intriguesj incident to the effects of rising independence, interrupted the progress of success necessary for' the consolidation.of a new state. D. Jose de San Martin cut a distinguished figure in this part of the history, having twice defeated the independents at Entre Rios, in 181i; but his efforts failed, and the independence of the Provinces of Rio- de la Plata was shortly after sealed. Airtigas, driven by the Portuguese across the Paraguay, was apprehended by the dictator Francia, and in 1819, Pueyrsedon, the dictator, fled to'Monte Video, and thus dissolved the confused mass of the union of, conflicting and discordant provinces. After a variety of events and political changes, D. Martin Rodriguez was established governor, October 6, 1820; and in the following year the independence of Buenos Ayres was recognised by the Portuguese government. A general congress was convened at Cordova the same year, and on the 15th of December they decided the iumber of deputies to be sent by each province. In 1827 a war broke out between the republic and Brazil, respecting the possession of Uruguay (Banda Oriental)-estpblished as an' independent 430 THE TREASURY OF.HISTORY. state in 1828; and more recently Ia Plata has been infolved in disputes with both Bolivia, and France. These wars have contributed; to retard the —march of her prosperity; but with all her accumulated difficulties, La Plata has every appearance'of soon becoming a prosperous country. COLOMBIA. THIS is a new state, formed. at th.1close of, the year 1819, from the states of Grenada, and Venezuela or Caraccas:. It will therefore be necessary to detail the distinct history of these two original states. GtENADA,- or as it is called, New Grenada, was discovered by Columbus in his fourth voyage; and taken possession of for the Spanish government. He wa-s followed by-others, And- especially by Amerigo VespUcci, who was the first who made Europe acquainted- with a, published account of this part of the New World. The first regular colonists were Ojeda,'and Nica Essa, in 1508; the former founded the district called New Andalusia, but with no great success; the latter; Golden Castile, and hee also perished. These two districts were united (1514) in one, called Terra Firma, under Avila, who successfUtlly'extended the discoveries, and' founded the town of Panama. Other additions were subsequently made, anid the kingdom of New Grenada was established under i captain-general, in 1547.- As it had beefi established, so did it continue: for more than, one hundred and fifty years,'when in 1718 it became a vice-royalty, which form of government lasted but for six years, when it was supplanted by the original one, which was again superseded in 1740, by the incubus' of the vice-royalty. Thus did itcontinue, till the weakness of the mother country, from the invasion of the French, afforded an opportunity to raise the standard of independence. Many anid various have been the, events attendant upon the struggle for mas'tery; but a severe blow was inflicted by their old masters in 1810, who, under Morillo, defeated the colonists with, tremendous loss. Three years of renewed subjection followed when- the"success of the illustrious Bolivar caused the union of Grenada with Venezuela. VENEZiUELA.-ThiS district was discovered somewhat- earlier than Grenada;- by Columbus, in 14b8. After several fruitless attempts to colonize it, the Spanish government disposed of the partially subdued natives to the Weltsers, e German company of rnerchants. Their management led to a change in 1550, when Venezuela, like Greneda three' years' before, became a supreme government under a captain-general. From that period to 1806, Venezuela was a torpid vassal under the Spanish crown, when a futile attempt for independence was made under General Mirando,a native. Simultaneous with Grenada, Venezuela rallied for liberty, when the mother country was prostrate before the ascendancy of France, -in 1810.'In the following year a formal proclamation of independence was made, July 6, and success seemed to attend the cause. Then came the dreadful earthquake. Superstition re-nerved the arm of-freedom, and the rolyalist general, Monteverde, discoinfited Mirarndo, and again overran the. province. In 1813 Bolivar called independence again into action, and success attended him for three years, when another defeat' was' sustained, which was followed by another victory. Reverses again recurring, compelled' the congress to appoint Bolivardictator,; and in 1819 the union of Venezuela'with Grenada was effected under the name of Colombia.'Colombia may therefore date its history as a nation from this union, which was agreed upon'December 17, 18i191 and the installation of the united congress took place May 6, 1821; which was followed in June' 24, by a victory obtained by the president Bolivar iover the Spaniards, at the THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 431 81ckbrated battle of Carabobo, in which' the royalist army lost above six thousa,!d men, besides their'artillery and baggage. BOLIVIA. THE history of this recently formed state, known before as UPPER PERU, partakes of the nature of an episode in the life of the great Bolivar, in whose honour. its present nanme was given, and to whose wise councils-it is so much indebted. Previously to the battle of Ayachuco, in 1824, it formed'a part of thie Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres; but General- Sucre,-at the head of the republicans, having then defeated the royalist troops, the independence of the country was effected; and in the following- year, at the request of the people,. Bolivar, drew up a constitution for its governance. The reader will find in the life of Bolivar the following passage;, which is so ap'plicable that we cannot, perhaps, do better than transcribe it. "His renown was now at its height, and every act of his government showed how zealonsly alive-he was to the improve'ment of the national institutious and the mor'al elevation of the people over whom- he ruled. In 1'823 he- went to the, assistance of the Peruvians, and having succeeded in settling their internal divisions, and establishing their independence, he wvas proclaimed liberator of Peru, and invested with~supreme authority. In 1825 he visited Upper Peru, which detached itself fromi the goverment of Buenos Ayres,'and' was formed into'a new republic, named Bolivia, in honour of the liberator; but domestic factions sprung up, the purity of his motives were called in question, and he was charged with aiming at a perpetual dictatorship; he accordingly declared his intention to resign his power so soon as hi's numerous enemies were overcome, and to repel the imputations of ambition cast upon him, by retiring to seclusion upon his patrimonial estates. The vice-president, Santander, urged himn, in reply, to resumne his station as constitutional president; and, though he was beset by the jealousy and distrust of rival factions, he continued to exercise the chief authority.in Colombia till May, 1830, when, dissatisfied with the aspect of internal affairs, he resigned the presidency, and expressed his determination to leave the country. The people ere long became sensible of their injustice to his merit, and were soliciting himn to resume the government, when hi's death, which happened in December,'1830, prevented the accomplishment of their wishes." The government of Bolivia is in the hands of a president, to which office General Santa Cruz Wa's elected in 1829. GU.IANA. THIns is a Britsh possession, comprising the several districts of Berbice, Essequibo,:Demerara, and Surinami. It is asserted by some that Columbus saW this coastin 1458,.and by others,i any title of lobility, or honour, or shall, wvithtout the cotlseilt of' i)on.gres-s, accept ald retain any present, pellsiot, od-Ic9e, or emolument of aiiy kintd whatever, frotll any emperor, kii'g, [)ritlee, or foreigli powver suci h person shall eea;se to be a citizen of the Uiited St-tes, and shall be incaipable o. ioldi a nll0 y office of trust or profit utder tth aem or eithei of tlhesto C A t- As PTE''oot TH-E D 34aNDMINiST.RATIO C, L4),0'VE.RT-4 1P,1 T, 0Na the second lMonday of Mlay,'787, delegates from'the several at,ates assetmbled at Philadelphia, for the pllrpose of formiJtig a Co!nstitution for the United States.o T''me pre edilig instrumient wvas adoptedl (being mi-laitly thle production of Thoalns JU-fitTerso., of Virginia), a.id sueat to the several states for their applovatl After a due eonSldeilratioii by ihe state cnnrentiltis, it was fitially adopted by themn all anad the Cotigr-:ss of July, 17818, iu itcrtluituit,), ftully ratified itc On the first Wedutesday of Jantuary,'1789, elec'tors of presideit and vice-ptresidenlt were appoiF'tedl at d on. the first IWedtlesday of February, 1789, George Washiong tot,'Lfirst in war, first ill patcle, alnd filrst in the hearts,of hlis countrymen," wa.; unaillously chosent piccident, and John Adai-nt, vicpresident ad John Adapreside Geerel Va.sltintgton }wias ian tl rated as first presidelit of the Ui tonii on the 0tth iof Apri,, 789, in the opet (gallery of the old Fedei al Hall, ia N ewv Yor k,:lsere (te Custom Housse o.w standso And pertlips tiere'ever w' as a wiar.t'er- r.sponse from at"y n multide, than that which greeted the concltisinit of tle cere. nonly Nwith,' Leng live George Vashitiigtol i" And now(, after i e xperi-. ment of nmore thatn half a cenltury, aftei having seeu how completely this Coonstituti(iot secures all the purposes of a good governmtent, ald at how cheap a rate, the fear an-rd tretni,!itog which Wnarlted its comtnreltce'' ent are.-..lchanged for steadfast confidenc'e and unbo-r.ded hIoe.it stu..ds like a TEs TREASURY OF HISTORY. 463 fight-house on the shore of the sea of liberty, to direct thy political voya ger in his perilous course to the port of freedom. In despite of the prognostications of enemies of freedom abroad, and the fears of the weak-hearted at home, the entire eight years of Washingson's administration of the government passed away without his once assuming the exercise of any authority which might be termed unconstitutional.. ELe betrayed no disposition to tyrannize, no latent desire to elevate himself or family unduly in the land; his enemies he pursued not; and they looked in vain to the last, who sought in him the slightest aspirat'on for any regal power. Nor were his capabilities in council less distin. guished for discernment and propriety, than in the field: -and the men, he at first drew around him as advisers, who were subsequently confirmed as his cabinet, afforded a new evidence of his singularly admirable insight into human character, as well, also, as that the land was even then rich in the most glorious of all materiel whereof to form a nation's government. i. e., able and honest men. -Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, was. hiis Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton, of New York, Secretary of the Treasury,; General H. Knox, of Massachusetts, Secretary of War; Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, Post-Master General; Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, Attorney General; and John Jay, of New-York, at the head of the Judicial department. The Associate Justices; United States' Supreme Court, were John Rutledge, of South Carolina; James Wilson, of Pennsylvania; William Cushing, of Massachusetts!; Robert Harrison, of Maryland; and John Blair, of Virginia.- Before the close of Washington's second term, the chief officers. of his government were changed, the following -lames being substituted: Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of State; Oliver Wolcott, of Connecticut, Secretary of the Treasury; James M'Henry, of Maryland, Secretary of War; Joseph Habershamn, of Georgia, Post-Master General Charles- Lee, of Virginia' Attorney General; and Oliver Ellsworth, oJ Connecticut, at the head of the Judiciary. The Anmerican people having thus, by an energetic though long and bloody struggle, thrown off all allegiance and achieved for themselves independence and an honourable position among the nations of the earth, have since continued to grow and flourish. Very few events have oc curred to disturb the harmony of the Republic; perhaps the first of any note, was an outbreak in the interior of Massachusetts, which for a short time threatened to involve the country in a civil war. One Daniel Shays, a person of some energy, about thie close of the year 1786, collected together not less than two thousand men, who demanded that the collection of debts should be suspended, and that the legislature should authorize the emission of paper money for general circulation. Two bodies of militia, Irawn from those parts where the disaffection did not prevail, were immediately despatched against them, one under the corimalnd of General Lincoln, the other of General Shepard, The rebels were eatsily dispersed; and afterwards abandoning their seditious purposes, accepted the proffered indemnity of the government. The next occurrence of a rebellious nature which took place, arose trom the necessity-of levying taxes for the support of governlment. A duty had been imposed upon. spirits distilled within the cotuntry, which was bearing heavily upon the people of western Pennsylvailia. The leaders of the disaffected in consequence called a public Imec tihig, which was held in September, 1791, at Pittsburgh, and was very large1ly attended. Resolutions were passed at this meeting,'declaring-all excise taxes hostile to liberty, and denouncing all such officers as might he appoilted to collect them; great exertions were made to inflame the public mind against any who should willingly pay, and to encourage resistance'to the laws; committees of correspondence were also appointed to give unity of svs .64 THE TREASURY OF HISTORlY. temrn to their measures, and to increase the number of their associates subsequently other meetings were held at which similar resolutions were adopted. A proclamation of the president exhorting all.persons to desist from illegal combinations', and calling upon the magistrates to execute the laws, was disregarded; the marshal of the state, while serving pro. cesses upon delinquents and offenders, was-resisted and fired upon; thf in.spector of the revenue, dreading the indignation of the populace pro cured a detachment of soldiers to guard his house, and they were attacke, by a numerous body of insurgents, who, after setting fire to several con tiguous buildings, obliged the soldiers to leave the house and deliver them selves up; several individuals zealous in supporting the government wert ordered to leave the country, and compelled to obey. The effective strength, of -the insurgents was computed at seven thousand men-and an intention was openly showed of forcibly resisting the general government, with the view of extorting a repeal of the offensive laws The president, conceiving himsell boundi ny the most solemn obliga tions, " to take care that the laws be faithfully executed," called out a portion of'the militia of Pennsylvania, and the' adjacent states, to suppress this insurrection. In the autumn of 1794, fifteen thousand were detached, and being placed under the command of Governor Lee, of Virginia, were marched into the disaffected counties. The strength of this army rendering resistance desperate, none was offered, and no blood was shed. A few of the most active leaders were seized, and detained for legal prosecution.'I'he great body of the insurgents on submission were-pardoned, as were also the leaders, after their trial and conviction of treason. The government acquired the respect of' the people by this exertion of its force, and their affection, by this display of its lenity. Shortly after the commencement of Mr. Washington's administration, he strongly recommended to Congress the adoption of' some effectual measures for establishing the public credit. Alexander Hamilton, in an able report on the state of the Treasury, proposed a plan for the object. He estimated the public'debt to be at that'time about fifty-four millions of dollars: twelve millions were duie to France and Holland-and the balance had been contracted for by the' several states in the course of the -war, for its support. These debts, he proposed, should all be assumed by the general government, and paid Out of the public treasury. This mea sure was strongly opposed by the republican party. It was contended tha men had taken advantage'of the low state of public credit, and bought up for a small price, certificates of security against the government, and that the present holders were not justly entitled to receive more than they had paid. To this it was answered, that the government originally promised to pay the whole, and the reason why these seCurities had depreciated, was owing to its not having exactly fulfilled this promise; and now, to preserve the public faith, the whole must be paid. Further, it was asserted that, for the general government to assume the debts of the several state governments, would be dangerous to the sovereignty of the states: but this objection was ably answered, and. after some debate, the plan was in the main adopted., Another financial measure of the secretary of the treasury soon at tracted much attention and dispute. Through his means a bill was introduced into Congress for establishing a national bank, with a capital of ten millions of dollars. This was violently opposed by the republican party. It was'contended that banks were unnecessary, and that by the constitution, Congress was not vested with the competent power to establish a national bank. After a debate of great length, however, the bill was passed, by a'majority of nineteen votes. Washington was now clamorously called upon to crush "the monster" by the power of his veto but he chose rather to require'from the heads of departments their differ THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 465 ent opinions on the subject, in writing.:Mr. Jeffersor.n, Scretary of State, and MIr. Randolph, Attorney General, considered -the bill as entirely unconstitutional: while Mr. Hamilton, on the other hand, maintained'the opposite opinion with great ability and decision. After weighing, their opinions, and, examining the,subject in all its relations, Washington be came satisfied of the the utility of the bill, and accordingly gave it- the, sanction of his name. The charter of this, the first United States' Bank, extended to the 4th of May, 1811. In 1790, a termination was put to the, war which for several years had raged between the Creek India~ns and the state of Georgia., Pacific overtures were also made to the hostile tribes inhabiting the banks of the Scioto and Wabash. These being rejected, an army of fourteen hundred men, commanded by General Harmer, was despatched against them, Two battles were fought near Chilicothe, Ohio, between successive detachments from this army and the Indians,' in which the latter were victorious. Emboldened by these successes, they made more vigorous attacks on the frontier settlements, which suffered all the distressing calamities of an Indian War. Additional troops were raised, and the command griven to General St. Clair. With near-two thousand men he marched, in October, into the wilderness. By desertion and detachments, this force was reduced to fourteen hundred. On the third of November, they encamped a- few miles from the, villages on the Miami, intending to remain there until joinled by those who were absent. But before sunrise next morning, just after the troops were dismissed from parade, they were attacked unexpectedly by the Indians.; The new levies, who were in front; fell back in confusion upon the regulars. These, whohad been hastily formed, were thrown into disorder. They, however, with great intrepidity, advanced into the midst of. the enemy, who retired from covert to covert, keeping always -beyond reach, and again returning as soon as the troops were recalled fromn pursuit. In these charges, many brave and experienced officers were killed; theloss of men was also great, and no permanent impression was made upon the enemy. At length, after. a contest of three or four hours, General St. Clair, whose ill health disabled him~frQm performing the active duties of Commander; determined to withdraw from the field the remnant of his troops. The instant the directions to retire were given, a disorderly flight commenced. Fortunately for the survivors, the victorious Indians were soon recalled from the pursuit to the camp, by their avidity for plunder; and the vanquished continued their retreat unmolested' to the frontier settlements. In this battle, the numbers engaged on each side were supposed to be equal. -Of the whites, the slaughter was beyond example. Six hundred and thirty were killed and missing, and two hundred and sixty were wounded-a loss which proves at once the obstinacy of the defence, and the bravery of the assailants. On receiving information of this disaster, Congress resolved to prosecute the war with increased vigour, and made provision directly for augmenting by enlistment the military force of the nation to five thousand mnen. In 1791, was completed the first census of the- inhabitants of the United States. They amounted to 3,921,326, of which number 695:,655 were slaves. Thie revenue, according to the -report of the secretary'f the treasury, afmounited to $4,771,000, the exports to about $19,000,000, and imports to about $20,000,000. A great improvement in the circumstances of the people began at this period to be visible. The establishment of a firm- and regular government, and confidence in the men whom they had chosen to administer it, gave-an impulse to their exertions which bore them rapidly forward' in their career of prosperity. In the autumnn of 1792, General Washington wag again unanimously elected president of the American republic, and. in March, 1793, was inducted into office. Mr. Adams was re-elected vice-president, in opposition 30 4fi6 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. to George Clinton, of New-York. In the progress oi these elections, but little party feeling was exhibited. The repose of society was not then disturbed, as at present-but the citizens raised to posts of the highest honor those whom their judgments and affections designated as the most worthy. After the defeat of St. Clair by the Indianst in 1791, General Wayne was-appointed to command the American forces. This officer taking post near the country of the enemy, made assiduous and long-protracted endeavours to negociate.a peacei Failing in- this, he nmarched against them, at the head of three thousand men. On the 20th of August, 1794, -an actiot took place in the vicinity of one of the British garrisons on the banks of the Miami. A rapid and vigorous charge runmsed the,avages from their'coverts,'and they-were driven more' than two milce at the -point of, the bayonet. Broken and dismayed, they fled without renewing the combat. Their houses and cornfields were destroyed, and forts were erected on the sites of the towns laid waste. In 1795, a treaty was concluded at Greenville, Ohio, which was long and faithfully observed, and gave peace and security to the frontie(r inhabitants; in consequence of which, the already abundant population of the eastern states began to spread, with astonishingrapidity, over the fertile region northwest of the Ohio. Simultaneous,with the conclusion of the Indian war, in 1795, a treaty highly satisfactory to the Americans was formed with Spain. That country had from the first regarded with-especial coldness the hopes of the republicans; fearing, perhaps, lest the principles of liberty and the desire of independence should find their way into her contiguous American provinces. Becoming at length involved in a war with'France, the Spanish government intimated its -willingness then to form a satisfactory treaty with the United States, which was accordingly concluded. The navigation of the Mississippi river, which was controlled by. the province of Louisiana, and was very inportant to the south-western states, had formetly been denied them, and was a fruitful source of disturbance and threatened invasion of the'Spanish territory. This treaty secured to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi to the ocean, and the privilege of landing and depositing cargoes at New-Orleans. In the.same year,> also, a permanent peace was arranged with the regency of Algiers, with which state the republic was previously at war, on account of its flagrant' piracies and interruptions of American commerce. Thus all difficulties were arrranged, and the star of independence again shone brightly forth upon the world. At the close of 1796, the two rival parties of the nation brought forward their, candidates for the presidency. John Adams, of Massachusetts, was voted for by the federalists, while Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, was upheld by the republicans. The contest- was nearly equal. Mr. Adams, however, was chosen to fill the first office, and Mr. Jefferson, of course, succeeded to the second.:'-The cabinet during this administration, was composed as follows: John Marshall, of Virginia, Secretary of State; Samuel Dexter, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Treasury; Roger Griswold, of Connecticut, Secretary of War; Benjamin Stoddert, of Maryland, Secretary of the Navy; no'change was made in, the office of Attorney General, or the chief of the post-office department. When this adniinistration'came into power, it found the nation involved An difficulties with France, Mr. Pinckney, ~vho had been sent by Washington to adjust existing differences between the two republics, was ordered to leave the country; and the American government was soon after under the painful necessity of declaring war against its ancient ally. That'country was at the time suffering under the misguided rule of the Directorvy, which it seems desired the co operation of the United States THE TREASURtY OF HISTORY. 467 in their European wars, and had demanded of the American government a large sum of money previous to any negotiation for a commercial treaty. To enforce compliance with their unjust demands, a law had been passed authorizing the capture. in. ertain cases, of American merchant vessels by French cruizers; and in consequence of this several hundred vessels loaded with valuable cargoes, were, while prosecuting a lawful trade, taken, and the whole confiscated. W- When these events were known-in the United States, they excited general indignation. The spirit of party appeared to be extinct.<.. "Millions for defence, not a cent for tribute," resounded from every quarter of the Union. The former treaty of alliance with France was declared by Con\gress to be now without force, and authority was given for, capturing French armed vessels.,- Laws were passed authorizing the president, whenever he should deem it necessary, to detach eighty thousand men fiom the militia of the United States-and providing for an increase of the navy, and for augmenting the revenue of the nation. To display to France and to the world his desire of peace, and to leave no means unattempted to preserve it, the president resolved to institute a formal and solemn mission to the French republic. General Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry, were accordingly appointed envoys, and were instructed& to seek a reconciliation as the representatives of a people dreading war much, but the sacrifice of honour more. These the Directory refused, to receive.- After remaining several months at Paris, pressing in vain to be received and heard, the two former, who were federalists, were ordered to leave France; but Mr. Gerry, who was a republican, was permitted to remain, and was invited singly to enter into a discussion relative to the commencement of a negotiation. This also failing to produce- any good effect,< belligerent operations commenced. On land, no opportunity was presented of testing the courage and skill of the American troops; but at sea, a desperate action was fought between thlle frigate Constellation of thirty-eight guns, commanded by Captain Truxton, and the French frigate L'Insurgente, of forty guns; in this, the latter, although of superior force, was compelled to surrender. The same intrepid officer, in a subsequent action, obliged another French frigate, La Vengeance, of fifty guns, to strike her colors; but she afterward escaped in the night, owing to the disabled state of the Constellation. By such means the United States, in arms at home and victorious on the ocean, commanded the respect of their enemy. The Directory made overtures of peace. The president immediately appointed ministers, who, on theiz arrival at Paris, found the executive authority in the possession of Bonaparte as first consul.'They were promptly accredited, and in Septenlber, 1800, a treaty was concluded satisfactory to both countries. While this legotiation was in progress, an event occurred which overshadowed the whole American people with gloom. On the 14th of December, 1799, after an illniesslof one day only, General WASHINGTON, the father of his country, expired. He died at his residence at Mount Vernon, of an inflammation of the throat, aged sixty-eight years. After having led on to victory,the armies of his countrymen-after having filled'for eight successive years the presidential chair, and in all cases manifesting the same unapproachable integrity with which his public career had first commenced, this singularly virtuous MAN, may truly be said to have " filled the measure of his own and his country's glory." Intelligence of this evelit, as it- rapidly spread, produced spontaneous, deep and unaffected grief, susperiing every other thought, and absorbing every different feeling. The American Congress, then in session at Philadelphia, immediately adjourned; and the senate, on- this melancholy occasion, addressed a letter of condolence to the president of the United States, which contained the following just tribute to the memory of this great man: '468 THE TIDEASURY OF HISTORY. "With patriotic pride we review the life of our Washington, and compare him with those'of other countries who have, been pre-eminent' in fame. Ancient and modern names are diminished befores-him. Greatness and guilt have too often been allied; but his fame is whiter than itis brilliant. The destroyers of nations stood abashed at the majesty of his virtues. It reproved' the intemperance of their'ambition, and darkened the splendour of victory.'Such-was the man-whom we deplore. Thanks to God, his glory is consummated. Washington yet lives on earth in-his-spotless example-his spirit is in heaven. Let his countrymen consecrate the memory of the heroic general, the patriotic, statesman, and the virtuous sage; let them teach their children never to forget that the fruits of hi, labours, and of his example, are their inheritance." In pursuance of a l-aw enacted in 1790, a place had been selected on the Potomac, a few miles above Mount Vernon, for the permanent seat of the national government. Within a district ten miles square, which was called the District of Columbia, a city was laid out, to which the name of Washington'was appropriately given. Public buildings having been erected. the officers of government remdved to that place in 1800, and in November of -that year, Congress, for the first time, there commenced its session. A second census of the people was now ordered, and in the following year completed. They then amounted to 5,319,762, having in ten years increased nearly one million four hundred thousand. In the same number of yeais, the exports increased from nineteen to ninety-four millions, and, the revenue frori $4,771,000 to $12,945,000. This rapid advance in the career of prosperity has no parallel in the -history of nations; and it is to be attributed principally to the institutions of the country, which, securing equal privileges to all, give to the enterprize and industry of all free scope and full encouragement. Since the year 1801, war had existed between the United States and Tripoli, one of the Barbary states, on the coast of the Mediterranean. No memorable' event occurrcd until i803, when a large squadron under the command of Commodore Preble, was despatched into that sea. On arriving before Tripoli, Captain Bainbridge, in the frigate Philadelphia, of forty-four guns, was sent into the harbour to reconnoitre. While in eager pursuit of a small vessel, he unfortunately advanced so far that the frigate grounded,; and all attempts to remove her were in vain. The sea around her was imnmediately covered with Tripolitan gun-boats, and Captain Bainbridge was compelled to surrender. The officers were considered as prisoners of war; but the crew, according to the customs of Barbary, were treated as slaves. At the capture of this frigate, the enemy rejoiced and exulted beyond mneasure. Lie-utenant Stephen Decatur conceived the design of retaking or destroying her. Commodore Preble, applauding the spirit of the youthful hero, granted him permpission to make the attempt. In February, 1804, he accordingly sailed from Syracuse, Sicily, in a small schooner; having on board but seventy-six men-'entered undiscovered the harbour of Tripoli, and advancing boldly in the teeth of a battery, under the guns of which-the Philadelphia had been towed and anchored took his station alongside the frigate. Perceiving the crew in consterna tion, Decatur sprang on board, his men followed, and with drawn swords rushed upon the enemy. The decks were soon cleared, some being killed and others driven into the sea. A heavy cannonade upon the frigate from the batteries on shore and the corsaifs near was now commenced, and several vessels of war were seen approaching. She was therefore set on fire and abandoned,. none of the party being killed and-but four wounded. Throughout all the piratical states, this brilliant exploit exalted -the reputation of the American arms. The president; in reward of his address and bravery, promoted Lieutenant Decatur to the rank of post captain in the navy. THE. TREASURY OF HISTORY. 4a: While the squadron remained before Tripoli, other deeds of heroism were performed, evincing a love of fame and a d'evotion to country unsurpassed in Grecian or Roman story. The events and operations of this war shed a lustre upon the American name, gave experience, and character to the officers, and prepared-them to acquire greater glory in a contest with a nobler foe. They were equalled, however, by -an enterprize on land, bold and romantic in-its conceptipn, and exhibiting in its execution. uncommon address and decision of character. William Eaton, who had been a captain in the American army, was at the commencement of this war, consul at Tunis. He there became acquainted with Hamet Cara manly, whom a younger brother had excluded from the throne of Tripoli. With him~he concerted an expedition against the reigning sovereign, and rc. iled to the United States to obtain permission and the means to un-;dt ke it. Permission was granted, the Co-operation of the squadtoon reconlmended,. and such pecuniary, assistance as could be spared was afforded. To raise an -army in Egypt, and lead itito attack the usurper in his do:minions, was the project which had been concerted. In the beginning of 1805, Eaton met Hamet at Alexandria, and was appointed general of his forces. On the 6th of March, at the head.ofa respectable body of mounted Arabs, and about seventy Christians, he set out for Tripoli. His route lay across a- desert of one thousand miles in extent. On his march, he encountered peril, fatigue, and suffering, the description of which would resemble the exaggerations- of romance. On the 25th of April, having been fifty days-on the march, he arrived before Derne, a Tripolitan city on the Meaditerranean, and found in the harbour a part of the'Aniericani squadron destined to assist him. He learned also that the usurper, having received notice of his approach, had raised a considerable army and was then within a day's march of the city. iNo time was therefore to be lost. The next morning he summoned the governor to surrender, who returned for answer, " My head, or yours." The city was assaulted, and after a contest of two hours and a half, possession gained. The Christians suffered severely, and the general was Slightly wounded. Great exertions were immediately made, to fortify the city, which -were partially successful. On the 8th of May, it was attacked by the Tripolitan army. Although ten times more numerous than Eatonh' band, the assailants, after persisting four hours in the attempt, were compelled to retire. On the 10h of June another battle was fought, in which the enemy were defeated. The next day the -American frigate Constitution arrived in the harbour,-which so terrified the Tripolitans that they fled preoipitately -to the desert. The frigate came, however, to arrest the operations of Eaton; in the midst of his brilliant and successful career. Alarmed at his progress, the reigning bashaw had offered terms of peace which, being much more fa-vorable than had before been offered, were accepted by Mr. Lear, the authorized agent of the government. Sixty thousand, dollars were given as a ransom for the unfortunate American prisoners, and an engagement was made to withdraw all support from Hamet. The nation, proud of the exploits of Eaton, regretted this diplomatic interference; but the treaty was ratified by the president and senate-and thus ended the war in the Mediterranean. Just previous to these occurrences, an election of stirring interest had taken place. The two great political parties in the United States were still distinguished as federalists and republicans, and were then of nearly equal strength. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr received the same number of votes for the office of presidefit, and' so strenuously and with such acerbity did the parties contest the matter, that it was not until after thirty-five ballotings that the former was elected over'the latter.'Colonel aqrr next offered himself as a candidate for the governorship of the state 470 THE TREASUTURY OF HISTORY. of New York; but having already lost the' confidence of his party by re ceiving the votes of the federalists in the house of representatives against Jeffberson, he failed also in this, and General Morgan Lewis was elected over him. Stung to the quick by the-se failures, Burr is said to have plotted a scheme to divide the.Union, or to erect an. independent state from the Spanish. dependencies -adjacent, to have for its head himself. First, however, his heated passions goaded him on to recompense himself for all that he had lost, by some deep-laid revenge against the men who had mainly been the ccause of his'-political undoing. Foremost among them stood Alexander Hamilton, a man' as pure in politics as he'was emi nent in:talents and profound in judgment-: a man always of unblemishe( character, the friend of Washington, and'a statesman whiose proud name to this day is emulated. Such an one Burr deemed a fitting sacrifice to appease his injured honor. Hamilton was accordingly drawn into the acceptance of a challenge, and of co'rse fell, mortally wounded. But the indignation of the country was aroused in consequence against the slayer, who -fled with all haste to avoid apprehension and a trial for murder, For a time he sunk into mefited obscurity. At length- his conduct showed tlhat he had not been idle, though unobserved. In the autumn of 1806, his movements in thewestern country: were such as to attract the attention of government.. He had purchased and was building boats on the Ohio, and was engaging men to descend that river. His declared pur pose was to form a settlement on the banks of the Washita, in Louisiana; but the character of the man, the nature of his preparations, and the incautious dis.closures of his associates, led to the'suspicion that''his true object was either to gain possessionof New-'Orleans, and then establish a. separate government for the country watered by the Mississippi and its branches-or to invade, from the territories of the United States, the rich Spanish province of Mexico. From the first moment of suspicion, he, was closely watched by the agents of government. At Natchez, while on his way to New-Orleans, he was cited to appear before,the Supreme Court of the Mississippi territory; but he had so enveloped his projects in secresy, that'sufficient'evidence to convict him could not be produced, and he was'discharged. Hearing, however, that several persons suspected of being his accomplices had been arrested at New Orleans, and elsewhere, he fled in disguise from Natchez, hut was apprehended at Tombigbe'e, and conveyed a prisoner to Richmond. Two indictments were found against him, one charging him with treason against the United States-the other with preparing and commencing an expedition against the dominions of Spain. In August, 1807, he was tried upon those indictments, before Chief Justice Marshall. Full evidence of his guilt.not being exhibited, he was'acquitted by the jury. The people, however, believed him guilty; and by their desertion and contempt, he; was reduced'to a condition of the most abject wretchedness. The ease with which his plans were defeated, demonstrated the strength of the government; and his fate will be an impressive warning to those who, in a free country, listen to the, suggestions of criminal ambition. I)uring -the first four years of Mr. Jefferson's rule, he continued in office the members of: Mr. Adams' cabineq with the exception of appointing James Madison,'of Virginia, Secretary of State, and John Breckenridge, of Kentucky, Attorney General., In the course of his sec6nd term (extending to 1809), his official advisers were changed, with the exception of James Madison. George Clinton, of New York, was elected Vice Presi. dent; Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania, was appointed Secretary of the, Treasury; Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts,, Secretary of War; Ra:bert Smith, of Maryland, Secretary fot the Navy; Gideon Granger o THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 471 Connecticut, Post-Master General; and Caesar A. Rodney, of Delaware Attorney General. In 1803, Louisiana was purchased'from the French government for sixteen millions,:ofdollars.,The title being giveil under Napoleon, and including nearly the whole vast region beyond the Mississippi, was called in question by the British: but the president, Mr. Jefferson, made immediate preparatioas for taking possession of the territory, and for correctly defining its boundaries, and for other purposes tending to the increase of know-leolge and extension of the fields of science.. Captains Lewis and Clarke, the former of- whom was private secretary to the president, were selected as prvoper persons to head the expedition on this occasion. Never was an arduous undertaking accornplished with more ability and prudence. Accompanied by thirty-five persons, mostly soldiers, they embarked at St. Louis, in suitable boats,-on the 16th of May, 1804, and ascended the Mis — souri to its stupendous falls, a-distance of threethousand miles. Finding the season then too far advanced to attempt crossing the Rocky Mountains, they built a fort named Mandan, wherein they wintered. Early in the succeeding- April, they were again in- motion, and having reached the crest of the great rocky chain, although impeded by its everlasting snows and suffering from want of provisions,:they.rapidly descended. After travelling four hundred miles thus, they reached the navigable waters of the- Columbia; and following its course six hundred and forty miles fur ther, were recompensed for all their toils and privations by hearing the sound of breakers from the oceani and viewing with their glad eyes the Pacific. They wintered at the mouth of the river, and hastened back by the same route the following spring. They reached St. Louis on their return, in September, 1806, after an absence from all civilization of more than twenty-seven months, having travelled altogether seven thousand five hundred miles. Only one of the party, who was of a sickly constitution, had died. -The American government sent, in 1805, another expedition under Maior Pike (afterward conspicuous for his bravery in the war of 1812), to trace the yet unknown head of the Mississippi. It was found in a direction almost due north, not-rising from any great' natural range, but in a flat marshy region, and passing through a number of little lakes, the chief of which, named Leech and Red Cedar, contend for the honour of giving birth to this noble American river. Its length, too, proved, to be at the mutual junction a little less than half that of the Missduri, which; therefore, ought properly to rank as the main stream. Pike, on his return, was sent to,explore the course and origin of the Arkansas and Red rivers. The former he found very broad, flowing through a country richly stocked with game, and having its source in the Rocky Mountains. He attempted then to descend the Red river, but entered by mistake on the Rio del Norte, and proceeding into the Mexican territory, was made prisoner by the Spaniards, but was well treated and soon after released. Since the peace of 1783, Great Britain and the United States had each incessantly complained that the other had violated the spitulations contained in the treaty. The former was accused of having carried away negroes at the close of the revolutionary war; and of retaining in her possession certain military posts situated in the western wilderness, and in the limits of the United States-in consequence of which the Americanls.were deprived of their share of the fur- trade, and the Indians in'cited to make incursions upon the frontier settlements. The latter were accused of preventing the -loyalists from regaining possession of their estates, and British subjects from recovering debts contracted before the commencement of hostilities. Now, however, a new and' more pressing cause of disturbance arose between the two nations. Great Britain had always found it impossible 472 THE TREA-S;URY1 OF HISTORY. to man her numerous fleets by voluntary enlistments, and was, therefore in the habit of levying by force her sub.ects and compelling them to serve as sailors on board her ships of war. Desertions taking place frequently under such a state of'things, she claimed a right to search for hier sailors, even on board of neutral vessels while traversing the ocean in pursuit of their la'wful business.- In the exercise of this pretended right, citizens of the United States wVere. sometimes by mistake aild sometimes by de sign, claimed and held as British sailors. But not in this mode only were the rights of the United States invaded and their interes'ts sacrificed on the ocean. Owing to the exterminatiol of the French navy by Great Britain, the commerce between France and the West Indies was almost? exclusively carried on in American ships. To cut off France from this privilege- also, British orders in council, dated May, 1806, declared all pdrts of consequence under the control of France to be in a state'of blockade, though they were not at the time invested with a-British fleet; and American vessels; attempting to enter those ports were captured and condemned. In retaliation, Bonaparte issued his Berlin decree, of November, 1806; proclaiming the British islands in a state of blockade, and of, course authorizing the- capture of all neutral vessels attempting to trade with those islands. Not'deeming this sufficient to prevent American vessels from trading with his enemy, the' French emperor shortly-thereafter issued another decree, from Milal, denouncing every neutral vessel which should submit to be sea;tched or visited by any,British cruizer, and confiscating all ships so submitting whenever found in any of his ports. By these measures of both nations the commnerce of the United States was suddenly and most strangely made illegal; merchants of course suffered severely, and with united voice thgey loudly demanded of the government redress and protection from such violations of the laws of nations. In June, 1807, an event occurred which for a time concentrated upor, Great Britain the whole weight of popular indignation.. The frigate Chesapeake, an American -thirty-six gun ship, refusing to allow a search on board her for British deserters, was fired into by the Leopard of fifty guns,.and three men killed and eighteen wounded. The Chesapeake being unprepared for action, struck her colors, and' was boarded by a detachment from the Leopard, when the crew were mustered and four men forcibly carried away as British deserters. The truth- upon investigation was as, certained to be, that three of them were citizens of the. United States, who had been impressed by the British and afterward escaped from their service. One of these men they hanged, another died in prison, and the remaining two were subsequently returned to the decks of the Chesapeake, whence they had been taken. It is true this act was promptly disavowed by the authorities at London, but as they delayed to make reparation, and refused to give any guarantee that the like should not transpire again, the hostile feelings which had been aroused in the breasts of the community were neither extinguished nor appeased. The president accordingly recommended to Congress the passage of a law laying an indefinite embargo, which was thereupon enacted. He also, by proclarnation, prohibited all British ships of war from continuing in or entering the harbors, of the United States; and in these, meaSures he Was fully justified by the public sentiment, with perhaps one exception. In the New England states the embargo occasioned dis content and clamor. The members of the federal party, who were more numerous the re than in any other quarte'r of the Union, with one consent pronounced it a mea;sure unwise and oppressive. Public meetings were accordingly called, in different parts of the country, and counter resolutions passed; alternately sustaining and denouncing the acts of govern ment. THEE TREASURY OF: HISTORY. 473 James Madison was elected President in 1808, and took his seat on the Ith of March following; George Clinton was. re-elected to the VicePresidency, and filled that office with ability up t&o the time of his death, April 20th, 1812.'Elbridge Gerry, of, Massachusetts, was elected VicePresident for Mr. Madison's second term, and also died in office, November 23d, 1814, not long after his installation. Mr. Madison's first term'of office commenced with James Monroe, of Virginia, as SecretarV of State; Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania, still at the head of the Treasury; Paul Hamilton, of South Carolina, Secretary, of the Navy; General William Eustis, of Massachusetts, Secretary of War; and a continuation of Mr. Granger, of Connecticut, as chief of the: Post-Office department-and' Mr. Rodney, of Delaware, as Attorney General. Changes were presently made, -however, and before the close of the executive's second term, his cabinet stood. as follows:-James Monroe, Secretary of State; Alexander J. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury; B. W. Crowninshield,:of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy; William H. Crawford, of Georgia, Secretary of War; William Pinckney, of Maryland, Attorney General;. Return J. Meigs, of Ohio, Post-Master General. In March, 1809, Congress repealed the embargo,- and instituted a law' prohibiting all intercourse with France and GreatlBritain, until the offensive edicts of either should be revoked. In revenge for this, another decree was issued by Bonaparte, at Rambouillet, directing that all American vessels then in the ports of France, or that might afterwvard enter, should be directly seized and confiscated. -Expostulation, in'such case might seem vain; but General Armstrong: having been despatched as American envoy to the court of Fiance, he was assured by the"'minister of -state of Napoleon, that the obnoxious edicts would be fully revoked on the 1st of, November ensuing. Confiding in this assurance, the president, on the 2d of November, issued his proclamation declaring that all intercourse with Great Britain Wvas prohibited, while an unrestrained commerce'with France was allowed.. This conciliatory movement was hailed with satisfaction alike by the French and American people-though it has" been strongly suspected the intention of Napoleon in allowing it, was only to involve America in a war with Great Britain-thereby materially to assist himn in his design of universal conquest. It was on the occasion of this arrangement, that the great soldier of fortune is said to have descended so far from hisloftiness as to indulge in a bon mot. The former American minister sent to negotiate with him, was a little hard of hearing: the present one quite imperfect -in his mastery-of the French language. "These Americans are a queer people," said he, "I first they send me a deaf minister, and then they send me a dumb one." Great Britain having expressed a willingness to repeal her orders whenever France should repeal her decrees, she was now call~ed upon, by the American envoy:, to fulfil her engagement. - She objected, that the French decrees could not be considered as repealed, -aletter from the minister of state not being, for that, purpose, a document of sufficient authority. In answer to. this objection, proof was presented that the French admiralty courts considered them-as repealed, and that- no American vessel; although many had entered the ports of France, had been subjected to their provisions. Great Britain, however,still attempted to enforce her orders. For this purpose shehad stationed ships of war before the principal harbours of the United States. 5Merchantmen departing or returning were all boarded, searched, and many of them sent to British ports as legal prizes. Impressments, too, were frequent; and the: British officers, entertaining exalted ideas of their naval strength, and holding in contempt the republican flag,'exhibited on all occasions an extreme insolence of behaviour. In one instance, however,,heir aggression was deservedly 474 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. punished. Commodore Rogers, sailing ill the frigate President, met -rr the evening a vessel on the coast of Virginia. He hailed' but instead o, receiving an answer, was hailed' in turn, and a shot was fired which struck the mainmast of the President. The fire was instantly retu-ned by the commodore, and continued for a few minutes, when finding that his ant tagonist was of inferior force, and that her guns were almost silenced, he desisted. On hailing again, an answer -was given, that the ship was the British sloop of war, Little Belt, of eighteen guns. Thirty-two of her men -were killed and wounded, and the ship was much disabled. In the summer of 1811, an earnest and final attempt was made by the - American government to arrange satisfactorily with G-reat Britain the subject of impressment, and-other points mooted between them. No approach toward a reconciliation could be made. It was proven that not less than nine hundred American merchant vessels had been seized by British cruizers and confiscated, since the year 1803. It was also shovn that an agent had been employed by the British authorities in Canada, in time of peace, to spread disaffection between the states, and if possible to bring about a,division of the Union. -The patience of the nation was exhausted- 7forbea~rance would no longer do. Early in November, 1811, President Madison, called Congress together, and laid before them' the state of foreign relations, recommending that the Republic should be placed in an attitude to maintain -by force its wounded-honour anid essential interests.'The. representatives of the people determined to act in accordance with the views of the president. Laws -were therefore enacted, providing for the increase of the regular army to thirty-five -thousand men; for the augmentation of the naval establishment; for arming'the militia, and for borrowing eleven millions of dollars. About this time events occurred which turned the public attention.for an instant in a new direction. The Indian- tribes residing near the remote lakes and the sources of the Mississippi had for some years past displayyea symptoms of hostility, murdering a number of whites and robbing otliers General Harrison, with a small force, was sent into their territories, instructed to negotiate if possible, but to fight if necessary. On the 6th o! Novermber he arrived at Tippecanoe, their principal town, where he was met by Indian messengers, with whom an agreement was made that hostilities should not take place before the next morning, and that then an amicable-confcrence should be'held. Just before daybreak, the savages, in violation of their engagement, made. a sudden and furious attack upon the troops in their encampment. Nothing hut the precaution of sleeping in order- of battle, on their arms, saved them from total defeat.- A dreadful slaughter was made; but the savages-were finally repulsed, dispersed, and,- their town laid waste. A strong belief was entertained, founded upon credible testimony —that they had been incited to hostility by British agents stationed among them. >Congress continued to be employed until the 20th of May, in making preparations for war, though still cherishing a hope that a change of policy in- Europe would render'unnecessary an appeal to arms. On that day the Hornet arrived from London, bringing information that no prospect existed of a fa\vourable change. On the 1st of June; the president sent a message to Congress, recounting the wrongs still unatoned for which Great Britain had inflicted, and submitting the'qliestion whether the United States should continue to endure them or resort to war. The message was considered with closed doors-and on the 18th an act was passed declaring war against Great Britain. The vote stood, in the House ot Representatives, 79 to 49; in the Senate, 19 to 13. THE TREASURY OF I1ISTORY. 475 CHAPTER III. THE WAR OF 1812-1814. THE people of thetUnited.States remembered with pride, the patriotism and bravery exhibited by their army in the revolutionary war. A long period of peace and prosperity had increased their confidence in their own strength; and the belief was generally entertained, that victory over the same foe would now be so much the more certainly and easily gained, as the nation was more rich and populous. Perhaps they did not reflect that peace had impaired the military energies of the republic, while their enemy, by constant exercise in arms, had acquired not only additional strength, but greater skill to use aind apply it-. From theaveteran officers who had acquired fame in'the former conflict, A selection was made toflllthe principal posts in the new army. Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed major-general and commander-in-chief: he was at the battle of Bunker Hill, and — in the expedition to Quebec; and had distinguished himself on other occasions. Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina, was also appointed a major-general; and Wilkinson, Hull, Hampton, and Bloomfield, were among the brigadiers. With such, names at the head of their forces,'the people inight seem to an extent justified in expecting soon to see brave deeds enrolled on the escutcheon ofrtheir country's fame.- Yet strangely different were the first results. At the time of the declaration of war, General Hull- was also governor of the Michigan territory, of which Detroit was-the capital.. On the 12th of July, with two thousand" regulars and.'volunteers, he crossed the river dividing the United States from Canada. On the same day, he addressed a proclamation to the Canadians; tendering them the blessings of civil and religious liberty, and assuring them, in a lofty-tone, " that his force was sufficient to break down all opposition," and yet was but the van-guard of one much greater. It appeared to be his purpose to attack Malden (the strongest fortress in Upper Canada, and then but weakly guarded), and thence proceed to Montreal. Had thd attack been'instantly made, success would have undoubtedly crowned it: but a month w'as wasted in ruinous delay, allowing the ardour of the troops to cool, and Malden to be reinforced. Distrust and contempt took the place of confidence in the breasts of the Canadians; and at this Critical moment information was received that Mackinaw, an American post of importance above Detroit, had been surprised, and had surrendered to a large body of British and Indiaris, who were rushing down in numbers sufficient to overwhelm the American forces. Panic-struck, General Hull hastened back to Detroit. General Brock, the commander at Malden, pursued him with a force superior in number, but composed chiefly of. militia and Indians. On the 14th of August, he erected batteries opposite Detroit. The next day he began a cannonade upon the American fortifications, which was returned with'precision and effect. On the 16th, the enemy crossed the river, taking post about three miles-above the city. Meeting with no resistance, and -hearing that some of the American troops were absent, General Brock resolved to march directly forward and assault the fort. The troops, cool and undaunted, awaited in good order the approach of the enemy, anticipating an easy victory. To the astonishment of all, General Hull forbade: the artillery to fire, and hung out a white flag in token of a wish to capitulate. A correspondence between the two generals was im. mediately opened, which ended in the surrender of the army and of the territory of Michigan. It is impossible to describe the indignation of the soldiers and citizens, 476 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. when they saw themselves thus delivered, by the authority of one man into the power of an enemy whom they supposed they might easily have conquered. 1bven the women were indignant at so shameful a submis. sion. And the same feelings'pervaded the entire Union, as all had looked ini this quarter with the most confident anticipations.of' perfect success. On being exchanged, General Hull was arrested, and brought totrial, charged with treason, cowardice, and neglect of'duty'. The court-martial not having legal jurisdiction in treasonable matters, declined giving judgment on the first charge; but he was found guilty on. the other charges, and sentenced' to be shot. The president, hdwever, ihI, consideration of former good conduct, and the age of the prisoner, remitted the punishment of death. The people of Ohio.and Kentucky wvere alarmed. Nearly ten thousand citizens made a tender of their services, —and a part of them were placed under the command of Gendral W. H. Harrison and marched toward the territory of. Michigan..B.lt great and; numerous -were, the difficulties encountered, the volunteers were unwilling to submit to the wholesome re, straints of discipline;, and winter arrived before any important undertak,'ing could-be accomplished. Several incursions were made into the country of the. savages, who, owing to the influence of British agents: and a fanatic termed the prophet, had become almost universally hostile. For the purpose of invading. Canada in another quarter, an army of regulars and,militia were assembled'on- the northern>.frontier of New-York. Itwas f'ar less numerous than the government had anticipated.' So happy was. the condition of even the poorest class of American citizens, that few could be induced to enlist as soldiers. And in some of the states the plausible doctrine was maintained, that the officers of the general government have no power over the' militia until called into regular service and consigned to their authority by the state-executive; and that even then they cannot be compelled to march beyond the boundary of'the -republic. Several governors actuallyzwithheld their militia when called for by the president', and' thus diminished the amount of one species of force upon which the general government had relied. General Van, Rensselaer, of the New-York militia, being the senior o:ficer on that frontier, had the command of these troops, which were called the army of the centre..His head-quarters were at Lewistown, on the river Niagara, and on the opposite was -ueenstown, a fortified British post. The militia:displaying great eagerness to be led against the enemy, the:general determined to cross over to Queenstown. -The first attempt was defeated-by tempestuous weather. On the 13th of October, a. party led by Colonel Van Rensselaer effected a landing, although opposed by a British force stationed on the bank.. The colonel was severely wounded, but the troops, under captains Ogilvie aid Wool, advanced to storm the fort., They gained possession, -but at the moment of success;, General Brock arrived from a neighbouring post, wvith-a reinforcement of. six hundred men. These, although the most numerous, were gallantly driven back by the American troops,: In attempting to rally them, General Brock and his aid-de-camp were both killed. General Van Rensselaer, who had pre.viously crossed' over, now returned to hasten the embarkation of the rear,division. But those who. had lately shown so much -agernesS to meet the enemy, now utterly refused to pass beyond the national boundary! He entreated and remonstrated, but in vain. Meanwhile the enemy, having received another reinforcement, advanced to attack the Americans in the fort. A desperate and bloody,conflict end sued, of which the militia at Lewistown were calm spectators-making a constitutional privilege their plea for cowardice. I-n the end, the British were completely victorious: so. that of above one thousand men, who had crossed into Canada, but few effected their escape. THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 477 Soon after-this disaster, General Van Rensselaer retired from the seriice, and was succeeded by General Alexander Smyth, of Virginia. In t turgid address to the "men of New-York," he announced that in a few days he should retrieve the- lost honour of the country, by planting the American standard in Canada, and invited them to share in. the danger and glory of the enterprise. His force -was increased speedily to four thousand five hundred men: -and the morning of the 28th of November, assigned as the time for crossing. The time came, but strangely enough the troops could not be got ready to pass over. Another day was appoirted, and when that arrived, it was found the general hhad changed his plan of operations. A council of war wivas called, the invasion of Canada was postponed, and the troops wvere ordered into winter quarters. The blame of these failures was attributed by the soldiers to their commander; and so highly were they exasperated, that for.several days his life was in dang er from: their fury'. T'he army of the north, which was under the immediate command of General Dearborn, was stationed at Greenbush, near Albany, and at Platts. burgh, on Lake Champlain. From the latter post, a detachment marched a short. distance into Canada, surprised a small body of British and, Indians, and destroyed a considerable quantity of public stores. Other movements were anxiously expected by the people; -but after the misfortutnes at Detroit and Niagara, the general deemed-it inexpedient to engage in any important enterprise: and'thus ended the campaign of':1812. Although on many occasions extraordinary gallantry had b;een displayed, yet nothing was accomplished, and the losses sustained were nurnerous and heavy. Those who approved the declaration of war, felt disappointed, mortified, and dejected. Those who were opposed to it, assumed a bolder- tone of censure, and evinced a more determined spirit of opposition. - While, however, defeat and disgrace attended the American arms on land, far different results were witnessed on the ocean. On that great field where were committed the offences which led -to the: wai, they gained a rich harvest of victory and glory. Upon the declaration of war,the American officers and seamen were filled with ardour to avenge the sufferings of their impressed fellow-citizens, and to vindicate the honour of the republican flag. Such ships of war as were ready for sea, imlnediately sailed in search of the, enemy. On the 19th of August, Captain Hull, who commanded the- onstitution. Of forty-fourguns, descried a British frigate; his -crew, giving three cheers, requested lo be placed alongside of their antagonist. - For three quarters of an hour the latter endeavoured, by skilful manceuvring, to obtain -the advantage of position. Defeated in this, she advanced toward the Constitution, firing broadsides at intervals. When she had approached within half pistol shot, a,tremendous cannonade burst upon her from the American frigate. In thirty minutes, every mast and nearly every spar being shot away, she struck her flag.'She Was found to be the Guerriere, of thirty-eight guns, commanded by Captain Dacres, who had -been cruizing in quest of an American frigate. At her mast-head she had displayed her name, and a flag upon which was he taunting inscription, "No Little Belt." Of her crew, fifty were Killed and sixty-four wounded; and the vessel itself was so mulch injured that it was set fire to and blown up.- T'he damage sustained by the Constitution was very slight; of her crew, but seven were killed and seven wounded;' and the ship in a few hours was ready for another action. This battle was the more remarkable, as Great Britain had not for thirty years previ6us lost a frigate in any conflict with a similar equality of force. Congress voted fifteen thousand -dollars to the crew of the Constitution, as a recompense for the loss of their prize, and the officers were promoted. 478 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY.,rhis was only the first of a series of naval victories. On the 18th of October, Captain Jones, in the Wasp, of eighteen guns, captured the Frolic, of twenty-two, after a bloody conflict of three quarters of an hour. In this action, the Americans' obtained a victory'over a force decidedly superior. On their part, but eight were killed and wounded; on that of the enemy,, about eighty; -the Frolic fired as she ros'e upon the water, so that her shot was either thrown away.or but touched the rigging of the Amer ican; the Wasp, on the contrary, fired as she descended; and thus, at every discharge, struck the hull of her.antagonist. On boarding the British vessel, the surprise of the'Americans can scarcely be imagined. They beheld only three officers, and the seaman at the helmi. The deck was slippery with blood, presenting a most awful, scene of havoc and distress.. The colours were still flying-there being no one left to, haul them down, Neither of the vessels,' however, arrived in the United States. They were both captured.' before evening, by a British ship of th-e line. On the 25th, the frigate United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, encountered and captured the British frigate Macedonian.'The former'carried a few gunls the most, but the disparity, of. loss was astonishingly great. On the part of the enemy, a.hundred and four were killed and wounded:' on the part of the'Americaiis, but eleven! The United States brought her prize safely to(New-Yo'rk. The conduct of the American seamen oh this occasion, drew forth a species of praise from the enemy, not less grateful than-that experienced. from their friends., All the private property belonging to the officers and crew of the Macedonian was restored, with the most perfect exactness, and they were treated with the greatest humanity and politeness. A fourth naval battle was fought, and a fourth victory gained, on the 29th of December. On-. that day; the Constitution, of forty-four- guns, then commanded by Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frioate Java, of thirty-eight. The combat was continued with the, utmost, obstinacy, for more than three hours. The Java was reduced to a wreck; of her crew one hundred and sixty-one. were killed and wounded; of that of the Constitution thirty-fotir,. General Hislop, governor of Bombay, having in -charge a body of troops, was passenger on. board-the Java.; that. officer presented Captain Bainbridge' with an elegant sword, as a slight testimoinial for his gentlemanly conduct after the action. On the lakes, some small operations were'this season successfully conducted by the Americans. OIlb in particular, may be mentionedLieutenant Elliott, on Lake'Erie, with great credit to himself projected art undertaking by, which he captured two British armed vessels-the Detroit and the Caledonia. This was merely the precursor of other and more brilliant affairs, shortly to come off upon that and the adjacent inland seas. The exertions of Commodore Channcey, in creating a fleet upon the northern lakes, produced the most beneficial results. in the beginning of October, the Americans had not a single armed vessel on Lake Erie; and their whole force on Lake Ontario was a brig carrying sixteen guns. On the first of November, the commodore had under his command six vessels, mounting altogether thirty-two guns; and although not equal in strength to their opponents, they managed to capture the Prince'Regent schooner of eighteen guns, and put to flight the Royal George of twenty-six. These successive victories were peculiarly gratifying to the nation. They were gained in the midst of disasters'.on' land, and by that. class of citizens whose rights-had been more specially violated; and they were gained over a people-claiming to be lords of the sea, whom long-continued success had rendered haughty and insolent, and -who had confidently boasted that the whole American navy would soon be swept from the oceans A number of British merchantlnen were likewise captured by the THE TREASURY OF HISTCRY. 479 American navy: and privateers issuing from almost every port, many of them bearing flags inscribed "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights," were remarkably successful. The number of prizes made during: the first seven months of the war exceeded five hundred; upwards of fifty of them were armed, carrying nearly six hundred guns. More than three thou sand prisoners were taken. Various reasons have been assigned for the continued success of the American arlns upon the water, The British themselves assert it to be o~wing to'the superior dimensions of their enemy's vessels; but this.catise is not by any, means sufficient to provedthe fact, as all historical eviden'ce contradicts it. The British were formerly almost everywhere victorious, irl spite of the superior force of a few guns. Perhaps the truth may be arrived at, when we consider the manner in which different navies are in the habit of aiming their war-missiles.' The French throw all their shot among the enemy's rigging,, thus hoping to disable him: the. English aim directly for the decks, with the intention to destroy life.; but the Americans pursue a system different from' either-pouring all'their fury against the hull of their antagonist. Thus a single broadside frequently opens their enemy's sides. to the torrents of the ocean, and compels the drowning foe to strike his colours. In the autumn of this year (1812), the quadrennial period forthe election of president and vice-president again recurred.' The candidates were. )on1 one side, the incumbent James. Madison, of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts: on the other, De Witt Clinton, of NewvYork, and Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylvania. Those who opposed the war, were in favour of the latter candidates: those who were called democrrats, supported the former. Great exertions were made-by the partizans of the opposing candidates, and the passions of the people, especially in the middle and northern states, were highly excited. Of the electoral votes given, Mr. Madison received one hundred andltwenty-eight, and Mr. Gerry one hundred and thirty-one, and were elected. Mr. Clinton received eightynine. and Mr Ingersoll eighty-siX. At the commencement of the session of Congress near the close of 1812, the presidenti4in his message, stated that he had received official inforination of the repeal of the orders in council; and that two propositions for an armistice had been made to him, both of which he had rejected, as they could not have been accepted without conceding to Great Britain the right of impressment. The rejection of. these propositions was approved by the national representatives, who, instead of abandoning the ground they had talken, adopted more vigorous measures for the prosecution o'f the war. The bounty and the wages of the soldiers were increased. The president was authorized to raise twenty additional regiments of infantry, to issue treasury notes, and to borrow money. Provision was also made for building four ships of the line, six frigates, and as many vessels of war oni the great lakes as the public service might require. So great was the desire of the citizens of the western'ountry to regain possession of the territory of Michigan, that in order to effect it, General Harrison resolved to undertake a winter campaign. Information was re. ceived that a small body of British and Ilndians-weere stationed At Frenchtown, a village on the river. Raisin, not faF from, Detroit. General Winchester proceeded in advance, with a portion of the western army, and attacked and entirely dispersed the enemy. The Americans'encamped near, the field of battle-, apart of them being protected by close garden pickets: yet, although near an enemy's fort, but little precaution was taken to prevent a surprise. Early in the morning of the 22nd of January, they were attacked by' a large -force of British and Indians, the former commanded by Colonel Proctor, the latter by the chiefs Round-. head and Split-log. The troops in the open field were thrown into disor' 480'TH'E T-TREASURY OF HISTORY. der, and General Winchester and other officers in vain endeaVoured te rally them. They -turned and fled, but in attempting to escape were ntostly killed by the Indians. The General and Colonel Lewis were made plisoners. The troops behind the pickets maintained the contest with undaunted bravery. At length Colonel Proctor assured General Winchester, that if the remainder of the Americans would immediately surrender, they should be protected from massacre; but otherwise he would set fire to the village, and would- not be responsible for the conduct of the savages., Intimidated by-this threat, General Winchester sent an order to the troops to surrender, which they obeyed. "Colonel Proctor; leaving the wounded without a guard, marched back immediately to Mald'en. The Indians accompanied them a few miles, but returned early the next morning. Then followed deeds of horror. The wounded officers were dagged from theq houses, and killed and scalped in the. streets. -The buildings were set on fire, and'many who attempted to escape frotn them were forced back into the flamnes. Others were put to death byrthe tomahawk, and left shockingly mangled in the highway. Bat the infamy of this butcthery should not fall upon the perpetrators alone-it must rest equally upon those who instigated them to hostility-those by whose side they fought, and who-were able, and who were bound bya solemn engagement, to restrain them.: The battle and:massacre at Frenchtown clothed Kentucky and Ohio in mourning. Other volunteers, indignant at the treachery and cruelty of their foes, hastened to the aid of Harrison. Having twelve hundred men, he marched' to the rapids of the Miami, where he erect d a fort which was called Fort Meigs, lin' honour of the governor of Ohio. On the firstof May, it was invested by a large number of Indians, an,' by a party of British troops from Malden, the whole commanded by Ce0.. Proctor. Five days afterwards, General Clay, at the- head of'twelve hundred Kentuckians, made an attempt to raise the siege. Dividing lhis force into several parties, and making an impetuous onset, he drol:e the besiegers from their works. His troops supposing the victory: complete, and disregarding the orders of their commander, dispersed into the woods; which the enemy observing, returned from their flight, and obtained an easy victory. Of the Americans, two or three hundred escaped into the fort; about three hundred were killed or made prisoners-and the remainder fled to the nearest settlements.. The loss dof the enemy,,was very considerable. The fort continued to be defended with bravery and skill. The Indians, unaccustomed to seiges, became weary -and discontented; and on the 8th of May, notwithstanding the entreaties of their chief, Tecumseh, they deserted their allies. On the 9th, the enemy, despairing of success, made a precipitate retreat. General'Harrison, leaving General Clay in command, returned to Ohio.for reinforcements; but in this quarter active operations were not resumed until a squadron had been built and prepared for action on Lake Erie., At Sackettl'si Harbour, on the northeirn frontier, a body ot troops had been assembled under the command of General Dearborn; and great exertions were made, by Commodore Chauncey, to build and equip a squadron on Lake Ontario, sufficiently powerful to contend with that ot the enemy. By the 25th of April, the naval preparations were so far completed that- the general, and seventeen hundred troops; were- conveyed -across the lake to the attack of York (now'Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. On the 27th, an advanced party, led on by Brigadier-general Pike, who was born in a camp and bred a soldier from his birth, landed, although opposed at the water's edge by a: superior force. After a short but severe conflict, the enemywere driven to their fortifications. -The rest oi the troops having ianded, the whole party pressed forward-carried the first battery by assault, and were moving towards the main works. when THE TREASURYl OF HIST'ORY. 481 the enemy's magazine, containing five hundred barrels of gunpowder, blew up, with a tremendous explosion, hurling upon the advancing troops immense quantities of stone-and timber. Upwards of three hundred men were killed and wounded; their leader, the brave GeneralPike, was mortally wounded.'He retained to the last, however, the spirit of a soldier and commander; " Move on,- my brave fellows," was his first exclamation, "axnd avenge your- general.". With three cheers, in the midst of the carnage, they pressed forward, and speedily drove the enemy fro'm all their intrenchments, and gaiped possession of the,town. The British loss in men, amounted to seven hundred and:eighty. The public property-destroyed was very considerable;'and that which was transferred uninjured to the Americans, was considered worth at least half a million of dollars. — When the flag that had waved over, the fort was brought to the dying General Pike, with an expression of triumph on his countenance he made signs for it to be placed under his.head, and contentedly expired. An attack on Fort George, arid Fort Erie, unsuccessfully attempted the year before, was the next thing to be undertaken. Accordingly, on the morning of the 28th, generals Dearborn and Lewis embarked. with their whole force, amounting to four thousand men. The advance, under Col. Scott, consisting of five hundred; were exposed in approaching the shore to incessant volleys of musketry, from a large body of regulars stationed in a ravine; yet they-faltered. not, and no Isooner were they formed on Ihe beach, than they were led to the -charge- and dispersed. the enemy. Meanwhile the works on each side of the river were. furiously -engaged. Fort George being in a short time rendered untenable, the British laid, trains- to their magazines and hastily retired.'The Americani light corm panies instantly took possession of the abandoned works-captains Hyndman and Stockton entering first, and- extinguishing the fire intended to create the-explosion. The -former withdrew a match at the imminent hazard of his life. Before twelve o'clock, the whole of the fortifications'in that quarter were surmounted by the American flag; the enemy having lost, in killed and wounded, above two hundred and fifty men, besides six hundred prisoners. Their antagonists had only thirty-nine killed, and a hundred and eight wounded.. - A few days afterwards, it became known that a body of fifteen hundred English, under General Vincent, had encamped on the heights at the head of Burlington bay. A superior force was therefore dispatched, under generals Chandler and Winder, to reconnoitre, and to cut off the escape of the enemy. Strangely enough, this force was surprised in the night with an onset from the British, the sentinels being bayonetted on their posts without giving an alarm. A complete rout ensued, in which boththe -American'generals were taken prisoners. The British finding two pieces of artillery limbered, drove them off, hastily overturned the others, and made good their retreat: with but little loss. This misfortunelto the republicans was soon followed by another. Lieutenant-colonel Boerstiler, having been sent with five hundred men to disperse a body of the enemy collected at the Beaver Dams, was surrounded, and the whole detachment made prisoners. General Dearborn having for some time laboured under a severe indisposition, now retired from service, assigning Fort George to the care of Col. Boyd. The American army soon afterwards experienced a severe reverse, by an irrational attack on a British party stationed at Le Cosse's House, about seventeen miles from the fort; and on the 8th of July, a general skirmish ensued; -without any advantage remaining on either side. FIom the peculiar character of Indian warfare, and the constant harassing, sustained by the Americans, Col. Boyd deemed it prudent to adopt measures for: guarding against it: the services of the Seneca nation wer31 - 482 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. therefore accepted, and about four hundred warriors, commanded by tne chiefiCornmplanter, were put under'arms. While the greater part -of the American army was thus employed in Canada, the British made an attack upon the important post of Sackett's Harbour.' On the 27th of'May, their squadron appeared before the town. Alarm guns instantly assembled the citizens of the neighbourhood. General Brown, of the New-York militia, commanded in chief, his whole forge -arhunting to about one thousand men. By his orders a slight breastwork was hastily thrown up, at the only place where the enemy could land, Behind'this he placed the militia, and the regulars under Colonel Backus formed'the second line. On the morning of the 29th, one thousand British troops landed from the squadron, and advanced towards the breastwork. The militia, seized with a sudden panic, fled-in confusion, Colonel Mills, in a vain attempt'to rally them,'being mortally wounded. The regulars, after a spirited resistance, were compelled to retire towards the town; but in their retreat they took possession of the houses on the road, and from these coverts they poured so destructive a fire upon the British column, that it halted and fell back. General Brown, by a stratagem, converted this slight check into a precipitate flight: collecting the panic-struck militia, he directed their course along a road which, while it led-from the village, appeared to the British commander to lead to the place of landing. Perceiving them tnarqhing with great speed, he suppo-sed that their object was to cut off his retreat, and he re-embarked so hastily as to leave behind-most of his wounded, General Brown, in recompense for his services, was appointed a brigadier in-the regular army. Meanwhile, upon the coast, a distressing and predatory war was. carried on, by large detachments from the powerful navy of Great Britain. One squadron, stationed in Delaware Bay, captured and burned every,merchant vessel which.came within its reach. The inhabitants of Lewistown, in, the state of Delaware, having refused to sell provisions to the enemy,. the village was bombarded, and several attempts were made to land-'but they were defeated by the militia. In Chesapeake Bay, another and more, powerful squadron had arrived, early in the spring. It was under the command of Admiral Cockburn —a notorious and disgraceful person, whose name will ever be considered a stain among the officers of his country. - He, disregarding the honourable modes of warfare, directed his efforts principally against unoffending citizens and peaceful villages. Instead of -seeking to advance the interests- of Great Britain in any manner, he sought simply to; stir up enmity and hatred wherever he went, and planted as spirit of revenge which in many sections rankles still. The farm houses and gentlemen's seats near the shore were plun dered, and the cattle driven away or in mere wantonness slaughtered. Frenchtown, Havre de, Grace, Fredericktown, and Georgetown, were sacked and burned. Norfolk was only saved from a similar fate, by the determined bravery of a small force stationed on Craney Island, in the harbour. A fiurious attack was made upon Hampton, which, notwithstanding the gallant resistance of its small garrison, was captured, and the unfortunate inhabitants suffered all which a brutal and unrestrained soldiery could. inflict. The ocean, in the meantime,had been the theatre of sanguinary conflicts, in which the victors gained untarnished laurels. Captain Lawrence, in the sloop of war Hornet, discovering in the neutral port of San Salvador a British sloopof war, of superior force, challenged her commander to meet him at sea. The challenge being declined, Captain Lawrence block aded the port, until forced by a ship of the line to retire. Soon: after, meeting an English brig of ten guns, he captured her, and with her above t20,00,0 in specie. The next day the Hornet steered for Demerara, and -hortl- etl ounte.red a Jarge British national armed brig, the Peacock, TIHE,TREASTJRY OF HISTORY. 483 Captain Lawrence instantly engaged her, and the combat continued for fifteen minutes with great-fury-when the enemy struck-her colours, and displayed at the same'time.a signal of distress. TFhe Ameri6ahs instantly endeavoured now to save the vanquished; but such' was the- shattered condition of the Peacock, that in spite of all their'effQrts-to rescue her seamen, it could be but partially effected-she welt down, carryinfg with her nine British' sailors and three of the..brave Americans who were'endeavouring to assist them.- In the battle, the loss: of the Hornet was but one killed and two w'ounded-that-of the Peacock was never ascertained. On his ieturn to the United States, Captain Lawrence was -proinoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake, then in'the harbour of Bostor.. For several weeks the Britisfh frigate Shannon, of equal force but having a selected crew, had been cruizing before the port; and -Captain'Brooke, her- commander, had announced'his wish to meet,: in single, combat, an American frigate. Inflamed by this challenge, Captain-Lawrence, although his crew were just enlisted, and his officers were strangers to hih and to each other, set sail, on the first of June, in pursuit ot the Shannon. Toward evening on the same day, they met, and engaged instantly, with. unexampled fury. In a very few minutes, and in quick'succession, the sailing-master of the Chesapeake was killed, and Captain' Lawrence and three lieutenants were severely wounded; her-rigging, was so cut to pieces that she fell on board the Shannon, her chest of arms blew up, and Captain Lawrence,' receiving a second and mortal wound, was carried below At this instant, the, position of the ships being favourable, Captain Bro.oke, at the' head of his marines, gallantly boarded the Chesapeake; when, every officer who could take command being killed or wounded, resistance ceased, and the American flag was struck by the enemy. The victory, however, was not achieved without loss.' Of the crew of the Shannon, twenty-four were killed and fifty-six wounded. Of that of the Chesapeake, forty-eight were killed and nearly one hundred wounded. When the intrepid Lawrence learned the fate of his ship, he became delirious with excess of mental and bodily suffering. His proud spirit was broken; and during the four days'he continued to live, almost the.only words he uttered, were, "Don't give up the ship!"-an expression Which has since been consecrated by his countrymen.. CaptainsLawrence and Lieutenant Ludlow'were both interred by the British at Halifax, with every honour-civil,'naval, and military. Subsequently, a passport being obtained from the gentlemanly commander on that station, Commodore Hardy, the remains of the two officers were brought to the United States, by Mr. Crowninshield, of Salem, in his own barge,, manned by. twelve masters of vessels. Great were the exultations of the government party in London, on the inews of this action. Victories.over the frigates of other nations were occurrences too common to excite emotion; but the capture of an American frigate was considered a glorious epoch in the naval history of Great Britain. Captain Brooke received the honour of knighthood, and altogether the rewards and honours bestowed upon him were such as had never before been received but by the conqueror of a squadron. These demonstrations of triumph were- inadvertent confessions of American superiority; and they were, to the vanquished, themselves, a species of triumph, and a source of consolation. On the 4th of August, another American vessel was captured by the Btitish. The Argus sloop of war had that misfortune; she was cruizilig in the British channel, committing depredations upon the enemy's shipping, when several men-of-war were sent in quest of her. -The Pelican, a vessel of her own -class, but of- slightly superior force, descried and encountered her; at the first broadside, Captain Allen, of the Argus, fell, severely wounded; Lieutenant Watson, on whom the command devolved, 484 THE TfREASURY OF HISTORY. was Inext renaered unfit for service; midshipmen Delphy and Edwards, both died of their wounds-and after a severe and prolonged action of above thi ee hours, the vessel surrendered. Shortly after this, victory turned again in favour of the republicans. The American brig Enterprize, commanded' by Lieutenant Burroughs, met, when a few days out on a cruize, the British brig Boxer, of the-same or a more available force. Here, again, the- superior manceuvring of the Americans was made manifest: the Enterprize lost' but one man killed and thirteen wounded; while the loss of the Boxer was much'greater Both commanders, however, were slain; Captain,Blythe,'of the Boxer being killed, while Lieutenant Burroughs was the one lost by the Ameri. cans. They were buried side by- side, due honours being rendered, in Portland, Maine. The events of the war again call our. attention to the northwestern frontie'r.,While each ination -Vas busily employed in equipping a squad ronr on Lake Erie,,General Clay remained inactive at Fort Meigs. About the last of July, a large number of British, and Indians appeared before the fort, hoping to entice the garrison to a general action in the field. After waiting a few days without succeeding, they decamped, and proceeded to- Fort Stephenson, on- the river Sandusky. This fort was little more than a picketing surrounded by a ditch;'and the garrison: consisted of but one hundred and sixty -men, who were commanded by Major Croghan, a youth of twenty-one. On the 1st of August, it was invested by five hundred regulars and eight hundred Indiais. After a cannonade, which continued two days, the enemy, in the evening, supposing a breach had been made, advanced to, assault the works. Anticipating this, Major Croghan had planted a six pounder, the only piece of cannon in the fort, in a position to enfilade the ditch. It was loaded with grape shot and slugs, and was discharged the instant the assailants -arrived before it. The British commander and many of his men were killed, and many others severely wounded. The attack was again renewed, and they were again as fatally repulsed; when the remainder retreated in haste and disorder to their'former position, and at dawn of day retired to Malden. The youthful Croghan; for his valour and good conduct, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel; and he and his brave companions received the thanks of Congress. To complete the triumph of the victor, the ladies of Chilicothe presented him with an elegant sword. In the meantime, by the exertions of Commodore Perry, an American squadron had been prepared for service on Lake Erie. It consisted of nine small vessels, carrying in all fifty-four guns. A British squadron had also been built and equipped, under the superintendence of Commodore Barclay,; this fleet consisted of six vessels, mounting sixty-three guns. Commodore Perry, immnediately sailing; offered battle to his' adversary. On the 10th of September, the British comm ander,-having wind in favour, left- the harbour of,Malden to accept that offer. In a few hours the wind shifted,'giving the Amnericans the advantage. Perry, forming the line of battle, hoisted his flag, on which were inscribed the Words of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" Loud huzzas from all the vessels, proclaimed the animation with which this motto inspired their patriotic crews. About noon the firing commenced; but the wind being light, the Lawrence, the commodore's flag ship, was the only American vessel that could, at first, engage in close action. For two hours she contended alone with two vessels, each nearly her equal in force. All but seven of her crew were either killed or wounded, and she, by the damage she'had received, was rendered wholly unmanageable. The wind springing up, Captain Elliott was enabled to bring his vessel, the Niagara, into'action To this ship Commodore Perry, sailing in an open boat through the thickest of the. fire, transferred' his flag. Again the combat raged with undi THei TREASURY OF HISTORY. 48b,ilnished fury. In a short time, one of the British vessels surrewldered, and soon -after-another; and the rest of the American squadron now joining in the action, the victory was rendered decisive and complete. At four o'clock, the.bravwe and fortunate commander despatched to General Harrison, at Fort Meigs, this laconic epistle: " We have'met the enemy and they are.ours."- - Great was the joy which this brilliant victory occasioned throughout the Unionl. That it was achieved over asuperior force —that it was the first'ver'gained over a squadron-that it was entirely decisive-and -that it opened a way to the recovery of all that had'been lost by the defeat of the imbecile General- Hull —were circumstances which threw' every other victory into. the shade, and cast the brightest lustre upon the characters of the heroes who had gained it. At every place which he visited, the gallant Perry received the most flattering proofs of a, natioh's gratitude and love. The American-s were now masters of the lake; but a part of their territbry was yet in possession of the British, which General Harrison immediately set about recovering. The vessels conveyed him: and his troops (amounting to about seven thousand men) across the lake to Amherstburgh, from whence they proceeded to occupy Detroit and Fort Malden, which they did without opposition, the British general having evacuated the latter place and destroyed the stores. The enemy had passed Detroit on their retreat, and ascended the, river Thames to the Moravian villages,'where they encamped. They were pursued by General Harrison'with three thousand five hundred picked troops, consisting of Colonel Johnson's mounted regiment, Colonel Ball's dragoons, and Goverrior Shelby's Kentucky volunteers. On the 5th of October they were overtaken',and forced into battle; when the Americans, greatly outnumbering the enemy, were perfectly triumphant. But the death on this occasion of the chief Tecumiseh, who was the most'subtle,. brave, eloquent; and -formidable of Indian warriors, was without doubt a more completely irreparable loss that the, British had yet sustained. He was better able to concentraie, command, and guide sagaciously the savage forces, than any warrior who had preceded him. It is said that he met his fate under.the following circumstances: Colonel Johnson, of Kentucky, had resolved if possible,to engage him; dressed, therefore, in a showy uniform, and mounted upon a large white horse, he cut his way through the melee directly to where the chief was encouraging his people-who were then fighting with more indomitable and obstinate courage than had yet been witnessed in them —and endeavoured to'attract his attention. The chief turning, dis charged his rifle at the approaching foe, and drew his tomahawk with-the intefintion to dispatch him at once. Covered with wounds and blood, the colonel still. approached, —when Tecumseh paused a momenit, seeming surprized at the appearance of his adversary. That pause proved fatal-~ for in it Colonel Johnson drew a pistol and discharged its contents through his-body. The Indians- no longer hearing the stentorian voice of their leader. fled in confusion, and the rout Was complete.- The American loss was but fifty; that of- the B1ritish seventy, besides six hundred prisoners: the Indians left one hundred' and twenty dead on the field, and those who escaped could not be gathered together again in battle.- Stationing General Cass with a thousand men at Detroit,;Harrison now returned to Buffalo, intending according to his instructions,-to co-operate with the army of the centre in effecting what appeared to be the grand object. of the American governnient, the conquest of Canada. Recent victory had increased the confidence of the administration, and revived the' martial spirit of the people. A larger force than at any former period was collected along the northern frontier, and placed under the command of generals Wilkinson and Hampton, officers then highly esteemed for 486 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. their military information, as well as warlike taste and abilities. [h charge of the war office, was General Armstrong, a man held in distin guished consideration for his courtly experience, his familiarity with arms and tactics, and his thoroughly American spirit. Strangely, indeed, does it sound, when we are told that with:aLl these advantages just nothirng could be accomplished. Eight thousand men stood upon their arms on the northern frontier, exclusive of Harrison's four thousand, who were ordered to rendezvous at Plattsburgh, all waiting for the word of command to march upon Montreal.' At length, after-a very tedious course of preparations, it-camel: the secretary of war himself arrived and, reviewed the troops, delivering his instructions. At Grenadier -Island, on Lake Ontario, the flotilla was prepared which was intended to transport the armed array to the capture of Montreal, and every thing was in motion dire-ctly. On the 5th of November, they were finally got under,way. But nov' it appeared that bodies of the enemy had been gathered together at every convenient point upon their route, well prepared to harass- and dispute with them their passage. -To disperse them, a body of troops under the commnand of General Brown was landed, and directed to march in advance of the boats. At Chrystler's Fields, on the 11th of November, a body of the enemy of about the same force, was encountered, and the battle which ensued was'fought with resolute bravery on both sides. Both parties claimed the victory. The American loss was greatest, but as -they drove the en'emy from their position, and enabled the flotilla to pass un molested, it is but fair to allow that they accomplished all they intended. The next day the troops arrived at St. Regis. At this- place General Hampton had been ordered to: join the main army, and no doubt had been entertained of his- disposition and ability to comply with the order. But here, General Wilkinson learned, with surprise and mortification, that the contemplated junction would not take place. The project of attacking Montreal was consecquently-abandoned, and the'army under Wilkinson marched to Frenchtown Mills, and there encamped for the winter. Great indignation -followed this'abortive issue of the campaign; the se, verest censure fell upon Qeneral Armstrong, for having associated two such officers as Wilkinson and Hampton, between whom there was a well known spirit of animosity existing. The latter soon after resigned his commission;in the army, and General Izard was selected in his stead, to command the post' at Plattsburgh. The injury suffered by the United States on account of this trifling, did not end altogether in disappointment. Failing in the extension of their territory, they were dispossessed of their former acquisitions on the Ca. nadign shore. Fort George was abandoned-but before leaving it, the officer in charge was guilty of an act which provoked a lamentable retaliation from the British. He crossed over to the handsome village of Newark, and sacked and left it in flames. Sir George Prevost, in return, surprised Fort Niagara, with its garrison of about three hundred, and put nearly every man of them to the sword.' Not satisfied with this, his myrmidons forthwith began to ravage and lay waste the country, burning in their courseLewistown, Manchester, Youngstown, the Indian village of,he Tuscaroras, and Buffalo. In the beginning of tlbis year, 1813, the emperor of Russia had offered,is mediation to the two powers at war. On the'part of the United States the'-offer was promptly, accepted, and Messrs. Adams, Gallatin, and Bafard, were appointed commissioners to negotiate, at St. -Petersburgh, a peace under the proffered mediation. On the 24th of May, Congress was =onvened'by proclamation of' the president. Laws were enacted imposng a direct tax.of three millions of dollars; authorizing the collection of arious internal duties; providing for a loan of seven and a half millions THE,TREASURY OF HISTORY. 4li? of dollars; and prohibiting the- rerch'ant vessels of the United States fromi sailing under British licenses. Near the close of the session, a committee appointed. to inquire into the subject, made:a long report upon the spirit and manner in which the war had been commenced and conducted by- the enemy. Many proofs weie presented of shameful departures from the rules of warfare observed by civilized nations. In September, Commodore Chauncey made two cruizes upon Lake Ontario, and repeatedly offered battle to the enerimy's squadron, which was of superior force;:but Sir James Yeo, the commander, intimidated by the result of the battle on -Lake Erie, retired before him., On one occasion, however,'in a running fight, the British ships sustained considerable injury: but-the inconsiderable breadth of the -,passage- which separates the frontiers in the neighbourh'od of the several forts, allowed the British to cross over in their small boats, and therefore rendered naval superiority in' a great measure unavailing, After the failure of the campaign against the British provinces, the northern army renmained in winter quarters until the latter end of February. The troops were then divided, two thousand men being ordered with General Brown to Sackett's Harbour, and the remainder returning to Plattsburgh with General Wilkinson. The latter oflicer, not feeling sat isfied with his exploits in Canada, on the 15th of March ensuing, at the head of four thousand Kmeln, re-crossed the Canadian lines, and attacked a fortified stone house known as La Collle Mill, which was garrisoned by about two thousand. After a persevering assault, in which the besiegers suffered severely, they were obliged to retire. This-event, in connection with! other unfortunate operations;ciused 4the administration to suspend General Wilkinson fromn any further command. The impolicy of carrying on offensive war, for the purpose of conquei ing a British province, was becoming every day more and more apparent. Militia and volunteers could be assembled for defence; but regulars only were suitable for purposes of invasion-and recruits for the regular service Camne fo)rward with reluctance, because the name of an enlisted soldier was held in disrepute. Inexperience in commissarial affairs, also, had promoted waste and disappointment-: at one time the soldiers were furnished with exuberance, at another left destitute of a sufficiency. The expendituro was!thus three times larger than the ministerial estimates, and the consumption of regular soldiers greater than could be balanced by recruiting. No expedient was left untried, however, to keep up the establishment: the enormous bounty of one hundred and twenty-four dollars was offered to recruits, the regular pay was increased, and future benefits' in lands tendered: millions of acres were for this purpose surveyed in Illinois and Missouri, one- hundred and sixty acres being apportioned to each private, with a, corresponding increase' to subordinate officers. At sea, no event'of importance had lately transpired, Captain Rogers, who commanded the frigate President, returned from a long cruize, having captured eleven merchantmen; but he met no armed vessels, the capture of which could enhance his reputation. Captain Porter, in the Essex, rode triumphant over the Pacific ocean, annoying the trade of the enemy, and protecting that of the republic. In the southwestern extremity of the Union, troubles of a serious na ture were demanding the attention of government. The influence of Tecumseh had been felt among the Indians there, and many of them were persuaded that the Great Spirit required of them to attempt the extirpation of the whites on their borders. The Creeks and Seminoles, in particular, were carrying on a ciuel war against the frontier inhabitants of Geortgia General Jackson, therefore, at the head of two thousand five hundred volunteers from Tennessee, marched into the country of the In 488 THE THRE ASURY OF HISTORY. dians. Overawed by his presence, they for a time desisted from h'ostilities; but immediately after his return, their animosity burst forth with increased and fatal.violence. To escape their cruelty, about three hundred men,'women, and children, sought safety at Fort Mimms, in the Tensaw settlement. Yet, notwithstanding they had received frequent warnings of an intended attack, on the 30th of August, at noonday, they were sutrprisedqby. a party of six hundred Indians, who with'axes cut their way into the fort, and drove- the people into the houses which it enclosed. These they set on fire.. Many persons were burned, and many killed by the tomahawk. Only seventeen escaped to carry the horrid tidings to the neighbouriing stations. The whites resolved on vengeance. Again General Jackson, at the head of three thousand five hundred militia of Tennessee, marched into the southern wilderness. A detachment under General Coffee encountered, at Tallushatchie, a body of Indians, and a sanguinary conflict ensued. tThe latter fought with desperation, neither giving nor receiving quarter, until nearly every warrior had perished. At Talladega, another battle was fought, in which- three hundred Indians were killed, and the rest of the party, exceeding seven. hundred, fled. General Jackson's provisions being exhausted, he' was unable -to pursue them. While on his return to the settlements to obtain a supply, his troops became refractory,- and even mutinous': niearly all returned to their homes; but to the small' number that remained, were soon'added a reinforcement of one thousand mounted volunteers. With this force he marched to Emuckfaw, within a bend of -the Tallapoosa, where a body of the enemy were posted. To several skirmishes succeeded a general battle, in which the whites were victorious, but sustained considerable loss. For the relief of the wounded, Jackson returned to Fort Strother, where the volunteers were discharged.. General White, from East Tennessee, and General Floyd, from Georgia, led separate expeditions against the Indians, and were victorious in every combat. So enraged were the savages, that but few would accept of quarter or seek safety in retreat. Y'ett.still was the spirit of the Creeks unsubdued, and their faith in. victory unshaken. With no little sagacity and'skill, they selected and fortified another position on the Tallapoosa, called by themselves Tohopeka, and by the whites. Horse-shoe Bend. Here nearly a thousand wariiors, animated with a fierce and determined resolution, were collected. Three thousand men, com'manded by General Jackson, marched to attack this post. To prevent escape, a detachment under General Coffee, encircled the Bend'. The' main body, keeping within it, advanced to the fortress. For a few minutes, the opposing forces were engaged, muzzle to muzzle, at the port holes. Soon the. troops, leaping over the walls, mingled with the savages, and the combat became fu~rious and sanguinary. The Indians, fleeing at length.to the river, beheld. the' troops on the opposite banks Returning, they fought with increased fury and desperation, and continued to resist until' night. Six hundied warriors were killed; four only yielded themselves prisoners; the remaining' three hundred escaped. Of the whites, fifty-five were killed, and one hundred and forty-six wounded. It was expected that another stand'would be made, by the Indians, at a place called the Hickory Ground, and thither General Jackson marched, in April. The principal chiefs came. out to meet him, and, aniong them was, Wetherford, a half-blood, -distinguished equally for his talents and his cruelty' "I am in your power," said he, "do with me what vou please. I commanded at Fort Mimms. I have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought then, and fought them bravely. There was a time Nwhen I had a choice;' I have none now-even hope is s-nded. Once I could animate my warriors, bus I cannot animate' the dead. They THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 489 call no longer hear iny voice; their bones.are at Tallushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfaw, anid Tohopeka. - While; there was a chance of success, 1 never supplicated peace;, but my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation,and myself." Peace Was concluded, and the successful general and his- brave troops enjoyed an honourable though a shortrepose. In the winter,of-1813-14, -the fifteenth Congress held a second session. Warlike measures were of course the only ones of consequence adopted, and'to enforce their vigorous prosecution, the president was authorizedto borrow'twenty-five. millions of dollars - and to issue treasury notes to the amount of five millions. Before the close, of the session, a communlcation was received from the British government announcing its readiness to treat for peace, although declining the mediation of Russia..'A direct negotiation at London or Gottenburgh was proposed, instead, which the American government frankly accepted, and chose the latter place, for which, howvever, Ghent was afterwards substituted. Henry Clay, and Jonathan Russell, Esqrs., were named as commissioners additional to those already in Europe.'Mr. Clay was at that time the popular speaker of the House of Representatives, which station he relinquished in consequence of this appointment, and the vacant chair was filled by Langdon Cheves, of South Carolina. Meantime, information was received of the stupendous events which had recently occurred in Europe. The Emperor of France had been arrested in his victorious career, his armies being expelled from Spain, and lefeated at Leipsic, and himself compelled to abdi'cate the throne and retire to the island of Elba. Louis the XVIII. was proclaimed king o! France:- and Great Britain, at peace with all the world except the United States, was enabled to direct- against them alone the immense, force which had been employedkto crush her rival. She delayed not to use the advan tages afforded by her go-od fortune., From the ports of conquered France,' ships of war and transports bearing veteran and victorious troops, sailed to the American continent, some destined to the Niagara frontier, and some to the Atlantic coast.; These events could not be viewed with in difference by the American people. The friends of the administration anticipated a severer conflict and prepared.for greater sacrifices and greater'Sufferings. Its opposers were encouraged to make more vigorous efforts to wrest the reins of authority from men who, they asserted, had shown themselves incompetent to hold them. Their efforts, although condemned by a great majority of the people, diminished in no slight degree the strength of the Republic.,In the beginning of July, General Brown, who had been assiduously employed in disciplining his troops, crossed the Niagara with about three thousand men, and without being opposed took possession of:Fort Erie. In a strong position a'few miles distant, at Chippewa, was intrenched an equal number of British'troops, commanded by General Riall. On the 4th, General Brown approached their works. The next day the two armies met, in the open field, and obstinate and bloody was the conflict. The' Americans were finally victorious: the enemy having sustained the loss of five hundred men, sought safety behind their intrenchments. This decisive victory, achieved after so many reverses, was hailed as an omen of,future success. Soon afterwards General Riall abandoned his works, and retired to the heights of Burlington. Here Lieutenant-general Drummond, with a large reinforcement joined him, and assuming the command, led back the army towards the American camp. On the 25th, was fought the battle of Bridgewater, which began before sun-set and continued until midnight. This battle was fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose roai was rivalled by the thunder of cannon and the din of-arms, but'iwas. distinctly heard during the pauses of the fight. At intervals the moon shone brightly. I-90 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. but often her -light was obscured. Against a superior force, the Amen. cans for-several hours contended with various success. During the first part of the engagement, they were sorely annoyed, into whatever part ol the field they mightdrive the enemy or be driven, by the British artillery, which was stationed on a commanding eminence. "Can'you storm that battery'" said General Ripley to Colonel Miller. " I'll try, sir," was the laconic answer-which afterwards became the motto of his'regiment. At the word-of command, his men with steady -courage ascended the- hill, advancel to the muzzles of the cannon, killed with the bayonet several artillery-men on the point of firing'their pleces, and drove the remainder before them. Both parties were -instantly reinforced, and the enemy made a daring attempt to regain-their cannon. They were repulsed, but quickly repeated the attempt. Nearly all the opposing forces were gath ered around this position, and to possess it was the sole object of both armies. Again the enemy were repulsed-but again they renewed the effort: after a violent conflict they were a third time driven from the hill. The firing then ceased'; the'British troops were withdrawn; and the Americans were left inquiet possession of the field. Generals Brown and Scott having both been severely wounded. the command devolved upon General Ripley. He remained-a few hours upon the hill, collected the wounded, -and -then returned unmolested to his camp. The number of the-killed and-wounded proves the bravery, of the combatants, and the severity of the: struggle. On the American side it was eight hundred and fifty-eight;, on the British, one hundred more, and of the latter one hundred and seventeen more were missing than of the -former. The -British;, therefore, besides losing their position, sustained the greater loss of men.. - During'this battle, in the evening, Captain Ambrose Spencer, son of the chief-justice of New-York, and aid to General Brown, was dispatched with orders to one of the regiments; when about to deliver them, he suddenly found- himself in contact with a British corps; with consummate coolness, and a firm air, he enquired" What regiment is this -' On being answered, the, Royal Scots, he immediately replied, " Royal Scots, remain a' you are." The commandant of the corps, supposing the orders came from the British general, instantly halted his regiment, and Captain Spen 2er rode off. This brave officer was afterwards mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. Captain Loring, the aid of General Drummond, was taken prisoner by the Americans-and was exchanged for the corpse of Captair, Spence.. Here, to show how diametrically opposite were the dispositions of the British and American commanding officers, we beg leave to -subjoin the substance of a brief correspondence held between them on this occasion CA-MP, BEPORE CHIPPEWA, July 27th, 1814. 5 Your wounded aid, Mr. Spencer, is in my possession. Send Captain Lorin,, and you can have him. GORDON DRUMMOND, Alaj. Gen., H -B. M. S FORT ERrE, IR'- - -. July 29th, 1814. ~ Your aid, C(aptain Loring, is here, quite well and comfortable. If Captain Spencer is able to be removed, I will gladly make the exchange. The bearer of this is the brother of my aid; I pray you to let him-superintend -the removal of the wounded man to the American lines, as his life is very dear to me., Any kindness you- can render him will be thankfully acknowledged by me; and your aid returned, wlhether mile shall arrive dead or alive. --. JAC. BROWN, Maj. Gen., Tr. S..J THE TREASURY OF HLSTORY 491 Captain Spencer died about the time of the arrival of his brother —not navingfbeen at-all able to bear removal.. General Drummond, however, considered the, arrangement for an exchange complete, and -General Brown, soliciting permission froni the secretary at war, was authorized to make it. General Ripley found his force so'- much weakened, that. he" deemed it prudent again to occupy Fort Erie.' On the 4th of August, -it was invested by General Drummond with five thousand troops. In defendinglit, no less bravery and skill were requisite, and no less weredisplfayed, than in contending in the field. In the night between the 14th and 15th, the besiegers made an assault upon the fort, which was repelled with conspicu. ous gallantry by the g;arrison,the former losing more than nine hundred men, the latter but eighty-four. The siege was still continued. On the 2nd of'September, General Brown, having recovered from his wounds, threw himself into the fort, and took command of the garrison.'For their fate great anxiety was felt by -the nation, which was, however, in some degree removed, by the march from Plattsburgh of five'thousand men to their relief. On the 17th, a sortie was made by the besieged; General Porter of the New-York militia, and General Miller of the'regular army, commanding divisions'. The bravery of the troops equalled that which they had displayed in the recent contests. After-an hour of close fighting, they returned to the fort, having killed, wounded, and taken prisoners, one thousand -of the enemy. The American loss was also severe, amounting to near five hundred. On the 21st- of September, the fortky-ninth day of the siege, General Drummond withdrew his forces, relieving the garrison- from their toil, which had been incessant, and from their danger, which had been encountered-without fear.' Seldom- have troops deserved higher praise of their country. On the 9th of October, General Izard arrived with the reinforcement from Plattsburgh, and being the senior officer, took command. On the 18th, he marched, with his whole force, in pursuit of the enemy, whom be found at Chippewa, strongly posted in a fortified camp. After making several unsuccessful attempts to entice them into the field, he evacuated Canada, and placed his troops in winter quarters at Buffalo,, Black' Rockand Batavia. - The march of the troops from Plattsburgh having left that post almost defenceless, the enemy determined to attack it'by land, and at the same time to attempt the destruction of the American flotilla on Lake Chanu plain. On the 3d of September, Sir George Prevost, the governor-general.of Canada, with an army of fourteen thousand men, most of whom had served in the -wars of Europe, entered the territories of the United States. As soon as his object was ascertained, Brigadfier-general Macomb, the commander at Plattsburgh, called to his aid the militia of New-York and Vermont, who, with alacrity and without distinction of party, obeyed the call. On the 6th, the enemy arrived at Plattsburgh, which is situated near Lake Champlain, on the- northerly bank of the small river Saranac. On their approach, the American troops, who were posted on the opposite bank, tore up the planks of the bridges, with which they formed slight breastworks, and prepared to dispute the passage qf the stream. Several attempts to cross it were made by the enemy, but they.were uniformly defeated. From this time until the 11th, the British army were employed in erecting batteries, while the Americah forces were every hour augmented by the arrival of volunteers and militia. Early in the morning of that day, the British squadron, commanded by Commodore Downie, appeared off the harbour of Plattsburgh, where that of the United States, commanded by Commodore McDonough, lay at anchor, prepared for battie. The American squadron consisted of fourteen vessels, carrying eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty-six men. The British coneisted of seventeen vessels, with ninety-five guns and one thousand anti ,492 TiTH T tEASURY OF HISTORY. fifty men. At nine o'clock the battle commenced-and seldom li: s t'ie ocean witnessed a more furious encounter than now took. place on the bosom of this.transparent and peaceful lake. At the same moment the enemy on land began a heavy cannonade upon the American lines, and attempted, at different places, to- cross the Saranac. At a ford above the Village the strife was hot and deadly. As often as the enemy advanced into the water they received a destructive fire from the militia, and their dead bodies floated down the strear literally crimsoned with blood. At half past eleven, a shout of victory was heard along the American lines, announcing the result of the battle on the lake. A second British squadron had yielded to the prowess of American seamen. -The cry animated, to braver deeds their brethren on the land. Fainter and fainter became the efforts of the ene,my; and in the afternoon they withdrew to their intrenchments. In the night they began-a precipitate retreat, and had fled eight miles before their departure was known in the American camp. - Upon land, the American'loss was one hundred and nineteen that of the British was estimated at two thousand five hundred:. In this latter number, however, are included.five hundred British soldiers who deserted from the retreating army, preferring a residence in this country to service in the British line, On the water, the American loss was -one hundred aild-ten: that of the British one hundred and ninety-four, besides eight hundred an'd fifty-six made prisoners. With these splendid victories closed the campaign on the northern frontier.In the meantime, on the ocean, the republican flag maintained its high reputation. Victory was not always won —butdefeat never occurred at' tended with dishonour. The Essex, commanded by Captain Porter, after a bloody combat,. prolonged longer than was necessary to vindicate his fame, struck to a British frigate and sloop:of war, whose united force was much superior. The American sloop Peacock captured the Epervier, of equal force. The sloop Wasp, commanded by Captain Blakely. capturel the Rein-deer, and afterwards, in the same cruize, sunk the Avon, each of superior force. She& made several other prizes — ut never'returned into port. Darkness rests upon her fate. She probably -foundered at sea. The republic, with deep'and sincere grief, mourned the loss of her gallant crew. In the beginning of August, many vessels of war, and a large number of troops, arrived ih Chesapeake Bay fromn Europe. Of this force, several frigates and bomb vessels were ordered to ascend the Potomac; another division, under Sir Peter Parker, was directed to' threaten Baltimore,; while the main body, under Admiral Cochrane, ascended the Patuxent as far as Benedict,:where, on the 19th of August, five thousand men, commanded by General Ross, were landed. During this time, General Winder had busied himself in calling together his forces, who, however, were very remiss in complyirng with the call. Not more than two thousanid militia, with one thousand regulars, could be collected; though even these, it would appear, might have made some resistance, as they possessed above twenty pieces of cannon, while the British had only three. They continued to retreat, however, as far as Bladensburgh, where a stand was ordered; on the first approach of danger, the militia fled in confusion, the enemy hotly pursuing; whence the field has since retained the name of "Bladensburgh race-ground," over which the Americans greatly outran the British. No opposition was offered to the progress of the enemy, except by a body of sailors and marines, under Commodore Barney and Captain Miller; these were stationed advantageously, and could no doubt have effectual'f impeaed the-advancing foes if the assistance which they had a right to'expect from General Winder had been afforded. As it was, they were outflanked and sirrounfded by the enemy, cut in pieces and taken nrison THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 493 ers. Thus the fate of Washington was decided. General Ross, with a thousand men, slowly approached the city, where he arrived on the 24th, at eight o'clock in the evening. At nine, the capitol, containing'the Congressional: library, senate, supreme court, and representative chambers, public records, &c., &c., was set on fire, as was also the president's house, the treasurry, war, and navy offices, and all the public establishments, with the single exception of the post and patent office building, which was only saved by the personal intercession of its superintendent. In the sanguinary wars which grew out of the French revolution, the capitals of'ur'ope were successively in the-hands of conquerors-but they waged no such Vandal war against specimens of art,.public libraries, and public papers. All civilized nations exclaimed against this violation of the ru:'s of honourable warfare-and the indignation of the republic was fully aroused. All ages and all classes turned'out to defend Baltimore, and volunteers flocked in from the neighbouring states' of Virginia and Pennsylvania.''Meanwhile, however, the squadron which had ascended'the Potomac, met with even less resistance than that which had passed up the Patuxent. As soon as, it arrived at Alexandria, the citizens proposed' a capitulation; the British eommandei stated his terms, and'allowed'one hour's time to determine upon them. To purchase safety, they delivered up all their shipping, -all, the'merchandize in the city (including' sixteen thousand barrels of flour), and all the naval and ordinance stores, public and private. With a fleet of prizes, loaded with rich booty, the enemy returned immediately to the ocean. - The success of the attack on Washington having encouraged General. Ross to proceed against Baltitnore, on the 12th of September he landed five thousand men on North Point, -about fourteen miles from the city, for which he took up his line of march. Preparations for defence had already been made.- General Smith;, who commanded the American forces, detached General Stricker with three thousand men, to retard the progress of the enemy. At about eight miles from the city the, advanced parties met, and in the skirmish-which ensuted, General. Ross was killed. The invaders, however, continued slowly to advance, under commanid of Colonel Brooke-and the Americans gradually retreated to within half a mile of their intrenchments. The British thenpaused, choosing to await the result of a-bombardment of the American batteries, -which had been commntnced by their fleet. Not less than fifty sail were drawn together in view of forts M'Henry and Covington, which stand at the entrance of-the harbour; and for twenty-four hours an assault was continued, without success, against these posts.' They were commanded, the first' by Major Armistead, and the latter by Lieutenant Newcomb, of the navy; and the defence was allowed in every respect to have been conducted with' signal ability. The commander of the British forces upon land, finding he was to receive no assistance from the fleet, held a conference with Adniiral Cochrane during the night, in which it was.determined to abandon the project of taking Baltimore, and attempt some more feasible, operation. -Accordingly on the 14ath, they'retreated to North Point, and the next day re-embarked. Shortly alter, the fleet left Chesapeake Bay, a part of it proceeding southward, to convey troops to the theatre of. a fuiture undertaking, and an unprecedented slaughter. In the autumn of 1814, information was received that'the British and American commissioners had met and held conferences at Ghent. Great Britain, rendered arrogant by her recent triumphs in Europe, and bythe capture of Washington, demanded terms which extin~tished all hope of a. speedy reconciliation. Still CQngress shrunk not' from the duties which the crisis imposed. General Armstrong not having manifested sufficient 494 THE TREASURY OF HISTOR1. energy, wras removed from office, and Colonel Monroe appointed Secretary at War in. his stead. Mr. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was assigned to the Treasury.department-and vigorous measures were adopted for sustaining the natiornal honour, increasing the finances, and placing. up6n a firm footing the credit of the country. -The repose of Geiieral Jackson, and the troops whom he commanded. was interrupted by the arrival at Pensacola, in August, of,three British ships of war, bringing three hundred soldiers, and arms and ammunition to be distributed among the Indians of Florida. The troops were permitted, by the Spaniards; to take possession of the fort, and the commander -issued a proclamation, indicating an intention of carrying on war against the adjacent parts of the Republic. General Jackson, with characteristic prompttness, took instant and efficient measures for calling to his aid the patriotic militia, who had before been victorious under his banners. Having remonstrated in vain with the governor of Pensacola for affording shelter and. protection to the enemies of th.e United States, he, near the end of October, at the head-of a body of regulhrs and two thousand mounted volunteers, marched against that place. A' flag, sent to demand redress, was.fired on from the batteries. He immediately marched into the city, stormed the fort, obtained entire possession, and compelled the British to' evacuate Florida. Returning to. his head-quarters at Mobile, he there received intelligence that a powerful expedition was onthe way to attack New Orleans.'Without delay he marched with his troops to that city, and found it in a state of confusion and alarm. The militia, composed of men of all nations, was imperfectly organized; many, feeling tlo attachment to the Republic, had refused to enter the ranks. No fortifications existed on the various routes by which-thte place cdAtld be approached; and fears were entertained that the-reinfdreements of militia-: which were expected from Kentucky and Tennessee could not' arrive ill time to take part in the contest. Undismayed by the difficulties which surrounded him, General Jackson adopted the most decided andefficient means for the safety of this rich and important city. He visited in person every exposed point, and designated -the positions to be fortified. He mingled with the citizens, and infused into the greater part his own spirit and energy. By his presence and.ex hortations, they wer'e animated to exertions of which before they were not supposed to be capable.' All who could wield-a spade,or carry a musket, were' put to work upon the fortifications, or trained in the art of defending them.''On the 21st of December, four thousand well-arrayed militia arrived from Tennessee. On the 22d, the enemy, having previously landed, took a position near the main channel of the river, about eight miles below the city.- They-'numbered not far from eight thousand men. In the evening of the 23d, General Jackson made a sudden and furious attack upon their damp. They were thrown into disorder, but soon rallied, and fought with a bravery equal to that of their assailants. Satisfied with the advantages first gained, he withdrew his troops, fortified a strong position four miles below New Orleans, and supported it by batteries erected on the west bank of the river. On the 28th of December, and 1st of January, vigorous but unsuccessful attacks were madeupon these fortifications by the enemy. In the meantime,, both armies, had received: reinforcements; and General Packenham, the British commander, resolved to exert all his strength ill a combined attack upon the American positions on both sides of-the river. With almost incredible industry, he caused a canal to be h made, leading from a creek emptying into Lake Borgne to the main channel of the, Mis sissippi, that he night remove a part of his boats and artillery to the fatter. All things being prepared, the 8th of January was assigned for the division of the "booty and beauty" which the city of. New Orleans might hava.onmtained. T-HE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 49b In the.night, a regiment was transported across the river, to storm the works on the western bank', and turn the guns on the American troops on the eastern. Early in the morning, the main body, of the enemy, consisttrig of more than eight thousand men, marched from their'camp to the assault. While approaching, fearless and undaunted, showers of grape-shot thinned their ranks. When they came within musket-shot, a vivid stream of fire burst from the -American lines. General Jackson having placed his troops in two ranks, those in the rear loaded for those in front, enabling them' to fire with scarcely a morrent's intermission. The militia of the west, trained.from infancy to the use of the rifle, seldom took unsteady or uncertain aim.'The plain was' soon covered with dead and wounded; some British regiments faltered and fell back; but others advanced and presented new victinms. While bravely leading to the walls the regiment which bore the ladders, General Packenham was killed. In attenlpting to restore order and to rally the fugitives, General Gibbs, the second in command, was wounded mortally, and' General Keane severely. Without officers to direct them, the troops first halted, then fell back, and soon fled in disorder to their camp. In little more than an hour, two thousand of the enemy were laid prostrate upon the field; while of the Americans but seven were killed and s-ix wounded-a disproportion of loss without a parallel in the annals of warfare. General Lambert, upon whom the command/of the British army devolved, despairing of.success, prepared to return-to his shipping. In his retreat he was not molested: General Jackson wisely resolving to. hazard nothing that heAhad gained in attempting to gain still more'. The events of the day on the west side -of the river, present a striking contrast to th'ose which occurred opposite them. The Americans were' thrice the number of their assailants, and were well protected by intrenchmentsyet they ingloriously fled. The British closely pursued, until they learned the defeat of the main army, when they returned. Rejoicings-for the splendid preservation of New Orleans had hardly ceased, when a special messenger arrived from Europe bringing with him a treaty of peace. Affairs had taken a new turn in Ghent, it seems, so that the treaty was signed at that place on the 24th of December, 1814, and in London, by the Prince Regent, four days later. The British government had receded from all]- its forrier exorbitant demands; and as the orders in council had been repealed, and all motive for the impressment of seamen had ceased with the war in Europe, no stipulation in regard to those subjects was inserted in the treaty-which provided merely for the restoration of peace and' the revision of boundaries. The treaty was immediately ratified by the president and senate. The war, however, did not cease on the ocean, until additional victories had imparted a brighter lustre to the republican flag. In February,-the Constitution, then cruizing under the command of -Captain. Stewart, captured the Cyane and the Levant, whose forces united were superior to hers: and':in. March,, the sloop- Hornet captured the brig Penguin, stronger in guns and men than the victor. Details of battles canl'hardly be considered appropriate in a work like this; yet in orderto render complete the chain of events which leads from one prominent point in-history to another, it is due that allusion should be made to them. With reference to authorities consulted in the compilation of these pa. ges, it is proper to observe, also that none but the best have been consid ered worthy of attention. 496, THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. The annexed summary, we lave been at some pains to procure, for the purpose of showing the readeA at a glance, the total amount of life de stroyed in'the course of this conflict: BATTLES ON LAND, Fought between the Americans and British during the war of 1812-14,-with dates, nantes of cofnmanding ofeers, and their, respective losses. BROWNSTOWN, August 4th, 1812, American, Major Va'n Horn, loss'47.; British andi Indianisi loss unknown. MAGUAGO Aug. 9th,.1812, American, Colonel Miller,1 oss 76; British, Major Muir loss 129. DETROIT Aug Ust 16th, 1812, American, General Hull, surrendered 2340; British, General Birock, loss 0. PIcOLATA, Sep.t. 27 1812, American, Colonel Newman, loss 12; Creeks ald Semi. noles, loss 70. QUEENSTOWN, Oct. 13th, 181'Z American, General Van Rensselaer, loss 950; British, General Brock, loss 150. TIP.PECANOE, -Nov 7th, 18 [1, American, General Harrison, loss-188; Indians. Tecum seh, loss.301. MASsAsINEwA, Dec.'18th,'1812, American, Colonel Campbeli, loss 36; Indians, Prophet, loss 77. FRENCHTOWN, Jan. 18th, 1813, American, Colonel Lewis, loss 67;' British, Major Reynolds, loss 83. n j'gRENCHTOWN, Jan. o2; 1813, American, General Winchester, loss 958; British, Col i'roctor, lbss 305. YORK, (U.'C.) April 27th, 1813, American, General Pike, loss 269, British, General Sheaffe, loss 695. FORT METGS, 5May 5th, 181.3;. American, General Harrison, loss 188; Indians, 43 prisoners. RAPIDs OF MIAMfI, May 5th, 1813,"American, Colonel Dudley, 10ss750; British, General Proctor, loss 60. FORT GEORGE, May 27th, 1813, American, General Dearbc-h, loss 160; British, Gen eral Vincent, loss- 557. SACKETT'S' HARBOU'R, May 27th, 1813, American, General Brown, loss 131; British' Sir George Prevost, loss 16.4. STONY CREiEK, June 6th, 1813, American, General Chandler, loss 155;'British, Ge.. eal Vincent, loss 50. CRANEY ISLAND, June 22d, 1813, American, Colonel Beatty, loss 0; British, Admi ral Warren, loss 222. - BEAVER DAMS, June 24th, 1813, American, Colonel Boerstler, loss 535; British, Col Bishop, loss 65 FORT SANDUSKY, Aug. 2d, 1813, American, Major Croghan, loss 8; British, Genera' Proctor, loss 176. MORAVIAN TOWN, Oct. 5th, 18.13, American, General Harrison, loss 29; British ane Indians, loss 635.WILLIAMSBURG, OCt., 11, 1813, American, General-Boyd, loss 339; British, Colon' - Morrison, loss,l 180. TALLUSHATCHIE,'NOV. 3d, 1813, American, General Coffee, loss 46; Creek-Indians loss 270. TALLADEGA, NOV. 8th, 1813, American, General Jaclson, loss 30; Creek Indians,'loss 290, HILLIBEE TOWN', Nov. 18th, 1813, American, General White, loss 5; Creek Indians, loss 250, AuTossE, Novem ber 29th, 1813, American, General Floyd, liss 65; Autossee King, loss 200. ECCANocHoo, Dec. 23d, 1813, American, General Claiborne, loss 7; Wetherford, r loss'30. CAMP DEFIANCE, January 27th, 1814, American, General Floyd," loss 149; Indians. loss 87. ENOTACHOrdO CREEK, Jan. 23d, 1814, American, General Jackson,'loss 95; Indians, loss 189. TALLAPOOSA BEND, March 27th, 1814, American, General-Jackson, loss 132; Indians, loss 850 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 495 LA COLLE MILL, March 30th, 1814, American, General Wilkinson, loss 74; British, Major Handcock, loss 58. OWEGo, May 6th, 1814, American, Colonel Mitchell, loss 69; British, General Drummond, loss 235. SANDY CREEK, May 30th, 1814; American, Major Appling. loss 4; British, Captain Popham, loss 200. CHIPPEWA, July 5th, 1814,' American, General Brown, loss 323; British, General Riall, loss 538. NIAGARA, July 25th, 1814, American, Generals Brown and Scott, loss 858; British, Generals Riall and Drummond, loss 878. FORT ERIE, August 15th, 18 14, American, General Ripley, loss 84; British, General Drummond, loss 990. CONJOCTA CREEK, Aug. 18th, 1814, American, Colonel Morgan, loss 10; British, Co.. Tucker, loss 30. BLADENSBURO, Aug. 24th, 1814, American, General Winder, loss 190; British, Get eral Ross, loss 130. MOORE'S FIELDS, Aug. 30th, 1814, American, Colonel Reed, loss 3; British Sir P. Parker, loss 33. NORTH POINT, Sept. 13th, 1814, American, General Smith, loss 212; British, Genera: Ross, loss 380. PLATTSBURGH, Sept. 11th, -1-814, American, General Macomb, loss 119; British, Sir George Prevost, loss 2500. FORT BOWYER, Sept. 15th, 1814, Ainerican, Major Lawrence, loss 9; British, Hon W. H. Percy, loss 250. FORT ERIE,. Sept. 17th, 1814, American, General Brown, loss 395; British, General Drummond, loss 985. COOK'S MILLS, Oct. 19th, 1814, American, General Bissell, loss 60; British, Marquis Tweedale, loss-stores and position. Near NEW-ORLEANS, Dec. 23d, 1814, American, General Jackson, loss 223; British, General Keane, loss 400..1EW-ORLEANS, Jan. 8th, 1815, American, GeneralJackson, loss 13; British, General Packenham, loss 2600. Total, American loss 10,229 —Britishloss 19,729. On the following page will be found a table of the principal battles at sea during the war. The details of a majority of them are'familiar to our readers, and will be found briefly related in the foregoing pages. Many minor engagements have been omitted, in which signal ability and bravery were displayed, because of their having taken place irregularly, or between privateers and merchantmen. The Saratoga, for' instance, was an American private-armed cruizer, and the Morgiana a British packet. The first, being chased by one of the enemy's frigates, was obliged to throw overboard nearly all her guns to effect an escape; after which, falling unexpectedly in with the latter, she determined to grapple and trust to boarding, when, after a brief but fierce and bloody struggle, the Briton was forced to yield. The Chasseur was also a privateer, an armed clipper belonging to Baltimore, whose commander facetiously issued his proclamation " for the blockade of all the bays, rivers, outlets, and inlets of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," in imitation of British officers cruizing near the American coast. On his first expedlition he made 18 valuable prizes, which were successively sent into New-York. Subsequently he gave chase to a " whity-brown schooner, no men or ports," which proved a disguised man-of-war of L5 guns, but he captured him by clo. sing in. A fresh enemy~heaving in sigh Capt. Boyle was forced to send his prize a cartel into Havana, while he mane for Martinique to refit. The Geril. 4rmstrong was a New-York privateer, attacked while at anchor in a neutral port, at midnight, by 12 British boats manned with near 400 men. Timely notice being given:of their approach, a deadly fire was opened on them, sink. Ing, and putting them to flight. The Decatur was a private-armed vesselthe Donlinica belonged to the British navy. ACTION S A l' SEA, B'ETWEEN THE NAVIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES, FROM AUGUSr 12, 1812, TO MARCH 23, 1814. VESSELS. DURATION AMERICAN BRITISE AMERICAN. BRITISH. WIHEN FOUGHT. COMMANDERS' NAMES. GUNS. OF ENGAGEMENT. LOSS. LOSS. M Essex and Alert, - August 13, 1812. Porter and Langhorne. 32 and 20 8 minutes. none. 150 men. 0 Constitution aid Guerriere, August 19, 1812. Hull and Dacres. 44 and 38 30 do. 14 men. 350 " Mn Wasp and Frolic. October 18, 1812. Jones and Whinyates. 20 and 22 40 do. 10 " 135 " W United States and Macedonian, October25, 1812. Decatur and Carden. 54 and 49 1 hour 30 min. 12 " 350 " Constitution and Java, Decem. 29; 1812. Bainbridge and Lambert. 54 and 49 1 hour 45 min. 34 400 " 0 Hornet and Peacock, Febr'y 24, 1813. Lawrence and Peake. 20 and 20 15 minutes. 3'' 139 " p Chesapeake and Shannon, June 2, 1813. Lawrence and Brooke. 48 and 53 15 do. 350 " 84 " Decatur and Dominica, August 5, 1813. Dixon and Barrette, 7. and 16 11 hour. 20 " 88 " P Argus and Pelican, Augustl14, 1813. Allen and Maples. 20 and 21 43 minutes. 130 " 20 ~ Fnterprize and Boxer, Sept. 5, 1813. Burroughs and Blythe. 16 and 18 45 do. 14 " 130 Ameridanand British Squadrons on Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813. Perry and Barclay. 54 and 63 3 hours. 123" 450 " E- Essex with Phoebe and Cherub, March 28, 1814. Porter and Hilyar. 46 and 81 2 hours 30 min. 255 " 15 j Peacock and Epervier, April 29, 1814. Warrington and Wales. 22 and 18 43 minutes. 2 " 128 Wasp and Reindeer, June 28,, 1814. Blakely and Manners. 22 and 19 19 do. 26 " 118 E Wasp and Avon, Sept. I, 1814. Blakely ald Arbuthnot. 22 and22 41 do. 3 " 44 American and British squadrons on. Lake Champlain, Sept. 11, 1814. MIacdonough and Downie. 86 anId 95 2 hours 20 min. 110 " 1050" Genl. Armstrong and boats of a Br. squadron off Fayal, Sept. 26, 1814. Reid and Lloyd. 9 and - 40 minutes. 9 " 173 Five Amer. gun-boats and forty-five barges of a British Dec.'14, 1814. Jones and Lockyer. 23 and 42 3 hours. 135 " 150 " squadron on Lake Borgne, President and British squadron, Jan. 15, 1815. Decatur and Hlays.. 53 and -4 hours 30 min. 400 " 32 " Constzztution with Cyane and Levant, Febr'y 2, 1815. Stewart,Falcon& Douglass 2 and 55 50 minutes. 15 " 336' Chasseur and St. Lawrence, Febr'y 26, 1815. Bioyle and Gordon. 12 and 15 15 do. 13'." 75 Hornet and Penguin,, March 23, 1815. Biddle and Dickinson. 20 and 22,122 do. 12 " 158 t aCo Saratoga and Morgianca;' March 1815. Wooster and - 4 and 18[15 do. - 10 " 50 4 Total loss of men, Amcr. 1,749 Br 438'67 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 499 CHAPTER IV. FRO 1 THE TREATY OF GHENT TO THE PRESENT TIME. Wz come now to consider, not a series of victories springing out of bloodshed, but some of the more truly -ennobling and substantial triumphv which arise from an uninterrupted season of peace. One of the most liberal and enlighted of monarchs LLouis Philippe] has declared it his deliberate conviction that no serious collision between civilized fiations can ever again occur. Looking abroad upon the world with a serene eye, and mature judgment, he cannot but feel persuaded that the present mental superiority of mankind over former ages, will forbid the toleration hereafter of anything like the barbarism called war. We may at least be al-.owed to hope that he is right. At the close of the struggle of 1812, the people of the United States lound that, if they had accomplished all for which'they began the contest, they had also materially crippled themselves; that although their bravery in battle and, moderation in victory was now more firmly than ever established, those laurels constituted all that they had won. In return for which, they had increased their public debt an hundred millions of dollars; had completely deranged the monetary affairs of the country, overturned their general credit, and destroyed entirely the banking system of the nation. Innumerable failures had taken place in the eastern and middle states; and great dissatisfaction among the people resulted from certain swirdling operations which had' taken place by means of private banks and speculating brokers. Without a reliable currency, the circulation of specie being of course very limited, the commerce of the nation was in a fair way to experience a perfect paralyzation. To remedy these evils-, Congress deemed it expedient and necessary to provide for the establishment of a new national bank, the old one having expired wiih the year 1810, by limitation of its charter. It was therefore enacted, after a most strenuous opposition, that a bank should be organized, to continue twenty-one years from the 1st of July, 1816, having for its capital thirty-five millions of dollars. The labours of this great monied corporation were in the beginning, doubtless, highly beneficial to the country; but that it subsequently became a very dangerous monopoly, whose workings were at the least not beneficial to society, is strenuously: maintained by the party now holding the reins'of government, while the contrary is as strongly maintained by its opponents. The next subject that engrossed the.attention of Congress, was a revision of the duties on goods imported. In forming the new tariff, a judicious attention was given to protect domestic manufactures, without at the same time injuring the national revenue, or lessening, by over-indulgence, the industry and economy requisite to their full success. IThe double war imposts were, with few exceptions, reduced; but a large increase was rmade to the' duties on some fabrics, particularly c5tton cloths of a coarse descriptions especially when imported from the East Indies, where those articles are manufactured by persons contented with daily wages not exceeding a few cents,, and T'rom a material not grown in the United States. It is but justice here to state, that the regulation of the tariff would probably never have been quite as favourable as it is to the interests of the home manufacturers of this country, were it not -for an untiring vigilance in their behalf, on the:puart of the Hon. H. CLAY, of Kerrtucky, which has won for him the distinguished title of "Champion o6 the American system." This is the more remarkable, as he is from a section of country not likely to engage extensively in manufactures, and not generally allowed' much credit as being particularly favourable to the eastern interests. If this truly great man is for his patriotism immolated 0oo THE TREASURY OF1 HISTORY. dlpon the altar of sectional partizanship, as at present seems most probable he will be, posterity, at least, will do his memory justice. In the autumn of 1816, another election for president took place. Janles Monroe, of Virglnia, was chosen without much opposition; and at the same time with him, -Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, to fill the second office. Very few political changes,.occurred to disturb the quiet course of h'is administration: the same vice-president served with him eight years -and his official advisers were continued, with scarce an interruption, for a like length of time. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, Secretary of State; William H. Crawford,/of Georgia, Secretary of the Treasury; John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Secretary of War; Smith Thompson, of New-York, Secretary of the Navy; John M'Lean, of Ohio, Post-Master General; Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, Attorney General. For some years after the conclusion of the war, the foreign and domestic trade of the United States continued to be variable and unprofitable. The channels of'consumption at home became gradually filled to repletion: while the universal peace of Europe enabled its producers to raise their dwn supplies, instead of calling upon the American market. Peace also allowed the ships of every nation to be its own carriers, and foreign merchants to do their own trading: the flag of the United States was no-longer an agent between belligerents, nor were American. ports now, as. heretofore, the general entrep6ts of the world. The terms of freight rapidly declined, vessels rotted in their harbours, and warehouses groaned under the stagnant pressure of accumulating merchandize. Internal traffic was not sufficient to employ the numerous individuals formerly engaged in the different pursuits of trade. Competition became excessive; and disappoinrtment and distress very prevalent. The public revenue could not escape being impaired by such multifarious embarrassments: it became every day more inadequate to meet the usual expenditures-in addition to which, moreover, calls foran enornmous amount, from a new source, had lately been made. By an act of Congress, in 1818, a yearly pension sufficient for their decent maintenance had been granted to those officers and privates who had served for three successive years in the war of the revolution. More than thirty thousand of that venerable army made application for relief-and several millions of dollars were required annually to satisfy their claims. Money, in consequence, had to be obtained by loans; and various public expenses were necessarily curtailed,' and the army and navy reduced. This state of things of course could not last; and we shall have presently occasion to turn over a new leaf, and consider a more encouraging picture of American affairs. - In the winter of 1819, the country was deprived of the services of Commodore Perry, who fell a victim to the climate of Trinidad, while on a cruize: and in the following spring, Decatur was killed in a duel, near Washington, by Commodore Barron. In the year 1820, under the favouring auspices of President Monroe, a society for colonizing free people of colour began a settlement at Sierra Leone, on the coast of Africa, with a view to the final extinguishment of slavery in the United States. The tract has' a good harbour, is high, fertile, and the healthiest in that region. It has since been called Liberia. No pains have been spared by the company to induci immigration to their colony, to render it thriving and successful, or to forward thie laudable ultimate object with which they began the enterprize.... In 1821, the territory of Florida was ceded to the United States, by Spain, in compensation for spoliations upon American commerce to the amount of five millions of dollars. General Jackson was appointed first goyernor of Florida, and the unsettled, semi-savage state of the population was such as to require the greatest energy and decision to-enforce respect THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 501 "or the laws among them., A tedious and distressing predatory warfare was for yea:rs waged against the new settlers by savages'inhabiting its inaccessible swamps and secure fastnesses. The U. S. troops seemed-to be set at defiance, until the hostile tribes came out from their cotciealments in -the -everglades, and consented to remove beyond the Mississippi, A deputation' of the Seminoles has lately returned from their new place of abode in the far west with such flittering accounts of the desirable nature of their possessions, that they will doubtless persuade the few straggliring bands remaining in Florida to accompany them on their return home. In the spring of 1822, the independence of the South American republics, and also that of the state of Mexico, was recognized by the U. S. Congress, and an appropriation made to defray the expenses of establishing with them a diplomatic intercourse. The European powers at length, very slowly and cauiiously, adopted a similar course: and the several small republics are still existing, though their governments are unsettled, and internal discord, attended witheffusion of blood; appears to prevail among them. Spanish influence, subjugation to a tyrannous priesthood or other causes, may induce this sad state of their affairs. About this time the U. S.. government signalized itself by a series of vigorous and successful efforts against certain bands of lawless piratical marauders; these had for a long time infested thie numerous shallow bays and inlets' which indent the different West India islands, and were frequently guilty of cruel and cold-blooded nmrder, besides destroying much property and causing otherwise great annoyance and distress. All attempts to crush them were at- the first futile, owing to their extensive and well-disposed arrangements for self.protectiotn; none -of the cutters constructed for war service were sufficiently light or swift to chase them with any success, and an ordinary craft of any description could not be made to penetrate into their recesses. The government aticcrdingly had prepared ten small vessels, which, together with a sloop of war, a steam galliot, and the frigate Congress, were dispatched into the neighbourhood of their haunts. So actively was this matter then prosecuted, that in less than six months not a freebooter could be heard of ot the coast of either Cuba or St. Domingo, or about the'Keys of Florida, where formerly they had swarmed. in August, 1824, General La Fayette arrived in the city of New-York, on. a visit to the United States. In returning to America, near half a century from the period of his military career, and at the age of sixty-sevien, La Fayette could hope to meet but few of his former associates ini arm's. Most of them had certainly found rest in the grave. A new generation had risen to manhood, a new army had re-crimsoned with their blood the soil which he had assisted to set free, and a third generation weirespringing up before him. On approaching the American shores he was equally surprised and delighted. History furnishes no record of an individual receiving so unusual and spontaneous a demonstration of respect. At the entrance of New-York bay, he was received by Governor Tompkins, who conveyed him to his private residence on Staten Island; the-day follow ing, business was suspended in the city, and the illustrious guest was welcomed with the roar of cannon, the ringing of bells, the parade of the' niilitary, and every demonstration of joy. It was estimated that not less than fifty thousand-persons were assembled in the vicinity of the Battery to witness his arrival. Nor did these flattering manifestations-then cease; they accompanied him in all his extended journeyings through the Union. And when at length his tour of observation ended, in the city of Washington, on the 10th of December following, the president in his message referred to the services of the distinguished stranger, and his present somewhat dependent circumstances in life, at the same time recomnmending Congress to take-in consideration the matter, and make some provision 502 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. to be tendered the hero which would be worthy his acceptance and the character of the American people. A committee of the senate, to whom the subject was referred, reported two resolutions; the first granting him two hundred thousand dollars in money; the other, a township of six miles square, of any of the unappropriated lands which the president should direct. These resolutions encountered considerable opposition, but were both finally passed by very respectable majorities, and were presented to the general by a joint committee, accompanied with a complimentary address. Since the conclusion of peace in 1815, the state of New-York-has been busily engaged with her fa'yourite designs of internal improvement. Canals were early proposed firom the Hudson river to Lake Champlain, and from Albany to Lake- Erie; the attention of scientific and public-spirited men was occupied with the subject, aild commissioners were appointed by the legislature to investigate carefully the propositions. [t was reported, that the objects were calculated to be of the greatest utility, but that the estimated expense was too great'for individuals or private corporations to undertake; and that the national governmentor state legislatures ougbt only to attempt them. De' Witt Clinton, the giant mover of the principal enterprise, it is said, consulted Ex-president Jefferson wvith a view to obtain his weighty opinion in favour of the project. The venerable statesman could not then see things in the same light with Governor Clinton: he replied, " Your plan is a noble one-magnificent-and, may ne carried into effect a hundred years hence." Nevertheless, the Clintonians persevered, and in October, 1825, was completed the grandest work of interhal improvement-then anywhere, perhaps, projected. The Erie Canal is of itself three hundred and sixty-three miles in length, and con-' nects the: great lakes with the Atlantic Oceai.. It cost upwards of seven millions of dollars, and was constructed by the state alone; yet its annual revenues have long since extinguished the debt, and it is now referred to as a most splendid and perfectly successful operation. At the commencement of 1825,' closed the very successful and prosper. ous, because peaceful, eight years' presidency of James Monroe. He had paid off sixty millions of'the national debt-had peaceably acquired the important territory of, Florida-and had seen established our national limits toward the west,, on the Pacific ocean.' Internal taxes were repeal ed, the military establishment reduced to its narrowest limits of efficiency,'the organization of the army improved, the independence of'the South American republics recognized, progress made in'the suppression'of the slave trade, and the civilization of the Indians advanced as far as practicable. Four candidates were set up to succeed Mr. M'onroe in the presi. dential chair; they were John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson,'Henry Clay, and Wm. H. Crawford. These were severally voted for by their par tizans, and the election was warmly contested; but no one candidate receiving a legal majority of votes, the power of choice passed from, the college of electors into the House of Representatives. Here, John Quincy Adams was chosen. Mr. Adiams, in his inaugural address, declared that he should endeavour to exercise something like magnanimity in his public acts,'discarding every remnant of political rancour, and yielding only to talents'and virtue that confidence' which is too often bestowed upon those whose greates' claim is their subserviency toparty purposes. We believe his pledge.was well redeemed. The gentlemen composing his cabinet were the following named:- John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina,' Vice President. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, Secretary of State; Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania Secretary of the Treasury; Jarnes Barbour, of Virginia, Secretary of War Samuel L. Southard., of New Jersev, Secretary-of the Navy; William Wirt THE TREASURY OF HISTORY, 503 of Maryland, Attorney General; John M'Lean, of Ohio,' Post Master General. In the year 1826, aj unparalleled excitement sprung up in the northern part of the Union, on accounlt of the abduction and alleged murder of a man named William Morgan. It was asserted that he had been sacrificed solely for opinion's sake, in this, a country most notoriously recognizing the right of all men to cherish whatsoever opinions may appear unto them proper, unless openly inimical to the welfare of others. It seems he was a melmber of the fraternity of free masons, and had progressed as far in the order as the royal arch degree. The obligations of the society require each member of said degree to consent that. death may be inflicted upon him if' he divulge the manner of initiation into a lodge, or proceedings thereafter. This man, however, becoming distressed in'circumstances, and not having the fear of death or power of his brethren before his eyes, proceeded to publish to the world the history of their illuminations. hereupon certain leaders of the fraternity, who,were possessed of much zeal and very little judgment, became exceedingly wroth with the aforesaid' derelict brother, and, it was said, did him from his family and friends-abduct, so that -he returned not. A year afterwards the mutilated body of a man was found washed upon the shores of Lake Ontario, which-the widow of the missing'Morgan testified before a coroner's jury to be that of her husband. Governor Clinton, though himself at the time grand high priest of the free masons, promptly offered a reward of two thousand dollars for proof to convict the authors of the assassination, and minute and lengthy trials of suspected individuals were had; but after every investigation, for want of sufficient evidence, no person could be punished. A curious episode occurs-the bereaved widow, seemingly unwarned or undiscouraged by her sad experience, very shortly after married another of the royal arch brethren. In 1827, Henry Clay', then Secretary' of State -for the United States, arranged satisfactorily with M. Rebello, "knight of the holy crozier," and charg6 d'affaires near the United States' government for his mnajesty the emperor-of the Brazil-s, a dispute which had grown out of the Brazilian seizure of certain American vessels engaged in the carrying trade between Rtio de Janeiro and the revolted Buenos Ayrean province. A serious collision had been thrqatened, owing to the too abrupt demand of passports, and precipitate departure of the American minister from his imperial highness' dominions. New treaties of amity, navigation and commerce, were also concluded with Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Guatemala and the Hanseatic League. Towards the close of 1828, the tariff question was again agitated in Congress, and considerable asperity manifested. Eventually, however, the debates terminated in the passage of a law laying further protective duties on such articles of import as particularly competed with the mantufactured and agricultural productions of the United States. By this tariff bill, additional duties were laid on wool and woollens, i.ron, hemp and its fabrics, lead, distilled spirits, silk stuffs,,window glass and cottons. The manufacturing states consequently received -the law with warm approbati)n, while the southern states regarded it as highly prejudicial to the interests of the cotton planters; and in Charleston, South Carolina, the flags of the shipping were displayed at half mast, and a state convention'was demanded. —Governor De Witt Clinton, of New-York, died, suddenly, this year Also, General Jacob Brown, U. S. Army. And, early in the following year, John Jay departed., General Jackson having been elected president and John C. Calhoun re-elected vice-president of the United States, theyv were formally installed in office on the 4th of March, 1829'. The names of the new cabinet ran as follows: Martin Van Buren, of New-York, Secretary of State; Samuei bO4 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY D. Ingham, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury; John H. Eator, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of War; John Branch,'of North Carolina Secretary of the Navy. John M. Berrien, of Georgia, Attorney General William T. Barry, of Kentucky, Post-Master General. Directly after the organization of the new government, a small party at: the south then termed "state-rights" men, hbut subsequently "nullifiers," commenced working themselves up into a high state of exasperation, on account of the allhded-to obnoxious provisions of the last year's tariff. In Congress, the exponent of the views of these new-lights was no less alman than Colonel Hayne, of the Senate. Indeed, all parties seemed now suddenly resolved into two great antagonistic elements,, alike confident in their strength, and eager only for the fray. Nothing appeared to merit or meet -with attention in either house, unless it could be made in some way sub. servient to the great subject matter in hand: and the probable reason why the eventual struggle was not earlier brought to bear, may be seen in the revolutionary changing of government'officers, both great and small which immediately succeeded the elevation of the Jackson party. On the 20th of January, 1830, upon the occasion of Mr. Foot's resolution relative to the public lands being brought forward, Mr. Webster and Mr. Benton respectively advanced the views of their constituents, in a brief, discursive manner, with their usual uniqueness and ability: but the storm was about to commence in earnest. Colonel: Hayne directly followed the honourable senators, in a speech of two. days' length, in which was set forth with no little ability and a deal of logic, the same "'disor. ganizing" state-rights principles which, he contended, had been at least once within the memory of' man advocated by the sons of the puritandwellers near Hartford, when in convention deliberately assembled..Noth, ing could avail the-gentleman from the south. however. in a contest with the dark-browed champion of the east. This was too late a day to advocate principles with so slight a foundation. Mr. Webster disclaimed in behalf of New-England, all-approach towards, or sympathy with, such strange delusions as the gentleman and his clique seemed subject to. He replied at length to all the assumptions of his distiguished opponent, and in conclusion, indulged -in one of the loftiest flights of eloquence ever. perhaps, listened to upon any occasion. Men's minds were taken captive, their understandings chained, convinced-while all American hearts must have glowed with mingled pride and satisfaction, to know that their country possessed such unalloyed and-profound patriotism. In his first' message to Congress this year, the president manifested towards the United States' Bank that spirit of opposition which was a few 5years later to break forth into open hostility, and create in certain sections such a strong feeling against him. But the grand subject of consideration at this time, was the position of the Indians. These people- were averse to removing from the borders of the states where they were located, while it would seem no power could effectually check the rapidly-encroachin/g sway of the masses of white population towards them. (ollision of interests, must necessarily follow their proximity,-and consequent cruel and bloody personal encounters re-'sult therefrom. Owing to the impossibility of subjecting the aborigines to the usages of civilized Rsociety, as well as their peculiar and subtle system of warfare provoking inveterate enmity from their neighbouring set-, tlers, nothing appeared in prospect for the tribes but ultimate extinction, withrut speedy and imperative measures from the general government were interposed in their behalf. To devise some expedient, therefore, by which to preserve the tribes and at the same time protect their own people, was the difficult task presented to statesmen. General Jackson, in commending this subject to the attention of Congress, remarked, that the fate of the Moh.egah, the Narragansett, and the Delaware, was:fast and THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 505 Inevitably approaching-the Choctaw, the Cherokee, and the Creek, if they'remaiied within the limits of the states. He said that regard to our national:honlur brought forward the question whether something could not be, done to preserve the race..' As a means,,to this end, he suggested that an ample district west of the Mississippi, and without the limits of any stat-eor territory, might be set apart and guaranteed to the Indian tribes, each to have distinct jurisdictiot, over the part designated-for its use, and free from any control of the United States, other than might be necessary to preserve peace on the frontier. There the benevolent might teach them; and there they might form a nation which would perpetuate their race, and attest the -humantity of the American government. The granid difficulty of the project, and one-which would have appalled a timid mind, was met by the president in a characteristic manner. " The emigration," said he, "should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the' graves of their fathers, and seek a bonme in a distant land." Congress sanctioned the undertaking, and em}:owered the president to carry it out; and he fearlessly commenced, what, perhaps, no human ruler ever did before, to combine freewill with necessity. To cause the Indians to emigrate voluntarily, for their own good, became thenceforth his settled policy. In 1831; o)n the 4th day of July, died James Monroe, fifth president of the United Stdtes. It has been considered a little remarkable, that no less than three Ahiericatl ex-presidents have died on the:same day, and that the anniversary of their national independence. First, John Adams and Thomas Jefierson, men who had probably contributed as largely as any others towards the elevation of their country in the scale of nations, simultaneously depairited this life, amid the thunder of cannon and ringing of bells which atzuniced the commencement of the second half-century of their well-loved country's existence:,and next, as we have seen, on the same day of the fifti, year following, Mr. Monroe was called also to join the glorious cotl,)patlty of his patriot predecessors -in the spirit-land. About this ot.ei:l, under the auspices- of John C. Spencer, Richard Rush, and others, sprang intto notice a new political party —the anti-masonic, Immediately-s ubsequent to the conclusion of the Morgan trials, which en. ded in the release (if supposed culprits, the excitement of the.public ran very high agaiunst an institution seeming to possess such unwarrantable and unlimited iltltuence over life and law. The opportunity was.: of, course seized, by demagogues or enthusiasts, to attempt the erection of a novel and attractive hobby for "the people," whereon they might ride themselves at least into temporary authority. In this case, indeed, the capital seemed unusually good, and the prospects very fair,; various and talented statesmen had openly affirmed their belief in the unconstitutionality!of the denounced institution: and, with the most commendable judgment, no less a mran than, William Wirt, of Maryland, was chosen and persuaded to run as the candidate of the -new- party in the approaching contest for the presidential chair. Alas! a chilling frost was destined suddenly to blight the rising hopes of the aspirants; notwithstanding the ardency of theit converts and the availability of candidates-in the election which presently succeeded, their really estimable ticket received but the vote of one state- in the union-that being Vermont. Upon the ruins of this air-castle a new fabric was shortly to be founded, eventually to attract some attention, under the name and style of the anti-slavery party. In the month of August, 1831,-a slave-insurrection of considerable local importance broke out in Southampton county, Virginia. It,was originated by a crazy sort of vagrant nick-named "Nat.," who had passed among the negroes for some time as a Baptist preacher. His reputation for piety, or fanaticism, had so imposed upon the planters, that the wonder only was hils ifluence hadl not been greater, and the struggle consequently more 506 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. fierce and bloody. The number of whites massacred on rising, Wvas fifty eight —consisting principally of decrepid men, women and children. The blacks then fled to the swamps, apparently terrified at their own atrocities; and were presently subdued with but little difficulty, yielding up their leaders to the gallows. Abroad, the American minister at the French court, William C. Rives, this year'effected a treaty with that nation, by the terms of which tiwentyfive millions of francs were agreed to be paid to the American government, in appropriate instalments,.for spoliations upon commerce during the turbulent sway of the emperor Napoleon. With the Neapolitan government we had negotiated in vain previous to this year, for an amicable adjustment of claims. against it for the sequestration and plunder of American propertyduring the ephemeral reign of Joachim Murat. The sudden appearance in the Bay of Naples of a respectable number of armed Umited States' vessels, however, together with a peremptory demand from QGneral Jackson's minister, Mr. Nelson, of Maryland, seemed to bring his majesty of the' Two Sicilies to reason.' An order was directly given upon his treasurer, for the payment of 2,115,000 ducats, or $1,720,000, to be paid in,nine equal instalments, w'th interest at the rate of 4 per centurn until paid. Stephen Girard, the great Philadelphia banker, died in December of this year. At tlie time of his death he was supposed to be the richest man in the nation-possessing about ten millions of dollars in available funds. in the war of 1812-14 he loaned the United States' government $5,000,000; and at the time of his death, with a praiseworthy liberality but little emulated by his trustees since, devised the great mass' of his property to various charitable institutions and purposes in and near the city of Phila-' delphia. Early in life he' commenced a small trading business in that city, and by frugality and persevering industry there acquired his wealth. February 1st, 1832, Commodore Downes, in the United States' frigate Potomac, arrived on the coast of Sumatra, being principally on an expedition to chastise a horde of Malay savages for certain outrages upon Americans and their commerce. Among other charges against them, was one on account of the ship Friendship, of Salem,; it appears this vessel had formerly traded with them for spices, &c., when, on a convenient occasion occurring, the barbarians determined upon appropriating to themselves the ship and its contents, after an indiscriminate massacre of the crew, by which they vainly hoped to hide their crime. When the chiefs were applied to for restitution in this case, anid the delivery of the mur. derers, they with characteristic cupidity denied all knowledge of the matter and refused to give any kind of satisfaction. Commodore Downes took prompt and efficient steps directly; in the night of the 6th, his frigate was quietly worked in towards shore,:and at dawn of day, in the mist, two hundred and sixty men were landed in detachments, without disturbing the natives. A simultaneous attack was made upon their five forts, which were in about three hours reduced, with ruch slaughter on the part of the Malays; while a heavy cannonade from the. ship at the same time, soon laid their town of Quallah Battoo in ashes. The loss of the Americans was but two killed, and. eight or ten wounded. A few mountaineers visited the -frigate shortly after, when the commodore left word that he should call there again —if necessary. Nearer home, this year, disturbances with savage tribes'embroiled the public peace. In'theamonth of April, the Winnebagoes, Sacs and Foxes, with a few Pottowatomies, Indians inhabiting the country of the Uppel Mississippi, re-crossed that river under the chief Black Hawk, his son, and the so-called "Prophet"-the last being a shrewd, designing knave always accompanying or concerned in the war and massacre undertakings of the red men. Being well armed and active, they soon scattered them THE TREASURLY OF HIS'OIOY. 507 setyes through Illinois, where formerly they had dweit, and burned and murdered all before them which bore any marks of civilization. Generals Atkinson and Scott were des It;hed against them. The several garrisons on the seaboard, from Fort Monroe, in Virginia, to New-York harbour, were directly ordered to Buffalo; and there were embarked upon steamboats with all haste for the scene of action. Now, most unhappily, from the heated and crowded manner in which the troops under Scott's comliand were obliged to travel (hlaving been, hurried'through the country one thousand eight hundred.miles in eighteen days), the cholera, which had just made its appearance in the country, broke out among them, and began to rage terribly. Language cannot depict the distress which ensued, both before and after the troops were landed. Many died, many deserted; and many perished in the woods from absolute starvation. At length the panic and distress partially subsided.; and a few of the men were by forced marches enabled to reach General Atkinson's encampment. But the first action of consequence was fought by the mounted volunteer's under generals Dodge and Henry, who came upon Black Hawk's warriors on the banks of the Winconsin, July 21st. A sharp contest ensued, in which the Indians were worsted and put to flight, leaving nearly one hundred of their people on the field-the victors returning to General Atkinson for provisions. An incident is related as occurring in a skirmish called by the Indians the battle of the Bad Axe. They were surprised by the whites at daylight in their huts, when women and children were unavoidably killed, from being indiscriminately mingled with the men. Among the rest, a young squaw, with her papoose, was flying for the river's bank, when a rifle ball pierced her breast, causing instant death to her, and breaking an arm of the infant, Her body fell upon that of the child so as to prevent its releasing itself-and for two hours and a half its cries were heard at intervals by the attacking party..At length, when tihe firing had abated, an officer of the assailants made his way to the little complainer, and had it as soon as possible conveyed to the garrison at Prairie du Chien, and confided to the best offices of the surgeon. It has since grown into a sprightly girl-the pet of the company. In a general engagement at the mouth of the Upper Iowa, on the 2d of August, the Indians were completely routed and dispersed; the" chiefs shortly after were delivered up, and the fugitives consented to return at once to their appointed quarters west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk, his son, and several warriors of note were conveyed to Fortress Mon.,e, where they were detained a few months; and then carried through the principal cities of the United states, and the civilization and works of defence of the nation exhibited to them. They were then sent home to their people, convinced of the folly of attempting to contend against the power and discipline of the whites, with the unmanageable fury of their wild bands. In consideration of the lands which they left to the states upon taking possession of their new territories, the federal government pays to the Winnebagoes $10,000, per annum for twenty-seven'years from the date of their leaving. Tro the Sacs and Foxes, it pays $20,000 annually for thirty years from the same time. The Cholera pestilence this year ravaged the entire Union. It appears to have crossed the Atlantic with a company of emigrants in ships bound to Quebec and Montreal, from thence spreading quickly in every direction, though mainly and with most severity pursuing the great courses of travel.' It broke out in several cities of the United States about the same time, in the month of July, and raged until antumn set in. In the city of New-York, four thousand persons are computed'to have fallen its victims. Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and New-Orleans, suffered.in nearly the same ratio,'in defiance of al the' usual precautionary measures. THE''I TREASURY OF HISTORY. Boston, and the New-England states, were scourged less severely. On the American continent, nothing but the frosts of winter appeared effect ually to arrest its progress: yet, amid the eperlastinag snows of Russia, it had manifested itself with true Asiatic virulence. Climate seemed to be no safeguard, nor ocean-Wide barriers any defence. In mild southeri.France, the number of its victims was frightfully enormous; in the cities of MAexico, one-fourth of the'population was destroyed and on the island of Cuba, $100,000,000 worth of slaves are said to have perished in less than ninety days. It is stated, that on this island the coffee-planters rtostly escaped the affliction, while the neighbouring sugar plantations were completely depopulated.. Death, in various forms, visited the great names of the earth, in the course of 1832. In New-York, of the prevailing epidemic,'died William H. Maynard, eminent as a state senator, who left by his will the sum of twenty thousand dollars to establish a law professorship in Hamilton college. In Boston, the celebrated Doctor Spurzheim, founder, in connection with Doctor Gall, of the science of phrenology. In Ohio, the Rt. Rev. Roman Catholic Bishop Fenwick. In Georgia, Thomas Cobb, a revolutionary character, aged 120. In Maryland, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence,,m 96. In New-Hampshire, Captain Joseph Pratt, a naval commander of much esteem in the annals of revolutionary coasting. In Rhode Island, Captain Stephen Olney, of whom it is said, he was' the first to scale the,enemy'; fortifications, and then shout the command, "Captain Olney's company will form here!" In New-Jersey, Philip Freneau, an early and prolific writer of American fugitive poetry. In Connecticut, Judge Hillhouse, a distinguished statesman and lawyer. At Abbottsford, Great Britain, Sir Walter Scott, " the wizard of the north." In London, Baron Tenterden, chief-justice of the king's bench. In France, General Lamarqtie, one ot Napoleon's officers. Also, Champollion, the renowned French touristand, Casimir Perier, a statesman of celebrity in Paris. In Rome, Madame Letitia, mother of Bonaparte, E 82. At the palace of Schoenbrunn, near Vienna,:z 21,- Napoleon Francis Charles Joseph, duke Reichstadt, only son of Napoleon Bonaparte. A. D. 1833.-It is proper now to take a farewell glance at that monsterspirit of the South, known as nullification, which once stalked with fearful mien among us. The electioneering campaign of'32 had merged ail minor considerations, in the unusual exacerbation with which it was conducted. But when the result became known, and General Jackson, a southern man, was declared re-elected with increased majorities, together withi Martin Van Buren, of New-York, " a northern man with southern principles,'" as his opponents -termed him in derision for his lack of political bitterness.' When this ticket was found to -be triumphant, we say southern agitators grew rampant. Thej looked upon such men as a god send for their especial purposes: and in filll cbonfidence a legislative convention was called at Columbia, South Carolina, where the acts of Congress imposing duties for protection, were pronounced unconstitutional, and of no binding force in that state. Governor Hamilton in his message recommended the legislature to pass laws for preventing the enforcement of the revenue statuties by United States' collectors, and-advised imrnediate preparations of a warlike nature to be made, placing the state in the best posture of defence. To the astonishment of these ultras, General Jackson at once, and in the most admirable spirit, issued a proclamation, calling on them to beware'lest they should incur the penalties of such rashness and treason, while he set forth in a tone of candor and decision the principles and powers of the general government, and his firm determination in any event to maintain the laws. This seemed only to increase,he exasperation in South Carolina; the governor of the state, by author THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 509 ity of the legislature, issued a counter-proclamation, urging the people to be faithful to their primary allegiance to the state, and to resist to the last any efforts of the United States' authorities to collect the tariff dues. A purchase was made of ten thousand stand of small arms, with appropriate munitions, &c., and general orders issued to raise volunteers for repelling invasion; nmessengers were also dispatched to neighbouring states, soliciting their co-operation and support. General Jackson hereupon addressed a message to Congress, recommending the adoption of such measures as would enable the executive to suppress this spirit of insubordination', and maintain inviolate the laws of the United States. Castle Pinckney qnd Fort Moultrie were accordingly reinforced with government troops, and Commodore Elliott ordered to rendezvous in Charleston bay with a fleet. John C. Calhoun had resigned the vice-presidencyat the' close of 1832, in order to take a seat in the United States' Senate for the purpose of lending his efficient aid to the support: of the measures of his state. Thus everything betokened a civil war: but a timely appeal from the general assembly of Virginia, deprecatory. of haste and passion, together with a momentary gleam from the better judgment of the leading men of South Carolina, produced a suspension of aggressive measures for a short time; when HENRY CLAY'S celebrated "compromise bill" being at this precise juncture introduced in Congress, was passed rapidly through both houses, and had the effect of most happily dispelling, at once and forever, it is to be-hoped, the dark and portentous storm which lowered around.' Hardly had the ferment consequent upon a disorganizing movement among the states been illayed, when a new source of excitement came into public view. The United States' bank had from the first been the depositary of, a large'amount of government funds; and as the bank's charter was now about to expire, without a hope of renewal (the president having already vetoed a bill for its continuance), Congress was in his message recommended to remove the deposits to some more safe place of keeping., This was refused, in the representatives, by the unusually strong vote of 109 to 46. Nothing daunted, the executive began to plan his measures for rescuing the public funds in spite of Congress. By the act creating the United States' Bank, it was provided that the secretary of the treasury'might remove the public deposits, but he was required to lay his reasons upon so doing directly before Congress. W. J. Duane, of Pennsylvania, being then at the head of" the treasury department, immediately upon the recess of Congress was desired by General Jackson to issue an order for the transfer of the public monies, on account of the following-named reasons: first, a general unsafeness of'the bank; second, the bank's improper conduct in postponing the redemption of the government threep'ercents., and thereby delaying the liquidation of the public debt, which was a favourite measure of the administration; third, its exaction of damages ($170,041),'for dishonour of the government's draft on France for four millions of francs, being the. first instalment due under a recent treaty with the:French; and fourth,. interference with politics. Mr. Duane not deeming these reasons, uffcient, refused either to give the desired order, or to resign his office. Not to be thwarted thus, the- president summarily dismissed the refractory: officer, and appointed in his stead Roger B.'Taney, of Maryland, who immediately complied. with the wishes of the executive, and the deposits were removed. They were transferred to the care of several state banks; the opposition choosing to consider such institutions equally unsafe as the " mother bank," the whole matter presently became a subject of fierce recrimination and debate, both in and out of Congress. The bank party were strongly in majority'; yet they suffered the government funds to remain where they had been confided by the new secretary, contenting themselves with placing upon iecard in the senate a resolution denouncing in the strongest terms the 610 THE TREASURY OF HISTOREY. conduct of the executive. This was, however, subsequently "expunged,*' through the exertions of Mr. Benton and his associates, when the "de mocracy" came into power. General Jackson's cabinet, on the commencement of his second terni, underwent a considerable modification. Altogether, he seems to have ex perienced a deal of difficulty in the selection of his constitutional advisers none of them appeared to view things exactly in the light he did.'The gentleman he now called around him, were the following: Edward Livingston, of New-York, Secretary of- State; Louis N'Lane, of Delaware, Secretary of the Treasury; Lewis Cass, of Michigan, Secretary of War; JMahlon Dickerson, of -New-Jersey, Secretary-of the Navy; Roger B. Taney, of Maryland, Attorney General; William T. Barry, of Kentucky, Post-Master General. This year was promulgated the particulars of a treaty between the United States and Russia, which was negotiated at St. Petersburgh between Count Nesselro\de on the part of the emperor, and James Buchanan in behalf of the States. By its provisions, the present liberal system of commerce carried on between the two nations was put upon a permanent basis. Some have a curious fancy for noticing the departure, from among men, of distinguished characters: we observe, in the year's obituary, several names of note. Commodore Bainbridge died at Philadelphia, m: 57. Gen eral Coffee, at Florence, Alabama,. 62. Governor Scott, of Mississippi. Ex-governors Wolcott, of'Connecticut, Skinner, of Vermont, and Edwards, of Illinois. John Randolph, of Roanoke, in Philadelpihia,:e 61. Judge Hall, of North- Carolina, a distinguished jurist. Colonel Amos Binney, of Massachusetts, m 65. Colonel John Neilson, of New-Jersey. a revolutionary hero. \Colonel Nicholas Fish, of New-York, the same Near the mouth of Red River, by explosion on the steamboat Lioness Senator Johnson, of Louisiana, and fourteen others: strange to relate this sad occurrence did not -take place on account of a race, but was owing to a quantity of gunpowder being stowed carelessly. In England, Lieu tenant-colonel Tarleton, the indefatigable tory opponent of Sumpter and Marion, at the South. Also, Hannah More, the authoress; Wilberforce, the humanitist; Keane, the actor; and Rammohun Roy, the philosopher. In Paris, Marshal Jourdan, and Savary, duke of Rovigo, noted once as Bonapartists. In Germany, Goethe. In Spain, Ferdinand VII. A. D. 1834. —We observe in the chronicles of this epoch, an unusual tendency to rioting. Small matters seem in various sections to have been magnified into importance, and the populace incited to acts which resulted in the destruction of life and property. At New-Orleans, a canal riot broke out between adverse parties of Irish labourers; a body of gens d'armes being sent to quell the disturbance, were fired upon by the mob, which was in turn charged on by the police, when much bloodshed and distress ensued. In New-Yo~rk, the abolition riots prevailed for several days,; a number of churches and private dwellings were destroyed, with a large amount of property. In Charlestown, Massachusetts, the Ursuline convent was barbarously demolished, its lady abbess being thrown into hysterics, and its young lady-inmates considerably frightened. That a better spirit was about that time pervading the higher class of citizens, we have much satisfaction in knowing: the evidence of this is particularly apparent in an energetic movement to suppress the prevalent pernicious practice of lottery-gambling. In New-York and Pensylvania, more especially, popular feeling had been manifested in favour of the nuisance, to a very discreditable degree; but the good sense of the lawmakers triumphed, and, maugre the infatuation of the brawlers, effectual penal prohibitory statutes were enacted. A treaty rather favourable than otherwise to our commercial interests, THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 511 was this year concluded in the city of Madrid, between C. P. Van Ness, minister of the U. S. and Don Jose de Heredia, commissioner for the acting government of her youthful Majesty Dofia Ysabel If., of Spain,Also, another commercial arrangement, promising well-for the trade of the two countries, was about the same time negotiated, between the North American envoy at Valparaiso and the authorities of the republic of Chili, South America. The savans of this hemisphere were subject to an unusual excitement, about the month of November. In the pxevious autumn, an astronomical phenomenon of an astonishing and singularly beautiful character had been witnessed: the "shower of stars," as it was termed, had been seen along the whole line of the American continent, and afforded ample food for much curious conjecture with the learned both of this country and Europe.. A recurrence of the phenomenon was now looked for, and there were nightly watchers on many house-tops, anxious either for the sake of philosophy in particular, or an indefinite desire for " enlightenment" in general. The professors at New lHaven were applied to, and after devoting a reasonable share of attention to the probabilities of the case, consented to deputize a proper individual to make observations; but in this instance we believe, their assiduity was of no avail, as it did not result in any peculiarly valuable scientific elucidations. In the obituary for this year, appears a name which still shines brilliant in American annals:' that of General the Marquis de Lafayette, deceased at Paris, May 20th, in the 76th year of his age. In England, Prince Hoare, G. Lamb, and S. T. Coleridge, each of celebrity for literary attainments.Also, in London, George Clymer, of Pa., and Earl Spencer, EarlBathirst, Lord Breadalbane, and the duke of Sutherland. In the United States, Hon. Jonas Platt, of N. Y.; Cadwallader D. Colden, do.; governors, Porter of MIich.: Breathitt, of Ky.; Ex-governors, Jennings, of Ia.; Lloyd, of Id.: Col. William Polk, mE 76, at Raleigh, N. C.; General Brodnax, of Va.: General Leavenworth, U. S. Army, near Fort Towson. In Georgia, William H. Crawford, celebrated in the political antag - onism between Clay, Calhoun, Jackson, and Adams. At Washington city, Hon. J. Blair,, of S. C., in a fit of insanity committed suicide; also, Eon. Mr. Bouldin, of Va., in the house of representatives fell dead in his place, while speaking in memory of Randolph, his predecessor; in the same city, William Wirt, E 62; in Georgetown; D. C., Lorenzo Dow, the eccentric itinerant preacher, who had travelled throughout this country and Europe, and probably addressed a greater variety of persons than any other divine since the days of Whitfield. A. D. 1835.-From first to last of this year, the public, mind was kept in agitation respecting the near prospect of a collision with France. Our readers have been apprized of the origin of this difficnlty, i. e., a non-compliance with the terms of the Rives treaty of'31, completed in good faith between that minister and the government of the French monarch. The Chambers of France! had in, this case certainly exhibited an extremely dilatory and unusual spirit, in neglecting to make provision for the payment of their just dues; whereupon the hot blood of'his warlike excellency, Andrew Jackson, began to boil, and he was betrayed by his indignation forthwith into an assumption of the extreme prerogatives of his magisterial office-to the surprise of his own people, and the astonishmelnt of the French. His message to Congress in December,'34, was replete with belligerent breathings; immediate attention to the defences of the nation was demanded, appropriations for increase of the navy, &c., recommended, and reprisals upon the commerce of France, as soon as practicable, strongly advised. Fortunately, the senate at once and unanimously-refused to act upon the executive suggestions,; and the house, wherein the President was slightly in majority, handled the matter sE; 512 THE TREASURY OF HISTOR)Y. delicately, that the utmost the war-agitating party could force through was the following -declaration: "1. That the treaty with France of the 4th of July,'31, should be maintained, and its execution insisted upon. 2. That the committee on foreign affairs should be discharged from the further consideration of so much of the message as relates to commercia; estrictions, or to reprisals on the commerce of France." Here, then or a while the subject rested: but no sooner had M. Serrurier, the French ambassador near General -Jackson, laid an expose of these things, as ir luty bound, before his government, than he was abruptly recalled homne Again it appears, that the French chambers, emboldened by what they fancied to be a spirit of opposition in the, American people to the meas ures of their president; resolved that he should apologize, at the least, foi his hauteur of manner towards them. Our minister in France, Mr. Liv ingston, had been instructed, in the event of the French chambers refusing to adjust the claims, to return home immediately, in a ship of war which would be. dispatched for that purpose. The money was not refused; but the bill granting it was passed with a clause which suspended payment till satisfactory explanations should be given to France of the President's language. Mr. Livingston consequently returned to Washington. The president met Congress in December, again, and of course devoted a large share of his opening address to these things; after a due recapitulation, the general, instead of abating in his usual candour or peculiar decisiveness, wound up with a flourish something after the fashion following: Proposition 1. That there was nothing in his former message that required explanation: Proposition 2. That if there was, he should not allow a foreign power to require it; or to take notice of, or found demands uDon, the tenor of an interior communication of one department ot the American government with another. Here. then, affairs were taking a new posture; here, again, was matter for a supplementary action in the French chambers: and we were once more in the way to be plunged in all the probabilities of a' prolonged and unavailing warfare, equally as senseless on the one hand as the other. Now, however, at this critical juncture, the- better genius of both countries interposed, and saved, them from themselves. Thanks to the immediate interference, of bluff William IV., the sailor-king of England, who, brave and humane alike, now proffered to the mock-heroic governments his mediation between them; it was accepted, and everything was presently arranged to-. the satisfaction of all parties; long, it is to be hoped, so to continue. Amid the political jarrings and discord of this era, an occasional bright relief appears upon the clouded horizon. Among other causes of congratulation which may be named, we find a statement embodied in the-report of the Secretary of the Treasury, to the effect that the government of the "great and prosperous nation" whose financial concerns he had the honour to take charge of, was now entirely relieved from all manner of coordinate liabilities: "and the United States now," said the honourable secretary, " presents the happy, and, probably, in modern times the unprecedented spectacle, of a people substantially free from the smallest por t;on-of public debt." Both the tribes of the Chickasaw and Choctaw Indians had now removed entirely from the confines of the states of -Georgia and A.abama. and their yielded territories were accordingly offered at the different landoffices for sale. Treaties in the highest degree favourable, alike to them and to the people of the United States, were in, process of fulfilment: the chiefs had become persuaded as well of the superior value of their new territories, as of other advantages derived by them from the exchange. Thus a general satisfaction was apparent, which was considered the more remarkable at that time, -as it was directly in despite of the loud lamen -ations'and bewailments of the party of those unfortunate gentlemen THE TREIASURY O1 HISTORY. 513 Rev'd. lMessrs. Butler and Worcester: and now that we have touched upon the subject it may be as Well to mention, that these'men were miSsionaries among the afore-named tribes, from among: whom they were some time previously taken by the authorities of -the state of Georgia, on a charge of indirectly fomenting. distirbances, and creating a spirit of resistance particularly hostile to tihe, constituted authorities of that state,; upon this accusation they were tried, found guilty, and thrown into the state penitentiary; but after a brief incarceration, they were released by virtue of a pardon from Governor Lu.mpkin; and the red men having now peaceably removed, the missionaries were permitted to return to their for.. mer field of labours, where. we presume they endeavoured, with accustomed and very commendable assiduity, to instil into the untutored Indian's pliant mind an admirationt for the astonishing virtues of "civilized, people. Neat the close of the year, an unparalleled conflagration visited the city of New-York, the effects- of which were so extensive as to be felt more or less in every direction throughout the land. It is computed that nearly twenty millions of dollars worth of property \was destroyed, without estimating, the injury and loss from individual failures ahd suspension-of business. The fire broke. out early on the night of the 16th of December, the: thermometer at the time standing at zero; of course, the intensity of,cold rendered engines and -hydrants of but little use, though the devotion of firemen to their duties still shone conspicuous ahid bright as ever. At two o'clock on the morning of the 17th, Lieutenant Reyn olds, Wiith a detachment of marines from the navy-yard at Brooklyn,. and shortly after Captain Mix, witha body of sailors under arms, arrived on the ground; they, rendered very essential service, in guarding property, and taking charge of -a quantity of gunpowder brought from the magazine at Rged Hook for the.purpose of stopping the ravages of the flames by explosion. After the devouring element had swept away between- thirty and' forty acres of substantial buildings, mostly stores filled with rich merchandize, a stop was put to the further spread of the desolatiQn,, by making use'of. the powder and' exploding certain buildings. As an instance of one of the uses of law, it may be mentioned, that the owners of said exploded buildings subsequently: brought suit against the city for allowing th il property to be thus destroyed, and damages in full were recovered. Among the names of the dead for this cycle of time, are to be. seen, saea eral that have filled the trumpet of fame. In Philadelphia, Chief-iutice John Marshall, of Va.., aged 80; at CoTumbia, S. C., General Wade:Hamp ton, aged 81; in Connecticut, Senator Nathan Smnith, aged 66 * ia Tennessee, Bishop M'I(endree, of the M. Church, aged 78; in' N. ~Y., Enoch Crosby, the original of CQooper's "Spy,'" aged 88; at Havana, Commodore Henley, U. S. N.; en route to Spain, William T. Barry, American mmisster. In Paris, Admiral de Rigny; Bellini, the composer; and barons Dupuytren and Humboldt. In England, Williamn Cobbett, author; C. Matthews, comedian; James H.ogg, the "Ettrick shepherd;" Professor Malthus, political economist; in Edinburgh, the Rev. Dr. Chalmers; at Dublin, Mrs. Felicia Hemans. At Vienna, x 67, "his imperial majesty, Francis TI., emperor of Austria, king of Hungary, Bohemia, Lombardy and Venice, and. president of the German confederation." A. D. 1836.-Occasionally the annalist finds it necessary to, reach alike backward and forward — into the mists of time,-in order to atrace correctly the history of events from cause to consummation:, and in some instances, though rarely,'"'the intelligent public" may justly consider it requisite in us to hazard an opinion respecting: the peculiar merit or blame-worthiness attached by different schools of judges to difficult acts or actors. Perhaps, about. this period of time, there was no more fruitful source of angry disputation, than the war in Florida' and. indeed, all 33 514 THE TRIEASURY OF: HISTORY. things considered, there could scarcely arise a more painful yet uncertain theme, or one, presenting any similarly strange variety of aspects, as it whirled scathing and'bloodily along. Years elapsed, yet still the cruel contest raged; the silent knife, the midnight flame, and the indiscriminate massacre still went on as ever, in defiance of thIe power of a mighty nation, with men Of much renown to head her armies.. Truly, an unbiassed reader is half tempted to believe, with some of the general officers who failed to gather laurels in that dis astrous region, that a kind of dark fatality controlled their best planned movements. For even when, by some intermission in their usual fate, officers and men survived the war and pestilence of two campaigns, star vation and madness, with consequent self-murder, was sure to sweep them down in the third. And, to complete the picture, when the'Indians finally threw down their arms, an unexampled mortality destroyed them; death first appearing in the terrible and dreaded form of small-pox, and next ir that of steamboat explosions. As early as the begin iing of'34, the storm of war began to brew; and it appears but too plain, that'its seeds were sown under the very eyes of men sent'to prevent such a catastrophe, and who, previously, had won a name for vigilance and conduct. General Wiley Thompson, and others, composed the agency to superintend the removal of the Indians from Florida, in conforaity with the terms of the treaty of Payne's Landing; they had alheady experienced much difficulty, a majority of the tribe being stubbornly opposed to removing. and several of the more influential chiefs.openly denying the'validity of their foimer agreement. Osceola, a half-,hreed, the son of an Englsh man and Indian woman, now came into nbtice; he. was already distinguished as a proud, gloomy, and ambitious person, and he now keenly judged the prevailing dissatisfaction in his tribe afforded a rare opportunity for the further elevation of his fortunes Accordingly, at "' a talkr" in the camp of General Thompson, he ventured haughtily to' assume, upon a sudden, that the red men were the only rightful owners of the soil, and the whites had no business whatever upon it. For this'"burst of eloquence" he-was put in irons, and suffered a day's imnprisonment; at the end of which he was released, making much profession of humility, and.an entire acquiescence in the existing state or'things. But, with genuine aboriginal duplicity;, he'had determined upon deep and thorough vengeance. After a sufficient delay to cover his intentions, the warrior set out upon a tour among the neighbouring tribes, circulating the war-belt with great assiduity, and endeavouring, in his soniorous and really eloquent style, to incite a general rising for the extermination of the whites from their borders. In'35, he passed some time among the restless and quarrelsome Creeks, who were easily persuaded to join in the promising scheme. And it was owing altogether to the machinations of this wily individual, that General Scott was forced; in April of this year, to make all speed to their territory, when the battle of the Chattahoochie river, in Georgia and Alabama, was the result. - Much praise is due the prudence and conciliating tact of Scott on this occasion, as well as his warlike capabilities, for, by making- various trifling concessions, and promising more, the tribe was pacified. Thus a grand link in Osceola's chain of war was brokern; alas, that no power was found sufficient to accomplish as much elsewhere. The first act of the endless tragedy opened' as follows: Major' Dade, with a detachment of one hundred and seventeen men, was ordered, on the 23rd Dec.,'35, from -head-quarters at Tampa Bay (Fort Brooke), to join General Clinch at Camrrp King, a station about one hundred and twenty miles on the route towards'St. Augustine. The general was urgently requiring to be reinforced, as his foes were daily increasing in numbers and aaudacity, and steadily closing nround him. -Major Dade's men forced THE TREASURY, OF HISTORY. 5 their way over two-thirds ofrthe distance, experiencing unexampled dif-'ficulties and. dangers, the roads being obstriucted, and bridges burnedby hostile bands before them;,'but on the morning of the fourth day, and when fondly looking for their journey's end, they were unexpectedly ambushed, and volley after volley from unerringrifles poured in upon them before an enemy could be discovered. A solitary -man, after being;severely wounded, by feigning death:escaped. Thence the savages'proceeded to Camp King, and a like scene was enacted there, at the sutlery, within gunshot of the blockhouse. General Thompson, Lieut. C. Smith,.Rogers, the sutler, and others, were at dinner, when Osceola and his party quietly walked in and'shot them down, and after leisurely securing those highly-prized evidences of their brutality, the scalps of the'victims, they as coolly, and without molestation, departed.. A more even-handed part of the play was shortly to be performed: and the truth of that portion of prophetic lore which declares "tlhey whokill with the sword, shall themselves likewise perish"' was'. to be practically illustrated. The Indians gaining confidence from their late unchecked operations, assembled in force on the banks of the WithlacooChee,: near Clinch's position. Aware how important it was to clear the communication for receival of his upplies, the general instantly sallied forth to dislodge the menacing enemy. After a hard day's fight, the Indians retreated,,carrying with them their dead; the loss on the part of the whites was between fifty and sixty, killed and wounded. An incident having an.air of romance, is stated to have transpired here: Osceola, who commanded the savage array, had formerly received some trifling kindnesses at the hands of an American lieutenant, who was nIow observed among the foremost of the pale-faces, leading his men to battle; the chief, it is said, at once gave orders that this man should be spared-but that every other officer should be cut down, if possible, without.ercy. At all events, the friend -of Osceola. escaped unharmed from the thickest of the fight, while his compatriots, with scarcely an exception, could boast no such immunity.':'hough forced to retire, the Indians were by no means discouraged yet; and though Clinch had come off victor for the day, his triumph was dearly bought, and he was still in danger of.starvation. Surrounded by a foe the most implacable, and without- sufficient iheans to attempt cutting his way through them, messengers were dispatched in every direction for aid. The enlightened and -useful chief,, Charley. Omathla, with. his band of friendly Indians, -were next attacked by Osceola and murdered: so that now the Americans found it nearly impossible to communicate from post to post, or procure an emissary able to thread his )vay at all through the beset paths of the forest. At the end of a month,- however,: assistance arrived.- General Scott landed at St. Augustine on the 7th of February, and was. approaching Fort Drane, when he received information that General Gaines had also landed, upon, a part of the peninsula nearer Clineh, with a reinforcement.sufficient for every purpose.* Scott was himself or dered to proceed forthwith to the Creek country, which he did, and in.a short time quelled the disturbances there, as before mentioned.. Meanwhile, the- secnd battle of the Withlac.oochee was fought between Gaines and thesavages,when the former proved victorious, and relieved Clinch. Immediately.'thereafter, disliking Florida service, or deeming the troubles ended,- General Gaines took up his line of march for New Orleans, his former quarters. General Clinch, unambitious of further laurels, about the same time *resigned his commission and went -into retiracy. General R.'K. Call, governor of the territory, then assumed command-in-chief, and proposed vigorously to prosecute the warfare to conclusion. For some cause, however, an order was early received by the governor, from General Ma. comb,:at head-quarters, announcing a further change: in the command. -6W1 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 4djutant-general Jesup was nominated in his stead, much to the dissatins faction of General Call, and the complete discomfiture of his extensivelymade arrangements. Burning wvith zeal, and filled with confidence in his own abilities, General Jesup determined by a series of swift and brilliant movements to rid fair, fated Florida at once of all her foes. Judiciously planned and well carried into execution, were his first measures: bodies of troops were thrown among the Indian villages, -and kept close upon the trail of the war-parties. The result of this, was a speedy report of sev eral battles,, almost simultaneously, in different quarters of the country. First, Col. Henderson, commanding marines, came upon- the enemy suddenly, near the head waters of the Ocklawaha, when a severe action ensued, in which the chief Osuchee, or Cooper, fell, his warriors being routed, and their camp equipage taken. A few days later the same corps encountered a party of the enemy on the banks of the river Hatchee-Luskee,- when a severe masked fight, took place, in which the Indiana had the worst of it, though they managed finally to escape into the everglades, bearing with them their dead. The next battle of the season (8th February,'37) was that of Lake Monroe, when the Indians were the attacking party, and came wellprepared. They assaulted thecommand of Col. Fan ning at breakof day, on all points, and fought with the greatest intrepidity but were eventually repulsed, though not until they had wounded many, -and killed Captain Mellon, of the 2d artillery,'a meritorious officer, who held his position bravely to the last. General Jesup, in his report of proceedings about this date, mentions coming upon the Thlau-hatkee (White Mountains), an elevated range of hills not mentioned by any geographer, nor described in any account of Florida hitherto published. The - passage of his scouring parties- over these ridges was exceedingly difficult, rendering the transportation of baggage-wagons almost impossible. Up to the beginning of March,'37, the contest was waged with much vigour on both sides; but the chiefs then found they were fast getting worsted, and they therefore proposed, unitedly, to capitulate. Jesup at once offered theni favourable terms, when, without hesitation, a majority of them came into camp. In the short space of thirty days from that time, nearly the whole disposable force of the savages, with their women, chidren, and negroes, were comfortably -housed in the different forts, harmless, and apparently contented, awaiting the action of authorities in regard to their removal.- The principal chief, Holatechee, son of Micanopy, king of the Seminoles, came in; his father being detained at home by sickness, sent a promise that he would also soon. come. At the same time arrived from their war-paths, Cloud,- Jumper, Jim Boy, and Tustenuggee, with Abraham, a negro, the Talleyranid of the savage court; they all and severally agreed that the people under:their command should remove as soon as the necessary preparations could be made.' Our commandervin-chief, therefore, in the plenitude of his simplicity, or beguilement, pronounced the war ended; and he began at once the arrangements which were,, no doubt, kindly intended to separate for ever the sons of the forest from the scenes of all their earlier joys'and sorrows —as well:as to relieve his own men for a season' from'their arduous but well-performed duties*- - Transports were ordered in readiness, the commissary's department largely drawn upon, and everything appeared in a fair train of completion, when,'alas! a most unfortunate interruption put a period to these promising plans. Jesup certainly did much, perhaps more than any one -else, towards quelling the storm' which was desolating Florida when he landed upon its-shores; btt he had evidently yet to learn what a hydra-headed description of monster "the war" in reality was.. No sooner' had the sickly season, commenced, and the unacclimated soldiers begun to fall victims TItE TRIEASURIY 0OF HISTORY. 517 to it —than the Indians, with their accustomed cool and keen perception of matters and things, began.themselves to make preparations for leaving — though not exactly for the "far-west." Thus, be it- understood,f after having for three months been housed, clothed,- and provisioned in the different garrisons, besides receiving various flattering compliments on account of their submissive and proper spirit, these gentlemanly savages, unconquered as ever, tqok occasion one morning in a -quiet and unobtrusive manner to decamp.back into their native woods again. And it is, perhaps, vastly to be regretted that;the parties did not here cry quits, and let the matter drop. - It would seem, instead of this, that the red-men, in spite of their characteristic gravity and their boasted equanimity of temper, were considerably elated with the idea of their own successful shrewdness, and fully determined upon doing something else which would appear smart. On the other hand, their innocent-hearted entertainers were not all pleased with their own reflections; it cannot be denied that they were a little vexed at being in this unmitigated-manner outwitted-and. were unanimously resolved upon revenging themselves-if an opportunity occurred.;As for the general-in-chief, he felt unreasonably chagrined; and, regardless of all the honours previously achieved in that redoubtablecampaign, he- directly wrote home for permission to resign both the glory and his baton of command. This was: cruelly refused him: whereupon. in defiance of circumstances and the season, he commenced with renewed energy to wage war against the savages. Bands were equipped and sent forth with the severest intentions-being, ordered t6o ferret out the foe from his recesses, and force an instant combat. Simultaneously, hostile fiovements were made on the other side; troops of Indians were seen hovering about Picolata and Volusia, and the inhabitants were in hourly expectation of an attack. The impending danger, was deemed great, and volunteers were solicited from the neighbouring states, which solicitation was promptly complied with, so that everything again betokened bloodshed and devastation. While these spirited scenes were being enacted, a runner from the aged chief Micanopy arrived before General Jesup, bringing the information that his men were not hostile, but had been compelled to the course they had adopted, of quietly leaving the garrisons, by threats from' Osceola'spowerful gang, which was now moving in company with the fierce and numerous bands of Micasukies under Sam Jones, none of which had as yet been persuaded to "come in.". It was further stated that a dissension had arisen among-the adverse Indians, and that various chiefs and subchiefs had been cut to pieces in the fray, the shrewd leader Wild Cat, with Tigertiil, Black Dirt, and Alligator, being named as the principal sufferers. This, however, was found subsequently to be merely a ruse of the red diplomatists, for the purpose of lulling the pale-faces into a false security. About this time an additional interest- was added to the entire question, by an unexpected outbreaking of jealousies and recrimination between illustrious ex-commanders. Certain of those potent and grave generals so far forgot themselves, indeed, as to appeal in moving epistles of six columns' length, through the public papers, to the favourable feelings and sympathising judgment of that long-time-hallowed and magniloquent' tribunal, "the people." Most of the officers concerned in Florida affairs appeared, successively, on the arena, in his own defence, whether accused or not; and even General. Cass, being at the time absent in France as American minister, thought the, subject of sufficient moment to call for the production-of an elaborate paper from himself, in vindication of his course while secretary at war. General Clinch, considering.his conduct impugned by this document of the ex-secretary, replied to it with much asperity;'and other appeals, equally interesting, followed in rotation. Perhaps, however, the most readable matter in this connection was a corres 618'.:THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. pondence which was published derisively in juxtaposition, interdinm te throw ridicule upon General Jesup, the cream of which is here given:." To the commander.in-chief, at Washington: "The Florida war ought to have been ended a week ago:. I was in full marcY. with a force sufficient to have terminated the war in five days, when my progress was arrested by an order from General Scott." General' Jesup, June 20, 183't et General'-Jesupt assume the command -" President Jackson.." To the Honourable, the Secretary at War:. "The prospect of terminating this war in any reasonable time, is anything but flattering." General Jesup, again, Feb. 11, 1838. Justice to.~this extra-sanguine officer, demands a further exposition of his views and feelings. Hear him, as early as the beginning of 1837 hold the following language-explanatory, in a report to Mr. Secretary P'oinsett: "If I have at: any time:," he commences, "said aught in dispar agement of the operations of others in Florida, either verbally or in writing, official or u/nofficial, knowing the country as I now know it, I consider myself bound, as a man of honour, solemnly to retract it." This is certainly frank and above-board: experience is the mother -of wisdom-and the general was not' ashamed to admit he had profited by her teachings. The skirmishes which followed his new assaults upon the enemy were numerous; but nothingof a decisive character occurred up to the battle,f Mosquito,- which took place in August, 1837, General Hernandez comfanding. The American forces came upon the. Indians in their camp, and by the impetuosityof their attack succeeded in capturing' both the chiefs Philip and Euchee Billy, and entirely dispersing their associates. This was not accomplished, however, without the loss of the brave lieutenant M'Niel, of the dragoons, who fell, with others of conspicious merit, in the heat of the action.' Pity that people can be so often misled as they are, in estimating the deeds of men. Perhaps the most important and really praiseworthy event which has been brought about in Florida, was the capture of Osceola; advantageous alike to.h'imself and people, the settlers upon the bloodstained soil, and the government of the United States. Yet no men were ever more completely victimized, than those who projected, or permitted the completion of this. fine stroke of policy. The denunciatory invectives which.were incontinently showered down upon them, in season and out of season, must have been regarded with no little wonder by the reasoning part of community. Without doubt, no:positively dishonoprable act would have provoked the same, vituperation and blame from the same quarters; for that class of piseudo-philanthropists who are so fond of attempting to regulate the public conduct' always confine their fault-finding to extremely doubtful cases. Here, now, was the prime mover of all the murder and massacre- which had reigned in the land, the spiller of torrents of innocent blood, the breaker of treaties, the violater of his own flag of\ truce, peaceably apprehended and held`,for his own as well as others' safety: here was a man uniting in his own person extraordinary duplicity and determination, a combination of valour and villainy dangerous in the extreme to society, who was taken in custody without a blow being struck, or any conflict with or-infringment upon the conventional rules of right. There. can be no- cause whatever assigned, why this man and his desperadoes should not have been taken precisely as they were taken, and held as they were held. No injury or insult was offered,.nor any manner of injustice ractised. No object was desired by their captors save to place a bar tc THIE TRIEASURY OF HISTORY. 519 rme escape of the lawless to their former haunts and former habits of piltage and defiance; this was accomplished-nothing more. Osceola, then, with eighty of his most distinguished followers, were together captured, on the 22d of October,'37. General Hernandez and Major Plimpton were the active agents on this occasion, and by the ceterity of their movements, and cool and decided action, rendered themselves conspicuous. They. proved themselves efficient men. The Indians had been gathered together for council-armed to the teeth, how-. ever-when a large body of dragoons appeared from every quarter around them, and without a word proceeded to relieve the warriors-of their weapons,; the sudden and unexpected nature of the operation of course precluding the possibility of resistance.- To pirevent: mishaps, General Jesup directly transferred the majority of them on board such vessels as could be obtained, and Osceola and his party were conveyed to Charleston harbour; here, for safe keeping, they; were deposited within the comfortable precincts of Fort Moultrie, where all, their wants were daily attended to. Most unfortunately, however, a few months after their arrival, in February,'38, Osceol died. His complaint was inflammation of the throat, resembling quinzy; but his death was undoubtedly hastened by his stubbornly rejecting all proper medical treatment in favour of the mummeries of his own medicine-man or prophet. Now,.again, was seen fresh cause for striking up a new alarum in the various sympathizing partisan papers of the day: Directly subsequent to the taking of Osceola and his company, an energetic demonstration was made by General Jesup, for the purpose of bringing to a speedy close this tedious war. But its cameleon-like character was now more apparent than ever-; for, after chasing the hostiles through fen and morass, thicket and glade, while their only aim-seemed escape, they suddenly changed their evolutions and the aspect of affairs. They presented themselves in number on the banks of the lake Okee-Chobee, and yelling their war-cry, sprang like mountain-cats fiercely into the midst of their assailants. Certain of them being in ambush, managed at the very commencement of the action to pick off several important officers, hoping thus, probably, to disarrange1he plans of the whites and areate a panic., Colonels Thompsen and Gentry, of the 1st regulars, and 2d Mississippi volunteers, as well as Captain Sumner and Lieutenants Brooke and Center, were alike the victims. They were good men and true, and held in high esteem by all to whom they were known, and their early loss, instead of quenching the ardour of their troops,- added fuel to the flame of their resentment, and the yrushed on determinedly to victory. The ground was disputed foot:ly foot, and the contest raged incessantly for hours; but the Indians were at length completely routed-though not without an expense to the whites of one hundred and thirty-eight of their number killed and. wounded. This was on the- 25th of December,'37, Colonel Taylor being principal in command. Another affair occurred shortly after this, in January,'38, when a body of men under Jesup in person attacked an Indian encampment on the banks of the river Locha Hatchee. The fight which ensued was severe, a considerable number of warriors being gathered together, who resisted desperately; but they were at length compelled to give way, with material loss, On the side of the assailants, from thirty to forty were killed and wounded, among the latter of whom was General Jesup himself, who received a severe flesh wound in the face. In the same month, a contest resulting disadvantageously to the whites took place on Jupiter river. Lieutenant Powell, of the navy, with a small force of sailors and marines, had been ordered to proceed from Fort Pierce and- examine the south lagoon of Indian river as far as' Jupiter inlet; and while accomplishing this task, he discovered marks of recent Indian occupation, and -immlediately 520 THE TREASUiR OF HISTORY went in pursuit. The foe was soon overtaken, and, turning upon their pursuers, proved to be far superior, both in numbers and supply of ammunition; a retreat was of course ordered, and the late sanguine attackers found safety in their boats. General Jesup niow transferred his command to Colonel Taylor, 1st infantry, and himself returned to Washington. His closing report was called for, and laid before Congress in its session of'38, and after a proper consideration of circumstances voted satisfactory. The general had been actively engaged in that unmanageable and thankless Florida. service for nearly two years; had captured and secured some seven thousand of the irreconcilables —his policy being to avoid as much as possible the destruction of life; his field of operations had extended over: more than five degrees of latitude, and to cover a country so vast he had found it necessary to establish no less than forty forts, working from a base at Charlotte's harbour by way of the Suwannee to St. Augustine, upwards of three hundred miles. The concluding paragraph of the report is particularly terse: " If" says the general, "our operations have fallen short of public expectation, it should be remembered that we were attempting that which no other army of our country had ever before been required to do I and - tfy predecessors in command were not only required to fight, beat, and drive- the enemy before us, but to go into an unexplored wilderness and catch them. Neither Wayne, Harrison, nor Jackson was required to do this; and unless the objects to be accomplished resemble each other, there can be no just comparison as to the results." Nothing of interest occurred-in Florida for some time after the leaving of Jesup. Officers busied themselves with the minutia of affairs, awaiting the action of government in regard to important proceedings. On the 5th of April, 1839, General Macomb himself appeared on the -scene of action, and visited successively the head-quarters of Colonel Taylor and other principal posts. The object of the commander was not, however, to suggest alterations or supplant authorities; his aimn was altogether of a pacificatory'character, he having sagaciously determined to eschew fighting and conquer by treaties. Or, rather, in the expressive phraseology of the newspapers, "he went there to be'humbugged' in behalf of the United States," by a few'shrewd individuals claiming to act for the Seminole tribe; but who, eventually, proved to be persons entirely unauthorized, and who were, probably, instigated to the agreement only on account of their latent preference for the comfortable provisioning and "hell-water" which they knew would be dealt out to them at the garrisons, to sharing in the precarious subsistence of their more patriotic brethren. At all events, the general was- induced to enter into a negotiation with Chitto Tustennuggee and Blue Snake, by which they concluded the war, and agreed the Indians should remove at their earliest convenience, certainly, to'that dreaded new home of theirs west of the Mississippi. General Macomb seems to have placed implicit confidence in the good faith and ability of these new negotiators; for he soon left the peninsula for Washington, and added one more to the list of reports that the warwas finally ended. Sad tc say, the first fruits of this arrangement, by which the general-in chief seems to have been completely beguiled, was a most:anmentable disaster. On the 23d of July, 1839, a company of Colonel Harney's dragoons, being deceived by the plausible character of the treaty, encamped themselves carelessly upon the banks of the river Coleosahatchee. At midnight, in a storm, they were surprised and cut to pieces, nearly all being either killed or driven into the river. Directly subsequent to this new act in the tragedy, a proposition was made to import bloodhounds from Cuba, to assist in conquering the invincible handful of savages. Now be it un. derstood, this project was an emanation entirely from the brains oA a few THE TRiEASURY O1 HISTOORY. 521 Floridians, and was by them attempted to be carried into effect; although at the time, so:favourable an opportunity for getting up an exhibition of fictitious amaze and animadversion could not he let pass by that portion of the public press opposed to the existing administration of, government. About the 1st of January, 1840, a schooner chartered for the "horrible purpose" was despatched to Cuba. by order of the gov.ernor of Florida without the consent or knowledge of any acting United States' authorities, and presently returned, having on board thirty-eight bloodhounds,.full. grown and well-conditioned. They were speedily put upon scent of divers Indian scouting-parties, but, strange to tell, from some cause or other disliking the service, they refused to answer the expectations-of their importers, and proved utterly inefficient. Not a dog could be induced to operate at all against the Indians;- the Seminoles in particular appeared to be a species of game the Cuban hounds were altogether unaccustomed to; and it would seem they had no desire to make rare additions to their previous knowledge in hunting, or form'discursive acquaintances with new and strange objects-or lend their'countenance in any way to such unusual speculations as they were now called upon to engage in..Few instances are recorded of Indians exhibiting the tenderer feelings; but that they do sometimes so far forget themselves as to appear human, would seem to be evidenced in the following case, related in an extract of a letter from an officer serving in Florida about these days:-" VWe lately played the grab game with another Indian encampment, coming upon them silently, in the night, with a superior force. Leaving Fort Jupiter about 2 o'clock in the morning, we arrived at their village just previous to- the breaking of day,' and took, without the slightest difficulty, five hundred and twelve of the banditti. Colonel Bankhead is now in pursuit of another body of them under Sam Jones,' and will, without doubt, shortly overtake, surround, and capture the whole of them. Colonel Twiggs is in command towards the Atlantic, and has his head-quarters at'Garey's Ferry, from whence, we understand, he is sending out forces sufficient to clear that section of country in the shortest space of time. - But I'must not forget to mention to:you a singular, though perhaps trifling, circumstance, which surprised us a great deal-being nothing less than an Indian exhibiting feeling!-and a chief and great "' brave" at that. You might have learned, heretofore, that the renowned "'Alligator" and his band delivered themselves up at Fort Bassinger on the 4th of last April; well, the peculiarities of the case were as follows: Some six weeks previous to the consummation of that event, a scouting party of ours chanced to overtake a small body of flying Indians, consisting mostly of squaws and children-which were of course captured and brought in-when one of the children, a sprightly little girl of six years, proved to be the "papoose," and only child, it was said, of Alligator. This chief had latterly so chosen his po sition, and disposed his force, as to be for the time unapproachable; occupying with light canoes the miry, shallow creeks, and matted brakes upon their borders: a flag was sent him by our general, which he fired upon, and refused to recognize; but it seems he afterwards relented, for he came in alone and requested a talk. No accommodation'of difficulties appeared likely to be arrived at, when, at the conclusion of the argument his little daughter was shown in and given up to'him. Instantly the fierce savage Was unmanned; he took the child up in his arms,'and embraced her with tears; and in less than an hour after, had despatched messengers with a command to his troop to come indiscriminately in and surrender, which they did, though with manifest reluctance, and no little misgiving." In fine, this war lingered along for nearly six years; it was only disposed of hardly, and by piecemeal, with an expense of much suffering and sorrow to all in any way therewith connected; it cost the United States' upwards of fifty millions of money, besides the lives of a vast number o! bT22 THE: TREASUTY OF HI3TORY. men, as well as some of her ablest officers and most valuable citizens. We can now billy regret the past, and prepare to guard against anything of a like nature for the future. Lieutenant Reynolds, of Marines,: was despatched by government from Charleston, South Carolina, on the 21st of April, having in charge the principal chiefs and head men of the Seminoles, with their families, all;at length gathered together on that dreaded and sc long delayed voyage to the distant west. In the same month the House of Representatives voted a-sword to.Colonel Henderson, commandant U. S. M. C. for the able manner in which he had conducted the operations of his corps, whose services he had volunteered, and headed in person through an arduous campaign in Florida., Colonel Worth, an officer already somewhat-hoiourably distinguished in the history of his cointry's struggles, was deputed to wind up the details of this painful and unprecedented affair. In his hands Florida again resumed her course of improvement; and under his superintendence her soil was finally relieved of those terrible bands of misguided red-men, who had. so long and sc fearfully scourged, without discrimination, the innocent and the1 guilt) within her borders. In this year Congress adopted several important measures; some of which, being considered of a political character, bade fair to set adverse schools of politicians together by the ears. ) The " Distribiition of the surplus revenue among the states," for instance, became a law; and while many citizens were warmly in favour of such a disposition of the public money, and fully convinced of the entire correctness and utility of the act, others were as completely'persuaded to the contrary. Some states by their legislatures went so far, even, as to refuse -to accept of their portion of the public funds; while the little but spirited commonwealth of NewHampshire sneeringly made a present to the general government of the amount falling to her. Another cause; of complaint was- the celebrated "specie circular." Owing to large losses incurred in the'land office, from the depreciated character of western and southern paper currency (which, by the way, was daily growing worse, and spreading a panic in every direction), the government thought it necessary in self-defence to adopt some such measure. Accordingly, on the 11th of July, 1836, the receivers of public money were instructed by a circular from the Treasury Department, to receive *nothing but gold -and silver, or that which was immediately convertible, in payment for public lands. No sales were allowed to be made, either, except in a limited degree, and to those who should become, within a gives period, actual settlers. This was considered by many an arbitrary in fringement upon the customary way of doing things; a bold violation ol an established practice-and therefore in the highest degree reprehensible. Indeed, so great was the clamour for repeal of this obnoxious regulation, that it was presently found necessary to be very greatly modified. " The removal of the deposits" was another political firebrand now finally disposed of. Congress, after long a'gony, concluded to sanction the-formerly much-reprobated procedure; and thuA was General Jackson, who "assumed the responsibility" of the act-regardless alike of remonstrances and threats, and they were certainly bestowed upon him with a plentiful ness the most remarkable-finally exonerated from all weight of blame. In December, a disastrous' fire broke out in Washington, which con sumed, a number of public as well as private' buildings. The United States general post-office, and that of Washington city, with the greater part ol their conitents, were destroyed, as also the patent office, with the whole of its invaluable collection of rare and curious models of every description * One.thought for the departed.-In Florida, this year, of massacre, pes silence, and famine, a thousand men were slain, with proportionate women and children. At his seat near Montpelier, Virginia, June 28th, ex-pres THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 5X3 tdent James Madison died, z. 85. At Red-Hook~, near New-York, Edward Livingston, late Secretary of State for the United States, minister to France, etc. In New-York, General Jacob Morton. In Brooklyn, NewYork, Colonel J. M. Gamnble, of the Marine Corps. At Sandy Hill, Newv York, Lieutenant-governor Nathaniel Pitcher. In PennsylvAnia, & 88, Bishop White, of the Episcopal Church.. -)n Staten Island,' September 13th, at the age of 81, Colonel-Aaroin Burur, celebrated:asa politician; In Indiana, Colonel Francis Vigo, celebrated as a patriot. In Texas, at the massacre of the Alamo, March- 1t, colonels Bowie, Travis, and Crockett, In Delaware, Governor Bennett.' Ofthe United States? Senate, R. H Goldsborough, from Maryland. Of the House of Representatives, Messrs, Dicksoin, of Mississippi; Coffee, of Georgia; and Kinnard, of' Indiana In London, George Coleman the younger, aged;74. In Manchester, Eng land, Madame Malibran, vocalist, m 28.'Ii Edinburgh, Sir J. Sinclair In Ger many, lBaron N. M. Rothschild, millionaire, of London. In Rome, "the holy city," Cardinal Cheverus, formerly of Boston. In Paris, l'Abbe Sieyes, s 88. In France, during the month of November, sixty-six persons by suicide. At Illyria, in exile, Charles X., formerly king of France. A. D. 1837. —On the 4th of March, Mr. Van Buren, of New-York, and Richard -M. Johnson, of Kentucky, became president and vice-president of the' United States. This result, although the election was-narrowly contested, was looked upon as a triumph of the Jackson-democracy; and, indeed, Mr. Van Buren's administration was, in its general policy, a continuation of that of his predecessor. His cabinet consisted of John Forsyth, of Georgia, Secretary of State; Leyi Woodbury, of New;Hampshire, Secretary of the Treasury; Joel R. Poinsett, of South-Carollna, Secretary of War; James K. Paulding, of New-York, Secretary of the Navy; Amos Kendall, of Kentucky, Postmaster General; Benjamin F. Butler, of,NewYork, Attorney General. The great aim of the "favourite son of NewYork," seemed unquestionably to follow in the footsteps of the "old hero;" and to an undue and determined pressure upon the people of a certairi democratic measure, having in view a further " reform of the currency," Mr. Van Buren owes his subsequent political overthrow. The whole strength of the party proved insufficient to sustain the weight oi his fatal sub-treasury scheme. As if to add to the confusion of. thetimes, no sooner had this administration assumed the reins, than the country was oveirwhelmed by one of the'most seveie commercial revulsions ever known. Everywhere in the nation a fictitious enlargement of business had been permitted, and now the reaction, which in all such cases, sooner or later must come, took place with fearful force. As early as 1833 a derangement had been felt, and' a further extension of business upon an uncertain foundation was then by all men of moderation deprecated; but the operations were nevertheless continued'-immense importations of foreign goods were made-and real estate, especially lots in cities and towns, went up a hundred fold,- not to say in many cases a thousand fold, beyond its intrinsic value. A multitude of state banks, which had been created upon the winding up of the mammoth United States' institution, were likewise involved in the manifold speculations, and a consequent excessive expansion of their currency ensued, contributing to make natters much worse. Operations of great magnitude were undertaken by companies of various daiscriptions, chartered and unchartered;, enormous public works were commenced, and states as well as smaller compacts were involved. Even staid and sober individuals-meni holding offices of trust and large amounts of government funds-were deluded into the mad vortex of the day, and all committed to their charge was speedily dissipated. On the 10th ofrMay, the banks of the city of New-York suspcndee specie payments; and those in the country oni every side soon after fois. 524 THEi T.REASURY OF HISTORY. lowed the example. The fever of speculation had reached its crisis; and the immense and unprecedented "-panic of'37 " was inevitably the result So vast and unusual were- its ramifications, that the. interposition of Con. gress was considered alone sufficient to save the country from indiscriminate' bankruptcy. As it was, during the short space of three weeks, in the city of New-York, not less than two hundred and fifty houses stopped payment; and a list of failures, including only the more considerable, and omitting a multitude of lesser note, exhibits a total amount of more than sixty millions of dollars. "All credit, all confidence; was at an end." The general government became entangled in the unusual embarrassment, as its own funds -were for the most part parcelled out among the repudiating banks. in this state of things, the president summoned an extra session of Congress, which commenced on the 4th of September; and here the first trial of strength between parties took place, in the House of Representatives, on the occasion of electing a speaker —the adminstration proving victorious by a small majority, in the re-election of Mr. Polk, of Tennessee. The president, in his message, confined himself strictly to the proposition of meaSures for relief of the country. In accordance with his recommendation, and for'the purpose of guarding agalnst any disagreeable contingency, Congress passed laws immediately for preserving inviolate the integrity of government. The fifiance committee of the senate reported four bills, viz: -1. To suspend payment to'the states of the fourth instalment of surplus revenue, until the 1st of January, 1839. 2. To provide for the issue of ten millions of treasury notes, to be receivable in payment of public dues. 3. To authorize the warehousing in bond of imported goods, for a term not.exceeding three years. 4. To effect a separation of the' fiscal operations of government from those of corporations or individuals. These measures were readily sanctioned by the senate-but in tht house, the last-mentioned one failed. The'extra session concluded its labours and adjourned on the 16th o October. Six weeks thereafter, on the 1st Monday in- December, as usual the members reassembled, and commenced their regular session. The president, in his opening. message, still dwelt upon the currency, and pressed with some considerable pertinacity his favourite measure "to regulate the keeping and disbursementof the public funds." The gentlemen of the house, as if to relieve the sad and monotonous character of their proceedings, presently broke into an entirely novel and exhilerating course of action. At the commencement of its session, the House had passed a resolution that all petitions relative to the subject of slavery should be laid on the table without being read, and without further notice of any kind. During one of the sittings of the House, MIr. Adams, who had been very much' opposed to that:resolution, thus addressed the chair: "I hold in my hand, sir, a paper purporting to be signed by slavcs; will it be in order, under the rules of the House, to present it?" The effect produced by this question upon the members from the slaveholding states, needs not tobe described. A tumult arose; some were for expelling Mr. Adams' Outright; others were satisfied with the milder expedient of a vote of censure.' Many were the resolutions tendered to the House, some with and some without preambles, but all-denduncing the man, who would dare to present a petition from slaves, or one praying for the abolition of slavery. The debate grew warmer and warmer, the resolutions fell fast one upon the other, and several hours already had elapsed, when Mr. A., a tranquil listener all this time, and as if in nowise concerned in the matter, rose quietly and observed, THE TREASURY OF HISTOR1Y. 525' That he had only asked if it would be in order to present the paper — that so far from being for the abolition of slavery, it prayed for its continuance-and that, in addition, it prayed that he, Mr. Adams, and -all the other abolitionists in Congress, might be expelled therefrom." Upon this-statement, the uproar was, increased, tenfold; the defenders of the twenty-first rule became sensible of the.ludicrous nature of the whole affair, and endeavoured to quiet the storm, and. turn the tables, by insisting upon "the dignity of Congress " and so'forth. Incredible as it may seem, the debate arising out of this affair lasted three days longer, and at last ended in a compromise, when it was voted by a large majority, that slaves had no right to petition, and that any attempt to present such a petition would be deemed disorderly, and a direct violation of the constitution. It appeared subsequently, that the paper creating this disturbance'had been got up in Virginia, and was signed by some free-blacks, and transmitted to J. Q. Adams for the purpose merely of insulting him. Washington, this season, was all astir with novelties. Early in the year, a deputation of," braves" from the Sioux, and other tribes of the Far West, arrived, as well on a visit to the seat of government as for the purpose of concluding a treaty of peace and amity with the United States. They of course attracted no little attention in the city of "'magnificent distances;" indeed, they were altogether as- remarkable a collection-of the sons of the forest, as had perhaps ever before been seen there together at one time. They partook in an unusual degree of the character of "lions;" being represented as thinking themselves of very considerable consequence, if not in a mental, certainly in a physical point of view. At -all events, they bestowed an extraordinary degree of pains upon their personal appearance, whenever about to attend one of the many levees to which they were invited. Paint, of the most glaring colors, was pro. fusely bestowed upon their herculean frames and brawny faces —the former being about as nearly denuded as that of a fashionable belle at a ball-and particular care being taken, usually, to mark a ferocious black ring around either their mouth or one e) e. The names of these- dandysavages, as, indeed, those of others, are considered among themselves indicative of character: they are at least curious, and are here appended, as copied from, the treaty with our govtrnment-which they signed in Washington prior to leaving: his The Upsetting Wind X; Grey Iron X -; Big Thunder X; Walking Bufmark. falo X; Good Road X; Standing Cloud X; Afloat X; White Man X: Iron Cloud X; He, that comes last X; He that shakes the earth X The Son of EIandsome Voice X; The Dancer X; The Big Iron X He that runs after the clouds X; The Red Road X;'The Bad Hail X The Eagle Head X;; He that stands on both, sides X;, The WalkinCircle X; The Red Lodge X. 526 THE TREASURY OF HISTOBRY IOWAS. Nan-he-htng-ga, ".The No,Heart;" Ne-o-miun-ne, "The Walking Rain;" Waf-che-mon-ne, "The Partizan;'- " Tah-ro-hon; "Plenty of Meat." SACS OF MISSOURI. Ar'-a-qua, "The Porcupine;" Cha-ca-pe-wa, "The Standing Day;' Po-cca-ma,,' The Plumb;" No-po-cah-wa, "The Wolf;" Am-mo-ni, "Th(. Swallow;" Haw-che-ke-sog-e, "He who strikes in war."9 GRAND. PAWNEE BAND. Shouk-ka-ke-he-gah,- "The Horse Chief;" La-char-ce-taz4-rooks, "T he Fearless;"' La-doo-kee-ah, " Buffalo Bull;" Ah-shaw-wah-rooks-te, "The Medicine Horse." PAWNEE TAPAGE BAND. La-kee-too-we-ra-sha, " The Little Chief;" La.pa-koo-ra-cha, "Principal Partizan;"' Loo-ra-we-re-coo, " Bird that goes to war;" Sa-ta-coosh-ca-roo mah-ah, " Partizan that sings." REPUBLICAN PAWNEE'BAND. Ah-shaw-la -coots-ah, "Mole in the forehead;"'La-shaw-le-staw-hicks, "'The Man' Chief;" La.-we-re-coo-re-shaw-.we, "-The War Chief;' Ye-ahke-ra-le-re-coo, " The Cheyenne." PAWNEE LOUPS. Le.haw-loo-lac-le-hoo, " The Big Chief;" h$o-loc-to-hoo-la, "Handsome Pipe in his hand;', La-wa-he-coots-ta-shaw-no, "The Brave Chief;" Shar ~e-tar-rush, "The Ill-natured Man." OTTON TRIBE. Waw-eo-ne-sah, " He who surrounds;" No-way-ke-sog-e," He' who strike. two at once;" Kaw-no-way-wawznap, "Loose pipe stem;" We-kee-roo-taw ".He who exchanges." OMAHAW TRIBE. Ki-kee-gah-wa-shu-she, "The Brave Chief;" Om-pa-tong-gah, "The Big Elk;" Sha-da-nou-ne,: "There he goes;" Norn-bah-mon-ne, "He who.walks double." _Much has been said of the injustice and rapacity of the United States' government in wresting from the aborigines their lands, and forcing the removal of the "unfortunate people" "byond the Mississippi. Faultfinders are generally wrong; those who have grumbled upon this subject particularly so. By reference to state papers, at Washington, it will be found that thef utmost value. has always been paid the savages for the relincquishmehitof their possessions east of the great river —and their comfortable esta _iishmert upon the western side in all cases guaranteed them. The Sioux, on this occasion, proposed to transfer to the United States what claim they had to about five millions of acres east of the "'father of waters;" and in consideration therefor, received, in proper instalments,.$1,000,000. The Winnebagoes, shortly after, disposed also of their right and title, except for hunting purposes, to a strip running back twenty miles from the river, and received for the same, the very comfortable bonus of $1,500,000. A few years previous to this, the general government paid to the Cherokees, upon their leaving the state of Georgia, $5,000,000 The tribe at that time numbering so few that the average for each man was not less than five hundred dollars-besides a free transportation to an equally rich'and extensive domain farther west, in the which they were comfortably established; and their freedom from interference or aggres sion at the hands of hostile or more powerful tribes was made doubly certain, bv theitbheing still publicly recognized as under the protection o THEb TBEASURY 0F HRSTOISY. 5:97 the United States. Yet, what an uproar was -there raised on that o.casion! Scarcely an. opponentof the -president or his party, but at once denounced, in terms the most ungualified, the cruelty, barbarism and injustice of the administration, in inducing in those unsophisticated and simple Indians a determination, for filthy lucre's sake, to-"' desert their -father's bones!" Michigan was at-this session of Congress admitted a state; making the twenty sixth, and twice the original number declaring for independence in the year'76-doubling the number in half a century, and. trebling the population. Messrs.. Lyon: and Norvell appeared as senators from the new state, and being duly qualified, took their seats. Mr.. Crary was her.first member in the House -of Representatives. -Inthe pleasant town of Alton, Illinois, on the Upper Mississippi, a riot, resulting in bloodshed, Unhappily occurred' in the month of November. It appears, that' the Rev. Mr. Lovejoy, an abolitionist, with a few others holding similar opinions, had resolved upon establishing a paper in this place, for the dissemination ofreligious principles and their peculiar views. The majority of citizens being opposed to such a; measure, duly notified the reverend gentleman and his friends, that they would not be allowed to carry into effect their intentions. Instead of regarding this expression of "6 public opinion," they inconsiderately determined to continue their operations. The press and printing materials were landed, and carefully stored in a large stone warehouse near the wharf, in which it was understood Mr. L. and -his friends had determined to make a stand, and were prepared with arms and ammunition, to defend their property. - Night had no sooner arrived, than the populace, with shouts and missiles, made their appearance before the stronghold of the misguided religionists; here they demanded entrance and a: parley; which being of course refused, they commenced, in some sort, an assault upon the building. Now, to complete the folly of its inmates, a shot was fired from an upper window, which took effect in the mob, mortally wounding one said to be merely a spectator. Fireballs were thereupon furnished to the assailants, who hurled them from every direction upon the roof of the store-house, and a fire was speedily kindled in several places.'Fire-arms were also procured, and the slaying of the stranger was soon to be avenged. Perceiving too late that his fortress was untenable, Mr. L. attempted to escape-but fell, before taking many steps, pie/rced with bullets. His associates yielded themselves up, and were suffered to depart unharmed; but the mischievous press and types, which hai mainly caused the trouble; were instantly carted down to the river's bank, and, being broken in pieces, were sunk, some forty fathoms deep. Treaties were this year concluded with a number of half.civilized and barbarous nations; i. e., the American Indians, modern- Greece, Siam, and Muscat. By the very liberal and enlightened interference of the ruling European powers, Greece had lately been rescued frem the unwarrantable usurpation and galling thraldom of the Turks. A government had been organized for the Greeks, and King Otho set upon the throne. An accredited agent of the United States had been established in Athens, near the court of his majesty; and a commercial arrangement was' now negotiated between the two countries, reflecting honour in a high-degree upon the liberal policy which dictated it. At the royal city of Bankok, in the kingdom of Siam, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded, between Edmund Roberts on the part of the United States of America, and Chan Phaya Phraklang, first minister of state for his magnificent majesty of the kingdom - aforesaid. It was there done on the last day of the fourth month'of the year Pi. marong-chakara-sok (".of the dragon"), and' here finally ratified by hi~ excellency Martin Van Buren. on the 24th of June, 628 THE -TREASURY OF HISTORY. With'the sublime Sultan of Muscat, Seyed Syeed Bin, another equally important negotiation was entered into; at the royal palace, on the sixth day of the Moon Samada Alauredi-in, the year Allhajra;, and an agreetent was finally effected, affording much satisfaction-to all parties. V"rioUis; presents of: importance'were.tratismitted by his affable majesty Seyed Syeed Bin, to his-excellency Martin Van Buren: but as they could not in consonance with the principles of this government be accepted by him, they-were partly placed in the National Institute at Washington, and otherwise properly disposed of. A due. acknowledgment being rendered in form, the friendly feeling existing between the respective nations may now be considered firmly estabhshe6, Obituary.-The ordeal of death by water prevailed to- a fearful extent, about the close of the last and beginning of this year. The ships Bristol and' Mexico were wrecked upon:Far Rockaway and Hempstead beach, and one hundred and thirty-nine lives lost. though the vessels were within a cable's length of land.l In the case of the latter vessel, the unfortunate passengers were mostlyfrozen to death before yielding themselves to the raging surf. Men fell from the rigging stiff, into the waves, and were washed upon shore with their eyes open, staring frightfully into the countenance of the beholder.' Women lay upon the sand hardened into ice, with their infants:frozen to their breasts; - the faces of the children being drawn awry, with tear-drops still upon their cheeks, as if they perished in the act of crying. One little girl was picked up holding a half-eaten cake to her lips-another with her knees bent, and hands clasped upward. A'stalwart negro, apparently a sailor, was found with a most agonized and terrible expression of countenance-as if his soul had fled with cursing and defiance. The steamship:, Home, from New-York to Charlestoni, South-Carolinat was wrecked on Cape Hatteras', in July, and ninety lives were sacrificed-an. extremely limited number escaping. The ship was entirely new, but so slightly made, that in the short space of an hour from the time' of her striking, not a vestige of the vesssel remained visible. Died, in June, Hon. Nathaniel Macon, of North-Carolina, t. 83. At Schenectady, E~X-Governor Yates, of New-York. Also, Hon. Henry R. Storrs, of New-York. In Maryland, Governor Kent,: 58. At Boss ton, T. G. Fessenden, editor. In Paris, Major Henry Lee, of Virginia In Windsor Castle, 20th June, William IV. of England, m 73. In Lonaon Lord William Seymour; General Sir John Smith, and Admiral Dacres. Also, Joseph Grimaldi) Esq., "the clown." In Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus IV., qx-king. A. D. 1838.-In the executive message to Congress at the beginning of this year, alluding to the pecuniary embarrassments of the nation the year previous, the: president reimarked;" The industry and prudence of the citizens, are gradually relieving them from the' disabilities under which so many of them have laboured; judicious legislation, and the natural and boundless resources of the country, have afforded wise and timelytaid to private enterprise; and, together with the activity always; characteristic of the people, have alreadyi in a great degree, caused the business of the land to resume its usual and profitable channel.". In relation further' to financial affairs, his excellency took occasion again warmly to urge upon public attention that celebrated Sub-Treasury system, which was -intended to provide so effectually for the collection, safe-keeping, transfer, ard disbursement of:the public revenue..By this'fayourite' measure, the president designed the public money should be withdrawn altogether-from the keeping of banks, and placed in the hands of certain'receivers-general, to be appointed in various quarters of the Union, and subject.to the order and control of the Treasurer of the United States. On the 29th of March, the Senate again' passed the bill, by a vote of twenty-seven,to twenty-five, this being a lesser majority by four votes THB TREASURY OF HISTORY.- 59 than It received on the previous- test. In the House, after a long and stormy debate, on the 22d of April the bill was again negatived, one hun-'dred and twenty-five, nays against one hundred and eleven yeas declaring it for this session hopelessly lost. On the 13th of August, the banks throughout the country' concluded, generally, to resume specie payments; but in the course of sixty days thereafter, the moneyed institutions of Philadelphia resolved again to suspend, and their example was followed by the interior banks of Pennsylvania, as well as those of most of the states south and west. The banks of New-York, however, and*New-England, continued'to pay specie, and fulfil all demands against them. A special messenger was despatched by government this year, to Lon don, for the purpose of inquiring into and settling up a somewhat curious affair. James Smithson, an Englishman, wealthy and eccentric, or rather philanthropic, dying without near kin, it was found upon examination of is will that he had bequeathed the'great balance of his property, ~100,000, to the American government, for the purpose of founding in the United States an institution " for the increase and diffusion of useful knowledge among men." Although difficulty was apprehended with the courts of law in England relative to this bequest, none was experienced. Distant connexions of the very liberal and worthy testator raised objections, it is true, and attempted to contest the validity of the will by asserting a want of sane mind in its maker; but the-British probate judges, as well as the master of the rolls refused to entertain their complaints, and an order was finally given for the transfer of funds to the-American agent, in com' pliance with the wishes of the deceased philanthropist. It may appear strange, that nothing has yet been done to carry into effect the grand object of this munificent donation; many years have elapsed since the receival of the money, yet the combined wisdom and discrimination of the great body of gentlemen composing both houses of Congress, has only been able to place the cash at interest. Mr.'Van Buren, during, his ad. ministration, called upon the learned of the nation for their written opinions and advice in this matter, but no one was able to submit a satisfactory plan for the proper fulfilment of the specifications and desires of the truly great Mr. Smithson. Troubles on the Canadian frontier now began to attract considerable attention. For some years previous to this, the Lower Canada legislatute had been annually embroiled by means of a close and acrid division between the ancient French, or liberal, and -modern English, or royalist parties. Monsieur Papineau, speaker of the Assembly, was at the same time editor of a violent anti-government newspaper; and his friends being latterly in majority, had refused to vote the usual supplies for support of her majesty's appointed officers. This state of things could not last. An outbreak occurred in the city of Montreal in November, 1837, between two parties of the rival populace, in which blood was-shed; the military attempted to quell the disturbance, and were resisted with violence; drums beat to arms in every French quartier directly, and the liberalists marshalled themselves to the number of near three thousand, under Papineau and one T. S. Brown, a brawling sort of person, an American, who had taken an active part in the original street affray. They commenced fortifying themsleves in an old French fort near St. Denis; but presently sustained a vigorous attack from the queen's forces, which, however, were speedily compelled to retreat with considerable loss. The next affair resulted very differently; Colonel Wetherall attacked the insurgents at St. Charles, and completely routed them; his own loss was but trifling, while that of the adverse party was two hundred killed, many wounded -and prisoners, and the town which harboured them destroyed. The " rebel" leaders, including Doctors Wolfred Nelson, and Cote, escaped, and a 530 THE TREASURY OF HISTOlRY reward was set upon their heads. The fearful close of the rebellion in that region, was at St. Eustache —where the houses in which the de. luded liberalists had taken refuge were surrounded in the night and burned over them, while those who attempted to escape from the flames were shot down, or bayonetted without mercy. While these things were transacting in the Lower Province, the lurid glare of similar scenes was bursting forth in the Upper.' William L. Mackenzie, for a number of years editor of a factious.paper-in Toronto, was ordered to be arrested on behalf of the government. Receiving timely information of this proceeding,' he made his escape, and at once raised the standard of-revolt. It is said a majority of the citizens of that place and neighbourhood,were decidedly in favour of remodelling the systemn by which they were controlled,; and as there was at that time but a handful of British troops in the garrison or.at the nearest posts, the'city might in all probability have been seized without the least difficulty, and Governor Head himself made a prisoner. But alas, for the insurrectionists and all their new-blown hopes! although a thousand men at once responded to the call of the agitator, and spiritedly marched to his camp, a short distance back of. the city, the all-important time was spent in idle braggadocio and dallying, and the cause forever ruined. Thore lagged the' rebels" and their coward leader, within sight, almost, of a well-supplied arsenal and the most admirable fortifications, until a fresh body of troops, with an active commander, had time to arrive from below. Thenceforward the history of their operations presents nothing but a " stale, unprofitable" account. Colonel Moodie was shot, it is true, in a sort of running fight; and this event, perhaps, so frightened or so satisfied the riotous revolters, that they threw down their arms and opposition and quietly' submitted to their former masters.'The subsequent' attempts of the few who had refused the profft.red amnesty, or were inimicable to it, are only characterized by the extremities of imprudence and folly: but as the American government was nearly involved in a war with Great Britain thereby, a passing review of the events, may be considered worth while. At the outset, we may remark that,