C371513 ARCHITECTUE NA,3',N6 1lqA9 . *n I Afti, I I 71, g, k S. , 11 1111 ilft-W!.Malawi,, kj" OWED i 4, an, I ' 7 )'.' ki; 61 Eka Ik* 11 Iof.I ", S I li P", ly'.1 Iid ro 5i 0340 oa.. I i&, or -;, "Mm -f Ot -'Zoi jl M A- IR 114' , " -, p O& W 4,M 'r li ", 'k r,, k"j., -I k".Ill`lWl-w7-R O"I'll, 4P vo 44, PUM Ij, Nd Ml', 11 I", I"",", I,il 1, 62", wlf'Ir-.,;- S, e tI Architectural Library ~/,3 / / - 7,~ kI S tw - I> Kjl . 1 rllyr, -.. I.. I I I i 7 IAII I l.... X -1 i. I. * A < 1/ A RE-VT._LI NFU) EyILIDIR, - j[D A. 0ZK 7? f/.1., . 'I I -I /Jl.1 vilil. J(LY1 - I jv - L( 17227i.,',~L A21719 IN22 7_.b1 Y 1~> (' }TY 2~27 7~ * J\A () A44I J - :, TJ H S-U, TYLA, ~ — )0O " I ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE. A DICTIONARY OF THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF trtjntetar. Quilttim, ~artttrg, tIt., FROM TIE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME, FORMING A COMPREHENSIVE WORK OF REFERENCE FOR THE USE OF ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, CARPENTERS, MASONS, ENGINEERS, STUDENTS, PROFESSIONAL MEN, AND AMATEURS. BY PETER NICHOLSON,: ARCHITECT AiM BUILDER. EDWARD EDITED BY LOMAX AND THOMAS GUNYON, ARCHITECTS AND CIVIL ENGINEERS. ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL, MOSTLY FROM WORKING DRAWINGS IN DETAIL. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY JOHNSON, FRY & CO., 27 BEEKMAN STREET. - IO W/z Oct II __: PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. IT is the design of the present work to give an account, not only of ARCHITECTURE itself, but also of the Ivarious other ARTS and SCIENCES connected with it, and without which a comprehensive and complete knowledge of it cannot be attained. An alphabetical arrangement was adopted by the author, MR. P. NICHOLSON, as considered the best adapted for the use of mechanics, as well as the most expeditious a knowledge of the meaning of he. terms of art, which are very numerous, being more easily acquired by this mode than by any other. The RISE AND PROGRESS of every department are given as far as authentic information could be obtained. The greatest attention has been paid to the DEFINITIONS; and it is hoped that they will be found to be far more intelligible than those which have been hitherto given in Dictionaries, and in Treatises on Architecture. Geometry being the key to works of this description, such GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS are introduced as will be found useful in delineating the various kinds of objects that may occur. ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND PERSPECTIVE DRAWING being necessary, not only to the Architect, but also to the Builder and Workman, their principles are laid down, and their application is shown by means of numerous examples. I CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, also, are here treated in a manner far superior to that which characterizes any previous work upon those subjects. In the other branches has been given, not only what has fallen under the immediate observation of the author, but also the valuable information which has resulted from the diligent inquiries he has made of the most skilful workmen. An account, also, of the PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS used in the execution of works, and of the RULES FOR JUDGING OF THEIR QUALITY, is given at large. In preparing the present edition for the press, the Publishers have availed themselves of the valuable labours of MR. EDWARD LOMAX and MR. THOMAS GUNYON, practical Architects and Engineers. The improvements are rather those of enlargement than of alteration, the greater part of the work being left in its original condition, more especially such parts as related to CARPENTRY, and subjects of a kindred nature, in which the Author is universally accredited as an authority of the highest standing. Some parts of the original edition, however, had become obsolete and out of date, and such it was considered advisable to expunge, or modify in such a manner as might make them suitable to the more advanced knowledge of the present day. The articles on BRIDGES, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, THE ORDERS, and such like, will afford a fair specimen of the treatment of such subjects as required modification or enlargement. As an illustration of the new matter which has been added, may be particularly enumerated a series of papers treating of the HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE, which, it is hoped, may prove an interesting and not unuseful feature in the present Dictionary. Besides these, many papers of an ARCH.EOLOGICAL and general, as well as of a practical character, have been added, and a very large number of Definitions introduced, which were not in the original work. Amongst the Archaeological papers, those on CHURCH ARCHITECTURE and ECCLESIOLOGY in general, may, it is hoped, be referred to with satisfaction; whilst those of a practical character may be fairly represented by the articles on ROADS, SEWERS, CEMENT, &C. The Plates contained in the original work have also been very carefully compared with the text. Several errors of importance have been corrected, besides a very large number of others of less importance, such as would, however, tend to perplex the student, and even render the information useless to those of more advanced knowledge, who have not the leisure to make the corrections for themselves. In fine, the Publishers venture to hope, that, while the sterling matter of the original edition is preserved, some Additions and Improvements have been made which may be of service not only to the student and working man, but also to the mature and experienced practitioner; and they flatter themselves that nothing is wanting to render this work, as now presented to the public, containing all the improvements down to the present day, a COMPLETE ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. 408599 _ __ _ _ __ LIST OF PLATES.-VOL. I. To the Binder.-The Plates may be bound up in a separate Volume, in the following order, for greater facility of reference. If, however, it be preferred, that they should be bound up with the text, their proper position is assigned to each in the following List. PAGE Crystal Palalce, New Yolk........ FRONTISPIECE..... Doorway, East Cloisters, Westminster Abbey, VIGNETTE. Details, Plate I............................... Details, Plate V. (Acroteria &c.)................ The Amphitheatre, Verona....................... Details, Plate II. (Arches.)...................... Balusters........................................ Details, Plate III. (Balcony, &c.)................. Bracketing, Plate I.............................. Byzantine Architecture, Plate II................... Do., Plate I................... Details, Plate IV.............................. Carpentry, Plate I............................ Do., Plate II............................. Do., Plate IIIl............................. Do., Plate IV............................ Do., Plate V............................. Do., Plate V......................... Do., Plate VII............................ Do., Plate VIII........................... Do., Plate IX............................ Do., Plate X............................. Do., Plate X I............................ Do., Plate XII............................ Do., Plate XIII.......................... Castle of Chillon............................... Plal of English Abbey and French Cathedral Churches. Centering, Plate I.............................. Do., Plate II.............................. Do., Plate III............................. Centre of W aterloo Bridge...................... Chinese Architecture, Plate I..................... Do., Plate II..................... Do., Plate III.................... Army and Navy Club House, Plan................ Do., Elevation............. Columns, Plate I............................... Colic Sections, Plate I.......................... Constructive Carpentry, Plate I................... Do., Plate II................... Corinthian Order, Plate I........................ Do., Plate II...................... Do., Plate III....................... Do., Plate IV....................... Curb Roof.................................... Cylinder, Plate............................... Details, Plate V. (Letter D)..................... Descriptive Geometry, Plate I.................... Do., Plate II.................... Do., Plate III................... Do., Plate IV................... Dog-legged Stairs, Plate I........................ Dome, Plate I.............................. Dome, Plate III................................ 1 3 3 12 25 26 42 70 73 73 83 84 86 89 90 91 92 94 99 100 101 102 104 110 117 138 139 139 139 147 148 148 173 173 181 190 194 195 204 204 204 204 218 224 227 244 250 262 264 274 282 283 PAGE Do., 'Plate II................................. 284 Grecian Architecture, Plate I..................... 303 Doric Order, Plate I........................... 303 D o., Plate III........................... 303 Do., Plate IV........................... 303 Eddystone Lighthouse, Plate I.................... 345 Do., Plate II., No 1............. 346 Do.. Plate II., No 2.............. 340 Lighthouse, Plate III............................ 347 Do., Plate IV............................ 347 Do., Plate V........................... 348 Do., Plate VI.......................... 348 Do., Plate VII........................... 349 Do., Plate VIl........................... 350 Plan and Interior Court of the Egyptian Temple at Edfou................................. 354 General view of do.............................. 354 Egyptian Fagades of Porticos..................... 354 Egyptian Interior of Temple at Ipsambul, &c........ 354 Examples of Egyptian Capitals of Columns......... 356 Ellipsis, Plate I................................. 366 Do., Plate II............................... 367 D o., Plate III.............................. 368 Embankment, Plate I..........................378 Envelopes of Solids, Plate I...................... 388 Envelope, Plate II.............................. 388 Details, Plate VI............................... 411 Frets, Plate I.................................. 434 D o., Plate II................................. 434 Geometry, Plate I.............................. 442 Do., Plate I.......................... 443 Do., Plate III............................. 446 Semi-Norman and Early English Examples.......... 464 Gothic Architecture, Early English Examples........ 464 Do., Decorated Examples........... 466 Do., Do., (Buttresses, &c.)..... 467 Do., Perpendicular Examples........ 469 Centering for Groins............................ 479 Ribbing for Groins.............................. 480 Handrailing, Plate VIII......................... 489 Do., PlateI............................. 490 D o., Plate II............................ 491 D o., Plate III........................... 491 D o., Plate IV........................... 491 Do., Plate V............................. 491 Do., Plate VI........................... 492 Do., Plate VII.......................... 492 Hinging, Plate I............... 495 Do., Plate II............................... 496 Hip Roof, Plate 1............................... 498 Do., Plate II.............................. 498 D o., Plate III.............................. 499 Do., Plate IV............................499 Private House, Pompeii....................... 507 - - -i- -...- I. ~ --. ~ --- I- -i -- -- -- --- LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED IN PREPARING THE PRESENT EDITION OF TIHE ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. Archreologia, 8vo., London. Archaeological Journal, 8vo., London, 1844. Barr's Anglican Church Architecture, with some remarks on Ecclesiastical Furniture, 8vo., Oxford, 1846. Barrington's Plain Hints for understanding the Genealogy and Armorial Bearings of Sovereigns of England, 8vo., London, 1843. Barrington's Chronological Chart of British Architecture, fol., London, 1843. Bartholomew's Specifications, 8vo., London, 1846. Bentham's History of Gothic and Saxon Architecture, fol., London, 1798. Bingham's (J.) Origines Ecclesiasticse, or Antiquities of the Christian Church, and other Works, with additional annotations, revised and edited by Rev. R. Bingham, 8vo., London, 1821-9. Bloxam's Glimpse of the Monumental Architecture and Sculpture from earliest period to 18th century, 12mno., London, 1834. Bloxam's Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture elucidated by question and answer, 12mo., London, 1843. Do., do., 9th Edition, 12mo., London, 1849. Brande, W. T.-Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 8vo., London, 1842. Brandon, T. A.-Parish Churches, 8vo., London, 1848. Britton, J.-The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 4to., London, 1801-7. Britton, J.-Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology of the Middle Ages, 4to., London, 1838. Britton, J.-The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1814. Britton, J.-Antiquities of Winchester Cathedral, fol., London, 1817 Britton, J.-Antiquities of Cathedral Church of Norwich, fol., London, 1816. Britton, J.-The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1821. Brown.-Sacred Architecture, 4to., London. Buck, G. W.-Practical Essay on Oblique Bridges, 4to., London, 1839. Buckler, J. C.-Elevations, Sections, and Details of St. Peter's Church, Wilcote, Oxon., fol., Oxford, 1844. Buckler, J. C.-Views of Cathedral Churches of England and Wales, 4to., London, 1822. Carter, J.-Specimens of Gothic Architecture and Ancient Buildings in England, 12mo., London, 1824. Chambers, Sir W.-A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, edited by Jos. Gwilt, 8vo., London, 1825. Chambers, Sir W.-Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, &c., fol., London, 1757. Coney, J.-Engravings of Ancient Cathedrals in France, Holland, and Italy, fol., London, 1839. Cotman, J. S.-Architectural Antiquities of Normandy, fol., London, 1822. Cotman, J. S.-Etchings Illustrative of Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk, fol., London, 1818. Cranstoun, E.-Elevations, Sections, and Details of Chapel of St. Bartholomew, near Oxford, fol., Oxford, 1844. Cresy, E.-Architecture of Middle Ages in Italy, Illustrated by Views, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of Cathedral of Campo Santo at Pisa, by E. Cresy and G. L. Taylor, fol., London, 1829. Cresy, E.-Illustrations of Stone Church, Kent, with Historical Account, fol., London, 1840. i _ 1..-._. — e -.. I - - I ____ _I _ _._ LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. -- --- Dallaway, J.-Discourses upon English Architecture from Norman Era to Elizabeth. Davies, E.-Celtic Researches on the Origin, Traditions, and Language of Ancient Britons, 8vo., London, 1804. Denisis, J.-Architectura Sacra, 8vo., Exeter, 1818. Denon, V.-Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte, fol., Paris, 1802. Elmes, J.-A General and Bibliographical Dictionary of the Fine Arts, 8vo., London, 1826. Fawcett, J.-Churches of York, by Mr. Monkhouse and Mr. E. Bedford; with Historical and Architectural Notes by F. Fawcett, 4to., York, 1843. Fleury.-Ecclesiastical History from A.D. 400 to 429, translated, with Notes, by J. H. Newman, 8vo., Oxford, 1843. Gray, H.-Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria. Grose, F.-Antiquities of England and Wales, fol., London, 1773-6. Grose, F. —Antiquities of Ireland, 8vo., London, 1791-5. Guilhabaud, J.-Monuments Anciens et Modernes, Vues generales et particulieres, &c. Gunn, W.-An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1819. Gwilt, Jos.-Encyclopedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical, 8vo., London, 1842. Gwilt, J.-Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical, 4to., London, 1826. Habershon, M.-The Ancient Half-timbered Houses of England, fol., London, 1836. Hakewill, J.-An attempt to Determine the exact Character of Elizabethan Architecture, 8vo., London, 1835. Halfpenny, W.-The Art of Sound Building, fol., London, 1725. Halfpenny, W.-Practical Architecture. 12mo., London, 1736. Hall, Sir J.-Essay on Origin and Principles of Gothic Architecture, 4to., London, 1813. Hawkins, J. E.-History of Gothic Architecture, with an Investigation of its Principles, 8vo., London, 1813. Hope, Thomas.-An Historical Essay on architecture, 8vo., London, 1835. Hughes, T. S.-Travels in Sicily, Greece, and Albania, 8vo., London, 1830. Hunt, T. F.-Examples of Tudor Architecture, 4to., London, 1830. Inghirami, F.-Monumenti Etruschi o di Etrusco Nome, 4to., Fiesol, 1821-6. Kendall.-Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1842. Knight H. G.-Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy, fol., London, 1842. Lloyd, H. E.-Architectural Beauties of Continental Europe, fol., London, 1831. Mackenzie, C.-Crosby Place described, Svo., London, 1842. Mackenzie, F.-Specimens of Gothic Architecture, 4to., London. Mant, R.-Church Architecture considered in relation to the Mind of the Church, 8vo., Belfast, 1843. Moller, G.-Essay on Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1824. Murphy, J. C.-The Arabian Antiquities of Spain, fol., London, 1813. Nash, J.-Mansions of England in the Olden Time, Series 1, 2, 3, fol., London, 1839-41. Neale, J. P.-Views of Collegiate and Parochial Churches in Great Britain, 4to., London, 1824-5. Parnell, Sir H.-A Treatise on Roads. Petit, J. L.-Remarks on Church Architecture, 8vo., London, 1841. The Practical Builder, 4to., London, 1838. Pugin, A. W.-Apology for revival of Christian Architecture, 4to., London, 1843. Pugin, A. W.-Contrasts, or Parallel between Edifices of Middle Ages and Present Day, 8vo., London, 1841. Pugin, A. W.-Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament, 4to., London, 1844. Pugin, A.-Gothic Ornaments selected from various Buildings in England and France, 4to., London, 1831. Pugin, A. —Specimens of Gothic Architecture from Ancient Edifices in England, 4to., London, 1821. Pugin, A. W.-The True Principles of Pointed, or Clfristian Architecture, 4to., London, 1841. Rich. -Narrative of a Journey to Babylon in 1811-Memoir on Ruins-Remarks on Topography of Ancient Babylon by Major Rennell, &c., 8vo., London, 1839. Richardson, C. J.-Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I., fol., London, 1838-40. Rickman, T.-An attempt to discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from Conquest to Reformation, 8vo., London, 1820. Rickman, T.-An Essay on Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1825. Shaw, H.-History and Antiquities of Chapel at Luton Park, fol., London, 1830. I~- ---- ~ ---- LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED...... Simpson, F.-Series of ancient Baptismal Fonts chronologically arranged, 4to. Smirke, (Sir R.) Specimens of Continental Architecture, fol., London, 1806. Smith.-Paronama of Science and Art, 8vo., London. Stuart, J.-Antiquities of Athens, fol., London, 1830. Stuart, R.-Dictionary of Architecture, 3 Vols., 8vo., London. Stukeley, W.-Palhegraphia Britannica, 4to., London, 1743-52. Tappen, G.-Professional Observations on the Architecture of France and Italy, 8vo., London, 1806. Tredgold.-Elementary Principles of Carpentry, 4to., London, 1840. Vitruvius.-Civil Architecture, by Gwilt, 4to., London, 1626..Walsh, R.-An Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals, and Gems illustrating Progress of Christianity in Early Ages. 2nd Edition, enlarged, 12mo., London, 1828. Warton, J.-Essays on Gothic Architecture. Weale.-Quarterly Papers on Architecture, 4to., London, 1843-4. Weale.-Rudimentary Treatises, 12mo., London, 1851. Whewell, W.-Architectural Notes on German Churches, 8vo., Cambridge, 1842. Whittington, G. D.-Historical Survey of Ecclesiastical Architecture of France, 4to., London, 1809. Wightwick.-Hints to young Architects, 8vo., London, 1846. Wild, C.-Cathedrals-12 Specimens of Ecclesiastical Architecture of Middle Ages, fol., London. Wid, C.-Twelve Examples of Ecclesiastical Architecture of France, fol. Wilkinson, J. G.-The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 8vo., 1837. Wilkins, H.-Suite de rues pittoresques des ruines de Pompeii, fol., Rome, 1819. Willis, R.-Remarks on Architecture of Middle Ages, espe. cially of Italy, 8vo., Cambridge, 1835. Willis, B.-A Survey of the Cathedrals, 4to., London, 1727. Wood, J.-Letters of an Architect from France, Italy, and Greece 4to., London, 1828. Wood, R.-Ruins of Palmyra, fol., London, 1753. Wood, R.-Ruins of Balbec, fol., London, 1757. A few Words to Church Builders, published by Cambridge Camden Society, with Appendix, containing List of Fonts, Svo., Cambridge, 1841. A few Words to Churchwardens on Churches and Church Ornaments, 8vo., Cambridge, 1841. Church Enlargement and Church Arrangement, 8vo., Cambridge, 1843. Ecclesiastic, 8vo., London, 1846. Eccleologist, 8vo., Cambridge, 1841-4. A Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1836. Gothic Architecture-A Chart of English, Ecclesiastical, or GothicArchitecture from Commencement in Saxon dynasty to Sixteenth century, fol. A Guide to the Architectural Antiquities in Neighbourhood of Oxford, 8vo., Oxford, 1844-5. Instrumenta Ecclesiastica, a Series of Working Designs for Fu-niture, Fittings, and Decorations of Churches. Edited by Cambridge Camden Society, 4to., London, 1844. Prospects of all the Cathedrals and Collegiate Churches of England and Wales, 12mo. Quarterly Review, Vols. of 1845, 8vo., London, 1845. The Student's Guide td Measuring and Valuing Artificers' Work, 8vo., London, 1843. The Builder. - - I.. - --- -Lf -..,:, I I I I i Ii Ii I I i I I I i I i j i i I I I -------,F I U I r - ---- -- -, - - - - - ~r - - - ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY. A BU ACC ABACI, according to Vitruvius, any flat tabulated surface. -The term is applied to the panels of walls formed in stucco, of which examples may be seen in various remains of antiquity; and to certain decorations of the walls above a part of the podium, or dado.-N-ewton's Vitruvius, Chap. II. and IV. Book 7. ABACUS, (from Greek, a3aS,) the uppermost member of the capital of a column, consisting of a flat, rectangular table contained between two horizontal planes. In all the existing Doric buildings, with perhaps one or two exceptions, it is in the form of a parallelopiped of equal rectangular sides. The same form is preserved in the other orders, but the thickness is considerably diminished. In the Corinthian and Composite, however, the sides are of a curvilinear form in plan. See DORIC, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, TUSCAN, and COMPOSITE ORDERS. ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, governed by a superior under the title of Abbot. For a particular account of this species of building, and its distribution, see the article MONASTERY. ABBREVIATION, a kind of shorthand, much used by surveyors in measuring work, and greatly facilitating the process. See MENSURATION of Artificers' Works. ABREUVOIR, or ABREVOIR, (from the French,) in masonry the interstice, or joint, between two stones, to be filled up with mortar or cement. See JOINTS. ABSTRACT, in artificers' works, is used in a general sense, to signify the collecting of sundry articles into one sum, when the same price is affixed to equal parts of each; or, to ascertain measure. See MENSURATION of Artificers' Works. ABUTMENT, or BUTMENT, that which receives the end of, and gives support to anything having a tendency to spread or thrust outwards:-or it may be defined as the resisting surface of a body, on which another body presses in an oblique direction to the horizon, or in a different direction to the height or length of the body pressed upon; such are the abutments of arches and the joggles of truss-posts, which resist the pressure of the struts or braces. In bridge-building it is the extreme pillars only of one or a series of arches, and thus connects the bridge with the bank of a river, &c. Abutments should be made to resist a greater force than what is just sufficient to balance the abutting works, provided 1 there be no rocks to rest upon. The foundation of an abutment, raised upon a sloping bank of rock, gravel, or good solid earth, will be a great saving of materials and labour; but if no such natural advantages occur, it will add greatly to the strength of the abutment to lay the stones with radiating or summering joints, according to the practice in laying the voussoirs, at least as high as the springing of the arch, and this disposition will present a greater resistance to the lateral thrust of the adjacent arch, than if the stones had been laid on level beds; and instead of the returning sides from the side of the aperture of the arch being vertical planes, they would be much stronger when reclining, and more particularly so if curved in a vertical direction. See BRIDGES and WALL. ABUTMENTS, in carpentry and joinery, are the junctions, or meetings, of two pieces of timber, of which the fibres of the one run perpendicular to the joint, and those of the other parallel to it. M. Perronet, the celebrated French architect, formed the abutments of the timbers, in roofing, in the arches of circles, making the centre in the other extremity. With respect to the tranverse strain on the various pieces of a roof, the abutting joint is of little importance. For farther explanation, see JOGGLE. ACADEMY, in antiquity, a public grove or villa, six stadia (half-a-mile) distant from Athens, which it is said took its name from one Academus, a citizen of Athens, to whom it originally belonged, and who appropriated it to gymnastic sports. ACANTHUS, an ornament used in the enrichment of the Corinthian capital, and so called from its resemblance to the leaves of an acanthaceous plant. It is also commonly em ployed in sculptural and architectural enrichments generally * in the enrichment of modillions, of mouldings, and of vases, as well as of foliated capitals. In the ancient Roman models, this ornament is full and luxuriant; while in the Greek it is characterized by a graceful and restrained simplicity. See ORDERS. ACCESSES, the passages of communication to the various apartments of a building. See PASSAGES. ACCIDENTAL POINT. See VANISHING POINT. ACCOMPANIMENT, an ornament added to some other ornament, for the greater beauty of the work. - --- - -- -- AY 2 ~ AIS ADY 2 AIS ~_ __ ___ __ __ ACRE, a quantity of land, containing four square roods, or 160 poles or perches. The acre is in length ten chains, and one in breadth; consequently contains ten square chains; and as the chain contains 22 yards in length, there will be 4840 square yards in the acre. The proportion between the English and Scottish acre, supposing the feet to be alike in both, is as 1089 to 1369, or nearly as four to five; the English chain being 66 feet, and the Scottish 74. The French acre, arpent, contains 1: English acre, or 54,450 square feet. ACROLINTHON, or ACROLINTHOS, a colossal statue, placed in the temple of Mars, and situated in the middle of the citadel in the ancient town of JIalicarnassus. ACROPOLIS, (from aKcpoS, height, and rro0ts, a city,) the fortress or citadel of Athens, which derived its name from an eminence on which it stood. The summit is fortified by a wall built on its extreme edge, and encompassing the whole upper surface, which is nearly level. The natural strength of its situation is said to have induced the first inhabitants to settle there, and as their number increased they began to build on the adjacent ground, till the Acropolis, being surrounded on every side, became the fortress of a large and populous city. It was richly adorned by the Athenians, in the days of their prosperity, with temples, statues, paintings, and votive gifts to their divinities. Of this ancient place there are still many fine ruins, some of which are very entire. The remains of the famous Propylea, the little temple of Victory without wings, the Doric temple of Minerva, called the Parthenon, and Hecatompedon, erected in the time of Pericles, under the direction of Phidias, with the cell of Pandrossus, are still to be seen. Its walls have at different times been rudely repaired, or rebuilt, as little of the ancient masonry remains; but numerous fragments of columns, cornices, and sculptures, are seen in several parts, and exhibit a ruinous appearance. ACROTERIA, a term applied to the little pedestals placed on the pediment or fastigium; one on the apex, and one on each lower extremity, serving to support statues. According to Vitruvius, those at the extremes ought to be half the height of the tympanum, and that in the middle an eighth part more. Acroteria likewise signify figures placed as ornaments or crownings on the tops of temples, or other buildings; they also denote the sharp pinnacles, or spiry battlements, which stand in ranges about flat buildings with rails and balusters, and which are sometimes called acroteral ornaments. ACT, Building. See BUILDINO ATr. ACTUS, in building, a measure used by the Romans, and equal to 120 Roman feet. See FOOT. ACUMINATED, ending in a point, or sharp-pointed. ADIT, or ADITuS, (from adire, to go to,) in general, the approach or entrance to anything; in which sense we meet with adit of a house, of a circus, &c. Adits of a theatre, aditus theatri, in antiquity, were doors on the stairs, whereby persons entered from the outer porticus, and descended into the seats. The term is now generally applied to denote the opening by which a mine is entered, and which is usually made in the side of a hill. ADJACENT, anything which lies immediately by the side of another. ADYTUM, (from a, dvw,) the most retired place in the pagan temples, into which none but the priests were admitted, and in which the oracles were declared. The word originally signifies inaccessible, being compounded of a, not, and dvw or Jvvw, to enter. The sanctum sanctorum, or holy of holies, of the temple of Solomon, was of the nature of the pagan adivrov, or adytum, none but the high-priest being admitted into it, and that but once a year, on the great day of expiation. ADZE, an edged tool, the iron part of which is called the blade, and is a small portion of a cylindric surface on both sides: it has a piece of wood, called the handle, fixed into a socket at one extremity of it, in a radial direction; and the other extremity, parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and consequently at right angles to the handle, is edged with steel, and ground sharp from the concave side. The adze is chiefly used for taking off thin chips of timber or boards, and for paring away certain irregularities which the axe cannot come at; and in most joinings of carpentry, particularly those which are notched upon each other, scarfings, thicknessing of flooring boards opposite to the joists, &c. See TOOLS. iEDES, in antiquity, a chapel. or inferior kind of temple, as the agrarium, or treasury, called AEdes Saturni. iEDICULA, otherwise called SACELLUM, generally signi fled a small temple, but had various significations; sometimes denoting the inner part of the temple, in which the altar and statue of the deity were placed; at other times, a niche in the wall, for receiving a statue. AEDICULUS, in Roman mythology, the deity who pre sided over the construction and conservation of buildings..EOLUS, in mechanics, a small portable machine, for refreshing and changing the air in rooms that are too close. AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, is that which represents bodies diminished and weakened in proportion to their distance from the eye. Linear perspective may be considered the material guide of the artist, originating in, and governed by, mathematical science; but aerial perspective is dependent for its application only on the capacity and perceptions of the artist. AESTUARY, in the ancient bath, a secret passage from the stove into the chambers. /ETHERIUS, an architect, who lived in the beginning of the sixth century. He built the edifice named Chalcis, in the palace of Constantinople; and is supposed to have constructed the strong wall which extends from the sea to Selimbria, for preventing the incursions of the Bulgarians and Scythians. AGGLUTINATE, to unite one part to another. AGORA, the forum, or market-place, at Athens. AGYCI, in antiquity, obelisks sacred to Apollo, and placed in the vestibule of houses. AISLE, or AILE, (from the French acle, a wing, or allee, a path.) When the breadth of a church is divided into three or five parts, by two or four rows of pillars parallel to the sides, the church is denominated a three or five aisled fabric. The middle and principal compartments is called the nave; the side divisions adjoining, the aisles; or, if the term be applied to all the compartments, as it lawfully may be, they are distinguished as the middle and side aisles. In French, this term is applied to the outlying and returning ends of a building, called by us wings; such as the columned ends of the fiont of the General Post Office, London. The ecclesiastical buildings in Great Britain are generally three-aisled; and no instance occurs of a five-aisled church, except a building at the west end of Durham cathedral; but on the continent there are several; the great church at Milan is one. Old St. Peter's, at Rome, was also a fiveaisled fabric. It is rather remarkable, that in Westminster abbeychurch, and Redeliffe church, at Bristol, the aisles are continued on each side of the transept, and in Salisbury cathe. _- I.? ~ _ _ I — ol Z"t fii 11,I, 61' -.2. * llil I 0 * 0 I 0 9 0 I able I i I f i I I k I- - 1 C, I __k ALH 3 AMP A II3 M drill on one side only; but in no other church in this country. Other particulars in connection with Aisle will be found under the articles ChuRCh, TRANSEPT, and WING. ALABASTER. See GYPSUM. ALAE, two apartments on the right and left of the vestibulum, and separated from it either by columns or walls. A-LA-GREC, or A-LA-GRECQUE. See FRETS. ALBARIUM, Opus, in ancient buildings, the incrustation or covering of the roofs of houses with white plaster, made of mere lime. The workmen were called albini or albarii. This is otherwise called opus album, and differs from tectorium, which is a common name given to all roofing or ceiling, including even that formed of lime and sand, or of lime and marble; whereas albarium was restricted to that made of lime alone. ALCOVE, in a sleeping room, is a recess made in the side for receiving the bed, either wholly or in part. Alcoves were formerly much in use in bedchambers, and were often raised upon two or three steps, with a rail at the foot of the bed; but now they are seldom employed except to obtain uniformity, or a communication to another apartment. The word is derived from the Spanish alcoba, and this again from the Arabic al kubbeh, the place for the bed. There is little doubt but the alcoves were of Asiatic or African origin; for we frequently read of them in Arabian stories and descriptions of Asiatic palaces and gardens. They were introduced into Spain, from Arabia, by the Saracens; and by the Spaniards into France, Germany5 and other nations. It is remarkable, that in the designs of Palladio and other contemporary Italian writers, there are no examples of alcoves; whence we may reasonably conclude that they had not become fashionable either in Rome or Venice. Swinburn mentions two, yet remaining, in the royal bedchamber of the Moorish palace of Alhambra, at Granada, which are probably the oldest in Europe. The word is also applied to a recess or arched seat in a garden. ALESSI, a famous architect, born at Perugia, in 1500. He attained to such eminence in his profession, that he was applied to from France, Spain, and Germany, for plans of public buildings. His plan for the monastery of the church of the Escurial was preferred to those of the ablest architects of Europe. lie died in 1572. ALHAMBRA, an ancient palace of the Mohammedan kings of Granada, situated on a hill which runs out to the east of the town, and surrounded by strong walls flanked by square towers. These walls were built of a kind of cement formed of red clay and large pebbles, which, being exposed to the action of the weather, quickly acquired the solidity and hardness of stone. The beauties of this magnificent specimen of Arabian taste and splendour, have been described at great length by Swinburn and other writers, who express the highest admiration of the exquisite taste displayed throughout the whole. In visiting the Alhambra, the traveller ascends through a wood of lofty elms, whose interlaced branches shelter him from the sun's rays, to the Gates of Justice, and passes beneath its horse-shoe arch, so characteristic of its Arabian architecture, to the Plaza de los Algibes, or Square of Cisterns. On the east side of this Plaza is the palace of Charles V., a beautiful specimen of the style of the fifth century, by Alonzo Berrequette. On the north is the Mesuar, or common bathing-court, 150 feet long and 56 wide, paved with white marble, and its walls covered with arabesques of the most admirable workmanship. From the Mesuar the traveller passes to the Court of the Lions, which is also paved with white marble, and measures 100 feet by 60. In the centre is a large basin of alabaster supported by twelve lions, from which rises a smaller one. From this a large body of water spouts into the air, and, falling from one basin to the other, is sent forth through the mouth of the lions. A gallery, supported by light and elegant columns, surrounds the court; and at each end projects a sort of portico or gallery, supported by similar columns. The Sala de Comares was undoubtedly the richest in the Alhambra. Its walls are ornamented with arabesques of the most exquisite workmanship; its ceiling of cedar-wood, inlaid with ivory, silver, and mother-of-pearl, while the softened light, admitted by windows sunk in the immense thickness of the wall, chastens the splendour of its richness, and enhances its surprising beauty and magnificence. Lost in the contemplation of the charming objects which surround him on all sides, the traveller forgets the world and its dry realities, and seems transported into one of the palaces described in the " ArabiaJn Nights." ALIPTERION, (aXetow, to anoint,) the anointing-room in the bath. ALMS-HIOUSE, a small hospital, or edifice, endowed with a revenue for the maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or disabled people. AMBO, or AMBON, in ancient churches, a kind of pulpit or desk, ascended by steps. The modern reading-desks have been gradually substituted for the ancient amba: there are, however, remains of them in some Roman churches still to be seen, as in that of St. John de Lateran, at Rome, where there are two movable ambTe. AMPHIPROSTYLOS or AMPHIPROSTYLE, in ancient architecture, a temple with a portico in front, and another in; the rear. The term is derived from atup both, 7rpo before, and g-vto- column, signifying columns on both fronts. See TEMPLE. AMPHITHEATRE, (from alzdt, around; and Oearpov, theatre,) in Roman antiquity, a large edifice, of an elliptic form, with a series of rising seats or benches disposed around a spacious area, called the arena, in which the combats of gladiators, wild beasts, and other sports, were exhibited. It consisted exteriorly of a wall pierced in its circumference by two or more ranges of arcades, and interiorly of vaulted passages radiating from the exterior arcades towards the arena, and several transverse vaulted corridors opening a free communication to the stairs at the ends of the passages, and to every other part of the building; the corridors and ranges of seats forming elliptical figures parallel to the boundary wall. Sometimes, in the middle of the fabric, there was an intermediate corridor, which, like those on the ground-floor, surrounded the whole, and served as a common landing-place to all the staircases that led to the higher galleries; as in the amphitheatre at Nismes: and sometimes each staircase had its distinct landing, without any gallery of general communi cation: as in the amphitheatre at Verona. The four passages in the direction of the greater and lesser axes were generally made wider than the rest, and, by intersecting arched passages, laid open to the adjoining passages on either side of them. The principal entrances, through which the emperor, the senate, and other distin guished persons passed, were placed in the direction of the lesser axes. The other two led directly to the arena by large arched gateways, which were appropriated to the beasts and gladiators. Through the other passages, the different orders of people passed to the staircases. which led to the respective seats. Every arcade around the exterior was numbered, as AMP 4 A MP AMP 4 AMP well as the divisions, or wedge-formed parts, called cunei, which separated the people into different orders. The amphitheatre was regulated by certain laws, by which each person knew the entry through which he was to pass, to his appropriate seat. The door-ways, which opened from the stairs and passages, were denominated vomitoria. The benches, on which the people sat, were about two feet four inches broad, and one foot eight inches high. Before every range of vomitoria, a passage of communication, called a precinctum, was formed, about four feet eight inches broad, and bounded on the ascending side by a wall of about three feet four inches high. Surrounding the arena was a platform called the podium, which was of greater breadth than the precinctum, and which was defended on the front by strong netting, and rails of iron armed with spikes, and also with strong rollers of timber, which turned vertically, to prevent the hunted animals from leaping over. The emperor's pavilion, called the suggestum, was in the podium, at one extremity of the minor axis of the arena, highly decorated, and lined with silk. The seats of the most distinguished persons were also in the podium, and covered with cushions, while marble benches were in general covered with boards; but as the podium was not sufficiently large to contain all the people of high rank, other contiguous places were allotted for that purpose. Over the spectators, in time of rain or intense sunshine, a covering of woollen of different colours, called the veltum, was occasionally stretched by means of pullies and cords, and drawn up or let down at pleasure.On the sides of the passages, and under the stairs, on the ground-story, are many cells and rooms, which were probably prisons for criminals condemned to fight or to be devoured, and in which the beasts might be occasionally stabled. It was sometimes the practice to give novelty to the games, by erecting pieces of machinery on the arena, representing mountains, on which real trees were planted, and under them hidden caves were formed, from whence the animals rushed out to encounter the combatants, or to devour their victims. Amphitheatres are undoubtedly of Roman invention, and were at first constructed of timber; and it was not till the reign of Augustus that one of stone was built by Statilius Taurus, but this does not appear to have been held in much estimation as it was very seldom resorted to. The Roman amphitheatre, called the Coliseum, or Colosseum, was begun by the emperor Vespasian, and finished by his son Titus, and is deservedly celebrated as a prodigy among the ancients. At the solemn games, when this edifice was dedicated, five thousand wild beasts, according to Eutropius, and nine thousand, according to Dio, were destroyed on its arena. When the hunting was concluded, the arena was suddenly filled with water, in which aquatic animals were made to contend, and then a sea-fight ensued. According to Tappen, the greater axis of the ellipsis of this stupendous edifice was 627 feet, and the lesser, 520. According to Desgodetz, the height of the exterior wall was 156 feet, the greater axis of the arena about 264 feet, and the lesser 165 feet; therefore the medium breadth of the circuit, for seats, galleries, and wall, was about 179 or 180 feet.-This edifice covered something more than five acres of ground. The boundary wall was pierced by five ranges of apertures, of which the three lower were arcades, having eighty openings in each range, and the upper two rectangular windows. Its exterior side was. decorated with orders, in four ranges, with continued entablatures; the three lower were colonnades, and the upper a pilastrade. The lowest order was Doric, without mutules, triglyphs, and guttie; but the shafts of the columns terminated with bases: the second was Ionic, with the Attic base; its volutes were slightly formed, and the dentil band uncut: the third and fourth orders were Corinthian, with unraffled leaves. The diameter of the columns, in the several ranges, was two feet eight inches and three quarters, as also the breadth of the pilasters; the columns of the lower range were twenty-six feet high, and each of the others twenty-four feet only. This makes the Doric columns higher than either the Ionic or Corinthian, and the altitude of the Ionic and Corinthian equal to each other, while all the columns have equal diameters, and are of the same breadth with the pilasters of the upper range. The sima of the cornice of the lower Corinthian was supported by modillions, without the intervention of the corona, and the column has a Tuscan base. The upper Corinthian had its cornice formed in front by three fiaces, and a cymatium like an architrave, and supported by cantalivers, projecting out of the frieze; or the entablature may be looked upon as an architrave cornice, reckoning the frieze and cantalivers a part of it. The whole edifice was crowned with a blocking course. The first colonnade was raised on several steps, about three feet two inches above ground, and the bases of the columns stood on the uppermost step, which formed the pavement of the entrances. In the superior stories, the piers and columns were elevated on stylobatse and podia, and the second and third ranges of arcades stood upon podia also. The boundary wall was diminished upwards in its thickness on both sides, but more particularly from the exterior side of it, in each succeeding story, and the columns of the two lower ranges projected three quarters of their diameter, while those of the third range did not project more than the half; and therefore the axes of the columns of each succeeding range upwards, were more recessed than those of the inferior range. This recession is more observable in the upper range of columns than in that immediately below; but still more in the pilasters of the third order. The diminution of the columns commences from the third part of their height. The straight soffits of the fillets and other horizontal projections rise more in the front than in the rear. The lower range of the rectangular windows had one window disposed in every alternate podium, below the upper order; and had the upper range of windows in the inter-pilasters above the imperforated podia. The cornice of the uppermost order was pierced with square mortises, through which the awning poles passed to a range of corbels below, something higher than the middle of the pilasters. Seventy-six of the lower range of arcades were about thirteen feet four inches broad, and the four placed upon the extremities of the axes, about fourteen feet six inches. The lowest range of arcades radiated vault-wise towards the arena, in a direction almost at right angles to the curve of the plan of the exterior wall, and intersecting two vaulted corridors, passed on to the staircases in the same direction. Two other corridors were placed between these stairs and the wall of the podium, and other stairs between the second and fourth corridors. The first staircases were entered by the second and third corridors, and those next to the arena by the third corridor only; this corridor was lighted from above, by vertical square holes, descending through the crown of the vault; and, it is probable, that the fourth corridor, adjoining the wall of the podium, was lighted in the same manner. The second story had three corridors, laid open to one another by radiating passages: the first two were placed over the first and second corridors on the ground-floor, and between the second and third were placed stairs, which ascended on the one hand to the second range of vomitoria, and on the other, to another high-groined corridor, forming a mezzanine, which was _ __ __ __ r-_ _ _ AMP ANC AMP_ ANO lighted from the floor of the gallery above, and from which the stairs ascended to the next story. The third story consisted of a double corridor, from which the stairs continued upwards to the fourth galleries, the interior wall of which was pierced with windows and doors, or vomitoria, that opened to the uppermost cunei of benches. On the inside of the exterior wall are vestiges of stairs which led to a fifth gallery; this again had four staircases, which led to a sixth gallery; and from thence the stairs continued to the top. The two upper floors were contained in the height of the pilastrade. The stone employed in this edifice is the produce of the neighbourhood of Rome, and is called Travertine-stone, of which the exterior walls, the piers between the two outer corridors, the heads of the passages and corridors, and some bendstones, are constructed: all the rest is of brick. The exterior wall is cramped with ligatures of iron, without cement; some of the internal walls have remains of plaster ornaments, and others are lined with marble. The floors of the corridors are paved with flat bricks, and covered with a hard incrustation of stucco. This building is supposed to have contained 100,000 persons; but it will be found that by allowing two feet two inches from seat to seat, and one foot nine inches to the breadth of each person, not more than 80,000 could be accommodated, even supposing all the upper galleries to be filled. " The proportions of this edifice," says Tappen, " were in such perfect harmony with each other, that there was nothing gig(antic in its appearance, although the greatness of its dimensions never fails to impress every mind with ideas of its sublimity." A structure of such dimensions, and of such contrivance and ingenuity as the Colosseum, eclipses the most magnificent works of the Egyptians and Greeks, and even those of modern times. The structures of Egypt, such as we may conjecture from what now remains, have little to recommend them, except their magnitude and the enormous stones employed in their construction. For beautiful simplicity, and chastity of parts, the Greeks excelled every other people; yet the Romans, though licentious in the detail and embellishments, showed much ingenuity, not only in the arrangement of their plans, but in the construction of the elevated parts, both with regard to the solidity of the work, and the end to be answered by the design. Our finest embellishments and best proportions are of Greek origin; but the Romans have set us the example in a beautiful diversification of plans. The Amphitheatre at Verona consisted, formerly, of three stories of arcades, with pilasters against the piers of each story, bearing continued entablatures. The pilasters and arches are all rusticated and unwrought on the face. The orders which decorate the solid parts of the masonry are of no legitimate species, but more nearly allied to the Tuscan than any of the other three. The second pilastrade stands upon a plinth, and the third upon a triple plinth. The pilasters of the first and second ranges are very slender, particularly the second; those of the third range are double the breadth of those of the second range, contrary to the laws of strength. The arches forming the heads of the first and second arcades are extradossed, and project out beyond the rustics, which form the horizontal courses above; the arches forming the heads of the third arcades are also extradossed, but each has another concentric extradossed arch, springing on each side from the pilaster, with its face in the same plane with the pilasters, and its inner diameter equal to the clear distance of the pilasters. The edifice is finished with a blocking course, resting upon the upper entablature: of the outer wall only a small part remains. From some mutilated courses of rustic work, and the lower part of two plain pilasters which remain, it has been supposed that the building had also a fourth story. The height of the three existing stories is about 90 English feet. This edifice was erected without cement; the stones being nicely joined with cramps of iron,, covered with lead. The greater axis of the ellipsis of the plan, according to Desgodetz, is 433 feet 8 inches, and the lesser 333 feet 4 inches; the greater axis of the arena 237 feet, and that of the lesser 136 feet 8 inches; the breadth, for benches and wall, being 100- feet 4 inches; each range of arches were seventy-two in number, which opening into the first range of arcades, radiated towards the arena, in passages and staircases, crossing a corridor surrounding the whole; the passages, proceeding forward, crossed two other surrounding corridors, between which were other stairs. The second story has one corridor above the exterior lower one. Above are forty-six tiers of seats, rising by equal degrees from the arena to the wall upwards. The interior of this edifice is entire, having been wholly reinstated by the inhabitants, from time to time, for the purpose of exhibiting plays, and other diversions. The greatest diameter of the ellipsis of the Amphitheatre at Nismes is 430 feet, and the least 338 feet; the whole height 76 feet 6 inches. The elevation consisted of two stories of open arcades and an attic. Each story had sixty arcades in its circumference, of which the four placed upon the extremities of the axes form the grand entrances, and are decorated with pediments. Against the solid parts of the masonry are Tuscan pilasters, resting on pedestals, and supporting an entablature which breaks over them. On the top are short, hollowed stone corbels, in which, it is supposed, poles were placed, for bearing an awning over the spectators. Many of the rows of seats are entire. The remains of the Amphitheatre at Pola, in Istria, consist of an elliptic wall, pierced around its circumference with 72 arches; containing two stories on one side, and one on the other, being built on the side of a hill. Above the upper arcade is an attic, pierced by 72 square-headed windows, which surround the whole: through this are grooves for the poles that supported the velum. The greatest diameter of the ellipsis is 416, and the least 337 feet. The Romans constructed Amphitheatres in England; one at Dorchester, and one at Ilchester. AMPHITHURA, (from the Greek, afcQtOvpa, both doors,) in ecclesiastical antiquity, the veil or curtain which divided the chancel from the rest of the church; so called on account of its opening in the middle, after the manner of folding doors. ANABATHRUM, (from avafatv6, I ascend,) a kind of ladder, or steps, by which an eminence may be ascended. In this sense; we read of the anabathra of theatres, pulpits, &c. ANAGLYPHICE, or ANAGLYPTICE, (fiorn ava, TyXv(oW, to carve or engrave,) a species of sculpture wherein the strokes of the figures are prominent or embossed: in opposition to the Diayly/phice, where the strokes are indented. ANAMORPHOSIS, (ava poporq,) in Perspective and Painting, a monstrous projection, or a representation of some image, either on a plane or curved surface, deformed or distorted, but which, in a certain point of view, appears regular and in just proportion. ANCHOR, an ornament in form of an anchor, or arrow's head, employed in the echinus, or ovolo, between the borders which surround the eggs. This anchor, with its concomitants, are generally carved on the ovolo of the Ionic capital]; _ __ _ ____ _ _ ANG 6 ANG AN 6 ANG_ and in the Grecian, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, upon all large mouldings of this form: they are not employed in the Grecian Doric, though they are used in the Trajan and Antonine columns of the Tuscan order, at Rome. ANCONES, the trusses or consoles sometimes employed in the dressings of apertures, as an apparent support to the cornice, upon the flanks of the architrave. In many ancient doors, the ancones were narrower at the bottom than at the top, and, in some instances, were not in contact with the flanks of the architrave, but placed at a small distance from them; the ancones being further separated from each other. Vitruvius calls them prothyrides. ANDREA DE PISA, a sculptor and architect, born at Pisa, in 1270. He built several castles, and the church of St. John, at Pistoia; but his skill in architecture was principally displayed at Florence, where he erected many mansions, enlarged and fortified the palace of the duke, and surrounded it with magnificent towers and gates. On account of these works, he obtained the right of citizenship. At the request of the duke of Athens, he made a model of a citadel, which he intended to erect for restraining the Florentines. On this account, they took the alarm, and expelled the duke; but Andrea passed the remainder of his days at Florence, cultivating the fine arts, such as painting, poetry, and music, besides those which were professedly his own. He died in 1345, aged 75. ANDRON, or ANDRONA, (from av?79, a man,) in antiquity, an apartment in houses, assigned to the use of men. It was sometimes called andronitis, in opposition to gyneccum, the apartment appropriated to the use of women. The Greeks also gave their dining-rooms the title of andron, because the women were not admitted to feasts in company with the men. Androna, in ancient writers, denotes a public place where people met to converse on business, such as our exchanges; however, it is more particularly used to signify the space or alley between two houses; and in this sense it was used by the Greeks, for the passage between two apartments in a house. This word is sometimes written, andra. andrion, or andronium, and is of the same import as the Roman term mesaulce. ANGLE, rectilinear, (Lat. angulzs, the elbow,) according to Euclid, " the inclination of two straight lines to one another, which meet, but are not in the same direction." This definition, if indeed it may be termed such, is so very indistinct, and even inaccurate, that it has been entirely discarded by modern mathematicians, who have individually given many suggestions for its improvement, but have not agreed so far as to adopt any as a standard definition. We give the following as one of the most correct:-" An angle is the ratio of the plane surface bounded by two infinite right lines which meet, to the plane surface on all sides indefinitely extended about the point where they meet." Thus the A B c is the ratio of the plane surface, bounded by the straight lines A B, B c infinitely extended to the unbounded plane of the paper about the point B. Objections, doubtless, may be urged against this, as against all other suggestions; but the subject is unquestionably a difficult one, as it necessarily involves the long-disputed question concerning infinite magnitudes. The following description, though not amounting in preciseness to a definition, affords a very intelligible notion of the idea intended to be conveyed by the term, viz: the opening made by two intersecting right lines. Comparison of Angles. As every theory respecting the comparison of infinite spaces is attended with considerable difficulty, we shall leave the consideration of the more abstruse points of this subject to works of a different nature, and endeavour to explain, as clearly as possible, the method of comparing angles. Let A B c, D E F, (see the plate) be two angles formed by the intersection of the straight lines A B, n c, E EE F, at the points B E, respectively. Apply the angle A B c to angle D E F in such a manner, that the points B E, and the lines B C, E F coincide, then the position of E D with respect to B A is determined. Such being the position of the two figures, if E D fall upon B A, the two openings coincide, or, in other words, the angle A B c is equal to the angle D E F. If, however, E D fall between B c and B A, the opening or angle D E F is less than the other A B C; if, on the other hand, E D fall without or beyond B A, the angle D E F is said to be greater than the angle AB C. Again, supposing the angles to be applied as before, and E D to fall within A B; let E D remain fixed in that position, but let E F be turned about E D as an axis, until it fall on the opposite side of it; then, if E F coincide with B A, it is evident that the angle A B c is equal to twice the angle D E F. In the same manner may be explained the notion of one angle being three, four, or any number of times greater or less than another. It may be necessary to observe, that the magnitude of the angle in no wise depends upon the length of the intersecting lines; for, if we suppose a part D d to be cut off from the side D E, upon applying the angle D E F to angle A B c, as above, we shall find that the line E d will still fall in the same position with respect to A n, as it did before D d was cut off; and will do so, however short E D may become, until the line, and therefore the angle, ceases to exist. Again, let us suppose a line starting from a certain station A B, to revolve round one of its extremities A as a fixed point or axis, and to arrive at the situation A B1; it will then, with its original position, describe an angle B A Bn. Let it now continue its revolution, until it has passed over another space equal to the preceding, and in so doing has reached the position A n2; it will then be readily understood that the angle B A Bs equals twice the angle B A B, and thus we might describe an angle any number of times greater than B A B. Euclid's notion of an angle has been very much enlarged upon by later mathematicians, as we proceed to illustrate by reference to the last diagram. Let us conceive the line A B to continue its revolution to B,, and thence to B4; we say then that A B1 forms with its first position the angle B A B4, and thus far Euclid allows; but if the revolution be continued until A B arrives in the position A B5, so as to form a straight line with its first position-which event takes place when it has performed half a revolution-Euclid no longer recognizes the opening so formed as an angle. Such, however, it is reckoned to be by the moderns, and that not without reason; for it will be readily acknowledged that the opening formed by the lines A B and A B,, is greater than that formed by A B and A B4, thus showing that such opening is liable to cOmparison in the same manner as any other angle. The same reasoning will apply to openings formed by a whole revolution or more; indeed, the moderns do not restrict. the term to any number of revolutions however great. A RIGHT ANGLE is that traced out by A B while perform ing a quarter revolution. AN OBTUSE ANGLE is that which is greater than one right angle, and less than two. AN ACUTE ANGLE is that which is less than one right angle. The angle formed when A B has completed.one revolution and arrived at A B, is described as four right angles + angle B A B. - L ----- --- —------ -- 7 - — _ ANG 7 ANN ANG 7 ANN Mfeasurement of Angles. Referring again to the last diagram, it will be seen that the point B in the line A B, during its revolution round its axis A, describes a circle. Now the circumference of any circle so described is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each of such degrees into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. This division is made use of for the measurement of angles in the following manner:-As the angle traced out by a whole revolution passes over in its progress 360 of the larger divisions, it is styled the angle of 360 degrees; similarly, the right angle, which makes only a quarter revolution, is named the angle of 90 degrees; and so on for angles of any dimensions whatsoever. The measure of the arc is sometimes used indiscriminately for that of the angle; but such measurement is, strictly speaking, incorrect. See ARC. External ANGLE, in civil architecture, the same as Saliant ANGLE, which see.' Internal ANGLE, in civil architecture, the same as Reentering ANGLE, which see. Re-entering, or Re-entrant ANGLE OF A SOLID; an angle whose vertex recedes, or is turned inwards, from a right line extended between any two points in the legs; or it is a cavity or void, formed by two planes on the surface of the solid. Artificers call all such angles, made by walls or partitions, Internal Angles. Saliant or Sortant ANGLE OF A SOLID, an angle, of which the vertex is prominent; or it is the solid matter contained between two planes inclined to each other in an angle less than two right angles; or, it is such, that if a point be taken in each plane, the straight line joining the two points, will pass through the solidity. Artificers call all such angles, made by walls or partitions, External Angles. Solid ANGLE, the mutual inclination of more than two plane rectilineal angles meeting in a point, and not contained in the same plane. ANGLE OF A WALL, the angle contained by the two vertical planes which form the angle of a building. It would be better denominated the angle of a building, a term sufficiently explanatory of itself; but as it is to be found in other dictionaries of this nature, it is here inserted. The angle of a wall is said to be "the point where the two sides meet;" but it should be the line where the two sides meet, which is commonly called by workmen the arris; still the arris is not the angle, but the line of concourse formed by the two sides, or planes, containing the angle. ANGLE BAR, in joinery. When a projecting window stands on a polygonal plan, the upright bar at the meeting of any two planes of the sides of the window is called an angle bar. When there are mouldings on the other bars, the angle bars should be made to mitre with the horizontal bars on either side of them. The manner of finding the section of an angle bar, is shown under the term Raking MOULDINGS. ANGLE BRACES; when a quadrangular frame has a timber Opposite each angle, fixed to each of the two sides forming the angle, and thereby making the inside of the frame of an octagonal figure, the timbers so fixed, are called angle-braces, or diagonal ties, or angle ties; the angles of wall-plates are frequently braced in this manner. Also when a well-hole, of a circular section, is made through a roof or floor, for a sky-light, &c., the framing is first made quadrangularly; then braces are fixed opposite to each angle, and the aperture becomes an octagon; and lastly, pieces are again fixed in each angle of the octagon, meeting each other in the middle of its sides, so as to transform the section of the aperture into a circle, and thus the well-hole is shaped as required. ANGLE BRACKET. See BRACKETING. ANGLE RAFTER. See Hipped ROOF. ANGLE RIB, a curved piece of timber, placed between those two parts of a coved or arched ceiling, or vault, which form an angle with each other, so as to range with the common ribs on each side, or return part. Examples will be seen under the articles DOME, GROIN, and Hipped ROOF. ANGLE-STAFFS, or STAFF-BEADS, vertical beads, generally of wood, fixed to exterior angles, flush with the intended surface of the plaster, on both sides, for the purpose of fortifying the angles against accident: they serve also for floating the plaster. Their section is about three-fourths of a circle, with a projecting part from the other quarter, by which they are fastened to the wood bricks, plugging, or bond-timbers. The section of angle-staffs is sometimes that of a triple bead, the middle one being larger than that on either side of it, and flush with it and the plaster. Angle- ' beads of wood, around the intradosses of circular arches, are difficult to bend without cutting or steaming them; the former has a very unsightly appearance, and the latter is both inconvenient and troublesome: for this situation of anglebeads, no other material will finish better than the plaster itself; and it will be sufficiently strong, as at that height it is more out of the reach of accident. Whenever wooden and plaster beads are employed in the same margin, or angle, they should never join each other, but should always have an impost to intervene, as, otherwise the joint will show. In grand finishings no corner beads are employed; but the plaster is well gauged, and brought to an arris. ANGLE TIES. See ANGLE BRACES. ANGULAR, something relating to angle. ANGULAR CAPITAL, is generally applied to the Scammozzian, or modern Ionic capital, which is formed alike on all the four faces, so as to return at the angles of the building, as in the Temple of Concord. It is also applied to those capitals of Grecian edifices which had two fronts alike on ea, h angle of the building, in order to face the front and flank alike, and to correspond to the other capitals, upon the columns ranged in the flank, as well as in the front. See PLATE. ANGULAR CHIMNEY, one which stands in the angle of an apartment, with the plane of its breast intersecting the adjacent walls. For the method of measuring angular chimneys, see CHIMNEY. ANGULAR MODILLIONS, those which are placed at the return of a cornice, in the diagonal vertical plane, passing through the angle or mitre of the cornice. As angular modillions are not to be traced among the ruins of Grecian edifices, it may be concluded, that they were seldom or never used by the Greeks; nor are they to be found among the ruined edifices of ancient Rome; it is however probable, that they may have been used in the decline of the empire, since they are to be seen in the remains of the palace of the emperor Diocletian, at Spalatro, in the vestibulum, and in the temples of Jupiter and tEsculapius. The ruined cities of Balbec and Palmyra exhibit many specimens, in the large porticos, and in the entablatures of doorways. ANGULAR VAULT, a vault supported upon two circular walls; such as the temple of Bacchus, at Rome; the Temple church, London; the church of the Holy Sepulchre,. at Cambridge, &c. ANNULETS, (from the Latin, annulus, a ring,) the annular fillets between the hypotrachelion and echinus of the Doric capital. In the Roman Doric, they are generally three in number, and of equal size, with rectangular sections. One side of each annulet is a horizontal soffit, seen from below, the other is a vertical cylindrical surface, having the same __ ANT 8 APA ANT 8 APA axis with the column, the projection of each soffit being equal to the height of its respective vertical side. In the axisal section of the Grecian Doric, except in the case of the Doric portico at Athens, the number of annulets vary from three to five; the sinkings between each two follow the line of the echinus, and the outer sides of the fillets form a curve parallel to that of the sinkings; the upper side of each is perpendicular to the curve, and the lower side is concave towards the space between each two: the concavity begins in a direction perpendicular to the curve of the moulding; the flutings of the shaft of the column terminate under the lowest annulets. There are also other names by which an annulet is sometimes called, as cincture, fillet, and list, or listella, which are equally applicable to rectilineal members, and therefore should never be used but in a general description, where there is some common property to be explained, as they do not particularly imply circularity. ANNULUS, a Cylindrical Ring, a solid formed by the resolution of a circle about a straight line without the circumference as an axis, and in the plane of the circle. For the method of measuring an annulus, see MENSURATION. ANT.E. When the two parallel side-walls or flanks of a temple, or other edifice, are protruded or lengthened out beyond the end of the building, and when each of the two projections is covered with a vertical body, projecting on each side of the thickness of the wall, having a base, a prismatic trunk, and a capital, similar to a pilaster; then these bodies, or terminations, are called antce. The breadth of the antme on the flanks of the temple was always less than in the front; and the two edges of the antse which faced each other within, and on the sides of the pronaos, were equal to the diameter of the columns placed between them, while that of the opposite, or outsides of the flanks of the edifice, was much less. The capitals of the antem never corresponded with those of the columns, though the mouldings were more or less enriched, as the order had more or fewer decorations. In the temple of Minerva Pollias, and the t mnple of Apollo Didymeus, in lonia, the capitals of the antre have a strong resemblance to those of the columns; they having also volutes, though not of the same proportion, nor depending in the same way; as these are hung to an upright, and those to a horizontal hem, connecting the two. Antoe differ from pilasters, not only in their capitals, but also in their situation. A portico is said to be "in antis" when columns are placed between the two ante. See TEMPLE. ANTECHAMBER, (from the Latin, ante, before, and camera, a chamber,) an outer chamber, before a principal one, where servants wait, and strangers are detained till the person to be spoken with is at leisure. ANTEFIXAE, blocks with vertical faces placed at regular intervals on the uppermost member of a cornice, for the purpose of hiding the ends of the covering or joint-tiles of the roof. The faces of antefixse are usually carved with some ornamental device, as a flower, leaf, &c. ANTEMURAL, (from ante, before, and murus, a wall,) an outer wall, environing the works and walls of a fortified place, in order to prevent the enemy from approaching too near. In some writings, it signifies the same as an outwork. ANTEPAGMENTA, or ANTIPAGMENTS, (from Greek avert, 7rlyvvpft, to fix,) in ancient architecture, the jambs of a door moulded like an architrave. The lintel returning at the ends, with similar mouldings, down upon the antipagmenta, was called the supercilium. Also carved ornaments of men, animals, &c., placed on the architrave. ANTERIDES, in ancient architecture, the buttresses erected to strengthen a wall: they are called in Greek, epetapaara, and answer to what our modern builders call counter-forts, and archbutants; by the Italians they are called barbicane, and speroni, or spurs. They are also sometimes called antes, sometimes crismce. ANTE-ROOM, a room through which a person must pass, in order to enter into another room. In many constructions of houses, there is a necessity for introducing ante-rooms, from the peculiar arrangement of the plan; and in many situations, besides being useful, they add both grandeur and elegance to the design. ANTES. See ANTsE. ANTHEMIUS, a distinguished architect, a native of Tralles, in Asia Minor, and employed by the emperor Justinian in the construction of various edifices, particularly the church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, which he designed, and also superintended 10,000 workmen in its execution. Anthemius was also a sculptor, a mathematician, and an experimental philosopher. ANTICS, figures of men, beasts, &c., placed as ornaments to a building. ANTICUM, the porch before a door; also, that part of the temple which is called the outer temple, and lies between the body of the temple, and the portico. ANTIPORTICO, a word sometimes used to denote a vestibule, or porch, at the entrance of an edifice. ANTIQUARIUM, among the ancients, an apartment in which their antique monuments were preserved. ANTIQUE, in a general sense, denotes something ancient; but the term is chiefly employed by architects, sculptors, and painters, and applied to works, in their respective professions, executed by the Romans,or others anterior to their time; such as the Colosseum at Rome, the temple of Minerva at Athens, &c. ANTIQUES, a mixed composition of the effigies of men, inferior animals, utensils, and. implements of war, with foliage, flowers, and fanciful ornaments. The ornaments on the walls of the Vatican, at Rome, painted by Raphael, are of this kind, and were imitated from the grottos of the baths of Titus, of which there were ample remains in his time. This species of decoration is frequently called arabesque, or grotesque; the latter is the more correct appellation, as the former applies solely to Arabian ornaments, which consisted of foliages and fruit, without any animal representations. ANTIS. See TEMPLES, ANTsE. ANTISTATES, one of the architects employed in raising the foundation of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens. ANTONINE COLUMN, a pillar of the Tuscan order, erected in Rome, by order of the senate, to the memory of the emperor Antoninus. It is 17.5 feet in height, viz., 168 feet above ground, and 7 feet beneath the surface; and has a winding staircase, with 198 steps in the ascent, and 56 windows, or loop-holes. The sculpture, and other parts, are similar to those of Trajan's column, but the work is greatly inferior. See COLUMN. APART, the distance between the nearest surfaces of any two bodies. This term is; much used in building, particularly in the art of carpentry:; as, joists are placed from eleven to twelve inches apart. APARTMENT, any part of a house that is walled round, and that may be entered through doors; as kitchen, vestibule, saloon, dining-room, drawing-room, chamber, closet, library, passage, &c. All the apartments, on the same floor, taken collectively, when opening one into another, without an intermediate passage, are called a suite of apartments. The word apartment may also denote a portion of a large house, wherein a person may lodge separately, having all the conveniences requisite to make a complete habitation. -1 i APA 9 APA APA 9 APA A complete apartment is said to consist of a hall, a chamnber, an ante-chamber, a closet, and a cabinet, or ward-robe. When an apartment has one or more of its sides contiguous to one or more of the exterior walls, and has no other apartment above, it may be lighted either through apertures in the vertical sides of the exterior walls, or by a skylight, as may be found most eligible. When an apartment is contiguous to one or more sides of the building, but has one or more apartments above, it becomes necessary to light it from apertures in the external walls. Dining-rooms, withdrawing-rooms, and bed-chambers, are more conveniently and agreeably lighted from the exterior walls, than from the roof. When an apartment is surrounded on all sides by other apartments, but has no other above, it may be lighted by a skylight; or, if its height exceed the height of the adjoining apartments, it may be lighted from windows in the sides, above the roofs of the surrounding apartments. A saloon, a staircase, or a dome, is more elegantly lighted in this manner, than in any other. When several contiguous apartments, above each other, arc surrounded on the sides, they may either be lighted horizontally through the sides by borrowed lights, or vertically, through apertures in the several ceilings and the roof. Sometimes the situation of passages renders it necessary to light them in the latter method, by forming apertures through the several ceilings and the roof, over each other, with a skylight at the top, and rails round the openings in the floor. Granaries and warehouses, consisting of several stories, and surrounded with buildings, cannot be lighted in any other way, than from skylights in the roof, and apertures through tlke several floors, vertically over each other. To save room, the space allotted for the passages, upon each floor, may be directed across the openings, and the openings may be ribbed or latticed with strong bars, for walking upon. The method of proportioning and finding the number of apertures for lighting an apartment or room, will be seen under the article WINDOWS; and the proportion of chimneys to the cubature or sides of apartments, is shown under the article CHIMNEYS. What relates to the ceilings of apartments, will be found under the articles, CEILINGS, COMPARTMENT CEILINGS, and VAULTS. The proportions of apartments depend much on their use. The length of rooms may be extended from once to twice the breadth, and galleries even to three or four times. It is, however, to be observed in general, that the greater the cubature of the room, the greater also must be the ratio of the dimensions of the plan. Thus the dining-room, or withdrawing-room, in a very small house, may be square, but that in a large edif4e may be a double square, or less, according as the disposition of the plan of the building may turn out; the length of the largest rooms should, however, never be less than once and one-third of their breadth. As to the height, it may be three-fourths of the breadth, when the ceiling is flat and equal to the breadth, or once and onefourth of the breadth, when the ceiling is covered or arched, according to the rise of the arch. It may be thought, that there might be some ratio between the height and length, but this idea vanishes when it is considered, that the eye can only take in a certain portion of the length, and therefore the comparison must be made with the breadth. If the apartment be a principal passage, its breadth may be one-third of the breadth of the principal room; and if it be a by-passage, or that of a very common house, its breadth may be one-fourth of the breadth of the principal room: __: — 2 the height is the height of a story; but the length is inde. finite. With respect to the staircase apartment, the &rea occupied by the floor depends on the height of the story, the rise and tread of the steps, the formation of the plan, the number of quarter or half paces, and the size of the passage, or lobby, at the beginning or landing; also whether the stair be made single or double; or whether it consist of one or two revolutions in the height of the story. The proportion of the dimensions of the plan of the staircase depends on the proportion of the individual dimensions of each apartment, the proportion of the area of the plans to one another, and their disposition. A principal staircase should never consist of two revolutions. The more of an oblong the plan of a staircase is, the less room will be required, provided the going of the steps be placed in the breadth, and that each flight on the opposite side consist of an equal number of steps, connected by windows, between the flights; since by such means the lobby and landing above are shortened, and also less room is occupied by the newal. What further relates to staircases, will be seen under the article STAIRS. To preserve the best possible proportions in a floor of apartments, the principal rooms may have flat ceilings; the middle-sized ones may have their altitudes reduced by introducing cove and flat ceilings, cylindrical vaults. domes, groins, &c., as may be most suitable to their heights; and the smallest rooms may have mezzanines over them, wherever they are accessible to back stairs; but when the disparity is great between the height of the principal rooms, and those of the middle size, the whole of the rooms in the suite, except the principal ones, may have mezzanines above; the middle-sized rooms may have flat ceilings; and the smaller rooms arched ceilings. Mezzanine apartments are not only necessary on this account, but they may be employed with great advantage; since they afford servants' lodgings, baths, wardrobes, &c. In buildings where beauty and magnificence are preferred to economy, the halls and galleries may be raised to the height of two stories. Saloons are most frequently raised the whole height of the building, and have galleries at the height of the stories, around their interior circumference, communicating with the various apartments. In general the area occupied by the saloon, may be half of that occupied by the dining-room, drawing-room, or principal-room. The walls of apartments may be ornamented with columns, pilasters, entablatures, niches, recesses, panels, &c., as also with foliated and other enrichments. When an apartment is adorned with an entire order, the entablature may occupy from one-sixth to one-seventh part of the height of the order, or of the room itself, when the ceiling is flat. If a cornice, frieze, and astragal are executed, instead of the full entablature, their height may be equal to one-tenth. If a cornice only is executed, its height may be one-twentieth or, one-thirtieth part of the height of the room. In general, all interior proportions and decorations should be smaller and more delicate than those of the exterior: pilasters should not project more than one-eighth, or one-tenth of their breadth; and architraves round apertures should,. in most cases, not exceed one-seventh of the openings. When the sides of rooms are straight, and are adorned with columns or pilasters ranged the whole length of each side, the columns or pilasters may be either single or coupled, as the piers of the windows may admit: if each extreme pier be equal to, or more than the half of each intermediate pier, the columns or pilasters may be placed single, or in couples, as the breadth of the intermediate piers may allowv; but if each extreme pier, or one only of them. be less than the half __ APE 10 APP APE l0 APP of each intermediate pier, it will then be necessary to couple the pilasters. If one of the extreme piers is greater than the other, the former may be made equal by forming the end of the room cylindrical; if each extreme pier exceed the breadth of each intermediate pier considerably, then both ends may be formed into cylindrical surfaces, or otherwise columns may be introduced at each end, and the entablature continued over the columns; the recesses also may be adorned in a different manner, or one of the ends may be made cylindrical, and the other colonnaded. Apartments of a quadrangular plan are either constructed so as to have the same symmetry on the opposite sides; or to have no corresponding symmetry whatever, on either pair of these sides. When bows are introduced into apartments, they are generally at the ends; but if upon one or both sides, they should be proportioned to the length. Sometimes, in very large apartments, with a fireplace at each end, two bows are introduced. In the best houses, kitchens, halls, servants' rooms, and water-closets, are frequently wainscoted to the height of about four and a half feet, and coped with a neat moulding, which is generally a bead. Halls, passages, staircases, and bedrooms, have frequently bases without dado, or surbases. Principal rooms have always complete pedestals. Apartments laid with stonepavements, should have stone plinths, with wooden bases. All further information respecting the finishing of apartments, will be found under the heads, CEILINGS, COMPARTMENT CEILINGS, VAULTS, DOORS, WINDOWS; and other particulars relating to distribution will be found in the article DESIGNING. APERTURE, an opening through a body. An aperture in a wall has generally three straight sides, two of which are perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel to it, connecting the lower ends of the vertical ones. The stones forming the perpendicular sides are called jambs, the level side below is called the sill, and the upper part is called the head. The head of an aperture is either an arch, or a single stone, or beam. Apertures are either made for entrance, light, or ornament. See DOOR, RECESS, and WINDOW. A narrow aperture may be covered with a single stone, to such horizontal dimensions as may be found convenient to raise from the quarry. When the aperture is wide, stones in separate pieces may be joggled together, in order to form a straight arch, as it is absurdly called by workmen; or the same kind of arch may be made with radiating joints concealed within the thickness of the wall, and vertical joints on the front, secured by strings or cramps of iron, if necessary; when an aperture is very wide, it becomes necessary to arch it over. Too great a variety of 'apertures in the same front of a building destroys its uniformity. The ancient Greeks and Romans made the sides of apertures frequently incline toward each other at the top. Apertures are sometimes made quite circular or elliptical; but these forms are not in general use. In apertures of stone-work, if the jambs be of one entire piece, every alternate stone in the height of the aperture, next to the jambs, should be bond-stones; likewise, if the jambs consist of several stones in the height, every alternate jamb-stone should be a bond-stone. See STONE WALLS and WINDOWS, in MASONRY. When the heads of apertures are arched, they require to be supported on centres while building; the method of constructing which is shown under the article CENTRE. APEX, the highest point or summit of a structure. APODYTERIUM, (a'rodvpt, to put of,) an apartment at the entrance of the ancient baths, wherein the bathers undressed. APOLLODORUS, a most distinguished architect, born at Damascus, who flourished in the reigns of the emperors Trajan and Adrian, about the beginning of the second century. Under the former, he built the stone bridge over the Danube, which was esteemed one of the most considerable undertakings of that prince: he also raised several edifices round the forum Trajanum, at Rome, among which were the sculptured column of Trajan, still existing, and a triumphal arch. Historians relate, that as Apollodorus was once conversing with Trajan about some architectural designs, Adrian interfered, and gave his opinion, which was treated by the artist with contempt: "Go," said he, "and paint gourds, (an amusement which he knew Adrian to be fond of,) for you are very ignorant of the subject on which we are conversing." This affront was not easily to be forgiven or forgotten; accordingly, when Adrian had succeeded to the empire, he sent to Apollodorus the plan of a temple he purposed erecting in honour of Venus, and desired to have his opinion, which, however, he did not intend tu follow, being only desirous to show that he could do without his services. Apollodorus wrote his opinion freely, and pointed out such essential faults in the design, that the emperor could neither deny nor remedy them. But instead of acknowledging the merit and genius of the artist, Adrian threw himself into a violent passion, and banished him; and some time afterwards, under pretext of some supposed crimes, ordered him to be put to death. APOMECOMETRY, (from arro, from, UriKco, distance, LerTpew, to measure,) the art of measuring things at a distance. APOPHYGE, (anropvyetv,) a concave quadrantal moulding, joining two vertical members of different horizontal projections, and forming an exterior angle with that which has the greatest projection, and a tangent with the other. The apophyge is used in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, for joining the bottom of the shaft to the base, as well as to connect the top of the shaft to the fillet under the astragal. The word is originally Greek, and signifies flight; and the French call it by a term which implies escape. English architects and builders also call it the scape or spring of the column. See COLUMN. APOTHECA, (from arro-rtO7qt, to lay aside,) among the ancients, a store-room. APOTHESIS. See APOPHYGE. APPEARANCE, in perspective, the projection of a figure, body, &c., being the same as the representation of an original object. See PERSPECTIVE. APPLICATE, in geometry, a right line drawn within a curve, and bisected by the diameter of the curve, otherwise called an ordinate. APPLICATION, in mensuration, the art of applying one thing to another by approaching or bringing them together; thus any number of magnitudes of the same kind may be compared together by the successive application of a small magnitude of the same kind to each of them. APPLICATION, in geometry, the act or supposition of placing one figure upon another, to find whether they be equal or unequal, which seems to be the primary mode by which the mind first acquires both the idea and proof of equality. In this way the first principles of geometry are demonstrated. Thus, if two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, and the angle included be also equal, then the two triangles are themselves equal in'every respect: -- ARA 11 ARC ARA 11 ARC conceive the one triangle to be so placed upon the other, with the two corresponding equal sides upon each other, the angles included by these sides being equal, the other sides will also coincide, and the two figures will agree in all respects. The same may be observed of other figures. APRON, in plumbing, the same as FLASHING, which see. APRON, a platform, or flooring of plank, raised at the entrance of a dock, against which the gates shut, APRON-PIECE, or PITCHING-PIECE, a horizontal piece of timber in a wooden double-flighted stair, for supporting the carriage pieces or rough strings, and joistings in the half spaces or landings. The apron-pieces ought to be firmly wedged into the wall. See STAIRS. APRON-LINING, the facing over the apron-piece. APSIS, (from Greek asbte, an arch,) a term generally applied to any projecting portion of a building, having a semicircular or polygonal plan, and vaulted roof: In ecclesiastical structures, it signifies that part where the altar is situate, and which is reserved exclusively for the clergy. It differs from chancel in having the form above described. See CIIANCEL. APSIS GRADATA, a term peculiarly used for the bishop's seat or throne, in ancient churches, as it was raised on steps, above the ordinary stalls. It was also denominated exedra, and in later times, tribune. APTERAL, a building without columns on its flanks or sides. APYROI, (from a, irvp, fire,) a name given by the ancients to altars, on which sacrifice was offered without fire. In this sense the word is in contradistinction to empyroi. AQUEDUCT, or AQUVEDUCT, (from Latin aqua, water, and duco, to lead,) a construction upon or through uneven ground, for the purpose of forming a level canal for conducting water from one place to another. Aqueducts were formed either by erecting one or several rows of arcades across a valley, and making these arcades support one or more level canals, upon one or each of the ranges, or by piercing through mountains which would have interrupted the watercourse. They were built of stone or brick, and covered with a vaulted roof, or with flat stones, to shelter the water from the sun and rain. Some aqueducts were paved; but others conveyed the water through a natural channel of clay, to reservoirs or castella of lead or stone, whence it was brought to the houses by leaden pipes. Aqueducts had also ponds disposed at certain distances, where the sedimentof the water might be deposited. When the water was conveyed under ground, there were openings at about every 240 feet. Some of the Roman aqueducts * brought water from the distance of sixty miles, through rocks and mountains, and over valleys, in places more than 109 feet high. The inclination of the aqueduct, according to Pliny, was one inch, and, according to Vitruvius, half a foot in the hundred. The proportions adopted by the moderns is nearly the same as that mentioned by Pliny. The principal aqueducts now remaining are-Aquce Virginia, repaired by Pope Paul IV.; Aqnae Felice, constructed by Pope Sextus V.; the Aquce Paulina, repaired by Pope Paul V. in the year 1611; and that built by Louis XIV. near Maintenon, to convey water from the river Bure to Versailles. This latter is perhaps the largest aqueduct in the world, it being 7,000 fathoms long, is elevated 2,560 fathoms, and contains 242 arcades. ARABESQUE, or MORESQUE, an Eastern style of ornament, consisting of a fantastic mixture of foliage, flowers, fruits, &c., made use of both in painting and sculpture. Sometimes animal representations are introduced, but such are not strictly allowable. ARABO-TEDESCO a style of architecture, exhibiting a mixture of the Moorish, or low Grecian, with the German Gothic. Of this style is the Baptistry at Pisa, erected by Dioti Salvi, in 1152. It is a circular building, with an arcade in the second order, composed of pillars with Corinthian capitals and plain round arches; between each arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and above it is finished by sharp pediments, which are enriched with foliage terminating in a trefoil. ARAEOPAGUS. See AREOPAGUS. AR.EOSTYLE, or ARJSOSTYLOS. See INTERCOLUMNIATION and COLONNADE. AR2EOSYSTYLE. See COLONNADE. ARBOR, the principal part of a machine, which serves to sustain the rest. Also the axle or spindle on which a machine turns. ARC (from the Latin arcus, a bow) in geometry, a part of any curve line which does not consist of contrary curvatures, for then two or more arcs would be formed, though in contrary directions. ARC OF A CIRCLE, any part of the circumference less than the whole. The line joining the extremities of an arc is called its chord. Arcs are named after the angles which they subtend or are opposite to, and are measured by such angles and the radii of the circles to which they belong;-in other words, arc varies as angle X radius. ARCS, concentric, are those that have a common centre. ARCS, equal, such as subtend equal angles in equal circles. ARCS, similar, such as subtend equal angles, whether in equal or unequal circles. ARCADE, a range of apertures with arched heads, sup ported upon square pillars, or other columns. Arcades are sometimes employed to form porticos instead of colonnades; and though they are not so beautiful, they are stronger, more solid, and less expensive. In such buildings, the utmost care should be taken that the piers be sufficiently strong to resist the pressure of the arches, particularly the piers at the extremities, for they alone support the whole. The lateral pressure upon the extreme piers in the range, will be equal to that on the piers of a single arch, and all the intermediate piers will be without such lateral pressure; for the lateral pressures of any two adjoining arches upon the intermediate piers are equal, and being opposite they destroy each other's effect: but the extreme pier having only one adjoining arch, must be sufficiently strong to withstand the horizontal thrust of that arch. The greater the weight or vertical pressure put upon the extreme piers, the more will these piers be able to counteract the thrust of the adjoining arch; consequently, if each extreme pier have to support a wall, the higher the wall, the less dimensions the pier requires. It is upon this principle, that the slender pillars, dividing the nave on either side from the aisle, in churches of the Saxon and pointed styles of architecture, are capable of withstanding the horizontal thrust of the groins; for if the insisting wall were taken away, the pillars of most of these buildings would not be able to withstand the thrust of the arches for one minute. Arcades were employed in triumphal arches, theatres, amphitheatres, and aqueducts of the Romans, and frequently in their temples: towards the decline of the empire, the intercolumls were formed into arcades; but what relates to their history will be found under the article ARCH. -....... -c / I ARC 12 ARC AC 1 Arcades may be used with propriety in the gates of cities, palaces, gardens, and parks: they are much employed in the piazzas or squares of Italian cities, and, in general, are of great use in affording both shade and shelter in hot and rainy climates; but they are nevertheless a great nuisance to the inhabitants, as they very much darken their apartments. Lofty arcades may be employed, with great propriety, in the courts of palaces and noblemen's houses. There are various methods of decorating the piers of arcades, as with rustics, columns, pilasters, caryatides, persians, or terms surmounted with appropriate entablatures. Sometimes the piers are so broad as to admit of niches between columns or pilasters. The arch is either surrounded with rustic work, or with an archivolt, sometimes interrupted at the summit by a key-stone in the form of console, or mask, or some other appropriate ornament in sculpture. The archivolt rises sometimes from a plat-band, or impost, placed on the top of the piers, and at others from an entablature, supported by columns on each side of the arch. In some instances, the arches of arcades are supported entirely by single or coupled columns, without the entablature, as in the temple of Faunus, at Rome. This form is far from being agreeable to the eye, and it wants stability, as the columns would be incapable of resisting the lateral pressure of the arches, were they not tied together by a circular wall. In large arches, the keystone should never be omitted, and should be carried to the sofit of the architrave, where it will be useful for supporting the riddle of the entablature, which would otherwise have too great a bearing. When columns are detached, as in the triumphal arches at Rome, it is necessary to break the entablature, and make its projection in the intercolumns the same as if pilasters had been used instead of columns, or so much as is just sufficient to relieve it from the naked appearance of the wall; this is unavoidable in all intercolumns of great width; but should be practised as little as possible, as it destroys the genuine use of the entablature. Arcades should never be much more, nor much less, than double their breadth: the breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two-thirds, nor be less than one-third of that of the arcade; and the angular pier should have an addition of a third or a half, as the nature of the design may require. The impost should not be more than one-seventh, nor less than a ninth; and the archivolt not more than one-eighth, nor less than a tenth of the breadth of the arch. The breadth of the bottom of the keystone should be equal to that of the archivolt, and its length not less than one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more than double. In porticos, the thickness of the piers depends on the width of the portico and the superincumbent building; but with respect to the beauty of the edifice, it should not be less than one-quarter, nor more than a third of the breadth of the arcade. When the arcades form blank recesses, the backs of which are pierced with doors, windows, or niches, the recesses should be at least so deep as to keep the most prominent part of the dressings entirely within their surface. In the upper stories of the theatres and amphitheatres of the Romans, the arcades stood upon the podiums or interpedestals of the columns, perhaps as much for the purpose of proportioning the apertures, as to form a proper parapet for leaning over. In Gothic Architecture-arcades, whether detached or engaged, are of very frequent occurrence; more especially in the Transition and early English styles. Engaged arcades are very common indeed, and may be found frequently running round the interior walls of a building, as at Westminster Abbey, the Chapter-House, Canterbury, and in innumerable other instances; in the conventual buildings at Canterbury is a very fine specimen of a detached arcade. The engaged form came into very extensive use with the intersection of the semicircular arch, and was employed in almost every situation both on the interior and exten. r of buildings, as well as in the decoration of their furniture, such as fonts, &c. The arcade indeed was a very prominent, if not the principal feature in all Gothic architecture, and is that which adds so greatly to the solemn grandeur of our noble cathedrals. This term is also applied to any arched covered way, more particularly to the close passages recently introduced, such as the Burlington and Lowther arcades, which are used as promenades, as well as for purposes of trade. ARC-BOUTANTS, (from the French, are, an arch, and bouter, to abut.) See BUTTRESS. ARCII. A structure composed of separate inelastic bodies, arranged in such a manner that their lower surface shall form the arc of a curve, being supported at its two extremities. History. The invention of the arch has been assigned by different writers respectively to Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Etrurians. The claim made for the Babylonians rests principally on a passage found in Strabo, wherein he states, that the -langing-Gardens were formed by means of arches: a passage of TIerodotus is also quoted, as favouring the supposition. This historian, speaking of the great gates in the city-wall, relates, that Nitocris was buried in a chamber above one of them, and it is urged by the supporters of this opinion, that so heavy a superstructure could not have been supported over an aperture of such dimensions by mere beams, or indeed by any other contrivance than that of the arch. On the other side it is argued, that Nitocris would have made use of the arch in the erection of her bridge, had the principles of its construction been understood, instead of the awkward application of horizontal timber beams; and with respect to the gateways, it is stated, that Herodotus, in this instance, speaks of jambs and lintels, and makes not the slightest mention of an arch. Besides, it is argued, if the arch was used to any extent, we should certainly find some vestiges of it in the ruins of that city, whereas the concurrent testimony of all travellers goes to prove that none such exist, while lintelling has been found in several instances, where the arch might have been applied with advantage. In favour of the Egyptian title to this distinction, we are referred to specimens of arched work still to be found in the remains of Egyptian temples. The first specimen produced is from Abydos, where the roof is certainly of an arched form, but on inspection proves to be constructed of three horizontal stones; the centre one, which is the largest, overlapping the two side-ones. The under surface of these stones is cut out in such a manner as to form a semicircular arch. The other specimens adduced, are without doubt true arches, and if their antiquity be allowed, the question is at once set at rest. These arches arc found at Thebes, and are formed of four courses of bricks arranged in a semicircle. If the fact of their antiquity, however, be admitted, it is difficult to understand why the arch should not have been more generally employed. The same reasoning may be applied in the case of the Greeks, for, although it is said that true arches are found in their works, yet it seems probable that they were not in use previous to the second or third century before the Christian era, as, if so, we should naturally expect to find them employed in many cases where they would have proved t t. I AT.'. Tr IC f ARC 13 ARC A 13 ARC most useful. The general arrangement of their buildings would scarcely have been such as it is, if they had been acquainted with the principles of the art. The first example of any arched construction to be found among the Romans, is that of the cloaca maxima, or public sewer, said to have been built by Tarquin. The identity of the existing remains with the original structure has been doubted, but in fact this is of no great importance, as there is no scarcity of examples of this kind, although of somewhat later date than the reign of Tarquin. There are some who assign the merit of the introduction of the arch among the Romlans to the Etrusci, and who are not entirely without reasons for this assumption. They say that Tarquin brought this knowledge with him from Etruria, his native country, and that Etrurians were employed by him in the construction of the sewer; others, however, refer the actual construction to Greeks. It is possible indeed that the Etrurians may have introduced this form of building, as it is well known that that people had arrived at some excellence in the arts at an early period, and also were in close communication with the Romans; be this, however, as it may, there can be no doubt that we are principally indebted to the latter people for the full development of the power and utility of the arch; whoever it may have been who first became acquainted with the principles, whether Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, or Etrurians, there never was any doubt as to the people who carried its knowledge into execution. As far as the Greeks or their predecessors are concerned, wre might have remained in utter ignorance as to the utility of this style of building. It is to the Romans we owe our practical knowledge on the subject; they it was who made a worthy application of their knowledge, and put their theories into extensive execution; and although they employed this form to a greater extent than perhaps good taste might sanction; yet this we judge to be the natural procedure of any people upon first becoming acquainted with a principle of so peculiar a character and such unlimited usefulness. Although the Romans employed arches in the construction of their edifices, to a very great extent, yet they always confined them to one form, namely the semicircular. It is to the architects of the middle ages we are indebted for the great variety of figure employed in this kind of construction; among others we may especially notice the pointed arch,-but for further information on this subject, we beg to refer the reader to that particular style of architecture. Of the forms, &c. of arches. Arches are named according to the curve assumed by them, as circular, elliptical, cycloidal, parabolical, hyperbolical, catenarian, &c.: circular arches are again subdivided according to the quantity of the circumference described by them, such as semicircular, segmental or surbased, containing less than the semicircumference, surmounted, horse-shoe or Moorish, containing more than the semicircumference. Arches are also denominated according to the method adopted in describing the curve, as two, three, or four-centred arches; also by the nature of the angle formed at the apex, thus, pointed arches are distinguished by the appellation of lancet, equilateral, and depressed. Further, there are arches of equilibration and of discharge; askew and reversed arches. The separate masses or stones, of which the arch is composed, are called voussoirs or arch stones, the central or uppermost of which is called the key-stone, the lowermost, or those nearest the supports, springers. The highest point in an arch is termed the vertex, or crown, the lowest line the springing line, and the spaces between the crown and springing line on either side, the haunches, or flanks. The under or concave surface is denominated the intrados, the upper or convex the extrados. The supports of an arch are called piers, abutments, springing walls or reins. Piers are distinguished from abutments, the former term being applied to a support to resist a vertical pressure, the latter an horizontal thrust. The upper parts of the supports on which the arch rests, or from which it is said to spring, are named imposts. The span of an arch is the width between the points, where the intrados meets the imposts on either side, which in the case of circular arches coincides with the chord of the arc: the rise is the height of the highest point in the intrados above the springing or spanning-line. Arches which have the curves of both intrados and extrados concentric or parallel, are said to be extradossed; and such as rise from supports at unequal heights, are called rampant arches. There are other kinds of arches, but these are more applicable to VAULTING, under which head they will be treated of. In order to avoid farther extending this article, we must refer the reader for the THEORY of the ARCH, to STONE BRIDGE. ARCI, TRIUMPHAL; an edifice erected by the Romans in various situations, but more especially at the entrances of their cities, in honour of victorious generals, and in later times of the emperors. These structures were originally built of brick, but afterwards of stone, or marble; their form was that of a parallelopipedon, having one, and often three, arched apertures in the longer side, decorated with columns, sculpture, and other embellishments; the whole being surmounted with a heavy attic. When three arches were employed, they were situate so as to have one large one in the centre with a smaller one on each side of it. Under the emperors, triumphal arches became very numerous, and were made of costly materials richly ornamented. The oldest of such structures remaining in Rome is that of Titus, enriched with sculptures representing the triumph of.that emperor. Two other arches erected in honour of Trajan are still in existence, the one at Ancona, the other at Benevento; the former is of white marble of chaste ornamentation, consisting in part of bronze statues; the latter has several fine relievos, and is in a state of good preservation. The above are single-arched; several, however, were constructed of three arches, amongst the most remarkable of which are those of Constantine and Septimius Severus; that of Constantine has been cleared of the soil which had accumulated to some height round its base, and is perhaps the most beautiful and complete of any at Rome, but manifests some discrepancies of parts, as it was built partially of old materials from an earlier monument of Trajan; that of Severus is a noble structure, but is much more dilapidated; it is sixty-one feet in height, seventy-one in length, and twenty-two in depth,.the central archway is twenty-two feet wide, and thirty-six high, the side ones ten feet wide, and twenty-two feet high. But few structures of this kind have been erected by the moderns; amongst them, however, we may notice one triple arch of Bonaparte on the Place du Carrousel, and a much finer one at Milan. ARCHEION, the treasury, and most secret and retired place in Grecian temples, where not only the richest treasures appertaining to the deities were deposited, but also other valuable articles, which they were desirous of keeping secure. The practice of the Romans was very similar to that of the Greeks, but they confined the deposition of their public treasure to the temple of Saturn. ARCHITECT, (Greek apXoS -eictwv, the chieffabricator.) In considering the correct application of this word, we shall _ _ _ _______ _ __ _______ ___ A R C 1 4 A R ARC 14 ARC _ _ not confine ourselves to any one period of time, as the word has been variously applied under different circumstances. We find the word dpXtrecrwv employed by Herodotus, and also by Homer, in their respective works, who seem to have given to it a very extensive signification. In one and the same passage, (iii. 60,) Herodotus uses the term in two different senses, for he speaks of the "architect" of a tunnel for supplying water, as well as of the "architect" of the great temple of Samos. IIomer uses the same term to signify a carpenter, a house-builder, and also a ship-builder. It seems probable, then, that in these early ages, the word " architect" was not restricted to any one signification, but was applied as circumstances required. In succeeding ages, however, when the more perfect civilization of mankind required structures not only more numerous and more elegant, but also in greater variety, and suited to multifarious uses, it was found inconvenient, if not utterly impracticable, for any single individual to qualify himself to superintend the construction of so great a variety of buildings. Thus resulted a division of labour: the duties of the "architect" were alleviated by allotting to several the task originally undertaken by one. Thus arose the distinct duties of architect and engineer, which are again subject to several subdivisions, distinct departments of one grand and comprehensive whole. ARCHITECTOGRAPHIA, the description of ancient buildings, as temples, theatres, amphitheatres, triumphal arches, baths, pyramids, tombs, mausoleums, aqueducts, &c. ARCHITECTURE, the art of building. Did we apply to this word the signification derivable from the original Greek, we should have before us a very extensive field for investigation. Custom, however, has limited the application of the term to the science of erecting artificial structures. The origin of this department of science is involved in impenetrable obscurity. It is reasonable to expect that man, a being of acute feelings, should soon have sought out some method of protecting himself against the inconveniences to which his physical conformation rendered him obnoxious. Exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather and the variations of temperature, he must, at a very early period, have discovered some means of shelter and security; the method, however, which he adopted for effecting this object is left entirely to conjecture. Various speculative opinions have been hazarded on the subject, remarkable for the most part not more for the inventive imaginations of their authors, than for the crudeness and absurdity of the speculations themselves. Vitruvius, the first writer on the subject, has given a very elaborate, if not very correct account of the contrivances of our primeval ancestors in the way of housebuilding; this account, strange to say, has been transmitted as an authority from time to time almost down to our own age, gathering in its progress additional strength from the names of those who have given credence to its manifold absurdities. In considering the subject, we must not forget that mankind originally inhabited a warm climate, where the inclemency of the weather was comparatively but little felt, and where consequently there was no need of such defences as in a colder region. The chief inconvenience arose probably from the extreme heat, a natural retreat from which was found in the shelter afforded by the luxuriant foliage of the trees. We might reasonably suppose that, as there was no necessity for a very substantial edifice, tents formed of the skins of beasts offered in sacrifice, or of other convenient substance, would have formed the primitive dwellings of mankind; this, however, there is some reason to suppose, was not the case, as we read that Jabal was the father of such as dwelt in tents, whereas Cain had built a city sometime before Jabal's birth. What this city was, we have no means of judging; of its materials and its form we are alike ignorant. The next mention made of a city in the sacred writings is that of Babylon, which was built by Nimrod; here it was that the famous tower of Babel was commenced, in the building of which, it is stated, burnt bricks and slime (bitumen) were made use of. The same Nimrod is related to have built Nineveh and three otjer cities. Whether the above were the first cities that were built after the flood is left doubtful, for we find no mention in the sacred history of any Egyptian cities, yet doubtless such must have existed at a very early period; we cannot, therefore, say for certain whether the sons of Cush or Mizraim took the precedence in such works; nor can we tell whether the buildings seen by Herodotus and other pagan historians were in any part the same as those whose erection is mentioned by Moses. These, as well as all other subjects connected with the early ages of mankind, must ever remain matters of mere conjecture; yet with respect to the latter question, it does appear somewhat worthy of attention, that Herodotus relates having visited, situate in the midst of Babylon, a tower of vast dimensions and unusual height; the coincidence of the two accounts is, to say the least, remarkable. If we allow the towers spoken of by the two historians to be identical, and also that the separation of mankind did not take place, at least to any extent, before the confusion of languages, we shall have no difficulty in accounting for the remarkable affinity of the Persian, Hlindoo, and Egyptian architecture, especially with reference to the pyramidal form of their structures: we shall also be enabled to form some notion of the progress of mankind in this art, as well as of the nature and method of building at the period. We have hitherto been considering the first rise and progress of architecture in the earliest ages of the world; we must bear in mind, however, that some people in later ages have, by some means or other, lost all traces of the civilization of their ancestors. This fact may appear strange, but it is not our part to account for it in this place; the fact is before us, startling perhaps, but undeniable notwithstanding. We intend here briefly to consider, how those people, after having lost all their previous knowledge of architectural science, set about to regain it. And here we might introduce the theory of Vitruvius, but not, as he does, in the shape of a general fixed rule; for although it may be true, even in the majority of cases, that the first rude attempts in the erection of dwellings have been, as he states, of a conical form, yet this was by no means universally the case. The fact is, the method of building so much depended upon the character of the people, the nature of the locality inhabited by them, as well as that of its productions, upon the materials and resources for building, and lastly, upon the examples which nature more prominently set before them; that it is utterly impossible to lay down any rule as that by which mankind have been universally governed in the erection of their first structures. Although Architecture had its rise doubtless in the construction of buildings for the purposes of shelter and defence, yet it is no less certain that it is indebted for its rapid advancement, and its ultimate perfection, to the religious feelings of mankind. It is in the temples we look for beauty of design, for appropriateness of embellishment, for grandeur, ideality, and magnificence. Had it not been for religion, architecture would never have risen to that eminence which it so early attained in the sacred edifices of the ancients; and which have attracted such universal admiration. It is I _ __ _ ARC 15 ARC AR 15_ ARC _______ __ to temples, then, we must look for the progress of a people in this great art; by them must we compare nations as to their advancement in skill, taste, and science, as well as in the general progress of civilization. Having thus far considered the origin of Architecture as a science, we shall now give a very concise sketch of its progress in different countries. Our very first steps in entering upon the history of Architecture are greatly impeded for want of trustworthy information on the subject. We are left in the dark as to what style may justly claim precedence in point of time. Following the account of the creation and civilization of mankind, as given by Moses, we should naturally enough look towards the East for the first origin of this, as of all other arts, and this supposition is confirmed as well by the concurrent testimony of history, as by the investigation of the remains of Eastern edifices. But although we may, without hesitation, yield the priority to the ancient Eastern edifices as a whole, we still meet with difficulties in assigning its proper position to each separate style. We should prefer to place the Babylonish or Persian architecture first on the list, as well for the reason previously assigned, as that, as far as we are enabled to judge from the specimens that remain to us in the ruins of Babylon, the buildings of this style appear to be of ruder construction than those either of India or Egypt. For this latter cause, we should give to Egypt the next place, as we find the sculptures of India of more rounded form, and more elaborate workmanship than the Egyptian. In endeavouring to give to each style its relative chronological position, we do not mean to deny that they were equally indebted to each other for various improvements at different periods. We would especially instance the case of Persepolis, the principal specimen of Persian architecture remaining to us: here we find truly a great advance upon the architecture of Babylon, and we can have no doubt respecting the introduction of some peculiarities of the Egyptian style. Whatever doubts, however, there may remain concerning the relations of the above styles, separately, in respect of age, there can be none as to their general resemblance and affinity, or as to their position, taken as a whole, in the chronology of Architecture. Next in the order of age comes Grecian Architecture. Here again Vitruvius has given us some very fanciful suggestions respecting the prototype of the entire edifice, as well as the origin of its varied details; nothing, however, can be more absurd than his notions respecting the latter; and as to the former, he gives the Greeks credit for inventive genius, which certainly cannot lawfully be claimed for them. We may, with equally the same justice, yield to them their boasted title of avroXOeves, as their claims to originality in their style of building. Obscure A are the traditions respecting the colonization of Greece, we have ample evidence to show that it was indebted to Egypt, Phoenicia, and other parts of the East, for the majority of its inhabitants; add to this the similarity existing between the earlier styles of Grecian architecture, and those of Egypt and Persepolis, and there can, we think, remain no hesitation in assigning to the latter the origin of Grecian art. While, however, we refuse the claims of Greece to originality, we cannot forget how much we are indebted to her for the introduction of so many and valuable improvements. In her hands this department of art arrived at its greatest excellence, insomuch as to form a new era which for purity and chaste grandeur has never been surpassed. The great distinction between the last mentioned and the Roman style is in the employment of the arch. The use of the arch gave the Romans great advantage over all previous nations, and permitted of great variety in the construction of their buildings. This people aimed rather at utility than ornament; and although many of their buildings are well worthy of admiration on account of their appropriateness to the purposes for which they were intended, and even of some degree of beauty, yet they may not be compared with the purity and grandeur of Grecian taste. The Greeks were lovers of art for its own sake, the Iomans for the sake of the benefits it afforded them. We must not, however, consider the Romans as devoid of taste or original conception, for they may claim the Corinthian order almost entirely as their own, and this says not a little for their appreciation of the beautiful. They had this advantage also over the Greeks, that whereas the latter were confined to one plan, the parallelogrammic, which gave their structures a monotonous appearance, they, on the contrary, could vary the form in any way they deemed suitable; and this introduced the practice of grouping, or composition, as it is called. The introduction of another practice we owe to the Romans, namely, that of internal decoration. Thus, while the Greeks may claim the palm for purity of taste, the Romans take precedence in utility and variety of construction. Having thus considered the history of our subject from its earliest commencement to the perfect development of the great principles of construction, we deem it advisable to postpone the consideration of the later styles to their respective heads. We have now arrived at the grand model of all future eras, and to which all modern styles owe their origin. The Romans, owing to their wide-spread dominion, have introduced their knowledge of the arts throughout almost the entire world, and so their architecture has been the grand prototype of all succeeding ages. For although the variation of different styles from each other, and also from their common pattern, be considerable, yet there can he no doubt as to the source from whence they all had their origin. It is true that, at first sight, the elaborate edifices of the style known under the name of Perpendicular, seem to have but little affinity to the heavy Norman structure; and yet when the intermediate links are added to the chain by which they are connected, few persons will be found to question their immediate relation; and certainly the step between the Norman and late Roman requires but little explanation. Considering, therefore, the Roman as the foundation upon which medieval, as well as modern architecture was erected, we leave each style to be considered under its separate title. It is our intention to enter into a more minute investigation of this subject under the following heads:-BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE, BYZANTINE, CELTIC, CHINESE, EGYPTIAN, ENGLISH, ETRUSCAN, GOTHIC, GREEK, HINDOO, ITALIAN, MEXICAN, MOORISH, NORMAN, PELASGIAN, PERSIAN, POINTED, and ROMAN. ARCHITRAVE, (from aqxo9, chief, and trabs, a beam.,) that division of the entablature which rests upon the columns, and which may perhaps represent the linteling beam placed over the columns, and over the intercolumns, for supporting the cross beams, in the roof of the primitive wooden structure. In the remains of ancient Grecian structures, the architrave is of very great height, being nearly equal to the superior diameter of the column, and in some instances even more, as in the Doric temples of Theseus at Athens, Corinth, near the ancient city of that name, Prestum in Italy, and in the Ionic temple on the river Ilissus at Athens; but there are few or no instances where it is so high as to be equal to the inferior diameter. Examples in which the low. est architraves are to be found are the portico of Philip, king __I __ ARC 16 ARC ARC ~16AR of Macedon, and the Doric portico at Athens; the altitude of the former being only thirty-eight minutes, and that of the latter forty-five minutes, or two-thirds of the bottom diameter. In the remains of Roman buildings, the architraves are low, being in most cases between two-thirds and threefourths of a diameter. The lowest architrave in these remains is that of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome, which is only half a diameter. This proportion has been generally followed in the Doric order by the modern restorers of ancient architecture. What relates particularly to the forms and parts of the architrave of each particular order will be seen under the heads of TUSCAN, DORIC, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, and ROMAN ORDERS. The soffits of the architraves of Grecian buildings are always found to exceed the upper diameter of the columns; but in the Roman they are equal. In the Saxon and early Norman styles of architecture, arches rise from the capitals of the pillars, instead of being linteled by the architrave as in the Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman buildings: this is one of the most striking differences between ancient architecture and the styles afterwards practised in the middle ages. ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR, a collection of members surrounding the aperture, of a section similar to the architraves of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders. The head or lintel is called the traverse, and the sides the jambs. Vitruvius calls the jambs antepagmenta, and the head or traverse supercilium. In the remains of the edifices at Balbec and Palmyra, and in the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, the architrave jambs are often flanked with consoles, which gives an apparent support to the cornice, and the cornice frequently rests upon the traverse, without the intervention of the frieze; but the flank pilasters under the consoles are scarcely to be met with among ancient ruins, though practised by the modern Italians, and represented in their works. This is however an improvement, as it diminishes the apparent weight of the top, by spreading out the lower part. The proportion of the architrave to the aperture, in ancient edifices, varies greatly: the usual proportions given by the moderns is from one-seventh, to one-sixth part of the opening. When the architrave jambs are flanked with pilasters and consoles, the breadth may be one-seventh of that of the aperture, and the breadth of the pilasters two-thirds of that of the architrave; but when it is unaccompanied with these ornaments, it ought not to be less than a sixth part of the breadth of the aperture. In the ruins of Roman and Grecian buildings the architrave rests upon the floor, and has no flanking consoles; but in the ruins of Balbec they are supported by plinths. When there is too much surface of naked wall on each side of the architrave jambs, the sides of the architrave may be flanked with pilasters and consoles, in order to reduce the naked, and proportion it to the dressings of the front. The dressing of an aperture may be heightened by adding a cornice, or a cornice and frieze, as the space above will admit; and if the space above requires further diminution, the alti: tude of the dressing may be still further increased, by surmounting the cornice with a pediment. When the material of the architrave is stone, the jambs are either built in heights corresponding to the courses of the naked of the wall, or if stones can be procured, each jamb is made of one entire piece, or sometimes in two or three, according to the difficulty of raising them from the quarry. When they are coursed with the work, every alternate stone should be a bond-stone, and, if the jambs are in one height, or not coursed, every alternate stone in the altitude of the naked, adjoining each architrave jamb, should be a bond-stone: the fewer pieces the architrave jamb consists of, the more beautiful will the work appear, therefore one is preferable to several. In the arched apertures of ancient buildings, the jambs ara seldom or never moulded as an architrave, but the arch is frequently ornamented with members of an architrave section; these members are called the archivolt, which always rests upon imposts. The imposts project in most cases from the naked of the wall, and in a few cases form the capital of pilasters upon the jambs. ARCHITRAVE, in joinery, is one constructed of wood. Architraves may be wrought out of a solid piece of wood; this, however, would be attended with a waste of both stuff and time. The best method is to glue it up in two or more longitudinal pieces, as may be judged proper from the combination of its parts. For a full description of this method, see JOINERY. ARCHITRAVE CORNICE, is an entablature which consists of an architrave crowned with a cornice, without the intervention of the frieze. There are few ancient examples where an architrave cornice is supported by columns or pilasters: the only ones which we can recollect are, that on the inside of the portico of the Pantheon, and the entablature of the third order of the Colosseum at Rome (if it may be so called) and that supported by the caryatides of the temple of Pan. drosus at Athens: the imposts of the arch of Septimius Severus are also formed like an architrave cornice. The remains of antiquity exhibit many instances where the dressings of rectangular apertures are finished with architrave cornices, as in the temples of Erechtheus at Athens, Vesta at Rome, and in other ruins exhibited in Adam's Spalatra, and in Wood's Balbec and Palmyra. ARCHITRAVE JAMBS. See ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR. ARCH[VAULT. See ARCHIVOLT. ARCHIVE, an apartment wherein the records or charters of a state or community are preserved, in order to be consulted occasionally. The word comes from the Greek apxaov, which signifies that part of their temples in which the public treasury was deposited. Colleges and monasteries had all their archives; but that of the Romans was restricted to the temple of Saturn in particular. ARCHIVOLT, a collection of members on the face of an arch, adjacent to, and concentric with the intrados, supported upon the imposts. The word is derived from the French archivolte, which signifies the same thing as arcus volutus. The archivolts in Roman and Grecian edifices are formed upon the face of the arch with their section perpendicular to the curve of the intrados and the wall, and similar in figure to that wrought on the face of an architrave; the intrados being, in most cages, the surface of a cylinder, and, in some few cases, that of a cone. In the latter ages of the Roman empire, arches with archivolts were substituted instead of the horizontal entablature, by supporting the arches upon the capitals of columns as imposts. This innovation gave birth to that style of building most commonly known by the name of Gothic, and forms one of the most characteristic features of this style of building. The archivolts of Saxon edifices were at first very similar to those of the Romans, but in process of time, the pillars became clustered with small columns, and each shaft of the clustered pillar had its separate capital; therefore, in order to make the bottom extremities of the arch bear equally on the tops of the pillars, it became necessary to form the archivolt in deep recession from the soffit, rather in a conical than a cylindrical surface. The archivolt was separated into several __ __ __ ___ __ ASHI 17 AST AS H 17 AST similar divisions, each one consisting of a collection of mouldings, with deep sinkings between. ARCS DOUBLEUX, the soffits of arches. AREA, in architecture, is the surface of the ground of a court, or the bottom of the part of an excavation sunk below the general surface of the ground, before the basement story of a building, and level with its floor. AREA, in geometry, is the quantity of surface on a body, or the superficial extent of any figure. ARENA, the plain space in the middle of the Roman amphitheatre, where the gladiators fought: the same term was also used by the Romans to denote the amphitheatre itself. This term is further applied to the body of a temple, including the whole space between the antea and extremewall. ARENATUM, a word used by Vitruvius to signify a kind of plaster: mortar made up of lime and sand. AREOPAGUS, a place near Athens, where the Athenians held their court of justice. ARONADE, Embattled, a conjunction of several lines, forming indentations like the boundary of an embattled wall, except that the middle of every raised part is terminated by the convex arch of a circle, which arch does not extend to the length of that part. ARRIS, the intersection, or line, on which two surfaces of a body forming an exterior angle meet each other. This term is much used by all workmen concerned in building, as the arris of a stone, of a piece of wood, or of any other material. Though the edge of a body conveys the same meaning in general language as arris, yet, in building, the word edge is restrained to those two surfaces of a rectangular parallelopipedal body, on which the length and thickness may be measured, as in boards,' planks, doors, shutters, and other framed joinery. ARRIS FILLET, a slight piece of timber of a triangular section, used in raising the slates against chimney shafts, or against a wall that cuts obliquely across the roof, and in forming gutters at the upper ends and sides of those kinds of skylights that have their plane coinciding with that of the roof. When the arris fillet is used in raising the slates at the caves of a building, it is then called the eaves-board, eaveslath, or eaves-catch. ARRIS GUTTER. See GUTTERING. ARSENAL, a public store-house for depositing arms or warlike ammunition. ASAROTUM, a kind of painted pavement, used by the Romans before the invention of Mosaic work. The most celebrated was that painted by Sesus at Pergamus, which exhibited the appearance of crumbs, as if the floor had not been swept after dinner. ASIILAR, among builders, signifies common or freestones, as they come from the quarry, of various sizes. ASHLAR, the facing of squared stones on the front of a building. When the work is smoothed or rubbed, so as to take out the marks of the tools by which the stones were cut, it is called plane ashlar. Tooled ashlar is understood 1to be that, the surface of which is wrought in a regular manner like parallel flutes, and placed perpendicularly in the building; but when the surfaces of the stones are cut with a broad tool, without care or regularity, the work is said to be random.tooled: when wrought with a narrow tool, it is said to be chiselled, or boasted: and when the surfaces of the stones are cut with very narrow tools, the ashlar is said to be pointed. When the stones project from the joints, the ashlar is said to be rusticated: in this kind, the faces may either have a smooth or broken surface. Neither 3 pointed, chiselled, nor random-tooled ashlar are employed in good work: in some parts of the country, herring-bone ashlar, and herring-bone random-tooled ashlar are used. ASHLARING, is the act of setting an ashlar facing. ASHILERING, in carpentry, is the fixing of short upright quarterings between the rafters and the floor in garrets, in order to make more convenient rooms by cutting off the acute angles at the bottom. The triangular spaces on the sides are either left unoccupied, or formed into cupboards or closets. ASIMINTHOS, a large vessel used by the Greeks for bathing in. ASPHALTUM, a kind of bituminous substance, found sometimes in a solid, sometimes in a. soft or liquid state, in various parts of the world. A species of it discovered in Neufchatel, has been used with great success, as a cement for walls and pavements; it is very durable in air, and impenetrable by water. Of late years, various combinations of Asphaltum with other materials have been employed under the name of Asphalte, or Asphaltic Cement, for covering roofs, floors, &c., and for other useful purposes. The best of these " Asphaltes" is that known as " Claridge's Asphalte of Seyssel," which has a deserved reputation as an excellent pavement, and valuable material for the different purposes above named. ASSEMBLAGE, the joining or uniting of several things together, or the things themselves so united. Carpenters and joiners have various kinds of assemblages, as by mortise and tenon, dove-tailing, &c. ASSEMBLAGE OF THE ORDERS, the placing of the columns upon one another in the several ranges, so that their axis shall be in the same straight line. ASSERS, in ancient carpentry, were the laths which supported the tiles of the roof: from the projecting ends of these the denticulated cornice is supposed to have originated; they were not disposed horizontally, but according to the inclination of the roof; and hence Vitruvius forbids the use of dentils in pediments. AssERS were also the ribs of brackets of an arched ceiling. ASTRAGAL, (from a.;payaor, the heel-bone,) a mould. ing of a semicircular section, projecting from a vertical diameter. It is remarkable that Vitruvius does not mention any astragal between the shaft and the hypotrachelion of the Doric and Tuscan columns, as is to be found in the Doric of the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome-; so that it is probable, the hypotrachelion might be formed without any mouldings whatever, by making it recede in a small degree within the shaft, or by fluting it, as in the column of Trajan. This doctrine is also very conformable to all the Grecian examples of the Doric order; for the hypotrachelion is separated from the shaft by one, two, or three annular channels, without any projecting moulding, and the flutes are continued upwards through the hypotrachelion, to meet the under side of the annulets. In the Ionic order of the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens, the hypotrachelion is however separated from the shaft by an astragal; and in the temple of Minerva Polias, at the same place, they are separated by a plain fillet. In all the other numerous Grecian examples of this order there is no hypotrachelion: the astragal is placed immediately below the echinus. The same is to. be found in the few remaining Roman examples of this order. In the Corinthian and Composite orders, the astragal is never omitted between the under row of leaves and the shaft, except in the Corinthian of the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, which is one of the oldest examples of this order; where, instead of the astragal, there is an annular groove, from which and __~ _ _ _ __ ____ ____ _ __ __ _ ATR 1i ATT ATR ~18AT from the beauty and delicacy of this example, it seems probable that the astragal might be originally formed of a metal ring. The astragal is a moulding of very frequent application, not only at the upper ends of the shafts of columns, but also in their bases and entablatures. It is the simplest of all mouldings, and the only one which can stand alone by itself, and project from a plane surface without the aid of a fillet or straight part. The Greeks and Romans frequently cut their astragals into beads, formed alternately of oblate and prolate spheroids, or, instead of prolate spheroids, figures consisting of double cones, with cylindrical parts between, are introduced: this practice is followed by the moderns with various innovations. In the Egyptian architecture, we meet frequently with clusters of astragals, circumscribing the shafts of the columns; in various places dividing them into several compartments, of which some of them are frequently receded vertically with tastragals. The capitals often join upon the tops of the shafts, without any horizontal moulding between them. The astragal and torus are exactly similar figures: the only distinction is, that when they are compared with the other, in the same piece of work, the torus is large, and the astragal small, perhaps not exceeding one-third part of the diameter of the torus; but in most cases any proportion less, so that it may be sufficiently distinct. ASULAE, marble chips. ASYMPTOTE, a straight line, which continually approaches to a curve without meeting it. ATHENEUM, or ATHENAUM, the name applied in ancient times to public buildings erected for rehearsals and lectures. In modern times, the title of Athenaeum has been frequently given to establishments connected with literature and art, public reading-rooms, &c.; a celebrated club-house in London is called the Athenaeum. ATLANTES, ATLANTIDES, or ATLAS, the name given by the Greeks to the figures or statues of men used to support entablatures with mutules instead of pilasters or columns. They were also called ZELAMONES and PERSIANS. In the architecture of the modern Italians, the Atlantes are often found supporting the entablature over an entrance to a palace or garden. At Milan there is a colossal example of the former; and the rustic gate to the Farnese Gardens at Rome is a specimen of the latter. ATRIUM, a court or hall in the interior of the Roman noblemen's houses, of an oblong plan. Three sides of the atrium were supported on columns, the materials of which, in later times, were marble. The side opposite to the gate was called tablinum, and the other two sides alee. The tablinum was filled with books, and the records of what any one had done in his magistracy. It was in the atrium where the nuptial couch was erected, where anciently the family used to sup, where the mistress and maid-servants wrought at spinning and weaving, and where the clients used to wait on their patrons. The atrium was adorned with pictures, with statues of their ancestors, and with plate; and was usually the most splendid and important part of a Roman house. In later times, the atrium seems to have been divided into different parts, separated from one another by hangings, into which persons were admitted, according to their different degrees of favour. The atrium was frequently in ancient times confounded with vestibulum, which was only a recess on the exterior side of the building, and what is now called by the Italians loggia. Even Vitruvius, in chap. iii., book vi., confounds it with cavcedium, which was an enclosure still further within the interior. This author assigns three different proportions to the length and breadth of the atrium: the first is 5 to 3, the second 3 to 2, and the third is the ratio which the diagonal of a square has to its side. Their height to the under side of the ceiling is equal to their length, wanting a fourth part. The difference between the atrium of a city and country residence was this, that in the former it was placed near the entrance, and in the latter, the peristylium was placed between the atrium and the gate. The Greeks had no atrium in their houses. In some tenples an atrium was to be found. ATRIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, a large open court before a church, making part of what was called the narthex, or ante-temple; it was surrounded with a cloister or portico. In this apartment the penitents stood to beg the prayers of the faithful, as they went into the church; and here those remained who were not suffered to go further into the church. ATTIC, is a part of a building standing on the cornice, similar in form to that of a pedestal, and is either broken or continued. It is so named from its being supposed to have been first used in Attica. The use of an attic is to conceal the roof, and give greater dignity to the design. The Romans employed attics in their edifices, as may be seen in the remains of the triumphal arches, and in the forum of Nerva. In the arch of Constantine, pedestals are raised over the columns as high as the base of the attic, and these pedestals are again surmounted with insuilated sti-ucs. "In the ruins of Athens there are no attics to be found; except one over a Corinthian colonnade at Thessalonica, with breaks forming dwarf pilasters over the columns, and with statues placed in front of the pilasters, as in the arch of Constantine. The attic carried round the two courts of the great temple of Balbec, is also broken into dwarf pilasters over the columns and pilasters of the order; and the dwarf pilasters have blocking courses over them, on which statues are supposed to have been placed. Attics are very disproportional in the ruins of these ancient edifices, some of them being nearly one half of the height of the order. The moderns make their height equal to that of the entablature: as to the proportion of the height of the members, it may be the same as that for pedestals. The pilasters employed in attics are sometimes plain, and at other times panelled; they have no diminution, nor any regular base and capital. Attics are much used by the moderns, particularly by Italian architects; and when applied to modern houses, they have frequently windows in the podium or dado. Amongst the best examples of the use of the attic in modern public buildings, may be adduced Somerset House, in the view towards the street. ATTIC BASE, is that which consists of an upper and lower torus, a scotia, and fillets between them. It is described by Vitruvius as follows:-" The bases are fixed in their places, and so proportioned, that, including their plinth, they have in height half the thickness of the column; and in projection what the Greeks call E~cKopav, ekphoran, a quarter: so that the breadth and length will be once and a half the thickness of the column. Their height, if they are to be attic, must be so divided, that the upper part is one-third of the thickness of the column, and the remainder is left for the plinth. The plinth being excluded, the remaining part is divided into four equal parts, and the upper torus has one-fourth: the remaining three are equally halved: one-half makes the lower torus, and the other the scotia, which the Greeks call rpoxtXov, trochilon, with its squares." __ I I AUG 19 AXI G 19 A In many examples, both Grecian and Roman, the fillet over the trochilus projects as far as the most prominent part of the upper torus, and leaves a deep recess between the upper surface of the fillet and lower side of the torus. This base seems to be as much a favourite of the moderns as it was of the ancients. ATTIC DOOR. See DooR. ATTIC ORDER, a term improperly used to denote the pilasters which are fiequently employed in the decoration of an attic. ATTIC STORY, a term frequently applied to an upper story of a house. ATTITUDE, in painting and sculpture, the posture or action in which a figure or statue is placed. ATTRIBUTES, in painting and sculpture, are symbols given to figures. AUDITORY, in ancient churches, the nave, where the people stood to be instructed in the gospel. AUGER, a carpenter's and joiner's tool, for boring large holes with, and formed of a wooden handle, and iron spindle, terminated at the bottom with steel. The modern augers are pointed and sharpened like a centre-bit, the extremity of one of the edges being made to cut the wood clean at the circumference, and the other to cut and take away the core, the whole length of the radius. AULA, a court or hall in the ancient Roman houses. AXE, a tool with a long wooden handle, and a cutting edge in a plane passing longitudinally through the handle. Its use is for hewing timber, by cutting it vertically: the adze being employed in forming horizontal surfaces. The axe differs from the hatchet in being much larger, and by its being used with both hands; while the hatchet is used with one hand only. Axes are also used by stone-cutters and bricklayers, the particular forms of which depend upon the quality of the materials. See TooLs. AXIS, of a rotative figure, is the straight line passing through the centres of the circular sections at right angles to them. In a sphere, any right line passing through its centre may be the axis. B. BAB BABEL, a city and tower built by Noah's posterity in the plain of Shinar. Its precise situation is not ascertained. It was however within the province of Shinar, and, probably, the ancient Babylon was but an enlargement of it. Its situation is supposed to have been on the north-west of Bagdad, on an extensive plain, between the Euphrates and the Tigris; as an extensive, insulated, shapeless heap of ruins is there to be seen, called the tower of Nimrod. In sacred Scripture we are informed, that the materials of which this to'wr was constructed were burnt brick, and slime for mortar. The slime was of a pitchy substance, similar probably to bitumen. See ARCHITECTURE. BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. In commencing this article, we must premise that we cannot pretend to any detailed description, as the materials for such an undertaking are almost entirely wanting. An account of this style of architecture must needs be very imperfect, when the very situation of the ancient Babylon remains uncertain. This once vast city, the metropolis of one of the great empires of the world, is now but one mass of undistinguishable ruins. Owing to the interest belonging to so ancient and powerful an empire, much pains have been taken in the examination of the remains of the city, but so great is the confusion, that it has hitherto baffled the exertions of travellers to determine with certainty the situation and extent of any of the buildings mentioned by ancient authors: among the more successful of our modern travellers, we may especially mention the names of Rich and Ker Porter; and among the ancients, those of Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus. We shall proceed to give an account of the city as described by the latter class of writers. Herodotus in his usual circumstantial manner, gives us a very exact and lengthened description. According to his account, the city was of a quadrangular form, four hundred and eighty stadia in circuit, divided into two districts by the river Euphrates: it was defended on all four sides by a deep trench and wall, of which the following is the method of construction. In the first place, the earth was excavated to form the trench, and, as it was dug up, was carried in BAB masses of convenient size for bricks to the furnace, and there burnt; when this process was complete, the bricks were employed in lining the sides of the ditch, and erecting the superincumbent wall: the work was cemented together by bitumen, and bonded at every thirtieth course by layers of reeds. The wall on each side was a hundred and twenty stadia in length, fifty royal cubits in thickness, and two hundred in height; on the top, and on each Side of it, was i erected a row of houses of one story in height, facing each other, and leaving a space or roadway betwel6n then, wide enough to allow four horses to be driven along it abreast. Where the outer walls met the river, a return wall was carried along each opposite bank to fortify the city against attacks from this quarter, and behind this again another, but of smaller dimensions. In the four walls surrounding the city, were a hundred apertures or entrances closed by means of brazen gates, from each of which was continued a street to the corresponding ones on the opposite: side, intersecting the roads which led from the transverse walls at right angles. Where the streets met the return wall along the banks, an opening was made down to the river, provided with brazen gates. The city was filled with houses of three and four stories in height; and among the most remarkable buildings, were the temple of Belus and the palace, one in each of the principal divisions on either side of the Euphrates. The former is a very remarkable building on account of its supposed connection with the 1 tower of Babel mentioned in the Mosaical account of the colonization of the earth. Iterodotus gives the following description:-The tower was of a square plan, surrounded by a wall of similar form, having each-of its sides two stadia in length; the sides of the structure itself were only half this length, or one stadium. Our author does not give the height, but he states that the tower consisted of eight tiers, which gave to it the appearance of being composed of eight towers, placed one above the other; but this-in reality was not -the case; such resemblance being occasioned by an inclined platform winding round outside the building, and thereby making eight revolutions: this platform formed the only means of ascent. About halfway up the incline, was - - ~ 1. I. 'BAB 20 BAB BAB 20 DAB; iesting-place, and at the highest extremity a large temple &edicated to the god Bel, or perhaps Baal: there was another chapel in this building, containing an image of the god, of which we have no particular description. Our historian further relates, that Nitocris having temporarily diverted the waters of the Euphiates by a course outside the city, embanked a part of the river, and made a descent into it from each of the gates in the return wall. This embankment was constructed of baked bricks in the sanle manner as the walls; a different material, however, aus used by this queen in the construction of a stone bridge, or perhaps we should more correctly say piers of a bridge, as the roadway was formed of horizontal timbers, laid, as seems probable, from pier to pier. The beams were taken up at night, thus forming a kind of draw-bridge. In the?iers, hewn stones were employed, which were securely connected together with iron and lead. Another remarkable work of this reign, was the erection of a building over the principal gates, to be used as a place of sepulture. Thus far Herodotus; later authors differ from him in several particulars, still however preserving the same general account. Diodorus considerably diminishes the size of the outer wall, both in length and height, but the difference in the latter is easily accounted for, as he relates their condition as they appeared after the time of Darius IIystaspes, who reduced the height to fifty cubits. Strabo also gives the circuit of the wall at three hundred and eighty-five stadia. Diodorus further makes mention of two palaces, one on each side of the river, and connected by means of a bridge above and a tunnel below; he gives the circuit of the new palace as sixty stadia, that of the old thirty stadia; the new palace was surrounded by circular walls, enriched with decorations of sculptured animals, painted in colours on the bricks, and afterwards burnt in. The connecting tunnel our author states to have been vaulted, being twelve feet in height, and fifteen broad. This palace also contained the hanging gardens said to have been built by Nebuchadnezzar fofl his wife the Median Amytis. The gardens, occupying a space of ground four hundred feet square, consisted of terraces built one above the other until they reached a height equal to that of the outer walls of the city; the terraces being supported on piers and arches, as stated by Strabo, over which were laid large flat stones, sixteen feet long by four in breadth, and above those a layer of reeds mixed with bitumen, covered with two courses of bricks in cement. The extreme covering consisted of thick sheets of lead, on which was placed the mould for the garden. The spaces between the terraces were formed into magnificent apartments, and on the highest terrace was a pump, by means of which a supply of water was raised from the Euphrates to irrigate the gardens. The ascent to the top was by steps ten feet in width. Strabo gives us one additional particular respecting the tower belonging to the temple of. Belus, namely, the height, which he states to be one furlong; according to Wesseling's reading, however, this particular is given by Herodotus. Such is the description afforded by the ancients; let us now turn to the investigations on this subject by modern travellers, and in doing so we shall take the liberty of laying before our readers the account given by Mr. Rich, who has examined the ruins of this city with perhaps greater care than any other person. We must premise, that the site of the ancient city is a matter of dispute, but is allowed to be situate somewhere in the neighbourhood of Hillah and Mohawill. This position has been determined upon on account 6f the mounds and heps of ruins which are found dispersed about this quarter, on or near the banks of the Euphrates. "The ruins of the eastern qifrter," says Mr. Rich, "commence about two miles above Hillah, and consist of two large masses or mounds connected with and lying north and south of each other, and several smaller ones which cross the plain at different entervals. These ruins are terminated on the north by the remains of a very extensive building called the Mujelibe, from the south-east angle of which proceeds a narrow ridge or mound of earth wearing the appearance of having been a boundary wall. This ridge forms a kind of circular enclosure, and joins the south-east point of the most southerly of the two grand masses. The river-bank, on the south-west of the tomb of Amram, is skirted by a ruin extending nearly eight hundred yards; it is for three hundred yards forty feet perpendicular; a little above this is a piece of ground formerly the bed of a river; here earthen vases with bones were found. From the east angle of the ruin on the river bank, commences another mound similar to that first mentioned, but broader and flatter; this mound is the most southerly of all the ruins. "On taking a view of the ruins from south to north, the first object that attracts attention is the low mound connected with the ruin on the south-west of the tomb of Amram: on it are two small walls close together, and only a few feet in height and breadth. This ruin, which is called Jumjuma, and formed part of a Mohammedan oratory, gives its name to a village a little to the left of it. To this succeeds the first grand mass of ruins, which is 1100 yards in length, and 800 in its greatest breadth; its figure nearly resembles that of a quadrant; its height is irregular; but the most elevated part may be about fifty or sixty feet above the level of the plain, and it has been dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks. Just below the highest part of it is a small dome in an oblong enclosure distinguished by the name of Amran Ibn Ali. On the north is a valley of 550 yards in length, the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass, and crossed by a line of ruins of very little elevation. To this succeeds the second grand mass of ruins, the shape of which is nearly a square of 700 yards length and breadth, and its south-west angle is connected with the north-west angle of the mounds of Amran by a ridge of considerable height, and nearly 100 yards in breadth. "Not more than 200 yards from the northern extremity of this mound is a ravine, hollowed out by those who dig for bricks, in length 100 yards, and 10 feet wide by 40 or 50 deep. On one side of it a few yards of wall remain standing, the face of which is very clean and perfect, and appears to have been the front of some building. Under the foundations, at the southern end, an opening is made, which discovers a subterranean passage, floored and walled with large bricks laid in bitumen, and covered over with pieces of sandstone a yard thick and several yards long; the weight above has been so great as to have given a considerable degree of obliquity to the side-walls of the passage; the opening is nearly seven feet in height, and its course is to the south. The superstructure over the passage is cemented with bitumen, other parts of the ravine with mortar, and the bricks have all writing upon them." The souterrain widens considerably as you proceed farther. This passage seems to form part of the kasr, or palace, and may have been perhaps the tunnel alluded to by ancient authors. The principal portion of this ruin, to which alone the term kasr is applied at present by the natives, is situate a little to the west of the ravine, and presents a remarkably fresh appearance, insomuch so, that Mr. Rich was not willing, until after a very close inspection, to allow its claims to being considered an original Babylonian remain. "It consists," says he, "of momi6-6-02 - _~ am " B. A.B, 21 B.. BA: B El BAB 21.1U _ several walls and piers, which face the cardinal points, eight feet in thickness; in some places ornamented with niches, and in others strengthened by pilasters and buttresses, built of fine burnt brick still perfectly clean and sharp, laid in lime cement, of such tenacity that it is almost impossible to extract a brick whole. The tops of these walls are broken, and may have been much higher; on the outside they have in some places been cleared nearly to the foundations; but the internal spaces formed by them are yet filled with rubbish, in some parts almost to the summit. One part of the wall has been split into three parts, and overthrown as if by an earthquake; some detached walls of the same kind, standing at different distances, show what remains to have been only a small part of the original fabric; indeed, it appears that the passage in the ravine, together with a wall which crosses its upper end, were connected with it. "A mile to the north of the kasr, or palace, five miles from Hillah, and 950 yards from the river-bank, is a ruin called the AfujelibQ, meaning the overturned; its shape is oblong, and its height, as well as the measurements of its sides, irregular. The sides face the cardinal points; the northern is 200, the southern 219, the eastern 182, and the western 186 yards in length; and the elevation of the south-east, or highest angle, is 141 feet. The western face, which is the least elevated, is the most interesting, on account of the appearance of building it presents. Near the summit of it appears a low wall, with interruptions, built of unburnt bricks mixed up with chopped straw, or reeds, and cemented with clay-mortar of great thickness, having between every layer a layer of reeds; and on the north side are also some vestiges of a similar construction. The south-west angle is crowned by something like a turret, or lantern: the other angles are in a less perfect state, but may originally have been ornamented in a similar manner. The western face is lowest and easiest of ascent; the northern the most difficult. All are worn into furrows by the weather; and in some places, where several streams of rainwater have united together, these furrows are of great depth, and penetrate a considerable way into the mound. The summit is covered with heaps of rubbish, in digging into some of which, layers of broken burnt brick, cemented with mortar, were discovered, and whole bricks with inscriptions are sometimes found. The whole is covered with innumerable fragments of pottery, brick, bitumen, pebbles, vitrified brick, or scoria, and even shells, bits of glass and mother-of-pearl. In the northern face of the Mujelibe, near the summit, is a niche, or recess, high enough for a man to stand upright in, at the back of which is a low aperture leading to a small cavity; whence a passage branches off to the right, sloping upwards in a westerly direction till it loses itself in the rubbish." Receiving intimation that human remains had been discovered near this spot, our traveller commenced a strict investigation, and after excavating to some depth through a hollow pier, formed of fine bricks laid in bitumen, and in size sixty feet square, he met with several antiques, amongst which were a number of earthen vessels, some thin and highly glazed. Prosecuting his labours still further, another passage was laid open; this cavity was narrow, about ten feet high, composed of both burnt and unburnt bricks, the latter with a layer of reeds between every course, except the two lowest, where they were laid in bitumen. In this passage Mr. Rich discovered a wooden coffin containing human remains, which presented the appearance of being of great antiquity. To the north and west of this mass of ruins, and at about 70 yards distant from it, runs a low mound, which may have formed an enclosure round the whole. The~ only ruin of any' consequence to be found on the western side of the Euphrates is that which is termed by the' Arabs the Birs Nemroud, and by the Jews Nebuchadnezzar's Prison; it is situate about six miles to the southwest of Hillah, and is perhaps the most remarkable of all the ruins. Mr. Rich gives us the following description: —. "The Birs Nemroud is a mound of an oblong form, the total circumference of which is 762 yards. At the eastern side it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than fifty or sixty feet high; but at the western side it rises in a conical figure to the elevation of 198 feet, and on its summit is a solid pile of brick, thirty-seven feet high by twenty-eight in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, which is broken and irregular, and rent by a large fissure extending through a third of its height. It is perforated by small square holes disposed in rhomboids. The fine burnt bricks of which it is built have inscriptions on them; and so excellent is the cement, which appears to be lime-mortar, that it is nearly impossible to extract one whole. The other parts of the summit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of brickwork of no determinate figure, tumbled together and converted into solid vitrified masses, the layers of brick being perfectly discernible. These ruins stand on a pro. digious mound, the whole of which is itself a ruin, channelled by the weather, and strewed with fragments of black stone, sandstone, and marble. In the eastern part, layers of unburnt brick, but no reeds, are to be seen. In the north side may be seen traces of building exactly similar to the brick pile. At the foot of the mound a step may be traced scarcely elevated above the plain, exceeding in extent, by several feet each way, the true or measured base; and there is a quadrangular enclosure round the whole, as at the Mujelibe, but much more perfect, and of greater dimensions. At a trifling distance, and parallel with its eastern face, is a mound not inferior to that of the kasr in elevation, but much longer than broad; on the top of it are two koubbes, or oratories: round the Birs are traces of ruins to a considerable extent." Having thus given a description of the ruins as they now exist, it remains to determine the identity between them, and the buildings mentioned by ancient authors. On this subject great differences of opinion exist; the chief difficulty arising from the almost entire absence of any vestiges of building on the western side of the Euphrates: this it has been attempted to obviate in various ways. Major Renneli, the author of a " Geography of Herodotus," is of opinion that the river has left its original bed, and formed a new channel for itself, which, he says, is a common occurrence in alluvial tracts of land, such as that upon which Babylon was situate; he supposes the ancient course of the river to have been between the Kasr and Mujelibe. In favour of this supposition, he quotes the words of Mr. Rich, where he says that the valley on the north of the Amran Ibn Ali is covered with tussocks of rank grass;-this, Major Rennell conjectures to have been the bed of the river. In opposition to this opinion, Mr. Rich states, that there are no sufficient grounds for supposing the river to have taken this course, but rather that the buildings seem entirely to preclude such idea; besides, he adds, every occasion was made use of to prevent the alteration in the course of the Euphrates in this neighbourhood; the possibility of such an occurrence was obviated by the artificial canals and cuts which were so numerous in this part of the country. lie further accounts for the existence of the tussocks of rank grass, by the circumstance of the river occasionally overflowing its banks, and on its subsidence, leaving some portion of its waters in the hollows; this appears, we must confess, in some degree to f ii 1: I ~_C_ -- I BAB 22 BAB J3AB 22 BAB invalidate his former argument; it does seem, however, somewhat premature to suggest any material alteration in the course of the Euphrates, if difficulties can be accounted for by any other method; if any alteration is allowed to have taken place, it seems more reasonable to suppose the original course to have been through the ravine to the west of the ruins, especially as a number of bones have been found at this spot. The difficulty respecting the position of the river, however, is principally owing to Major Rennell's considerably contracting the dimensions of the city: he considers the statements of ancient authors respecting its magnitude as merely fabulous; but seemingly without any other reason than their improbability, or rather inaptitude, to our present notions of a city. If, however, present experience were to be universally applied, we should, with equal justice, deny the existence of many erections of which we have ocular demonstration, for instance, of the Pyramids and Sphinxes of Egypt. It is true that the circuit of Babylon, as given by ancient authors, is immense, but it is not entirely unaccounted for; for Quintus Curtius tells us, that nearly one-half of the city was occupied in gardens and other cultivated lands, and not, as modern cities, composed almost entirely of houses. Internal evidence also respecting the truth of his statement, is furnished by Herodotus, when he relates that, at the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, the inhabitants of the interior parts were not aware of what was taking place until some time after the circumstances occurred. If we allow the account of the ancients to be correct in this respect-and indeed we see little reason to the contrary-our difficulty in determining the localities of the ancient city will be considerably diminished; as we shall then be able to discover at least some remains on both sides the Euphrates, though not so great a number on the western side as we may have been led to expect. Another mistake which, in our opinion, Major Rennell has been led to make, is the determining, at the very commencement of his inquiry, the site of the temple of Belus. Whether the position he has assigned it be the correct one, is another question; all that we suggest at present is, that such allocation is, in this case, premature; it at once puts a limit to free inquiry, as it determines what must be. the relative position of every other edifice. Mr. Rich, on the other hand, commencing the subject entirely afresh, and taking a more comprehensive view of the matter, arrives at a different conclusion; he gives it as his opinion that the Birs Nemroud has the better claims to be considered as the ancient tower. In favour of this opinion it may be observed, that it would at once obviate the difficulty we have in reconciling the statement of the ancients, respecting the location of the palace and temple of Belus on opposite sides of the river, with the discoveries of the moderns. But, it may be objected, Herodotus states that these edifices were in the centre of either division of the city: now the word used by that author is Iv FpLw, which, we think, may be translated literally enough by in the midst, or even by the preposition within, and certainly more correctly so than by in the centre. Should, however, any objection be made to this translation, we would argue that in so large a space, our author may be allowed a little latitude in cursorily describing the position of principal buildings in the plan of so vast a city. Moreover, we have further evidence in favour of this assumption, in the remarkable similarity of the remains to the descriptions we have of the old edifice. Before proceeding further, we may as well get rid of one objection which may be urged in opposition to the statements we are about to make: the plan of the remains is an oblong, and not a square, as stated by Herodotus; now, we must remind our readers that, although the more common reading states the building to have been of a square plan, yet that this reading has been with good reason objected to, and has been altered by Wesseling in his edition; we do not think, therefore, that this objection ought to have much weight. To return:-The ruins present the appearance of a building of 762 yards periphery, surrounded by an outer wall; the present height of the building is 235 feet, in which space Mr. Rich discovered traces of three different stages, similar to those described by Herodotus; and Mr. Buckingham, a later traveller, in the same space, thinks four stages clearly discernible. Now, if we add the same height for other four stages to complete the number of eight as given by Herodotus, we shall find the total height of the building equal to 470 feet, or about a stadium, the height given by the ancients. This we think amounts to almost conclusive evidence for the supposition of Mr. Rich; further, however, the appearance of the kasr answers very well to the description of the ancient palace, and one part is especially to be noted for its resemblance to the hanging-gardens: the hollow shaft mentioned amnongst the discoveries of Mr. Rich, is very similar to the hollow piers supporting the terraces as described by Strabo. The author, from whose narrative we have so copiously extracted, supposes the whole of that mass of ruins on the eastern bank of the river, enclosed by circular walls, to have formed a part of the ancient palace, for, says he, it is manifest that the palace was not merely a single edifice, but consisted of a number of buildings, surrounded probably by an outer wall; and this supposition appears very probable, especially as it related that the hanging-gardens were within its precincts. Major Rennell, however, while he assigns the kasr especially to the palace, and the Mujelibe to the temple of Belus, considers the circular rampart which encloses them as an erection of modern date. In opposition to this notion, Mr. Rich suggests that we have no accounts of any later erection on this spot, whereas Diodorus expressly states that the palace was surrounded by circular walls. Besides this, he brings forward what he considers a convincing proof of its antiquity, which is this-that wherever bricks engraved with the arrow-headed characters are here found, they are all placed with the engraved sides downwards. This circumstance he considers sufficient evidence of the walls having been erected at a very early period; for during his extensive researches, he observed that in the old buildings the bricks were invariably laid in this particular position; in later erections, where the old materials had been made use of, this peculiarity had not been attended to. The question respecting the identification of the remains with the ancient buildings, has elicited considerable information on the subject, and has been very ably treated by many learned men. A variety of opinions has arisen in consequence of the difficulties with which the subject is attended, none of which, however, have been broached without good reason: we are inclined to give the preference to Mr. Rich's suggestions, but at the same time we must confess that the other views taken of this case are worthy of most careful consideration. We have extended the present article to so great a length, on account of the interest which must necessarily appertain to a-style of building of such early date. Much as the originality of the various modes of architecture has been discussed, and although many weighty reasons have been alleged in proof of the superior antiquity of some few of the other styles, of, for instance, the Cyclopean, the Egyptian, and the Indian; yet it seems to us that the Babylonian has a greater claim to originality than any other. As far as we can discover from historical records, it is very evident that the first great empire established in the world was that of Babylon. The ~ __ __ _ ___ BAB 23 BAB B2B account given in the sacred history, and which is confirmed, as far as may be, by all other historical records, tells us that the first great kingdom was founded, and the first city built, by Nimrod, a name which has been preserved by tradition even up to the present time, and is still held in especial reverence; thus proving, at least, the existence of such a person, and his pre-eminent usefulness to the city and people of Babylon. It may be said, we are well aware, that this is mlere tradition; yet we cannot allow that tradition, even when it appears in its most absurd colouring, is entirely to be despised: we cannot account for the promulgation of any legend that has absolutely no origin, such an idea is indeed absurd; every traditional story must have some real, tangible source, and reality cannot but be truth; such stories may have been embellished, or, if you please, disfigured by fiction, but they must have their foundation at least in fact. Many persons, we know, are very unwilling to assign much credit to the Mosaical narrative; but we think we are fully entitled to claim for it equal authority with that of most of the other historians who make any reference to the occurrences of so early a date, especially as its author is allowed to be the earliest historian, and for this reason must have lived closer to, and have been, we should suppose, more competent to relate the occurrences of, the times to which he refers. Claiming so much authority, then, for our author, we would beg our readers to allow a fair modicum of credit for his sketch of the early history of Babylon; we say sketch, for it has no higher pretensions, nor could we naturally expect any detailed history from an historian living eight hundred years posterior to the period whose history he is relating. We may here apply a very sensible remark made by Rollin;n speaking of the history of this empire: "where," he says, " certainty is not to be.had, I suppose a reasonable person will be satisfied with probability." It is true that Moses does not expressly state that Babylon was the first city, but we have every reason short of certainty to believe that he intended to imply as much. In giving the genealogy of Noah's descendants, he stops at the name of Nimrod, to tell us that " he began to be a mighty one in the earth;" which expression, if it does not indeed say in so many words that he was the first one who obtained superiority, may, at least, when taken in connection with all other attendant circumstances, imply quite as much; and it is further told us, that "the beginning of his kingdom was Babel." Further on in the narrative, we are told where and what this Babel was, as well as when its erection took place, namely, in the time of Peleg, the fifth from Noah, probably at some particular period of his life; perhaps shortly after his birth-for, " in his days was the earth divided:" the causes of this division, and the particulars of the building of Babel, are related as follows: "The whole earth was of one language, and of one speech; and it came to pass, as they journeyed from the cast, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there. And they said, Go to, let us build us a city, and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the city; therefore is the name of it called Babel." To any one reading this account, there can, we think, be little doubt, that it was the writer's intention to signify, that Babel was the first permanent erection of any significance, that it was the joint erection of all men then in existence, and also that it was the origin of the city afterwards known by the name of Babylon. It now rests with us to shew the identity of the existing remains, and of the city erected by Nimrod, and in this case again we must rest content with probability. Now it seems universally allowed that some part of the mounds are identical with the ruins described by Herodotus; how large a portion this may be we do not pretend to assert, but we have already stated that Mr. Rich includes a large proportion of the existing remains. We have only in continuation to give our reasons for considering the buildings described by Herodotus as identical with those referred to by Moses. In the first place, then, the former writer seems to speak of Babylon as a very ancient city in his time, and mentions it is a remarkable occurrence that the tower of Belus was then standing; he speaks of a long line of kings, and relates that Semiramis made some improvements in the city, thus implying that the city had been erected some considerable period before her reign. This queen is supposed to have lived from twelve hundred to two thousand years before our era, thus bringing the erection of the city close upon that of Babel, as recorded in the Scriptures. Another proof of identity is seen in the nature of the materials used in the buildings, and in the manner of their erection, and in these matters the two accounts perfectly coincide. Moses, in that part of his narrative already quoted, says,-" And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly; and they had brick for stone, and slime (bitumen) had they for mortar." The account of Herodotus, although of a more detailed description, agrees in every particular with that just given; —we need not refer to it here, as it has already been given in full. Again, is there not every reason to believe that the tower of Babel and that of Belus are one and the same edifice? Herodotus evidently looks upon the tower as of very remote origin, as the oldest building in Babylon; indeed, it seems to be a building remarkable on many accounts, standing out distinct from all surrounding edifices, as well by its great height, as by its unusual construction; it is apparently looked upon by all those who have seen it with a kind of awe, as though its erection, and every other thing connected with it, was entirely beyond their comprehension. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, we venture to assert there will be considered sufficient evidence to satisfy any reasonable person of at least the probable identity between the buildings referred to in the Mosaical narrative, and the ruins now in existence, as described by recent travellers. The remains of this great city do not afford us an opportunity of stating, with any preciseness, the style, so to speak, adopted in its architecture. The buildings generally are rude, and show but little evidence of constructive science; they are of gigantic proportions, and very massive, on which quality they rely chiefly for their strength; their construction is indicative of greater antiquity than that of the Indian or Egyptian styles, for, whereas, in the latter, we find detached columns, in the Babylonian we see no traces of them; i ndeed, the construction is altogether much heavier and of more barbarous appearance. The edifices were almost universally composed of bricks, of which there were various qualities, some dried in the sun, others baked in a kiln; there was also a finer sort, the clay of which, previous to being burned, was mixed up with chopped straw or reeds, and these I I I I I 1I1 I I I -- B AB 24 BA'D BA 24__ BAD____ I_ last seem to have been used for facing walls built of the commoner sort of brick; there is one peculiarity about them, however, which may not be overlooked, and this is the indentation on their surface of certain marks arranged ih parallel' lines, termed arrow or nail-headed characters. These marks are supposed to represent letters, or words; but, although much learned labour has been given to the task, their signification has not been discovered, nor, indeed, the method of deciphering them determined upon: similar inscriptions have been found at Persepolis and Susa, also on some rocks near Argish, in Armenia, and sometimes, but very rarely, in Egypt. To return:-The bricks were cemented together with hot bitumen, but were sometimes laid in. clay, and at others in lime-mortar, and bonded.together by straw, or reeds. The walls, as we have previously mentioned, were of great thickness, strengthened at intervals by pilasters, or buttresses. which.were sometimes adorned with niches. Columns were not made use of, the nearest approach to the idea being found in the large hollow piers which supported the hanginggardens. The principle of the arch does not seem to have been understood, although some authors have stated a contrary opinion; no examples of its application have been found, and the fact of inconveniently large masses of sandstone having been made use of in places where the arch would have been most applicable, as in the case of the passage described by Mr. Rich, is, we think, a conclusive argument that the principle was not known.. (For further information on this subject we refer to the article on ARCH.) The working of metals seems to have been in extensive practice, as Herodotus tells us that all the gates were made of brass. Although externally their buildings were of this rude description, the Babylonians evinced some taste' in the interior decorations. Among other modes of ornamentation, they made use of coloured bricks. These bricks were painted while in a moist state, and the colours afterwards burnt in; the subjects represented were usually animals, standing out in relief from the general surface, and richly painted in their natural colours. Statues likewise formed a very usual mode of decoration We have now only to notice that peculiar building, the Birs Nemroud, of which we have elsewhere given a description; it will, therefore, be unnecessary to enter into detail here; we would only beg of our readers to notice its peculiar form, that of a pyramid, and remark, that if this tower be allowed to be the first erection of importance, it will very readily account for the circumstance of that form being so universal in other styles of very early date. This kind of erection is found, not only in Egyptian and Indian architecture, but also in other styles, whose connection with the Babylonian is not so easily accounted for; and Humboldt, in speaking of a pyramidal mass of ancient Mexico, says,-" It is impossible to read the descriptions which Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus have left us of the temple of Jupiter Belus, without being struck with the resemblance of that Babylonian monument to the teocallis of Anahuac." It is true that the pyramidal is that form which would most naturally suggest itself to men unacquainted with the contrivances of art, but we venture to think, that the suggestion we have above thrown out, is not entirely unworthy of the attention and consideration of the curious. Having at length arrived at the conclusion of this article, we would apologize for having extended it to a length which some may be inclined to think unreasonable; when, however, the interest attaching to such ancient remains, and the comparatively slight attention the subject has hitherto obtained, are considered, we feel confident of receiving the pardon of our readers. BACK, the side opposite to the face, or breast. In a recess, upon a quadrangular plan, the face is that surface from which the recess is made: therefore the back is the surface which has the two adjacent planes, called the sides, elbows, or gables. When a piece of timber is fixed in a level or inclined position, the upper side is called the back, and the lower, the breast: thus the upper side of the handrail of a stair is called the back. The same is to be understood with regard to the curved ribs of ceilings, and the rafters of a roof: their upper edges are always called the backs. BACK OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY. BACK.OF A HAND-RAIL, is the upper side of it. Its formation is shown under the articles STAIRS and HANDRAILING. BACK OF A HIP-RAFTER. See HIP-ROOF. BACK LINING OF A SASH-FRAME. See SASH-FRAME. BACK OF A RAFTER, is the upper side of it, in the sloping plane of the one side of a roof. The manner of forming the back is shown under RAFTER. See also ROOF, in CARPENTRY. BACK-SHUTTERS, or BACK-FLAPS, are additional breadths hinged to the front shutters, necessary in closing the aperture completely, when the window is required to be shut. When the aperture is open, or when light is required, the backshutters are concealed in the boxing by the front-shutters. Back-shutters are generally made thinner than front-shutters, and framed with bead and butt. BACK OF A STONE, the side opposite to the face, which is generally rough. BACK OF A WINDOW, in joinery, is the board, or wainscoting, between the sash-frame and the floor, joining upon the two elbows, and forming a part of the finish of the room in which it is placed. It is in general parallel to the face of the wall, or to the glass, or sash-frame, and, when framed, it has commonly asingle pane] with mouldings on the framing, corresponding to the doors, shutters, elbows, soffits, &c., in the same apartment in which it is placed. The framing of the back and the skirting are generally in the same plane, or flush, and the upper edge of the skirting is wrought with a bead, which conceals the joint between the lower edge of the rail, and the upper edge of the skirting below it. The top edge of the upper rail is generally capped with a slip of timber, level on the top, beaded on the front edge, and tongued into the sash-frame. The capping bead is returned upon the two elbows, and has the most prominent part of the convexity flush with the framing of the elbows, as well as that of the back. Framed backs and elbows for good houses are generally finished at one and one-eighth inch thick. BACKING OF A RAFTER, or RIB, the formation of an upper or outer surface, so as to range with the edges of the ribs or rafters, on either side of it. See also RANGING, or EDGING. The formation of the inner edges of the ribs for lath-andplaster ceiling, is sometimes improperly called backing. BACKING OF A WALL, is the building which forms the inner face of the wall, or, the act of building the inner face. This term is opposed to facing, which is the outside of the wall. In stone walls the backing is generally rubble, though the facing be ashlar. BADIGEON, a mixture of plaster and free-stone, well sifted, and ground together: it is used by statuaries to fill up the small holes, and repair the defects in stones of which their work is made. The term is also used by joiners, for a composition of saw-dust and strong glue, with which the chasms of their work are filled. Joihers likewise use for this purpose, a mixture of whiting and glue. When this is used, the filling-in should' remain till quite hard, otherwise,;.. --- -- JA - - - - - - I 6 7,,,, Y:,...7y 9wo 7 Q Ziri o 11. a * 0 0 0a:::a 0: I _ __ _ __ BAL 25 BAL BAL 25 BAL when it is plained or smoothed off, it will shrink below the surface. BAGNIO, a bath. The word is applied by us to houses which have conveniences for bathing, sweating, and otherwise cleansing the body. Bagnio, in Turkey, is a general name for the prisons where their slaves are kept. So called from the baths they contain. BAGUETrE, a small astragal moulding, sometimes carved and enriched with pearls, ribbands, laurels. &c. When the baguette is enriched, it is called chaplet, and when unornamented, bead. BALBEC, or BAALBEC, a famous city of Syria, belebrated by the Greeks and Latins under the name of Heliopolis, the city of the sun, or Baal. It was surrounded with walls, which were flanked with towers at regular intervals. The principal remains consist of the great temple, a smaller one, called by Mr. Wood the most entire temple, a circular temple of a singular construction, and a DoEic column standing alone. The longitudinal direction of tlgreat and most entire temples is east and west. Before the entry to the great temple are two courts and a portico, which face eastwards. After passing the portico, we come to an hexagonal court, surrounded with columns and apartments; we thence enter a quadrangular court, the area of which is also surrounded with columns: on the north or south side of this courlt are seven apartments, or exhedre; five are rectangular (,n the plan, one stands in the middle, having a semicircular cxhedra on each side of it. These were probably lodging rooms for the priests. At the other extremity of this court, upon the south, are columns of a colossal magnitude, being the remains of the peristyle of the temple. The shafts are twenty-one feet eight inches in circumference; and the entire height of the columns fifty-eight feet. The columns are all joined with iron cramps, and without cement, which is nowhere used in these edifices, but the surfaces are so close that there is hardly room for the blade of a knife to be inserted between them. The stones which compose the sloping wall are of enormous size. On the west the second course is of stones from twenty-eight to thirtyfive feet long, and nine feet in height: and at the north angle, over this course, are three stones, which occupy one hundred and seventy-five feet seven inches. The shafts of the columns of the great temple consist each of three pieces which are joined with iron pins about one foot long, and one foot diameter. Most of the bases had two sockets, one circular, and the other square. Greek and Roman authors are entirely silent as to these astonishing ruins.-(Ruins of Balbec, by Wood and Dawkins.) BALCONY, (from the French balcon,) an open gallery projecting from the front of a building, surrounded with a rail or balustrade, of various devices, and supported by cantalivers, brackets, or columns. It is made of wood, stone, sometimes of cast-iron, and sometimes also of bar-iron fashioned into crail-work, of various fanciful figures. Balconies are generally made on a level with the sills of the windows of the first floor; sometimes every window in the range has a separate balcony, each of which is convex to the street. When there is but one, it is generally placed in the middle of the length of the fiont, or extends the whole length of the front. Sometimes a portico or porch is surmounted with a balcony; in this case the balustrade may be of stone, as well as of iron, or wood. When balconies are used, the windows are generally brought down to the floor, without adding any additional breadth to the aperture. See BALUSTRADE. BALDACHIN, (from the Italian baldacchino,) a piece of architecture in the form of a canopy, supported with columns, 4 and serving as a covering to an altar. The baldachin supplanted the ciboreum, which was of the same nature; but whereas the former was a canopy, the latter was in form similar to the monoptral temple described by Vitruvius. The baldachin in St. Peter's at Rome is of bronze, and was made by Bernini. The dais, or covering, is supported on four large twisted columns of the Composite order, on pedestals of black marble. Above the columns are four figures of angels; at the top of the covering there is a cross, and below the entablature the fringe of the banner-like cloth of the portable baldachin has been imitated. The height is 125 feet 3 inches from the floor of the church to the summit of the cross, and the whole work is in the highest degree elegant and graceful. BALECTION MOULDINGS. See BELECTION MOLLDINGS. BALKS, large pieces of timber brought from abroad in floats: their scantling being from five to twelve inches square. Balks, in some parts of England, are used for the summer-beams of a building, also for the poles or rafters laid over out-houses, or barns. BALLOON, (from the French ballon,) a crowning of a globular form, used by way of an acroter to a pediment, pillar, or the like. That on the top of St. Peter's at Rome is of brass, about eight feet diameter, and placed at the height of sixty-seven fathoms. BALL-FLOWER, an ornament resembling a ball placed in a circular flower, the three petals forming a cup round it; much used as an enrichment to mouldings, and otherwise in the decorated style of Gothic architecture. BALLIUM, the space immediately within the outer walls of an ancient castle. BALTHEI, bands, or girdles. This word is used by Vitruvius for some part of the Ionic volute. The balthei are supposed to be the mouldings which encompass the bolsters of the volutes. BALUSTER, sometimes corruptly called BANISTER, a small kind of column or pillar belonging to a BALUSTRADE, (which see.) The various forms of Balusters given in the accompanying plate, are selected chiefly from Sir William Chambers, who has appropriated some of them to the orders of architecture, as their names express. The two last, denominated Corinthian and Doric, were designed by Mr. Nicholson, and their curve is found by an algebraic equation as in OVAL. Their general form is graceful, and their elegance may be preserved in any proportion; thus, suppose it were wished to have a very slender baluster made from the very stout one, here called DoRIC; divide the length of the baluster required into ten equal parts, and the given baluster into the same number; draw lines on both, as ordinates; place the ordinates of the given baluster upon the respective lines of the one required, and through the extremities draw a curve, which will complete the baluster sought for. BALUSTERS OF THE IONIC CAPITAL, the two lateral parts contained between each front and rear volute, called by Vitruvius, pulvinata. BALUSTRADE, a range of small columns called balusters supporting a cornice, used as a parapet, or as a screen, to conceal the whole or a part of the roof. It is also sometimes used as a decoration for terminating the building. Balus trades are employed in parapets, on the margins of stairs, before windows, to enclose terraces, or balconies, by way of security, or sometimes to separate one place from another. In the theatres and amphitheatres of the Romans, the pedestals of the upper orders were always continued through the arcades, to serve as a parapet for the spectators to lean over; the lowermost seats next to the arena in the _ _~ BAN 26 BAP BAN 26 BAP amphitheatres, and those next to the orchestra in the theatres, were guarded by a parapet, or podium. The walls of ancient buildings generally terminated with the cornice itself, but often with a blocking course, or attic. In the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, the top is finished with finials composed of honeysuckles, solid behind, and open between each pair of finials; each plant or finial is bordered with a curved head, and the bottom of each interval with an inverted curve. Perhaps terminations of this nature might have been employed in many other Grecian buildings, as some coins seem to indicate; but this is the only example of the kind. The temples in Greece are mostly finished with the cornice itself; which was also the case with many of the Roman temples; and as there were no remains of balustrades in ancient buildings, their antiquity may be doubted: they are, however, represented in the works of the earliest Italian writers, who, perhaps, may have seen them in the ruins of Roman edifices. When a balustrade finishes a building, and crowns an order, its height should be proportioned to the architecture it accompanies, making it never more than four-fifths, nor less than two-thirds, of the height of the order, not reckoning the plinth on which it is raised; as the balustrade itself should be completely seen at a proper point of view. Balustrades designed for use should always be of the height of the parapet walls, as they answer the same purpose, being nothing else than an ornamented parapet; this height should not exceed three feet and a half, nor be less than three feet. In the balusters, the plinth of the base, the most prominent part of the swell, and the abacus of their capital, are generally in the same straight line: their distance should not exceed half the breadth of the abacus, or plinths, nor be less than one-third of this measure. On stairs, or inclined planes, the same proportions are to be observed as on horizontal ones. It was formerly customary to make the mouldings of the balusters follow the inclination of the plane; but this is difficult to execute, and, when done, not very pleasant to the eye; though in ornamental iron work, where it is confined to a general surface passing perpendicularly by the ends of the steps, it has a very handsome appearance. The breadth of pedestals, when placed Over an order, is regulated by the top of the shaft, the die being always equal thereto. When balustrades are placed upon the entablature of an order, over the intercolumns, or interpilasters, and the base and cornice of the balustrade continued, so as to break out and form pedestals over the columns, or pilasters, the breadth of the die of the pedestals should be equal to the breadth of the top of the shafts; and when there is no order, the breadth of the die never more than its height, and very seldom narrower: the dies of the pilasters may be flanked with half dies, particularly when the range of balusters is long. BAND, a narrow flat surface, having its face in a vertical plane, as the band of the Doric architrave, and the dentil band, which is the square out of which the dentils are cut. The word facia, or plat band, is generally applied to broad members, as the facia of an architrave; and band, to narrow ones wider than fillets. Band is also the cincture around the shaft of a rusticated column. BANDED COLUMN, is that which is encircled with bands, or annular rustics. BANDELET, or BAND, any flat moulding, or fillet. See BAND. BANKER, the stone-bench on which masons cut and square their work. BANQUETING-ROOM, an apartment for entertainment, used among the Romans in the latter ages of the empire. In ancient times they supped in the atrium of their houses, but in after-times, magnificent saloons, or banqueting-rooms, were built for the more commodious entertainment of their guests. Lucullus, we are informed by Plutarch, had several very grand banqueting-rooms, and the Emperor Claudius had a very elegant one, named Mercury; but everything of this kind was outdone by the lustre of the still more celebrated banqueting house of Nero, called domus a.rea, the house of gold, which, by the circular motion of its ceilings and partitions, imitated the revolution of the heavenly bodies, and represented the different seasons of the year, which changed at every service, and showered down flowers, essences, and perfumes on the guests. BAPTISTERY, (from 3pan-rto, to quash,) a building, or apartment, designed for the administration of baptism. In ancient times, baptism was performed by immersion, and the place for the purpose was a pond or stream; but about the middle of the third century, distinct or insulated houses were erected for the purpose. In 496, they were attached to the eerior sides of the church; and in the sixth century, they were brought within the church; but though there might have been two or more churches in one city, yet, in general, there was only one baptistery; and when it became fashionable to dedicate the churches, that to which the baptistery belonged was dedicated to St. John the Baptist. The baptismal churches in Italy were usually built near rivers and waters. In later times, the bishop of baptismal churches granted licenses to other churches to erect baptisteries, taking care at the same time to maintain his own jurisdiction over the people. The baptistery was an octagon building, covered with a cupola roof, adjacent to the church, but not forming a part of it. In the interior was a hall, sufficient to contain a great number of people, on the sides of which was a number of apartments; sometimes, instead of these apartments, rooms were added on the outside, in the manner of cloisters: in the middle of the hall was an octagon bath, which, strictly speaking, was the baptistery, and from which the whole building derived its appellation. The most celebrated baptisteries are.those of Rome, Florence, and Pisa; the most ancient is that of S. Giovanni in Fonte at Rome, said to have been erected by Constantine the Great. The plan of this building is octangular; the roof is supported by eight large polygonal pillars of porphyry under the cupola; in the centre of the floor is the bath, lined with marble, with three steps for descending into it: its depth is about thirty-seven inches and a half. The baptistery annexed to the splendid church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, resembled the convocation-room of a cathedral; and was called illuminatory. In the middle was the bath, and around it were outer rooms for all concerned in the immersion. The Baptistery of Florence stands opposite to the principal entrance of the cathedral. It is octangular in form, with a diameter of about one hundred feet. In the interior is a gallery, supported by sixteen large granite columns; the vaulting is decorated with mosaics, and on the pavement is a large circle of copper, with numerical figures, and the signs of the zodiac on it. The external facades are built of black and white marble, and the three great bronze doors are cele brated for the beauty of their bas-reliefs, and for the marble and bronze figures above them. The Baptistery of Pisa is circular; its diameter is 116 feet; the walls are eight feet high, anld the building is raised on three steps, and surmounted by a dome in the shape of a pear. This dome, which is covered with lead, is intersected by long lines of very prominent fretwork, terminating in another dome, above which is a statue of St. John. The proportions of the interior are admirable; eight granite _ 1 I DETAILS, -, PLATE '25 ~V~7~ -N 7/ W 5 4, I i I i 11 Al 7" /77777P /7/7/7/ 47:~ /7 7/ -), r 7i/`P /7 / 7,~,/, 7"1~. i I 2 2 a s * j * J,, 4 4 * I, # 'a 0 * 4 0 i 4 i 0 0 4 ~ ~ ~ & Lm ~ ____ __ BAR 27 BAR BAR 27 BA columns, placed between four piers, decorated with pilasters, are arranged round the basement story; these support a second order of piers, similarly arranged, on which rests the dome. In the middle of the baptistery, is a large octagonal basin of marble raised on three steps. See FONT. BAR, a piece of wood, or iron, for fastening any kind of closure, as a door, or shutter. it is used as an additional fastening to a door, attached to the side, and movable to and fro upon the surface, so as to be inserted, or drawn out of the jamb, head, or sill, at pleasure; and is most commonly placed on the vertical edge of the door. Doors and shutters have sometimes bars so long as to be equal to the whole breadth of the aperture, or something more; and frequently made to turn upon a centre on the side of the door or shutter. BARS FOR THE SHUTTERS OF WINDOWS, are frequently made with one or more joints, according to the number of shutters in the breadth of the.window, and are fastened by means of bolts and fore-locks. BARS OF A BOARDED DOOR, are pieces placed on the back, to which the boards are fastened; bars of this nature are more commonly called ledges. BARS OF A SASH, are those slight pieces of wood or metal which divide the sash-light into two or more compartments, so as to reduce the large opening into smaller ones of convenient dimensions, suitable to the size of the panes of glass. Those bars which stand in the intersection of two vertical planes, are called angle-bars. See ANGLE-BARS. BAR-IRON. See IRON. BAR-POSTS, are those which are fastened into the ground, forming the sides of a field gate, and are mortised so as to admit of horizontal pieces, called bars, which may be inserted easily or taken out at pleasure. BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, in ancient fortifications, was an advanced work, which frequently covered the draw-bridge at the entrance of a castle. The term is likewise applied to the aperture in walls, called embrasures. See EMBRASURES. BARBACAN, in architecture, is a long narrow canal, or opening, left in the walls for water to come in and go out by, when edifices are placed so as to be liable to be overflown or to drain off the water from a terrace or the like. BARGE-BOARDS, two boards attached to the gable ends of a roof, fixed near the extremity of the barge-course, and following the inclination of the roof, used for the purpose of protecting the under or stuccoed side of the barge-course from the weather. They are found most usually in old English houses, and being carved in most rich and elaborate patterns, add great beauty and picturesque effect to the buildings. They have been of late applied in many instances, where their utility seems to have been entirely misunderstood, and where, instead of protecting, they only serve as a dead weight to the building. The word is probably derived from an old Saxon term signifying to shade or cover. BARGE-COUPLES, two beams mortised and tenoned together, for strengthening the building. The term is not much used. BARGE-COURSE, that part of the tiling which projects over the gable of a building, and is made up below with mortar. BARN, a covered building, for laying up and preserving all sorts of grain, hay, straw, &c. The situation of a barn should be dry and rather elevated, and on the north or northeast side of a farm-yard; but neither contiguous to the house, nor to any offices connected with it. Barns may be constructed of either stone, brick, or timber, which last may be wooden framing, covered with weather boarding; but whichsoever of these materials is used, holes should be left in the walls at intervals, or the doors and windows should have proper air-flights, so as to admit the ingress and egress of air freely. The gable-ends are best formed of brick or stone, on account of their solidity; the covering may either be thatch or tiles. In the walls of the front and rear of the building should be two large folding doors, for the convenience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of corn in sheaves, or any other bulky produce: these doors should be of the same breadth with the threshing-floor, to give more light to the threshers, and admit more air fo.r winnowing the grain. Over the threshing-floor, and a little above the reach of the flail-poles, beams are often laid across, in order to form a kind of upper-floor, upon which the thresher may throw the straw or haulm; and on the out-side, over the great doors, it is convenient to have a large penthouse made, projecting sufficiently, so as to cover a load of corn, or hay, in case a sudden storm should come on before it can be housed, and also to shelter the poultry in the farm-yard from bad weather, or too great heat. The hay-barns should usually be constructed of wood, and not too close: they are sometimes formed in such a manner, as to be capable ofbeing moved to different places by wheels or rollers. In grazing-farms, which do not afford a supply of straw for thatching, the stacks with movable roofs, erected on strong upright posts of wood, or what is sometimes termed Dutch barns, may be useful, as they may be raised or lowered at pleasure by screws and levers, so as to accommodate themselves to the quantity of hay, either in proportion to the crop or its consumption, while, at the same time, they are cheaper, more airy, and less troublesome than close barns, in case of heating. The under-pinning of barns is best of stone or brick, which may be built to the height of about two feet above ground; the sides should be boarded. and the roof covered with straw or reeds; but those of the stables on its sides, with slate or glazed tile; because, as they must be more flat, the water which runs from the roof of the barn would injure most other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the backdoor, small doors, four feet high, should be fixed at the height of twelve feet from the ground: the two former for putting in corn at the ends, and the latter for filling the middle of the barn after the bays are full. All the bays should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing-floor should be laid with hard bricks, which will be suitable for all sorts of grain, except wheat or rye: for threshing these, it will be advisable to have planks of oak or red deal well fitted together, and numbered, to be laid down occasionally, and confined by a frame at their ends. Barns should be placed upon a declivity, as by this means they are rendered more durable, less subject to vermin, and the grain can be kept more sweet and dry than on level ground: this situation also affords a commodious range of stalls for cattle. The invention of the threshing machine has, in a great measure, altered the construction of barns, as, where they are made use of, they should be contrived chiefly with a view to the distribution of straw; the machines being built in the centre, with the grain-stacks adjoining them, in such a man ner, that they may be supplied without the assistance of carts or horses. The barns, in these cases, need not to be so large, but they should have granaries provided in them, which may perhaps be most conveniently placed over the floors. BARREL DRAIN, one constructed in the form of a hollow cylinder. See DRAIN. BARROW, or TUMULUS, a hillock or mound of earth, _ __ _ _~ __ _ _ __ B AS 28 BAS BA 8 A anciently raised over the body of a distinguished person. Barrows are considered as the most ancient sepulchral monuments in the world. BAS-RELIEF. See BAsso RELIEVO. BASALT, a hard dark-coloured rock, of igneous origin, formed of columnar or stratified parts, very useful in building, paving, &c. Basalt, when calcined and pulverized, is an excellent substitute for puzzolana, in the composition of mortar: by undergoing these operations, it acquires the property of hardening under water. BASE, in architecture, is the lowermost part of a body, consisting of one, or an assemblage of parts, taken in its altitude, being separated from its upper part, which is a naked or plain surface. BASE OF A RooM, is the lower projecting part, consisting of two portions, the lower of which is a plain board adjoining the floor, called the plinth, and the upper consists of one or more mouldings, which, taken collectively, are called the base-mouldings. The plinth in the best work is tongued into a groove in the floor, by which means, the diminution of breadth in the shrinking never shows any aperture, or cavity, between its under edge and the floor; and the upper edge of the plinth is rebated upon the base. Bedrooms, lobbies, passages, and staircases, are often finished without the dado and surbase, as also sometimes vestibules and halls. Rooms which have pavement floors, have their bases, in general, consisting of stone plinths, and wooden base-mould-;ngs, which are not so liable to be broken as stone mouldings. BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, on which an order is placed, consisting of a base, die, and cornice. The choragic monument of Lysicrates is a beautiful example of an antique basement. In modern buildings, the height of the basement will vary according to the character of the edifice: it is proper, however, to make the basement no higher than the order of the next story, for this would be making the base of more importance in the composition than the body to be supported. If the cellar story is the basement, and if the height does not exceed five or six feet at the most, it may be plain, or with rustics, or formed into a continued pedestal; but if the basement is on the ground story, the usual manner of decorating it is with rustics, supported on a base and surmounted with a crowning string course: the base may be either a plain or moulded plinth; and the cornice may either have a plat-band or mouldings under it, or may form a cornice of small projection. The rustics are either of a rectangular or triangular section, supposing one of the sides of these sections to be a line extending across the front of the joints. The joints of the rustics may be from one-eighth to a tenth part of their height; the depth of the triangular joints may be half their breadth; that is, making the two planes by which they are formed a right angle; and the depth of the rectangular from one-fourth to one-third of their breadth. The ancients always marked both directions of the joints of the rustics, whereas the moderns employ not only the ancient manner, but sometimes make them with horizontal joints alone; the latter, however, represent rather a boarded surface than that of a stone wall, which must have two directions of joints. The height of the string course should not exceed the height of a rustic with its joints; nor the plinth, or zocholo, be less than the height of the string course. When the basement is perforated with arcades, the imposts of the arches may be a plat-band, which may be equal to the height of a rustic, exclusive of the joint. When the string course is a cornice, the base may be moulded, the projection of the cornice being two-thirds of its height, so as to be less proninent than that which finishes the building. The height of the cornice may be about oneeighteenth part of the height of the basement, and that of the base, about twice as much, divided into six parts, of which the lower five-sixths form the plinths, and the upper sixth the mouldings. BASIL, among carpenters and joiners, the iron side of the angle of a tool, ground so as to bring the end of the tool to a cutting edge. If the angle be very thin, the tool will cut more fieely, but is in danger of breaking into notches, if not duly tempered: to remedy this, it is sometimes found necessary to grind it thicker. BASILICA, (from f3aoarev-, king, and otlxo, house, signifying royal house,) a building originally used as a court of justice. Among the Romans, it was a large hall adjoining the forum, where the magistrates judged the people under cover, which distinguished it from the fora, where they held their sittings in the open air. Basilicas were in plan parallelogrammic, divided lengthwise into three or more aisles, the centre one of which was called the testudo, and those at the sides porticos. The testudo was covered by a roof supported on two rows of columns, situate on either side between it and the adjoining porticos. These porticos were divided vertically by two galleries, one above the other. which ran round three sides of the building, and were covered by a lean-to roof, meeting the above-named columns below their capitals, so as to leave an open space between the roofs of the porticos and the testudo, for the admission of light. At that end of the testudo where the gallery was discontinued, stood a raised platform, on which was placed the tribunal for the magistrate. The above is as clearly as can be discovered, a correct description of the ancient basilica, and agrees in all its principal features with a building which has been discovered in the ruins of Pompeii. The, proportions of these edifices are given by Vitruvius as follows:-" The breadth," he says, "is not to be less than a third, nor more than the half of the length, unless the nature of the place opposes the proportion, and obliges the symmetry to be different; but if the basilica has too much length, chalcidicce (supposed to be apartments on the sides of the tribunal, separated from the body by a partition) are taken off the ends, as in the basilica of Julia Aquiliana. The columns of the basilica are made as high as the porticus is broad; which again is equal to the third part of the space in the middle. The upper columns are less than the lower, as above written. The pluteum (a kind of podium or continued pedestal) which is between the upper columns, should also be made a fourth part less than the same columns, that those who walk on the floor above, may not be seen by the negotiators below. The epistylium, zophurus, and coronce below, are proportioned to the columns, as in my third book. "Nor will basilicas such as that at the colony of Julia of Fanum, which I designed and executed, have less dignity and beauty, the proportions and symmetry of which are as follows: The middle testudo, between the columns, is one hundred and twenty feet long, and sixty feet broad. The porticus around the testudo, between the walls and columns, is twenty feet broad. The height of the continued columns, including their capitals, is fifty feet, and the thickness five, having behind them parastatm (attached pilasters) twenty feet high, two feet and a half broad, and one foot and a half thick, which sustain the beams that bear the floors of the porticus. Above these are other parastatfe, eighteen feet high, two feet broad, and a foot thick, which also receive beams sustaining the canthers of the porticus, which are laid _ __ _ ~ I ~ -._- ~~~- -- BAS 29 BA.S BAS 29 ]3AS below the roof of the testudo: the remaining space that is left between the beams which lie over the parastate, and those over the columns, is left open in the inter-columns, in order to give light. The columns in the breadth of the testudo, including those of the angles to the right and left, are four; and in the length, on that side which is next the forum, including the same angle columns, eight. On the other side, there are but six columns, including those of the angles, but the middle two on this side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the view of the pronaos of the Temple of Augustus, which is situated in the middle of the side-wall of the basilica, looking toward the centre of the forum and Temple of Jupiter. The tribunal, in this building, is formed in the figure of a hemicycle: the extent of this hemicycle, in front, is forty-six feet, and the recess of the curvature inward, fifteen feet, so that those who attend the magistrate obstruct not the negotiants in the basilica. " Upon thecolumns, the compacted beams, made from three timbers of two feet, are disposed; and these are returned from the third columns, which are in the interior part, to the antae that project from the pronaos, and on the right and left touch the hemicycle. " Upon the beams, perpendicularly to the capitals, the pilae (a kind of blocking for. supporting the plates) are placed, three feet high, and four feet broad, on every side. Over these, other beams, well wrought from two timbers of two feet, are placed; upon which the transtraa and capareols being fixed coincident with the zophorus, ante, and walls of the pronaos, sustain the culmen the whole length of the basilica, and another transversely fiom the middle over the pronaos of the temple: so that it causes a double disposition of the fastigium, and gives a handsome appearance to the roof on the outside, and to the lofty testudo within. The omission of the ornaments of the epistylium, and of the upper columns and plutei, diminishes the labour of the work, and saves great part of the expense. The columns likewise being carried in one continued height up to the beams of the testudo, increase the magnificence and dignity of the work." In the foregoing description, the proportion which Vitruvius assigns to basilicas in general, does not agree with that which he executed at the colony of Julia of Fanum, which appears to be of a different construction from the common form; as, in the former, the ranges of columns which form the porticos, appear to have been disposed in two heights, with a gallery between; whereas, in the latter, the columns were disposed in one range in the height, with attached pilasters behind, in two rows, one above the other, and the galleries between the pilasters nearly against the middle of the columns, resting upon the lower range. Nor are the proportions the same: for in the former, the breadth is specified not to be less than a third part of the length, nor more than half, " unless the nature of the place opposes the proportion;" the breadth of the latter is, however, more than the half, for the length of the nave is one hundred and twenty feet, and the breadth sixty feet; now, adding forty feet to each, the breadth of the two opposite porticos, will make the whole length of the building one hundred and sixty feet, and the breadth of the same one hundred feet, which is more than the half of one hundred and sixty. In the general construction, no columns are mentioned at the ends, unless the chalcidae (which are introduced in order to proportionate the building) are comparted by columns, but in the basilica constructed by Vitruvius, porticos are clearly understood in the breadth, as well as in the length; for he says, ' The columns in the breadth of the testudo, including those of the angles to the right and left, are four; and in the length, on that side which is next the forum, including the same columns, eight; on the other side there are but six columns, including those of the angles; because the middle two on this side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the view of the pronaos of the temple of Augustus." When Vitruvius speaks of the length and breadth of the basilica, it is reasonable to suppose, that these were the dimensions' within the walls; but whether ancient edifices of this description had walls, or were supported upon columns, is a desideratum which cannot be ascertained, but in the discoveries of ancient edifices, which are perhaps, as yet, embosomed in the earth; and it is to be regretted, that, though some buildings of a similar description have been discovered, they are by no means decided, neither in their proportion nor construction. Fragments of the plan of Rome, taken under Severus, which still exists, show a part of the basilica AEmniliana, exhibiting two rows of columns on each side, without an exterior wall, which renders it doubtful whether they ever were enclosed or not; perhaps the warmth of the climate of Italy did not require it. "It is to Constantine, that the first Christian churches, known by the name of basilicas, are to be referred. This prince signalized his zeal by the erection of monuments, which announced the triumph of the religion which he had embraced. He gave his own palace on the Coelian mount, to construct on its site a church, which is recognized for the most ancient Christian basilica. A modern building has so masked and disfigured the ancient, that only the situation and plan of this monnment can be discovered. "Soon after, he erected the basilica of St. Peter, of the Vatican. This magnificent edifice was constructed about the year 324, upon the site of the circus of Nero, and the temples of Apollo and Mars, which were destroyed for that purpose. It was divided internally into five aisles from east to west, which terminated at the end in another aisle from north to south, in the centre of which was a large niche or tribunal giving the whole the form of a cross. The larger aisle was enclosed by forty-eight columns of precious marble, and the lateral aisles had likewise forty-eight columns of smaller dimensions; two columns were placed on each wing of the terminating aisle. The whole was covered with a flat ceiling, composed of immense beams, which were cased with gilt metal and Corinthian brass, taken from the temples of Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus. A hundred smaller columns ornamented the shrines and chapels. The walls were covered with paintings of religious subjects, and the tribunal was enriched with elaborate mosaics. An incredible number of lamps illuminated this temple; in the greater solemnities 2,400 were reckoned, of which one enormous candelabrum contained 1,360. The tombs of pontiffs, kings, cardinals, and princes, were reared against the walls, or insulated in the ample porticos. " This superb temple was respected by Alaric and Totila, and remained uninjured In the various fortunes of Rome during the lapse of twelve centuries; but crumbling withage, it was at last pulled down by Julius II., and upon its site has arisen the famous basilica, the pride of modern Rome. "The third great basilica built by Constantine, that of St. Paul, on the road to Ostia, still exists. The interior of this building resembles precisely that of St. Peter, which has just been described. Of the forty columns enclosing the great aisle, twenty-four are supposed to have been taken from the mausoleum of Adrian; they are Corinthian, about three feet diameter, fluted their whole length, and cabled to onethird: the columns are of blue-and-white marble, and antiquity presents nothing in this kind more precious for the materials and workmanship. But these beautiful remains _ _1 --- BAS 30 BAS BA 30 BAS seem only to be placed there to the disgrace of the rest of the construction, which is of the age of Constantine and Theodosius, and which most strikingly exemplifies the rapid decline of the arts. "The churches we have hitherto described, bear a very complete resemblance to the antique basilica in plan and proportion. The only remarkable difference is, that the superior galleries are suppressed, in the place of which a wall is raised upon the columns of the great aisle, which is pierced with windows, and supports the roof. "The church of St. Agnes out of the walls, though not one of the seven churches of Rome which retain the title, is however a perfect imitation of the antique basilica. This resemblance is so complete, that without the testimony of writers, who inform us that it was built by Constantine, at the request of Constantia, his sister or daughter, and without the details of its architecture, which forbid us to date it higher, it might be taken rather for an ancient tribunal of justice, than a modern church. It forms an oblong internally, three sides of which are surrounded with columns forming the porticos; the fourth side opposite the entrance is recessed in a semicircle; this is the tribunal. The first order of columns carries a second, forming an upper gallery, above which begins the ceiling of the edifice. The shortening of the columns recommended by Vitruvius, is observed in the upper order. "We have hitherto observed in the Christian basilicas, but small variations from the antique construction: they were still simple quadrilateral halls, divided into three or five aisles, the numerous columns of which supported the flat ceiling; but the cross-form, the emblem of Christianity, which began to be adopted in these buildings, operated the most essential changes in their shape. The intersection of the crossing aisles produced a centre, which it was natural to enlarge and make principal in the composition; and the invention of domes, supported on pendentives, enabled the architects to give size and dignity to the centre, without interrupting the vista of the aisles. The church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, was the first example of this form. " The seat of the Roman empire being transferred to Constantinople, it is natural to suppose that the disposition of the ancient St. Peter's of Rome, esteemed at that time the most magnificent church in the world, was imitated in that which Constantine erected for his new capital, under the name of St. Sophia. This last did not exist long: Constantius, the son of Constantine, raised a new one, which experienced many disasters. Destroyed in part, and rebuilt under the reign of Arcadius, it was burnt under Honorius, and reestablished by Theodosius the younger; but a furious sedition having arisen under Justinian, it was reduced to ashes. This emperor having appeased the tumult, and wishing to immortalize his name by the edifice he was about to erect, assembledf rom various parts the most famous architects. Anthemius of Trulles, and Isidore of Miletus, were chosen; and as they had the boldness to attempt a novel construction, they experienced many difficulties and disasters; but at last they had the glory of finishing their design. "The plan of this basilica is a square of about two hundred and fifty feet. The interior forms a Greek cross, that is, a cross with equal arms; the aisles are terminated at two ends by semicircles, and at the other two by square recesses, in which are placed two ranges of tribunals. The aisles are vaulted, and the centre, where they intersect, forms a long square, upon which is raised the dome, of about one hundred and ten feet diameter. The dome, therefore, is supported upon the four arches of the naves and the penden tives, or spandrel, which connect the square plan of the centre with the circle of the dome. " The general effect of the interior is grand; but whatever praises the bold invention of this immense dome may merit, it must be confessed, that there are times in which princes, however great and liberal, can only produce imperfect monuments, of which this edifice is a striking example. All the details of its architecture are defective and barbarous. " However, from the communication established between Greece and Italy, at the revival of letters, this basilica, the last, as well as the most magnificent of the lower empire, was that which influenced most the form and architecture of the new temples. The Venetians, in the tenth century, copied with success the best points in the disposition of St. Sophia, in the church of St. Mark. This is the first in Italy which was constructed with a dome supported on pendentives; and it is also this which first gave the idea, which has been imitated in St. Peter's, of the Vatican, of accompanying the great dome of a church with smaller and lower domes, to give it a pyramidal effect. "From this time to the erection of the basilica of St. Peter's, we find the churches approach, more or less, to the form of the ancient basilica or the new construction. The church of Santa Maria del Fiore, of Florence, from the magnitude of its dome, and the skill which Brunelleschi displayed in its construction, acquired a celebrity which made the system of domes prevail; and this system was finally established in the noble basilica of the Vatican, which has become the type and example of later ones. The form of the antique basilica was entirely lost, and the name, which has been retained, is the only remain of their ancient resemblance. "In- the pontificate of Julius II., the beginning of the sixteenth century, the basilica of St. Peter's was begun friom the designs of Bramante. This great man formed the idea of suspending, in the centre of the building, a circular temple, as large as the Pantheon, or, as he expressed it, to raise the Pantheon on the temple of peace; and, in fact, we find great resemblance in size and disposition between these two edifices and the project of Bramante. He was succeeded in his office by San Gallo, who almost entirely lost sight of the original plan; but Michael Angelo, to whom at his death the undertaking was committed, concentered the discordant parts. Michael Angelo died 1564, while he was engaged in erecting the dome; but he left plans and models, which were strictly adhered to by his successors, Vignola, J. del Porte, and Fontana, who terminated the dome. The building was carried on under many succeeding pontiffs; and at last, by lengthening the longitudinal nave, it acquired the form of the Latin cross; in that particular, approaching to the original design of Bramante. " The general form of this edifice, externally, is an oblong, with circular projections in three of the sides; the plan of the interior consists of a Latin cross, the intersection of the arms of which is enlarged and formed into an octagon; the head of the long aisles, and the ends of the cross-aisles, are terminated in hemicycles, and the great naves are accompanied with lateral aisles, and with several enclosed chapels. The octagon centre supports a circular wall, enriched with pilasters and pierced with windows, above which rises the magnificent dome. "Thus we have traced the progress of the basilica from the quadrilateral hall of the ancients, with its single roof and flat ceiling, supported on ranges of columns, to the cross-shaped plan, central dome, and vaulted aisles, supported on massy piers, of the modern cathedral. It only remains to treat of the __i__ _______ _ ____L_ BAS 31 BAS. BAS 31 BAS. "Modern BASILICA. We give this name, with Palladio, to the civil edifices which are found in many Italian cities, and the destination of which is entirely similar to the antique basilica. "In imitation of the ancients, (says this celebrated architect,) the cities of Italy construct public halls, which may rightly be called basilicas, as they form part of the habitation of the supreme magistrate, and in them the judges administer justice. The basilicas of our time (he continues) differ in this from the ancient-that those were level with the ground, while ours are raised upon arches, in which are shops for various arts, and the merchandise of the city. There the prisons are also placed, and other buildings belonging to the public business. Another difference is, that the modern basilicas have the porticos on the outside, while in the ancient they were only in the interior. Of these halls, there is a very noble one at Padua; and another at Brescia, remarkable for its size and ornaments. "But the most celebrated is that of Vicenza; the exterior part of which was built by Palladio, and the whole so much altered that it may pass for his work. The body of the building is of much greater antiquity, though the date of it is unknown. "Time and various accidents had reduced this edifice to such a state of decay, that it was necessary to think seriously of preventing its total ruin: for this purpose, the most eminent architects were consulted, and the design of Palladio was approved. He removed the ancient loggias, and substitiited new porticos, of a very beautiful invention. These form two galleries in height, the lower order of which is ornamented with Doric engaged columns, at very wide intervals, to answer to the internal pillars of the old building; the space between each column is occupied by an arch, resting on two small columns of the same order, and a pilaster at each side against the large columns, which leaves a space between it and the small columns, of two diameters. The upper portico of Ionic columns, is disposed in the same manner, and a balustrade is placed in the archways. The entablature of the large orders is profiled over each column. "This edifice is about one hundred and fifty feet long, and sixty feet broad; the hall is raised above the ground twentysix feet; it is formed by vaults supported on pillars, and the whole is covered with a wooden dome."-Res's Cyclopcedia. BASKET, a kind of vase in the form of a basket, filled with flowers, or fruits, or both, used for terminating a decoration. BASSE-COUR, a court separated from the principal one and destined for the stables, coach-horses, and liveryservants. In a country place, it denotes the yard where the cattle, fowls, &c., are kept: it is called by the French menagerie. BASSO- RELIEVO, (Italian; Bas-relief, French,) in sculpture, is the representation of figures projecting from a back ground, so as to give relief. It is a general term, comprehending three distinct species of sculpture. Low relief, sometimes also called basso-relievo, is that in which no part of the sculpture is detached from the back ground: highrelief, or alto-relievo, is that in which the grosser parts are only attached, while the smaller parts are free: mean-relief, or mezzo-relievo, is a term which some use for a kind of sculpture between the two. Mezzo-relievo is distinguished from alto by having no part entirely disconnected from the plane surface, 'and from basso-relievo in having the parts most remote from the back ground, most relieved, whereas the latter has such parts least relieved. In the former the outline is less, in the latter more apparent than the forms within it. These terms are of modern date, and probably invented in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greeks denominated relievo, or low-relief, by the term anaglypta (Pliny, lib. 33, c. 11,) and alto-relievo was distinguished by the word toreuticeu, or rounded, (Pliny, lib. 34, c. 8,) although this term was occasionally applied to any kind of relief. As architecture is highly indebted to sculpture for some of its' most elegant decorations, it will be proper to give some account in this place of the basso-relievos of the ancients. In point of antiquity, the Egyptian stands first: a knowledge of their sculpture will be best obtained from the writings of those who have actually visited and surveyed their ruined edifices; in conformity with this, the following description from Denon will, perhaps, be acceptable:-" The hieroglyphics, which are executed in three different manners, are also of three species, and may take their date from as many periods. From the examination of the different edifices which have fallen under my eye, I imagine that the most ancient of these characters are only simple outlines, cut in without relief, and very deep; the next in point of age, and which produce the least effect, are simply in a very shallow relief; and the third, which seem to belong to a more improved age, and are executed at Tentyra more perfectly than in any other part of Egypt, are in relief below the level of the outline. By the side of the figures which compose these tabular pieces of sculpture, there are some hieroglyphics which appear to be only the explanation of the subjects at large, and in which the forms are more simplified, so as to give a more rapid inscription, or a kind of short-hand, if we may apply the term to sculpture. "A. fourth kind of hieroglyphics appears to be devoted simply to ornament: we have improperly termed it, I know not why, the arabesque. It was adopted by the Greeks, and, in the age of Augustus, was introduced among the Romans; and in the fifteenth century, during the restoration of the arts, it was transmitted by them to us, as a fantastic decoration, the peculiar taste of which formed all its merit. Among the Egyptians, who employed these ornaments with equal taste, every object had a meaning or moral, and at the same time formed the decoration of the friezes, cornices, and surbasements of their architecture. I have discovered at Tentyra the representations of the peristyles of temples in caryatides, which are executed in painting at the baths of Titus, and have been copied by Raphael, and which we constantly ape in our rooms, without suspecting that the Egyptians have given us the first models of them." Again, in describing the temple of Latopolis, Denon says, "The hieroglyphics in relief, with which it is covered within and without, are executed with great care; they contain, among other subjects, a zodiac, and large figures of men with crocodiles' heads: the capitals, though all different, have a very fine effect; and as an additional proof that the Egyptians borrowed nothing from other people, we may remark, that they have taken all the ornaments, of which those capitals are composed, from the productions of their own country, such as the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rush, &c., &c." The most ancient and most simple kind of basso-relievos, used by the Egyptians, were cut by recessing the grounds as much as the projection of the figures, so that the surrounding surfaces, by forming a kind of border, both threw a shade upon the figures and defended them from injury, which they were liable to, as the granite out of which they were cut was of a very brittle nature; by this means much labour was saved in the execution. The Egyptians also employed basso-relievo without any surrounding border, all the figures being raised from the same naked, such as in the palace of Karnac, and those I -AR BAS 82 BAT J3AS 32 BAT described in the Bird's Well, of which there is a specimen in the hall of the British Museum. The material is soft calcareous stone, in very low relief. The outlines of Egyptian sculpture are ungraceful, and the execution shows a want of the knowledge of anatomy: it may be remarked as somewhat singular, that quadrupeds are more accurately represented in their sculpture than human figures. The basso-relievos found in the excavations of the Indian temples bear a strong resemblance to those of'the Egyptians, but are inferior in point of proportion; the heads are too large. Whether the Indian or Egyptian sculpture is the most ancient is not known; but if simplicity is to be our criterion, we would say the latter. See Daniell's Ant. The Persians employed basso-relievos in their architectural decorations, as may be seen in the palace of Persepolis, and in the royal tombs. The figures are arranged in horizontal and vertical lines, and resemble the later hieroglyphics of Egypt, though the dress is very different: those of the Egyptians being particularly distinguished by the hair artificially curled, the hood, the mitre, the close tunic, and apron of papyrus; the Hindoos, by the necklaces, bracelets, and anklets; the Persians, by long beards, and hair ending in small curls, caps, and full tunics, with regular folds and large sleeves; the Medes, by close tunics. The drapery of the Persian figures is more natural than that of the Egyptians; but it cannot be inferred from this, that the figures themselves are of better sculpture, as instances may be shown to the contrary, in the obelisk of Sesostris, in the palace of Karnac, and in the Theban tombs, where the execution is not only more perfect, but the positions of the human figures more varied. See Denon's Egypt, and Le Bruyn's Travels. The Grecians excelled all contemporary nations in the art of sculpture, as well as in architecture and geometry; the numerous remains of their edifices show the perfection which they had attained in exquisite workmanship, beautiful proportion, and easy and graceful attitudes. They profess to have had their first rudiments from Egypt, and this is completely verified in their first productions, which were similar to those of the Egyptians; however, the art did not long remain stationary; from daily observation, and a strict adherence to nature, they advanced rapidly in the science, and at last, by a knowledge of anatomy, it was brought to such a degree of perfection, that their remaining sculptures have become the very standard of excellence, a criterion which the moderns have never surpassed, and but seldom equalled. Who can behold the sculpture in the pediments and friezes of the Parthenon, and other remains of Athenian grandeur, without astonishment? The pediments of this temple were adorned with entire and separate statues, although fiom their situation, and the deep shadows cast by them on the tympanum, they must have had the appearance of figures in high relief. The figures in the metopes were in alto, whilst those in the cella were in basso-relievo. This arrangement leads us to notice the great judgment which the Greeks exercised in the selection of the different kinds of sculpture, according to the nature of the situation they were intended to occupy. We find that they almost invariably placed separate statues, and sculptures in high relief, on the exterior of their buildings, or in such places as had the advantage of the open light; while, on the contrary, they reserved those in basso-relievo for interiors, where the light was not freely admitted; and this they did evidently for this reason, viz. that in all situations, and under all circumstances, their sculptures might be distinct and intelligible. It needs no argument to prove that figures in high relief are more readily discernible, when the light is permitted to play equally on all sides of them. Were such figures placed in an imperfectly lighted situation, they would be almost unintelligible, from the shadows which they would throw upon each other. On the other hand, the flatness of basso-relievo, while it obviated the projection of shadows beyond its own surface, ensured the distinctness of the outlines, and gave to the figures an appearance of rotundity. Mezzo-relievo is only adapted for near inspection. The temples of Theseus and Phigaleia, as well as that of Minerva, were remarkable for the beauty of their sculptures. The basso-relievos of the Romans were, perhaps, at first, confined to their tombs. They never attained a just knowledge, or taste, of the art of sculpture. Their best works were executed by Grecian artists, and are chiefly to be found in the triumphal arches, which are richly charged with basso-relievos. The art attained its greatest perfection in the reign of Augustus, and was greatly on the decline in the time of Constantine. In more modern times, the Italians and Florentines are the only people who arrived at any degree of excellence in sculptures of this kind; and even they departed from the original purity of the Greeks, by attempting to express in their works the effect of perspective. We are indebted to Flaxman for the introduction of a purer taste into this country; his style may be considered as a nearer approach to the simplicity of the ancients, than that of either the Italians or the Florentines. BASTION, or BATOON. See ToRUs. BAT, a part of a brick. BATh,' a house with accommodation for bathing. The ancient baths at Rome were very spacious and magnificent structures, and contained hot and cold baths, gymnasia, ambulatories, and even libraries. The most remarkable are those of Agrippa, Titus, Diocletian, and Caracalla. The practice of bathing having been more generally adopted in this country within the last few years, has caused various structures to be erected for the purpose. These, however, are but of small dimensions, and have little pretensions to architectural embellishment. BATTEN, a scantling of stuff, from two to six inches broad, and from five-eighths to two inches thick. Battens are employed in the boarding of floors, and also upon walls, in order to secure the laths on which the plaster is laid. BATTEN-DOOR. See DOOR. BATTEN-FLOOR. See BOARDED-FLOORS. BATTENING, the act of fixing battens to walls, in order to secure the laths over which the plaster is laid; or, the battens in the state of being fixed for that purpose. The battens employed are generally about two inches broad, and three-fourths of an inch thick; they may, however, be of various thicknesses, according to the distances the several fixed points in their length are from each other. Their distance in the clear is from eleven inches to one foot. Previous to the fixing of battens, either equidistant bondtimbers should be built in the wall, or the wall should be plugged equidistantly, and the plugs cut off flush with its surface. In London, plugs are generally placed at the distance of one foot or fourteen inches from centre to centre in the length of the batten. Battens upon exterior walls, quarters in partition walls, the ceiling and bridging joists of a naked floor, also the common joists for supporting the boarding of a floor, are fixed at the same distance, viz. from eleven to twelve inches in the clear. When battens are fixed against flues, iron holdfasts are necessarily employed instead of bond-timbers or plugs. When battens are attached to a wall, they are generally fixed in vertical lines; and when fixed to the surface of a brick or stone vault, the intrados of which may be generated by a plane revolving about an axis, they ought to be placed in planes tending to the axis; _I__ _ _ C....I -..-.- -1.1. W "Ilr ~, — ' " BAT I 83 BEA BA 8$ B EA | as, in this position, they have only to be fixed in straight lines, in cases where the intrados is straight towards the axis: such cases occur when the vault is a portion of a cone or cylinder. When the intrados is curved towards the axis, the battens will bend very readily. Great care should be taken to regulate the faces of the battens, so as to be as nearly equidistant as possible from the intended surface of the plaster. Though battens are employed in floors, neither the act of laying them, nor the floor formed of them afterwards, is called battening; they are more commonly called boarding. Every piece of masonry or brick-work, which is not sufficiently dry, should be battened for lath and plaster; particularly that which is executed in a wet season. When the windows are boarded, and the walls of a room not sufficiently thick to contain the shutters, the surface of the plastering is brought out so as to give the architrave a proper projection, and quarterings are used for supporting the lath and plaster, instead of battens. The like practice is observed, when the breast of a chimney projects into the room, in order to cover the recesses, and make the whole side flush, or in the same surface with the breast* BATTER, the declension of a wall from the perpendicular: if a plummet be freely suspended from any part of a wall by a plumb-rule, the line coinciding with the draught, and the bottom part of the rule only touching the wall, then the wall is said to batter. This property applies both to straight and circular walls. A wall may be made to batter in any degree, by using a battering-rule, instead of a plumbrule; that is, a rule which has the plummet draught oblique to the edge of the rule which is to be applied to the wall. This obliquity is best calculated by the rule of proportion, viz. if the whole height of the building batters at a given distance, what will a given length of rule batter. This distance being found, the top of the rule must be so much broader than the bottom, that is, reckoning from the draught to the edge applied to the wall, for the direction of the other edge is of no consequence. Upon this principle, even a body with a curved vertical section may be built; but in this case the rule will not shift; if the building stands on a circular plan, it can only be applied at the same altitude all round; and to carry the building to the summit, a new rule must be made at convenient portions of each successive altitude. BATTLED-EMBATTLED, is when the top of a wall has a double row of battlements, formed of a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other, both embrasures and rising parts being double; the lower part of each embrasure less than the upper, and consequently the lower part of each riser broader than the upper. BATTLEMENTS, indentations on the top of a wall, parapet, or other building. They were first used in ancient fortifications, and were afterwards applied to churches and other buildings, as mere ornaments. Their outline is generally a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other; each indentation having two interior right angles, and each raised part two exterior right angles. Sometimes the horizontal section of the rising part is a rectangle, while the bottom of the battlement, and top of the projecting part, slope downward, so as to form an obtuse angle with the face of the wall; occasionally, however, the plans of the upright sides of the battlements form the same obtuse angle as the bottom and top of the rising part. At other times both vertical and hbrizontal sections are right angles, ornamented equally all round with mouldings, or with a small square projecture: when the vertical sides of the embrasures are perpendicular to the face, the sloping cope generally terminates with a torus or large astragal. In process of time battlements were not confined to crown the principal walls of the building; 6 but were employed in the finish of subordinate parts: they are to be found in the decorations of the transoms of windows, as in those of King Henry the Seventh's chapel, at Westminster. In this, and in every other case, they are proportioned to the architecture they accompany. The battlements employed in the florid style, were perforated in a most beautiful manner, with openings variously formed in symmetrical figures: such are the latticed battlements, and those formed of polyfoils, &c. The battlements used in this style of building, have not always their parts at right angles to each other, but frequently the standing parts, or those which form the sides of the openings, are raised in the manner of a pediment. BAULK, a piece of timber, from four to ten inches square. BAULK-ROOFING, is when the framing is constructed of baulk-timber. BAY, the open space in a window included between the mullions, otherwise called a day or light. Also the quadrangular space between the principal ribs of a groined roof, across which the diagonal ribs are extended; or the spaces between the principal divisions of a timber roof. The term is also applied to that part of a building situated between two buttresses. BAY OF A BARN, that part situate between the threshing floor and the end of the building, used for depositing the refuse hay or the corn previous to threshing. BAY OF JOISTS, the joisting between two binding joists, or between two girders, when there are no binding joists. BAY WINDOW, a projecting window of a polygonal plan, and rising from the ground or the basement of the building, See Bow AND ORIEL WINDOWS. BAZAR, or BAZAAR, among the Turks and Persians, an exchange, where the finest stuffs and wares are sold. Some are open like market-places, others are covered with lofty ceilings, with~Yerced domes to give light. In these, jewellers, goldsmiths, and other dealers in the richest wares, have their shops. BEAD, in joinery, a moulding of a circular section, stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, by a plane of the same name. Beads are of two kinds, one of which is flush with the surface, and the other raised: the former is called a quirk-bead, and the latter a cock-bead. BEAD AND BUTT WORK, in joinery, a piece of framing having the panels flush with the framing, and stuck or run upon the two edges, which have the grain of the wood in their direction. BEAD and QUIRK, is when a bead is stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, flush with the surface, with one quirk only, or without being returned on the other surface. BEAD and DOUBLE QUIRK. See RETURN BEAD. BEAD and FLUSH WORK, in joinery, a piece of framed work, having a bead run upon every edge of the framing which adjoins to each edge of the included panel. BEAD, BUTT, and SQUARE WORK, a piece of framing, having bead and butt upon one side, and square on the other. Bead, butt, and square work is chiefly used in doors BEAD, FLUSH, and SQUARE, a piece of framing, having bead and flush on one side, and nothing but square work on the other; chiefly used in doors. BEAK, a little pendent fillet, left on the edge of the larmier, which forms a canal behind, for preventing the water from running down the lower bed of the cornice. Sometimes the beak is formed by a chatmel or groove, recessed on the soffit of the larmier upwards. In the Ionio temple on the Ilyssus, at Athens, the canal occupies the whole breadth of the soffit, and so deeply recessed, that the T I II - T -- - ---- Isi; ---- ~ -- r --- —.` - — ' -- - I. - ------- - I - - - - BEA 34 BED BEA 34 BED lower bed of the cornice is wrought almost out of the height of the recess. BEAK-HEAD MOULDING, a moulding used very commonly in Norman architecture, consisting of ornaments of a peculiar character, placed at regular intervals on a simple moulding. The ornaments may be described as grotesque heads, some apparently of animals, and some approaching the human form, but all invariably terminating in a pointed mouth, or beak as it were, whence their name. Although such ornaments were very frequent, they were of very various designs, two similar ones being seldom found in the same moulding. BEAKING JOINT, in carpentry, is when the heading joints of the boards of a floor fall in the same straight line. This word is not used in London. BEAM, when used in a building, is a piece of timber, or sometimes of metal, for sustaining a weight, or counteracting two equal and opposite forces, either drawing or compressing it to the direction of its length: when it is employed as a lintel, it supports a weight; when as a tie-beam, it is drawn or extended; and when as a collar-beam, it is compressed. The word beam is most frequently subjoined to another word, used adjectively, or in apposition, which shows the use, situation, or form of the beam: as tie-beam, collar-beam, dragonbeam, straining-beam, camber-beam, hammer-beam, bindingbeam, girding-beam, truss-beam, summer-beam, &c. Some of these are also used simply, as, collar, instead of collarbeam; lintel, instead of lintel-beam; girder, instead of girding-beam; summer, instead of summer-beam. Lintels and girders are almost constantly used alone, and bressummers and joists are never used in composition. What is here called collar-beam, is, in old writers, termed wirnd-beam, strut-beam, or strutting-beam. A beam is either lengthened by building it in thicknesses. or by lapping or splicing the ends upon each other, and bolting them through. See BUILDING OF BEAMS and SCARFING. For the manner of strengthening beams, see TRUss-BEAMS. BEAM-COMPASS, an instrument, consisting of wood or metal, with sliding sockets, carrying steel or pencil points, used for describing large circles, beyond the reach of common compasses. BEAM-FISING, the building of masonry, or brick-work, from the level of the under edges of the beams, to that of their upper edges. Beam-filling occurs either between joists, or floor-beams, or in filling up the triangular space between the top of the wall-plate of the roof, and the lower edges of the rafters, or even to the under surface of the boarding or lath, for slates, tiles, or thatching, This operation is necessary in garret-rooms, where the walls form sides of apartments; where the tie-beams are placed above the bottom of the rafters, and where the sides of the apartments are not to be battened and lathed for plaster, in order to straight the walls. Even in all other cases it is preferable, for the sake of comfort, to beam-fill the spaces. BEARER, a prop, or anything that supports a body in any place; as a wall, post, strut, &c. In guttering, bearers are short pieces of timber for supporting the boarding. BEARING OF A PIECE OF TIMBER, the unsupported distance between the two points or props from which it is suspended; or the distance between two props where there is no intervening support. A piece of timber, having any number of supports, one being placed at each extreme, will have as many bearings, wanting one, as there are supports: thus, a piece of. timber extended in length over two rooms as joists; will have three supports and two bearings: here the bearers are the two most distant walls and the partition. BEARING, at the ends of a piece of timber, in building is the distance which the ends of that piece are inserted in the walls or piers; as joists are inserted at least nine inches in walls, and the lintel or lintels of an aperture, nine inches at least into each pier. BEARING WALL, or PARTITION, in a building, is a wall which rests upon the solid, and which supports some part of the building, as another wall or partition, either transversely, or in the same direction. When the supporting wall, and the wall supported, are both in the same direction, the wall supported is said to have a solid bearing; but if a wall, or partition, is not supported below throughout its length, it is said to have a false bearing, or as many false bearings as there are intervals below the wall or partition. BEATER, an implement in plastering, used by the labourers, for tempering or incorporating the lime, sand, and hair together; which make the composition called lime and hair, used in first and second coatings, and sometimes, in ordinary roms, even for finishing coats. BED-CHAMBERS, or BED-ROOMS, are those in which beds are placed; when very small, they are called bedclosets. BEDS OF A STONE, the two surfaces which generally intersect the face of the work in horizontal lines, or in lines nearly so: the higher surface is called the upper-bed. and the lower the under-bed. In the general run of walling, they are the two surfaces which are placed level in the building. In the parapets of bridges they intersect the facing, most fiequently in lines parallel to the road-way, but are level in the thickness. In every species of vaulting, where all the sections of the intrados of a vault are similar figures, or parallel straight lines, the beds are those surfaces which intersect the intrados in horizontal lines. Of this class are the heads of circular domes, which have spherical or spheroidal intradosses; vaults with conic intradosses, and vertical axes; and vaults with cylindrical intradosses and horizontal axes, &c. BEDS OF A STONE, in cylindrical vaulting, are those two surfaces which intersect the intrados of the vault, in lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder. BEDS OF A STONE, in conic vaulting with a horizontal axis, are those two surfaces which, if produced, would intersect the axis of the cone. The beds of stones, in spherical vaulting, are, or should be, parts of the surfaces of so many cones, ending in a common vertex, as there are courses of stone. If the vault be a hemisphere, the under beds of all the stones in the lowest course or planes, and the upper beds, form part of the surface of a very obtuse-angled cone. In every course of stones, the conic surface formed by the lower beds is that of a cone, with a more obtuse angle than the surface formed by the upper beds of the same course; hence the cones of every successive joint upwards, have their vertical angles continually less, so as to end at last with the axis itself. In vaulting with a conic intrados and vertical axis, the joints form the surfaces of so many distinct cones, which have their vertex in the axis, and which have equal vertical angles, and their surfaces equidistant. In cylindrical, or conic vault. ing, with a horizontal axis, the beds of the stones are in planes tending to the axis. In arching, the beds are called summerings; but more properly, radiations, or radiated joints. BED OF A SLATE, the lower side placed in contiguity with the boarding or the rafters. BED MOULDING, that portion of a cornice which is situated immediately below the corona. CI _ _ — - — - -1 — ----1- ~ ~ BEN 35 BER BEN 35 BIE BEETLE, a large mallet for driving piles, and cleaving wood. B ELECTION MOULDINGS, in joinery, are those which surround the panels, and project without the surface of the framing in doors, or other panelled framing. Belection mouldings are never stuck on the framing, which is fiequently the case with those which are within or below the surface. They are used in the best work of grand finishings. BELFRY, that part of a steeple wherein the bells are hung. This is sometimes called, by writers of the middle age, campanile. Bells are generally suspended by means of friame-work, which is supported on stone corbels; sometimes however, the framing is made to bear on a recess formed in the wall, which is the better method, as the vibration caused by ringing has less power to disturb the masonry. Bells for the same reason should be hung as low as practicable. BELFRY, is more particularly applied to the timber-work, by which the bells are supported. BELL, of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, is the vase or tambour concealed beneath the acanthus leaves, or other ornament: its horizontal section is everywhere a circle; the bottom part rises vertically from the top of the shaft, and proceeds upwards in a straight line to a considerable distance; from thence it changes into a concavity, which terminates with the fillet, in the manner of the scape or apophyge. BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET. A small open turret situate on the apex of the gable of small Gothic churches, generally at the east or west end of the nave, for the purpose of sustaining one or two bells. It is sometimes of an hexagonal or multangular plan, covered with a pyramidal root; or spire, of which kind there is a beautiful specimen at Corston Church, Wiltshire; it most generally, however, consists of a continuation of a certain width of the gable wall to a considerable height above the apex, the part above which is perforated with one or more arched apertures in which the bells are hung; above this again the roof is finished in the form of a gable, and the whole is surmounted by a finial or cross. Examples of such gables frequently occur; we may instance an elegant one at Skelton, near York. Plain timber bell-cots of square plan and low pyramidal roof, are very common in Essex. Bell-gables at the eastern extremity of the nave were generally appropriated to the sanctus or sacringe bells, which was rung when the priest pronounced the Ter-sanctus, as also at the elevation of the host. BELL-ROOF, that of which the vertical section perpendicular to the wall, or to its springing line, is a curve of contrary flexure; it being concave at the bottom, and convex at the top. A bell-roof is of that kind of ogee-roofs, called the sinma recta roof. BELT, in masonry, a course of stones projecting from the naked, either moulded, plain, fluted, or enriched with pateras at regular intervals, which again may be either plain or fluted. BELVEDERE, or LOOK-OUT, is a turret, or some part of an edifice raised above the roof, for the purpose of affording a view of surrounding scenery. This term is also applied to single edifices or temples, sometimes erected in gardens and pleasure-grounds, used for the above purpose, as well as to beautify the landscape. Belvederes are very common in Italy and France, and some of them are very magnificent: the most celebrated is that built by Bramante in the Vatican. BENCH, the table on which joinery for the use of building is prepared. See JOINERY. BErCH-HooK, a movable pin, passing through a mortise in the top of the bench, for preventing the stuff wrought by the plane from sliding. BEND. See BENDING. BENDA. See FASCIA. BENDING, the act of the incurvation of a body from a straight to a crooked form. A piece of timber, such as a plank, may be very conveniently bent, by placing it within a long hollow prismatic trunk, opened only at one end for its insertion; the end through which it is introduced is then shut close, and the one extremity of a steam-pipe having been inserted in a hole in one of the sides or ends of the trunk, all the crevices are shut, and the steam is admitted. When the plank has remained for a certain time, it may be taken out, and should be immediately bent round the convex surface of an inflexible body, made on purpose; when it has been properly fixed to the body, it is to remain till it is quite cold, or properly stiff, and it will retain its form: after this, it may be taken off and dressed, and lastly fixed in its intended situation. The practice of ship-building proves that plank-wood, of almost any thickness, may be brought to any degree of curvature, by the effect of heat, which seems to mollify the cementing matter, so as to permit the fibres to slide overone another. This may be effected either by boiling or heating; but by heating, it is very difficult to introduce a uniform temperature throughout the parts of the body to be bent. For thick planks a sand-stove, similar to the sand bath used in chemical operations, is employed; but for thin planks, a vapour-stove. BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, born 1598, died 1680. His father, Pietro Bernini, a Florentine, was a painter and sculptor of more than common talents. Giovanni's first work in architecture was the great central altar of St. Peter's, remarkable for its twisted columns; its novelty, singularity, and the difficulty of its execution surprised, and had many imitators. By desire of the pope, he adorned with niches the four great piers which support the cupola of St. Peter's. He was employed in the construction of the palace Barberini, particularly in that of the stairs, the great hall, and the principal front. The front has on the lower floor a Doric, very well understood; but the application of so many cornices, and the great arched windows, do not add to the beauty of the structure. The front of the Propaganda Fide is also the work of Bernini: that building threatened ruin, to prevent which he erected a battering basement, which increased at the same time both the beauty and strength of the structure. Urban VIII. wishing to complete the front of St. Peter's, which, according to the design of Maderno, required, at its extremities, two steeples, gave the commission to Bernini. He designed and executed the fine fountain of the Piazza Navona. For Prince Ludovisi, he begun a great palace, which in its principal front presented five faces; this edifice was afterwards converted into a great law-court, called Curia Innocenziana, one of the finest palaces in Rome. Alexander VII. gave him many works to execute, among which is the piazza before St. Peter's. By order of this pope, he planned many buildings, among which is remarkable, the palace of Santi Apostoli. The very elegant church, of an elliptic figure, of the Novitiate of the Jesuits, is likewise his. Louis XIV. and Colbert his minister, both admirers of the fine arts, ordered Bernini to make drawings for the palace of the Louvre, for which building the first architects were stimulated; these drawings pleased so much, that the monarch sent him his portrait set in gems, and wrote very engaging letters to the pope, and to Bernini himself, that he might go to France to execute them. In consequence of which, though an old man, he left Rome, and went fo Paris, where he was received as if the only man worthy to work for Louis XIV. When Bernini had seen the front of the Louvre, by Perault, he said publicly, that his coming to France was useless, where there were architects of the first _ __ _~_ I — - _ — I ~ - ~.- ~ ~: ~ BIT 86 BLO BIT 36 BLO class. This trait does more honour to Bernini, than all his abilities as an architect. In fact, with regard to architecture, which he was sent principally for to France, he did nothing. He made the king's bust, and during the eight months he staid in France, he was paid at the rate of five pounds a day; and received at last a gift of 50,000 crowns, and an annual pension of 2000, and a pension for his son, whom he took with him, of 500. When he returned to France, in gratitude to his majesty, he made an equestrian statue, which was placed in Versailles. Under Pope Clement IX. he embellished the bridge of St. Angelo with an elegant iron balustrade. BEVEL, the oblique angle which the two surfaces of a body make with one another; the name also of an instrument for taking oblique angles. That which is most commonly used, has the stock nortised to receive the blade, which is fixed to the stock by a pin, and made to form any angle by that means: this is particularly useful when one or a few angles are to be taken. In some places, for the want of space, this bevel cannot be applied: to accommodate this circumstance, the blade is made to shift in the stock; so that either part from the pin may be of any given length. The blade is made to pass through the pin by a longitudinal mortise, and fixed fist to the stock by means of a screw, after setting it to the angle When many things are to be wrought to the same angle, an immovable bevel should be used, particularly when the blade, or stock, or both, are incurvated: when the interior angle is used, this bevel is called a joint-hook. In working the intradosses, and radiating beds of stone arches, a joint-hook should be employed; one of the sides is incurvated to the arch, and the other straight side is a part of the radius produced: the workman must here observe, that this hook will apply, whatever be the thickness of the stones. BILLET MOULDING, a moulding peculiar to Norman architecture, consisting of small cylinders placed lengthwise at regular distances in a concave semicircular moulding. The entire moulding consisted generally of two rows or tiers; the cylinders in each tier ranged in such a manner that one cylinder should not come immediately above or below another, but they were placed alternately so that a space was al*ays opposed to a cylinder, and vice versa. A square billet, called also corbel-bole, is likewise found. This differs from the above, inasmuch as the billets are cubes instead of cylinders, and are placed on a flat band, or on the naked walling, their usual office being to support a blocking course. BINDING JOISTS, those beams in a floor, which support transversely the bridgings above, and the ceiling joists below. See BRIDGING FLOORS. When binding joists are placed parallel to the chimneys side of a room, the extreme one on this side ought never to be placed close to the breast, but at a distance equal to the breadth of the slab, in order to allow for the throwing of the brick trimmer for the support of the hearth. BINDING-RAFTERS, the same as PURLINS. BIRD'S-MOUTH, an interior angle cut on the end of a piece of timber, in order to rest firmly upon an exterior angle of another piece. BIT, a boring instrument, so constructed as to be inserted or taken out of a handle, called a stock, by means of a spring. The general form of the handle is divided into five parts, all in the same plane, the middle and two extreme parts being parallel. The two extreme parts are in the same straight line, one of them has a brass end, with a socket for containing the bit, which when fixed falls into the same straight line with the other end of the stock; the farther end has a knob so attached as to remain stationary; while all the other parts of the apparatus may be turned round by means of the projecting part of the handle. BITS are of various kinds, depending on their use: Shell BITS are used for boring wood, and have an interior cylindric concavity for containing the core. Centre BITs, are those which run upon a centre in the middle of the breadth; one extremity is formed into a cutting edge, which cuts the wood across the grain around the circumference, and the radius on the other side of the centre contains a cutting edge, the whole length of this radius, and projects forward from the face of the bit, so as to take out the core, which in the act of-boring forms a spiral. The use of the centre-bit, is to form a large cylindric hole or excavation, having the upper point of the axis of the cylinder given on the surface of the wood. The centre of the bit is fixed into this point, then placing the axis of the stock and bit in the intended direction, the head being placed against the breast, turn it swiftly round by the handle, and the core will be discharged by rising upwards. Centre bits are of different diameters. Countersinks, are bits for widening the upper part of a hole, in wood or iron, to take in the head of a screw or pin, so as not to appear above the surface of the wood. Countersinks have from two to twelve cutters around the surface of a cone, which contains a vertical angle of ninety degrees. Countersinks for iron have two cutting edges, and those for wood and brass, the greatest number. Rimers, are bits for widening holes, and for this purpose are of a pyramidal structure, having their vertical angle about 33 degrees. In the use of rimers, the hole must be first pierced by means of a drill or punch. The operation of a rimer is rather scraping than boring. Rimers for boring brass, have their horizontal sections of a semicircular figure, and those for iron, polygonal. Taper Shell BITS, are conical within and without, with their horizontal sections crescent-formed. The use of shellbits is to widen holes in wood. Besides the above bits, some stocks are provided with a screwdriver, for sinking small screws into wood with greater rapidity that could be done by hand. BITUMEN, a tenacious matter, used in early Eastern structures, instead of mortar. The walls of Babylon, we are informed, were cemented with this matter. See ASPHALTUM. BLANK DOOR, is that which is either shut to prevent passage, or placed in the back of a recess, where there is no entrance, so as to appear like a real door. BLANK WINDOW, is that which is made to appear like a real window; but is only formed in the recess of a wall. When it is necessary to introduce blank windows, in order to preserve the symmetry, it is much better to build the apertures as the other real windows, provided that flues or funnels does not interfere, and instead of representing the sashes with paint, real sashes should be introduced: the panes of glass may be painted on the back. BLINDS, screens forming an appendage to a window, for the purpose either of excluding light, or of preventing persons outside from seeing into the interior of an apartment. Blinds are made of various materials, and of forms too numerous and too well known to need description in this work. BLOCKING-COURSE, or simply BLOCKING, in masonry, a course of stones laid on the top of the cornice, crowning the walls. The blocking-courses were used by the ancients to terminate the walls of a building, as well as attics. The pilastrade of the arch of the Goldsmiths, at Rome, is surrounded with a blocking-course, the height of which is nearly equal to the breadth of the pilasters. The height of that on the Colosseum is nearly once and a half of the pilasters, or nearly equal to the cornice and frieze taken together: the same may be said of the amphitheatre at lyl3~lrrrrrrrrrr~rrrsl —~lrrr~r~r ~ r. -..~t L BOA 37 BOA BOA~ 87BO Verona. The blocking-course of the temple of Jupiter, at Spalatro, is in height something less that the upper diameter of the column. BLOCKINGS, in joinery, are small pieces of timber fitted in, and glued or fixed to the interior angle of two boards, or other pieces, in order to give additional strength to the joint. In gluing up columns, the staves are all successively glued, and strengthened with blockings; also the risers and treads of stairs, and all other joinings that require more additional strength than what their own joints will give. Blockings are always concealed from the sight. BLONDEL, JOHN FRANCIS, died 1773, at Metz. lie constructed the royal abbey of St. Louis, with a square and street, leading directly opposite to the cathedral; he erected also the town-house, with a building opposite, and farther on barracks, with magazines over them. The fine fiont of the parliament-house, and the sumptuous palace of the bishop, are also his works. He showed no less ability at Strasburg, whers, in 1768, he took the plan of that city, and built there barracks for infantry and cavalry, a hall or amphitheatre, with three tiers of boxes, a royal square, a senate-house, a market, and various stone bridges. This celebrated architect, besides other works executed at Paris and elsewhere, furnished the plates of the last edition of D'Avilen on French architecture, in three volumes, with six hundred plates of the principal edifices in France. These three volumes were to have been followed by five others. He established an architectural school at Paris, in 1744. In the middle of all this work, he became a writer for the French Encyclopedia; but his great work, of universal utility, is the Course of Architecture, the result, as he says, of forty years' experience and researches. The work is divided into three parts; the first regards beauty or decoration, and is comprised in two volumes in octavo, with the volume of figures; the second treats of convenience or distribution, and contains the like number of volumes; the third part, on the solidity of building, the author did not live to complete. BOARD, a piece of timber, of an oblong or trapezoidal section, and of any length. All timbers less than two inches and a half in thickness, and more than four inches broad, may be called boards. When boards are of a trapezoidal section, that is, thinner on one edge than the other, they are called feather-edged boards. Boards broader than nine inches, are called planks. Fir boards are called deals; these are generally imported into England ready sawed, because they are prepared cheaper abroad, by means of saw-mills. Fir boards, one inch and a quarter thick, are called whole-eal; and those full half an inch thick, are called slit-deal. BOARDED FLOORS, are those covered with boards. The operation of boarding floors may commence as soon as the windows are in, and the plaster dry. The preparations of the boards for this purpose are as follow. They should be planed on their best face, and set out to season till the natural sap has been quite expelled. See SEASONING OF WOOD. They may next be planed smooth, shot and squared upon one edge; the opposite edges are brought to a breadth, by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with a flooring guage; they are then guaged to a thickness with a common guage, and rebated down on the back to the lines drawn by the guage. The next thing to be done is to try the joists, whether they be level or not; if they are fouhd to be depressed in the middle, they must be furred up; and if found to be protuberant, must be reduced by the adze: the former is more generally the case. The boards employed in flooring are either battens, or deals of greater breadth. -. With reference to quality, battens are divided into three classes; the best kind is that free from knots, shakes, sap. wood, or cross-grained stuff, and well matched, that is, selected with the greatest care; the second best is that in which only small but sound knots are permitted, and free from shakes and sapwood; the most common kind is that which is left after taking away the best and second-. best. With regard to the joints of flooring-boards, they are either quite square, plowed and tongued, rebated, or doweled: in fixing them they are nailed either upon one or both edges. They are always necessarily nailed on both edges when the joints are plain or square, without dowels. When they are doweled, they may be nailed on one or both edges; but in the best doweled work, the outer edge only is nailed, by driving the brad obliquely through that edge, without piercing the surface of the boards, so that the surface of the floor, when cleaned off, appears without blemish. In laying boarded floors, the boards are sometimes laid after one another; or otherwise, one is first laid, then another, leaving an interval something less than the breadth of three, four, or five boards in contact; so that if the first and sixth boards are laid, there will be an interval something less than the breadth of four boards. Now place the four intermediate boards in contact with each other, and the two outer edges in contact with the edges of the first and sixth boards already laid. The space left, as above mentioned, being somewhat less than the width of four boards, will not allow this number to lie flat, but will cause them to assume the form of an arch, having the under parts of the edges in close contact, while the upper parts will remain open. In order, therefore, to bring them to a level and the joints close, two or more workmen must jump upon the ridges till they have brought the under sides of the boards close to the joists, when they are fixed in their places with brads. In this last method the boards are said to be folded. This mode is only adopted when the boards are not sufficiently seasoned, or suspected to be so. In order to make close work, it is obvious that the two edges, forming each of the three joists of the second and third, third and fourth, fourth and fifth boards, must form angles with the faces, each less than a right angle. The eleventh board is fixed as the sixth, and the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth, are inserted as the second, third, fourth, and fifth; and so on till the completion. The headings are either square, splayed, or plowed and tongued. When it is necessary to have a heading in the length of the floor, it should always be upon a joist, and one heading should never meet another. When floors are doweled, it is more necessary to place dowels over the middle of the inter-joist than over the joists, in order to prevent the dge of the one board from passing that of the other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge, the brads are most frequently concealed, by driving flooring. brads slantingly through the outer edge of every successive board without piercing the upper surface. In adzing away the under-sides of the boards opposite to the joists in order to equalize their thickness, the greatest care should be taken to chip them straight, and exactly down to the rebates, as the soundness of the floor depends on this. Boards employed in flooring houses are from an inch to an inch and a half thick. The best floors are those that are laid with the best battens. BOARDING-JOISTS, are those joists in naked flooring to which the boards are fixed. BOARDING, Luffer. See LUFFER-BOARDS, and LEVERBOARDS. BOARDING FOR PUGGING OR DEAFENING, See SOUNDBOARDING, _ _ __ ~ ~_ _____ ___ ____i lir.' -- --—...; - BOL 38 BON BOL~~ 38B BOARDING FOR SLATING, are boards nailed to the rafters for fixing the slates. They are in general about threequarters or seven-eighths of an inch thick, the sides are most commonly rough, the edges either rough, shot, plowed and tongued, or rebated, and sometimes sprung, that is, beveled, so as to prevent the rain from running through the joists. Boarding for slates may be made so as to take away the lateral pressure from the walls, by disposing the boards in the form of a truss. Upon the lower edge of the boarding must be fixed the eaves-lath or board, and also against all walls that are either at right angles to, or forming an acute angle with the ridge, or a right or obtuse angle with the wall-plate. The eaves-lath at the bottom is for raising the lower ends of the under row of slates which form the eave. Those placed against walls in the positions now mentioned are for raising the slates, in order to make the water run off from the wall, as otherwise it would make its way below the lead and down the joint, between the end of the slates and the wall. Boarding for slates should be yellow deal without sap, which, as well as weather-boarding, is measured by the superficial foot, and valued in the bill by the square of one hundred superficial feet. BOARDING FOR LEADEN PLATFORMS AND GUTTERS, is seldom less than one and one eighth, or one and one-quarter inch thick, most frequently with rough joints only. BOARDING FOR LINING WALLS, is commonly about fiveeighths or three-quarters of an inch thick, plowed and tongued together. BOARDING FOR OUTSIDE WALLS. See WEATHER-BOARDING. BOARDS, Listed, are those reduced in their breadth by taking away the sap-wood. BOARDS, Lever, are those placed in the opening of an aperture made to turn on centres at the ends, in one movement, so as to admit or exclude the air at pleasure. BOARDS FOR THIE VALLEYS OF A ROOF. See VALLEYBOARDS. BOASTER, or BOASTING-TOOL, in masonry. See MASONIC TOOLS. BOASTING, in stone-cutting, is pairing the stone with a broad chisel and mallet, but not in uniform lines. BOASTING, in carving, is the rough cutting round the ornaments, so as to reduce them to their contours or outlines, before the incisions are made for forming the raffels or minute parts. BODY OF A NICuE, is that part of the recess which has its superficies vertical. If the lower part is cylindrical, and the upper part spherical, the lower part is the body, and the upper part is called the head. See NICHE. BODY OF A ROOM: where there are recesses in the ends or sides, the principal part, from which the recews are made, is called the body. BODY RANGE OF A GROIN. When two openings intersect each other, the widest is called the body range. See GROIN. BOFFRAND, GERMAIN, an architect born at Nantes, in 1667, and died at Paris, aged eighty-seven. He built several grand edifices, and executed a number of bridges, canals, &c. He also wrote on the principles of architecture.D'Arnenville Du Fresnoy. BOLSTERS. See BALUSTERS OF THE IONIC CAPITAL. BOLT, in joinery, an iron fastening for a door, moved by the hand, and catching in a staple or notch to receive it. BOLTS are of various kinds: plate, spring, and flush bolts, are for fastening doors and windows. There are also round bolts of various sizes, for large doors and gates, and some curious brass bolts for folding-doors, which have plates set on the edge of the door, extending the whole length, so that by a turn of the knob-handle in the centre of the door, the bolts shut up and down at the same time; and by turning the contrary way the bolts are relieved, and both doors open at once, without further trouble; these are mostly used when it is necessary to lay two rooms into one. As these bolts are expensive, there are others nearly on the same principle, denominated spring-latch bolts, about thirteen inches long, with a stout plate: two of these are required to a pair of doors, one at the top, and the other at the bottom: each bolt is shut by a spring, against which the right hand presses, and being shut, both are secured. BOLT OF A LOCK, the iron part by which it is fastened into the jamb, in the act of turning it by the key. Of these there are two kinds: one, which, in the closing of the door, shuts of itself, and is called a spring-bolt; the other, which is shut by the key, is called a dormant-bolt. BOLTS, are also large iron cylindrical pins, with round knobs at one end of a greater diameter, and a slit at the other end, through which a pin or fore-lock passes, for making fast the bar of a door, window-shutter, or the like. These are particularly called round-bolts, or window-bolts. BOLTS OF IRON, in carpentry, are those square or cylindrical pins which pass through two or more pieces of timber, with a broad knob at one end, and a nut screwed to the other, for securing them together. Bolts of this description must always be proportioned to the size-and stress of the timbers so connected. BOMON, in Grecian antiquity, an altar to a god. BONANNO, an architect who flourished about 1174. He built the famous tower at Pisa, in conjunction with Guillaume, a German.-Felebien. BONARRO1TI, BUONAROTI, or BONAROTA, MICHAEL ANGELO, a celebrated painter, sculptor, and architect, born at Chiusi, in Tuscany, in the year 1474. His talents were so early developed, that he is figuratively said to have been born a painter; and his parents, observing the turn of his genius, put him under the tuition of Dorninico Ghirlandaio, whom he soon surpassed; for at the age of sixteen he executed some pieces rivaling even those of antiquity. Under the auspices of that great patron of the arts, Lorenzo di Medicis, he established an academy for painting and sculpture at Florence; which on account of the troubles of the house of Medici. he afterwards removed to Bologna. At the age of twenty-nine, he was employed by Pope Julius II. to construct a grand mausoleum; but before it was finished, he returned to Florence in disgust, on account of some pecuniary matters. From Florence he would have gone to CUnstantinople, whither he had been invited by the grand signor, to build a bridge from that city to Pera, had he not been prevailed upon to return to Rome by Soderini, the gonfalonier, or holy standardbearer. This officer recommended him to his brother, Cardinal Soderini, who introduced him to the pope, at Bologna. Here he met with an envious competitor, in the person of Lazzari Bramante d'Urbino, who had been employed by the pope, and was unwilling to share his honours and profits with another. He endeavoured to excite a spirit of discontent in Bonarrotti, by insinuating that the pope was too much offended at his former conduct, to permit him to resume the building of the mausoleum; and to the pope he represented, that as Bonarrotti was a painter, he might be more advantageously employed in painting the arch of the Sextine chapel, at Rome, than in any other work. It should seem from this, that Bonarrotti had not yet displayed those talents as a painter, with which he afterwards fascinated the world; for it is certain that Bramante, considering him as a dangerous rival, meant nothing less than his complete disgrace. Bonarrotti, - however, though contrary to his inclination, painted the arch, ----1-i —~I p -_ _ BON 39 BON BON 39BO so much to the pope's satisfaction, that he was taken into greater favour than ever. Pope Leo X. ordered him to make a design for the front of the cflrch of St. Laurence, at Florence, for which also several other architects had given a drawing, but Bonarrotti's being preferred, he was sent to Florence to superintend the building; the vestry of which is reckoned among his best productions. In this city he also built the Medicean Library, the niches and staircase of which are of very curious construction. On the death of Sangallo, in 1546, the pope, Paul III., appointed Bonarrotti architect of St. Peter's, at Rome, an appointment which he at first declined; but being vested with unlimited powers for carrying on the work, he not only accepted it, but even refused any remuneration for his labours. Sangallo had left a model for finishing the building, which had cost 4184 Roman crowns, and occupied some years in making; according to which the edifice itself could not have been completed in fifty years and upwards. The first use Bonarrotti made of his extensive commission was to set this model aside; and in fifteen days he produced another,, for the small cost of twenty-five crowns, by which he proposed to raise that venerable pile with far greater facility and expedition, and with more majestic grandeur, than theplans of any of his predecessors could have given it. The four great piers, by which the cupola was to be supported, had been erected by Bramante, but they were so very weak, that succeeding architects had found it necessary to strengthen then. Bonarrotti thinking them still insufficient for the purpose, he enlarged them to their present gigantic size, and contrived to leave voids, like wells, in them, probably for the purpose of keeping them dry. Similar vacuities he left in the principal walls, through which he carried a winding staircase, so wide, and upon so gentle an ascent, that he was enabled to convey materials to the height of the level of the arches on beasts of burden. The great cornice over the arches difelrs from the common cornice, in having less projection and fewer members; and the imposts of the pilasters have a greater projection. In each of the two curved extremities of the transept, it had been intended by former architects to place eight tabernacles, or altars; but Bonarrotti reduced their number to three, and threw an arch over them, subdivided into a few well-proportioned compartments; and to prevent any alteration in his design by future architects, he built the whole so solid that it could not conveniently be changed. He lived, however, to see the building carried to the height of the tambour on which the cupola was to be laid, when, on account of his age, his friends urged him to firame a model of the dome, lest what he had already done should be spoiled by the incapacity or whim of a succeeding architect. With this request he complied, and formed one of clay, which he afterwards caused to be made of more durable materials, by Giovanni Farnese. This model was universally approved, and finally executed in the pontificate of Sextus V. While Bonarrotti was engaged in the building of St. Peter's, the officers called conservators, in the time of Paul Ill., resolved to reduce the Capitol to a useful and convenient shape, for which purpose they applied to Bonarrotti. He accordingly began the Senators' Palace, in the centre, ascended from without by a double flight of steps, landing on a level introduced between the two flights. The wiug, denominated the Conservatorium, is entirely from his design. The ground-floor consists of an external and an internal portico, supported by sixty-eight columns of the Ionic order, surmounted with that elegant capital, the invention of which is attributed to himself. There is, however, a great blemish in this part of the building; for, in order to give a due proportion to the width of the portico, the columns are niched into the wall, an expedient never productive of beautiful effect. About this time, he also finished the Farnesian Palace, which had been begun by Sangallo. He likewise designed and executed the gate, called Porta Pia, the architecture of which is not very regular; of many other gates designed by him, it is uncertain whether any of them were ever constructed, but they are all of the same irregular taste. The great central hall of the Dioclesian baths was converted into a church from a design of his; as were the chapel of the Strozzi family at Florence, and the college of the Sapienza. except the part where the church is situated; it is upon tne whole a very fine edifice. Old age having at length rendered this great architct; incapable of personal exertions, Nanni Bigio was secretly commissioned by the pope to superintend the building of St. Peter's, but with strict orders to adhere minutely to the plans and model of Bonarrotti, who died in 1564, in his 90th year; before the Jome was completed. His body was transported to Florence by order.f Comes de Medicis, where it received the most splendid funeral honours, and a superb mausoleum was erected to his memory, at the expense of the grand duke. BOND, in building, in a general sense, is the manner of making two or more bodies fast together. BOND, in masonry, or brickwork, is the disposition of stones or bricks in building. It is a principle in every kind of bond to prevent vertical joints falling upon one another. When a course of masonry has any number of stones placed at regular intervals in the length of that course, and the lengths of the stone placed in the thickness of the wall, and when there are two or more intermediate stones in the same course, with their lengths placed horizontally on the facing or surface, between each two of the former stones: this kind of bond is called header and stretcher. The stones which have their length placed in the thickness of the wall are called headers, and those which have their longest horizontal dimensions placed in the exterior, or front, are called stretchers. Where masonry consists of rubble-work, and where the stones are not disposed in courses, the jambs of apertures, should there be any, are generally built with ashlar; every second stone in the height of each jam is inserted so as to pass through the whole thickness of the wall; and the horizontal dimension on the facing of every intermediate stone is much greater than that of those which are inserted the whole thickness. The stones that are inserted the whole thickness of the wall are called heading jambs, and the intermediate stones which have their length placed horizontally in the face, are called stretching jambs. BOND, Heart, in masonry, is, when two stones which appear in the front and rear of a wall meet in the centre of it, and when a third stone is placed over the joint, in order to bind the facing and backing together, where otherwise it would be expensive to insert stones the whole thickness of the wall. BOND-STONES, are those used in uncoursed rubble walling, that have their longest horizontal dimensions placed in the thickness of the work: these should be placed at regular intervals,.both altitadinally and horizontally, so that every stone of-one row may fall between every two of each adjacent row. Bond-stones that are inserted the whole thickness of masonry are called perpends or perpend-stones. Bond-stones only differ from headers in this, that bond-stones are used to bind rubble and brickwork, and headers are laid in regular courses, with an equal number of headers between every two stretchers. BOND, English, is, when every two courses of bricks with the length of the bricks inserted in the thickness of the wall, -- - I -— - — ~rr_-.i:._.:.l r- — ~~i ~ Iri;-i~ ~_r — -r_.. ----; —~-~- ~. -i -- -.. I -- --- BON 40 BOR BO 0 O has one course between them, with their lengths placed horizontally in the front of the wall: the courses in which the length of the bricks is placed in the thickness of the wall, are called heading-courses; and those which have the length of the bricks placed horizontally in the face of the work, are called stretching-courses. BOND, Flemish, in brickwork, is that which has one header between every two stretchers, and one stretcher between every two headers throughout the same course. This is considered the neatest and most beautiful; but is attended with great inconvenience in the execution, and in most cases does not unite the parts of a wall with the same degree of firmness as the English bond. Those who are desirous to enter into an examination of the comparative merits of these two species of Bond, will be gratified in the perusal of Mr. G. Saunders' Tract on Brickbond; it is sufficient in this place to observe generally, that whatever advantages are gained by the Flemish Bond in tying a wall together in its thickness, are lost in the longitudinal bond; and vice versa. To remove this inconvenience, in thick walls, some builders place the bricks in the core at an angle of forty-five degrees, called herring-bone, parallel to each other throughout the length of every course, but reversed in the alternate courses; so that the bricks cross each other at right angles. But even here, though the bricks in the core have sufficient bond, the sides are very imperfectly tied to the core, on account of the triangular interstices formed by the oblique direction of the internal bricks against the flat edges of those on the outside. With respect to English bond, it may be remarked, that as the longitudinal extent of a brick is nine inches, and its breadth four and a half; it is usual-to prevent two vertical joints fiom running over each other at the end of the first stretcher from the corner, after placing the return corner stretcher, which becomes a header in the face that the stretcher is in below, and occupies half the length of this stretcher-to place a quarter brick on the side, so that the two together extend six inches and three-quarters, leaving a lap of two inches and a half for the next header. The bat thus introduced is called a closer. A similar effect might be obtained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner of the stretching course, and then the corner header being laid over it, a lap of two inches and a half will be left at the end of the stretchers below, for the next header, which being laid, the joint below the stretchers will coincide with its middle. BOND-TIMBERS, are those horizontal pieces, built in stone or brick walls, for strengthening the building, and securing the battening, lath, and plaster: also the horizontal mouldings, or finishings of wood. Bond-timbers disposed in tires, at altitudes corresponding to those of the horizontal mouldings, in the finishing of apartments, as behind skirtings, bases, and surbases, are called common-bond; the scantling of which is generally four inches broad in the thickness of the wall, and two inches and a half thick in the altitude of the wall, so as to be equal in thickness to a course of bricks. Bond-timbers placed in or near the imiddle of the story, of eight inches wide in the thickness of the wall, and five inches and a half deep (or about the length and thickness of two bricks) in the altitude of the wall, are called chain-timbers, or chain-bond. In brick buildings, when the lintels of a range of windows are considerably below the ceiling, the lintels may be continued through the walls as bond-timbers: in this case the thickness of the bond-timbers should be regulated by the necessary thickness of the lintels. When bond-timbers are also the wall-plates of floors or roofs, their scantling is generally the same as that of the chain-bond. The whole of the plate and chain-bond should be continued on one side of each internal wall, where the funnels or flues permit, as well as on the inside of the external walls, and properly notched and fastened at the angles. Bondtimbers will, in most cases, prevent a building from cracking, where the foundation is infirm: they are easily executed in brickwork, or in coursed stone-work; but in rubble-stone it is difficult, as the work must be leveled at every height in which they are disposed; for which reason plugging is preferable in such work. Plugging has one very material advantage over bond-timbers, that in case of fire, the walls are less liable to tumble or warp, for they are not reduced in their thickness; but this must be the case where bond-timbers are employed, as they form a part of the thickness of the walls themselves. Bond-timbers should be avoided in damp situations, such as basements of houses, as they are liable to rot and thus render the buildings insecure. Within the last few years, a practice has arisen of introducing iron-hoop in place of bond-timber. Several strips or lengths of hoop are laid on at every four or five courses of bricks, and worked in as bond-timbers are-sometimes they are placed at intervals of three or four feet in the height of walls. It is pretended that great advantages, as regards danger from fire, result from this practice, but we are strongly inclined to the opinion that whatever good may arise from the incombustible nature of the material, is more than counterbalanced by the absence of the same strength as that given by timber-bond. BONDS, are all the timbers disposed in the walls of a house, such as bond-timbers, lintels, and wall-plates. See FIR, in BOND. BONING, in carpentry and masonry, is the act of making a plane surface by the direction of the eye. It is by boning with two straight edges that joiners try up their work, whether it be in or out of winding, that is, whether the surface be twisted or a plane. Many country masons and bricklayers level the tops of their walls without an instru ment, by boning them with the contour of the surface of the sea, where it is not apparently terminated with land on the other side. This mode comes so near the truth, even though the building be raised a considerable distance above the surface of the water, that the difference cannot be perceived upon the common levels. BONOMI, JOSEPH, an architect, born in Italy, and died in 1808. He was an associate of the Royal Academy in London. He built several mansions and villas, and was esteemed an artist of superior ability. BOOTH, a temporary wooden building. BORDERS, are three pieces of wood which are generally mitered together round the slab of a chimney, flush with the surface of the floor. BORING, the act of perforating a solid. For the purpose of boring wood, joiners use a centre-bit, nose-bit, shell-bit, and auger-bit, each kind of which is of many sizes. See BIT. BORROMINI, FRANCISCO, born in 1599, in Bissone, diocese of Como. His father was an architect, and much employed by the Casa, or family of Visconti. Francisco was sent, at an early age, to Milan, to study sculpture; and, at seventeen years of age, he went to Rome to be instructed in architecture, by his relation, Carlo Maderno, who also had him instructed in geometry. Maderno set him to take fair copies of his drawings, and made him execute the cherubim on either side of the small doors of St. Peter's, which, with the drapery and festoons over the arches, are the only works of Borromini's chisel. He delighted in painting, and some of his pictures are very good, among which is one of the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, in Rome. On Maderno's death, Borromini was made architect of St. Peter's and i__~__ ~_I ~~ __ C _~ l C I BOX 41 BOX BOX 41 BO remained a little while under the direction of Bernini; but becoming first emulous of him, then envious, and finally his enemy, he endeavoured to get more commissions for work, and in fact was employed in a vast number of buildings, where, trying to surpass Bernini in novelties, he laid aside the common rules, and bewildered his imagination and talents in a labyrinth of extravagances. At the bottom of the court of the Sapienza, he built a church with a concave front, on a polygonal plan, with its sides alternately concave and convex; the exterior of the cupola, which is surrounded above by a balustrade, has a similar figure; the convex part being formed into steps, interrupted by buttresses. But the lantern is still more whimsical, having its vase in a zig-zag form, on which is erected a spiral staircase, sustaining a crown of metal with a ball and cross at top. However, the greatest delirium of Borromini, is the style of the church of San Carlino alle Quattro Fontane. So many right, concave, and convex lines, so many columns upon columns of different proportions, with windows, niches, and sculptures, in so small a front, carnot but excite pity for the derangement of the mind by which they were projected. The oratory of the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, has likewise its front composed of orbiculated and right lines; where everything is deranged and out of order: undulating coronae, which, instead of helping the discharge of the water, retain it; delicate mouldings under great weights; mouldings of a strange and new form; breaks only in the architrave of the entablature; prominences, contortions, and every kind of absurdity. There appears, nevertheless, in this building a something harmonious and handsome, but better adapted (as Bernini said) to a country-house or villa, than to the second edifice of a city. The flat arch of the oratory is rather wonderful, being of a much larger size than that of Santa Martina, made by Cortona. Though it supports above it the weight of the great library, the wall of one of its larger sides is not flanked with counterforts, but stands insulated, fronting the street. The habitation of these fathers of the oratory, is one of the best buildings of Borromini, yet it is not without its whimsicalities, in the porticos and loggias of the cloisters, supported by a single Composite pilaster: the tower of the clock is likewise mixtilinear. The best work of Borromini, is the front of St. Agnes, in the Piazza Navona. The king of Spain, wishing to modernize and enlarge his palace at Rome, Borromini was commissioned to do it; for which purpose he made a drawing, and though it was never executed, it gave such satisfaction, that the monarch honoured the author with the cross of St. James, and made him a present of 1000 dollars. Pope Urban VIII. likewise created aim knight of Christ, gave him 3000 dollars, and settled an annual pension on him. Part of the palace Barberini; the whole of the monastery and church of the Madonna de' Sette' Dolori, at the foot of San Pietro Montorio; and the palace of Rufina, at Frescati, were built by this architect; he also modernized the palace Falconnier, and embellished that of Spada. Besides these, he executed many other works, and sent to various countries designs of buildings, which produced him fame and riches. Borromini was one of the first men of his age for the elevation of his genius, and one of the last for the ridiculous use he made of it. The frenzy which he had displayed in scientific pursuits, extended, as he advanced in years, to moral objects; and he at length died, a lunatic, by his own hands, in 1667. BOSS, a projecting ornament placed on the intersections of groins, usually carved in the form of a leaf or other ornamental foliage, or, in the later periods of Gothic architecture, richly sculptured with armorial bearings. Bosses were employed in vaulting, not for mere ornament, but formed an 6, essential feature in the construction, as they tended by then weight to retain the voussoirs in their respective positions, and to confine the arches, so as to counteract any tendency to upward motion; they formed, in fact, the key-stones of the vault, binding the whole work firmly together.-Bosses are used in other situations as ornaments to mouldings, &c. Boss, among bricklayers, a wooden vessel in which the labourers put the mortar to be used in tiling. It has an iron hook, with which it is hung on the laths or on a ladder. BOSSAGE, the projection of stones laid rough in a building, to be afterwards carved into mouldings or ornaments. Bossages are also projecting rustic quoins in a building, with indentures or channels at the joints. The channels are sometimes square, sometimes chamfered, or beveled, and sometimes circular. BOULANGER, NICHOLAS ANTHONY, an architect, born at Paris, 1722, and died in 1759, aged thirty-seven. He became so eminent in architecture and mathematics, though entirely of his own study, that he was made engineer to the baron of Thiers, and afterwards appointed superintendent of the highways and bridges. He was author of some articles in the Encyclopedia, and several other works. BOULDER WALLS, are those built of round flints, or pebbles, laid in strong mortar, used where the sea has a beach cast up, or where there are plenty of flints. BOUND MASONRY. See STONE WALLS. 1BOUNDARY COLUMN. See COLUMN. BOW, a part of some buildings projecting forward from the face of the wall, and raised from a plan generally on the arc of a circle, so as to form the segment of a cylinder. It is sometimes, however, raised from a plan consisting of three sides, two external obtuse angles, formed by each two contiguous sides, and two internal obtuse angles, formed by the wall and the sides which adjoin thereto. A bow, raised from a polygonal plan, with three, four, or five vertical sides; or a prism so disposed, is termed a canted or polygonal bow. In some buildings the bow is carried to the whole height, in others, only to one or two stories. Bow, among draughtsmen, denotes a beam of wood or brass, with three long screws that direct a lath of wood or steel to an arch, used in drawing flat arches, or in projections of the sphere. BOW-WINDOW, a window projecting from the general face of a building on a curvilinear plan, and rising from the ground or basement. See BAY and ORIEL WINDOWS. BOX, in its most general acceptation, denotes a case for holding anything. Box OF A BIB-SAW, two thin iron plates fixed to a handle. In one of the iron plates is an opening to receive a wedge, by which it is fixed to the saw. Box FOR MITERING. See MITRE-BOX. Box OF A THEATRE, one of the compartments of a gallery. BoxINGS OF A WINDOW, are the two cases, one on each side of the window, into which each of the adjacent shutters is folded, when light is require in the room. The leaves which appear in the front of each boxing, are denominated front shutters; and those in the back, are called back flaps. In order to estimate the breadth of flaps, and the depth of boxing-room; suppose each boxing to be filled with the shutters which are to cover half the breadth of the opening: add the thicknesses of all the folds together, with as many one-sixteenths of an inch as there are breadths, and the sum is the depth of the boxing. Thus, suppose a window to be four feet wide, placed in a brick wall eighteen inches thick, let the sash-frame be six inches thick, and placed four inches and a half from the face of the wall, or the breadth of a brick; this will reduce the wall to seven inches and a hal. I _ _ __ _ _ __ BRA 42 BRA BRA 42 BR thick; to this add the necessary thickness for lath and plaster, about two inches, gives nine inches and a half for the breadth of the shutter: nine inches and a half will be contained in twenty-four inches, or the half of four feet, twice, with a remainder; therefore there must be three leaves or folds in a shutter, viz., a front leaf, and two back flaps. The front leaf should be necessarily the whole breadth of the boxing, or nine inches and a half; and the two back flaps between them, the remainder between nine inches and a half and twenty-four inches, that is, fourteen inches and a half. The back flap should always be the least, in order that the shutters may go freely into the boxing; the middle one, therefore, may be eight inches, and the back one six inches and a half, for 9 -+8+6-= 24; but if the flaps are rebated into one another, which is most commonly the case, whatever be the breadth of the rebate and the number of them, then so much more ought to be added to the whole breadth. In the present example, the three folds will require two rebates; let each rebate be a quarter of an inch, then, instead of reckoning twenty-four, it must be twenty-four inches and a half, and as no alteration can be made on the front flap, it must be added to one of the back flaps; the three flaps may therefore stand thus, 9++81+6=-24i. Besides this allowance in breadth, there is another for the rebate at the meeting in the middle of the window of the two back flaps; if this rebate be a quarter of an inch also, it may be added to the shutters on either side of the window, or it may be divided in any -proportion between; let it be equally divided, then the breadth of the flaps may stand thus, 9X4+8-+6-=24-. To find the thickness, suppose the front flap to be one inch and a half, the two back flaps each one inch and a quarter, then il- 14+1- T 3 =43-, for the depth of the boxing-room. If there is a back. lining, that must be taken also into the account. When shutters are in many folds, they are troublesome to shut, and this must always be the case in thin walls, or with wide windows. To remedy this, the architraves are either made to project considerably before the plaster, or the lath and plaster are brought to a considerable distance from the rough wall. BOYLE, RICHARD, Earl of Burlington. Never was protection and great wealth more generously and more judiciously diffused than by this great person, who had every quality of a genius and an artist, except envy. He spent great sums in contributing to public works, and was known to choose, that the expense should fall upon himself, rather than that his country should be deprived of some beautiful edifices. Iis enthusiasm for the works of Inigo Jones was so active, that he repaired the church of Covent-Garden, because it was the production of that great master. With the same-zeal for pure architecture, he assisted Kent in publishing the designs for Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of the Public Baths, from the drawings of Palladio, whose papers he procured with great cost. Besides the works on his own estate at Lonsborough, in Yorkshire, he new-fronted his house in Piccadilly, built by his father, and added the grand colonnade within the court. The other works designed by Lord Burlington, were the dormitory of Westminster school; the Assembly-Room at York; Lord Harrington's at Petersham; the Duke of Richmond's house at Whitehall; and General Wade's in Cork street. BRACE. See TRUSS, and ANGLE-BRACES. BRACKET, a small support fixed against a wall to sustain anything. Brackets are composed out of various materialswood, stone, metal, &c., and may be made susceptible of any ornamentation. BRACKET FOR SIIELVES. When the shelves are broad, the brackets are small trusses, consisting of a vertical piece, a horizontal piece, and a strut; but when the shelves are small, the brackets are solid pieces of boards, most commonly with an ogee figure on their outer side. BRACKETS in Gothic architecture are usually of very elegant design, and are mostly sculptured to represent angels, heads, foliage, and many other beautiful devices. They are used to support statues under niches, pillars which have their basis on a height above the ground, and for various other purposes. BRACKETS FOR STAIRS, are sometimes used under the ends of wooden steps, next to the well-hole, by way of ornament, for they have only the appearance of support. BRACKETING, a disposition of small pieces of board, equidistantly placed in the angles formed by the ceiling and the walls of an apartment, with their planes at right angles to the common intersection, so as to be partly upon the ceiling and partly upon the walls; their faces or hedges being so arranged, as to touch any level line that is everywhere equally distant from the wall or walls which may form the perimeter or circumference of the apartment. The level line equidistant from, or parallel to the walls, will either be a straight line or curve, according as the walls are carried upwards from a straight or circular plan. Bracketing is necessary in supporting the lath and plaster of cornices and coves. The edges of the brackets to which the lath is fixed, are so formed as to be as nearly equidistant from the surface of the intended cornice or cove as possible, and may be placed about an inch within the said surface. Their common distance from middle to middle may be about a foot or fourteen inches. Small cornices require no brackets; but in large cornices, and particularly in coves, they are indispensably necessary, to save the plaster. In apartments formed by walls with plain surfaces, besides the brackets which are arranged at right angles to the line of concourse of the ceilings and the walls, there are other brackets placed, one in each angle, in a vertical plane, bisecting the angle formed by each two adjacent sides of the room, at the 'mitre of the cornice, denominated angle-brackets. Let Fig. 1 be the plan of the end of the room, the internal side being A B C D E F G H, and let there be a break, c D E F, as the breast of a chimney. Let Fig. 2 be part of the plan enlarged, showing an internal angle at c, and an external angle at D: let N o r Q represent the face of the rough wall, and B C D E the finish of the plaster; then the space between N o and.B c, o P, and c D, P Q and D E will be the space for the battening, lath, and plaster. Let Fig. 3 be a section of the cornice, intended to be run by the plasterer, and let the shadowed part be the form of the common brackets: let i x, I K, &c., Fig. 2, be the projections or seats of the common brackets, each equal to A B, Fig. 3, and let L o and M P be the seats of the angle-brackets; L o being that of the internal bracket, and M p that of the external bracket. Besides the projection beyond the finishing surface of the plaster, there must be added the thickness of the battening, lath, and plaster. As the lath terminates upon the angle-brackets, and as they require to be ranked in the same surface with the edges of the common brackets, they are here made double, or in two thicknesses. Let it now be required to find the form of the brackets, either for mouldings, as Fig. 3, or for a cove: make A B, Figs. 4 and 5, equal to the projection of the common bracket; draw B b perpendicular and equal to A B, and join A b: place or draw the form of the bracket with the ceiling edge of it upon A B: take any number of points, G, H, I, K, &c., in the ranging edge of the bracket, at the concourse of every two lines, or in the curve, and draw G A, H C, I D, K E, &c., perpendicular to A B: produce H c, I D, x E, &c., to meet A b in c, d, e, &c., draw A g, c h, d i, e k, &c., ___ `4.- zzz 1-1 t 111 I - Cl Z K4 'QI -'I /2 ~.. ~ ~~ ~ ~t~ e .~ --...; ~ ~ 6 - BRA 43 BRA B 43 BRA perpendicular to A b, and make A g, c h, d i, e k, &c., each equal to A G, c H, D I, E K, &c., and join the points g, h, i, k, &c. if the ranging edge of the common bracket is made of straight lines; or draw a curve if the common bracket is a cove: then will A g, h, i, k, &c. to b, be the form of the angular bracket, whether for the external or internal angle, and g, h, i, k, &c., the ranging edge; the parts G H and g h are supposed to be within the finished surface of the plaster. Fig. 6 shows the bracket for an acute angle, and Fig. 7 for an obtuse angle; but except the quantity of the angle, the method of finding the forms is exactly the same as in Figs. 4 and 5. The common bracket of Figs. 4, 5, and 7, is laid down upon the ceiling line; but that of Fig. 6 is laid down upon the base line. In the common brackets of Figs. 5 and 6, the projections and heights are equal; but in Fig. 7, the height B c is greater than the projection A B: the shadowed parts of Figs. 6 and 7 represent the thickness of the battening, lath, and plaster. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, show the ranging both for external and internal angles. See RANGING. BRACKETING, for lath and plaster, is variously named according to the figure of the ceiling which it sustains: as groin-bracketing, spandrel-bracketing, &c. In all cases the brackets are so disposed, that their edges will be parallel to the surface of the plaster when finished: the distance between the edges of the brackets and the surface of the plaster, is, in general, about three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch, which includes the space for battening, lath, and plaster. See COVE, DOME, GROIN, PENDENTIVE, SPANDREL, SPHERICAL, and SPHEROIDAL BRACKETING. BRADS, in joinery, are slender nails without spreading heads, except a projection from one of their narrow sides. The intention is to drive them within the surface of the wood, by means of a hammer and punch, and fill the cavity to the surface with putty, and thus conceal them entirely. There are several kinds of them, as joiners' brads, flooring brads, &c. BRAMANTE, LAZZARI, D'URBINO, a celebrated architect, born at Castel Durante, (or according to some accounts, at Femagnano,) in the province of Urbino, about the year 1444. The family of which he was a branch, was poor, though respectable, by whom he was designed for a painter: his early years were spent in the study of this art, but his taste and talents for architecture outran every other consideration, till at length he devoted himself altogether to it. He travelled first in Lombardy, and having made some observations on the cathedral of Milan, he went to Rome, where he executed some paintings for the church of St. John de Lateran, which are now lost. His great care was to examine and measure all the precious remains of antiquity, both within and out of Rome: he measured all that he could of the Villa Adriana, at Tivoli; and in pursuit of similar objects, went even so far as Naples. This devotedness to his favourite science attracted the notice of many patrons of the fine arts, and among the rest, of Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa, who employed him to rebuild the convent della Puce, at Naples, which established his reputation.+ The work itself is not of the most exquisite character, but it procured him the title of architect to his holiness Pope Alexander VI., there being at that time no artists of superior talents in the papal dominions. The fountain of Trastevere,- and another fountain, which formerly stood in the square before St. Peter's, were of his workmanship. He also had a considerable share in building the palace della Cancellaria, the church of St. Lorenzo Damaso, and the palace of San Giacomo Scosciacavalli; all these, as well as the convent della Puce, above noticed, are built in travertine, on the outside; but their meagre style is a striking evidence that in the days of Bramante architecture was only reviving, and was not completely purged from barbarous intermixtures. In such an age the genius of Bramante could not but shine, and he retained his lustre as being without an equal in invention, as well as in execution, till, towards the decline of his life, the superior powers of Michael Angelo Bonarrotti bore away the palm of science, and the voice of public applause. See BONARROTTI. When Julius II. obtained the papal chair, he appointed Bramante superintendent of his buildings, and employed him to execute his grand project of uniting the Belvedere to the palace of the Vatican, by means of a magnificent court. In his turn, Bramante engaged the pope in the favourite design of pulling down the church of St. Peter's, and erecting a new basilica, after the model of the Pantheon, on a scale that should astonish the world. With this view, he made many drawings, and used great diligence to produce one having two steeples with the front between them, as may be seen on the medals struck by Corodasso, in honour of Bramante and his patrons Julius II. and Leo X. The plan was that of a Latin cross, and was well constructed, though of an unequalled magnitude. Three naves were formed by means of colonnades; the principal nave of very fair proportions, and the whole productive of the finest effect. The cupola had the same dimensions with that of the Pantheon; the external steps were also similar. Indeed, the plan of the whole basilica bore a strong resemblance to the Pantheon, having eight piers, between each two of which were two columns, forming three openings, or passages. This design being approved of by the pope, part of the old church was pulled down, and the foundation of the new structure laid, in the year 1506. The building was carried on with great celerity as high as the entablature, the arches over the four great piers were turned, and the principal chapel, opposite the door, was erected, when death put an end to his labours, in 1514, in his 70th year. The continuation of this work was given to Michael Angelo Bonarrotti, who also did not live to see it completed. Bramante's successors made so many alterations upon his original design, that scarcely anything besides the four great arches over the tribune can be said to be his. His remains were interred in St. Peter's, and the solemnity was honoured by the presence of the papal court, and all the professors of the fine arts in Rome and its neighbourhood. Besides the works above described, Bramante constructed a whimsical staircase, with the three orders of architecture, in the Vatican. The elegant circular temple in the cloister of San Pietro Monterio, though esteemed as one of his best performances, has many defects; for instance, the doorway cuts into two pilasters; the balustrade is a continued series of balusters without pedestals; and the ornament at the top of the cupola is clumsy and heavy. Out of the walls of Todi, Bramante built an insulated temple, encrusted on the exterior with white stone; the plan is that of a Greek cross, with a fine cupola in the centre; and the whole has an air of being the model of St. Peter's. In finishing the chapel within the basilica, he revived the use of the ancient stuccos. He made many designs of palaces and temples, both within and without the walls of Rome, and began the palace, which was afterwards finished by Raffaello, with columns of brick covered with plaster, then a new invention; but this edifice was destroyed to make room for the colonnade of St. Peter's; and the palace which he began for the Duchess Eleonora Gonzaga, wife of Francis Duke of Urban, was never completed, owing to the deaths of both duke and duchess. BRANCHES, are the diagonal ribs of a Gothic vault, rising upwards from the tops of the pillars to the apex, and seeming to support the ceiling or vault. - Noft-, - & -% BRE 44 BR1 R 44 B i BRANDRITH, or BRANDRETTE, a fence round the mouth of a well. BRASSES, sepulchral engravings on large or small brass plates, let into slabs in the pavement of our ancient churches, portraying the effigies of illustrious personages, with the accompaniments of buildings, &c. The greater part of the effigies are as large as life. The various colours for the dresses, armours, and coats of arms, in many instances, were laid on in enamel, the attitudes well drawn, and the lines both of dresses and architecture made out with precision and truth of imitation. BREADTH, the greatest extension of a body at right angles to the length. BREAK, a projecting part of the front of a building, carried up through one or more stories in a vertical surface. In its general acceptation, it implies only a part, which stands forward in a plane parallel to the other parts of the front behind the break; or a cylindric wall concentric with a receding one, and in this it comprehends not only the parallel projecting face, but the two flank parts which join the parallel walls. The break therefore forms, with the receding part or parts, two external and two internal angles. The term is, however, not restricted to this disposition of the planes, or cylindric faces of the building, it may also imply a bow, whether cylindric or canted. No break can be formed unless it have at least one internal angle, or, if the building adjoin on both sides, there will be at least two internal angles, Small breaks, or those projecting only a few inches, never add to the effect of the building. A building may have either one, two, or several breaks in a front. When the disposition of the rooms naturally falls into the same plane on the inside of the front wall, no break should be admitted, because, in this case, it can only project a few inches. Breaks only fritter away the parts of a small building, and destroy the beauty and elegance which arises from the simplicity of its figure; but in large buildings they give the utmost splen:lour to the design, provided they have bold projections, and appear as distinct parts of the building, so that if the other connecting parts be supposed to be taken away, they would be so many insulated buildings, insisting each upon a simple rectangular plan. The greatest effect would, therefore, be produced by giving each part or break its separate roof, termination, or covering. For this reason, breaks should either be left lower, or carried higher than the main body, or the connecting part or parts of the building. When a break is carried higher than the connecting part or parts, it must have an entire roof, or uniform termination all round its four walls. In the ancient architecture of Greece, the walls insisted upon simple rectangular plans, and therefore had no internal angles, and consequently no breaks. The Romans indulged in buildings consisting of greater variety of parts than the Greeks, and formed many of their principal edifices with breaks. When the upper part of a front wall is intended to be one continued plane, with a break or breaks in the lower part or story, the superior continued wall may either be supported upon a row of columns arched above the intervals in long apartments, or with one arch, when the front horizontal dimension is small, and finished as above. Breaks in cylindric walls destroy the harmony arising from the continuity of the figure, and should therefore be rejected in every round edifice. BREAK-IN, among carpenters, is to cut or break a hole in brickwork with the ripping chisel, for the purpose of inserting timber, as to receive plugs, or the end of a beam, or other piece of timber. BREAK-JOINT, in masonry or brick-work, is when two stones are placed contiguous to each other, with a third stone laid across the joint, so as to cover a part or the whole of the surface of both stones, in order to bind the work together. BREAST OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY. BREAST OF A WINDOW, the masonry or brick-work which forms the back of the recess and the parapet, for leaning upon, under the window-sill. BREAST WALL, a retaining wall at the foot of a slope. BRESSUMMER, or BREAST SUMMER, in building, a lintel-beam in the exterior walls, supported by wooden or iron posts, or by brick or stone pillars, for sustaining the superincumbent part of the wall. Bressurnmers are used in the construction of shops, where it it necessary to have the window as large as possible, and consequently the pillars as small as possible, in order to give light, and show articles for sale to advantage. Where breast-summers are used for this purpose, the superincumbent mass should be strengthened by an arch of discharge or otherwise, for, if not so, they will be found of great injury to the building through the shrinkage of the timber. Where this precaution is not attended to, it almost invariably occurs that the brick-work above is fractured in its settlement, and in some cases to a very considerable extent. Cast-iron beams are occasionally used for breast-summers, but although they have an advantage in not being liable to rot, and are naturally incombustible, yet they are by no means eligible for the purpose. Cast-iron should never be.subjected to cross strain, as, although it may bear a certain weight with safety, the least addition or disturbance will cause it to break. In cases of fire, cast-iron is much less secure than wood, for it soon becomes red-hot, and in this state, upon the slightest contact with water, will snap asunder; whereas timbers, if of sufficient scantling, are seldom entirely consumed, usually only charred on their exposed surfaces. Bressummers were a necessary part in the construction of old timber buildings, where it was requisite to have them not only for binding the building together, but for the support of every floor, and also of the roof. They were likewise placed at the bottom of the building as a foundation to the whole structure, and called sills. See SUMMER. BRICK, an artificial kind of stone, composed in general of earth and sand, or coal cinders, or ashes, well mixed together, and tempered with water, then dried in the sun, and finally burned to a proper degree of hardness in a kiln, or in a heap or stack, denominated a clamp. The antiquity of bricks seems to be coeval with the first edifices after the Deluge; the tower and city of Babel being built of them; as also most of the early structures of Egypt. The Greeks chiefly used three kinds of bricks: the first sort was called Atdopov, bricks of two palms; the second TEipadooov, of four palms; the third Ilev-raopov, of five palms. Besides these, they also had bricks of just half the above dimensions, used for making their work more solid, and for giving an agreeable diversity to its appearance. The Romans began to build with brick towards the decline of the republic: according to Pliny, those most in use were a foot and a half long, and a foot broad; which agrees with the dimensions of several Roman bricks found in England, viz. seventeen inches in length, by eleven in breadth, of our measure. Sir Henry Walton speaks of some bricks at Venice, of which stately columns were built: they were first formed in a circular mould, and cut, prior to their being burned, into four or more sections; afterwards, in laying they were jointed so closely and exactly, that the pillars had the appearance of being composed of one entire piece. _ __ ________ _ _______ __ _ ~__ ___ 1 ~ I BRI 45 BRI IIRI 45 BRI For the purposes of building, bricks claim a decided superiority over stone, not only as being lighter, and more easily worked; but also because their porous texture facilitates their union with the mortar, and makes them less liable to attract or retain damp and moisture. In England, the mould in which bricks are formed, is ten inches in length, by five in breadth; the bricks when burned are about nine inches long, four inches and a half broad, and two inches and a half thick. The degree of shrinkage, however, is various, according to the purity and temper of the clay, and the intensity of the heat to which it is exposed in the burning. The earth selected for brick-making should be of the purest kind; though indeed bricks may be made of any kind of earth that is free from stones, and even of sea-ooze; but it is not every soil that will burn red, which is a property peculiar to earths containing ferruginous particles. In this country, bricks are chiefly made either of stiff clay, or of a hazelly-yellowish-coloured fat earth, commonly called loam. The former produces hard red bricks, incapable of rubbing or cutting; the latter is mostly found near London, and gives a neat gray-coloured brick, which yields freely to the axe and rubbing-stone, though equally durable with the harder red brick made in more distant parts. The earth, of whatever quality, should be dug in the autumn, and suffered to remain in a heap till the next spring, that it may be well penetrated by the air, and particularly by the winter's frosts, which by pulverizing the more tenacious particles, greatly assist the operations of mixing and tempering. Indeed, for the best bricks, two or three years will not be found too long to submit the earth to the action of the atmosphere, in order to render it free in the working. In making up this heap for the season, the soil and ashes or sand are to be laid in alternate layers, or strata; each stratum containing such a quantity as the stiffness of the soil may admit or require. For making such bricks as will stand the fiercest fires, Sturbridge clay and Windsor loam are esteemed the best. In tempering the earth, much judgment is required as to the quantity of sand to be thrown into the mass, for too much renders the bricks heavy and brittle, and too little leaves them liable to shrink and crack in the burning. The London practice of mixing sea-coal ashes, and in the country of adding light sandy earth to the loam, not only makes it work easy and with greater expedition, but tends also to save fuel. With reference to the proportion which should be observed in mixing the different ingredients, it is impossible to lay down any fixed rules, as such proportion must entirely depend upon the particular quality of the materials employed. The principal of these consist of clay, marl, and loam, with the admixture of sand, chalk, breeze, &c. We shall here give the particular uses to which the accessories are applied, but must leave it entirely to individual instances to determine in what manner each of them must be made use of. The clay of course is the principal matter, and forms the body of the brick, but before this can be made available for building, it has to be agglutinated together by means of sand vitrified by heat. Clay is composed for the most part of alumina and silica combined with a small quantity of lime, and occasionally of magnesia and alkali. Usually speaking, clay requires additional sand to be used as a flux, but it happens sometimes to contain sufficient in itself; when this is the case, no addition of course will be required. If the silica be in exce, it will on the contrary require the addition of some dry:ul'tance to hold the mass together, as otherwise the*ica wvll fuse and run when under the action of great hit;:or this purpose the chalk is used: if, however, too mace added, the bricks will become porous and friable. The heat, as above stated, is produced by means of the breeze, but the quantity of this also must be regulated according to the nature of the clay you have to use; if it contains a large quantity of sand, less breeze will be required, not only to prevent the silica from running, but also because silica contains a large portion of oxygen: should, however, the clay contain a free proportion of lime,more breeze will be required, for the reason that lime has but little oxygen in its composition. Thus it will be seen how impracticable it is to lay down any general rule in this case; the proportion of each ingredient to be added, can only be determined by careful observations in individual instances. Every stony particle should be carefully cleared out of the earth, before the workman begins his operation of tempering; it should then be well trodden or beat, and frequently turned over, with the addition of as little water as possible, till the soil and ashes, or sand, are so completely incorporated as to form a paste of a tough viscous substance. If in this operation too much water be used, the paste will become almost as dry and brittle as the soil of which it is composed; but by a judicious management, as to the quantity of water, and the mode of administering it, the bricks become smooth, solid, and durable. For the preparation or tempering of the soil, the workman is provided with a long hoe, in form like a mattock, a shovel, and a scoop. The hoe is for pulling down the soil from the great heap, which is then chopped backwards with the shovel, in order to turn it as often as may be necessary, and to incorporate the ashes, or sand, and soil, thoroughly together. The use of the scoop is for throwing water over the portion so pulled down with the hoe, to bring it to a more ductile state, and render it easier for tempering. When the mass is sufficiently mixed, it is removed in barrows to the pugmill. This mill consists principally of a strong barrel, firmly fixed on two transverse beams, having in its centre a vertical bar, kept in position by two shoulders attached to the sides of the barrel, and working on the transverse beams at their intersection as on a pivot. On the top of this bar is placed a horizontal beam, by means of perpendiculars suspended from which, the horse is attached. On that part of the bar which is within the barrel, is fixed several iron knives, by the revolution of which the masticated clay is forced through a hole in the bottom of the barrel, when it is cut off in pieces with a " cuck-hold," or concave shovel, and laid on one side. A quantity of sand is then thrown over it, and it is kept for use under a covering of sacking or matting, to preserve it from the sun and air. The moulding-table is placed under a movable shed, and is strewed with dry sand. A boy, with the cuck-hold, cuts off as much as he can carry in his arms, from the prepared mass, and brings it to the table, where a girl receives it, and rolls out a lump rather larger than the mould will contain. The moulder receives this lump from the girl, throws it into his mould, previously dipped in dry sand, and with a flat smooth stick, about eight inches long, kept for the purpose in a pan of water, strikes off the overplus of the soil: he then turns the brick out of the mould upon a thin board, rather larger than the brick, upon which it is removed by a boy, and placed on a light barrow, having a lattice-work frame raised about three feet above the wheel, and about eighteen inches at the handles, forming an inclined plane. On this lattice-frame the new-made bricks are laid, and sand is thrown over them, to prevent their sticking to each other, as well as to preserve them in a certain degree from cracking in drying on the hacks. The hacks for drying, are each wide enough for two bricks to be placed edgeways across, with a passage between the heads, for the admission of air, to f __ ___ S - C I - - BRI 46 BRI facilitate the circulation of which, the bricks are generally laid in a diagonal direction. The hacks are usually carried eight bricks high; the bottom bricks at the ends are commonly old ones. In showery weather, the bricks on the hacks are to be carefully covered with wheat or rye straw, to keep them dry; unless sheds or roofs be erected over the hacks, as is done in some country places; but in London this is impracticable, from the very great extent of the grounds. In fine weather the bricks will be dry enough for turning, in a few days; in doing which they are reset more open than at first; and in six or eight days more they will be ready for burning. The best bricks, that is, those made of the best materials, and well tempered, as they are harder and more ponderous, so they require half as much more earth, and longer time for drying and burning, than the common sort, which are light, spongy, and full of cracks. The well drying of bricks before they are burned, prevents their cracking and crumbling in the kiln or clamp. In the vicinity of London, bricks are commonly burned in clamps; farther in the country it is the custom to burn them in kilns. In building the clamps, the bricks are laid after the manner of arches in the kilns, with a vacancy between every two bricks, for the fire to play through; yet with this difference, that instead oi arching, the vacuity for the fuel is spanned over, by making the layers project one over the other from each side, till they meet at top. The flue is about the width of a brick, carried up straight on both sides about three feet; it is then nearly filled with dry bavins, or wood, on which is laid a covering of sea-coal and cinders (or breeze, as they are called); the arch is then overspanned, and layers of breeze are strewed over the clamp, as well as between the rows of bricks. When the clamp is about the width of six feet, another flue is made, in every respect similar to the first; this is repeated at every distance of six feet, throughout the whole clamp, which when completed, is surrounded with old bricks, if there be any on the grounds, if not, with some of the driest unbaked ones, that have been reserved for the purpose. On the top of all, a thick layer of breeze is laid. The wood is then kindled, which gives fire to the coal; and when all is consumed, which will be in about twenty or thirty days if the weather be tolerable, the bricks are concluded to be sufficiently burned. Should there be no immediate hurry for the bricks, the flues may be placed nine feet asunder, and the fuel left to burn slowly. If the fire in the clamp burns well, the mouths of the flues are stopped with old bricks, plastered over with clay. The outside of the whole clamp is also plastered with clay, if the weather be precarious, or if the fire burn too furiously; and against any side particularly exposed to the rain, &c., screens are laid, made of reeds worked into frames about six feet high, and sufficiently wide to be moved about with ease. This is the ordinary method of manufacturing common gray-stocks. But washed malms, or marls, are made with still greater attention. A circular recess is built, about four feet high, and from ten to twelve feet in diameter, paved at the bottom, with a horse-wheel placed in its centre, from which a beam extends to the outside, for the horse to turn it by. The earth is then raised to a level with the top of the recess, on which a platform is laid, for the horse to walk upon. This mill is always placed as near a well or spring as possible, and a pump is set up, to supply it with water. A harrow, made to fit the interior of the recess, thick-set with long iron teeth, and well loaded, is chained to the beam of the wheel, to which the horse is harnessed. Previously to putting the machine in motion, the soil, as prepared in the heap in the ordinary manner, is brought in barrows, and distributed regularly round the recess, with the addition of a sufficient quantity of water; the horse then moves on, and drags the harrow, which forces its way into the soil, admits the water into it, and by tearing and separating its particles, not only mixes the ingredients, but also affords an opportunity for stones and other heavy substances to fall to the bottom. Fresh soil and water continue to be added till the recess is full. On one side of the recess, and as near to it as possible, a hollow square is prepared, about 18 inches or two feet deep. The soil being sufficiently harrowed and purified, and reduced to a kind of liquid paste, is ladled out of the recess, and by means of wooden troughs conveyed into this square pit; care being taken to leave the sediment behind, which is afterwards to be cleared out and thrown on the sides of the recess. The fluid soil diffuses itself over the hollow square, or pit, where it settles of an equal thickness, and remains till wanted for use, the superfluous water being either drained away or evaporated, by exposure to the atmosphere. When one of these square pits is full, another is made by its side, and so on progressively, till as much soil is prepared as is likely to be wanted for the season. In the country bricks are always burned in kilns, whereby much waste is prevented, less fuel consumed, and the bricks are more expeditiously burned. A kiln is usually thirteen feet long, by ten feet six inches wide, about twelve feet in height, and will burn 20,000 bricks at a time. The walls are about one foot two inches thick, and incline inward towards the top, so that the area of the upper part is not more than 114 square feet. The bricks are set on flat arches, having holes left between them resembling lattice-work. The bricks being set in the kiln, and covered with pieces of broken bricks or tiles, some wood is put in and kindled, to dry them gradually; this is continued till the bricks are pretty dry, which is known by the smoke turning from a darkish to a transparent colour. The burning then takes place, and is effected by putting in brushwood, furze, heath, fagots, &c., but before these are put in, the mouths of the kiln are stopped with pieces of brick, called shinlog, piled one upon another, and closed over with wet brick earth. This shinlog is carried just high enough to leave room sufficient to thrust in a fagot at a time; the fire is then made up, and continued till the arches assume a whitish appearance, and the flames appear through the top of the kiln; upon which the fire is slackened, and the kiln cools by degrees. This process is continued, alternately heating and slackening, till the bricks are thoroughly burned, which is generally in the space of forty-eight hours. The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have been once burned, and then burning them again, renders them more than doubly durable.-Goldham. Many attempts have been made to introduce machinery in the practice of brickmaking, but with little success, as is evident from the old practice continuing so general in use. The most usual varieties of bricks consist of marls, stocks, and place-bricks, but there is very little difference in the manufacture. Marls are prepared and tempered with the greatest care; but the construction of the clamp for burning them is similar to that for other bricks, though more caution is required not to overheat them, and to see that the fire burn equally and diffusively throughout the clamp or kiln. The finest marls, called firsts, are selected as cutting bricks, for arches of doorways, windows, and quoins; for which purpose they are rubbed to their proper dimen4! and form. The next best, termed seconds, are used for prmcipaljnts The cleanly pale yellow colour of marls, added to thei smpth texture and superior durability, give them a pre-e -o U _.. ~~ ~;- -~. i ~I).;.ii;_ —~_r~ r — ~~.- -— i --- —-- -— II --- BRI 47 BRI BRI 47 BRI_ above other sorts of bricks. Gray-stocks are somewhat like the seconds, but of an inferior quality. Place-bricks, sometimes called peckings, sandal, or samel-bricks, are such as, from being outside in a kiln or clamp, have not been thoroughly burned, and are consequently soft, of a more uneven texture, and a red colour. There are also burrs, or clinker-bricks, such as from being too violently acted upon by the fire, have vitrified in the kiln, and sometimes several are found run together. Red-stocks are made in the country, and burned in kilns. They owe their colour to the nature of the clay of which they are formed, which is always used tolerably pure. The best sort are used as cutting bricks, and are called redrubbers. In old buildings they are frequently to be seen, ground to a fine smooth surface, and set in putty, instead of mortar, as ornaments over arches, windows, doorways, &c. Though many very beautiful specimens of red brickwork are to be met with, yet these bricks can seldom be judiciously used for the front-walls of buildings. The colour is much too heavy, and in summer conveys an unpleasant idea of heat to the mind; to which may be added, that as in the fronts of most buildings of any consequence, more or less of stonework is introduced, there is something harsh in the contrast between the red bricks and the cold colour of the stones; and even where no stone is employed, there is always some wood used, which being painted white, by no means lessens the objection. Gray-stocks match so much better with the colour both of stone and paint, that they have obtained a universal preference in London and its immediate vicinity. At Iledgerly, a village near Windsor, red bricks, about one inch and a half thick, of a very firm texture, are made; they will stand the greatest violence of fire, and are called Windsor bricks, and sometimes fire-bricks. Bricks for paving are of the same dimensions with Windsor bricks, viz., nine inches long, four inches and a half broad, and one inch and a half thick. Besides these, there are what are called paving-tiles, which are made of stronger clay, of a red colour. The largest are about twelve inches square, and one inch and a half thick; the next size, though called ten-inch tiles, are about nine inches square, and one inch and a quarter thick. See TILES. Besides the foregoing varieties, the following are worth notice, though some of them are not much in use: 1. The ordinary Paris brick is eight inches long, four inches broad, and two inches thick, French measure, which makes them rather larger than ours. 2. Buttress, or plaster bricks, made with a notch at one end, half the length of the brick; used for binding work built with great bricks. 3. Capping bricks, used for the purpose which their name denotes. 4. Great bricks, used in fence walls, are twelve inches long, six inches broad, and three thick. 5. Cogging bricks, for making the indented works under the capping of walls built with great bricks. 6. Compass bricks, of a circular form, for steyning wells. 7. Concave, or hollow bricks, made flat on one side, like an ordinary brick, and hollowed on the other side; used for drains and water-courses. 8. Dutch, or Flemish bricks, used in paving yards, stables, &c., also for lining soap-boilers, cisterns, and vaults. 9. Feather-edged bricks, made of the same size with the ordinary statute bricks, but thinner on one edge than on the other; they are used for pinning up brick panels in timber buildings. BRICK-NOGGING, a wall constructed with a row of posts or quarters, disposed at three feet apart, and with brickwork, so as to fill up the intervals. This kind of walling is generally either the thickness or breadth of a brick, and the woodwork flush on both sides with the faces of the bricks. In brick-nogging, thin pieces of timber, reaching horizontally from post to post, are disposed so as to form the brickwork between every two posts or quarters, into several compartments in the height of the story; each piece being inserted between two courses of bricks, with its edges flush with the faces of the wall. BRICK AND STUD. See BRICK-NOGGING. BRICK-KILN, a building erected in the form of the frustum of a cone, for the purpose of burning bricks. BRICKLAYER, a workman who builds with bricks.His business, in London, includes walling, tiling, and paving with bricks or tiles; some jobbing-masters also undertake plastering. Country bricklayers unite bricklaying, plastering, and not unfrequently masonry. The bricklayers materials are bricks, tiles, mortar, laths, nails, and tile-pins; with which he is supplied while at work by a labourer, who likewise makes the mortar. Bricklayers form a very numerous body of artisans in this country. A good workman can lay 1,500 bricks daily in walls. His wages in London are from five to six shillings a day. The immense demand for bricklayers caused by the extensive works connected with railways, and the great increase of building operations in the last few years, have enabled good workmen to command almost any amount of wages. BRICKLAYERS, in London, are, by a charter granted in 1568, a corporate company, consisting of a master, two wardens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight on the livery. BRICKLAYING, BRICKWORK, the art of building or erecting walls or edifices with bricks, cemented together with mortar, cement, &c. For the materials, &c., used in this business, see the articles BRICK, BRICKLAYER, MORTAR, TILES, CEMENT, &C. The first thing to be attended to, in bricklaying, is to dig trenches for the foundations, after which the ground must be tried with an iron crow, or rammer, to see that it is sound: if it appear to shake, it must be bored with a well-sinker's tool, in order to ascertain whether the shake be local or general. If the soil prove generally firm, the looser parts, if not very deep, may be dug up till a solid bed be got at, on which a pier or piers may be built, as hereafter described; if the ground be not very loose, it may be made good by ramming into it large stones, close packed together, or dry brick rubbish, of a breadth at the bottom proportioned to the intended insisting weight; but if the ground be very bad, it must be piled and planked, to ensure the safety of the structure. In building upon an inclined plane, or rising ground, the foundation ought to rise with the inclination of the ground, in a series of level steps, which will ensure a firm bed for the courses, and prevent them from sliding, as they would be apt to do if built on inclined planes; and in wet seasons the moisture in the foundation would induce the inclined parts to descend towards the lowest parts, to the manifest danger of fracturing the walls, and destroying the building. When the ground proves loose to a great depth in places over which it is intended to make windows, doors, or other apertures, while the sides on which the piers must stand are firm, it is a good practice to turn inverted arches under such intended windows, &c. Indeed, this is a necessary precaution in all cases where the depth of wall below the aperture will admit of it. For the small base of the piers will more easily penetrate the ground, than one continued base; and as the piers may be permitted to descend, in a certain degree, so long as they can be kept from spreading, they will carry the arch with them, compressing the ground, and forcing it to reaction against the sides of the inverted arch, which if closely jointed, so far from yielding, will, with the abutting I I W-4-00.- I wo -.. BRI BRI BRI R I piers, operate as a solid body. Whereas, if this expedient of inverted arches be not adopted, the low piece of wall under the aperture, not having a sufficient vertical dimension, will give way by the resistance of the ground upon its base, and not only fracture the brickwork between the apertures, but also the window-sills. Hence it is evident that these arches should be turned with the greatest exactness, and should be in height at least half their width. The parabolic curve will be found most effectual in resisting the reaction of the ground; it being the form most adapted to the laws of uniform pressure. The bed of the piers ought to be of equal solidity throughout; for though the bottom of the trench may be firm enough, yet if there be any difference in substance, the settlement will be partial, the amount thereof varying according to the softness of the ground; consequently the piers on the softer ground will settle more than those on the firmer, and occasion a vertical fracture in the superstructure. Should the solid parts of the trench be found under the intended apertures, and the softer parts where piers are to be built, the reverse of the above practice must be resorted to, viz.: build piers on the firm ground, and suspend arches, not inverted, between themn; in performing which, attention must be paid to the insisting pier, whether it will cover the arch, or not; for if the middle of the pier rest over the middle of the summit of the arch, the narrower the pier is, the greater should be the curvature of the arch of its apex. When suspended arches are used, the intrados ought to be clear, that the arch may have its full effect. Here also, as before, the ground on which the piers are erected should be of equal firmness, lest the building be injured by an unequal settling, which is attended with much more mischievous consequences than where the ground, froin being uniformly soft, permits the piers to descend equally, in which case the building is seldom or never damaged. When it is necessary to ram foundations, the stone, being previously chopped or hammer-dressed, so as to have them as little taper as possible, should be laid of a breadth proportioned to the weight intended to be rested on them, and rammed closely together with a heavy rammer. In ordinary cases, the lower bed of stones may project about a foot on each side of the wall, on which another course may be laid, so as to bring the upper bed of stones upon a general level with that of the trench, projecting about eight inches on either side of the wall, or receding four inches on each side within the lower course. Care should be taken that the joints of every upper course fall as nearly as possible upon the middle of the stones in the course immediately beneath it; a principle also to be strictly adhered to in every kind of walling; for in all the modes, various as they are, of laying stones or bricks, the uniform object is to obtain the greatest lap one upon the other. The directions for preparing a solid foundation, refer to the general practice amongst builders before the introduction of concrete. The now almnost universal use of the latter, as a certain, convenient, and ready means of obtaining a secure foundation, has rendered it necessary to give a description of the mode in which this material is generally used. The ground having been examined as described in the first part of this article, a sufficient depth must be excavated in the bottom of the trenches, to allow of throwing in a quantity of concrete, varying in breadth and depth, according to the size and character of the building to be erected, and the recessary width of the footings. The concrete is composed of different materials, and proportions of those materials, as the qualities of sand, lime, &c., are most conveniently obtained in the locality of the building. The concrete used in and near London is generally compoqed of Thames ballast and fresh burned stone-liwe, (ground to powder without slacking,) in the proportions of Orom one-fifth to one-ninth of lime to one of the ballast. These ingredients should be well blended together dry, and as small a quantity of water added as will bring them to the consistency of mortar; and then, after turning over the materials with the shovel once or twice, thrown as quickly as possible into the foundation, from a height of several feet. It sets very quickly, so that it is desirable that the mixture should be made at, or close to the height from which it is thrown, and then spread and brought to a level as expeditiously as possible. See CONCRETE. Having premised thus much on foundations, we proceed to the operation of walling; the first object in which is the due preparation of the cementing material. Mortar is most commonly used in modern brick buildings. It is composed of lime, gray or white, but gray or stone-lime is the better, mixed with river-sand, or road-sand, in the proportion of one of gray lime to two and a half of sand, and one of white or chalk-lime to two of sand. In slacking the lime, no more water should be used than is barely sufficient to reduce it to powder; and it should be covered with a layer of sand, in order to prevent the gas, wherein is the virtue of the lime, from flying off. It is best to slack the lime in small quantities, about a bushel at a time, in order to secure its qualities in the mortar, which would evaporate were it to remain slacked any length of time before being used. See MORTAR. The mortar, when about to be used, should be beaten three or four times, and turned over with the beater, so as to incorporate the lime and sand, and break the knots that pass through the sieve: this not only renders the texture more uniform, but by admitting the air into the body and pores of the mortar, makes it much stronger. Should the mortar stand any length of time after this operation, without being used, it must be beaten again: it should be observed, that in these beatings very little water should be used; though in hot and dry weather the mortar may be kept considerably softer than in winter. In dry weather, and for firm work, the best mortar must be used, and the bricks should be wetted, or dipped in water as they are laid; but in damp weather, the latter precaution will be unnecessary. The wetting of the bricks causes them to adhere to the mortar, which they will never do if laid dry, and covered with sand or dust, as they may be removed without the adhesion of a single particle of the mortar. In laying the foundations of walls, the first courses are always laid broader than the wall intended to be carried tip; these courses are called the footings, and the projections are called set-offs; there are generally two inches in each projection. In working up the wall, not more than four or five feet of any part should be built at a time; for as all walls shrink immediately after building, the part which is first brought up will settle before the adjacent part is brought up to it; and the shrinking of the latter will consequently cause the two parts to separate. Unless it be to accommodate the carpenter, &c., no part of a wall should be carried higher than one scaffold, without having its contingent parts added to it. In carrying up any particular part, the ends should be regularly sloped off, so as to receive the bond of the adjoining parts, on the right and left. In laying bricks, there are four kinds of BOND; viz., English-bond, Flemish-bond, Herring-bond, and Garden wall-bond. The two first are principally used in modern brickwork, the others only occasionally. __ I - I — llll-IIILLIIIIILL~-~-r - - _ _ - BRI 49 BRI BRI ~49BR In English-bond, a row of bricks laid lengthwise on the length of the wall, is crossed by a row with its breadth in the said length, and so on alternately. The courses in which the lengths of the bricks are disposed through the length of the wall, are called stretching courses, and the bricks, stretchers: the courses in which the lengths of the bricks run in the thickness of the walls, are called heading courses, and the bricks, headers. The other sort of bond, called Flemish-bond, consists in placing a header and a stretcher alternately in the same course. See BOND, English, &c. When new walls are to be built into old it is usual to cut a chase, or draw a brick at every other course in the old work, and tooth in the new work. When it is intended to add walls to buildings, these toothings are left. The most difficult work for a bricklayer to execute is the groining or intersection of arches in vaults, where every brick has to be cut to a different bed. This and the arches called gauged arches, either circular or straight, require the neatest workmanship. Some straight arches are made roughly; that is, the bricks are inclined each way, parallel to each other, on the respective skewbacks, or shoulders of the arch, until the soffit-ends of the bricks touch, when the vacant space at top is filled with two bricks, forming a wedge: this arch, like other straight arches, is constructed on a camber slip, or piece of wood slightly curved on the upper side for centering. In steining wells, a centre must be first made, consisting of a boarding, of inch or inch-and-a-half stuff, ledged within with three circular rings, upon which the bricks are laid, all headers. The gaps between the bricks towards the boarding are to be filled in with tile or pieces of brick. As the wellsinker excavates the ground, the centre with its load of bricks sinks, and another, similarly charged, is laid upon it, another upon that, and so on, till the well is completed; the centering remaining permanently fixed with the brickwork. This is the method generally adopted in London, at least where the soil is sandy and loose; where it is firm, centerings are not requisite. In the country, among many other methods, the following most prevails: rings of timber, without the exterior boarding, are used; upon the first ring, four or five feet of bricks are laid, then a second ring, and so on. But this is far inferior to the mode above described, as the sides of the brick-work are apt to bilge in sinking, particularly if great care be not taken in filling and ramming the sides uniformly, so as to keep the pressure regular and equal. In steining wells, and in the construction of cesspools, a rod of brickwork will require at least 4,760 bricks. In winter, it is essential to preserve the unfinished wall, as much as possible, from the alternate effects of rain and frost, than which nothing is more destructive to a building; the rain by penetrating into the very heart of the bricks and mortar, and the frost by converting the water, so lodged, into ice, expanding its bulk, and bursting or crumbling the materials in which it is contained. The decay of buildings, commonly attributed to the effects of time, is, in reality, occasioned by this operation and counter-operation of the rain and frost, but as, in finished edifices, they have only a vertical surface to act upon, their effects are not rapidly extended. In an unfinished wall, there is a horizontal surface, by which both rain and frost find an easy access into the body of the work; care must therefore be taken to exclude them, by a sufficient covering, as soon as the frost or stormy weather sets in, either of straw, which is most usually employed, or of weather-boarding, placed in the form of a stone coping, so as to throw off the water equally on either side: but in the latter case, it is advisable to have a good body of straw under the wood, as no precaution can be too great, for the security and strength of the work. 7 A variety of pleasing cornices and ornaments may be formed in brickwork, by the disposition of the bricks, frequently without cutting them, or if cut, chamfering only may be used; but a great defect is frequently to be observed in these ornaments, particularly in the bilging of the arches over windows. This arises from mere carelessness in rubbing the bricks too much off, on the inside; whereas, if due care were taken to rub them exact to the gauge on the inside, that they bear upon the front edges, their geometrical bearings being united, they would all tend to one centre, and produce a well-proportioned and pleasing effect. A rod of brickwork was taken from the original standard of 161 feet square, and consequently the supeficial rod contained 272.25 square feet, or '72J square feet; but as the quarter was found troublesome in calculation, 272 superficial feet was admitted as the standard for brickwork; the result is the same in practice, when it is considered that equal values will be found by annexing the proportional price per rod to each; and indeed, if the same price be appropriate to each, the difference would be so trifling as not to be worth the trouble of calculating. The standard thickness of a brick wall is 1- brick in length, therefore if 272 square feet be multiplied by 131 inches, the result is 306 cubic feet in the rod. A rod of standard brickwork with mortar, will require 4,500 bricks at a medium, allowing for waste; this number will depend upon the closeness of the joints, and the size of the bricks. The mortar in a rod of brickwork will require 1- cwt. of chalk-lime, or one cwt. of stone-lime, and 2- loads of sand with stone-lime, or 2 loads with chalk-lime. In walling, a foot of reduced brickwork will require 17 bricks. A foot superficial of marl facing laid in Flemish bond, will require 8 bricks; and a foot superficial of gauged arches, 10 bricks. In paving, a yard will require 82 pavingbricks, or 48 stock-bricks, or 144 Dutch clinkers laid on edge, or 36 bricks laid flat. In tiling, 100 superficial feet make a square. A square will require, of plain tiles, 800 at a 6-inch gauge, 700 at a 7-inch gauge, or 600 at an 8-inch gauge. The distance of the laths will depend upon the pitch of the roof, and may require a 6, 7, or 8-inch gauge; thus, a kirb roof will require a gauge of 7, or 8 inches in the kirb part, and the upper part 6, 6A, or 7 inches, the distance being less as the angle of elevation is less. A square of plain tiling will require a bundle of laths, more or less according to the pitch, two bushels of lime and one of sand, and a peck of tile-pins at least. The laths are sold in bundles, which generally consist of 3, 4, and 5-feet lengths; the 3-feet are 8 score, the 4-feet 6 score, and the 5-feet 5 score to the bundle. The nails used in lathing, are fourpenny. They are purchased by the long hundred, viz., six score to each hundred, and charged by the bricklayer by the short hundred, viz., five score to the hundred. The rates of charge by the hundred are as their names imply, viz., fourpenny, fourpence per hundred; sixpenny, sixpence per hundred. The number of nails required to a bundle of five-feet laths are 500, and to a bundle of sixfeet laths 600. A square of pan-tiling will require 180 tiles, laid at a 10-inch gauge, and a bundle of laths. The bundle consists of 12 laths, 10 feet long. In lime measure, 25 striked bushels, or 100 pecks, is a hundred of lime; 8 gallons, or 2,1501 cubic inches, is a bushel of dry measure; and 2684 cubic inches is a gallon. In sand measure, 24 heaped bushels, or 30 striked bushels, is a load, and 24 cubic feet weigh a ton. In mortar measure, 27 cubic feet make a load, which contains half a hundred of lime, with a proportional quantity of sand; 1,134 cubic inches make a hod, which is 9 inches by 9, and 14 inches long; 2 hods of mortar make a bushel nearly. c; BRI 50 BRI BRI 50 BRI A ton weight contains 23k cubic feet of sand, 171 of clay, or 18 of earth, or 330 bricks. A cubic foot contains 951b. of sand, 1351b. of clay, or 1241b. of common earth, or 125 bricks. To measure trenches for foundations.-All kinds of excavations of earth are measured by the number of cubic yards which they contain; therefore, to find the number of cubic yards in a trench, find the solidity of the trench in cubic feet, which divide by 27, the number of cubic feet in a yard, and the quotient, if any, is the answer in cubic yards, and the remainder, if any, shows cubic feet. Example.-The length of a trench is 62 feet, the vertical depth 2 feet 6 inches, and the breadth 2 feet 9 inches. 62 24 124 31 165 310 77 6 38 9 27 )426 3 ( 15 yards 21 feet, the answer. 27 156 135 21 In the horizontal dimensions, if the trench is wider at the top than at the bottom, as is generally the case, and equal at the ends, take half the sum of the two dimensions for a mean breadth, and if the breadth of one end of the trench exceed that of the other, so as to have two mean breadths differing from each other, take half the sum of the two added together, as a mean breadth for the whole. Or, take a mean dimension in the middle of the length, and the middle of the height, and proceed as in the above operation. The footing of a wall is the projecting courses of brickwork under the wall, spread out to prevent it from sinking. To measure the footing of a wall.-Multiply the length and the height of the course together, then multiply the product by the number of half bricks in the mean breadth: divide the last product by 3, and the quotient is the answer in reduced feet. The number of half bricks in the mean breadth will be found by adding the number of half bricks in each course together, and dividing the sum by the number of courses; or take half the sum of the half bricks in the upper and lowermost courses; but if the number of courses is odd, this trouble may be saved by taking the number of half bricks in the middle course for the mean breadth. Also, instead of measuring the height of the footing, it is usual to allow three inches to each course in height; or multiply the number of courses by 3, which gives the height in inches. Example.-The footing of a wall is 62 feet in length, and consists of 3 courses, the middle course of which consists of 3. bricks; how many feet of reduced work are in the said footing? 62 0 0 9 46 6 7 number of half bricks in mean breadth. 3)825 6 108 ft. 0 in. of reduced brickwork To find the number of rods contained in a piece of brickwork. Rule I.-If the wall be at the standard thickness, divide the area of the wall by 272, and the quotient, if any, will be the answer in rods, and the remainder, if any, in feet: but if the wall be less or more than a brick and a half in thickness, multiply the area of the wall by the number of half bricks, that is, the number of half lengths of a brick; divide the product by 3, and the wall will be reduced to the standard of 1i brick thick. Divide the quotient by 272, and this quotient will give the number of rods required. Rule II.-Divide the number of cubic feet contained in the wall by 306, and the quotient, if any, will show the number of rods, and the remainder, if any, the number of cubic feet. Rule III.-Multiply the number of cubic feet in the wall by 8; divide the product by 9, and the quotient will give the area of the wall at the standard: divide the standard area by 272, and this quotient, if any, will show the number of rods; the remainder, if any, is the reduced feet. The rea8 1 1 son of this rule may be thus shown: 9 2729 3 30 which is a divisor of a rod, without any regard to the standard. Example.-The length of a wall is sixty-two feet, the height fifteen feet, and the breadth equal to the length of two bricks and a half: how many rods of brickwork are contained in the wall? Operation by Rule I. 62 15 310 62 930 5 number of half bricks. 3 ) 4650 272) 1550 ( 5 rods 190 feet, the answer. 1360 190 Operation by Rule II. 62 15 310 62 930 1 10 6 38 9 0 775 930 806) 1743 9 0 ( 5 rods 213 feet, the answer. 1530 213 Operation by Rule IlI. 62 15 310 62 930 1 10 6 38 9 0 775 930 1743 9 8 9 13950 0 272 ) 1550 ( 6 rods 190 feet, the answer. 1360 190 ~~ — -I BRI 51 BRI BRI 51 BRI In the calculation of brickwork, where there are several walls of different thicknesses, it will be quite unnecessary to use the divisors 3 and 272, as will be hereafter shown. In measuring walls within the districts to which the building act extends, it is customary to take the length of front walls within the building, and the length of party walls from the front to the rear faces of the building, in order to appropriate more easily the share of each proprietor; but in country houses, which stand insulated, and which have their adjoining faces of the same workmanship, either of the two pair of parallel walls may be taken the whole length of the external faces, and the dimensions of the other pair of parallel walls should be taken perpendicularly from the interior sides of the said walls, or the horizontal stretch of the interior side of either. In measuring for workmanship only, it is customary to allow the length of each wall on the external side; or, if all the adjoining walls are of the same workmanship, to girt the whole on the outside; and consequently, if the building be a rectangle, the contents will by this means exceed the real quantity by four square pillars, each the height of the building, and in horizontal dimensions the thickness of each wall. This is a compensation for plumbing the angles; but this practice is unfair with regard to materials. In measuring walls that are faced with bricks of a superior quality, the London surveyors measure the whole as if conmon work, and allow so much per rod for the facing, as the quality of the bricks and superior excellence of the work may deserve. The facing may be reckoned at two thirds of a brick. In taking the dimensions of the brickwork in the different stories, the height of each part, as high as it goes of the same thickness, must be taken; and the contents of each part computed separately, the offsets being always below the joists, and consequently the wall the same thickness throughout, from the ceiling of one floor to the ceiling of another. All apertures and recesses from any of the faces are to be deducted, but an allowance per foot lineal should be granted upon every right angle, whether external or internal, except that two external angles are formed by a brick in breadth, and then only one of them must be accounted for. This allowance is in consequence of plumbing the faces which constitute the said angles; but if the bricks are cut so as to form oblique angles, this allowance should be at least double. It is customary, in almost every part of the country, in measuring for workmanship, to find the contents of the walls as if solid, without deducting the vacuities, so that upon this principle, if the apertures be ever so large, they must, at all events, be accounted as solid; and, in this instance, the proprietor would be greatly overcharged by the workman. Again, in apertures of small breadth, the trouble in plumbing at the returns is equally the same at the same height as if ever so wide; but in case the voids are less than the lineal allowance, there would be a manifest loss to the master workman. It is much to be wished that such an allowance as above mentioned should be established, in order to do away the uncertainty of computing the quantity of walling, such as to be often above, and sometimes below the real value of workmanship. Gauged arches are sometimes deducted and charged separately, and sometimes not; but it is the same whether they are deducted or not, as the extra price must be allowed in the former case, and the whole price allowed in the latter, which is much the more troublesome of the two. Gauged arches are at least five times the trouble of the best marl facing. To measure the vacuity of a rectangular window.-Find the solidity that would fill the outside vacuity from the face of the wall to the reveal, or outside of the sash-frame; the solidity that would fill the vacuity from the outside of the sash-frame to the vertical plane of the extension of the back upwards; and the solidity that would fill the vacuity contained between the vertical plane of the back and the internal face of the wall; then add these three solidities together, and the sum will be the solidity that will fill the whole void; then add the allowances. Or thus-Find the area of each of the three vacuities. parallel to the face of the wall; multiply each area by each respective number of half bricks in the thickness of the wall, add the three products together; divide the sum by 3, and the quotient reduces the contents in superficial feet to the standard thickness. In taking the dimensions of brickwork, inches are generally neglected. Example.-Suppose the height of the outer vacuity, from the sill to the under side of the head, to be 10 feet, the breadth 4 feet 6 inches, and the thickness half a brick; the height of the middle vacuity from the sill to the under side of the wooden lintels, to be 10 feet 3 inches, the breadth 5 feet 2 inches, and the thickness also ~ a brick, and the inside vacuity, from the floor to the under side of the said lintels, 13 feet; the mean breadth, supposing the inside to splay, to be 5 feet 6 inches, and the depth of the recess 1I brick: required the solidity that will fill the void. Operation for the outside vacuity. 10 4j 40 5 45r Operation for the middle vacuity. 10 3 0 5 2 0 1 8 6 51 3 0 52 11 6 Operation for the inside vacuity. 13 65 6 6 ft. in. see. 45 0 0 71 6 52 11 6 3 214 6 0 214 6 3) 312 5 6 104 1 10 the solid that will fill the vacuity. To calculate the price of a rod of brickwork.-This will depend upon the quality of the bricks and the goodness of the workmanship; for in building foundations and partywalls, which are commonly done with place-bricks, the bricklayer may easily lay 1,500 bricks in a day: in garden-walls, barns, and common country houses, where greater nicety is required in jointing, he may lay about 1,000 per day; and in gray-stock, or marl fronts, done with great care, he will hardly exceed 500 in a day. The expense per rod will also depend upon the articles of living, and consequently upon the times. One example, however, will be sufficient; the prices of materials and labour may be had from a Price Book. In the -- 5 B — BRI 52 BRI _ ~ following statenment, the work is supposed to be a well-built gray-stock front, the rates of charge according to the present London prices for 1848. To 4,500 gray-stock bricks, prime cost at 88s. per thousand................. 1 cwvt. lime, at 14s. per cwt............ 2 loads sand, at 5s. per load............ t of a day of a labourer to slack, chaff, &c. the mortar, 3s. 6d. per day............ Bricklayer 5 days, 5s. 6d............. Labourer 5 days, 3s. 6d................ Addl 1; per cent for scaffoldin, &c...... Add 15 per cent profit on the prime cost. 8.. Cd 8 11 0 1 10 0 10 0 } 0 2 7 1 7 6 0 17 G ~12 9 7 0 3 4 -1 17 6 ~14 10 6 In making the calculation of a wall where the bricks of the facing are of a superior quality to the backing, it is proper to observe, that the number of bricks in the fciing of a rod of Flemish-bond work will vary from 1,500 to 2,000, according to the size of the bricks and closeness of the joints; this number of bricks must be deducted from the whole nulmber that would constitute a rod; and each number of bricks must be valued according to their respective qualities. The following example will sufficiently explain the application of the foregoing rules in the measurement of the front wall of a house. Ertample.-Suppose the front wall of a house to be four stories high, and the length 26 feet: the footing to consist of place-bricks in four courses, which are respectively, 5, 4-, 4, and 31 bricks in breadth; the basement part of the wall to be built with gray-stocks, 11 feet in height, and 3 bricks in thickness; the parlour part of the wall to be 11 feet in height, and 21- bricks in thickness; the one-pair-of-stairs, or principal floor, to be 13 feet in height and 2 bricks in thickness; the chamber floor to be 10 feet in height and 12 brick in thickness; the three upper stories to be of gray-stock work, faced with marls; in each of the basement and entrance stories are to be two windows and a door, and three windows in each of the upper stories: the whole of the windows, as well as the doors, to be 4 feet in width; the windows in the basement to be 6 feet in height, and not recessed in the inside below the sash-friame; those in the parlour-story to be 81 feet in height, recessed from the inside of the room below the sash-frame, which is to be placed two feet above the surface of the floor; those in the drawing-room story to descend to the bottom, and to be in height 10 feet. The upper windows to be 6 feet 9 inches in height, and 21 feet above the surface of the floor, the head of the basement door to be upon a level with the windows, and the jambs 8- feet high. The street-door to entrance, or parlour-story, to be semicircular, and the top of the arch upon a level with the soffits of the heads of the windows; the sash-frames to be all sunk within the jambs in 4 inch reveals; likewise the under sides of the wooden lintels above the level of the soffits of the brick heads, to be recessed 3 inches upward, and the door-frames 13 inches into the jambs, and also 3 inches into the head; all the windows and doors to have rubbed and gauged arches: the arches of the windows to be 11 inches broad, and in height equal to four courses of the wall. Their mean length, or horizontal dimension, to be 41 feet; the soffits to be the breadth of a brick, or 4~ inches, and the length is consequently four feet, the breadth of the windows: the arch of the door to be 9 inches broad on the face, and as much on the soffit: how much will the whole amount to, supposing the rod of placebricks to be ~12 15s., the rod of gray-stock work to be ~14 10s., the extra facing of best marl stocks to be sixpence per foot superficial, the extra price of the rubbed and gauged arches 3s. per foot, and the lineal foot of angles in apertures to be a penny per foot: likewise, what will be the price of a rod, supposing the apertures not deducted, and what will be the rate if they are deducted, without making any other extra charge whatever; so that the profit of the master bricklayer shall be the same in either case? The dimensions are generally taken with two five-feet rods, and entered in a book, ruled perpendicularly for the purpose. In brickwork it will be convenient to have three columns contiguous to each other on the left hand; the first vertical column to contain the dimensions, and to be only bounded by one vertical line on the right-hand side of the column: the dimensions of the same surface to be written one under the other, putting the like denominations in vertical rows; the number of times any work is repeated is put on the left of the upper dimension, and separated from it by a curve; the number of half bricks are to be written in the adjoining right-hand column, ruled on both sides, and in a horizontal line with either dimension. It would answer little purpose to show the work arising by squaring the dimensions. It may be proper to observe, in order to avoid numerous repetitions of division, that the dimensions of the surfaces, in length and breadth, must be multiplied together, and the product multiplied by the number of times, if more than once repeated, and this last product again by the number of half bricks in the thickness of the work: but if the outline of the surface of the work be circular, or any figure whatever, the quantity of surface must be found by the rules for measuring that figure, and repeated the number of times, and this product by the number of half bricks in the thickness of the work, as before. These products may be found by beginning with any of the multipliers, and using any one of the remaining ones in each succeeding product until their number is exhausted; the result is to be placed in a third adjoining column on the right, in a horizontal row with either of the dimensions. The dimensions, the number of half bricks, and contents of every two surfaces, are to be separated from each other by a horizontal line. The numbers in the third column are the contents of the work reduced to a wall, half a brick thick; and consequently, any number of contents of the same species of work may be added together, and reduced to the standard by dividing the sum by 3; and if rods are required, the quotient must be divided by 272, which will save immense labour. The following is a specimen of the Dimension Book: The lineal measures are as in the preceding description, and are supposed to be taken in order, as they succeed each other, beginning with the basement part of the building, whether of the same kind or not, in order to prevent frequent returning to the same place. Where the same dimension is often repeated in different parts of the building, it would be unnecessary to insert the number of times they occur in every part; it is sufficient to make a memorandum of the number to be found in each place, on the waste, and then the number of times it is repeated in the whole may be inserted in the Dimension Book at last. In each of the different stories, the same order, if possible, is repeated, that mistakes of overlooking any of the articles may be prevented. Every other part will be sufficiently evident by inspection, and by attending to the general description in the example, except the semicircular head of doorway, the dimensions of which are set down in the same manner as the others, and the squaring is found by the rules for measuring a circle. Now the multiplier for the area of a circle reduced to duodecirals _ { B R[ 53 BRI B R[ 53 BRI is 9 in. 5 sec.; the dimensions are 4 feet by 2; these multiplied together give 8; this product again multiplied by 9 in. 5 sec. gives 6 ft. 3 m. 4 sec., and this repeated by 2, the number of half bricks on the exterior part of the aperture, gives 12 ft. 6 m. as the seconds are always unnoticed. Dimension Book, with the Contents. Sundry Extras. t I I 26 0 1 0 26 0 11 0 2( 6 0 4 0 2( 6 3 4 8 4(18 3 8 6 4 0 8 9 4 8 2(25 9 26 0 11 0 2( 8 6 4 0 2( 8 9 4 8 2(10 9 4 8 4(28 0 8 6 4 0 8 6 4 6 4 0 2 0 4 6 2 3 2(25 6 26 0 13 0 3(10 0 4 0 3(10 3 4 8 6(30 6 8j 6 1 5 2 4 5 1 1 3 221 0 1716 0 48 0 291 8 73 0 68 0 163 4 61 6 1430 0 68 0 81 8 301 0 112 0 68 0 114 9 12 6 23 10 51 0 1352 0 120 0 430 6 183 0 Footing of wall with place-bricks Part of the wall opposite basement, of graystock brick-work Exterior part of the apertures of the two windows Interior part of ditto External and internal quoins of windows Exterior part of the aperture of doorway Interior part of ditto Quoins of doorway Part of the wall opposite parlour, or entrance, story External parts of apertures of windows Middle parts of ditto Internal parts of ditto Quoins of windows External part of aperture of street-door, excluding the circular head Interior part of aperture of street-door, excluding the circular head Exterior part of aperture of semicircular head of street-door Interior part of ditto Straight quoins of doorway Part of the wall opposite the one pair, or principal story Exterior part of the aperture of windows Interior part of ditto Quoins of windows 2 3 2 3 11(4 6 Rubbed and gauged faces of arches in all the 0 8 33 0 windows 4 0 Rubbed and gauged arch of doorway 2 0 5 6 11(4 0 Soffits in ditto 0 4 14 8 34 0 Marl facing, including apertures 26 0 884 0 2(8 6 Deduction of parlour windows from marl facing 4 0 68 0 3(10 0 Deduction of the one-pair windows from marl 4 0 120 0 facing 3(6 9 Deduction of attic windows from marl facings 4 0 81 0 8 6 Deduction of the area of doorway from marl 4 0 34 0 facing, excluding the semicircle 4 0 Deduction of the semicircular head of doorway 2 0 6 3 from marl facing The dimensions are most frequently wrought upon the waste, or upon the right-hand side of the leaf of the Dimension Book, which is very convenient, as the work may be inspected should any mistake be apprehended. The arranging of the several kinds of work into columns, so as that each column may contain the same kind throughout, is called an abstract. This arrangement saves much trouble in the calculation, reduces the whole into a very small compass in homogeneous kinds, and prevents the confusion which would otherwise arise from the multitude of parts in a complex building. The following is an abstract of the whole: The contents are placed in vertical columns, which are in number equal to the number of kinds of work, every number of the same kind being arranged in the same column. The order of each kind or species of work is the same as they occur in the Dimension Book; for example, 221 footing of walls, with place-bricks, first occurs; this is entered in the first column of the abstract: 1716, basement wall of gray-stock brick-work next occurs; these bricks and work being of a different quality, are entered in the second column of the abstract: 48, the exterior part of the apertures next occurs; this is the same kind of work as the last, but as the former is a measure of both solids and voids, and this is only a part of the measure of the voids, the 48 is placed in an adjoining column. The next number is 291.. 8; this is a deduction of the same kind, and is therefore inserted in the abstract below the 48: the next that occurs is 73 feet of quoins lineal measure; this, being different from the preceding, is entered in a fourth column. The next that occur in the Dimension Book, are 68 and 163.. 4, external and internal parts of the aperture of doorway; being voids of the same kind as the preceding, they are successively entered in the third column, below the 291.. 8. The next that occurs is 51.. 6, quoins of doorway, and is entered in the fourth column. The next that occurs is 1430.. 0, the part of the wall opposite parlour, or entrancestory; now, though this is gray-stock work, faced with marles, it is taken only as a gray-stock wall, and is therefore entered in the second column; the difference of price for the superior quality of bricks and work being afterwards made up by affixing an extra price to the superficial contents of this part of the wall, and thus for all that follows. The whole being inserted, each column is added together, and in the quality of the brick-work the sum of the voids is taken - 4 1 3 I - I 26 0 10 0 3 3( 6 9 4 0 1 3( 7 0 4 8 1 3( 9 6 4 8 6(20 9 780 0 81 0 98 0 133 0 124 6 Part of the wall opposite attic story Exterior parts of apertures Middle parts of ditto Interior parts of ditto Quoins of windows _ __ F BRI 54 BR I BRI 54 J3R from the whole; the remainder is divided by 3, which gives the superficial contents in feet of the surface of a wall reduced to 1I brick in thickness; the deductions being negative quantities, no further notice is taken of them; the sums of the other columns being positive, the price is affixed to each common measure, whether a foot or a rod, &c., and the value of each quantity is found by this common measure; then the quantities, with the prices of their common measures and values, are inserted in a bill; the whole being reduced into a sum, gives the amount of the whole money for the wall. Abstract. The whole of the walling reduced to i a brick thick, taken Quoins of Footing of wall as gray-stock work without re- apertures by of place-bricks. gard to the facing. the lineal foot. Contents of the wall. Deductions. 3)221 0 1716 0 48 0 - 1430 0 291 8 73 0 3 8 1352 6 0 68 0 1 6 780 0 163 4 112 0 68 0 51 0 5278 0 81 8 183 0 2103 3 301 0 124 6 68 0 3)3174 9 114 9 695 0 --- 12 6 272)1058(3 R. 23 10 816 120 0 - 430 6 242 81 0 98 0 133 0 2103 3 Rubbed Marl facing in superficial feet. and gauged arches. Contents. Deductions. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 37 1 884 0 68 0 16 6 309 3 120 0 81 0 63 7 57 9 34 0 6 3 309 3 The next thing to be done is to affix the price of the common measure to each of the above species of work, and from this, to calculate the quantity of each; then insert the several sums in a bill, as follows: Rods. Feet. Bill.. a. 0 73j* Superficial of place-brick work reduced 3 8 5i to the standard at ~12. 16s. per rod t 3 242 Superficial of gray-stock work reduced 56 8 0 to the standard at ~14. 10s. per rod ) 0 695 Feet lineal of quoins in apertures at Id 2 9 7 per foot....................... ) 0 53% Superficial of rubbed and gauged work 8 6 at 3s. per foot.............. *0 674% Superficial of marl facing at 6d per foot 14 7 4j ~84 13 10* * I not noticed in the calculation. In the foregoing admeasurement, the quoins are valued by the foot lineal, in addition, and the method of making out the contents is different from that commonly used; but though the allowance is strictlyjust, and the practice shorter and less liable to mistake than that in common use; that there should be nothing wanting to gratify' customary method, the admea the usual way. The mark thu Dimen. Contents. Th. Names. ft. in. ft. in. brick 26 0 Footing. 1 0 26 0 4i 26 0 286 0 3 Walling 11 0 2 6 0 48 0 Windows 40 2 6 3- 68 4 2 Ditto 4 8 8 6 34 0 1 Doorway 4 0 those who may still favour the Lsurement is here repeated in is - signifies a deduction. 9 40 10 2 Ditto.4 8 2 2 2 26 0 11 0 8 6 4 0 8 9 4 8 10 9 4 8 8 6 4 0 8 6 4 6 4 0 2 0 4 6 2 3 26 0 13 0 10 0 4 0 10 3 4 8 26 0 10 0 6 9 4 0 7 0 4 8 9 6 4 8 - 68 0 -81 8 286 0 21 Walling I Ditto i Windows The dimensions are frequently squared upon the waste on the margin of the Dimension Book; the following is a specimen: First, Second. 4 8 8 9 6 3 4 8 28 0 35 0 1 2 2 11 -- 2 11 29 2 2 40 10 58 4 Third. Fourth. 8 9 4 8 4 8 8 9 6 10 0 3 6 0 35 0 37 4 40 10 0 40 10 0 The operations are wrought in various ways: as in the first and second, by aliquot parts; the third and fourth by duodecimals. These various modes serve to confirm each other. The third and fourth are the same dimension, but the factors are inverted in respect of each other. 4 4 6 2 2 3 0 8 1 1 6 9 5 9 0 0 3 4 10 1 6 6 0 0 9 6 6 3 4 4 2 6 -7 1 6 7 11 4 1 6 The mark thus Q signifies a semicircle. The method of finding the semicircular area is shown in the two examples above; first by multiplying the dimensions together, and multiplying the product by 9 inches and 5 seconds, as above, or by calling the feet inches, as in the first operation, and multiplying by 9 feet 5 inches. -100 4 1% Ditto - 34 0 1 -38 31 1 - 6 3 - 7 11 338 0 1 12 2 Ditto Q Ditto Q Ditto Ditto Walling Windows Ditto Walling Windows 3 -120 0 3 -143 6 260 0 1% 1% lb lb 3 -81 0 - 98 0 3 3 Ditto -133 0 b Ditto I. - The above contents are abstracted by inserting each area in a separate column, according to the number of half bricks it is thick. In the following abstract, the several parts of each column are collected: the sum or amount is multiplied by the number of half bricks, and the product divided by 3; then the positive quantities are added together, and the negative ones added together, their difference is the real quantity in reduced feet, 'by dividing which by 272, the answer will be obtained in rods i BRI 55 B R I BRI 55 BR.I Wall, including Apertures. Deductions from Wall. 41 bricks. 3 bricks. 2- bricks. 2 bricks. 1i brick. 24 bricks. 2 bricks. 1+ brick. 1 brick. J brick. Footing of ft. in. ft in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft in. ft. in. ft. in. place bricks. - 286 0 286 0 338 0 260 0 68 4 40 10 100 4 34 0 48 0 ft. in. 6 6 4 450 8 5 4 38 3 34 0 /68 0 26 0 - -- 476 8 - 7 11 63 81 8 8j 3)1716 0 3)1430 0 3)1352 0 572 0 3)291 83)163 4 143 6 120 0 __9_______ ____ __- - 97 2 74 3 81 0 208 0 572 0 476 8 450 8 1759 4 97 2 54 5 64 5 2 98 0 13 0 700 11 49 6 133 0 ---- --- 209 10 3) 148 6 3)221 0 272)1058 5(3rds. 629 8 816 700 11 49 6 1 73 8 242 feet 3)629 8 ___________________________ _________ __________209 10 Instead of dividing by 3, as in the above abstract, it would be easier to add the products of the half brickwork, both for the walling and for the deductions, and subtract the deductions from the walling; divide the difference by 3, and the quotient by 272, should it be found necessary. Wall, including Apertures. Deductions from Wall. 4j bricks. 3 bricks. 29 bricks. 2 bricks. 11 brick. 2j bricks. 2 bricks. l1 brick. 1 brick. i brick. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft in. ft. in. ft. in. 26 0 286 0 286 0 3380 2600 58 4 10 10 100 4 34 0 48 0 81 6 5 4 3 5 4 38 3 34 0 68 0 -- -- _ _ --- -711 63 81 8 208 0 1716 0 1430 0 1352 0 780 0 291 8 163 4 143 6 - 120 0 13 0 1352 0 - 74 3 81 0 -- 1430 0 290 0 2 98 0 221 0 1716 0 3 - 138 0 --- 148 6 - 5278 0 870 0 629 8 2103 2 291 8 1 -- 163 4 -- 3)3174 10 148 6 629 8 -- 629 8 272)1058 3(3 rods 242 feet 816 2103 2 _______ 242 I; -i The other parts of the above abstracts are as in the preceding, and are, therefore, not again repeated. A wall common to two houses, the properties of different persons, is termed a party wall; but if a building stands insulated, the walls which join the entrance to the rear front are called flank walls. Chimneys are generally carried up, either in party walls, flank walls, or partition walls, and sometimes in all of them; but never, or very seldom, in the front or rear walls. When the walls which contain the chimneys are thin, it becomes necessary to form a projection of sufficient breadth and depth, for the reception of the flues, or as many of them as can be collected into one stack. This projection is generally a rectangular prism, showing three vertical sides, and is termed the chimney-breast, or breast of the chimney. The method of measuring the solid contents of every part of a building, is to reduce all the parts into rectangular prisms, and then find the solid contents of each prism. It frequently happens that walls consist of a cluster of prisms, which may be differently divided, in order to separate them. All apertures or cavities of any consequence, ought to be deducted from the measure, whether the proprietor or the contractor find the materials; but as every return or termination requires more trouble than a continued wall, an allowance ought to be made in lineal measure, upon every foot of angles, or terminations, as before mentioned, for the trouble of plumbing, levelling, and straighting. It is true, that a great length of wall requires several intermediate plumbings, but then, as they are only regulated upon the face, the trouble is small in comparison to what is required in a vertical termination, or a deflection of the wall from its course, by another return wall at an angle with it; and as these plumbings may be made at regular distances, the parts of the wall may be said to be uniformly built, and the same in all equal lengths of walls, and the time proportional to the quantity under the same circumstances of height and thickness, and therefore the area or solidity is a fair ratio of the price: and farther it is evident, that the greater the number of apertures or vacuities, in the same length of wall, the more trouble will they occasion the workmen, sirfE more time is required to form the sides of the apertures, or the boundaries of the vacuities. In this case, therefore, the time of completing a wall of given dimensions, even with the same quality of work, depends upon the number of quoins that are to be built, and consequently cannot be determined by the solidity of the wall, but jointly by this measure and the lineal quantity of angles; for the solidity is not as the time, when the number of quoins are increased, and consequently the price not as the time; but the price may be made up by the increase of the angles. _~___ __ I__ ~ ___ _ __ BRI 56 BRI BRI 56 IIR It is likewise evident, that in building quoins, while the workmen continue at the same rate of work, the lineal quantity is in the same ratio as the time, and therefore this lineal measure is a fair representation of the value of the work. In carrying up a wall of the same horizontal length, where there are no vacuities, the quantity of work performed by the same number of bricklayers is equal in equal times, but the work requires an additional number of labourers as the height increases, to supply the materials: in this case also, the quantity of surface is a fair representation of the value of the work, in respect of the bricklayers, but an additional sum must be added as the work proceeds, and this increase would be the terms of an arithmetical progression; for suppose the materials at the foot of the scaffold, and the scaffolding erected at regular heights; now it is evident, that whatever time the labourer requires to mount the first scaffold, he would require a time double, triple, quadruple, the first, &c., to mount the second, third, fourth scaffold, &c.: the sum of all these times is the whole time. There should also be a uniform increase of price for the use of scaffolding, as well as for an additional number of labourers, as the work is carried upwards. From the aggregate of these circumstances, it is evident, that the value of the labour, with respect to the bricklayers, may be fairly estimated by the quantity of surface, of equal thickness, but an increase of price must be allowed for labourers and scaffolding. To measure and value party walls, flank walls, and partition walls with flues.-Find the cubical contents of the whole, or each part of the wall, in feet, according to its figure, or the figures into which it may be resolved; deduct the vacuities, multiply the remainder by 8, and divide the product by 9, and the work will be reduced to the standard; then take the lineal measure of all the quoins, whether external or internal, the proper rate being affixed to each common measure, and it will give the value of the whole. In measuring walls containing chimneys, it is not customary to deduct the flues; but this practice with regard to the materials, is unjust, though perhaps, by taking the labour and materials together, the overcharge, with respect to the quantity of bricks and mortar, may, in some degree, compensate for the loss of time; on the other hand, should the proprietor find the materials, it is not customary to allow for the trouble of forming the flues, which is therefore a loss to the contractor, or to the workman who engages to execute his part by measure or task-work. With regard to the allowance for the lineal measure of quoins, we regret to observe, that the practice is not general, and, so far as we know, has only as yet taken place in outside and inside splays, and the angles of groins: we admit that every innovation, not founded upon reason, ought to be resisted; but as we are convinced of the justice of this mode, we have here ventured to introduce this as a general practice, which ought to be followed in every case, whether the quoins be vertical, or horizontal, or curved; and an appropriate price should be affixed to each species of quoins, whether external or internal, right-angled or oblique, curves or right lines, as the trouble is greater in external than in internal angles, greater in oblique than in Arht angles, greater in curved quoins than in straight ones, and still greater in groins, where the angles are continually varying, than in curves where the angles are the same throughout. If the brick-work of the footing of a wall project equally on each side, and if the bricks be of the same kind as the wall above, take the height of the wall from the bottom of the footing, as high as it goes of the same thickness; multiply that by the length and the thickness, and reserve this solidity; then multiply the length of the w:ll, the height of the footing,. and its projection with the addition of half a brick, will give the solidity of the footing; add these two solidities together, and the sum will be the solidity of the wall, from which deduct the vacuities, and the remainder will be the quantity of solid work. If the breast of a chimney project from the surface of the wall, and be parallel thereto, the best method is to take the horizontal and vertical dimension of the face, multiply these together, and the product by the thickness taken in the thinnest part, taking no notice of the breast of the chimney; then find the solidity of the breast itself; add these solidities together, and the sum will give the solidity of the wall, including the vacuities, which must be deducted for the real solidity; after taking the dimensions for the quantity of brick-work, the lineal quantity of angles should be taken, and entered in the Dimension Book. Nothing more is necessary to be said of the shaft, than to take its dimension in height, and horizontally in breadth and thickness, in order to ascertain the solidity; and then take the lineal quantity of angles, and enter them all in the Di. mension Book. If a chimney is placed in the angle, with the face of the breast intersecting the two sides of the wall, the breast of the chimney must be considered as a triangular prism; to find the solidity, therefore, multiply the area of the base by the height of the surface of the front or breast, and the product is the solidity. To take the dimensions: from the intersections of the front of the breast into the two adjacent walls, draw two lines on the floor parallel to each adjacent wall, then will the triangle on the floor, included between the front and these lines, be equal to the triangular base of the chimney. In order to obtain the area of the triangular base, the dimensions may be taken in three various ways, almost equally easy; but as convenient a method is to take the extent of the base, which is the horizontal dimension of the breast, and multiply that by half the perpendicular; or, multiply the whole perpendicular by half the base, for the area of the surface on which the prism stands; but as fractions arise by the halving of odd numbers, it would be better in such cases to multiply the whole perpendicular by the whole base, and half the product will give the area of the prismatic base, which is that of the chimneybreast. Sometimes the front of the chimney-breast does not intersect the walls, but is projected out from each adjacent wall by two returning vertical planes of equal breadth, each at a right angle with the adjacent wall: in this case the triangular prism is measured as before; but as the part between the prism and the wall is frequently constructed with burrs, an inferior kind of brick, this part will then consist of two rectangular prisms, and there is nothing more to do than to measure them as such; then deducting the vacuity of the fire-place from the triangular prism, the remainder will be the true solidity of this prism. In the former case, when the plane of the breast intersects the two sides of the room, a lineal allowance per foot ought to be made for the inside splays, and in the latter case, where the plane of the breast does not intersect the adjacent walls, there will be two outside splays, and two internal right angles; in this case, there must be an allowance for outside splays, and the internal right angles, per foot, running each according to its respective qualities: and in both cases it would only be fair to allow for the vertical extent of the angles of the fire-place. It is not here meant that these allowances should be made according to the present prices, which are adapted so as to include hinderances at a hazard, without any foundation to common reason, but that the BRI 57 BRI BRI 57 B _57 price per rod should be reduced in an adequate degree, and each kind valued by its common measure, in proportion to the time it requires to perform a given portion. A row of plain tiles laid edge to edge, with their broad surfaces parallel to the termination of a wall, so as to project over the wall at right angles to the vertical surface, is called single plain tile creasing, and if two rows are laid one above the other, the one row breaking the joints of the other, then these two rows are called double plain tile creasing; over the plain tile creasing a row of bricks are on edge, with their length in the thickness of the wall, called a barge course, or cope. In gables which terminate with plain tile creasing, coped with brick, in order to form the sloping bed for the tile creasing, the bricks must be cut, which is a considerable trouble; the sloping of the bricks thus, is called cut splay. Plain tile creasing and cut splay are charged by the foot run, and sometimes the latter by the foot superficial. A b)rick wall made in panels between quarters, is called brick-nogging. This kind of work is generally measured by the yard square, with the quarters and nogging pieces included in the treasure; but the apertures should be deducted, and the lineal measure of the angles allowed. Pointing is the filling up of the joints of the bricks on the face, after the wali is built, with mortar, so as to be regular. Pointing is of two kinds. In either, the mortar in the joints is well raked out, and filled again with blue mortar: in the one kind, the courses are simply marked with the edge of a trowel; in this state it is called flat joint pointing. If, in addition to flat joint pointing, plaster be inserted in the joint with a regular projection, and neatly pared to a parallel breadth, this state is called tuck pointing, or tuck-joint pointing, formerly tuck and patt. Pointing is measured by the foot superficial, including in the price, mortar, labour, and scaffolding. Rubbed and gauged work is set either in putty or mortar, and is measured either by the foot run, or by the foot superficial, according to the construction. The circular parts of drains may be either reduced to the standard, or to the cubic foot, and the number of rods taken if required. The mean dimension of the arch will be found by taking the half sum of the exterior and interior circumferences; but perhaps it might be proper to make the price of the commlnon measure, whether it be a foot, or a yard, or a rod, greater, as the diameter is less; but as the reciprocal ratio would increase the price in small diameters too much, perhaps prices at certain diameters would be a sufficient regulation. Circular walls are measured in the same way, by finding a mean girt, which is to be multiplied by the height and thickness; but all work should be valued in proportion to the tinme required to perform a given portion of it, but in equal portions of straight and curved walls of the same kind of workmanship, the curved portion will require a greater price than the straight portion. In measuring canted bows, the sides are measured as continued straight walls, but the angles on the exterior side of the building, whether they are external or internal, are allowed for in addition, and paid for under the denomination of run of bird's-mouth; all angles within the building, if oblique, from whatever cause they are formed, whether by straight or circular bows, or the splays of windows, are allowed fir, under the denomination of run of cut splay. These allowances are certainly what ought in justice to be, and this is fulfilling, in part, what has been so much insisted upon; but allowances should extend to right angles also: if the bricks be made to the splay, then the charge need not be greater than when the angles are right. 8 Brick cornices are charged by the foot run, but as there are many kinds, and these executed with more or less difficulty, the price will depend on this, and also upon the value of the materials. Garden walls are measured the same as other walls, but if they are interrupted with piers, the thin part may be measured as in common walling, and the piers by themselves, and the additional allowance for the right angles, at per foot run, should be granted. The coping is measured by itself, according to its kind. The common measure for tiling, is a square of 10 feet, each side containing an area of 100 superficial feet. Not only the price of new work is valued by this measure, but also stripping and re-tiling of old roofs; but if any quantity of new tiles are used, they are charged separately, and the superficial quantity of old tiles that would fill the places of the new, are computed, and deducted from the old. In plain tiling, as the rafters are generally made three-quarters of the breadth of the building, the surface of the roof is exactly equal to the area, and a half more, of the length and breadth of the building, or the space contained between the sides of the covering and ends. This being kept in view, will save much trouble in calculation. Paving is laid either with bricks or tiles, and is measured by the yard square. The price per yard will depend on whether the bricks are laid flat or on edge, or whether laid with bricks or tiles, or of what size tiles, or whether any of these be laid in sand or in mortar. The mensuration of groins and vaults will be shown under their respective heads. That this work may be generally useful, we shall here subjoin the customs of several other parts of the United Kingdom, as well as the foregoing, which are calculated for London and its neighbourhood, or work done in the country by London masters. In most counties, brick walls are measured by the yard, without reducing the thickness of the work to the standard, and fixing a price per yard according to the thickness. In Cumberland, walls are mostly measured by the yard, and rated according to the thickness of the work: they have also a standard thickness of 18 inches, and their rod or rood is 49 square yards; these are also used by masons in the country, but neither the standard nor the rod are frequently used; apertures are always included for workmanship. In measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take the horizontal girt from wall to wall, to this they add the number of withs, or divisions between the flues, reckoning each with 3 inches, for the whole breadth; the height of the story, or as high as the work goes on uniformly, is the other dimension of the face, and the thickness is reckoned 9-inch work. In measuring a chimney-shaft, they girt it all round, then add the number of withs for the breadth, as before, and if there is only one row of flues, they reckon the thickness a 9-inch wall. In Scotland, the brickwork of outside walls is generally measured by the rood of 36 square feet, and this measure is almost, if not quite, general. In Glasgow, the standard thickness is 14 inches, or 1~ brick, the same as London; and walls of less thickness are generally measured by the yard, and the rate of price is according to the thickness of the work. Chimney shafts, or stalks as they are there called, are girt about for their horizontal dimension, and the altitude of the shaft, together with half its thickness, is the other dimension of the face; and the thickness is reckoned a brick and a half. In measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take the breadth of the face, and one return for the length, and the other dimension of the face is the height as far as the Y -' — --- --- --- — ~~-~ - -- ------- ------ -- -- - I -~ --- -- BRI 58 BRI 58B work goes of a uniform quality and thickness; the thickness is what the breast really projects. Vacuities for doors and windows are not deducted from outside work. In Ireland, the common measure is a perch of 21 square feet, being 21 feet long, and 1 foot high; the standard thickness is 9 inches only. The custom there, as also in mlost country places in Great Britain, was to include the openings. A 4-inch wall is reckoned two-thirds of a 9-inch wall; and a 3-inch wall, half a 9-inch wall. In the centering of sewer vaulting, half the arch is allowed; and in groin vaulting, the whole arches are done at so much per piece, according to their kind; splayed jambs, cant quoins, &c., by the running foot. For further information on measuring, the reader is referred to a valuable little work, called "The Student's Guide to the Practice of Measuring and Valuing Artificers' Works," published by Wealk, London. Materials in bricklaying are charged as follows:Fine bricks, red rubbers, best marl stocks for cutters, second best, pickings, common bricks, place bricks, paving bricks, kiln-burnt bricks, and Dutch clinkers, by the thousand. Red rubbers, kiln-burnt bricks, and fire-bricks, are also sold by the hundred. Foot-tiles and ten-inch tiles, either by the hundred or thousand. Sunk foot-tiles, and ten-inch tiles, with five holes, by the piece. Pantiles, plain tiles, and nine-inch tiles, by the thousand. Oven-tiles, Welch oven-tiles, Welch fire-lumps, fire-bricks, and chimney-pots, are sold by the piece. Sand, clay, and loam, by the load: lime sometimes by the hundredweight. Dutch terras, Parker's Roman cement, and lime, by the bushel. Pantile laths, oak laths, double and single, for slating, are sold by the bundle or load. Ilair and mortar by the load. Mortar, lime, and hair fine stuff, Parker's cement, and blue pointing mortar, are sold by the hod. Iair is sometimes sold by the bushel. I-ip hooks and T nails by the piece. In the former edition of this work was inserted a number of tables, showing the prices and quantities of materials; but as there are now published several usefll price-books, in which this kind of information is given, it has been considered better to refer to them than occupy so large a portion of our limited space as the tables would necessarily occupy. BRIDGE, a structure of wood, stone, brick, iron, or other material, raised over a river, pond, lake, or any intervening space, for the purpose of affording a convenient mode of passage for men or animals. The extreme supports of a bridge are called the butments, or abutments. See ABUTMENT. If composed of more than one opening, the intermediate supporters are called piers: the protecting walls or fences on each side are called parapets. When the bridge is intended for both foot-passengers and carriages, the sides are generally raised, and sometimes paved with flag-stones, and are called banquettes, or foot-paths; the middle part, being reserved for carriages, is the road, or carriage-way. In tnis place we propose to give a slight historical sketch of the rise, progress, and present state of bridge-building, exemplified in descriptions of the most celebrated edifices of the kind in various parts of the world. Under the respective heads of STONE BRIDGE, TIMBER BRIDGE, IRON BRIDGE, SUSPENSION BRIDGE, &c., will be found the required infor mation on each of these several branches of this important subject; and some account will be given of the theory under STONE BRIDGE. The origin of bridges, there can be no doubt, takes its date very far back in the annals of the human race, though we have no documents by which to trace their progressive improvement, from the trunk of a tree, rudely thrown by accident or choice over a stream, to the convenient and stupendous edifices of more modern times. It is probable that the first bridges were composed of lintels of wood or stone, stretching from bank to bank; or if the breadth of the river or valley to be passed were considerable, resting on piers or posts fixed in the bed of the river. In a strong current, the frequent piers or posts required for the support of lintels, would, ly contracting the water-way, increase it to a torrent, obstructive of navigation, and ruinous to the piers themselves. In constructing bridges therefore over rapid rivers, it would be found essential to their stability, that the openings between the supporters should be as wide as possible, and every facility given to the free passage of the water; and as this could be effected only by the use of stone arches or wood trusses, there can be no doubt that these inventions were perfected before bridges of importance had become common. There are still remaining bridges of great antiquity built by the Romans, but we are not acquainted with the earliest history of so usefidl a contrivance. It is by many supposed that the Greeks very soon adopted the use of arches, but at any rate they do not appear to have applied them to other purposes than for covering apertures in their buildings. See ARCI, ARCHITECTURE. Nor had they a bridge over the Cephisus, which crossed the high-road between Athens and Eleusis, till the Emperor Adrian erected one. In the Old Testament there is no mention of a bridge, and perhaps the bridge of Semiramis, at Babylon, may be considered the oldest on record. The Chinese lay claim to a high antiquity for their skill in bridge-building by means of arches. Several of these structures are of great magnitude, built of stone, and turned cn arches in the usual manner; others are constructed with stones from five to ten feet in length, so cut as each to form the segment of an arc, which consequently has no key-stone; ribs of wood being fitted to the convexity of the arch,-and bolted through the stones by iron bars, fastened in the solid parts of the bridge. The suspension-bridges of South America are of a very extraordlinary character, and from the lightness of their materials, their oscillation, and the great height at which they are sometimes suspended, present to the startled traveller objects at once alarming and picturesque, and well calculated to try the strongest nerve. See SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. The Roman bridges are described by Bergier, as possessing all the requisites met with in a modern bridge; they consisted of piers, arches, butments, carriage-ways, and raised banquettes or footpaths separated from the road by a railing, and sometimes furnished with a cover to shelter passengers from the weather. Their solidity and proportion prove they must have been constructed on sound principles. The superintendence and care of bridges was always an important object with the Romans; it was at first committed to the priests, who thence obtained the name of pontzfices; afterwards it was given to the censors and curators of roads; and at last the emperors took it into their own hands. In the middle ages, the building of bridges was esteemed to be an act of religion; and about the close of the twelfth century, St. Benezet founded a regular order of hospitallers, under the denomination of pontifices, or bridge-builders, whose pro. _ __ __ _ __ 'BRI 59 BRI BR 59 BR vince it was to erect bridges, appoint ferries, and entertain travellers in hospitals built on the banks of rivers. Of the bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan across the Danube, near the town of Warhel, in Hungary, is allowed to have been the most magnificent. It was destroyed by Adrian, but some of the piers may still be seen. The remains of a bridge bearing as strong marks of ruined magnificence as any of antiquity, are to be met with at the bottom of a hill, on which the town of Narni is seated, on the road between Loretto and Rome. This bridge was built by Augustus, to join two mountains, between which flows the river Nera, and to enable the inlhabitants of Narni to pass on a level from one mountain to the other. It was of an extraordinary height, and its whole length, 850 palms (6372 feet). It consisted of four large unequal arches. The next considerable Roman work of this kind is the Pont da Garde, about three leagues from Nismes; which serves the double purpose of a bridge over the Gardon, and an aqueduct for supplying the people of Nismes with water. The bridge, which consists of six arches, is about 465 feet in length, and supports a second series of 11 arches, which are continued beyond the extremities of the bridge, and form a junction with the slope of the mountains on either side; it is about 780 feet long. Over these is a third series of 35 arches, much smaller than those below, 850 feet in length, supporting a canal on a level with the two mountains, along which the water is conveyed to Nismes by a continued aqueduct. This extraordinary edifice is built with very large stones, held together by iron cramps without cement. The whole height is 190 feet above the lower river. The bridge of St. EJsprit, near Lyons, is of Roman origin, and has long been deemed one of the finest and boldest of the ancient bridges of France. Its whole length is upwards of 800 yards; it is very crooked, bends in several places, and mlakes many unequal angles, particularly in those parts where the river has the strongest current. The arches run fiom 15 to 20 fathoms in width. The feet or bottoms of the piers consist, in their lower parts, of several courses of footings jutting out like steps; and are eacl protected by two pedestals, projecting from them. Between the large arches are smaller apertures, like windows, reaching nearly to the tops of the pedestals, about the middle of the pier. This mode of construction was adopted with a view to break gradually the mighty force of the Rhone: the several courses of steps, jutting out from the piers, oppose and break the stream by portions, and prevent it from operating with its whole force upon the fabric at once; land when the flood rises so high as to cover the steps and pedestals, the small arches, or windows, allow the water to pass freely, which otherwise would have choked in the upper part of the great arches, and endangered by their being forced up. The city of Valenza de Alcantara, in Spain, is celebrated for its ancient bridge over the Tajo, or Tagus, about 25 miles froml Madrid, built in the time of the Emperor Trajan; and, as appears from an inscription over one of its arches, by the people of Lusitania, who were assessed to defray the expense. It is 200 feet above the water, and though consisting of only six arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At the entrance of the bridge is a small chapel dug in the rock by the pagans, who dedicated it to Trajan; but when the Christians obtained possession, they consecrated it to St. Julian. Near the old town of Brioude, in the Lower Auvergne, or department of the Upper Loire, is a stupendous stone bridge, of one arch, the largest with which we are acquainted. It is attributed to the Romans, and stretches over the whole stream of the Allier. The extremities of the arch rest on a natural rock, which occasions the spring on one side to be lower than on the other; it is formed of squared stones in two ranks; the rest of the fabric is of rubble-work. The span of the arch is 181 feet; its greatest height, from the level of the water to its intrados, 68 feet 8 inches; and the breadth of the bridge, 13 feet. The bridge of Avignon was begun in the year 1176, and finished in 1188, probably under the direction of St. Benezet and the fraternity of hospitallers, over whom he presided; it consisted of 18 arches, and was about 1,000 yards in length. The road-way was so narrow, that two carriages could not pass each other in any part; this had caused it to be deserted by all but foot-passengers long before its destruction, which happened in 1699, by one of those violent inundations common to the Rhone. Many of the ruinous-decayed arches still remain. The city of Venice has nearly 500 handsome bridges of one arch, and various sizes, over the canals, &c.; most of them are of white stone, similar to that with which the streets are paved, without any balusters or fence on either side. Of these the principal is the Rialto, esteemed, when erected, a masterpiece of art. It was begun in 1588, and finished in 1591, after a design of Michael Angelo, and consists of one bold flat arch, nearly 100 feet wide, and only 23 in height from the level of the water. Its breadth, which is 43 feet, is divided into three narrow streets, by two rows of shops: the middle street is the widest, and in the centre there is an arched aperture, by which the three streets communicate with each other. At each end of the bridge is an ascent of 56 steps, and the prospect from its summit is both lively and magnificent. The foundation extends 90 feet, and rests upon 12,000 elm piles; the whole exterior of the bridge, as well as of the shops, is of marble. The building cost the Republic 250,000 ducats. The most stupendous and magnificent work ever executed in the department we are now speaking of, is the aqueduct bridge of Alcantara, near the city of Lisbon. It was begun in the reign of John V. king of Portugal, in the year 1713, and was finished on the sixth of August, 1732, under the slperintendenee of Brigadier MIansel de Maya. The aque(lulct collmences at a spring near Ribeiralde Caranque, about three leagues and a half from Lisbon, to which city the water is conveyed for the supply of the inhabitants. The aqueduct passes stlbterraneously through the hills, receiving in its course the waters of several springs, and stretches across many valleys on the tops of magnificent ranges of arches, of which that crossing the vale of Alcantara is the principal. When the water emerges from its sulterraneous passage, it is received in two channels on the tops of these arches, each about 12 inches deep; it generally flows at about the depth of seven inches, yielding an abundant supply for the city and its environs. The interior height of this building is 13 feet, and between the streams is a paved walk or foot-path. The subterraneous passages are continued of the same height and width throughout the whole extent of the works, and are lighted and ventilated by openings to the surface of the hills through which they pass. Over each of these openings are turrets or square towers, with strong latticed windows, to prevent mischievous persons fromn throwing stones, &c., into the aqueduct. These turrets are 16 in number, each 16 feet square, and rising 23 feet six inches above the roof of the aqueduct; the number of windows is 79, each three feet seven inches long, by 13 inches wide, railed with iron and latticed with bars. Beneath every second turret is an arched doorway into the aqueduct. The water-channel under the grand arch is about 24 feet in width, and seven feet in depth; but this channel is dry, except in very rainy seasons. There is, indeed, a small stream con Bi 60 BRI__1_iiil BR1 60 BRI ___ __ stantly running through the vale of Alcantara, but it is conveyed by a very narrow channel under the pavement beneath the grand arch, and then continues its course through the valley in a stream between two and three feet wide, till it falls into the Tagus, about two miles below. This remarkable structure consists of 35 arches, of various dimensions. The eighth is the grand arch, which is 108 feet five inches in the span, and 227 feet in height: the other arches vary from 21 feet ten inches, to 72 feet in width. The total length of the piers and arches is 2,464 feet. The expense of erecting this work, and keeping it in repair, has hitherto been defrayed b) the trifling rate of one rey on every pound of meat sold in the markets of Lisbon. In France, besides the Roman structures already noticed, there are many bridges of more recent date, remarkable both for their size and the boldness of their construction: among these may be mentioned the bridge of Neuilly, built between the years 1768 and 1780, by M. Perronet. It crosses the Seine, on a line with the grand avenue of the Champs Elysees, in the front of the Tuilleries; it is level on the top, and consists of five equal arches, 120 feet French (128 feet English) in the span, with a rise of 30 French feet (32 feet English). The piers are 14 feet thick, and the bridge itself 48 feet broad. The arches, which are elliptic, are composed of 11 arcs of circles, of different diameters: the upper portion of the arch was formed with a circle of 160 feet radius, which, by its settlement during the building and after removing the centres, became flattened to an arc of a circle of 259 feet radius, differing so little from a platband, that the rise of the curve in a length of 33 feet, amounts to no more than six inches nine lines. At Mantes is a bridge of three arches, likewise over the Seine. It was begun in 1757, by M. Ilupeau, and finished oy M. Perroet. The centre arch is 120 feet French (128 feet English) in the span; the side arches are each 12 feet less. The piers are 25~ feet wide, and the abutments 29 feet thick. In the year 1771, M. Regemortes constructed a flat bridge over the river Allier, at Moulins, consisting of 13 semi-elliptical arches, of 64 feet span each, and 24 feet high. Over the river Oise, on the great road from Paris into Flanders, is the bridge of St. Maxence, 41 feet wide, built by M. Perronet. The arches, three in number, each describe the segment of a circle, whose radius is 118 feet, leaving a water-way of 77 feet. The piers are singularly constructed; each being composed of four cylindrical pillars, nine feet in diameter, leaving between them three spaces or intercolumniations, which are arched over; those on the outsides are closed with a thin walling, and the middle one is left open. The last foreign bridge we shall notice, is that of Orleans, over the Loire, built by M. Iupeau, between the years 1750 and 1760. It comprises nine oval arches, described from three centres, which spring at 12 inches above low water. The middle arch is 106 feet in span, with a rise of 30 feet; the extreme arches at either end, are each 98 feet wide, and 26 feet high; the intermediate arches increase gradually in dimensions as they approach the centre. The four middle piers are 19 feet wide; the others, 18 feet each; and the abutments 23- feet thick; making the whole length of the bridge 1,100 feet. We come now to speak of bridges in our own country, beginning with those of the greatest antiquity. The Gothic triangular bridge at Croyland, Lincolnshire, is supposed to be the most ancient structure remaining entire in the kingdom. It was erected about the year 860, but for what purpose, it is difficult, if not altogether impossible to determine; it is, however, obvious that utility was not the motive of the builder; though it may be allowed to claim the qualities of boldness of design and singularity of construction, as power. fully as any bridge in Europe. It is formed by three semi. arches, whose bases stand in the circumference of a circle, equidistant from each other, and uniting at the top. This curious triune formation has led many persons to imagine, that the architect intended thereby to suggest an idea of the Holy Trinity: nor is this improbable, considering the age in which it was built. The ascent on either side of the semi-arches is by steps paved with small stones, and so steep that foot-passengers only can go over the bridge. Iorsemen and carriages frequently go under it, as the river is in that place but shallow. Although this structure has been built for so many centuries, the arches are still sound and free from fissures, and the building in general exhibits very trifling marks of decay. The bridge of Burton-upon-Trent is 1,545 feet in length. It consists of 34 arches, all of free-stone, and is strong and lofty. It was erected in the 12th century, by Bernard, abbot of Burton. Near Old Aberdeen is a celebrated Gothic bridge, over the river Don. The centre arch of the bridge at York is 82~ feet wide, and 27 feet high. At Winston, Yorkshire, is a bridge of a single arch, 108 feet nine inches in width, built of rubble stone, for the small cost of ~500. It was designed by Sir Thomas Robinson, and built by John Johnson, a common mason, of Walsingham, in the year 1762. At Kelso, is an elegant stone bridge over the Tweed, built by Mr. Rennie. It is quite level at the top, having five elliptical arches, each of 72 feet span; every pier has a circular projection, on which stand two Doric pilasters, supporting a simple block cornice. This bridge cost about ~13,000 exclusive of the new roads at each end, which cost about ~3,000 more. Mr. Rennie also constructed the aqueduct bridge over the river Lune, at Lancaster, which is considered as one of the most magnificent works of the kind extant. At the place where it is built, the water is deep and the bottom bad: the foundations are therefore laid 20 feet below the surface of the water, on a flooring of timber resting on piles. The arches are five in number, of 70 feet span each, and rise about 39 feet above the surface of the water. It has a hand some cornice, and every part is finished in the best manner The total height from the surface of the river, to that of the canal, is 57 feet; and the canal admits barges of 60 tons burden to navigate upon it. The foundation alone of this buildirng cost ~15,000, and the superstructure more than double that sum, although the stone was obtained from a quarry less than a mile and a half from the spot. The bridge over the Pease, or Peaths, between Dunbar and Berwick-upon-Tweed, is rather an uncommon structure. It crosses a deep ravine, and consists of four semicircular arches. The arch on the east side of the ravine is 54 feet wide; the second 55 feet; the third 52 feet; and the fourth, or western arch, 48 feet. From the bottom of the ravine to the surface of the road, the height is 124 feet. It was designed and built by the late Mr. D. Ienderson, of Edinburgh. The bridges of Edinburgh are built, not over water, but over dry land. They are distinguished by the name of North Bridge and South Bridge, and afford an easy conmunication between the New Town and the royalty and suburbs on either side of it. The North Bridge, which forms the main communication between the Old and New Towns, was projected in the year 1763; but the contract for building was not signed till the 21st of August, 1765. The I I -... ___ B R I 61 BRI BRI 61 13R architect was Mr. William Mylne, who agreed with the town-council of Edinburgh to finish the work for ~10,140, and to uphold it for ten years. It was also to be finished before Martinmas, 1769; but on the 8th of August that year, when the work was nearly completed, the vaults and side walls on the south fell down. This misfortune was occasioned by the foundation having been laid upon the rubbish of the houses which had long before been built on the north side of the High-street; and which had been thrown out into the hollow to the northward; of this rubbish there was a depth of no less than eight feet between the foundation of the bridge and the solid earth. Besides this deficiency in the foundation, an immense load of earth, which had been laid over the vaults and arches, in order to raise the bridge to a proper level, had, no doubt, contributed to produce the catastrophe above-mentioned. The bridge was repaired by pulling down some parts of the side walls, and afterwards rebuilding them; strengthening them in others with chin bars; removing the quantity of earth laid upon the vaults, and supplying its place with hollow arches, &c. The whole was supported at the south end by very strong buttresses and counterforts on each side; but on the north it has only a single support. The whole length of the bridge, from High-street, in the Old Town, to Princes-street, in the New Town, is 1,125 feet; the total length of the piers and arches, is 310 feet. The width of the three great arches, is 72 feet each; of the piers, 131 feet; and of the small arches, each 20 feet. The height of the great arches, from the base to the top of the parapet, is 68 feet; the breadth of the bridge, within the wall over the arches, is 40 feet; and the breadth at each end, 50 feet. The South Bridge is in a line with the North Bridge, so as to make but one street, crossing the High-street almost at right angles. It consists of twentytwo arches of different sizes; but only one of them is visible, viz. the large one over the Cow-gate; and even this is small in comparison with those of the North Bridge, being no more than 30 feet wide, and 31 feet high. On the south, it terminates at the University on one hand, and the Royal Infirmary on the other. The aqueduct bridge at Glasgow, over the river Kelvin, which conducts the great canal from the Forth to the Clyde, is the work of that great engineer, Mr. Smeaton. Its length between the abutments, or land-piers, is 245 feet; the arches, which are four in number, are each 50 feet in span, rising 15 feet 3 inches, from 151- feet above the footing of the piers; the three piers are each fifteen feet thick, and 54 feet high, exclusive of the footing. The extrados is a straight surface for the canal. This bridge is constructed upon true mechanical principles, and the parapet is recessed opposite to the arches in order to resist the pressure of the water in the canal. The land-piers are also ingeniously contrived to be concave outwardly, so as to spread out at the base. The bridge at Perth was erected between the years 1766 and 1771, according to a plan by Smeaton, under the patronage of the late Earl of Kinnoul. It consists of ten arches, one of which is a land arch. The clear water-way is 589- feet; the extent of all the arches, 730- feet; and the wing-walls 176 feet: so that the total length of the bridge is 9061 feet. The expense of building amounted to ~26,446 12s. 3d., and was defraved by public subscription. Blenheim bridge consists of three arches, the chief of which is 101 -feet in the span. But the most extraordinary bridge in Great Britain, is that over the Taff, near Llantrissent, in Glamorganshire, called by the Welch Pont-y-ty-Pridd. It is the work of William Edwards, an uneducated mason of the country, who engaged, in 1746, to erect a new bridge at this place, which for elegance of design, and neatness of execution, surpasses any thing of the kind throughout the Principality. The description and history of the progress of this bridge, we shall borrow from Mr. Malkin's Tour in South Wales: "It consisted of three arches, elegantly light in their construction. The hewn stones were excellently well dressed and closely jointed. It was admired by all who saw it. But this river runs through a very deep vale, that is more than usually woody, and crowded about with mountains. It is also to be considered, that many otlher rivers, of no mean capacity, as the Crue, the Bargoed Taff, and the Cunno, besides almost numberless brooks, that run through long, deep, and well-wooded vales or glens, fall into the Tafl, in its progress. The descents into these vales from the mountains being in general very steep, the waters, in long and heavy rains, collect into these rivers with great rapidity and force, raising floods, that in their description would appear absolutely incredible to the inhabitants of open and flat countries, where the rivers are neither so precipitate in their courses, nor have hills on each side to swell them with their torrents. Such a flood unfortunately occurred soon after the completion of this undertaking, which tore up the largest trees by the roots, and carried them down the river to the bridge, where the arches were not sufficiently wide to admit of their passage: here therefore they were detained. Brush-wood, weeds, hay, straw, and whatever lay in the way of the flood, came down, and collected about the branches of the trees, that stuck fast in the arches, and choked the free current of the water. In consequence of this obstruction, a thick and strong dam was formed, and the aggregate of so many collected streams being unable to get any farther, the waters rose to a prodigious height, and by the force of their pressure carried the bridge entirely away! Edwards had given security for the stability of his bridge during the space of seven years; it had stood only about two years and a half; of course he was obliged to erect another, and he proceeded on his duty with all possible speed. The second bridge was of one arch, for the purpose of admitting freely under it whatever incumbrances the floods might bring down. The span or chord of this arch was 140 feet; its altitude 35 feet; the segment of a circle, whose diameter was 170 feet. The arch was finished, but the parapets were not yet erected, when such was the pressure of the unavoidably ponderous work over the haunches, that it sprang in the middle, and the key-stones were forced out! This was a severe blow to a man, who had hitherto met with nothing but misfortune in an enterprise which was to establish or ruin him in his profession. William Edwards, however, possessed a courage which did not easily forsake him; he engaged in it a third time, and by means of cylindrical holes through the haunches, so reduced their weight, that there was no longer any danger to be apprehended. The second bridge fell in 1751; the third, which has stood ever since, was completed in 1755." The breadth of this bridge is about 11 feet in the widest part; but in order to strengthen it horizontally, it is contracted towards the centre by seven off-sets, so that the road-way is there one foot nine inches narrower than at the extremities. It consists of a single arch, 140 feet in width, forming the segment of a circle of 175 feet; its height is 35 feet. This arch is between 40 and 50 feet wider than that of the celebrated Rialto, at Venice, and its additional altitude only in proportion. In each haunch are three cylindrical openings running quite through, from side to side, like circular windows: the diamdter of the lowest is nine feet; of the middle one, six feet; and of the uppermost, three feet. Besides the bridges already mentioned, there are other neat and elegant structures in various parts of Great _ __ ___ _ __ __ BRI 62 BRI BR 62 BR Britain and Ireland. In the latter kingdom, we cannot refrain from noticing the bridge over the Liffey, above Dublin, called Sarah, or Island Bridge, built in the year 1792, by Mr. Alexander Stevens, a mason of Edinburgh. It consists of a single elliptical arch, 106 feet wide, rising only 22 feet: and is consequently six feet wider than the Rialto, at Venice, and one foot less in altitude. The city of Dublin has likewise five other bridges over the Liffey, of which the two following are particularly worth notice: Arran, or Queen's Bridge, originally erected in the year 1684, but being destroyed by a flood in 1763, was rebuilt of hewn stone, and finished in 1768. It is built in a handsome light style, and consists of three arches, with paved banquettes for foot-passengers, on each side of the carriage-way, guarded with stone balusters. The other is Essex Bridge, first built in 1681, taken down in 1753, and rebuilt after the model of Westminster Bridge. It has five arches, the buttresses between which support semicircular niches, projecting from the parapet; between these niches are balustrades, which are continued to the ends of the bridge. The foot-ways are flagged, and the whole is constructed of hewn stone, in very fine taste. We come nowto those magnificent examples of bridge architecture, equalling any that the Romans have left, and surpassing all others in the world-the bridges of London. Each of these noble structures may be considered almost perfect in its kind, and as affording a specimen of the application in its grandest form, of the peculiar material of which it is constructed. Four of these fine bridges are built of stone-namely, London Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, and Westminster Bridge. They will be fully described under STONE BRIDGE. Southwark Bridge, built of iron, under IRON BRIDGE. And the beautiful new bridge lately completed at HIungerford, by Brunel, the celebrated engineer, under SUSPENSION BRIDGE. Among Bridges of Wood, (for the principles and methods of constructing which, sec TIMBER BRIDGE,) the first that attracts our notice is the bridge of Caesar across the Rhine. It consisted of a double row of piles, leaning to the course of the stream, and joined together at the distance of two feet from each other. Forty feet lower down the river, was another double row of piles, leaning against the stream, and towards the former row. Between the double piles, which were well rammed into the bed of the river, long beams, two feet thick, were placed, and held fast at each end by two braces. These beams being joined by transverse pieces, the whole was surmounted with hurdles. To preserve this structure from injury by the force of the water, the supporters were guarded with piles as buttresses; and above the bridge, other piles were placed, to stop the progress of trees or timber, which by accident might fall into the river, or be designedly floated down by an enemy, to destroy the work. The bridge over the Cismone, a river falling from the mountains which separate Italy from Germany, is described by Palladio as an interesting object to the builder and architect. The river where this bridge is erected is 100 feet wide; and because the current is very rapid, and great quantities of timber are floated down it by the mountaineers, the bridge was constructed of a single span. The width is divided into six equal parts, and at the end of each part, except at the banks, which are strengthened with pilasters of stone, are placed the beams that form the breadth of the bridge. On these, leaving a little space at their ends, other beams are placed lengthwise, constituting the sides. The king-posts are disposed on either side, over both beams, connected with the projecting ends of those forming the breadth, by means of iron bolts and pins. At Wittengen, in Switzerland, is a very curious bridge, the contrivance of Ulrick Grubenhamm, an uneducated carpenter of Tuffen, in the canton of Appenzel, celebrated for several works of the same nature. It consists of two wooden arches parallel to each other, with the roadway hanging between them. The span is 230 feet, and rises only five feet. The arches approach the catenarian shape, and are built of seven courses of solid oak logs, in lengths of 12 or 14 feet, and 16 inches and upwards in thickness. By picking these logs of a natural shape suited to the intended curve, the wood is nowhere trimmed across the grain. The logs being laid one upon the other, with their abutting joints carefully alternated, have the appearance of a wooden wall: instead of being pinned together, they are surrounded with straps of iron, at every distance of five feet, and fastened by bolts and keys. The abutments are the natural rock. The roadway intersects these arches at about the middle of their height, and is supported by cross joists, resting on a long horizontal beam, connected with the arches on either side by uprights bolted into them. Three of the spaces between these uprights have struts or braces, giving the upper work a sort of trussing in that part. The whole is covered with a roof, projecting over the arches on each side of the roadway, to defend the timbers from the injuries of the weather. This bridge is of more than sufficient strength to bear any load that can be laid upon it, though the attempt to truss the ends demonstrates that the builder was ignorant of true architectural principles. In 1754, Grubenhamm erected another bridge, upon a plan nearly similar to the foregoing, at Schaffhausen, where the river (the Rhine) is nearly 390 feet wide. The current is very rapid at this spot, and had destroyed several stone bridges, when Grubenharnm offered to throw a wooden bridge across, of a single span; but the magistrates were alarmed at the proposition, on account of the breadth of the river, and would scarcely listen to it: at last they consented that he should build a bridge, provided he would divide it into two spans, and use the middle pier of the late stone bridge as a support at their junction. Grubenhamm complied with the wish of the magistrates so far as to divide his bridge into two unequal parts, the span of the one being 172 feet, and of the other, 193, both appearing to rest upon the old pier, though he contrived to leave it doubtful whether they really did so or not. This structure cost ~8,000 sterling, and travellers inform us, that though it sustained the most heavily laden waggons in perfect security, yet the weight of a single foot-passenger caused it to tremble under him. It was destroyed by the French, when they evacuated Schaffhausen, in Aplil, 1799. Among wooden-bridges, the Schuylkill bridges at Philadelphia, in America, are very remarkable. Wooden-bridges, unsupported by posts or pillars, and sustained only by butments at the ends, have obtained the denomination of Pendent or HaIning Bridges, by some also called Philosophical Bridges, of which Palladio has described three modes of erecting; such is the bridge over the Cismone, already described. Doctor Wallis has likewise given the design of a timber bridge, 70 feet long, without any pillars, which may be useful where supports cannot be conveniently erected; and Doctor Plott assures us, that formerly there was a large bridge over the castle ditch at Tutbury, in Staflordshire, made of short timbers, none of them above a yard in length, yet not supported from beneath, either by pillars or arches. The Spaniards use bridges of this kind for crossing the torrents of Peru, over which it would be difficult, not to say impossible, to throw more solid structures, either of wood or stone. Some of these hanging-bridges are sufficiently strong _ __ __ _ _ __ BR 63 B BRI 63 BRI _ __ and broad for loaded mules to pass along them with safety. In China, these flying bridges are constructed of an almost incredible magnitude; the Philosophical Transactions contain the figure of one, consisting of a single arch, 400 cubits long, and 500 in height. A great change in modern bridge-building has been effected by the introduction of iron, and the use of chain or suspension-bridges. The invention of Iron Bridges is said to be exclusively English, but Duhalde gives the merit of it to the Chinese; be that as it may, there is no country where there has been so extensive an application of the discovery, or in which has been erected so many fine bridges of iron as in Great Britain. The first was set up at Colebrook Dale, Shropshire, in the year 1797, and was speedily succeeded by numerous others in all parts of the United Kingdom; for a description of which we must refer to IRON BRIDGE. Draw Bridges are of wood or iron, sometimes of both, with stone abutments. They are placed over navigable canals and rivers, or used in fortified places for the purpose of shutting out the enemy, and are of varied construction. Some are fastened at one end by hinges, so that the other end may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The most common method of doing this is by a kind of balance, called plyers, in which case the bridge when drawn up stands erect, to preclude a passage across a moat, &c. Others are so constructed as to be drawn back, or thrust forward, as occasion may require. On small canals, &c., draw-bridges consist of one leaf only; but on larger navigations, wet-docks, &c., they are of two pieces, meeting in the middle, and forming an arch, which are raised or lowered by means of balance frames. movable on the tops of uprights suited in height to the magnitude of the bridge; such as that at Bristol, over the Frome. Such bridges, however, having been found inconvenient from their tackling catching the yards and rigging of vessels passing through them, a kind of bridge, diverse from all the preceding, has been invented, called a Swivel Bride: these, on small rivers, are only of one frame, or leaf, and turn on a centre, or series of balls or rollers; but when made on a wider scale, they consist of two parts, one on each side of the channel, and meeting in the centre. The most complete of this kind are those constructed at the Wecst-India and London Docks; the latter spans 40 feet, and is 15 feet wide in the road-way. It consists of cast-iron ribs, about 1- inch thick, turning on a number of concentric rollers, which move between two circular cast-iron rings, very nicely turned: each leaf has a flap, which lets down by a screw, and abuts upon the stone-work on either side, forming the whole bridge, when shut, into an arch capable of bearing any weight that can possibly pass over it. The whole apparatus weighs 85 tons; but it moves with so much ease, that it can be opened and shut in less than three minutes. Suspension Bridqes have only lately been introduced into this country, though known to the Chinese from a very early period. The iron-chain bridge of Yunnan is supposed to have been erected about A. D. 65, in the reign of the emperor Mingus, and is described as very similar in principle to the Iammersmith Suspension Bridge near London. In Kircher's China Illustrata, it is stated, that the chord-line is of the length of 200 cubits. In the Asiatic Researches, Turner gives a very interesting account of the singular bridges erected by the natives of Bootan. These bridges are of varied construction. but admirably adapted to the circumstances for which they are intended. Over the widest river in Bootan, there is an iron bridge, consisting of a number of iron chains, which support a matted platform; and two chains are stretched above, parallel to the sides, to support a matted border, which is absolutely necessary for the safety of the passenger, who is certainly not quite at his ease till he has landed from this swinging, unsteady footing. At another place, a bridge for foot-passengers is formed by two parallel chains, round which creepers are loosely twisted, from which planks are suspended, the end of one plank resting upon the other without being confined. In the rude suspension bridge of South America, with its ropes of twisted bark, and its platform of cross pieces of wood interwoven in them, or the platform attached immediately to the sustaining ropes, the form assumed, the catenarian curve, is the same as in the more perfect structures of modern times-and one traces easily the transition from the simple but effective contrivance of the untutored Indian, to the master-pieces of the genius of a Telford. See SUSPENSION BRIDGE. Bridges of Boats are made of boats, either of copper, tin, or wood, fastened across the stream by means of anchors or stakes, and laid over with planks. The earliest instance upon record of this kind of bridge, was that laid by Darius Ilystaspes over the Ister, or Danube, in his Scythian expedition, 508 years before the Christian era. The same monarch also crossed the Thracian Bosphorus with 700,000 men by means of a bridge of boats; the strait being five stadia, or 1,008 yards in width. Modern armies carry with them tin or copper boats, called pontoons, to be ready on any emergency: several of them, placed side by side, across the river, till they reach the opposite shore, with planks laid upon them, form a plane for the soldiers to march on. At Beaucaire, Rouen, and Seville, are very fine stationary bridges of boats, which rise and fall with the tide: that at Rouen is nearly 300 yards long, and paved with stone, so that laden carriages and horses, as well as foot-passengers, go over it in safety. In the absence of pontoons, military bridges have been made of blown bladders, hollow casks, sheaves of rushes, &c., covered over with planks. When bridges of this kind do not extend over the whole breadth of the river, but are contrived to float from one side to the other, they are termed Flying or Floating Bridges. A bridge of this description is generally composed of several boats connected with each other by a flooring of planks, and surrounded by a railing. This stage or raft is furnished with one or more masts, according to its dimensions, to which is fastened a strong cable, supported at proper distances by boats, and extending to an anchor, in the middle of the water, where it is made secure. The bridge thus becomes movable, like a pendulum, from one side of the river to the other, with the assistance only of a rudder. Such bridges were formerly sometimes constructed of two stories, for the more expeditious passage of a great number of men. Another kind of flying bridge is formed of two platforms, laid one upon the other, and by means of cords and pullics the uppermost is made to run out beyond the lower platform, till its farther extremity rests against the place it was designed to reach. In the Histoire de l'Acad6mie Royale des Sciences, for the year 1713, page 104, is a description of a floating bridge, which lays itself on the opposite side of a river. Under this head we have now to describe one of the most useful and ingenious constructions of modern science and engineering skill-the steam Floating Bridge invented by Mr. J. M. Rendel, the eminent civil engineer. The first bridge on this principle was erected by Mr. Rendel across the estuary of the Dart at Dartmouth, about the year 1832, and a similar one was established about two years after, across the Hamoaze, between Torpoint and Devonport. A very full description of the latter, accompanied by elaborate drawings, has been furnished to the Institution of Civil Engineers by Mr. Rendel himself, and from the first . [ IB... BR U.... I.[...I........ I........ -.;. BRI 64 BRU __ volume of the "Transactions" of the Institution, we have extracted the following brief sketch. The medium width of the river at the site of the bridge may be taken at about 2,350 feet, the strength of the current after heavy land floods is very great, and the site so much exposed, that it is not uncommon for the ships lying in the vicinity of the bridge to drag their moorings. The bridge is a large flat-bottomed vessel, of a width nearly equal to its length. The vessel is divided in the direction of its length into three parts-the middle one being appropriated to the machinery-each of the side divisions to carriages, &c. These side divisions or decks are raised about 2 feet above the line of flotation, and by means of movable platforms, an easy communication is afforded with the shore on embarking or landing. The bridge is guided by two chains, which passing through it over cast-iron wheels, are laid across the river and fastened to the opposite shores, forming as it were a road along which the vessel travels backwards and forwards. The moving power employed is two small steam-engines turning a shaft, on each end of which is a large iron wheel whereon the guide-chains rest. The peripheries of these wheels are cast with sockets fitted to the links of the chains, so that when the bridge is put in motion by the steamengines, it is moved in the reverse direction of, and with the same velocity as the wheels. The ends of the chains have balance-weights attached to them, which rise or fall as the tension of the chains becomes more or less. A similar bridge has been established at Portsmouth, and plies between that place and Gosport. Under this article we may also mention Portable Bridges, which are easily taken to pieces, and as readily put together again. M. Couplet speaks of a bridge of this kind, 200 feet long, carried by 40 men. Writers on architecture have bestowed considerable attention on the subject of bridge-building, which is justly esteemed as one of the most noble and striking specimens of human art. The earliest of these is Alberti, a native of Florence, who flourished about the middle of the 15th century; he has given several judicious precepts, which, with little alteration, were afterwards laid down by Palladio, Serlio, and Scamozzi. The best of these rules are likewise given by Goldman and Baukhurst, as well as by Hawkesmoor, in his History of London Bridqe.-M. Gautier has written a large volume on bridges, ancient and modern. M. Belidor has treated on this subject, in his Architecture Hydraulique; as has M. Parent, in his Essais et Recherches Mathematiques, vol. iii.-De la lire, too, has touched on it, in his Traite de Mechanique.-Pcrronet has given the result of his experience in a magnificent work, which has acquired him great credit in France. —Bosset has given an excellent treatise on bridge-building, in the A316moires de l'Acad6mie. —Regemortes published, in 1771, an account of the bridge built by him over the Allier, at Moulins.-In 1760, Mr. Riou published a work entitled, Short Principles for the Architecture of Bridges; and Mr. Semple has given some excellent practical remarks in his Treatise on Building in Water, published in 1776. Other writers on the construction and principles of arches and bridges, are Muller, Labelye, Atwood, Emerson, and Dr. H-utton. When a bridge is constructed of stone, and arched over, it requires, in the act of building, to be supported upon a mould, called a centre; the construction of which is shown under the article CENTRE. BRIDGE BOARD See NOTCH BOARD. BRIDGE OVER: when there are any number of parallel timbers, and another piece fixed transversely over them, then the transverse piece is said to bridge over the other parallel pieces. In framed roofing, the common rafters bridge over the purlins; likewise in framed flooring, the upper joists, to which the boarding is fixed, bridge over the beams or binding joists, and are therefore called bridging joists. BRIDGE STONE, a stone laid from the pavement to the entrance-door of a house, over a sunk area, not supported by an arch. BRIDGED GUTTERS, those made with boards, supported below with bearers, and covered above with lead. BRIDGING FLOORS, those in which bridging joists are used. See NAKED FLOORING. BRIDGING JOISTS, those which are sustained by transverse beams below, called binding-joists; also those on which the boarding for walking upon is nailed or fixed. See NAKED FLOORING. BRIDGINGS, or BRIDGING PIECES. See STRAINING PIECES, and STRUTTING PIECES. BRING UP, a term used by workmen for carrying up the walls to a certain height: they say, " bring up that part;" but the term carry tup is more frequently used. BROACH, an old English term for a spire, still in use in the north of England. The term is specifically applied to spires which spring directly from the eaves of the tower or other substructure, without the intervention of a parapet. This kind of spire is confined more especially to the earlier styles of Gothic architecture; in the later ones, the parapet is seldom dispensed with. BROAD-STONE, the same as FREE-STONE. BRONZE; a compound of copper and other metals, especially zinc. It is used for cannon, medals, &c. BRONZE also denotes any piece of sculpture made of bronze metal, as statues, busts, &c., whether in imitation of the antique, or representing a modern prototype. The method of casting bronzes is described under CASTING. BROWN, a dusky colour inclining to redness. Of this there are various shades, distinguished by different appellations, as Spanish brown, sad brown, tawny brown, London brown, and clove brown. Spanish brown is a dark dull red, of a horseflesh colour, of great use to painters, being generally used in house-painting, for priming the timber work, or first coating. The best is that of a deep colour, and free from stones. It is the best and brightest when burnt in the fire till it is red-hot. The various browns used in drawing are BISTRE, COLOGNE EARTH, and UMBER. BRUNELLESCHI, PHILIP, the son of a notary, born at Florence in 1377, was at first designed for the bar; but not liking that profession, he was apprenticed to a goldsmith. Iis genius, however, turned him to the study of sculpture, geometry, and architecture. The first model by which he formed his taste in architecture was the church of St. John, at Florence, a building of good style, and much inclining to the antique; he afterwards went to Rome, to study the ancient monuments there, the best of which he measured and took drawings from; and he is said to have first distinguished the three ancient orders. When the Florentines first thought of raising a dome upon the church of St. Mary del Fiore, they invited all the principal architects of Europe to a consultation, at which Brunelleschi proposed a double cupola, with a space between the inner and outer vaults, sufficient to admit of staircases and passages to the top. This idea was deemed so preposterous, that he was actually turned out of the assembly, for having presumed to insult the good sense and judgment of so many experienced artists, who had never heard of such a thing, and held it to be impracticable. Undaunted by this treat, ment, Brunelleschi persisted in maintaining the practicability __ _ -- — I -- --- ~- -- --- BUI 65 BUI BUJ 65B uI of his scheme, and demonstrated it by drawings and models: but the clamour excited by his brother artists ran so high for a time, that he was looked upon as a downright madman! At length, however, the violence of prejudice began to subside, and when it was seen that the rest of the architects produced nothing eligible for the purpose, the deputies, who had the management of the building, sent for Brunelleschi, listened candidly to what he had to propose, examined his drawings and models, and finally set him to work, under certain restrictions: they also appointed him an assistant, but his complete ignorance soon manifested itself, and he was dismissed. Brunelleschi being thus left at liberty, the citizens saw with admiration a magnificent cupola arise over their church, which Michael Angelo himself pronounced to be a masterpiece of science. This cupola is octangular, 154 cubits (Flemish) in height, on which rises a lantern of thirty-eight cubits, surmounted with a ball of four cubits, and a cross of eight cubits; making a total of 202 cubits. a height never before attempted on such a plan. Brunelleschi died before the lantern was quite finished, but he left a model, and recommended on his death-bed, that it should be loaded with the heaviest marble. The portico that was to have surrounded the tambour still remains unfinished. The peculiarity of this celebrated cupola is, that it has no counterforts Brunelleschi built the abbey for the regular canons at Fiesole, under the direction and patronage of Cosmo de Medicis; it is a convenient cheerful edifice, and the ornaments are in a chaste style. He also constructed several military works. A great part of the church of St. Laurence, at Florence, was built by Brunelleschi, but he died before it was completed, and his successors committed so many blunders in finishing it, that the original design is very much mutilated. The palace of Pitti, at Florence, was likewise begun from his designs; and so completely did the tide of public favour turn in his behalf, that his fellowcitizens elected him to the office of magistrate. But it was after his death that his talents were most appreciated, and his merit fully acknowledged as the reviver of pure architecture. He died in 1444, aged 67, honoured and esteemed by all who knew him, and was buried in St. Mary's cathedral. BUCCULA, in antiquity, denotes the umbo, or prominent part of a shield. BUDGET, a kind of pocket used by bricklayers, for holding nails when they lath for tiling. BUFFET, a cabinet or cupboard for plate, glasses, or china-ware. In former times, these were frequently made very ornamental, in the form of niches, and left open in the front in order to show the furniture. The buffet is now rarely seen, except in old-fashioned houses; in modern establishments it has been superseded by the sideboard. BUILDER, a person who contracts to build, or rear up edifices. BUILDING, in general, is a mass formed by the junction of materials. When a building is stationary, and erected for dwelling in, or for some useful purpose or ornament, it is called an edifice. Those who intend to build, should make choice of an architect who is known to be a man of ability and of tried experience and integrity. The proprietor should then explain as clearly as possible his ideas and intentions respecting the proposed building, to enable the architect to furnish the requisite plans and estimates. These should be carefully examined and gone into, so that the proprietor be perfectly satisfied that his wishes are understood, and the cost of carrying them into effect brought within the extent of his means or inclinations. The whole management ought then to be committed to the architect, with full liberty in the 9 choice of masters for the execution of the respective departments. The architect should then proceed to make out a specification, and contract for each individual branch concerned in the business, and put them into the hands of respectable tradesmen; if the estimates appear to be reasonable, the contracts should be signed. There are many kinds of work for which, however, from novelty in execution, it would be impossible to anticipate a price: but if the work consist of similar repetitions or parts, the value of one part being known, by taking an account of the time, that of the others will follow, and then the estimated expense of the whole may be ascertained. There are many proprietors whose ideas are never fixed, and no sooner is work done than it is undone: in such a case, the work should be done by measure and value, affixing a regular price to every corresponding article; and an account should be taken of the work pulled down. In whatever way the work be valued, there should be a person employed, stationary in the building, called a clerk of the works, whose business it is to give directions for fixing, and to superintend all parts of the execution; to keep the workmen's time, to give in weekly reports, and to examine the work, should it happen to be prepared out of the building. The drawings necessary in the construction of an edifice are, plans of the several stories, elevations of the fagades, a transverse and a longitudinal section at least, horizontal and vertical sections -of all the difficult parts, and a detail of all the mouldings and ornaments at large. These ought to be committed to the care of the clerk of the works. It is not very easy for an architect to furnish all the detail before a building is to be estimated; but if time would permit this to be done, the contractors would be able to undertake the work at the lowest rate, and this would in a great measure supersede the necessity of the addition, which is too generally found necessary to cover the uncertainty of estimating large works. With regard to building in general, it must be obvious, that to the taste, judgment, and science of the architect must be left the selection of the character and style of the building to be erected; no certain rules can be given to forrc the general contour of an edifice, but the middle part ought to have some commanding feature, and the general outline of the whole should approach to a pyramidal form. Large edi fices are susceptible of great splendour, by an agreeable variety of parts; but the beauty of a small building consists in the simplicity and symmetry of its surfaces. The regularly repeated columns, entablatures, and other ornaments which may adorn a circular building, create the most pleasing feelings, and in a straight building also, the uniformity and succession of parts are usually delightful to the observer, hence the gratifying sensation arising from long ranges of colonnades, as in the Grecian temples and the aisles of churches: but the preceding observation, with respect to the entablature, does not apply in a straight building. The entablatures may either be broken or continued, according to the use of the columns; the outline of the building being still preserved in either case: for when the repetitions are fac-similes of each other, the eye will judge of the figure of the building the same, whether the entablature be continued or interrupted, which is not the case in rotund edifices. When columns are placed so remote from each other, as not to be capable of supporting an entablature, or not sufficiently near to excite the idea, the entablatures may be broken, as in the triumphal arches at Rome, where the columns are introduced to support the ornaments of triumph. In the peribolus of the Grecian temples, the broken entablatures are not only beautiful, but the repetition of the order itself,P _' 'i __ __ ___ __ __ I B U 1 66 BUI _ __ __ _ is useftil in reinforcing the strength of the enclosure, and thus performing the office of buttresses to the walls. Much of the agreeable sensation in viewing our venerable antiquemodern churches, arises from the uniform succession of the buttresses and their ornaments. For farther particu.lars, with regard to the exterior of a building, we must refer the reader to the term BREAK. With regard to situation, a building should be placed in a salubrious and mild atmosphere, free from noxious exhalations, within the reach of the rays of the sun, so as to make it cheerful, and to have a plentiful supply of water and coal, as likewise of all other necessaries of life: it should be surroundled with an agrecable v variety of woods and walks, and oughlt to have an easy access to the highway. The situation should be commanding, but not so high as to expose the building to the f'ury of heavy winds. With regard to the plan of a building, the disposition of the apartnlents miust be agirecable to the intention of the design, anld in general the rooms ought to be all entered by one comII11mon passage; fior farther particulars on this head, see APARTMIENTr, CHIIMNEY, PASSAGE, ROOF, t00OM, and STAIRCASE. 'The modern method of placing a bedehamber and dressing-rooIl together, each with its separate door to the cornmon0 prssage, anid likewise with a door common to each other, is very convenienlt. The mode of uniting, when necessary, two or more rooms by means of folding-doors, is a very great improvement, particularly in small houses. The hall, or elntrallce, should at least have one chimney, and if connected with the staircase or a lofty saloon, the heat will be of essentiial service in warnting the whole house. Double doors are tuseful in preservirg a uniflirm temperature. Besides double external doors, for the exclusion of cold winds, double wind tows should be used for winter apartments. The proper distrilution of rooms must be regulated by the colurse of thie sun, in order to avoid the extremes of the summer's hleat and winter's cold. Bedchambers are properly situated tolwards the east, in order to regulate the time of risilrg. lEvely house ought to have two sitting-rooms, to accommodate the extrceme seasons of the year; that for the sumeiiner ought to be disposed in the north, and that for the winter in the south. I)awing-rooms and din ing-parlours are best situated in the west, as they are generally used in the lafternoon, that the declining sun mnay throw an agreeable shade upon objects; these matters, however, frequently depend upon other circumstances of convenience. The drawillg-rooms should be so disposed, as to be easily converted into one room, by throwing open the foldingdoors. In country mansions, the kitchen should be as near the diliing-rooml as convenient, but so disposed with regard to the passage of communication, as to prevent the effluvia fiom escaping to other principal parts of the house. The offices connected with the kitchen should be generally placed towards the north; but in town-houses this cannot always be done, and therefore regard must be had to circumstances. The larder, however, must always be placed beyond the influence of the heat of the kitchen. Galleries for paintings, and museIums, that require a steady light, should have a northern aspect. Windows ought to be made vertically one above the other, and not too near the angles of the building; and in large edifices, where the walls are thick, their jambs ought to be splayed or beveled, for a more full distribution of light. Lofty windows, descending to the floor, or nearly so, with a projecting balcony in front of the building, defended by a railing of cast-iron, are both healthy and agreeable. Skylights, in cold climates like ours, are productive of many inconveniences, as they admit of cold air, damps, rain, and snow, and thereby waste the heat generated in the house. They ought therefore never to be admitted, except for stairs and halls; but when this admission is necessary, their apertures should be of sufficient dimensions, not to hinder the passage of the sun's rays. T'he plans of buildings may be of various forms; the circle is the most capacious of all figurecs, under the same perinceter, and a building erected upon a circulalr plan, is also the most strong, durable, and beautiful of all others; but its compartmenits are not convenient in dwelling-houses, on account of a waste of room occasioned by the disposition of angular firniture; so that the loss in this respect more than counter)allances the qualntity of area gaineld by the property of its figure. Circullar buildings are also the most expensive, and, on account of the impossibility of dividing them into compartments without distortion, they are unfit for the purpose of private edifices: on this account they were employed by the llancients only in their temples and amphitheatres, which had no need of coInpartition. I nmodern mansions, entire cylindric or polygonal buildings are seldom or never used, except in parts which form single apartments upon a floor, as in towe'rs or bows. Though very beautiful forms of edifices may le reared upon reetilineal plans, a judicious arrangement of apartments formed both of plane and curved surfaces will make a most agreeable variety. Of all buildings upon plans of equilateral and equi-angular polygons, the triangle contains the least area, and on account of the acuteness of its angles, rectangular filuniture cannot be disposed on its area without very considerable waste; the employment of this figure, therefore, occasions not only a loss of surfilce from its property, but a loss also in placing of furniture: it may, however, be observed, in buildings erected upon equilateral and equi-angular polygons, the greater the number of sides the plan has, the less loss of area will be sustained on account of the property of the figure; but those with obtuse angles will still have the same objections on account of the furniture. Various figures may be adopted occasionally, for the sake of variety, when the loss of roonm is not an object; but for general use, the rectangular disposition of an edifice is the most convenient, as it will compart ad infinitum into rectangular figures, which is the best form of furniture for general use. The accessories of a building are ornaments borrowed from sculpture and painting; but wherever they are introduced, they ought to be in character, and to indicate in some measure its destination. figures representing animals are of a higher class than those of foliage or vegetables: the former were generally employed by the Greeks, particularly in the principal parts of their edifices, though sometimes the small parts were covered with foliage, in which the honeysuckle was most predominant. The Romans, whose taste was inferior to that of the Greeks, indulged in both. It is to the remains of the edifices of these two nations, that the architect must have recourse for the embellishments of the fabric. Of all the ornaments applicable to buildings, columns are the most splendid and dignified, and no invention has yet been able to supplant the three Grecian orders, though a lapse of more than two thousand years has past. Pilasters are not only very beautiful, but when wrought in with the work, they reinforce the strength of the walls, and consequently the whole fabric; but they have neither the dignity nor the graceful appearance of columns. The materials used in the construction of edifices are of various kinds, as timber, earth, mortar, chalk, stone, marble, iron, &c.; every place adopts, in the general construction of its _ __ __ __ BUS 67 B UT BUS 67 B UT buildings, those materials which are its own native productions, or those of other places which can be procured by an casy carriage. The chief writers on building, whose works have been transmitted to our hands, are Vitruvius, Alberti, Serlio, Scammozzi, Vignrla, Palladio, Baldus, Barbarus, Blondel, Cata.nei, Demolniosius, Friard, Goldman, Perrault, Rivius, Gulielmuls, Langley, Ware, and some living authors. See ARCIIITECTUIE and HOUSE. BUILDING, in masonry, is the art of joining stones together, with or without ceinent, so as to form tle whole or part of an edifice. Building also signifies the mass of body foirned tby the junction of stone with regular surfaces. In this sense it is the same with masonry, or a piece of masonry. Masonry always implies building; but building does not always imply masonlry. See MASONRY. BlUILDING ACT, the act passed in the year 1844, known as 7 & 8 Vict. cap. 84i, for regulating the construction and thle use of I)uildings in the metropolis and its neighbourhood, within certain limits defined by the act. As this act is usually appended to Price Books, &c., we have thought it unnecessary to occupy space by giving it here at length. BUILDING OF BEAMS, the joinling of two, or several pieces of timnber togethler in one thickness, and of several pieces in one length, by means of bolts, so as to form a beam of given dimensiolls, which it would be itnpossible to obtain fi:oi a single piece of timber. Beams thus built, are stronger than siuch as are scarfed, provided their joints be judiciously strapped across on the exterior sides; and their construction does not require so much waste of timber. Not only beamrs, but ribs for vaulted roofs, may be built so as to be stronger, anld require less timiber in their fiabrication, than those wlichl are scarfed; alnd if due attention be paid to their curves, no trussing will be necessary. The practice of buildillng a compound timber, so as to form one m-ass, or piece, which would perform the function of a single piece, will be founld under the article R 1. Other particulars, with regard to the lengthening of beams, will be found under SCA RFING. IBULKER, a term used in Lincolnshire for a beam or rafter. BU1LLEN-NAITS, those with round heads and short shanks, tineld and lacquered there are about three sizes of themn, which are used in the liangings of rooms. I3ULWATRIK, in ancient folrtiieation, is nearly the same with bastion in the mod(ern. See IRAMPART land TI(RUS. BUNDILEA LLAIR, in Gothic architecture, a coluimnt consisting of a number of small. pillars around its circumference. BU!SCITETTO, a distinguished Grecian architect, born in the isle of Dulichio, and enlployed, in 1016, by the republic of Pisa, in erecting their cathedral church. lhllis has been reckoned one of the most sumpltuous edifices in Italy. l-e died at Pisa, where he had a monument erected to his memory, with an inscription, intilnating his superior knowledge of the mechanical powers. Ile had many disciples, and is regarded as the founder of modern architectural science in Italy. BUST, or Busro, in sculpture, that portion of the human figure, which comrrprehends the head, neck, breast, and shoulders. Tle Italians also apply this terni to a greater portion of the human figure, as low as the hips, with or without the head and arms, as in the busts of many illustrious ancient Romanns. The word is probably derived from the Latin bustlurn. These pieces of sculpture are generally placed upon a pedestal or console. BUT-IlINGES, those employed in hanging closures, as doors, shutters, casements, &c., placed on the edges with the knuckle projecting on the side on which the closure is to open, and the other edges stopping against a small piece of wood left on the thickness of the closure, so as to keep the arris entire. It is customary to sink the thickness of the hinges flush with the surflce of the edge of the closure, and the tail part one-half into the jamb. There are several kinds of but-hinges, such as, stop but-hinges, which only permit the closure to open to a right angle, or perhaps little more, without breaking the hinge; rising but-hinges, which turn upon a screw, employed in doors, and cause the door to rise in the act of openting, so as to clear a carpet in the apartment. Slip-ojff but-hinges, are thlose emnployed where a door or wid(low-l)liid requires to be taken off occasionally. B i TMENT. See AnlrUTMENT and STONETB BII)(;GE. IUTMENT CEiEKS, tle two solid parts on each side of a mortise:t th hickness of each of the cheeks should be equall to that of tlhe mortise, when there is no circumstance which may require themn to be of a difllrent thickness. BUTT-END of a piece of timber, the largest end next to the root. BUTT-JOINT, in hand-railing,, a joint at right angles to the curve of the rail. See IIAND-RAILING. BUTTERY, the store-room for provisions. Its situation is generally north. BUTrTING-JOINT, that which is formed by the surfaces of two pieces of wood, of which the one sin'face is perpendicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or iakitng an oblique lagle with them;-.as the joint which the strutls Lad braces in carpentry miake with the truss-posts. BUTTON, a sliall piece or wood or inetal, made to turn round a centre, for fastening a door, or any other kind of cl(osure. Tl'e centre in commonly a nail, which should be made round where it is to turn, and the head nmade smooth. BUTTO(N or A LOCK, a round head for moving the bolt. B3UrTTRESS, an erection serving to support a wall or other 1uilding, which is either too high otherwise to maintain its position, or is pressed against fiom the other side by an adventitious force. Buttresses are so fiequent in Gothic architecture as to become a marked and principal feature in buildings of that style; they are placed around the exterior sides of the edifice, usually one between every two windows, and( one or two at each of the angles of the building. In the earlier erections, each angle was supported by two buttresses, disposed so as to leave their sides parallel to the planes of the walls; but in later examples, for the sake of giving a lighter lapea:rance to the building, as well as for economizing materials, only one buttress was used, situate in such a inanner as to receive the direct drift of the vaulting, having its sides parallel to the vertical diagonal plane which bisects the angle formed by the two planes of the adjoiningt flces of the building. lThe use of these projections is not so much to support the weight of the walls, as to resist the outward thrust of the roof, more especially when vaulted. There are two kinds of buttresses used in Gothic buildings; those that are formed of vertical planes, and attached to the walls, are called pillared buttresses; those which rise firom the pillared buttresses upon the sides of the aisles, with an arch-formed intrados, and sloping extrados or top, are called flyilg buttresses, arc boutants, or arch buttresses. In few instances perhaps have the medievdal architects shown greater constructive skill thlan in the erection of buttresses, as is more especially evidenced in their larger structures, such as cathedrals, where by means of them the active force of the vaulting, which would otherwise overthrow __ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ BYZ 68 BYZ BYZ 68 BYz the walls, is borne down harmless outside the building into the earth. By the arc-boutants the drift is carried over the aisles to the upper part of the main buttresses, where, by the gravity of the super-imposed pinnacles, the direction of the force is changed, so tliat fiomn an horizontal thrust, it becomes or at least approaches to a vertical pressure, which again is carried through tihe mass of the buttress to the ground at its base. No material is thrown away, all is pressed into active service, what does not answer a useful end is removed, and nothing added merely for ornament; an instance of the latter has been shown in the case of the surmounting pinnacle; which, although by a superficial observer it might be considered as mere ornament, is in reality of the utmost importance in the construction; as an example of the previous statement, may be produced the buttresses at Westminster Ihall, from which a considerable portion near the g1ro0und and i adjoining the walls, being of no service, has been entirely cut away. Pillared buttresses are enriched with pinnacles, nichels, statues, and other ornaments. Flying buttresses are often perforated, particularly in the later examples, in which the perforations assume the form of polyfoils, flambeaux, and other beautiful devices. A rich specimen is to be found in Ilenry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster, where the buttresses are of a wonderfully light and gorgeous appearance; the main buttresses also in this instance are of a very elaborate description. BYZANTINE AIRCITITECTURE, a style of architecture bordering on the Romanesque, which prevailed in Greece. and its dependencies during the early ages of Christianity. This style may be said to have commenced with the establishment of the Eastern empire, when Constantine transferred the seat of government fiom Rome to Byzantium, from the name of which city it also derives its distinguishing appellation. Some writers indeed have gone so far as to state that the first Christian emperor removed from the ancient city for the sole purpose of obtaining greater freedom in the establishment of his new religion; solicitous for its purity, that it might remain unpolluted by any mixture with the ancient rites, distinct fiom paganism even in its architecture. Iope, to whom we are indebted for much information on the subject, states this as his opinion, and says that Constantine, having evaded the restraints which his new creed was subject to at Rome by his removal to Byzantium, set himself diligently to work to establish it on a firm basis: one great object which presented itself to his notice, was the erection of appropriate places of worship, which were much needed, the number of Christians exceeding that of pagans, and there being no previous edifices either of a civil or religious character, which could be conveniently adapted to the purpose. Archi. tects, therefore, were left entirely to their own resources, unless indeed they were willing to copy that class of edifices adopted in the old metropolis; but this does not seem to have been their object, they desired rather to form an entirely new style of building; there were besides no existing edifices of any note, whose materials might tempt their removal to the new structures, and so, to a certain extent, determine tleir construction, as had been the case at Rome. Under such circumstances originated the peculiar style of architecture which has been since denominated Byzantine. We have before noticed that the Christians had already outnumbered their heathen adversaries in this city, and as their religion was daily acquiring more and more proselytes, the want of churches must have been daily more apparent; it would be reasonable to suppose, therefore, that a vast number must have been at once erected, and such indeed seems to have been the case, for we are told that no less than eighteen hundredereee endowed between the reigns of Constantine and Justinian, a period of little more than two hundred years. Few of these, however, remain: many of the oldest of them were destroyed by earthquakes and fires, principally in the reign of Zeno; and all that survived that period, in the sedition of A. D. 532. This outbreak happened in the time of Justinian, who set zealously to work to repair the losses which had been sustained, and vied with his illustrious predecessor in the erection and restoration of Christian churches. It must not be supposed that this style of building was all this time confined to its original locality; it had spread rapidly throughout the Eastern empire; where the Eastern churches extended, there also did its architecture extend, from the city of the chief bishop through the whole patriarchate under his jurisdiction. It is remarkable, however, how rarely it found its way into Western Christendom; the first instance of its appearance in that quarter, was the church of S. Nazareo e Celso, at Ravenna, in the year A. D. 440. This church was erected by Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius, afterwards married to Constantius Cecsar, and mother of Valentinian; she was regent of the Western empire for some time during the minority of her son, and seems to have been a zealous promoter of the Christian religion; the erection of many churches is attributed to her, amongst which are three or four in this same city of Ravenna. The next we hear of Byzantine architecture in Italy is A. D. 547, at Ravenna again, in the church of S. Vitale, which was erected by Julianus, the treasurer, under the direction of Justinian. The reign of this prince is remarkable for the number of buildings of all kinds erected; bridges, aqueducts, roads, fortresses, and a variety of works of public utility were undertaken throughout the provinces, but the number of churches erected surpassed that of all other strue-.tures; new ones were constructed, and old ones re-edified, of which last a great number, as already stated, had been destroyed in the insurrection which occurred in this reign. Of all the restorations which this emperor effected, the most remarkable is that of S. Sophia, at Constantinople; this church he entirely rebuilt, preserving, however, as it would appear, the original plan. In this same reign the Ostrogoths were driven out of Italy by Narses, one of Justinian's generals, and the Western empire again brought under the rule of one sovereign, which circumstance led to a further introduction westward of Byzantine architecture. Its progress, however, seems to have been more limited than might have been expected, for, with the exception of some of the principal cities where the viceroys held their court, we see but few instances of its adoption. We have already alluded to Ravenna, which was the seat of the principal exarchate, and have now only to refer to the cases of Ancona and Venice, in the former of which is found the church of S. Ciriaco, and in the latter that of S. Mark, though the existence of this style in the latter city is perhaps attributable rather to the mercantile intercourse of the Venetians with the East, than to the authority of the emperor over the western shores of the Adriatic. We have now quoted all the principal examples of this style that have been discovered in the West, at least on the one side the Alps; we make this reservation, for I-ope, quoting Fleury, says that the style crossed the Alps, and is to be seen in the old city of Atlas, on the Mediterranean, in the church of S. Cesarius, an erection of the sixth century; he further states that it eventually reached as far north as Paris. Be this as it may, however, putting all the __ - - ~- -- t[ - BYZ 69 BYZ BYZ 09 BYZ__ _ examples together, it is certain that they number much lower than would naturally be expected; a fact not easily to be accounted for, were it not for one circumstance, the rivalry that existed between the eastern and western churches. As early as the second century, a serious division arose between them respecting the time of celebrating Easter, which proceeded to such an extent, that Victor, bishop of Rome, separated his opponents fiom his communion. The Roman church, owing to its connection with the metropolis of the empire, as well as from other causes, had obtained an early distinction, which, in process of time, became invidious from the pertinacity with which it was claimed, and the encroachments which it gave rise to under individual bishops. When, however, Constantine removed his court to Byzantium, the see of Constantinople rose suddenly to dignity and power, and showed itself a formidable rival to that of Rome, and a serious hindrance to its usurpations; thus originated a determined jealousy between the two churches, which was manifested by the constant difflrenees which occurred between them, of which there were no less than four in little more than a century and a half, one of twentyfive years' duration, and which led eventually to the filal separation in the eleventh century. It is to this rivalry we attribute the paucity of examples in this style of architecture to be met with in the Western empire; an opinion confirmed by Mr. Gally Knight, who, alluding to the subject of our article, says, " This plan became a favourite in the East, and was adhered to in those parts with the greater tenacity, in consequence of the schism which subsequently took place between the pope of Rome and the patriarch of Constantinople. There was to be a difference in every thing. The Greeks insisted upon the square form of their own inventions; whilst all the nations which continued to acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, continued to employ the long form, which was persevered in at Rome." A reviewer of the work fiom which this extract is made, remarks, " Mr. Knight's observations with regard to the antagonism of the eastern and the western churches, are entirely correct. Except when favoured by peculiar political relations, it is remarkable how little influence was exerted in Italy by Byzantine art. Ravenna and Venice are almost the only localities where we may trace any decided imitation of the type of Constantinople." There is one passage in this extract which we would desire to quality, for although Byzantine architecture, as a style, does not seem to have been employed to any extent in the West, still it cannot be said that it possessed no influence in that quarter. That many of its features were imitated in succeeding styles cannot be doubted; its principal characteristics are evident in most of the Lombardic churches, and in the other styles which prevailed in Western Christendom. The Greek church was seldom copied entire; but its different parts were adopted in buildings otherwise of a different character; for instance, in some cases the Greek dome appears iu conjunction with the Latin cross; in others, the Greek plan alone is imitated; in others again, both appear together; so that were it not for some peculiarity of arrangement or detail, it would be difficult to decide to which style the building might belong. Tills kind of influence was exerted not only in Italy, but throughout the whole of Western Europe. In A. D. 586, the Lombards made their appearance in Italy, and from that time dates the downfall of the previous styles of art, and the introduction of that mode which is entitled, after their designation, Lombardic; not that this may be strictly said to be a new style, but rather a modification of those already existing; still its characteristics are so marked as readily to distinguish it fiom its predecessors. After this period we see little more of Byzantine architecture beyond the locality where it first originated; in the East it seems to have held out until the invasion of the Ottomans. The distinguishing characteristic of Byzantine architecture is the dome, a feature which distinguishes it at once fiorn all preceding styles, and no less surely, though perhaps less readily, from its successors; in the one case by its mere presence, in the other by its peculiar form. The adaptation of the sphere throughout the building, may be said to be the mark of the style, for it is used not only in the case of the principal dome, but in a modified form as the covering of the building in every part where it can possibly be applied, as instanced in the conchs over the apsides or extremities of the aisles. We might perhaps speak more generally, and lay down the circle as the standard figure of construction, for it appears every where, in plan, in section, and in elevation, or, as Iope says, " Arches rising over arches, and cupolas over cupolas, we may say, that all which inithe temples of Athens had been straight, and angular, and square, in the churches of Constantinople became curved and rounded, concave within and convex without." The plan of the buildings was generally that of a cross inscribed in a square, having each of the arns of an equal length, and not greatly prolonged. At the angles of the square formed at the intersection of the cross were situate four piers, supporting as many arches, whose spandrils converged so as to unite in the form of a circle towards their summit, which again supported the crowniig dome. The four arms of the cross terminated in apsides of semicircular plan, and were likewise covered with selmi-cupolas, closing over the arches which supported the central dome. The principal entrance was preceded by a porch, and this again by an atrium or open cquadrangle, which is seldom omitted in tlhe Eastern churches. The church of S. Sophia is said to have had four distinct nartheces besides the atrium. The domes in this style are generally flat or depressed, of a vertical section less than a semicircle, that of S. Sophia is noted as having been remarkably low; the materials of their construction were always of a light description, frequently hollow jars of a somewhat cylindrical form, fitting one in the other, and made of earthenware or some light substance. The thrust of the dome was most usually resisted by pendentives or brackets springing fiomn the angles of walls, which were square, and carried up to support the base of the dome; but this method was not universally adopted, for in the Church of S. Vitale at Ravenna, the dome is supported by a series of small arches; in this case, however, the plan of the walls is not square, but octagon. The minor points of distinction are to be found in the details, of which the following are the most remarkable. The heads of apertures are for the most part of a semicircular form, sometimes however of a larger, sometimes of a lesser segment; not unfrequently at a late period, stilted arches are used, tlat is, semicircular arches having the lower extremities continued downwards perpendicularly;-this method seems to have been adopted for the sake of preserving the same level when arches of diffcrent spans were employed. Besides these forms, pointed arches are occasionally met with, also apertures having triangular or pedimental heads. Another peculiarity is the frequent employment of a series of successive arches. The only remaining distinction which we shall notice has reference to the capitals of the columnls, which are square, tapering blocks of the form of truncated pyramids having the apex downwards; they are little better than plain blocks, their only ornamentation coilsisting of foliation in low relief, or a sort of basket-work which is L __ __ __ __ __ BYZ 70 BYZ BYZ 70 BYZ peculiar to this style of architecture. Nothing further need be said respecting its characteristics, the dome of itself is almost a suficient feature to stamp the character of the type. The origin of this mode of building is variously attributed by various writers; some will have it that it is but a modification of the Basilican style, with the addition of the dome, which necessitated the shortening of the oblong of the Basilica; but this, which is considered as merely an addition, is the principal feature both in construction and design. It is true, the plan of the Basilica was an oblong, and that of the Byzantine buildings a square, but surely it does not follow that the latter should have been borrowed from the former; as a matter of fact it may be so, but there is no prima facie evidence in favour of such an opinion, from the mere similarity of plan. Others attribute its origin to the baptisteries, or to the sepulchral chapels built by Constantine, such as that of S. Costanza, the burial-place of Constantia, his daughter, or the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and it must be confessed that these offer a greater resemblance to the Greek churches than do the Basilicas: others again are of opinion that this was entirely a new style without any previous model, owing its origin to the skill and conception of the Byzantine architects. The question remains, how are these differences to be settled? Not, we presume, by following any one opinion to the exclusion of the others, but by granting a moderate credit to all. We believe that they all speak truly, but that no one of them speaks the whole truth; it is probable that Byzantine architecture owes its origin to each and all of the above sources,-to one perhaps more than another, but not to one to the exclusion of another. We would say that it owed its existence not a little to the two first causes, but more especially to the last, for as Mr. Knight, in describing the church of S. Vitale, says, " The chief architectural novelty in this building, is the dome. No vaulting of any kind had ever been hitherto employed in the roofs of churches, much less that most skilfill and admired of all vaulting, the cupola, or dome; a mode of covering buildings perfectly well understood by the Romans, but discontinued as art declined, and, for the first time, reproduced by the-Greek architects of Constantinople, in the instance of S. Sophia." With the insufficient materials we have to work upon, it would be futile to attempt a detailed classification of the examples belonging to this style. It is to be regretted that our knowledge on the subject is so scanty, but we trust that some of our travellers will take an interest in those hitherto neglected remains of Christian art. That there is a scarcity of examples, we can hardly suppose; we believe that Asia Minor would afford ample materials for a proper investigation. The only writer we know of who has essayed an arrangement of known examples, and their division into classes, is M. Couchaud in his book on the Eglises Byzantines en Gr'ce. It is true he seems to include some examples under this style which other authors do not suppose to belong to it, but he has given considerable attention to the subiject, and his opinions cannot but be worth consideration. lIe comnmences by dividing the buildings into three classes, to ea(ch of which he assigns a particular period. The first period is comprised between the fourth and sixth centuries, the second between the sixth and eleventh, and the third between the eleventh and the invasion by the Ottomans. We cannot do better than follow his own description as closely as possible. Few of the churches of the first period, says he, are now extant; but we learn from the historian Eusebius that they were in plan either round or octagon, and were surmounted by a dome. Of this description was the church erected by Constantine at Antioch, which was of the latter class, and that erected by his mother Helena, in Syria, of the circular form. The churches of S. Marcellin and S. Constance at Rome, as well as that of S. Vitale at Ravenna, afford further examples of the historian's description. The plans in both cases, whether circular or octagonal, terminated of a square form, and upon the plans thus produced were erected the facades; the most ancient of which are simple parallelopipeds, terminated at their summit by a cornice of stone or marble, and sometimes of bricks, so placed as to form salient and re-entering angles. Pediments showing the slope of the roof do not appear in the facades, for the use of timber had already been discarded by the Greeks in the formation of their roofs, which were now either flat or spherical. One or more gates gave admittance into the church, and these were generally adorned with deep mouldings; the lintels were relieved by an arch of discharge. We have said that all the churches of this period were surmounted by domes; these were pierced at their lower extremity by a multitude of apertures which lighted the interior of the cupola. According to Eusebius and S. Paul of Seleucia, the domes were covered with lead and occasionally gilded, but all those which are still to be found in Greece are covered with tiles of terra cotta. The lateral facades differ little from the principal one; they are each of them provided with an entrance. The apsides, generally three in number, symbolizing the three Persons of the Holy Trinity, were of a simple plan, which was more frequently circular than polygonal: their sides were pierced with one or more apertures or windows. In the interior of the church the nave was always preceded by a porch or vestibule. A gallery for the female portion of the congregation was carried along the nave as far as the sanctuary, and was lighted by windows situated over the principal fapade, and sometimes by others in the side fagades. The principal difference between the styles of the two empires, is shown in the length of the nave, which in the Greek churches is much shorter than in the basilicas of the west. In the centre of the church were four piers supporting the dome, which was erected on a square plan, the angles being filled up by very ingenious contrivances technically termed pendentives. rThe extremities of the nave were covered by two hemispherical cupolas. Such are the principal features of the edifices which were erected from the time of Constantine to the middle of the sixth century. An enumeration of the peculiarities of the second period will help to give us an idea of the progress made by Justinian in the Christian architecture of this era. The first edifice which presents itself to our notice is the smaller church of S. Sophia at Constantinople, converted into a mosque after the invasion of the Ottomans. The plan of the exterior is that of a square surrounding an octagon, the form of that of S. Vitale at Ravenna. In the interior the galleries for females were carried round the first story, and the nave covered, as in the preceding period, with a dome. From this let us pass on to the larger church of the same name, a building erected by Justinian to replace one which had not long previously been destroyed by fire. In plan this is similar to the smaller church, with the exception that the octagon is slightly prolonged. The interior galleries are similar to those already described, but the dome is more rich and beautiful than in all previous examples, and pierced with a larger number of apertures. The effect produced by this building was great, as is evidenced by the influence which it obtained throughout the Eastern empire. At a later time, the form of the interior was repeated in the exterior; this combination, which was first applied to the nave __ __ BYZANT1INE A]RC1HTECTITRE PLATE ' A Gdabwrt.JIhws ].if h4w. s c BYZ 71 BYZ BYZ 71 BYZ and transepts, at last became so general, that externally you could scarcely discover a straight line towards the summit of the building. The churches of " the Almighty," and of the monastery at Constantinople, which still preserve the roof of this period, offer remarkable examples of this combination of vaulting; and the method, which was employed in a great number of instances, is still to be seen in most of the isles of the Archipelago. In this period the domes were increased in nulmber, and at last were carried even over the porch; the side filades follow the same form as the principal one, and the rear end of the edifice terminates in a polygonal apsis, pierced with windows of two or three compartments. In the interior decoration mosaics took the place of the marble slabs previously employed, which were retained only in the surbasements. The nave was simplified; square piers were substituted for columns, which gradually disappeared, and the pendentives were modified and somewhat varied. The vaults were divided by horizontal rings, and decorated with paintings; the centre of the cupola being occupied by a colossal head of Christ, surrounded by angels. The domes belonging to the latter portion of this period differed from the preceding, inasmuch as the windows encroached upon the spherical part, whereas before they had been confined to the base. This second period, as may readily be seen, added greatly to the embellishment of Byzantine architecture, and eventually considerably modified its character. In the third period, the systems of Italy and Greece were united; the division indeed owes its origin, in a great measure, to the Roman basilica, as is manifested by the gable ends of the wall showing the inclination of the roof. Athens furnishes a number of examples, in which the influence of Western type is particularly noticeable. The galleries for feimales were now dispensed with, and a portion of the area of the church set apart for their service in the transepts. The influence of this new mode, however, was more especially shown in the profision and richness of the ornaments employed in the details of the buildings. Paintings in fresco took the place of mosaics, and were multiplied to such an extent, that at last the very marble which previously adorned the surbasement, was imitated by this means. Semicircular vaults covered the whole length of the church; the windows were closed up with slabs of stone or marble, pierced with small circular apertures to admit light; and the doors began to be of more elaborate workmanship; the interior arrangemlent renained the same as before. This last period, which has been said to end with the invasion of the Turks, may be considered as continuing for some time longer, during which the arts remained stationary in Greec, up to the period of the last war of independence. It now only remains to give some description of a few of the churches which have been alluded to in a previous part of.this article: we cannot do better than commence with that of S. Sophia, which forms a fair type of the whole style. The following extract is taken fiom the Encyclopedia A:etropolitalna:"The cathedral of S. Sophia, at Constantinople, which had been built by Constantine, having been twice destroyed by fire, was rebuilt finally by Justinian, about A. D. 532. Iis architect, Anthemius, gave the design, and the emperor every day superintended the wotk, which was completed in about six years from the time of laying the foundation; the magnificence of the edifice so well satisfied the emperor, that he is said to have glorified himself with the reflection that in it he had exceeded Solomon himself. "The plan of the interior is that of a Greek cross, the four arms of which are of equal length; the central part is a square, the sides of which are each about 115 feet long. At each angle of the square a massive pier of travertine stone has been carried to the height of 86 feet from the pavement, and four semicircular arches stretch across the intervals over the sides of the square, and rest upon the piers. The interior angles between the four piers in the central square are filled up, fiom the springing points of the four arches, in a concave form, to a horizontal plane passing through their vertices, which are at 143 feet above the pavement; so that, at the level of the vertices, the interior edge of the part filled up becomes a circle, the diameter of which is equal to the side of the central square. Upon this circle, as a base, is raised the principal dome, the form of which is that of a segment of a sphere, which is said to be equal in height to one-sixth of the diameter of the base. On both the eastern and western sides of the square, in the centre of the church, is a semicircular recess, the diameter of which is nearly equal to the side of the square; it is carried up to the same height as the piers, and terminates in a half-dome, or quadrant of a sphere, its base resting upon the hemicylindrical wall of the recess, and its vertical side coinciding with the arch raised between the piers on the face of the building; the flat side of each recess and dome being open towards the interior of the church. These quadrantal domes were intended to resist the lateral thrust of the arches raised on the northern and southern sides of thechurch, but they were found insufficient, for the arches pushed away the half-dome on the eastern side twice, and it could only be made to stand by constructing the great dome of pumice stone and very light bricks obtained from R1hodes, by filling up the arches with others of smaller dimensions, and by carrying an enormous arch-buttress fiom a massive wall beyond the building to the foot of the dome. "At the extremities of the semicircular recesses, in a line running east and west through the centre of the church, are smaller recesses, the plan of one of which terminates in a semicircle, and of the other in a right line; these recesses are built to the height of the springing of the four principal arches, and are crowned by quadrantal domes, which, as well as the recesses, are open towards the interior. In each of the two principal hemicylindrical recesses between the great piers, and the other recesses just mentioned, are formed two other cylindrical recesses, open towards the interior, and covered by quadrantal domes. All the recesses and domes are perforated by rows of small windows to obtain light. " On both the northern and southern sides of the square, in the interior of the church, is a grand vestibule forming a square on the plan; the roof of each consists of three hemicylindrical vaults extending fromn north to south, and of another vault of the same kind crossing the former at right angles through the middle, and forming, by their intersections, three groined arches; these vaults are supported by massive pillars, which have:bases, lbut no plinlths; the upper part of their capitals resemble the volutes of the Ionic order, but the lower part seems to be a barbarous imitation of the Corinthian base. Above these vestibules are galleries exactly similar to them, and, probably, appropriated to women during the performance of divine service. The whole church is surrounded by cloisters, and enclosed by four walls, forming one great rectangle on the plan. The exterior does not correspond with the internal grandeur of the edifice, being surrounded by clumsy buttresses. The entrance is by a portico as long as the church, and about 36 feet wide; this is ornamented with pilasters, and communicates with the interior by five doorways of marble, sculptured with figures in bas-relief. Contiguous to this _ _i _ ____ _I B Y Z 72 BYZ BY 72 BYZ vestibule, and parallel to it, is another, which has nine doorways of bronze. "After twenty years, the Eastern dome was thrown down by an earthquake, but it was immediately restored by the persevering industry of Justinian; and it now remains, after a lapse of thirteen centuries, a stately monument to his fame." The next description, that of S. Vitale, Ravenna, is given by Mr. Gwilt, in his Encyclopaedia of Architecture. "The exterior walls are formed in a regular octagon, whose diameter is 128 feet. Within this octagon is another concentric one, 54 feet in diameter, from the eight piers whereof-55 feet in hcight-a lhelispherical va.ult is gathered over, and over this is a timber conical roof. The peculiarity exhibited in the construction of the cupola is, that the spandrils are filled in with earthen vases, and that round the exterior of its base, semicircular-headed windows are introduced, each of which is subdivided into two apertures of similar formns. Between every two piers hemicylindrical recesses are forlted, each covered by a semidonme, whose vertex is 48 feet from the pavement, and each of them contains two windows, subdivided into three spaces by two colulmns of the Corinthian order, supporting semicircular-lheaded archhes. Between the piers and the external walls are two corridors, wllich surround the whole building, in two stories, one above the other, each covered by hemicylilndiical vaulting. The upper corridor, above the vault, is covered with a sloping or lean-to roof." Mr. hlope adds the following particulars:-" S. Vitale," says he, l"uilt Illuder J lstinian in 534, announces itself at first sight as a work of Greek architects, and a kindred production with S. Sophia, atrd the others of Constantinople. Its forin, round without, though octagonal within; its two tiers of arciades suppolrttc on pillars; its larger arcades or apsides, contitaiini lesser arches or pillars; its square capitals, partly of basket-work, and its coating of MoIsaic, at once comliplete the reselllanlce and establish the relationship." T'l'e next descriptions, of S. Ciriaco, at Ancona, and S. N1ark's, Venice, are taken fiom Mr. Gaily Knight's beautiful \work oil the EIcclesiastical Architecture of Italy. "Anico)lla was one of the towns of Italy which remained longest in the hlands of the emperors of the East. Muratori inlf;ilis us, tlihat in the year 1174 Ancona was governed by all olticcr ippointe(d by the Emperor Comnenus, and he adds, that the lEill}peror 1Frederick salw with imlpatience that rernna'nt of Oriental power in the heart of the Western Empire. 'Th'cse circlmnstanices will suflicicntly account for the plan and style of S. Ciriaco, wNli(ll, construceted under the doIninaltion of the Greieks, is (reek ill all its parts. " No certatin record of the ldate of this building has been preserv ed, but fioml anl inscri)tion still extant, it appears that: the bodies of SS. Ciriaco, Marcellino, and Liberio, were de(posited in the crypt of this church in the year 1097. Alilost invariably, when the bodies of saints were translated a ew vchurch was prepared for their reception, and the translationI usually took place when the building was suflicieitly advanced for the performance of divine service, but belore the woi k was entirely completed. We further find, that Bernaltrd, Bishop of Ancona, consecrated a high-altar in 1128, and that in 1189, Bishop Beraldus added a chapel, and encrusted the walls of the interior of the church with marble. Firolm all these circumstances, it may be inferred, that this cathedral was begun about the middle of the eleventh century, and completed in the course of the twelfth. It is highly probable that the Saracens, who landed at Ancona in 983, and committed extensive devastations, maltreated the cathedral, which was then in exist ence, and made it necessary to provide another in peaceable times. "The cathedral was originally dedicated to S. Lawrence, and retained that name till so late as the fourteenth century, but finally the local favourite obtained the ascendant. The body of S. Ciriaco was originally imported from the East by the empress Galla Placidia in the fifth century, and by her deposited in the cathedral which then existed at Ancona. "S. Ciriaco is on a large scale. The plan exactly represents the Greek cross, and was probably supplied by a Greek architect. The centre of the building is surmounted by the Eastern cupola. The building appears to have been erected without any deviation fiom the original design, and for the most part remains as it was at first constructed. The principal porch, which projects boldly, and is enriched with numerous mouldings, must have been a subsequent addition, as the courses of the stones of which it is composed, do not correspond with those of the church. In the interior, pillars supporting round arches, divide the nave from the aisles. The capitals of these pillars imitate the Corinthian, and exhibit no admixture of the Lombard imagery, which, at the time when the cathedral was built, prevailed in the north of Italy. The cupola is supported by piers and arches. The arches under the dome are pointed, but are evidently alterations. These pointed arches may have been introduced by the celebrated architect, AMargaritone, who flourished in the second half of the thirteenth century. Margaritone was very much employed at Ancona, and to him the entire construction of S. Ciriaco is attributed erroneously by Vasari. Margaritone may have added the porch." "The plan of S. Mark's, like that of S. Sophia, is a Greek cross, with the addition of spacious porticos. The centre of the building is covered with a dome, and over the centre of each of the arms of the cross, rises a smaller cupola. All the remaining parts of the building are covered with vaults, in constructing which, the Greeks had become expert, and which are much to be preferred to the wooden roofs of the old basilicas. Colonnades and round arches separate the nave from the aisles in each of the four compartments, and support galleries above. The capitals of the pillars imitate the Corinthian, and are fiee from the imagery which at that time abounded in the other churches of Italy. It is computed, that in the decoration of the building, without and within, above five hundred pillars are employed. " Thle pillars are all of marble, and were chiefly brought fiom Greece and other parts of the Levant. Whilst S. Mark's was building, every vessel that cleared out of Venice for the East, was obliged to bring back pillars and marbles for the work in which the republic took so general an interest." " The external appearance of S. Mark's is no less Byzantine than its interior, but less resembles S. Sophia from the increased numbers and elevation of its cupolas. Succeeding generations endeavour to outstrip their predecessors, and in the interval which had elapsed between the construction of S. Sophia and that of S. Mark's, the Greek architects had multiplied the feature which had obtained so much admiration, and had sought to give it additional importance, and surmounted the henisphere of the dome with a second cupola of wood covered with lead. This change was imparted to the Venetian copy. " Another Byzantine featule is conspicuous in the exterior of the building in the tiers of round arches by which the flank walls are relieved. With a singular contrast to the habits of their forefathers, who inflexibly adhered to the horizontal, the Greeks of the lower Empire turned L ~ I w I.11 n O Li 1 -,r 'n P, 0 i z I. I PI i i i I.-I p 4 il F, — l-.1 C. I 11 * i * 0 0e 0* 0 * 0. * 0* 0 BllL?7A]ILS PLATE 7 4. NV /~ N.', YVI, 710 -V ) q — /,.61 /, 7,: " /' -W -!uuuLiuuLnjLj A"' 16, N,0 A?" Lii 1Y,' 4 k'edW or'der, w X ilOW '6,,6 d,ri 77, e7w4~ef-P,j'~u,:, s,6cf//955, AK0 q, a,171 AK' /6', rvor6.dl, AK"& fl Crva de fahl-e, AK"l /12, (Celmce, A "l 13, 6('Wre'dce ~V'o- 14, 6'oxx,s' AK" -15, Curbor'o" 74-Pi4l, E S * ** 6 CAA 73 CAI CAA 73 C. every line into a curve, and introduced a semi-arch wherever they could, even in the shape of windows, which were often what in modern phraseology would be termed fan-lights. The front is on the same principle: a second tier of semicircular arches rises over the portico, which consists of no less than five semicircular entrances decorated with numerous pillars; the summit is crowned with spiral and pyram1idtal forms, partaking more of the character of the pointed style than of the round. Altogether, the exterior of S.:Mark's is a strange mixture, but it is venerable and picturesque." The last description which we shall give is that of S. Theodore, at Athens; it is extracted from M. Couchaud. "Of all the churches which Athens possesses, S. Theodore is certainly the most complete, since it has three apsides, a dome and belfry; but the fresco painting in the interior has decayed. The altar-screen, the furniture, and the pulpit, have been replaced. It is constructed of a porous stone, separated by courses of brick; the only peculiarity which it offers is a fiieze in terra cotta, running along the front fiaade, and the two side fiaades, which are pierced with doors of singular proportion, and having a horse-shoe-headed arch." C. CAA CAI CAABA, a part of the temple of Mecca, to which the Mahometans principally address themselves in prayer. It consists of a stone edifice, nearly square, and is said, by the followers of Mahomet, to have been first built by Abraham and his son Ishrnmael. The word is Arabic, caaba, and caabah; a name which some have given to this building, on account of its height, which exceeded that of the other buildings in Mecca; but others, with more appearance of propriety, derive the name from its quadrangular form. This edifice is so ancient, that its original use, and the name of its builder, are lost in a cloud of idle traditions; it is not improbable, however, that it was built by some of the immnediate descendants of Ishmael. But, whatever was the original destination of the building, it does not seem to have been a temple, as the door was not placed in the middle of the structure; and for many ages there was no worship performed in it, though the pagan Arabs went in procession round it. It is most probable, however, that the Caaba was priiarily designed for religious purposes; and it is certain, that it was held in the highest veneration long before the birth of Mahomet. -IHaving undergone several reparations, it was, a few years after his birth, rebuilt, on the old foundation, by the tribe of Koreish, who had acquired possession of it, either by fraud or force. It was afterwards repaired by Abdalllh Eben Zobeir, the calif of Mecca; and again rebuilt by Yussof, surnamed Al Ilejaj, in the seventy-fourth year of the IIegira, with some alterations, in the form in which it now remains. The length of the Caaba is twenty-four cubits, from north to south; its breadth, from east to west, twenty-three cubits; the door, which is on the east side, is raised four cubits from the ground, and the floor is on a level with the threshold of the door. The Caaba has a double roof, supported by three octangular pillars of aloes-wood. The outside of the building is covered with rich black damask, adorned with an embroidered band of gold, which is changed every year, and which is provided by the Turkish emperors. At some distance, the Caaba is surrounded, but not entirely, with a circular enclosure of pillars, joined at the bottom by a low balustrade, and towards the top by bars of silver. Without this enclosure, on the south, north, and west sides of the Caaba, are three buildings, which are the oratories, or places where three of the orthodox sects assemble to perform their devotions; and towards the south-east stands the edifice which covers the well Zemzem, the treasury, and the cupola of Al Abbas. All these buildings are enclosed, at a considerable distance, by a magnificent piazza, or square colon10 nade, covered with cupolas. From each angle of this piazza rises a minaret, with a double gallery, adorned with a gilded spire and crescent, as are the cupolas which cover the piazza. Between the pillars of both enclosures, hang a great number of lamps, which are constantly kept lighted by night. CABLE, a moulding of a convex circular section, rising from the back or concave surface of a flute, so that its most prominent part may be in the same surface as the fillet, on each side of the flute; the surface of the flute being that of a concave cylinder, while that of the cable is the surface of a convex cylinder, with the axes of the cylinders parallel to each other. A cable represents a rope or staff laid in the flute; it is always shorter than the flute, and placed at the lower end of it. Cable mouldings of a somewhat different character are made use of in Norman architecture; they represelt cables or twisted ropes, laid in mouldings of a concave (ircular section, and having one half or greater portion of their bodies exposed, and projecting from their beds. CABLED FLUTES, such flutes as are filled with cables. CABLING, the filling of flutes with cables, or the cables themselves so disposed. Cabling the flutes of columns was not in very frequent use in the works of antiquity. The flutes of the columns of the arch of Constantine are filled with cables to about one-third of the height of the shafts. Most of the columns in the ruins of Balbec, Palmyra, and Dioclesian's palace at Spalatra, have neither flutes nor cables. Cabling has sometimes been practised in modern times, without fluting, as in the church of Sapienza, at IRome. See FLUTES. CAGE, in carpentry, an outer work of timber, enclosing other works within it; as, the cage of a stair, is the wooden wall that encloses it. CAISSON, in water-building, a large chest of strong timber, made water-tight, and used in large and rapid rivers for building the pier of a bridge. The bottom consists of a grating of timber, so contrived as to be detached firom the sides when necessary. The ground under the intended pier is first levelled, and the caisson being launched and floated to a proper position, is sunk, and the pier built as high as the level of the water, or nearly so; then the sides are detached, and the bottom remains as a foundation for the pier. The most considerable work that has come to our know ledge, where caissons have been used, is Westminster Bridge; of this, therefore, a particular account may be acceptable. Each of the caissons contained 150 loads of fir timber, and more tonnage than a man-of-war of 40 guns; their size was - ---- _ _ CAI 7'4 CAM CAl i,4 CAM nearly SO feet fiomn point to point, and 30 feet in breadth; the sides. 10 feet in height, were formed of timbers, laid horizontally over each other, pinned with oak trunnels, and framed together at all corners, except the salient angles, where they were secured by proper iron work, which being unscrewed, would permit the sides of the caisson, had it been found necessary, to divide into two parts. These sides were planked across the timlbers, inside and outside, with 3-inch plaiins, in a vertical position. The thickness of the sides was 18 illches t tlte bottonlm and 1 inches at the top; and in order to strengthen them the more, every angle, except the two points, had three oaken knce-tirmbcrs, properly bolted and secured. Tlhese sides, when finished, were fastened to the bottoi, orI grating, by twenty-eight pieces of timber on the outside, and eighteen within, called straps^, about 8 iiches brad and 3 inches thick, kreaching and lapping over the tops of the sides; the lower, parts of these straps were dovetailed to the oiter kirb of the grating, and kept to their places by iron wedges. The purpose of these straps and wedges was, tillt when the pier was built ip sufficiently high al)ove low-water mark, to render the caisson no longer necessary for the masons to work in, the wedges being drawn up, gave liberty to clear the straps from the mortises, in conse(quence of which the sides rose by their own buoyancy, leaving the gratingr under the foundation of the pier. The pressure of the water upon the sides of the caisson was resisted by means of a ground timber, or ribbon, 14 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, pinned upon the upper row of tin-mbers of the grating; and the top of the sides was secured by a sufficient number of beams laid across, which also served to support a floor on which the labourers stood, to hoist tie stones out of the lighters, and to lower them into thle caisson. Thle caisson was also provided with a sluice to admit the water. The method of working was as follows: a pit being dug and levelled in the proper situation for the pier, of the same shlape as the caisson, and about 5 feet wider all round; the caisson was brought to its position, a few of the lower courses of the pier built in it, and slink once or twice, to prove the level of the foundation; then, being finally fixed, the lmasons worked in the usual method of tide-work. About two holurs before low-water, the sluice of the caisson, kept open till then, lest the water, flowing to the height of many miore feet on the outside than on the inside, should float the caisson and all the stone-work out of its true place, was shut down, and the water pumped low enough, without waiting for the lo)w ebb of the tide, for the masons to set iand cramp the stone-work of the succeeding courses. Then when the tide had risen to a considerable height, the sluice was opened again, and the water admitted; and as the caisson was purposely built but 16 feet high, to save useless expense, the higih tides flowed some feet above the sides, but without any dallnage or inconvenience to the works. In this manner the worik proceedetd till the pier rose to the surface of the caisson; when the sidls were floated away, to serve at another pier. (Label ye's Description of Westminster Bridge.) (CAISSON, signifies also the sunken panel in a vaulted eciling, or in the soflit of a cornice. CA LATIIUS, the work-basket of Minerva: also a handbasket, mnade of liglht wood or rushes, used by the women for gathering flowers, after the example of Minerva. The figure of the calathlus, as represented in ancient monumnents, is narrow at the bottom, anld widens upwards in its horizontal dimensions. Also a cup used in sacrifices. CAL(CALI EOUS CEMENTS. Se C TS CALCAxRous EARTH, a sort of earth which becomes friable by burning, and is afterwards reduced to a fine pow der by mixing it with water; it also effervesces with acids. It is frequently to be met with in a friable or compact state, in the form of chalk. See LIMESTONE and GYPSUM. CALENDARIO, Pn1ILIP, a celebrated architect and sculptor, who flourished at Venice about the year 1354, and constructed those beautiful porticoes round the Palace of St. Mark, which established his famne. CAIIBIT, or CALIBER, the greatest extent or diameter of a round body. CALIInE COMPASSE-S, or CALLIPERS, a pair of compasses with bent legs, for taking the thickness of a convex or concave body in various parts. CALIDUICTS, (from calor, heat, and dncere, to lead,) pipes or canals disposed along the walls of houses and apartments, used by the ancients for conveying heat to the remote parts of the house, from one common furnace. CALLIMACItUS, a celebrated architect of antiquity, inventor of the Corinthian order. CALOTTE, a concavity in form of a cup or niche, lathed and plastered, to diminish the height of a chapel, cabinet, or alcove, which would otherwise be too elevated for the breadth. CAMAROSIS, (from icayapoetv, to arch over,) an elevation terminated with an arched or vaulted head. CAMB13ER, an arch on the top of an aperture, or on the top of a beam; hence camber windows. CAMBER BEAMS, those which are cut with an obtuse angle oil the upper edge, forming a declivity each way from the middle of their length; they are used in truncated roofs, where, after being covered with boards, the boards are again covered with lead, in order to discharge the rain-water towards each edge of the flat, or platform. Cambered beams are employed in a multitude of situations where great strength is required. All beams which are so situate as to be subject to cross-strain should be cambered. Instances of cross-strain occur in bressummers, which are loaded with a wall, and of course are most affected by the gravity of its materials where the bearing is greatest, which will be in their mid-length. A weight applied in this manner will have the effect of pressing the centre below the level of the ends of the beam, and thus fracturing the superincumbent wall; and besides this, will tend to snap and tear asunder the timber; and although, on account of its great scantling, such an event rarely, if ever, occurs, yet it strains the beam in the direction of its length, a test which timber should not be subjected to. Moreover, in all cases where beams of any great length are employed, the gravity of the timber itself will weigh them down midway, even where they are subjected to no additional weight, as in the case of the tic-beams of a truss. In all these instances the difficulty may be obviated by cambering the timber upwards. This method not only ensures that the beam shall be level after settlement, but entirely alters the nature and operation of the force; for whereas previously the beams were strained or extended, this tension, by the employment of a camber, is changed into a pressure, so that the tendency instead of being to tear the particles asunder, and thus weaken or break the timber, is rather to press them more closely together, and render the beam firmer and more compact. Further, all timber is liable to shrinkage by the evapora. tion of the moisture which is always present in a greater or less degree, and thereby becomes of smaller dimensions than when first inserted in a building. This defect may be rectified as far as the length is concerned, by cambering to such a degree, that when the wood is completely dry, it may fall into a horizontal position, or nearly so. The extent to which the beam should be bent is a matter of nice calculation, and I __~ CAN 75 CAP CA 75 CA the regulation of it must be left to experience. In trusses the camber of the tie-bearn should not be too great, as if so, it will tend to thrust out and derange the principals. When bressulnmers occur one above another, the higher ones should be cabllered to a greater extent than those below, the camber increasing in direct proportion to the number of bressummers beneath it. CAMERATED, arched. CAMES, in glazing, small slender rods of cast lead, about 12 or 14 inches long, to be drawn through a vice, in order to make turned lead; each such bar is called a came. CAIMP CEILING, a ceiling formed by one or more planes, with inclinations rising at an internal obtuse angle from the sides of the apartmtent, and most frequently enclosing a level l)lane in the middle, in the manner of a coved ceiling. This kind of ceiling is chiefly used in garrets, where otherwise there would be a want of head-room. CAM PANA, the body of the Corinthian capital, otherwise called the vase or bell, from its figure. CAMPANILE, (fiom campana, a bell,) a bell-tower, chiefly in use among the Italians. It was sometimes a distinct and separate building of itself; but more commonly adjoining to the church, so as to make a part of the fabric, usually at the west end. Several of these towers are remarkable for being considerably out of the perpendicular, of which those of Pisa and Bologna are the most celebrated. Campaniles were erected to a great height; that of Cremona, the highest in Italy, is 395 feet high; that of Florence, built by Giotto, 267 feet, of a square plan, the sides of which are 45 feet in length. The leaning tower of Pisa is 150 feet in height, and 13 feet out of the perpendicular. CANAL OF THIE IONIC VOLUTE, the spiral channel or sinking on the flce, which begins at the eye, in a point, and expands in width until the whole number of revolutions are completed. In the volutes of the Ionic order of the temples of Minerva Polias and Erectheus, at Athens, are several canals, which begin and end in the manner above described. CANAL iS also used for a FLUTE. CANAL OF TIHE LARMIE, the channel recessed upwards on the soflit, for preventing the rain-water fiom reaching the bed or lower part of the cornice. See BEAK. CANARDIEIE, or GUERITE, a small turret, sometimes of wood, and sometimes of stone; used as a sentry-box on the salient angles of works, as places of shelter for sentinels. They were formerly constructed on castles, and used for firing, or discharging anything unseen in unmolested security. CANCELLI, latticed windows, or those made with crossbars of wood or iron. Also balusters or rails, especially those which separate the chancel from the body of the chu rch. CANOPY, a magnificent covering suspended over an altar, throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like. See BALDACIIN. It also denotes the projecting head of Gothic niches or tabernacles. CANT, a term used by carpenters, signifying to turn a piece of timber, which is brought in the wrong way for their work. Also, the external angle inade by any two planes of a solid or building. CANT MOULDING, a bevelled surface, or one that is neither perpendicular to the horizon nor to the vertical surtlce of the body or building. These mouldings are of very r'clnlte antiquity, and have an eftict similar to the ( Grecian t('(inus. A cant nioulding, instead of the echinus, is aptlied to the capital of the colutllns of tile portico of I'hilip, kiiig of Macedon, and in nanl y other situations, both of (Grecian and Iomrani edifices. as is exhibited in Stewart's Riuins of Alhen.s, in the lonian iAntiquities, and in Adams's Rtins of the Palace of Dioclesian, at Spalatra, in Dalmatia. The mouldings of our first Saxon buildings were originally very simple, consisting only of surfaces perpendicular and palrallel to the naked of the walls; though afterwards they were formed not only of squares, but of cants also. These simple forms continued in use for some time after the Conquest; and even when a great variety of curved forms came to be introduced, they were never entirely laid aside; we find them firequently employed in the windows of castellated buildings, and other parts. CANTED COLUMN, a column of which the horizontal sections are polygons, consisting of straight sides instead of concave sides or flutes. Canted columns are not frequently to be met with in the works of the ancients, yet examples may be seen in the columns of the portico of Philip, king of Macedon, and of the temple of Cora. The cants of columns are difficult to execute with truth, so as to preserve the arrises in the proper contour of the column, and in a vertical plane passing through its axis; and when done, they want the beautiful contrast of light and shade, which is so conspicuous in the flutings of the Grecian Doric. CANTING, the cutting away a part of an angular body at one of its angles, so that the section may be a parallelogram, the edges of which are parallel fiom the intersection of the adjoilin planes. CANTALIVERS, those blocks which are placed at regular distances, projecting at right angles frtom the surface of the wall, and supporting the upper members of a cornice, the eaves of a house, or balcony: they answer the same purpose as modillions, mutules, blocks, or brackets, although they are applied to more trivial purposes; modillions, mutules, &c., being employed in regular architecture. Cantalivers are fiequently made of timber, or cast iron, and project to a great distance. Those used in the cornice of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, are of timber, and project one-fourth of the height of the column. CANTIARUS, among ecclesiastical writers, a fountain or cistern in the middle of the atrium, before the ancient churches, wherein people washed their hands and faces before they entered. CANTITARUS OF A FOUNTAIN, with the Romans, the part, or apparatus, out of which the water issued; it was of various fanciful forms, sometimes resembling a shell, at others, an animal vomiting the water foomn its mouth, and sometimes the stream issued through the eyes. CANTIHERS, or CANERII, in ancient carpentry, the common rafters of a roof, or those placed in vertical planes at right angles to the ridge or eaves of the building. CANTING STAIRS. See STAIRS. CANTONED BUILDING, a building whose angles are adorned with columns, pilasters, rustic quoins, or anything that projects beyond the naked of the wall. CANTONED COLUMNS. See COLUMNS. CAP, the mouldings which form the head of a pier or pilaster. CAP, in joinery, the uppermost part of an assemblage of principal or subordinate parts. The term is applied to the capital of a column, the cornice of a door, the capping or uppermost member of the surbase of a room, the hand-rail of a stair, when supported by an iron strap, &c. CAPACITY, in geometry, the solid content of a body. CAPI'TA T, (cap/itello, Italian; firon the Latin, copt, the head) the assemllblage of mouldings or ornainents alove the shalft of a column, on which the entablature rests; in other words, the head of the coltumn. Cupitals are variously cor.posed, some with simple mouldings, others with mouldings, foliage, and volutes. C 7...l IAP _ CAP 76 CAP - -- 'II The capitals used in the architecture of the Greeks, though with numberless minute variations of ornaments and proportions, arrange themselves into three general classes, and offer the most obvious distinctions between the orders. In all the orders, the capital is divided from the shaft by some small member, as an astragal and fillet, or by one or three channels, which are always accounted a part of the shaft; so much of the column, therefore, as appears above this member, belongs to the capital. The Doric capital consists of a neck, which is a continuation of the shaft, with its fluting, several fillets, varying firom three to five in number, a bold projecting ovolo, and a massy abacus, of a square form, which covers the whole. The Ionic capital consists of an ovolo above the astragal of the shaft; a band, or festoon, upon the ovolo, on the front and rear of the capital, with volutes on the right and left, suspended fiom the ends of each band, or festoon; and, lastly, a thin moulded abacus crowns the whole. The Corinthian capital, which is more richly ornamented, consists of a vase, two rows of leaves attached to the vase, volutes, caulicoli, which spring between each two of the upper row of leaves, and, lastly, an abacus, which is not only moulded on all the four edges, but formed into a concavity fiom the two extremities of each of the said edges. From this description of Grecian capitals, it will be seen that though the parts are generally so very unlike as to be incapable of comparison, yet they in variety maintain a general resemblance. The variations to be found in different ancient examples of the same order, will be described under their respective heads. With regard to the Tuscan capital, there are no authenticated remains of the order of which it is a part; and the precepts of Vitruvius on this head are so obscure, that modern compilers of systems of architecture have, of course, varied exceedingly in their designs; so that the order which passes under this name, must be regarded rather as a modern than an ancient invention. It is made to differ fiom the modern Doric by an air of poverty and rudeness, and by the suppression of the triglyphs, mutules, and other members. The Composite appears never to have been admitted as a separate order by the ancients. From the remains of Egyptian antiquities, we find that their architects had no certain rules; and it is rather singular, that though the buildings themselves were constructed with the greatest simplicity, their capitals are of infinite variety; many of them possessing richness of decoration, although devoid of the simple elegance which is the characteristic of the Grecian orders. The ornaments are, in general, accurate imitations of the natural productions of the country, such as the lotus, the reed, or the palm. The temples of the ancient inhabitants of HIindostan, works of dateless antiquity, present many capitals of extraordinary form and composition. In some, we find represented the figures of elephants and horses, apparently crouching under the weight of the ceiling. Capitals, very similar in idea, are also found in the ruins of Persepolis, composed of horses and camels. As Roman art degenerated with the decline of the empire, the capitals fiorn the ancient edifices were used indiscriminately in the new structures; and this led, in later times, to the employment of a variety of capitals in the same edifice. The first alteration we find in the form of this member of the column, is in the erection of that style of architecture known as Byzantine, in which the capitals are in the shape of a truncated pyramid of four sides, placed in an inverted position, having the apex downwards; the surface is ornamented with foliations in low relief, or with a sort of basketrwork, which is a distinguishing feature of the style to which it belongs. A nearer approach to their original is shown at a later period, in the style whose introduction is attributed to the Lombards; in this, which is merely a modification of the debased Roman, some of the capitals bear a great resemblance to the Corinthian, although far inferior to their original in simplicity and elegance; there are, however, other examples of a far different description, both in form and ornamentation; some ornamented with designs in low relief, others again of a grotesque character. If we include the Norman in this style, to which it certainly bears a close affinity, we shall have a great variety of forms, to be noted indeed rather for their variety and massive appearance, than for beauty of outline or decoration. But of all capitals, those found in buildings in the modes commonly comprised under the term Gothic, hold a lofty pre-eminence, both for variety and tastefulness. What can be more chaste and elegant than the ornamentation of the early English? or what more graceful and natural than the foliage of the decorated capital? As to variety, it was the governing principle of decoration, there seldom being found many repetitions of one form in the same building. Nature was their model, by her alone were their designs limited, so long at least as their skill was sufficient to imitate her productions. CAPITAL, Angular. See ANGULAR CAPITAL. CAPITAL OF A BALUSTER, one similar to those of the Tuscan or Doric orders. CAPITAL OF A LANTERN, the covering by which it is terminated, either in a bell-shape, the form of a cupola, that of a spire, or in any regular figure whatever. CAPITAL OF A TRIGLYPII, the projecting band which surmounts the plain vertical area, or face, and which is disposed in a plane parallel to the said face. The capital of the triglyph of the Grecian Doric projects but a very small distance, and is not returned on the flanks, except at the angular triglyphs, and this only upon each face of the building; but in the Roman Doric, the capital of the triglyph projects more than that of the Grecian, and is returned with the same projection on the flanks as in the face. CAPITOL, a celebrated rock, or hill, at Rome, whereon stood many ancient edifices, with the house of Romulus, &c. Among the many celebrated edifices that formerly occupied this hill, the principal was the Asylum, erected by Romulus in order to people his new city. The house of Romulus was composed of canes, rushes, &c.; and every year the priests superstitiously repaired it with similar materials. Here was the Tabularium, or Archive, where were deposited the laws and consulta of the senate, and every other public act, written on tables of bronze. Vespasian repaired the Capitol, and had three thousand new tables made, the former having been defaced when the library and other buildings were destroyed by lightning. It is supposed to have stood where the arches and Doric columns are now seen, behind the Senators' Palace, towards the Campo Vaccino. Here was the Curia Calabra. Here also stood the house of Manlius, the defender of the rock, destroyed on account of the treachery of its master. The temple of Juno Moneta was built on its site. The number of temples on this hill was very considerable: some make them amount to sixty. But the great quantity of statues in marble, metal, silver, and gold, erected to heroes who had deserved well of the republic, causing great confusion, Augustus removed great part of them to the Campus Martius. All these noble edifices, once the ornament of the mistress of the world, have fallen a victim to the ravages of time, __ __ ___ __ __ _I _I ___ __ __ _____ T_ _ _1 _ __ __ _ ___ ___ - --- ---- CAR 77 CAR CAR ~ 77CA and the still more destructive plunder of invading barbarians. At first this hill was only accessible fiom the south; but after the Campus Martius was inhabited, another road was opened towards the north. The first among the moderns who promoted the decoration of the Campidoglio was Pope Paul III. who, after adesign of Bonarrotti,constructed the spacious steps. CAPREOLS, in Roman carpentry, the struts or braces of a trussed roof. CARACOL, is used sometimes to denote a staircase in the form of a helix, or spiral. CARAVANSERA, in the East, a large building, or inn, for the reception of travellers, and the lodging of caravans. It is usually a large square of buildings, with a court in the middle, surrounded with galleries and arches, under which runs a kind of banquette, or elevation, some feet high, where travellers rest themselves, and make their lodging as well as they can; their baggage, and the beasts that carry them, being fastened to the foot of the banquette. Over the gate there are frequently small chambers, which the caravanseraskier, or director, lets out at a very dear rate, to such as wish to be retired. CARCASE, the work of a house before it is either lathed or plastered, or the floors laid. CARCASE, or NAKED FLOORING, that which supports the boarding above, for walking upon, and the ceiling below, by a grated frame of timber, consisting of three tiers of beams, called joists; the middle tier being transverse to the other two. The beams of the middle tier, called binding-joists, support the other two tiers: the beams forming the upper tier, called bridgings, or bridging-joists, support the boarding, and are frequently notched upon the binding-joists: the lowest row of beams, called ceiling-joists, are either fiamed into the binding-joists, with pulley or chase mortises, flush with the under edges of the said joists, or are notched and nailed to them below. When the floor is very much extended in both dimeonions, another set of large beams, called girders, the whole depth of the three tiers, are introduced, for shortening the bearings of the binding-joists, which are mortised and tenoned into the girder on both sides of it. The under edges of the binding-joists should be so framed. as to be below the under side of the intermediate girder, about half an inch, to prevent the ceiling from cracking; and the girder must be furred, to range with the under edge of the ceiling-joists. The general scantlings of these timbers are as follow, viz., girders, 12 by 13 inches; binding-joists, 10 by 4; bridgingjoists, 5 by 2a; and ceiling-joists, 3 by 21. The distance which these timbers are commonly placed in the clear is as follows: the binding-joists from 4 to 6 feet, which is also that of the ceiling-joists; and the bridgings 11 or 12 inches apart. As the girders go the whole length of the room, they have no fixed bearing; when they extend to 20 feet and upwards, they should be trussed. When the breadth of a room extends to 30 feet and upwards, the girders should be fiamed like the truss of a partition, with an upper and lower beam, and with posts, braces, and struts: for this purpose, a sufficient depth for the floor should be allowed, from two to three feet. Girders should never be placed over openings, unless they be supported by strong arches. When a lintelled opening comes under the place where the end of the girder should be, the end of the girder must be changed to the nearest solid bearing, which will throw its direction into an oblique position. The wall-hold for gilders in brick buildings, may be fromn 9 to 12 inches, and for binding-joists, 6 inches. In stone buildings, for girders, from one foot to two feet, according to the thickness of the wall, and for binding-joists, 9 inches. In thick walls there may be two rows of wall-plates. CARCASE ROOFING, that which supports the covering by a grated frame of timber-work, consisting of three tiers of timber, parallel to each other, and to the sloping surface of the covering. The most general disposition of the timbers is the following: the first tier and support is a row of timbers, inclined to the pitch of the roof, supported at various points by other timbers, which, with the inclined timbers, form as many vertical frames, perpendicular to the sides of the building as there are inclined timbers: each frame is called a truss: the inclined timbers in the upper part of the truss are called principal rafters: the principal rafters support a set of horizontal timbers transversely, and parallel to each other, called purlins: the purlins support the third and last tier of timbers of the frame, transversely or parallel to the principal rafters: the timbers of the last tier are called bridging, or common rafters. The upper surfaces of the principals, those of the purlins, and those of the common rafters, are sometimes framed flush with each other, or in the same inclined plane, in order to save room, or to conceal more of the roof: in this way the purlins mult be tenoned, and the principals mortised to receive them; the small rafters and purlins are also tenoned and mortised together. But the best and strongest mode of e'arcase firaming is, to make the purlins bridge over the principals, and the common rafters over the purlins. The principals rest upon a horizontal piece of timber, on the wall head, called the raising, or woall-plate: when the purlins bridge over the principals, and the small rafters over the purlins, the small rafters rest at the bottom upon a piece of timber called a pole-plate. The manner of joining the timbers in carcase roofing and flooring may be seen in the article CARPENTlIY; other particulars relative to roofing, may be seen under ROOFING, TtUSS, and BOARDING. Sometimes the covering is only supported by purlins resting upon the principal rafters; in this case, the length of the boards is disposed parallel to the principal rafters; but this position does not give so great strength to the roof as that which is horizontal. CARDINAL SCAPI, in Roman joinery, the stiles of doors. CARINA, in Roman an tiquity, a building in the form of a ship. CARNEDDE, in British antiquity, heaps of stones; supposed to be druidical remains for confirming and commemorating covenants. CAROLITIC COLUMN. See COTUMIN. CARPENTER1 (from the French cliarpentier; formed from charpente, timber; or, probably, from the Latin, carpentarius, a maker of carpenta, or carriages), an artificer, whose business it is to cut, form, and join timber, for the purpose of strengthening and supporting various parts neces sary in the construction of buildings. CARPENTER'S RULE, is generally used in taking dimensions, and in casting up the contents of timber and artificers' work. It consists of two equal pieces of box, each one foot in length, connected together by a folding joint: in one of these equal pieces there is a slider, and four lines marked at the right hand, A, n, c, D; two of these lines, n, c, are upon the slider, and the other two, A, D, upon the rule. Three of these lines, viz., A, B, c, are called double lines,because they proceed from one to ten twice over in the length; these three lines are all exactly alike, both in numbers and division. They are numbered from the left hand towards the right, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1, which stands in the middle; the numbers then go on again to 10, which stands at the righthand end of the rule. These numbers have no determinate value of their own, but depend upon the. value you set on the unit at the left hand of this part of the rule; thus if you _ __ _ _ __ __ __ CAR 78 CAR CAR78CA call it 1, the 1 in the middle will be 10, the other figures which follow will be 20, 30, &c., and the 10 at the righthand end will be 100. If the first, or left-hand unit be called 10, the middle 1 will be 100, and the following figures will be 200, 300, 400, &c., and the 10 at the right-hand end will be 1000; and thus, whatever be the value of the first unit, the second unit in the middle is always ten times greater; and whatever is the value of the first and second unit, the following numbers to the right denote so many times that value as the number expresses. The fourth line, D, called the girt line, is a single line, proceeding from 4 to 40. Upon it are marked w G at 17 15, and A G at 18 95, the wine and ale guage points, to make it serve the purpose of a guaging-rule. The use of the double lines, A and D, is for working the rule of proportion, and finding the areas of plain figures. And the use of the girt line n, and the other double line c, is for measuring of timber. On the other part of this side of the rule, there is a table of the value of a load, or 50 cubic feet, of timber, at all prices, from sixpence to twenty-four pence, or two shillings, per foot. On the other side of the rule are several plane scales, divided into 12th parts, marked inch, -, -,, &c., signifying that the inch, {- inch, &c., are each divided into 12 parts. These scales are useful for planning dimensions that are taken in feet and inches. The edge of the rule is divided into inches, and each of these inches into eight parts, representing half inches, quarter inches, and half quarters. In th;s description, the rule is supposed to be folded; let it new be opened, and pull out the slider, you will find the bfck of it divided like the edge of the rule, so that altogether it will measure one yard, or three feet, in length. The slide is very useful in taking inside dimensions for any length not less than one foot, nor greater than three feet. Some rules have other scales and tables upon them; as a table of board measure, one of timber measure, a line for showing what length for any breadth will make a foot square, also a line showing what length for any thickness will make a solid foot. The former line serves to complete the table of board measure, and the latter the table of timber measure. The thickness of the rule is generally about a quarter of an inch; this face is divided into inches and tenths, and numbered, when the rule is opened, from the right-hand towards the left, 10, 20, 30, &c., to 100, which falls upon the joint. Th.e other half is numbered in the same manner, and the same way. The scales serve for taking dimensions in feet, tenths, and hundredths of a foot, when the contents are found by decimals. CARPENTER'S SQUARE, a square, of which both stock and blade consist of an iron plate, of one piece; it is in size and construction as follows:-one leg is 18 inches in length, numbered on the outer edge, from the exterior angle, with the bottom of the figures adjacent to the interior edge: the other edge is 12 inches long, and numbered fiomn the extremity towards the angle; the figures are read from the internal angle, as on the other side; each of the legs is about an inch broad. This implement is not only used as a square, but also as a level and measuring rule. Its application as a square, in taking measures, is so easy as not to require example; but its use in taking angles may be thus illustrated: suppose it were required to take the angle which the heel of a rafter makes with the back; apply the end of the short leg of the square to the point of the heel and back, with the edge of the square level across the plate; extend a chalk line from the ridge of the roof to the said heel-point, and the division on the perpendicular leg of the square which the line falls upon, will mark the inches, and show how falr it deviates from the square in 12 inches. CARPENTER'S WonRK, in the mensuration of artificers' work, includes the taking of the dimensions of every description of timber necessary in the construction of buildings, finding their contents, and valuing the same. The works done by the carpenter, in the general construction of buildings, are the preparation of piles, sleepers, and planking, or other large timbers in the foundations, centerings to vaults, wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, naked flooring, partitioning, roofing, battening to walls, ribbed ceilings to form vaulting for lath and plaster, &c. These are not necessarily used in the construction of every edifice: piling and planking, or other timbers used in the foundation, are only incidental, depending upon the insufficiency of the ground to be built upon; the remaining articles may be all used in the most substantial and elegantly constructed houses. Large and plain articles, where a uniform quantity of materials and workmanship is expended, are generally measured by the square of 100 superficial feet. Piles may be made at per piece, and driven by the foot run, according to their diameter, and the quality of the ground. Sleepers and planking are measured and valued by taking the superficial contents in yards or squares. Plain centering is measured by the square; but as the ribs and boarding are two different qualities of work, they ought to be measured and valued separately; one dimension of the boarding is taken by girting it round the arch, the other is the length of the vault. Centering for groins should be measured and valued as common centering, but in addition thereto, the angles should be paid for by the foot run, over and above; that is, the ribs and boarding ought to be measured and valued separately, according to the exact superficial contents of each, and the angles by the lineal foot for workmanship in fitting the ribs and boards, and for the waste of wood occasioned by the operation. Wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, are measured by the cubic foot, under the denomination of fir-inbond. Naked flooring may either be measured and valued by the square, or by the cubic foot, according to the description of the work, and the quantity of timber employed. In forming an idea of its value, it is proper to observe, that inl equal cubic quantities of small and large timbers, the small timbers will have a greater superficies than the large ones, and therefore the saving will not be in a ratio with the solid contents; consequently the value of the workmanship will not follow the cubic quantity or said ratio. The difficulty of handling timbers of the same length increases with the weight or solidity, as the greater quantity requires greater power to handle it, and consequently a greater expenditure of time: and though the time may not be exactly in a ratio with the solid quantity, there will be no great difference, as the respective sections will not vary considerably in their dimensions; and as the value of the sawing upon a cubic foot is comparatively small to that of the work done by the carpenter, the whole value of labour and materials may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy where the work is uniformly of one description. In naked flooring, where girders are introduced, they interrupt the uniformity of the work by mortises and tenons. In this respect, the price ascertained by the cubic quantity of the girders, would not be sufficient at the same rate per foot, as the other parts, not only on account of the great difference of size, but as it is cut full of mortises to receive the tenons of the binding-joists, it occasions a still greater __ _ _ __ _ _I I _ I I _ L I I _ I CAR 79 CAR CA 79 CAR~ __ disparity in the quantity of workmanship. A correct method, therefore, of valuing labour and materials, would be to measure and value the whole by the cubic quantity, and allow an additional rate upon every solid foot of girders; or if the binding-joists were not inserted in the girders at the usual distances, a fixed price for every mortise and tenon, in proportion to their size, which would keep a ratio with the area of the end of the girder. As the binding-joists are sometimes pulley or chase mortised, to receive the ceiling-joists, and sometimes notched to receive the bridging-joists over them, they ought to be classed by themselves, at a superior price per foot cube, or at an additional price for the workmanship, above that of common joisting: this should always be allowed according to the description of workmanship, whether the ceiling-joists be put in their pulley mortises and tenons, or the bridgings notched or adzed down. Partitions may be measured by the cubic foot, but the sills, top pieces, and door heads, should be measured by themselves, according to the solid quantity, at an additional rate, because both the uniform solidity, and the uniform quantity of workmanship, are interrupted by them. In trussed partitions, the braces should be rated by the foot cube, at a superior price to that of the quartering, for the trouble of fitting the ends of the uprights upon their upper and lower sides, and for forming the abutments at the ends. In roofing, all the timbers should be measured by the cubic foot, classed as the difficulty of execution, or as the waste occasioned, may require. Common rafters may be rated the same as joisting or quartering; purlins at a superior price, for the trouble of fitting or notching down the common rafters; the notching of the purlins themselves, upon these principles, should be valued at per piece or notch. The various parts of trusses should be arranged separately; the joggles should be paid for at per piece, including the tenons at the ends of the struts; the mortising tie-beams and principals, and making the tenons of the truss-posts, should likewise go together; and the mortising and tenoning at the ends of tie-beams and principals, in another class; strapping should be paid for according to the number of bolts. In all these matters, regard must be had to the size and description of the work; common or bridging rafter-feet at per piece. Battening to walls is best measured by the square, according to the dimensions and distances in the clear of the battening. Ribbed ceilings should be measured according to the cubic quantity, making a proper allowance for the great waste of stuff; the price of labour will be regulated by the description of the work, and also by the cubic quantity of timber. Trimmers should be measured separately, at such a price as to include not only the mortises and tenons of the joisting inserted into them, but the tenons at their extremities, and the mortises of the trimming-joists, which are to receive them. In this way, it would be unnecessary to take any account of the tenons at the ends of the bridging-joists, or of the mortises in the trimming-joists to receive the ends of the trimmer. It would be endless to enumerate the various methods of measuring each particular species of carpenter's work; the leading articles only are here observed. As soon as the shell of a building is finished, that is, previous to the floors being laid, or the ceilings lathed and plastered, all the timbers should be measured, that no doubt may exist as to the actual scantlings of the timbers, or of the description of the workmanship. In taking the dimensions, it must be observed, that all pieces which have tenons, must be measured to the extre mities of the tenons. Principal timbers, as binding-joists and girders, go at least nine inches into the wall, or one-third of its thickness, if more than 27 inches. In taking the dimensions of bond-timbers and wall-plates, the several laps must be added to the lengths. When there is a necessity for cutting out parallel pieces from the sides of truss-posts, as in king or queen posts, if the pieces cut out exceed 2~- feet in length, and 2- inches in thickness, they should be deemed pieces fit for use; but their lengths should not be reckoned so long by six inches, as the saw can hardly be entered with less waste. The boarding of the roof is measured by the square, according to the thickness and quantity of the boards, and the manner of jointing them. In measuring for labour and materials, the most accurate method is, first, to find the cubical contents, the price of the cubic foot, including the prime cost, carting, sawing, waste, and the master's profit; then add the price of labour, properly measured, in the same manner as for the journeyman. Labour and materials are variable, and have no relation whatever to each other; consequently they cannot be reduced to single tables. The value of the cubic foot may be calculated by having the prime cost of the load, or 50 cubic feet: for example, let it be required to find the price of a cubic foot, when the price of the load is ~10. ~ s. d. 50 feet cube fir, prime cost.............. 10 0 0 Cartage............................ 0 5 0 Sawing.............................. 0 10 0 7 cube feet waste...................... 1 8 0 12 3 0 20 per cent profit on the above........... 2 8 7 Master's price per load................ ~14 11 7 Then as 50 cubic feet are to one cubic foot, so is ~14. lls. 7d. the price of 50 cubic feet, to the price of one cubic foot. Thus, ~. s. 50: 1:: 14 11 20 d. 7 291 12 5,0) 349,9 12) 694 5 9 So that the price of the cubic foot wants only the fiftieth part of a penny to be 5s. 1Od. This is the rate of the master's price for the fir, exclusive of labour. The foregoing are the methods by which the various parts of workmanship should be analyzed, in order to discover a legitimate ratio of prices; but we regret to add, that no particular account of time has been kept, in which the execution of certain uniform portions of work have been done, and by which alone we are enabled to give accurate calculations. The method of lumping work by the square, is not to be depended on, in the general admeasurement of buildings, as the surface is not always of a uniform description of workmanship;. thus, in hipped roofs, the greatest trouble is at the hips, in cutting and fitting the jack-rafters, which are fixed at equal distances thereon, and therefore such a price may be fixed upon the cubic quantity of hips and vallies, as will not only _ __ ______ _ ___ _ I_ _ __ _I_ __ ____ _ __ II ____ L _ __ __ __ __I_ I_ _ __ CAR 80 CAR CA 0 A pay for the workmanship in themselves, but also for the trouble of cutting and fitting the jack-rafters. It is impossible to fix a proper rate, including both materials and workmanship, as the one may be stationary, while the other is variable. With respect to materials, the value of any quantity may be easily ascertained, whatever be the price per load; but the far greater difficulty lies in fixing proper rates of workmanship; however, admitting that the time of executing every species of work were known, there would be no difficulty in establishing certain uniform quantities, which would give the real value at any time; the following is a specimen of the several rates of workmanship, by which the prices may be regulated at any time, admitting them to be right for the present. Each rate consists generally of three places of decimals on the right side of the point, and sometimes an integer on the left side. This table shows also the customary methods of measuring. To find the price of the cormon measure of any kind of workmansship, at any time.-Multiply the wages of the workman by the rate; then, whatever denomination the wages is per day, the integers of the product, if any, will be of the same denomination, and the decimals will be parts of the same. Exenmple.-The centering of cylindric vaults is 2.033 per square; now let the wages per day be 5 shillings, or 60 pence; then 2.033 x 5 =10.165 shillings per square, and by multiplying the decimal parts by 12, we obtain the pence. Thus-.165 12 1.980 penny, or very near two pence; so that the value of a square of centering is nearly 10s. 2d. Again, suppose the wages to be 5s. 6d. per day, then 2.033x5 —11. 181 shillings, or 11s. 2d, nearly: and thus for any other example. Continuation of Table IV. Fixed per square. Single framed floor-case and tail bays............ 2.130 For every extra-cased bay add per square.....484 Framed floors, with girders, binding, and ceiling-joists 3. 581 Ground joists bedded.......75 Ground-joists bedded and framed to chimneys......968 Ground-joists pinned down on plates, and framed to chimneys................. 1. 065 per ft. run. Girders reversed and bolted.097 Truss girder-braces 4 inches by 4.................. 194 If any of the above works be done in oak, add onethird. TABLE V. ROOFS. Common Shed Roofing. Fixed per square. One story high...........968 Two stories............. 1. 033 Three stories............ 1.113 Single Span Roofing. One story high........... 1. 065 Two stories high......... 1.113 Three stories high........ 1. 210 If the above have purlins, add per square. 194; or if the purlins be fiamed diagonally, add double, or............... 388 Hips and valleys.........08 In common kirb roofing, add extra per square when one side is kirbed... 194 When three sides.....357 When four sides......516 Girt roofing, with framed principals, collar beams, and purlins........... 2. 323 Framed with principals, beams, king- posts, purlins, and common rafters. 3.484 If the principals and rafters are framed flush, and the purlins housed in, add.387 per square to the above. Continuation of Table V. Fixed per square. Framed with principals, beams, king-posts, queenposts, and common raft- - ers, three stories.........649 The same, four stories..... 4. 84 per ft. run. Hips and valleys..........145 flip, and ridge rolls fixed on iron...................048 Bedded plates to common span roofing.......... 008 Bedded plates to common span roofing, as above....028 Diagonal and dragon pieces.065 Angular ties and struts....032 Rafter-feet and eaves-board.032 TABLE VI. GUTTERING. per ft. super. One or 1: inch deal, and bearers, including 6-inch side layer board........057 The same in kirb roofs..... 073 TABLE VII. FURRINGS OR BATTENINGS. per square. If the stuff be; inch by 1-.872 But if the stuff is to be cut out, add. 146 per square. Battenings with quarters, 3 inches by 2.............92 Battening t6 quarters, 3 inches by 2, to window piers.................. 1.855 If the battens be fixed to plugs, add. 29 per square. When any of the above are circular on the plan, add half as much more. TABLE VIII. BRACKETING, INCLUDING PLUG GING. Fixed perft. super. To straight cornices........089 To coved straight cornices....065 If circular on the plan, add one half more. To groins in passages less than 4 feet wide.........162 To the same, above 4 feet....121 TABLE I. CENTERING. Fixed per square. For cylindric plain vaults... 2. 033 per ft. super. For groins............... 057 For gauged brickwork.....073 For brick trimmers bridgewise................. 041 For coach-head trimmners.... 057 perft. run. For apertures.............02 TABLE II. MISCELLANIES. Fixed per ft. run. Fir-in-bond and wood bricks. 008 Fir-in-templets, lintels, and turning pieces...........025 Planing fir from the saw, per foot super........017 Rebating fir up to 2 inches by..................025 Rebating fiom 2 inches by j to 3 inches by 1........041 Single beading up to -- inch.008 Single quirk beading fiom -i inch to 1].............012 Return beads to be paid for at a double rate. TABLE IIL QUARTER PARTITIONS. Fixed per square. Common four inch........ 1.033 Five inch.............. 1.113 Six inch................ 1.307 Six inch circular plan..... 1. 888 Trussed frame with kingpost................. 1. 743 Trussed, both king and queen posts................. 2.226 TABLE IV. NAKED FLOORING. Fixed per square. Ceiling floor, framed, with tie - beams, binding, and ceiling-joists.........1. 3155 Ceiling floor with tie-beams and ceiling-joists only.... 1. 065 Ceiling-,joists only..........646 Single framed floor, trimmed to chimney and well holes, less than 9 inches deep... 1.355 The same, above 9 inches... 1. 646 The same, if trimmed to party walls, add extra per square...........388 Single framed floor, with one girder............... 1. 936' Strutting to be paid for extra. CARPENTRY, the art of employing timbers in the construction of buildings. The important and useful art to which the general name of carpentry is given, is so intimately connected with the comforts and requirements of man, in every stage of civilized society, that no apology can be necessary for the length to which our observations on it must necessarily extend. In a work, especially devoted to architecture, it of course must occupy a prominent place; for carpentry may be considered of so great importance, that no man may pretend to be an architect who is not well acquainted with its principles and its practice. Carpentry may be divided into two grand branches-Carpentry and Joinery. The first includes the larger and rougher kinds of work, or that which is essential to the construction and stability of an edifice: and, generally, all the work wherein timber is valued by the cubical foot. ' — - I t CAR CAR ~81 A '"ll A R Jwiniei'i/ Q allel hxy the Fren nch imaisciie, fron menu, srmall, 'I bo \i0d( (Wi siiial I, wood1 emll)lox e i to th it mfit) ilileldeS aIl the, tiltti or ftisii- 11(rs I-d(14ot tuoetita wi xork and is generally NVaill( (1 h the soIperfieial footl (a 'pelt 1 r itselft' i:- d~ipnv i lided into tlitrCe hiranches, Vi..(cr(pi~ioiy o /reeb cc~. a11(1 aech (fnical. JDescurp/owM (C(i/ji( ry f/o! Sh s tih liltie's Ot miethods for forumitor exerx- sipee(is of wyok iii ph110 biy tihe roles ot geoiiiettv. 1Fo this hrin11(1 ot' ti e( art. sotic tii(cs eailed "filiditit!." the, ('eklint it ii (I MOize g( X Im-e 1, iii0 of descrip1Oiieyf/omelr!/. Cba stt1nc/ ye ('aiponfi f sim( )W5 tiek p ''tetI c1ie of red tietti the 'tdttottiisall j iul~ t~m pt ts 'ieeot'diti- to the, ii teolt~iii or d)'iesi('ti of the liichtteci at-d thurb ( ~ otratitug a eoiiipletc xv hole. ihlechomii((01 cmo])cmif)'! shiows the relatiix c 'tircO(th of timletawll then s~trtis, to whiiih tiie neiy be stibJe(ted b~y their al~~ll~ ~l(it iIn disOIositioOl. Illtt thu iirtice -Ifalte -I ftex prelimina,'ry oh cix itionis oil w\haIt. I Ix I. tc101 ie ilt(ItY,o (dlpiititrNx it s ii ttideille to (d xe 'O e filwleittotiss 1ma1y, ('olidul ce to) aI coaprelietisionli 0 titi tfieoi'V7,tlm iitd eo the 'trt 'ittini thteti to sli(w the ir(,i' siN'isXe jilOVi00 ad Ic h the svea 1Eio1"jish i\ wit ens iil (a'rwi itr tt di e v\arioils rulles t n fi innila the tii ile" ' 111d tor thIe itoliviiiial m~iraln hieiig sho\wti ii1)l(ri thieir r'esleicel e hals., a Jrlltieikiramy ( oN,-A ec'i-TVEi, Rilj" e'i,- iius itis of, stieli (ieii, tfd mod i iipor tant, uISe, that bhet' c"l bo hm dooubot tit it' licOioT of tluii highe'st ou1t iqjiitV. little 4 its 05iito''iowever tb lias ciio traflisiiitted to os ti'iiiui c "Il'iileilits. PI itui itid V itruiuo is ire altoost the oily aothlors wxhose wN1itit r ()II iii the sti)j et, mxlv reached modern tiiii~e; hut' ttietir o),I)Scmiox'll Ions it (tmr(ly cootitied to thecli oe- aiii I tel 'no' of timiber t h y are (f (it tise as to the, cilstri" etiNxe aimit, aoid otuly det~iiosttrate that stioe an art 11hie ptraettee oif eairpen-try in its rudest form imist, if neceessit x hav ix((otii liieiied ill the v~et earlijest agS fI'm iit the, fis~t it tet o ts aIt the eotxueit of the primitivei buco idtie>' (it tl'i ce ul'iys. et('itx'most have, heen 1rouotght into exerA"is- It is nilr )abl I thlout the, liecess t y of it-itroti i~lhieg 6.el I to ('lit ro"it, (iccasi luid the fir'st, ts( of' tiliro1'n~I'raes, aoM(id i~pe tl the art, it' ca 1i'pOt-v inl oidig The, iexv'eiutiiiri o tiic(, pe 1'uieot, i'oid)f i u-; lxittlribtiti i to the:Iek,a thle de build l igni of tlis desci i liioii 1ai e to lie fiota Ilil t heit'ciiiititu x tii'N a ms i a ppm,Ir to h1-ive us,,-ed timher tIiu'] o tie-n, PI liii ses. as, in the fn'oio ffloors ai h habile t hat the i ise1 of timbo r wi ias iiot very frei jient, autd that it wa(,s eoiifiliei to on x ilili aic tles, where~ litohtness was ain esseoiti' ii qii ilitx we' luti1st, therefore, not looki to these cliii ate-s fi it mo trI iiis if, t le art. "ihle tilext (Tie-m lm(ilil(, inl 'succeis~iin of time, to the Grreeks, wNere thc hmiiiois, xxho seenm to have einp-iiy('ov timher for -all, ot nleaii11x (-ll, the. piir-poso's that the tiiodcri —s (are ac('loainite ii x itiO ihey not onlyv cotistitieted their roofs-, bu~t whlole. htiildiitos if timher:it- Vitriivius we have a decstip. tion oit thoeir niin,~ner of cotistu'ictimr the architraves of Tuscan temples, mcid of' the touincation of arched ceilings and floors, ii, thitlier work. Time Roiu'i)mns also used woioden cornices. The theatres aod amnphimithtcires at Rome, and in different paIrts of' Itaix', wei'e ait fti'st coiistni'tetd of timiber: as we read o'f tile woolien theaitt of Pooipey, and the aphtheatre built of the samie, iioatrin l. by Augustus, to exhibit the, shows 01-i accounlt of the xii tot v ait Act iuim-. The roofs of the Poti-ian bmuild ings wxire iiot lalways concealed; ti-i timbers Were soiittiines exposed, and in magnificent buildings ti-iy were gult, 'is in time bi-silica of St. Peter etected by Const amtuiin- sotnetinie-s they -\vect encrwt sted wNith hronze. Tiiouo'h clircumostances reojtirie cc itailn dispositions of tim-n bers" inl ' buildil1 nge, i titaho.rs wxill still aducnit of infinite decor.I mon xwitihout oinjuiy, and siimetitne-s so iatch ats at first xviexw to coticeal the pt ineipai u-a. III th in-imidlcle ages, eanpentry' pan took of the. style of hticlditi iii Iid (otibc; the roof~s xwerit piti ted very higti, btit xxeie ticqucititlv defective, il- a1ccO1i1tii of ti-i xx-i-i of ta1-ic mios xwhich xxcte Omitted in or'dei to ohttain niore ioftx' ceiliig-is; neight being oite of the predominai~nt features of this sp-ecies of architecture. (anhictttu'v has been cuiltivated by the uiodiern Italians. Sei'lio hil hais fit st hook, exhibits 't ccnstructtion for naked floon-itlg, xx ithI thintbers shorter't tilal cither of' the d ine-isions cif the ora to boc (over'ed;itt the fourth bcokl hie simowxs sctie verv cut-iiius amu strong' m-ethiods of ftr'un-nor doors, acecorcinor toi the priit-ie'ipics of tr ussed xxotrk 'mond ill the, seven tlm book., hie lois sonie xiir goood finn-s fcor the truisses of' uoofs-. The xx~ooiiici buido'es Oft Paillaudioi re mist cxc clcnit exampies;. A utiuno' thli I'ri'ni i the ciiistimc tion of wooiden doittes has becut iluiptoxid cI li IImulitic tt D1) brnine a'md Mloiliniaut; am-d the Ce'eotert'tt-o'scf itihnesic hridclo' sblo Pertiotiet. Itt iE io'i'mid Icx''' ul' ont i tstruc1tion (it n(aked flooriltog, c xhituet in t the wx'rks of Serii o ii s loeit deiiuitstr~ated imithiiprvixed lby 1)t. N"aill is, and c',alit'eci jiitoi excc'titii, it t! ethi atr if ciOxfr iii h Sir Cirnistoipher' WI-etl, xxlio also dusi"tIi I tin- xxiood tr"i u,,nu of the, duime, of St. iPait's, ant-d entriux~e al virx (IX 111ouis se- itolditng Sxiic Imppu'I itself xvtilt hmi~ lmitir bleoxx tt fr thme pttipiise of' building' and p~aititiito' the tinterio dotmlc.a The tint cif earpcntt'y has been ntiocil coltiv it i of I atc years in England, so that it hias nlox be.gun1 to ''sui~ne am setentufte f'orui lIx accuracy anid celerity cot Cxe('uitii ()iori xwct'kilien. miie uneq-udtllcdc (it iate veilrs thn- imi-provetrients il-i the it xnmtficttire cof itin iii oth i oust atud -wr~ouq/it, have, caused tue niti' oduiution of timat niateriul- ititI) buiihiitigs in every varic'ty- of fotimi-as ui;'l-drs', l-ams',~ &e. rThe floo's, and sottmetiiics cxv'tn the A'of of' titos-e, intc'ndccd to he mieettrc'c front it Iir hxeee elmnstruteted (it iri-oi; anid iron hooping is now uscd tolsteaid of' binci-tiimbers it xx'ahs. The usde ot' h1its iiimtc mual, however, as a stibstitutte f'or xxooch does ucit chainge' thtc pritciple, is bicoth matt tiamis are afhi'cteol by the same gravttitating Itiws. Thie, opc'raticoitis to xxhich timher is subjected, fio'om. ti-i titime (of its~ nroival hie the carpu'nter's yai'd, in its natural state, to the ipcriod of its tinmil employment in a, building, maw1 hoe chass~ei uncdei txvo getiend heads; as, those which rc'lumte tio indixvodual pieces, anci those thitt relamte to their Connemctiion wxith othet's. Uioine the tirst hcaid is the pit-saw, by- which xxhole, pieces of' timnher ai ( divideil anci redtcedi imito scamntlimigs. This term. (ft oni thi Enetehi)I, eaclichomfnilion) placnts the dimnensionts in breamdth itid thickrtcess. xxithtoutt respect to) the ientgth. P1aningmo is the coperation oif eclocitig the xxood to a smooth surface by n mcan of ati ittsti'timierit called a pla~'me, whitih ccO-listss of ' a citsel fixcd inx a flamte, set'ving' at once as a handle mci am regulaton to the, edge, which- cuts the xxood in thin slai~ix'ncs '1s the plane is nmove'd to and fro by the xworkmanl Thie ope rations of the plane, besides that of reducing thimher to a unittlorni stiufte, atie those of grooving, rebatitig, at-d moulidinig: the lattetr not beimug necessary in carpentry, we shiall only describe the former two: Grooving is, the reducing a piece of tiin-ber heloxw the, surface, so as to take away a prilsm, anid thereby leave a channel consisting of two surfumees of equal breadths, and another surface, of equal breadth, joimning the other two, parallel to the surface fiom whieli the recess is made, generally forming two individual t'ight angles. _ _ _: _ __ _ ___ _____ I __ CA R 82 CAR CAC 82 CAR Rebating is the reducing of a piece of timber, by taking away a prism at the angle, so as to leave only two sides, each of a parallel breadth, forming an internal angle, generally a right angle: so that in grooving and rebating, the groove or rebate is always less than the original depth of the stuff or piece out of which it is f;rmed. The latter operation is particularly used in door-cases and the fram;es of casement-windows; the rebate forming,a kind of ledge for the door or casement to stop against. The implements which the carpenter has occasion to employ in the several operations, will be seen under the head TOOLS. The principal operations, after the pieces are formed, consist in the joining of timbers: two pieces of timber nlay be joined so as to form either one, two, or four angles, oblique or right. A notched joint is forimed by cutting out of the thickness of each piece, a part in the form of a parallelopiped; so that when the two pieces are joined, the substance left at the reduced thickness of the one piece, fills the excavation of the other, as far as it goes into its depth. If the thickness of the part left be equal to that of the part taken away in each piece, and the thickness of the part left of the one piece be equal to the thickness of the part left of the other piece, the joint is then said to be halved. In making one angle, the excess or excavation is formed at the end of each piece, and consists of two plane surfaces, one perpendicular, the other parallel to the two opposite faces, and in the plane of the angle. In forming two right angles, one piece must, of course, project on both sides of the other, and the other only on one side; the excavation or recess made in that which projects on both sides, consists of three plane surfaces, one being parallel, and the other two at right angles to the faces; the excavation or recess made in that which projects on one side, consists of two plane surfaces, in the like positions. In forming four right angles, the notch of each piece consists of three sides, two of which are at right angles, and the other parallel to the faces. One piece of timber may also be joined to another, so as to form only one or two adjacent angles, by notching one piece on three sides at the ends, and so forming a projecting prism, called a tenon, the sides of which are respectively parallel to the sides of the piece, and by excavating the end of the other piece, to receive the tenon, which is made to fit exactly. The two pieces thus formned at one or more angles to each other, may, if found necessary, be fixed by means of wooden pins, or nails, spikes, screws, bolts, straps, or other metal fastenings. The two celebrated Italian authors, Serlio and Palladio, have given designs in carpentry. The British authors who have written on this useful art, are Godfrey Richards, at the end of his Translation of the First Book of Andrew Palladio, third edition printed 1676; Moxon's MJechanical Exercises, second edition printed 1693; Halfpenny's Art of Sound Buildinq, printed 1725; The Carpenter's Companion, by Smith, printed 1733; Ancient Jiasonry, by Batty Langley, printed 1733; The British Carpenter, by Francis Price, printed 1735; The Gentleman's and RBilder's Repository, by Edward IIoppus, printed 1738; The Builder's Conmplete Assistant, by Batty Langley, printed in 1738; The Builder's lad Workman'.s Treasury, by Batty Langley, printed in 1741; The Builder's Jewel, by the same author; The London Art of Btuilding, by William Salmon, the third edition, printed in 1748; The British Architect, by Abraham Swan, second edition printed in 1750; Designs in Carpentry, by the same author, printed in 1759; several pieces of carpentry, in A Complete Body of Architecture, written by Isaac Ware, published in 1768 * The Carpenter's and Joiner's Repository, by William Pain, printed in 1778; The Carpenter's Pocket Directory, by the same author, printed in 1780; The Golden Rule, by the same, printed in 1781; The British Palladio, by the same, printed 1788; The Practical Builder, by tile same author; The Practical House Carpenter, by the same author,,linted in 1791. The following are productions )of the Author of the present Work: The Cartpeter's New Guide, in 1792; The Carpenter's and Joiner's Assistant, printed in 1792. Likewise, the various articles on carpentry, in Rees' Cyclopoedia; A Treatise on Carpentrty, in the EEdinurgqh Encyclopedia; and a treatise on the same subject, in his Mechanical Exercises. A long article on Carpentry, in a Supplement to the Encyclopcedia Britannica, was written by Professor Robison, of Edinburgh; and an article on Carpentry, in A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts, by Thomas Young, M. D., late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of Great Britain. We shall here give extracts from these authors, in order to mark the various methods and progressive improvements in the scientific and practical parts of carpentry, particularly that part which relates to geometrical description. Godfiey Richards, in his general title, at the end of the translation above referred to, writes thus: " Of Roofs.-Rules and instructions for framing all manner of roofs, whether square or bevel, either above or under pitch, according to the best manner practised in England. "Also to find the length of the hips and sleepers, with the back or hip mould, never yet published by any architect, modern or antique; a curiosity worth the regard, even of the most curious workman; exactly demonstrated in the following rules and designs, by that ingenious architect, Mr. William Pope, of London. "Having raised the walls to their designed height, and made the vaults, laid the joists, brought up the stairs, and performed all those things spoken of before; we are now to raise the roof, which embracing every part of the building, and with its weight equally pressing upon the walls, is a band to all the work; and besides defends the inhabitants from rain, from snow, from the burning sun, and from the moisture of the night; adds no small help to the building, casting off fiom the walls the rain water, which although for a while it seems to do but little hurt, yet in process of time is the cause of much damage. The first men (as saith Vitruvius) built their houses with flat roofs, but finding that thereby they were not defended from the weather, they (constrained by necessity) began to make them ridged (that is to say) raised in the middle. These roofs are to be raised to a higher or lower pitch, according to the country in which they are; wherefore in Germany, by reason of the great quantity of snow that falls there, they raise their roofs to a very great pitch, and cover them with shingles, which are small pieces of wood, or of thin slate or tiles; for if they should raise themt otherwise, they would be ruined by reason of the weight of the snow. But we, who dwell in a more temperate country, ought to choose such apitch as may secure the building, and be of a handsome form: therefore we divide the breadth of the roof into four equal parts, and take three, which makes the most agreeable pitch for our country, and is the foundation for the raising of any manner of roof, whether square or bevel; as appears in the following designs and descriptions." "The manner of framing a floor, with the names of each member. (See CARPENTRY, Plate [. Figure 1. "1. The thickness of the wall, and lintel or wall-plate; and if it be in timber-work, then a bressummer. _ -- - -J _ _I I_ _1 _______ _ _ _ I S - if t I CAR 83 CAR A 83 C "2. The summer. "3. Girders fiamed into the summer. " 4. Spaces between the joists. " 5. Joists. 6. Trimmers for the chimney way. "7. Trimmers for the staircase, or well-hole for the stairs." Figure 2. —" Of the Design. "A A The breadth of the house, cantalivers, cornices, and caves. " A B The length of the raftings and furrings, which ought to be three-fourths of the breadth of the house, A A. "The principal rafters to be cut with a knee (as in the Design) that they may the better support themselves and the burthen over them, upon the upright of the wall, and also secure that part from the dripping in of the rain, which otherwise would happen if the rafters were made straight and furred. "The beams to the roof, or girder to the garret floor, ought to project without the work, as far as the furring or shredding, which is the projecture of the cornice. "This manner of framing the roof will be useful from 20 to 30 feet, or thereabouts. " 1. Ground plate. " 2. Girder, or binding interduce, or bressummer. " 3. Beam to the roof, or girder to the garret floor. "4. Principal post, and upright brick wall. "5. Braces. " 6. Quarters. "7. Interduces. "8. Prick-post, or window-post. "9. Jaumes, or door-posts. "10. King-piece, or joggle-piece. "11. Struts. " 12. Collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam. "13. Door-head. "14. Principal rafters. "15. Furrings, or shreddings. " 16. Ends of the lintels and pieces. " 17. Bedding, moulding of the cornice over the windows, and space between. " 18. Knees of the principal rafters, which are to be of one piece. " 19. Purlin e mortises." Figure 3. " Design of the gable end, or roof.-Let the whole length of the gable end, or roof, A A, be 20 feet, divide the same into four equal parts; take thereof three for the length of the principal rafter, A B, and placing that perpendicular from the point c, to the point D, beget the length of the sleeper A D, which will be 18 feet. And the length of the dormer's principal rafter, from A to E, when laid to its pitch upon the back of the principals, will reach to the level line F B, or top of the principal rafter; and this is a general rule for all breadths. 1. Sullmer,-or beam. 2. King-piece, crown-post, or joggle-piece. " 3. Braces, or struts. "4. Principal rafters. 5. lThe sleeper. "6. Purline of the dormer. "7. Principal rafter of the dormer. " 8. Single rafter of the dormer, standing on the sleeper and purliine. "9. Point of the sleeper. "10, 11. The thickness of the wall and lintels, or wallplates." Figure 4.-" Of the Italian or hip roof "A A The breadth of the roof, being 20 feet. "AB The length of the sleepers or hips, being 18 feet, which is proportionable to the breadth of the house. E D The height of the roof perpendicular. "CD The length of the hip, and the angle which it maketh upon the diagonal line, which is showed by the pricked line G, from F to c. "1, 2. The wall and lintels. "3. Dragon-beam for the hip to stand on. "4. Beam on summer, wherein the dragon-beams are framed. " 5. King-piece, or crown-post. "6. Struts or braces from the crown-post to the hiprafter. " 7. Hips, as they make the angle equal to the breadth of the house. " 8. Hips, as they make the angle in the diagonal lines from corner to corner. "9. The additional length which the hips make upon the diagonal lines, more than the breadth of the house." " Of flat roofs.-(CARPENTRY, Plate I. Fig. 1.)-Within a camber-beam and rafters joggled in, whose weight lieth not chiefly in the middle, and may be so made, that, without hanging up the beam, the principals may discharge the weight; and how drips may be made to walk on. "1. Camber-beam. "2. Principals joggled into the camber-beam. "3. The place where the principals are joggled in. "4. Puncheons, or braces. "5. Drips to walk on, and may be made with the less current, that the roof may be made the more pitch, for the strengthening thereof: and may be made higher or lower, according to the building and discretion of the architect. "6. Battlement." Figure 2. —"A flat roof with a crown-post, or kingpiece." Figure 3.-" Of the hip roof.-Instructions to find the length and back of the hiAp, so as it may answer the side and the end of the perpendicular line of the gable end, the two skirts, the side of the roof in piano, or lying in ledgment with the hip and gable end, the diagonal an d perpendicular lines being laid dovwn proportional to any breadth or length, by which the most ingenious may serve himself, and an ordinary capacity (already acquainted with the use of the ruler and compass) may plainly demonstrate all the parts of a roof, whether square or bevel, above pitch or under pitch, by lines of proportion, as may appear in the Design following:" Suppose the roof 20 feet broad, and in length 30, 40, or 50 feet, more or less. Let A B c D be the sides and ends of the said roof, one end to be hipped, the other a gable end; draw the lines A B c D the breadth and length of the roof; then draw the gable end A B E, whose sides or principal rafters being three-fourths of the breadth of the house, then draw the perpendicular line E r, the height of the gable end, which line is of general use to level the ridge of all roofs; and if the other end be hipped, as in the Design, D C a, then it serves to find the length of the hip, and the back of the hip, so that it may answer both sides and ends of the roof; always observing, that the middle of the breadth of the house is as i H; then draw the line K L N through the centre X, which will make right angles to the line E F H G, both in bevel and square houses. Then extend the line A B, on both sides to o, being the length of A E, or E B, the length of the principal rafters, or three-fourths of the breadth of the house - --- — I --- -- - i I I -- — ------- CAR 84 CAR CA 84 CAR So will o N and o K make the length of the ridge I F; and x D and c N, the two skirts. " To find the length of the hip.-Draw the diagonal line D I and I c, over which the hip is to hang when in its due place; then take the perpendicular line E F, and place it fiom the point i to P P, perpendicular to the diagonal or base lines D r and I c, at I; so is I P and I P, the pitch of the hip, equal to the gable end, E F: and when erected, will hang perplendicular to the point I; then take P D, the hypothenuse of the triangle D I P. and c P, the hypothenuse of the triangle c I P, placing them from D to G, and c to G gives the length of the hip D G c, and when laid to their pitch, will all meet perpendicular to the point i. " To find the back o! the hip, so that it may answer both sides and ends of the roof whether square or bevel.-Lay the ruler fiom the point L to the point H, and fiom the point I to M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal lines D I and I c at Q Q; then set one foot of the compasses on the point Q, and extend the other foot to the hip lines D P and c P, at the nearest distance; with that, mark the point R upon the same diagonal lines; then draw the pricked lines L R n and H R M, which make the back of the hip for the two corners of that roof. "This rule serves for all roofs, whether over or under pitch."' Figure 4.-" Of roofs bevel at one end, and square at the other; the gable end square, and the bevel end hipped. " Suppose the breadth of the roof to be 20 feet, the length more on one side than on the other, as in the Design, A B C D, then draw the gable end, A E B, whose sides, from A to E, and from E to B, are three-fourths of the breadth of the house, or the length of the principal rafters; then draw the perpendicular, E F, the height of the roof from the floor; and, if kneed, then fiom the top of the knee, as in the design of a kneed rafter, before-going. "The sides of the roof, which make the ridge G -I I K, to be drawn as described in the foregoing design. "Divide the breadth of the roof in two equal parts, as F L Q, then take the distance L N, which is the half breadth of the house, and make it parallel to c Q D, as M L M, and L will be the point whose perpendiculars, o T, will meet the principals, rafters, and hips." " To find the length of each hip, distinct one from the other.-Of the longest hips.-Draw the diagonal line L c, and take the height of the gable end, E F, and place it perpendicular to L c, at o; so have you the height of the roof perpendicular from o L, equal to E F, the gable end; and the line o c will be the length of the hip-rafter, which will be equal to c H, the skirt for that side of the hip, and c p the side of that hip end. " To find the back of the longest hip, c o.-Lay the ruler fiom the point M to Q, and mark where it cuts the diagonal line at R; then set the foot of the compasses at the point R, and extend the other foot till it touch the line c o at the nearest distance; then make it touch the diagonal line at s, then draw the lines M s Q, which is the hack of the hip for that corner of the roof. "' To find the shortest hip.-Draw the diagonal L D, and take E F, the perpendicular of the gable end, as before, and place it from L to T, perpendicular to L D; then draw the line T D, which is the length of the hip for that corner, and is equal to the skirt, D I, and the side of that hip, D p, which, when erected, will meet with the other principals, perpendicular to the point L. " To find the back (f the hip.-Lay the ruler from the point Q to the point M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal line L 1, at v; extend the compasses from the point v, to touch the line T D at the nearest di-talnce, and carry ih:at distance on the diagonal line to the point w; then draw t1b pricked lines M w Q, which will make the back of thit hip fit for that bevel corner. " And this rule serves for all bevel roofs, whether over or under pitch." Figure 5.-" Of a roof bevel at both ends, and broader at one end than the other. "A BI c D. The length and breadth of the house. ' E F G. The length of the rafters, or pitch between the widest and narrowest ends, about the middle of the house, to stand over the pricked line T T. fir the foot F to stand, on the one T, the foot G to stand on the other T. ii II. The point of the two hip ends, when brought to their due place, will be perpendicular to r r, and will meet the sides I K, L M, over the points P P. " o, o o, o. The points of the perpendiculars, and length of the hips, from A 13 C D. Q, Q, Q, Q. The backs of the hips, or hip-mould to each corner. "R R, R, R. The points to find out Q, the point for each back. "s s, s s. The lines representing half the breadth of the house, parallel to each end. "T T. Representing the middle of the house. "Notwithstanding the bevel ends, you niav place your beams for your principal rafters to stand on a square, or so near a square as may be, or between both, as from the ends of the pricked lines I K, L M, b)ringing the outside of thlem straight under p p, which will be more handsome for the house in the inside, although it bevels outward." Tbe foregoing descriptions and diagrams contain all that is said on carpentry by Godfrey Richards; we shall now add a few observations. In the explanation of Figure I, Plate I., CARPENTRY, we have the names of the several timbers which constitute a floor, and the manner in which they are disposed. In this explanation, and the plan which accompanDies it, we find girders, summers, and bressummers. The sunlmer rumis parallel to the front of the building; another piece of timber is placed in the front, parallel to, and in the same level with the summer; if the front timber terminate the apertutres at their height, and the wall be of brick, this timber is called a lintel; but if the lower side of the timber do not termninate the windows, it is called a wall-plate. If the front wall is constructed of timber-work, then the level piece of timber in the floor, and in the front of the house, is called a bressummer, which in modern carpentry, when employed in the same office, still retains that name; and hence the term bressummer signifies a summer in the breast or front of the building. The use of the summer was to support the ends of the adjacent girders; and the bressummer was not only to support the end of the one girder, but to tie the front together. In the present construction of houses, summers are not employed. In old carpentry, the girders supporting the joisting were sustained at their ends by the summers and bressummers, lintels, or wall-plates. In modern carpentry, the girders are sustained by opposite walls, upon plates or lintels, and are still used over every extensive bearing to support the joisting. In modern timber-buildings, and partitions, the same names are still used for the same things, as in old carpentry, wherever the things themselves are employed, except'in a few instances, viz., the interduces are now called interties; the middle beam of the roof went by several names, as collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam; but of _ ___ ~~__~ I__ I I j"(I 4\ I ) ') I N J~L/7W -f f',I /./ () 3. Ii L, 71 1K 2, 9Q 72, PA IL, / P 0 I P I Dmrwr,?~pwihO9wln, E __ __ I CAR 85 CAR CAR 85 CAR these names, only that of collar-beam is retained. At present we have no kneed-rqaftes, therefore neither furrings nor shreddings are necessary as in Figure 2; the prick-posts are now called jamb-posts, wintdow, or door-posts; the vertical timber hanging fiomr the vertical angle of the roof, and supporting the principals, went forimerly under the names of king-piece, crown-post, or joregle-po.st; but now it retains only the name of kilg-post. The nomenclature employed in London and its vicinity is here alluded to. The timlbers in the internal angles, at the meeting of the two inclined sides of a roof, were formerly called sleepers, but now they are termced valley-pieces, or valley-r(fters, see iglure 3; in which nmay be seen also a method of finding the length of the hip, without making any plan of the roof. Plate II. Figures 3, 4, 5, show the manner of finding the lengths and backs of the hips, as at present. The discovery of this principle is generously ascribed to Mr. Pope, of London, by the author now qluoted. Thus much fr the work published by Godfrey Richards. The carpentry published in Moxon's Miechanical Ecercises, contains nothing mlore than the names and applications of timbers, which are the same as those described by Godfrey Richards. In The Art of Sound Building, Mr. Halfpenny shows the me thods of tracing the angle-brackets of coves, regular and irregular groins, the common ribs in each return being of one comn on height. The following specimens will show what has been done by this author. Ile likewise shows how to find the arch for the aperture of a window, of a given width and height so as the angles may be in vertical planos, according to legitimate principles; but he does not, in any instance, show the method of beveling the edge of the angle-ribs, so as to range with ribs fixed in the returns. Plate III. Figure 1. " To find the angle or mitre-bracket of a cove.-First, draw the base A B of the regular bracket, and from A draw A D, perpendicular and equal to it, and draw the line D B, and continue the line D A to c, so that A c be also equal to A B; then extending your compasses from A to B, and setting one foot in A, with the other describe the arch, or quarter of a circle c B, and from the point D draw D F, perpendicular to D B, and equal to D A, or A c, and another as B E from B, likewise equal to D A, and draw the line F E which will be parallel to D B. This being done, divide A B into a number of equal parts, not exceeding two inches and a half, and through the divisions of them draw lines parallel to A c, to touch the arch c n, which continue out to the line D B, and this line will be divided likewise into the same number of equal parts as A B is. Lastly, from the divisions of the line D n, draw lines parallel to D F, and in each of them, fro m D B. lay off its respective parallel (fiom A B to the arch n c) and at the points whereat they end, stick small nails, or pins, and take-a thin lath, and bend it round the nails, or pins, observing that it touches them all, and with a pencil, or anything else proper to make a mark, describe the arch F B round the edges of the lath; and this is the arch for the angle or mitre bracket." Fiqure 2. "If the lesser arch of an irregular groin be a given semicircle, it is required to form a larger one (not a semicircle) so that the intersection of those two arches shall beget, or make the arch-line of the angle to hang perpendicular over its base; as also to draw that arch-line of the angle.-First, draw the lines A B and c D, to represent the walls from whence the arches spring, and draw the line c B, and on the line A c describe the semicircle A E c, and divide A c into any number of equal parts, from whence draw parallel lines to c D, to touch or come to the arch A E c, and if these parailels are continued out to the line c B, they will divide it into the same number of equal parts as A c is; and if from each of the divisions of this last line parallels to A o are drawn, they will divide the line A B into the same number of equal parts as A C, or C B, is divided into. This being done, continue A c to I, so that A I be equal to Ef and continle D B to K, so that K n be likewise equal to E f, or A I, and draw the line T K. Moreover, at the points c and B raise the perpendiculars c N and n o to c D, each of the same length as E f or A 1, or B K, and draw the line N o. Lastly, from the divisions of A B1, draw parallels to A I (that is, continue the parallels drawn fiom the divisions of the line c B to the line I x) and from the divisions of c n parallels to c N. Then set off the heights or lengths of each of the parallels in the semicircle A E c, upon the correspondent parallels to A I and c N, and stick in nails whereat they terminate; and if a lath be bent round them, so as to touch them all, and a pencil be noved round the edge of it, the arches A H B and c M B will be found; which was required to be done. " Note.-The pricked lines in this, and all other examples of this kind, show that one parallel line has a relation with the other. For example: the lines f E, g -, I M, are all equal to one another; so thit if the three arches A I B, A E c, and c M n, were raised perpendicularly upon the lines A B, A c, and c B, and a line drawn from u to M, and another from M to E; then would the line M H be parallel to, and directly over the pricked line Ig. In like manner, the line E woruld be parallel to, and directly over the pricked line / I. Understand the same of the other parallels and pricked lines in this figure, anld any others of the like nature." Figure 3.-" Having one centre given for an unequalsided groin, to form the other, so that the intersection thereof shall produce the angle, or mitre-arch, to hautn perpendicularly over its base; and, moreover, to draw the curve thereof.-Draw the lines A B and B D, and D c and c A, each equal to one another, to represent the walls front whence the arches spring, and on the line A B describe the given arch A F B. This being done, divide the line A B into any number of equal parts, from whence raise perpendiculars to A B to touch the arch A F B, and draw the diagonal lines A D and B o. Then take the line E F, and set it perpendicllar to the lines A C, A D, C D, C B, B D, fromn A to o, from A to I, from c to P, from c to sfrom rom to L, fi'om D to K, f'rom D to T, froml D to v, and fiom B to M, and from B to z, and d(raw the-straight lines o P, I K, s T, L M, and v z. Now divide the base lines B D, D C, C A, A D, and B C, each into the same number of equal parts as A B is divided into, and from the points of division draw parallel lines to touch the lines o p, s T, v z, L M, and I K. Then take the lengths of the perpendiculars to A B, drawn to touch the given arch A F B, and set them off in the correspondent parallels drawn from the points of division of the several bases upwards, and the arches B y D, D v c, c q A, A h D, and c n n, will be described as in the foregoing examples (Figures 2 and 3) whose heights x y, w v, r q, g h, and g n, are each equal to E F, as likewise all the other correspondent heights, from the bases to the curves that are formed. Figure 4.-" The arch line of a large ceiling, or vault, supposed to be semicircular, being given: how to form the curve of a lesser arch, that shall intersect the side thereof, to give way for doors or windows, so that their intersection shall produce the groin to hang perpendicularly over its base; as also to form the curve-line thereof.-First, draw the lines A B, B D, D c, and c A, to represent the walls from whence the arches spring, and describe the two given semicircular arches A o B, C L D, and in the line B D set off the span of the intersecting arch from v to t. This being done, set off the height you design to raise the lesser arch v z t from g in the line A B, - ---- CA SO_~ CAR_____~__ CAR 86 CAR __ __ _ _ perpendicularly to touch the arch in h, and fiom v to r, and t to u, and draw the line r u, which halve in the point z, and draw the line z y, parallel to v r, or t u. Then strain a line, or lay a straight rule from h through g, towards x; as also from z through y, towards x, and these two lines will cut one another at x, from whence to the points v and t, draw the lines x v and x t. Now set offg h perpendicular to x t from x to w, and from t to s, and draw the line s w, and divide g B into any number of equal parts at pleasure from the divisions of which, draw perpendiculars to Y B, to touch the arch A o 1 between the points B and h, and divide v y and y t, the halves of the base v t, each into the same number of equal parts as g B, is divided into: as likewise the base x t, and fiomr the points of division draw parallel lines to touch the lines u r and s w. This being done, take the lengths of the lines that were drawn from the points of division of g B, perpendicularly to touch the part 13 h of the arch A o n, and set them off in the correspondent parallels from y v to z r, and fiom y t to z u; as likewise from x t to w s. Then, if at the extent of each line, as you set it off in the parallels, you stick in nails, as in the foregoing examples, and bend a thin rule about them, you will describe the sought arches v z t and w t, whereof v z t is the true intersecting arch, and w t the curve line of the groin that is correspondent thereto. " After the very same manner the arches k m z and k p are drawn." In his explanations of the diagrams, he is tolerably intelligent; but he has departed from truth and reason in the two following problems:" The arch of a round tower, or any other circular building, being given, wherein a semicircular window is to stand, how to find a centre, so that the mason or bricklayer shall twin their arches thereon without crippling them. (See Plate III. Figure 5.) " First, draw the arch A F B, from the centre E, to represent the arch line of the wall, and set the width of the window from D to c, which halve at H, and draw the line L M, which halve at N; from whence describe the semicircle L o M. This being done, divide the semi-diameter L N into any number of equal parts, from the division of which, draw parallel lines to o N, the arch of the quadrant, which parallels continue out to divide the arch F c into the same number of parts as L N is; and from the points of division in the arch F C draw perpendiculars to the parallels, each equal in length to the correspondent parallel of the quadrant L o; and from the points of the divisions of the line H c (mnade by continuing out of each of the aforesaid parallels) draw right lines to the extreme points of the aforesaid perpendiculars, as from G to H. This being done, if the line G II be laid off in the parallel o N, continued out from H to i, and the rest of these lines last drawn be laid off in the respective continuations of the parallels, the extreme points of these lines being joined, will frin the curve c I; which, when set in its due position, will hang perpendicular over the arch c F, having its points coinciding with the extremities of the perpendiculars drawn from the extremities of the perpendiculars drawn from the divisions of tile arch c F." Figure 6.-' The centre whereon the arch of a bow-window is tutrned being given, how to find another centre that shall answver parallel to it, according to the upper edge of the surface of the arclh.-First, describe the arch n K c, according to the directions laid down in the last problem, and set the width of the flat surface of the arch from B to A, and from c to D; and draw the lines A D, B c, and halve them at F and E, from whence draw a perpendicular of a length at pleasure to H. Then in any convenient place (Figure 6, No. 2) draw a line at pleasure, as from A to G, and from A draw to A G the perpendicular A F. Then take E i, in No. 1, and set it froim A to B, No. 2, and F I from A to c. This being done, take the semi-diameter'B E, or E c, No. 1, and set it from A to D, No. 2. Also, take A B, or c D, and set it from D to E, and draw the line F c, which set in the line E H, from F to g. Again, take the width of the flat surface of the arch A B, or c D, and set it in the line E I, from K to 7, and divide the remainder from 7 to g, into seven equal parts. Also, divide the arch B K, into seven equal parts. Then take K 1, in the line E n, between your compasses, and setting one fiot in 1, with the other strike the arch 1 at pleasure: then take K 2, and strike the arch 2: also take K 3, K 4, i 5, and K 6, severally, and strike the arches 3, 4, 5, and 6. When this is done, open your compasses, and divide from A to g, keeping the points of them on those arches, till you have gotten seven equal distances from A to g; at the points of which, if nails be stuck in, and a thin rule be bent round them from A to g along the edge thereof the arch A g may be drawn. And inl like manner may the arch D g be drawn." This, description is so far intelligible, that we perfectly understand his geometrical process; but it is so void of truth, that no geometrical reasoning can be applied, unless it were to prove the contrary of his assertion: the arch which would be required to stand perpendicularly over such a plan upon a semicircular centre, would not be in the same plane, which is the case with the one he has ifund, and asserted to be right. In the construction of the ribs of niches for plastering, he is extremely obscure, and takes only the most common and easy cases; such as might occur to every one, even to those who are not much in the habit of.thinking, as the reader will observe in the followinig quotations:Figure 7.-'- How to /brnm a semicircular niche with ribs, as is usual when it is to be plastered.-First, describe the semicircular plate A C i, as also the semicircular front rib A D B, equal to it, and fix the plate A c B level in the place where it is to continue, and upon it set the front rib A D B perpendicular on A B. This being done, describe the quadrantal ribs D c,, D E, F D G, and D H, each equal to A D or B D, and place them about 8- inches from one another, on the plate A c B, as at c, E, F, G, and H, so as to meet in one point, it D, on the crlown of the front rib A D B; and thus is one half of the work finished. And after the same manner may the other be done." Figure 8.-" How to form an elliptical niche, with ribs fbr plastering.-First, describe Figure 8, No. 1 and 2, k -n m being a semni-ellipsis, representing the plates whereon the ribs stand, and being equal to A D B, or A e B. The pricked lines L n, L o, Lp, L q, L r, and L in, represent the baselines of the ribs e D, fD, g D, h D, i D, and B D; so likewise do the lines s t, s u, s v, s w, s x, and s y; and the perpendiculars a t, b v, c v, d wo, e x, and f y, do represent the rising of the ribs e D, f D, g D, h. D, i D, and b D, which is equal in length to c D; observing that within those lines the different arch of each rib is to be described, viz., tlY, arch s a is a quadrant of a circle, having t for its centre, ald is equal to the arch of the rib e D:-T-he lines s %i, s z, eq,,l to z b, b u, are the semi-transverse and conjugate axes of a semi-.llipsis, whose arch s b, is equal to the arch of the rib f D, which may be struck either with a trammel, or liy the intersection of lines. Moreover, the lines s z, s v, equal to v c, c z, are the semi-transverse and conjuigate axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch is equal to the arch of the rib g D; and so of the rest. "Now, having the ribs all ready, set the front rib, A D B perpendicular on the plate A e B, as at A B, and -fix the feet of the short ribs on the plate A e B, as at e, f, g, h, i, which correspond with the points n, o, p, q, r, and their points __ _C / -PLATEmIl T] y4. I'.2. if C / K I B -N I IFW. 6. Y0 2. Eq'. &X03, fe c c ba, -Z IS JT, 9, 8 N[ 2. F~Y. 8. N701 B iL —,'`-,, - Orrtoln 6 j, i ' 1"rb (i Ixo i v - V, t - X:: 6 A ,'? `6 "A' 4 31 a 11, I # I # * sll * 0 * 0 b, * I I * I _ CAR 87 CAR CA 87 CAR~ a, b, c, d, e, to the crown of the front rib at D; and thus may you finish your work." We now proceed to Smith's Carpenter's Companion, and though he presents nothing new in geometrical principles, his observations are very judicious and worthy of transcription; and his practical remarks, though perhaps objectionable in a few instances, are more to the purpose of a general connected detail of what should be done in the constructive part of carpentry, and more systematic, than those of most other writers; though the examples and designs which he shows are not generally the best. He begins his introduction thus: " The usefulness of carpenter's work in building, and the little notice taken of it by authors who have treated of architecture, and the few there be that rightly understand it, prompted me to write the following treatise. " Carpenter's work is one of the most valuable branches of architecture; it was contemporary with the first ages of the world; and with the knowledge of this art, Noah closely and firmly connected those timbers in the ark, which were so nicely wrought, that they not only kept the water from penetrating into it, but were proof against the tempest and the rolling billows, when, in its womb, it carried all the tenants of the earth and air. "Those naval preparations, through all ages of the world, as well as those stupendous temples and edifices, erected in all countries, demonstrate the perfection of this art. The innumerable floating buildings, which roll from one country to another, through tempestuous storms, tossed from the mountain's height to the depths of the ocean, without injuring the vessel, evidently show the vast use and judgment of carpenter's work. "But as that branch of it which relates to templar or domal uses, is the subject of this work, I shall only treat of its usefulness in them; and may venture to affirm that carpenter's work is the chief tie and connection of a building, supplying the ligaments which bind the walls together. "The bond-timbers, which strengthen and tie the angles of a building, and prevent its separating, is the work of the carpenter. Linteling over doors and windows, with other dischargements of weight, it is his care to perform. " Bond timbers in cross walls, when settlements happen, if they are well applied, prevent the cracking of the walls, for they keep the whole together, and every part settleth alike, which would fill the buildings with gaps and chasms if neglected. ' Next for the floors; the rightly framing them, by trussing the girders, by placing them on joists, so that they come near no funnels of chimneys; the manner of tenanting, tusking, framing of timbers for chimneys, stairs, &c. 1 say, all these it is the business of the carpenter to see carefully performed. " Partitions of timber, their manner of trussing to prevent cracking, settlements, &c., and the discharge of weight of girders, beams, or cross walls, is carpenter's work; as is, likewise, the fiaming of timber bridges. " Roofs of various sorts, for common houses, large edifices, or churches, their manner of framing, the height of their pitch, their strength, usefulness, &c., with the various manner of perftoriing all these works, is the subject of this treatise, which I have rendered intelligible to every capacity, by designs of several sorts, and have described them in such a manner, as will render the work useful to carpenters; particularly to those who are unacquainted with the manner of performing these operations of framning. "The first thing which the carpenter must consider, for the carrying on a building, is the plan, in which you are to prepare your timber, in having it cut into proper scantlings, which shall be hereafter noted. "You are to prepare for lintelings and bond-timbers; for lintels over doors or windows, stuff of five inches thick and seven broad, and it is a slight way of building to put in any of less scantling; as for door-cases their manner of making, and scantlings of stuff, it is needless to speak of; it is the best way to have them put in when the foundations are brought up high enough for them. Bond-timbers should be dovetailed at the angles of the building and cross walls. And here note, that it is a durable, though expensive way, to have all fir timber, which is laid in the walls of the building, to be pitched with pitch and grease mixed together; the quantity of grease, one pound to four pounds of pitch. All these things are the care of the carpenter. " Bond-timbers should be four or five inches thick for cross walls, and in the angles of a building, six or seven inches, and proportionably broad; six or eight feet long in each wall; and it would not be amiss to place them six or eight feet distant all the height of the building, in every angle and cross wall; these, if a building be on an infirm foundation, cause the whole to settle together, and prevent the cracks and fractures which happen, if this be neglected. " We come now to the floors, in which these things are to be observed-the magnitude of the room, the manner of framing, and the scantlings of the timber. For the first, you are to observe to lay the girders always the shortest way, and not to have a joist at any time exceeding twelve feet in length. " The first common method of framing floors, is where the joists are framed flush with the top of the girder." (The trimmingjoists supposed to come against chimneys and stairs, are always thicker than common joists, being weakened by mortising.) " The scantling of joists, when a floor is framed in this manner, ought to be as followeth: Common Joists. Trimmers. ft long. Scantling Scantling in inches. lo in inches. 6 7 by 2+ 5 7 by 3 6 7 by 2-+ 6 7 by 4 8 7 by 21 7 7 by 6 9 8 by 3 8 8 by 4 10 8 by 3+ 9 8 by 5 11 8 by 3j 10 9 by 6 12 9 by 4 __ "These are such proportions as will render the work sufficiently capable of sustaining any common weight. "The next manner of framing floors is with binding-joists framed flush with the under side of the girder; and about three or four inches below the top of the girder, to receive the bridgings, which are those which lie across the bindingjoists, and are pinned down to them with pins of wood, or spikes of iron. These binding-joists should be framed about three feet, or three feet six inches distant from one another, and their thickness four or five inches, or in the proportion to the length of their bearing, as trimming-joists. " These floors, if they settle out of a level with the building, are made level when the bridgings are put in, which is generally after the building is covered in, and near completed; they are generally double-tenanted. The bindingjoists are chased, and the ceiling-joists tenanted into them, and put in generally after the building is up. These ceilingjoists should be 13 or 14 inches apart, and the scantling 2 or 3 inches square, and in large buildings 3 and 4. As for the bridgings, which lie on the top of the binding-joists, they __ ___ __ Illrrr --. _. CAR 88 CAR CA 88 CAR. may be placed 12 or 14 inches distant, their scantling 3 and 4, or 3- and 5, their bearing being only fiom binding-joist to joist, which is 3 feet, or 3 feet six inches, and these are laid even with the top of the girder, to receive the boarding. We come now to speak of girders; and first, for their scantling, take these proportions: ton. Scantling in ft. inches. B. D. 10 8 by 10 12 8- by 10 14 9 by 10+ 16 93 by 10+ 18 10 by 11 20 11 by 12 22 11+ by 13 24 12 by 14 "And observe, that as every weight, added to the weight of the timber in the floor, in itself occasions it to settle, the girders should he cut camber; if a 10 feet bearing, half an inch camber; if 20 feet bearing, an inch camber, &c., in proportion to the length of the bearing. "And farther to strengthen the girder, and prevent its sagging, as it is called among workmen, that is, its bending downwards, I have given you several ways of trussing girders, which have been most of them practised. "The manner of trussing these girders, is, first, to saw the girder down the middle, the deepest way; then take two pieces of dry oak, about 41 or five inches wide, and 4 inches thick; let half the piece be let into one side of the girder and half into the other. "Another way, which is by cutting the girder through, and driving a wedge against the ends of the trusses. When these are thus prepared, bolt them together with iron bolts and keys; or much rather, a screw at the end of the bolt. "Some carpenters cut their girders down the middle, and bolt them together, without trussing, only changing the ends different from what they grew, whereby the grain of the wood is crossed, and it becomes much stronger than if it had continued without sawing down the middle, and thus putting it together. "Some, in trussing girders, make use of other trusses. "The girder being thus trussed and put together, proceed in framing the joists, as in common floors. The strongest way being double-tenanting and tusking, as is shown in the binding-joists. Before I leave this part of floors, I shall observe to you, that the best and most workmanlike manner of fiaming floors, is to plane the upper edge of your joists straight; for the straighter and truer your joists lie, the truer your boarding will lie, which is a great ornament to a magnificent room; but if you fiame without binding-joists, and lay on bridgings, plane the bridgings and lay them very straight and level; this care taken will save a great deal of trouble in laying down the boarding, which you are often forced to cl;p and fur up, to make them lie even, and those furrings are not only troublesome, but are apt to give way, and occasion the creaking of the boards as you walk on them. It would be a good way to turn arches of brick over the ends of the girders of the floors, because if any alteration happens, they are easily taken out. "I come now to partitions of timber, with their manner of framing. Timber partitions have these properties attending them: they take up less room, and are cheaper than those of brick. " As to roofs, there is a plate to go round a building, which may or may not be deemed a part of the roof; it may be deemed the foundation and tie of the roof and walls; or it may be taken as only that on which the roof lieth. These plates are to be dovetailed at the angles, and tenanted together in their length, several ways. The beams of the roof, which serve as girders to the ceiling-floors, (and into which all the principal rafters of the roof are tenanted,) are dovetailed, or what by workmen is termed cogged down, to the plate, which prevents its flying out from the foot of the rafter, whose butment is against it; and in the angles of a building, pieces dovetailed across the angles of the plate, serve to keep it from spreading, and is the toot of the hip. ' The common pitch of roofs is to have the rafter's length, if it span the building at once, to be three-fourths of the breadth of the building. Some make them flatter, as a pediment pitch; and the old Gothic way was to make them the whole breadth. '"The common pitch is not only unpleasing to the eye, but is attended witli this inconvenience; if there is a gutter round the building, the steepness of the roof occasions the rain to come with so sudden a velocity into the pipes which are to convey the waters from the gutters, that they fill the gutter; and sometimes so fast, that the water runneth over the covering of the roof, and does great injury to the timber, &c., of the building: and the steeper the roof is, the longer the rafters, and the greater quantity of timber must be used in the roof, as well as the more weight from the great quantity of timber and the weakening the principal timbers, by adding more to its own weight. "And the pediment pitch is inconvenient, in lying too flat, for those climates so frequently subject to rain, and heavy snows, which last would press and vastly incommode the building, and would lie much longer on the roof, its declivity being so small; besides, in keen winds, attended with rain, the rain would drive in under the covering of slate or tiles, and create much decay in the timber. " Proportion of beams whose bearing varieth; take the following rule: of Beal Scantling in ofBea inches. in feet. 12 6 by 8 16 6+ by 8+ 20 6J by 9 24 7 by 91 28 7+ by 9+ 32 8 by 10 86 8j by 10 -40 81 by 11 44 9 by 12 "The principal rafter should be nearly as thick at the bottom as the beam, and diminish in its length one-fifth or one-sixth of its breadth; the king-posts should be as thick as the top of the principal rafter, and the breadth according to the bigness of the struts you intend to let into them, the middle part being left something broader than the thickness. "Struts may diminish, as the rafters do, one-fifth or onesixth of their length. In placing struts and collar-beams, the dividing the rafter into as many equal parts as you propose bearings, is the rule, because every part of the principal will have its equal distant bearings. "Purlins are of the same thickness as the principal rafter, and the proportion of the breadth is six to eight; that is, if the rafter be six inches thick, let the purlins be six inches thick, and eight inches broad; if it be nine inches thick, the breadth of the purlins is twelve inches broad, &c. I ) 1[41 "A"Ir ,T R,-N U L'i I V, ( I) i R"A' PAJ 7W/V. Lpg.. 2 F 2. I F,9.3 Fzig. 9. FZ~.1.3. PFiy..o. Fi;7. 14. c --- —---- i - Fi9.7. P~ Y F,.* 15. jp~. -12. 1N'.16. Fi&..17. Ffy. i8. I* d Fzg.19. F 20 I1 I -- - I I 6-6- I Pi~9. 23. 24. -1 Fz.~.26. -Drawn bttY?) Vwolron,i I I - -. - CAR 89 CAR CAR 89 CAR c" N.B. The purlins are those pieces into which the small rafters are tenanted, and they are tenanted into the principal rafter. Length of purlins is generally from six to eleven feet, not exceeding that length. " Small rafters: their scantlings two inches and a half, and four inches; three inches, and four inches and a half; and three inches and a half, and five inches; according to the magnitude of the roof and length of the rafters. Small rafters should not exceed seven feet in length in a purlined roof; if it happen that the length of the principal be above fifteen feet, it is best to put in two tier of purlins in the length of the rafter." In respect to the construction of roofs for coves, he has the following observations: " The use of coving a room of considerable height, is, first, the making of it much lighter than it would otherwise be, if level in the ceiling; the rays of light in a cove are reflected back again into the room, which would be otherwise lost and confused in a roof with a flat ceiling. "Likewise, all rooms with circular roofs or ceilings are more commodious and useful for entertainment, for music, &c. The angles of incidence are always equal to those of reflection; so the undulation of sounds flying on any cove or spherical part of a building, reverberate on the audience; and if spherical, no part of the sphere can receive the vibration, but it will return in the same direction from whence the undulation first began. The reflecting rays of light, and the reverberation of sounds, proceed from the same cause, and from incidents naturally affecting the eye and the ear." It may be proper here to state, that though the reflection of sound is analagous to that of the rays of light, the laws and modifications by which sound is propagated to the ear, are less perfectly understood: it may, however, be observed, that in vaulted apartments, it is necessary to reduce the pitch ef the voice, and to speak slowly and distinctly. The best writers recommend the ceilings of theatres to be arched, as has been practised in some of the most distinguished edifices of this kind in Europe. This author likewise gives the method of finding the length of hips, both with and without a plan, as shown by Godfrey Richards, at the end of his Translation of the First Book of Palladio. The work of Mr. Smith contains, in all, thirty-three plates of carpentry, arranged in the same order as he has treated the subject. Of these, twenty are plates of roofs, some of which are tolerably good examples, and at the end are five plates of timber bridges. His methods of joining-work are shown in the following descriptions and their corresponding diagrams. Plate IV. shows his method of cocking beams down upon the wall-plates; Figure 1, by two dovetails, and Figure 2, by three dovetails. Dovetailing is a very bad method at the best; for, when the taper is small, the shrinking of the timber allows the beam to be drawn out of the socket in proportion to the quantity to which it is reduced in its breadth. The fewer the number of dovetails in the breadth, the weaker will the end of the beam be, or otherwise they must hvae less taper; and if the number of dovetails are increased, the parts of them formed on the end of the beam will be apt to split off. But, in modern Carpentry, the beam can never be drawn fiom the wall-plate, as the abutting parts are in a plane perpendicular to the length of the beams. Figure 3, shows his method of framing wall-plates at the angles, with the diagonal and dragon pieces, where all the timbers appear to be let in flush with each other. This mode is much inferior to the present practice, where both the 12 angle-tie and dragon-piece are fixed above the plates, which position not only allows a much firmer hold one to another, but also a much better support for the hip-rafter to stand upon. Figure 4, represents four different methods, shown by him, for naked flooring. "The first method of framing is that marked A, where the joists are framed flush with the top of the girder; the two cross joists, marked a and b, are called trimming-joists; that marked a is supposed to come against a chimney; that marked b is the stairs." Here he shows that the joists a and b, should be thicker than the common joists, because of the mortising; but with equal reason he should have allowed the joists c, d, e, into which the joists a and b are framed, to have also been stronger; for one mortise in the middle of a beam will weaken the beam as much as if it had been cut full of mortises. He gives no name to the joists c, d, e, which should have been named, in order to transfer the idea from one to another, without circumlocution, or having recourse to description. His next manner of fiaming floors is that shown at B. " The six joists marked b are the binding-joists framed flush with the under side of the girder, and about three or four inches below the top of the girder, to receive the bridgings, which are those marked m in the floor, and which lie across the binding-joists," at c. In the other compartment, D, are shown the ceiling-joists, n, the bridgings being supposed to be removed for the purpose of showing them. Fiqaures 5, 6, 7, 8, he says, show the manner of tenoning the binding-joists, the tenons being generally made double. Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, he observes, are common tenoning, which seems to imply a less sufficient method than the former. These last four examples, with the single tenons on the end of each, are much to be preferred to the double ones on the ends of Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, which are not only difficult to execute, but are calculated to weaken the mortised piece, which is to receive them, by the slanting shoulders of the tenons; his observation is the very reverse of what is now asserted, as he observes, in page 17 of his work, "the strongest way being double tenanting and tusking, as is shown in the binding-joists." Figures 13, 14, 15, and 16, are exhibited in the third plate of his work, but he does not describe them; we suppose them to show the method of lengthening beams. The two methods, Figures 15 and 16, are extravagant ideas, being not only difficult to execute, but weak as a tie, and incapable of making a sufficient resistance to a longitudinal strain. Figures 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, are various methods which he shows for trussing girders. He observes, that the trussing pieces or cores are let half into each flitch, and the scantlings of these pieces to be about 41 or 5 inches wide, and 4 inches thick. Figure 18, he says, "is another way, which is by cutting the girder through, and driving a wedge against the ends of the trusses, as the wedge d; when these are thus prepared, bolt them together with iron bolts and keys, or, much rather, a screw at the end of the bolt." This method, though not the best, is certainly a tolerable approximation to what may be called good. He does not mention how the pieces a, a, are to be tightened in Figure 17. He observes, that " some in trussing girders, make use of other trusses," as in Figures 20 and 21. These hardly deserve comment, being the weakest forms that can be coneeived. The trussed girders, represented by Figures 24 and 25, he claims as his invention, with one inverted arch, which he proposes to be of iron. Nothing could be more unmeaning than these examples. The observation which he makes in respect to Figure 24, is void of principle, and contrary to mechanical strength; i 4 __ __ ___ -- ' I- — ill-LIIII —~~ll~ll111~3~1~111111 rrrrll- -- --- r — I CAR 90 CAR CA 90 CA his words are, " The upper arched one I take to be of great strength, though the trusses are inverted; for the pressure being upon an arch whose butment is good, I think a great weight can no way occasion the bending of the girder." We come now to the British Carpenter. Though Mr. Price's order of treating his work is not so regular as the method adopted by Smith, his descriptions and observations are very correct; and, with the exception of a few references, there is hardly anything wrong. This author begins with the scarfing of beams, as represented in Plate V. of our Work, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6. IIe says that the methods shown by the diagrams 3, 4, 5, 6, are the strongest; perhaps in consequence of their being tabled into one another; and that represented by Figure 6, has this property, that the pieces may be put together without any waste at the ends; he observes, that it is not his intention to limit the lengths of these scarfings, but only to show the manner of tabling the pieces together: he might also have said, that though nothing determinate with regard to the lengths of scarfings could be done, the greater the extent of the joint in the direction of the fibres of the beam, the more will it be disposed to resist separation, though there will be a greater waste of timber. Those represented by Price are much superior to those in Smith's work. He then describes the method of trussing girders of greater extent than 24 feet, as we have shown in Figures 7 and 8; and proposes that the pieces which are to constitute the core be made of good dry straight-grained English oak, 4 inches by 3, or 6 by 4, as the strength may require, and let half into each piece; the pieces of the core being inserted in the one half, so as to abut firmly at the ends, and the two flitches put together so that the internal braces may abut firmly at the ends of the other flitch, and then bolted together, will complete the girder; he prefers that of Figure 8, to Figure 7, as being divided into three parts, it raises the pitch of the braces, and though the middle part is left untrussed, it may be looked upon as an inflexible solid, as the proportion of the breadth to the length is reduced much nearer to a ratio of equality than the dimensions of the whole beam, the depth being the same in both cases. The flitches, he observes, may be mortised through at the lower end of each truss, and the core tightened by wedges driven therein. Girders constructed in the manner of these two examples are much better calculated to perform their office, than those before given by Smith, which are void of every principle of mechanical science. This author then speaks of the method taught by Alberti, as follows: —' Take two pieces or flitches, being well dried, and turn the but end of the one to the top end of the other, without trussing at all, and bolt or screw them together." Mr. Price then proceeds to the various joints in roofing, as in Figure 9, which represents the junctions of the struts and principals with a king-post. Figure 10, is another mode, which he uses where the breadth of the bottom of the truss-post will not allow a rightangled abutment to the direction of the strut: he makes the angle on the end of the tenon, with good reason, equal to the angle made by the shoulder, but on the contrary side, so that the two abutments may contract each other's efforts in moving the strut up or down on the side of the said post. Figure 11, represents his method of forming the end of the tie beam and lower end of the principal, so as to form a joint with double mortise and tenon, which, he says, presents greater resistance than when made with single mortise and tenon. Figure 12.-No. 1 and 2, show the proportion which the mortise or tenon ought to have to the breadth of the stuff, either for the joints of roofs or truss partitions, by making the tenon or the mortise one-fourth of the breadth of the whole, and keeping the mortise and tenon in the middle. Figure 13. No. 1 and 2, another mode for the same purpose, not much in request at the present time. Figure 14. No. 1 and 2, the manner of joining the bindingjoists and girders in floors, the same as used in the present time, with a tusk or sloping shoulder, and the double resistance or butment. Figure 15. "No. 1 is called a bridging-floor, as being framed with a binding or strong joist in every three or four feet distance, and flush to the bottom of the girder, so that when the house is covered in, you pin down your bridgings thereon, and flush with the top of your girder; and this is the best way of carcase-flooring." The section of this floor taken transversely across the binding-joists is shown at No. 2, Figure 15. Mr. Price observes, that the best way to lay girders, " is not to lay them over doors or windows, nor too near chimneys; and, at the same time, to have the boards lie all one way;" and hence the oblique position of the girder, as here represented, is occasioned by the fireplace. Figure 16. No. 1, a carcase-floor with single joists, or without bridging-joists. These are framed flush with the top of the girder, " and have every third or fourth joist the depth of the girder, and those between more shallow." No. 2 shows the ends of the joists, and the ceiling-joists fiamed into the deep joists. No. 3, the sides of the deep joists, with the pulley-mortises, in order to receive the ceiling-joists. Mr. Price then proceeds to lay down the sides of roofs in piano, and shows the backings of the hips in the same manner as has been detailed by Godfrey Richards in the former part of this article, according to Pope's principle. We shall here transcribe one of his examples, in which he attempts to show, for the first time, a method for finding the joints of purlins upon hip-rafters: his process, which is as follows, is tedious; his diagram and explanation are both obscure and defective, but show some novelty of form and geometrical skill in lines. "Admit the plan (Plate VI., Figure 1, No. 1) was required to be enclosed with a hipped roof: first, find the middle of it, as f; then draw the bases of your several hips, as a.f, b f cf, df, and ef; resolve on some pitch or height, as in No. 2, atfg; to this section bring all the bases of your respective hips, as the letters of reference show; this gives you the length of each respective hip; therefore, from the section No. 2, you describe the skirts round the plan No. 1, as a bg, b c g, c dg, de g, and e a g, which form the roof required. "To find the back of any hip, do thus: Draw a line at pleasure, crossing the base of the hips at right angles, as the line h i, which crosses the base of the hip cf; observe where it passes through the sides of the plan; on the base line of this hip, raise its section from No. 1, as c gf; lastly, place one foot of your compasses in the intersection, as at y; open the other foot, till it touch the hip c g at its nearest distance; draw a small section till it cross the base, as at k; so is h k k i the back of that hip; and is the most exact, and easiest method that ever was deliveredfor this purpose; the shadowed part, o, is the section of the supposed timber the hip is shaped out of, being cut off at right angles with its side and back. What is said of this explains the hip a f, whose back is I m n, and its section P is shaped so as to have the purlin come square against it; the letters of reference show the rest." " To find the side joint of a purlin (in case the hip be not shaped as above) so as to cut it by a templet, supposing there be no room, or occasion to frame it into the hip.-For example, take any two hips from the plan No. 1, as efand I -- I -. -I. - -I - - -- - V IAJRJi IE aIM~Y. P147wI V. r-j r V ,, PL#.5., I I FZ. 3. F6. I. F1?9.4. Lt-j L- L —i Fig.7. Al.'O-Z. 1 2. I I FI1-7-N-" I -- 0 w mm I II II I II I I II II I.Fz:q. 9"II II I I I II I f.I I i II II 'l-Z -f)q. -11 " I Ij Fz;ql2-2Vj...1 II II I - I I I I i I -1 FZ 13. A7111,, w IR,l 3 Jr,2. 4 N 10-7, I ~ IzJ~V2 ULJU L-oI UIII IZ 91 1 h- if4 H I -I 4 I-9 F H It J'g l6V0L, I I I I I I I I I I.Dra,rn,. 6yvpjt-&lsart "~f9GL~. -Eny - Iy. A. YUw,, .9 729 Am' 2. & e r PLA4TE;I. 5. T J'@z V 4 0I Np'4.V3 _Fi.. 2. T I;~ ~ I s: -1 - - -- - - - - - - I TZ. 4. I a I -I I I Fig. 5. II I I I I Il I I I I I I IrnzI I Azm-ILI1r I I ILI ', ~ /........... / bv P 1"Ibe i' l~~Aolr~on-. Z ------ --— y —T —w....... Z"W dY? _Th?w CAR 91 CAR CAR 9~1CA a f which to keep from conflsion is transferred as to No. 3, and adlmit the plan of the purlin to be o p; first, raise the sections of the hips fromn No. 2, as efg and a fg, as the letters show; then raise perpendiculars at o and p to the back of the hips, as o q and p r; lastly, draw a line from the point q, and at right angles from the back of the hip e g (as it is so near to a square, or else it should be drawn from the back of a rafter standing at right angles with the sides of the plan) observe where it cuts the base line, as at s; draw the line s t parallel to the purlin: lastly, draw the line t r. From all which you take the tempilet Q in T (see No. 4) in the following manner: Draw the line 'u w in No. 3 at right angles from the side a e, which transfer to No. 4, as u w; take from No. 3 the distances u s and u t, and transfer them to No. 4; take also the distances x o and x p in No. 3, and transfer them to No. 4; take also the distances.s q in No. 3, and transfer to No. 4, as s o; lastly, take from No. 3 the distances t r, and transfer to No. 4, as t p; so that Q is the templet to cut the side, and the skirt e a g is the templet to cut the back. I think any farther explanation needless, because bvy a little serious inspection, the reader may see that all the lines necessary to be understood in a roof, are contained in this Plate. " That is, all the parts of a roof may be cut by templets, as these lines, and the explanations of them, do direct; and althoufigh I have shown but one example for the cutting of any puHlin that comes against a hip, as explained in I k i, (Figure 1, No. 1) I hope it will be sufficient, because the method in 1, m, n, cuts off all such difficulties, and is equally strong." In this description, he is unintelligible, vague, and erroneous: there is a certain tendency towards the principle, but he- loses sight of it.. He is negligent in directing his reader to -raise perpendiculars at o and p, the bases of the two hiprafters, instead of raising a section at right angles to the base and.to the wall-plate a e. He tells us to 'draw the line u w in s (which is here No. 3) at right angles from the side a e, which transfer to T (or No. 4) as u w;" but he makes no use of this line, which is the line on which the width of the templet should have been extended. Then he says: "Take from s (No. 3) the distances u s and u t, and transfer them to T (No. 4); take also the distances x o and x p in s (No. 3), and transfer themn to T (No. 4);" but he does not show how the distance between the lines p o and t s are obtained in T (No. 4); and thus, after a long and tedious description, he leaves the construction vague, and obtains nothing but uncertainty. We shall here complete what he has unsuccessfully attempted. Let the same plan af e be laid down at No. 5, as at No. 3; draw f w perpendicular, and f g parallel to a e; make f g equal to the height of the roof; and join g iv; let p o be the place of the purlin, parallel to a e, meeting the bases of the hips at o and p; produce p o to meet w g at q; draw q u perpendicular to w g, meeting f w at u; parallel to a e, draw t u s, meeting the basesf a andfe of the hips at t and s. In No. 6, draw u x, which make equal to u q, No. 5; draw T u s and P x o perpendicular to u x; make u s, u T, x o, x P, respectively to u s, u t, x o, x p, and join T P and s o; then P o s T is the templet required, or any parallel portion of its breadth. The reader will observe that this is found by much fewer lines; and there is no occasion for raising the sections of the hips, but ofly the section of the rafter at right angles to the wall-plate. No. 7 is another invention of the author of this Dictionary, founded upon the same principle as No. 5 and 6; but the construction is confined to one diagram, thus: Let A B c be the seat of the part of the roof; describe the section c d e as before: draw c f perpendicular to d e, cutting d e in f; from c d cut of c g equal to c f; parallel to A B draw k f; cutting A c and B c in k and 1; likewise draw h i parallel to A B; perpendicular to k 1 draw k m and I a, cutting h i at m and n; and join c m and c n; then will the angles at m and n of the triangle c m A be those required for forming the end of the purlin, in order to form a junction with the hip-rafter. We now return to Mr. Price, who, in laying down the fiaming of roofs in plano, or in ledgement, begins thus: " Every man who frames roofs, does first piece his plates, cock or dovetail down his beams on the said plates, and prepare pieces on which his hips are to stand; as appears in this plan Q, at Y and z." (See Figure 2.) " Then he frames his principals, as R, and likewise his hips, as s, into pieces prepared for them to stand on; and although all these respectively are framed for the generality on the floor, and when in practice is the best way, they are here placed by themselves to avoid confusion. " I hope the pricked lines are enough to show that the skirts T, v, w, x, are laid out agreeably to the plan Q; and in which are shown that one purlin lies above the strut, and the other below it; for if they were all to lie in a right line, in the first place it cuts the stuff to pieces. so as to weaken it still more, and at the same time you lose your pinning. " Here is shown a method to turn up your hips without backing at all; and is thus: your hips being first framed into the pieces they are to stand on, take a broad board, or small panel, lay it on the place where your respective hip stands, and there mortise it as if it was your beam; cut off the corners of it, so as to make its angles agreeable to your plan, whether square or bevel; lastly, when you come to turn up your hip in framing the skirts, slip this mould, as Y, upon the tenon at the foot of your hip, and then give it a tack with a nail, and the angles of that board will turn up a hip as desired, and is far preferable to any other method whatever. " But because sometimes buildings must be level, and necessity requires the beams to be laid so, to miss some chimney or window; therefore let A (Figure 3) represent a bevel plan, whose beams also lie bevel at the time of framing; and that is just as much as half the beam that the rafter stands on; the skirts B, c, D, E, are the same way shown as before. " I hope it will not be taken ill, my saying that a man must be deprived of sense, who would run into almost endless trouble of cutting his timbers all bevel, unless some unavoidable necessity require it, but rather use the method I propose in plate E." (That is, Figure 2 of this article.) The method of laying roofs in plano is first shown by Price. It seems to have been much practised in his time, and indeed till lately; but to perform the work in this way, requires the most ample space, and the utmost care of the carpenter in placing his timbers; without this it will be difficult to bring the work together with exactness. In the present practice, the timbers may be all cut to their lengths and angles before they are applied to their places, and then they may be fitted together on the ground before they are raised on the building. In roofing, his rules for finding the pitch of the rafters for different coverings, are these (page 15 of his work): " A leaden covering requires the height two-eighths or onefourth of the breadth of the beam; a pantile covering, threeeighths; and plain tiles, four-eighths or one-half, which brings the vertical angle of the roof to a square." But in the following plate, H, of his work, he is not very consistent; he delivers different rules, which are to the -1 __ -I-.: i i i ' --- ~- I -- --- -- -i CAR 92 CAR CA 92_ CAR ___ _ following purpose: divide the breadth into six equal parts for pantiles, into seven for slates, and into eight for plain tiles; then in each of these the whole number, wanting two, will be the height of the roof; that is, pantile 4, slates, and plain tiles A, of the breadth of the beam." The following observations, with respect to the trusses of roofs, are very judicious: " That the less in number the divisions or pieces are, that compose each truss, the stronger it is; for even the shrinking of the wood will let a well-framed truss sag or drop in process of time; for which reason I cannot help recommending English oak, particularly for king-posts." He recommends square bolts in preference to round ones; " for this reason: if you use a round bolt, it must follow the auger, and cannot be helped; by this helping the auger-hole, that is, taking off the corners of the wood, you may draw a strap exceedingly close, and at the same time it embraces the grain of the wood in a much firmer manner than a round one can possibly do." With respect to strapping, he observes: " If it be objected that there is too much trust reposed on the iron-work, may it not be asked, if any common strap at the bottom of a king-post was ever known to break by continual pressure? Witness the straps in a theatre, to which is fixed a prodigious weight." With respect to timlers, he says, "If purlins are used, they ought to be agreeable in number to their supports;" " but if bridged, need not be regarded." The following designs, which he shows for the fronts of buildings, which are required to have the ground story open, and supported with story-posts, may be useful to some: " In Figure 4, is shown the manner of a timber front, supposed to be open underneath, in form of an arcade. And for such open fronts, the foundation should be laid on reversed arches, which will strengthen it very much; by this means, the ground bears between one post or pillar and the other, as well as under the same. If on it you would have brickwork, or even stone, then support the bressuminer, as is shown in Figure 5, which manner of framing renders it as strong between the posts or pillars as it is directly on the same, and this seems sufficient to explain proper bearings for partitions." Mr. Price then proceeds to circular domes, and in their construction shows, for the first time, how the purlins are to be squared; his description is as follows: " Of what has hitherto been described, nothing appears so beautiful when done, as domes or circular roofs; and, as far as I can perceive, nothing has appeared so difficult in doing, therefore it will be proper to speak something of them." Plate VII. Figure 1.-" Let B represent a plan, in which let 6, b, b, be the plate on the supposed wall; and let c, c, c, be the kirb on which stands a lantern, or cupola; also let a, a, a, represent the principal ribs. L From the plan B make the section A; in which the kirb or plate b should be in two thicknesses; as also that of c; by which it is made stronger; and indeed the principal ribs would be much better to be in two thicknesses. The best timber for this use is English oak; because abundance of that naturally grows crooked. As to the curve or sweep of this dome A, it is a semicircle; although in that point, every one may use his pleasure; and in it are described the purlins d, e, from which perpendiculars are dropped to the plan B; so thatf is the mould the lower purlins are to be cut out by, before they are shaped or squared for use; and that ofg is the mould for the upper purlins. I rather show it with purlins, because under this head may be shown the manner of framing circular roofs in form of a cone. " To shape these purlins, observe, in A, as at d and e, they are so squared, that the joints of the supposed small ribs are equal. Observe, as at e, the corners of the purlin, from which the perpendiculars are let fall to the plan B. So that your purlin being first cut out to the thickness required, as appears in e, and also to the sweep f; so that k is the mould for the bottom, and I the mould for the top; by which, and the lines for the corners of the said purlin e, the same may be truly shaped and squared. " N.B. This particular ought to be well digested, it being a principal observation in a circular roof: " From the purlin d, in the section A, perpendiculars are dropped to the plan B; in which it appears that h is the mould for the top, and i the mould for the bottom; so may this be squared, which completes the performance. As to other particulars, due inspection will explain them. If any should say, a dome cannot be done so safe without a cavity as usual, let them view St. Stephen's, Walbrook, Stock's-market, built by that great architect, Sir Christopher Wren." He then shows the method of covering polygonal buildings: Plate VII. Figure 2. " Let A be the plan, the upper part of which is half an octagon. It is observable that a circular roof, as B, should extend no farther than the upright of its support, and there made so as to carry off the water; whereas an ogee roof, as c, may extend to the extremity of the cornice, without injury to its strength, or offence to the eye of the most curious: also, a hollow roof, as D, may extend to the extremity of the cornice. ' It appears to me, that many angles of a cupola give it beauty; therefore the sweep E (Figure 2) is a regular curve, the base line I k being taken from the angle of the octagon in the plan A, as at I k. This curve, E, is divided into a number of equal parts, in order to trace the common rib, F, from the said angular rib, E: observe, in A, the base of the common rib, f 1, which is placed in F, as from I to f; continue the perpendicular, 1, at pleasure; take the base I k in E, on which are the perpendiculars dropped from the curve, and observe to place that distance, k I in E, fromf in F, to any part where it cuts the perpendicular I in F, as at m; from these divisions raise perpendiculars, so by continuing the base lines from the divisions in E, to these perpendiculars in F, their intersection or meeting is a curve, or sweep, exactly agreeable, and which, indeed, may serve as a standard rule to trace any moulding whatever. " To back the said angle-bracket, D, observe to describe the thickness of it on your plan, as in A at k, which shows how much your mould must be shifted, as may appear in D. This also may be observed to be a general rule for the backing of any bracket." These methods are certainly founded on truth, but his diagrams are not laid down in the most obvious way; being so scattered as not only to be tiresome to the eye, but to occasion also a long and tedious description. He then proceeds with the centerings of groins, as follows: Figulre 3. " Let A be the plan of a vault to be centered for groins. At a, b, c, (, are piers, generally prepared in with the foundation, which bear the weight of the brickwork. First, resolve on the curve you would have, as d e c, being a semi-circle, which is shown by the section B. Begin in A at d e c; centre through as it were a common vault, and board it; which being done, to make your groin set centres, as from a to c, and from b to d, divide the curve d e c into four equal parts, as at g and f; so are g e f small centres, you will want to nail on the centres first boarded, whose place or plan is at h; these small centres may be put in at pleasure, according to the bearing of your boards, that is, as to the distance between each centre. To make your groin straight on its base, at some little height over the centres, strain a line from b to c, _ __ __ I ~I __ I~ I _;~ rCrCe C **~ILC *C*CY* -rrriu VARYET7R-Y - PLIT-E. Wij Y~. Z ---------------------- Crew, 2. II II - - -- ---- - - - - -- --- Yqv,3. Fig S POIRM I J'i-9.44. ~9 4 - lll~ -v~i' A Ti9 5 I -- L (7 - Draw,,- ~41fiT,-ehobon /In2 >2 1 l E ---. I2 I I 1\ F - - I - I- -- I I I X\ I — ) ',z L- I Q% T?,i (Z,,- Z V-) 4-G, I ll-, 11 Q, -) I F- I Li I Ill C,-7-T I I I j I —, --- I I, I I -_ --- ---------- --------- ------- --- - / / 11 i I ~~ i I i I II I /.\ N 111 lilt Al 'Ill' liii <1 I. i I I I '1 PD4, \ 'MN I 0\\, 4 I I;I I I i I I p I i I I i I I, I -1 - I I I I I i i i I *1 = 09 I I I -— I 7, - i i I I X. \R, Im, i — l +2 K N 2>. 4 - ee ~ ~e ee ~ ~ ~ e ~~ ~ a _ 1_111_ __C A R CAR 99 CAR CA 99 Figure 3, "represents the section of a girder; 6b, &c., parts of two binding-joists, tenoned into the girder; a a, &c., the ends of bridging-joists; e e, boarding on the bridgings; d d, &c., mortises in the binding-joists to receive the tenons of the ceiling-joists; as also the mortises b c, b c, &c., but these last are those which are called pulley-mortises, into \ which the ceiling-joists are s'lid. To understand this more plainly, (see Figure 4,) the figures f J ff are added, which represent the sections of so many binding-joists; gy, &c., the sections of small joists between them; x x, a side view of a bridgingjoist; A h h, ceiling-joists tenoned into the binding-joists, fllsh with their bottoms, as aforesaid, to receive the lath land plaster." Figures 5 and 6 are parts of Figures 3 and 4, enlarged. The joists g g, in Figure 4, add considerable expense, without being of adequate service. Fiqures 7, 8, 9, 10, are scarfilgs shown in plate 50, of his work; but he takes no notice of them in the text, and indeed they are not deserving of it; we have already noticed those in Smith's work, to which these of Langley's have a near affinity. Figeure 11, represented in plate 53 of his work, is not noticed in the text, but the following words are written over the top of the figure: " A new method for trussing-beams, girders, &c., by Batty Iangley." The showinrg of such ridiculous constructions in carpentry, has certainly lessened the credit of this author, as permitting fancy to take the place ofjudgmlent, in cases where strength alone was the object. Figure 12 is his method of laying roofs in ledgement; he only differs fiom Price in this particular, that he lays all the rafter feet next to the wall-plates, whereas Price lays them the contrary way. Price's disposition is more convenient in practice, but Langley's more natural fol building up. Figures 13 and 14 are his methods of tracing anglebrackets, and are the same in principle as that shown by f-alfpenny, which was an example for a right angle. But Langley, always profuse in his figures, and pompous in his text, has not only shown the description of angle-brackets for right angles, but also for obtuse and acute angles, likewise for ovolos, cavettos, cimarectas,.lnd cima-reversas, as if the same principle (lid not apply to all forml s alike. In Figure 15, his description is as follows: "The curvatures of hip-rafters to polygonal roofs, that is, those whose plans are polygons, are also found by transposing the ordinates of a principal rafter (which must be given) upon the base of a hip-rafter. " Suppose in" (Figure 15) ' a d to be the base, over which the cavetto principal rafter c d, is to stand: and let a e be the base of a hip-rafter: divide a (d ilto equal parts, and draw the ordinates 2, 1; 4, 3, &c., on the line a d; divide a e in the saml e manner as a l(, and on the line a e draw the ordinates 1, 2; 3 4; 5, &c., and fromn the point b, through the points 2, 4, 6, 8, &c., trace the curve o.f the hip-rafter, as required." This (disposition of confininng the parts into one connected diagraml is more obvious to learners than Mr. Price's, but even this of Langley's is not shown to the utmnost advantage; for why divide the bases into equal parts, as this equality causes the curvature of the ribs and the curving sides of the covering to be divided unequally? Though the covering is shown in the figure, he has given no description of it in the text. Figture 16, shows his method of covering niches or domes, explained as follows: " Let a f c be the plan of the head of a semi-circular niche, and complete the circle a f c d. Draw the diameters a c and d bfcontinued out towards e at plea sure. Make f r and f s each equal to one-fourth of a f; then r s will be equal to half a f, and draw the lines r b and s b, divide b d into any number of equal parts, and draw the ordinates 1, 8; 2, 9; 3, 10, &c., and on the points where those ordinates cut the semi-diameter b d, with the radius of each semi-ordinate, describe semri-circles, as the dotted semi-circles in the figure. Make e f equal to the curve a f; make f p equal to a 1; fo equal to a 2; f equal to a 3; f n equal to a 4; f equal to a 5; fk equal to a 6; and f g equal to a 7. On the point e describe the arches 13,14; 11, 12; 9,10; &c. Bisect the half part of each of the dotted semi-circles, as fc in one; 1, 8, in two; 3, 9, in four; 5, 10, in six; 7,11, in eight; 9, 12, in ten; 11, 13, in twelve; and 13, 14, in fourteen; make f h and f g each equal to half the arch f i; p 1 and p 2 each equal to half the arch 1, 2; o 3, o 4, each equal to half the arch 3, 4; and so, in like manner, n 5 and n 6, to the half arch 5, 6, &c. From the point e, through the points 12, 11, 9, 7, &c., and 14,12, 10, &c., trace the curves e h and e g; then four such pieces as e y h will cover the head of the niche, as required." This is certainly a very tiresome method, as each of the semi-circles must be divided into equal parts; but why divide each quadrant into two, which he has directed? as the more the parts, the truer the covering will be. If the arches a d and c d had been divided into equal parts, the covering could have been traced with more exactness, as there is a very long space beginning with the point e, without any guide, and is as much as the three lower spaces taken together: an equality of the parts in a d and c d would have been productive of the parts e g, g A', k- l, &c., also equal to each other, and consequently the distances of the points in the curves e Ah and e g, though not exactly equal, would have been nearly so. The description givel by Mr. Price for the covering of domes, is defective; but his aim was at a much mrore convenient method than this of Langley's, which requires ample space, and is very troublesome and tedious in practice, without obtain ig any greater accuracy. The reader must observe, that in strictness of principle, no flat surface, however thin, can be made to comply with a spheric surface; yet if con — paratively a very small portion of the flat surface be taken, it may be made so nearly to coincide with the spheric, as not to be detected by the eye, which is as near as we ever need in practice; and thus the narrower the board, the more nearly will its surface comply with the spheric surface; but as we shall have occasion to speak of this in another place, we shall leave it for the present, and proceed to show his methods of finding the coverings of solids. EFiure 17, "represents the manner of covering the outside of a cone; the arch e a being made equal to the circumference e, which is equal to the base of the cone: this figure is exhibited here to show, that the soffits of a semi-circular headed window, whose splay is continued all round, is no more than the lower superfices of a semi-cone; for if the splay were continued, it would meet in a point." In this respect he is right; but no covering can be more easy to conceive, except that of a right cylinder. The method of covering an oblique cylinder he never could obtain, as the edges which should coincide with the elliptic sections are all exhibited in straight lines. See Plate 74, at the end of his Builder's Cobmplete Assistant; neither has he ever been able to obtain the covering of the ungula of a right coue, or of its complement when cut to produce an elliptic section, so that the edge of his covering may coincide with the said elliptic section, and its surface with the curved surface of the cone. Fi qure 1I. " The superficies of these frustrums are 1aid out I CA 10 C A i_1_~__ _ CAR N 100 C A R as follows." " On a describe the arch c m 1, &c. e equal to the circumference of the base of the cone, which divide into eight equal parts, at the points im, 1, k, i, &c. and draw the lines a m, a 1, a k, &c. Draw b 1, parallel to d c, and divide i c into four equal parts. Make a 5, a 11. each equal to a 4; make a 6, a 10, each equal to a 3; make a 7, a 9, each equal to a 2; make a 8 equal to a 1. Through tie points 11, 10, 9, 8, and 7, 6, 5, trace the curves e 8 and 8 c; then the figure c 8 e i c is the superficies of the side." What has the division of the line i c to do with the principle? This equality is not foinded upon any part of the construction of the solid, and consequently the method can never obtain a true cover or envelope; indeed, it is so void of science as not to deserve any farther notice. In the next place, he attempts to find the envelope of a part of a semicuneoid, contained between two concentric cylindric surfaces, or of the covering or lining of the soffit of a window turned upon a centre, which has either an elliptic or circular section, everywhere parallel to its end, and to coincide with the superficies of a circular wall, or the head of an aperture splaying on the sides, and level at the crown. But are we now to expect that this will be accomplished, unless by accident, when he has already failed in obtaining methods for the description of much more simple envelopes, viz. for cylinders and cones cut obliquely? The reader will, however, attend to his description, which is as follows, and then judge for himself. The descriptions of the following diagrams are equally deficient in method, and void of principle: his diagrams, also, are full of redundant lines. Ie begins the text without announcing the purpose of the operation, so that the reader must be kept in the dark till the conclusion. Plate X. Figulre 1. " Of straight, circular, and elliptical arches in circular walls.-The first work to be done, is the making of the centres, to turn these kinds of arches upon, which may be thus performed: Let G n I K be the plan of a circular building, and at Figure 6, it is required to make a centre for a semi-circular arch to the window, whose diameter without is a d, and within i mn. Bisect a d in f, and describe the semi-circle ap d. Divide a d into any number of equal parts at the points 6, 4, 2, &c. and draw the ordinates 6 6; 4, 4; 2, 2, &c. Divide n in into the same number of equal parts, and make the ordinates 6, 5; 4, 3; 2, 1, &c. equal to the ordinates 6, 6; 4, 4; 2, 2, &e. and through the points 5, 3, 1, k, &c. trace the curve n k m, then a p d and n k n will be the two ribs for the centre: this being done, place the ribs perpendicular over the lines a d and n m, and cover them, as centres usually are, and then, applying the edge of a plumb-rule to the divers parts of the inside and outside of the window's bottom, the top of the rule will give the several points at which the inside and outside of the covering is to be cut off, so as to stand exactly over the inside and outside of the building, and then the centre will be completed as required." It is hardly possible to conceive anything so unscientific as this description. In describing and forming the centre for the head of the required aperture, he is accurate; but when we are told to apply "the edge of a plumb-rule to the divers parts of the inside and outside of the window's bottom," and that " the top of the rule will give the several points at which the inside and outside of the covering are to be cut off, so as to stand exactly over the inside and outside of the building; and" that" the centre will be completed as required," he is altogether intolerable; for besides being tedious to an extreme, it is no more than every nmechanic could have easily conceived. In forming the centre, it would be better to form the inside curve with a trammel, which would obviate the tedious work of dividing the base of each curve into equal parts, as well as the transferring of the ordinates of the semicircle to those of the ellipses, anld then, at last, either tracing the elliptic curve by hand, or bending a thin slip of wood round pins or nails stuck in the points. At all events, even in the operation of tracing, the dividing of the bases into equal parts is a very bad practice, as it always leaves so large and so quick a portion of the curve at each extrem-ity to be guessed at; but here it is admissible, on account of the following diagrams coniected therewith. l' To divide the courses in the arch of this 'window.-On a flat panel, &c. draw a line, as b e, in Figure 7, make a f o equal to the curve a c d, also make a b and o e each equal to the intended height of the brick arch. Make fp, in FigYure 7, equal to f p, inl Figuxre 6; also make a b and o e, in Figure 7, each equal to b c, in Figure 6; then the points b and e will be the extremes of the arch. Make p r, in Figeure 7, equal to b a, the given height of the arch, and through the points b r e and a p o describe two semi-ellipses, which divide into courses as before taught, and which will be the face of the arch required." This operation produces nothing, as he does not show its application to practice, in the formation of the stones or bricks to their proper shapes. ' To find the anqles or bevels of the under part of each course.-Continue the splay backs of the window mn d and *n a until they meet in F. On F, with the radius F ni and F a, describe the arches n y v and af s, making n, y v equal to the girt of the arch a k m. Make t 6, n 4, n 2, t y, &c. on the arch n y v, equal to n 6, n 4, n 2, n y, &c. on the curve n k m, and draw the lines 6 F, 4 F. 2 F, y F, &c. Make the ordinates 6, 5; 4, 3; 2, 1; y x, &c. on the lines 6 F, 4 F, &c. equal to the ordinates 5, 6; 3, 4; 1, 2; h i, &c. on the line?n m and through the points 5, 3, 1,., &c. trace the curve v x n. In the same manner transfer the ordinates 5, 6; 3, 4; 1, 2; c f, &c. on the line a d to the arch sf a, as fiom 5 to 6, from 4 to 3. &c. and trace the curve s c a; and then will the figure n x v s c a be the soffito of the window laid out, and which being divided into the same number of equal parts, as the under part of the arch a p o, Figure 7, and lines drawn to the centre F, as is done in Figure 2, to the centre A, by the line 2, 2, 2, &c. those lines will give the bevel of every course in soffito, as required." Here is an attempt to find the lining or envelope of a cuneoid or cono-cuneus, in a circular wall, for the soffits of the stones or bricks; and had he succeeded, his endeavours would have been so far right: but the method which he follows has no relation to the construction of the centre itself, and is therefore extremely erroneous. Nor can the same method be applied to the covering of a cone, though the affinity or relation is much nearer in the latter solid than in the former, and, consequently, the envelope here found would cover a cone more nearly than the surface of a cuneoid. But, indeed, though very near approaches have been made to the cuneoidal surface, its determinate figure has never been exactly shown on a plane: however, the geometrical construction may be laid out on the surface of the solid itself, and all curves, corresponding to given ones on the plan, found with the utmost accuracy. The other parts of Figure7, are not described in the text, but seem to contain lines without meaning. The following is all that is said of Figures 1, 2, 4, and 5: Fiigure 5 " is another example of a semi-elliptical arch, whose front is Figure 2. Also Figure 4, is a third example of a scheme arch, whose fiont is Figure 8. And Figure 1, is a fourth example of a straight arch, which, in general, are performed by the aforesaid rule." ICCI I (V k1 A~ -R iN"-" -7 -iPJJTE X. q p- d6 - Ariiq '4v P r/uew.. CAMP ETTTRY PLATASS I/ze, Sp&lcmn, og~~hn.z of Beoam4 otrpbxiaedFI.; iN!U.2 - ~ j 03 A F 0o. 1i B 2 ''.. A 3 c -V,'',7...,~ —....~..~ itz. 2JV 1. As X.f2 z................. f...,.. Ih j. a. *' a 1; * - I I -I . j I I c p Mn -F7-g. S..q ---------------, " I A,! "; 11 11 f 7 1 w 0 F.. a8. TZB 9 Dtrf wnt by~ P-Ni ch 0/,O" Ye An. Rl 77z. C1C CAR 101 CAR I __ _ _ _____ _ _ _ _ _ Here the text is unintelligible, and the discovery of the principles, by inspection, still more so. Passing fiom the The 'Builder's Complete Assistant, we come next to The Builder's and Workman's Treasury of Designs, by the same Author. The portion of this work which treats of carpentry, is contained in an appendix at the end, consisting, of fourteen plates. In Plate XI. Figures 1 and 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3, of each Figure, are shown two methods of lengthening beams: but there is no other description than what is exhibited at the top of the plate, viz., " The splicing or lengthening of beams explained." The two pieces are tabled together, by a very different method to what any former author has exhibited. The tables are concealed, showing on the outside, when bolted together, as in No. 3 of each Figure, an oblique continued joint. The construction is ingenious, as it prevents their separation without breaking the tables by a longitudinal strain; but the difficulty of fitting theln together with accuracy, and the tedious process. renders them unfit for practice. Langley's Geometrical Principles of Roofing are similar to those of the preceding author; but for the sake of showing the terlms applicable to different purposes, and his method of treating the subject, we shall extract a few of his descriptions: a b c d (Figulfre 3) plan of the raising; ef the central line; in,, o, base lines of the outward principals, a g, g c, h, hi d, base lines of the hips; g h base of the ridge; k n base line of the middle pair of principals; e g, hf, base lines of the single principals, which meet the hips in the points g h; i k, m n o, dovetail mortises in the raising, to receive the dovetails or cauks 1, 2, 3, of the beams ABc; (Figure 10) p p, dovetail mortises to receive the angle-braces, as p, p,. Fig.ure 4. D, a cauk or dovetail at large; E, the dovetail-mortises in the raising, to receive the dovetail or cauk D." Figyure 4. "a b c d, plan of the raising; fg, fg, fg, beams cauked down on the raising; p p, p p, &c., angle-braces cauked down in like manner; a e, b e, c e, de, dragon-pieces to receive the feet of the hip-rafters; a h, b h, c h, d h, hiprafters; a h k, the angle at the top; and h a k the angle of the foot of the hip a h." Figure 5. ' To find the angle of a hip in any regtular or irregular btilding. —RuLE. On any part of its base line, as c, draw a right line at right angles, asfg; set up the hip, as h b, and from c draw c d perpendicular to the hip h b; make c e equal to c d, and draw the lines fe, eg; then the angle fe g is the angle of the back required." These descriptions are tolerably clear; the technical terms used by him, are raisinlg, base-line, hips, back of thle hip, principals, dovetail-mortises, cauks, angle-braces, and dragonpieces. Raising is used by Moxon, in his Mfechanical Exercises, but is vaguely defined by that author; base-lines, hips, back (f tthe hip, and principal rafters, are, used by Godfiey Richards, in his Constructions of Roof.s, in finding the lengths and backings of hip-rafters. This last-mentioned author names the diagonal beams under the hips, dragon-beams; Langley calls them dragon-pieces. What Langley spells cauks, Price spells cocks. Angle-braces are not, that we have observed, named by any author before Langley, who also names jack-rafters, in Plate 5, of his Builder's and Workman',s T reasury. There is a work, not mentioned in the list of authors, by Edward Oakley, Architect, which, in point of priority, ought to have stood even before Smith's Carpenter's Companion, it being dated in the title-page 1730: another work was likewise published by Edward Hoppus, Surveyor, the second edition of which, as appears from the title-page, was published I in 1738; when the first edition was published we do not know, but probably about the same time as Oakley's, or before. With respect to carpentry, these two works are nearly alike, as to the number of the problems, their order, the method of treating them, and the end intended; one seems to have been copied from the other, and the first of the two to have been taken fromn Ialfpenny's Art of Sound Building, with the exception of a problem, which is exhibited in a plate, and explained in each of these authors, for covering of the head of a niche or dome, with boards, to bend with their joints in vertical planes, passing through its axis. This problem is thus explained by Oakley: Figure 6. " To make a niche or globe, with thin boards; or to cover them with paper or pasteboard.-Admit afl (No. 1) to be the plan of a semi-circular niche; c efd (No. 2) to be the board, paper, or pasteboard, of a given width, c d or ef. Divide the semi-circle afl into equal divisions, according to the breadth of (No. 2) as a b, b c, c d, d e, e g, g h, h i, i k, and k I; draw the lines, b u, c u, d u, e u, g u, h, i u, k u, and let fall perpendiculars on the line a 1, from the points b, c, d, e, 9,, i, k. Upon the centre ut, with the intervals, m, o, r, and t, describe semi-circles; set the girt of the arch af or fl, on the board, g c, (No. 2) as c a and db, which divide into so many equal parts as there are semi-circles, as in (No. 2.) Divide (No. 2) in the midst, as by the line u w; take the arch a b, and set it equally on each side of the line itu I, as at a b; set the arch m n,, in like manner, on u iw, as at m un, and so on to t s; then by sticking in small tacks at the points a, tm, o, r, t, and zt, on the one side of u w, and at the points b, 1, p, q, and s, on the other side of u,, by applying a thin ruler fromI a to iu, and b to u, the curve lines on each side will be given, which may be described by a pencil, &c., which is the true mould for every piece in a globe or niche, which was required." Here it must be observed, that the division of the semicircle (No. 1) is erroneous; for if the quadrant af or fl be considered as a vertical section of the done, it is evident it should have been divided into the same number of parts as the length of the board (No. 2;) and the several lengths of the one equal to those of the other; but af or fl is only divided into 41 equal parts, while the board is divided into 5; which inequality causes the board to be too narrow towards the top, and to swell out too much at the bottom, as shown in the following figure. In The London Art of Building, written by Salmon, there is nothing new in construction. Iis geometrical principles of roofing are like those by Godfrey Richards; besides which, he treats of no other subject, except a few designs of roofs. The British Architect, the production of Mr. Abraham Swan, is not very abundant in curious constructions of carpentry, yet there are some ideas worthy of notice. Figure 7, No. 1, " Shows the backing of the hip." " Divide the thickness of the hip into two equal parts; then having found the pitch of your hip, as is shown in (No. 2) set one of these parts upon the base line, from b to a, and it shows what wood is to be taken off. " If the side of the building cones in with a bevel, as the dotted line lh, in (No. 1) then transfer half the thickness of the hip, fiomn d to c, in (No. 3) and take the distance fe, in (No. 1) and set it fiom c tog, in (No. 3.) This will show how much is to be taken off the hip, when the building bevels." It is strange that this author should have departed so far from Pope's scientific method, as first shown by Godfrey Richards, in order to adopt one so mechanical, more liable to inaccuracy, and less expeditious. With respect to groins, all that Swan has said on this subject, is contained in the following words: _ __ _I___ _ _ ____ _____ _ __ _ _ ______ CAR 102 CAR CA 10 CAR_ _ Figure 8, " exhibits an arch boarded over, wherein the several figures 1, 2, 3, &c., represent so many ribs, or jackrafters, set upon the circular body of the arch, in order for another arch to intersect it, where those boarded over the groins are formed." We learn nothing from this, but the manner of placing the jack-ribs on the body of the arch. Price describes the method of placing these low ribs upon the boarding, and calls them small centres; but his diagram is different, and not near so clear. In the boarding of domes with the joints in horizontal planes, Swan has shown the first ideas of the subject: Figure 9, "represents a circular body. To fJid the curve of any lath or margin to be bent round this body, parallel to its base. " Let the points b and c represent the margin which you intend to bend round; then draw a right line through these points, to meet the perpendicular or diameiter produced, as in a, and it gives the length a b the shorter, and a c the longer radius for striking the curve required." This author has nothing more of novelty in the art of carpentry. Our next author is Mr. William Pain. In his British Palladio, he shows the methods of his bracketing for coves, and plaster cornices, as follows: Plate XIl. Figure I, "D is an angle-bracket for an internal angle, which are (is) tracced by ordinates." Figure 2, ' E is an angle-bracket for a plaster cornice, at an internal angle; F, an external angle, allowing one inch for lath and plaster." The formation of angle-brackets is so easy, that a very little reflection, on inspecting the figure, will show the method adopted, without description but still something more might have been said on the practical part. From The Builder's Golden Rule, the following diagrams, with their descriptions, are taken. ' The barcking of curveline hips, and tracing theim.-Figure 3, (No. 1) is the rib of a dome, and (No. 2) is the hip traced from it. Divide the given rib (No. 1) into five parts, on the base line, and draw the ordinates 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5; then divide the base line of the hip into the same number of parts; take them from (No. 1) and set them on (No. 2); then tack in nails at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; bend a thin slip round, and mark as that curve directs, which gives the hip-mould. To back the hip, take fromn (No. 3) the plan of the hip, 1, 2, and set it on the hip at the bottom 1, 2; then shift the hip-mould to 2, and out to the top: mark it by, and that will be the wood to colie off for the backing of the hip." The practice of dividing the base of the given rib, and the base of the required rib into equal parts, was first shown by ITalfpenny, and now by ourt present author, Pain; and though the principle is true, the practice is bad, as it leaves so great a portion of the curve to be traced by the eye, where it rises from the base; and though it is not necessary that each base should be divided into equal parts, or into any series of parts which shall have a given proportion to each other, yet it would be better to divide the curve of the given rib into equal parts, then divide the base of the required rib in the same proportion; and the arcs of the required rib terminated by the upper extremities of each two ordinates, will be very nearly, if not quite, proportional; that is, the distance between the tracing points will be nearer where the curve is quickest, and where the greater number of points are most required. Figure 4, shows "the backing for a straight hip. You are to observe that the piece of wood be of the same thickness as the hips, and form of the curve, for the little part you want; then cut it to the pitch of the hip at foot, set it on the plan, and mark it by that, which will give the backing exactly; and so for any other. Or, if you draw a line parallel with the base line, and take off 1, 2, on the plan (No. 2) and set it on the said lines 1, 2, all the way up, and mark by the mould, it will give the backing in any case required, straight or curved." This general and correct principle was first noticed by Price. Figure 5. " The method of coving the angles, when there is a circle or oval in the centre of the ceiling.-Draw the centre part, touching the sides and ends; then draw another to the extreme of the angles, parallel with the centre; then draw the semicircular arch A, and from that trace the side arches n, n, and the rib c, c, c, c, which is a mould to cut all the brackets for the angles; as is plain to inspection by the lines on the plan." This principle is erroneous, and the description deficient. There is no respect paid to the elliptic base; but the brackets are traced upon the principle of angle-brackets. The sections of any body must defend upon the construction of that body, or upon its properties; thus, if a body is intended to have this property, that all parallel sections are to be similar figures, and if the method of forming it is not founded upon this principle, the body is not what it was intended to be, but something else; the construction will therefore be erroneous. All sections of a body must be found by describing the seats of the curves of as Inany parallel sections as may be thought sufficient, on one of the largest of them; then having a given or transverse section, that will cut all the parallel sections of the body. all othel sections whatever may be foulnd: but our author, Mr. Pain, tforms the section of all bodies like those of prisms, without attending to the properties of the body required, as is the case in the example before us. In the first edition of his Practical Jiouse Carpenter, he has presented the diagrain of an interior circular dome, formed into pendentives by bracketing the spandrels above, and traced according to the same erroneous principle: but after the publication of the Carpenter's New Guide, by the author of this Work, the error was corrected, in the second edition of the said Practical fHouse Carpenter, so as to correspond with the legitimate principle, first published in the Carpenter's New Guide: his description, which is very short, is partly contained in the text, and partly on the plate: in the text, he says, Figure 6Y' is a conical skylight, showing how to bracket the angles of the ceiling under the kirb, the hip-mould g at the angle is traced froti the rib, and that mould would do to cut all the ribs it the a 'gles, as shown at the angle a." What is here said, refers to the diagrlams in the first edition; but the text stands in tlle sixth edition, as in the first, though the diagram is altered in the second and succeeding editions. There is no rib b, nor angle a, sho wn on the improved diagram. On the plate he writes thus: "' F dome with a skylight on the top. g, g, nmoulds for the ribs of the dolne; a, a, the kirb of the light." Trhis latter description refers to the diagram as it now stands. The skylight on the top is exhibited in a very erroneous manner, being inconsistent with the principles of any kind of projection that we are acquainted with. The plan of the bracketing, and the ribs of the domical part, are shown by a common ichnographical projection, while the skylight is exhibited in a kind of false perspective, and being without any connection with the kirb on which it is placed, it has the appearance of being raised upon its edge, resting upon two points ii the kirb. Figure 7, " is an ogee roof, whose plan is a pentagon, and shows the method of drawing the polygon figure to any given side; make a radius of that side, and draw the arches 2, 6; divide one of these arches into six parts, and turn them to the centre line, as shown by the letters and figures 5 d, 4 e, &c.; the centre c will draw a circle to receive the side 5 times, 4) -l \ r Ia> 1; --- I t I I I A NZN -K u\ - - - - - - - - -> ^z CAR~ C A R 103 CAR 103 CAR 6 is the centre to receive the side 6 times, d seven times, and so oni to i, which is the centre to draw the circle to receive the side twelve times." This problemli should have been classed in practical geometry, as it has no reference whatever to carpentry. It is only true in the hexagon and dcodecagon, and is very incorrect for the description of p)olygonsls upon a given straight line, which have ftwer sides than six. In his diagram, he shows the method of describing the hip from the common rib being given; but the text contains no description of it. Figeure 8, ' is a dome, whose plan is a hexagon, and.shows how to divide a circle into any number of parts: divide onefourth of the circle into the nulmber of parts you would have the circle, as, 1, 2, 3, 4: 5, (, 6 d always take four of them. To find the backing of the curve-line hips, lay down the plan of the hip at the angle, s a; then take the distance 1, 2, at bottom, tack in a lIail, then shift the hip-mould, and marking by it, as 1 2 3, 3 4, 5 6, 7, 10, will show the wood to come off." In this description, Mr. Pain proposes to find the division of a circle into any number of parts; hbt as he does not mention any fixed ratio of these parts, they nay be taken at pleasure, without rule; but allowing that he had neglected to name this condition, under which the circle was to be divided, and suppose that he meant the parts to be equal, and to be found by a general method; there is no regular rule of performing this problem but by an approximation. If we allow that the quadrant can be divided into equal parts, we must also allow that the whole circle will contain four times that number of parts; but the division of the quadrant into equal parts is equally impossible with that of the whole circle; the rule is therefore absurd, and consequently it is only accomplishing one absurdity by another, and wasting the reader's time to no purpose. In this problem, as in the last, he has also neglected to inform his reader how the hip is found, though it is sufficiently clear on the plate to present the idea of forming it to any intelligent person. F'igure 9, "is a dome on a circular plan; a and b show the section of the horizontal rib." Figure 10, '" is a dome on an elliptic plan; the centres for the mould of the horizontal ribs d d, are a a, 4 b, c c, d d; the place of that rib on the plan is found by dropping dot lines from the sections dd: c c on the top, is designed for a skylight." These descriptions are unintelligible. Plate XIII. Figure 1, " shows the method for cutting the boards to cover the dome; divide the dome into as many parts as you think it will take boards, and draw lines to cut the edges of each board, and where they meet the centre line, that is the centre for the edge of each board. This is drawn one inch to a foot." This has already been shown and described by Swan, but he is deficient in not representing the boards as Pain has dolne; the description of the former, however, though short, is much clearer than that of the latter. Figure 2, is taken fiomn the Practical House Carpenter, but the description is to be found neither in the text nor on the plate. It must therefore be left to the sagacity of the reader to find it out. We suppose the diagram to represent the method of covering a dome by bending the boards with the joints on vertical planes passing through the axis. This method has already been shown by several of the preceding authors, of whom Price and Langley are the most accurate, and diffir most as to the mode of ascertaining the form of the board, but come to the same result at last. Oakley, Hoppus, and Price, perform the operation by straight ordinates, whereas Langley and Pain do it by curved ordinates: one method ascertains the form with as much accuracy as the other, but the operation with straight ordinates requires much less trouble than the other. Pain even shows i many more lines than are sufficient, which superabundance makes his diagrarm much less intelligi ble to the understanding of his reader. The concentric arcs, which he has used as ordinates, are erroneous in principle, though the use of them does not affect the practice, as we shall here show. Fiygure 3. " Let A B c be half the section of a dome passing through its vertical axis; divide the curve A n into as many eq-ual parts as the iumber of boards of which the covering is to consist; through each point in the circumference draw a line to the centre c; and through each of the same points draw another line at right angles to the respective radii, and produce them upwards, as also the axis c B, so as to cut each of the tangents fromn the several points in the curve; then each of these tangents, so limited, are the radii of the successive ordinates; the tangent at the bottom is of infinite length, the next is limited, and the succeeding ones become gradually shorter and shorter, till the tangent and the arc become nearly of one length. So that the ordinates of the board exhihited in Figure 4, are arcs of radii, respectively equal to the tangents; consequently, the bottom ordinate of the board is a straight line, the next is the arc of a circle of a very flat curvature, the next is an arc of greater curvature, and so each are becoming quicker and quicker in its curvature, till they reach the summit of the board, which is the last centre." The most eligible method in practice, founded upon evident principles, is to suppose the dome to become an equilateral and equiangular polygon, and suppose the axal section A B C, Figure 5, perpendicular to one of the sides of the dome to be given, and the curve A B to be divided into equal parts, and suppose the parts to be extended upon B c produced; then, if lines be drawn through the divisions of the curve, and through the points of division in c B, produced perpendicular to the said B c; and if B D be drawn perpendicular to B c, equal to half the width of a board, anld ) c joined, and the ordinates produced so to meet D C; then, if the lines parallel to B D, contained within the triangle n D c be successively taken towards c, and applied on the perpendiculars from an d on each side of c i) produced; then if curves be drawn through the points at the extremities, they will terminate the e(dges of a board, which will accurately cover a side of the polyronal (omie. Let us now suppose the number of sides of this dome to be very great, then the sides will vary only in a very small degree, either from the inscribing or circumscribing sphere, and this variation will decrease as the number of sides is increased, and the excess or defect would become insensible; and it we suppose the sides to be infinite, the board which covers the side of the polygonal dome will accurately cover the inscribing or circumscribing spherical dome. This latter method is founded upon principle, but that of forming the bottom ends of the boards iinto curves is totally destitute of it. Figure 6, fiom Pain's British Pailladio, which le says, " is a pentagon to be covered with a domicail roof. To find the curve of the boarding, divide the girth or curve of the rib on the back into as many parts as you please, as here into four, and draw them to the base-line of the rib e -e, as 7, 8, 9; stretch out a b, the middle of the side, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7, parallel thereto; then take one of the divisions on the girth of the rib, and set off from e to 7, 8, 9, b, and where that cuts the lines 7 7, 8, 9 9, 6, there tack in nails, and bend a thin slip to the nails, and mark from e to b, as that curve directs; this will be one edge of the covering: prick these marks on the other side of the line a b, and proceed as before; then will the covering or boarding be complete. The covering or boarding of (Figure 7) is found in the same manner, which is very plain to inspection; the girth of" the _ I I_ L I ____ __ —~ --- —CI.- ~11_1~ _ CAR 104 CA R CAR 4 CAR_ "rib being stretched out, and the parts set on as above directed." When he says, "stretch out a b, the middle of the side, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7, parallel thereto," he is l ot intelligible; however, if we unlderstand that a b is drawn at right angles to the side e d of the polygon, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7, drawn parallel thereto, the method which he uses will be fbund to be correct, and, we believe, original. F'igure 8, "shows the lmethod for gettilln out the veneer, or cover for an elliptical done or niche. i)ivide the circumference of one quarter of the plan into any number of parts, as here into 8, and drawL them to the centre 4; let the first line fiom the transverse diarmeter be the edge of the veneer; the second line will be the middle of the next veneer; the third will be the other edge of it, andl so on: continue this line out at pleasure: consider this line as a base, and draw thereon a section of the dolne, as No. 1; then divide the circumftrelnce into four parts, draw them to the base-line at right angles, and transfer those distances to the corresponding line on the plan; then take the four parts on the girth, alnd rlun them on the line stretched out, 1, 2, 3, 4, this will be the length of the veneer; set the compasses on the plan, and strike a curve-line of this radius; then continue the middle line of the veneer, and where it intersects, that curve-line will be the point of veneer next the top of the dome; fiomn this point set off the divisions 1, 2, 3, on the circumference by curve-lines; then take the width of the divisions 1, 2, 3, from the mniddle line of the plan, and set them on the same line stretched out to cut them at their respective distances, the points of intersection will be the breadth of that side of the veneer; connect them by a curve-line from the plan to the point, and you have one edge complete. For the veneer on the transverse diameter, this edge will serve as a mould; or you may set the half of the veneer to the other side of the plan, and draw a chord-line from these points; set this off that distance of the arch (the little curve) to be outside, and draw a line parallel to the chord-line, on which set off the breadth of the veneer on both sides, then with the whole length of the other veneer in the compasses, set one foot on that breadth, and strike a curve-line to cut the middle line on the transverse diameter; or repeat the curve fiomn the other side, and where they cross will be the point of that veneer, from whence set off the divisions, and proceed as before. But as the radii of an oval are of different lengths, to get the other edge of the veneer, make a section as before, (see No. 2,) and set off; as before, the divisions on the base and plan, and strike the divisions on the girth, froml the point of the veneer stretched out, intersect them from the plan, and those points connected will give the other side of that veneer, which will be a n-ould lfr the next adjoining; proceed again for every veneer by transferring that length from the plan, and the shortest length from the point; repeat the same operation for every veneer required. Note. "The conjugate and transverse diameters will have the two sides of the veneer equal. Observe, only four parts are used, to prevent confusion in the figure; but the greater number of parts, the truer the line. Again, if your boards will suit, divide the plan to their number, and proceed as before for every board respectively." This method is so absurd in every particular, that the coverings obtained are erroneous in the greatest degree; indeed, it leaves no room for argument, and we shall only observe, that in the true form of the boards, between the extremities of the greater and less axis, in any one of the four quarters, one side of thle board would be concave and the other convex, where the dome has a considerable difference in its axis; and the greater this eccentricity or differ ence, the greater will be the degree of culrvature of the concavity and convexity of the sides of these boards. Fiqure 9, No. 1, shows groins and arches, of different descriptions, from the Practical Ifoirse Cacrpleterl. Pain divides this fiure into several others, and distinguishes them by letters of the alphabet. He oily gives the followving description on the plate: " K centering for groins. L is a half groin cuttinr under pitch, for a door or window. G a Welsh groin cutting under pitch. M is the method of tracing the ribs and hips for a groin ceiling." Figure 9, No. 2, N is a mould to bend over the body range; K to get the lines to set the jack-ribs by." The reader who has not already acquired al competent knowledge of geometrical lines, will profit but little fromn this description. The showing of the jack-ritbis upon the diagram is an improvement. Swan has sho(wn them perspectively, but the geometrical method of representing theml is more serviceable to the workman, as it shows the lengths of the ribs distinctly. Iie observes that ";a is a AVelsh groin cutting under pitch," but he does not show how the crooked line, which he has exhibited, is obtained; and even if he had shown it, the method of constructing the rib would still have been wanting. In the mould N, for groin-centering, in order to find the place, or curve-lines, on the boarding, for fixing the jack-ribs, he has given no description, either in the text or on the plate, except that he writes, "the arch line a stretched out," and " halt the baseline b," upon the respective sides; and, consequently, we have no other instlructions to inform us how the mould N is found, than by inspecting the figure itself, and tracing out the operation by the connection of the lines; and even then we are left in the dark as to its application. The moulds for groin-centering upon this principle, were first shown by Price, as well for finding the angles of the jack-ribs, as the form of the boarding. Figiure 10, fiom the Practical ouse Carpenter, " is a bevel roof; tlie sides are parallel on one part of the plaln, the other bevels. To fiame this roof in ledgement, the principal rafters -must be frimedc to a level base; that is, the ends of the beams all of onle height friol the fice of the plate; wh}en you come to lay them the other waxyt, to fitrame in the pur-lils, there must be winding sticks held to thle bases of the rafters, which winding sticks must be all out of wintldiln; and as the width of the building diminishes, the h-cks of the rafters will lie in winding, as they w ill xwhen inl their:,laces; and mind that they are backed a-tcc:(rdcl ng to the bevel of the plan, for turning themI up to tumble il the plulins; by this method the business may be well colinpllited." Allowingt that the heels of the rafters are cut to their propelr evels with the backs, the application of winldiiin sticks to suchI short distances will never make the sides fall accur-ately into their proper winding. This is altogether a niechanical operation; but it would have been no difficult task to have shown an operation strictly geolnetrical. The foregoing remarks will be f)ound to contain a fair and irmpartial statement of the geometrical improvements and errors of the several writers on Carpentry, at least as far as they have come to our knowledge: we shall now, in conclusion, draw a general result firom the whole of their theories, and endeavour to trace the progress of the art towards its present state of comparative perfection. The method of bracketing hip-rafters, which is said to be the invention of a Mr. Pope, of London, was originally presented to the public by Godfrey Richards, who also first represented roof in ledgements, in order to ascertain the several lengths and angles which the rafters make with each other. The use of the trammel in common cases; the description i K (t H z iV /.: n/ S, I- - --- + i -- -1) I IIj PI, tz Ill-, I "I -- — ~ — -I --- -~~ -- i — --- I -- — i - - -rC — - -;-~r — ~- -- -'; — L — ~~` ~- rrC CAR 105 CAR CA 10 C A... of a curve through points, by bending a lath, or slip of wood; cove-bracketing, and the construction of ribs in groined ceilings, disposed in vertical planes, were first shown by Halfpenny. In the latter, however, he divides the bases into equal parts, in order to place the ordinates, which is inconvenient; for the equi-distance of the ordinates leaves a very large portion of the curves at each extremity, where they are quickest, to be traced only by the eye. This writer also first described the formation of spherical and spheroidal niches, upon semi-circular and semi-elliptic plans, with semi-circular and semi-elliptic faces, under the names of semi-circular and elliptic niches. To Price we owe the mode of framing roofs in ledgement, with all the beams and rafters laid out on a plane; though it must be remembered that the general outline had been previously described by Godfrey Richards. The squaring of the purlin of a circular dome, and of a conic roof or skylight; the backing of angle-brackets (and consequently of ribs in general) by shifting the mould of the rib; the ordinary construction of groin-centering, and moulds for drawing the diagonal lines at the feet of the jack-ribs; the covering of domes, by bending the boards from the base to the vertex; and the stretching out of the surfaces of coved ceilings, were also first described by this writer. To the writings of Batty Langley we are indebted for the extension of the superficies of polygonal roofs with curvilinear rafters; and likewise the covering of the frustum of a semicone for a soffit in a straight wall, with the axis of the cone at right angles to the plane of the wall. The principle of forming boards to cover a dome, with the joints running in horizontal planes, or on the surface of a cone with a vertical axis, was laid down by Swan. That of extending the superficies of a semi-cylinder on a plane, for the soffit of an aperture in a circular wall, with the axis of the cylinder at right angles to the surface of such wall, so as to cover the surface of the cylinder contained between the two walls and each spring of the aperture, was first exhibited by Pain; as was likewise the principle of squaring purlins for an elliptic dome, though very imperfectly. The sum total of the geometrical constructions by these writers, may be comprised as follows: the use of the trammel; drawing curved lines through points; ascertaining the lengths of rafters, and the backing of hips for both straight and curvilinear rafters; framing of roofs in ledgement, whether rectangular or bevel on the plan; squaring purlins for circular or elliptic domes and cones; the construction of curvilinear ribs for angle-brackets, polygonal roofs, and plaster groins; centerings of groins; forming a conic soffit in a straight wall, with the axis of the cone at right angles to its surface; forming a cylindric soffit in a circular wall, with an horizontal axis; and the covering of polygonal roofs or domes with boards, whose joints fll]] either in horizontal or vertical planes. These inventions, however, are far from being laid down in the most happy manner. The text of these authors is frequently obscure, and their diagrams, which have little connection with it, are badly projected, and little calculated to inform: they have likewise so far neglected the requisite arrangement, that their subjects are thrown together in a promiscuous jumble, without either attention to the affinity of their principles, or their order of succession in practice. Of the several works quoted, Price's alone can justly claim the title of a treatise on carpentry. Langley is in general tolerably intelligent; he has treated on all that has been done by his predecessors, and has attempted many things of his own; but his labours have not been successful. In the diagrams of Pain, we find some useful practical 14 hints; but his errors are numerous, and his inventions few. His text, also, is more unintelligible than that of any writer who preceded him in this art. The inventions and discoveries of the writers quoted, may be reduced to the following: Sections of prisms at right angles to one side or plane of the prism; coverings of prismatic and conic surfaces, in the most simple cases; and the method of ascertaining the lengths and backings of hips. To these principles, the Author of the ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY has added those of the intersection of one plane with another, the latter resting on three lines perpendicular to the former; the geometrical construction of all cases in spherical trigonometry, by solid angles; sections of a prism, cone, or cuneoid, through any three given points; the section of a prism making a given angle with a given parallelogrammatic section of such prism, and passing through any given line on the said section; the section of a cone passing through any line on a given axal or vertical section, and making a given angle with that section; the section through any three given points on the surface of a body, of such property that all sections parallel to a certain plane will be similar figures, having the seats and heights of the points upon one of the similar planes, and another section of the body in a given position to that plan, cutting all the said similar sections; the sections of various other bodies, whose properties are defined; the formation of the edge of a thin pliable surface, which, when bent upon the surface of a prism, may coincide in its edge with a section passing through any three given points on the surface of the said prism; the formation of the edge of a surface, to fit a conic section, passing through any three given points on the surface of the cone, while such surface and that of the cone coincide; the formation of the edge of a thin pliable surface to fit the section of a body cut by any prismatic surface, while the pliable surface coincides with that of the section made by the pris-' matic surface; the properties of the body being such, that all sections parallel to a certain plane will be similar figures, given a section of the body parallel to one of these sections, and another cutting all the said similar sections in a given position, and the intersections of the given planes on each other. These subjects include the finding of the sections of cylinders and cones, spheres and spheroids, and the coverings of these bodies. under the circumstances already stated. To these, the author has added the following inventions or discoveries, viz., the method of extending the surface of a cylinder or cylindroid, being the centre of an arched aperture in an oblique wall, terminated by the faces of the said wall; and the covering of the surface of a part of a semi-cone, being the centre of an aperture, with its axis oblique to the surface of the wall which terminates such covering. In ascending groins, he has likewise shown the centering for brickwork, and ribbing for plastering; the construction of polygonal and annular groins, both level and ascending in a spiral, whether for centering or ribbing; cylindro-cylindric arches, or what are commonly, but improperly, denominated Welsh arches; spherical niches, both for straight and circular walls, under any circumstances: the true methods of constructing pendentive or spandrel ceilings, either spherical or spheroidal; the bevels of purlins in all positions to the common rafters; the formation of boards for covering spherical domes, without laying down either plan or section of the dome, entirely within the boards themselves; the forming of the lower boards, without centres, in the covering of a dome, with the joints in horizontal planes; the formation of boards to cover a spheroidal dome, with the joints of the boards in vertical planes; the covering of an elliptic dome with one mould I _ L 1 — ' --- — ~ CAR 106 CAR CAR 106 CAR only; the covering of a spheroidal dome with boards having their joints in parallel vertical planes; the construction of a dome with horizontal ribs, without taking the trouble to square them by horizontal and vertical faces; the method of cutting purlins and jack-rafters to fit the hips, without laying the roof in ledgement; principles for the equilibrium of polygonal roofs without ties, so that the rafters may obtain a given ratio among themselves, provided the abutments be sufficient; a principle for preventing rafters without intermediate ties, from having any lateral pressure;-these two latter inventions have been several years before the public, in the architectural plates of Rees's Cyclopcedia. To these might be added various other principles of less importance, which it is not necessary to recapitulate in this place. In most of the subjects above alluded to, he has given more than one method of operation, and in some instances he has multiplied his examples to five or six different modes of practice. One or two of the inventions in the foregoing list, he acknowledges, are only his own by their new application, the principles being known prior to his time; but he has adapted them to subjects to which they were never before applied; and he conceives that it requires at least as much ingenuity, and is frequently attended with more utility, to be able to apply an old or well-known principle to an useful object, as to discover a principle destitute of practical application: he has, therefore, not scrupled to include them in the list of his discoveries. Nor has he, while thus claiming credit for himself, denied it to others; as may be seen in his remarks on Pain's lining of a cylindric soffit in a circular wall, the principle of which was previously laid down by Price, in his centerings of groins. The inventions which the author has thus appropriated to himself, are the following: the application of the principle of covering the surface of the frustum of a cone to a spheroidal dome, with the joints in vertical planes; the application of the 'principle of covering an oblong spheroidal dome by one mould only; and the application of the principle shown by Price, in his centering of groins, to a cylindric soffit for an aperture in a straight wall, with its axis oblique to the surface of such wall; which latter was likewise attempted by Pain, but without success. The author has not been able fully to satisfy himself as to the extension of the surface for the head of an aperture, splaying in the sides and level on the crown, so that the aperture shall form a semi-circle on one side of the wall, and a semi-ellipsis on the other; or a semi-ellipsis on each side, but of different horizontal dimensions, though of the same height. He is, however, convinced, that though the form be not geometrically true, it is much more correct than anything attempted by Langley or Pain; and on it, he, has accordingly founded the principle by which alone the nature of the solid itself can be understood. And though unsuccessful in his attempts to extend the surface exactly, he has had the satisfaction of laying down such lines as will apply to the surface of the solid with far greater accuracy and dispatch, than could be obtained by the mechanical operation of plumbing the lines from the plan; by applying the distances on the plan upon their respective level lines on the surface of the solid, all - drawn from one vertical line resting on the point where the two sides of the splay come in contact. By this means the line of every wall may be found correctly on the surface, whether the wall be straight or curved, or whether the axis of the solid stand oblique or at right angles to its surface; which cannot be done by any other method hitherto attempted. In conclusion, it may be observed, that writers on carpentry have frequently been unsuccessful, for want of grounding their schemes upon the simple principles of the bodies they wished to construct; by losing sight of which, they have fallen into puerile operations, and drawn erroneous inferences. In the course of this work, we shall treat of the several branches of the building art, and each article of those branches, in a manner similar to this on Carpentry; and all inventions, as well useful as otherwise, with every unsuccessful attempt at geometrical construction, will be noticed under their respective heads. It is now only necessary to observe, briefly, that as the arrangement and classification of the subjects, as well as the mode of conceiving and presenting them in the diagrams, are altogether different from those adopted by the writers who have preceded us in this department, so it is believed, that this method will display the art of carpentry in a novel point of view, and reduce it to that pure scientific form it has never hitherto acquired. But notwithstanding all that has been done, and the great advances made in the art since the publication of the various works we have been examining, it is evident that the subject is not exhausted, but is still susceptible of many improvements. Such improvements will doubtless be effected, in time, by the labours of abler men who will carry to perfection the science and practice of an art so important'and so interesting as that of Carpentry. CARPION, a Grecian architect, who wrote a treatise on the Temple of Minerva, in the citadel of Athens. CARRIAGE OF A WOODEN STAIR, the frame of timberwork which supports the steps. The carriage of a flight of steps, supported on one side by a wall, generally consists of two pieces of timber, inclined to the pitch of the stair. These pieces are called rough-strings, or carriages. When a geometrical stair consists of two alternate flights, with a half pace between, the carriage of the half pace consists of a beam parallel to the risers of the steps, and several joists framed into the beam, for the support of the boarding. The beam which sustains the joists, is called the apron-piece, and that which sustains the rough strings at the upper end is called a pitching-piece. The joists of the half pace are sometimes tenoned into the pitching-piece, and sometimes bridge over it; but the steps of both flights are supported by string-pieces, as before. The upper ends of the string-pieces at the landing, rest upon an horizontal piece of timber, denominated an apron-piece. If the steps wind round a circular newel, the carriage of the circular part consists of uprights and bearers, the latter of which are wedged into the wall; though it will answer the purpose as well, to frame them into a string placed against the wall. The uprights and bearers are either framed with mortises and tenons, or are dovetailed together. When the staircase is of the dog-leg kind, with winders and a close newel, the carriage is formed of bearers let into the wall, and fixed to the newel post. For more information, see STAIR-CASING and HAND-RAILING. CARTELLI. See CARTOUCHES. CARTON, or CARTOON (a French term, signifying thick paper, or pasteboard), in painting, a design on strong paper, to be afterwards chalked through, and transferred on a newlyplastered wall, which is to be painted in fresco. The word is also used for a coloured design, that is to be wrought into mosaic or tapestry. CARTOUCHES, or CARTOOZES (French, from the Italian Cartoccio), a kind of blocks or modillions, used in the cornices of wainscoted apartments; differing from modillions in being confined to the interior, whereas modillions are applied both externally and internally. C A R 107 CAR CA 0 A CARTOUCHES, are ornaments representing a scroll of paper, usually in the form of a tablet, with wavings, whereon is some inscription or device. They are sometimes drawn on paper, as in the titles of maps, &c., and are sometimes made of stone, brick, plaster, wood, &c., for buildings. Norden uses this term to signify the winged globe, usually placed over the middle aperture of Egyptian buildings. CARVED WORK, all those mouldings, planes, or other surfaces which are cut into ornaments, representing, in relief or in recession, foliages, animals, utensils, historical events, &c. Mouldings are generally carved with leaves, honeysuckles, lions' heads, beads, egg and tongue, egg and dart, guilloches, reeds, flutes, &c. Tori are carved with guilloches, reeds, and flutes. Astragals are carved with beads, of various forms, strung together. Ovolos, with egg and tongue, and at the corners with honeysuckles, as in Grecian architecture; or with egg and dart, and sometimes with leaves, as in Roman architecture. Sima-rectas, with honeysuckles, of various forms, connected with scrolls and lions' heads at certain intervals, as in Grecian architecture; or with leaves of various kinds, as in Roman architecture. Sima-inversas, with leaves, stalks, &c.: enclosed in borders. Facias and large surfaces, with foliage interwoven or winding, or with historical subjects from the heathen mythology, aild sometimes with flutes, fillets, &c. But of all carved work none is so beautiful as that left us by the Gothic architects. Of the styles comprised, under this denomination, carving is one principal feature, and it is surprising to what perfection the art arrived; during this period of the dark ages, as they are called, it advanced gradually, and passed through many stages ere it arrived at its full maturity, from the simple and somewhat barbaric mouldings of the Normans, to the luxuriant foliage of the Decorated, or the elaborate richness of the Florid styles; and yet even the carving of the earlier periods is by no means to be despised; the specimens belonging to the Early English style, although somewhat stiff and harsh, possessed a simplicity and chasteness which was never afterwards surpassed. The Decorated style lays claim to the highest rank in carved enrichment, it approaches nearest to nature; indeed, it is almost nature herself, only changed in substance; everything connected with this period is fill of grace and elegance. In the next, or Perpendicular style, the flowing lines of the preceding period were deserted for the straight; or if curved lines were introduced, they were of a character purely geometrical; the method adopted was rather artificial than natural, and we see but few examples of foliage such as is found in the previous styles; there was, however, an elaborateness and exuberance at this period never before attempted; in some instances, to sich an extent was carved enrichment employed, that scarcely any portion of the plane surface was discernible. This is very conspicuous in the fan-work, as it is termed, which was introduced into the vaulted roofs; we would especially cite, as an example, the roof of Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, than which, we suppose, there exists not a more elaborate specimen of carving, at least in a work of such magnitude. The light and beautiful pendents of this chapel afford a magnificent specimen of the most enriched and delicate sculpture. Other examples of the same kind, are St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and the Chapel of King's College, Cambridge. Equally beautiful specimens of carving, sometimes even of a more minute description, may be seen in works of a smaller kind, such as fonts, altar-screens, &c., more especially in the latter, in some of which the elabo ration is carried to so great an extent, that nothing less than a close and diligent inspection will suffice to unfold its beauties. CARVEL-BUILT, in ship-building, when the edges of the planks join each other, the vessel is said to be carvel built. This term is used in contradistinction to clinker-built, which is when the edges of the planks are lapped upon each other. CARVER, an artist employed in the carving of wood. CARVING, in general, is the art of cutting a body by recession, in order to form upon it various fanciful representations, as foliages, flowers, fiuit, animals, landscapes, or historical events, either in relief, or recessed within a general surface. In this sense, carving comprehends both statuary and engraving, the latter upon either wood, stone, metal, or any other material. In a nore particular sense, carving is the art of cutting wood, as in the above definition. See CARVED WORK. CARYATIC, whatever relates to the ancient country of the Carians. CARYATIC ORDER, an order of architecture, whose entablature is supported by female figures instead of columns: the figures themselves are called Caryatidce, Caryales, or Carians. The Caryatic order differs from the Persian in having the entablature supported by females, whereas in the latter it is supported by males. See PERSIAN ORDER. The history of these orders, as related by Vitruvius, is as follows: " Caria, a city of Peloponnesus, having joined with the Persians against the Grecian states, and the Greeks having put an end to the war by a glorious victory, with one consent declared war against the Caryatides. They took the city, destroyed it, slew the men, and led the matrons into captivity, not permitting them to wear the habits and ornaments of their sex: they were not only led in triumph, but were loaded with scorn, and kept in continual servitude, thus suffering for the crimes of their city. The architects, therefore, of those days, introduced their effigies sustaining weights, in the public buildings, that the remembrance of the crime of the Caryatides might be transmitted to posterity. The Lacedmemonians, likewise, under the command of Pausanias, the son of Cleombrotus, having, at the battle of Platea, with a small number, vanquished a numerous army of Persians, solemnized the triumph, by erecting, with the spoils and plunder, the Persian portico, as a trophy, by which to transmit to posterity the remembrance of the valour and honour of the citizens; introducing therein the statues of the captives, adorned with habits in the barbarian manner, supporting the roof." Whether this account is correct, in any respect, seems doubtful; it is certainly incorrect as far as it relates to the origin of the order, but whether its distinguishing appellation is rightly attributed to the above circumstances, remains a matter for consideration; we think the evidence is decidedly against Vitruvius. In the first place, be it remembered, there is no allusion made to such circumstances by the Greek historians; and in an inscription brought from Athens by Dr. Chandler, containing a description of the temple of Pandrosus, the figures are called icopat, or damsels, and are thence naturally supposed to represent the maidens engaged in the celebration of the Panathenaic festival. Mr. Gwilt, who was the first to remark upon the incorrectness of the account of Vitruvius, is of opinion, that the figures were named after the goddess Diana, to whom the title Caryatis was given by the Lacedemonians, from the circumstance of her having made known to them the story of Carya, daughter of Dion, king of Laconia, who was turned into a nut-tree by Bacchus. _ _ _____ _1_1__1_ _ _ GAR 108 CAR AR 108 CR108 With respect to the epithet, Caryatis, we are inclined to think rather that the goddess obtained this surname from being worshipped especially at Carya, near Sparta, where she had a temple, and where also the Lacedaemonian virgins celebrated an annual festival in honour of her; but as regards the main point in question, we think there can be little doubt but that, as is evidenced by an old commlnn tator on Statius, the term Caryatides was applied to the virgins employed in the service of Diana, and that fenale figures were first employed in the architecture of the Greek temples as representations of the virgins engaged about the service of the deity to whom the temples were dedicated. That the fgures of men and animals were used for the purpose of supports in the place of columns, long before they were so employed by the Greeks, is well known. That they were not uncommon in Egypt, we learn from Diodorus Siculus, who inforims us, that the roof of the hall in the sepulchre of King Osymandyas, was supported by animals instead of pillars, each composed of a single stone, and twenty-four feet in height. Psammeticus also employed colossal statues twelve cubits in height in the propylaeum which he erected on the east side of the temple at Memphis. In Denon's Travels in Efyipt, we find, among other fragments, representations of five insulated pilasters or pillars, bearing an entablature; the fronts of which are decorated with priests or divinities. We find several instances of a similar application of men and animals, in one case of elephants, in the temples of India, as in the temple of Elephanta, that near Vellore, and several others. The molten sea, spoken of in Holy Writ, was supported by twelve bulls; and in the Odyssey of Homer, book vii. verse 118, we find the effigies of animals, both rational and irrational, employed as decorations. We do not learn, however, that these latter representations were employed as columns to support an entablature; and there is reason to believe that they were nothing more than ornamental sculptures. In Stewart's Antiquities of Atlhens, we find a most beautiful specimen of Caryatic figures supporting an entablature, consisting of an architrave cornice of a very elegant profile. The examples to be found amongst the Greeks are those in the temple of Pandrosus, and five specimens out of six previously existing, supporting an entablature adjacent to the temple of Erectheus. In this case there is no frieze, but the entablature is carried to an extraordinary height. Various fiagments of male figures are also met with among the Roman antiquities, which, from their attitudes and ornaments, appear to have supported the entablatures of buildings. Besides Caryatides and Persians, it is sometimes customary to support the entablatures with figures, of which the upper part represents the head and breast of the human body, and the lower part an inverted frustrum of a square pyramid, with the feet sometimes projecting out below, as if the body had been partly cased: figures of this form are called Termini; and had their origin in stones used by the ancients for marking out the limits of property belonging to individuals. Numa Pompilius, in order to render these boundaries sacred, converted the Terminus into a deity, and built a temple, dedicated to him, on the Tarpeian Mount, wherein he was represented by a stone, which in the course of time was sculptured into the form of a human head and shoulders, with the lower parts as we have just described. On particular occasions, this idol was adorned with garlands. Persian figures are generally charged with a Doric entablature; the Caryatides, with an Ionic or Corinthian architrave cornice; and the Termini, with an entablature of any of the three Grecian orders, according as they were themselves decorated. IMale figures may be introduced with propriety, in arsenals, or galleries of armour, in guard-ro!ms, and other places devoted to military afitirss; they may either represent the figures of captives, or of martial virtues; such as Strength, Valour, Wisdom, Prudence, Fortitude, &c. As these figures should be of a striking character, they may be of any colossal size that will agree with the architecture of other parts of the building. In conposing Caryatides, the most graceful attitudes and pleasant features should be chosen; and, to prevent an appearance of stiflfess, the drapery and features should be varied in the different figures of the range; at the same time, a general uniformity of shape should be preserved throughout. They should always be of a moderate size, or they will appear monstrous, and destroy those sensations, which representations of the fair sex ought to inspire. Le Clerc says they may be advantageously employed for sustaining the canopy of a throne: in which case, they should be represented under the figures and symbols of heroic virtues. In banqueting-rooms, ball-rooms, or other apartments of recreation, they must bear such characteristics as are calculated to inspire mirth and promote festivity. As Termini are susceptible of a variety of decorations, they may be employed as embellishments for gardens and fields; where they may represent Jupiter, the protector of boundaries; or some of the rural deities, as Pan, Flora, Pomona, Vertumnus, Ceres, Priapus, Faunus, Sylvanus, Nymphs, and Satyrs. They are also much employed in chimney-pieces and other interior compositions. CASE (from the French, caisse,) an outside covering, envelope, box, or sheath; applied generally to such coverings as completely surround the object enclosed. In building, it means the shell or carcase of a house. CASE-BAYS, in naked flooring, the joists framed between a pair of girders. Flooring-joists framed with one of their ends let into a girder, and their other ends inserted in the wall, are called tail-bays. The case-bays of floors and roofs should not exceed ten feet. CASE OF A DOOR, a wooden frame, in which the door is hung; door-cases are either constructed of architraves and linings, or wrought framed, rebated, and beaded; in the latter case they are called door-frames. CASE OF A STAIR, a name given to a wall by which a staircase is surrounded. CASED, a term in masonry, indicating that the outside of a building is covered or faced with materials of better quality than those of the backing or inside of the walls. Thus brick walls are frequently cased with stone, or with the best kind of bricks. See WALL. CASED SASIH-FRAMES, have their vertical sides hollow, to conceal the weights for hanging the sashes. See SASH-FRAME. CASEMATE, a cove, or hollow cylindrical moulding, the section of which is from one-sixth to one-fourth part of a circle. CASEMENTS, sashes or glass frames, opening on hinges, and revolving upon one of their vertical edges. When a casement fills the whole aperture, it is called a single casement; and when two are used, they are called double casements, folding casements, or French sashes. Casements are more liable to admit rain, wind, or snow, in stormy weather, than vertical sliding sashes, particularly at the bottom, when they open from the inside. CASING OF TIMBER-WORK is when the outside of a timber building is plastered all over with mortar; after which it is made to resemble stone-work, by striking it, while wet, -r"-C-~~~ C 1 CAS CAS 109 CAS __ ___ with the edge of a trowel, or other implement, guided by a rule. This operation is best performned on heart laths, because the mortar is apt to cause a rapid decay in sap laths. The coating is conmmonly laid in two thicknesses, the second being applied before the first is dry. CAST (fromn the Danish, kaster, to throw), in plastering, a piece of insulated plaster, originally formed in a cavitv, the bottom of which is the reverse of the face of the cast. The operation is thus performed: a small quantity of plaster of Paris is mixed with water in a bason, or pan, and stirred up with a spatula, till thoroughly incorporated; more plaster is then added by degrees, till the mixture assumes a moderate consistency, such as to flow on all sides when poured on a horizontal surface; the mould being slightly oiled or greased, to prevent adhesion, the liquid plaster is poured in, so as to fill the mould, or something more. When stiffened in a small degree, the superfluous parts are scraped off to the middle, or in several parts at the edges; when it begins to heat, which happens in a few minutes, it will be sufficiently hard: then, if the mould be made of wax, it may be removed by bending it away from the cast, gently at the edges, quite round, using the parts left on the surface as handles; and proceeding gradually towards the centre, till the cast is quite relieved; but if the material of the mould be brimstone, a slight kl.nock on the back will relieve it. As this operation can only be performed in the direction of a straight line, no part of the cast near the bottom of the mould must project fiom this line to a greater distance than any part more remote, otherwise it cannot be drawn out without breaking such projections. If more relief is required, than what can be given by the mould, the cast must be undercut with a knife. If the impression can be relieved of the mould, the cast may be of one piece; otherwise it must be made in several segments, and in such manner as may best conceal the joinings. Plaster casts are sometimes used for mouldings, instead of working them by hand, in situations where they cannot be conveniently run with a mould. An exact representation of an original piece of sculpture, or even of a living animal, may be taken, whether generally concave or convex, by using the original as a mould; on which, having first oiled or greased the parts in a slight degree, pour the plaster, as just directed; and this impression is in its turn to be used as a mould, and will give a fac-simile of the original. Pliny mentions the casting of faces from nature, as being early in practice am)ong the Greeks. This useful art supplies the painter and sculptor with exact representations from nature, whether of men, brute animals, draperies, or plants; it multiplies models of all kinds, and is now brought to such perfection, that casts of antique statues are made perfectly similar to their prototypes, except only with respect to colour and materials. The introduction of plaster in architectural decorations, dates from the prevalence of the style called by us the Elizabethan, but its influence is more conspicuous during the succeeding or Italian style. It was first employed in carved and paneled wainscoting, and in the enrichment of the highly-decorated ceilings, which were a prominent feature in buildings of the period. At the first onset, however, the plaster was not cast, but each individual ornament moulded by hand, fixed in the situation which it was intended afterwards to occupy; it was indeed merely the substitution of plaster for wood, and the only advantage consisted in the facility with which the former could be carved, whereas the execution of the latter was difficult. This advantage was further extended at the commencement of the eighteenth century, by casting the plaster ornaments in moulds previously prepared for the purpose, so that from a single mould might be produced a number of casts, thus reducing the expense considerably. Soon afterwards another material was employed in similar decorations; this was the pulp of paper, which was very gcnerally used, though not so extensively as plaster; through the poverty of the designs in this material, as well as the imperfection in the rachinery of those days, it fell into disuse, and was at last entirely superseded by plaster. The latter material, however, could not produce the desired ultimatum, it answered very well so long as the Greek style of ornamentation prevailed; but when this was superseded by the French, Flemish, and Elizabethan, its defects were seriously felt: it was by no means calculated to express the fantastic forms of the latter, or the luxuriant richness of the former styles, especially when, as was frequently the case, the design was marked by bold projection and deep undercutting. This difficulty led to a new trial of the carton pierre, or papier mnache as it is now called, which, by the aid of improved machinery, and a greater knowledge of chemical and general science, has been advanced to a high state of excellence, and is in every respect superior to plaster casts previously employed. One invaluable advantage it possesses, is, that it preserves the indents and undercutting of the original or mould, however much recessed; in fact, it can readily be made to assume any form, however intricate. Add to this its hardness and durability, its adaptation to external ornaments, for it is known to have remained uninjured for many years, though exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather; its indestructibility by vermin, its lightness, and its sharpness, and truth of outline, and its superiority to plaster, will not be for a moment questioned. In many of the above particulars, it is superior even to wood, to which it is in some respects similar, for it may be cut with a saw or chisel, bent by heat or steam, and even planed and smoothed with sand-paper. Further, its lightness will allow it to be fixed in any situation, without fear of displacement, and it requires but nails or screws, and even in some cases only needle-points, to secure it firmly in its position. It holds pre-eminence over plaster, in as much as it will receive colour very readily, and gilding much more so than the generality of materials to which such enrichment is applied. Another article which has of late been introduced as a substitute for the above materials, is embossed leather, which in some instances is superior to either of them. It can be made to assume any degree of relief short of the complete round, and it preserves all the sharpness and fineness of outline possessed by the mould fiom which it is cast. The moulds in this process are of metal, into which the leather previously prepared by steaming, is forced by a combination of hydraulic and pneumatic pressure, by which extraordinary power the finest lines on the mould are repeated with the greatest accuracy on the copy. It might be supposed fiom the nature of the material, that this delicacy of outline would be deteriorated by tilne, or that the cast might be altogether destroyed by damp; but there is really no ground for apprehensions of this nature, as the casts are found under all circumstances to preserve, undiminished in the minutest details, the form transferred to them from the original mould, and to be improved and hardened rather than injured by age. This material has an advantage in the facility with which it can be made to imitate old carved work; indeed, when introduced in the restoration of such works, it is difficult to distinguish the original from the imitation; it may be coloured or gilded as desired. It is applicable to all kinds of interior decorations, such as cornices, friezes, &c., and has been employed even in the entire paneling of rooms. F - GAS 110 GAS CAS 110 CAS Another material which, until very recently, was entirely unknown to us, but which, since its first introduction, has come into extensive use, threatens to prove a formidable rival to the above-mentioned articles-we allude to Gutta Percha. This substance has not been tested sufficiently to allow us to speak decidedly as to its applicability to the purposes we are considering; it is moulded into cornices, panels, and other forms of architectural decoration, and is on inany accounts eligible for such uses; it can be moulded, cast, stamped, or embossed, into any form however elaborate, and is susceptible of colour; it has, however, disadvantages which for the present must preclude its employment; for, although it promises considerable hardness, it is readily injured by contact with any sharp body; besides this, it is liable to soften and liquify when exposed to an elevated temperature. This last defect has been modified by a process to which the material is subjected in its manufacture, which is termed metallo-thionising, but still it has not been entirely removed. The properties of this production, however, have not yet been sufficiently developed to decide upon its capabilities; many improvements will doubtless be introduced into its manufacture, as its nature becomes more fully understood. CAST, among plumbers, a little brazen funnel at one end of a mould, for casting pipes without soldering, through which the melted metal is poured into the mould. CAST, Rough. See ROUGH CAST. CASTELLA. or CASTLES, in British antiquity, one of the three kinds of fortifications built along the line of the wall of Severus, the other two sorts being denominated stations and towers. The Castella were neither so large nor strong as the stations, but much more numerous, there being in this wall no fewer than 81. The figure of the castellum was cubical, 66 feet in each dimension, fortified on every side by thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north side, where also the wall was raised much above its general height, and with the adjoining ditch formed the fortification. The castella were placed in the intervals between the stations, generally at the distance of about seven furlongs from each other, and guards were constantly kept in them, consisting of a certain number of men, detached from the nearest stations. See CASTLE. CASTELLA, in Roman antiquity, also denoted the reservoirs, in which the waters from the aqueducts were collected, whence the city was supplied by leaden pipes. CASTELLATED HOUSES, those mansions which succeeded the castles and fortified residences of the feudal barons; they still preserved the appearance of strength, although in reality incapable of defence against a regular force. These buildings were provided with battlements and turrets, rather for ornament, however, than for practical purposes. The windows are generally closed horizontally with labels, over them; the apertures are sometimes divided by mullions, consisting of one or more munnions in the breadth, and one or two transoms in the height, by which the great opening is divided into several smaller apertures, sometimes arched under the lintels, and sometimes also under the transoms. One of the most remarkable of these edifices is Haddon-Hall, Derbyshire. CASTING, the act of taking the impression of any surface, whether plain or sculptured, by pouring a liquid matter on that surface. See CAST. CASTING, in joinery and carpentry, is said of a piece of timber, when its sides are bent or twisted from their original surfaces, by the fibres being unequally heated, dried, or moistened; or by being naturally disposed in different directions; or the twist may, perhaps, arise from different degrees of hardness in the body, occasioned by knots, &c. This effect is otherwise called warping. CASTING OF BRICK OR STONE WALLS. See ROUGH CAST. CASTING OF BRONZES, is thus performed: The figure to be cast from must have a mould made on it, consisting of a mixture of plaster-of-paris and brick-dust, in the proportion of not more than one-third of the former, to two-thirds of the latter. The thickness of this mould must be according to its length and breadth, in order to be sufficiently strong. Little channels, tending upwards, should beeut in various parts of the joints, to give vent to the air forced out by the metal as it runs into the mould. After the mould is made, a thin layer of clay is spread smoothly and uniformly over its inner surfice, of the intended thickness of the bronze; the mould is then closed, and its cavity filled with a composition of two-thirds brickdust and one-third plaster, mixed with water, to form the core; previous to which, should the work be of any magnitude, it will be necessary to insert strong irons bars within the mould, to secure it from accidents, and to facilitate the removal of the core. The mould being then opened, and the clay removed, is with the core thoroughly dried; to effect which more perfectly, they are exposed to the action of a charcoal fire or lighted straw; great attention is required to this part of the process, for should the least moisture be suffered to remain, the mould will burst, anid the cast be blown to pieces, to the great danger of the lives or limbs of the workmen. When the mould is finally closed, the cord must be supported in its place by short bars of bronze, running from the mould into the core. The whole then is bound round with iron bars, proportioned in strength to the weight of the cast, and laid in a proper situation for receiving the metal, supported by dry materials, as sand-stones, &c., to prevents accidents. In placing the mould, due care must be taken to connect its mouth with the reservoirs, by means of a channel on an inclined plane, that the liquid metal may run freely. The form of the furnace, and mode of running, are similar to those practised in bell-founding. CASTING OF LEAD. See PLUMBING. CASTLE (from the Latin, castellum, a diminutive of castrum), in ancient writers, a town or village surrounded with a ditch, and wall furnished with towers at intervals, and guarded by a body of troops. Castellum originally seems to have signified a smaller fort, for a little garrison. Though Suetonius uses the word where the fortification was large enough to contain a cohort. According to Veg6tius, the castella were often, like towns, built on the borders of the empire, where there were constant guards, and fences against the enemy. Horsley takes them for much the same with what were otherwise denominated stations. See CASTELLA. CASTLE, in a modern sense, is a place fortified either by nature or by art, in a city or country, to keep the people in their duty, or to resist an enemy. In the more extensive interpretation of the word, it includes the various methods of encampment, but in its stricter meaning, it is usually applied to buildings walled with stone, and intended for residence as well as for defence. Few branches of historical research have been so little attended to, as that which relates to military architecture. Castles, indeed, such as we now see them, were of late introduction to the world. Whether we may rank them with the accommodations of life brought by the crusaders from the East, is doubtful: but this much seems tolerably certain, that it was in France, England, Germany, Switzerland, and Savoy, that the system of castellation first prevailed. In Italy, till the Normans got possession of Naples and Sicily, castles were comparatively few. We may at least date their general adoption in Europe with the feudal system. I - . I -. I. I.,., MY IHAJI{ F5 GHAY, B1-111' 11-T WPE1IW YEIAiRt, A~l U-C lW l 2-1 171127 0-1111- WINTA H'1-IO14-G17 1-fGHA12.ABRrE&FTFVE, R1K7W- I T 1.1411171 * i. 1. ". '. S,. 6 " 41 0.. I, I. 1 __ _ CAS ll1 CAS GAS 111 GAS The early British fortifications seem to have been little more than mere entrenchments of earth. Caesar, however, penetrated not far enough to know the true nature of the British fortresses; and in his work, De Bello Gallico (lib. v. section 17), has given only the description of a lowland camp. In all parts of England, there is a vast number of strong entrenchments of a very peculiar kind, situated chiefly on the tops of natural hills, and which can be attributed to none of the different people who have ever dwelt in.the adjacent country, but the ancient Britons. That they may have been used at different times, and occupied upon emergencies, by the subsequent inhabitants of the island, is no more than probable; but there are many, and undoubted reasons, for deeming them the strong posts and fastnesses of the aboriginal settlers, where they lodged their wives,'formed.tbeir~garrisons, and made their stand. That the Britons were accustomed to fortify such places, we have the authority, of Tacitus, who, describing the strongholds formed and resorted to by Caractacus, says, " Tunc montiblus arduis, et si.qa clementer accedi poterant, in. modumr valli saxa prcestruit."-Annal. lib. xii. sect. 33. One of these entrenchments still makes a formidable appearance on a mountain hanging over the vale of Nannerch, in Flintshire, called MIoel-Arthur. But their situation being so high that they couldi have no supply of water except from the clouds, they were often liable to be untenable for a considerable time together. One of the most important of these fastnesses in our own country, is the HIerefordshire Beacon, situated on a spot that could not but be an object of the utmost attention to the original inhabitants of those territories, which afterwards were deemed distinctly England and Wales, from the very division here formed. It is on the summit of one of the highest of the Malvcern hills, and is known by the name just mentioned. It has been by turns attributed to the Romans, the Saxons, and the Danes, but its construction as a stronghold shows it was designed as a security for the whole adjacent country on any emergency. Another of these fortresses is at BrufW, in Staffordshire, which has been described by Mr. Pennant, in his Journey from Chester, p. 47, and exactly answers the account of Tacitus. It is placed on the summit of a hill, surrounded by two deep ditches, and has a rampart formed of stone. Other instances are adduced by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, and by Mr. King, in the first volume of the Alfunimenta Antiqua:, but a stronger instance than all, perhaps, is given by Mr. Gough, in the Additions to Camden, vol. ii. p. 4Q4, where he shows that the true Caer Caradoc, the very fortress alludedw to in the sentence we have quoted, which, if not the royal seat of Car actacus, seems to have been at least his stronghold, was in Shropshire, two miles south of Clun, and three from Coxal, being a large camp, three times as long as it is broad, on the point of a hill, accessible only one way, and defended on the north side by very deep double ditches, in the solid rock; whilst on the east, the steepness of the ground renders it impregnable. On the south it has only one ditch, for the same reason: and the principal entrance is on. the west side, fenced with double works; whilst to the south-west it is even fenced with triple works. The most extraordinary, however, of all these kinds of fortresses, is situated in Caernarvonshire, called Tre'r Caeri, or The Towz of Fortresses. The plan and elevation of this ancient stronghold and abode is given by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, vol. ii. p. 206. On the accessible side it was defended by three rude walls of stone; the upper ones being lofty, about fifteen feet high, and sixteen broad; exhibiting a grand and extensive front. The space on the top is an irregular area; but the whole is filled with cells, some round, and some oval, and some also oblong or square. Several of the round ones were fifteen feet in diameter; which brings to mind the houses of the ancient Gauls, described by Strabo; and of those that were oblong, there was at least one even thirty feet in length. Of the same kind of fortresses were Penmaen Mawr, in Caernarvonshire; Warton Cragg, in Lancashire; Old Oswestry, in Shropshire; the irregular encampment of Maiden Castle, near Dorchester: and probably Old Sarumn, whose character was new-modelled by the Romans. Mr. King, in the Munimenta Antiqua, vol. i. p. 63, considers the dens in the mountains and the thickets, of Scripture, as strongholds or hill-fortresses of the kind described. When Samson had made a great slaughter of the Philistines, we are told he went and dwelt in the top of the rock Elam; where we find, afterwards, three thousand men of Judah went up to confer with him. That hill-fortresses were used in the earliest ages, there can be little doubt. The Israelites, when their land was invaded by Jabin, the king of Canaan, in consequence of an exhortation from Deborah the prophetess, assembled to make their stand upon Mount Tabor. Among the Indians of South America, strongholds, of a similar nature to those of Britain, have been frequently discovered. Ulloa's Voyage to South America, vol. i. p. 503-504. And a very curious instance of the attack and surrender of one in Sogdiana, in Asia, in the time of Alexander the Great, is related by Quintus Curtius, lib. vii. chap. xi. The anecdote is worth the reference of the reader. The British mode of warfare appears to have received but little alteration from the introduction of Roman tactics. Till finally subdued, their princes showed abilities both in the command of armies and in the conduct of war; they chose their ground judiciously; formed able plans of active operations; and availed themselves of all the advantages of local knowledge: but to the fortresses described, if we may rely on the testimonies of our ancient writers, they did not very frequently retire. Their deficiencies both in the attack, the construction, and the defence of such places, must have been very obvious even to themselves; and as they delighted to live, so they usually chose to fight, in open plains. Their impatient courage, and their aversion from labour, made them unable to endure the delays and fatigues of defending or besieging the castles of their time; and they often reproached the Romans with cowardice, for raising such solid works about their camps and stations. See Boadicea's famous speech to.her army, in Xiphitlin, ex Dione in Nerone. Of the Roman military works in this country, they were for the greater' part temporary;;many, however, were stationary posts; and some few, to the,retention oP which thie greatest importance was attached, became walled castra. COesar, in the work already quoted, De Bell. Gall. lib. vii. describes one of his camps as fortified very much in the manner of a walled city. A few of the Roman stations in our own country assist in throwing light on the description; and, in short, such as were so surrounded, appear to have been the link of connection between the British earth-work and the feudal castle. Richborough, Portchester, and Pevensey, are the three greatest fortresses the Romans have left us. Richborough, the very earliest in order of time, is supposed to have been begun in the year 43, in the reign of Claudius; but not to have been completed till 205, under the direction of emperor Severus. There are in this distinguished fortress, says Mr. King, (Munimenta Antiqua, vol. ii. p. 8) still plainly to be traced all the principal parts of one of the very greatest and most perfect of the stationary camps. The upper division for the general and chief officers, and the lower division for the legion. In the former, the praetorium with its parade; J _ ~ i _ _ ___1 I CAS 112 CAS GA 1 A and the sacellum. or small temple, for depositing the ensigns. In the walls too are the traces of the four great gates; the decuman, the prtetorian, and the two posterns. The great courses of stone, with which the wall is formed, are separated fiom each other by alternate layers, composed entirely of a double course of bricks each; as in the walls of Verulam, Silchester, and other of our Roman towns. The Roman remains at Portchester are not perhaps so clearly to be traced; since, having been constantly used as a fortress in succeeding ages, it has received vast and extremely various additions: and presents us with specimens of military architecture in almost every period, from the Normans to the time of Queen Elizabeth. Similar alterations to those first mentioned, have given so strong a turn to the general character of Pevensey, that its real vera has been sometimes doubted; though portions of the Roman wall, as well as the decuman gate, may be easily and accurately traced. Here too it may not be irrelevant to observe, that the castle at Colchester, in Essex, has been sometimes taken for a Roman fortress. And this not only because it has many of the samtn sort of tiles which are found in Roman walls, but because they are laid in the same manner, with bands. Though, if the building be examined with attention, there may be traced, in almost every part, evident marks either of the later Saxon or Norman workmanship: and though many of the tiles which are used in it may have been gathered from the remains of Roman buildings, the greater part appears to have been made on purpose. See the Archocologia, vol. iv. p 33. That in the Roman times, however, there must have been many other such walled stations as those at Richborough, Portchester, and Pevensey, there can be little doubt. The Saxons, in the course of their long wars with the Britons, may be fairly supposed to have destroyed many of the fortifications which had been thus erected: and after their final settlement, they neglected to repair those which remained, or to build many of their own. By these means the country became open and defenceless; which greatly facilitated the incursions of the Danes, who met with little obstruction from fortified places. That there was, however, something like a castle at Banborough, in Northumberland, we have the concurrent testimony of historians, as Matthew of Westminster, p. 193, sub ann. 547. Saxon Chronicle, p. 19. Roger Iloved. p. 238, b. Bede, lib. iii. chap. vi. p. 12: a castle at Corfe, in Dorsetshire, is said to have existed in the days of Edgar. Gough's Add. to Calden, vol. i. p. 49. King's Mlunimenta Antiqua, vol. iii. p. 209. Portchester castle, during this period, probably retained its designation. And Mr. King, Miunimenta Antiqta, vol. iii. p. 211, has taken considerable pains to prove that the fortress at Castleton, in Derbyshire, is of as high antiquity. Alfred the Great, however, seems to have been the first of our princes with whom the building of castles became an object of national policy. Though, if Asser's authority may be received, they were not exactly what the reader, at the first mention of their name, might take them for; since they were composed not only of stone, but of wood; Asser de Beb. gestis Alfiedi, p. 17, 18. Elfleda, too, his daughter, governess of Mercia, who seems to have been the only person in the kingdom who properly complied with the commands, and imitated the example, of her illustrious father, and who inherited more of the wisdom and spirit of Alfred than any of his children, not only followed his steps by fighting many battles with the Danes, but built not less than eight castles in the space of three years, to check their incursions. Hen. Hunt. Hist. p. 204. A still more remarkable instance of the knowledge of castle-building at a short period subsequent to this, may be found in William of Malmesbury, chap. vi. when he mentions the rebuilding of Exeter by Athelstan, who died in 941. " Urbem igitur illan," says the historian, " quanI contaminatce gentis repurgio defcccaverat, turrlibus munivit, mtro ex quadratis lapidibus cinxit." And from the few remains of the fortifications of this period, we find, that the walls precisely answer Malmesbury's description. They were faced with these four-square stones both within and without, and the intermediate space between the facings was filled up with rubble or rough flint-stones, mixed together with a strong and permanent cement. It is to this period too, that the most judicious of our writers have referred the castle at Colchester, which has been already mentioned. Its form is four-square, flanked at the four corners with strong towers, and it is about two hundred and twenty-four yards in circumference on the outside, all projections and windings included; the four sides nearly facing the four cardinal points. Some have even gone so far as to call this venerable ruin British; others, as we have already said, have attributed it, with a greater share of plausibility, to the Romans; but Camden and our better writers ascribe it to Edward the Elder, who repaired the walls and rebuilt the town, in the beginning of the 10th century. Still, however, the paucity of strong posts in the island during every period of the Anglo-Saxon history, may be constantly observed. And it is more than probable that to this defect we may attribute the defeat of Harold; since it became necessary that all should be risked upon the issue of a single battle. The Conqueror, himself, was evidently sensible that the want of fortified places in England had greatly facilitated his conquest, and might, at any time, also facilitate his expulsion. lie therefore made all possible haste to remedy the defect, by building magnificent and strong castles in all the towns within the royal demesnes. " William," says Matthew Paris, "excelled all his predecessors in building castles, and greatly harassed his subjects and vassals with these works." Matthew Paris, Hist. p. 8. col. 2. And his earls, barons, and even prelates, imitated his example; and it was the first care of every one who received a grant of an estate from the crown, to build a castle upon it for his defence and residence. The disputes about the succession, in the following reigns, kept up this spirit for building great and strong castles. William Rufus was still a greater builder than his father; and Henry I. was not idle in adding to their number. "William Rufis," says Henry Knyghton, col. 2373, " was much addicted to building royal castles and palaces, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, Exeter, the palace of Westminster, and many others, testify; nor was there any king of England before him that erected so many, and such noble edifices." Though of one or two of these, William Rufus was only the improver. But the rage for building castles never prevailed so much in any period of the English history as in the turbulent reign of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154. In this reign, says the writer ot the Saxon Chronicle, p. 238, every one, who was able, built a castle; so that the poor people were worn out with the toil of these buildings, and the whole kingdom was covered with castles. And this last expression will hardly appear too strong, when we are informed, that, besides all the castles before that time in England, no fewer than eleven hundred and fifteen were raised fiom the foundation, in the short space of nineteen years. - Rad. de Diceto, col. 528. " Stephen," says Htolinshed, vol. iii. fol. 50, " began to repent himself, although too late, for that he had granted license to so many of his subjects to build castles within their own grounds ) 0 - - - - CAS 113 CAS AS113 CAS An art, Dr. Henry observes, (History of Britain, vol. vi. p. 188, 8vo.) so much practised as architecture was in this period, must have been much improved. That it really was so, will appear from the following very brief description of the most common form and structure of a royal castle, or of that of a great earl, baron, or prelate, in this period; and as these castles served both for residence and defence, this description will serve both for an account of the domestic and military architecture of those times, which cannot well be separated. The situation of the castles of the Anglo-Norman kings and barons was most commonly on an eminence, and near a river; a situation on several accounts eligible. The whole site of the castle (which was frequently of great extent and irregular figure) was surrounded by a deep and broad ditch, sometimes filled with water, and sometimes dry, called the fosse. Before the great gate was an outwork, called a barbacan, or antemural, which was a strong and high wall, with turrets upon it, designed for the defence of the gate and drawbridge. On the inside of the ditch stood the wall of the castle, about eight or ten feet thick, and between twenty and thirty feet high, with a parapet, and a kind of embrasures, called crennels, on the top. On this wall, at proper distances, square towers, of two or three stories high, were built, which served for lodging some of the principal officers of the proprietor of the castle, and for other purposes; and on the inside were erected lodgings for the common servants or retainers, granaries, storehouses, and other necessary offices. On the top of this wall, and on the flat roofs of these buildings, stood the defenders of the castle, when it was besieged, and from thence discharged arrows, darts, and stones, on the besiegers. The great gate of the castle stood in the course of this wall, and was strongly fortified with a tower on each side, and rooms over the passage, which was closed with thick folding-doors of oak, often plated with iron, and with an iron portcullis, or grate, let down from above. Within this outward wall was a large open space, or court, called, in the largest and most perfect castles, the outer bayle or balliurn, in which stood commonly a church or chapel. On the inside of this outer bayle was another ditch, wall, gate, and towers, enclosing the inner bayle, or court, within which the chief tower, or keep, was built. This was a very large square fabric, four or five stories high, having small windows in prodigious thick walls, which rendered the apartments within it dark and gloomy. This great tower was the palace of the prince, prelate, or baron, to whom the castle belonged, and the residence of the constable or governor. Under ground were dismal dark vaults, for the confinement of prisoners, which made it sometimes be called the dungeon. In this building, also, was the great hall, in which the owner displayed his hospitality, by entertaining his numerous friends and followers. At one end of the great halls of castles, palaces, and monasteries, there was a place raised a little above the rest of the floor, called the dais, where the chief table stood, at which persons of the highest rank dined. Though there were unquestionably great variations in the structure of castles and palaces in this period, yet the most perfect and magnificent of them seem to have been constructed on the above plan. Such, to give one example, was the famous castle of Bedford, as appears from the following account of the manner in which it was taken by Henry Ill. A. D. 1224, from Matthew Paris, Hist. Angl. p. 221-2. The castle was taken by four assaults. "In the first was taken the barbacan; in the second, the outer ballia; at the third attack, the wall by the old tower was thrown down by the miners, where, with great danger, they possessed themselves of the inner ballia, through a chink; 15 at the fourth assault, the miners set fire to the tower, so that the smoke burst out, and the tower itself was cloven to that degree, as to show visibly some broad chinks; where. upon the enemy surrendered." As Britain abounded in this period in fortified towns and castles, much of the art of war, of course, consisted in defending and assaulting strong places; and a knowledge of the application of them in this period may be obtained from the relation of the siege of Exeter castle by king Stephen, in the year 1136. See the Gesta Regis Stephani, apud Duchesn, p. 934. It is perhaps the most consummate specimen of the military skill of that age with which we are acquainted. And it may be enough to observe, that after this siege had lasted three months, and king Stephen had expended upon it in machines, arms, and other things, no less than 15,000 marks, equal in efficacy to 150,000 pounds of our money, the besieged were obliged to surrender for want of water. Henry's Hist. of Britain, vol. vi. p. 217. Berkeley, which was originally founded in the reign of Stephen, is one of the best remains we are now possessed of, of an ancient feudal castle. But the changes which almost all these buildings have undergone in subsequent times, may be judged of by those which have taken place at Berkeley. The buildings within the inmost only of the three gates are said to have been the work of Henry II. when duke of Normandy; while the two outermost, with all the buildings belonging to them, except the keep, are referred to the latter end of the reign of Henry II. and to those of the second and third Edwards. The hall and the two chapels are of the latter period; and the great kitchen, adjoining to the keep, was of the work of Henry VII. Among the castles which Mr. King has endeavoured to appropriate to the early Norman period, are those of Nottingham, Lincoln, and Clifford's tower at York, all erected by the Conqueror: Archceol. vol. vi. p. 257. The remains of all these, he observes, fully illustrate the Norman mode of constructing such edifices. Tickhill, in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, appears to have been another of these castles, ibid. 267; and Pontefract bespeaks a Norman design, with. rude and imperfect alterations. All of these appear to have been erected upon artificial mounts, and nearly cover the whole area of the summit of the respective hills on which they are situated. Tunbridge castle, in Kent, built by Richard de Clare, about the time of William Rufus, is mentioned by Mr. King, as a specimen of the later Norman structures; and he has been very accurate in his description of it; ibid. 270. Gundulph, who directed the building of the Tower of Lon. don, in 1078, and the castle at Rochester, he describes to have introduced a great many judicious alterations, and not only to have increased the security, but the magnificence of our military piles; and observes that the castle at Rochester is a complete specimen of all that he effected. Newark, which Mr. King afterwards mentions, is an instance of a prelate's castle in the reign of Stephen: and the keep of Knaresborough, of the time of Henry Ill., completes the specimens it may be proper to mention of the irregular style of castle-building which prevailed during the interval between the Norman Conquest and the middle of the thirteenth century. To these succeeded the magnificent piles of Edward 1., more convenient and more stately, and containing not only many towers, but great halls, and sometimes even religious houses. The best style of military architecture in this period was displayed in the castles of Caernarvon, Conway, and Caerphilly; and it is singular to observe that many of our more ancient castles were then increased with additions in the same sumptuous style. *0 - i, CAS 114 CAS.A. 114. CAS.... I After the age of Edward I. we find another kind of castle introduced, approaching nearer to the idea of modern palaces. The first of tiese was that at Windsor, built by Edward Ill., who employed William of Wykeham as his architect. This convenient and enlarged style of building was soon imitated, on a lesser scale, by the nobles of the realm; and two remarkable instances, wherein convenience and magnificence were singularly blended at this period, may be found in the castles of Harewood and Spoff)rd, in Yorkshire. The improvements at Kenilworth afford another instance of the great enlargement which our castles, during this age, were accustomed to receive: and Naworth, in Cumberland, is another of the best specimens that can probably be referred to. Caistor, in Norfolk, affords the style of Henry the Sixth's reign. It was built by Sir John Fastolf, who died in 1459. To these venerable piles succeeded the castellated houses; mansions adorned with turrets, and battlements; but utterly incapable of defence, except against a rude mob, armed with clubs and staves, on whom the gates might be shut; yet still mansions almost quite devoid of all real elegance, or comfortable convenience, and fitted only to entertain a herd of retainers wallowing in licentiousness. At the same time, however, they discover marks of economy and good management, which enabled their hospitable lords to support such rude revels, and to keep up their state even better than many of their more refined successors. Of these buildings one of the most perfect and most curious, now remaining, is Haddon House, in Derbyshire; castellated and embattled, in all the apparent forms of regular defence; but really without the least means of resistance in its original construction. The description Mr. King has given of it, Archceol. vol. vi. p. 347, is, however, too long to be extracted, and too curious to be abridged. After this kind of building, the magnificent quadrangular houses of the reign of Henry VIII. succeeded; of which the most beautiful and genuine models, perhaps, were those of Cowdray, in Sussex, and Penshurst, the seat of the Sidney family, in Kent. Without referring to the stately buildings of Elizabeth's reign, it may be enough to say, that here ends the history of the English castle. The block-houses of Calshot, Hurst, Sandown, Sandgate, and South Sea, are the last instances of such buildings ever intended for a stand, and seem strongly to mark the revolution which has taken place in our defensive system of war. The total change in military tactics, brought about by the invention of gunpowder and artillery; the more settled state of the nation, Scotland becoming part of the dominions of the kings of England; the respectable footing of our navy, whose wooden walls secure us from invasions; and the abolition of the feudal system,-all conspired to render castles of little use or consequence, as fortresses: so the great improvement in arts and sciences, and their constant attendant, the increase of luxury, made our nobility and gentry build themselves more pleasant and airy dwellings; relinquishing the ancient dreary mansions of their forefathers, where the enjoyment of light and air was sacrificed to the consideration of strength; and whose best rooms, according to our modern refined notions, have more the appearance of gaols and dungeons for prisoners, than apartments for the reception of a rich and powerful baron. However, in the reign of Charles I., a little before the breaking out of the civil war, some inquiry into the state of these buildings seems to have taken place; for on the 22nd of January, 1636, a commission was issued, appointing lieutenant-colonel Francis Coningsly, commissionary-general of and for all the castles and fortifications in England and Wales, with an allowance of 13s. 4d. a day, to be paid out of the cheques and defalcations that should be made by him from time to time; or, in default thereof, out of the Treasury. Whether this office was really instituted for the purpose of scrutinizing into the state of these fortresses, as foreseeing the events which afterwards happened; or whether it was only formed to gratify some favourite, does not appear. During the troubles of that reign, some ancient castles were garrisoned and defended, several of which, particularly Corfe castle, in Dorsetshire, were afterwards destroyed, by order of the parliament: since that period, they have been abandoned to the mercy of time, weather, and the more unsparing hands of avaricious men. The last have proved the most destructive; many of these monuments of ancient magnificence having been by them demolished for the sake of the materials: by which the country has been deprived of those remains of antiquity, so essential, in the eyes of foreigners, to the dignity of a nation; and which, if rightly considered, tended to inspire the beholder with a love for the now happy establishment; by leading him to compare the present with those times when such buildings were erected: times when this unhappy kingdom was distracted by intestine wars; when the son was armed against the father, and brother slaughtered brother; when the lives, honour, and pro. perty of the wretched inhabitants depended on the nod of an arbitrary king, or were subject to the more tyrannical and capricious wills of lawless and foreign barons. The few castles existing in the Saxon time, were, probably, on occasion of war, or invasions, garrisoned by the national militia, and, at other times, slightly guarded by the domestics of the princes or great personages who resided in them; but after the Conquest, when all the estates were converted into baronies, held by knight's service, castle-guard, coming under that denomination, was among the duties to which particular tenants were liable. From these services the bishops and abbots, who, till the time of the Normans, had held their lands in frank-almoign, or free alms, were, by this new regulation, not exempted; they were not, indeed. like the laity, obliged to personal service, it being sufficient that they provided fit and able persons to officiate in their stead. This was, however, at first vigorously opposed by Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury; who, being obliged to find some knights to attend King William Rufus in his wars in Wales, complained of it as an innovation and infringement of the rights and immunities of the church. It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror, and the kings of those days, to grant estates to men of approved fidelity and valour, on condition that they should perform castleguard, with a certain number of men, for some specified time; and sometimes they were likewise bound by their tenures to keep in repair some tower or bulwark, as was the case at Dover castle. In process of time, these services were commuted for annual rents, sometimes styled ward-penny, and wayt-fee, but commonly castle-guard rents; payable on fixed days, under prodigious penalties, called sur- sizes. At Rochester, if a man failed in the payment of his rent of castle-guard on the feast of St. Andrew, his debt was doubled every tide, during the time for which the payment was delayed. These were afterwards restrained by an act of parliament, made in the reign of King Henry VIII., and finally annihilated, with the tenures by knight's service, in the time of Charles II. Such castles as were private property, were guarded either by mercenary soldiers, or the tenants of the lord or owner. Castles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it either by forfeiture or escheat (circumstances that frequently happened _I _ ______ CAT 1. CAT CAT 1. CAT in the distracted reigns of the feudal times) were generally committed to the custody of some trusty person who seems to have been indifferently styled governor or constable. Sometimes also they were put into the possession of the sheriff of the county, who often converted them into prisons. That officer was then accountable to the exchequer, for the farm or produce of the lands belonging to the places entrusted to his care, as well as all other profits: he was likewise, in case of war or invasion, obliged to victual and furnish them with munition out of the issues of his county; to which he was directed by writ of privy seal. Variety of these writs, temp. Edw. III., may be seen in Madox's History of the Exchequer; and it appears, from the same authority, that the barons of the exchequer were sometimes appointed to survey these castles, and the state of the buildings and works carrying on therein.-Rees's Cyclopedia. CASTRA, the Latin name for a camp. CASTS. See CAST and CASTING. CATABASION (from car-apfatvw, I descend), in the Greek church, a hollow place under the altar, wherein the relics were kept, and through which was the descent into the vaults beneath. CATABULUM, a building, or stable, in which the beasts of burden and carriages were kept for the public service. The ancient Christians were sometimes condemned to serve in the catabula. CATACAUSTIC CURVE. See CAUSTIC CURVE. CATACOMB, a grotto or subterraneous place for the interment of the dead. In Italy, this term is particularly applied to an assemblage of subterraneous sepulchres, three leagues from Rome, in the Via Appia. Each catacomb is three feet wide, and eight or ten feet high, running in the form of an alley or gallery, and communicating with each other. Some authors imagine them to be the cells wherein the primitive Christians hid themselves; and others take them to be the burial-places of the early Romans, before the practice of burning the dead was introduced. The most celebrated catacombs are those of Egypt, wherein the ancient inhabitants deposited their mummies. The descent into them is through a square aperture with holes in the sides, for the feet, somewhat like an upright ladder. These excavations are hewn out of the solid rock, which consists of free-stone, and the walls are adorned with hieroglyphics, and representations of utensils and implements of war. See Pocock, NordenD and Denon. CATADROME, an engine used in building, for lifting and letting down great weights. CATAFALCO (from the Italian), a decoration, of architecture, sculpture, or painting, raised on a scaffold, on which to exhibit a coffin or cenotaph, in a funeral solemnity. CATCH-DRAIN, in the construction of canals, the same as counter-drain; sometimes it also implies the feeders of a reservoir. CATENARIA, a mechanical curve, which a heavy flexible body, of uniform thickness, would form itself into, if hung freely fiom its two extremities. The famous Galileo first investigated the nature of this curve, and supposed it to be a parabola. This problem, after being proposed by Mons. J. Bernouille, was first solved by Dr. D. Gregory, who also affirmed, that the inverted catenaria was the best figure for the arch of a bridge; the intrados of which, however, must depend entirely upon the curvature of the extrados. CATHEDRAL, (from the Greek, aOde69a, a chair; derived from ca0e&opiat, sedeo, I sit,) the head church of a diocese, wherein is the see or seat of a bishop. During the first ages of the church, cathedrals were pro bably more numerous than other churches, as we know that there was a bishop in every town of importance wherever the Christian religion prevailed. The bishop, the head of the church, was assisted in the services of religion by his priests and deacons, the bishop, however, retaining the more important duties, such as preaching and the administration of the sacraments, which he seldom delegated to the assistant' presbyters, unless necessitated so to do. In process of time, as occasion offered, other churches were formed, subject to the mother-church, and to the jurisdiction of its bishop; at this early period, however, it cannot be doubted but that the proportion of bishops to the lower order of the clergy was much greater than at the present day, and consequently the number of cathedrals or bishops' sees must have been more numerous. It is not our intention, however, in this place, to dwell at length upon the general subject; we would confine ourselves more especially to our own country, and will accordingly proceed to investigate the accounts we have left us of the early cathedrals of Great Britain. No one, probably, would think of controverting the fact of the early introduction of Christianity into this country; it may indeed be questioned whether Saint Paul, or Saint Joseph, or the British king Lucius, be the benefactor to whom we owe its introduction; but its existence here during the first century will scarcely admit of a doubt. We know further that the British church was episcopally governed, for we hear of the presence of British bishops at the council of Arles, as early as the commencement of the fourth century; and we have consequently every reason to conclude that the episcopal form of government was co-existent with the church, and further, that if churches existed at all, some such churches must have been cathedrals. We cannot speak with any degree of certainty of the date, form, or material of the first cathedrals. Dr. Milner says, that a cathedral was erected by Lucius, at Winchester, of the enormous length of 600 feet, as early as the close of the second century. Whether the dimensions given do not belie the whole statement must be left to the judgment of individuals; but there is good reason to believe that churches did exist at this period, as we hear of their demolition during the Diocletian persecution, which took place A. D. 303. Upon the success of the Pagan-Saxons, the Christian churches of England were of course destroyed, whilst those in Wales and south-west of England, where the British Christians had retreated, were considerably increased; this was especially the case with monasteries, which served in a measure as places of safety, and in building which the Britains followed the salutary advice of Saint Germain. Upon the conversion of the Saxons by Saint Augustine, churches again made their appearance in Kent, as we learn that a cathedral was erected by that missionary-bishop at Canterbury, and dedicated under the title of Christ Church. At a not much later period we hear of the foundation of the cathedral churches of Saints Paul and Andrew, the one at London and the other at Rochester. Shortly after Augustine's mission in the south, the wonderful success of Paulinus in the northern parts of the island, in converting the king, Edwin, and his pagan subjects, gave rise to the cathedral of Yor.. It is stated that Edwin first erected a church of timber in this city, but afterwards built a larger church of stone, in which the timber one was enclosed. Paulinus, again successful at Lincoln, caused to be erected a church of stone, of " admirable workmanship," as Bede tells us. Stephen Eddy, a writer older than Bede, informs us that Wilfrid, bishop of York, finding, upon taking possession of his see, that the old church built by Edwin and Oswald was in a dilapidated condition, set about repairing it-" skilfully I 1 - -— cllnll~C-e~ —*~- - -- CAT 116 CAT CAT 116 CAT- -- roofing it with lead, and preventing the entrance of birds and rain by putting glass into the windows, yet such glass as allowed the light to shine within;" and our author goes on to state that the same Wilfrid built a new church at Ripon, of polished stone, "with columns variously ornamented, and porches." The account of the dedication of this church is given in full, and is the earliest description of the kind extant. A curious and somewhat detailed account is given by the Monk of Ramsey, of the construction of the church at Ramsey existing previously to the one dedicated in his time; Ile says, "it was raised on a solid foundation, driven in by the battering-ram, and had two towers above the roofs: the lesser was in front at the west end; the greater, at the intersection of the four parts of the building, rested on four columns, connected together by arches carried from one to the other." He further adds, that this church was obliged to be pulled down, and a new one erected in its stead, in consequence of a settlement in the central tower, which rendered the entire building unsafe.-That this church was of stone can scarcely be doubted, after perusing the above narrative; but we have direct and explicit mention of the fact, for the same author, in describing the labours of the workmen, says: "Some brought the stones, others made the cement, while others attended to the machines for raising the stones; so that in a short time was seen the sacred edifice with its two towers, where previously there had been but a barren waste." A curious representation of an Anglo-Saxon church is to be seen in an Illuminated Pontifical in the Public Library at Rouen, containing the order for the dedication and consecration of churches; the date of which is ascribed by some to the eighth, and by others to the tenth, century; that the manuscript is of English origin has never been doubted. This miniature in black outline represents the ceremony of dedication. The form of the church is remarkably similar to that of our existing cathedrals, which is more especially noticeable in the form of the towers and spires, the symbolical cock on the steeple, and the ornamental hinges of the door. We are here naturally led into some inquiry respecting the materials, form, and disposition of these early cathedrals. The materials employed by the Anglo-Saxons seem to have been wood and stone, but during what time either material was used cannot easily be determined; whether they were both used at the same period, under different circumstances, or whether at any point of time the one was superseded by the other, we are unable to learn. It has been supposed, and with some plausibility, that wooden churches were erected by the Scotch and Irish missionaries, and the more substantial fabrics by those from Rome, and this idea seems to be borne out by Bede, who states "that Adrian, the first bishop of Lindisfarne, having departed this life, Finan, sent and ordained by the Scots, succeeded him, and built a church in the island after the method of the Scots; which was built not of stone, but of hewn oak, and covered with reeds." This writer adds, that " Eadbert, the seventh bishop, took off the thatch, and covered both the walls and roof with lead." It seems very reasonable likewise that the Roman missionaries, who had been used to the structures of Italy, should not feel satisfied with mere wooden buildings. It is true it seems to be noted as somewhat unusual, that Wilfrid built a church at Ripon of polished stone, yet the novelty may not have consisted in the erection being of stone, but rather in the fact of the stone being smoothed or polished; for it is probable that the first buildings, after the Roman manner, were of rough undressed stone, there being neither time, means, nor workmen to complete a more finished structure. It is very probable that Wilfrid's church was built by Italian workmen, as we know that he had frequented Rome, and was a man too zealous in promoting the temporal splendour of the church, to allow any opportunity of forwarding his object to slip past unimproved. There can be little doubt but that in process of time the employment of stone entirely superseded that of timber. No inconsiderable notion is afforded us of the form and disposition of the parts of the early cathedrals, from an account already referred to-we allude to that of the church at Ramsey. From this description we gather that the plan of the church was cruciform, with a tower rising from the intersection, and another at the west end of the church. We learn from Wolstan, that there was a tower at the west end of the old church at Winchester, but that in the new structure the tower was towards the eastern extremity, and of the last it is related that it consisted of five stories, in each of which were four windows looking towards the cardinal points. Further, in the miniature of the Illuminated Pontifical above described, we notice that the tower is surmounted by a steeple, a fact which, were it not for other considerations, would almost tempt us to refer the manuscript to a much later date, as we know that such additions were not very frequent, even in the Norman period; indeed, the idea of a Saxon cathedral afforded us by these descriptions, approaches very nearly to actual existing specimens of much later date. We must not conclude from these accounts that all churches of this date were cruciform, for we learn the contrary-from Bede, who speaks of churches as square; some have supposed that Ramsey was the first instance of a cruciform edifice, but this was not the case, as is evinced by a metrical description of a cathedral, written long before its erection. Having thus far considered the nature of the Saxon cathedrals, we arrive at the Norman era, during which a great number were erected; but as we have no lack of existing examples of this period, we do not think it requisite to pursue a detailed inquiry any further: we shall now proceed to some description of the cathedrals of the present day. The term Cathedral includes generally the whole of the buildings connected with the bishop's see, including the church, chapter-house, chapels, cloisters, dormitories, refectories, residences for those engaged in attendance on the bishop, and in the services of the cathedral, and buildings for a variety of uses; it is applied, however, in a more especial sense, only to the church, and to such application we shall confine ourselves in the following remarks. The plan of our old cathedral churches is invariably that of a Latin cross, having the nave in the longest arm, the transepts in the two cross arms, and the choir, comprising the remaining length of the church, to the east of the nave; the English always placing their altar at the east end, which was more frequently square, than either circular or multangular, as in the continental churches. Not unusually the plan was extended further eastward, to provide for an additional chapel, dedicated to our Ladye, and sometimes, though much less frequently, a similar, but smaller projection, was added at the west end: this was the Galilee porch, so named, as we learn from Gervase, from the passage of Scripture-" He goeth before you into Galilee, there ye shall see him,"this being the place where the monks were allowed to see their female relatives; here was also the station of catechumens, and the resting-place of corpses previous to their interment. In some instances we find a double transept, east and west of each other, as at Canterbury; the additional arm 's accounted for symbolically as representing the inscription placed above _ _ L O t r* ~ r rr r r r, ~ + r ~r r -A~ LX t 11 A 1~ >7 E Y0. rbKti A A1i If S~~~~ ~ H ST F? 40 E?~50 s~ RlAl E i JR 4 0 -44 I I S (J,-H-:q3RAL PL-AN OF VTlF;STIW:,NS7' U 1, BI'lK PAN K, A L7LISTI A. C R I\T EEASTIAI CP 1,11 7 EIN 'LIP 1413 CAT 117 CAT CA 11C the head of our Lord at his crucifixion, the lower symbolizing the cr6ss-piece on which the arms were extended. It is noticed in some cathedrals that the eastern extremity is not in the same line with the nave, but bent on one side, as it were; this is explained in a similar manner as marking the inclination of the head of our Lord while on the cross. At the west end of the nave, on each side of it, were situated the towers, and another at the intersection of the nave and transepts, all of which were in some cases surmounted with spires; sometimes this addition was restricted to the western towers, but it is frequently omitted altogether, when the towers are usually carried to a greater elevation. At Exeter, we meet with the towers forming the transept, and at Peterborough with one at the northern extremity of the west transept. Internally the nave and choir are divided into three aisles, the central one being carried up above the others. This tripartite division is seldom carried out in the transepts, in which, however, we sometimes find one aisle as at Durham, and sometimes two as at Westminster and Bristol. The aisles are separated from the body of the church by an arcade, immediately above which the vaulting commences; in the body, however, between the arcade and vaulting, are interposed two stories, the lower one consisting of a gallery called triforia, opening into the nave and choir by means of a small arcade, and supposed to have been appropriated to the nuns; and the upper, termed the- clere-story, in which were placed the windows for lighting the central avenue of the church. In Bath Cathedral, the triforia are omitted, and their place supplied by a string-course. An approximation to the proportions of the different measurements of cathedral churches is given by Brown Willis, as follows: - The height is generally equal to the breadth of the nave and aisles; the cross, in which the transepts and intermediate space are contained, is extended half the length of the whole fabric, as is likewise the nave; the side-aisles equal half the breadth and height of the nave, and the spires and tower have a mean proportion between the length of the nave and that of the transept. The above description will give a general idea of the construction of our cathedrals; but from the exceptions already noticed, it will be understood that no rule applies invariably to all buildings of the kind; for although the plans are in all cases similar, and the arrangement of the parts of the edifice systematic, yet we find not one cathedral in any respect a copy of another. We now proceed to give some account of the edifices of this rank preserved to us in the present day, of which we have 21 in England, and 4 in Wales. There were also 13 in Scotland, and 22 in Ireland. In addition to the num. ber already mentioned, we have in England one modern cathedral, Saint Paul's, London; besides which the collegiate church at Manchester has recently been elevated to the dignity of a bishop's see; but as the latter was never constructed for such a purpose, we do not think it can be correctly included with the others as an architectural example. The following is an account of the erection of cathedral churches in England, and additions made to them, arranged in chronological order: - To the period of the Anglo-Normans, or between 1066 and 1170, including the reigns of William I. and II., Henry I., Stephen, and the first sixteen years of Henry II., we may attribute the western front and nave of Rochester cathedral; the nave, north aisle, and the chapels round the choir of that at Gloucester; the original substructure of Exeter cathedral, with its transepts and towers; the central tower and transept of Winton cathedral; the nave of that at Chichester; the north transept of that at Ely; the choir of Peterborough cathedral; the oldest part of the western front and central tower of that at Lincoln; the central church of Durham, excepting the additional transept on the east; the nave and tower of Norwich; and many arches of Worcester cathedral. In the period between 1170 and 1220, including the latter part of the reign of Henry II., and the reigns of Richard 1. and John, the older Ladye chapel and chapter-house of Bristol were erected; as were likewise the choir and round tower (called Becket's Crown) at Canterbury; the nave and chapter-house at Oxford; the nave and choir of Norwich cathedral; the western towers at Ely; the transepts of Peterborough; the presbytery, Chichester; the transept, tower, and choir of that at Hereford; the nave and choir of Wells cathedral (begun); and the chapter-house of Chester. In the period between 1220 and 1300, including the reigns of Henry III. and part of Edward I., were erected the nave and arches beyond the transept of Lincoln cathedral; the north and south transepts of York minster; the choir and transept, Rochester; an additional transept to the cathedral of Durham; the tower and whole western front of that of Wells; the choir at Carlisle; the presbytery and south transept at Ely; the transept and choir at Worcester; and the whole of Salisbury cathedral. In the period between 1300' and 1400, including the latter part of the reign of Edward I, and the reigns of Edward II. and III. and Richard II., the nave and choir of Exeter cathedral were erected; and that at Lichfield was built uniformly; additions were made to the central tower at Lincoln: the nave of Worcester cathedral was built, as were the nave, choir, and western front of York minster; also the transepts at Canterbury and Gloucester; the spire and tower at Norwich; the spire and additions to Salisbury cathedral; the cloisters were begun at Gloucester: the nave and choir were erected at Bristol, as well as the spire and choir at Chichester; our Lady's chapel at Ely; and the chapter. house and cloisters (now destroyed) at Hereford. In the period between 1400 and 1460, including the reigns of Henry IV., V., and VI., were erected the choir of Gloucester cathedral; the nave of that of Canterbury; Bishop Beckington's addition to Wells cathedral; and that of Lincoln, from the upper transept to the great east window. In the period between 1460 to 1547, viz., from the reign of Edward IV. to the end of that of Henry VIII., were erected our Lady's chapel at Gloucester; the roof of the choir of Oxford cathedral; the choir of that of Chester; Alcocke's chapel at Ely; the Ladye chapel, Peterborough; the north porch, Hereford; and the exterior of the choir at Winchester. The following particulars respecting the English Cathedrals are extracted principally from the works of Britton and Dallaway: - PECULIARITIES. Bath- The unusual height of the clere-story. Bristol- Had no nave, the present choir being formed out of the Ladye chapel. Canterbury - The grand entrance is under the south tower. The marble columns of the choir with Romanesque capitals, and the octangular chapel called Becket's Crown. Chester - Extraordinary size of the south transept. Chichester - Double aisles to nave, and detached campanile at its north-west angle. Durham - The chapel of our Ladye placed at the east end as a second transept; the Galilee placed before, and distinct from the facade. Ely - A single western tower connected with the nave;-the _ CAT 118 CAT CA - CAT octangular tower; -the Ladye chapel detached from choir, and a Galilee in a perfect state. Exeter - The skreen before the west front, and towers at either end of the transept. This cathedral was completed according to the original plan. Lincoln -The arches in the west front, the work of Remigius; the Galilee and double transept. LichJield-The three stone spires. Norwich - The roof of the nave, and the west end, with the Erpingham gateway. Peterborough - The triple arcade before the west front eightytwo feet high; the double towers with spires at the western angles; tower at the southern extremity of the north-west transept, and the Galilee. Rochester - The choir longer than the nave. Salisbury -The complete uniformity of style; the height of the central spire, and the double elliptic inverted arch under the tower, as at Wells. Winchester- The longest nave. York -The double aisles to the transept; the largest window; the square louvre, and the absence of cloisters. REMARKABLE PARTS. Bath - The tower has four turrets, without pinnacles, and is oblong in plan, which is owing to the narrowness of the transept; the aisles are very low, and there is no triforium in the nave, but merely a plain string-course. There is an alto-relievo of Jacob's ladder at the west end. Bristol - Has no external flying buttresses, the walls of the nave being supported by the roofs of the aisles, which are formed of complicated open arches; the aisles and nave are of equal height, only forty-three feet. Canterbury - The crypt, which is of greater extent, and more lofty than any other in England; the central tower and the apsidal form of the east end. Chester —The unequal dimensions of the north and south transepts, the latter being wider, and nearly as long as the nave, with aisles on each side, while the former is unusually short, and of the same width as the central tower; the aisles of the choir also extend beyond it eastward, and form the aisles of the Ladye chapel. Chichester- Has the earliest specimen of a vaulted roof; its spire greatly resembles that of Salisbury. Durham - Pillars of nave curiously striated; the Galilee measures 50 feet by 78 feet. Exeter -Possesses almost the only example of a group in sculpture, which is in the triforia of the transept, and represents a concert of musical instruments. Ely — 'he octangular lantern, which is 71 feet in diameter, and 142 feet from the ground, supplied the place of a lofty central tower which fell down a short time previous to the erection of the lantern. There exists one of the earliest specimens of the pointed arch in the tower and transept. Gloucester — The eastern termination is apsidal; and the cloisters, the most perfect and beautiful in England, unusually situate on the north side of the church. Lincoln- Old west front; the large and beautiful south porch, and east facade; the Galilee. T'he central tower had a spire higher than Salisbury, which was blown down A. D. 1547. This church is remarkable for its sculpture, and has a curious bas-relief of the Deluge over the west door, and of the Last Judgment over the south porch. Lichfeld —Is nearly uniform, and was completed throughout on the original plan. The east end is apsidal in plan. Norwich - The end of the choir is octangular, and the cloisters are very spacious. Peterborough - The grand facade and portico, remarkable for their fine proportions; the Galilee and aspidal termination, also the west transept, which is placed at the west end. Rochester - The west facade is one of the most perfect specimens of Norman; the choir is longer than the nave. Salisbury -Is the most unif;rm cathedral in England, and has a lofty and beautiful spire, only seven inches thick. Wells - The west fiont is noted as bearing a resemblance to the facades of Continental cathedrals; it is filled with statues; the central tower is supported on an inverted arch as at Salisbury. i7inchester - Is remarkable for its fine nave; the choir is under the central tower. Worcester - The style and proportions of the nave are considered beautiful. York -The aisles surrounding the whole church are of the same dimensions throughout; the rose window, which is 22 feet 6 inches in diameter, is the finest in England; the choir is under the tower, as at Winchester. The subjoined Tables may be found useful; the former, from the works of Dallaway, gives the dates of the principal portions of the English Cathedrals; the latter, compiled principally from Britton's Antiquities, shows their dimensions. It will be noticed that Mr. Dallaway's dates do not agree in every case with those above given. Dates of the Principal Portions of the English Cathedrals. - -. I -- Cathedrals. Bath.......... Bristol........ Canterbury.... Carlisle....... Chester...... Chichester.... Durham....... Ely........... Exeter........ Gloucester..... Hereford...... Nave. Choir. 1532 1500 1332 1332 1420 1174 1150 1863 Aisles. Transept., 1485 1125 1093 1174 1307 1089 1095 1217 1233 1235 1318 1357 1115 1532 na 1570 ch. 1174 1150 na. 1363 ch. 1485 1125 na. 1217 ch. 1807 na. 1318 ch. 1089 na 1310 ch. 1095 1500 1532 1311 S. 1463 N. 1174 up. 1379 lwr. 1353 1320 N. 1217 N. 1329 S. 1230 1133 N. 1280 1330 S. 1375 N. 1095 up. 1148 lwr. Tower. 1500 1463 1070 N.W. 1400 S. W. 1500 Cent. 1400 1508 1217 W. 1282 Cent 1230 W. 1295 Cent. 1174 W. 1328 Cent. 1128 1457 1216 W. Cathedrals. Lichfield...... Lincoln....... Norwich....... Oxford........ Peterborough... Rochester...... Salisbury...... Wells......... Winchester.... Worcester... York........ 1295 1200 1171 1120 1175 1080 1217 1239 1394 1218 1291 Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transept. ~- I I 1295 1200 1195 1120 1160 1227 1230 1239 1493 1218 1361 1295 1200 1171 na. 1160 ch. 1120 1175 na. 1160 ch. 1080 na. 1227 ch. 1217 na. 1230 ch. 1239 1394 na. 1493 ch. 1218 1291 na 1361 ch. 1295 1300 W. 1306 E. 1195 1122 1272 W. 1080 1274 1239 1070 1218 lwr. 1380 up. 1227 Tower. 1295 W. 1430 Cent 1254 Cent 1279 W. 1096 1222 1217 1450 W. 1465 Cent, 1070 1372 1361 W. 1420 Cent I I I I --- I j r CAT 119 CAT CA 11 CAT" Admeasurements of tle principal parts of the most remarkable Cathedral Churches of Great Britain, given in English feet. A large portion of this Table is extracted from Britton's Works. IL I - Cathedrals. Canterbury..... York.......... Bristol......... Carlisle........ Chester........ b Chichester...... Durham....... Ely........... Exeter........ Gloucester...... d Hereford....... ~ Litchfield....... f Lincoln........ g Norwich....... h Oxford......... i Peterborough... k Rochester...... 1 Salisbury....... Wells........ Winchester..... m Worcester...... " St. Paul's...... o Old St. Paul's.. Westminster Abbey Church St Asaph...... Bangor........ St. David....... P Llandaff....... q Man........... r St. Patrick...... Dunblane....... a Elgin.......... t Glasgow....... Iona.......... u Kirkwall....... Extreme Length..< a 545 516 518 480 203 174 242 210 375 312 410 386 507 476 535 517 408 382 427 406 350 326 403 379 505 440 415 384 168 156 480 427 383 362 474 450 415 385 556 520 425 386 512 462... 690 530 475... 179. 214... 307... 270... 113... 300... 216.. 264 370 339... 160... 256 Extreme Breadth. * I.. - - ~ a5 U 1:70 158 188 241 220 210 127 113 130 116 112 100 120 151 131 146 194 170 203 190 179 203 155 140 96 154 142 160 174 1451 125 177 149 143 242 218 176 200 180 1 205 116 102 61 198 184 234 170 144 1140 230 206 ' 196 155 130 164 230 208 240 145 127 174 283 228 170 215 195 154..... I 119. 141 124...... 55...... Nave. 1w 0. 27 43 41 26 37 30 31 33 28 26 37 28 22 35 32 32 32 32 30 39 30 22 35 30 *o Choir. 73 110 84 100 82 74 72 35 70 66 78 70 53 79 73 78 70 88 78 102 130 68 68 60 76 80 so 62... 80 93 *.. 65 70 66 68 63 58 81 75 45 73 55 81 68 78 67 90 102 105 60 34 46 *. 90 70 132 130 76 107 80 68 93 101 123 110 76 145 118 130 54 90 145 152 82 113 90 97 166 136 60 53 80 97 **. 86 76 100 100 69 64 72.. 84 60 65 79 70 74 70 72 66 83 85 72 60 69 57 80 75 72 85 52 45 79... 85 55 78 81 32 73 88 67 73 61 102 90 4224 88 72 105 32 60 62 90 ~. *-.'] Transept. 4 B q I I r 158 128 220 174 116 100 131 170 179 140 142 145 106 149 218 165 180 102 183 122 90 206 145 130 208 127 121 228 248 195 108 96 148 66 157 76 114 70 o,. 40 34 98 29 18 44 34 59 78 30 35 538 359 45 61 3713 28 21 68 32 68 57 44 68 81 31 24 97 73 32 o~ 751 792 93 60 65 72 70 qo 60 57 74 72 45 73 55 6511 81 8119 68 80 66 6621 90 105 *-. *... I Centre West Tower. Towers I I I 11 230 1533 200 196 133 3005 956 210 143 1707 215 153... 223 160 26211 20012 264 209 30914... 14651... 143 160 15516 156 96 40420... 165 125 148... 193... 36022 210 53423... 226 93 60... 127 90 22325. 120 19826 8421 220'8 12029 76 13330 West Front. 140 137 117 142 113 95 95 100 175 83 153 93 112 148 128 17 110 105 112 100 88 93 132 93 116 115 115 130 188 141 4 J I I I I I 1- I= I I I - * Has two transepts: I East transept; a West h 16 With spire. P Has two western towers. transept; 3 South-west tower. i Has projection or transept at the western q No side aisles. b 6 Including spire; 6 South-west tower. extremity; 16 tower over north-west tran- r 25 With spire. ~ Octagonal lantem; there is a projection or sept. " 6 With spire; 21 Without spire; length of transept at the west end, forming a galilee. k Has two transepts; " East transept. ladye chapel eastward 28 feet, extending the d 8 North end with aisle; there are two tran- I Has two transepts; 19 East transept. whole width of the cathedral. septs; 9 East transept m Has two transepts; 21 East transept. t 28 To the extremity of the spire; 29 At north11 and 12 With spires. n 22 Top of cross over dome. west angle. f Has two transepts: 3 East transept. ~ 23 To top of spire; 4 without aisles. u a0 With spire. a 14 With spire. Many cathedrals of architecture similar to our own, are proportion to their breadth as in England, so that they lose to be seen on the Continent, of the more noted of which we that perspective effeet afforded by the long vista of arcades shall give a short description. One of the great points of which forms so beautiful a feature in our cathedrals. Another distinction between the English and foreign cathedrals, is distinguishing characteristic in the foreign churches is the superior magnitude of the latter, which is evidenced afforded in the magnificence of the grand facades, of which more in the height than in any other dimension:-a circum- full one moiety is occupied by the portal. In our works stance which will be apparent, when it is told that the west the entrance is of small dimensions, and is subservient to front of York Minster could be placed beneath the choir- the window above it, but in theirs it forms the principal roofs of Beauvais or Amiens cathedrals; the length of the object, being splayed from the door to the exterior surface continental buildings, however, does not bear so great a of the wall, and the space thus formed, occupied with columns, --- _ I CAT 120 CAT CA 2 A niches, statues, and other embellishments; the upper part of this splay is of course of an arched form, and the tympanum over the door-head is frequently filled with large groups of sculpture. The upper half of the faiade is occupied by a circular or rose window of great magnitude. This arrangement is frequently carried out in the ends of the transepts. Further we have to notice the apsidal forms of the east end, the numerous chapels surrounding the choir, and the great height of the roof, which in France is in a great measure concealed by lofty parapets, but in Germany, where it is even more lofty, is left exposed. Internally, the foreign structures are remarkable for the great height of the body and aisles, and simplicity of the vaulting; for the apsidal termination with its vaulted roof, and the size of the rose windows of the nave and transepts. The body of the building is frequently divided laterally into five parts, having a central nave with a double aisle on each side of it. The following cathedrals are remarkable for theirEntrance Porches-Rheims, Strasburg, and Rouen. Rose windows-Strasburg, Notre Dame, S. Ouen, Rouen, and Rheims. Towers and spires-Strasburg, Mechlin, Antwerp, Ul.m, Cologne, Friburg, Louvain, and Vienna. The height of that of Strasburg is 550 feet; that of Louvain (now fallen) 533 feet; and that of Vienna, 465 feet. Strasburg, Friburg, and Constance, are noted for their spires of open work or pierced tracery. The cathedrals of Freidburgh and Frankenburgh have the nave and aisles of the same height, and that of Freidburgh has the side aisles nearly as wide as the nave. St. Lorenzo, Nuremburgh, has a choir loftier than the nave, and the cathedral at Worms is celebrated for its two choirs. S. Peter's, Rome, is the most spacious cathedral, after which follow those of Cologne and Milan, of which the former has never been completed; it was commenced in the middle of the-thirteenth century, but the choir is the only portion that was finished, the nave is carried up only half its intended height. This building, if entire, would be perhaps the most magnificent cathedral in existence, but there seems but a remote probability of its completion: it is said to be adorned with 4,973 pinnacles, 576 statues, 128 windows, 160 flying buttresses, 104 pillars, and 9 entrances, while Milan boasts of 4,400 statues, and 160 columns of white marble. Adnleasurements of some of the more remarkable Continental Cathedrals, given in English feet. I I I t~ Name of Cathedral. A Amiens........ b Bayeux........ a Chartres....... d Notre Dame.... * Rheims........ f Rouen......... r S. Ouen......... h Antwerp....... Cologne....... Friburg........ Ulm.......... k Florence....... Milan.......... Rome-S. Peter. 415 296 876 492 439 408 416 500 532 899 416 491 493 669 Nave. Choir. I -- —., - Aisles. Transept. 4 S 220 140 222 244 244 o.. 132 279 * * j 42 48 46 42 38 34 *. 132 76 108 116 90 100 160 86 140 139 I@ 130 118 114 167..102 *. * * * * *. * * *. *..d a 42 36 46 38 o. *. *. *. 4. 129...... 160 a 18 17 21 22 32.o m 80 o... a 0 180 113 196 150 164 130 230 250 294 283 442 cl Cd 9 pq 42 40 93...... o. 150 140 166 197 396 ai o5 I::1 ';..I 93 93.... 103 93 93 i~ 224 5322 240 466 432 463 356 432 210 230 378' 221 253 380 532 372 490 210 230 37.. I I -.. * Has two western towers b Has two western towers, and a central one. c * With spire. Has double aisles round choir. d Haa double aisles of equal dimensions, with galleries over them The south rose window is 45 feet 6 inches in diameter. e Has two western towers f With spire. Ladye chapel 62 feet long. h With spires. i Has double aisles continued all round the church. k Exterior dome. CATHERINE WHEEL, a large ornament in the upper compartment of the windows of Gothic structures; of a circular outline, filled interiorly with a rosette, or radiating divisions, and beautifully variegated. Catherine-wheel windows are supposed to have been borrowed from our continental neighbours, in the 14th century. In foreign cathedrals, such windows are of enormous magnitude, and of frequent occurrence; as they are commonly met with, not only in the end walls of the transept, as with us, but also in the western fapade immediately above the entrance. There is a very fine one in the cathedral of Rheims; and in the great church of St. Ouien, at Rouen, are two; one of which, of great diameter, is called la rose. Winchester cathedral has likewise a very large one; but it is still exceeded by one at Cheltenham, in Gloucestershire. In St. Peter's church, Westminster, there is one in each transept. CATHETUS, a line falling perpendicularly upon another line or surface. CATHETUs, in architecture, according to Vitruvius, is a right line drawn perpendicularly from the under arris, or line of the sima-inversa at each flank of the Ionic capital, to the centre of the eye of each volute. It must, however, be remarked, that the cathetus drawn in this manner, does not apply to all ancient examples of this order. CATTLE SHED, or CATTLE HOUsE, in rural economy, an erection for the purpose of containing cattle while feeding, or otherwise. In order to make the feeding of cattle advantageous, it is most important that the cattle sheds should be placed in the most convenient situations with respect to the c 1II. -_ CAT 121 CAT CAT ~121CA fields from which the food is to be brought. In large farms, moveable sheds with temporary yards may be erected according as different fields are in grass or roots, and a great saving of carriage thereby effected, both in the bringing the food to the cattle, and carting the dung unto the land; a clay bottom should be selected, in a high and dry spot, if possible, and it should ever be borne in mind, that, with cattle,.as with human beings, cleanliness, free ventilation, and perfect drainage are indispensable to perfect health and a sound condition of the body. Cattle sheds are most cheaply constructed when placed against walls or other buildings. If they are to be erected in an isolated situation, the expense of the double shed will be much less than that of the single one, to contain the same number of cattle. Every building of this description should be capable of being well aired, by a free ventilation; and so constructed as to require the least possible labour in giving the food and clearing away the dung; the stalls should be so placed as to keep the cattle dry and clean, with sufficient drains to carry away, and reservoirs to receive the ordure. The greater number of the air-holes should be in the roof; and if the building have gables, there should be a window in each, as high as possible, with moveable boards, or air flights, as in granary windows, which may be easily opened or shut, by means of a small rope. These precautions will not only conduce to the health of the cattle, but tend to preserve the timbers, which, fiom the alternate wetting by the breath, and drying, would otherwise soon go to decay. In single sheds, the cattle are, in many parts of the country, fastened to stakes about three feet distant from each other, ranged in a line parallel to the wall, at the distance of about 18 or 20 inches from it, thus leaving sufficient space for laying down the food; but this plan is inconvenient, as it obliges the feeder to pass between the cattle when he feeds them, and is consequently attended with loss of time, and is sometimes dangerous. The best construction is that which admits a sufficient space for a passage before the cattle, for the feeder to pass along with a wheel-barrow, when he distributes their food. In single sheds, three feet will be sufficient for the width of this passage; and in double sheds, the heads of the cattle should face each other, and the breadth of the passage need not be increased beyond four feet. Where cattle are fed from the outside, through holes left for the purpose, many inconveniences may arise from wet weather, a severe frost, or a heavy fall of snow; but when fed within, no change of weather can have any influence on their feeding; particularly if due care be taken to keep the provender dry and under cover. In single sheds, it would be convenient to have a provenderloft above the cattle, for holding, occasionally, hay and straw; a loft of this kind might be provided with flaps in the flooring, furnished with hinges, which, when opened, would affobrd an easy access for putting in the fodder from the cart, and enable the feeder to throw it into the racks when required. In this case the roof may be supported by posts or pillars, about three or four feet high, on the top of the wall, and eight or ten feet distant from each other; the flaps may be lifted by rings, and be made stationary in any required position, by a catch. In many places, cows and oxen are bound to stakes, without any stalls, or divisions between them. In some parts, cows are bound in pairs, with a slight division between them; in others, they are not bound, but every cow or ox has a separate. stall, divided from the rest by wooden rails, 80 that they cannot get out, and so narrow that they cannot 16 turn round. Many feeders think the cattle thrive better in stalls of this description, than when they are bound. At each stake there should be a trough for holding provender, and between these two troughs there should be another for water, common to the cattle on both sides; this water-trough, which, as well as the others, may be of stone, and of one piece, may be supplied by a pipe from a cistern or reservoir; and over thenm should be a perpendicular rack for straw or hay. But though the double stalls, here recommended, are much used for milch cows in different parts of England, they have, in general, only one provender-trough for each cow, and none for water. In paving stalls for cattle, the declivity is in general too great, which occasions them to stand uneasy. The best mode is similar to that of paving stables. Wood has lately been used with advantage for paving stalls. In many places, it is the practice to fasten the heads of the cattle between two stakes; by which they can neither lie down in comfort, nor dislodge or destroy those tormenting vermin, which frequently prey upon them. No animal can thrive when confined in this manner. As the dung of cows and oxen is of a liquid nature, it may perhaps be carried off by means of an iron grating, placed behind each animal, as nearly as can be, in the spot where it usually drops, and immediately over the stall drain, or over a wooden spout, which being continued in a sufficient slope, to a pit or reservoir without, will, with the assistance of water occasionally thrown down,empty itself therein. Should any obstruction occur, the aid of a rake or a hoe, fitted to the drain, may be easily applied; especially if the drain be only covered with a strong plank, which may be taken up when necessary. The greater part of the dung being thus carried away, the remainder will be easily removed. Such a contrivance would save much labour, and facilitate the keeping of cattle clean; it would also be the means of saving a great deal of litter, when scarce or dear. On this part of the subject it may be observed, that the waste of urine and dung, too often seen in even well-conducted farms, is much to be deprecated and lamented-everything of the kind is valuable, and should be conducted to proper reservoirs judiciously constructed and arranged for the purpose, to be afterwards used on the land. Where a great number of cattle are kept, the erection of sheds or feeding houses on a circular plan, proves very economical, and saves much labour, though a little more expensive in the first cost. In this form of building, the animals stand all round with their tails towards the external wall, leaving a sufficient passage or gangway behind, for them to pass to and from their stalls; proper openings are also to be left in the wall, for discharging the dung, which may fall into covered pits on the outside. The openings should be so contrived, as to be capable of being shut up in severe weather. The area, or space in the middle, is converted to the use of feeding and attendance; and, to render the plan complete, there should be a room above, to store up the different sorts of food that the cattle may require. The oblong plan likewise admits of much room and convenience, and is a form in which many cattle houses have been lately erected. In this kind of shed, the length of fifty or sixty feet affords room for a great number of cattle. The roof is made shelving, 14 feet in the highest part, and six or seven in the lowest. The place for the reception of the cattle is separated from that wherein the dung is to be deposited, by a wall, or other convenient division, and may be about 18 or 20 feet within, to afford good room. The stalls are twelve feet long, and from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches wide; leaving gang ways at the heads and behind the cattle, 3 feet or 3j - - - _ __ r __ _ CAU 122 CE I CA _122 C feet in breadth. Each stall has two doors, the one for admission of the cattle, the other for the persons who attend them; and when the buildings are of great length, it may be convenient to have additional doors at each end. There should likewise be a water-trough in each stall, and where a stream can be made to run through the whole range, it is productive of great advantage. The boxes, or mangers, for particular sorts of tood, as well as racks for hay, are also necessary to render these buildings complete. The bottom of the stalls may be formed of strong planking, laid so as to have a very slight descent, and perforated with holes for the passage of the urine into the reservoir. There should also be openings in the wall, behind the cattle, between every two stalls, of about two feet square, for discharging the dung, with proper shutters fitted to them. Each stall should likewise have a wooden window, of about the same size, for the admission of light and for fiee ventilation, placed as high as the house or shed will admit. The reservoir for the dung or urine should extend the whole length of the building. For further particulars on this subject, see Cow-HousE. CAUKING, or COCKING, the mode of fixing the tie-beams of a roof, or the binding-joists of a floor, down to the wallplates. This was formerly done by dovetailing, in the following manner:-a small part of the depth of the beam at the end of the under side was cut in the form of a dovetail, and a corresponding notch, to receive it, was formed on the upper side of the wall-plate, across its breadth; making, of course, the wide part of the dovetail towards the exterior part of the wall, so that the beams, when laid in their notches, and the roof finished, would tend greatly to prevent the walls from separating, though strained by inward pressure, or even if having a tendency to spread through accidents or bad workmanship. But beams fixed according to this mode, having been found liable to be drawn to a certain degree out of the notches in the wall-plates, fiom the shrinking of the tinber; a more secure mode has succeeded, which prevents all possibility of one being drawn out of the other, however unseasoned the stuff may be, or however affected by changes of weather. See CocKING. CAULICOLES (from caulis, a stalk or stem), in the Corinthian capital, eight stalks between each two of the upper row of leaves, ramifying upwards, each into two foliated branches, and seeming to support the volutes under the abacus; each branch supporting one of the sixteen volutes, or helices, two of which are placed at each angle, and two in the middle of each face of the abacus. CAULKING, in ship-building, the operation of driving a quantity of oakum, or old untwisted ropes, into the seams of the planks in the sides or decks of a ship, to secure the interior from water. After the oakum is driven very hard into the seams, it is covered with hot melted pitch, or rosin, to prevent the water from rotting it. CAULKING IRONS, chisels for driving the oakum into the seams; in caulking, these chisels are some broad, some round, and others grooved. CAUSEWAY, in the most usual sense, denotes a common hard raised way, maintained and repaired with stones and rubbish. ' It also signifies a massive construction of stone, stakes, and fascines; or an elevation of fat viscous earth, well beaten; serving either as a road across wet marshy places, or as a mole to retain the waters of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing low lands. CAUSTIC CURVE, in the higher geometry, a curve formed by the concourse of the rays of light reflected fiom some other curve. It is not of much use in building, as this reflection only forms one of the known curves, which are all specified under their respective heads. CAV3EDIUM (from the Latin, cava and cedium), a vacant space within the body of a building; in a'Roran house, it was what we now call a court. According to Vitruvius, there were five kinds of caveedia, denominated Tuscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, displuvinated, and testudinated. The Tuscan cavaedium had a roof projecting froml each wall, leaving an aperture in the middle; it was suspended on the walls without the intervention of any support fiom pillars or columns. The Corinthian cavoedium was similar to the Tuscan, excep6 that the roof was supported by columns. The tetrastyle, as its name implies, had one column at each of the four angles of the roof, for its support. The displuvinated, being without any roof, admitted a free access of the light to the windows of the surrounding rooms, and was therefore calculated for winter apartments. The testudinated, which was covered with a vault or concave ceiling, rising from the walls, was used when the span or impetus was not very great; the space above being used for various kinds of apartments. The latter, however, can hardly be deemed a court, though it comes under the general denomination of caveedium. CAVAZION, CAVASIoN, or CAVATION, an excavation made in the ground for the foundation of a building. CAVE, a subterraneous hollow place, or the space dug out for cellarage and other purposes below the basement rooms of a house. A common allowance for this is one-sixth of the height of the building. Caves, without doubt, were among the first habitations of men, before they became acquainted with the method of rearing a covering for shelter. They were also used in the early ages as receptacles for the dead. CAVEA, in the ancient amphitheatres, properly signified the place where the wild beasts were kept; but the word was also applied to the middle part, called the arena, and frequently denoted the whole of the interior of the amphitheatres, as well as of the theatres. CAVETTO (Italian, a diminutive of the Latin, cavus, hollow), a concave moulding or cove, the curvature of whose section does not exceed the quarter of a circle; its projection may be equal to its altitude, and should never be less than two-thirds of it. The cavetto, which is the reverse of the ovolo, or quarter-round, is sometimes used in the bed and crowning mouldings of cornices; and forms the upper member of the architrave of some of the most beautiful Grecian Tonics. The hollow moulding used in the bases between the tori, &c., is also called a cavetto. CEILING (from the Latin, coelum the sky, or celare, to cover), the inside of the roof, or top of an apartment, opposed to the surface of the floor. Ceilings may be either flat, or coved, or both. Coved ceilings are sometimes concave round the margin and flat in the middle, or otherwise they are vaulted. See VAULT. The former occupy from one-fifth to one-fourth of the height of the room. The principal sections of vaulted ceilings may be of various segments, equal to, or less than semicircles as may be most suitable to the height of the room. Flat ceilings are adorned with large compartments, or foliages and other ornaments, or with both. Compartment ceilings are either formed by raising mouldings on the surface, or by depressing the panels within a moulded enclosure, which may be partly raised upon, and partly recessed within the framing, or entirely recessed. The figures of the panels may be either polygonal, circular, or elliptical. The ceilings of the porticos, and of the interior of.. 1.. -. - - 4 I I CE. 123.CE L CEI 123 CE L Ancient temples, were comparted, and the panels deeply recessed; the prominent parts between them representing, it is said, the ancient manner of framing the beams of wood which composed the floors. The mouldings on the sides of the panels are sunk in one, two, or several degrees, like inverted steps; and the bottoms of panels are most frequently decorated with roses. The figures of these compartments are mostly equilateral and equiangular. Triangles were seldom used; but we find squares, hexagons, and octagons in great abundance. The framing around the panels, in Grecian and Roman examples, is constantly parallel, or of equal breadth; therefore, when squares are introduced, there is no other variety; but hexagons will join in contiguity with one another, or form the interstices into lozenges, or equilateral triangles. Octagons naturally form two varieties, viz., that of its own figure, and- squares in the interstices; this kind of compartment is called coffering, and the recessed parts coffers, which are used not only in plain ceilings, but also in cylindrical vaults. The borders of the coffering are generally terminated with belts, charged most frequently with foliage; and sometimes, again, the foliage is bordered with guilloches, as in the Temple of Peace, at Rome. In the ceiling of the entire temple at Balbec, coffers are disposed around the cylindrical vault in one row, rising over each intercolumn, and between every row of coflers is a projecting belt, ornamented with a guilloche, corresponding with two semi-attached columns, in the same vertical plane; one column supporting each springing of the belt. The ceilings of the ancients were commonly relieved by colour and gilding in various designs, which must have greatly added to the effect of the whole edifice; this practice has been adopted in the new entrance-hall of the British Museum with very great success. The moderns follow the practice of the ancients in their cupolas and cylindrical vaults, ornamenting them with coflers and belts; and the belts again with frets, guilloches, or foliages. Small panels are ornamented with roses, and large ones with foliage or historical subjects. The grounds may be gilt, and the ornaments white, partly coloured, or streaked with gold; or the ornaments may be gilt, and the grounds white, pearl, straw-colour, light-blue, or any tint that may agree best with the ornaments. Some ceilings are painted, either wholly or in various compartments only. When a ceiling is painted to represent the sky, it ought to be upon a plane or spheric surface, without being coned at the edges. Ceilings plane and coved are much employed in modern apartments; they seem to be a kind of medium between the horizontal and the various arched forms practised by the ancients: they do not require so much height as the latter; but they are neither so graceful nor yet so grand. Vaulted ceilings are more expensive than plane ones; but they are also susceptible of a greater variety of embellishments. When a ceiling is made on the under side of the rafters of a roof, it is said to be camp-ceiled, or tent-ceiled. The timbers of ceilings in Gothic edifices are seldom plastered, although examples are occasionally found, as at Rochester Cathedral, of the Decorated period, which is divided by moulded ribs of wood. The timber ceilings are either flat, concave, circular, or ranging with the principal timbers of the roof; sometimes, however, we have vaulted ceilings of timber, as at Winchester Cathedral. When flat, 'the ceilings are divided into panels by moulded ribs, which at their intersection are enriched with bosses, pendants, or such like ornaments; sometimes large panels are subdivided by mouldings of a smaller section. The concave ceilings, which present the form of a barrel vault, have most frequently only a single rib running along the top; when others are introduced, it is but sparingly. In all cases, ceilings were enriched with gilding and colours of the most brilliant kind, examples of which are constantly being brought to light during the restoration of old churches. Plaster was very much used in the ceilings of Elizabeth's time and the succeeding reigns, in which period the ceilings were generally flat, divided into panels by ribs, which, as well as the panels themselves, were often adorned with an exuberance of decoration moulded in the plaster, of which we have many beautiful specimens. Soffit amounts to nearly the same thing as a ceiling, except that the former is applied to the under sides of apertures and cornices, and the latter to a more extended space, as the top or side of an apartment opposite to the floor. The under surface of an arch is also called the soffit, or intrados, whether it be the head of an aperture, or extended over an apartment. Arched ceilings are described under the article VAULT. CEILING, is also understood to be the lath and plaster at the top of a room, or on the under side of common or ceiling joists. CEILING, in carpentry, the joisting, ribbing, or bracketing for supporting the lath and plaster of the upper surface, or ceiling of a room. There are various kinds of ceilings, as plane ceilings, cove ceilings, and plane and cove ceilings. Under cove ceilings may be classed several other kinds, as waggon-headed, or cylindrical ceilings, dome ceilings, groin ceilings, and spandrel ceilings. For bracketing these different figures, see the words BRACKETING and RIBBING; for the definition of arch ceiling, see VAULT. CEILING-FLOOR, the joisting and ceiling supported by the beams of the roof. CEILING-JOISTS, small beams, which are either mortised into the sides of the binding-joists with pulley-mortises, or notched upon, and nailed up to the under sides of the said joists. This last mode takes away from the height of the room; but it is easier to execute, and is thought to be less liable to break the plaster, than when the ends of the ceilingjoists are inserted in pulley-mortises. When girders are introduced in the floor, the under sides of the girders must be furred, to correspond with the level of the under edges of the ceiling-joists. CELL, in carpentry. See SILL. CELLA, in Roman antiquity, was variously applied. It denoted, in temples, the interior or most retired place, called by the Greeks, naos; and in baths, various apartments, as the frigidaria, tepidaria, caldaria, &c. It was also used to denote the apartments of prostitutes, and the bed-chambers of domestics. CELLA, was likewise applied to monasteries, to denote a lesser one, subordinate to a greater; and was even applied, vice versa, to rich monasteries not dependent on any. CELLAR, in ancient writers, a conservatory for provisions, whether to eat or drink. The term comes fiom the Latin celariun, and is of the same import with cella. CELLAR, as now used, is generally applied to an apartment in which liquors are deposited. Cellars are commonly placed in the lower story of the dwelling-house, sunk beneath the surface of the ground; sometimes they are placed under ground, and are entered from the area before the building; they are sometimes also placed in outhouses. When they are placed within the dwelling-house, or contiguous to an out-building, they should have a north exposure. Cellars should be kept cool, and consequently remote from any place that would communicate heat, and care should be taken to _ ___ __ _ _i_ CEL 124 CEL E 124 preserve them of as uniform temperature as possible; for this purpose they &hould be constructed with double walls and double vaults, leaving a hollow space all round. Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were called by the Greeks hypogaca. CELLARAGE, the number of cellars which a dwellinghouse requires, whether one or many. CELTIC, or DRUIDICAL ARCHITECTURE. A term applied to a class of structures composed of rough unhewn stones of great size, the erection of which is generally attributed to that family of mankind classed under the name of Celts, more especially to the Druids. These erections are of various descriptions, some consisting of a single stone, others comprising many hundreds; their arrangement also differs very greatly, yet at the same time there is a general similarity which readily marks their relation. Trhe remains are more numerous in this country than in any other, but they are by no means confined to it, similar erections being found not only in the neighbouring islands, in Fralnce, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, and Denmark, but also in Phoenicia, Palestine, India, Malabar, Persia and China, and even in the western continent. To account for the existence of these works in such remote regions, their construction has been attributed to the Celtte. These Celts, or Gauls, as they were termed by the Romans, are supposed to be descendants of Gomer, the son of Japhet, whose posterity were called after his name, Gomerians, a title which is identical with the Cimmerians of the Greeks, and the Cirnbri of the Latins. That the Celtia were a branch of the same stock as the Cimmerians, is generally allowed, and it would seem, that they followed in their migrations a south-westerly course, while the Cimmerians pursued a northern, and afterwards a westerly direction. When and where the great family separated is not so universally agreed upon, some writers asserting that they divided before they took their departure from the East, others maintaining that the separation did not take place before they had advanced some distance into Europe. The latter class of writers, who rest mainly on the authority of Ilerodotus, suppose that the two branches of the one family travelled together until they were overtaken and harassed by the Scythians, when a large number, the Celtse, moved southward, and spread westward fiom Asia Minor to Italy, and afterwards to Spain and Britain. It is certain that the Cimmerians were closely followed by the succeeding horde of emigrants, the Scythians, and were by them continually pressed further westwards; it is also generally allowed, that Great Britain was peopled principally by the northern hordes who passed through Denmark and Gaul. If we follow the theory of those who place the separation at the later period on this side the Sea of Azoph, we shall have to account in some other manner for the existence of Celtic remains in Syria and Phoenicia, as well as in India. This difficulty is obviated by attributing the introduction of such a mode of building into this country to the Phoenicians; but then we are left to account for the appearance of the same in the north. The supporters of this opinion quote the statement of Caesar, that Druidism originated in Britain, and was carried thence to Gaul; and from whom, say they, are the Britons likely to have letarned it, but from the Phoenicians, with whom we know they carried- on a trade in tin, and who, on account of the advantages obtained from that traffic, were very jealous of their knowledge of the island being extended to other nations; it is allowed, that the structures we are considering were closely allied to Druidism. But this theory, as we said before, raises the difficulty about the existence of similar works in the north, unless it be admitted indeed that the Phoenicians and the northern tribes are of the same family, and if so, we allow its early separation, which is the fact fir which the opposite party contend; the only difference being this, that in one case, we need only account for one separation; while in the other, we must necessarily suppose a second. The fact of the identity of the Phoenicians with the northern tribes of the Ciminerians does not rest solely on historic evidence, it is also demonstrable from other facts, such as the common origin of their languages, and the similarity of their customs and religious observances. As far as the former is concerned, there seems to be sufficient evidence to show that the Hebrew, Phoenician, Sanscrit, Irish, and Manx languages, are derived from the same source; and as regards the latter, Dr. Borlase, in his attempt to controvert the opinion, admits that the customs and ceremonies of Asia and of Northern Europe were known.and practised by the British Druids, although he maintains that the Britons had several observances which were peculiar to themselves. It would indeed seem that Druidism appeared in a more matured and systematic form in these islands, than elsewhere, and this is but reasonable, for, as was before remarked, the Cimbrians were a nomadic race, and were constantly being driven forward by the Scythians; until, as a last resource, they crossed the German ocean into Britain: here defended on all sides by the sea, they had but little to fear from their aggressors, and were precluded from making firther movements westward; here therefore they permanently settled, and betook themselves to the arts of peace, and thus was their religion elaborated and reduced to a system; and as, in the case of Numa, and the early Romans, religion established peace, so in this instance did peace establish and extend religion. From the above observations, we think, may reasonably be drawn the following conclusions, namely, that the erection of all structures of this kind is to be attributed to one race of people, and their appearance in such different and distant quarters to the fact of that race being migratory or nomadic. iTe monuments erected by the Celts may be divided and classed as follows:-Lithoi, composed severally of one, two, and three stones, to the first of which is applied the distinguishing appellation monolithon, and to the last, that of trilithon. They have all the common name of Cromnlehs. After these come the kist-vaens, or chests, composed of four stones, and lastly, circles comprising a large number of stones. Further, we have logan, or rocking-stones, tolmen stones, cheese-rings, and cairns. The most simple of these structures are the monolithoi, or single stones, of which we find a great number in various parts of the British Islands. The first mention of such stones we find, is of that set up by Jacob after his dream, which he named Bethel; the next is that set up by Joshua under an oak by the sanctuary, as a witness unto the Israelites, lest they denied their God. Another stone is spoken of at a later period, called the stone of Abel, upon which the ark was rested; and another, which was placed by Samuel between Mizpeh and Shen as a memorial of the Divine assistance. We read also of the stone Ezel, and the great stone in Gibeon. Many such stones are seen in Palestine at the present day, but not in the places mentioned in the Old Testament. The same kind of stones are almost universal in India, few, if any, of the temples being without them; there are two also in Tyre. It is suggested, that the pillars of Hercules were of this class, and with some probability, as Arrian says, that " Gades was built by the Phoenicians; the sacrifices and ceremonies there performed are all after the Phoenician manner;" and Strabo adds, that there were here two pillars dedicated to Hercules Plato mentions a pillar connected in some way with the I _ _ _ _ _ CEL 125 CEL CEL 125 CEL Amazons, and similar lithoi were to be seen at Megara, at Cheronra, in Thessaly, lonia and Mauritania, one also within the walls of Athens. Cyrus erected obelisks over the grave of Abradates, king of Susa, and over those of his wife and officers. Further north we find such stones in Denmark, Sweden, Scotland, Ireland, and in our own country. As these stones are of necessity much alike in all cases, we need only give a description of one, to afford a general idea of the whole of them; we select that of Rudstone, in the Elst Riding of Yorkshire. It stands about four yards from the north-east corner of Rudstone Church, and rises above the ground twenty-four feet; if, as is stated, it nmeasures the same below ground, its total length will be fortyeight feet; its breadth is six feet, and thickness two feet; all four sides are slightly convex. The stone is of a very hard quality, and its weight is calculated at above forty tons. The uses of the monolithoi seem to have been various. That some were used as sepulchral monuments, is allowed by all; and some allow them to have had no other use; such was the pillar set up by Jacob over Rachel's grave, also those erected by Cyrus, as before mentioned. Some were trophies of victories, as that erected by Samuel after his defeat of the Philistines; some were witnesses to covenants, as that set up by Jacob and Laban, and that of Joshua; whilst others are merely boundary stones. Similar in description;ire the curious round towers so prevalent in Ireland, which are generally found in the locality of a Christian church, a situation which is accounted for by the supposition that the Christian missionaries were accustomed to rear their edifices near the spot where the pagan temples had stood. It is certain that these towers are very old, as they were considered ancient even in the twelfth century; they vary both in height and construction, but their general appearance is that of a circular obelisk tapering gradually towards the summit, and finishing in a conical roof. See ROUND TOWERS. These obelisks are also termed Cromlehs, a word signifying a stone of adoration; also Bothal, which doubtless is the same as the Hebrew, Bethel, both terms signifying the House of God. Under these names are also included monuments of two or three stones, the former comprising an upright pillar with a cross-piece on the top, and the latter two upright stones, with a third at the top, stretching from one to the other; the latter are named likewise trilithons. Next to the lithoi, or cromlehs, stand the kist-vaens, or monuments of four stones, consisting of three uprights, and one horizontal stone covering the whole: they are often found in, or near circles, and are fiequently accompanied with barrows of various kinds. Kist-vaen is a Welsh term, and signifies stone-chest, but the term quoit is frequently applied to the same structures, more especially in Cornwall, and there is one near Cloyne, in Ireland, named Carig-Croith, which is interpreted Sun's House. Such monuments are found in abundance, and in every quarter of the globe; we select one as a specimen, Kit's Coty House, Kent. This monument stands near to the village of Aylesford, and is thus described by Stowe:-" It consists of four flat stones, one of them standing upright, between two others, inclosing the edges of the first, and the fourth laid flat upon the other three, and is of such height that men may stand on either side the middle stone in time of storm or tempest, safe from wind and rain, being defended with the breadth of the stones, having one at their backs, one on either side, and the fourth over their heads." " About a coit's cast from this monument, lieth another great stone, a great part thereof in the ground, as fallen down where the same had been affixed."' This description answers very well to its appearance at the present day, with the exception that the separate stone last mentioned, is now entirely buried in the ground. The dimensions are given as follows in Grose's Antiquities:" Upright stone on the north or north-west side, eight feet high, eight feet broad, two feet thick; estimated weight, eight tons and a half. Upright stone on the south or south-east side, eight feet high, seven and a half feet broad, two feet thick; estimated weight, eight tons. Upright stone between these, very irregular; medium dimensions, five feet high, five feet broad, fourteen inches thick; estimated weight, about two tons. Upper stone very irregular; eleven feet long, eight feet broad, two feet thick; estimated weight, about ten tons seven hundred-weight." Monuments of the same description are to be seen in Palestine, the following account of some of which is given by Captains Irby and Mangles:-" On the banks of the Jordan, at the foot of the mountain, we observed some very singular, interesting, and certainly very ancient tombs, composed of great rough stones, resembling what is called Kit's Coty House, in Kent. They are built of two long sidestones, with one at each end, and a small door in front, mostly facing the north; this door was of stone. All were of rough stones, apparently not hewn, but found in fliat fiagments, many of which are seen about the spot in huge flakes. Over the whole was laid an immense flat piece, projecting both at the sides and ends. What rendered these tombs more remarkable was, that the interior was not long enough for a body, being only five feet. This is occasioned by both the front and back stones being considerably within the ends of the sides only. There are about twenty-seven of these tombs, very irregularly situated." This description would answer very well for our own erections of the kind, were it not for the second stone and doorway, no-traces of which are to be found in these islands. Sir Richard Colt Iloare gives two representations of similar stones in Malabar, but he does not accompany them with any description. Numerous monuments of this kind are to be found throughout the British Isles, but they occur most frequently in Cornwall and Wales, also in the Isle of Anglesea, the last resort of the Druids, and in Ireland. Wlhat the use of these caves were is not agreed upon, some claiming them as sacrificial altars, others as tombs, and others again as simply sacred constructions answering to the ark or sacred chest of the Jews. The former position is maintained by King, who, after referring to the account given by the Romans of the human sacrifices of the Druids, contends for the peculiar applicability of such erections to that purpose; but his opinions do not seem to be borne out by facts. As a decisive argument in the matter, he cites an instance of a structure of the kind existing in the county of Louth, Ireland, which is called the killing-stone; but if this hold good as a proof, a similar one may be advanced for the second class of opinions, in the case of the Trevethy Stone in Coinwall, the word Trevedi signifying, inr the British language, it is said, the Place of Graves; and besides this, Kit's Coty House is transferred into Catigern's house of coits, the term coit being translated large flat stone. This place is so named, it is averred, from the fact of Catigern being buried there, after the battle with Hengist and Horsa, which occurred at Aylesford, and in which he was slain. We have now arrived at the largest and most interesting class of monuments, the Druidical circles; they consist of one or more circles of upright stones placed at short intervals fiom each other; the circles are usually concentric, but we have not unfrequently two smaller circles placed side by side within a larger one, and the whole surrounded with a circular ditch and vallum. The stones composing the cir I I J ___: i,CEL 126 CEL *C_ 1261~_ CELL;i cles are not always single, but sometimes consist oftrilithons, sometimes of kist-vaens. Such erections are found in various localities, although more frequently in this country than elsewhere. Mention is made of them in the Sacred writings in more than one instance: Moses is said to have erected an altar, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel, ere he ascended the mount to receive the law; he also gives directions to the Israelites at a later period, that upon crossing Jordan they should set up in mount Ebal great stones, and plaster them with plaster, and especially orders that they should be whole stones, and unwrought; we accordingly find Joshua setting up twoilve stones in the midst of Jordan, and taking twelve further forward, and pitching them in Gilgal, as a memorial of the passage of the Jordan;-it is worthy of remark, that the word Gilgal signifies a wheel or circle, and doubtless the place was so named from the circle of stones there set up. Such circles are found likewise in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland, in which last place they are termed Doom circles; they are spoken of by Clarke as existing in the Troad, and Sir William Ouseley gives views and description of one to be seen in Persia; but what is most remarkable, there exist three in America, one upon a high rock on the bank of the river Winnipigon. Such structures were unquestionably temples in which the Druidical services were performed, and not only so, but they seem to have been the prototype of all heathen temples, for we gather fiom authentic sources, that the most ancient heathen fanes were all open to the sky without roof of any kind. It is argued by some, that they were used merely for civil purposes, or that some of them at least were exclusively so employed; that they were all so employed we do not for a moment doubt, but we contend that they were all likewise employed for sacred purposes; indeed, the government of the people was so implicit with their religion, that the Druids were at one and the same time both priests and rulers. The circles are supposed by some to have been closely connected with astrology, and indeed the agreement of the number and arrangement of the stones with the divisions of the ancient cycles is remarkable, as will be seen by referring to the tables of Dr. Stukeley, which are given in the following page. The most remarkable of the circular erections in Great Britain are those of Stonehenge and Abury, both of which are situate in the neighbourhood of Salisbury Plain. The former, about seven miles north of Salisbury, is approached by a broad avenue protected on either side by a vallun, or long mound of earth; this avenue leads into a large circular platform three hundred feet in diameter, enclosed from the surrounding plain by means of a valium fifteen feet in height, with a ditch on either side of it, and, as some suppose, by an inner circle of stones, some few having been found in immediate proximity to the other circle. In the avenue, at a distance of about a hundred feet from the circular ditch, is a large stone inclining towards you as you approach, and a similar one in the ditch at the entrance. Passing onwards in a straight direction you approach a large number of stones composing the temple, more especially so termed, which consists of an outer circle of stones fourteen feet in height, seventeen of which still remain, six cattered in various parts of the circle, but eleven on the north-east side, at equal distances from each other, forming a continuous segment of a circle, thus demonstrating the form and position of the whole. This circle consisted originally of thirty stones, surmounted by a continuous impost of large flat stones, which were fitted on to the uprights by mortise and tenon, and formed a complete and regular circle. Within this enclosure is another of a similar figure, and eighty-three feet in diameter, composed of the same number of stones, which however are of smaller dimensions and without imposts. Within this again were five separate structures, termed trilithons, each consisting of two large stones surmounted with an impost, and having three smaller stones a short distance in advance. These structures were situate, one immediately opposite the avenue, and two on each side of it, leaving an unoccupied space for an entrance. The larger upright stones were more lofty than any of the others, one of them measuring upwards of twenty-one and a half feet in height; thus overtopping all the outer circles. In front of the central trilithon, is placed, by Stukeley, a low flat stone, supposed to be the altar. The avenue noticed at the commencement of this description is continued in a northeasterly direction for a distance of about a third of a mile, where it separates into two branches, the one leading southward between two rows of barrows, the other in the opposite direction for more than a nmile and a half to a spot called the cursus, which is a flat tract of land, bounded on each side by banks and ditches, and at its extremities by barrows or tumuli. lThe erection at Abury, although of more rude construction than Stonehenge, is of lore stupendous dimensions; few of the stones remain at tho present day, great numbers having been employed,in the erection of the neighbouring town, yet we have accounts of many which existed at a previous period, with the aid of which, and of his own experienced judgment, Dr. Stukeley made out a plan of the original structure entire. It consisted of a large circular enclosure of more than twenty-eight acres, surrounded with a great vallum and ditch, the inner slope of the former measuring eighty feet, its circumference at the apex being four thousand four hundred and forty-two feet. On the inner side of the ditch, and close upon its bank, was a circle thirteen hundred feet in diameter, composed of one hundred immense stones of an average height of seventeen feet, and placed at a distance of about twenty-seven feet from each other. Within this outer circle were two smaller ones, situate side by side on a diameter running from north-west to south-east, of the more northerly of which some stones of great size are still standing. These circles consist of two concentric rows of stone, within which, in the southern circle, was a central obelisk, towards which, it is said, the worshippers used to turn during the celebration of the rites, and in the same position, on the northern circle, a structure termed a cove, consisting of three large stones placed towards each other at an obtuse angle. The distance of the centres of the north and south circles is given at five hundred and eighteen feet, and the distances of their circumferences at eighty-six feet, thus determining the length of the diameters, four hundred and thirty-two feet. These ad measurements, however, must be received with some reserve, as the remains were so scanty at the time they were taken, as to leave the exact position of the circles or their centres a matter of great uncertainty. Of this structure, which it is calculated could originally boast in all of more than six hundred stones, but few portions remain, the rest having been employed either in the erection of the town of the same name, which stands within its boundaries, or in constructing and repairing its roads. From two entrances on the southern side of the exterior circle, extend two avenues, each formed by a double line of upright stones, and of more than a mile in length. One of them running in a south-easterly direction, the breadth of which averages fifty feet, led to an elliptical piece of ground on the top of a hill called the Hackpen, enclosed within two - - - CEL 127 CEL E 127CE hundred upright stones, and surrounded on all sides with barrows. The south-western avenue, consisting of about two hundred stones, is nearly a Inile and a half in length, and terminates in a single stone. It has to be remarked, that both these avenues run in a curved direction, and are hence by some supposed to represent a serpent, thus connecting the religion of the Druids with the early and prevalent superstition of serpent-worship; the western avenue answers to the tail of the reptile; the larger circle to the body; while the head is represented by the Hackpen, a word which, in some languages, signifies serpent. The circles of this portion of the structure are concentric, the outer one containing forty stones, having a diameter of one hundred and fifty feet, and the inner, which is composed of eighteen stones, a diameter of forty-eight feet. Between the two avenues just mentioned, are three mounds, or hills, one of which, situate at the extreme south, and nearly midway between the extremities of the avenues, is remarkable as being the largest artificial mound in Europe; it is named Silbury H ill. The base of this mound covers a space of five acres and thirty-four pcrcles, and its circumference is two thousand and twenty-seven feet, the length of the slope three hundred and sixteen feet, and the diameter of the platform, at its apex, one hundred and twenty feet. Besides this and other erections connected with Abury, are a variety of Druidical remains scattered in all directions for some distance round the great circle. The number of stones employed at Abury and Stonehenge, with their distribution, as given by Dr. Stukeley: ABURY. Stones. The great circle contains.....100 North temple, outer circle.... 30 North temple, inner circle.... 12 South temple, outer circle... 30 South temple, inner circle.... 12 The cove and altar......... 4 Obelisk and altar.......... 2 The eastern avenue........200 The western avenue........200 Hackpen, outer circle....... 40 Hackpen, inner circle....... 18 Long stone-cove jambs...... 1 The Ring stone............ 1 Closing stone of tail........ 1 Total........652 STONEHENGE. Stones. The great-circle uprights..... 30 The great-circle imposts.... 30 Inner circle............... 40 Trilithon uprights.......... 10 Trilithon imposts........... 5 Inmost stones............. 19 Altar.................... 1 Stones within the vallum.... 2 Large table stone.......... 1 Distant pillar............. 1 Stone at entrance.......... 1 Total........140 those already mentioned, may be classed that of Stanton Drew, consisting originally of three circles, of the larger of which five stones remain, and of the smaller, a larger nuinber; the stones are much inferior in point of size to those already described. Rollrich is another circle of stones near Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, the highest of which is not more than five feet above the ground; they are irregular, and of unequal height. Another is found near Penrith, Cumberland, which consists of seventy-seven stones, each ten feet in height, and before them, at the entrance, stands a single one by itself, fifteen feet high. Similar structures are found in other parts of England, Scotland, and the Isles, but none of them approaching in size those of Ahury or Stonehenge. There exists at Carnac, in Brittany, a monument, which in size approaches nearer to Abury than any other such work, but which, in its form and general character, is perfectly unique; it is of ruder formation than either Abury or Stonehenge, "and consists of eleven rows of unwrought pieces of rock or stone, merely set up on end in the earth, without any pieces crossing them at top. These stones are of great thickness, but not exceeding nine or twelve feet in height; there may be some few fifteen feet. The rows are placed from fifteen to eighteen paces fiom each other, extending in length -taking rather a semicircular direction-above half a mile, on unequal ground, and towards one end upon a hilly site. When the length of these rows is considered, there must have been nearly three hundred stones in each, and there are eleven rows; this will give some idea of the immensity of the work, and the labour such a construction required. It is said that there are above four thousand stones still remaining." This account is taken fromn Mrs. Stoddart's Tour in Normandy and Brittany; but a French writer gives the size of some of the stones at twenty-one and twenty-two feet, and he especially alludes to one specimen, which was twentytwo feet high, twelve broad, and six deep; its weight is given at two hundred and fifty-seven thousand pounds. Logan stones, or rocking-stones, as they are less technically termed, are stones, often of an inmmense size, poised on others, or on natural rocks, in such a peculiar manner, as to move with the slightest touch. They seem to have been erected at various times and places. They were known to the Greeks, and called by them )tlot eEpuvxot, or live stones, also named Petre Ambrosive, fiom the ceremony they underwent of being anointed with oil. Pliny takes notice of one erected by Lycippus, at Tarentum, and also of one at Cyzicum, which is said to have been left by the Argonauts; but the most celebrated was the Gygonean stone, near the Pillars of Hercules, of which Ptolemy Hephaestion relates, that it stands near the ocean, and may be moved with the stalk of an asphodel, but cannot be removed by any force. Pliny likewise says of one at Harpava, in Asia, that it is of so strange and wonderful a nature, that if even a finger is laid on it, it will move, but if you thrust it with your whole body, it will not move at all. These stones are very common in Britain; there are several in Cornwall and Yorkshire, as also in Scotland, where they are called Claca Breath, or stones of judgment; it is known that there existed formerly several in the island of Iona, which have since been destroyed. In some cases the stone rests on two points, in others on one; it is said that the junction was formed in one instance in Scotland, where the stone had been removed, by a protuberant knob in the upper stone fitting into a socket. A stone of this nature is that near Penzance, Cornwall, named Men-amber; it is eleven feet in length, four feet in depth, and six in width. Its equilibrium was destroyed by Cromwell's soldiers, by breaking off a portion. Another Mr. Toland gives the following account of a remarkable structure of this kind. " In the isle of Lewis," he says, " at the village of Classerniss, there is one of these temples very remarkable. The circle consists of twelve obelisks, about seven feet high each, and distant from each other six feet. In the centre stands a stone thirteen feet high, in the perfect shape of the rudder of a ship. Directly south fiom the circle, there stand four obelisks running out in a line; as also another such line due east, and a third to the west, the number and distances of the stones being in these wings the same; so that this temple, the most entire that can be, is at the same time both round and winged. But to the north, there reach, by way of avenue, two straight ranges of obelisks, of the same bigness and distances with those of the circle; yet the ranges themselves are eight feet distant, and each consisting of nineteen stones, the thirty-ninth being the entrance to the avenue." Dr. Borlase mentions three circles of stone in the parish of St. Clare, Cornwall, called the Hurlers, which are separate and distinct fiom each other, but whose centres are in one straight line. Amongst some few of the most important circles besides ___ ___ — ~~.1 ...i - - -" CEL 128 CEM CE 12 C logan stone situate at Land's End, is said to weigh seventy tons; it stands on one of a stupendous group of granite rocks which rise to a prodigious altitude, and overhang the sea; it was thrown down by a ship's crew, but the good sense of the inhabitants obliged them to replace it. Borlase was the first to notice a structure of a somewhat different character to the last, called Tolnen, or Hole of Stone, consisting of a large stone supported at two points by others, leaving a space between them, through which it is supposed devotees passed for religious purposes. Of a similar opening at the extremity of Malabar Hill, in the island of Bombay, a writer says-" This place is used by the Gentoos as a purification for their sins, which they say is effected by their going in at the opening below, and emerging out of the cavity above." We find stones of this kind in Cornwall and in Ireland; the most noted is that in the parish of Constantine, Cornwall, which is thus described by Dr. Borlase: —" It is one vast egg-like stone, placed on the points of two natural rocks, so that a man may creep under the great one, and between its supporters, through a passage about three feet wide, and as lnuch high. The longest diameter of this stone is thirty-three feet, the depth thirteen feet, and the breadth eighteen feet six inches. I measured one half of the circumference, and found it, according to my computation, forty-eight feet and a half, so that this stone is ninety-seven feet in circumference, about sixty feet across the middle, and by the best information I can get, contains at least seven hundred and fifty tons of stone. Getting up a ladder to view the top of it, we found the whole surface worked like an imperfect or mutilated honey-comb, into basons; one much larger than the rest was at the south end, about seven feet long; another at the north, about five; the rest smaller, seldom more than one foot, often not so much: the sides and shape irregular. Most of these basons discharge into the two principal ones (which lie in the middle of the surface) those only excepted which are near the brim of the stone, and they have little lips or channels which discharge the water they collect over the sides of the Tolmen; and the flat rocks which lie underneath, receive the droppings in basons cut into their surfaces. This stone is no less wonderful for its position than for its size, for although the under part is nearly semicircular, yet it rests on the two large rocks, and so slight and detached does it stand, that it touches the two under stones, but as it were on their points. Wring-cheeses, so named from their resemblance in form to an ancient cheese-press, consist of large masses of stone placed one upon the other for several tiers, the whole resting on a base of much smaller dimensions than the superincumbent mass. By some it is contended that they are merely the productions of nature, but it seems more reasonable to suppose, that at least some art has been employed in their formation. They are by some termed rock-idols, under the supposition that they were worshipped as gods. One such monument, situate in the parish of St. Clare, Cornwall, Dr. Borlase thus describes:- "The rock now called Wring-cheese, is a group of rocks that attracts the admiration of all travellers. On the top stone of this, were two regular basons; part of one of which has been broken off. The upper stone was, as I am informed, a logan or rocking-stone, and might, when it was entire, be easily moved with a pole, but now great part of that weight which kept it on poise, is taken away. The whole heap of stones is thirty-two feet high, the great weight of the upper part and the slenderness of the under part make every one wonder how such an ill-grounded pile could resist, for so many ages, the storms of such an exposed situation." Mr. Hayman Rooke mentions one situate on Brimham Craggs, Yorkshire, the circumference of which is forty-six feet, and the pedestal on which it rests, qnly one foot by two feet seven inches. Cairns are conical heaps of loose stones frequently found on the top cf hills or artificial tumuli; the term is derived by Mr. Ioland from two Hebrew words, signifying coped heaps. On these are supposed to have been kindled fires, at which certain religious ceremonies took place, such as that mentioned as being observed by the Israelites in making their children pass through the fire, in imitation of their heathen neighbours; thus connecting the customs of the British Druids with those of Asia and Phoenicia. From these Druidical practices may have arisen perchance the ordeal by fire of later times. At New Grange, near Drogheda, Ireland, is a curious sepulchral pyramid of stone, formed of pebble stones, the weight of the solid contents of which amounted to no less than one hundred and eighty-nine thousand tons. The plan of this monument is curvilinear, and covers about two acres of ground, and is surrounded by a number of large unhewn stones, rising about seven feet above the ground; the height of the pyramid is calculated at seventy feet. A great number of stones, removed for paving and other purposes, led to the discovery of a passage leading into an interior vaulted apartment. This passage began about forty feet within the body of the work, and is entirely composed of large flag stones; its length is sixty-one feet, the width three feet, and the height varies fiom two to nine feet. This passage leads into an octangular vaulted apartment, whose diameter is seventeen feet, and its height twenty; the vault or dome is remarkable as being composed of overlapping horizontal stones, the upper ones projecting inwardly beyond the lower, sustained in their position by having a larger portion of each stone upon the one beneath it, than projects towards the interior; this construction is exactly similar to that of the tomb of Agamemnon, or treasury of Atreus at Mycene. The side of this irregular octagon immediately opposite the entrance, is formed into a niche, as are also two sides at the right and left, similar to the erections called kist-vaens, the last two containing each a rock-bason. This building is, we believe, the only one of its kind existing in Bri tain. We have not included the barrows or tumuli in the list of monuments to be considered, simply because they can scarcely be considered to have any great connection with Architecture, but as they are closely allied to the structures we have been considering, we ought not to pass them by without notice. They are mere mounds of earth, of various shapes, raised, as is supposed, over the graves of men of rank, and are found in great numbers in the neighbourhood of the larger monuments: some of them are of oblong shape, raised like coped tombs, some triangular, some circular and oval, of which again some are convex, some concave. Some are of the shape of bowls, and some of bells, while others are of a conical form; occasionally two are formed together, and are called twin-barrows, but more frequently they are seen separate. Many of them have been opened, and are found to contain not only human remains, but also spear-heads and other implements of war, besides articles of domestic use, such as earthen vessels and the like. Their contents determine as well their use, as the date of their formation. CEMENT. The word cement may be defined as any glutinous or other substance, capable of uniting bodies in close cohesion, or making them adhere firmly together, so as to form of the whole one solid mass-as mortar, glue, solder, asphaltum, &c. Cements are.of various kinds, but, for convenience, may be divided into NATURAL and ARTIFICIAL. __ CEM 129 CEM CEM ~129CE Natural cements are found in Russia, France, and other countries, and indeed the substance so extensively used in England, and very improperly termed Roman cement, is nothing more than a natural cement, resulting from a slight calcination of a calcareous mineral, containing about 31 per cent of ochreous clay, and a few hundredths of carbonate of magnesia and manganese. It may be observed, that when the proportion of clay in calcareous minerals exceeds 27 to 30 per cent, it is seldom converted into lime by calcination, but they then furnish a kind of natural cement, which can be used by pulverizing it, and kneading it with water. There are some natural cements which do not set in water for many days, but these are now rarely used; those which solidify quickly, being generally preferred. The adhesive power of some cements in the open air, is very remarkable; and we have ourselves seen 33 bricks stuck to one another by Roman cement, and projecting at right angles from the side of a wall. The argillaceous limestones, and the artificial mixtures of pure lime and clay, in the proportions requisite to constitute hydraulic lime by the ordinary calcination, become natural or artificial cements, when they have been subjected merely to a simple incandescence, kept up for some minutes. Calcareous cements may be classed according to the three following divisions, namely, simple calcareous cements, water cements, maltha, and mastics. 1st, Simple calcareous cements include those kinds of mortar which are employed in land-building, and consist of lime, sand, and fiesh water. Calcareous earths are converted into quick-lime by burning, which being wetted with water falls into an impalpable powder, with great extrication of heat: and if in this state it is beat with sand and water, the mass will concrete and become a stony substance, which will be more or less perfect according to its treatment, or to the quality and quantities of ingredients. When carbonated lime has been thoroughly burned, it is deprived of its water, and all, or nearly all, of its carbonic acid; much of the water, during the process of calcination, being carried off in the form of steam. Lime-stone loses about A of its weight by burning, and when fully burned, falls freely, and will produce something more than double the quantity of powder, or slacked lime, in measure, that the burnt lime-stone consisted of. Quick-lime, by being exposed to the air, absorbs carbonic acid with greater or less rapidity, as its texture is less or more hard; and this, by continued exposure, becomes unfit for the composition of mortar; hence it is that quick-lime made of chalk, cannot be kept for the same length of time between the burning and slacking, as that made fiomr stone. Marble, chalk, and limestone, with respect to their use in cements, may be divided into two kinds-simple lime-stone, or pure carbonate of lime, and argillo-ferrugiuous lime, which contains from -1 to I of clay, and oxide of iron, previous to calcination: there are no external marks by which these can be distinguished from each other, but whatever may have been the colour in the crude state, the former, when calcined, becomes white, and the latter more or less of an ochrey tinge. The white kinds are more abundant, and when made into mortar will admit of a greater portion of sand than the brown, consequently are more generally employed in the composition of mortar; but the brown lime is by far the best for all kinds of cement. If white, brown, and shell lime, recently slacked, be separately beat up with a little water into a stiff paste, it will be found that the white lime, whether 17 made from chalk, lime-stone, or marble, will not acquire any degree of hardness; the brown lime will become considerably indurated; and the shell lime will be concreted into a firm cement, which, though it will fall to pieces in water, is well qualified for interior finishings, where it can be kept dry. It was the opinion of the ancients, and is still received among our modern builders, that the hardest lime-stone furnishes the best lime for mortar; but the experiments of Dr. Higgins and Mr. Smeaton have proved this to be a mistake, and that the softest chalk lime, if thoroughly burned, is equally durable with the hardest stone lime, or even marble: but though stone and chalk lime are equally good under this condition, there is a very important practical difference between them; as the chalk lime absorbs carbonic acid with much greater avidity; and if it be only partially calcined, will, on the application of water, fall into a coarse powder, which stone lime will not do. For making mortar, the lime should be immediately used from the kiln; and in slacking it, no more water should be allowed than what is just sufficient: and for this purpose Dr. Higgins recommends lime-water. The sand made use of should be perfectly clean; if there is any mixture of clay or mud, it should be divested of either, or both, by washing it in running water. Mr. Smeaton has fully shown by experiments, that mortar, though of the best quality, when mixed with a small proportion of unburnt clay, never acquires that hardness, which, without this addition, it speedily would have attained. If sea-sand be used, it requires to be well washed with fresh water, to dissolve the salt with which it is mixed, otherwise the cement into which it enters, never becomes thoroughly dry and hard. The sharper and coarser the sand is, the stronger is the mortar; also a less proportion of lime is necessary. It is therefore more profitable to use the largest proportion of sand, as this ingredient is the cheapest in the composition. The best proportion of lime and sand in the composition of mortar is yet a desideratum. It may be affirmed, in general, that no more lime is required to a given quantity of sand, than what is just sufficient to surround the particles, or to use the least lime, so as to preserve the necessary degree of plasticity. Mortar in which sand predominates, requires less water in preparing, and therefore sets sooner: it is harder, and less liable to crack in drying; for this reason, that lime shrinks greatly in drying, while sand retains its original magnitude. We are intbomed by Vitruvius, lib. ii., chap. v., that the Roman builders allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river or sea sand, to one of lime; but Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi., prescribes four parts of coarse sharp pit sand, and only one of lime. The general proportion given by our London builders, is 1- cwt., or thirty-seven bushels of lime, and 21 loads of sanld; but if proper care were taken in the burning of the lime, the quality of the sand, and in tempering the materials, a much greater quantity of sand might be admitted. Mr. Smeaton observes, that there is scarcely any mortar but which, if the lime be well burned, and the composition well beaten in the making, will require two measures of sand to one of unslacked lime; and it is singular, that the more the mortar is wrought or beat, a greater proportion of sand may be admitted. He found that by good beating, the same quantity of lime would take in one measure of terras, and three of clean sand, which seems to be the greatest useful proportion. Dr. Higgins found that a certain proportion of coarse and fine sand improved the composition of mortar; the best proportion of ingredients, according to experiments made __ _ -C EM10 -CEM 130 CEM by him, is as follows, by measure: Lime, newly slacked, one part; fine sand, three parts; coarse sand, four parts. He also found that an addition of one-fourth part of the quantity of lime, of burnt bone-ashes, improved the mortar, by giving it tenacity, and rendering it less liable to crack in drying. The mortar should be made under ground, then covered up, and kept there for a considerable length of time, the longer the better; and when it is to be used, it should be beat up afresh. This makes it set sooner, renders it less liable to crack, and harder when dry. The stony consistence which it acquires in drying, is owing to the absorption of carbonic acid, and a combination of part of the water with the lime: and hence it is that lime that has been long kept after burning is unfit for the purpose of mortar, for in the course of keeping, so much carbonic acid has been imbibed as to have little better effect, in a composition of sand and water, than chalk or lime-stone reduced to a powder fiom the crude state, would have in place of it. Grout is a cement, containing a larger proportion of water than is employed in common mortar, so as to make it sufficiently fluid to penetrate the narrow irregular interstices of rough stone walls. Grout should be made of mortar that has been long kept and thoroughly beat, as it will then concrete in the space of a day: whereas, if this precaution be neglected, it will be a long time before it sets, and may even refuse setting for ever. See GROUT. Mortar made of pure lime, sand, and water, may be employed in the linings of reservoirs and aqueducts, provided it have sufficient time to dry; but if the water be put in while it is wet, it will fall to pieces in a short time; and, consequently, if the circumstances of the building be such as render it impracticable to keep out the water, it should not be used: there are, however, certain ingredients put into common mortar, by which it is made to set immediately under water, or if the quick-lime contain in itself a certain portion of burnt clay, it will possess this property. From the friable and crumbling nature of our mortar, a notion has been entertained by many persons, that the ancients possessed a process in its fabrication, which has been lost at the present day; but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton, Dr. Higgins, and others, have shown this notion to be unfounded, and that nothing more is wanting than that the chalk, lime-stone, or marble, be well burned, and thoroughly slacked immediately, and to mix it up with a certain proportion of clean large-grain sharp sand, and as small a quantity of water as will be sufficient for working it; to keep it a considerable time from the external air, and to beat it over again before it is used: the cement thus made will be sufficiently hard. The practice of our modern builders, is to spare their labour, and to increase the quantity of materials they produce, without any regard to its goodness: the badness of our modern mortar is to be attributed both to the faulty nature of the materials, and to the slovenly and hasty methods of using it. This is remarkably instanced in London, where the lime employed is chalk lime, indifferently burnt, conveyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten or twenty miles, then kept many days without any precaution to prevent the access of external air. Now, in the course of this time it has absorbed so much carbonic acid as nearly to lose its cementing properties, and though chalk lime is equally good with the hardest lime-stone, when thoroughly burned, yet, by this treatment, when it is slacked, it falls into a thin powder, and the core or unburned lumps are ground down, and mixed up in the mortar, and not rejected, as it ought to be. The sand is equally defective, consisting of small globular grains, containing a large proportion of clay, which prevents it fromn drying, and attaining the necessary degree of hardness. These materials being compounded in the most hasty manner, and beat up with water in this imperfect state, cannot fail of producing a crumbling and bad mortar; and to complete the miserable composition, screened rubbish, and the scraping of roads, are thrown in, as substitutes for pure sand. How very different was the practice of the Romans! The lime which they employed was perfectly burnt, the sand sharp, clean, and large-grained; when these ingredients were mixed in due proportion, with a small quantity of water, the mass was put into a wooden mortar, and beaten with a heavy wooden or iron pestle, till the composition adhered to the mortar: being thus far prepared, they kept it till it was at least three years old. The beating of mortar is of the utmost consequence to its durability, and it would appear that the effect produced by it, is owing to something more than a mere mechanical mixture. See MORTAR. Water cements are such as are impervious to water: they are generally made of common mortar, or of pure lime and water, with the addition of some other ingredient to give it the property of hardening under water. For this purpose there are several kinds of ingredients, as puzzolana, cellular basalt, or wakke, compact basalt, coalashes, coal-cinders, wood-ashes, pumice-stone, brick-dust, powder of quick-lime, forge-scales, roasted iron-ore, &c. The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in the construction of the Eddystone lighthouse, was composed of equal parts, by measure, of slacked Aberthaw lime and puzzolana; this proportion was thought advisable, as the building was exposed to the utmost violence of the sea: but for other aquatic works, as locks, basins, canals, &c., a composition made of lime, puzzolana, sand, and water, in the following proportion, viz., two bushels of slacked Aberthaw lime, one bushel of puzzolana, and three of clean sand, has been found very effectual. It is well known, that sand and lime, mixed together with care, will incorporate and form a mortar imper. vious to water, and sufficient even for the linings of cisterns and reservoirs; but then the mortar must be hardened before it is exposed to the water, or otherwise it will crumble to pieces; and therefore, if the situation be such as to require the mortar to be dried in a certain time, the use of this cement must be abandoned. Among the ancient nations, the Romans appear to have been the only people who practised building in water to any great extent, particularly in the sea. The discovery ofpuzzolana is attributed to the following circumstance, among this great people. The Bay of Baiae, like our fashionable wateringplaces, was the summer resort of all the wealthy in Rome: the inhabitants of this place did not content themselves with erecting their houses as near the shore as possible, but they even constructed moles and small islands, on which they erected their summer-houses in the more sheltered parts of the bay. By the fortunate discovery of an earthy substance at the neighbouring town of Puteoli, they were enabled to build both expeditiously and securely in water. From this circumstance, the earth thus discovered was called pulvis Puteolanus, " powder of Puteoli," " Puteolean powder," or, as it is now denominated, puzzolana, which is a mineral of a light, porous, friable nature, and of a red colour, supposed to be formed by concretion of the volcanic ashes of Vesuvius, near to which mountain the town of Puteoli is situated. The original material seems to be a ferruginous clay, which, baked and calcined by the force of volcanic fire, and mixed with common mortar, not only enables it to acquire a remark ____ .I, CEM 131 CEM CE 13 CE able hardness in the air, but to become as firm as stone under water. The only preparation which puzzolana undergoes, is that of pounding and sifting, by which it is reduced to a coarse powder; in this state it is beaten up with lime, either with or without sand, which forms a mass of remarkable tenacity, that sets under water with great celerity, and at last acquires a strength and hardness equal to those of free-stone. Among the nations of modern Europe, none have practised the art of building under water to so great an extent as the Dutch, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of another valuable material, admirably adapted for aquatic works: this substance is called terras, or trass, and is nothing more than wakke, or cellular basalt. It is procured chiefly from Bockenheim, Frankfort on the Maine, and Andernach, whence it is transported down the Rhine, in large quantities, to Holland, and is prepared by grinding and sifting, so as to reduce it to the consistence of coarse sand; when it is mixed, in the following manner, with blue argillaceous lime from the banks of the Scheldt. They take such a quantity of quick-lime as may be judged sufficient for a week, and spread it in a kind of bason, in a stratum about a foot thick, and sprinkle it with water; this is covered with a stratum of terras, of about the same thickness, and thus left for two or three days; it is then beaten into a mixture, and left for two days longer; after which such portions as are wanted for daily consumption are taken from the mass, and beaten up again previous to being used.-This is the celebrated terras mortar, with which the mounds and other aquatic works, used as a defence for protecting the low lands of Holland, against the incursions of the sea, are consolidated. The proportion of the ingredients for terras mortar, as used in Britain in the construction of our water-works, is the same as practised by the Dutch, viz., one measure of quick-lime and two of slacked, in the dry powder, mixed with one measure of terras, and well beaten together to the consistence of a paste, using as little water as possible. Another kind, almost equally good, and considerably cheaper, is composed of two measures of slacked lime, one of terras, and three of coarse sand; but this composition requires more labour in beating than the foregoing, and produces three measures and a half of excellent mortar. When the building is composed of rough stones, which leave irregular interstices and large cavities, the joints may be filled with pebble mortar, which is thus composed: Take two measures of slacked argillaccous lime, half a measure of terras, or puzzolana, one of coarse sand, one of fine sand, and four of small pebbles screened and washed, and mix them together. Pebble mortar was a favourite cement among the Romans, and has been used, ever since their time, in those works wherein a large quantity of mortar is required. Terras mortar will only acquire its proper hardness under water; for if permitted to dry by exposure to the air, it never arrives at the same degree of hardness as if the same lime had been mixed with good clean common sand, and is very friable and crumbling; but when kept always wet, it throws out a substance something like the concretion in lime-stone caverns, called stalactite, which substance acquires a considerable hardness, and in time becomes so exuberant as to deform the face of the walls. Although the Dutch terras has hitherto been prepared with cellular basalt, it appears, from the experiments of Morveau, that the common compact basalt, if previously calcined, will answer nearly the same purpose. Compact basalt abounds in all the districts where coal is raised, and may therefore be procured easily, and calcined with the refuse coal. In some parts of the Low Countries, coal-ashes are sub. stituted for terras with very good effect, of which the valuable cendree de Tournay is a striking instance. The deep blue argillo-ferruginous lime-stone of the Scheldt is burnt in kilns, with a slaty kind of pit-coal found in the neighbourhood. When the calcination of the lime is completed, the pieces are taken out, and a considerable quantity of dust and small fragments remain at the bottom of the kiln. This refuse, consisting of coal-ash, mixed with about one-fourth of lime-dust, is called the cendree, and is thus made into mortar with lime: Put a bushel of the materials into any suitable vessel, and sprinkle it with as much water as is sufficient to slack the lime; then take another bushel, and treat it in the same manner; and so on, till the vessel is filled. In this state it remains some weeks, and may be kept for a much longer time, if covered with moist earth. A strong open trough, containing about two cubic feet, is filled about two-thirds with cement in the above state, and by means of a heavy iron pestle, suspended at the end of an elastic pole, is well beaten for about half an hour; at the end of this time it becomes of the consistence of soft mortar, and is then laid in the shade fiom three to six days, according to the dryness of the air. When sufficiently dry, it is beaten again for half an hour, as before; and the oftener it is beaten, the better will be the cement; three or four hours, however, are sufficient to reduce it to the consistence of a uniform smooth paste. After this period it becomes too stiff, on account of the evaporation of its water, as no more of this fluid is allowed to enter the composition than what was at first employed to slack the lime. The cement, thus prepared, is found in a few minutes to unite so firmly, upon brick or stone, that still water may be let in immediately upon the work, without any inconvenience; and by keeping it dry for twenty-four hours, it has nothing farther to fear from the most rapid current. A composition of a similar nature, is the blue mortar, commonly used in London, for setting the coping of buildings and other works much exposed to the weather. It is made with coal cinders and lime, but is seldom prepared with the requisite attention. Ash-mortar is used in some parts of England, and is prepared by slacking two bushels of fresh meagre lime, and mixing it with three bushels of wood ashes; this mass is to lie till it is cold, and then to be well beaten; in this state it is kept for a considerable time without injury, and even with advantage, provided it be thoroughly beaten twice or thrice over before it is used. This cement is superior to terras mortar, in situations alternately exposed to wet and dry; but under water, terras mortar has the advantage. The scales which are detached by the hammering of redhot iron, have been long known as an excellent material in water-works. Mr. Smeaton appears to have been the first person who tried the relative strength of mortar made of the oxide of iron, and several other compositions. The scales being pulverized and sifted, and incorporated with lime, are found to produce a cement equally powerful with puzzolana mortar, when employed in the same quantity. Mr. Smeaton having been successful in his experiments on these materials, was induced to try others of a similar nature. Having substituted roasted iron ore for the scales, he found that this also gave to mortar the property of hardening under water, though it required to be used in greater proportions than either puzzolana or terras. Two bushels of argillaceous lime, two of iron ore, and one of sand, being carefully mixed, produce 3.22 cubic feet cement, fully equal to terras mortar. If the common white lime be employed, it would be advisable to use equal quantities of all the three ingredients. -i I _~ CEM 132 CEM CE 13 E With respect to the water used in the preparation of aquatic cement, that of rivers or ponds, where it can be procured, is to be preferred to spring water: but for works exposed to the action of the sea, it is usually more convenient, and equally advantageous in other respects, to use salt water. The Loriot-mortar is a composition which at one time had obtained considerable celebrity in France, and was employed in many large works. It was invented, about seventy years ago, by M. Loriot, who imagined that he had discovered the process used by the Romans. The principle of the invention consisted in adding to any quantity of mortar, made in the usual way with lime and sand, but prepared rather thinner than usual, a certain portion of quick-lime in powder. The lime-powder being well incorporated with the mortar, the mass heated, and in a few minutes acquired a consistence equal to the best plaster-of-Paris; at the end of two days it became as dry as an ordinary cement at the end of several months; and when the ingredients were well proportioned, it set without any cracking. The quantity of powder varied from i to - of the other materials, according to the quality of the lime: too much, burning and drying up the mass; and with too little, its peculiar advantages being lost. The proportions are essential, but can only be determined by actual experiment. Loriot's process was at one time, as we have observed, very much in vogue, but has now fallen into disuse. Founded on the false conception that the induration of mortars was the mere result of a more or less rapid desiccation, and presuming it to be possible to obtain this end by the introduction of a powerful absorbent, it met with the usual fate of error, and sunk into disrepute. Mr. Smeaton says of this composition-" I have made trial of this method, both in small and in large; for however little likelihood of advantage a proposition may contain, yet, when this concerns a physical process, nothing can be safely, concluded but from actual trial; and I must candidly own that the effect was much better than I had expected; for I found the composition not only set more readily than mortar as commonly made up, but much less liable to crack, and consequently, if this cement was made use of in water-building, it was less apt to re-dissolve, because it would mnore speedily get set to a firmer consistence, and so as more ably to resist the water from entering its pores; but when the water was brought upon it, in whatever state of hardness it was at the time, it at best remained in that state without any further induration, while the water remained upon it; and, as I expect, would so remain, till it had some opportunity of acquiring hardness by further drying." Indeed, for the purpose of quick concretion, various materials are recommended to be added, such as brick and tile powder, and forge scales. The following is an approved receipt: one measure of bricks, finely pounded; two nmeasures of fine river-sand; old slacked lime in sufficient quantity to make a mortar in the usual manner, and sufficiently liquid to quench the lime-powder, which is added to the same quantity as that of the pulverized bricks. It is somewhat extraordinary, that a process similar to the composition of the Loriot-mortar is described in A Treatise on Building in Water, by George Semple, printed in Dublin, 1776. In discoursing on the good qualities of the roachlime of Ireland, Mr. Semple remarks, that "it has some useful qualities, not much known among the generality of workmen. As, for instance, our lime-stone will make exceeding good terras for water-works, for which purpose you are to prepare it thus: get your roach-lime brought to you hot from the kiln, and immediately pound, or grind it with a wooden maul, on a smooth large stone, on a dry boarded floor, till you make it as fine as flour; then, without loss of time, sift it through a coarse hair or wire sieve, and to the quantity of a hod of your setting mortar (which on this account should be poorer than ordinary) put in two or three shovelfuls of this fine flour of the roach-lime, and let two men, for expedition's sake, beat them together, with such beaters as the plasterers make use of, and then use it immediately. This, I can assure you, will not only stand as well, but is really preferable to any terras." The memoir of M. Loriot was published in 1774, only two years previous to this treatise of Semple, who appears to have been a man rather of practice and experience than of reading; and, besides, in the book quoted fiom, he expressly, though incidentally, mentions his ignorance of the French language. We are justified, therefore, in stating that the knowledge of the advantages of mixing quick-lime powder in mortar, was not confined to M. Loriot, though it might have been an original invention in him, and that he was the first who drew the public attention to the process, and used it in any considerable works. We have now to notice the valuable Treatise of M. Vicat, the celebrated French engineer, on the Composition of Mortars and Cements. This scientific and elaborate work has been made extensively known in this country, by the able manner in which it has been translated by Captain J. T. Smith, of the Madras Engineers. The labours of this gentleman have given increased value to M. Vicat's work, and the numerous notes, tables, and other information, added to the original work by Captain Smith, will be found most useful to the professional man, and well worth his careful and attentive study. In this place we shall briefly describe the mode pursued by M. Vicat in the manufacture of the Artiflcial Hydraulic Limes, he so strongly recommends. We shall have occasion to return to his work hereafter, when on the subject of CONCRETE. The practice of M. Vicat seems to have been principally directed to the adoption of the hydraulic limes, in preference to the more energetic cements so generally used in this country, but his investigations have been conducted on so comprehensive a scale, that the processes laid down by him for the manufactulre of artificial hydraulic compounds are capable of application to almost every requirement of the Architect or Engineer, or to almost every situation. The opinion so decidedly expressed by M. Vicat, that the superior adhesion of the hydraulic limes, must inevitably lead to their general adoption in this country, in preference to our (so-called) Roman cements, has been much combated by practical men. It may be said, without entering into a discussion of the question, that it appears to be one on which a contrariety of opinion may be occasioned by a difference of situation and circumstances. Thus, in comparing the merits of the two systems, it is important to consider, that, in one, the means of minute mechanical division are an essential element, in the other that it is unnecessary; and that this element, which in one situation may be obtained at a cheap rate, in another may be expensive and unattainable. The hydraulic limes, therefore, which do not require to be ground previous to use, are at all events most suitable for those situatious where the facilities of mechanical agency cannot be resorted to, while the ground cements are better adapted to the vicinity of a large capital, where it is of little importance that the builder becomes dependent upon others for his supply. The difference, in fact, consists in this, that the ground cements, of whatever kind, will ever be furnished by manufacturers, whereas the hydraulic limes may at all times be _ ________ _ ___ Z __ ____ CEM 133 CEM (JEM 133 CEM prepared by the common workman, without machinery, and at a cost not much exceeding that of common lime. The description given by M. Vicat of the mode in which the artificial hydraulic limes are prepared is as follows:" The artificial hydraulic limes are prepared by two methods: the most perfect, but alsothe most expensive, consists in mixing with rich lime slacked in any way, a certain proportion of clay, and calcining the mixture; this is termed artificial lime twice kilned." " By the second process, we substitute for the lime any very soft calcareous substance (such, for instance, as chalk), which it is easy to bruise and reduce to a paste with water. In this way a great saving is effected, but at the same time is procured an artificial lime of good quality, though not equal to that derived from the first process, in consequence of the rather less perfect amalgamation of the mixture." " We see that by being able to regulate the proportions, we can also give to the factitious lime whatever degree of energy we please, and cause it at pleasure to equal or surpass the natural hydraulic limes." " We usually take twenty parts of dry clay to eighty parts of very rich lime, or to one hundred and forty of carbonate of lime. This refers to the lime in the unslacked condition, or to the uncalcined mineral. If the lime be slacked, the proportion should be increased to 110 parts. But if the lime or its carbonate should already be at all mixed with clay in the natural state, then fifteen parts of clay will be sufficient. Moreover, it is proper to determine the proportions for every locality." "The mixture here described," adds Captain Smith in a note, "is such as to produce the hydraulic limes, whose properties are similar to the Aberthaw, the analysis of which shows it to correspond nearly with the proportions here recommended, as it consists of 86.2 of carbonate of lime to 11.2 clay, (with 2.6 water and carbonaceous matter), being at the rate of 18.2 parts clay, to 140 of the carbonate of lime. The cements now in use in England, are much quicker setting than these, and differ in being unslacked. They contain a greater proportion of clay, but may be manufactured artificially with equal ease, by combining such relative quantities of chalk, or lime, and clay, as will suit the purpose intended. Parker's Patent Cement, as analyzed by Sir umnphrey Davy, contains 45 per cent of clay to 55 carbonate of lime; the Yorkshire cement, 34 clay to 62 carbonate of lime; the Sheppey, 32 clay to 66 carbonate of lime; and the Harwich, which is a quicker-setting cement, 47 clay to 49 carbonate of lime." It seems to be evident from the experiments of M. Vicat, that the manufacture of artificial cements may be almost infinitely varied by the admixture of different ingredients. The character, quality, and proportions of these must be the result of actual practice and experiment, for so different may be the chemical properties of apparently similar materials, that no results, however successfiul in one locality, can be trusted to with certainty in another. It is only necessary to add, that in all cases, particular attention should be paid to the perfect amalgamation of the materials; and the degree of calcination best suited to it should be carefully observed, before attempting the manufacture on a large scale. The process made use of at a manufactory of artificial lime at Meudon, near Paris, is thus described by M. Vicat-" The materials made use of are chalk of the country, and the clay of Vaurigard, which is previously broken up into lumps of the size of one's fist. A millstone set up edgeways, and a strong wheel with spokes and felloes, firmly attached to a set of harrows and rakes, are set in motion by a two-horse gin, in a circular basin of about two metres (six feet and a half English) radius. In the middle of the basin is a pillar of masonry, on which turns the vertical arbor to which the whole system is fixed: into this basin, to which water is conveyed by means of a cock, they throw successively four measures of chalk, and one measure of clay. After an houy and a half working, they obtain about 1.50 metres cube (nearly 53 cubic feet English), of a thin pulp, which they draw off by means of a conduit pierced horizontally on a level with the bottom of the basin. The fluid descends by its own weight; first into one excavation, then into a second, then a third, and so on to a fourth or fifth. These excavations communicate with one another at top; when the first is full, the fresh liquid, as it arrives, as well as the supernatant fluid, flow over into the second excavation; from the second into the third, and so on to the last, the clear water from which drains off into a cesspool. Other excavations, cut in steps like the preceding, serve to receive the fiesh products of the work, whilst the material in the first series acquires the consistency necessary for moulding. The smaller the depth of the pans in relation to their superficies, the sooner is the above-mentioned consistency obtained. " The mass is now subdivided into solids of a regular form, by means of a mould. This operation is executed with rapidity. A moulder, working by the piece, makes on an average five thousand prisms a day, which will measure about six cubic metres (211.8 cubic feet English). These prisms are arranged on drying shelves, where in a short time they acquire the degree of desiccation and hardness proper for calcination." These artificial limes are intended to supply the place of the natural ones in those countries where argillaceous limestone cannot be obtained. The price at which they were sold in Paris a few years back, was about ~2 5s. per cubic yard English. Maltha, and mastic, are cements, whose hardness depends on the oily or nmucilaginous substances that enter into their composition. The use of these is at present very limited in Europe; but they were highly esteemed by the ancients, especially for stucco. The mialtha of the Greeks seems to have been more simple than that employed by the Roman architects; at least we are infornmed, that I'anamas, the brother of Phidias, lined the inside of the temple of Minerva, at Elis, with stucco, in which the usual ingredients of sand and lime were mixed up with milk, instead of water, some saffron being added to give it a yellow tinge. The Roman maltha, according to Pliny, was prepared as follows: Take fresh-burnt lime, and slack it with wine, then beat it up very well in a mortar, with hogs' lard and figs: this cement, if well made, is excessively tenacious, and in a short time becomes harder than stone; the surface to which it is to be applied is to be previously oiled, in order to make it adhere. Another kind almost equally strong, and considerably cheaper, was prepared by beating up together fine slacked lime, pulverized iron scales, and bullocks' blood. In the preparation of malt/ha, as well as of every other kind of mortar, so much depends on the manipulation, and on the care and long beating of the ingredients, that those countries in which labour is of the least value, possess, in general, the best mortar. Hence, no doubt, principally arises the unrivaled excellence of the mortar made by the Tunisians, and other inhabitants of the northern coast of Africa. Dr. Shaw gives the following account of their manner of preparing their mortar: One measure of sand, two of wood-ashes, and three of lime, being previously sifted, are mixed together, and sprinkled with a little water; after the mass has been beaten some time, a little oil is added: the beating is carried on for three or four days successively, and, as the evaporation in _ _ __ l _ ~ ______ _ _ _ _ ~ CEM 134 CEM O E 1 3 C E M that hot climate is considerable, the cement is kept in a proper degree of softness by the alternate addition of small quantities of water and oil. The cement, being completed, is applied in the usual manner, and speedily acquires a stony hardness. The term maltha is also applied to a variety of bitumen or mineral pitch of a viscid and tenacious character; unctuous to the touch, and exhaling a bituminous odour. This substance, as also Asphalte, (see ASPIIALTE,) has been successfully used as a cement. The celebrated chunam, of India, is a species of maltha which has been used in that country from time immemorial. The method in which it is prepared at Madras is as follows:Take fifteen bushels of pit-sand, and fifteen bushels of stone-lime; slack the latter with water, and when it has fallen to powder, mix the two ingredients together, and let them remain for three days untouched. Dissolve 20 lbs. of molasses in water, and boil a peck of gramm, (a kind of pea,) and a peck ofmirabolans to a jelly; mix the three liquors, and incorporate part of the mixture very accurately with the lime and sand, so as to make a very fluid cement; some short tow is then to be beaten well into it, and it will be fit for use. The bricks are to be bedded in as thin a layer as possible of this mortar; and when the workmen leave off, though but for an hour, the part where they recommence working is to be well moistened with some of the above liquor before the application of fresh mortar. When this composition is used for stucco, the whites of four eggs, and four ounces of buttermilk, are to be mixed up with every half bushel of cement, and the composition is to be immediately applied. Mastic is an external composition possessing peculiar propelties, which, in some cases, render it superior to Roman cement, having the power of resisting heat and adhering to iron, copper, and even glass, with equal tenacity. It is generally applied to the exteriors of mansions, but it may also be very beneficially used for laying the floors of halls, kitchens, &c. Mastic was first introduced from France by Hamlin, but is now sold only by Messrs. Francis and White, at Nine Elms. It is composed of pounded stone, silver sand, litharge, and red lead, and, when manufactured, has the appearance of very fine sand. The manner of working Mastic is entirely different from that of Roman cement. To one cwt. of Mastic add one gallon of linseed-oil, and let them be well incorporated by the labourer, which must be effected by treading them together with the feet until the amalgamation is complete, which may be easily ascertained by smoothing a portion of the mixture with the shovel: should any bright spots be observable, the treading must be again and again repeated until they completely disappear, when it is considered fit for use. The manner in which Mastic is used is as follows:-The joints of the brickwork being well cleaned out, the work must be correctly plumbed up by means of flat-headed nails, and screeds, for the guidance of the floating-rule, formed with Roman cement, and kept about one inch in breadth. This being done, the bricks must be well saturated with boiled linseed-oil of the best quality, and the Mastic laid on with the hands, assisted occasionally by the laying-trowel, until the space between the screeds be covered to the thickness required. The floating-rule is then passed carefully over the work; and when the space between the screeds is sufficiently filled up, it must be floated with a hand-float, composed of sycamore or beech, until it assumes the same appearance as highly-polished stone. Thus a space of large dimensions must be followed up until the whole is completed, when the screeds must be cut out, their places filled with Mastic, and compactly hand-floated into the rest of the work. Within the last few years various compositions have been invented for the covering of the exterior of buildings, such as Roman Cement, Terra Cotta, Bailey's Composition, and a host of others, all more or less patronized by the public. It would be impossible for us to give descriptions of all these compositions; but we shall shortly explain the mode of preparing and using the Roman cement. This cement, familiarly known among plasterers as Compo, was first introduced to public notice by Messrs. Parker and Wyatt, who took out a patent for it, and who succeeded in obtaining for it an extensive sale. It is prepared from the kind of stone called clay-balls, or septaria, by being, after a manner of manufacturing plaster, first broken into pieces of a convenient size, slowly calcined in kilns or ovens, and afterwards ground to a fine powder, and put into proper casks, great care being taken to preserve it from damp. Two parts of this composition, with three parts of clean grit-sand, will form a very durable substitute for stone. In selecting the sand, great care must be taken to procure it free from clay or mud, and of a sharp and binding quality, or it must be washed until perfectly clean. This composition, when it is intended to compo, as it is termed, the exterior of a building, is thus used:After the walls have been well soaked with water, the cement must be prepared by the hawke-boy on a stiff board made for the purpose, adding as much water as brings it to the consistency of paste, but no more must be mixed than can be used in ten minutes. It must be laid on with the greatest possible expedition, in one coat of three-quarters of an inch in thickness, and after being well-adjusted with the floating-rule, the hand-float must be incessantly used to bring it to a firm and solid surface before it sets, which it does in about fifteen minutes. The work should then be drawn and jointed to imitate well-bonded masonry, and afterwards coloured with a wash composed of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water -a sufficient quantity of firesh lime and cement-and to the whole adding the colours necessary to imitate any particular stone that may be required. Terra Cotta, or artificial stone, is an excellent and durable composition, advantageously used at the present day for all. kinds of exterior decoration. It is a compound of pipe-clay, stone-bottles, glass, and flint, well pounded together, and sifted through a fine sieve, a small portion of silver-sand afterwards added. Bailey's Composition is also a valuable invention, which has been used with great advantage in various situations, without being at all injured by winter. The exteriors of many of the public buildings in the metropolis are covered with this composition, amongst which is the Colosseum in the Regent's Park. It is simply a mixture of lime and sand, the strength of the lime being preserved by the peculiar manner in which it is prepared. In its manufacture, chalk should never be used; it ought always to be made from lime-stone, or carbonate of lime. The lime, being taken before being slacked and ground to powder, must be placed in iron-bound casks to prevent the admission of air or damp. When used, it must be mixed with one-third its quantity of sharp river-sand, the manner of working it being the same as that of Roman cement. See MORTAR, GROUT, STUCCO, and CONCRETE. CEMETERY, a sacred place, set apart for the burial of the dead. The term is of Greek derivation, signifying "a place of rest or sleep," and was applied by the early Christians to common places of interment. The subject of burial in towns has of late occupied so prominent a place in public estimation, that the description __ I I s OEM 135 OEM CEM 135 CEM of a few of the great receptacles for the dead lately established in or near the metropolis, cannot be out of place in a work of this kind; the more especially, that the professional talent of the architect has, not unfrequently, been called into action, to furnish designs for the buildings connected with public cemeteries, if not for the ornamental gardens, since it has become the fashion of the day to make these " cities of the dead." From the very earliest ages the disposal of the bodies of the dead has been a necessary, and with many nations, a sacred duty. Among some we find that a superstitious veneration for those who had ' passed away;" the necessity of funeral rites to secure the fiuture happiness of the deceased; and the crime attached to the violation of the tomb, formed a part both of their civil and religious code. The practice of burying the dead in the earth is probably the oldest, as it is the simplest mode of disposing of them: but the custom of burning the body, and afterwards collecting the ashes, and depositing them in a tomb, or urn, became very general amongst the Greeks and Romans. The Egyptians do not seem to have ever adopted this practice; and even amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans, it seems likely that interment in the earth was mostly resorted to by the lower orders. At the present day, all European nations deposit their dead in the earth, and the ceremony of burning is extinct. The establishment of public cemeteries is now becoming general in the neighbourhood of large cities; a practice probably suggested to us by the customs of the Orientals, with whom the burial-places of their departed friends are objects of peculiar care, and who cultivate, with extreme affection and solicitude, the flowers and trees with which it is their delight to adorn them. "Among the first objects that present themselves to a stranger entering Turkey," remarks a recent writer, "are the groves of cypress extending in dark masses along the shores. These are the last resting-places of the Turks; and their sad and solemn shade, far more gloomy than any which Christian usage has adopted, informs the traveller that he is now among a grave and serious people. The situation of cemeteries is of great importance, both with regard to the public health, and from considerations of convenience. Among the Greeks we find that they were usually without the cities. Among the Romans the tombs were generally placed by the sides of the public roads. The early Christians followed the custom of the Romans, but they afterwards transferred their burial-places to the vicinity of the churches, and within towns. This insalubrious practice, it is to be hoped, will soon entirely cease, and the health of the living be no longer endangered by the too close proximity of the graves of the dead. Cemeteries should be placed on high ground, and to the north of habitations, so that southerly winds should not blow over the houses, charged with the putrid exhalations; low wet places should be avoided, and care should be taken that bodies be not interred near wells, or rivers, from which people are supplied with water. It may not be uninteresting here to state that extra-mural or suburban cemeteries, formed part of the plan of the celebrated Sir Christopher Wren, for the rebuilding of London after the grea tfire. "I would wish," says he, "that all burials in churches might be disallowed, which is not only unwholesome, but the pavements can never be kept even, nor the pews upright; and if the church-yard be close about the church, this is also inconvenient, because the ground being continually raised by the graves, occasions in time a descent by steps into the church, which renders it damp, and the walls green, as appears evidently in all old churches." Ite then proceeds to recommend, that a piece of ground, being purchased in the fields, should then be "enclosed with a strong brick wall, and having a walk round, and two cross walks, decently planted with yew-trees. The four quarters to serve four parishes, where the dead need not be disturbed at the pleasure of the sexton. "In these places beautiful monuments may be erected; but yet the dimensions should be regulated by an architect, and not left to the fancy of every mason; for thus the rich with large marble tombs would shoulder out the poor: when a pyramid, a good bust, or statue on a proper pedestal, will take up little room in the quarters, and be properer than figures, lying on marble beds; the walls will contain escutcheons and memorials for the dead, and the real good air and walks for the living." Though the cemeteries which have been formed are pronounced to be only improvements on the places of burial in this country, and far below what it would yet be practicable to accomplish; they have indisputably been viewed with public satisfaction, and have created desires of further advances by the erection of national cemeteries. Abroad the national cemeteries have obtained the deepest hold on the affections of the population. They have been established near to all the large towns in the United States. To some of them a horticultural garden is attached; the garden-walks being connected with the places of interment, which, though decorated, are kept apart. These cemeteries are places of public resort, and are there observed, as in other countries, to have a powerful effect in soothing the grief of those who have departed friends, and in refining the feelings of all. At Constantinople, the place of promenade for Europeans is the cemetery at Pera, which is planted with cypress, and has a delightful position on the side of a hill overlooking the Golden Horn. The greatest public cemetery attached to that capital is at Scutari, which forms a beautiful grove. In Russia, almost every town of importance has its burial-place, at a distance fiom the town, laid out by the architect of the government. It is always well planted with trees, and is frequently ornamented with sculpture. Nearly every German town has its cemetery, planted and ornamented. In Turkey, Russia, ard Germany, the poorer classes have the advantages of interment in the national cemeteries. One of the most celebrated cemeteries in Europe is that of Pere la Chaise, but in this, as in all the cemeteries of Paris, it has been a subject of complaint, that the graves of the poor are neglected and little cared for, amidst the splendid monuments and sculptured ornaments which mark the tombs of the higher classes. The first attempt at a metropolitan cemetery, in imitation of that of Pere la Chaise, was made by the General Cemetery Company, who, in the year 1833, opened to the public their new and extensive burial-ground at Kensall Green. This cemetery occupies above fifty acres of ground; which is tastefully laid out with flowers and plants; well-gravelled walks lead to various parts of the ground; and yews, evergreens, and shrubs, deemed appropriate to a place of sepulture, ornament and diversify the landscape. On the road-side, the cemetery is bounded by a high wall, affording protection and seclusion; on the other side, towards the canal, an open iron palisading permits an uninterrupted view of the country, which here presents a prospect both extensive and beautiful. At the entrance there is a handsome gateway, from which a central walk leads to the church in the consecrated portion of the cemetery. In this building are solemnized the funeral rites according to the Church of England. In front of the church a large circle is appropriated to many of the more splendid - i.I GEM 136 CEN CEM 136 CEN tombs and mausoleums, and beneath it are extensive catacombs. In the unconsecrated part of the cemetery, set apart for the burial of Dissenters of every denomination, a neat chapel has been erected for the performance of service according to their several forms of worship. The principal feature of this chapel is a rather handsome Doric colonnade, and near it also are catacombs. The etablishment of the cemetery at Kensall Green was immediately followed by that of several others in the suburbs of London; one of the mIost picturesque of these is Highgate Cemetery, situated on the rising slope of the hill behind Highgate Church. Iere, the natural beauty of the ground has been tastefilly made use of, and the result produced is pleasing, if viewed as a pleasure-garden, though certainly conveying but little of that solemnity of thought and feeling we are accustomed to associate with a burial-place for the dead. The southern entrance, in Swain's Lane, is in a style compounded of Gothic of all periods, exhibiting more of tawdry decoration than the sobriety which should have characterized it. The Egyptian style has been selected for the catacombs, which are approached through an arched avenue, with an entrance flanked by two obelisks. This passage, in the upper part of the grounds, is lined on each side by a range of sepulchral chambers, and leads into another avenue, forming a circular walk between similar chambers, each of which has its Egyptian doorway. These sepulchres, amounting altogether to forty-six, besides eighteen others in the first mentioned avenue, form as many sides of two polygons, an outer and inner one. Midway is an ascent, first by a single flight of steps, and then by others on each side, leading to a terrace overlooking the catacombs, froim which they present a striking appearance; the summit of the inner polygon being covered with earth, and having a large cedar in the centre. The back wall of this terrace is in a semi-Gothic style, crowned by a fancy open-work parapet, placed before another terrace, under the south end of the Gothic Church, erected a few years ago by Mr. Vulliamy. The prospect from this terrace is exceedingly beautiful. Norwood Cemetery occupies about forty acres, on the north-west side of a hill to the east of St. Luke's, Norwood. The entrance is an open arch, which, with the lodge adjoining it, are in much better taste than that of Highgate, although, had there been a gateway, the design would have been greatly improved. There are two chapels-one for members of the Church of England, the other for Dissenters though varying somewhat in design, there is great similarity in their style, which is a sober, but correct Gothic. The principal objection is the injudicious position of these two buildings, which, from being too near together, neither form distinct architectural pictures, nor group so as to form one design. The architect is Mr. W. Tite. Abney Park Cemetery contains about thirty acres, and displays evidence of a simple and pure taste, in its buildings and general arrangement. The entrance, if wanting in architectural composition, has something bold and effective in its general appearance. The four piers are lofty and wellproportioned masses, constructed of Portland stone, upon granite plinths, and are surmounted by handsome coved cappings, in the Egyptian style. The lodges are in the same style, and extend the frontage to 118 feet, 40 of which are occupied by the piers and gates in the centre. The effect of this entrance is greatly enhanced by the park-like aspect of the grounds, and the fine old trees with which they are adorned. Nearly in a line with the entrance is the chapel, in the early pointed style, with lancet windows. The architect is Mr. W. Hosking. The South London Cemetery comprises fifty acres of dry well-drained land, in one of the most beautiful spots within the vicinity of the metropolis. It is situate at Nunhead, between Peckham Rye and New Cross. The grounds are most tastefully laid out-there are handsome lodges, a residence for the superintendent, episcopal and dissenters' chapels, and extensive catacombs. The architectural ar rangements were superintended by Mr. Bunnings. The West of London Cemetery, situate at Earl's Court, consists of about forty acres. The buildings, &c. in the Italian-Doric style, are of a similar character to those previously described, and the grounds are laid out in the pleasure-garden manner, so popular with those who have the management and designing of Cemeteries. It would be well, were a few hints taken from the solemn, beautiful burial-places of the Orientals, in laying out such establishments in this country. CENOTAPH (from the Greek, KevoTratov) an honorary monument erected to the memory of the dead, when the funeral rites have been performed in some other place. CENTAUR, in heathen mythology, a fabulous monster, with the head and breast of a man, and the body of a horse. CENTERING, the act of making a centre, or the centre itself. See CENTRE. CENTERING TO TRIMMERS, the centre made to support a brick arch suspended between the wooden trimmer and the wall, for supporting the hearth or slab. CENTRE, or CENTER, (Greek, Kevrpov, a point, orpuncture,) in a general sense, denotes a point equally remote from the extremes of a line, figure, or body; or the middle of a line, or plane, by which a figure or body is divided into two equal parts; or the middle point, so dividing a line, plane, or solid, that some certain effects are equal on all its sides. CENTRE OF GRAVITY, that point at which all the weight of a mass might be collected, without disturbing the equilibrium of any system of which the mass forms a part. Thus, if a lever were balanced by means of two solid spheres of uniform density hung at the ends, the equilibrium would still remain, if all the matter of either of the spheres could be concentrated at its centre. The centre of the sphere is then its centre of gravity. CENTRE OF PRESSURE, the point at which the whole amount of pressure may be applied, with the same effect as it has when distributed. CENTRE, in building, is a combination of timber-beams, so 'disposed as to form a frame, the convex side of which, when boarded over, corresponds to the concavity of an arch; or the wooden mould, used for turning an arch of stone or brick during the time of erection. Centre of a cylindric or cylindroidal arch, which rises more than the breadth of a plank, is a number of boards supported transversely by one or more vertical frames, or trusses, as the length of the cylinder, or that of its axis, may require. Centre for a groined arch upon a rectangular plan is thus constructed: Make the centre for one of the cylinders, or cylindroids, viz. that of the greatest diameter, when there is a difference, as if there had been no other cylinder crossing it; find out the places on the surface of this cylindric or cylindroidal centre, where the surface of the transverse vault would intersect: fix the whole ribs on the cross vault, and parts of ribs on the surface of the vault already completed, observing to keep the outer edge of these ribs the thickness of the boards wi hin the intended surface of the intrados of the arch; when this transverse vault is boarded over, the boards will intersect the lines drawn on the first centre, and the surfaces of the boards of each vault will form the J I CEN 137 CEN CEN 137 CEN true surface of the groined centre, on which the stone or brick arch is to be turned. The frames or trusses which support the boarding are frequently called ribs; and the short ribs which are fixed to the boarding, and made to range with the whole ribs, are called jack-ribs. Under the word STONE-BRIDGE, &c., the theory and construction of arches will be described; in the present article we propose to show how the arch-stones are supported till the arch is completed; and the most commodious and least expensive manner in which this can be accomplished. The proper construction of such supports, or the best mode of framing the centres for large works, has always been considered so important a subject, that it has occupied the attention, and exercised the talents, of the most eminent engineers and architects. The principal object to be kept in view is, to fix the various parts of the centering in such a manner, as to support, without change of shape, the weight of the materials that are to come upon them, throughout the whole progress of the work, from the springing of the arch to the fixing of the key-stone. This object has not always been sufficiently attended to by the professional men, either of this, or of other countries; for in many instances it has been ascertained that the centres of bridges, fiom the injudicious principles of their construction, have changed their shape considerably, or entirely failed, before the arch was complete; and in consequence of change of shape only, the alches built upon them have varied, both in form and strength, from the intention of the engineer. In the large works of this kind, however, erected in Great Britain, our best engineers have constructed their centres on principles calculated to support every weight, and resist every strain to which they might be exposed. ' The qualities of a good centre," says Tredgold, "consist in its being a sufficient support for the weight or pressure of the arch-stones, without any sensible change of form throughout the progress of the work, fiom the springing of the arch to the fixing of the key-stone. It should be capable of being easily and safely removed, and designed so that it may be erected at a comparatively small expense." The centre of a large vault, as that of a bridge, is constructed of trusses disposed equidistantly in vertical parallel planes, and boarded over so that the convexity of the boarding may coincide with the intended internal intrados of the arch. The distance of the ribs may be disposed at fiom three to eight feet, according to the strength of the boarding and weight of the arch. In very large works, a bridging is laid for every course of arch-stones, with blockings between, to keep them at regular distances. The ring-stones do not always rest upon these bridgings; planks being sometimes put between, that they may be cut away afterwards, to separate the centre and the intrados from each other, in order to ascertain whether there are any settlements, to repair the damages, and put the arch in a state of equilibrium. Where the river is not navigable, the trusses may be constructed with a beam at the bottom: in this case, there is no difficulty. The forms for the trusses of roofs with tie-beams, may form the grand or principal part of the truss for the centre. But when the river is navigable, the centre requires as large an opening as is consistent with its strength, in order that vessels may pass under it; and as the horizontal tie is interrupted, this disposition of the timbers will require much greater skill in the carpenter. If the river over which a bridge is to be built be not navigable, the manner of constructing the centre is so easy, that it would be unnecessary to give any examples here; but where the river is navigable, instead of the horizontal 1] tie, a number of ties are disposed around the polygon, forming the interior part of the centre; but as in many practical cases the most judicious and well-skilled theorist might be deceived as to the equilibrium of the arch to be supported, or the points in which it has the most tendency to fall, it would be very difficult to say what are ties and what are strutts; and even if the true pressure of the arch could be ascertained, the knowledge of this alone would not be sufficient; for the same parts of the vaults, in the process of execution, vary their pressure in every succeeding additional part, and what was a tie at one time, becomes sometimes a strutt; while a strutt, on the contrary, will become a tie, either in building, or at the completion of the vault. This ought to be well considered; and where the pressure is doubtful, or any of the lengths of timber forming the centre are ascertained to be in the two different states above mentioned, such timbers should be made to act in either case. Though the timbers upon which the vault immediately rests, cannot be supported transversely throughout, the other pieces, which support the arch from the several pressing points, may all be made to act, by a judicious arrangement, in the direction of their lengths. The abutting joints, which are pressed, will be sufficiently resisted, when their shoulders are made perpendicular to the direction of their force, and with the small tenon; but if the timbers are drawn in a direction of their length, the joints ought to be strapped. The beauty of every truss is to have as few quadrilaterals as possible. All the openings should be triangles: the intersection of the timber should be as direct as possible. Oblique directions exert prodigious strains, which require timbers of very large sections to withstand them, and press upon the abutments so much as to make the whole truss sag by the compression of the intermediate joggles. If proper attention be paid to these circumstances, and the bearings of the timbers be well ascertained, a centre, constructed upon such principles, must answer its intended purpose, provided a proper estimate be taken of the communicating forces during the execution of the vault, and the centre be well secured at its abutment. A centre for the arch of a bridge over a navigable river, may either be accomplished with one centre around the interior of the entire arch, supported between the piers; or, if the span of the arch will admit, the aperture may be subdivided into two or more apertures, by one or more supporters, each consisting of one or more posts of wood, braced together when necessary; these supporters, together with the sides df the stone piers, support the centre of the aperture, on which the stone arch is to be erected over the whole. By this mode, the centering is much more simple in its construction and requires fewer timbers, and these of smaller scantlings than when made in one centre. If a centre be truly constructed, every point of the vault to be built ought to be supported, without giving any transverse strain to the incumbent part of the centre: but this is impracticable; for, as it would require a multiplicity of joints, it would, fiom the shrinking of the timber, be less sufficient than if composed'of few pieces, supporting only a certain number of points disposed at judicious distances, leaving the intervals to be supported by timbers in which the superincumbent part of the arch might act transversely, but still presenting such a resistance, as not to be materially bent or put out of form by the load of the arch above. By these precautions, the centre will be constructed so as not to yield, or give way, though the load should vary during the erection of the arch, and will stand as firm as if the whole had been constructed out of a single solid: the only thing to be attended to, as before observed, being to make __ CEN 138 CEN CEN 138 CEN the timbers sufficiently strong to withstand either tension or compression. There are several other principles of constructing the ribs of centering; one of these may be that of a large truss, spanning the whole opening, hv.ing its vertex supporting the summit of the arch, and its rafters, or principal braces, supporting other subordinate trusses which resist the pressure of the arch at other intermediate points. Of this kind is that of the bridge of Orleans, by M. Hupeau, one of the boldest centres ever executed in Europe. Another principle is that of two independent trusses, one supporting the sides or haunches of the arch, and the other the crown. Of this construction was the centering of the nave and transepts of St. Peter's church, at Rome, by Michael Angelo, and two centres by Pitot. Another principle of centering is that of inscribed equilateral polygons; that is, the exterior beams, supporting the curve, are of equal lengths, and joined together in the form of a polygon: another polygon is formed within this, having its angles in the middle of the sides of the former, and so on, alternately, until there are as many polygons inscribed as will make the centering sufficiently strong or stiff. This mode of centering may be of two kinds: one, when the angles are fixed at their junction to the sides of the last polygon with bolts; bridles, or double truss-pieces, being put over the angles to prevent a transverse strain at the section of the timbers where the two pieces meet, and to support the curve above. The other kind is, when the polygons act independently of each other; these polygons are brought into action by bridles, which support the curve, and act upon the angular points of each other's polygon. Of this kind were the centering of the bridges of Cravant, Nogent, Mayence, and Neuilly, constructed by Perronet. Though these centerings have been executed to very large spans, the last mentioned being 120 feet, their equilibrium is by no means so secure as when the angles of the inner polygon are fastened to that immediately preceding, as is evident from the information given of the erection of these bridges, by the ingenious architect who has favoured the world with a treatise on this subject. Another principle of centering is that of Westminster and Blackfriars bridges, London. They consist of a series of trusses, each supporting a point in the arch, the principal braces having their lower extremities abutting below, at each end of the centering, on the striking-plates, and at the upper end, upon apron-pieces, which are bolted to the curve that supports bridgings for binding the pieces which compose thenj together at their junction. There is one disadvantage under which this mode labours; that is, the frequent intersection of the principal braces with each other: they must either be halved one upon the other, otherwise they must be discontinued, and made in various lengths. Both these modes diminish their lateral strength, and consequently make them much more liable to buckle than when whole; but of the two, that of halving is to be preferred; as by the braces being in one length, there can be no sagging occasioned by intermediate joggles, and the braces may be rendered sufficiently secure, laterally, by running straps longitudinally across the notched part on each side, bolting these straps to the braces. Lastly, another mode of centering may be that of a number of quadrilateral frames abutting on each other, having their joints radiating to a centre, in the manner of the wedge-stones of an arch in masonry. These frames should all be resolved into triangles by one or two diagonals, according to the kind of strain, keeping in view that a piece, which is a tie in one diagonal, is, in the other diagonal of the same quadrilateral, a strutt; but if the kind of strain on any frame be not well ascertained, it would be better to place two diagonals, halved upon each other. The frames are to be secured with keys or bolts, and by this precaution each frame will be rendered quite immovable. The general principle of construction is a series of trian gles, of which every two are connected by a common side. Plate I., Figure 1. Let A B c D E F G be the curve of an arch which requires a centre; let the points A, B, c, &c., be connected so as to form the equilateral polygon, A B c D E F G, and join A c, c E, and E G; the timbers thus disposed will form three triangles, which may be looked upon as so many solids, revolvable about the angular points A, c, E, G; suppose now, that these are to be in equilibrium, the smallest force on either side would throw it down, and therefore, without other connecting timbers, it would be unfit for the purpose of a centre. Figure 2. Let A n c D E F a be the curve of an arch which requires a centre; first, form the equilateral polygon, A B C D E F G, with the timbers A B, B c, c D, &c., and fix the timbers A c, c E, E G, as before, which will form three triangles, movable round A, c, E, G; let the timbers B D and D F be fastened, and thus the whole will be immutable; so that if supported at the points A and G, and a force applied at any other of the angles B, c, D, or F, the timbers will be all in a state of tension, or in a state of compression, and the whole may be looked upon as a solid body; for suppose the triangle A B c to be supported at the points A and B, the point c, and the other two sides, B c, c A, will be fixed; and because B C D is a triangle, and the points B and c are fixed, the point D, and consequently the sides c D and D B; in like manner, since c D E is a triangle, and the points c and D fixed, the point E will also be fixed, and therefore the sides D E and E c. The same may be shown, in like manner, for the points F and G. Suppose, then, two equal and opposite forces applied at the points A and G, in the plane of the figure, the figure can neither be extended out, nor compressed together. The pieces A H, n B, and G i, I F, are of no other use than to make the centre stand firmly on its base. This disposition of the timbers will cause them to occupy the least possible space. If the timbers are fixed at the points, k, 1, m, n, o, p, Figure 2, the same immutability of figure may be demonstrated; for, suppose the points A and ii to be fixed, the point k will also be fixed; the points A and k being fixed, the point B of the triangle A k B; again, the points B and k being fixed, the point I will also be fixed: in the same manner, all the remaining points, c, m, D, A., E, o, F, p, G, i, will be proved to be stationary in respect of the points A, LI; and the whole figure being kept in equilibrio by any three forces, acting in the plane of the figure, at any three angles, the action of the forces will only tend to compress or extend the timbers in a direction of their length. In the construction of this truss, the triangular parts may be constructed all in the same plane, as in Figure 1; and the pieces B D and D F may be halved upon the pieces c A and E G; but the utmost care must be taken to secure the several pieces concurring at each of the angles, by bolting or iron straps, as no dependence can be put in any such joint without iron: but perhaps the best method of any is to halve the thickness of the pieces A C, c E, E a, at the points c and E, and also the pieces A B, B c; c D, D E; E F, F G; at the points n, D, F: then bolting the ends A and c of the pieces B A, B C, the ends c and E of the pieces D c and D E, and the ends E and G of the pieces F E and F G, ard then fixing double braces B D, D F, that is, fixing B D upon one side of the truss, and another upon the other side of the truss, opposite to it, also fixing D F upon one side, and another opposite to it. The disposition of the timbers forming only a series of ,(-", 7144 -—.I-, 7,- -- VI 1-1 - Jj - [,,) -[, I.- I I V (f-l, I I i - j A - - I' A i jJ, D E 1) I1i I () G i HI A -PI 3 IQ' 1. lig. & FIg. I f - 1 " i,-, MMMM 1I Iii..,7 bid AVA Xlrhl"olts, Ii il, , 4, I " 'J''I I q 4 I CEN TR E 9 -PITATE 2 (eiW'ce.of' BlaeckfHirs.Bridg c, -_CA A Dmwa b, At,4..Mrh,,lson,. I.. h7-y. " y -R,.77, e w. (}V Jf1 T IR JL1 PL.AI] PLIVIt" AT U I U d5o o19,6 40 30 0 0 iJO (2/tre of' H'alvrloo -Bridge if A':VC/I to 1fy1. . 9 I..:: I. 0 I FEXTRE WOF -WATEWL{,0 7BTLD0Kl. A!4~' 5 P Thwsvc I _-. -~ - CEN 139 CEN CEN 139 eND quadrilaterals, gives nothing but immutability of figure. It can only derive its stiffness from the resistance of the joints. Figure 3 shows the manner of forming a centre by two polygons, of which the interior one is secured to the exterior: in this there is no occasion for double trussing-pieces, as the parts of the inscribed polygon act either as strutts or ties to that of the circumscribing one. Figure 4 is the manner of forming the rib for a centre, by two independent trusses; in this form of centering there is no occasion for bridles, or double trussing-pieces, as in those of Pitot, of the same construction. Figure 5 is the manner of constructing a centre, according to Perronet, with four polygons, independent of each other, but with this improvement, that the lower extremities of each ring of polygons are framed into the two abutments; this gives a much firmer base than if they were all to meet at the same place, and renders the centre much stronger, by making the angles more acute. In this it becomes also necessary to have bridles, otherwise the exterior polygon only would be effective. Figure 6 is the manner of constructing a centre with three polygons, which are all secured to each other. In this, trusspieces become necessary, otherwise the angles of the inner polygon would bend the sides of that next to it. Plate II., Figure 1, is the design of a centre, its principle being that of two roofs intersecting each other. In this example, the forces which are communicated to the various parts of the frame are resisted longitudinally, either by compression or extension; and no force is exerted transversely on any part, excepting the curved pieces in contact with the boarding supporting the arch-stones. Figure 2 is the design of a centre; it is first framed in one large truss, like a common roof, with two principal rafters, and a collar-beam; each of the rafters becomes a tie for the two small trusses above, which are framed in the manner of a roof, with queen-posts and braces. The lower angles of the principal rafters are braced from the lower queen-posts to the posts. This truss is free from transverse strains in all its parts, except the curve, which supports the arch-stones; and, if well secured at the abutments, an arch of immense weight may be sustained by it. Figure 3 is the celebrated centre used at Blackfriars Bridge. The names of the timbers are as follows: A. Timbers which support the centering. B, c. Upper and lower striking-plates, cased with copper. D. Wedge between striking-plates, for lowering the centre. E. Double trussing-pieces, to confine braces. F. Apron-pieces, to strengthen rib of centre. o. Bridgings laid on the back of the ribs. H. Blocks between bridgings, to keep them at equal distances. i. Small braces, to confine the ribs tight. K. Iron straps bolted to trussing-pieces and apron-pieces. L. Ends of beam at the feet of truss-pieces. M. Principal braces. The centre used at Westminster Bridge was formed by independent trusses, consisting of two rafters; the intersections all supposed to be halved together, and firmly strapped across the notchings. Double truss-pieces were also used, but for these there was evidently no occasion, as the pressure would be directed to the abutments, or to two opposite points of the arch in the same level. The annexed plate is a perspective view of the centering of one of the arches of Waterloo Bridge. This magnificent bridge was built under the direction of the late Mr. John Rennie, and is a noble specimen of simplicity of design, skilful arrangement, and solidity of execution. The centre was composed of eight frames or trusses, and, though somewhat complicated, was on the whole a judicious combination; exhibiting rather an excess than a deficiency of strength. In the erection of Chester Bridge, finished in 1832, an. entirely different principle was adopted in the construction and the mode of relieving the centre; it is thus described in the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Vol. I.: " The centre on which the stupendous arch of Chester new bridge was raised, and which is stated by Mr. Hartley, (the engineer of the bridge,) to have been exclusively designed by Mr. Trubshaw, claims a detailed notice, from the novelty of the principle it was formed on, the efficiency with which it did its work, and the economy that attended its use. The centre consisted of six ribs in width, and the span of the arch was divided into four spaces by means of three nearly equidistant piers of stone built in the river, fiom which the timbers spread fan-like towards the soffit, so as to take their load endwise. The lower extremities of these radiating beams rested in cast-iron shoe-plates on the tops of the piers, and the upper ends were bound together by two thicknesses of 4-inch planking bending round, as nearly as they could be made, in the true curve of the arch. On the rim thus formed, the lagging, or covering, which was 4- inches thick, was supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges, 15 or 16 inches long, by 10 or 12 inches broad, and tapering about 1~ inch; for every course of arch-stones in the bridge, there were therefore six pairs of striking wedges. The horizontal timber of the centre was only 13 inches deep, and the six ribs were tied together transversely near the top, by thorough bolts of inch iron, but with a view not to weaken and injure the timber more than was absolutely necessary, the least possible of iron was used." This centre thus differs essentially from any other hitherto employed; each rib, instead of forming one connected piece of frame-work, consisting in this of four independent parts, and hardly any transverse strain has to be resisted. It has also this advantage, that the bearings may be gradually relieved, or tightened at one place, and slackened at another, as may be necessary, because the wedges are in this construction borne by the centre, instead of the centre being borne by the wedges. In striking centres it is of great advantage to be able to suffer them to rest at any part of the operation; for it is important that the arch in taking its proper bearing do not acquire any sensible degree of velocity, or settle too rapidly. The centre, says Alberti, should always be eased a little as soon as the arch is completed, in order that the arch-stones may take their proper bearings before the mortar becomes hard. If the mortar be suffered to dry before the centre be lowered, the arch will break at the joints in settling, and the connection of the arch will be destroyed. In small centres, the wedges are driven back with mauls, men being stationed at each pair of wedges for that purpose. But in larger works a beam is mounted, as a battering-ram, to drive the wedgeformed blocks back. The French engineers, in removing centres, destroy, by little and little, the ends of the principal supports; a work of difficulty, as well as danger, and which cannot be done with so much regularity in this way as by wedges. See IRON BRIDGE, STONE BRIDGE, and SUSPENSION BRIDGE. CENTRE, in geometry, a point in a figure or solid, such that if any straight line be supposed to pass through the point until it terminate on both sides of the figure or solid, the line will be bisected. Figures of this property are infinite. Some _ _ ___ __ CHA 140 CHA CHA 140 CHA of them are the circle, ellipsis, parallelograms, of every species, &c.; and some solids of this nature are the sphere, spheroids, parallelopipeds, &c. In a circle, the centre is everywhere at an equal distance from the circumference. In a sphere, the centre is every. where at the same distance from the surface. In the ellipsis, any two straight lines passing through the centre, terminating at each end on the circumference, and making equal angles with either axis, are equal; or the four lines drawn from the centre to the circumference, are equal. The same property applies to the opposite hyperbolas. CENTRES OF A DOOR, two pivots, round which the door is made to revolve. CENTROLINEAD, an instrument for drawing converging lines, when the point of intersection is inaccessible. CENTRY-GARTH, an old English term for a burialground. CEROFERARIUM, a candlestick used to hold the paschal taper. CEROMA, the anointing-room in ancient baths and gymnasia. CESTOPHORI, sculptures of females bearing the cestus, or marriage-girdle. CESSPOOL. See SESSPOOL. CHAIN-TIMBER, in brick houses a timber of larger dimensions than common bond, placed in the middle of the height of the story, for strengthening the building; the scantling of chain-timber is 8 inches by 5 inches, or 8S inches by 51 inches, viz., equal to the length and breadth of a brick. CIIALCIDICIE, a large magnificent hall, belonging to a tribunal, or court of justice. Vitruvius employs the term for the auditory of a basilica; and other ancient writers use it for an apartment in which the gods were supposed to sup. CHALICE, the cup used to contain the wine at the celebration of the eucharist. In early ages, chalices were made of glass, wood, or horn; but in the council of Rheims, A. D. 847, the materials for the chalice were restricted to gold or silver. The rim of the chalice should never turn over. CHALK, an opaque mineral, of a yellowish white, or rather of a snow colour, of a fine earthy fracture, without lustre, breaking into blunt-edged angular fragments; when contaminated with iron, it has more or less of an ochrey tinge, and stains the fingers; but when pure it is very soft and almost friable, gives a white streak, has a meagre feel, and adheres to the tongue. It effervesces violently with acids; and when mixed with iron becomes harder and heavier: its specific gravity varies from 2 * 4 to 2 - 6. It occurs generally in a mass, sometimes disseminated, or investing other minerals. In a state of purity, it appears to be composed only of water, lime, carbonic acid, and a small quantity of alumine. Mr. Kirwan obtained the following analysis: 3 water 53 lime 42 carbonic acid 2 alumine 100 Chalk occurs in thick beds, nearly horizontal. alternating with thin layers of flint nodules, which are also irregularly dispersed through its substance. It contains a vast quantity of the relics of disorganized marine bodies, and often the hard parts of amphibious and land animals, as the heads and vertebrte of crocodiles, elephants' teeth, &c. Chalk beds occur frequently in the east and south parts of England, in the north-east of France, in Poland, and in some parts of the Danish islands. Its uses are numerous; it is employed in walling or vaulting, as building-stone; many of the groins or vaults of our Gothic churches are constructed with it; it is also employed in the composition of mortar, in countries where lime-stone is less abundant; and when well burnt, is found not much inferior to lime-stone. CHAMBER, (from the Latin camera, derived from the Greek icatapa, a vault, or curve,) a vaulted apartment, a part of a lodging. This term was formerly applied to any room, and sometimes even to a suite of apartments; but in modern times it is used to designate rooms ordinarily intended for sleeping in. The proportion of its horizontal dimensions may be varied, to accommodate different circumstances, which may occur either in the form of a building, or in the disposition of the apartments, from the square to the proportion, of which the breadth is two-thirds of the length; its altitude may be three-fourths of the breadth. The word originally implied a vaulted apartment. In building bed-chambers, the situation of the bed, as well as of the fire-place, ought to be attended to, as should the disposition of the windows, when they can be shifted without destroying the symmetry of the exterior. If the bed and fire-place be opposite to each other, the fire-place may be in the middle of its own side; but if it should be found necessary to have the bed on the same side of the room with the fire-place, on account of doors or windows, or both, then the chimney ought to be placed in the middle of the remaining distance between the bed and the wall, the bed being supposed to stand at one extremity. The situation of doors may be the same as in other apartments; passage-doors should be within about two feet of the angle of the room, on whatever side they are made; and may either be on the same side with the fire-place, or on the opposite side to the fire-place, or in the return side, opposite to the window, next to the farther corner from the fire-side of the room. The bed ought to be so placed as to be out of the current of air, which usually rushes from the door to the fire-place. The most eligible figure of chambers, for furniture, is the rectangle; though sometimes the circle, ellipsis, or octagon, may be allowed to some particular rooim, for the sake of variety. Besides passage-doors, it is convenient for chambers to communicate with each other, or with a dressingroom. CHAMBER OF A LOCK, in inland navigation, the space between the gates, in which a boat rises and sinks from one level to another, in order to pass the lock. CHAMBER-STORY, a story of a house appropriated to bedrooms. In good houses it should never be less than 10 feet high; and in mansions 12, or even 15 feet high. Chambers should not be too high, because it is difficult to warm them; nor too low, as it is prejudicial to the health.. CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished architect, is said to have derived his descent from the ancient family of Chalmers, in Scotland, barons of Tartas, in France. He was born, however, at Stockholm, in Sweden, where his father had resided for many years, in order to prosecute certain claims he had on the government of that country. When a very young man, he made a voyage to China, as supercargo in the service of the Swedish East India Company, and probably thus acquired his taste for the Asiatic style of ornament. At the very early age of eighteen, we find him established in London as an architect and draughtsman, in which capacities he soon acquired considerable reputation; and obtaining an introduction to Lord Bute, shortly afterwards was appointed - L~..~Li.-r CHA 141 CHA CH 14 CH through that nobleman's influence drawing-master to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George III. He was employed, soon after the accession of George III., to lay out the gardens at Kew, and there displayed, without restraint, his predilection for the Chinese style, both of architecture and gardening, decorating the royal gardens with numerous temples, pagodas, and other Asiatic buildings. Being patronized by the King and Princess-dowager, he was employed as architect to the most considerable buildings of the day; and was also appointed Surveyor-General to the Board of Works in Somerset House, a situation worth at least two thousand pounds a year. Sir William died in 1796, leaving a large fortune. As an architect, although his taste was fantastic, he fiequently displayed a certain grandeur in his designs, and in the disposition of interior arrangements particularly, showed considerable ingenuity and practical ability. His chef-d'oeuvres are his staircases, particularly that in the Italian villa he erected for the Earl of Besborough, at Roehampton; and also those at Lord Gower's and the Royal Antiquarian Society's. In the time of Sir W. Chambers, pure Greek architecture was only beginning to be known in England; and at first its introduction was not much favoured. The indiscriminate adoption of Greek models for public buildings in London has filled the metropolis with structures quite unsuited in external form to improve the appearance of a large city, and often ill adapted in their internal arrangements to the purposes for which they are designed. Instead of large masses and lofty buildings, the streets of London are crowded with mean porticos and pigmy pillars, attached to edifices of so little elevation, and so much cut up into small parts, as to suffer by comparison even with many of the adjoining houses. The street-front of Somerset House, Chambers's best work, is, in all respects, better adapted to a great city, than the Greek models which are now too generally adopted; and the river-front forms one of the boldest architectural objects in the metropolis, particularly when beheld fiom the water. Its extent and elevation, and the majestic breadth and range of its terrace, give it an air of grandeur exceedingly striking and imposing. The works published by Sir William Chambers wereA Treatise on Civil Architecture, of which a new edition, by Joseph Gwilt, Esq., F.S. A., appeared in 1824. Plans, Elevations, Sections and Perspective Views of the Gardens of Kew; Chinese Designs; and Chinese Gardening. His Treatise on Civil Architecture, though prejudiced against Grecian architecture in favour of the Roman, is an excellent work. CHAMBRANLE, the border of stone, or the wooden frame, surrounding the three sides of a door, window, or chimney; the head of the chambranle is called the traverse, and the two sides, the ascendants. When the chambranle is plain, it is called a band, case, or frame. In an ordinary door, it is called the door-case; in a window, the window-frame; in the latter case, it comprehends also the sill. When the chambranle is moiulded with one or more faces, and bordered outwardly with one or several mouldings, it is called an architrave; though it should rather be said to be architrave-moulded, being only an imitation of that division of the entablature of an order. CHAMFERED, Rustic. See RUSTIC. CHAMFERET, a half scotia, being a kind of furrow, or gutter, on a column; called also strix, and stria. CHAMFERING, Kap7LrXtv, to bend, the act of cutting the edge of anything, which was originally right-angled, aslope, or bevel; so that when placed in its destined situation, the plane formed by this cutting may be inclined to the horizon, while the other parts are perpendicular and parallel to it. A chamfer differs from a splay in being smaller, and in cutting off an equal portion from either side. In Gothic architecture chamfers are very frequent, and are often ornamented with mouldings and foliage at their terminations. CHAMP, a flat surface, the ground of relieved sculpture, or engraving. CHAMPAIN LINE, a conjunction of straight lines, forming indentations similar to the projecting parts; the sides of each ascending part, which are also the sides of the alternate indentations, being parallel to each other; the bottom of each indentation being formed of three internal angles, and the top of each projecting part of three external angles; each ascendant and each indentation being shaped alike on both sides; that is, the corresponding angles and lines, whether of the ascendants, or in the depressions, being equal. CHANCEL, that part of a church which is appropriated to the clergy and others officiating in the public services. The term comes fiomr the Latin, cancellIs, which, in the lower Latin, is used in the same sense, fiom cancelli, lattices, or cross-bars, which anciently partitioned the chancel from the other part of the church. Externally, the chancel is distinguished as a projection at the east end, of smaller dimensions than the nave, and without aisles; so that when the body of the church is accompanied by aisles, it is very readily recognized, and in other cases by its proportionate dimensions. Sometimes, however, the chancel is of the same size and height as the nave, and the aisles are continued to its eastern extremity; but even in this case the division may be shown by means of a belfry on the apex of the roof at that spot or by some other such method; in some instances there is no distinction externally. Internally the chancel is usually separated from the nave by a lofty arch, in the spandrels above which is often a picture of the Last Judgment; a further separation is effected by an ornamental screen of wood or stone, more frequently of the former, panelled and pierced in open tracery, surmounting which was in former times, the rood-loft, or gallery in which the rood, or large crucifix, accompanied by the images of the blessed Virgin and St. John, was placed, facing the west end of the church. Iere the level of the flooring was raised by one or more steps, and again before you arrive at the platform on which stood the altar; in one or two cases the chancel is depressed below the level of the nav, but these are purely exceptions. When the aisles of the nave are continued eastward, the only division consists of the screen and steps; but the distinction will be effected by some difference in the roof, or by the superior quality of the decoration. In such cases the aisles are partitioned off from the chancel by other screens or parcloses. The chancel is lighted by the east window, which should be the most important in the building, and by two or more in the north and south walls, according to its length. There is a door in one of the side-walls, towards the east end, for the priest, leading into the vestry, or forming his entrance into the church. The roof is of a more elaborate character than that in other parts of the structure, as indeed are all the enrichments. The floor was often covered with encaustic tiles, with devices of various colours painted on their surface, while the aisles in the body of the edifice were paved with tiles of a plainer description; the whole of the walls were sometimes decorated with colour and rich hangings, a method which has of late been adopted with success in one or two churches in London. In the centre of the eastern wall was the altar, and on the 19 i __ __ __ __ i I 2-..A - 142 C A CHA 142 CHA _ south of it the piscina, usually formed by a recess, in the eastern extremity of the south wall, and used to wash the sacred vessels, to contain which, when not in use, was pro. vided an aumbry or cupboard near the piscina, and taken out of the thickness of the south or north wall, furnished with a door and means of securing it. Adjacent to the piscina are sometimes found, especially in the larger churches, seats for the officiating priests. These sedilla, as they are termed, consisted of stone or wooden seats, varying in number from one to five, the more usual number being three, raised in gradation one above the other, according to the rank of the clergy who were to occupy them; when of stone, they are more generally cut out of the thickness of the wall; when of wood, they may be movable. Westward of these, disposed on each side of the chancel, are the seats for the choristers, consisting of two or three rows, one in front of the other and a little below it. Occasionally these seats are returned in fiont of the rood screen, and in that case they always face eastward toward the altar. In the north wall of some chancels is found an arched recess, which sometimes contained a stone tomb, occasionally that of the founder; this was the holy sepulchre on which the ceremonies commemorative of our Lord's burial and resurrection were celebrated at the season of Easter. Where there is no sepulchre, a movable wooden structure was employed for the purpose. The principal feature of the chancel is the altar. This is an elevated table of an oblong shape, constructed of either wood or stone; in the first ages of the church, up to the fifth century, they were generally made of the former material, though stone was recommended by Pope Sylvester, early in the fourth century. The council of Hippo forbade the use of wood, as did also that of Epone, in France, at the commencement of the sixth century, from which period they have been made of stone. Stone altars were disused in England at the Reformation, and so few survived the turmoils of this period, and of the succeeding rebellion, that we have scarcely an entire example left; those in the chantries and side-chapels are almost the only ones that escaped destruction. The high altar of Arundel church, Sussex, which was preserved by being enclosed in wood, will give us a fair idea of their form and construction. It consists of a slab 12 feet six inches long, by 4 feet wide, and 2- inches in thickness, supported on a solid stone 3 feet 6 inches in height, and quite plain; in some cases, however, the front and sides were carved in panels and various devices, and richly coloured. Sometimes the slab is supported on stone legs, and sometimes on brackets, as at Broughton Castle, Oxford; it was generally marked on its upper surface with five crosses in recession, one in the centre, and one in each corner, representing the five wounds of our Lord. In the church of Porlock, Somersetshire, the crosses do not appear on the slab, but are found in the centre panel in the face of the supporting masonry. That part of the east wall immediately above the altar is frequently ornamented with a reredos of tabernacle work, or a series of enriched arches; sometimes this space is occupied by a triptych, or painting of three compartments, often representing the crucifixion. " Pertaining to the high altar," says Mr. Bloxham, in his valuable little manual, "which was covered with a frontal and cloths, and anciently enclosed at the sides, with curtains suspended on rods of iron projecting from the wall, was a crucifix, which succeeded to the simple cross placed on the altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches; a pair of candlesticks, generally with spikes instead of sockets, on which lights or tapers were fixed; a pix, in which the host was kept reserved for the sick; a pair of cruets, of metal, in which were con tained the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in the eucharistic cup; a sacring bell; a pax table, of silver or other metal, for the kiss of peace, which took place shortly before the host was received in communion; a stoup, or stok, of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water; a censer, or thurible; and a ship-a vessel so called-to hold fiankincense; a chrismatory, an offering basin, a basin which was used when the priest washed his hands; and a chalice and paten." Another part of the furniture of the chancel is the credencetable, or table of prothesis, on which the elements were placed previous to consecration, usually situate on the north side of the altar. This is of much smaller dimensions than the altar, sometimes of stone richly panelled, as at the church of Holy Cross, near Winchester, and Fyfield, Berks, where it is in shape semi-octagonal; they were sometimes also of wood, a specimen of which is pointed out at ChippingWarden, Northamptonshire, the date of which is A, D. 1627. The credence is very fiequently found in the form of a shelf above the piscina, and under the same niche and canopy. We must not forget to mention the lettern, or desk, from whence the lessons were read, which was placed at the western end of the chancel; it was generally of brass, sometimes in the shape of an eagle with expanded wings, and sometimes forming a sloping desk, with the slope on one or two sides, in all cases supported on an ornamental stem. Eastward of this, immediately in front of the altar-steps, was the fald-stool, a low, sloping desk, at which the priest knelt at the Litany. The chancels of our old churches vary so much in size and proportion, that it is impossible to lay down any rule by which their dimensions may be determined; we always find them, however, of sufficient space to form a prominent feature in the building; sometimes they are as long, or longer than the nave, but this practice we would not recommend for adoption. It may be laid down as a general rule, that the chancel be well defined and fully developed, yet not of so great length as to prevent the voice of the celebrant being heard throughout the nave; on an average, we may give the length of 30 feet as a standard for most modern churches, but of course this dimension will vary with the size and width of the church. The materinls and workmanship in this part of the edifice should always be of the very best description, and the ornamentation more rich and fiequent; care must be taken to avoid the use of any decoration except such as is of a strictly religious character, and adapted to its particular situation: all meretricious ornament should be at once discarded; severity is wanted, not display. CIANDELIER, a candlestick, lamp, &c. suspended by a chain, rope, or bracket. CIHANDRY, a room where candles and other lights are kept. CHANNEL. a canal, or long gutter, sunk within the surface of a bod3. CHANNEL OF THE LARMIER, a hollow soffit, or canal, under the corona, which forms the pendent on the front. See BEAK. CHANNEL OP THE VOLUTE, in the Ionic capital, is the hollow spiral, sinking between the fillets. See CANAL OF THE IONIC VOLUTE. CHANNEL STONES, in paving, are those prepared for gutters or channels, for collecting and turning off the rainwater with a current. CHANTLATE, in building, a piece of wood fastened near the ends of the rafters, and projecting beyond the wall, to support two or three rows of tiles, so placed as to prevent the rain-water from trickling down the walls. CHANTRY, or CHAUNTRY, was anciently a church or chapel, endowed with lands, or other yearly revenues, for the mainte p I _ _____ __ _ ~_ CI A 143 CHA C. A 4 H 11:1t oie or Inore priests, daily saying or singing mass for th. souls of the donors, and such others as they appointed. CHANTIIES, are also small chapels attached to a church, 1lad are sometimes external additions to the church; but more frequently, especially in cathedrals and the larger churches, erections within it; they are separated off fiom the body of the church by screens of open work surrounding and enclosing the tombs of the founders, and are usually provided with an altar at the east, with its appendages, such as piscina, aunlbry, &c. Many beautiful specimens are to be found in our cathedral and abbey churches, and amongst the most costly may be enumerated those of Henry V. and Henry VII. at Westminster, the latter of which is, as is well known, of great size and magnificence; of Edward IV. at Windsor; of Edward II. at Gloucester; and of Bishops Waynfleet, Beaufort, and Wykeham at Winchester. CHAPEL, a small detached building for divine service, subordinate to, and usually dependent on, the parish church, from which it is distinguished by the fewer privileges belonging to it, such as having no proper priest attached, or being deprived of the power of having baptism administered within it. CHAPEL, is also a building adjoined to a church, as a part thereof, having only a desk, &c. to read prayers in, and, in the Romish churches, an altar, &c. to celebrate mass on; but without any baptistry or font. The eighteen chapels on the sides of King's College chapel, Cambridge, are formed between the buttresses; most of them were originally provided with altars: those on the south side of this magnificent building, are appropriated to the college library. Previous to the Reformation, nearly all castles,palaces, mansions, and religious establishments, were provided with private chapels. These were either detached buildings, or portions of the entire edifice constructed and set apart for sacred purposes. CHAPEL, also denotes the deep recesses made in the walls of ancient edifices, and is of a similar signification to what is otherwise called exhedrac, by Vitruvius; thus the Roman Pantheon has seven chapels in its circumference, the entry corresponding to what otherwise might have been the eighth; and the sides of the courts of the great temple at Balbec are full of chapels, or exhedrae. Those of the rectangular court of this temple, and those of the Pantheon, are alternated with circular and rectangular plans, and most elegantly decorated with columns in the front towards the interior. The semicircular recess at the end of the basilica, and at the end of our most ancient churches, is often denominated chapel. Smaller recesses in ancient edifices, for containing statues, are denominated shrines, or niches. CIAPITER, the same as CAPITAL, which see. CHAPITERS WITH MOULDINGS, are those without foliage, or other ornaments, as the Tuscan and Doric capitals. CHAPITERS WITH SCULPTURES, are those that are adorned with foliage, and other carved ornaments; the finest yet invented is the Corinthian capital. CHAPLET, a small ornament cut into olives, beads, &c.; a sort of fillet. CHAPTER-HOUSE (from capitulum), a place belonging to a cathedral, or collegiate church, wherein the assemblies of the clergy were held. The greater number of chapter-houses were connected with the cloisters of the church to which they belonged, by which means they were approached fiom the church; but, at Wells, York, and Lichfield, they are adjacent to the north transept, in the first case being considerably elevated above the level of the church; they are seldom found westward of the transept. The earlier of these edifices, dating of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, are in plan parallelogramic, terminating sometimes toward the east in a semicircle, as at Durham Cathedral; at later periods we find them octangular or polygonal, while that of Worcester is circular internally, with ten sides on the exterior. In elevation the walls are supported by buttresses-that of Lincoln with flying buttresses-with one or more windows between each pair, the whole being covered in the later instances, with a very high-pitched roof gathering from each side of the building, and terminating in a point at its apex. Below the windows, in the interior, runs a continuous seat or bench-table, backed with a series of niches or arcades, and at the east end, facing the entrance, stand three stone seats, usually of greater elevation than the rest, appropriated to the superior members of the chapter. The ceiling is more frequently vaulted. Among the earlier specimens may be enumerated Durham, probably the oldest, parallelogramic, with circular east end; Gloucester, Bristol, Oxford, Chester, Canterbury, and Exeter, all of which are rectangular. The first variation seems to have been at Worcester, which is circular within and decagonal without; the vaulting of the interior being supported by a central pillar and brackets in the side-walls. Of the remainder, Lincoln has ten sides, the vaulting supported by a central column and flying buttresses, which last appendage forms its peculiarity; Wells, Lichfield, Salisbury, and York, only eight sides, the vaulting sustained, as in the previous examples, that of York only excepted, where the vaulting is carried across the building in a single span of forty-seven feet. Wells chapter-house is erected over a crypt, a peculiarity which it shares with that of Westminster; that of Lichfield, although octangular, has two of its opposite sides of longer dimensions than the others, in which respect it is perfectly unique; while that of Salisbury is perhaps of all specimens the most beautiful. The subjoined LIST OF CHAPTER-HOUSES IN ENGLAND, (from Britton's valuable works,) may be found useful. BRISTOL.......... CANTERBURY...... GLOUCESTER....... DURHAM......... CHESTER......... OXFORD.......... EXETER......... WINCHESTER...... LLANDAFF........ WORCESTER...... LINCOLN.......... LICHFIELD........ WESTMINSTER..... WELLS.......... HEREFORD........ SALISBURY........ YORK........... Length. Breadth. Height. Int. Ext. Int. Ext. lnt. Rectalgular. 43ft. 53ft. 25ft. 36ft 26ft. Date 1142; adjoins S. transept; approached from cloister by a vestibule; vaulted roof. 87 99 36 45 52 N. of transept; entrance from cloister; vaulted roof with wood and tracery; large E. and W. windows. 68 77 35 44 Very lofty entrance fiom cloister; arched roof. 78 90 36 45 Date 1133; semicircular end; taken down. 50 58 26 36 36 54 64 24 34 Temp. Henry II.; S. of transept; entrance from cloister. 55 62 28 38 50 Lower part about 1230-upper part 1427. 88 One side remains; and joins S. transept with slyp between. 23 27 21 26 Early pointed. 55 62 45 58 55 45 53 57 65 70 54 66 65 58 70 55 62 28 58 55 45 53 57 65 70 42 36 66 65 42 58 52 70 Octagonal, Polygonal, &c. About 1150; separated from S. transept by passage. Before 1200; 140 feet diameter including buttresses. About 1200; large vestibule. Temp. Henry III.: octagon; central column; over crypt. Over crypt; small vestibule. Decagon; fragment remaining. S. of transept; entered from cloister; vestibule; about 1260. Connected with N. transept by vestibule; vaulted roof, of wood. CHE 144 CIIl CITE 144 CIII CHAPTREL, from chapiter, the capitals of pillars and pilasters, which support arches, commonly called impost. See IMPOST. CHARGED, a term in architecture, implying that one member of an edifice is sustained by another; in which case, the latter is said to be charqed with the former. Thus, a frieze, or other surface, when ornamented, is said to be charged with the ornament; but when the ornament is too abundant, it is said to be over-charged; a column supporting an entablature is said to be charged with the entablature. CHAR or CHARE; on old term equivalent to the word hewn or wrought; thus charred stone is hewn stone, as distinguished from rubble. CHARNEL-HOUSE (Latin, caro-carnis, flesh) a vaulted apartment, beneath or adjoining a church, in which human bones are deposited. CHARTOPHYLACIUM (Greek, xaqTrl, paper, and fvAaaaetv, to guard), the place where records were kept. CHASE-MORTISE, or PULLEY-MORTISE, a long mortise cut lengthwise in one of a pair of parallel timbers, for inserting the one end of a transverse timber, by making the transverse to revolve round a centre at the other end, which is fixed into the other parallel timber. This is applicable to ceiling-joists, where the binding-joists are the parallel timbers first fixed, and the ceiling-joists are the transverse joints. CHAUNTRY. See CIANTRY. CHECKERED, or CHEQUERED, a surface is said to be checkered, when it is divided into a number of equal contiguous parallelograms, alternately coloured. The term is sometimes applied to reticulated masonry. See RETICULATED and MASONRY. CHEEKS among mechanics, are those pieces of a machine which form corresponding sides, or which are double and alike: two equal and similar parts, generally placed parallel to each other. CHEEKS OF A MORTISE, the two solid parts upon the sides of the mortise. The thickness of each cheek should never be less than that of the mortise, except mouldings on the styles require it to be otherwise. CHEESE-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception of cheeses, after they are made. Rooms of this description should be lined round the walls, and fitted up with shelves, having one or more stages, according to the size of the room, and proper gangways for commodious passages. In places where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be placed below, the shelf-room immediately above, and lofts over the shelf-room, with trap-doors through each floor. This will save much carriage, and be very advantageous for the drying of cheeses. CHEQUERS, in masonry, stones in the facings of walls, having all their joints continued in straight lines, without interruption, or breaking joints. Walls constructed in this manner, are of the very worst description, particularly when the joints are made horizontal and vertical. Those consisting of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the horizon, were used by the Romans. See MASONRY and RETICULATED. CHEST, in bridge-building, the same as CAISSON, which see. CIIEVET (French), the eastern end of a church, when of a circular or polygonal form: equivalent to APSIS, which see. CHEVRON-WORK, a zig-zag ornament, somtimes called the dancette, usual in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman arches. The outline of chevron-work is a conjunction of right lines, of equal lengths, alternately disposed, so as to form exterior and interior angles, with the exterior angles equal to the interior ones; and all the, angular points in the same straight line, or in the same curve line, when they are the ornaments of arches. The lines of chevron-work are similar to what is deno minated indented lines in heraldry, and not unlike the indentations or teeth of a joiner's hand-saw; the only difference being the greater inclination of the teeth on one side than on the other; but in chevron-work, they are equally inclined to the line passing through the angular points. CHIMNEY (from the French, chemin6e, derived from the Latin, caminus, borrowed from the Greek, icaptvog, a chimney, from iKato, I burn), that part of a building wherein the fire is contained, and through which the smoke passes away. The chimney generally consists of an opening in, and through a wall, upwards, beginning at the floor on one side of an apartment, and ascending within the thickness of the wall, till it comes in contact with the atmosphere, above the roof of the building. The parts of thle chimney, and of the wall in which it is inserted, are denominated as follows: The opening, facing the room, being the place where the fire is put, is termed the fire-place. The stone, marble, or plate, under the fire-place, is callea the hearth. That on the same level, before the fire-place, is called the slab. The vertical sides of the opening, at the extremities of the hearth, forming also a part of the face of the wall of the apartment, are called jambs. The head of the fire-place, resting at its extremities on the jambs, presenting one face vertical in the surface of the wall, and another towards the hearth, is called the mantel. The whole hollow, from the fire-place, to the top of the wall, is denominated the funnel. That part of the funnel which continually contracts, or diminishes in its horizontal dimensions, as it ascends, is termed the gathering, or by some, the gathering of the wings. The long narrow prismatic tube, over the gathering, or that part of the funnel which has its horizontal dimensions the same throughout the altitude of the chimney, is called the flue. That part between the gathering and flue, is denominated the throat. That part of the wall which faces thee apartment, and forms the side of the funnel parallel thereto, or that part of the wall which forms the sides of the funnels of several fireplaces, is called the breast. In an outside wall, the side of the funnel opposite the breast, is called the back. When there are two or more chimneys in the same wall, the divisions between them, or the solid parts of brick, stone, or metal, are called withs. A gable, partition, or party-wall, containing a collection of chimneys, is termed a stack' of chimneys. The turret above the roof, for discharging the smoke into the air, of one, two, or a collection of chimneys, is called the chimney-shaft; and the horizontal surface, or the upper part of the said shaft, the chimney-top. When the parallel sides of the jambs are faced with stone, marble, or metal, so as to form four obtuse angles, viz., two internally with the back, and two externally with the breast or side of the apartment, making the horizontal dimension of the outside of the fire-place of greater extension than that of the back, the facings are called covings. In stone walls of ordinary buildings, the most common dimensions for the sections of the flues of sitting-rooms are from twelve to fourteen inches square, and for the brickwork, nine by fourteen inches. The section of the flue must, C 15 C CHI 145 CHI however, be proportioned to the section of the fire, which, when found necessary to vary fiom ordinary cases, should be equal to the said horizontal section of the fire, or nearly so. To prevent smoke, the chimney ought to be so constructed, that a current of air may pass immediately over the fire, so as to be rarefied in its passage, and not to pass entirely through the fire, as many have erroneously imagined. For this purpose, the throat should be so near to the fire, as to prevent the cold air from passing over it, and its horizontal dimension in the thickness of the wall should not exceed four inches and a half, or five inches at most. This contraction is to be formed by facing up the back, and bevelling the covings, so that no cold air may be admitted by the ends of the fire; by thus obliging the overplus above the quantity necessary to produce combustion, to pass over the fire, it becomes so heated, as to consume the smoke in part, and to drive the remaining portion before it, with celerity and violence. The covings are in general placed at an angle of one hundred and thirty-five degrees with the back and breast, and should be made to form an abrupt plane on their top, so as to break the current of a sudden gust of wind. The greater the quantity of rarefied air that passes up the flue, and in general the higher the chimney, the more celerity and force will it ascend with. The flue ought, therefore, to be carried as high as conveniency will admit. To prevent the absorption of heat, the back and covings should be constructed of white materials, or, if not, they should be covered with plaster, and whitened as often as they become black, and thus they will reflect a greater quantity of heat. Most metals absorb the heat, and are therefore unfavourable for this purpose. The back and covings are most conveniently put up after the house is built. The introduction and general use of " registers," has obviated any difficulty in this respect; they form a great improvement on the old method. Some of the principles in the construction of chimneys are very well ascertained, others are not easily discovered till tried. The tops of flues should not have such wide apertures, as to permit a greater quantity of air to rush down the chimney, and counteract the force of the ascending rarefied steam. Smoky chimneys are frequently occasioned by the situation of doors in a room, the grate being placed too low, or the mantle too high. There are many cases in which it is not easy to discover the cause; but if once known, it may be easily removed. Flues with circular sections are, with some reason, supposed to be more favourable for the venting of smoke, than those whose sections are square or rectangular. There is much difference of opinion as to the origin of chimneys. They do not seem to have been in use among the classics, as they are not found, as Winklemann informs us, amongst the ruins of Herculaneum, although coals have been discovered in some of the rooms, from which he conjectures that the Romans used charcoal fires.; Mr. Lysons, however, describes a fire-place, which he found in one of the rooms of the Roman villa at Bignor, in Sussex. There does not seem to be any evidence of the use of chimneys in England before the twelfth century, when we meet with them in the castles of Rochester, Hedingham, &c., also in a Norman house at Winwall in Norfolk, in these cases, however, the flue is carried up only a short distance in the thickness of the wall, and is then turned out at the back, the apertures being small oblong holes. Shortly afterwards we meet with flues carried up the whole height of the wall, as at the castles of Conisborough, Newcastle, Sherbourne, &c., as also at Christ 19 Church, Ilants. At this period the shafts were carried up to a considerable height, and are generally circular; in after times the forms varied considerably, and terminated frequently with a spire, pinnacle, or gable, with apertures of ornamental forms in the sides underneath for the escape of the smoke. During the fourteenth century the shafts were very short, and of great variety of forms. In the fifteenth, the shafts were more usually octangular, sometimes square, with the aperture at the top; at the latter end of this century we find clustered shafts, which afterwards became so common in Elizabethan buildings. These clustered chimneys are most frequently of brick, variously and elaborately ornamented all the way up the shaft, and indeed form a very prominent and beautiful feature in buildings of this period. Fine specimens of the kind are to be seen at Hampton Court Palace, Eton College, East Basham Hall, Norfolk, and all the larger buildings of the Elizabethan style; examples in stone, though more rare, exist at Bodiam Castle, Sussex, and on houses at South Petherton and Lambrook, Somersetshire. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE, that which is used by the inhabitants of China, and employed in their temples and other edifices. It would be very difficult to give such a definition as should point out the species of architecture practised by the Chinese; we must therefore have recourse to the descriptions of those who have drawn and actually measured their edifices with care. To the attainment of this, our materials are few. Sir William Chambers is the only author we are acquainted with, who has given representations of Chinese edifices from measurement, and who was able to discriminate, as an architect, those characteristic forms by which it is distinguished fiom other species of architecture, and to mark out its peculiar features. In his preface he observes: "To praise too much or too little, are two excesses which it is equally difficult to avoid. The knowledge of the Chinese, their policy and skill in the arts, have been praised without bounds; and the excessive encomiums that have been given them, show with what force novelty strikes us, and how natural it is to pass from esteem to admiration. "I am far from joining in the over-strained eulogies of the Chinese. If I find among them wisdom and sublimity, it is only when I compare them with the people that surround them; nor shall I put them on a parallel with the inhabitants, either ancient or modern, of our quarter of the world. At the same time, we must acknowledge, that our attention is due to this distinct and singular race of men, who, separated from the polished nations of the world, have, without any model to assist them, been able of themselves to mature the sciences and invent the arts. " Everything that regards a people so extraordinary, has a claim to our attention; but though we are pretty well instructed in most things respecting them, we are very little so in their architecture. Many descriptions that have been hitherto given us of their edifices, are unintelligible, the best give but indistinct and confused ideas of them, and none of the drawings deserve the least attention. " Those which I at present offer to the public, are drawn from sketches and measures that I took at Canton some years ago. I took them merely to satisfy my own curiosity. I had not the least intention to publish them; and they would not have appeared at present, had I not yielded to the solicitations of several amateurs of the fine arts. They have thought them worthy of the attention of the public, and that they might be useful in stopping the course of those extravagant productions, that appear every day, under the name of Chinese; although the most part of them are pure works of I _ I _-_ CHI 146 CItl 1 CHI146C fincy, and the rest only mutilated representations that have been copied from porcelain and various paintings on paper. "' What is really Chinese, has at least the merit of being original. Seldom, or never, have this people copied or imitated the inventions of other nations. Our. most authentic accounts agree on this point. Their government, their customs, their dress, and almost everything else, have continued unchanged for thousands of years. Their architecture has, besides, a remarkable resemblance to that of the ancients; and this is the more surprising, as there is not the least probability that the one has been borrowed from the other. "In the Chinese architecture, as well as that of the ancients, the general form of almost all their compositions tends to that of the pyramid. In both, the columns serve for supports, and in both the columns have diminutions and bases, which in many respects are similar. The entrelas, so common in ancient edifices, are often seen in those of the Chinese. The ting of the Chinese differs but little from the peripteron of the Greeks. The atrium, and the monopterous and prostyle temples, have a considerable resemblance to some among the Chinese; and the manner in which they construct their walls is on the same principle with the revinctum and emplecton, described by Vitruvius. There is, besides, a great resemblance between the utensils of the ancients and the Chinese; both are composed of similar parts, combined in a similar manner. " It is by no means my intention, in publishing a book on Chinese architecture, to bring in vogue a taste so inferior to the ancient, and so little suited to our climate. But the architecture of one of the most extraordinary people of the universe offers an interesting phenomena to a lover of the fine arts; and an architect ought to be acquainted with so singular a manner of building. The knowledge of it is, at least, curious; it may even be useful on particular occasions. An architect is sometimes asked for Chinese compositions; and, in certain cases, they may be judicious. For though, in general, the architecture of China is not suitable to Europe, yet, in parks and gardens, where the extent demands a great variety, or in large palaces that contain numerous enfilades of apartments, I do not think that it would be improper to decorate some of the most inconsiderable pieces in the Chinese taste. Variety never fails to please, and novelty, when there is nothing disagreeable or shocking in it, often holds the place of beauty. At the time that the Greek architecture prevailed the most among the Romans, history informs us that Adrian, who was himself an architect, erected, at his country seat at Tivoli, several buildings in the style of the Egyptians and some other nations. "The grandeur or the richness of the materials is not the distinguishing characteristic of the Chinese edifices. But there is a singularity in their manner, a justness in their proportion, a simplicity, sometimes even a beauty, in their form, that deserves our attention. I look upon them as gewgaws in architecture; and if singularity, prettiness, or neatness in the work, give a place to trifles in the cabinets of the curious, we may likewise introduce Chinese buildings among compositions of a better kind." Sir William has above noticed the pyramidal form of Chinese structures, and indeed the similarity of the architecture of this extraordinary people with that of all the early nations in this respect, is worthy of notice; yet the resemblance of their buildings to tents is even more remarkable, so striking indeed is it, that some travellers have compared their cities to vast encampments. The Chinese, like all the Tartar tribes, were a nomadic race; and doubtless in their wanderings were accustomed to employ tents, coverings portable and readily erected, to defend them from the heat and inclemen cies of the weather, and when they settled permanently, preserved the same form in the construction of their dwellings. The construction of their buildings is indeed remarkable, and tends to confirm the foregoing statement; for, as Mr. Gwilt remarks, "though the carpentry of which they are raised has for ages been subjected to the same forms, when we consider the natural march of human invention, especially in cases of necessity, we cannot believe that, in a country where the primitive construction was of timber, the coverings of dwellings would have been at once so simple and so light. Their framing seems as though prepared merely for a canvas covering. Again, we have, if more were wanting, another proof, in the posts employed for the support of their roofs. On them we find nothing resting analogous to the architecture for receiving and supporting the upper timbers of the carpentry; on the contrary, the roof projects over and beyond the posts or columns, whose upper extremities are hidden by the eaves, thus superseding the use of a capital. A canvas covering requires but a slender support, hence lightness is a leading feature in the edifices of China; whilst other materials than those which formed tents have been substituted for them, the forms of the original type have been preserved, making this lightness the more singular, inasmuch as the slightest analogy between those of the original and the copy is imperceptible. This change of material prevents in the copy the appearance of solidity, and seems a defect in the style, unless we refer to the type." Another peculiarity which strikes the European upon first beholding a Chinese city, is the gaiety of their buildings, arising from the prevalent application of colour. Their roofs are composed of coloured and glazed tiles, their floors of variegated stone or marble, and their porticos not only coloured with the brightest tints, but also profusely varnished, all uniting to produce an effect altogether different from that presented by all other styles. Sir William then proceeds with the work as follows: " The Temples of the Chinese.-A great number of temples are to be seen at Canton. The Europeans call them commonly pagodas. Many of these temples are extremely small, and consist only of one single apartment. Some others have a court, surrounded with galleries, at the end of which is a tiny, where the idols are placed; and there are a few, which are composed of many courts, surrounded with galleries. The bonzes, or priests, have cells there, and the idols different halls. These are properly convents, and some of them have a great number of bonzes, who are attached to them by particular vows, and who live in them in the exact observance of certain rules. "The most considerable of these pagodas is that of Honang, in the southern suburb, Plate I., Figure 1. It occupies a great extent of ground; and accordingly it contains, besides the temples of the idols, apartments for two hundred bonzes, hospitals for many animals, a large kitchen-garden, and a buryingground. The priests and animals are buried promiscuously, and equally honoured by monuments and epitaphs. "The first object that presents itself, is a court of considerable extent. In it are three rows of trees, which lead to an open vestibule, A, to which the ascent is by a few steps, B. From this first vestibule, we pass to a second, c, wherein are four colossal figures in stucco; they are seated, and hold in their hands divers emblems. This vestibule opens into another large court, D, surrounded by colonnades, E, and cells for the bonzes, F. Four pavilions, G, are placed in it, on socles. These pavilions are the temples; the two stories, of which they are composed, are filled with idols, and the bonzes perform their religious service in them. At the four corners of the court are four other pavilions, H, where the superior _~ I I (C T 1 S 1S A1C. I (C IT 1. 3zii.. I I I I I I i - CH1 147 CHI Clii 147 CII I bonzes have their apartments; and under these columns, between the cells, are four halls, I. occupied by idols. "On each side of this great court are two other small courts, K, surrounded with buildings. One is for the kitchen, L, and for the refectories, M; the other serves for the hospitals, N, of which we shall speak. " I do not give the elevation of the great court, because it could not have the suitable dimensions, without occupying at least three plates. The pavilions are of different forms; but they all present a very similar appearance, and the proportions between the colonnades and the pavilions are also nearly the same. The boxes or cells of the bonzes are of stone, they are very small, and admit no light but by the door. The bodies of the pavilions are built of the same material, and the columns which surround them, as well as the colonnades, are of wood, having bases of marble. All the buildings are covered with tiles, made of a coarse kind of porcelain, painted green, and varnished. "The same plan is observed in all the temples of this kind; and by detaching fromn them the three pavilions that occupy the middle of the great court, we may form an idea of the manner in which Chinese edifices of great extent are planned, or laid out. The imperial palace, those of the princes of the blood, the palaces of the mandarins, the Kong Quaens, or colleges of letters, are all disposed nearly in the same manner; the principal difference consists in the number and extent of the courts. "The edifices that the Chinese make use of for religious purposes, are not, like those of the ancients, of any appropriate form; the particular kind of construction that they call ting, or kong, enters indifferently into all kinds of edifices, they are seen in almost all temples, in all palaces, above the gates of towns, and, in short, in all buildings where they wish to show magnificence. " I have seen, in several quarters of Canton, four different kinds of tings. The three first are found in temples, and the fourth in many gardens. "The most common form in these temples is seen in Plate I., (see Chambers' work.) It is a pretty exact copy of the ting of the Nagada of Cochin-china, in the eastern suburb. I have measured many buildings of this kind; but have found so much difference in their proportions, that I am inclined to think the architects, in that particular, follow no exact rule, but that every one varies the proportion according to his fancy. "In the drawing that I have given, the edifice is, as they all are, raised on a base; the ascent to it is by three steps. It is a square, surrounded by a colonnade of twenty columns, which support a roof surmounted by a wooden balustrade, which contains a gallery, or passage, surrounding the whole second story. "The second story has the same figure and the same dimensions as the first. It is covered with a roof, of a construction peculiar to the Chinese; the angles are enriched with ornaments of sculpture, representing dragons. " The breadth of the edifice, measuring it from the exterior surface of the columns, is equal to the height; and the diameter of the body of the building takes two-thirds of the breadth. The height of the order makes two-thirds of the diameter of the body, and the height of the second story is equal to two-thirds of the height of the first. The columns have in height nine of their diameters, the bases two, and the beams and brackets, which hold the place of capitals, only one. That is also the elevation of the entrelases, which make the turn of the colonnade under the first roof, and which forms a kind of frieze. " The second kind of ting differs so little from that which I have just described, that it has not appeared to me necessary to give a drawing of it. The first story is the same, and all the difference of the second, is, that it is neither sur. rounded with a gallery nor with a balustrade, and that the roof which covers the colonnade comes close to the wall. " The third kind is represented, Plate I., Figure 3. This drawing has been taken from several edifices of this kind; and particularly fiom one of the pavilions of the pagoda of Honang. The first story differs little from that of the first ting; but the second has columns on two of its sides, which stand out and form covered galleries. I have seen, in some of these buildings, a continued colonnade all round the second story; but the form was not so agreeable to the sight as that which I have represented. " There is very little difference between the proportions of this drawing and that of Plate I. The columns of the first story are, in height, eight of their diameters, and the bases one. All the columns, except those of the corners, have eight brackets at the top of their shafts, which form a kind of very clumsy capitals. This ornament, very common in Chinese edifices, is not at all pleasing to our eyes. The columns of the second orders are in diameter about four-fifths of the diameter of the first. Their height is six diameters and a half, and they are without bases. Under the second roof is seen an entrelas, all around, composed of circles and squares. The corners of the two roofs are enriched with ornaments, which represents monsters and foliage; and the top is ornamented with two dolphins at the two extremities, and in the middle with a great fleuron resembling a tulip. "These three forms are more frequent than any other in the temples of China, and especially in those of much extent. For the small temples they often use the model shown in Plate I., Figure 2. Sometimes, as may be seen in that drawing, the edifice is shut before by movable gates, having four columns that advance in the manner of pra-style temples. At other times the building is quite open in the front, and has simply four columns that support the roof. " I have seen at Canton some other forms of temples; but none of them appeared to me worthy of representation except two little buildings, of wood, raised in the courts of one of the pagodas of the western suburb. (Figures 2 and 3, of Plate III. he gives the plans of them.) These are two pavilions, that cover two iron vases, that the Chinese use in the sacrifices of gilt paper, which they make to their idols on festival days; they are both octagons, and composed of eight columns, which support a roof surmounted with a lamp and other ornaments, which are represented in the drawing(. Figure 3, is a little raised, and surrounded with steps. The columns have bases of a profile little different from the attic. A frieze charged with inscriptions in large Chinese characters, surround the, space between the columns under the roof. The lantern has eight sides, it is covered with a roof in sima inversa, and on the top is seen an ornament consisting of a small globe surrounded with leaves and flowers." Figure 2, is raised on a socle, and surrounded with an entrelas of masonry. There are no bases to the columns, and under the first roof is seen an ornament composed of interwoven lozenges. The lamp has eight little columns, without bases or capitals, which support a conic roof, ornamented with eight dolphins, each of which rests on one of the columns. The top of the building consists of a pierced ball, whose top ends in a flower. "The proportions of these little temples may be deduced from the scale that I have annexed to the drawings." "Towers, or Taas.-The Chinese give the name of taa to their towers, and the Europeans call them (as well as temples)pagodas: they are very common in China. Du C IL I 148 CIII Cl-I 1 148 CHI _ Halde says, that in some provinces they are in every city, and even in every considerable village. The most remarkable of these edifices are the famous porcelain tower of Nang-king and that of Tong-chang-fou. They are both very magnificent. "The form of these taas is pretty uniform; they are octagons, divided into seven, eight, and sometimes ten stories, which diminish gradually both in height and breadth, from the base to the top. Every story has a kind of cornice, which supports a roof, at the corners of which are hung copper bells, and is surrounded with a narrow gallery bordered with a balustrade. These edifices have commonly a long pole at the top, surrounded by several circles of iron, supported by eight chains, tied by one end to the top of the pole, and by the other to the angles of the roof of the highest story." The origin and objects of these towers have been the cause of much discussion among European antiquaries, nor has the question been as yet satisfactorily settled, some considering them as merely commemorative, some as campaniles or belfries, some as landmarks and beacons, while others assert that they are sepulchral, and produce as a confirmation of their opinion the discovery of a stone coffin fitted in the pedestal of the tower of Ardmore. Vallency affirms that they were firetowers erected to Baal, while others no less learned identify them with the round towers of Ireland. This last idea may appear extravagant at first sight, yet upon further examination it will be found equally as reasonable as any of the preceding. The Irish towers are generally believed to be of Celtic origin, erected by the same hands as the structures of Stonehenge, and others similar to them scattered over the British Isles; now, strange to say, we have the same class of erections in China, in the province of Keang-nan, and in a locality famed not more for its romantic scenery than its ancient legends: here we find not only the monolithon, or single, upright- column, the counterpart of those already described under Celtic Architecture; but even the most perfect form of Druidical structures, the circle, and several of the intermediate erections, proving without doubt the connection between them, and the remains of Celtic erection in the remote west. Add to this, that towers are found in close proximity with such structures, and it must be allowed that their supposed identity with those of Ireland is not indulged without some reason. Plate III. Figure 1, "s represents one of these towers, which are found on the banks of the Ta-ho, between Canton and Hoang-pou. It is approached by three steps, and consists of seven stories. The first story is pierced with four arched gates, and contains an octagonal chamber, in the middle of which is a staircase conducting to the second story. The stairs of the other stories are placed in a similar manner. The cornices over the several stories are all alike, consisting of a fillet and large cavetto, enriched with representations of shell-fish; an ornament as common in the edifices of China, as in those of the ancients. The roofs are turned up at the corners, and, with the exception of the lowest, are ornamented with leaves and bells. The pole on the top is surmounted with a globe, from which descend chains, that are fixed to the angles of the highest story, and around them are nine iron hoops. I have not set down the stairs of the different stories in the drawing, to prevent confusion." The porcelain tower of Nan-king is octagonal in plan, forty feet in diameter, and consists of nine stories, diminishing in size as the structure rises, and surmounted with a cupola and gilded ball. From this ball a rod of iron rises, and from its highest extremity eight chains descend, from which seventytwo bells are suspended. Each story is covered by a projecting roof of coloured tiles, and the total height of the building is variously estimated at three hundred and forty-six, two hun dred and fifty-eight, and two hundred and thirty-six feet. "The inner part or body of the wall," says Mr. Wright, "is brick, but the inside lining and the facing without, of beautiful white glazed porcelain slabs, fixed in the masonry by means of deep keys, cut like a half T in the brick. The projecting roof of each story consists of green and yellow porcelain tiles in alternate perpendicular rows; and running up each angle, is a moulding of larger tiles glazed and coloured red and green alternately. From each story projects a balcony, enclosed by a light balustrade of green porcelain, upon which open four doorways, set to the cardinal points, their arches being elegantly turned with glazed tiles, cast in all imaginable fancies of design, and variation of colour, representing deities, demons, and monsters of all descriptions." Bells are suspended from dragons' mouths at the angles of every story, making with those attached to the chains of the cupola, a total number of one hundred and fifty-two. " Several other forms of buildings used in China.-I have given descriptions of three kinds of tings, that I saw in different temples at Canton. -It remains for me to speak of a fourth kind, which is found in gardens. These edifices are in general composed only of twelve columns, raised on a socle, which serve to support the roof. "The building that served me for a mode], was placed in the middle of a small lake, in a garden in China; its singularity made me give it the preference. "The base that supports it is pretty high. A balustrade surrounds it. The bases of the twelve columns of this pavilion have a profile very similar to that of a Tuscan base of Palladio. The roof, which rests on these columns, is crowned with a lantern. The idea of this ornament is taken fiom those which surmount the towers. The tops of the shafts of the columns are pierced by beams that support the roof, having their extremities ornamented with little grotesque heads and bells. A fiieze ornamented with an entrelas, goes all round, under the roof, in the spaces between the columns." Sir William describes another pavilion thus: "It is the same with that of a temple with one wing; but the elevation is different. It is composed of ten columns, which support a roof and a lantern, covered in the form of a cone, and terminated by a ball. " The paylous, or triumphal arches, are very common in China. There are many in Canton; but none, that I have seen, have any beauty. "Houses of the Chinese.-The distribution of their houses is perfectly uniform; and it would be improper, and even dangerous, for an individual to depart from the general mode. Le Compte tells us of a mandarin, who having built a house higher and more beautiful than those of his neighbours, was accused before the Emperor, and, fearing the consequence, he pulled down his house, without waiting for the sovereign's decision. "The Chinese lay out more than half of the ground occupied for their houses in courts and narrow walks; those of the merchants of Canton, which are close by the water, are narrow and very long; but there is no difference in the disposition of their interior. The level ground is crossed in its length, by a broad walk, passing through the middle, and stretching from the street to the river. On each side are the apartments, consisting of a saloon for receiving visits, a bed-chamber, and sometimes a study, or closet. Before each set of apartments is a court, having a fish-pond, or cistern, at its extremity, containing an artificial rock in the middle, whereon grow bamboos and several other kinds of L __ __ 11, I - k 1-1 I;l-l' l I - I I . I 1. Ii i gz. i I I. j 1 I llt I I 'tlt I t i " I I K CM ii' Cr ____ ____ ___ P A__ __ _ _ * ~ h~[ ________ it I I PF2 7. (V LI P Ailk L(JfPLtQPfltA&I~ I'LXF2 lit A;7 I ~J1r~s"i', -4-Z 4 ';z,.4,1 I2 '/7 f - -- --—.-,- -— I —~- --- - CHI 149 CHI CII 149 CII'_ plants; all which form a miniature landscape, of picturesque appearance. Some of the fish are so familiar, that they come to the surface of the water, and allow themselves to be fed with the hand. The sides of the courts are ornamented sometimes with flower-pots, and sometimes with shrubs in flower, vines, or bamboos, forming green arbours. In the middle, upon a pedestal, a large porcelain vase is generally placed, filled with those beautiful flowers, called lien-hoa. They also frequently keep in these little courts, pheasants, bantam-hens, and other curious birds. "The great chamber, or saloon, is commonly from 18 to 20 feet in length, and about 20 feet in breadth. The side which looks to the court, is entirely open; but a screen of canes, which is let down at pleasure, keeps out the rain and the rays of the sun. The pavement is composed of pieces of stone or marble, of several colours. The side walls are covered with screens, to the height of three or four feet from the ground; and the upper part is neatly decorated with white, crimson, or gilt paper. "Instead of paintings, the Chinese hang up large pieces of satin or of paper, set in fiames, and painted in imitation of marble or bamboo, on which are written, in characters of azure blue, proverbs and distichs of morality, taken from the principal Chinese philosophers. They also sometimes have leaves of white paper, quite smooth, containing large characters, traced by some skilful hand, in China ink; this ornament is much esteemed. The bottom of the drawing-room is composed of folding-doors, over which is a lattice, covered with painted gauze, for the admission of light into the bedchamber. The doors, which are of wood, are of very neat workmanship, ornamented with different characters and figures, and sometimes richly varnished and painted red, blue, yellow, or some other colour. "In the middle of the lower part of the chamber, and above a table which contains various ornaments, a very large leaf of thick paper is frequently suspended, covered with ancient Chinese paintings of different figures, enclosed in squares. The Chinese have a great veneration for these ornaments, under the idea that the painters were inspired; and the connoisseurs pretend to distinguish the hands of the several masters, and give a very great price for such as pass for originals. I have seen many of these paintings: they usually consist of landscapes or figures, drawn with China ink, on white paper. In general they are touched with spirit, but they are too incorrect, and too little finished, to deserve much attention. " The furniture of the large room consists of chairs, stools, and tables, made of rosewood, ebony, varnished wood, and sometimes simply of bamboo, which, though cheap, is very neat. When the furniture is of wood, the tops of the stools are often of marble or of porcelain; and though such seats are very hard, they are very agreeable in a climate where the heat of the summer is excessive. On small tables, or stands, four or five feet high, placed in a corner of the room, are seen dishes of citrons, and other odoriferous fruits, branches of coral in porcelain vases, and glass globes containing goldfishes, with a kind of herb something similar to fennel. They also decorate their tables, which are made only for ornament, with small landscapes, composed of shell-work, plants, and a kind of lily that grows among pebbles covered with water. They have also artificial landscapes, made of ivory, crystal, amber, pearl, and precious stones. I have seen some that cost a thousand taels, (more than three hundred guineas), but they are mere toys, and wretched imitations of nature. Besides these landscapes, the tables are ornamented with porcelain vases of different kinds, and small copper vessels, the latter of which are much esteemed. The forms of these vessels are generally simple and agreeable; the Chinese say they were made two thousand years ago, by some of their most celebrated artists; and such as are really antique, (for there are some counterfeits), sell at an excessive price; one of them sometimes costs no less than three hundred pounds. They are kept in small pasteboard boxes, and are only shown on great occasions; nobody touches them but the master, and, to keep them clean, he brushes them from time to time with a hair-pencil, made solely for the purpose. "Lamps form the most prominent ornaments of the chambers; there are generally four of them hanging from the ceiling, by cords of silk. They ares of various shapes, as square, octagon, &c., and are composed of an extremely fine silken stuff; decorated with very neat drawings of flowers, birds, and landscapes. "A partition of folding-doors separates the large room from the bed-chamber. I have already observed, that, in warm weather, these doors are left open all night, for the admission of cool air. The chamber is very small, and has no other furniture than the bed and some varnished clothestrunks. The beds are sometimes extremely magnificent: the bedsteads, or frames, which very much resemble those of Europe, are of rosewood engraved, or of lackered wood; the curtains are of taffety, or gauze, sometimes flowered with gold, and commonly dyed blue or purple. A band of embroidered satin, about a foot in breadth, goes round the whole top of the bed; the embroidery is in compartments, of various forms, and represents flowers, landscapes, or human figures, accompanied with moral sentences and fables, written with China ink and vermilion. "By the side of the bed-chamber is a passage, leading to the cabinet, which is always enclosed by walls, and lighted by windows. The walls are ornamented, like those of the saloon, with moral sentences and antique pictures; the furniture consists of arm-chairs, settees, and tables. The books are disposed on shelves, and on a table near the window, lie the pencils, and other things necessary for writing, the instruments used for arithmetical calculations, and some select books, all laid out in great order. " Besides these apartments, there are also the dining-room, the kitchen, the apartment for the domestics, the bath, the privy, the office, or counting-house, and, towards the street, the shop. "Such is the distribution of the houses of all the merchants at Canton. Those of other people only differ in having their general plan accommodated to the ground on which they are built: for the apartments, the courts, and other conveniences, have everywhere the order just described. "The leou, or upper-story, consists of many great halls, occupying all the breadth of the house, above the apartments of the ground-floor. They are used occasionally as chambers, for lodging strangers. In every house there is a number of shutters, two or three feet broad, and ten or twelve feet high. When they wish to make chambers, they fix these shutters to the floor and ceiling, and in a few hours make as many apartments as they wish. Some of these shutters are cut from the top to within four feet of the ground, and the openings filled with very thin oyster-shells, which are sufficiently transparent to admit daylight. All the windows in China are made of these shells. ' In one of these great halls, and commonly in that next the door, the image and altar of the domestic idol are placed, so that all who enter may see it. The rest of the second story is divided into apartments for the family; and over the shops are the rooms for the shop.keepers. "The sides of the Chinese houses next the street, are altogether plain, or employed as shops. There is no opening CHI 150 CHO CIII ~150C0 except the door, before which a mat is hung, or a screen is placed to prevent passengers from looking in. The houses of the merchants of Canton have a very gay and handsome appearance towards the river. "The materials used for building are wood and brick. The latter are either simply dried in the sun, or baked in an oven. The walls of the houses are commonly about eighteen inches thick, and the bricks, which are about the size of our own, are used in the following manner: the masons place three or four beds at the foundation, entirely solid; after which they dispose their bricks alternately length and breadthwise, along the two sides of the wall, so that those laid across touch one another, and occupy the whole breadth, but those placed lengthwise have a space between them; on this layer, or bed, a second is laid, with all the bricks lengthwise, and the joinings of the cross-bricks, in the first layer, are covered with a whole brick in this. The work is thus continued, alternately, to the top; and by this means, the expense of work and time, as well as the weight of the wall, are very much diminished. "The tiles that cover the roofs, are plain and semni-cylindrical; the latter are laid on the joinings of the former, and the manner in which they are supported, is represented in Plate III. The Chinese, like the Goths, always let the wood appear withinside the ceiling; for which reason, the beams and columns are frequently made of precious wood, and sometimes they are richly inlaid with ivory, copper, and mother-of-pearl. " Various kinds of columns used by the Chinese.-Columns are at least as common in Chinese edifices as in those of the Europeans. They support the roof, and are commonly made of wood, with bases of stone, or marble, having no capitals; but, instead, the top of the shaft is crossed by the beams. Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, diminishing gradually towards the top, while the lower part of the shaft terminates in an ovolo, producing an effect just the reverse of the terminations of the ancient columns. This peculiarity is observable in the drawings of the Antiquities of Egypt, published by Captain Norden some time ago. The bases show a great diversity of profile; none of them are very handsome, but the most regular that I have seen, are the six represented in Plate III." See Chambers' Work. Figure 2, No. 1, "is taken from the colonnade that surrounds the court of the pagoda of Cochinchina: the column is about seven diameters in height, and the base one. This profile is very common." Figure 2, No. 2, " is taken from one of the temples of the same pagoda, represented in Plate I. It is the only place where I have seen this kind of column. They are about nine diameters high, and their base two." Figure 3, "is taken from the colonnade of the great court of the pagoda of Honang. The height of the column is nine diameters, and that of the base one. The ends of the beams are ornamented with heads of monsters, terminating in foliage, and the brackets that support them come out of the mouths of grotesque heads, cut in half-relief on the columns." Figure 4, " is taken from a little pagoda in the eastern suburb of Canton. The height of the column is eight diameters and a half, and that of the base three-fourths of the diameter.- The ends of the beams represent heads of dragons, and all the wood-work of the ceiling is ornamented with monsters and foliage, in inlaid work of copper, ebony, ivory, and mother-of-pearl." Figures 5 and 6, "the transverse elevation of Figures 3 and 4." Figure 7, " is seen in almost all the houses of the Chinese. Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, and sometimes more; that of the base is from one-half to two-thirds of the diameter. The profile resembles one of the Tuscan bases of Palladio." Figure 8, " is found in almost all the pagodas, with some little varieties. The model from which I have taken my drawing, is in a little pagoda, in the street where are the European factories. The columns are octagonal, and of stone. Eight diameters of the circumscribed circle make the height; and they have no diminution toward the base. The bases are the most regular that I have seen in China, and much resemble the attic base of the ancients. Their height is equal to double one of the sides of the column. " The particular divisions of all these profiles are marked at the side of each drawing. "The insides of the temples, represented in Plates I. and II. (see Chambers), are quite plain; having no ornaments beside the idols. The buildings represented in Plate II. Figures 3 and 4, have no ceilings; the beams which support the roofs are seen; and their joinings are according to the principles of that in Plate II. The interior of the tower in Plate III. is also quite plain." We must not omit to mention the Great Wall; it consists of an earthen mound supported on each side by walls of brick and masonry, the thickness of the whole being twentyfive feet at the base, diminishing to fifteen at a height of fifteen feet, which is the level of the platform; but this platform is defended on either side by a parapet five feet in height, thus making the total height of the wall twenty feet. At intervals of about two hundred paces are towers, rising to a height of thirty-seven feet, and measuring forty feet square at the base, and thirty feet at the top; there are however some larger towers, which consist of two stories, and are about forty-eight feet in height. This wall is carried round a great portion of the empire, passing over in its way mountains, valleys, and rivers, and is altogether fifteen hundred miles in length. CHIP, a small piece cut away from any material, by an acute-angled instrument. CHISEL, an instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and joinery, and also by statuaries and carvers, for cutting, either by the impulse of pressure, or of the blows of a mallet or hammer. There are several kinds of chisels used in carpentry and joinery; as, the former, the paring-chisel, the gouge, the mortise-chisel, the socket-chisel, and the rippingchisel. These names they have obtained from the uses to which they are respectively applied. See ToOLs, TOOLING. CHISELED WORK, in masonry, stones that have a chiseled surface. CHIT, an instrument for cleaving laths. CHOIR, (from %opog, Greek, chorus;) that part of the church in which the choir or singers are located, and the services for the most part performed. The term is sometimes made equivalent to chancel, and defined as that portion of the building eastward of the nave appropriated to the priests, but incorrectly so, as the choir does not extend to the extreme east. The fourth council of Toledo directs " the priests and deacons to communicate before the altar, the inferior in the quire, and the people without the quire;" thus making a distinction between the choir and sanctuary, or division on which the altar stood. In fact the chancel is divided into two parts-the choir, and the presbytery or sanctuary; the former containing the singers and inferior ministers; the latter the altar, and the superior officiating clergy. The choir was at the western end of the chancel, separated from the nave by one or more steps and the rood screen, and from the sanctuary by steps only; it contained seats or stalls on either side, which were returned sometimes on the western extremity in front of the screen, the returns always t __ I CHU 151 C H U CHU 151 CII U facing the altar: in large churches, there are generally two or three ranges of such stalls rising a step or two in succession above each other. When there are aisles at the sides of the choir, which is generally the case in cathedrals and the more important churches, they are separated from it either by a screen of open work, or by the stalls being carried up to a considerable elevation; the latter method is more usual in cathedrals, where the higher stalls are canopied, and enriched with tabernacle work. In our cathedrals, the choir is situate more generally to the east of the tower, but is sometimes seen under the tower, as at York and Winchester. The choir was originally separated from the altar, and elevated in the form of a theatre, enclosed all round with a balustrade: on each side was a pulpit, from which the epistles and gospel were sung; as may still be seen, at Rome, in the churches of St. Clement and St. Pancratius, the only two remaining in the original form. It was separated from the nave in the time of Constantine, and enclosed with a balustrade, covered with curtains, which were not to be opened till after the consecration. In the twelfth century, the choir was surrounded with walls. In nunneries, the choir is a large hall, adjoining the body of the church, but separated by a grate, where the devotees chant the service. CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates, at Athens. See MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. CHORD, the extent between the two extremities of an arch. CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE, a designation applied by some to Gothic art exclusively, but in our opinion, unreasonably; because, although Gothic is doubtless the perfection of Christian art, and the best adapted for religious purposes, and in that respect more fairly entitled to the name than any other style, still we think all others ought not to be excluded from the title, since some of them, such as Byzantine and Lombardic, owe their origin entirely to Christianity, and were never profaned by being applied to pagan usages. The term ought to include all styles of building invented by the Christians, and adapted to religious purposes, differing essentially from pagan architecture. CHRONOLOGICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN. CHURCH, (Greek, Kvptov otico, the Lord's house,) a Christian edifice set apart for the public celebration of divine service. Churches vary in size, magnificence, and architectural features, according to their rank and situation; and are denominated accordingly: thus we have metropolitan, patriarchal, cathedral, cardinal, conventual, collegiate, monastic, and parish churches; for a description of which, we must refer to each separate title, more especially to CATHEDRAL and MONASTERY. Under this article we shall confine ourselves more particularly to the consideration of parish churches; as, however, the distribution and architectural peculiarities of churches vary considerably in different countries, we must premise further, that we include only the parish churches of our own country. The history and pro. gress of Church Architecture in this and other countries, and a comparison of the whole, will be treated of under the title of ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. As there is a general similarity in the division and arrangement of parts in all churches of whatever date or situation, it may not be out of place at the commencement of this article, to say something of the primitive churches, as far as relates to these particulars. The earliest buildings erected for the purpose of Christian worship, or at least the earliest of which we have any account, as also the first in which Christians had an opportunity of following their own mode of construction, are those which owe their existence to the zeal of Constantine the Great; and the most ancient and most perfect model of these now remaining, is that of Saint Clement at Rome. From this and some few other structures at Rome, we are enabled to determine, to a certain extent, the form of the churches of that period; and our conclusions derived from this source, are confirmed by Eusebius, who has left us a description of a Greek church of his own time. From these combined authorities, we learn that the plans of such buildings were either oblong or cruciform, and were divided into distinct portions as follows:-At the entrance to the church was the vestibule or narthex, in which were stationed the catechumens and penitents of various stages, and which was frequently divided into two or more parts, each of which was destined for a different class of penitents, the outermost for those who were under the more severe censures of the church, and the innermost for the catechumens; this last division was termed vapOr1f, ferula, because those who were admitted into it, began to be subject to the discipline of the church. These vestibules or porticos led to the nave properly so called, in which were assembled the body of the faithful; and which was divided in its width into three or more parts-a central one, with an aisle on each side of it. In the central avenue or body of the building, and at the remote end of the nave, was the choir, shut off from the other parts of the church by a rail or otherwise; in this were the ambones or pulpits for reading, as also the seats for the choristers, and here was the greater portion of the service performed. From the choir was an ascent of steps to the sanctuary, which was of an apsidal form, having seats all round for the priests, and a more elevated one in the centre of them for the bishop, immediately in front of which stood the altar. Attached to the church, but forming a distinct erection, was the baptistery, in which persons were admitted into fellowship with the body of believers. Having thus given a rapid sketch of a primitive church, we shall pass to the consideration of our more immediate subject, begging our readers to bear in mind the preceding observations, while we describe the form and arrangement of our English churches. In speaking of our parochial churches, we would be understood to refer solely to those erected before the Reformation, in the styles usually denominated Gothic. This is not the place, even were argument necessary, to discuss the comparative merits of the Italian and Gothic styles, or their adaptation to sacred purposes. The improved taste of the age has led to the preference of the latter, and there are few of the present day who would be found to question its correctness. Gothic is the prevailing fashion now, as was Italian in the preceding generations; apart fiom this, however, we think there can be no man of correct taste and unbiassed judgment, but would prefer the quiet unobtrusive simplicity of our old parish churches, to the more pompous grandeur of those of the last two centuries. Nothing can be more diverse than the impressions conveyed by the twothe one, solemn, subdued, and peaceful; the other, secular, showy, and luxurious: it is astonishing how completely the application of the two styles to the same general form, will change the features and general appearance of an edifice. Our parish churches are perfectly unique; different from what we find elsewhere, they form quite a national characteristic, of which an Englishman may indeed be proud. Their origin is attributed to Archbishop Theodore, who noting the inconvenience which arose from the previous practice of sending priests from the cathedral into the neighbouring hamlets, adopted the plan of distributing each diocese into manageable districts or parishes, with a resident pastor to take charge of each; he carried out his idea by instigating _I CHU 152 cJIU CHU 152 CHU the Saxon thanes in the erection and endowment of churches within the precincts of their own estates. The plan thus commenced, was found to be so advantageous, that it was carried out and enlarged upon by the succeeding generations. We shall not stop here to inquire into the form and construction of the earlier churches of this island, but refer the reader, as well to the articles above mentioned, as also to that on SAXON ARCHITECTURE, and proceed at once to the general description of a church. Of the parts or divisions.-There are two parts, and only two parts, absolutely essential to a church: nave and chancel. These it must have, or it is not entitled to the designation of a church; without the former it is no more than a chapel, and without the latter, little better than a mere lecture-room. A church consisting only of the above divisions, is one of the most simple form, few, however, are found without some further additions: the first addition is that of a porch on one side of the building, forming a covered entrance into the church. Buildings consisting simply of these three parts are not unfrequent, nor devoid of beauty, although but seldom imitated in the present day. In larger churches, the capacity of the nave is increased by the addition of one or two aisles, more frequently of one on each side of the body of the building, thus dividing the nave transversely into three avenues and affording greater accommodation for worshippers without enlarging the chancel, as this part does not so much require spaciousness as length. In some cases it is true the aisles were continued eastward, so as to encroach upon the chancel, and sometimes extended its whole length; the spaces thus gained, were used for the most part for chapels, and contained side-altars with their appurtenances. These chapels were dedicated, the one in honour of the Virgin, which was more frequently on the southern side, and the other in the name of the patron or other saint. Churches with only one aisle, are constantly to be met with. Another division of a church which we have not yet noticed, and which, though not an essential, forms a most imposing feature, is the tower; this is situated most usually at the western end 6f the nave, or' at the intersection of the nave and transepts, when the church is cruciform; and in its most perfect and beautiful state is surmounted by a lofty spire. We have now arrived at the most complete form of a parish church, which consists of a nave flanked on either side by an aisle; a chancel at the east, and a tower at the western extremity of the same, with a projecting porch towards the western end of the south aisle. This is the most frequent form of our smaller churches, but not the only one; we not unfrequently find them in the shape of a cross, which is doubtless the most appropriate and expressive form that eduld be adopted in the erection of a Christian temple; but the simple parallelogram is on many accounts the more convenient, nor is it so greatly inferior in symbolical meaning; for while the cross plan portrays the emblem of Christianity, the latter is an evident representation of the ark in which Noah was preserved, which has ever been considered a type of the Christian church. Of the position of Churches.-Almost all the old churches of this country range east and west, having the chancel at the eastern extremity; nor is this merely a local peculiarity, but a universal custom; such was the practice of all Christians from the earliest ages. It is true, exceptions are to be found, but not more than sufficient to prove the rule. The church dedicated by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, to the memory of S. Felix, is an instance of deviation from the usual position, but of this it is related, that it was not built so as to face the east, "as was usual," but so as to turn towards another church previously dedicated to that saint; and Socrates, describing the church at Antioch, tells us, that it stood in a different posture from other churches, the altar not being at the east end, but at the west. The canonical position is ordered in the apostolical constitutions. When we state that the chancel pointed eastward, we do not mean to say that it faced that quarter precisely; very few churches indeed do this, the orientation varying in many instances considerably north or south; suche variation is said to have arisen from the practice of pointing the church to that part of the horizon where the sun rose on the day of the patron saint. Of the exterior elevation.-The smaller churches present to us an elevation of only one story of rough walling, pierced at intervals with windows, which are usually filled with tracery; those at the east and west ends, being of larger dimensions than those in the side walls. At the angles of the building, the outline is broken by massive projecting buttresses, and at other situations where they are required for the support of the building; they are sometimes seen between every two windows. A more imposing projection is afforded by the porch on one side; this is carried up nearly as high as the side walls, and is surmounted by a high-pitched gable roof; it is formed either of rubble, with or without windows, or of wood, in which material we have many beautiful specimens of the later styles pierced and carved in the most elaborate manner; some of the plainer ones, however, form very picturesque additions to a small church. The chancel, in most cases, is of smaller dimensions than the nave, both in width and height, and forms a picturesque break in the elevation; but in some cases it is of the same size as the nave, and occasionally, though rarely, larger in both dimensions, showing a western wall projecting beyond the nave on all its sides. There is a priest's door in one side of the chancel, and sometimes a vestry, the form and elevation of which varies in different examples. The whole of the building is covered by a high-pitched gable roof of lead, slate, or tile, and sometimes of shingles or thatch, the eaves projecting a little beyond the walls; parapets are not found, except in large churches. A very beautiful addition is frequently to be seen on the apex of the western gable, consisting either of a continuation of a part of the gable in a vertical direction, pierced with arched apertures to contain the bells, and finished with a gable top; or otherwise of a little turret of four or more sides, to be employed for the same purpose: the eastern gable is for the most part finished with an ornamental cross. In the larger churches of three aisles, the elevation consists most frequently of two stories, the lower one similar to that already described, and an upper one called the clere-story, which is carried up above the arches which separate the nave and aisles, and pierced with windows of a smaller description,sometimes with mere quatrefoils or other small apertures. In very large churches, the clere-story windows are often larger than those of the aisles. The nave is covered as before with a gable roof, but the aisles with a lean-to, sloping upwards from the exterior walls to the clere-story, with a much more gentle acclivity. In some three-aisled churches, where the width is not considerable, the gable roof spans both nave and aisles; sometimes in one inclination, but at others, the inclination over the aisles is considerably depressed; in such cases there is of course no clere-story. On the other hand, when a church is of a great width, especially when the additional width is in the aisles, we have three gable roofs, one over the nave, and a similar one over each aisle; the gable ends of such churches have a very pleasing appearance; they have no clere-story, and the chancel is mostly but a continuation of the nave; not unfrequently the aisles are continued the whole length of the building in such churches. CI U 5 I CHUr~ 153 CHU I Iln cruciform churches, the elevation, with the exception of such differences as the plan necessitates, is for the most part similar to that of the more common forms. Of the tower.-A beautiful appendage to a church is the tower, nor is it added merely for effect; its principal object is perhaps to contain the bells, which require to be suspended at a considerable height, in order that they may be heard at a distance; another end which it serves, is to point out the situation of the sacred building, and, as some suppose, to act as a beacon or landmark for the guidance of travellers: an instance of a tower serving this purpose, may be pointed out at Boston, Lincolnshire, as also at Dundry, near Bristol, at both of which places the towers are raised to an extraordinary height. The tower is very generally surmounted by a spire, which serves as a most efficient covering, while at the same time it gives additional height, and forms a beautiful finishing, "pointing," as it does, "in silence heavenward." It is remarked that spires are not so frequent in elevated situations, or in level tracts of land, as they are in valleys and in wooded country; which fact would seem to imply that they were added more especially for pointing out the spot occupied by the house of prayer. The situation of the tower with respect to the church is various; sometimes we see it at the end, sometimes in the middle of an aisle, frequently at the west end of the nave, and occasionally between nave and chancel; in short, almost in every situation, except at the eastern extremity of the chancel. Its plan is usually square, though occasionally we find it octagonal, and even circular, and sometimes square at the lower part, but finished off at the top in an octagonal forml; in elevation, the outline is broken by buttresses projecting considerably at each angle, and, where there is no spire, is frequently found a stair turret running up in the corner next the church, and continued some little distance above the parapet. The base or lower story of the tower is usually plain and massive, but the upper portion is of a more elaborate appearance, being pierced with windows, the heads filled with tracery, and the lower parts with louvreboarding. When there is no spire, the tower is finished with a parapet, battlemented or otherwise; and in later examples, the parapet is not omitted, even when there is a spire, and is sometimes enriched by continuing the buttresses above the tower, in the shape of pinnacles. During the earlier periods of English architecture, the spires sprang direct froth the eaves of the tower, without the intervention of a parapet. Spires are, in plan, square or multangular, most fiequently octagonal; sometimes they spring from the tower on a square plan, which at a short elevation is merged in the octagonal; some spring from the tower at a greater angle than others, but all terminate in a point surmounted by a vane, often by the symbolical cock, the emblem of St. Peter's fall, which proposesan opportune warning to the passers-by, not to neglect the aid of divine power, but to " watch and pray, lest they likewise enter into temptation." The elevation of the spire is relieved by one or two tiers of spire-lights, which are small open windows, carried up vertically, and therefore projecting from the line of spire as they rise upwards. Spires are built either of stone or of wood, in which latter case, they are usually covered either with lead, slate, or shingles; and though not so imposing as those of stone, have a very picturesque appearance. Towers of wood are very frequent in Sussex, Surrey, and Essex; they are surmounted with low spires, the whole being covered with weather-boarding, with small apertures ofluffer-boarding for windows: wooden bell-cots of a similar description are commonly to be met with in Essex. Detached towers are not of frequent occurrence in this country, but several are to be found, especially in Lincolnshire. 20 Of the internal structure.-The principal portion of the structure to which the eye is directed, in the interior is the chancel; this is entered from the nave under an arch, termed the chancel-arch, and is elevated from the body of the church on a raised platform, which is ascended by three or more steps; a further separation is effected by the rood screen, which is carried across the opening formed by the arch, and stretches from pier to pier. In three-aisled structures, the aisles are separated from the nave by an arcade or series of arches, supporting in most cases a clere-story, to admit light into the body of the church. The proportion between the width of the nave and aisles, varies considerably; in some cases, the aisles being less than half the width of the nave, and in others, of nearly equal dimensions. The roofing throughout the church is composed in by far the majority of instances, of timber, the few exceptions, which are in the larger churches, being of stone vaulting. In roofs of the former kind, the timbers were originally open to view, and not concealed, as too many of them are at the present day, with a flat plaster-ceiling. The timbers were of oak, and consisted of principals, purlins, and common rafters, the whole of which were boarded over, and the boards protected by lead or other covering. The principals are placed at regular intervals, dividing the roof into a number of bays or compartments, each inclosing several common rafters, and are partially supported either on corbels, or on the capitals of shafts ascending from the floor; they are formed either of collars with collar braces continued to the lower part of the rafter, of collars with intersecting collar braces, of intersecting braces only, or of timbers disposed in the form of an arch, and in many other ways which will be discussed in the proper place; tie beams are seldom used; in most instances the timbers are plain, but in many, of the later ones more especially, a considerable degree of ornamentation is introduced in the shape of carved bosses, open panelling, and such like. Of the internal arrangement.-On entering the church through the wicket, at the entrance of the porch, we sometimes notice on the right-hand side of the door, often projecting from the wall, and partially covered by a niche, a stone bason, which is called a stoup, or aspersorium, from its use, which was to contain the holy water, with which, in olden times, the worshippers sprinkled or crossed themselves before entering into the body of the church. This was a very ancient practice, and was adopted in a somewhat different shape by the early church; the small stoup, in fact, is a substitute for the fountain to be seen in front of some of the Constantinian churches, at which Christians were accustomed to wash before entering the sanctuary; the custom is typical of the purity of mind which should accompany our devotions. Before proceeding further, we may notice the stone seat, or bench-table, which runs along the sides of the porch, and is occasionally covered with an arcade, and sometimes surmounted with a window to give light to the porch: in ancient times, several religious ceremonies took place in the porch, especially those preliminary to baptism and matrimony. Having passed under the inner arch of the porch, we are now fairly in the church, and the first object to attract our attention is the font, which is placed always near the principal entrance, as being the most fitting situation for the performance of that rite by which men are admitted into the membership of the church; the exact locality is not fixed, being sometimes in the central avenue of the nave opposite the entrance, and at others under one of the arches of the aisle near the porch, in which case it frequently adjoins one of the adjacent pillars; it is not unfrequently raised on a series of steps, which give it a more imposing appearance, -...... ~.I.. I -— -- --- ----- ---- ------ -- -— —~ CHU 154 C UT and has always a space left around it for the accommodation of the priest, sponsors, &c.; for the former there is sometimes a kneeling-stone on the west side. Fonts in a perfect state are provided with covers, generally of wood, some flat, and others of a pyramidal form more or less enriched. We here speak of fonts as they were in former times, not as they are now found in old churches, for the original ones are sometimes not only moved from their ancient positions, but even taken out of the church, and altogether discarded. On proceeding further into the church, the next object which probably strikes our eye is the chancel, and at its extremity the altar, with its appendages, but as this has been described in its proper place, we shall not stop to re-consider it here; and besides this, in fixing our attention on the more striking portion of the edifice, we have overlooked the pulpit. Few pulpits are to be met with of an earlier date than the fifteenth century, the oldest which remain are of stone, built up with the fabric, from which circumstance we may infer that they are coeval with the entire structure; there is a beautiful specimen at Beaulieu, Hants, which is attached to the wall, and entered by a staircase partly cut out of its thickness; another specimen is to be found in the church of the Holy Trinity, Coventry, which is attached to one of the piers of the building. The later pulpits are of oak, usually of an octagonal form, having the sides panelled and enriched with carving, and the whole sometimes surmounted with a richly-groined canopy projecting over the head of the preacher. The position of the pulpit was probably always at the north-east or south-east end of the nave, near the arch which separates the nave and chancel. We have now to consider the form and arrangement of the pews. There are few churches which have not suffered severely by the removal of their ancient seats, and the substitution of close boxes, with high backs; the old seats were low, with very low backs, so as not to destroy or shut out a full view of the church. The backs and seats of such low benches were fitted at either end into a standard, which served at the same time as a support and finish, being frequently carved in panels, and sometimes finished at the top with a poppy-head, or knop of foliage; at other times they were quite plain, with only a simple moulding, or even chamfer at the top: between every two benches was an open space left for ingress and egress to and from the seats, which were never closed with doors. These benches were all arranged north and south, so that the congregation might face the east, having an avenue between them in the centre of the nave, and another leading into it from the entrance, which, in threeaisled churches, must have been carried right across the church, to give access to another avenue leading to the seats in either aisle. These formed the only seats in the church for the laity; it is scarcely necessary to add, that galleries never formed a part of the original arrangement. Of the internal decoration.-There is one method of decoration so universally applied in our ancient churches, that we cannot pass it over unnoticed; it consists in the application of colour; the roof, the floor, the walls, the furniture and ornaments, and, not to omit the principal feature, the windows, nay, even the very books, were all enriched with gilding and colour. In paving, the use of encaustic tiles of various colours and patterns was most common, but besides these, the floors were not unfrequently covered with mosaic work, as instanced at the Prior's Chapel, Ely, where in the chancel immediately in front of the altar was represented " the temptation" in this method, the other parts of the floor being adorned with ordinary patterns. Frequent specimens of painting on the roof have been lately brought to light, a very usual method of decorating which is by a powdering of gilt stars on an azure ground. Few restorations take place without some additional testimony to the employment of fresco paintings, which have been previously concealed by successive coatings of plaster and whitewash. Mr. Poole, speaking of the internal decoration of churches, says-," Besides the immense variety of Scriptural and other subjects which are found sculptured on the walls and roofs of our Gothic churches, we have also sometimes fresco paintings, covering great portions of the walls. These paintings have, for the most part, been covered with the successive coats of whitewash and yellow ochre, with which the churchwardens have literally daubed the interior as well as the exterior of churches; as if, to their eyes, whiteness and yellowness were the only two elements of beauty. Accident has discovered several of them, and more are being discovered every day. The most remarkable with which I am acquainted is in the church of the Holy Trinity, Coventry; the subject is one which cannot be unprofitably suggested to Christians,-the last judgment; and it is treated in a manner by no means deficient in expression. At Preston, in Sussex, is another fresco, discovered also accidentally; one of the subjects is the murder of Thomas a Becket; the story is minutely and well told. Another subject is the archangel Michael weighing the soul of a Christian, which appears in one side of a pair of scales, against the devil, in the form of a boar's head, in the opposite scale. By the intervention of a female saint, most probably the blessed Virgin, who stands by, the soul is manifestly the weightier. " In the late remains of Rotheram church, several frescos were discovered, especially a large one over the nave arch, of our blessed Lord and the twelve apostles, with other saints and angels in act of adoration. The figures were much destroyed in the process of laying them bare; and they are now covered over again. Might they not have been restored?" This question we shall leave for future consideration; meanwhile, we may remark, that many specimens of fresco have been discovered since the above was written, and no doubt fresh discoveries will be made as the process of restoration goes on in our ancient churches. Another old method of decorating the walls, the appropriateness of which cannot be questioned, is by covering them with texts of Scripture, on which our previous author, Mr. Poole, remarks as follows:-" The most simple occupant of the walls of churches is a series of passages from the Sacred Scriptures, or of moral sentences of tried wisdom and appropriate tendency. The introduction of the inscriptions is very ancient. Bingham gives us several instances, and, among others, two distichs written over the doors of the church, one on the outside, exhorting men to enter the church with a pure arid peaceable heart:'Pax tibi sit quicunque Dei penetralia Christi Pectore pacifico candidus ingrederis;' and the other within, requiring those who go out of the church to leave at least their heart behind them:'Quisquis ab rede Dei perfectis ordine votis Egrederis, remea corpore, corde mane.' "St. Ambrose tells us of an appropriate passage of Scripture, written on the walls of that part of the church which was allotted to the virgins. And besides these moral lessons and texts of Scripture, records of the dedication of the church were sometimes inscribed on the walls; such was that written by the altar of Sancta Sophia, by Justinian. " To convey some notion how appropriately such passages may be selected and arranged, and how impressive may be their general effect, we will adduce the whole series of inscriptions from a small chapel at Luton, in Bedfordshire. This chapel, which is now the property of the Marquis of Bute, was built by one of the Napier family, in the reign ir- --- --- - - ---- --- ---- --- __ _I CHU 155 CHU of James I., and the beautiful wainscoting with which it is fitted up, was brought from Tittenhanger, where it had been fixed by Sir Thomas Pope, in 1548. " Over the principal doorway are the words, Doinus Dei porta Coeli: 'The House of God is the Gate of Heaven;' and on the north and south side of the entrance: Laudate eum juvenes, laudate eum virgines, ' Praise Him, ye young men; praise Him, ye maidens,' from Psalm cxlviii. 12. On the two transverses of a beautifully carved door, is an inscription from Psalm cxviii. 20, Porta Domini, Justi intrabunt, ' This is the gate of the Lord, the just shall enter in.' With reference to a nearer approach to the altar, we have the words-Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas, et circumdabo altare tuum Domine: 'I will wash my hands among the innocent, and I will compass thine altar, O Lord:' and on the altar itself not only are the names of our blessed Lord, found in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as they were inscribed by Pilate on his cross, but also the following passages from Heb. xiii. 10; Matt. xxvi. 27; 1 Peter i. 12; and 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25: Habemus altare-Ex hoc omnes-in quae desiderant Angeli prospicere —Hloc in memoriam mei: ' We have an altar-Eat ye all of this-Into which the angels desire to look-Do this in remembrance of me.' Even the singular addition of a chimney-piece in this chapel, has its appropriate inscription: Ecce ignis et lignum, ubi est victima holocausti? 'Behold the fire and the wood, but where is the victim of the whole burnt offering 2'-Gen. xxii. 7." Such was the decoration of the walls of our old churches, nor were the details or furniture neglected, but all enriched with colour, and the smaller parts with gilding. The richness produced by this treatment, which might otherwise have appeared too glaring, was chastened and softened down by the dim religious light shed through the storied panes of the stained windows, which, while they added to the general effect, imparted a chasteness throughout the whole structure. An old church in all its glory, must have been truly beautiful. Of the materials.-Our old churches were most generally built of stone, and the majority of them of rough unhewn rag or rubble, built up into the fabric in the same state as brought from the quarry; the individual stones were small, and not all of the same size; they varied likewise in shape, not being built up in regular courses, but fitted together as neatly as circumstances would permit; the longer spaces being filled up with smaller stones, and the lesser ones with cement. This masonry was bonded at intervals by longer stones running through the work, and at the angles by coins of more regular workmanship. The dressings of the building, such as the jambs and finishings of windows, doorways, and other apertures, as well as the pinnacles, water-tables, stringcourses, mouldings, and all other portions of the edifice which required much labour, were of some more manageable stone, such as Caen; and in some of the more highly embellished structures, of Purbeck marble. In some localities, flint is employed instead of rubble, more especially in Norfolk and Suffolk, not unfrequently in Essex and other counties; in many cases of this kind, the walls are made up of flints, inserted in a kind of framework of freestone, which method, with the aid of good cement, produces a very durable and not unpleasing structure. Nor are these the only materials employed in the construction of churches; we occasionally meet with brick and wood as substitutes for stone, more frequently than elsewhere, in the county of Essex. Brick, however, was not used during the best periods of ecclesiastical architecture, nor does it produce an effect so pleasing to the eye, as either of the before-mentioned materials; their colour, red, is not nearly so agreeable as the more subdued tones of flint or rubble. The walls, in all the above cases, were of great thickness, which tended not only to the greater stability of the structure, but also to maintain an equability of temperature in the interior. A good specimen of a wooden church is that of Greenstead, Essex, which has recently been restored, and of which the following description, previous to its restoration, is given in one of Weale's Quarterly Papers:"The timber walls, which," says the writer, "I take to be of oak, though some imagine them to be of chestnut-wood, are but six feet in height on the outside, including the sill; they are not, as usually described, ' half-trees,' but have had a portion of the centre or heart cut out, probably to furnish beams for the construction of the roof and sills: the outside or slabs thus left, were placed on the sill, but by what kind of tenon they are there retained, does not appear; while the upper ends, being roughly adzed off to a thin edge, are let into a groove, and which, with the piece of timber in which it is cut, runs the whole length of the building itself; the door-posts are of square timber, and these are secured in the above-mentioned groove by small wooden pins, still firm and strong-a truly wonderful example of the durability of British oak. At the west end I had an opportunity of examining the very heart of the timber; to the edge of an exceedingly good pocket-knife, it appeared like iron, and has acquired from age a colour approaching to ebony, but of a more beautiful brown; and it any conclusion may be drawn from the appearance of the building, I see no reason why it should not endure as long as it has already existed. The outsides of all the trees are furrowed to the depth of about an inch into long stringy ridges by the decay of the softer parts of the timber, but these ridges seem equally hard as the heart of the wood itself; the north doorway, which measures only four feet five inches in height by two feet five inches in width, is at present closed with masonry; but the aperture must have been original. It is generally thought that the woodwork of the roof is coeval with the walls, and it was most likely formerly covered with thatch, as Bede describes, and as may still be seen on many village churches in the county of Norfolk. '"The body of the church is lighted by windows in the roof, but these are decidedly of a recent date; what little light its interior enjoyed in its primitive state, was probably admitted from the east end, if any windows existed at all. ' IIow the interior was originally finished, cannot be now determined; at the present moment it is kept in a very neat and reputable state; its walls and ceiling are plastered and whitewashed, and its area affords sufficient accommodation for the population of the parish." The nave is the portion of the church here alluded to, for the chancel is not of the same material, and is of a later date; the tower is also of wood weather-boarded, with luffer boards for the admission of light. Since the above account was written, this unique little edifice has been restored, under the superintendence of Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon; and in an article on the subject, to be found in " The Builder," a short period subsequent to its restoration, the following remarks occur. The writer, in combating Mr. Suckling's opinions as to the timbers being less than half-trees, says-" We see no evidence of this, for the timbers were evidently left rough, and the dimensions prove them to have been, as nearly as may be, ' half-trees.' These uprights," he continues, ' were laid on an oak sill, 8 inches by 8 inches, and tenoned into a groove 1~ inch deep, and secured with oak pins. The sill on the south side was laid on the actual earth; that on the north side had, in two places, some rough flints, without any mortar driven under. The roof-plates averaged 7 inches by 7 inches, and had : — ~ r CHU 156 ClHU CII ~~ U 16 CI a groove corresponding with the sill, into which the uprights were tenoned and pinned. The plates were also of oak, but they and the sills were very roughly hewn, in some parts being 10 inches by 10 inches, and in others 6 inches by 6 inches, or 7 inches. "There were twenty-five planks or uprights on the north side, and twenty-one on the south side. The uprights in the north side were the least decayed. Those on the south side required an average of 5 inches of rotten wood to be removed, those on the north about 1 inch only, and the heights of the uprights, as now refixed, measuring between plate and sill, are on the north side 4 feet 8 inches, on the south side 4 feet 4 inches, the sills being bedded on a few courses of brickwork in cement, to keep them clear of damp. The uprights were tongued together at the junction with oak strips, and a most effectual means it proved of keeping out the wet; for although the interior was plastered, there was no evidence, in any part, of wet having driven in at the feather-edge junction of the uprights-a strange contrast to many of our modern churches, where, with all the adjuncts of stone and mortar, it is found no easy matter to keep out the driving weather fiom the south-west. " The roof was heavy, and without any particular character; it consisted of a tie-beam, at less than six feet from the floor, with struts. The covering was tile." We have given the description of this little church at so great length, because we think buildings erected after this manner would form very good substitutes for those unecclesiastical-looking structures termed Temporary Churches, which are become so fashionable now-a-days; and not only so, but might be even erected as permanent ones, in places where a better could not be provided. Of symbolism.-Although many persons are so far prejudiced against the system as to deny the existence of symbolical meaning in the peculiar structure and arrangement of churches, to the unprejudiced mind there can be little doubt of the fact. It is true that some of the advocates of the system have carried it to too great a length, and have strained their point to such an extent as to appropriate a deep theological meaning to the smallest details, yet this should not hinder us from giving attention and credit to those who hold themselves within reasonable limits. This idea respecting the aesthetic character of ecclesiastical buildings, has but lately been brought into general notice, but it is no new fancy; on the contrary, we find mention of it in the writings of the early Christians. The following passage is from the Apostolical Constitutions: — " When thou callest an assembly of the church, as one that is the commander of a great ship, appoint the assemblies to be made with all possible skill; charging the deacons, as mariners, to prepare places for the brethren, as for passengers, with all care and decency. And first let the church be long, like a ship, looking towards the east, with its vestries on either side at the east end. In the centre, let the bishop's throne be placed, and let the presbyters be seated on both sides of him; and let the deacons stand near at hand, in close and small garments, for they are like the mariners and managers of the ship." As we have before remarked, the material structure of the church was from the earliest period considered emblematical of the ark of Noah. Similar allusions to that just quoted, are constantly occurring in the patristic writings; thus S. Ambrose tells us why baptisteries should be octagonal, and Clement of Alexandria gives rules by which the selection of sacred emblems should be guided; Eusebius informs us that Constantine surrounded the apsis of the church of S. Cross with twelve pillars, according to the number of the twelve apostles; and Hermas, in his visions, represents the building of the spiritual temple under figures wholly taken from the material fabric. But of all writers on the subject, Durandus is the most copious, and is held up as the highest authority in such matters. Mr. Lewis, in his description of Kilpeck church, Herefordshire, is one who has of late brought the subject of symbolism into notice; he is one of those, however, who in our opinion have laboured to apply the system to a greater extent than is warranted by facts; he enlists every portion of the fabric, even to the minutest details, to illustrate his views, and makes the arrangement of the sacred edifice to indicate the minuti. of theological doctrine. Mr. Poole, in his lectures Qn church arrangement, does not attempt so much; he maintains " that ecclesiastical architecture is a language; that it has always, so long as it has deserved its name, aimed at expression; and not at mere accommodation without splendour, or even at splendour without a spirit and a meaning: that fiom the first it was rational; that it had a soul and a sense which it laboured to embody and convey to the beholder: that its language was not only expressive, but appropriate; that it aimed not only at accommodating a congregation, but at elevating their devotions and informing their minds." He is of opinion that the greater mysteries of our religion are symbolized in the fundamental design of the structure, while other Christian verities are set forth in the minor arrangements and in the ornamental details. For instance, the mystery of the Trinity is symbolized by the threefold division of our churches into nave and aisles, and perhaps in the longitudinal division into nave, choir, and chancel, otherwise the division into nave and chancel is said to point out the division of clergy and laity: but the aesthetic principle is more evident in our larger churches; thus in our cathedrals we have the form of the cross in the ground-plan, also the threefold division of body and aisles, as well as of nave, transept, and choir; we have likewise the same number of divisions vertically in the lower arcade, triforia, and clerestory, as also in the exterior elevation in the central and two western towers. Mr. Poole concludes-" On a review, then, of the facts mentioned, we may safely conclude, that, from the first, there has been a sufficient degree of uniformity in Christian churches, to indicate a unity of design, which could not be accidental; that the origin of that unity is to be found in the desire to symbolize the truths of our holy religion in every apt manner, and, above all, in the sacred edifices of the Christians." " A Gothic church, in its perfection, is an exposition of the distinctive doctrines of Christianity, clothed upon with a material form; and is, as Coleridge has so forcibly expressed it, 'the petrifaction of our religion.'" As church-architecture is receiving a fair modicum of attention at the present time, and churches are being multiplied to keep pace with the requirements of a vastly-increasing population, it may not be out of place, in a work which pretends rather to useful and practical information, than to amusing recreation, to give some rules for the guidance of those who are called upon to prepare plans and designs for church-buildings. In the first place, then, let the architect consider well the amount which is to be laid out in the erection, for this must determine every other consideration; if the amount be small, do not let him attempt a large or highly-decorative building. He must first take care to ensure soundness and strength in the construction, and leave the details to be considered afterwards; if, after calculating the cost of the mere walling and other necessary parts of the structure, he finds he has sufficient to construct them in a substantial manner, and money to spare, let him then decide upon the amount of decoration. It is better to erect plain walling, so that it be solid and well ___CII_______ ___^-~- - I I I_ __- ~ - - -- ----- -*-T CHU 157 CHIIU CHU ~167CIU build, than to add enrichment upon enrichment upon walls which are scarcely able to support them. Let strength be the object sought to be attained, not show; mere ostentatious display is quite out of character in a sacred edifice. This leads us to the next rule: —let every material employed be real; if funds are not sufficient for the best materials, use the more common, but do not attempt to hide them, let them appear what they are in reality, in their true colours, and not stain or plaster them to resemble things of a superior description; the building may not appear so rich, but it will bear the stamp of reality and truth, which will carry a conviction of its superiority to minds perhaps unwilling to yield to its demands. Of construction. —The best material for the walling is undoubtedly stone, and of this, we suppose, that which is dressed and squared should be preferred; we do not speak with certainty in this case, for there decidedly are advantages attached to undressed, uncoursed masonry; the very unevenness imparts a richness and variety of colour to the material, and a play of light and shade over the surface, which is not attainable in an even or smooth wall; but besides this, there is another superiority in the contrast which is afforded between the naked wall and the more finished dressings of the apertures. But even if this matter be left undecided, it will make but little difference in the present day, for few architects have funds at their disposal to allow them a choice between the two. The stone best adapted for the purpose, in the practice of the present time, is rag or rubble, which is unexpensive, and at the same time durable; it may be procured in most localities without much trouble. Whatever be the nature of the stone, it is not necessary nor desirable that it be quarried in large masses, the smaller the better, so far, at least, as is consistent with a due regard to the safety and expense of construction; when the stones are large, they are apt to catch the eye, and lead it away from the more detailed portions of the building, whereas, if the separate stones be of small size, and more especially if they be of irregular outline, and random-coursed, they will render the more important features distinct and effective. For this same reason, the finished stones of the apertures, and such like, should not all be of the same size, either in length or height, so as to form a regular line at their junction, with the rubble masonry, for, if so, they will divert the attention from the main outline and decoration of the windows, &c., which the eye ought to catch at the first glance; but besides this, if the jamb-stones be of different lengths, they will form a more efficient bond with the main wall. The latter remarks will apply to all buildings, whatever be the materials of which they are composed. With regard to the selection and laying of stones, the best plan is to use them as they come to hand, studying neither their shape nor situation too closely; a wall, constructed in this manner, will look natural, and therefore far better, than when the stones are broken or placed in a peculiar manner for the sake of appearance. In no cases attempt to make the joints over close. The dressings will of course be formed of a stone which may be easy to work: Caen is a good stone for the purpose, but if this is not to be obtained, some kind of freestone may be discovered in the neighbourhood, available for such service. The nature of the stone required will vary of course with the degree of carved enrichment to which it is to be subjected. Where flint is abundant and more readily procurable than other kinds of stone, it may be used with advantage, as is evidenced by many an old structure. Care should be taken that it be well bonded and cemented together, otherwise it will not be so secure as rubble masonry; in some cases. which we have before alluded to, the walls are formed of a sort of frame-work of freestone, the intermediate spaces being filled in with small squared flints. In new work the effect of flint is not so good as could be desired, but it improves by age; the contrast between it and the freestone being modified in process of time; old buildings of this material have a very pleasing effect. If none of the above materials can be procured without much difficulty, brick is not to be discarded, although not to be recommended unless under peculiar circumstances. If you are compelled to use it, do not attempt to disguise it by stucco, a brick church is better than an imitation stone one; plaster may be used occasionally to preserve a wall, but, if so, let its nature and its purport be at once evident. Churches of red brick are to be found in Essex, but they are of a late period, and are not to be imitated unless absolutely necessary. In general cases, rag or rubble is preferable, not only in appearance, but even in economy. Timber, though by no means a desirable material, may in special cases be employed. A church of this description has already been noticed and described, it will therefore be unnecessary here to enter into a consideration of its construction. While upon this subject we cannot conclude without again suggesting, whether churches built after the fashion of that at Greenstead, above described, would not be more appropriate structures for temporary churches, than those which at the present day pass under that denomination. In all the above cases, let the walls be of considerable thickness, as this tends not only to the security of the structure, but also, as we have said before, to the preservation of an equable temperature in the interior. Of the covering.-The best covering for the roof is lead, of sufficient thickness-71b. lead is a good quality-but it has its disadvantages; in the first place it is expensive, and therefore not suitable for the present time; it also requires great care in laying, and unless pure, and of good quality, is liable to corrode. Slates are not objectionable if they be of a good colour, but the common blue slate does not harmonize well with the masonry; very fair specimens are to be procured from the north of England. Tiles and thatch are frequently found on old churches; the former may be employed, but the latter is objectionable, for reasons which will be obvious to every reader. Rag-stones may be used for the purpose, as may also shingles; the latter are eligible on account of their lightness, and other qualities, but they are not secure against fire. Of the internal wood-uworlc.-The roof, benches, screens, and other wood-work should be of oak, if expense is no obstacle; however, fir, walnut, and other inferior timber, are more generally employed now-a-days; but whatever is used, it should not be stained or grained, to resemble wood of a superior quality; it mav be prepared in any manner which will tend to its preservation, and in this way its appearance may sometimes be improved. Deal may be employed when the funds will not admit of a better substitute. Varnish is now frequently used, but we think it better avoided; at least, allow it a sufficient time to dry, before the church is to be used for service. Of the flooring.-The best materials for paving the floor are encaustic tiles, ornamented in appropriate-coloured devices; plain tiles, however, will answer very well for the nave, they should be placed diamond-wise, the alternate ones being of the same colour with a differently-coloured one between; red and black are the common colours. The enriched encaustic tiles may be judiciously reserved for the chancel; plain tiles are well introduced even here, for they serve as a con. trast, as also to throw out the patterns of the richer sort. Of metal-work.-The metals are used for a variety of pur _____________________________________________ _________________________________ I - I _I ___ - CHU 158 CHU IU _158 C poses, the more costly in the furniture of a church, but we shall here confine ourselves to the ornamental iron-work, used for hinges, locks, bars, and such like, many beautiful specimens of which are preserved to us in our old churches. We must, at starting, lay down, as a rule, that iron, for these purposes, should be wrought, not cast; the latter class of iron-work is always a failure. These ornaments should not be painted, but, to preserve them from rust, it is recommended that they be dipped when red-hot in grease, and left to cotl; the same purpose will be answered by coating them with some incorrosive metal. Of style.-The best style for adoption in parish-churches is undoubtedly the Decorated, from the middle of the thirteenth to the middle of the fourteenth century. During this period Christian art was at its perfection, and soon after began to lose its character for genuine simplicity; the introduction of the depressed arch, and the excessive embellishment of the later style, was the commencement of its downward course. We would not, however, confine the architect to a single style; Early English is well adapted for large churches, and may occasionally be made available for smaller ones, while Perpendicular is appropriately employed for churches in cities and large towns, sometimes even with greater advantage than Decorated, which is particularly the case when a church, being closely surrounded with other buildings, requires large windows on those sides which are more open to the light. For the generality of churches, however, the Decorated is by far the most suitable, it is equally adapted for a plain, as for a more highly-finished structure, and has a natural grace which ensures its perfection, in whatever situation it be placed; it will admit of the highest elaboration, so far at least as is consistent with purity, or of the plainest construction, without sacrificing any of its inherent beauties; on the other hand, the Perpendicular style must be highly enriched, or otherwise it will appear meagre, and is therefore unsuitable, except for an expensive edifice. We have said nothing of Norman, but we must not pass it over in silence; it is decidedly not so appropriate as any of the abovementioned styles for parish-churches, and yet we should be sorry to see it entirely discarded; it must not be recommended, but it has its peculiar beauties, which doubtless will always secure to it some share of public favour. Of the plan.-The amount of money at the disposal of the architect, as it determines the material to be employed, will likewise, to a certain extent, govern the size, and therefore the plan and arrangement of the building. The ground-plan will also depend, in a great measure, on the site allotted for the building. For very small churches, the best arrangement is the most simple, viz.; that of the parallelogram, divided into nave and chancel, which division need not be shown on the exterior, although it is very desirable that it should be so, and in this case the chancel is marked by its smaller dimensions in height and breadth; the chancel should always be separated from the nave in the interior by an open screen of wood-work, as also by being elevated on one or more steps. An important and inexpensive addition may be made to this plan in the shape of a porch, which may be either of wood or stone, and should be placed, unless there be any strong reason to the contrary, towards the western end of the south side. A further improvement will consist in the erection of a bellturret, or gable, either on the western gable, or on that between the nave and chancel; this again need not be expensive, in some cases it may be made of wood, in which material we have a sufficiency of ancient examples; but it is best, of course, of stone; of whichever material it be constructed, it always forms a very marked and beautiful feature in a small church. We should be rejoiced to see a larger number of such small structures as the above erected at the present day, when all seem to aim at an edifice of much greater pretensions, even though they have, it may be, scarcely sufficient funds for the erection of one of the more simple structures in an efficient manner. Towers placed between the nave and chancel are not unfrequent in some parts of England. If accommodation for a larger number of worshippers be required, one or more aisles must be added to the nave. A nave with two aisles is the perfect form, but both aisles need not be built at the same time, unless the number of the congregation require it, and there are ample funds for its erection. At the same time, never build only one aisle for the sake of appearing extraordinary, nor unless there is an intention of erecting a corresponding one at some future period; for this reason, when a single aisle is adopted, let the opposite wall of the nave be built with arches of construction, so that when the second aisle is added, it may be necescary only to remove the masonry between the arches. This last method might be adopted with advantage in the first class of churches. We may remark here, once for all, that it is by no means necessary that the opposite sides of a church should exactly correspond. This last is the most eligible form of structure for ordinary churches, to contain, say from two hundred persons and upwards. For churches of this capacity the first-mentioned form is not adapted, as, when so large accommodation is required, you would be compelled to extend the nave to an inconvenient breadth; twenty-five feet is the greatest dimension allowable in a small church without aisles; when aisles are added, their breadth, as a general rule, should be to that of the nave in the proportion of two to five, but this ratio is not fixed, it varies in different examples. If still greater accommodation be required, it may be obtained by continuing the aisles on one or both sides of the chancel, from which they should be shut off by parcloses of open work; but this addition is not a desirable one, and should be adopted only in such places as the architect is cramped for room. A more legitimate method of obtaining greater space in general instances is by annexing a tower, which should open into the church by a lofty arch. This, though not essential to a church, forms one of the most striking and picturesque features, and when the means will admit of it, should never be omitted; though, on the other hand, the essentials should in no case be sacrificed to obtain it. Of the position of the tower.-Tha standard situation of the tower is at the west end of the nave, although there are very many exceptions to this position, amongst which are the following, instances of which are given by the Ecclesiological Society:-west end of either aisle; middle or east end of either aisle; north or south of chancel; north side of a second north aisle; north or south side of nave; north-west and south-west angle of nave; north-east or south-east of nave; middle of nave and western end of the chancel. All these positions are allowable, when circumstances require the tower to be so placed; as a general rule, however, we think it advisable to retain it at the west end of the nave. At one time architects restricted themselves entirely to this rule, however more eligible any other situation might have been; now, on the contrary, it is the exception to see the towers in this position. We think both at fault, the former following one arrangement too closely, simply it would appear for the sake of preserving an exact correspondence in both sides of the building, even at the risk of losing other advantages; while the latter seek out extraordinary positions merely for the sake of their novelty, and for the purpose of exciting surprise. The nature and shape of the ground, as well as the internal I ____J ______I_ _ ___ ___ _______ i CHU 159 CHU CHU 159 CH arrangement, should decide the question. In cruciform churches the proper location of the tower is over the intersection of nave and transept, but in addition to other'positions, the following are satisfactory-at the north end of the north, and the south end of the south transept. Sometimes, though rarely in this country, we find the tower detached from the church, similarly to the campaniles of the Continent. A tower can scarcely be said to be perfect without a spire, and in churches in which the earlier styles are adopted, this feature should never be omitted; in the Perpendicular it is not of so great consequence, though even then desirable. Spires need not always be carried up to a great height, although the loftier the better, nor need they be invariably of stone, those made of shingles are very beautiful objects in rural districts, and those covered with lead or slates are not to be despised; in some counties we find both tower and spire constructed of weather-boarding. In passing, we cannot help noticing, that in many of our modern churches, the towers have not sufficient breadth, which gives them an appearance of poverty and meagreness. We suggest, whether it would not be better, where towers are deemed necessary, to lay the foundation of a more substantial structure, and to leave it incomplete until the requisite funds are provided. Our old church-builders always went to work on this principle, which accounts for the single aisle, and many other irregularities, as, for instance, difference of style in the different portions of a church. This plan might be carried out with advantage in the present day, not only in the larger parts of the structure, but also in the finishing of details, &c. The plan of the tower is generally square or rectangular, supported at its angles by massive buttresses, which add greatly to its appearance; not unfrequently a turret, containing a staircase, is added at one angle, which affords a picturesque irregularity, especially if it be carried up above the main building; this is particularly the case in the later styles. Another addition which will be required, is the sacristy or vestry; its position should be on the north side of the chancel, with which it should communicate by a door: it should never be of large dimensions or imposing design. This is the only part of a church where a chimney is allowable. Up to this point we have made scarcely any mention of cruciform churches, not because we do not think this a beautiful form, but rather because it is ill adapted to present circumstances. Such a plan is doubtless the most expressive of any for a Christian church, but it is not the most economical; it does not economize space. It is true the cross arms may be used for the accommodation of worshippers, but not without great inconvenience; persons placed there will not be, as it were, with the rest of 'the congregation, they must look a different way, and not only so, but must be hid from the altar and the greater portion of the performance of the services; in fact, transepts were not intended for this purpose, as is evident by there being seldom found any seats in this position, and even when such are seen, they are mostly subsequent additions. Besides all this, the cross form is more expensive in construction. When funds are ample, transepts may well be added, but not otherwise. Of apertures.-These consists of doors and windows, and to both of them one remark will apply: do not make them too large; for with respect to the former, it may be said that they are seldom made an important feature in English architecture, not even in our cathedrals; and as regards the latter, small windows are advantageous on many accounts, not only are they more unassuming than larger ones, but they answer the present times-when stained glass throughout the building is scarcely to be looked for-by admitting less light, and if stained glass is to be inserted, they require but a small quantity. A great mistake, in our opinion, is very generally made in the present day, in allowing too great an area for lighting a church, either by making the windows too numerous, or too large; a glare of light is not desirable in a church, it interferes with people's devotion; we want a subdued tone, that '" dim religious light" which was admitted of old through the stained windows, and this is to be procured rather by diminishing than increasing the area admitting light. With reference to the position of doors, there should be one small one for the priest in the south side of the chancel, another at the porch, and a third, generally speaking, opposite the last; in transeptal churches, there may be one at the west end, and another on the west side of one of the transepts. We have previously hinted, that it is not at all necessary that the corresponding parts of the building should be in every respect uniform: the same remark holds equally true as to detail, as it does in respect of the main features of construction; the windows and other apertures need not be placed at exactly the same distances apart, nor is it necessary that the windows on both sides of the church should in every particular correspond; a buttress should not be placed between every two windows, or at every corner of the building, merely for the sake of appearance, nor indeed should they be employed at all, unless requisite. The governing principle in such matters, should be to use nothing more than is wanted, and place things just where they are required; if this rule were attended to, it would save a vast deal of unnecessary trouble, and produce in the end a far more satisfactory, because more natural, appearance. " How often do we see," says a writer for the Ecclesiological Society, "a simple village church, consisting of low and rough stone walls, surmounted, and almost overwhelmed, by an immense roof, and pierced with some two or three plain windows, between as many bold irregular buttresses on each side; or having a short massive tower placed at one angle, or in some seemingly accidental position, which nevertheless every one confesses to be as picturesque, and beautiful, and church-like an edifice as the most critical eve could wish to behold! while a modern design, with all its would-be elegancies of trim regular buttresses, parapet, and pinnacles would cost twice the money, and will not look like a church after all. Here perhaps one half of the money is laid out first in procuring, and then in smoothing and squaring great masses of stone, or in working some extravagant and incongruous ornament; whereas the small and rude hammer-dressed ashlar or rubble work of the ancient model, has a far better appearance, and allows a larger expenditure where it is most wanted, in the arrangements of the interior." This leads us to remark, that the interior should be the main object of consideration, and should never be sacrificed to make way for a showy exterior, although this is too frequently the case with modern churches; it was far different with our ancestors. Of the interior, the chancel is that part on which the architect's best attention should be given. The interiors of our old churches, as we have previously stated, were enriched in the most splendid manner, all the finest productions of art were lavished upon them, the sculptor and painter vied with each other in their decoration-and why should it not be so now? Surely paintings in fresco would be preferable to yellow-ochre and whitewash, nor do we see any moral objection to pictorial representations in our churches, there can be no fear of people worshipping pictures now-adays, the greater fear is for the want, not the excess, of reverence; they are the books of the unlearned, and serve not only to instruct the ignorant in matters which they would not otherwise know, but also bring before the attention of _ 1 __ _ __ I ---" --- — r- -- -- - -- - - CHU 160 CHI1 H __160 C the more learned, things of which otherwise they might be forgetful. But if objections still be urged against the employment of the painter's highest branch of art, surely there can be no exception brought against such decoration as we have described as occurring at Luton Church. The employment of texts of Scripture delineated on the walls, is sanctioned by the order of the church, when she enjoins in her eightysecond canon-"That the ten commandments be set up on the east end of every church and chapel, where the people may best see and read the same: and other chosen sentences written upon the walls of the said churches and chapels, in places convenient." Passages of Scripture well selected and appropriately arranged, would form at the same time, a very useful and beautifil appendage to the walls of our churches; though, as we think, scarcely equal to the more pictorial illustration advocated above. We should be glad to see the interior of our places of worship relieved from the coldness which ever hangs about bare walls; let at least some coloured decorations be introduced into the chancel, if nowhere else. Of the roof.-Open roofs, those in which all the beams and rafters are visible, should of course be adopted, the use of ceiling is now almost quite exploded; roofs of this kind not only afford an appearance of greater height to the building, but also have a perspective effect, by the repetition of the same parts, which adds to the apparent length of the church; indeed, the same building covered at one time with an open roof, and at another with a flat ceiling, would present two such very different aspects, as scarcely to be recognized as identical. Various forms may be used, of which, whether rich or simple, beautiful ancient examples are to be found; in small churches, where the span is inconsiderable, the arched form may be used with advantage; the amount of trussing increases of course with the span. Tiebeams are scarcely admissible, as they detract from the aspiring principle developed in church architecture, and arrest the eye in its progress upwards; they have in a small degree the same effect as a flat ceiling; there is, however, seldom occasion for their employment, they are not requisite in a high-pitched roof; especially where the walls of the building are of considerable thickness; the thrust is rather vertical than horizontal. Of pews.-Let all the seats be low open benches with low backs, the lower the better, as far as convenience will allow; for as the height increases, so must the distance from each other; if this circumstance be not attended to, the high back will be found to be in the way: a convenient height is two feet six, preserving the same measurement between every two seats. The benches must be arranged across the church so as to face the east, and in such a manner as to allow of easy access to every part of the church; for this purpose, there should be a main passage running along the centre of the lave, five or six feet wide, and another of the same measurement across the church, connecting the north and south doors; smaller passages are necessary along the aisles, and at the east end of the nave. In small churches, the standards at the ends of the seats should be of a plain character, but in the larger ones they may be carved and finished at the top with poppy heads, &c. Of galleries.-Galleries should on no account be admitted into a church; they entirely spoil its appearance, cutting up windows, and sometimes pillars, into two or more pieces, hiding the roof, marring the proportions, and obstructing a fair view of the interior: they are noisy, ill-ventilated, and clumsy, and not only are they ill-ventilated themselves, but they interfere with a proper circulation of air in the aisles beneath them, and by their principle of over-crowding a church, assist materially in vitiating the air throughout the building. And what is the advantage proposed to be effected by them?-the economizing of space, that is, the obtaining an increase of accommodation at a small expense: but do they effect this object? decidedly not; the additional space obtained by their adoption is very trifling, for from the total area of the gallery must be deducted, not only the main passage leading at the back of the seats throughout its length, but also the numerous cross passages branching from it to afford convenient access to the different parts of the gallery, so that, in fact, in the majority of cases, a full third, and in some instances nearly one half of the area obtained, is lost in passages of communication; add to this the space occupied in the aisles, by the piers or other supports, and it will be evident that the advantages in point of accommodation are very small. When, bearing all this in mind, we consider that the walling is frequently carried up to a greater height than otherwise necessary, for the sake of introducing a gallery, we shall scarcely be prepared to defend such excrescences on the score of economy. Of the principal fitrniture.-The first object which needs a few remarks is the font; it should invariably be of stone, as ordered by the church, and of a size sufficient for the immersion of infants; there should be a drain leading from the bottom of the bowl down into the earth, to carry off the water used in the service, and the bowl, when not in use, should be protected by a cover. The situation of the font must be near the entrance in the nave, and should have sufficient space left round it for the priest, sponsors, and others immediately concerned in the rite. The pulpit, which may be of wood or stone, should be at the south-east or north-east end of the nave, either detached or built up with the wall or pier, and should not be elevated at too great a height: if there be a choice of situation, the north side of the nave is the preferable position. We need say nothing in this place respecting the furniture of the chancel, as it has already been described under that title; we may only add that we should be glad to see the whole of it introduced into our modern churches, even to the rood screen, which is so much objected to by some, on account of its being, as they say, a Romish invention, whereas in fact it has been employed in the Eastern as well as the Western church, from the very earliest period. Of the lighting, warming, and ventilation of churches.The best method of lighting a church is by candles, which may be held either in standards fixed or moveable, or in chandeliers made after the pattern of the ancient coronce lucis. Gas is cheaper than wax-lights, we are aware, but a trifling additional expense should scarcely be a consideration in such a matter; besides, amongst other disadvantages, the glare of gas-lights is but ill adapted to the solemnity of a church, and the heat emitted from them is oppressive and somniferous. A fire-place is hardly admissible into a church, and stoves, hot air or water pipes, should never be attempted, they are unsafe, as well as unhealthy. The best method of regulating the temperature of a church, is by building substantial walls, and efficient drains, allowing a free circulation of air, and keeping the whole building in good and proper repair. If low benches, and high-pitched open roofs be adopted, while galleries and gas-lights are at the same time discarded, there will be little difficulty as to ventilation. Of the restoration of churches.-Little need be said on this head, the main point to be attended to is, the reducing the building as nearly as possible to its original state, in structure, arrangement and decoration; it most frequently happens, that the minutiae of the old structure are not traceable, and in such cases the judgment of the architect is called into action, but where the old arrangement is perceptible, it should always be _ II_ __ _ _ ____ I _ __ CHU 161 CHU CH11H followed in the restoration. The first thing to be attended to is the drainage, many old churches being destroyed by damp; in very many cases the earth of the church-yard will be found to have accumulated to a considerable height above the floor of the church, and this of course should be at once removed, and a proper ventilation given, to dry the foundations. The interior walls should be carefully cleansed of the many coats of whitewash, so that, in case any vestiges of painting remain, they may not be destroyed for want of proper caution; the same care should be taken in removing the plaster and whitewash from the ornamental details; flat ceiiings likewise should be removed with caution, as they were frequently added merely to hide existing defects in the roof. Structural restoration should be first attended to, after that the arrangement, and lastly the decoration. Of the enlargement of churches. -Architects are not unfrequently called upon to afford increase of accommodation in old churches; it may therefore not be out of place to point out as briefly as possible how this may be best effected. The first step is to calculate how much additional accomMleodation may be obtained by a proper re-arrangement of the seats, and a substitution of low benches in the place of the modern pews, and to regulate for further additions accordingly. Churches in which additions are advisable, are the following: those which consist only of nave and chancel, which may be enlarged by the addition of one or more aisles to the nave, and of a tower, if requisite; -those consisting of nave, chancel, and one aisle, where accommodation is naturally increased in completing the church by the addition of an aisle on the opposite side of the nave, an addition firequently contemplated by the founders, as is manifested by the existence of arches of construction in the nave-wall;-those again consisting of a nave and chancel, with tower between the two, may be enlarged by adding transepts, which, in cases of necessity, may be used for worshippers. Of churches comprising a nave with two aisles, a chancel and a tower, increased space may be obtained by a continuation of the aisles to the extremity, or nearly the extremity, of the chancel, or by adding another aisle to the nave. Either of these plans may be adopted in cases of great need, but they are by no means to be recommended; in both cases the same objection holds, that the people are packed into situations which are not convenient for public worship; in the first case they are made to look in a different direction from those in the body of the church, which interferes with the apparent unity of the worshippers, and, in the latter, a great portion of them are excluded from a proper view of the chancel. In such cases it would be much more advisable to erect a new church or chapel, however small or unimposing, but this necessitates other expenses, and is not always practicable; where it is possible, it should be adopted in preference. The Rev. J. L. Petit, in his Remarks on Church-Architecture, recommends additions to the chancel to be made in almost all cases where enlargement is required; but we must differ from him in this matter, for, be it remembered, that in our old churches, these projections were not used by the congregation, but were employed as side-chapels; in fact, their existence is attributable to the corruptions of the church of Rome: such additions may be used for the location of the organ, or such like purposes, but not, if avoidable, for the accommodation of worshippers. In other churches where none of the above methods are available, it is better not to attempt enlargement; the lengthening of the nave is a poor expedient, which may at once destroy the proportions and mar the unity of the original design. We here take leave of a subject which we are rejoiced to say is daily receiving increased attention. Some few years 21 I since, our ecclesiastical structures were looked upon as remnants of by-gone days, to be wondered at for their associations and antiquities, but scarcely to be imitated in modern times; but of late a new light has appeared, infusing spirit and animation into the old buildings, and we no longer look at them as the relics of a barbarous age, but as examples most fitting to be followed in all sacred structures; they formed once the lore of the antiquarian, they are now the models of the architect. It is a matter of wonder how rapidly knowledge, on this subject, has been acquired; it is as yet imperfect, but is progressing satisfactorily; fresh discoveries are being made continually, and ere long we shall have a goodly number of useful text-books on the subject. We must not forget, that the first impulse in the right direction was afforded by the Cambridge Camden Society, to which the gratitude of every lover of our old parish-churches will be readily accorded. We have now Architectural Societies of a similar kind established all over the country, to which, in conjunction with the labours and researches of private architects, we look for a great increase of information. An additional incitement to this study has been given by the erection of so many churches in various parts of the country, in most of which a vast improvement may be observed on buildings of a similiar kind erected in previous years; it is true they are not all, perhaps but few, without faults, many of them are faulty in numerous respects, yet, as a whole, they are very satisfactory; we cannot do better in concluding this article, than repeat the remarks of Mr. Petit on the progress of church-architecture, and the impediments which the professional man has to encounter in its advancement. "So great," says he, " are the actual and inherent difficulties of his art, and so grievously are they multiplied by external causes, so limited and restricted is he by the perverseness of others, so many conflicting tastes and opinions has he to consult, so beset is he on every side by the ostentatious views of one, the parsimony of another, the private interests of a third, and the overweening ignorance of the greater number, that it is a marvel his work should ever be respectable; and we cannot deny that many of our modern churches are extremely creditable to the taste and skill of their designers. Let those who speak of the labours of the architect with flippancy, or censure them with unkindness or severity, reflect upon the difficulties he has to encounter; of no other art are the principles and beauties more deeply hidden in the treasury of nature, and to be searched out with greater toil and diligence." CHURCH-HOUSE, a building in which meetings were held for the transaction of church matters and parish business; it was sometimes a room situate over the porch. CHURCH-YARD, the space of ground surrounding the church, used as a cemetery or burial-ground. The entrance to our old church-yards was frequently through a gate covered with a projecting roof, called the lych-gate, under which the coffin was rested before entering the ground; and opposite the porch, was a lofty stone cross elevated on one or more steps, and frequently adorned with. the emblems of the Evangelists, and other enrichments. Near the cross was planted a yew-tree, whose boughs were carried in procession on Palm Sunday, and used at other times to decorate the interior of the church. The unwholesome practice of interment in towns is being discontinued, and consequently the church-yard in such cases is in a great measure dispensed with; where practicable, however, the church should be contained within a walled enclosure. The best model for an extra-mural cemetery, is that lately planned at Oxford: cemeteries are usually objectionable, on account of being made the subjects of speculation and pecuniary profit. I _ _ ___ _ __ ( i 1 1.3, I no. CIR CIBORIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, the covering of at altar; being an insulated edifice, consisting of four columns supporting a dome. The ciborium was used during the lower and middle ages; but was afterwards superseded by the baldachin. See BALDACHIN. The most magnificent ciborium ever known, was that erected by Justinian, in the church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople. It consisted of four large red marble columns, supporting a silver dome, surmounted with a globe of massy gold, weighing 118 pounds, and surrounded with lilies of gold, falling in festoons, weighing 116 pounds; and in the middle was a cross of the same metal, weighing 75 pounds, covered with the most rare and precious jewels. CILERY, the drapery or foliage on the heads of columns. CILL. See SILL. CIMA. See SIMA, MOULDINGS. CIMA-INVERSA. See SIMA-INvrRSA, MOULDINGS. C1MA-RECTA. See SIMA-RECTA, MOULDINGS. CIMBIA, a fillet, string, list, or cincture. CIMELIARCH, in English churches, the room where the plate, vestments, &c. are kept. CINCTURE, or CEINCTLRE, an annular fillet, of a cylindric surface, at the ends of a column, connected to the shaft by the apophyge, or scape. The cincture at the top of the column, is named also collarino. CINQUEFOIL, an ornament in the pointed style of architecture, consisting of five cuspidated divisions, or curved pendants, inscribed in a pointed'arch, or in a circular ring, applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil inscribed in a circle, is a rosette of five equal leaves, with an open space in the middle; the leaves being formed by the open spaces, and not by the solids or cusps. CIPPUS, a small low column, sometimes without a base or capital, and most frequently bearing an inscription. The cippus was used for various purposes among the ancients: when placed on a road, it indicated the distances of places: in other respects, the cippi were employed as memorials of remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing sepulchral epitaphs. Also the prison of a castle. CIRCLE, (from the Latin, circulus), a plane figure contained under one line, called the circumference, which is such that all lines drawn to it, from a certain point within the figure, are equal; and the point from which the lines may be thus drawn, is called the centre of the circle. A circumference may be thus described: if the end of a right line be placed upon a fixed point, and kept upon that point while the other end is carried progressively forward, or round, until it comes to the place whence the motion began, the moveable extremity will thus trace out the circumference of a circle. In order to obtain the measurement of angles, the circumferences of all circles are supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees; each degree is supposed to be divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes; each minute is divided into 60 equal parts, called seconds; each second is supposed to be divided into 60 equal parts, called thirds; which ate again divided and subdivided ad infinitum. Any denomination, whether of degrees, minutes, or seconds, &c. is known by a peculiar character, written over the right-hand figure of that denomination; thus, 0, written over the right-hand figure of a number, shows that number to represent degrees; the character thus, ', written over the right-hand figure of a number, shows the number thus distinguished to represent minutes; e. g. 136~ 24' 48" 57"', &c. represents 136 degrees, 24 minutes, 48 seconds, 57 thirds, &c.; and, as similar arcs are such as are contained under the same, or equal angles, they contain the same number of degrees, &c., the number JM of parts of the arc of a circle, described from the meeting of two lines forming an angle, and comprehended between them, is the true measure of the angle; for the number of parts is still the same, whatever be the radius of the arc, or of the circle, the parts being greater as the radius is greater. The arc of the circle being supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, the radius will be found to be equal to the chord of 60; because the circle contains six equilateral triangles, whose bases are chords to the circle, whose summits meet in the centre, and whose sides are radii to the circle. And since the sixth part of 360~, or of a whole circle, is 60~, the chord of 60 is therefore equal to the radius. The parts of the arc may be measured by parts of the radii, which are always supposed to contain the same number: for if there be' two arcs described from the angular point of an angle, between the legs, these arcs may be measured in parts of their respective radii. The circle is the most capacious of all plane figures; that is, it contains the greatest area under equal perimeters, or has the least perimeter enclosing the same area. The area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle, the base of which is equal to the circumference, and the perpendicular equal to the radius, and consequently equal to a rectangle, whose breadth is equal to the radius, and the length equal to the semi-circumference. Circles, like other similar plane figures, are to one another as the squares of their diameters. The ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, has never been exactly ascertained. Archimedes was the first, in his book De Dimensione Circuli, who gave the ratio in small numbers, being that of 7 to 22, which is still the most useful for practical purposes. Vieta carried the approximation to ten places of figures, by means of circumscribed and inscribed polygons of 393,216 sides, showing the ratio to be as 10,000,000,000 to 31,415,926,536 nearly, the circumference being greater than 31,415,926,535 but less than 31,415,926,537 Van Colen carried the approximate ratio to 36 places of figures; which number was recalculated and confirmed by Willebrod Snell. Mr. Abraham Sharp extended the ratio to 72 places of figures, which was afterwards extended to 100 places by the ingenious Mr. Machin; and, lastly, M. De Lagny, in the Memoires de l'Acad., 1719, has carried this ratio to the amazing extent of 128 places of figures. In approximating the circumference or area of a circle from the diameter, the first authors had recourse to inscribed and circumscribed polygons; since it was found that the circumference of the circle was greater than the perimeter of the inscribed polygon, but less than that of the circumscribing one; and, that when the polygon contained a great number of sides, the circumference of the circle did not differ materially from either, it would be still more nearly equal to the arithmetical mean of the two. And, to give the reader an idea how very near the circumference obtained by this means is to the truth, the circumscribed and inscribed polygons may be taken of such a number of sides, as that their perimeters will be each expressed by any given number of figures of the same value, from unity, either taken individually, or as a whole number, and consequently the circumference of the circle may be expressed, or carried to any degree of accuracy required. But the method of obtaining the circumference by this means, being found extremely laborious, other methods, by a series of fractions, have been invented, so as not only to be much more easy in the calculation, but also to show how the terms may be continued at pleasure, by inspection CIR 163 CIR CIR 163 CIR only. Dr. Wallis was the first who expressed the area of a circle, in terms of the diameter, by an infinite series, and showed that, if the square of the diameter was 1, the area would be 3 X 3 X 5 X 5 X 7 x 7 9 25 49 - -,&c. or - X -X -, &c. 2X4X4X6x6x8 8 24 48 Other series were also found by Lord Brounker, Sir Isaac Newton, and Dr. Gregory. The most convenient forms of expressing the circumference, are shown in the following statement, where c represents the circumference, the diameter being unity: =4 X (I-3 + - + 9 A + 3 A5 &c.) 1 11 135 C 12X (1-3 +53 733+934& ) \ + T13 1.3.5 3.5.7 5.7.9 7.9.11' - c 2 1 1 1 -3 1.3.5 3 5 847 4-6~9 46811, &c. ) c=4 2 x( 2 x 3-2 X 5 XI - X 1 9 1.3.5 1 4.6.8.24 " 1 c ) t I- 1 1 1 1 1.3 1 1.3.5 c=4 X 1- 3- X5-2. X7 2.4.6.8 X9&c.) x &C One of the most useful properties of a circle is that when two straight lines, or chords, cut each other, the rectangle of the segments of the one line is equal to the rectangle of the segments of the other line. This property may be very conveniently applied to finding the centre of the segment of a circle, or the length of the radius, the chord and the versed sine of the arc being given. The rule is as follows: Divide the square of the half chord by the versed sine, add the versed sine to the quotient, and half the sum is the radius of the circle. The diameter of a circle being given, to find the circumference: say, As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the circumference nearly. This rule will be sufficiently accurate for the most practical purposes; but if greater accuracy be required, multiply the given diameter by 3.1416, and the product will be the circumference, or very near. When the circumference is given to find the diameter, divide the circumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the diameter. Or, say, As 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter. To find the length of an arc, the radius and number of degrees being given, say, As 180, the number of degrees in a semi-circle, is to the number of degrees in the arc, so is 3.1416 times the radius to the length of the arc. When the chord of the arc, and the chord of half the arc are given;Subtract the chord of the arc from eight times the chord of half the arc, and divide the remainder by 3, which will give the length nearly. When the chord and versed-sine are known;-Firstly, find the diameter, from which subtract the versed-sine multiplied by.82, and divide the remainder by 2 of the versed-sine; add 1 to this quotient, and multiply by the chord, which will give the length of the arc. The area of a circle, whose diameter is unity, has been found to be.7854 nearly; and since the area of a circle is as the square of its diameter, the areas of all circles will therefore be ascertained by the following rule: Multiply the square of the diameter by.7854, and the product will be the area of the circle. But it may sometimes appear, that the circumference only can be ascertained, the diameter being inaccessible: in this case, also, the areas of circles are as the squares of their circumferences. It has been found, that when the circumference of a circle is unity, the area of the circle is.07958. Therefore the rule may be thus: Multiply the square of the circumference by.07958, and the product will be the area of the circle nearly. Though either the diameter or the circumference is sufficient to find the area of the circle, yet, if the dimension of each can be easily ascertained, the operation of finding the area is much shorter. This may be done by multiplyingthe radius into the semi-circumference; the product will be the area. By this rule, the standard area, when the diameter or the circumference is unity, as in the two preceding rules, will be easily ascertained, by halving the ratio of the diameter 1 to the circumference 3.1416: for, 2)3.1416 1.5708 half the circumference..5 half the diameter, or the radius..78540 the area of the circle by the last rule, when the diameter is unity. Again, when the circumference is unity, the diameter will be found to be.31830 nearly. Then,.31830 - 2 =.15915 the semi-circumference, and 1. - 2 =.5 the radius. Therefore.15915 X.5 =.079575 or.07958 nearly. To find the area of a sector, when the number of degrees in the arc are known; say, As 360, the number of degrees in the whole circle, is to the number of degrees in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the circle to the area of the sector. When the radius, and the whole or half the length of the arc are given; multiply the diameter by the arc of the sector, and divide the product by 4; or multiply the radius by half the length of the arc; in either case, the result will be the area of the sector. To find the area of a segment. Having found the area of the sector, subtract from it the area of the triangle, when the segment is less than a semi-circle, and add, when greater, or; Divide the cube of the versed-sine by twice the chord, and add the quotient to two-thirds of the product of the chord and versed-sine. As we must necessarily frequently recur to the subject of this article hereafter, we think it convenient to refer the reader for further information thereon to GEOMETRY, PERSPECTIVE, &c. CIRCULAR ROOFS, are those roofs whose horizontal sections are circular. CIRCULAR WINDING STAIRS, are such as have a cylindrical case, or walled enclosure, with the planes of the risers of the steps tending to the axis of the cylinder. CIRCULAR WORK, a term applied to all work with cylindrical surfaces. CIRCULAR-CIRCULAR, or CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC WORKS, whatever work is formed by the intersection of two cylinders, whose axes are not in the same direction. The line formed by the intersection of the surfaces, is called by mathematicians, a line of double curvature. r- ~~-~ ~ -C I R 164 CIR -CI 164 CIR _ CIRCUMFERENCE, the curve-line by which the area of a circle is bounded. CIRCUMFERENTOR, (Latin, circumftrre), an instrument used by surveyors in taking angles; it consists of a brass circle and index, in one piece, commonly about seven inches in diameter, an index about fourteen inches long, and an inch and a half broad. On the circle is a card, or compass, divided into 360 degrees; the meridian line of which answers to the middle of the breadth of the index. There is also soldered on the circumference a brass ring, on which screws another ring with a flat glass in it, so as to form a kind of box for the needle, suspended on a pivot in the centre of the circle. There are also two sights to screw on, and slide up and down the index, as also a ball and socket screwed on the under side of the circle, to receive the head of the tripod or stand. CIRCUMSCRIBE, to draw a figure round another; the one being rectilinear, and the other either rectilinear or circular, with the sides of one touching all the angles of the other. CIRCUMVALLATION, a round enclosure of trenches, or fortifications. This word, from the Latin vallo, or vallum, denotes properly the wall, or rampart thrown up, but as the rampart is formed by entrenching, and the trench makes a part of the fortification, the word is applied to both. CIRCUMVOLUTION, (from the Latin, circumvolutus) the act of rolling round. In architecture, this term is applied to the spirals of the Ionic capital; every term of which is called a circumvolution. In the most ancient examples of the Ionic order, the volute has three circumvolutions, or revolutions, as they are otherwise called; but that of the temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, has four. See VOLUTE, SPIRAL, and IONIC ORDER. CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large enclosed space, adapted for chariot-races, an amusement to which the Romans were passionately attached. The name Circus does not convey an exact idea of the form of this building, which both in its outline and its use resembled the Greek stadium. There were many circi in Rome, of which the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Agonalis, were perhaps the largest. The former may still be distinctly traced; the latter retains its external form only in the Piazza Navona of Rome. This species of edifice appears to have been very early introduced among the Romans, and, like many of the first public edifices, was of a temporary character, and constructed of wood. The first permanent circus, at Rome, was said to have been built by Tarquinius Priscus, and was situated in a valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. On this side was afterwards erected the Circus Maximus, which was enlarged by Julius Caesar, and rebuilt and richly ornamented by Augustus. In the time of Nero it was burnt down; Trajan repaired it, and increased its dimensions so much, as to contain the whole Roman people. The exterior of the circus, except at the carcerce, consisted of two stories, adorned with columns, and finished with a terrace. The ground-floor was occupied by merchants, except on the days appointed for the games. Augustus brought an obelisk from Egypt 126 feet high, and placed it in this circus. Constantine also erected in it the obelisk now called the Lateran, which is the largest of all the Roman obelisks. The Flaminian circus was of considerable magnitude. Its only remains are ruins beneath the present pavement of the city. There are several other circi, the ruins of which may be traced; but that which demands our attention most, is the circus of Caracalla, as very considerable traces of its ancient form are yet to be seen. Several of the circi in Rome, were exteriorly surrounded with magnificent porticos, except on the side where the carcerse were placed. Others were simply enclosed with a wall, pierced with doors and windows, as in the circus of Caracalla. The lower part of the circumference of the circus, beneath the seats, together with the porticos, formed long galleries of arcades, or fornices; serving in part for an access to the staircases leading to the seats, and in part for the shops of various traders. The staircases of different circi were variously distributed, according to the judgment of the architect. The principal staircases led to a number of little doors in the podium, which was a long open platform, or passage, encompassing the edifice at an elevation of some feet from the area of the circus. The persons of the imperial family, the principal magistrates, and the pontiffs, only were admitted into the podium. Behind the podium there was a little wall with a precinctum, in which small doors were distributed. The seats rose one above another, their whole height, in the manner of steps, and were supported on the inclined vault of the gallery or portico beneath them, and ascended from the podium to the top of the external wall. The great circi, as well as the theatres and amphitheatres, were divided into several ranges of seats, for the purpose of placing the spectators according to their condition. The seats began from the wall at the back of the podium, and after setting off a sufficient number for persons of the first rank, the staircase of seats was interrupted by the omission of two or three, which formed an ambulatory, or via, similar to the podium, at every certain number of seats. Separate staircases led to each via, through doors in the precinctum; these apertures were called vomitoria. As the spectators entered by these passages at the top of the ranges of seats, they would have to descend to occupy the first rows of each meniana, and since the seats themselves were too high to serve as steps, staircases, called scalares, formed by cutting down a seat into two steps, were provided. The scalares were placed opposite the vomitoria, beginning from the via, and descending to the lower seat of each range; by this means the ranges were. divided into a number of compartments, called cunei, as in the theatres and amphitheatres; in the latter they obtained this name from their radial direction, and though the sides of the circus were straight, and the compartments consequently of a rectangular form, they were called cunei, fiom usage. Over the seats was a portico, or covered gallery, for the accommodation of the lower class of people. The place for the emperor was called pulvinar, the situation of which is not known: it is supposed to have been a magnificent logia. To render the seats more comfortable, they were covered with wood. The extremity of the circus, opposite to the semicircular end, was called the oppidum, and consisted of a series of thirteen arcades. The centre arch, of the same height, but wider than the rest, served as an entrance to the circus. At each extremity of the oppidum, was a tower, which surmounted every other part of the edifice. This combination of arches and towers, seen at a distance, gave the idea of a castle, whence was derived the name of oppidum. To what purpose these towers were appropriated, is not known. The twelve remaining arcades were the carcerse, whence the chariot-race began. These carceree were placed six on each side of the entrance, which was intended for the use of the processions, and are so disposed, by the inclination of the chord-line of the segment on which they may be said to be set off, that the starting of the twelve chariots was equalized. The divisions of the arcades within, on the front, were ornamented with Hermes supporting a cornice, in the manner of Caryatides: the carceree were closed with grated doors, to the height of the r J _ ____ I CIR 165 CIS CR105 C'S springing of the arch, and the semicircular opening above was filled with a marble lattice. Two of these lattices, very elegantly ornamented, are at present to be found in the court of the palace Mattei, which is founded upon a part of the Flaminian Circus. The top of the carcerae formed a terrace, upon which was placed the tribune of the consul. The spina, as being dedicated to the gods, was the most sacred place in the circus. It consisted of a platform, nearly two-thirds of the length of the circus, and, running down the middle of the arena, divided itself nearly into two equal parts, resembling the spine of a fish, whence it took its name. At the extremities of the spina were placed the metae, or goals, which consisted of three cones placed in a triangle. On the summits of these cones was placed a large egg, in memorial of the eggs of Castor and Pollux. The metee rested upon the vault of a semicircular temple or chapel, a little wider than the spina. The circular part of these little chapels was at the first goal, turned towards the triumphal gate, and their entrances were in passages between them and the spina. The long extent of the spina was ornamented with columns, statues, and altars. It is remarkable that the spina was not situated in the middle of the arena, nor parallel to the sides of the circus, but in an inclined direction, so that the course was wider on the right side of the circus, where it began, than on the left, and diminished gradually all the way. The reason seems to be this, that the chariots, starting all together, required more room in the first course, than when they came in separately. In several of the circi, the arena was surrounded at the foot of the podium with a canal, called euripus, which was 10 feet wide, and probably of the same depth, for the defence of the spectators, in cases where the podium was not sufficiently elevated: it does not appear, however, to have been absolutely necessary, since Nero had that of the Circus Maximus covered over, in order to enlarge its area; neither is there any euripus in the circus of Caracalla. The following description of the games exhibited in the circus may be interesting. These games, according to tradition, were instituted by Romulus, under the name of Consulia, in honour of the god Census (Neptune). They were exhibited on various occasions, and for various purposes, sometimes by the magistrates, sometimes by private citizens. The games were opened by a grand procession from the capital to the circus, in which the images of the gods were borne in carriages, followed by dancers, musicians, combatants and others; and, last of all, by the priests, to perform the sacred rites. The exhibition consisted chiefly of chariot and horse races; the charioteers were divided into four classes, distinguished by the colours of their dresses. The order in which the chariots stood was determined by lot; and the signal for starting was given by dropping a cloth. The chariot which first ran seven times round the course, was victorious, and the driver, after being proclaimed by the herald, was crowned by a palm-wreath, and received a sum of money. Besides these races, were contests in running, leaping, boxing, wrestling, and throwing the discus. Wrestlers were anointed with ointment by slaves; boxers used gloves strengthened with lead or iron, to give force to their blows; the combatants were almost entirely naked, and all underwent a preparatory training and dieting-sometimes sea-fights (naumachia) were represented, and Julius Ceesar revived the exhibition of mock-fights by young noblemen on horseback. The most attractive of these public entertainments, however, were the combats of wild beasts, either with one another, or with men. Great expense was incurred to provide the beasts for this exhibition, and they were collected for the purpose from the most remote parts of the empire. The men engaged in such contests, were either forced to the combat as a punishment, or induced to enter it by sums of money. The beasts were kept in inclosures (vivaria) till the time appointed for the show. So passionately fond were the people of these games, that the expression Panerm et Circenses, 'Bread and the Circensian Games,' was commonly used to signify the two prime necessaries of life to the Roman populace. The splendour of these exhibitions increased in the latter days of the republic, and the number of rare wild animals that were exhibited but to be destroyed, is almost incredible. It is said, that on one occasion, Pompey exhibited five hundred lions, which were all despatched in five days. CISOID, or CIssoID, in geometry, a curve line of the second order, invented by Diodes, an ancient Greek geometrician, for the purpose of finding two mean proportionals between two given lines, of such property, as that if on the extremity, B, of the diameter, A B, of the circle, A o B, the indefinite perpendicular, c B D, be erected, and if from this, several lines be drawn to the other extremity, A, to cut the circle in I, o, O, and if upon these lines be set the corresponding equal distances, viz. H M=A I, F o = A o, L = A N, &c., then the curve line drawn through all the points, M, o, L, is the cisoid. Other methods of constructing this curve may be seen in Newton's Universal Arithmetic, and Emerson on Curve Lines. CISTERN, an artificial reservoir or receptacle for holding water, beer, or other liquor, as in domestic uses, breweries, and distilleries. Cisterns of earth must be lined with good cement, to make them retain the water, and the bottoms should be covered with sand to keep it sweet. Water for the use of a house, may be preserved in the cellar, where a cistern or cisterns may be constructed in the following manner: first lay a good bed of sound well-tempered clay, for a bottom, on which place a flooring of bricks, or impervious stones, cemented with plaster-of-paris, or terrasmortar. The sides should then be built up, leaving a space between them and the walls of the house, which is afterwards to be filled up with clay, well rammed down; this will keep the water from oozing, and effectually preserve the foundation of the house. As a substitute for plaster-of-paris, or terras-mortar, a composition of slacked lime sifted, linseed oil and tow or cotton, will be found very serviceable. A cistern of this kind, viz. of clay lined with bricks, will answer in any shady place, as well as in a cellar, provided it be kept covered. And though the cistern be not always full of water, the clay will not lose its requisite degree of moisture. When a cistern is to be made above ground, it may be constructed of planks, plain or straight jointed, put together with white lead, and pinned to bearers and uprights. If the cistern be large, suppose 10 feet in altitude, and 20 feet square, the planks may be 2 —inch yellow deals, the joists and uprights may be 4 inches thick, and 6 inches deep, placed about 2 feet 6 inches distant fiom each other. There should be two pins at each intersection of a board and upright, or bearer; every pin may be three-fourths of an inch thick, and. wedged again with a small pin at the narrow end, to prevent the possibility of its drawing: the pins should all have a draught, to bring the joists as close as possible. This cistern, placed upon a firm well-tempered bed of clay, should be surrounded with a stone or brick wall, at 8 or 12 inches distance, and the cavity filled in with clay, as above described. This will retain the water, and answer extremely well for the supply of a city or village. I _ _ __ ____I ----— r-- —~l __ __ _I_ _i 1_ CIV 166 CLA CV 166 CLA If the cistern be to be raised on high, where walls cannot be constructed around, it may be made of timber, in the foregoing manner, and lined with lead: but as this lining tends to contaminate the water, the casing of the exterior with stone or brick, with puddle between it and the wooden cistern, should be adopted when practicable. A cistern may be constructed for watering cattle, by excavating the ground where there is a descent, and covering the bottom and sides with two coats of tough clay, each coat about six inches thick, well rammed; the bottom being covered with flag-stones, the clay will remain moist, and free from cracks, though not covered with water. But this is troublesome; for, should the clay happen to crack in any part, it would be necessary to go over the work again. In a chalky soil, a cistern may be formed by digging a hole, and covering the bottom smoothly with chalk rubbish, which, when wetted by the rain, should be rammed well. Afterwards cattle may be turned in to tread it till quite firm, and then it will be impervious to the water. CITADEL (from the French, citadelle, a diminutive of the Italian, citta) a small city. CITADEL, is also a small fortification, consisting of four, five, or six sides, with bastions, by which it is distinguished from a castle, and usually joined to towns, and sometimes erected on commanding eminences within them. Citadels may be either square, rectangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, or, indeed, of any figure; but the pentagonal is most commonly adopted. The hexagonal is generally considered as too large, and requiring too great an expenditure for the advantages to be derived from it; and the quadrangular is incapable of making a sufficient defence. Citadels are also sometimes made in the form of a star fort. The exterior sides of 'the citadel, when its plan is regular, are generally, each about 150 toises, or fathoms; but this extension may be varied according to circumstances. When the citadel is erected on a hill, or eminence, within the fortifications of the place, it is well calculated to keep the inhabitants in awe, if the garrison be sufficiently provided; but it is of little use against an enemy, when once in possession of the town itself. The citadel will require a stronger fortification than the town, to prevent its being attacked first by the enemy, who, getting possession of it, will soon become masters of the town. A citadel has, for the most part, two gates, the one for communicating with the town, and the other with the country; the gate communicating with the town, is used in case of an insurrection or sedition, or after the town has capitulated, for the garrison to retire into the citadel; the other gate, which communicates with the country, is for receiving assistance and succours when placed under extremities. The citadel generally takes up two sides of the fortification of the parts which adjoin to it, and should be so constructed that the ditch of the place may be defended as directly as possible, either by the faces of its bastions, or by ravelins, that the enemy may have no greater advantage in attacking in one place than they would have in another. It may be farther observed, that in an extensive fortified city, a citadel may be formed by uniting two adjoining bastions, by a good retrenchment, with flanking defences: the expense of making such is very trifling, compared with that of adding another fortification to the place. CIVIC CROWN, in Roman antiquity, a garland of oakleaves and acorns, or ground oak, given as a reward to such as had saved a citizen's life in battle. CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, that which embraces the erection of edifices destined for civil purposes; the term is used in contradistinction to military and naval architecture. CLAIR-OBSCURE, or CHIARo-OscuRo (from the Italian chiaro, light, and oscuro, dark) the proper distribution of light and shade in a picture, both with respect to the eye, and the effect of the whole composition. The term is also used for a design wherein only two colours are used, most usually black and white. CLAMP, a small piece of wood, fixed to the ends of a board, to prevent it from warping, the fibres of the clamp being transverse to those of the board. The manner of clamping a board, is either by grooving the edges of the clamp, and tonguing the ends of the board into it with brads and glue, or by grooving the end of the board, and tonguing the edge of the clamp. Sometimes the end of the clamp is mitred to the side of the board, for the sake of neater workmanship. In the best clamping, the clamp is fixed to the board with a mortise and tenon. The flaps of shutters, small doors, lids, and kitchen-tables, which consist only of boards glued together, are most frequently clamped. CLAMP, in brick-making, a pile of bricks built upon a rectangular base, for the purpose of burning them. Clamps are built of unbaked bricks, after the manner of a kiln, with a vacuity between the breadths of the bricks, for the fire to play through; but, instead of arching, as in kilns, the flues are gathered in, by making the layers project one over another. The place for the fuel is carried up straight on both sides, till about three feet high; it is then nearly filled with wood, which is covered with a stratum of small sea-coal, or breeze, after which the flue is overspanned. The sea-coal is also strewed between every row of bricks, and the top of the clamp covered with a thick layer of it. The wood is then kindled, and the fire is thence communicated to the coals. When the fuel is exhausted, the brick-makers conclude that the bricks are sufficiently burned. The operation of burning bricks is attended with considerable difficulty, and requires workmen of experience, to maintain an equal degree of heat throughout the mass. If the heat be too low, the bricks will be weak and crumbly, and if too strong, they will vitrify and run together. The operation is much better performed in kilns, than in clamps; as in the former, the fire can be kept up, and regulated at discretion; while in clamps, as the whole of the fuel must be put in at once, the manufacturer is tempted to use too little, and the outside bricks are consequently under-burnt. These are called samel-bricks, which are sold at an inferior price. See BRICK. CLAMP NAILS. See NAILS. CLAMPING, in joinery, the act of securing a board with clamps. See CLAMP. CLASP NAILS. See NAILS. CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE, such as was practised by the Greeks and Romans. CLATHRI, in Roman antiquity, bars of iron, or wood, used for securing doors and windows. CLAY, in common language, any earth which possesses sufficient ductility to admit of being kneaded with water. Common clays may be divided, with regard to their utility, into three classes, viz., unctuous, meagre, and calcareous. The unctuous contains, in general, more alumine than the meagre, and the silicious ingredient is in finer grains. When burnt, it adheres strongly to the tongue, but its texture is not visibly porous. When charged with little or no oxide of iron, it burns to a very good white colour, and is very infusible; it is therefore employed in the manufacture of Staffordshire ware. When it contains oxideofiron, or pyrites, sufficient to colour it when baked, it becomes more fusible, and can only be employed in the coarser kinds of pottery. L,.- — ~ ----- LIIIL-~-C~ —~13~~-~~I CLI 167 CLO CLI 167 CLO Meagre clay does not take a polish with the nail, when dry, by rubbing it; feels gritty between the teeth; contains sand in visible grains; and, when burnt without additions, has a coarse granular texture. It is employed in the manufacture of bricks and tiles. Calcareous clay effervesces with acids, is unctuous to the touch, and always contains iron enough to give it a red colour when baked. Being much more fusible than any of the preceding, it is only employed in brick-making; and, by a judicious burning, may be made to assume a semi-vitreous texture. Bricks thus made are very durable. CLAYING, the operation of spreading two or three coats of clay, in order to keep water within a vessel, or to prevent its transmission to some place or apartment where it would be injurious. This operation is also called puddling. Claying is necessary in the construction of canals, cisterns, vaults, &c. CLEAM, a word used in some countries, to signify to stick, or glue. CLEAR, in building, the distance between any two bodies when no other intervenes; or between the nearest surfaces of two bodies; as, binding joists may be placed five feet clear of each other, or apart. CLEAR-STORY, the upper story of a church rising clear above the adjoining parts of the edifice, and containing a range of windows, thereby affording an increase of light to the body of the building; some indeed derive the term from the French, clair, light, from that circumstance; while others consider the term to have been applied from this story of the building being clear of joists, rafters, or flooring: the derivation, however, implied at the commencement of this article, seems to be the most reasonable. In some cases, this story is made of great importance, pierced with windows of greater size than those below, in the body of the edifice, as at Exeter and other cathedrals, Henry VII.'s chapel, Westminster, and some of the larger churches; in others the windows are of very small dimensions, consisting merely of trefoils, quatrefoils, or small arched foliated apertures. Very small churches seldom have clear-stories, the roof being carried over the body and aisles in a single span. There is no clearstory to the choir of Bristol cathedral. CLEAVING, the act of severing one part of a piece of wood from another, in the direction of the fibres, either by pressure, or by the percussion of a wedge-formed instrument. CLEETA, an ancient Greek architect and sculptor, who built the paleestra, or large court, near Olympus, in which the horse and chariot races were performed at the celebrated Olympic games. It was magnificently decorated with porticos and other ornaments; and the author was so vain of his performance, that he introduced the following inscription under one of his statues:-" Cleeta, the son of Aristocles, who invented the palestra of Olympus, did this." See PALESTRA. CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES, in Egyptian antiquity, two obelisks towards the eastern part of the palace of Alexandria, constructed of Thebaic stone, and covered with hieroglyphics; one has been thrown down, broken, and lies buried in the sand: the other stands on a pedestal. The dimensions of the two are pretty nearly the same; the whole height of the erect one, including the pedestal and three steps, is about seventy-nine feet. When the French examined the base of this obelisk, the accumulation of earth around it was about sixteen feet deep. These two obelisks formed the entrance to the temple or palace of Caesar, as it is called, though probably they were moved from some of the ancient cities of Egypt by the Ptolemys. CLINCHING, when a nail is driven to the head through a piece of wood or board, of less thickness than the length of the nail, the driving of the point of the nail backwards, flat into the wood, while a hammer is pressed against its head, is called clinching. CLINKERS, bricks impregnated with a considerable quantity of nitre or saltpetre, and placed next to the fire in the clamp, or kiln, that they may be more thoroughly burnt. CLOACJE, large arched drains, formed under the streets of some ancient Roman cities. The most remarkable were the cloacae of Rome, large portions of which still remain in excellent repair. These cloacae extended under the whole city, and were divided into numerous branches: the arches, which supported the streets and buildings, were so high and broad, that a waggon loaded with hay might pass under, or vessels might sail in them. At proper distances, in the streets, there were openings, for the admission of dirty water, &c. These branches ran in the low parts between the hills, and fell into one large arched drain, constructed of solid blocks of stone, called the Cloaca Maxima, said to have been built by Tarquinius Superbus, and repaired in later times by Cato the Censor, and his colleague in office. The Cloaca Maxima is fifteen feet wide, and thirty high, with three arches in contact one within another; in some parts there were raised paths along the sides of the cloaca; and in the walls were stone brackets to support the ends of the waste pipes of the fountains. In the year 1742, a part of the Cloaca Maxima was discovered in the Forum, at the depth of thirty feet from the surface. See SEWER. CLOAK-PINS AND RAIL, a piece of wood attached to a wall, furnished with projecting pegs, on which to hang hats, great-coats, &c.; the pegs are called cloak-pins, and the board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened to the wall, is called the rail. CLOCHARIUM, CLOCHIER (French, clocher,) a building, more usually a tower, in which the clock and bells were contained. CLOGHEAD, a name applied to the curious round towers of Ireland. See TOWER. CLOISTER, (Latin, clausum, enclosed, shut in;) a covered range of building attached to a monastic or collegiate establishment, forming a passage of communication between the various buildings, more especially between the church and chapter-house. Cloisters were employed as places of meditation and recreation by the inmates of the etablishment; and sometimes of retirement and study, for which purpose we occasionally find them arranged with cells on one side, as at Gloucester Cathedral, and also at Durham, where such cells were termed carrols: they appear to have been used likewise as places of sepulture. Cloisters are invariably found contiguous to the church, ranged round three or four sides of a quadrangular area, having on the outer side a series of windows with piers and columns looking into the quadrangle, and in the inner side, which was in other respects plain, a number of doorways communicating with the surrounding buildings, the chapter-house, refectory, schools, and such like. The windows in our English cloisters are glazed, and the whole length of the ambulatories arched over with a vaulted ceiling; in some cases, a stone seat or bench is carried round the wall opposite the windows. Attached to the cloister is usually a lavatory or conduit, at which the monks washed previous to entering the refectory; the remains of one such are to be seen in the centre of the quadrangle at Durham, as also at Wells; lavatories also exist in the cloisters of Norwich, Gloucester, and Worcester. See LAVATORY. In England cloisters seem to have been appended to all cathedrals, and to the majority of collegiate and monastic II ~ - - - - CLO 168 CLO CLO 168 CLO establishments, in short, to all the larger religious houses. Frequent examples are also to be found on the continent, in Italy, France, and Germany, and in some cases of great magnitude; they are in the main similar to those in England, though of different styles, and therefore varying in detail; one difference consists in the windows being unglazed, on account, no doubt, of the difference of climate; in some instances are found specimens of painting in fresco on the walls. Of the continental cloisters, Mr. Hope says, "Those of the Latin church are all of them in the Lombard style; some, such as those of San Lorenzo and Santa Sabina at Rome, and of San Stephano at Bologna, are small and rude, and more like the courts of a mean habitation; others, as those of San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and those of San Zeno at Verona, are spacious, and formed of columns of the most fantastical shapes; some coupled, twisted, and with spiral flutes; and glittering-those at Rome with white marble inlaid with porphyry, with serpentine and with gilt enamel; and those at Verona with the gold-coloured marble of the Euganean mountains. The cloisters of the cathedral church of Zurich, and of the monastery of Subiaco, in the papal states, are amongst the most elegant of continental examples. The latter was erected in 1235, and that of San Zeno, at Verona, in 1123." The following account of the Campo-Santo at Pisa, one of the most fatuous cloisters in Europe, is given by Britton: -' Its form is an oblong square, or irregular parallelogram, measuring 430 and 415 feet in its longest extent, by 136 and 139 feet at its ends. The width of each walk is about 32 feet. It was commenced in 1278 by Giovanni de Pisa, and a chapel, adjoining its east end, was completed in 1464. Between the covered walk and the enclosed area, is a series of sixty-two windows, having semi-circular arches, and adorned with varied tracery, supported by tall light columns which divide each space into four lights. Some of these were formerly glazed, but the others were left open. The floor is paved with white marble having bands of blue, and the inner roof is formed of timber. On the walls are numerous old paintings of great interest, being some of the first productions on the revival of that art at the beginning of the fourteenth century. There is also a fine collection of marble sarcophagi, fragments of sculpture, &c." Amongst many other of the more noted cloisters of the continent, may be mentioned that belonging to the monastery of Batalha in Portugal. It is extensive and highly enriched, the length of each ambulatory being 182 feet, and the width 17.} feet; in the centre of the enclosed quadrangle is a cistern, and in one of its angles a large fountain. Attached to the collegiate chapel of St. Stephen, Westminster, are the remains of one of the most highly enriched and beautiful cloisters in England, which was erected by Dean Chambers in the time of King Henry the Eighth. It is the only example remaining of a cloister of two stories; it has two oratories, or chantry-chapels, projecting into the quadrangle, and approached respectively from the upper and lower western avenues. The roof is vaulted, covered with fan-tracery, and adorned with finely-sculptured bosses and shields. The dimensions are added to the following table. The areas at the entrance of some continental churches partake of the nature of cloisters, but are more particularly styled atria. See ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. The annexed is a table giving the dimensions and some other information relative to the cloisters attached to our English cathedrals. The particulars are collected from Britton's works, and other similar sources. List of Cloisters of the English Cathedrals. Length. * CANTERBURY............ CHESTER............... CHICHESTER............ b DURHAM............... c GLOUCESTER............. d HEREFORD.............. e LINCOLN................ f NORWICH............... g SALISBURY.............. h WELLS................ WORCESTER............. k OLD ST. PAUL, LONDON.... S. STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER....... 5 Feet 132 110 108 198 S. l 121 E. 145. 147... I 143 115 118 N. and S. 90 E. and W.f 5 from 175 to 177 } * * 181&. 162 E.and W. 158 S. y 125 E. 120 W.N.&S. '} 91..... 89 E. and W. 75 N. and S. ~ Width Height to >f avenue. vaulting. Feet. Feet. 15:frm 12 17 to 14 1. 13. 14|. 15. 18. 20o. 13 16 10 12m. 17 14 lower. 13 upper. REMARKS. & On north side of cathedral. b Date about 1400; had octagonal lavatory in centre of area. On south side of cathedral. c Completed 1390; has recesses or carols in the south walk, and in the north a spacious lavatory; the roof covered with elaborate fan-tracery. d In ruins. Has timber vaulting with ribs and bosses; on north side of cathedral; date about 1300. f Commenced in 1299, completed in 1430; has two lavatories at the south-west angle. g Date about 1250; situate on south side of cathedral. h Erected between 1407 and 1465; on the south side of cathedral. It has only three avenues, the fourth side being the wall of the nave; the eastern and western sides are of two stories; there is a lavatory in the area. i Date 1380. k Consisted of two stories; the chapter-house was enclosed within the avenues. Destroyed. CLOISTER-GARTH, the quadrangular area enclosed within the four avenues of a cloister; it was laid out as a grass-plot, and had frequently in its centre a stone conduit, or reservoir of water.-The cloister-garth was used as a place of sepulture. CLOSE STRING, in dog-leg stairs, a staircase without an open newel. CLOSER, in masonry, the last stone laid in the horizontal length of a wall, of less dimensions than any of the others in the same row. Closers should never be admitted in good work, nor indeed in any other, for they deprive it of uniformity, and destroy the bond also: nor would they ever be found necessary, were due attention paid to the dividing of the stones in proper lengths. In brickwork the term is applied to a bat used in the same manner. When the bat is a quarter-brick, it is called queen-closer. When a threequarter, inserted at the angle of a stretching-course, it is called a king-closer. CLOSET, a small apartment, frequently made to communicate with a bed-chamber, and used as a dressing-room. Sometimes a closet is made for the reception of stores, and then it is called a store-closet. However unfashionable closets may be in the rooms of large houses, they are essential in those of small ones. CLOSET. See WATER-CLOSET. I.0 __I ____ I CLU 169 CLU CLU 169 CLU6 CLOUGH, or CLOYSE, a kind of sluice for letting off water gently, employed in the agricultural operation of improving soils by flooding the land with muddy water, the same with paddle, shuttle, sluice, pen-stock, &c., a contrivance for retaining or letting out the water of a canal, pond, &c. CLOUGH ARCHES, or PADDLE —HOLES, in the construction of canals, crooked arches by which the water is conveyed, on drawing up the doughs or paddles, from the upper pond into the chamber of the lock, when it is to be filled. CLOUT-NAILS. See NAILS. CLUB-CHAMBERS. As the building we are about to describe is the first attempt to provide a superior kind of accommodation for gentlemen who are accustomed to reside in chambers, by the erection of an edifice especially planned for, and adapted to the purpose; we think a notice of the extensive and elegant institution known as the Club-chambers in Regent Street, not inappropriate in a work devoted to architecture. In consequence of the scarcity of chambers for residence in the vicinity of the Clubs and Houses of Parliament, an association was formed for the purpose of supplying the want. An eligible site having been procured in Regent Street, between Pall Mall and Piccadilly, the association engaged Mr. Decimus Burton to make designs for a new building. These designs being approved of, contracts were made, and the result was the present handsome and commodious mansion. The elevation of this edifice is of the Italian style of architecture; it occupies a frontage of 76 feet, and consists of a ground-story, rusticated, and terminated by an enriched lace-band or string-course, enriched with the Vitruvian scroll. This story forms a basement to the upper part, containing the principal story, and a second and third story, surmounted by a bold and enriched cornice, the main characteristic feature of the Italian style. Between the principal story and the ground-floor, an entre-sol is introduced, the windows of which are placed between the panelled pilasters supporting the consoles of the bold projecting balconies in the windows above. The ground-floor is approached in the centre by a portico, projecting forward with coupled Doric columns on each side, and recessed back to give depth: this opens into a grand entrance-hall, the height of the groundstory, and entre-sol. The four upper stories are divided in the same way as the ground-floor, except that on all the stories above the entre-sol there is an apartment over the entrance-hall. The building contains 77 chambers; 27 are provided with alcoves or recesses for the bed, and 50 without; some of the rooms are so planned, that two or three may be formed into one suite, if required. The basement-story-occupied as servants' rooms and domestic offices-is arched over with flat brick arches, supported by iron girders. The two staircases are of stone, all the corridors have stone floors, and every precaution has been taken throughout the building against the extension of fire. The ingenuity displayed by the architect in providing for the warming and ventilation of the building deserves a particular description-it is thus effected:-On each side of the principal staircase, on the basement-story, is a furnace, with an iron pipe or flue 12 inches diameter, fixed in the centre of a vertical brick-chamber, rising through the several stories and roof, where it is terminated by a cowl. On each story these vertical chambers communicate with horizontal ones, formed between the floor and ceiling of the corridors. Each room being furnished with a ventilator near the ceiling, opening into the horizontal chamber; when the fire is lighted in the furnaces, it heats the iron flue, rarefies the air within 22 the vertical chambers, and causes it to pass off with consider. able rapidity through the cowl at the top. The air within the rooms then flowing through the ventilators and horizontal chambers into the vertical ones, supplies the partial vacuum created by the escape of the rarefied air, and thereby keeps up continuous and healthy circulation. The warming of the building is effected by the patent hot. water apparatus of Mr. H. C. Price, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Manby. The apparatus is erected on the basement-story, on the north side of the principal staircase; the hot-air chamber is immediately behind, the top being nearly on a level with the ground-floor; a supply of cold air flows through a trunk-the mouth of which is furnished with gauze-wire to filter the air-into the vault, where it passes upwards between the vertical iron chambers filled with hotwater, and becomes heated, the warm air then escaping through apertures in the top of the vault, is distributed throughout the principal staircase and corridors. The corridors and water-closets are lighted with gas, the light being enclosed in glazed lanterns, provided with tubes leading to the external part of the building. On the basement-story, a well has been sunk, by which the premises are supplied with pure spring water lifted to the top of the building by means of a small steam-engine, which is also employed for raising coals, furniture, &c., up the well-hole of the back staircase. Every alcove or recess for the bed is provided with hot and cold water, and pipes trapped, and communicating with the drains for a water-closet, if the tenant should wish to have one. We have been thus particular in describing this establishment, because the very perfect arrangements made in it for the comfort and convenience of its numerous occupants reflect the highest credit on the architect, whose taste and ingenuity have been so eminently displayed; and because we would bespeak for so valuable an association the patronage and support its liberality so fully deserves. CLUB-HOUSE. Under this term are designated the splendid establishments which have sprung up at the westend of the metropolis within the last few years. Called into existence by the requirements of a highly refined state of society, the clubs of London represent an assemblage of gentlemen composed of all that is eminent in rank, wealth, and talent; the elite of the gentry and nobility of the kingdom. The clubs of the present day must not be confounded with those of a past age, they are essentially institutions of modern creation. Of the clubs of former days, the earliest described in our popular literature date about the end of the sixteenth, or the beginning of the seventeenth century. About that time was established the famous club at the Mermaid Tavern in Friday Street, amongst whose members were Shakspere, Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, and others. Another celebrated club, founded by Jonson, held its meetings at the well-known Devil Tavern. For this club Jonson wrote the " Leges Convivales," which are printed among his works. In the Spectator, Addison describes an association of a political character, called " The Club," or rather the Confederacy of the Kings. " This grand alliance," says he, "was formed a little after the return of Charles II., and admitted into it men of all qualities and professions, provided they agreed in this surname of king, which, as they imagined, sufficiently declared the owners of it to be altogether untainted by republican and anti-monarchical principles." The great age of clubs, political, literary, and of every other description, was the early part of the last century. Amongst the most celebrated of these was the first Beefsteak club, of which Mrs. Woffington, the popular actress, was the president, being the only female member; and z_ iL 17 CL CLU 170 CLU __ _ __ _____ I___ ___ _ ___ Estcourt, the comedian, provisor, wearing in that character a small gridiron of gold hung round his neck with a green silk riband. Still more celebrated, perhaps, was the famous Kit-Cat club, said to have been instituted at the time of the trial of the seven bishops in the reign of James II., but in its greatest glory in that of Queen Anne. In 1735 was established the second Beef-steak club, which is still in existence, and which has numbered among its members the most eminent public characters that have appeared since its institution. This club originated with Rich, the pantomimist, and the Earl of Peterborough, and has continued to the present day to maintain its high celebrity, as the chosen resort of good-fellowship and conviviality. The modern clubs are associations of gentlemen of similarity of political feeling, literary or professional pursuitsas the Reform, the Carlton, Athenaeum, United Service, &c. These are, in no other respects, clubs, according to the ancient English understanding of the term, except that every member must be balloted for, or admitted by the consent of the rest. They might perhaps be more correctly described houses as combining the characters of restaurants and reading-rooms, for the use of a selected number of associated persons, who agree to make an annual payment for their support, whether they resort to them little or much; and pay besides for whatever refreshment they may require, at a cost free of profit. Originating within the present century, and concentrating a large proportion of the men of fortune, station, and political note in the metropolis, these establishments have certainly had a striking effect upon the manners, not only of the departments of society from which the members are drawn, but upon society in general. They have, indeed, given a new direction to the habits of certain classes, and the change has been decidedly for the better. Although it is our province more especially to describe the buildings in which these institutions are domiciled than the institutions themselves, a slight account of the origin and progress of the latter, abbreviated from an interesting sketch in Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, may not be uninteresting. It appears that to the military we are indebted for the origin of these establishments. The officers of the army, whether in camp or quarters, have always experienced the advantage and economy of clubbing for their provisions. They have found that the pay of each individual, spent separately, would scarcely procure him ordinary necessaries; whilst, by adding it to a general fund, to be judiciously disbursed by an experienced caterer, he would obtain for his subscription not only requisites, but luxuries. At the peace of 1815, a reduction of the army withdrew a number of officers from the " messes" to which they had been accustomed. Thus a great many gentlemen of comparatively limited means were thrown into private life, subjected to all the expenses and inconveniences of hotels, taverns, and lodging-houses. In many instances long and continued absence from home had severed these brave men from domestic ties; yet having always lived among a congenial brotherhood-society, it was essential to their happiness. In these circumstances, the mess-system was naturally thought of, and the late General Lord Lynedoch, with five brotherofficers, met for the purpose of devising a plan by which a similar system might be made applicable to non-professional life. So effectual were their deliberations, and so wellgrounded their preliminary measures, that a club was formed during the same year, (1815,) intended, in the first instance, for military men only, but naval officers, as well as military, were afterwards brought within the scope of their design, and an association enrolled, entitled the "United Service Club." A building fund was formed; a neat edifice,-fromn the designs of Sir Robert Smirke,-was erected at the corner of Charles Street, St. James's, and in the year 1819 the first modern club was opened for the reception of its members. Candidates for admission, however, increased so rapidly, that a larger habitation was rendered necessary. A building, on a grand scale, from the plans of Mr. Nash, was erected at the east corner of the new entrance to St. James's Park from Pall Mall, and taken possession of in 1828, while the residence in Charles Street, vacated by the "United Service Club"-now generally called the " Senior United Service"was taken by a new association, under the title of the " Junior United Service Club." The establishment of the "United Service Club" was speedily followed by that of others, and the number of these institutions, which is daily increasing, now amounts to above thirty. The principal club-houses are situated in Pall Mall and its immediate neighbourhood, and a person re-visiting London, after an absence of several years, would be surprised to see here clustered together a number of mansions exhibiting every order of architecture, from the severest Doric to the most florid Composite. The following description, subject, of course, to modification in particular instances, will give a tolerably correct idea of the general arrangement of a modern club-house. The visitor, on entering one of these palace-like edifices, finds himself in a lobby, in which are the hall-porter, who is seated at a desk, and his assistants. The duty of these officials is to see that none have access to the club but members, to receive letters, &c. Close to the hall is a reception-room for strangers wishing to see members, and beyond this a hall, or vestibule, from which doors open on the various apartments on the ground-floor. Of these there is, first, a " morning room," which is used for reading newspapers and writing letters. And to give some idea of the liberal scale on which these morning-rooms are supplied, and of the profusion of periodicals taken in by the large clubs, it may be stated, that at the Athenmeum, in the year 1844, the sum of ~471 2s. 6d. was expended for English and foreign newspapers and periodicals. Stationery also is supplied to an unlimited extent. The " coffee-room" is furnished with rows of small tables projecting from each side, with an avenue up the middle. These tables are laid for breakfasts and luncheons till four o'clock in the day, after that hour they are arranged for dinners. For the accommodation of members who may feel inclined to form themselves into parties to dine together, in preference to the detached mode of dining at the small tables of the coffee-room, a dining-room, handsomely furnished, is provided on the ground-floor, in which they can do so-these dinners are termed, in club-parlance, " housedinners." The principal apartment above stairs is the drawing-room, in which members take their evening coffee or tea. In some clubs a great display of luxury and expensiveness is made in this room, and, notwithstanding that it is perhaps less used than any room in the house, the finest taste of the decorator and upholsterer is called into requisition to adorn it. Near to the drawing-room is the library, fitted up with every convenience for reading, consulting maps, &c. The books are accumulated by donations, and by a sum set aside from the general funds for their purchase. These libraries are generally well supplied with books, and that of the Athenaeum is said to contain near 30,000 volumes. Five hundred pounds is annually expended by this club for increasing its library. Near the library is, in some clubs, a card-room, but gaming is as much as possible discouraged in these institutions. _ ~.r^ ----------- CLU 171 CLU CLU 171 CLU __ The next story contains at least one billiard-room, some club-houses have two; 'in many clubs also there is a smokingroom: on the upper story are sleeping chambers for the servants, who reside on the premises. The basement contains the usual domestic offices; and, as may be supposed, every detail connected with the important department of the " cuisine" is most perfect. The above sketch will give the reader some idea of the general arrangements of a club-house; we shall now proceed to describe more particularly a few of those splendid edifices which have been, by some, compared to the Palazzi of Italian cities. The " United Service," though first in seniority as a club, deserves a very brief notice on the score of architectural beauty. It is a plain unpretending building, which may be called Italian, because it cannot be described as being of any other style, but it is Italian of an impoverished and enfeebled character, exhibiting, remarks Mr. Leeds, " incontestable evidence of insipidity and poverty." The building consists of two stories, the ground-floor being rusticated, and having windows on each side of the portico. The upper story contains an elegant suite of rooms, having seven lofty windows, with pediments, over which, and running through the whole building, is an entablature, the whole being surmounted by a balustrade. The south front is similar to the one described, but the north, facing Pall Mall, has a portico the whole height of the structure, and is in two divisions; that of the ground-floor being composed of eight fluted Doric columns in pairs, having an entablature with triglyphs. This is surmounted by a balustrade, over which are eight Corinthian columns arranged in the same order as those below, and crowned by an entablature and pediment. The internal arrangements are exceedingly well contrived, and furnish every convenience for the accommodation of the members. There are some remarkably fine portraits of distinguished military and naval officers, and the apartments are furnished with great luxury and elegance. The " Athenaeum," is situated at the opposite angle of Carlton Place, and is remarkable for the elaborate sculptured bas-relief frieze continued along its three sides. This club ranks as one of the very first in the metropolis, and the magnificent mansion belonging to its members, is worthy to occupy a similar prominent position. The building is from the designs of Mr. Decimus Burton, and displays that gentleman's usual ability and good taste. The east elevation has a rusticated basement with a portico, the ends of which are filled up and perforated with windows; the angles are finished by a square pilaster and fluted column of the Doric order; the space between being divided by four columns of the same order in pairs. The frieze is ornamented with triglyphs, and the cornice surrounded by a balustrade, the space over the centre intercolumniations being filled up and crowned by a pedestal supporting a figure of Minerva. Over the ground-story, and on a line with the cornice of the portico, is a balcony running through the three elevations, and terminating at the angles by pedestals. The principal story is lighted by seven lofty windows with sashes, by which there is access to the balcony, and which are ornamented with cornice and trusses; above this, and continuing through the entire building, is the beautiful frieze we have already mentioned, the figures, in basso-relievo, being copied, it is said, from the Elgin frieze deposited in the British Museum. Over this is a cornice of very bold projection, the whole being crowned by a balustrade. Adjoining the Athenaeum, is the " Travellers'," of which it is scarcely possible to speak in terms of sufficient commendation. " Could there,: says a talented writer and able critic, " be any question as to the possibility of reconciling the seemingly antithetical qualities of richness and simplicity, this building might be allowed to determine it, since the design is no less remarkahle for the attention bestowed upon all its details, than for the simplicity of its composition." We have many others far more ambitious in decoration, yet not one so beautifully finished up in every part, or exhibiting so perfectly that integrity of finish which is displayed in this work of Mr. Barry's. For here, indeed, we behold the full beauty of the Italian style purified from its defects, and stamped by a serene kind of dignity that renders it truly captivating. In the treatment of his design, Mr. Barry has bestowed equal pains on.both fronts, that towards the garden being as carefully studied as the one facing Pall Mall; and it is well worthy not only of observation, but of imitation, that there is more nicety of detail and greater elegance here bestowed on parts sometimes considered of very secondary importance, than is often expended upon a whole design. If, again, we lift our eyes to the upper extremity of the building, we instantly perceive what attention has been bestowed on that also; for it is not the cornice alone, but the cornice and roof together which constitute its decoration; the latter being treated as belonging to the elevation itself, and the former giving richness and majesty to the whole facade. The interior of the building is arranged with great ability, both with regard to convenience and picturesque effect, for which latter it is not a little indebted to a small but elegant internal court, of strictly architectural character. The position of the entrance, which a regard to exact symmetry would have required to be in the centre, has been sometimes objected to, but we are of opinion that the architect exercised a sound judgment in placing it where he has, rather than sacrifice a portion of the interior accommodation. The following description of this elegant structure, is extracted from an excellent work, " The Public Buildings of London," edited by Mr. W. H. Leeds:-" The hall, which has a screen of two columns in antis,-behind which is the porter's desk,-includes the window next to the entrancedoor. Although small in itself, it does not by any means look confined, there being a vista from it along the corridor, which is lighted by three windows looking into the court, and to which there is an ascent of four steps through an open arch. The ceiling of both hall and corridor are arched; that of the former coffered, of the other panelled. A door to the left, immediately after ascending the steps, leads into the morning-room, (44 feet by 23 feet 9,) which has three windows towards the street, and a fire-place at each end. From this, a door facing the farthest window, opens into the house dining-room, which is 27 feet by 28 feet 9 inches, and occupies all the space to the east of the court. Beyond the principal staircase, which is seen at the end of the corridor through an open arch, is the coffee-room, occupying the whole extent of the garden front. This room is divided by piers and antae into three compartments, in each of which is a fire-place, namely, one at each end, and another facing the windows in the centre division. " The libraries form a single apartment, divided by double screens of Corinthian columns on a pedestal stylobate in continuation of the dado of the room, leaving a passage through the centre intercolumn six feet clear. Owing to the contraction of the opening, to the depth of the screen, and the duplication of the columns one behind another, the perspective appearance acquires a high degree of pleasing complexity, and the larger or inner library is not so much exposed to view, on first entering from the staircase. Above ___ CLU- 17 CL U CLU 172 CL U -- -- the entablature is a deep fiieze, forming a continued subject in bas-relief. Over the libraries are billiard and smokingrooms, which are lighted from above in the slope of the roof towards the court." The drawing-room and card-room are loftier than the libraries, and have a deep cove with coffers between the ceiling and the top of the cornice. The design of the drawingroom ceiling is exceedingly tasteful, combining finished simplicity with richness in a very striking manner, and all the details exhibit proofs of the most refined taste and the most careful and elaborate design. The dimensions of some of the principal apartments are as follows: Coffee-room........ Principal Staircase... Corridor........... Court............ Drawing-room...... Card-room......... Libraries.......... Reading-room...... Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. 68 by 24 9 and 18 6 high. 45 by 16 27 by 11 27 by 25 6 Ft.In. 39 by 23 9 and 24 0 high. 28 9 by 23 9 48 by 24 9 and 17 6 high. 29 9 by 19 6 and the eye dwells with unmixed satisfaction and delight on the harmonious result. The entrance to the club-house from Pall Mall, is several steps above the ground, and in the centre of the building. On this side, the frontage presents only three floors from the ground, though consisting of six from the basement; the basement and mezzanine below ground, and the chambers in the roof being unseen. There are four windows on each side of the entrance; nine windows equidistant on the first floor, and the same number on the second. The pediments surmounting the windows in Pall Mall, are supported by Ionic pilasters; and at the back, overlooking Carlton Gardens, by Ionic pilasters rusticated. The height of the ground and first floor is on the same level as the Travellers'. An Italian court (341- feet by 29 feet,) is placed in the centre of the quadrangle. Corridors, on the first and ground floors, 9 feet wide, lighted from this court, lead to the apartments on these floors; but on the second floor, the corridors leading to the lodgings are contracted to 5- feet. On the basement, every sort of culinary office seems provided, and located with singular judgment and convenience. The number of apartments here exceeds thirty. In the mezzanine or entresol, are the butler's, housekeeper's, and still-rooms, dressing and bath rooms, and 16 servants' rooms. On the ground floor is the coffee-room, of noble proportions, having a view into the gardens; writing-room, newspaper or reading-room, house dining-room, steward's, waiting, porter's, and two audience-rooms-in all nine rooms on this floor. On the first floor, above the coffee-room, is the drawingroom, supported by Corinthian pillars, and so constructed, that if required, it may be divided into two or three rooms; two libraries, both supported by Corinthian pillars; two billiard-rooms; and several other rooms. On the second floor are twenty-six chambers or lodgings, the dimensions of each varying from 22 feet by 14 feet, to 12 feet by 10 feet. On the attic floor there are about thirty rooms, intended for servants. The following are the dimensions of some of the principal apartments: We cannot close our notice of this elegant building, without again expressing our admiration of so great an ornament to our metropolitan architecture. The Travellers' club-house will bear the most critical and scrutinizing examination; and the more closely it is scanned, the more apparent will be its beauty; nor is it till then that we perceive how carefully every part is elaborated, and yet so subdued to the general effect, that the eye never rests on particular points thrust obtrusively forward, but embraces the perfect ensemble, in a structure replete with chaste and refined simplicity. Immediately adjoining the Travellers' is another magnificent example of architectural genius-the " Reform Club." The instructions issued to the competing architects, by the spirited members of this association, when seeking a design for their new dwelling, were-to produce a club-house which should surpass all others in size and magnificence; one which should combine all the attractions of other clubs, baths, billiard-rooms, smoking-rooms, with the ordinary features, besides the additional novelty of private chambers or dormitories. The manner in which Mr. Barry responded to these instructions, may be seen in the edifice we are about to describe; an edifice on which public opinion and professional criticism have united to bestow the highest praise; pronouncing it unsurpassed in grandeur of design, and perfection of taste, by any building in the metropolis. The distinguishing characteristic of the Reform Club, is its grand and imposing appearance; produced, not only by its greater extent and loftiness, but by the circumstance of its being detached from other buildings on three of its sides. These are made to constitute as many facades, two of which may be beheld together from the same point of view, producing, from their uniformity in design, a continuous, rich architectural mass; and thus securing a completeness and fullness of effect which a mere facade on the same scale could never give. In the Reform, as in the Travellers', Mr. Barry has avoided the too common fault of cutting up a composition into distinct divisions, finishing, and then commencing again; on the contrary, the ensemble is made consistent throughout, crowned by a magnificent cornicione, proportioned not to a part, but to the whole; while sufficient decoration, in other respects, is derived from essential features and members, windows, string-courses, &c. These display themselves with a boldness and effect hardly attainable where windows are introduced between straggling columns, and other like incongruities offend the judicious observer. In this building richness combined with simplicity is diffused throughout, Basement....Kitchen............. Steward's room...... Butler's pantry......,, Scullery.......... Cook's room......... Ground Floor Coffee-room.........,, Writing-room....... Reading-room......, House dining-room... First Floor..Drawing-room....... Libraries............, Billiard-room.......,, Committee-room.... Ft. Ft. 29 by 22 26 by 18I 16~ by 14 20 by 14 17 by 12 117 by 28 40 by 27 28} by 27 29 by 18 117 by 28 40 by 27 32 by 18 33A by 171 Ft. Ft. and 28~ by 27 and 23 by 17i In the whole building, there are upwards of 130 several apartments, arranged with the greatest ingenuity, and with the utmost attention to convenience, and showing that, however great may be our admiration of the beautiful exterior, the interior is not less deserving of our approval and commendation. The " Carlton" adjoins the Reform, and adds another to the fine structures we have been describing. The committee of this club, after examining a number of designs submitted in competition by various architects, none of which seem to have met with approval, agreed to elect an architect by the votes of the members. The ballot resulted in the election of Mr. Sydney Smirke and Mr. G. Basevi, who had arranged to act conjointly; but the death of the latter gentleman preventing this being carried into effect, Mr. Smirke was retained by the committee to complete the work. .I - - -I --- —--- - —, ` — -7tl- - - I rV-n~w 4ft~ C, 5K rv 11,13, TXI, 7-j, A (,): I T -21-M Cl I:1 S.. 2,.-. ---- - --- - ---- -- -- - --—, --. —, --- — -.. —. ----. —, --- —.. -—. —.-..-,..-. --- —. ----....I, --, ---,.. - -—.. —: —.-,., - -- -. - ----—......-..-., -'.12 -. - , -.. ...., --- — - - ,. - - L, _ ,.- _.. - _-.. -..... -,.- -r.- .. —.-. I:. -..-....-..-. - -.-..-I........ - - - - - -.:. -- I.. —.. — ----- --.- ---. -,. —II - I- I-1..- 11..- -... - - -..,..... - -. -.. .... -.1. - ,..-._.....1 -;I....,.rl.1.. —' ':'- ' -- --- -7- 7- --- ---- -.1-1 — -- - -- -- -.-.....I.......,..I...11......I...- --- —. —. -, ---- —,-,-,": —, "..;I-, --..,,. ,;,.-...............I...... -...... ..... I... ...,, I;.....:..:,..... I;...............I...1.: .IIi,....I. I......III..,-.i.........1 -1.:..II.............,.- sI5........, :,m-.,i....i.ir................I.......ImI .:-........,,.......-j........i.......::;: .. 1..... 4,1.1,;.............. - %.I,...: 1....-)..... , ,, ., :, ,,, :,,......,:.... -:,.,;..., ;.1. -.,.....-2- Zr -.V'':,,'T -0,V- ': ` -,I.. I..: ';" L. , 1, J. ,,..,,: 11-....: m. 1. c:,': S-.11..,:. .,. ..l..,....'. ..,..,....... ..1....I.....I%..I:..I, X. I..., :m.. I-:-,. 1:....:..........:.... I........................ll,.,,,.. ..: :, f..::: i. I.... . ,,..:?, 1; I.,,1............,.......... ........;..1.... ,...........,..I...,.........-... %,..r......I ..I....?I....,........,::L. 1,.....I..I....:.!-,,..........%...,. I. I.I,..:.............. I.II.I.....-m.......,...;.I.-I.1,.. -.... I.I..I:..... -II II..-.IIII.........,.,........ -a,II --- — - -I......I...... - :,.-,..I -..I...,......,.%%-...I...-....I., -...,,%. —...%. I,, --- -' ' - - - - - - — -Iy.......a.ii..______:_ - -.I....I .m.I i.. A,4, -..-,.. I:. I.1I... I..-,-..:-,.I i...a-... I.....: .... ..I.... ---............I.. , -;I.. i. :: :,.,".....iL.....-,-. ----7 —.:,: iP4,".1i., . , —.... 11,,.1..-... --- —--.II.;:-,.,:: ,-......I...,.........I..;..!.,::::.:. wL......I.1..",..-.,- -,- ---,,-.-......L —. --- —.1........-.......in11,, — N -i.....I:?...::. ...... -. E.. IT RI.,-.... U..- ---.. ---..,L., . - ----.-.. —.-..I --- -— l-; ----. --- —-.1... -.,.....,.IIL.III. —I-...-:..-T............ —.I..I. -I........-.:..I..I...I.... I.-.....,,I.I%.,.I...,......I..-,.:-1-ILI..-..I........::--..............% :-.,:.:...;: m...,I 1.. %....;..........:-..I: ljt —,..., —.. ,: .I....I.........1 —:;I ---...................,.I...... I.:,.;......1... .%......,.,I..I........ m:..... . ., 1;.1.I....I.,....: :., ::p.II.....:..,...I II,....I.7.:1..:...11 I......:.i.i..:.....-...........I...;I...I.....1...,..........-..........,:. ..,.....I.....I........:.....%I..I.................:.,.....I......1i.....,mI.,....I..I - I......)I..I.L:I::., I.k-...I..,.....I!..; I"I..LI..I...I.I...p.:I.. 1...f ......,I....................I.,.I.I.. III..,-,... %,.I ----...... -— m...i,.I.........I. I,,, ....-I.....-.. %....I.I.,.,. i ..i.,.,:.........7 ....".,: !....I1 ' L-,I....I...:....I I...:...,...I.:.:.....,r, .:. .. -i-....-, ,.... ;. L.I,.. I:.,21 1.,..:I-,,....-:.:.:-.. t:. i-...-.:..?':.3 iI..:;. ..III-..;:.::!I..IL'.:.I.%.11..:;"'..I..:1:, ,II. %.I.:.,........I.......I..,.I..m.........I A.....:.II:-I...- F......-..iI.. -IwI....I II........... ....I.........-,:I.. I.mI.L.,..I;:..........q,. -..... 11..,..,.I -, I....,,r,.. W', -;m-.:. I.......I..:..I-.. -:.:....,.. -..I.:....... L:......a.....I..........:..,pm..:..:-.......".....*, —L-......:,I,:....., :........I I...........II...:....... - - -,,..,.., ..::I....I:: :.,.,..,..,...:..1.,,..,.%:, ..../.?.........,:....L....,r.:.i.=., f-:I.:...:,. 1....:,...A....I..,:1,II..I.....I II............., I,...I,..........I.....,,.........I.I-.,,........:.-.....1:............ I:..I.:.... ....z LI%......... I.......I....-1.III.."...4....,:.:...I-...I.....I...-.11.....?r.I..,..I.....I I.I.II .-.....I I:...%I....%...im I.;..: r r;,, I -........ll...:m t:I:III.2)..?.,I.-..:.... :......i:-I II.i!......10.1."I", ".1. _-%..::, .- 1,:.I..,......IIIlI-. ---,, — I...I.....I,.-.........M7. 1 1 : 11 I: II.:: 1. .. 1.:....,. I... 1.......!;::.;.. 1:..:.. I. 1,1.....-.........1....:;.::;: .:;,............ -. —: !:;,:: -:: ..I. I...-...::!:,:.;................: !:.:!::: j, -... 171.. m..I.......!-,,-.!-j ---.-.-,-.-_-.-,-,..l.,...l........ I.... I I..,. I....A......-'i1 —.-7 —"'....m,............. ;..1:.,.,..I...mI.........I..,. ,i.,,m 1...:- ,,:,:.:."......-I.;...i.. —...-" i... .,.,.II.........iI,,..i...:.I.....r...........,...,;......:.,,,I. I....- %. —m-,.:J..:.....::... ......:.....II.....;.:I-:... I.,.I.i..;...I;:.1............H...I:. —.1-.... I,:.........I;..... ii-...I....., -. —......N:..:I....`,... 1, -.- - - —.....:%: 4. I...... Iw...I" -. ----.-I..-.-..t.......II.I...., ,Z;........ ".-.........I.-":.......kp-... 1.II-... I..L....I., ----..;..I..n,..I"..I.. -..II..I.. I.....-.-i..I I.ILII --- —-—..-.,1....'lb. ..,.....,..II...1.II.... t I..1,.. --- —-—...I.I... %....I.I I.L,.....-.I..a -1...:, r ",,,,.p.....:II....I..: t7 --- — ...,..I;..;..I:1,.:.:.....I.-. —.:I.,..... --- —Fsignalm7,- r, .l....I.I. -,-.1:;.!I...".;...I.. m.......;.. I......FI...,,.I.......'t..,....:.. ... —T..1-.I,1...I.I.,.,I. IT..,. -..... I... ...!,.:..I...........I..?.: m...;.L........., 1..I.I.I........I.......II.:.,... ,i i..I. ...I.I....-.,;: ......I.:;.......:. o.; ,..%..1.......I..11.....-.I....:-,..............:......1:%..,-!.....:.....;.....I J. L-,.- w...-,- -..Ij - d.........,...-,, -.........LI,...... L.... I: -....,I. a............I.-.:.... L.......L..,- - -.I.II,. . .Q.,. .-.......I..!X...-,-..:,: :- ...;,- -',.L!..I..,..I —I11.....i, .I...:..,.... L —..,:.....::....I -..,-..:....-. iI....-7., —......, . ..II m..,.I 11 ,.I...............1,-I,..-......I; ,.,...II....%.I.... 7.. :..., I !, .I....,.;... 1. .I;. i.., - -.. 7,,...;;... ...-, ..I.....,.. I..I.I...,..I.I%-..,....I..,.: --- -- -—,.-%i.....%..,II a...I1 ...; I-...1....I --- —--....,i,...:i. i.- III.....,.,,..Ii..I1.......I. "........,. I...-....-T......I.:::;.L I. — -I,...., -,.-, -,, --—. ----: .IQ):..,.1 ,- -- -, I,.,I.II,.! .,-.-...-..-:. I I-:. ...7 LL,.......:.-R,...Ii....,i ii!i ",,-, i i :! i.....jL I..I...,.- — 1: i.If.......%..;.I.:i1.1.. I...,; : im.....,.I..iI......:"..:. 11. I....I....:....,:..I-.. I:iiJi........iII.I......II...1......,::,........ ,. em..I.;.%L.:......:..,:........ II...... ?.I.-..,..:..:...I.%.r,I:`.....-. IA.;.,..Ii.-...I.I..I.III;...n.....:.1.;.II. -- -......I...... I,-.I....-.... I..... n....%...-,......,.................I.I....%.I.. I: C&;.I.."..I.,,, I.':....I.....: IL... I............11I.:...II,.....I.....I.....I.... I..1..ll.I,... -..,-...:..-...jI..i1,%.,.:6 I.1.......7... .,. 011I.I,.I ....I.i.,.:,L.:1,.. .... . -,-,.I.,;..I:. ,,-,-Iv.....I.... %I.I '.. , IL.....-..IiI,.I........ I...."L.I P.I,.-I..1....., - m.II........QI: ---.,.I.. I.;... —..__j.I6., -,..,. —. --- —------— II...I:...... ----I -I. 1,.;:.r....I....-.I....-II4..., .:......I............ I....:...,...%..I......;.I. Pi.,-....;.I.1.... ....;.. .....I...... - -. I a ...:.....;.;..:,::. I:..:......1.-.,, ,. ...I.I.,.. ..:...:.. ...:...............1...:::,......%:....I:...: . :::-. :..;......-.;,.......II...I;.I.......I;.I..:.:. :....,I.."..... L.....1 I.-1........I..;..........IN,,I.`I,-......I.i.,..... .:,i.....e: . ...I.I. III...,.:i..... - ....,...I,..;..-,-1,r,.,:I..-.. -,I-...,....-I.L...III:-..NI......11...I.I..I..I,...-. IIA.. --- —....I..I....1.......iI...-I.1.II.....I., -...I...I..1.1 wlI....::;.,I.........I......t II0,.!,A..1...I.1 I.........;j......II...,..1.,. , q.. ... I..I..-.I..I...I..:?- ',i.,.,I,........ 11....f11.......: 0:..,%.... 4,-,0...I..,I.I.....i.II... I...........1.,I I.I:.,- , —,, 1. V,7,1[,r,.1.. I,.I' i,.,:).I m........,--.11..I.I..... I.,..g.....I..m..%.. I..-.......:,. I.......-...I...% I...,.......:.7L.... I..;,.,: i...I.... I...'1..........I.I.i.L. %............... ..,. ,;:.......I...I.......,-... I... --- ::..................II.I:.... i! m..I......m...11,:....I.....I.....,...................1....; ,,..I..: 1....:.... ---I......;. -:: —:...I I,...-........II..,. -I...,-_I....:%:m:..,;::: I.,>=I:....1.I......:::;1.1,.. iI-'r.....,, -...: .......1L.I. 1:I.. I.-L . -..i-.I.I..,;.>..1..... j.. I...,..I...~.7,,- . I..Ii,.......!..I...I.IJ......If..,,:,.. - II —.. I...,..w-..:....I .7,>-I...........1?....I..In'. ,,.I.I...1. I....,.,L..I...I,.,",. 1. .I.....i,...... I... I, -,,.! ".. t r..,, I.I. I:.:.- i17.1..., i?:,,I.I,..i:.... ,,.....I..,,.:;.,,-,;...i.I..m... : iL.II..........I..I,,.., I I11 ...-.......c,-, - I........n...I.. I ---...,I..I :1 ......-.,.,:..,..I..11;...I.. I.K I,:..I........1..II... j...I......r-. 1..I....;I II...1.I.I...1..:.I.. 1. ,:-,.., ..............I....I.:...1-. z...I.....I. .:m...-....1...::..:::...1; ,:.I..I......... ,-.I.:". I:.....w... 1....; 71-.,. - 1, I -m 4 -:,-. -. m.I................I:..:7::,.,.. ,t.-, — - L --- —-., --- —- — ,I..I,. I....:.;......-..i.....M.... I......-....:..,.....,. -.i,.,.., '.',.,.,. I-,, ---i,.I L.......Z=::-=,...I.I...........-...I.. I.....: :,..- , I..:,.III..I...)..-...,:.!"..,,... .....L..r,.I......11..IL:,......, ::-,,....... ---....,;I.:.,,: `. :..I. I:..,........,,.-II....,.. —...... I-....,-. - -.,,;:,,,,,,,, .-.I..I. j.....-.I..i.... %I.I,.,:.. III. I.1.....L.I..;L - .I-,...,.. —.....: :,,.%..I..:.....?. -.L 'I..I...I.....m.-. II, " " "".4..1.-...11...... PI-..m %,........., ,.m.......-.%, ..I%................,:,, I..I.c..-.%,..I.:2.:.,,Z..,..II....;: ,, I -. —.I. ",...I.... I, " I.II.... ,.,I'll.....I..1. I.1...., ..-.........I,. -. "',,_-, -.-II...",-.I I..,...I...:..... .6 ,I,%.1 I..I. II..- i....,. I.I,.... 'L: iI. II,...1?,,.I... ,..... II.........7 , .)I......jI.I......,.., I...I......:..1. ./I.,;.,.III.. -.w..,..............iI...I .. .II,...............j-.. ..I....I.[..4. -4. —,,:,I..I...."..-..:.,.m..:,_ LI,......:..;... -i i........., -1..:...,:;.....:,.-..:.I......,II I....,.,..I.." E. 'L..,..I.I...II".....-..I...I.,.:..:.,.I..,:.,...- ---—......;...4.1....:.....,.:- Ill.,:....... L.,.. , I... ... 4" _ I CLU 173 CLU CLU__ 173~ _ CLU_ The general design of the building is adopted from that of the library of St. Mark, at Venice. The extent of the frontage in Pall Mall, is 133 feet, and the height is about 70 feet. The fronts are of Caen stone; the shafts of all the pillars and pilasters, of polished Aberdeen granite; and the contrast made by the red tint of the latter, has a novel and pleasing effect. The decorations of the interior, furniture, &c., are of the most tasteful and splendid description, and the coffee-room, 90 feet by 36 feet, is an exceedingly handsome apartment. The whole building presents an imposing elevation, designed with judgment and good taste. The rooms are of good proportion, and arranged with every attention to comfort and convenience; and the important details of domestic and culinary matters, as cellars, kitchens, larders, and servants' rooms, have not been neglected. The splendid building belonging to the " Oxford and Cambridge University Club," erected from the designs of Sir Robert and Mr. Sydney Smirk, adjoins the Carlton. The fiont of the University club-house extends 87 feet in width, and the height from the ground line to the top is 57 feet. An entablature, marking the separation of the ground story from the principal floor, and projecting forward in the centre of the building over four Corinthian columns, divides the front horizontally into two equal parts. The centre space on the ground-floor is occupied by the portico, which projects to the fiont line of the area; the entrance to the hall being formed by the centre intercolumniation, which is wider than the rest; the four columns stand upon pedestals, four feet high, with base mouldings and cornice. The upper part of the building is terminated with a delicate Corinthian entablature and balustrade, breaking forward with the centre of the building, which corresponds in width with the portico: the front being thus vertically divided into three compartments, the side ones assuming the appearance of wings, while the effect of a centre, indicated by the projecting portico on the ground-floor, is maintained throughout the whole height of the building. The angles of the centre division, on the principal story, are formed of rusticated pilasters; the principal window occupying the space between these pilasters. Similar rusticated pilasters also divide each wing on the principal floor into three equal oblong recessed spaces, containing windows similar to the window above described. A balcony, projecting 3 feet, continues throughout the whole line of fiont, the parapet being formed of pedestals with intervening panels of richly designed foliage, cast in metal in high relief, and the landing supported by elaborately enriched consoles. The fiieze of the entablature over the ground-story is filled with convex panels, enriched with laurel leaves, and over each column of the portico are shields bearing the arms of the Universities. The whole of the ornamental detail throughout, is designed to correspond in richness of effect with the Corinthian capitals of the columns, which have their central volutes entwined. Below the ground-story are mezzanine and basement stories. In the panels above the windows of the principal floor, are bas-reliefs illustrating those exalted labours of the mind, which it is the peculiar province of the Universities to foster. We have not space to describe these beautiful ornaments more minutely, but they are well worthy a careful examination, and reflect credit on the taste of the architects, and on the liberality of their employers. The arrangements of the interior are planned with great judgment, and afford every accommodation to the members of the club; but as a great similarity must necessarily exist in all establishments devoted to similar purposes, it is unnecessary to describe them. On the opposite side of Pall Mall, is the new building erected for the " Army and Navy Club," an engraving of which, with a plan of the ground-floor, is here given. The architects are Messrs. Parnell and Smith. The following description, principally taken from that very useful publication, "The Builder," gives a good idea of the structure:"Although the design is based on the Cornaro palace on the grand canal at Venice, it differs materially from that building. The palace has three stories above the basement, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and shows the roof, terminating on the modillion cornice of the upper order, as at the Reform club; the frieze being devoid of sculpture, and having oval openings to light an attic story. In the club-house, the general arrangement of the ground and first floor elevation of the palazzo has been adopted, but coupled Corinthian columns have been substituted for the Ionic of the latter, and the building terminates with the entablature of the order, highly enriched with sculpture and a balustrade. "The entrance to the building is from George-street, by a flight of steps leading to a recessed portico. On the left of the entrance-hall, is a morning-room corresponding to a coffee-room on the opposite side; there is also a receptionroom. The coffee-room is lighted from each end, and an elliptical dome in the centre: the dome has an exterior covering of glass, between which it is proposed to light the room at night by a gas device encircling the whole circumference. By this arrangement, the necessity for any gasburners will be avoided, and a hot-air chamber provided, which, by the aid of flues, will afford a system of ventilation. Between this room and the strangers' coffee-room, lighted and ventilated in the same manner, and communicating with each, is placed the serving-room, connected with the kitchen by a lift, and the butler's serving-room: from this last is a direct communication to the dispensing cellars, while the room will be fitted up with ice-bins, hot and cold water, and presses for the reception of glass: there is also a separate entrance from the still-room. At the extremity of the building is placed the house dining-room, which has a separate communication with the kitchen. " The mezzanine floor is appropriated to the members' bath and dressing rooms, and the housekeeper's department. The first floor is approached by a flight of steps, one branch of which leads to the secretary's room, and upper floor, the latter containing billiard, card, and smoking rooms-the other to the evening-room, library, and writing-room. The evening or drawing-room, is 76 feet by 28 feet; the librarly, 40 feet by 32 feet; writing-room, 33 feet by 18 feet. There are besides the rooms we have mentioned, a great number of others of the usual description in similar estlablishments." It would be impossible, without occupying more space than can be allotted to this article, already extended beyond its due limits, to describe in detail the several handsome mansions in which other clubs, under various designations, have located themselves. The " University" in Suffolk-place -the "Union," one of the oldest and most select of London clubs-the " Conservative," lately erected in S. James's-street, on the site of the well-known Thatched House Tavern, and a host of others, are all deserving the study of the architectural student. In some, beauties of the highest order command his attention; in others, defects, he should mark, in order to avoid; in all, much may be learnt as to arrangement of apartments, and those details of convenience on which so much of the comfort and economy of a large establishment depends. In conclusion, we would observe only, that whatever may be the faults of some of these buildings, the formation of the present club system has been the means of adorning the west end of London with a number of splendid houses, designed by eminent architects, decorated by artists of repu CCM 174 COF CIEM 174 CO F tation and taste; and completed at an expenditure of the most liberal and extensive character. Nor has this been confined to London alone, the example has been followed in the country; and in many of the provincial cities and towns, clubs have been formed, and club-houses built on a scale of magnitude and splendour rivalling those in the metropolis. It is scarcely within our province, to remark on the effect the rapid extension of clubs may have on the usages of society in general; but we may be permitted to say that any system which tends to the adornment of our cities with magnificent structures decorated in the most expensive manner, and filled with costly furniture, and luxurious productions in every department of art, cannot but have a refining influence on the taste. of the rising generation, while affording employment to professional talent, and to hundreds of skilful artisans. CLUMP, in ornamental gardening, a detached portion of ground, raised in the form of a mound, in lawns or other parts of pleasure-grounds, for the reception of trees or shrubs on the top, while its sides are covered with flowers or small plants. Clumps differ firom borders, in being detached and separate, as well as in being much more elevated. CLUSELLA (Latin, clusum, enclosed,) a small castle within a close or inclosure. CLUSTERED, in architecture, denotes the coalition of two or more members, so as to penetrate each other. CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the pointed style of architecture, a column composed of a number of slender pillars attached to each other, but having each a distinct base and capital. Clustered columns were frequently divided in their height by moulded bands, which gave them the appearance of being bound together. They are sometimes attached to the shaft throughout their length, and sometimes only at the capitals and bases. CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the Roman style, is said of two, or four columns, which seem to intersect or penetrate each other, either at the angle of a building or apartment, that they may answer each return; or under an entablature, when a single column would be too weak; or at the intersection of two transverse architraves: in the latter case, there may be four columns. COATING, in a general sense, denotes the covering of a body in one or several plies or thicknesses; thus, walls are spread over with one, two, or three separate coats of plaster; the interior apartments of houses are covered with several coats of paint; works in wood are covered with paint, pitch, lead, copper, &c.; baser metals are covered with the richer, as copper with gold or silver, and silver with gold; for culinary purposes, copper is covered with tin, as is iron also, to prevent rust. COB-WALL, a wall built of straw, lime, and earth. COCHLEARE, or COGLA, a lofty round tower, ascended by means of a winding staircase; from the Latin, cochlea, winding stairs. COCKING, a method of securing beams to wall-plates, by notching each beam at the end on the under edge, across its thickness, nearly opposite to the inner edge of the wall. plate, and cutting two reverse notches out of the top of the wall-plate, leaving the part whole which is opposite to the notch in the beam; then laying the beam to its place, it will slide down, and the corresponding parts will fit into each other. This method prevents any possibility of the beam drawing longitudinally out of the wall-plate, even though the timbers should afterwards shrink. COCKLE-STAIRS, a winding staircase. See STAIRS. CCEMETERIUM. See CEMETERY. COFFER, a recessed panel, of a square or polygonal figure, anciently used in level soffits, and in the intradoses of cylin. drical vaults. In the remains of Grecian and Roman architecture, the coffers sometimes recede in one degree, but more frequently in several degrees, like inverted steps, around the panel, each internal angle being filled with one or more mouldings. In Roman works, the surface of the panel at the bottom is mostly covered with a rosette. Sometimes the bands between the framing are divided into two equal parts, by a groove or canal of a rectangular section. Coffers are also employed in the soffits of the cornices of the Corinthian and Roman orders, between the modillions. For the farther use of coffers, and other matters relating to them, see CEILINGS and CYLINDRICAL VAULTS. COFFER, in inland navigation, a large wooden vessel, open at the top, with movable ends, of sufficient capacity to receive a barge or vessel from the pond of a canal, in order to be raised into a higher, or let down into a lower pond. This coffer is a substitute for a lock. COFFER-DAM, a hollow dam, constructed of a double range of piles, with clay rammed between, for the security and convenience of the workman while digging out and building the foundation of an entrance-lock to a dock, basin, or canal, when it cannot otherwise be laid dry. In bridge-building, the term is applied to a case of piling fixed in the bed of a river, without any bottom, for the purpose of building a pier dry. Its sides must, therefore, reach above the level of the water, and, after it is fixed, the water must be pumped out by the engines, which, unless the work is very carefully done, must be kept constantly at work, to prevent leakage as much as possible. Coffer-dams are made either double, or single. In the double one, the space between the inner and outer rows of piles is rammed with clay or chalk; the piles are driven as closely as practicable to each other by means of a pile engine, till fixed firmly into the earth; sometimes they are grooved and tongued; sometimes they are grooved in the sides, and fixed at a distance from each other, with boards let into the grooves. The first writer on the use of coffer-dams was Alberti, who, chap. vi., book 2, gives the following directions: " Make the foundation of your piers in autumn, when the water is lowest, having first raised an enclosure to keep off the water, which may be done in this manner: drive a double row of stakes close to that side of the row which is next to the intended pier, and fill up the hollow between the two rows with rushes and mud, ramming them together so hard, that no water can get through; then, whatever you find within the enclosure-water, mud, sand, or whatever else is an hindrance to you-throw them out, and dig till you come to a solid foundation." To this we may add, where the river is rapid and deep, and the bed of solid earth or clay, the coffer-dam must be constructed with three, four, five, or even six rows of piles, according to the rapidity and depth of the stream. Due care must also be taken to brace the sides well from fixed points, as well as to make the whole water-tight, by ramming in chalk or clay, as above directed. Where the river is rapid and deep, and the bed of a loose consistence, though the sides be never so firm, the water will ooze through the bottom in too great abundance to be taken out by the engines, recourse must therefore be had to a caisson. See CAISSON. The following is a description of the very large coffer-dam made at the New Houses of Parliament, for building the embankment, or river-wall. This dam was 1,236 feet long, and 10 feet wide, constructed in the following manner:a trench was first made by dredging in the bed of the river, __;i COL 175 COL COL 175 CO of the form of a segment of a circle, 27 feet wide, and 8 feet deep in the centre, to allow the piles to drive more easily; two parallel rows of guide or main piles were then driven about 5 feet apart, leaving a width of 9 feet between them transversely: to these piles were fixed three tiers of waling of whole timbers, cut down and bolted together, one tier being fixed at the top on a level with high-water mark; another level with the bed of the river: and the third midway. The piles and waling were then bolted across with iron bolts 12 feet long, forming a carcase for the inner or sheet-piling; the inner main piles being also firmly braced to resist the pressure at high water. Horizontal struts of whole timber, also, at the back of the brace piles abutted against other piles driven just within the inner edge of the foundation of the wall. The piles were 36 feet long, driven through the gravel, and 2 feet into the clay, the top of which is 28 feet below highwater mark. Within the waling were two parallel rows of sheet-piling; the outer or river-side of whole timbers-the inner or land-side of half-timbers. After all the piles were driven, the gravel forming the bed of the river between the piling was dug out down to the clay, and the space filled in with clay, and puddled. For the purpose of pumping out the water, a ten-horse power steam-engine was erected, which was kept at work night and day; and considering the great extent of the dam, it is remarkably free from leakage. It occupied fourteen months in its construction. COFFIN, (Greek Kootvog, a basket,) the chest or box in which dead bodies are deposited for burial. In ancient times coffins were usually constructed of stone, and sometimes highly ornamented, as is evidenced by the remains of Egyptian and other sarcophagi which have been brought to light. In England likewise stone coffins were anciently used, frequently formed of a single block hollowed out to receive the body; the shape was that of a trapezium, having the end where the head lay slightly wider than the other extremity; they were covered with a lid, which was either flat or coped, and often sculptured with crosses and other emblems. They were sometimes buried in the ground, though not deeply, sometimes only up to the lid, which was visible above ground, and sometimes placed entirely above ground. COGGING, the same as COCKING, which see. COIN, or QUOIN, (from the French coin, a corner,) the angle made by two surfaces of a stone or brick building, whether external or internal; as-the corner of two walls, the corner of an arch and a wall, the corner made by two sides of a room, &c. COIN, Rustic. See RUSTIC. COIN, (from the Latin, cuneus, a wedge,) a block cut obliquely at the bottom, but level at the top, to rest upon an inclined plane, for supporting a column, or pilaster. COLARIN. See COLLARINO. COLLAR, a ring, or cincture. COLLAR-BEAM, a beam in the construction of a roof, above the lower ends of the rafters, or base of the roof. The tie-beam is always in a state of extension, but the collar-beam may either be in a state of compression or extension, according as the principals are with or without tie-beams. In trussed roofs collar beams are framed into queen posts; and in common roofs, into the rafters themselves. Though trusses in general have no more than one collar-beam,very large roofs may have two or three collar-beams, besides the tie-beam. Collar-beams will support or truss up the sides of the rafters, so as to keep them from sagging, without any other support; but then the tie-beam would only be supported at its extremities. In common purlin roofing, the purlins are laid in the acute angles between the rafters and the upper edges of the collarbeams. See TRUss. COLLARINO, or COLARIN, that part of a column which is included between the fillet below the ovolo of the capital, and the upper side of the astragal at the top of the shaft. The collarino is to be found in the modern Tuscan and Doric orders, but not in the three Grecian orders, except in the Ionic of the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens, and in some fragments of Ionic columns found in Asia. The collarino, or colarin, is otherwise denominated the neck, gorgerin, or hypotrachelion. COLLEGE, a public building, endowed with revenues for the education of youth and their instruction in the various branches of science and literature. An assembly of colleges constitute a university. Our colleges consist, for the most part, of one or more quadrangular areas, surrounded by ranges of buildings, which comprise a house for the superior, and rooms or lodgings for the fellows, scholars, &c.; besides which there is always a chapel and refectory, or dining hall. Amongst our finest buildings of this class are those of Christ Church and Merton Colleges, Oxford, which, with many others at the same university, as also at the sister institution at Cambridge, are magnificent specimens of the architecture of their respective dates. In writing on this subject, we must not pass over in silence the foundation and erection of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury, a building which may vie with many an older structure of the same kind, as well in its architectural, as its educational features. This college comprises only one area, which is of a quadrangular form, three of its sides only being occupied with buildings, the fourth at present consists but of a wall; but the space is intended to be built upon as occasion demands. The three sides already occupied are the north, east, and west, the cortile on the southern side being enclosed by the wall; of these, the buildings on the two first, the northern and eastern sides, are elevated on a raised terrace, while those on the south are on a level with the entrance. The materials employed for the walling are for the most part flint, with dressings of rag-stone, and, in other cases, rag with Caen stone dressings. The style adopted is the Decorated of the fourteenth century; in the chapel are some parts of an earlier date, but in other respects the architecture of Edward the Third's reign predominates. On entering under the fine old gateway on the southern side, the object which probably first attracts our attention is the long range of beautiful windows on our left. The long pile of buildings on this side of the quadrangle is raised, as we before mentioned, on a broad paved walk, or terrace, and consist besides of two stories, the lower presenting, on the exterior, a series of large, closely-set windows, with intervening buttresses; and the upper a row of nearly double the number of windows, but of much smaller dimensions, and with larger intervening spaces. The lower windows are divided by mullions into five lights, and their arched heads are filled with tracery of good design; while the windows of the upper story are of the most simple description, being but plain lancets of one light. This length of building is judiciously broken up into three parts by two stair-turrets, which give access to the apartments above; and by a door at the side, entrance is obtained to the lower story; one of the turrets is used likewise for a belfry. The doors on the terrace give entrance to a long covered ambulatory, 151 feet in length, lighted by eight fine windows, which we have noticed above, and covered with a flat roof showing the timbers, with arches spanning across at intervals where required. Out of __ O7 I - COL 176 COL this cloister open twenty apartments for the students, of which above thirty more open into a corridor in the upper story. The arrangement of these apartments is the same throughout: they measure 15 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and are divided by a partition into two rooms. The furniture of the rooms consists of an iron bedstead, a fixed and compact washhand-stand, a fixed table, having on one side drawers for clothes, and on the other a drawer for writing materials, and above the table shelves for books fixed against the wall; an elbow-chair and two others complete the furniture. The rooms are well ventilated, and heated by hot water, one of the few arrangements which we have to find fault with. Level with these buildings, but at right angles to them, on the eastern side of the area, and detached, stands the library, perhaps the most dignified building of the whole group. Raised upon a crypt, the proportions of which are old, and the details copied and of great simplicity, is avast apartment 78 feet long by 39 feet broad, with massy buttressed walls, and large traceried and transomed windows, surmounted by a magnificent open roof of oak, the ridge of which is 63 feet high from the level of the terrace. A noble flight of fifteen steps, approached by an ample arch, and contained within a porched roof at right angles to the main pile, and lighted by four windows, affords a means of entrance at the southern extremity. This library is well lighted by thirteen large windows, six on each side, and one at the north end; they are each of four lights, being divided vertically by a mullion, and horizontally by a transom, and have trefoiled heads. The disposition of the windows naturally divides the interior into six compartments. The crypt upon which this building is erected, is raised on the foundation of the great refectory belonging to the ancient establishment, and is to serve the purpose of a museum. It is lighted from the exterior by small lancets, and is divided internally by ten pillars into three aisles of equal width; the ceiling is groined, and the floor paved with red tiles. The roof of this building, as also that of the last, is tiled and crested with ridge tiles; the materials of the walling, however, vary, the library being built of uncoursed rag, with dressings of Caen, while that of the northern range is of flint. Descending from the terrace, the most important building of the western range is the chapel, but it will be well to leave this for the present, and starting from the southern extremity of the library, follow out the lucid description afforded to us in the Jcclesiologist:" Going from this point in a south-west direction, we come to a range of buildings containing the apartments for the fellows, each of whom will have two rooms and a gyp room, and the warden's lodge, a spacious and commodious family residence. These are of flint, in good middle-pointed, and in many respects show great ability. Still we confess we think them the least admirable parts of the design. Northward of these, and projecting considerably from their level eastward into the court, is the chapel to which we shall recur after speaking of the refectory and kitchen, which range northward of the chapel between it and the ancient gateway at the north-west corner of the quadrangle. The refectory is a fine room, with a roof the humbleness of which is redeemed by its being mainly original-no oriel, (the shell of the walls being ancient,) but with a dais and tables, and a cleverly contrived range of closets at its south extremity. Northwards it communicates with a common room, and a beautiful room, intended, we believe, for a muniment-room, or, for the present, a lecture-room, occupying the upper story of the ancient gateway. Below the refectory is the kitchen, with a fine chimney projecting eastwards into the quadrangle, while offices and a porter's lodge extend under the common room to the entrance gate. A steep and narrow flight of stairs between the chapel and refectory, the kitchen door being at their feet, reaches a small landing, from the right or north of which you enter the hall, while immediately opposite, on the left hand, is the entrance to the chapel. "The chapel is entered at the north-west, through a small ante-chapel lighted by the restored western triplet of the ancient fabric, and parted from the body of the chapel by a bold arch, sustaining a double bellcote externally, and filled with a proper screen. Within the screen extends the solemn length of the chapel, the small dimensions being quite for gotten in the beauty of the proportions: returned stalls, with miserere seats and back panelling of unexceptional style and taste, with subsellte to match, mark the choir. Eastwards the sanctuary, though small, is beautifully treated and sufficiently dignified. The measurements are as follows: length, 60 feet; width, 18 feet; height from floor to wall-plate, 14 feet 6 inches; from floor to ridge, 30 feet 6 inches. The lighting of the chapel is peculiarly effective: a five light middle-pointed east window, and two adjacent couplets north and south of the sanctuary, concentrate the light on the altar. The side-walls are unpierced, and the choir is consequently religiously sombre, the windows of the ante-chapel, however, sufficiently removing it from gloom. There is no colour on the walls or roof; in fact, none but the stained glass with which all the windows are filled. The whole effect is one of real, unpretending, earnest, effectiveness, and austere and unworldly beauty. The stained glass chosen throughout, with a depth of meaning, itself a homily, betrays a world of thought in its distribution. " Mr. Butterfield is peculiarly successful, we think, in his treatment of encaustic tiles. Those used in the chapel appeared to us most judiciously chosen and arranged. The footpace of the altar in particular was a beautiful mosaic of bright colours and intricate design. "The ante-chapel is furnished with a few open seats intended for the use of the family of the warden and of the servants of the college. The choir is thus appropriated exclusively to the use of the foundation and the students. "We rejoice to add, that there are no fixed altar-rails, though there is movable railing for the use of the communicants. A litany-stool occupies the middle of the choir. The lessons will be read from letterns fixed one on each side in the upper ranges of stalls. A rather large hole, furnished with a shutter, near the wall-plate on the north side, for ventilation, deserves notice for the boldness and simplicity of the idea. " We should mention that the chapel is raised on a crypt vaulted and designed to serve as a sacristy. The bells are rung from a western bay, open and vaulted, occupying the space under the ante-chapel, the ropes passing through the floor by the screen, and so reaching the bells in the bellcote before noticed, which is by the way one of the less successful parts of the design. "It is with unfeigned pleasure we again congratulate Mr. Butterfield on his success in this most interesting work, which will, we really think, ensure him enduring and most deserved fame amongst English church-architects." COLLEGIATE CHURCH, a church to which is attached an ecclesiastical establishment of deans,wardens, and fellows, which, before the Reformation, consisted of a number of secular canons living together under the government of a dean, warden, provost, or master. COLOGNE EARTH, a substance used. by painters as a water-colour, approaching to amber in its structure, and of a deep brownish tinge. Ij 1 _ ~ COL 177 COL C 177 COL COLONELLI (from the Italian) truss-posts, or the posts of a truss-frame. COLONNADE, (from the Italian colonna,) a range of attached or insulated columns, supporting an entablature. The interval between the columns, measured by the inferior diameter of the column, is called the intercolumniation, and the whole area between every two columns is called an intercolumn. When the intercolumniation is one diameter and a half, it is called pycn'ostyle, or columns thick set; when two diameters, systyle; when two and a quarter, eustyle; when three, diastyle; and when foul, arceostyle, or columns thin set. Columns are sometimes set two antwowo together, having half a diameter for the smaller interval, and three and a half diameters for the larger; this disposition is termed arceosystyle. A colonnade is also named according to the number of columns which support the entablature, or fastigium; as, when there are four columns, it is called tetrastyle; when six, hexastyle; when eight, octastyle; and when ten, decastyle. The intercolumniations of the Doric order are regulated by the number of triglyphs, placing one over every intermediate column; when there is one triglyph over the interval, it is called monotriglyph; when there are two, it is called ditriglyph; and so on, according to the progressive order of the Grecian numerals. The intercolumniation of the Grecian Doric is almost constantly the monotriglyph, for there are only two deviations from this to be met with at Athens; the one in the Doric portico, and the other in the portico forming the entrance to the Acropolis, or citadel; but-these intervals only belong to the middle intercoluniniations, which are both ditriglyphs, and became necessary on account of their being opposite to the principal entrances. As the character of the Grecian Doric is more massive and dignified than that of the Roman, the monotriglyph succeeds best; but in the Roman it is not so convenient, for the passage through the intercolumns would be too narrow, particularly in sqmall buildings; the ditriglyph is therefore more generally adopted. The areostyle is only applied to rustic structures of the Tuscan order, where the intercolumns are lintelled over with architraves. When the solid parts of the masonry of a range of arcades are decorated with the orders, the intercolumns necessarily become wide, and the intercolumniation is regulated by the breadth of the arcades and of the piers. Buildings with a colonnade projecting at one end are termed prostyle; with a colonnade at both and opposite ends, amphiprostyle; with the same on all sides of the building, peristyle; and with a double range of columns, polystyle. It does not appear that coupled, grouped, or clustered columns ever prevailed in the works of the ancients; though, on many occasions, they would have been much more useful; we indeed find, in the Temple of Bacchus, at Rome, columns standing as it were in pairs; but as each pair is only placed in the thickness of the wall, and not in the front, they may rather be said to be two rows of columns, one almost immediately behind the other. In the baths of Diocletian, and in the Temple of Peace, at Rome, we find groined ceilings sustained by single Corinthian columns; but such a support is both meagre and inadequate. Vignola uses the same intercolumniation in all his orders. This practice, though condemned by some, is founded upon a good principle, for it preserves a constant ratio between the columns and the intervals. Of all the kinds of intercolumniation, the eustyle was in the most general request among the ancients; and though, in modern architecture, both the eustyle and diastyle are employed, the former is still preferred in most cases: as to the pyenostyle interval, it is frequently rejected for want of room, and the arveostyle for want of giving sufficient support to the entablature. 23 The moderns seldom employ more than one row of columns, either in external or internal colonnades, for the back range destroys the perspective regularity of the front range; the visual rays coming from both ranges produce nothing but indistinct vision to the spectator. This confusion, in a certain degree also attends pilasters behind a row of insulated columns; but in this the relief is stronger, owing to the rotundity of the column and the flat surfaces of the pilasters. When buildings are executed on a small scale, as is frequently the case in temples, and other designs, used for the ornaments of gardens, it will be found necessary to make the intercolumniations, or at least the central one, broader than usual, in proportion to the diameter of the columns; for when the columns are placed nearer each other than three feet, the space becomes too narrow to admit more than one person conveniently. COLISEUM, or COLOSSEUM, the amphitheatre at Rome, built by the emperors Vespasian and Titus. See AMPrITHEATRE. COLOSSEUM. Although it scarcely falls within our province to describe places of amusement considered merely as such, the structure known under the name at the head of this article, deserves, from its peculiar form, and the extreme taste displayed in its interior decorations, something more than a passing notice. The Colosseum, designed by Mr. Decimus Burton, is, in external form, a polygon of sixteen sides, of which the diameter is 130 feet. In the attic, all the faces of the polygon are shown; but below, three of them are occupied by the portico, a Doric hexastyle of about 70 feet in width. This order is here exhibited upon a much larger scale than had previously been done in any building in the metropolis, with the advantage of an effect not attainable with fewer columns, and with the still greater advantage of its character not being impaired by the introduction of features irreconcileable with any aim at a strictly Grecian style, there being n other within the portico than a single lofty doorway. " In its general form," observes Mr. W. H. Leeds, whose criticisms are always entitled to attention, " this edifice must be referred to a Roman, rather than a Grecian prototype, namely, the Pantheon, which circumstance it probably was that led one writer, who has attempted to describe the building, into a ludicrous blunder, for he has not scrupled to assure his readers, that its portico is copied from that of the Pantheon at Rome, ' which, in the harmony of its proportions, and the exquisite beauty of its columns, surpasses every temple on the earth!' Had he said that it was copied from Canova's church at Possagno, he would have been some degrees nearer the mark, at least as far as resemblance in regard to the order adopted, and the application of a Grecian style to the plan of the Roman Pantheon." Mr. Hosking, in his "Treatise on Architecture," objects to the combination of the square and circle in the plan; observing, " Irregular and intricate forms in works of architecture, whether internally or externally, will be found unpleasing. Few can admire the external effect of the Pantheon, or of the structure in London called the Colosseum, which has been subjected to the same arrangement, though certain features in both may be good." Yet, with due deference to the opinion of such an authority, we should be inclined to demur to it, even had we not Canova's own example to oppose to it. In itself irregularity is a fault; but then the question is, whether the slight degree of it thus produced can be fairly termed so; besides which, by pushing the doctrine a little further, we may contend that a parallelogram is an irregular square, consequently faulty, and the flank and front of a Grecian temple do not exhibit that uniformity which they might and ought to be made to do. But we need not resort I I COL 178 COL C ()-C-~^ -L- 17 COL-~ ----~ - - to any argument of that kind, because, were it not for the irregularity censured by that writer, and caused by the addition of a portico to the circular part of their plan, both the buildings he mentions would appear heavy, lumpish masses, whatever decoration might be bestowed upon them. The Colosseum was built for the purpose of exhibiting a panorama of London, on a scale of magnitude hitherto unattempted. The projector made his sketches from an observatory placed on scaffolding several feet above the top of St. Paul's cross; these sketches were afterwards transferred to the canvass, and in their finished state display the whole of this vast metropolis and its environs, as it would appear on the clearest day, and aided by the most powerful vision. To use the somewhat magniloquent language of a contemporary, the spectator " sees beneath the summer sunshine of a serene sky, divested of the usual canopy of smoke and vapour, this great metropolis, with its countless multitude of streets and squares, its churches, palaces, mansions, hospitals, theatres, public offices, institutions scientific and literary; its noble river, with its numerous bridges; and in the distance a rich and varied expanse of rural and sylvan scenery, extending from the woodlands of Kent and Essex in the east, to the forest and castle of Windsor on the western horizon. Recovering from the wonder created by this first view of the picture as a whole, he finds new cause of astonishment in examining it in detail; for not only may the prominent structures be discerned and known, but every private residence in town or country, which is visible from St. Paul's itself, be recognized in the representation; and the various objects in the foreground, as well as in the distance, will bear the test of the telescope. To increase the effect, improve the convenience for inspection, and, at the same time, to augment the means of judging of the merits of the performance as a work of art, there is a succession of galleries, the highest of which is constructed for the purpose of giving a more satisfactory view of the distant country; an easy ascent from the galleries leads to an esplanade, on the circle that crowns the exterior of the Colosseum, from which is beheld a real panorama formed by the Regent's Park and its elegant vicinity." Since the above description was written, the Colosseum, as a place of amusement, has suffered many vicissitudes, and at one time had fallen very low in public estimation; in the year 1844, however, it fell into the hands of the present proprietor, who has expended very large sums in completely remodelling the whole establishment. ' The alterations considered desirable were made from the designs and under the direction of Mr. William Bradwell, whose taste, skill, and judgment have, in this instance, as in many others, produced the most admirable results. The ability he has displayed has been seconded by the proprietor with the greatest liberality, and the unhesitating appropriation of whatever amount of capital might be required to carry out the conceptions of the talented artist. There are two entrances, one in the Regent's Park under the portico, the other in Albany Street, at the back of the building. Entering by the former, the visitor proceeds down a handsome staircase to a vestibule, leading to a large saloon, called the Glyptotheca, or Museum of Sculpture. The roof of this apartment presents to the eye a lofty dome, of several thousand feet of richly cut glass, springing from an entablature and cornice supported by numerous columns. The frieze is enriched with the whole of the Panathenaic procession from the Elgin Marbles, and is continued without interruption around the entire circumference of the hall, above which are twenty fresco paintings of allegorical subjects on panels, the mouldings, cornices, capitals of columns, and enrichments being in gold. Beyond the circle of columns is another of as many pilasters, dividing and supporting arched recesses, in each of which, as well as between the columns, are placed works of art from the studios of many eminent sculptors. In the centre of the apartment is the circular frame-work enclosing the staircase leading to the panorama; this is hung with drapery tastefully disposed, from the summit of the arched dome to the floor, concealing the stairs, and harmonizing with the prevailing tints of the architectural decorations. Around this are seats covered with rich Utrecht velvet, raised on a dais, and divided by groups of Cupid and Psyche supporting candelabra in the form of palm-trees; the figures being white, and the draperies, leaves, plumes, &c., gilded. From this hall, the visitor ascends to the panorama by the staircase, or is raised in a small room, called the Ascending Room, which is elevated by means of machinery to the required height. A panorama of Paris by moonlight has now succeeded to the panorama of London before mentioned, and seems to attract as much as the former picture. Since the creation of what may be termed the original structure, a considerable addition has been made to it on the eastern side towards Albany Street. Here is a second entrance, leading by large folding doors into a square vestibule, and thence into an arched corridor, lighted during the day from above by circles of cut glass; and at night by numerous bronze tripods. Descending to the basement story by three flights of steps, the visitor enters a spacious saloon, supported by columns and pilasters, appropriated to the sale of refreshments; from this room ornamented glass doors lead to conservatories, aviaries, and other objects of interest. In the upper story of this part of the building a handsome little theatre has been formed, the decorations of which are of the most gorgeous character. In this theatre is exhibited a moving picture called the " Cyclorama," in which a representation is given of the great earthquake at Lisbon in the year 1755. As a work of art, the panorama is deserving of high praise, and aided by the labours of the machinist, and the inventive ability of Mr. Bradwell, the presiding genius of the establishment, a scenic illusion has been produced, which is really well worthy of admiration. Altogether the Colosseum is deserving the attention of the architectural student, as something beyond a mere place of amusement. In it he may learn how much may be done in the way of decorative art, by a tasteful arrangement of those materials which the sister arts place at his disposal. COLOSSUS, at Rhodes, a celebrated statue of Apollo, made of brass, popularly supposed to have been erected over the entrance of the harbour in such manner that a foot stood on each pier, and ships passed through its extended legs. This statue, of which Pliny has left an account, was begun by Chares. a pupil of Lysippus, and completed by Laches; twelve years were employed in making it. Its height was 105 feet; the thumb was so large that few men could span it, and its fingers were much larger than those of ordinary statues. It was cast hollow, and filled with large stones to counterbalance its weight, and keep it steady on its supporters. Within was a winding staircase ascending to the top, where it is said, was hung a vast mirror, in which the country of Syria, and ships entering the ports of Egypt, might be discerned. The notion that its legs rested one on each side of the harbour does not, however, seem to be supported by any good authority, and modern travellers do not agree as to its site. After standing upwards of sixty years, the Colossus was overthrown by an earthquake in the year 224 B. c., by which also the buildings of the city suffered greatly. So great at that time was the commercial importance of Rhodes, that the great princes of the day vied with each other in the munificence of.1.~~~:. - ~. - - COL 19 CO COL 179 COL _ their presents to repair its losses. The inhabitants of Rhodes sent ambassadors to all the states of Grecian origin, to solicit their assistance for repairing and re-erecting their statue, and obtained a sum more than five times equal to the damage. The principal contributors were the kings of Macedon, Syria, Egypt, Pontus, and Bithynia. But, instead of appropriating the money to the purpose for which it was given, the Rhodian priests pretended that the oracle of Delphi had forbidden it; and the money was converted to other uses. The Colossus, therefore, lay neglected on the ground for 894 years, when the Saracens, becoming masters of the island, sold it to a Jewish merchant, who broke it up, and loaded 900 camels with the metal: the weight of the brass, therefore, allowing 800 pounds for each load, after the diminution it had sustained by rust, and probably by theft, amounted to 720,000 pounds weight. This enormous figure was not the only colossal statue that attracted notice in the city of Rhodes, for Pliny reckons near 100 others. From the Rhodian Apollo, it is supposed, that every statue exceeding in magnitude the size of a man, has been called a colossal statue. COLUMBARIA, the holes left in walls for the insertion of timbers; also the recesses in ancient tombs, in which the urns containing the ashes of the deceased were deposited. COLUMELLAE, the same as balusters. See BALUSTRADE. COLUMN (Latin, columna, derived from columen, a post, or supporter) in a general sense, a vertical support of a body, or portion of a building. The use of columns is of very early date, as we hear of their application both in the Temple of Solomon, and in the Palace of Ulysses; they do not seem to have been employed in the primaeval erections of Babylon, where their place was supplied by piers, but are to be found in universal application in the ancient structures of Egypt, India, and Persia. The column is so important a feature in the construction of buildings, that its value must have been early known, and when known, must soon have formed a subject for ornamentation; its origin is to be found doubtless in the simple pier, and a very good specimen of its progress in improvement of form and in application of ornament, is to be seen at Amada, in Nubia, where, amongst other columns or piers in the form of a simple parallelopiped, with base and capital of a similar form, but projecting a little beyond the surface of the shaft, those at the corners of the building are both cylindrical and fluted, leaving, however, a square abacus or capital, and square base, similar to the others. The former is undoubtedly the primitive shape; the latter, previously of the same form, whether for convenience or otherwise, has been rounded off at the corners and somewhat ornamented. Such improvements both in form and decoration, gradually progress, until we arrive at the well-proportioned and tastefully enriched columns of the classic orders, or the still more beautiful pillars of the Gothic styles. The columns of Egypt exhibit a great variety, both in form and decoration: the capital in the shape of a vase or inverted bell, is usually decorated with foliage, frequently with the leaves of the lotus, but is of less elegant form than similar capitals of Greece and Rome; the shaft is generally circular, but sometimes square or polygonal, and varies in diameter at different heights, the thickness, in some cases, diminishing both towards the capital and base; this last member, the base, is frequently absent in Egyptian examples, and when present is of the simplest kind, consisting of a square slab or plinth. The columns were of stone, not unfrequently of a single block, and, at other times, of gigantic masses placed one upon the other. "There is a peculiarity, however," says Mr. Hamilton, " in the columns of the portico of Ashmounein not found, we believe, elsewhere in Egypt. Instead of being formed of large masses placed one above another, they consist of irregular pieces fitted together with such nicety, that it is difficult to detect the lines of junction; and this illusion is aided also by the form of the columns. The bottom is like the lowest leaves of the lotus, after which we see a number of concentric rings, binding the column just like the hoops of a cask; and again above them the column is worked in such a way by vertical cuttings, to present the appearance of a bundle of rods held together by hoops; the whole has the appearance of a barrel; the columns are about 40 feet high, including the capitals. Their greatest circumference is about 28j feet, at the height of 5 feet from the ground, for the column diminishes in thickness both towards the base and capital. These columns were painted yellow, red, and blue. Similar pillars are found in the temple of Gournon." Reeded columns, which bear the appearance of a bundle of reeds bound together at intervals and set on end, are not uncommon, and are often surmounted with a bulging capital, which is of similar formation to the shaft, with a cincture at its lowest part, and square flat abacus on the top, bearing the entablature; the swell or bulging would appear to be caused by the pressure of the entablature. Square columns are to be found in the excavations at Thebes, and triangular ones are spoken of by Pococke; at Ypsambool are square columns or piers with caryatid figures in front of them. The forms of columns found in India vary considerably. In the subterraneous temples, which are excavated out of the solid rock, they are generally of a massive character, and in proportions stunted; they are rather grand than graceful. The bases are frequently cubical, and of great height in proportion to the shaft, sometimes equal to it; they are at other times octangular: the shafts are circular, or multangular, and sometimes consist of both forms one above the other, surmounted by low, compressed capitals. Columns of a balustral form are to be seen at the Temple of Elephanta; they are about 9 feet high, supported on cubical bases about 6 feet in height; the capitals; of a semicircular profile, exhibit the appearance of compressed cushions, and with the shafts, are ribbed or reeded: the whole is surmounted by an abacus of the form of an inverted truncated pyramid. Some very curious columns are to be seen in a cave at Ellora, which consist of elephants bearing castles, and surmounted at the top by a capital or abacus. In the pagodas, or constructed temples of the Indians, the columns are of an entirely different appearance, they are by no means so stunted, and are often of quite an opposite character, slender; such are those in that part of the pagoda of Chillambaram called the Nerta Chabcei; they are, in all cases, profusely enriched with sculpture. The capitals of the columns are frequently made more effective to the sup. port of the entablature by extending them out in the shape. of brackets, so as to leave but a small portion of the entablature unsupported. Sometimes a succession of brackets project from the adjacent columns one above another, and meet in the centre, so as to leave no portion unsupported. Of Persian columns we have but few examples remaining, but from these we may conclude that they were of slender proportions, the height of some of the existing specimens being as much as 70 feet, while their diameter is but 5: feet. Some of the shafts are fluted with fillets intervening, and are raised upon a base 4 or 5 feet in height, finished with sculp. tured mouldings. We have specimens of two kinds of capitals, the one consisting of small scrolls, somewhat similar to the volutes of the Ionic capital, placed in rows one above the other on the sides at the top of the shaft; the others A -I COL 180 COL projecting from two opposite sides of the shaft, after the stunted, and of all degrees of decoration, some with simple manner of brackets or corbels, and sculptured into the shape mouldings, others with foliated capitals; some with single of the fore-part of an animal, which in some degree resembles shafts, others clustered; some circular, others polygonal. a horse. These columns must have possessed a considerable These, as is necessary, will be considered in detail, for which share of simplicity and elegance. we refer to the various subdivisions into which the Gothic Of the columns of the Grecian or Roman orders we need style is usually distributed. say nothing in this place, not only because their forms are COLUMN, in the orders of classic architecture, consists of a so well known, but also because they are so fully and minutely conic or conoidal frustum, called the shaft, tapering upwards described in other parts of this book, and amply delineated in in the manner of a tree, with an assemblage of parts at the its illustrations. Some few remarks as to their form, &c. is upper extremity, termed the capital, and with sometimes appended to this article. another assemblage of parts at the lower extremity, called In those styles of architecture which immediately succeeded the base. The capital finishes with a horizontal table, either the Roman, and were indeed but debased copies of it, the square on the plan, or capable of being inscribed in a square, column followed the general form and character of the called the abacus. The base, also, when there is one, most original; some were formed of portions of columns taken frequently stands on a table, square on the plan, and horifrom Roman buildings, and piled together indiscriminately in zontal on the upper and lower sides, called the plinth. the new structures, which destroyed their proportions, while Vitruvius directs the columns at the angles to be made it preserved their form and details. Out of this chaos arose thicker than the intermediate ones; the diameter of columns the styles afterwards prevalent in Italy and that portion of to be proportioned to the intercolumns; that the higher they the continent, and we may add in Greece, for doubtless are, their diminution should be less; that those on the flanks Byzantine architecture, although in a certain sense a distinct and angles have their inner faces toward the walls perpenstyle, borrowed largely, both in its general features and its dicular, but those of the pronaos and posticum to be set details, from the edifices of the deserted capital; indeed a perpendicular on their axes; that those in theatres and other debased imitation of the Corinthian column was very preva- works of gaiety, should not have the same proportion as those lent in the buildings of Constantinople. The copy was more in sacred edifices; and that the two middle columns, opposite successful in some instances than others, the foliage being the entry, should have a wider interval than any two of the frequently of very inferior design, and only carved out others. slightly in relief above the surface. The more characteristic The Greeks seldom employed attached columns; the only capitals of the Byzantine style consisted of mere truncated instances of the kind in Attica, and indeed in all Greece, are pyramids inverted and ornamented with a kind of basket- the monument of Lysicrates and the temple of Minerva work in low relief. Polias, where the columns present something more than half In Lombardic columns the base is frequently but a simple their diameter. In the temples, of Agrigentum and XAsculasquare block, rounded off at the top, though it sometimes pius, in Sicily, the columns are also attached. The remains consists of a carved lion or other monster supporting the of Roman edifices show many instances of attached columns, shaft on its back; such bases are frequent in porches and in as in the temple of Fortune, the triumphal arch of Titus, the smaller structures, as tombs, &c. The shafts, especially of Coliseum, and the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome, where the the larger columns, are circular, and of the same diameter columns project only half their diameter; and this rule was from top to bottom; the proportion between the height and strictly observed by the ancients, who generally tapered the diameter varies very considerably, according to the purpose shafts from the base. of the column and its material; when the weight to be sup- The Grecian Doric is without a base, which is peculiar to ported is great, or the material used but little compacted, the the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Much has been said conshaft is low and massive; but when the weight is inconsider- cerning the proportion of columns; but it must chiefly able, it becomes tall and slender, and is sometimes divided depend upon their situation, whether disposed on the exterior in its height by moulded bands. Columns are sometimes or interior, attached or insulated, on a level with the eye or coupled together, standing either side by side, or one in raised above it; circumstances which will affect the proporfront of the other, of both which arrangements we have tion, and render all canonical rules uncertain. We also judge examples in the cloisters of S. Lorenzo and Santa Sabina, at of the proportion of columns from the materials whereof they Rome, where either arrangement is copied in the alternate are constructed, as a column of iron will require a different piers; quadrupled columns are to be met with in the church proportion from one of stone. of Boppart. When columns are attached to walls or piers, Some columns have the lower third quite cylindrical, and they not unfrequently have smaller shafts either before or the upper two-thirds only diminished, but the most beautiful beside them, somewhat similar to the clustered columns of diminish from the bottom. later date; these smaller shafts, however, are never prolonged In the preface to Stewart's third volume of Antiquities, in the shape of ribs of a vault. The shafts of the smaller speaking of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens, columns are not unfrequently polygonal, fluted, or reeded, Mr. Reveley, who conducted that volume, observes, that and are sometimes formed of small shafts twisted together in " the columns diminish from the bottom by a beautiful curve a spiral line. The capitals are, for the most part, barbarous line." In another part of the same preface, he farther imitations of the classic orders, more usually Corinthian, and observes, generally, that "the columns rise, with considerare sometimes ornamented with spear-heads, and scroll or able diminution, in the most graceful sweeping lines." It is fret-work, while some again are formed of animals real and much to be regretted, that Mr. Stewart, who has, in general, monstrous, and ornamented with grotesque designs of all been so particular in the measures of Grecian architecture, descriptions. should have neglected a thing so important as the dimensions We have now arrived at the period of Gothic art, when of the shafts of columns. the forms, proportions, and ornamentation of columns became The columns of the Pantheon, of the temples of Vesta, of of infinite variety, subject to no law save that of beauty and Jupiter Stator, of Antoninus and Faustina, of Concord, of the utility; so that to attempt to describe them in this place arch of Titus, of the portico of Septimius, and of the theatre would be futile. We have them of all proportions save the of Marcellus, at Rome, are all diminished from the bottom. I -..... ( litt DI 'i C. I ---------- / J - - -- - - - A) J"I( I %, 0 0... * 0 $ -1 10 I I v I I - I __ - I COL 181 COL COL 181 COL - Columns may be diminished by a curve, according to any of the following methods: METHOD I.-Figure 1. Take the semi-diameter, A B, at the top of the shaft, and apply it from c to D on the semidiameter, c E, at the bottom; with the radius, c E, describe an arc, E F. Draw D F perpendicular to E c, divide the arc E F into any number of equal parts (as four, in this example) E n, n n, n n, n F; also divide the representative axis, c B, into the same number of equal parts, c m, m m, m m, m B; through the points n, m, &c. and also through the points n, draw lines m t and v n, parallel to E c, of which the lines v n cut the representative axis at v; make all the lines m t equal to all the lines v n, beginning next to the base in succession, towards A B; then through all the points,.t, draw a curve, which is the contour of the column. The edge of the diminishing rule n, shown upon the other side, is just the reverse, that is to say, it is concave, the contour of the column being convex. METHOD II.-Figure 2. The points D and F, being found, as in Figure 1, instead of dividing the arc, E F, as in Figure 1, into equal parts, divide the straight line D F into the equal parts, D x, x x, x X, x F, and the representative axis c B, into the same number, and complete the other parts of the operation, as in Figure 1. The same letters of reference being fixed to the like parts, show the process to be similar. METHOD III.-Figure 3. B c being the altitude of the shaft, and B A, at right angles to it, the quantity of diminution upon one side of it: divide c B into equal parts, at the points D, E, F; also divide A B into the same number of equal parts, at the points d, e, f; draw the lines D G, E H, F I, parallel to A B; again from the points d, e, f, to the point c, draw lines, d G C, e H C, f I C: and through the points A, G, H, I, c, draw a curve, which will give the contour required. METHOD IV.-Figure 4. A B and B c, being the same as in Figure 3: now, suppose it were required to give less curvature to the contour of the column; between A and B take any iutermediate point, g, nearer towards A, or B, as the curvature is intended to be flatter or quicker (in this example it is in the middle of A B); draw the line g c, divide A g into any number of equal parts, A d, d e, e f, fg, (as here into four); divide B c into the same number of equal parts, B D, D E, E F, F c; draw D G, E H, F I, parallel to B A, draw d G c, e H c, fI c, then through the points A, G, H, I, c, draw A G H I c, which is the curve required. METHOD V.-Figure 5. Join A c, and draw A L at right angles to it, meeting c B produced at L; draw A D parallel to c L, and c D perpendicular to it; divide L c and A D, each into the same number of equal parts, the former at the points E, F, G, and the latter at i, I, K; also, divide A B into the same number of equal parts, A e, e, ffg, g B; join E M mI, F N I, G o K; also e M c, fN c, g o c, and draw A M N o c, which is the curve required. METHOD VI.-Figure 6. Join A G c, and bisect it by a perpendicular, F G; on the centre, c, with the radius, c A, describe the arc A D; divide A D into two equal parts in E; draw E F C, and parallel to G A draw F I; make an angle, c F I, upon the edge of a board or rule, put in pins at the points c and F, and with a pencil, upon the angular point F, while the rule is moved from F to c, keeping the side F I of it upon the pin at F, and the same side F C, upon the pin at c, the angular point F,will describe the contour of the column between F and c. In like manner, by removing the pin out of c, and putting it in A, the part F A may be described. The same curve might have been found by one continued motion from A to c, as follows: suppose the line D c to have I been produced to a point, K; the supposed line, c K, to have been equal to c D; and an angle, having been made upon the edge of a thin board, equal to A c K; then the contour, A F c, would have been described in the same manner, between the points A and c, as each of the former parts shown by the figure. It is obvious, that by this last method, it would be requisite to have the machine twice the length of that in the first method; from which it would become more unmanageable in the formation of the curve, and inconvenient in many situations, for want of space to extend it to the necessary distance. METHOD VII.-Figure 7. Let A B be the representative axis of the column; A D, B c, the semi-diameters of the top and bottom of the shaft; produce c B to F; on the point D, with a radius, c B, describe an arc, cutting A B at E; draw D E F; in A B, take any number of points, m, and draw the lines F m n; make each line m n, equal to B c; then draw D n n... c, which will be the curve required. METHOD VIII.-Figure 8. The points E and F being found as in Method VII. place a rule with a canal, or groove, on the axis A B, and put a pin in F; take another 1;ule, D F, having a groove on the under side, and lay this groove on the pin at F; put another pin through the rod at E, into the groove A B; then, with a pencil, through D, and moving the ruler D F, while the pin E slides in the groove A B, and the groove on the under side of D F on the pin F, the contour D c, will be described with one movement. METHOD IX.-Figure 9, A B being the axis of the column; A D and B c the lower and upper diameters; draw D E parallel to A B; find the point F, as in Methods VII. and VIII., and draw E c F; divide A F into any number of equal parts; by the points g; also divide D E into the same number of equal parts, by the points h; join each corresponding g h; make every g i equal to A D, and the curve drawn through all the points i, will be that required. This mode is practised when room cannot be found for Figures 7 and 8, with which it is the same in principle. Observations on the several methods.-By the First Method, the curvature of the shaft becomes continually less towards the superior diameter, and iT the contour were extended beyond the shaft, it would meet in a point, of which its distance from B would be a fourth proportional to the length of the arcs E F, F G, Figure 1, and the axis c B; the semi-axal section of the whole thus produced, is a figure of the same nature as the figure of the sines. By the Second Method, the curvature of the shaft is continually increased towards the superior diameter, and if the contour were extended above A B, Figure 2, it would terminate at a distance fiom c, which would be a fourth proper tional to D F, c w, c B; the contour thus produced, would be an elongated semi-ellipsis. By the Third Method, the curvature of the shaft is continually less towards the superior diameter, and if the contour were extended, the two sides would meet in a point, whose distance from the lower end of the shaft would be the second root of a fourth proportional to the quantity of diminution, the semi-diameter at the bottom, and the square of the altitude of the shaft. The shaft and the part thus produced, forms the half of a parabolic spindle; and the axal section is two equal semi-parabolas, joined together by a common ordinate, which forms the axis of the column. By the Fourth Method, the curvature is likewise parabolic; but the axal section is two equal portions of a parabola, less than semi-parabolas. By Methods V. and VI., the curvature is everywhere the same, and is consequently the are of a circle: this contour would therefore meet in a point, which would be distant from -j I _ i__ - ~- --- r — r- ~~ -rL -~- ---------- COL 182 COL C........- -,52 COL the lower end tf the shaft, by a quantity equal to the value of C M j- + A B-C M} in which B c is the height of the shaft, A n the quantity of diminution, and c M the semidiameter at the bottom. By Methods VII., VIII., and IX., the contour of the shaft never terminates when continued. The curve is concave to the axis at the bottom, and after a certain distance, it changes into a convexity. The curve is called the conchoid of Nicomedes, who is the reputed inventor; the straight line, in which the moving point runs, is an assymptote; and the point over which the moveable rule passes, is called the pole. As the curve may either fall upon one side or the other of the axis, it is distinguished accordingly: when it falls on the side of the axis opposite to that in which the pole is situated, it is called the first conchoid; and when the describing point is made to move on the same side of the axis with the pole, the curve so formed is called the second conchoid. This last method of describing a column by continued motion, has been much praised in architectural works; but though the method be simple, the instrument is very cumbersome. It may be observed, that as all curves are nearly the same at the vertex, so small a portion as is required for a column, will be the same in practice, by any of the foregoing forms. The most useful method, therefore, of describing the contour of the shaft, is that of Figure 6; the instrument is much more simple, and takes less room, which, in many cases, would not admit of that for describing the conchoid; and even that of forming the curve by one motion, as shown at the end of Method VI., is much more convenient, as length or extension in one direction only, is required. But where space is wanting, Methods III. and IV. are recommended. COLUMNS are variously named, according to their materials, construction, formation, decoration, disposition, and destination. 1. Columns, according to their materials, are, moulded, fusible, transparent, scagliola, masonic, or wooden. When a column is made by cementing gravel and flints of different colours, it is called a moulded column. The art of moulding columns was known to the ancients, as would appear by some lately discovered near Algiers, in the ruins of the ancient city of Csesarea; where the same inscriptions in antique characters, and even the same defects, are to be found repeated on every shaft, which is certainly a proof of their being moulded: the cement employed in the emplastation of columns, grows perfectly hard, and receives a polish like marble. Columns of fusible matter, as metals, glass, &c., are called fusible columns; the secret of making them is said to have been known to the ancients, who are also said to have fused and cast columns of stone. Columns of this description may also be called moulded columns. When the material of which a column is made is transparent, the column is called a transparent column. The columns of the theatre of Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny, were of crystal, and those in the church of St. Mark, at Venice, are of transparent alabaster. When columns are constructed with a kind of plaster, so as to imitate marble in polish and colour, they are called scagliola columns. Columns built of rough stone, or compass bricks, and eased with stucco, are called masonic columns, or columns of masonry; as are likewise those made in courses of stone, jointed, and cemented in the best manner, with a rubbed or smoothed surface. See STONE-COLUMN. When the shaft of a column is constructed of wooden staves, glued together, and the interior angles strengthened with blockings, the column is said to be a joinery column. See the articles BASE, CAPITAL, and WOODEN COLUMN. 2. Columns, according to their construction, are columns in bands or tambours, columns in trencheons, or banded columns. When the shafts of columns are formed of courses of stone of a less height than the diameter of the column, they are called columns in bands or tambours. This method is only practised in large columns. When shafts of columns are formed in courses of greater height than the diameter of the column, they are said to consist of trencheons; this is practised in small columns, when the fewer the pieces, the more beautiful will the column be; but the difficulty of raising them from the quarry is greater, and the carriage more expensive. When the shafts of columns consist of plain or ornamented cinctures, projecting beyond the general line of the shaft, the column is said to be banded, and is therefore called a banded column. Columns of this description were first introduced by De Lorme, in the chapel de Villers-Coherets, and at the Tuileries, who by this means supposed the joints would be concealed. 3. Columns, according to their formation, are attic, conical, conoidal, cylindrical, cylindroidal, or polygonal. The attic column is an insulated pilaster, having four equal faces, of the highest proportion. Though this is commonly inserted among the number of columns, it should not be so deemed, but rather what we have already denominated it, an insulated pilaster. To prevent confusion, the use of the term column, in architecture, should be restrained to a body of circular horizontal sections. A conical column has the superior diameter of its shaft less than the inferior, with its sides straight in every plane passing through the axis. A conoidal column also has the superior diameter of the shaft less than the inferior, but its exterior sides are convex in any plane passing through the axis. This practice of making the shaft swell is ancient, being mentioned obscurely by Vitruvius, and has been generally followed by modern architects. Cylindrical columns have the extreme diameters of the shafts of equal circles. Cylindroidal columns are those whose sections are all similar and equal ellipses, alike situated. These are otherwise called elliptic columns. Instances of this form are rarely to be met with in the remains of antiquity; a few examples, of modern date, are to be seen at Rome. Polygonal columns have the horizontal sections of their shafts similar to polygons, alike situated. The lower parts of the shafts of the columns of the portico on the Island of Delos and of the temple of Cora, are of this form; as are likewise the columns of several Egyptian buildings. 4. Columns, according to the decorations of their shafts, are bark-formed, cabled, carolytic, fluted, or twisted. A bark-formed column represents the trunk of a tree, with the bark and knots. This is otherwise denominated a pastoral column. Cabled or rudented columns have the flirtings of the shaft filled with astragals, to about one-third of their height. Carolytic columns have foliated, shafts, decorated with leaves and branches winding spirally around them, or disposed in form of crowns and festoons. They were used by!.... COL 183 COL CO 18 C -b the ancients for supporting statues, whence the name. They are suitable in theatres, triumphal arches, &c. Fluted columns have flutes cut in their sides, in planes passing through their axes, and are otherwise called channeled ol striated columns. Twisted columns make several circumvolutions in the height of the shaft, after the manner of a screw, and have sometimes several threads or screws following one another in the same circumference; they are otherwise called spiral columns. Vignola is said to be the first who discovered the method of drawing this kind of column by rule; but what has been presented to us by this author, is only an incorrect method of drawing the contour of the column on paper, by segments of circles, diminishing in altitude as they become more elevated in their regular succession: but the true principles of forming the shaft ought to be shown from the principles of the spiral, and described upon the conoidal surface. The barbarous practice of twisting columns has been much used by modern architects, particularly in the screens and altar-pieces of churches. The most celebrated example is the baldachin of St. Peter's. Columns spirally formed may be seen in the temple of Spoleto, and are not unfrequent in sarcophagi and other ornamental works. 5. Columns, according to their disposition, are angular, cantoned, coupled, doubled, engaged, flanked, grouped, inserted, insulated, median, or niched. Angular columns are insulated in the corners of a portico, or upon the corners of a building, (even though attached,) whether the angle be right, acute, or obtuse. Cantoned columns are placed one at each corner of a square pier, for supporting the angular springings of groins, or intersecting vaults. Coupled columns are disposed in pairs, in the same range or line, so as almost to touch at their bases; as those in the western portico of St. Paul's, and the peristyle of the Louvre. Doubled columns, in any range of columns, or in peristyles, seem to have their shafts penetrating each other to about one-third of their diameter; as in the peristyle of the Louvre. Engaged columns seem to penetrate a wall from between one-fourth to one-half of their diameter. A flanked column has a semi-pilaster on each side of it, and is engaged from one-fourth to one-half its diameter, within the plane of the faces of the semi-pilasters. Grouped columns stand in threes or fours on the same pedestal. An inserted column is let into a wall. An insulated column is free or detached on all sides. Median columns are those two columns of a portico, which are placed in the middle of the range, at a wider interval than any other two of the same range, for giving a freer access to the principal entrance. The term is derived from columnce medics, the name given by Vitruvius to the two columns in the middle of the colonnade. A niched column is placed in a niche, with the axis of the column in the plane of the wall. 6. Columns, according to their destination, are agricultural, astronomical, boundary or limetrophus, chronological, funeral, gnomonic, historical, indicative, itinerary, lactary, legal, manubiary, menian, miliary, military, phosphorical, rostral, statuary, symbolical, or zoophoric. Agricultural columns are raised for explaining the rules of agriculture. An astronomical column is a cylindrical or conical observatory, built hollow, with a winding staircase ascending to an armillary sphere at the top, for observing the motions of the heavenly bodies. Such is the Doric order, erected at the Hotel de Soissons, at Paris. Boundary or limetrophus column showed the limits of a kingdom, or conquered country. Such was that erected by Alexander the Great at the extremities of the Indies, mentioned by Pliny. A chronological column bears an inscription of historical events, arranged in order of time. There were two columns of this kind at Athens, whereon was inscribed the history of Greece, digested into Olympiads. A funeral column is placed over a tomb, supporting an urn, or bearing some inscription relative to the deceased. Its shaft is frequently covered with symbols of grief and mortality. A gnomonic column is a cylinder, on which the hour of the day is represented by the shadow of a style. There are two kinds of gnomonic columns: in the one the style is fixed, and the hour-lines are projected on the cylindric surface; in the other, the style is moveable, and the hour-lines are drawn to the several heights of the sun in different seasons of the year. An historical or triumphal column is usually adorned with basso-relievos, winding spirally upwards around the shaft, and showing the history of some great personage. The most celebrated ancient triumphal columns are those of Trajan and Antoninus Pius at Rome, and Pompey's Pillar, near Alexandria, Egypt; of modern ones we have three in Londonthe Monument erected in memory of the Great Fire, that erected in honour of the Duke of York, and another in memory of Lord Nelson, in whose honour there is an earlier one at Edinburgh; there is likewise a celebrated column termed Buonaparte's Column, in Paris. Trajan's Column is of the Doric order, and constructed of marble; the face throughout its length is covered with sculptures arranged in a spiral line, running up the shaft, representing his martial exploits; its total height, including a base or pedestal of 19 feet, is 132 feet, and the diameter of the shaft at its junction with the base 13 feet. The column of Antoninus is similar to that of Trajan both in its style and general character, though not equal to it in execution. Its height is 122 feet, including a pedestal of 26 feet, and the diameter of the shaft 11 feet 6 inches. Pompey's Pillar at Alexandria is of the Corinthian order, and is 92 feet in total height. The shaft, which is 66 feet in height, is of a single block of granite, and polished. Of the columns in London, the Monument is the most celebrated. It is of the Doric order, and has a fluted shaft; its total height is 202 feet, and the diameter of the shaft at its base 15 feet. At Constantinople were two triumphal columns, similar to those of Trajan and Antoninus; that of Constantine is entirely destroyed, and of the other, erected to Arcadius, by Theodosius, only the pedestal and the first course of the shaft remain. Historical columns may also be called memorial, honorary, or triumphal columns. An indicative column is placed on the sea-coast, for showing the rise and fall of the waters. Of this kind is the Nilometre, at Grand Cairo, which shows the rise and fall of the Nile. Itinerary columns are constructed with several faces, and placed at the intersection of two or more roads, to point out the different routes by an inscription placed on each face. The lactary column was erected in the herb-market at Rome, on a hollow pedestal, wherein young children, abandoned by their parents, out of poverty or inhumanity, were exposed to be brought up at the public expense. I I ` - i -- r: - -" COM 184 COM COM _184 OM A legal column, among the Lacedaemonians, was raised in a public place, inscribed with the fundamental laws of the state. A manubiary column is built in imitation of a tree, and adorned with trophies taken from an enemy. 3rlenian columns support a balcony or meniana. This kind of column takes its name from one Menias, who having sold his house to Cato and Flaccus, when consuls, to be converted into a public edifice, reserved to himself the right of raising a column on the outside, to bear a balcony, whence he might see the public shows. We are informed of this circumstance by Suetonius and Ascanius. Military columns were raised equidistantly on the highways from Rome to the several cities of the empire, and described their distance from the middle of the Roman Forum, as a centre, where the first military column was raised by order of Augustus. This column was of white marble, of a cylindrical form, and massive proportions, supporting a globe, the same as is now seen on the balustrade of the staircase of the Capitol at Rome. This column was called miliarium aureum, as having been gilt, or at least the ball, by order of Augustus. It was restored by the Emperors Vespasian and Adrian, as appears from the inscriptions. A military column, among the Romans, was engraven with a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged in order by legions, and intended to preserve the memory of the number of soldiers, and of the order observed, in any military expedition. Another kind of military column, used by the Romans, stood before the temple of Janus, at the foot whereof the consul declared war, by throwing a javelin towards the enemy's country. This column was called columna bellica. A phosphorical column is a hollow column, built on a rock, or the tip of a mole, or other eminence, to serve as a lighthouse, or lantern, to a port. A rostral column was a triumphal column, adorned with the beaks and prows of galleys, in memory of a naval victory. The first rostral column was erected in the Capitol, on occasion of the defeat of the Carthaginians by C. Duilius. Augustus constructed four columns with the prows of the ships taken from Cleopatra. A statuary column supports a statue. Symbolical columns represent some particular country, by appropriate attributes. A zoophoric column is a kind of statuary column, bearing the figure of some animal. There are also other columns, denominated hydraulic, or water-columns, used as fountains. COLUMNIATED WINDING-STAIRS. See STAIRS. COMA (from the Greek tKcla, sleep) in antiquity, a mound of earth over a grave. COMITIUM.(Latin, an assembly) in Roman antiquity, a large hall in the forum, in which comitia were ordinarily held. Prior to the period of the second Punic war, it was open at the top; but on account of the assemblies being often interrupted by bad weather, it was then covered over. COMMANDERY; a religious house belonging to the Knights Hospitallers, the same as a preceptory with the Knights' Templars. Previous to their dissolution in the time of Henry VIII., there were no less than fifty such buildings subject to the priory of St. John of Jerusalem. COMMISSURE (from the Latin, commissura) the joint between two stones, or the application of the surface of one stone to that of the other. COMMON (from the Latin, communis) in geometry, a line, angle, surface, or solid, which belongs equally to two or more objects. COMMON CENTERING, a centering without trusses, having a tie-beam at the bottom; or otherwise, that which is employed in straight vaults. COMMON JOISTS, those beams in single naked flooring to which the joists are fixed; they might be properly called boarding-joists, and should never exceed one foot clear of each other. COMMON PITCH, a term applied to a roof which has the length of the sides about three-fourths of the span. COMMON RAFTERS, those timbers in a roof to which the boarding or lathing for slating is attached. Common roofing consists entirely of common rafters, which, in the strongestframed roofs, bridge over the purlins. COMMUNICATING-DOORS, or DOORS OF COMMUNICATION, those which open or throw two apartments into one. COMPARTED (from the French, compartir, to divide) a line, surface, or solid, divided into several parts; or a hollow space partitioned into several smaller spaces. COMPARTITION, the distribution of the ground-plot of an edifice into apartments and passages. COMPARTMENT (from the French, compartiment) a division of a picture, design, &c. COMPARTMENT CEILING, a name given to all ceilings divided into panels, surrounded with mouldings. There are many beautiful ancient compositions of this kind applied to the intradoses of cylindrical and spherical vaulting, and to the soffits of the porticos of temples; as may be seen in the Pantheon and the Temple of Peace. The compartment ceilings of the last century were extremely heavy, which has occasioned the epithet pondrous to be applied to them, in order to distinguish them from those in present use. These weighty compositions took their rise in Italy, under the first masters, who seem to have been led into that idea, fiom observations on the soffits of the porticos of antique temples. The ancients, with their usual skill, kept up a bold and massive style, proportioning their coffers to the strength, magnitude, and height of the building, and at the same time making an allowance for their being on the exterior part, adjoining to other great objects; all which served to diminish and lighten the effect of the compartments. From this mistake of the first modern restorers in Italy, all Europe has been misled. Michael Angelo, Raphael, Pyrro, Ligerio, Dominichino, Georgio Vasari, and Algerdi, with great taste and knowledge, threw off those prejudices, and boldly aimed at restoring the antique in due proportion. But at this time, the rage for painting became so prevalent in Italy, that, instead of following these great examples, every ceiling was covered with large fresco compositions, which, though extremely fine and well painted, were much misplaced, and would, from the attitude in which they were beheld, tire the patience of every spectator. Great compositions should be placed so as to be viewed with ease. Grotesque ornaments and figures are perceived with a glance of the eye, and require little examination. The heavy compartment ceilings were afterwards adopted in France; and Le Potre adorned them with all the trappings of his luxuriant imagination. Inigo Jones introduced them into England, with as much weight, but less fancy and embellishment. Vanbourgh, Campbell, and Gibbs followed too implicitly the authority of this great name. Kent has the merit of being the first who began to introduce grotesque paintings in ornaments of stucco, and to lighten the coffers of compartment ceilings. Mr. Stewart, with his good taste in the antique, has contributed greatly towards introducing the true style of decoration; but the completion seems to have been reserved to the present times, in which not only these, but every other kind, are executed in the highest degree of perfection.' _ __ __ r — ~ - - --- COM 185 COM CO 185CO COMPARTMENT TILES, an arrangement of white and red tiles, varnished, for the decoration of the covering of a roof. COMPASS-HEADED, having a semicircular head. COMPASS ROOF, that which extends from one wall to the other the whole width of the building, having a ridge in its centre; the term is used in contradistinction to lean-to roof, and is peculiarly applied to the ancient open timher roofs. The term is applied by some to roofs with cylindrical or barrel vaults. COMPASS SAW. See SAW. COMPASS WINDOW, a window which has a circular plan; a bow or oriel window. COMPASSES, (from the French, compas) a mathematical instrument for describing circles and ellipses, or their arcs; also for measuring and proportioning distances. Compasses for drawing are of four kinds: those with two legs, moveable on a joint, by which the extremities can be extended to any distance, not exceeding the sum of both legs, are called common compasses. Those with a beam having a fixed point at one of its ends, and a moveable collar carrying another point, which may be fixed at any distance from the fixed point by means of a screw, are called beam compasses. Those with three legs, so as to be set to any three points, of which the distance between aly two may not be greater than the sum of any two legs of the compass, are called triangular compasses. Those for drawing ellipses, are called elliptic compasses. Common compasses are of several kinds, and are furnished with fixed or moveable points, for carrying a pencil or ink foot. Comlon compasses with sharp points, used for taking distances, are called dividers. Dividers, which have the lower point of one of the legs fastened to the upper part by a stiff spring, and by means of a screw will allow of slow motion in the legs, so as to extend or shorten the distance of the points to the smallest degree, are called hair compasses. Those with moveable ink and pencil feet, for describing circular lines, are called, in contradistinction, compasses; the ink or pencil foot is fitted into a socket in one of the legs of the compass. Besides the ink and pencil feet, there is sometimes another foot for dotting circular lines, but it is seldom used, as being apt to run two or more dots into one. Compasses for describing small circles with ink or pencil, and which shut into a bow, are called bow compasses. Triangular compasses have two legs, which revolve on a foldg join nt, like common compasses, and the third leg is fixed to the bulb by means of a projection, with a joint, so as to be moveable in every direction. The three points of the compasses may be made almost to coincide with any three assumed points, to any distance within the reach of their extension. Compasses with a joint between the extremities, and two sharp points at each end, forming a double compass, so that the two ends may always preserve the same ratio, however extended, are called proportional compasses. When the joint is fixed, the compass is said to be simple; but when moveable, it is called a compound proportional compass. The simple proportional compasses, in most general use, have the two legs on one side of the centre always double those on the other, and are denominated wholes-and-halves, or bisecting compasses. Compound proportional compasses have each branch cut with a long slit for a cursor to slide in; in the middle of the cursor is a screw, by which the ends may be set in any proportion to each other. One leg is generally graduated on either side of the slit, one side for the division of right lines into any number of equal parts from 2 to 10, and the other for inscribing polygons from 6 to 20 sides in a circle of any 24 given radius within the greatest extension of the compasses. The other leg is graduated in a similar manner, one side into divisions, showing the proportion between the areas of similar plane figures, the other into parts showing the proportion between the contents of similar solid figures. This instrument is employed in the reduction of figures, and is extremely useful in the projection of dome departments, and in perspective. Examples of the use of compound proportional compasses. -Let it be required to divide a straight line into four equal parts; push the cursor till the index be just on the figure 4, and fix it there; then take the length of the given line with the longer legs, and the distance between the points of the other legs will be one-fourth of the length of the line. Again, let it be required to inscribe a heptagon in a circle: push the cursor till the index or zero be on 7; then, with the longer legs take the radius of ths e circle, and the distance between the two other points will be the side of the heptagon. See PROJECTION. To find a regular plane figure whose area shall equal onefourth of that of a given similar figure; set the zero on the cursor to the line marked 4, take the length of one of the sides of the given figure with the longer legs, and the distance between the points of the shorter ones will give the side of a similar figure which shall contain an area equal to onefourth of the area of the given figure. By means of the same scale of divisions, may be found the square root of any given number, thus:-Set the zero of the cursor to the given number; open the longer legs so as to contain the same number from any scale of equal parts, then apply the points of the shorter legs to the same scale, and the distance measured between them will give the square root of the given number. To find a sphere or cube whose solid contents shall be equal to one-fourth of those of a given square or cube: Set the zero to the division marked 4, measure the diameter of thr given sphere, or the side of the given cube, with the points of the longer legs, and the points of the shorter ones will give the diameter of a sphere or side of a cube such as required. The cube root of any number may be found by this scale in a similar manner to that by which the square root is found by the opposite one. Compasses used in the description of ellipses, are called elliptic compasses, or ellipsographs. See ELLIPSOGRAPH and PENTAGRAPH. COMPASSING (from the French, compasser, to encircle) in naval architecture, the act of bringing any piece of timber into the form of an arch. COMPLEMENT (from the Latin, complementum, perfection) in a general sense, the full quantity, or completion of anything. COMPLEMENT, in geometry, whatever is wanting of any angle to make a right angle, or 90 degrees. COMPLEMENT OF A PARALLELOGRAM, two lesser parallelograms, made by drawing two right lines parallel to the sides of the greater parallelogram, through a given point in the diagonal. COMPLUVIUM (Latin) in ancient Roman buildings, is supposed by Newton to be the gutter of a roof; but by Dr. Adam (Roman Antiquities) to be the aperture at the top of the cavaedium. See CAVAjDIUM. COMPOSITE ARCH, the pointed or lancet arch. COMPOSITE BASE, ) COMPOSITE CAPITAL, See ROMAN ORDER. COMPOSITE ORDER, ) COMPOSITION, the distribution and arrangement of the component parts of an architectural design. __I _ CO N 1f; CO CON 186 CON COMPOSITION, in plastering. See PLASTERING. COMPOUND ARCH, a term applied by Willis to those arches made up of a series of receding concentric arches, the dimensions contracting with each successive arch; or in other words, to those arches which may be resolved into a number of concentric archways, successively placed within and behind each other. COMPOUND MASONRY. See MASONRY. COMPOUND PIER, the same as CLUSTERED COLUMN. COMPOUND PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. See COMPASSES. CONCAMERATE (from the Latin, concamero) to arch over. CONCATENATE (from the Latin, catena) to chain or link together. CONCAVE (from the Latin, concavics, hollow) an epithet applied to the interior side of a figure, or to the interior surface of a body. CONCAVITY OF A CURVE LINE, the side next to a straight -ine, extended between the two points of a curve. CONCAVITY OF A SOLID, the curved surface of a solid, such that if any two points be taken in that surface, the straight line between them will be entirely in a void space, or will coincide with the surface in one direction only. This definition applies to cylinders, cones, spheres, and all other solids generated by the rotation of conic sections about an axis. When the surface of a solid is such, that two straight lines may be drawn from any point in that surface to two other points, so that the one line may be entirely in the void, and the other pass through the substance or solid, the surface may be distinguished by the epithet concavo-convex; of which description are the surfaces of solids formed like a trumpetmouth. CONCENTRIC (from the Latin, concentricus) in geometry, a term applied to such objects as have a common centre. It is principally used in speaking of round bodies, or figures that have a circular or elliptic circumference; and may also be applied to polygons that have the same centre, and their sides parallel to each other, about the same diagonals, radiating from the centre. CONCHA, the concave surface of a semicircular vault, more especially applied to that of a semi-dome, or hemisphere. CONCHOID (resembling a shell.) This name was given by the inventor, Nicomedes, to a curve, by which he proposed the finding of two mean proportionals, and the duplication of the cube. It may be described as a curve line which always approaches to a straight line but never meets it, though the straight line and the curve be ever so far produced. It is thus generated: If A P and B D be two right lines intersecting each other at right angles; and if from a fixed point, P, a number of other lines, P F D E, P p D E, &c. be also drawn, and if D E be taken equal to A B, the curve drawn through all the points E, E, E, &c. will be the first conchoid, or that of Nicomedes. In like manner, if D F, D F, &c. be taken each equal to B c, the curve passing through all the points, r, is called the second conchoid. The straight line, D D, &c. by which the description of these curves is regulated, is called the asymptote. The inventor, Nicomedes, contrived an instrument for describing his conchoid by a mechanical motion, of which the description will be found under COLUMN. CONCLAVE (from the Latin) a room in the Vatican, wherein the cardinals used to meet to choose a pope. This room was, in fact, a range of small cells or apartments, standing in a line along the galleries and hall of the Vatican. The word was also used by the ancient Romans, to denote, generally, a room under lock and key. CONCORD, Temple of, in Roman antiquities, a temple, built by Camillus at the foot of the Capitol, and seen from the Forum: the remains consist of a hexastyle portico, with two columns at the back, of the Ionic order; the entablature is very nearly entire: a large portion of the tympanum, and a small part of the pediment, remain at the spring of the level cornice. The weight of the tympanum is discharged from the entablature with arches. The columns are of granite, of one piece each, being 40 feet high, and 4 feet 2 inches diameter. The bases are without plinths, except those of the angular columns. The capitals are of a singular construction, and differ from all ancient examples of the same order, in having the four faces alike. The volutes are insignificantly diminutive, and the mouldings too large, compared with the other parts of the column. The architrave and frieze make only one course in height; and on the front, and at one return of the portico, are entirely plain, without any separation by mouldings. The cornice has both modillions and dentils. This is perhaps the only ancient example of the Ionic order, in which modillions are used: they are in number twenty-two in the front of the portico. An interval is placed over the axis of each column, and not a modillion; and the columns are very high, being above nine diameters and a half. This temple is supposed to have been pseudo-peripteral. The column on the right angle is less than the rest, and the middle intercolumniation greater than the others, by about one-third part of a module. CONCRETE, the name given to a composition, variously made, but in general use among architects as an artificial foundation for buildings. The convenience of obtaining a firm and solid bottom by the formation of a compact mass of concrete; and the facility with which this composition is made and used, have led to its almost universal adoption in all situations where the requisite materials can be procured. The proportions, and the species of material vary, of course, in different localities, and in the practice of different architects, but the principal ingredients, good lime, clean sharp river-sand, and pebbles well mixed, will not fail to make a good concrete. Semple recommends to take 80 parts of pebbles-each about 7 or 8 ounces in weight-40 parts of sharp river-sand, and 10 of good lime; the last to be mixed with water to a thinnish consistence, and groutedlin. The concrete used by builders in the neighbourhood of London, is made of Thames ballast, as taken from the bed of the river; this is found to consist nearly of 2 parts of pebbles to 1 of sand, and from one-seventh to one-eighth part of lime. Mr. Godwin says the best method of making concrete is to mix the lime, previously ground, with the ballast in a dry state; sufficient water being thrown over it to effect a perfect mixture; it should then be turned over two or three times with shovels, put into barrows, and wheeled away for instant use. It is advisable to employ two sets of men to perform this operation, with three men in each set, one man fetching the water, &c. while the other two turn over the mixture to the second set, and they, repeating the process, turn over the concrete to the barrow-men. After being put into the barrows, it should be wheeled up planks, so raised as to give it a fall of some yards, and thrown into the foundation, by which means the particles are driven closer together, and greater solidity is given to the whole mass. Soon after being thrown in, the mixture is observed usually to be in commotion, and much heat is evolved with a copious emission of vapour. The concrete should be thrown on in layers, the first being allowed to set, before a second is thrown down. A barrowload spreading over the ground in its fall, will form generally a stratum of from 7 to 9 inches thick, and a cubical yard of concrete will take about 30 feet cube of ballast, and 31 feet cube of ground lime, with a sufficient quantity of water. CON -------------------------- - -- ca 187 CON C O N 187 C ONr n or h u d b u e h n is a s l t l Of the latter no more should be used than is absolutely necessary to effect a perfect mixture of the ingredients. Hot water accelerates the induration. The expediency of using concrete as a substitute for stone, brick, and other materials for building, or constructions above ground, has been much discussed, and a great variety of opinion has prevailed on the subject. In the " Prize Essay upon the Nature and Properties of Concrete and its Application to Construction," Mr. Godwin has given much valuable information, but we think the opinions he has there ventured as to the use of concrete for walls, &c., will hardly be adopted by architects generally. " A prudent man," says Mr. Bartholomew, "will not heap up walls a second time, altogether of concrete. He will not exchange masonry of good strong mortar, and good strong stone or brick, for a heap entirely of mortar, and that " tres maigre." A careful examination will discover that in every instance in which concrete walls have been used, more or less of instant ruin has occurred, the lintels over the apertures of the first story giving way before even those of the second story have been laid; and when those breaches have been repaired, they have reappeared; and even through the solid walls, rents have instantly occurred: experience proves that gravel lying in a bed, and there growing, as it were, without the means of flow or escape, is sufficient to support the most enormous weight of fabric; but the same gravel detached, cannot be piled up, so as to form either solid upright walls, or horizontal beams." Concrete has been also used both as " rough concrete," and in blocks, in extensive works, as river-walls, breakwaters, &c., and has been recommended for such purposes by engineers of eminence. In the " Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers," Captain Denison describes some works of this kind, and, in the experiments he had the opportunity of witnessing, some very instructive results are obtained as to the practical application of concrete to the construction of riverwalls at Woolwich and Chatham. In one instance at Woolwich, it has been applied in mass, the wall having been constructed in the same manner as the Brighton sea-wall; in both the other instances at Woolwich and Chatham, the concrete was formed into blocks, which were allowed ample time to set and harden before they were built into the face of the wall. AtWoolwich, the river-wall is for the most part founded upon piles; its height above the piles is about 24 feet; the thickness at bottom 9 feet, at top 5 feet, with a slope or batter in front of 3 feet in 22. The face of the wall is composed of the blocks laid in cement, in courses 18 inches in height; the headers and stretchers in the course being each 2 feet 6 inches long: the former having a bed of 2 feet, while the latter have only 1 foot; behind the facing, the rough concrete was thrown in to complete the thickness of the wall and counter-forts. Both the blocks and the rough concrete were composed of lime and gravel, in the proportion of 1 to 7 and brought to the proper consistence with boiling water; but the blocks were, or ought to have been, made with Aberthaw lime, I)orking lime being used for the rest of the work. The blocks were cast in moulds, and were submitted to pressure while setting; a coating of finer stuff being given to the face for the sake of appearance. The whole of the wall was built by tide-work, and in the lower part therefore the backing of rough concrete had hardly time to set before it was covered with the tide; the water, however, in this instance, appeared to affect the surface of the mass only, the interior at the depth of a few inches appearing dry, and of a moderate degree of hardness, when examined after the retiring of the tide. During the summer months, the action of the water from day to day was not perceptible; the surface still remained tolerably hard; occasionally portions of the fine facing separated from the rest of the block, owing, it was said, sometimes to want of care in the original construction, sometimes to injuries caused by boats or vessels striking the wall; in these cases, however, a new facing of cement was applied, and before the winter, the general appearance of the wall was to a certain extent satisfactory. During a hard frost, however, evidences of failure began to show themselves; and as soon as the thaw allowed a thorough inspection of the face of the wall to be made, it was found that hardly a single block had escaped damage; in many instances, the whole face had peeled off to the depth of half an inch; at one spot, where a drain discharged itself into the river from a height of about six or eight feet, the back action of the water after its fall, had worn away the lower courses to the depth of some inches. These were the evidences of the action of frost and water combined, upon the best constructed wall at Woolwich. At Chatham, they were of the same character, but the damage done to the wall was much greater. The portion of river-wall at Woolwich, which was built with rough concrete, was severely injured by the common action of the water before frost, and the same result was observed in the walls of a school near Blackheath, which were built of concrete some years ago: at the ground-line, where the drip of the water had acted, the concrete was soft, and yielded easily to any force applied, while the walls above were very fairly hard, and seemed to have stood very well. The results of the observations made at that time, on the use of concrete in constructions of a kind similar to those above mentioned, are summed up by Captain Denison in the opinion " that in climates like ours, in situations exposed to the alternate action of water and air, concrete cannot be advantageously used as a building material, the apparent economy, caused by the cheapness of the material employed, being more than compensated for by the frequency of repairs." In the report (dated 1846) and evidence of the "Committee on the Harbour of Refuge to be constructed in Dover Bay," a great deal of valuable information is afforded on the use of concrete. Amongst the various plans submitted to the committee, Captain Denison, Colonel Jones, and Mr. Vignoles proposed to construct breakwaters of blocks of concrete. The first of these gentlemen recommended that the blocks should be manufactured at Dungeness, and thence floated to Dover by means of camels. The French adopted a similar plan in their works at Algiers, where large blocks of beton, or hydraulic concrete, were floated out to the required spot, and then allowed to drop into their places from slings. These blocks were rectangular in form, and measured 324 cubic feet. At the works at St. Joilette, at Marseilles, also, immense blocks of concrete, 13 yards cubic measure in size, have been sunk for the foundation. The form suggested by Captain Denison was that of an hexagonal prism, and it was considered each block would weigh from 20 to 30 tons. The concrete would be made in the following manner:-the gravel of sea-beach to be mixed with the best hydraulic lime in the proportion of ten or twelve parts of gravel to one of lime; and with the view of causing it to set more speedily under water, a proportion of puzzolana should be added, varying in quantity according to its quality; half the quantity of puzzolana to that of lime would make very hard, sound concrete, which would set rapidly; but if desirable to make it set very quick, the quantity of puzzolana might be increased till it equalled that of the lime. The concrete used by Mr. Ranger at Woolwich was nearly the same, except that he used no puzzolana. In the course of ('aptain Denison's evidence he refers to the works at Chatham and Woolwich, to which we have "";~-~ -:- -- c- -- I CON 188 CO N ON 188 CON88 already alluded, and states that he had again examined the wall at Woolwich, and found the interior as hard as could be wished. Those parts, however, of the concrete facing, which were exposed to the mechanical action of the water, were injured by it; and therefore, though recommending concrete below low-water mark, he was bound to admit that it was not adapted to those situations where it must be exposed to such action. The specific gravity of concrete, as compared with that of other materials, is as follows:Concrete weighs about 140 lbs. to the cubic foot. Brick-work... 110 Granite... 160 to 170 Portland stone. 150. We must refer to the report itself for more detailed information on this subject, only adding the conclusion come to by the committee, that " there is not sufficient experience of the use of concrete to warrant its adoption for the faces of works to be constructed in the sea." The French engineers have made use of beton in many of the extensive works on the continent; beton sets very rapidly under water, and attains, after a time, a very considerable degree of hardness. M. Milet de Montville having filled a chest containing 27 cubic feet of beton, sunk it in the sea, where it remained during two months, after which it was drawn up, to ascertain the consolidation it had acquired. On inspection it was found to be converted into so compact a body, that more difficulty was experienced in separating its parts, than those of a block of hard stone. The best manner of compounding the beton, according to M. de Montville, is as follows:-" Take twelve parts of puzzolana, (terrasse de Hollande, or Cendre de Tourney,) of which form a circular wall of five or six feet in diameter, on which place six parts of sand, well sifted, free from earthy matter, and evenly spread. Fill the interior of this circle with nine parts of quick-lime, well calcined, and pulverized with an iron beetle; and to cause it to slack more quickly, (in maritime works) throw on sea-water in small quantities, stirring it from time to time with an iron spatula. As soon as it is reduced to a paste, incorporate the puzzolana and the sand. The whole being well mixed, throw in thirteen parts of unhewn stone, and three parts of iron dross, well pounded. If this latter ingredient cannot be obtained, sixteen parts of rough stones or pebbles must be added, of a size not larger than a pullet's egg. Let this composition be well amalgamated for the space of an hour, after which it must be left in heaps to coagulate; for this purpose the space of twenty-four hours will be sufficient in summer or in warm climates, but in winter it often requires the space of three or four days. Observe to keep it protected from the rain, and not to use it until it has sufficiently hardened to require breaking with a pickaxe." The method of using the beton is either in blocks, or by means of a coffer or chest filled with the composition, lowered to the required depth, and there emptied. CONCRETION (from the Latin, concresco) the act of concreting; the process by which soft or fluid bodies become thick, consistent, solid, or hard; the act of uniting, by natural process, the small particles of matter into a mass. The word is used indifferently for induration, condensation, congelation, or coagulation. CONCURRING. or CONGRUENT FIGURES, or SOLIDS, such as will cover each other exactly, or will fill the same space. All plane figures will do this, when their corresponding angles and sides are equal. CONDUIT (from the French) a canal, or pipe, for the conveyance of water, or other fluid matter; an aqueduct. The earth is full of natural conduits, for the passage of waters, which give rise to springs, and of vapours which generate metals and minerals. Artificial conduits for water are made of lead, cast iron, stone, potters' earth, &c. See PLUMBERY. Also the reservoir or erection where the waters are conducted and distributed for use. Previous to the formation of the present water-companies, these conduits were frequent in the different parts of London, and were the only means by which the inhabitants were supplied with water; the first conduit erected was one near Bow Church, Cheapside, in the reign of Henry III.; and among the latest was one of large dimensions, erected in 1655, at Leadenhall, which served likewise for an ornamental fountain. Conduits of this kind of an early date were usual in our large ecclesiastical establishments, and where cloisters existed, there was frequently one in the centre of the quadrangle; which custom has been observed in the quadrangle of S. Augustine's, Canterbury, lately erected, where the conduit, of excellent design, forms an imposing feature. The first attempt to carry water into the houses of London was made by Peter Morris, A. D. 1582, who established the waterworks constructed under two of the arches of old London Bridge, but their supply extended only as far as Gracechurch-street; soon after, in 1594, similar works were erected near Broken Wharf, which supplied the houses in Westcheap and around S. Paul's, as far as Fleet-street. It was not until the reign of James, that any enterprise of this kind on a large scale was undertaken, when the formation of the New River was commenced by Sir Hugh Middleton in 1608, and completed in 1613. CONE (from the Greek, iKvo9) a solid, bounded by two surfaces, one of which is a circle, called the base, and the ocher a convexity, ending in a point, called the vertex; and of such a nature, that a straight line applied to any point in the cir. cumference of the base and to the vertex, will coincide with the convex surface. The straight line drawn fiom the centre of the base to the vertex of the cone, is called the axis. When the axis of the cone is perpendicular to the base, the cone is called a right cone, but when otherwise, it is called an oblique cone. If a cone be cut by a plane through its vertex, the section will be a triangle. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the section will be a circle, or similar to the base. If a cone be cut by a plane, so as to make the portion cut off similar to the whole cone, the section will be a circle, or similar to the base. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane passing through the vertex, meeting the plane of the base produced without, the section is an ellipsis, except the part cut off be similar to the whole cone, as in the last position. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane in contact with its side, the section will be a parabola. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a section of the cone passing through the vertex, the section will be an hyperbola. Every cone is one-third part of a cylinder of the same base and altitude (Euclid., b. xii., prop. 10.), and cones of equal altitudes are to each other as their bases (Euclid., b. xii., prop. 11); therefore any cone whatever is the third part of a cylinder of equal base and altitude with the cone. The curved surface of a cone is equal to the sector of a circle, the radius of which is equal to the slanting side of the cone; and the arc-line of the sector is equal to the circumference of the base of the cone. r -— xu-Br —i ----r ---r; ~~_ nr~ --------— I --- ---- ---- -— _- --- --- _ __ __ __ _1 I __ _ ____ _ CON 189 CON CO 18 CON To find the solidity of a cone, multiply the area of the base by the altitude, and one-third of the product will give the solidity. Or, multiply one-third of the area of the base, which is the mean area, by the altitude of the cone, and the product will give the solidity. See CIRCLE. To find the curved surface of a cone, multiply the slanting side of the cone by the semi-circumference of the base, and the product will be the area of the curved surface. If the diameter of the base be given, the circumference must be found as directed under the article CIRCLE. If the perpendicular altitude be given, the slanting side of the cone will be ascertained by the 47th prop., Book i., Euclid. But if the cone be given, it will be much easier to take the slanting side and the circumference of the base, than its alti. tude and diameter; the operation will also be much shorter by taking the former dimensions than the latter. See CONIC SECTION, ELLIPSIS, ENVELOPE, HYPERBOLA, and PARABOLA. CONFESSIONAL, or CONFESSIONARY, in churches, a place usually under the main altar, wherein the bones of deceased saints, martyrs, and confessors were deposited. CONFESSIONAL is also usued in the Romish church, to designate a little box, or desk, in the church, in which the priest receives the confessions of the penitents. Few confessionals, if any, are to be found in England, although it is a common practice to set down all niches, for which no other use can be immediately discovered, under this title. CONFIGURATION, (from the French) the exterior superficies of a body, from which it receives its particular figure. CONGE, a concavity at the extremity of a vertical surface, where it bends off in a tangent, and projects forward until it meets a fillet, or other vertical surface, at an external angle. Thus the shaft of a column bends forward at the upper and lower ends, until it meets the fillet. The conge, when applied to a column, is part of the interior surface of a cylindrical ring, and its section is generally a quarter of a circle. The term is derived from the French, conge, a curve; the Greek appellation is apophyge; and the Latin, scapus, from which the English word scape is derived. See APOPHYGE. CONGERIES, a collection or heap of several bodies, united in one mass or aggregate. CONGRUITY, in geometry, a term applied to lines, angles, figures, and solids, which exactly cover each other, or coincide. Figures that are equal and similar have a congruity; as have solids, the figures of whose sides are congruous with the planes of the corresponding side at the same inclination. CONIC, relating to a cone. See CONE. CONIC SECTIONS, the curves formed by the intersection of a circular cone and a plane, the former being either oblique or right. The works of Apollonius and Archimedes are the first in which these sections were treated of; and their history is nothing but that of the addition of a few remarkable properties, till the discovery that the path of a projected body in an unresisting space is a parabola, and that of a planet round the sun an ellipse. Though the name, therefore, of conic sections still remains, the interest which attaches to these curves, and the method of treating them, has no longer any reference to the accident from which they derive their name. The Greek geometers, in pure speculation, occupied themselves with the different methods in which a cone may be cut, simply because the conical (with the cylindrical and spherical) came within the restrictive definitions under which they had placed geometry;-but since the discovery to which we have alluded, we might as well attempt to write the his tory of mathematics and physics, as that of conic sections in their results and consequences. Some sections of a cone are considered in elementary geometry, for a plane may meet a cone in a point, or in a single straight line, in two intersecting straight lines, or in a circle. But the curves, which are peculiarly conic sections, are the oval made by a plane which cuts the cone entirely on one side of the vertex, called the ELLIPSE; the indefinitely extended modification of this when the plane becomes parallel to any one slant side of the cone, called the PARABOLA; and the curve, which is partly on one side, and partly on the other of the vertex, formed by a plane which cuts both surfaces of the cone, called the HYPERBOLA. Below is appended some convenient methods of forming the sections upon a plane, without any reference to the cone. If each end of a string of greater length than the distance E F, Plate 1, Figure 1, to be tied to the points E and F, and any intermediate point B, be taken in the string, then the point B being carried round the line E F, so as to keep the parts, E B, B F, always stretched till it come to the point whence it began to move, the point B will trace out a curve, A B C D, which will be an ellipsis. If the end of a straight inflexible line, or rod, of a greater length than the distance E F, Figure 2, be fixed to one extremity, E, of the line, and one end of a string of greater length than the difference between E F and the length of the rod, be fixed to F, and the other end to the other end of the rod at N; then, if any point, B, be taken in the string, and the rod moved round the point E, so as to keep the parts N B, B F always stretched, the point B will trace out a curve, which will be an hyperbola. And if the end of the rod be moved from E, and fixed at F, and one end of the string moved from F, and fixed at E, the curve described after the same manner, is called an apposite hyperbola. In the ellipsis and hyperbola, the points E and F are called the foci; the line, A c, passing through the foci, joining the opposite parts of the curve, or curves, is called the transverse axis; and the point, c, in the middle of the transverse axis, is called the centre. In the ellipsis, any line drawn through the centre, and terminated by the opposite parts of the curve, is called a diameter; if another right line, terminated by the curve, be drawn parallel to a tangent at one extremity of the other diameter, such line is called a double ordinate; and if it pass through the centre, it becomes a diameter; then the two diameters, thus situated, are called conjugate diameters. When the conjugate diameters are at right angles to each other, they are called the axis of the curve. If there be a diameter, and a double ordinate to that diameter, the two segments of the diameter are called the abscissce. Concentric ellipses are such as are similar, and have the same centre with the greater axis of the one upon the greater axis of the other, and the less upon the less. Most of the above definitions apply also to the hyperbola. If the side, A B, Figure 3, of a right angle or square, A B c, be applied to the straight-edge, A D, of a rule, and a thread, equal in length to B c, be fastened to the end, c, of the right angle, with the other end to the fixed point, F; and if any point, E, be taken in the line, then if the edge, A B, of the square be moved along the straight-edge, A D, keeping the variable point, E, upon the side, B c, of the square, and the two portions c E and E F stretched, the point E will trace out a curve, which is a parabola. The point F is called the focus. The line A D is the directrix. CON 190 CON CON 190 CON The line L K passing through the focus perpendicular to the directrix, is the axis. The point i, where the axis cuts the curve, is the vertex. Any line parallel to the axis, terminated at one extremity by the curve, and on the concave side of it, is called, a diameter. Any line parallel to a tangent at the limited end of a diameter, is called a double ordinate to that diameter. The limited part of a diameter, contained by the curve and a double ordinate, is called the abscissa of that double ordinate. Figures 4, 5, 6. An abscissa, the ordinate, and the diameter being given, to describe the ellipsis or hyperbola. Let A B be the diameter, A c the abscissa, and c D the ordinate. Draw A E parallel to c D, and D E parallel to c A. In D c take any number of points, Fr, G, H, and divide D E in the same proportion atf g, h. Draw B F I, B G K, B II L; likewise f I A, g K A, h L A, and through the points D, I, K, L, A, draw a curve. In the same manner may the curve for the opposite ordinate be drawn. When the extremities of the diameter are on different sides of the ordinate, the curve is an ellipsis; but when the extremities of the diameter are on the same side of the ordinate, the curve is an hyperbola. When the diameter A B, is of infinite length, the ordinates, r i, G K, H L, will be parallel, then the curve is a parabola. Therefore, in Figure 4, the lines drawn from the points F, G, iH, parallel to the transverse axis, or abscissa, A B, instead of being drawn to the point B7 as in Figures 1, 2, 3, make the only difference. It is hardly possible to conceive more convenient or easier modes of description than these; their correctness may be proved by showing that their common properties are similar to those demonstrated of conic sections. Figures 7, 8, 9.-Let A B be the diameter, c D the ordinate, and A c the abscissa, as before. In c D take any point, G, and divide D E by g, in the same ratio as D C is by the point, G; draw g K A, B G K, Figure 7, and B K G, Figure 8; then, because of the similar triangles, n N K and B c G, B N: B:: N K: c G; and also, because of the similar triangles A N K and A M G, AN:AM org E:: NK: MGor c D. By construction we have g E: D EorE A:: c G: D; and therefore by multiplication we have BN + N A: B + BA: N K: C D2, which property is known to be that of the ellipsis and hyperbola. Corollary.-Since, in the parabola, B N and B c are of infinite length, and may therefore be said to be equal, B N and B c may therefore be expunged from the first two terms of the analogy in the above general property; then we shall have NA C A:: N K2: C D2. Or the truth of the operation may be shown by a particular demonstration for the parabola thus: See Figure 9. Because of the similar triangles A N K and A M g, A N: A E:: N K: M gor D; by construction we have AM: A C: C G or N K: CD; and consequently, by multiplication, A N: A C: N K2: C D2, which is the property of the parabola. Figures 7, 8, 9.-In a conic section, are given the abscissa, A C, an ordinate, c D, and a point, K, in the curve: to determine the species, and thence to describe the curve. Draw E g D parallel to A c, and A E parallel to e D; through the points A and K draw A K g, cutting E D atg; make D G: c:: Dg: g E, and through the points K and G draw K G B orG K B, which, if not parallel to A C, produce it until it meet A C or c A in B; then A B will be a diameter. In this case the curve is an ellipsis or hyperbola. It is an ellipsis when the extremities of the diameter are on different sides of the ordinate, as in Figure 5; but when the extremities of the diameter are on the same side of the ordinate, the curve is an hyperbola. If K G be parallel to A c, the curve is a parabola. A diameter, A B, and an ordinate, c D, being thus ascertained, the curve will be described as in Figures 1,2, 3. Other particulars relating to these curves will be found under the articles ELLIPSIS, HYPERBOLA, and PARABOLA. CONICAL ROOF, a roof whose exterior surface is shaped like a cone. CONICS. See CONIC SECTION. CONISTRA, the pit of a theatre. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS, of an ellipsis or hyperbola, any two diameters that are parallel to tangents at the extremities of each other. CONOID, (from the Greek, icovoeidyg, partaking of the figure of a cone), a figure generated by the revolution of a conic section round one of its axes. There are three kinds of conoids, viz., the elliptical, the hyperbolical, and the parabolical; which are sometimes otherwise denominated, ellipsoid, or spheroid, hyperboloid, and paraboloid. Now because the solid is generated by the revolution of the section of a cone upon its axis, the axis will then also be that of the solid. In this case, since, in the generation of the solid, every point of the curve will describe a circle, every section of the solid parallel to the base will be a circle. If a conoid be cut by a plane meeting the base, or the plane of the base produced, the section will be either an ellipsis, or an hyperbola, or a parabola. Every section of an ellipsoid oblique to its axis, is an ellipsis; and if a paraboloid or hyperboloid be cut by a plane meeting the plane of the base, produced on the outside of the figure, the section will also be an ellipsis. In the paraboloid, if the cutting plane be parallel to the axis, the section will be an equal parabola. In the hyperboloid, if the solid be cut by a plane parallel to a section of the cone, made by a plane passing through the point where the asymptote of the generating section meets the axis of the solid produced, the section will be an hyperbola; but if the cutting plane be parallel to the plane in which is the asymptote, and at right angles with the generating section, the section will be a parabola. Thus the ellipsoid has only two sections, viz. the circle and the ellipsis: the paraboloid, three sections, viz. the circle, the ellipsis, and the parabola: the hyperboloid, four sections, viz. the circle, the ellipsis, the hyperbola, and the parabola: and the cone itself has five sections, viz. the triangle, the circle, the ellipsisthe hyperbola, and the parabola. The triangle is a section peculiar to the cone alone; the hyperbola, to the cone and hyperboloid; the parabola, to the cone and parabolical and hyperbolical conoids; and the circle and ellipsis are common not only to the cone, but also to each of -the three conoids. All parallel sections of conoids are of similar figures; though it may seem singular that this should be a general property, when it is considered that, in a cone, a section through the apex, or point, is a triangle, and a section parallel thereto is an hyperbola; so that if the property existed generally, the triangular and hyperbolic sections of the cone so posited ought also to be similar. To reconcile this paradox, let us consider, that in all hyperbolical parallel sections of a cone, the asymptotes make equal angles, and the sections which are nearer to that passing through the apex of the cone, have a greater degree of curvature at the vertex of these curves; than those which are more remote, though both figures be similar. Farther, if the legs of the hyperbola be infinitely extended, they will be infinitely near a straight line, as they will fall in with the asymptotes nearly, and the curved portion will bear no sensible magnitude, compared with the part which is comparatively straight, as the legs of the hyperbola I I I I —7 Q_ N.1 - __~_I __ i__:___ - CON 191 CON CO 19 CON_~_ become straighter and straighter as they are more and more produced. Thus the curved portion may be considered as a mere point to the whole figure, in a section through the vertex, the ideas of the general property seeming to vanish, or not apply; but if we allow a parallel section, though ever so little distant, it can very easily be compared with any remote parallel section, and their difference will be this, that, in like portions of the two curves, the similar figures inscribed in the section nearer to the apex will be incomparably small to those of the sections more remote, and in a parallel section passing through the vertex, the similar figures of comparison will be lost, as being of infinitely small magnitude. The section through the axis, which is the generating plane, is, in the spheroid, the greatest of all the parallel sections; but in the hyperboloid, it is the least; and in the paraboloid, it is equal to any other parallel section. If an hyperbola be supposed to revolve with its asymptote upon its axis, the curve will generate a conoid, and the asymptote a cone; and if these two solids be imagined to be cut by a plane in any position, then the two sections will be similar and concentric figures, of the same species in each solid. Tofind the solidity of a conoid.-To the area of the base, add four times the area of the middle section, multiply onesixth of the sum by the height, and the product will give the solidity. In the spheroid, one-sixth of four times the middle section only, multiplied by the height, gives the solidity; that is, two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder. Other particular rules and properties will be found under ELLIPSOID, PARABOLOID, and HYPERBOLOID. CONOPEUM, in antiquity, a sort of canopy of net-work, hung about beds, to keep away gnats and flies. CONSERVATORY (from the Latin, conserve, to keep) may be defined generally as a place for preserving anything in a state desired, as fiom loss, decay or injury; in this sense, granaries for keeping corn, ice-houses, &c., may be called conservatories. In gardening, the word conservatory is so frequently confounded with GREEN-HOUSE, and the terms are applied with so little precision to buildings used for preserving plants in an artificial climate, that it is difficult to define what is properly a conservatory. " The term," says a writer in the Penny Cyclopoedia, "which, as its meaning shows, was originally intended for buildings in which plants were preserved during winter, has come to be used, firstly, for glass houses in which plants are cultivated by growing them in the open border, and subsequently for all such glazed buildings whatsoever. A conservatory, properly so called, is a brick building heated by artificial means, having its whole southern part closed by large glazed sashes, which may be opened or shut at pleasure. Its floor is generally of stone, and a part of it is occupied by a stage on which plants in pots can be placed. Such a conservatory was intended to preserve during the winter, orange-trees, myrtles, American aloes, and similar plants, which during the summer will flourish in the open air, but which require during the winter to be protected." The modern or popular meaning of the word, is now almost the opposite of the original one, and a conservatory is said to differ from a green-house principally in this, that in the latter the plants and trees stand in pots, placed upon stages; and in the former are regularly planted in beds of the finest composts, on being removed from the green-house, and taken out of the tubs or pots. By introducing stages, instead of beds, however, one may serve for the other. The construction of a conservatory is similar to that of a green-house; but it should be more spacious, elevated, and finished in a superior style. The sides, ends, and roofs should be of glass, in order to admit light freely, and to protect the plants. It should likewise be so situated as to be quite dry, receiving as much of the heat of the sun as possible during the day, and provided with flues to communicate heat when found necessary, and valves and other conveniences for the introduction of fresh air, when required, for the purpose of ventilation. In summer-time, the glass roofs are sometimes taken off, and the plants exposed to the open air, but on the approach of the autumnal frosts, they must be restored. There is much diversity of opinion amongst practical men as to the comparative merits of wood and iron in the construction of conservatories. Mr. J. Thompson, a man of great experience, in his " Practical Treatise," gives the preference to wood, although acknowledging the advantages of iron in lightness of appearance. " Any persons," he observes, " having a knowledge of the expansion and contraction of metals, may form some idea of the expansion of a large iron roof on a hot day during the months of July and August, and of the contraction on a severe frosty night; so great have I witnessed the action of the sun's rays in expanding the iron rafters and lights upon a hot day, that it has required two or three men to draw down the sliding-lights; and in an equal proportion have I seen the contraction during the intensity of winter, so much so, that large apertures have appeared between the rafters and lights, which admitted the external air to such an extent, that it required the strength of two fires, and the flues heated to the greatest excess, before the house could be raised three degrees of heat, and this in a house of not very large dimensions." This gentleman also objects to the iron-roofed houses, that they require double the quantity of fuel that is necessary in houses otherwise constructed. Notwithstanding some admitted disadvantages, the great convenience of iron, the readiness with which it is manufactured, and the extreme lightness and elegance of its appearance, will always give it a great advantage. Some of the most mugnificent conservatories in this country, have been constructed of iron, amongst which we may especially notice that in the Botanic Garden, Regent's Park. This building was erected under the direction of Mr. Decimus Burton, and forms the half of the centre part of the proposed " Winter Garden," in which, when completed, the subscribers to these beautiful gardens will be able to enjoy the luxury of the parterre at all seasons of the year. It is constructed of iron, principally wrought, the pillars and guttering only being cast. The water from the roof is conducted by the internal pillars, to large tanks under ground, from whence it is pumped up for the supply of the house. The building is heated by warm water conveyed through pipes arranged beneath the surface, in brick channels, having large outlets for the hot air, with air-ducts at intervals to create a current, and give increased action to the hot air in the drains. The boiler-house is beneath the ground, at some distance from the building. The structure is ventilated by sliding-lights in the roof, acted on by a simple contrivance, which opens and shuts the whole simultaneously, and is glazed with sheet-glass in long lengths. The whole building contains above eleven thousand superficial feet. It was erected by Mr. Turner, of the Hammersmith Ironworks, Dublin, at a cost of about ~6,000. The conservatories at Sion House, the Duke of Northumberland's, Alton Towers, the Earl of Shrewsbury's, and the Duke of Devonshire's at Chatsworth, are on the most magnificent scale, and are especially worthy the study of the young architect who may be called on for designs for a build I _ ___ C I — — ~ -- -- - -I CON 192 CON ON 19 CON19 ing of this description. He will also find much valuable practical information in Mr. J. W. Thompson's work on the "Construction of Stoves, and other Horticultural Buildings." The conveniences which may be attached to conservatories, consist of retiring-rooms, seed-rooms, aviaries, &c. If there be no sheds behind, the walls should not be less than three bricks thick. CONSISTORY (fi-om the Latin, consistorium) a large hall, at Rome, in which the college of cardinals meet to plead judiciary causes. CONSOLE (from the French) a bracket, or projecting body, formed like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the ends, used for supporting a cornice, bust, or vase. Consoles have been used for supporting an entire order of columns, as in the barbarous architecture of the palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro. Consoles are otherwise denominated ancones, or trusses. CONSPIRING POWERS, in mechanics, such powers as act in directions not opposite to each other. CONSTRUCTION (Latin, construe, to heap up into one) the erection or disposition of several separate parts in such a manner, as to form a perfect and compact whole. A good knowledge of the principles of construction, forms an essential item in the qualification of an architect. The principles of construction arise out of and are entirely dependent upon those of gravitation. "Gravity," says an excellent authority on this subject, " is the source of all the principles, inventions, and ingenuity, called into action in the structure of architectural works. The weight or downward tendency of their materials, is the cause of buildings holding together, or falling, or being thrust apart. Gravity, in its various dynamic modifications, is the sole acting power which operates in a building. All the mechanical perfections of scientific building result from a clear knowledge of the operation of gravity, and fiom the ability to direct their course: all the mechanical defects of buildings, result from an ignorance of the laws of gravity, and from inattention or inability to counterbalance their effect. A judicious architect enslaves to his purpose the active force of gravity, and compels it to exert all its force in holding together more firmly his structure; an ignorant or careless architect or workman, allows that force to exert itself in wracking, straining, distorting, breaking, and destroying his work." The methods in which gravity acts upon materials, are by compression, by tension, and by cross-strain. The first of these modes of operation is the simplest and least destructive, unless exerted to too great an extent, and is that which forms the basis of the most sound construction; its tendency is to bring the particles of matter more closely together; instances of its application occur in all simple constructions, such as upright piers, arches, &c. The second method, that of tension, has a directly opposite tendency to the last, and exerts its influence in disengaging the atoms from each other, it is of course not naturally favourable to construction, but the contrary, nevertheless it is made a very efficient and useful agent; its influence is never exerted but upon materials which have a strong counteracting tendency, and it is made available to produce the first effect of gravity, or compression. Examples of its operation are to be met with in suspensionbridges, and in the tie-beams and king or queen-posts of trusses. The third method by which materials are affected by gravity, is cross-strain, which is a combination of the two last, as it is tension effected by pressure, and its result is to tear or wrench the particles of matter asunder; it is in principle totally inimical to construction, and must be avoided or counteracted. Cross-strain occurs in unscientifically formed roofs, where struts rest ppon a tie-beam, also when any ver tical weight presses upon any horizontal beam, as in the case of brest-summers; it happens likewise, when heavy untrussed horizontal beams have too great a bearing, the effect in this case is termed sagging, and is counteracted by cambering or trussing the beam. Analogous, and arising out of these operations of gravity, are the three great principles in construction-repose, equipoise, and tie. The first of these is the simplest, and is the principle most usually adopted in very ancient buildings; it is used where the materials are merely piled up perpendicularly, so as to form piers or columns with cross-beams, architraves, or lintels, laid horizontally upon the piers or columns, pressing downwards merely with the gravity of these materials, without any thrust or other inclination to destroy the position of any part of the arrangement. " Buildings constructed on this principle, need only tenacity of material and unflinching foundations to be altogether perfect in construction; but buildings of this kind, owing nothing to geometrical science, lead to an enormousconsumption ofmaterials; all the materials of the horizontal spanning masses, of even a small building, must be huge, and are thence immensely expensive to procure, and to raise to their destined places; if these spanning masses be either so long or so brittle as to yield by their own weight, or by that which may be put upon them, the principle of simple repose becomes destroyed; the horizontal masses sink, and the piers or sustaining masses are thrust outwardly." The disadvantages attending this mode of construction, led to the invention of others, yet at the same time they all aimed at attaining the same end, namely, simple repose throughout the materials and different members of a building. The principle of equipoise in construction is this, that all tendencies to disturb or produce motion amongst the parts of a structure, should be counterbalanced by an equal and opposite tendency, and the most perfect exhibition of its powers is to be seen in the arch. This principle of building allows of the employment of the smallest materials, and ensures stability with the least possible quantity of matter; it is therefore far preferable to the first method or principle. The third principle, of tying, is of modern invention, and by it the quiescent state of a structure is maintained, not by resisting the power as in the last case, by external opposition or abutments, but by confining the power by internal restraint. The principle is embodied in the structure termed a truss. The most perfect specimens of constructive science are to be found in the wonderful erections of the Gothic architects: "The medimeval Christian builders arrived to such a delicate and intimate acquaintance with architectural dynamics, that by the discovery of the way in which all the particles of their materials were affected by gravity, they were enabled, by merely subjecting them to the frangibility caused by compression, so to economize them, and reduce their quantity, that many members of Gothic edifices, after five hundred years' devastation by time, are more sound than corresponding members of our modern builders, which have not subsisted fifty years, and which contain five times their proportion of materials. So admirable in general is the skill displayed in the dynamic disposition of the material of a Gothic cathedral, so shrewdly are the forces of its gravitation reduced to simple compression, that the whole is like a wonderful piece of shoring, sublimely and permanently imitated in stone." CONSTRUCTION, the art of describing a diagram or scheme from given data. In geometrical constructions, the accuracy of the diagram depends upon that of the points by which the lines constitut ing the figure are found. It is, therefore, of the utmost consequence to ascertain the situation of points correctly by lines crossing at right angles, or as nearly so as possible. I I I ~_ _ __ __ CON 193 CON O 19 CON The choice of this is not at all times in the power of the geometer, but when it is, he ought to avail himself of it. The situation of a point must be ascertained by the intersection of two lines, and since a line cannot be without breadth, it will be an oblong, and the intersection of two lines will be a parallelogram; when the lines cross at right angles, the parallelogram will form a square; and when at oblique angles it will be a rhombus. In all those cases, the point required is in the intersection of the diagonals of the parallelogram. Now the least of all the parallelograms formed by the intersection of two lines of equal breadth, is a square; but the greater the obliquity of the lines of intersection, the longer will be the rhombus; and as the drawing of the figure depends upon vision, the more indistinct will the angles of the figure so formed become, and consequently the situation of the point must be almost guessed at. In some cases, the obliquity of the intersection is of little consequence; as, in finding a curve by points, where the lines, which form the intersection, fall very nearly in with the curve itself, or make very acute angles with the tangent, unless it be required to find the points in the curve in a given ratio; but if, in finding a point, through which a line is to pass from another given point, to meet a line, of which some parts are either given or found, or to be found, it will be of the utmost consequence to determine with accuracy the situation of the intermediate point; for the point asertained in the other line will vary from its true place, more or less, according to the distance of the intermediate point found by the intersection. Another source of error arising from the intersection of oblique lines, which will also be more or less accurate, as the obliquity is less or greater, is, when one or both the lines are not exactly drawn through their extremities; even the deviation of a line being drawn its own breadth, will make the intersection fall its own length (which is the diagonal of the rhombus) to the end of the true intersection. Let it also be considered, that the longer diagonal of the rhombus may be of any length whatever, depending upon the obliquity of angles formed by the two intersecting lines. In the description of a diagram, when different points are ascertained in a line, in pointing out the line to the reader, it would be better to name all the letters in the order as they stand, instead of pointing out the line by two of the letters, particularly in a complicated diagram, where many other lines are concerned. This is still more necessary when several lines meet at the same point, as the use of all the letters not only gives a more immediate clue to identify the lines from others, but also shortens the description, as the same letters must be used again, in pointing out the other lines which cross the former line, and will thus supersede the necessity of the frequent repetition, after a line has been drawn in the required position to cut a former, of saying, " cutting such a line in the point" A or B, or whatever it may be; as the same letter cannot be in two lines, except at their intersection. In tracing the boundaries of angular figures, it will only be necessary to name the letters progressively, as they stand at the extremities of the sides, that is, at the angles; but to trace out the whole enclosure or perimeter, it would be necessary to name the first letter again, at the end of the series of letters. It is true, that a triangle, a quadrilateral, &c., will easily be understood, without naming the first letter again, by naming the figure at the same time, or the number of its sides, as in polygons the last side will always be wanting. Though these enumerations and repetitions of letters may appear clumsy, they lead sooner to an understanding of the 25 construction, shorten the language, and give accuracy to the description. CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY shows the method of reducing wood into forms, and joining the parts, as directed by the rules of DESCRIPTIVE CARPENTRY, or by the laws of strength, and thereby forming a complete design. It is much to be regretted that the first principles of this department of the art are frequently so little understood by those who are called upon to put thein into practice. The young carpenter too often follows blindly in the track of those who have gone before him, without inquiry, and without even attempting to understand the mechanical construction of the work he has just put together. We do not mean that the practical builder must necessarily make himself master of the higher branches of science, but that it would obviously be of advantage to him that he should acquire that general knowledge of the elementary principles of the art, which would enable him to select the best materials, and employ them in the best manner. Every species of construction should be characterized by stability, and a careful regard to economy of materials. These objects can only be obtained by judicious combinations of the substances used, so that the greatest amount of strength be secured with the smallest expenditure of material. Unless the builder possess a considerable knowledge of the principles of mechanics, unless he be acquainted with the effect of pressure, and the resisting powers of different materials, he cannot comprehend, much less design, such combination; but becomes a mere labourer putting together the several parts of a work, without knowing their relative dependence on each other, or the strength, or want of strength, of the whole. He is, indeed, from the want of such knowledge as we have described, incapable of judging what are the best forms of construction, or which of several modes of uniting timbers it is most advisable to make use of. It is the province of constructive carpentry to show this, and the carpenter who is desirous to make himself thoroughly acquainted with his business, should study to acquire not only a practical knowledge of its details, but also some insight into the principles on which it is founded. Constructive carpentry, it has been observed, is the method of reducing wood into forms, and the combining of several parts into a complete, firm whole. In most works, especially those of magnitude, it will frequently be necessary to join one or more pieces of timber, in order to obtain beams, &c., of sufficient size, and in order to economize material. The processes by which these objects are effected is a subject of the greatest importance, as on their being properly and substantially performed depends the stability of the structure in which they are used. Under this article then we propose to describe some of the most approved methods of uniting timber, and to treat of the following operations, viz., the lengthening of beams, either by scarfing or joining them in pieces; the strengthening of beams by trussing; the methods of joining two timbers at angles, in any given direction; and lastly, the mode of connecting several timbers, in order to perform certain functions required by the design. To lengthen a piece of timber, is to join or fasten two separate pieces, so that a portion of the end of the one piece shall lap upon a portion of the end of the other, the sides of both making but one continued surface, and forming a close joint, called a scarf. It is evident, that it the formation of a continued straight timber, if the joint consist of a plane, or planes, at right angles to two opposite sides of the compound piece, but not at right angles to the plane of the other two opposite sides, the plane, or several planes, forming the scarf, will make the - -- - — . -— —7 - -—. —.. ---- -- --- -- i I._ I _ _,_ CON 194 CON CO 194 CON _ ___~~ oblique angles, constituted by the surface of each piece on the same side, supplements to each other: or whatever oblique angle or angles the one piece makes with a side, the corresponding angle or angles formed by the joint or joints with the same continued surface of the other, will, together, form two right angles, and thus the solid part of the one will be equal and similar to the void of the other. There are several methods of lengthening timber, either by joining whole pieces of the same transverse sections, and forming their ends, which are to come in contact in one or several planes, or by forming the connection by means of a third piece, or by building the piece to be lengthened in several thicknesses, making the joints abutting upon each other on the solid of the piece with which they come in contact on the parallel joint. It is evident, that two bodies united, and intended to act as one in a state of tension, can never be so strong as either piece taken separately. Tabling is a mode of indenting the ends of the pieces which form the scarf, so as to resist a longitudinal strain; the pieces, therefore, require to be held together, or otherwise the notches and the tables which fit into them would require to be dovetailed. In this construction, the tables between the notches would be a very feeble support, as they are apt to split away. It must also be observed, that one single table, or one abutting part of resistance, is stronger, and much more easy to execute, than two or four; and that the resisting part should have as little projection as possible, because such projection diminishes the cohesive force, by a quantity of the timber equal in section to the abutting parts. Two pieces of timber may be very firmly fixed, by making the ends of the tables, instead of abutting, to form a tapering mortise, so that when the two pieces are brought close at the connecting surfaces, a wedge driven into the cavity will bring all the parts of the joint into contact. Every two pieces of timber require to be held together by some force compressing them equally on each side, particularly when the pieces are light; for which purpose iron bolts are very convenient, they acting as a tie, and having the same effect as two equal and opposite forces would have in compressing the beam on each side of the scarf; and as iron is of great strength, the bore made to receive the bolt will not be so large as to diminish the section, and consequently the firmness of the timber at the scarf, in any considerable degree; whereas, when wooden pins are used, they require a large bore, which weakens the timber, and the two pieces thus connected are not so firmly compressed, or, indeed, compressed at all, but are held together almost solely by friction. No limited distance can be specified for the length of the scarf; though it may be observed, generally, that a long scarf has no effect in diminishing the cohesive strength of a compound piece of timber. On the contrary, a long scarf gives an opportunity of increasing the number of bolts, which are the only ties when no tablings are used, as is the case where the abutting parts unite only by compression. It must here be understood, that all such abutting parts diminish the cohesive force in the proportion of their abutting surface to that of the whole section at any one of the abutments; so that should a scarf consist of a series of steps, formed by planes parallel and perpendicular to two of the opposite sides, the transverse sides of these steps to those of the piece should be all equal; and the greater the number of steps, the less will the strength be impaired; but if they be unequal, the timber will be weakest at the greatest section or compressed abutment, and if few, the section will be large, and the piece consequently deprived of a proportional degree of strength. We may also add, if the two pieces be strapped longitudinally across their abutting parts, the cohesive force will be considerably assisted thereby. There is no part of carpentry which requires greater correctness in workmanship than scarfing; as all the indents should bear equally, otherwise the greater part of the strength will be lost Hence we see how very unfit some of the complicated forms shown in the old works on carpentry were for the purpose. It is certainly the height of absurdity to render the parts difficult to be fitted, when the whole of the strength depends on their fitting well. " But many," says Professor Robison, "seem to aim at making the beam stronger than if it were of one piece; and this inconsiderate project has given rise to many whimsical modes of tabling and scarfing." Having already shown many varieties of scarfings under the general head of CARPENTRY, we shall here only point out the most approved forms for practical purposes, by way of illustrating the preceding observations. Figure 1. Two pieces of timber connected by a single step on each piece. Here more than half the power is lost; neither is the scarf so capable of resisting the force of tension as a single piece of timber would be, were it sawed half through its thickness from the opposite side, at a distance equal to the length of the scarf: however, if assisted by straps, it may perhaps be capable of resisting a much greater force, particularly if each opposite surface be bolted on the sides of the transverse joints through the straps. Figure 2. An oblique scarf, bolted in three places. Allowing the utmost cohesion of the part of the joint A B, to be the same as whole timber, and that the transverse parts, A D or B C, are one-fourth of the breadth, D E, the compound timber will possess three-fourths of the strength of a solid piece. Figure 3. A scarf with parallel joints and a single table upon each piece. Here the cohesive strength is diminished in an additional degree to that of Figure 1, by the projection of the table; but this gives an opportunity of driving a wedge through the joint, between the ends of the tables and thereby forcing the abutting parts to a joint. This mode requires the scarf to be longer than those which have no tables; and the transverse parts of the scarf must also be strapped and bolted. Figure 4. Allows of the same opportunity of wedging as before: if we would suppose the parts A'B and c D to be compressed by bolts as firmly together as if they were but one piece they would be, by the continuity of the fibres, and if the projection of the tables be equal to the transverse parts of the joints at A and D; the loss of strength, compared with that of a solid piece, will be no more than what it would be at A and D. Let it be here observed, once for all, that the strapping across the transverse part of the joint is the most effectual mode of preventing the pieces from being drawn from each other, by the sliding of the longitudinal parts of the scarf, and thereby giving the bolts an oblique position. Figure 5. A scarf formed by several steps. In this, if all the transverse parts of the steps be equal, and the longitudinal parts as strongly compressed by bolts as the fibres of whole timber would adhere laterally, the loss of strength would only be a fourth, compared to that of a solid piece; there being four transverse parts, that is, the part which the end of a step is of the whole. Figure 6. The end of each piece is formed by three steps, and the abutting parts of the middle step being greater than that at either extremity, the loss of strength in the compound timber is the part which the middle abutting surfaces are of the whole section. -— - --- -- ----- ------ -- —. --- — --- -- % " , 1"t I I,,, k, 4;(,, I.' I; " I.I I I \ ' N. ( A Pl. [) ['I 1\ ((, '( ) "' - 1, - R I I I I Y I. P//! ///; / fr?/ l J, q, I F'..:i /I,Y. /I. I, y7. 6. A A I,'/. aI ti/o. 1)/rr'i;. 6/ 11.1;~u/A. /:/'f A ', l.' V /,'., - C141 ~) I L4-re5 -rll ir Tr,(jrT VATI, I- - - " 1 'RI -1 -.j , AX I - -i -M ff\ 0 [It - I -1 I'", I, (4 X P-1 E 1 "' n HA14TE /1. iK q. I Ft9.Iz N0]I. Fitg.J2. N0 2. Ttj ll.NA?3. Ftry]2. 04. YN05. 2r06. -Fl~q 12 N0 7 Fkt]3 JY.' I. J7w13N0."2. ibrnby/, Af, Aicholtron 1-,'n- / " v P __ __I___ CON 195 CON CO 195 CON ~ _~__ Figure 7. A scarf consisting of six steps, the abutting parts being equal, and the longitudinal parts inclined in a small degree to the sides; so that when the two parts come to be bolted together, the pieces will dovetail each other, and thereby prevent their being drawn; but as all timber is liable to shrink in proportion to the dimensions of its section, no dependence can be put in dovetailing, for the shrinking may be so great, that the thickest parts of the solids at the abutment of the joint may pass through the narrower cavities, and render the dovetails useless. We may also observe, in the case of bolting, that when the longitudinal parts shrink from each other, the bolts will be drawn obliquely, unless the transverse parts on the sides be stripped and bolted, both opposite to the scarf and through the solid at each end of it. The strength of the compound beam may likewise be assisted by the iron; the dovetailing therefore can only give greater adhesion at first; at the same time, it occasions a small loss of strength, equal to the difference of the extreme end of the outer step and the nearer end of the whole section. Figure 8. The method of forming a compound timber, when the two pieces are not of sufficient length to allow them to lap, by means of a third piece, connected with both by a double scarf, formed of several degrees, or steps; the pieces abutting upon each other, with the middle of the connecting piece over their abutment. When girders are extended beyond a certain length, they bend under their own weight in the middle, and the degree of curvature will increase in a much greater degree than their lengths. An excellent method to prevent this sagging, without the assistance of uprights or posts from the ground or floor below, is, to make the beam in two equal lengths, and insert a truss, so that when the two pieces are bolted, the truss may be included between them, they forming its tie. To prevent any bad effects from shrinking, the truss-posts are generally constructed of iron, screwed and nutted at the ends; and to give a firmer abutment, the braces are let in with grooves into the side of each flitch. The abutments at the ends are also made of iron, and either screwed and nutted at each of the ends, and bolted through the thickness of both pieces, with a broad part in the middle, that the braces may abut upon the whole dimension of their section; or, the abutments are made in the form of an inverted wedge at the bottom, and rise cylindrically to the top, where they are screwed and nutted. These modes may be either constructed with one king-bolt in the middle, or with a truss-bolt at onethird of the length fiom each end. When there are two bolts, they include a straining place in the middle. The two braces may either be constructed of oak, or cast or wrought iron; the latter material is, however, very seldom employed. As wood contracts less in length than most metals, oak is better for the purpose than cast iron, but then the parts of the core must be so much stronger. As to the bolts, wrought iron is indispensable. It is obvious, that the higher the girder, the less will the parts be affected by the stress, and consequently there will be less risk of their giving way under heavy weights, or through long bearings. Figure 9. A beam of two thicknesses bolted together, the scarfing of each length of timber alternating in the two thicknesses, so as to have the junction of two lengths in the one thickness opposite the centre of a length in the other thickness: the scarfing is similar to that of F igure 3. Figure 10. A beam of three thicknesses bolted together, each thickness consisting of a number of short timbers so disposed, that the joints in no thickness come opposite the joints in either of the other thicknesses; a bolt occurs between every two joints. Figure 11. A section of a girder with two braces and 'a king-bolt. Figure 12. The section of a girder with a straining piece, two braces, and two truss-bolts, of the best principle. No. 1, represents the girder laid open, in order to show the core. No. 2, the two parts bolted together. No. 3, the edge of a washer. No. 4, the face of the same. No. 5, the side of the cut metal bolts, in the transverse direction of the girder. No. 6, the side of the same, in the longitudinal direction. No. 7, the transverse direction of the truss-bolt, or king-bolt. Fiqure 13. The section of a girder, calculated from its rise to sustain very heavy weights. If the tie-beam be very strong, the abutments may be wedged; but then the wedges ought to be very long, the tapper very small, that there may be no inclination to rise. The excess of length may be cut off afterwards. The bolts represented at No. 5, and No. 6, Figure 12, are nevertheless to be preferred. Two timbers may be joined, either by making both planes of contact parallel with or at right angles to the fibres, or by making the joint parallel with the fibres of the one piece, and at right or oblique angles to those of the other, or at oblique angles to the fibres of both pieces. When two pieces of timber are joined so that the common seam runs parallel with the fibres of both, the joint is called a longitudinal joint; but when the plane of the joint is at right angles to the fibres, it is an abutting, or butt-joint; this position brings the fibres of both pieces in the same straight line. If the joint be at right angles to the fibres of one piece, and parallel with those of the other, it is called a square joint; if the joint be parallel with the fibres of one piece and oblique to those of the other, it is a bevel joint; and lastly, if the joint be at oblique angles with the fibres of both pieces, the fibres forming an angle with each other double to that formed by the fibres of one piece and the joint, it is a mitre joint. These are the general positions of simple joints in respect to the fibres of one or both pieces; those which may be compounded by the position of different planes, are of infinite variety, but as they seem to have little or no practical application, we shall not detain the reader longer on the subject. In fixing two pieces of timber together with longitudinal joints, the pieces are generally bolted, and sometimes pinned. As to butting and mitre joints, they are seldom or never used in carpentry. When two pieces of timber are joined together at one or more angles, the one piece will either meet the other and form one angle, or by crossing it form two angles; or the two timbers will cross each other, and form four angles. In all the following cases of connecting two timbers, it is supposed that the sides of the pieces are parallel with the fibres, or, if the fibres be crooked, as nearly so as possible; and that each piece has at least one of its surfaces in the same plane with those of one of the other; the four sides being at right angles to each other. The angle or angles so formed will either be right or obtuse. Notching is the most common and simple form, in permanent works, and in some cases the strongest, for joining two timbers at one or more angles, particularly when bolted at the joint. The form of the joint may be varied according to the position of the sides of the pieces, the number of angles, the quantity and direction of the stress on the one or both pieces, or any combination of these circumstances. In the notching of timbers upon each other, the notch is generally supposed to be formed by planes, at right angles to, and parallel with the side in which the excavation is made; therefore the part of the corresponding piece must have its planes in a similar situation, the solid being contained between these planes, instead of the empty space, or notch, as in the — ~-ncll-~lu~-CIrunnrnr T~CTL1l-rr -- _ _ _~ _ ~____~ ~_ __ I_~ _I_~_ _ ______ _____1 __ ~ _ __ CON 196 CON CON 16 CON other. It may also here be remarked, that the notch is generally supposed to consist of three planes, unless it be otherwise specified. Notching admits of the two pieces being joined at from one to four angles; but joining by mortise and tenon admits only from one to two angles. In mortise and tenon joining, four sides of the mortise are always supposed to be at right angles to each other and to the surface whence it is recessed, and two of these sides to be parallel with each of the sides, which form a right angle with the side from which the mortise is made; the fifth plane, which is the bottom of the mortise, is parallel with the other. With respect to the tenon, four of its sides are parallel with the four sides of the piece. In the application of timbers to buildings, it is here supposed that all pieces cut for use have a rectangular section, and when laid horizontally have their sides perpendicular to, and parallel with, the horizon. If two pieces of timber are to be joined at four angles, cut a notch in one piece equal to the breadth of the other, so as to leave the remaining part of the thickness sufficiently strong, a very small excavation being sufficient; then insert the other piece in the notch: or if the work be required to be very firm, notch each piece reciprocally to each other's breadth, and fasten them together by pins, spikes, or bolts, as the case may require: this form is applicable where the pieces are equally exposed to a strain. When one piece has to sustain another over it, transversely, and if only the upper be required to support a weight, cut a notch from its lower side, equal in breadth to about threefourths of that of the lower piece, and as deep as the vertical distance that it is to be let down; then the lower piece must have a notch cut in its vertical side, leaving the middle of the upper face entire to three-quarters of its breadth, and the lower parts of the vertical side entire, so that the vertical depth of each notch may be the same as that of the upper notch: by this means the strength of the supporting or lower pieces is diminished in a much less degree than if the notch were cut out the whole breadth. This method is applicable to roofing and naked flooring. The framing of timber by dovetail notching is chiefly applicable to horizontal framing, where the lower timber is sufficiently supported; but where the lower timber is unsupported, it is common to use mortise and tenon, which does not weaken the timber in any considerable degree; where the timber is notched from the upper side, the operation reduces its thickness, and consequently impairs its strength; though it may be said, if the solid of one piece fill the excavation of the other, and both be tightly driven or forced together (if we can place implicit confidence in the experiments of Du Hamel) and if the pieces be not cut more than one-third through, there will be rather an accession than a loss of strength. It may be observed, however, that in large works, where heavy timbers are employed, it is difficult, or almost impossible, to fit them with due accuracy; and even where the joints closely fitted at first, the shrinking would occasion cavities on the sides, that would render the tenons of no avail, because the axis of fracture would be nearer to the breaking, or under side of the supporting piece. What has been observed with regard to horizontal pieces of timber, applies to framing in every position, where the force is to fall on the plane of the sides; and if a number of pieces thus liable to lateral pressure on either side, are to be framed into two other stiff pieces, the mortise and tenon will prove best for the purpose. When joists are framed into trimmers, the usual method is to make the mortise on the tenon with a plain shoulder, in the middle of the sides of its respective timber: this mode is particularly used in letting down bridging joists upon binding joists, and small rafters upon purlins. If it be required to join two pieces of timber, to form two right angles, so as to be immovable when the transverse is held or fixed fast, and the standing piece pulled in a direction of its length; cut a dovetail notch across the breadth (,f the transverse piece, and notch out the vertical sides of the standing piece at the end, so as to form a corresponding similar and equal solid. In some pieces of work, besides the dovetail, an additional notch is cut, to receive the shoulder of the lower piece. If the position of these pieces be horizontal, and the upper of sufficient weight, or pressed down by any considerable force, when the pieces are put together in their place, the dovetail will be sufficiently strong without the assistance of pins, spikes, or bolts. This construction requires the timbers to be well seasoned, for otherwise the shrinking will permit the standing piece to be drawn out of the transverse, and thus defeat the purpose which the construction was intended to answer. The following method of remedying this defect will be found effectual:-Cut the transverse piece in two excavations from the upper side, so that if the breadth be supposed to be divided into five equal parts, and a notch equal in breadth to three parts be cut next to the outer vertical side, and the other notch be made equal to the breadth of one part, and each notch depressed from the upper face about one-third the thickness of the piece, so as to leave the second part on the upper surface next to the inner vertical side, and the two-thirds of the depth of each vertical side next to the lower side entire: then the corresponding single notch being made on the standing piece to the solid left on the upper surface of the transverse piece, the two pieces will reciprocally receive each other. When binding joints are framed into girders, as they have to support the bridging joists and boarding of the floor, there will be a considerable strain at their extremities; in order to make the tenons sufficiently strong to resist the weight, they should be framed with a shorter bearing tenon attached to the principal tenon and a sloping shoulder above, called a tusk; tenons thus formed are called tusk tenons. When two parallel pieces, quite immovable, are to have another piece framed between them, proceed thus:-Insert the one end of the tenon of the connecting piece into a shallow mortise, and make a long mortise in the opposite side of the other timber, so that when the cross piece is moved round the shoulder of the other extremity, as a centre, it may slide home to its situation: thus if the tenon at the movable end fit the mortise closely, the bottom of the mortise would be the arc of a circle, of which the shoulder of the tenon first formed would be the centre: but the bottom of the long mortise may be straight instead of circular, provided it be sufficiently recessed to clear the end of the piece. This mode of framing a transverse piece between two others is employed in trimming in ceiling joists: the binding joists are always previously mortised before they are disposed in a situation to receive them, and the ceiling joists are seldom or never cut to their lengths and fitted in before the building is covered over. When a transverse piece of timber is to be framed between two parallel joists, of which the vertical surfaces are not parallel, turn the upper edge of the transverse piece downwards upon the upper horizontal surface of the joists; mark the interval or distance between them upon the surface of the transverse piece now under; then turn the transverse piece in the way it is intended to be framed, placing the edge over the places where it is to be let down; then apply a straight-edge to the oblique surface of the joist, and slide ~____~~ ~~ -j ____i ___ II _I_-I_-II-_YI._LL I.- —. __ ~___ _~ I_- 1 CON 197 CON CO 197_ CON~_~ L_ the transverse piece so as to bring the mark upon the upper side of it in a line with the straight-edge. This being done, proceed in the same manner with the other end, and the two lines drawn on the vertical sides of the intermediate piece w ill mark the shoulders of the tenons. This process is called by workmen tumbling-in joists, and is particularly useful when the timber is warped or twisted. Having shown the principles of lengthening timber and strengthening of beams, also the methods of joining timbers at angles, we shall now proceed to construction in general. In groin centering, the boarding which forms the exterior surface for building upon is supported by transverse ribs of timber, which are either constructed simply, or with trusses, according to the magnitude of the work; and as a groin consists generally of two vaults crossing each other, one of them is always boarded over, the same as a plain vault, without having any respect to the other, which is afterwards ribbed and boarded, so as to make out the regular surface. Timbers disposed in walls and at returns or angles, are joined together where the magnitude of the building, or exposure to strain, may require. These are of three denominations, as bond-timber, lintels, and wall-plates. Flooring is supported by one or more rows of parallel beams, called naked or carcase-flooring, and is denominated either single or double, accordingly. The manner of joining the timbers we have already spoken of. During the construction of the building, the flooring of carpentry, if not supported by brick or stone partitions, is either supported by the partitioning of timber or by shores. The construction of the flooring, whether single or double, depends upon the magnitude of the building, the horizontal dimensions of the apartments, or the weight which the boarding may be required to support. When the flooring is required to be very stiff, it becomes necessary to use truss girders. Naked flooring for dancing upon should be made very strong, and so contrived that the upper part of it may spring, so as to bend to the impression of the force, while the lower part, sustaining the ceiling, remains immovable. Partitions are constructed of a row of timbers, or if the length of the bearing require very great stiffness, they are made of fiamed truss-work, and afterwards filled in with parallel timbers. The trussing of partitions may be made to assist in giving support to the floors, where they are unsupported below. The framing ought to be so managed as to discharge the office of hanging up the floor, in whatever situation the doors are placed. Truss partitions are also of the utmost use in supporting the superior floor. The covering of the roof is sustained by one or several rows of parallel timbers, each row being in a plane parallel to the covering. The force of the timbers, which would act laterally upon the walls, is generally restrained by tie-beams placed upon wall-plates on the top of the walls, and fixed to the lower ends of the rafters. In roofing, many ingenious contrivances may be resorted to, their application depending upon the pitch of the roof, the number of compartments into which it may be divided, or whether there are to be tie-beams or not. If an apartment is required to be coved into the roof, a longitudinal truss, supported at the ends, may be placed in a vertical plane under the ridge, by which the rafters may be hung; for it is evident, that if the upper ends of the rafters were held in their situation, their lower ends would descend by their gravity, and would describe ares of circles in vertical planes, and in their descent would approach nearer together, and, consequently, instead of pushing out the walls, would have a tendency to draw them towards each other, And if beams'were placed transversely immediately under the longitudinal truss, and fixed to the opposite rafters, they would act as straining pieces, and prevent the exterior sides of the roof from getting hollow. If the whole space within, under the rafters, were required, that is, to have no intermediate work of trussing, the sides of the roof may be prevented from descending by arching them with cast iron, or trussing them with wood in the inclined planes of their sides; and to restrain the pressure of the rafters, which would be discharged at the extremities of the building, a strong wall-plate, well connected in all its parts, must be introduced, which, acting as a tie, would prevent the lateral pressure forcing out the walls. In this construction, as well as in the former, the rafters would have a tendency, from their gravity, to become hollow; in this case straining beams should be introduced at a convenient height, which would have a good effect in counteracting that tendency. If it be required to occupy very little space by the wood-work, cast-iron arches, abutting upon each other, and screwed with their planes upon the upper sides of the rafters, will answer the purpose best. The idea of trussing roofs upon these principles was discovered, many years ago, by Mr. P. Nicholson, in consequence of a dispute concerning a roof which had been constructed upon a chapel, and which had pushed out the walls to such an alarming degree as to threaten the demolition of the whole fabric: Mr. Nicholson was chosen as arbiter, but the principle which the architect adopted was so incompatible with the nature of the design, that, though chosen by the architect himself, he was under the disagreeable necessity of giving judgment in favour of the constructor. This roof was truncated, or flat, and the ceiling within cylindrical, extending horizontally the whole clear of the walls, and in height to the under sides of the camber-beams, so that there were no ties between opposite rafters. The principle consisted, therefore, of two sloping sides and a camber-beam, which were only tied together by angle-braces, and as the ceiling came in contact with the under side of the rafters and the under sides of the camber-beams, the braces were also disposed so that the middle of their under sides came in contact with the ceiling, and thus, to maintain the roof in its position, depended entirely upon the resistance of the walls, or upon the inflexibility of the timbers, or both; all of which were of unusual strength. The lesson which every architect ought to learn from this, is, always to construct his roof in such a manner as to make it entirely dependent on itself. In the year 1802, two years subsequent to the above dispute, a model of a roof was exhibited before a numerous meeting of the Philosophical Society at Glasgow, wherein the timbers consisted simply of rafters abutting at the top upon a ridge-piece, leaving the whole space under the rafters clear, and, of course, forming a triangular hollow prism, with the two upper sides parallel to the inclined planes of the exterior. The wall-plates were unsupported, except at the four corners, which were sustained by uprights or posts; the pieces let in upon the upper sides of the rafters consisted of small arcs, almost straight, forming on each inclined plane a parabolic curve, and extending from post to post. From the ridge-piece equal and very considerable weights were suspended, one from the meeting of every pair of rafters, without producing any visible effect upon the wall-plates. The form of a parabolic curve is best adapted to that of equal weights suspended at equal distances. Instead of arcs, simple trusses may be used, and the rafters may bridge over them. In many cases, where space is required, we cannot help thinking, that the disposition and fixing of the boarding in -ur --- —-u ---~ ---rrrr ---CIU ----~ — -— u~ —-u- ___ — ~U —~-N --- -— ~-I~-L —~-L- -- ---- * _II _ II _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ CON 198 CON CO 198 CON_ _ the form of a truss, is vastly superior to placing them with their joints parallel to the horizon, and would be a very proper substitute for arching or trussing the sides in all roofs of moderate dimensions. It must, however, be observed, that the meeting of every two boards ought to be as nearly as possible upon the middle of a rafter, and not over the hollow. To which we may add, that as all the joists are abutting in such disposition, the boards forming trussed work may be made thicker, and let into the rafters, which will give greater security to the abutments; but for this purpose they ought to be firmly fixed at their meeting, to prevent them from starting. The principle of arching the inclined sides of a roof, and making the wall-plates act as ties, is exhibited in the architectural plates of Rees' Cyclopedia, published in 1805. Circular roofs may be executed without ties, or without any precaution of trussing, as in rectangular buildings, but the wall-plate ought to be one continued mass. There are two methods of covering circular roofs with boards: one is, to bend the boards with their joints in horizontal planes; and the other is, to bend them in planes passing through the axis. As that species of circular roofs called domes lays considerable claim to our attention, it will here be proper to say something on their construction. If the dome be spherical, and have no lantern to support, the ribs may be constructed of boards in two or three thicknesses, with the longitudinal joints of the boards tending to the axis of the dome, and intersecting the spherical edges, and the butting joints intersecting the sides of the ribs, which tend to the said axis. Let us now suppose the thickness of a rib to consist of three boards, and suppose the circular pieces which are to compose the ribs, to be all prepared of equal lengths and breadths. Take one of the lengths, suppose for the left-hand piece at the bottom, and lap the next higher length, which is the middle piece, two-thirds upon the lower piece; take another length for the right-hand piece, next higher, and lap this two-thirds on the middle piece; so that the righthand piece will lap one-third upon the left-hand piece; between the ends of this third, bolt or pin the three pieces together; the middle board will want a third, the right-hand board two-thirds, to make it complete at the bottom; these parts being supplied and fixed, lay another board at the higher end of the right-hand board, the end of another to abut upon the higher end of the middle board, and the end of a third board to abut upon the upper end of the left-hand board, then there will be three piles of boards, which must be fastened together between each pair of heading joints, which are three in number. Proceed in like manner with every succeeding three boards, as with the last three, until you arrive at the top, and the deficiency must be supplied as at the bottom. In this manner, every rib in succession must be constructed, until they are all finished. Each rib ought to be fitted to the curvature of the axal section of the dome, drawn on a floor, and the three thicknesses fixed together throughout the whole length, before it is removed. If, in addition to the fixing, the joints be strapped, it will add considerably to the strength, and will not be much inferior to that of a solid piece. In large domes of this construction, it becomes necessary to discontinue the ribs, otherwise an unnecessary quantity of timber would be employed; and it must be observed, that the greatest intervals must be so regulated in their dimensions, as not to be greater than what would make the horizontal ribs for the boarding, when fixed, sufficiently strong. As all domes are best boarded with their joints in vertical planes tending to the axis, horizontal pieces must, in this case, be strutted between the ribs, and their outer sides formed with the spherical surface. A dome constructed in this manner, might also be made to support a heavy lantern, provided the strutting-pieces were strapped together. In the above manner was the timber dome of the Halle du Bled, at Paris, constructed by Moulineau, supposed to be the first of the kind. If the boarding of the dome is required to be bent, with the joints in horizontal planes, and the dome have no lantern, a very good method is, to construct it with several vertical ribs, their planes being disposed at equal angles round the axis as their common vertex, and constructed according to the above method; between every pair of such ribs, place other ribs, the curvature of which will be portions of less circles of the sphere, unless one stand in each interval, and its plane bisect the inclination of the vertical planes of the two adjacent principal ribs: dispose of these ribs in equidistant parallel planes, and fit their upper ends upon the sides of the principal ribs. This disposition of the ribs will be a considerable saving of timber, besides what it would have been, had the planes of all the ribs tended to the axis. In the construction of plaster groins, two methods are employed in the disposition and fixing of the ribs. By both methods, ribs are made to answer the intersections at the angles: by one method, ribs are formed to the transverse sections of the vault, and disposed in vertical planes accordingly; but by the other, the ribs are prepared straight, and fixed parallel to the axis of each vault. The lathing for plaster is sustained upon walls, by a number of parallel posts of very small scantlings, called battening, and ranged according to the figure they are intended to form. CONTABULATE, to floor with boards. CONTACT (from the Latin, contactus, touch) the mutual touching, or meeting, of two things. CONTACT, in geometry, is when a line or plane meets a figure or solid, without cutting it, though the line or plane be produced. Thus, a line and a circle are in contact when the line is a tangent to the circle; and two circles are in mutual contact, when they touch each other without cutting: the like is to be understood of a plane and a convex body, as a cylinder, cone, conoid, &c. CONTENT (from the Latin, contentus) that which is contained, the thing held, included, or comprehended within a limit or line. In geometry, the area or quantity of matter or space included in certain lines. Linear content, length simply; superficial content, area or surface; solid content, the number of cubic inches, feet, yards, &c. contained in a given space. CONTEXTURE (from the Latin, contexo, woven) the disposition or union of the constituent parts of a body in respect of each other. CONTIGNATION (from the Latin, contignatio, con and tignum, a beam), a frame of beams, in ancient Roman carpentry, the same as we now understand by naked flooring. CONTIGUITY (from the Latin, contiguus, to meet) the relation of surfaces or solids whereby their sides join each other. CONTIGUOUS ANGLES, in geometry. See ANGLES. CONTINUED, a term applied to whatever is not interrupted, but proceeds in the same course. CONTINUED ATTIC, an attic not broken into pilasters. CONTINUED PEDESTAL, a pedestal with its mouldings and dado, or die, continued both through the column and intercolumn, without being broken. CONTINUED PROPORTION, is when there is a series of lines or quantities, such that the first is to the second as the second ___ _I_ _ii __ CON 199 COP C 1 COP is to the third, and the second to the third as the third to the fourth, and so on. CONTINUED SOCLE, the same as a continued plinth. See PLINTH. CONTINUOUS BEARINGS, balks of timber laid under the rails of a railway for their support, in place of stone sleepers, or blocks fixed at certain intervals. These balks, or longitudinal sleepers, as they are generally termed, are secured to cross transoms fixed to piles. CONTINUOUS IMPOST, in mediaeval architecture, the mouldings of an arch carried down to the ground without interruption, or anything to mark the impost-point. CONTORTED, wreathed. See WREATHED. CONTOUR (from the French; synonymous with contorno, Italian) the outline of a body; to have which correct, is one of the greatest requisites in drawing and painting. CONTRAMURE. See COUNTERMURE. CONTRAMURE (from the French, contre, against, and mur, a wall) in fortification, an external wall built about the walls of a city. CONTRARY FLEXURE, Point of, or POINT OF RETROGRESSION, the point in which two curves meet that have the convexity of the one and the concavity of the other on the same side of the line. CONTRAST (from the French, contraste) to avoid the repetition of the same thing, by introducing variety; as is done in antique edifices, where rectangular and cylindrical niches with spherical heads are alternately introduced; also, in the dressings of niches, as in the Pantheon, tabernacles are introduced with circular and triangular pediments alternately. CONTRAVALLATION, (in fortification), a trench guarded with a parapet, thrown round a besieged place by the besiegers, to protect themselves, and check sallies of the garrison. CONVENIENCE (from the Latin, convenientia) an easy or accessible distribution of apartments in respect to the intention of the design. CONVENT (from the Latin, conventus, an assembly). See MONASTERY. CONVENT, a religious edifice, in which lived assemblies of persons devoted to a religious life, under the authority of a superior. Convents for males are termed monasteries, those for'females, nunneries; when under the jurisdiction of an abbot, or abbess, they are named abbeys, and under that of a prior, or prioress, priories. CONVENTUAL CHURCH, a church belonging to a convent, and consisting of regular clerks, professing some order of religion, or of a dean and chapter, or other societies of spiritual men. CONVERGENT CURVE. See CURVE. CONVERGENT LINES, such lines as if produced would meet. CONVEX LINE, that side of a curve which has no contrary flexure, and on which a tangent may by drawn. CONVEX RECTILINEAR SURFACE, a curved surface, such, that if any point be taken, a straight line passing through the point can only be drawn in one direction, and if another point be taken out of the straight line so drawn, another straight line passing through this and the former point, will pass within the solid. Bodies having this property are cones, cylinders, and many others. CONVEX SURFACE OF A SOLID, a curved surface, in which, if any two points be taken, the straight line joining them will pass through the body: all the solids generated by the revolutions of conic sections, except the triangle, have this property. CONVEXITY (from the Latin, convexus) the same as convex surface. CONVOLUTION (from the Latin, convolutio) a winding or turning motion. COOPER (fiom the Dutch, kype, a barrel) a person whose business it is to make vessels of wooden boards, hooped together around a circular or elliptic circumference. COOPERY, the art of making vessels of boards, by joining them edge to edge, and binding them round the exterior sides with hoops, so as to form a hollow body of circular or elliptic sections, and so as to contain a liquid, with one or two ends. The boards of which vessels are made, are called, in the rough state, clapboards; but when wrought up in the vessels, they are called staves. The art of coopery is a curious branch of mechanism; it requires a knowledge of geometry, as well as of the covering of solids, to be able to construct a vessel or cask of a rotative figure, agreeably to a given section through the axis; the edges of the staves require to be of a particular curvature, so that, when joined together, they may form the required contour of the vessel. This, though not a branch of architecture, is founded upon the same common principles. CO-ORDINATE (from the Latin, con, with, and ordinatus, order) a term expressive of two objects holding the same rank. CO-ORDINATE PILLARS, such pillars as stand in equal order. COPED TOMB, one which has its top or covering sloping down towards both sides. COPESTONE, head or top-stone. COPING (from the Dutch, kop, the head) in masonry, the stones laid on the top of a wall, to strengthen and defend it from the injuries of the weather. COPING of equal thickness, is called parallel coping, and is only used upon inclined surfaces, as on a gable end, or in situations sheltered from the rain; as on the top of a level wall intended to be covered by the roof. COPING thinner on one edge than on the other, for throwing off the water on one side of the wall, is called featheredged coping. COPING thick in the middle and thin at each edge, whether the back be formed of two planes meeting in an angle over the middle of the wall, or whether forming the arch of a circle in its transverse section, is called saddle-backed coping. This kind of coping throws the water on both sides, and may be used over the walls of sunk areas, or of a dwarf wall, which is to have an iron-railing, and in the best-constructed fence-walls. COPING upon the gable end of a house, is called factabling, in Liverpool. COPING, in the pointed styles of architecture, is either inclined upon the faces, or plumb. When inclined upon the faces, the sides of the vertical section are the sides of an equilateral triangle, whose base is horizontal. This sort of coping is sometimes in one inclined plane, terminated with an astragal at the top, while at the bottom it changes its direction into a narrow vertical plane, which projects with a level soffit before the parapet. Sometimes it is in two inclined planes, parallel to each other, the upper terminated with an astragal at the summit, and projecting before the lower, and the lower before the vertical face of the wall, in the same manner as that which has only one inclined plane. This coping is used in plain parapets, or in battlements. When used in battlements, it is either returned on the vertical sides of the embrasures or notches, or only crowns the top of the ascendants, and bottom of the notches. The coping of battlements with vertical faces, has a small I l - --- - -- - I -I - -- ~- -------------- ~ --- —— ~ ---- ---— I ---- -~-~l ----l ---~-r —~~w --- ---- ~ —~ COR 200 COR COR 200__ ____ _LOR_ _ ~ _)_ projection beyond the face of the wall, and the coping is returned on the sides of the notches. Inclined coping is sometimes made without the astragal at the top, and the soffit before the vertical face of the parapet perpendicular to the inclined face of the coping. COPING OVER, is said of the soffit of a projecture from the naked of a wall, when the soffit is inclined so as to make an acute angle with the vertical face of the wall below it; that is, when the edge of the soffit in the surface of the wall, or next to it, is higher than the outer edge. CORBEILS (from the Latin, corbis, a basket) a piece of carved work, representing baskets filled with flowers or fruit, to finish some ornament. CORBEL, a term used by some for a niche or hollow in a wall, to contain a statue, bust, &c. CORBEL, a block of stone or other material projecting from the face of a wall, and used to support a superincumbent weight, such as the beams of a roof, ribs of vaulting, columns, and such like. The term is confined chiefly to such supports employed in Gothic architecture, in the buildings of which styles corbels occur very frequently; they perform somewhat of a similar office to the modillions or consoles used in Classical buildings, but their more perfect prototype is to be seen in the projecting figures and heads supporting consoles, in the remains of the baths of Dioclesian, at Rome. Corbels are usually carved in grotesque heads, animals, flowers, &c.; in the Romanesque style they are either simple square blocks with the face occasionally rounded, or carved in the shape of grotesque heads; in the Early-pointed, the corbels are sometimes moulded, and in the richer specimens carved into knops of foliage; when heads or masks are used, they are not of such grotesque appearance as during the preceding period; in the next style they are more frequently foliaged, and in the Perpendicular carved in the form of angels sometimes bearing shields and other devices; in the later styles, the corbel is usually terminated above by a moulding, or series of mouldings, forming a kind of capital. Corbels of large dimensions, such as those supporting a group of clustered columns, are generally very elaborately ornamented in combinations of masses, or groups of foliage springing from one or more points underneath, and clustered together under the cap; sometimes groups of figures are introduced, as in the beautiful specimens to be seen in Exeter Cathedral. Corbels are not unfrequent in castellated architecture, and when so employed are of a very massive character. They have usually two of their sides vertical planes, perpendicular to the surface or face of the wall; and their other surfaces, which are their edges or fronts, quarters of cylindroids, with the greater axis of their section perpendicular. The edge of each corbel generally consists of one, two, and sometimes three convex rectilinear surfaces: when the edge of each bracket consists of two or three convex rectilinear surfaces, these surfaces are generally separated by fillets, which have vertical sides parallel to the face of the building, and horizontal soffits. CORBELS are also a horizontal row of stones or timber, fixed in a wall, or in the side of a vault, for sustaining the timbers of a floor, or those of a roof. Many of the timber floors, or contignations, in old buildings, were thus supported; the timbers of the domic roof of St. Paul's are tied to the conic vault by means of corbels. The ends of the corbels are generally cut into a convex or ogee form. CORBELS, in the Caryatit order, are those parts upon the heads of the Caryatides, under the soffit of the architrave cornice, that represent baskets, or rather cushions, and have an abacus, as in the Grecian orders. The term is also used for the vase of the Corinthian capital, it being in form of a basket. CORBEL-BOLE, a moulding, in Norman architecture, employed frequently to support a blocking course. It consists of two rows of billets or cubical blocks of stone disposed at intervals, and so arranged, that the blocks alternate in the two rows, a block coming under a space, and vice versa. See BILLET-MOULDING. CORBEL-STEPS, sometimes called corbie-steps, a term applied to steps up the sides of a gable; when the parapet is formed into a kind of battlement, broken into steps or ledges, which converge from the eaves to the apex. Specimens are to be seen in many old houses, especially in Scotland, Flanders, Holland, and Germaniy. They may have been used perhaps for extinguishing fire, or escaping from it, or merely for ornament. CORBEL-TABLE, a series of corbels disposed at regular intervals projecting from a wall, to support a parapet or other continuous projection, and frequently seen under the eaves of a roof. The corbels are occasionally plain, but often carved in the shape of grotesque heads, and other devices, as abovementioned. Sometimes the corbels are connected by small arches which intervene between them and the superstructure, and form its immediate support; these arches vary in shape, according to the style of architecture of the building in which they are employed, as do also the corbels; in the Romanesque structures they are circular, during the next period intersecting, and lastly, pointed and trefoiled. Corbel-tables were more frequent in the Romanesque styles than in any others, in which they form a bold and effective feature. They are found in a peculiar situation in many Lombardic structures, running up the raking sides of the wall beneath the gable; a singular instance of this position is to be seen in the west gable of Adel Church, Yorkshire. CORBETT, a word used by Harris, in his Lexicon, for a corbel. Corbetts, niches for images. CORBETTIS, a word used by Chaucer, for stones upon which images stand. CORBS, a Spanish word for architectural ornaments. CORD, in geometry. See CHORD. CORDON, the edge of a stone on the outside of a building. CORE, the interior part of anything. Every masonic wall should have thorough-stones at regular intervals, in order to strengthen the core, which is generally made of rubblestones: or, otherwise, when thorough-stones are only to be had with difficulty, two bond-stones lapped upon each other, one from each face of the wall, may be used: or, instead of each thorough-stone lay two stones level on the upper bed, and one large stone in the core, lapped upon both, observing that the tails of the two lower stones be right-angled; by this means the two sides of the wall will be completely tied together. CORICEUM (from Kiwotcetov) in Grecian antiquity, the undressing-room belongiig to the Gymnasium. CORINTHIAN ORDER, the third of the orders of Classical architecture, and the first of the foliaged, under which title we include the Corinthian and Composite. These two orders might conveniently be classified together, and reasonably too, if we consider their general resemblance, and also that some examples of the former class differ as much from that which is considered their most perfect type or model, as do those which are included under the Composite or Roman order; if both styles were comprised under one division, it would form a very distinct and marked style, which might be entitled the Roman or Foliaged order. How this particular class of examples obtained the appel!a _ _j __ ~ t _~ fo COR 201 COR -CR -20 C tion of Corinthian, is not very readily accounted for; one would naturally suppose this name was assigned on account of the origin of the style, or the prevalence of examples in Corinth or its neighbourhood, but such is by no means the case. In the first place, the originr has never been attributed to that locality by any author except Vitruvius, and even if we give credit to his account, the merit of the first idea ought in fairness to be given to the Athenians; but at best the story told by this author rests on a very insecure foundation, as we shall presently attempt to show. No other writer has alluded to any buildings of this order as existing at Corinth; and if the style ever did prevail in that city, we have now not a single example remaining to testify to the fact. Vitruvius's account of the invention of the capital, is as follows:-Callimachus, an Athenian sculptor, passing the tomb of a young lady, observed an acanthus growing round the sides of a basket, covered with a tile, and placed upon the tomb, and seeing that the tops of the leaves were bent downwards, in the form of volutes, by the resistance of the tile, he took the hint, and executed some columns with foliated capitals, near Corinth, of a more slender proportion than those of the Ionic, imitative of the figure and delicacy of virgins. This story, though bearing no marks of improbability in itself, when compared with facts, loses a considerable amount of its credibility, and stands upon the same level as the other fanciful tales related by the same author. As regards the one more immediately before us, it need only be remarked, that the earliest specimens of this order have but little in agreement with the idea which one would suppose to have presented itself to the mind of an artist under the circumstances related; the foilage of what seems to be the earliest specimen extant, does not consist of acanthus leaves at all, but of what have from their shape been termed water-leaves; it is in the Roman examples we see the best illustration of the basket and acanthus; in short, the earlier the example, the less the resemblance, a fact which throws discredit upon the whole story, and would lead us to believe that the latter was invented by Vitruvius, not the order by Callimachus. Moreover, there is reason to doubt of the antiquity of the order being so great as Vitruvius would have us believe; for Callimachus flourished about the 60th Olympiad, or 540 years before the Christian tera. We are informed by Pausanias, lib. viii., that the ancient temple of Minerva, at Tegaa, in Arcadia, having been destroyed, a second edifice was erected, under the direction of Scopas, far exceeding in splendour and magnificence every building of the kind in the Peloponnesus. In this structure, all the three Grecian orders were employed; the outside was embellished with colonnades of the Ionic order; and the hypaethral area of the interior Was surrounded with porticos and galleries above, formed by the Doric and Corinthian orders. This tara of building may be placed in the fourth century before Christ, and is the first in which a distinct account of the Corinthian order being introduced in any regular building, is to be found. It was not in general request till the third age of Rome, under the emperors. The examples which are to be found in Greece, are but few, and some of them seem of a date posterior to the period of the Romans getting possession of that country; such as the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. Most modern writers are of opinion that the Corinthian capital was invented by the Egyptians, and with good reason; yet, although many bell-formed capitals are to be found among the ruins of Egypt, the taste, the delicacy of the foliage, the beautiful form and elegance of the leaves, caulicoli, and volutes, with the symmetrical and easy disposition of the whole, are superior to anything yet discovered among the Egyptian 26 ruins; and even in the present day, this capital exhibits the utmost elegance, beauty, and richness, that have ever been attained in architectural composition, though many attempts have been made to exceed it. Some writers suppose that the Corinthian arose naturally out of the Doric order, and cite in favour of their hypothesis, the absence of bases, the simple capital, and the square abacus, in the Tower of the Winds, the use of mnutules in the shape of modillions, and such like; but we think those who maintain its Egyptian origin, have the better evidence on their side. The Corinthian order, like the other two, after being introduced, continued to be the fashionable order in Greece, Italy, and Asia; and was the only order well understood, and happily executed, by the Romans. Among the superb ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, excepting the lower Ionic order in the circular temple, and a Doric column at the former place, it is, we believe, the only order to be found. Vitruvius says, the shafts of Corinthian columns have the same symmetry as the Ionic, and that the difference between the entire columns arises only from that of the heights of their capitals; the Ionic being one-third, and the Corinthian the whole diameter of the shaft, which, therefore, makes the height of the Corinthian two-thirds of a diameter more than that of the Ionic: hence, as he has allowed the Ionic to be eight diameters, the Corinthian will be eight and two-thirds. The average height of the column, inclusive of capital and base, taking a mean proportional between those of the Pantheon and of the temple of Jupiter Stator, is ten diameters, the shaft containing eight, and the remainder made up in the capital and base. The shaft in the ancient examples was almost invariably fluted, and the flutes occasionally filled to about one-third of their height with cabling; the number of the flutes is generally twenty-four, the same number as in the Ionic order, and arranged in the same manner, having a fillet between every two channels. The only ancient examples in which the flutes were omitted, were cases in which the shafts were composed of polished granite or some variegated marble, in which there was sufficient richness and play of colour, without further decoration. The capital is separated from the shaft by an astragal and cincture, or fillet, and is in the shape of an inverted bell, the ornamentation of which may be described as follows: Immediately above the astragal, are two rows of acanthus or olive leaves one above the other, each row consisting of eight leaves; the upper row is arranged in such a manner as to have one leaf immediately in the centre of each side of and beneath the abacus, and one other under each corner of the abacus, which altogether, one in the centre of each side, and one at each angle of the capital, will make up the eight leaves. The leaves of the lower range are disposed so as to alternate with those of the upper; that is to say, the spaces left between the lower leaves are occupied by the lower portions or stalks of the upper leaves, or, in other words, the upper leaves rise between the divisions of the lower ones. Between every two of the leaves of the upper or second series, rises a stalk, out of which springs a bunch of foliage, consisting of two leaves, one of which branches towards the centre of the abacus, and the other towards the angle. We have therefore eight of these stalks, termed caulicoles, each giving out two branches or leaves, of which therefore there are sixteen, and if we consider their direction as above described, we shall find that we have two of them tending to meet at each angle, one from each contiguous side of the capital, and two likewise tending towards the centre of each side above the central leaf of the second range. Out of each of the leaves at the angles, COR 202 COR "ChOornhan"sy 2e2 sCha o crie r te r proceeds in a diagonal line, a spiral horn or volute, the two at each angle meeting under the abacus, which they support; two similar though smaller ones emerging from the central leaves, meet under the centre of the abacus, and are surmounted by a small flower, called the flower of the capital. The abacus is square in its general plan, or rather is of such form as may be inscribed in a square; the sides are concave, curving out towards the angles, but the points which would be formed by the intersection of the curves, are most usually cut off; sometimes the corners are pointed, but rarely. This shape of the abacus arises out of the form of the capital, which recedes in the centre of each side, and projects at the angles; the abacus does not overhang the capital. The mouldings consist of a cavetto, fillet, and echinus, the first and last of which are sometimes enriched. The proper Corinthian base differs from the Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller scotihe separated by two astragals; both bases, however, are used indiscriminately, and perhaps the Attic is more generally employed-it was preferred both by Palladio and Scamozzi. The above may be considered as a description of the standard form, for the details of the order vary to a very considerable extent in the different examples, to such an extent, indeed, that there are scarcely two ancient examples alike. The ornamentation of the capital differs very greatly in the Greek and Roman examples; in the former, the leaves have angular points, and are almost straight on the sides, while in the latter they are altogether of a more rounded form, in fact the Greek leaves were more harsh and stiff, and have the natural character of the acanthus, whereas the Roman are more artificial. In the Temple of the Winds, which is a very early, if not the earliest specimen remaining, the upper row of leaves, if it may be said to have more than one row, is merely carved upon the vase, and consists of broad flat leaves, which have been named from their appearance, waterleaves; there are no volutes, and in consequence the abacus is not curved, but is merely a square block; add to this the absence of a base, and you will perceive at once that this specimen disagrees almost entirely from the description above given. In the temple of Vesta at Rome, which is probably copied from that at Jackly near Mylasa, the lower range of leaves, instead of following the line of the shaft as usual, project beyond it. The monument of Lysicrates is a beautiful though small specimen, and differs materially from any of the above; in short, every example, whether Greek or Roman, has its peculiarity. The height of the abacus is one-seventh, the lower and upper tier of leaves each two-sevenths; and the caulicoli and volutes, which spring from the stalks between every two leaves in the upper row, the remaining two-sevenths of the diameter: the breadth of the capital at the bottom is one, and each.-diagonal of the abacus two diameters of the column. Vitruvius makes no mention of obtunding the corners of the abacus, as is generally practised by the ancients as well as the moderns: we are therefore led to suppose, that each pair of the four faces of the abacus were continued till they met in an acute angle at each corner, as in the temple of Vesta, at Rome, and in the Stoa, or Portico, at Athens. The division of the capital is the same as is frequently used by the moderns; but the entire height is generally made one-sixth more than the diameter of the column, while that of the tolumn is ten diameters. This order does not appear to have had any appropriate entablature in the time of Vitruvius; for, in book iii. chap. i. he informs us, that both Doric and Ionic entablatures were supported by Corinthian columns; whence it appears that the columns constituted the order, and not the entablature. "The Corinthian, says he, "has no cornice, or other ornaments peculiar to itself, but has either triglyphs, mutules in the cornice, and guttme in the epistylium, as in the Doric order; or otherwise, the zophoras is ornamented, and dentils are disposed in the cornice, as in the Ionic." This observation of Vitruvius regarding the use of the Doric entablature, is no less extraordinary in itself, than that it is unsupported by any ancient examples; but his remark, concerning the Ionic, is verified in many instances; as in the temple at Jackly near Mylasa, the temple of Vesta near Tivoli, and that of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome; the arch of Adrian at Athens, the Incantada at Salonica, and the portico of Septimius Severus at Rome. However, in the remains of antiquity, we more generally find Corinthian columns supporting an entablature of a peculiar species. This consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice, the first of which is divided into three faces, the lowest one much narrower than the upper two, with mouldings between each; the upper surmounted by an astragal, ogee, and fillet, the middle by a small ogee, and the lower by a bead; these mouldings were frequently plain, but sometimes enriched, more especially the two last mentioned. The frieze was sometimes plain, sometimes enriched with sculptured figures, foliage, or other ornamentation. The most striking peculiarities are to be observed in the cornice, which consists of the denticulated band of the Ionic, supported by an ogee and astragal enriched, and surmounted by an enriched astragal and echinus; over these are the mutules of the Doric, but their proportion is changed, and their figure converted into a console, which shows upon the ends and sides of each, the bottom being covered with a foliated leaf. The consoles in this application, are called modillions, and support the corona which consists of the same mouldings as the Ionic, with occasionally a greater amount of enrichment; the cymatium is often decorated with lions' heads, to serve as spouts or gurgoyles. This entablature does not appear to have been in use in the time of Vitruvius, since he takes no notice of it; though very particular in many other points less worthy of attention. The cornice here specified, is not only to be found in most of the ancient buildings of Italy, but is observed in all the celebrated works of Balbec and Palmyra. Thus the Romans, and other contemporary nations, affected to give the Corinthian order an appropriate entablature, though the Ionic was sometimes employed. We find also another form of cornice introduced occasionally, with rnodillions consisting of two plain faces, instead of consoles, without any band below, either plain or denticulated. Examples of this are only to be found in the frontispiece of Nero, at Rome, and the Poicile, or Portico, at Athens. In some instances, an uncut dentil band is substituted in place of dentils, and in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, both dentils and modillions are omitted. The above disposition inverts the order of the original hut, as well as the description given by Vitruvius. The only example where dentils are placed above modillions, is in the second cornice of the Tower of the Winds, at Athens; although Vitruvius seems to assert that the contrary practice of placing the modillions uppermost, was never resorted to by the Greeks. It is certain that the Romans employed modillions in the latter position, as is evidenced in the temples of Jupiter Tonans and Jupiter Stator, as also in the Forum of Nerva. If the entablature be enriched, the shaft should be fluted, unless it be composed of variegated marble; for a diversity of colours confuses even a smooth surface; and if decorated, the ornament increases the confusion in a much greater degree. _ __ _ COR 203 COR COR203CO When the columns are within reach, the lower part of the flutes, to about one-third of their height, is sometimes filled with cables, as in the case of the interior order of the Pantheon, with a view to strengthen the edges. In rich work of some modern buildings, the cables are composed of reeds, husks, spirallytwisted ribbands, flowers, and various other ornaments: but these trifles,which are of French origin, would be much better withheld, as their cost would be employed to greater advantage in giving majesty or grandeur to the other parts of the fabric. As the cornice, which has obtained the name of Corinthian, consists of so many members, it will be necessary to increase the whole height of the entableture more than two diameters, so as to make the members distinct, and, at the same time, to preserve a just proportion between the cornice, fiieze, and architrave, making the height of the entablature two-ninths of that of the column: but where the Ionic cornice, which is very appropriate, is to be employed, or the dentils and their cymatiurn omitted, two diameters, or a fifth of the height of the column, will be sufficient. It is by some considered ridiculous to give so many members to the cornice, since, say they, it is evident that these slight columns are incapable of bearing an entablature of the same part of their height, as columns of fewer diameters are. Notwithstanding this, however, we cannot but think that the richer and deeper cornice is more in keeping with the character of the order, on account of the increased height and enrichment of the capital. The apparent weight does not depend so much upon the real bulk, as upon the arrangement and proportions of the different dimensions, for were this the case, we might successfully employ the argument produced by those who object to the loftier entablature, to disparage the beauty of the entire order. We might reason thus:-the Corinthian shaft is of the same proportions as the Ionic, and therefore equally light in appearance, how contrary to sound taste, is it, therefore, to load it with a capital of so much greater bulk, how much heavier the column will appear! Our objectors will readily see that this reasoning is false, because it is evident to the senses, that the Corinthian column, although surmounted by a capital of much greater bulk than the Ionic, has a much lighter and more elegant appearance; and what is the cause of this? It is simply that the proportions are regulated in a different manner; in the Ionic the breadth is in excess, in the Corinthian the height. But there is another reason for the comparative lightness of the Corinthian capital; it is much more highly enriched than the Ionic, and this enrichment tends to make it a vast deal lighter in appearance; the difference between the unshapen block of stone and the finished capital, will be evident to any one who will picture the two in his mind's eye. Now, all these arguments apply with equal truth in the comparison of the two entablatures; for our own parts, we think the larger the more elegant and the more imposing, and certainly its cornice gives the more complete finish to the whole order. " The symmetry of the capital," says Vitruvius, " is as follows:-the height of the capital, including the abacus, is equal to the thickness of the column at its lower end. The breadth of the abacus is so regulated, that its diagonal, from angle to angle, may be twice as great as the height of the capital; for this gives a proper dimension to each face; the fionts of the capital are bowed, or curved inwardly, from the extreme angles, a ninth part of its breadth. The bottom of the capital is as thick as the top of the column, without the apothesis and astragal. The thickness of the abacus is the seventh part of the height of the capital. The remainder, when the thickness of the abacus is deducted, is divided into three equal portions, of which one is given to the lower leaves; the second is for the height of the middle leaves; and to the caulicoles, or stalks, from which the leaves project to support the abacus, the same height is given. The flowers on the four sides are in size equal to the thickness of the abacus." From a comparison of ancient examples, the height of the capital varies in height fiom 60 minutes, or 1 diameter, the measurement of those belonging to the temple of Tivoli, to 87 minutes, the height of the Lysicrates example; the capital in the temple of Jupiter Stator measures 66 minutes. In the first case, the diagonal of the abacus is 81 minutes, in the last 97, and in the monument of Lysicrates, 94 minutes. Thus much for proportions; how greatly they vary in different examples, will be readily seen in the subjoined table taken from Knight's Cyclopaedia: I I I I Height of Column. Diameter of Base. Upper Diameter of Shaft. PI - I Incantada, at Salonica............................ Temple of the Winds (without base)................... Monument of Lysicrates, at Athens.................... Stoa, or Portico, at Athens............................ Arch of Trajan, Ancona.............................. Arch of Constantine............................... Portico of Pantheon, at Rome........................ Interior of Pantheon, at Rone......................... Temple of Antoninus and Faustina................... Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli......................... Temple of Jupiter Tonans............................ Temple of Jupiter Stator...................... Temple of Vesta, at Rome........................... Temple at Jackly, near Mylasa, in Asia Minor, the supposed site of Labranda.............................. Temple of Mars Ultor, at Rome....................... Ft. In. 23 8.6 13 6.85 11 7.67 28 0.534 23 2.7 27 4.1 46 5.2 34 10.4 46 7.7 23 6 46 6.2 48 4.9 34 7.2 27 2.8 57 11 Ft. In. 2 5.9 1 7.4 1 2 2 11.3 2 4.25 2 11.2 4 10.4 3 82 4 10.3 2 5 4 8.3 4 10.2 3 2.5 2 10.35 nearly 6 ft. Ft. In. 0 11.65 2 0.25 2 9 4 3.5 3 2.3 4 2.8 2 1.8 3 11.4 4 2.5 2 8.1 2 3.6 5 1.6 Height of Entablature. Ft. In. 5 7.75 2 8.218 5 6.3 7 1.2 10 11.6 8 2.9 10 9.1 4 3 Architrave. 10 0 12 10.3 5 6.6 3 10.5 The proportions of this order vary to a very great extent; ture is about a fifth part, or a quarter the height of the column; the following may be taken as an average:-shaft, 16 modules if the latter, it would consist, in this case, of 5 modules, or 20 minutes, base minutesinutes, capital 70 minutes, which gives 2, diameters, of which the architrave would occupy 45 10 diameters for the whole column; the diminution of the minutes, the frieze 45 minutes, and the cornice 60 minutes, shaft, from the base to the neck, is 7 minutes. The entabla- having altogether a projection of 58 minutes. havngalogehe aprojeto of 58 minutes. - --- COR~ __ ~ __ _____1COR l~ 1 204 ~~~~_~O 204 COR___ _ _ _ ___ _C _____~_____ V~___ ~ _ _ __ _ __ ~ _ ~__ __ Although the Romans in all probability borrowed the idea of this order from the Greeks, and cannot therefore rightfully lay claim to its invention, they are fully entitled to the praise due to its perfection; the order, as far as we know it, is rather Roman than Greek. We cannot be said to know of more than three examples in Greece, and these are the Tower of the Winds, the Monument of Lysicrates, and the Temple of Jupiter at Olympia; there are others, it is true, as the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens, but this was erected long after the order had been practised by the Romans. The principal Italia specimens are the temple of Jupiter Stator, three columns of which remain in the Campo, Rome, and have been imitated at the office of the Board of Trade, London; the Pantheon, copied in the portico of S. Martin's Church; the temple of Vesta, or the Sibyl, at Tivoli, copied at the Bank; the temples of Mars Ultor, Jupiter, Capitolinus, Vesta, at Rome, Antoninus and Faustina, and of Jupiter Tonans. Copies of the columns of Choragic monument are to be seen at S. Philip's Chapel, S. James's and at the entrance to Exeter Hall; original fragments may be seen in the Elgin collection at the British Museum, where there are also casts from the Pantheon, and the temples of Jupiter Stator and Mars Ultor. Amongst all the specimens which have come to our knowledge, there are not two alike, they all vary in detail, and some very much so; some fragments bear evidence of the introduction of figures of animals, &c. The Corinthian order is appropriate for all buildings in which magnificence, elegance, and gaiety are requisite. Its splendour also recommends it in the decorations of palaces, galleries, theatres, banqueting-rooms, and other places consecrated to festive mirth, or convivial recreation. The Romans, in borrowing their architecture from the Greeks, appear to have indiscriminately employed the Corinthian order, which they found possessed of an ornamental character, adapted to the splendour and magnificence of their taste, in the same manner that the early Greeks used the Doric, and the Ionians the order which bear their name. Thus the Romans erected temples to Jupiter, Neptune, and Mars; and the Greeks to the same deities, of the Doric order. Thus the temples of Minerva, at Athens and at 8nialtll, are Doric, and the temple of Minerva, at Priene, is Ionic. The temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Elis, was Doric; but that erected to the same idol, by Adrian, at Athens, is Corinthian. The orders of architecture appear to be altogether national; thus the numerous temples of Greece, and its Sicilian colonies, are Doric, and bear one general character: the Ionian cities present the best, the most elegant, and chaste examples of the Ionic order: while Italy, Balbec, and Palmyra exhibit the Corinthian order, almost to the exclusion of any other. Plate I. Figure 1.-Nos. I and 2 show the method of projecting the plan and elevation of the capital: thus, beginning with the plan, divide the semi-circumference of the top of the shaft into four equal parts, commencing and terminating with half a part, which will give the stems of the lower range of leaves, then complete the contour of the leaves, both in the elevation and plan, as shown under the article PROJECTION; divide each of the parts into halves on the said semi-circumference, and the points of bisection will mark the stems of the second or superior range of leaves. But if the true forms, as ascertained by the principles of projection, be impressed on the mind of the delineator, and if great nicety be not requisite, after dividing as above, and completing the outlines of the leaves on the plan by his eye, he may then draw lines from the bottom of each sten, and from the tips of each on the plan, to their respective places on the elevation, and there complete the two ranges of leaves entirely by the eye; here the jutting points, stems, and breadths of the leaves, are the only guides in the formation of the outline. This process being only a preliminary, though necessary step to the raffling of the leaves, the general contours, thus found, must be rubbed out, after inking the subdivisions, in order to make the foliage appear. Figure 2, is the profile of the modillions; No. 1, being the plan, showing soffit inverted; and No. 2, the elevation of the same. Figure 3, is a leaf completely raffled to a large scale; No. 1, is the front view; No. 2, the profile or side view. Figure 4, shows the finished flower of the capital on a large scale. Plate II. Some few of the more noted examples of Greece and Rome. Plate IIt. A finished elevation of the Corinthian base, capital, and entablature. The example here chosen, is from the three famed columns in the Campo Vaccine, at Rome, supposed to be the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator, and certainly one of the most perfect and elegant remains of this order, that antiquity can produce. Plate IV. A general outline of the same, with the proportions of the members figured in minutes. CORTSTHIAN CECus, an cecus decorated with the Corinthian order. See (Ecus. CORNICE (from the Latin, corona, a crowning) any moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to which it is affixed; thus we have the cornice of an order, of a pedestal, of a house, of a pier, of a door, of a window, &c. CORNICE OF AN ORDER, a secondary member of the order itself, or a primary member of the entablature. The entablature is divided into three principal parts, the upper one being the cornice. The forms of the particular cornices belonging to the orders, will be found under the heads DORIC, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, TUSCAN, and ROMAN. According to Vitruvius, the application of cornices to stone buildings originated in the juttings of the eaves of the first wooden structures, the cornice representing the uppermost beams of the roof, which are described by this author as assers, templates, and canthers, of which the last is supposed to apply to the common rafters, the first to the timbers immediately beneath the tiles, and the templates to the cross pieces between the two. The mutules represent the ends of rafters, and dentils the ends of laths for supporting the tiles, or covering; but as the lath is more lofty in situation than the rafters, so ought the dentils to be more lofty than the mutules: this, however, is not the case in the joint application of these members in modern cornices. Our present practice of architecture was borrowed from the Romans, who, in all their works, inverted the natural disposition of these members. Vitruvius remarks, "as the mutules represent the projectures of the canthers (rafters), the dentils of the Ionic order are in imitation of the projecture of the assers (laths). For this reason, in Grecian buildings, dentils are never placed under the mutules; for assers cannot be under canthers. As, therefore, they should be above the canthers and templates, if they are represented below them, the work is on false principles. The ancients, likewise, did not approve of placing mutules or dentils in the fastigium, but in the corona only; because neither canthers nor assers are laid towards the front of the fastigium, nor can they there project, for they are laid inclining towards the eaves. As, therefore, it could not be done in reality, they judged it not proper to be done in representation, for the propriety of all things, which they introduced in works of perfection, they derived from truth and nature, and approved only those which could bear the test of rational argument." - 0Y A 1 I I I.1 11 -- I ), -, I 11 -11,Hl I N 11, jtllj L'A"I'; fl,) It ED T-. IR P E, — F, TIEMPLE OF THE WINDS PAN THlEON -MONNIT-4NT OF LY.SICRATi' TrEMPIE 0F VE2 STA AT TIVO LI. ANTITNI-NIIS & FAUSTLNA I2'TMIISITY OF VESTA &T R20145 JUPITTER TONANS. Ailbr C l 94 L i AT i T T) 1 X 1.1 .76/5 74/I 18/s 27~ 26/s 26 /2 14 I. ~ ~ ~ ~ -i. -----.. COR 2 We have no example, in the remains of well-authenticated Grecian antiquity, of cornices, where both modillions and dencils are employed, except in the inner cornice of the Tower of the Winds, at Athens: in this instance, the assertion of Vitruvius is completely verified; for there the dentils are placed above the mutules: but in every Roman example, where both are employed in the same cornice, the very reverse takes place; yet, with respect to pediments, we have an example in the frontispiece of the doors of the said Tower of the Winds, where dentils are employed in the inclined cornices-of the pediments, contrary to the observations of Vitruvius, and to the original principles whence, according to his theory, these members derived their existence. In the cornices of all Grecian edifices, particularly those of the Doric order, we always find one very bold member, with a broad vertical face, called the corona, which is one of the most distinguished members of the whole cornice: but in some of the Roman buildings, the corona is reduced to a mere fillet. See CORONA. CORNICES are divided into several kinds: An architrave cornice rests upon the architrave, and the frieze is omitted. An instance of this may be seen in the famous Caryatic portico, at Athens. Cornices of this description are adapted to situations where a regular entablature would be out of proportion to the body which it crowns. A mutule cornice is appropriate to the Doric order, the mutules having inclined soffits. A dentil cornice has a denticulated band, and is usually employed in the Ionic order, though very appropriate also for the Corinthian. A modillion cornice is one with modillions, which are a kind of mutules carved into consoles. It has been chiefly applied to the Corinthian order. A block cornice is that where plain rectangular prisms with level soffits are employed to support the corona, instead of mutules. A cantaliver cornice is constructed of a horizontal row of timbers, projecting at right angles fiom the naked part of a wall, for sustaining the superior parts of the cornice. Sometimes the cantalivers are placed on the soffits and vertical sides, and sometimes they are cased with joinery. A coved cornice is one with a large cove, and generally lathed and plastered upon brackets. Cornices of this kind are hardly used at this time, but are frequently found upon old houses. A mutilated cornice has some, or the whole of its members interrupted by another object, as the projection of a tablet, &c. CORNUCOPIA, or CORNUCOPIE, the horn of plenty. Ovid tells us in his " Fasti," that one of the goats of Amalthea, who nursed the infant Jupiter in Crete, broke off its horn against a tree, when the nymph having wreathed it with flowers, and filled it with fruit, presented it to the god. When Jupiter came into power, he called Amalthea to the skies, and made the horn the emblem of fertility. In the " Metamorphoses," the poet derives the origin of the Cornucopia from a different fable. He speaks of it as the horn of the river-god Achelous, broken off by Hercules, and consecrated by the Naiads. The real meaning of the fable is this, that in Libya there is a little territory, shaped something like a bullock's horn, exceedingly fertile, given by king Ammon to his daughter Amallthea, whom the poets feign to have been Jupiter's nurse. In architecture and sculpture, the cornucopia, or horn of plenty, is represented under the figure of a large horn, out of which issuefruits, flowers, &c. On medals, F.Joubertobserves, the cornucopia is given to all deities, genii, and heroes. W05 COT CORONA (from the Latin) a member of the cornice, with a broad vertical face, and a bold projection. The solid, out of which it is formed, is generally recessed upwards from its soffit; hence the Italians call itdgocciolatios and lagrimaiios, the French, larmier, and the English workmen, drip, from the circumstance of its discharging the rain-water in drops from its edge, and by this means sheltering the subordinate parts below. The corona is one of the principal members of the cornice, and that which marks its distinctive character, by the massive shadow which it produces on the plain surface of the fiieze. This member, from being the principal feature of the cornice, ought never to be omitted. Grecian antiquity affords no instances of an order without a corona; nor, indeed, are there many examples among the Romans. There is nothing in architecture better supported by reason, and by the general example of antiquity, than the necessary use of the corona. It is, however, omitted in the temple of Peace at Rome, the third order of the Coliseum, and the arch of Lyons, at Verona. It is singular, that in the arch of Constantine, the cornice finishes with the corona, surmounted with a fillet only; and in several other examples the corona has almost dwindled into a mere fillet. The frontispiece of Nero presents one of the boldest coronas of all the Roman works, being very nearly 16 minutes in height; the three columns in the Carnpo Vaccino is another example of an elegant and bold corona. In the temples of Minerva and Theseus, at Athens, it is divided into two faces. The term corona is sometimes applied by Vitruvius to the whole cornice, the word originally signifying a crown. CORONA Lucis, a kind of chandelier anciently employed in churches, of beautiful and appropriate design, and admitting of delicate elaboration. COROSTROTA, according to Pliny, a kind of inlaid work. CORPS, (from the French) any part that projects or advances beyond the naked of the wall, to be used as a ground for some decoration. CORPSE-GATE, the same as LICH-GATE, which see. CORRIDOR, (from the French) a long gallery or passage around a building, leading to the several apartments; sometimes open one side, and sometimes enclosed on both sides. CORSA, the same as PLATBAND, which see. CORTILE, a small enclosed court. COSSUTIUS, a Roman citizen, who was architect to the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens. COST, in building, the expense of any design, a knowledge of which is to be obtained by analyzing the whole, and ma. king separate calculations of the quantity and expense of each part. In buildings of a similar description, the expense of the whole can be roughly ascertained, by taking the number of cubic feet at an average rate; but when the price of materials or labour, or of both, is subject to variation, this method will be liable to mislead. COTTAGE, a name mostly applied to a small house, erected for the use and accommodation either of the farm labourer, or those engaged in some other occupation, but more generally of those employed in agriculture. The word cottage is also used in modern parlance to designate a small elegant residence, more properly a villa, or, as sometimes called, a cottage orne. Houses of this description, however, do not belong to our present subject, which must be understood as treating of the cottage in, the acceptation of the term explained in the preceding pari graph. '. __ ICII - r -- ----- ---------- -1 --- — COT 206 COT COT 206 COT Cottages were formerly constructed of rude and perishable materials; as, earthy substances mixed with straw; and cottages of this consistence were denominated mud cottages in some districts, and cab and dab in others; but these have now given way to a more durable kind, hich, though perhaps as expensive in the erection, are much more comfortable, and cheaper in the end, as they require little or no repairs for many years. In the construction of cottages, economy, convenience, cleanliness, comfort, and decency, must be the chief points in view, and these ought to be united with as much picturesque beauty as circumstances will admit. " The accommodation required," observes Mr. Dean, in his very interesting work, "Essays on Agricultural Buildings," is not such as would be looked for by persons moving in a higher sphere of life, and who are accustomed, comparatively, to luxuries; the labourer belongs to a totally distinct class of society. Let the dwellings of the poor be scientifically constructed, and much illness and misery will be prevented. In effecting this, the whole community is interested, as parochial expenses are increased or diminished according to the healthy state of the labouring population. "Cottages should be warm and substantial; judgment will also be displayed when the architectural character of the building is in harmony with its use. Their exteriors may be made exceedingly ornate by the application of a correct taste, which does not necessarily create much expense; and although ornament is not a necessary appendage to stability or comfort, it frequently happens that ornamental buildings are preferred, and when judiciously disposed, will materially assist in heightening the landscape. It then becomes a question with the owner of an estate, whether he will, in the erection of cottages, incur a small additional outlay for this purpose. " England has justly been designated a cultivated garden, and perhaps in no particular possesses a greater pre-eminence of appearance over other countries, than in the beauty of her rural scenery; which, it is submitted, may be greatly enhanced by the substitution of cottages erected in accordance with architectural principles, in lieu of the clumsy-looking and comfortless buildings existing in many districts." We fully agree with Mr. Dean in these observations, and we trust that noblemen and gentlemen in the management of their estates, will not only provide for the comfort of the poor in the erection of warm, well-constructed cottages, but that they will add some little in the way of ornament also. How much may the picturesque appearance of the cottage be increased by entrance-porches, overhanging roofs, and stacks of chimney-shafts, having ornamental summits. The porch, independent of its architectural effect, affords both warmth and shelter, as does also the overhanging roof. The lofty chimney clustered shafts, besides assisting to prevent a smoky room, have a very pleasing appearance. In the erection of cottages, it is preferable to build them in pairs if possible, as the cost is considerably less than when singly placed, and they are much warmer. The site also is a most important consideration, as houses placed on low marshy soils, are liable to be damp. Independently of the miasma arising from the surface of the ground in such situations, there is a continual humidity in the atmosphere, which communicates itself to all objects surrounded by it. This vapour is a deadly poison, acting on the human system through the medium of the lungs, and producing fevers and other epidemics. ~ Good drainage is the next important consideration, and.:t.ii may generally be obtained at small cost. The common I: bePthenware pipes, of an oval or egg-shaped form, about,. 5 inches by 24 inches at bottom, are sufficiently capacious to carry off. the drainage from a cottage; they are not so costly as brick-drains, and are more efficient. All drains should be trapped with a syphon trap, so as to prevent the escape of foul air, ind the admission of vernin to the dwelling. The drains should communicate with a cesspool sunk in the garden, domed over with brick, having a stone man-hole or flap to eanable the cottager to repair or cleanse it; or to avail himself of its contents for manuring his garden. A drain should also lead from the sink in the scullery to the cesspool (trapped as before described), and this should be so arranged as to carry off the water used for washing the floors, when they are of stone, brick, or composition. The cheapest and best form for the cesspool is that of a parallelogram about 5 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 3 feet 6 inches deep. Cottages may be divided into several classes, or sizes: one of the smallest size for the common labourer; the second size for the labourer, who, by his frugality and industry, in earning more than ordinary wages, deserves a more comfortable dwelling than that of the most common labourer; the third size, for the village shopkeeper, shoemaker, tailor, butcher, baker, &c.; the fourth size, for the small farmer, maltster, alehouse, or other trades, requiring room; the fifth size, for the large opulent farmer. Every cottage should have at least two apartments, and in many cases three, or even four. If the apartments be two in number, and in two floors, one roof will cover both; but then there must be the expense of an additional floor, and a stair to get up to it, besides a loss of room in both floors, for the space occupied by the stairs; however, with respect to a sleeping apartment, a room in an upper story is more healthy than in a lower. In cottages which are built singly, the families are less liable to contention than in those which are joined: but in those which are built together, a considerable expense of walling will be saved, as the flues may be carried up in one common stalk, and in case of sudden trouble, one family may assist another. Where a cottage consists of two stories, with a sleepingroom in the upper one, it would tend much to the comfort of the cottager, if the upper story were warmed by means of a flue from the fire below; for this purpose, the vent ought to be carried up the middle, with its sides as thin as possible. Another mode, suggested by Mr. Beatson, is to permit the heated air, which always ascends from the ceiling of the lower story, to ascend through an aperture in the floor of the upper story; this may be done by means of gratings, or turningplates, in the least frequented part of the floor. With respect to economy, Mr. Loudon, in his treatises on country-residences, has suggested a plan, by which he thinks much more heat may be thrown out from a given quantity of fuel, than by any other method yet proposed, and even by more simple means. The grate which contains the fuel being placed on a level with the surface of the floor, makes the smoke ascend slowly, and thus in its passage allows it time to give out its heat. In small cottages, the staircase ought to be so constructed, as to take up as little room as possible. The chief conveniences of a single square cottage, are an eating-room of about 12 feet square; over this a sleepingapartment, which may be partitioned in such a way, as will best accommodate the decency to be preserved in the family; an idea of this construction may easily be formed without a plan. If the dimensions of the buildings be two or even three feet more, it will give much more advantage in point of convenience. For cottages built in rows, the accommodations may be as follow: a room below, of 16 feet square, with the entrance-door and one window in front; the fire-place with an oven opening into it by means of a flie; a door opening _ __ _ _ _ ___I_ ____ _ ___ _ __ COT 207 COT COTo 20 COTta h ak)frcvrn ultetoso h into a lean-to, at the back, for covering fuel, the tools of the labourer, and sheltering for a pig, &c.; a pantry, fitted up with shelves, may be made under the stairs, in the lower room. To accommodate a large family, with children of different sexes, the necessary separation may be effected, by placing one bed over the other, and the entrance to each of the beds on alternate or different sides. There are two kinds of cottages, English and Scottish, used in Great Britain, of very distinct characters. The old English cottages were constructed of clay, turf, and other similar materials, supported and strengthened by posts and wooden braces, with a roof of very steep pitch, in order to lessen its pressure upon the walls, and to discharge the rain. The eaves of the roof were continued downwards, so that the projection might throw the water from the surface of the walls, and by this means prevent not only the waste of materials, but the dampness which the interior would otherwise be liable to; the rain-water is also thus kept from the windows and door. The chimneys were generally carried up singly, in one or both ends of the building, most commonly on the outside of the wall. The covering of the roof consisted principally of straw, reeds, or slate-stone. Garrets were sometimes formed in the roof, with a window, either in the sloping sides, or in one of the gables. In consequence of the lowness of the side-wall, and to give sufficient light, the horizontal dimension of the window was much greater than the height. The long bearing of the lintel, or head of the window, was supported in the middle by an upright piece of timber, called a munnion. The glass-frames were made to revolve upon hinges with a vertical axis, glazed with small squares of glass, inserted in lead, and stiffened by cross pieces of wood, or frequently iron, called saddle-bars; the form of the squares sometimes rectangular, but frequently rhomboidal, and the lead into which they were inserted fixed to an iron frame. To this construction the cottager frequently added a small shed, for keeping a cow, and sometimes one or more hovels to the end of the side, which might be used as a pantry, or as a place wherein to deposit his tools, or other articles of convenience. It is probable that cottages were at first built of a single story only; but, in course of time, they were constructed two stories in height, and as the lower story could not then be protected by the roof, a projection of wood or slate-stone was introduced over the lower apertures, to prevent the rain-water from falling upon the wall. To make these projections ornamental, they were formed into labels of hewn-stone, after the manner of those in Gothic edifices. The width of the English cottage does not admit of more than one room: the chimneys are variously ornamented, sometimes several flues are united in one shaft, which is built in a variety of fanciful forms, and sometimes several shafts are carried up separately, and united under one cope. The best English cottages, of late, have been generally constructed of brick, and covered with slate: and the use of these materials has changed the external features very considerably, though the general disposition of the parts remains much the same. The roofs of many English cottages are partly gabled and partly hipped; and in general the roof is extended at both ends, so as to oversail the gables: the projection thus affording protection to the walls in the same manner as the eaves over the front and rear walls; by this means the gable-tops, being under cover, are less liable to want repair. The walls of English cottages are generally adorned, either by whitewashing or colouring the walls; or with creepers of various kinds. The Scottish cottages differ considerably in form and feaL -. tures from the English, not only in being generally constructed of stone, which is the material most easily procured in the country, but from their being so wide as to admit of two apartments; and being commonly one story only in height. One of these circumstances is sufficient to occasion a great dissimilarity when compared with the proportion of the English cottage, in making the roof top-heavy, and the general appearance of the building squat; and when both are united, this effect will be still more apparent. In the Scottish cottage, the roof has only a very small projection over the walls; the windows and doors are generally plain; the gables most frequently surmount the roof; the apertures of doors and windows are therefore not so well protected from rain as in the English cottage; but this want of projection is counterbalanced by the great thickness of the walls, and by the narrowness of the windows, which are made to slide in a vertical position, in grooves on the sides of a surrounding fiame. Art inducement to make the windows narrow, was the length of the stones, which would not have been easily obtained otherwise. In order to procure the greatest quantity of light, the sashes were glazed with planes of glass comparatively much larger than those used in English cottages, and the sides of the windows were splayed from the glass-frame, so as to form very obtuse angles with the interior surface of the wall. The windows of the Scottish cottage are thus not only very different from those of the English, in being without dressings, and of a different proportion, but also in their manner of glazing and shutting them. The chimneys are either carried up in one or both gables, or in a partition-wall, which separates the two apartments in the length: when carried up in the ends, as the walls are always made sufficiently thick to receive the flues, the walls are not recessed upon the flanks of the stalk of chimney's, in order to save materials. These, consisting of crude stone cemented with mortar, being of little value. The chimney shafts, or the turrets surmounting the roof, are generally plain, finished on the top with a coping of hewn-stone. In many old constructions of Scottish cottages, the chimney is placed in the front-wall, with a large recess all round the fire, which gave great advantage, in admitting more than double the number which the modern construction admits of, and was therefore useful in times when the master and his servants sat in common with each other. In the old constructions, the roof was covered with thatch, turf, or heath, as being the most ready materials; but these, as in England, have generally given place to the more durable coverings of slate and tile, for similar reasons. Few appendages are used in Scottish cottages; and in days of old, so little attention was paid to cleanliness, that the cottager who was blessed with a cow, admitted the beast to lodge at night in the same house with himself, without any other partition than the back of a bed or press, to separate his apartment from that of the animal. We are, however. happy to find, that among many other improvements in the north, comfort and cleanliness are now as much objects of the wishes of the inhabitants, as in other parts of the United Kingdom; but even in the present time, from the impression of ancient forms, though the cow-house be separated from the cottage, they are still in one continued formal line, and want that picturesque beauty which an appendage would give, as in the English cottage. The common kind of the present cottages in the north. are made very wide, either to receive a framed bedstead and press, or to form recesses, by means of a partition, for the reception of the bed and cupboard, on the side of the apartment opposed to the window. _~ __ __ ~I _ __ ~__ __ I __ ____ ____1__1___ __ __ COT 208 COT COT ~208CT The gables on some old cottages in North Britain, are surmounted with steps, following the sides of the roof, instead of the plain coping, which formed the thatch-way. Scottish cottages are frequently decorated by training honeysuckles or ivy upon the walls, and a row of house-leek is disposed along the ridge, and not unfrequently upon the sloping sides, in case of a thatched roof. The materials to be used in the erection of cottages will necessarily depend in a great measure on the locality in which they are to be built. Cottages are built of clay, or turf, bricks with wood, crude stone, flint, large pebbles, cab, &c.; those used for the covering are turf, straw, tiles, slate, tarred paper, tessera, &c. When fir abounds, as in the north of Scotland, this timber may be used both for boarding and scantling; in places yielding stone-that material with flag-stonesfor roofing. In some parts of Lancashire, houses are built with a framework of wood. filled up with wattled shed-work, and afterwards covered with a composition of clay and wet straw, locally termed "clot and clay;" this, when plastered and limewhited, has a neat appearance. In Devonshire, walls of a similar character are called "cob-walls;" in France, pise. Houses in the departement of the Isere, Rhone, and Din, the walls of which are formed with this material, have existed for upwards of a century, and effectually resist the inclemency of the weather. Clay may be used with advantage in a similar manner in this country if properly prepared, and applied with judgment. It should by well tempered, and mixed with a portion of fine gravel, or sand; this facilitates the drying, and prevents the composition from cracking. In forming the walls, fix temporarily in the ground two parallel rows of poles, planked on the inner sides-a space of 20 inches between being left for the thickness of the wall: ram the prepared clay well into this space, raising the planks as the work proceeds, care being taken that the walls are carried up perpendicular. Ironhooping should be laid diagonally in the substance of the wall, as bond. Over all the openings, stout lintel should be laid; and the door and window-frames fixed as the work progresses. When the walls have set, remove the planks and poles, which may serve as timber for joists and rafters. After the walls are completed and thoroughly dry, the exterior may be rough-cast, and a coating of plaster laid on the interior. A good method of keeping such walls dry, is to build in, at intervals, small perforated drain-pipes. These should be laid in the substance of the walls, the bottom resting upon a framed opening defended by a cast-iron air-brick; the top having a small orifice under the eaves leading outward. The current of air passing through these pipes will carry off all moisture exuding from the walls. The improvement of the dwellings of the industrial classes is now occupying, in a considerable degree, the attention of philanthropists. Several societies have been formed expressly to carry out so benevolent an object, and their attention has been especially directed to the erection of a better description of cottage for the agricultural labourer. The young architect, in the outset of his professional career, may possibly be called upon to furnish designs for such buildings, and with a view to assist him, we have subjoined the following specification principally taken fiom a work we have before quoted, Mr. Dean's "Essay on Farm Buildings." Mr. Dean is a practical architect, and is thoroughly master of the subject on which he has written; and his "Essays" may be consulted with advantage by those who are about to erect agricultural buildings. The specification is for a pair of labourer's cottages, semidetached, but may be altered as to materials, &c., according to locality and circumstances. The general conditions are as usual, and it is unnecessary to occupy space by transcribing them. " SPECIFICATION. "Excavator. Dig out the earth for the foundations to the several walls, drains, and cesspools, as shown in the drawings, or herein described. The cesspools to privies to be sunk outside the building. Fill up the trenches to the depth and width shown in drawings with concrete composed of one part of ground-stone lime to six of gravel, broken stone, or clean ballast. Fill in and well rain the ground-work to the trenches and walls, so as to prevent the rain soaking down to, or standing against, the walls and foundations." "Bricklayer. The footings to the walls to be formed with sound, hard, well-burnt stock-bricks or burs from the brickfield, filled in solid, and well flushed with mortar. On the footings spread a layer of gas-tar and sand, and over this a course of slate is to be laid, should there be the slightest chance of dampness arising from the foundation. The cesspools to be built in 4t- inch brickwork, steened and domed over, having stone man-holes let in. The drains fiom the sinks to be 3 inches diameter, of glazed earthenware, with syphon traps. The cesspools and drains to be completed previous to the walls being erected. Carry up the walls and chimneys in old English bond, leaving a space of about 2 inches in the centre of the thickness of the walls, and insert air-bricks where required. Carry up from the ceiling of each room, on corbel-stones, a ventilating flue 6 by 9 inches. All the flues to be well pargetted and cored out at the completion of the works. The chinlney flues not to be gathered over sharply, and twisted as much as possible. "The external walls are to be faced with best red stockbricks, white Suffolk bricks being used for plinths, quoins, and dressings to windows and chimney-shafts; all of which are to be carried up in the manner shown in drawings. No wall to be, at any time during the progress of the works, more than 4 feet higher than any other wall. No indents or toothings will be allowed, and no four course of bricks to exceed 11 inches in height. ' All the brickwork must be worked in sound regular bond, with a close joint neatly struck; every course well flushed in with mortar, and the whole made perfectly level, straight, and perpendicular. The chimney openings to have chimney bars to turn up at each end. The quarter partitions to be brick-nogged with bricks, laid flat, and well bonded. "All openings to have arches turned over them, with proper skew backs, and left neatly pointed. The chimney and jambs are to be chamfered, to have plinths, and two projecting bricks, cut, as shown in drawing, to support mantel shelf. The fire-places are to be lined with firebricks, and an oven built at back. The bottom, sides, and top of oven to be of fire tiles, with flues for carrying the fire under and up the sides of the oven. The smoke-flue to be provided with dampers, and a door provided with damper leading to the oven, which is to be fixed in chimney jamb. Fire-grates are to be formned by letting round iron bars into the brickwork of fire-places. "The privies to be provided with Boulton and Watt's closet-pans, and glazed earthenware pipes leading to cesspools. The boilers to be set with rounded bricks, and the inside work, where exposed to the fire, lined with firebrick. The mortar to be composed of one part of good lime to three of sharp sand, or fine-sifted gravel; the whole to be well tempered. Properly bed all lintels, plates, frames, and sills; point round all frames and sills; stop all putlock holes, and leave the works in a complete state. - I~ ---—.. ----i- -. — ---- COT 209 cOU _ __ _I I___i il; I_ ___ ".Mason and Paviour. Provide and fix 4 inch tooled York stone steps to porches and entrance-doors. Provide and fix 3 inch York stones over cesspools; 4 inch stones for corbels, to carry brickwork to air-flues; a circular space about 4 inches diameter, to be cut ih these stones, and a ventilating valve inserted in each. Inch hare-hill hearths, and back-hearths to all chimney openings, with stone-kirbs round to act as fenders. The kitchens to have ash-pits with iron movable gratings over. Sink-stones to washhouses 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 9 inches, out of 7 inch stone, properly dished (or wood lined with zinc may be used), each sink to be provided with a bell-trap. Pave the porches and pantries with 10 inch tiles, well bedded, the ground being previously well rammed. The rest of the ground-floors to be made with concrete. Two-inch York stone treads, and risers to stairs, properly cramped, and supported by dwarf brick walls. The floors of privies to be paved with 1y inch York stone." " Carpenter. The fir timber to be free from sap, large knots, and shakes. The oak to be English, die-square. The framing to be executed in the most approved manner, and to be of the following scantlings:-Wall-plates 44 by 24; lintels over all openings, 4 by 4; chamber-joists 7 by 1, 12 inches apart, with bays of herring-bone struts 2 feet apart, thin iron hooping being nailed to the under side of the joists, and the space between the joists to be filled up solid with broken stone or clay and mortar. Trimmingjoists 7 by 3; struts 4 by 2; partitions to have heads and sills 4 by 3; uprights and braces 4 by 2. Door-frames chamfered on the edges 4 by 3; rafters 44 by 21; purlins 4 by 3; collars to every sixth pair of rafters, 6 by 2; ridge, 7 by 1'; 3 yellow deal battens to carry slates. Provide and fix 2 inch cut and splayed barge-boards, with pinnacles, &c., as shown on drawings." " Joiner. External doors to be square-framed and battened, hung with 4 inch butts, with 7 inch drawback locks, 6 inch round bolts, (3 to each door,) and Norfolk thumblatches; 3 ledged internal doors, and A ledged privy, pantry, and coal-closet doors, with bolts and latches. The doors to have inch jamb-linings and stops." " Windows. Solid deal frames, 44 by 3, with oak-sunk sills; 1 ovolo sashes, suspended by pivots; those in the pantries to be filled with perforated zinc." " Fittings. Inch deal seats and risers to privies, on fir carriages. The seats to have flaps hung with 24 inch butt hinges; I shelf to be fixed round each cupboard closet in bed-rooms, and 3 in those in kitchens: 14 inch dresser-tops, and 3 shelves to pantries. Angle staves to be provided and fixed to all angles; 3 clamped shutters to dwelling-rooms, hung as flaps, with deal fiamed brackets, to be turned on pivots, the flaps forming tables. Fir mantel-shelves, 6 by 2 inches, over each opening." "Plasterer. The walls of the dwelling-rooms and bed-rooms to be rendered and set. The ceilings and rafters lathed with iron hooping; the space between the joists and rafters filled up solid with broken stone, or earth and lime. The ceilings to be plastered, set, and whited. The chamber floors to be laid with floor plaster, and trowelled to a smooth surface. The walls of the sculleries, pantries, coal-closets, and privies, to be twice lime-whited; cement skirting, 6 inches high, to be run round all the kitchens and bed-rooms." "Slater. Cover the roofs with countess slates, laid hollow to a proper guage. The ridges to be of slate, bedded in cement." " Ironmonger. Fix No. 8 1 round iron bars to all the fireplaces, to form stove. Fix iron pans in sculleries. Fix 27 where directed an iron pump, with double handle; fix No. 4, stacks of 4 inch descending pipes, with cistern heads and shoes, the bottom length to be of cast iron. Provide and fix No. 12 cast iron air bricks, to be fixed where directed; fix No. 8 Arnott's valves where directed. Fix perforated zinc-plates to doors of rooms not having chimney openings in them. Provide No. 10 chimney bars, to turn up at each end." "Plumber. Inch lead waste pipes from sinks to drains curved round so as to form stink-traps, and provided with bell-traps. Lead flashings to chimneys, 5 pound to the foot super. Provide and fix 15 feet of 14 suction-pipe fiom well to pump." " Glazier and Painter. Glaze the several sashes with 3d Newcastle crown glass. Stain the whole of the woodwork of the exterior with a composition of gas-tar and Roman ochre, laid on when boiling hot. The interior to be stained with 'Stephen's stain,' and afterwards varnished." The above Specification is so carefully drawn, that we have thought it expedient to extract it entire, as a useful guide to the young architect. It may, of course, be altered according to circumstances, and it may not always be desirable to incur so large an outlay. The estimate fr a pair of cottages similar to those specified, would range from ~200 to ~300, according to the amount of ornament bestowed on them. COUCH, in general, the lay of any mucilaginous substance on any material, as wood or plaster, in order to protect the surface of that material from the weather, and thereby render it more durable, or less vulnerable to the corroding influence of the atmosphere. COUCH, in painting, denotes a lay or impression of colour, whether in oil or water, with which the painter covers his canvass, wall, wainscot, or other material to be painted. Paintings are first covered with a couch of varnish. A canvass, to be painted, must first have two couches of size before the colours are laid: two or three couches of whitelead are laid on wood before the couch of gold is applied. COULISSE, French; the pieces of wood which hold the floodgates in a sluice; also any timbers having grooves in them. COUNTER, COMPTER, (from the Latin, computare) the name of' two prisons in London, for the use of the city, to confine debtors, breakers of the peace, &c. COUNTER, a term formerly used among engineers to denote the superintendent of a canal, or other great work, under the resident-engineer. His business was to keep an account of the time of the men employed, not only in different departments of the work, but in different soils also, as a check on the charge of the men; and thereby to enable the residentengineer, who received his accounts, to ascertain the rate of any quantity of common measure in similar operations. The counter seems to have been the same as what we now call clerk of the works. COUNTER DRAIN, a ditch or channel parallel to a canal or embanked water-course, for collecting the soakage-water by the side of the canal or embankment, to a culvert or arched drain under the canal, by which it is conveyed away to lower ground. COUNTER DRAWING, the copying of a design by means of a fine linen cloth, oiled paper, &c., laid on the drawing; the strokes of the drawing appearing through the transparent cover, being traced and marked with the pencil. Sometimes drawings are copied on glass, or with frames or nets divided into squares. The pentagraph is not only _ __ __ [. I cou 210 cou useful in making fac-similes, but for reducing or enlarging drawings in any proportion; but of all instruments employed in copying rectilinear or regular curved-lined drawings, or mixed of the two, the proportional compass is the most accurate, the most expeditious and convenient instrument ever yet invented; and if the parts of the drawing stand at different oblique angles, a pair of triangular compasses will be necessary to assist in taking the angles. Although the pentagraph will of itself enlarge or reduce, or make equal, and find the quantity of the angle, it requires much room, and for drawing straight lines and curves, the tracer to be drawn along a straight-edge. In retrograding or retracing a line in the same path, towards the contrary extremity to which it was drawn, the representative line is liable to be doubled. The pentagraph is therefore a cumbersome and inaccurate instrument for such purposes, and should only be used in reducing for rough or sketch-maps, &c., where great accuracy may not be absolutely necessary. COUNTERFORTS, projections of masonry or brickwork from a wall, built at regular intervals, in order to strengthen the wall, or to resist a pressure of earth behind it, the counterforts increasing the breadth of its base, and thereby aiding the resistance against the power which tends to overturn it. COUNTER GUAGE, in carpentry, a method used to measure the joints by transferring, e. g. the breadth of a mortise to the place of the other timber where the tenon is to be made, in order to adapt them to each other. COUNTER LATH, in tiling, a lath placed between every two guaged ones, so as to divide every interval, as near as can be judged by the eye, into two equal intervals. COUNTER LIGHT, a window opposite to anything which nmakes it appear to a disadvantage: a single counter light is sufficient to take away all the beauty of a fine painting. COUNTER PARTS, of a building, are the similar and equal parts of the design on each side of the middle of the edifice; they are absolutely necessary to the character of a Grecian or Roman edifice, but in Gothic buildings a duplicature of parts is not requisite. COUNTRY-HOUSE, as its name implies, one erected in the country. In the erection of these, under a liberal employer, the architect has the greatest scope for his fancy, ingenuity, and skill in contrivance. He is not confined to space, as in town-houses, and therefore has it in his power to extend in any direction consistent with the nature of his design. For farther information, see VILLA, and HousE. COUPLE-CLOSE, a pair of spars of a roof. COUPLED COLUMNS, those which are disposed in pairs, making a narrow and wide interval succeed each other alternately. Of this disposition of columns, ancient architecture affords no instance; for, although in the temple of Bacchus at Rome, the columns are coupled, or stand in pairs, still the intervals between are all equal. The. only use of coupled columns is in low colonnades, or porticos of edifices which have large piers, where the employment of single columns would have a meagre appearance. The ancient disposition of columns in the same range was always beautiful, on account of the proportion of the intercolumn being always narrow. In the application of columns to modern architecture, the intercolumniations must be regulated by the apertures of our domestic edifices, but the ancients were under no such restrictions. The perspective succession or gradation of coupled columnns, is not so harmonious as when columns stand single. If a design be well suggested, there will be little occasion for their employment. See COLUMN, COLONNADE. COUPLES, rafters framed together in pairs, with a tie, which is generally fixed above the feet of the rafters. This mode of framing is used in the ordinary houses of Scotland, without either piincipals or purlins. The rafters called spars, are most commonly notched, and the tie which couples them is also notceed with a dovetail. In a building about 25 feet wide, the spars may be 7 inches at bottom, 6 inches at top, 21} inches thick, and'about 2 feet 2 inches apart, for boarding covered with slate. COUPLES, Main, or MAIN COUPLES, the same as trusses for roofs, which support the roof in different bays: this term is also used in the north. COURSE, a continued level range of stones or bricks in a wall, as far as the solid part runs. It sometimnes happens, that a course of masonry is only laid to a certain length, and the other part or complement divided into two courses, in the same height as the single course; but this ought not to be admissible, and should be specified against, in countries where the contractors are ready to take every advantage in order to save the expense of larger stones, or to accommodate themselves with those already at hand. COURSE OF THE FACE OF AN ARCH, the arch-stones, whose joints radiate to the centre. In stone work, the arch-stones are called voussoirs or ring-stones, in the face of the arch, and each radiating part consists of one stone only. In brickwork, each part, of one thickness of brick, sometimes consists of several bricks in length: but whether one or several bricks be contained between two adjacent radiating joints, the quantity thus disposed is called a course. COURSE, in slating and tiling, a row of slates or tiles, disposed with their lower ends in the same level, which line may either be a straight line or a circle. COURSE OF PLINTHS, the continuity of a plinth in the face of a wall, to mark the separation of the stones. The course of plinths is otherwise called string course, which is most frequently executed with stone, but sometimes also with plaster, to save expense. COURSE, Barge. See BARGE-COURSE. COURSE, Blocking. See BLOCKING-COURSE. COURSE, Bonding, that which is farther inserted into the wall than either of the adjacent courses, for the purpose of binding the wall together. Two bonding-courses lapping upon each other, one from the face, and the other from the back, make excellent work: these courses should be placed so as to leave regular intervals for stretching courses between them, on each side of the wall. COURSE, Heading, the same as BONDING-COURSE. See the last article. COURSE, Springing. See SPRINGING-COURSE. COURSE, Stretching. See STRETCHING-COURSE. COURSED MASONRY, that in which the stones run in courses. COURSING JOINT, the joint between two courses. COURT, an hypsethral, or uncovered area, either in front of a house, or surrounded entirely by the walls. As it is impossible on the same floor to light apartments surrounded with other apartments on all sides, and these again completely covered with other apartments, it will be impossible to execute an extensive building, which may have more than three rooms in length and breadth, and more than one story in height, without the intermediate rooms being entirely dark, or receiving their light by secondary windows from the exterior rooms; hence the necessity of introducing as many intermediate courts as the extension of the building, with regard to the number of rooms, both in length and breadth, may require, will be obvious. Mr. Barry has made advantag(eous use of a court of this description in the Travellers' Club-house. See CLUB-HoUSE. It is true, that a building can be executed without courts, and that it may contain any number of rooms; but it must have only two rooms in Co 21 CRAI__ Cov 211 CRA breadth, or otherwise the plan cannot be a simple rectangular figure. Courts may be ornamented in the most elegant manner, and being more confined than the external parts of the edifice, the ornaments may be of a more delicate nature; and if any parts of the building can admit of arcades, or of two or more orders, one above the other, a court is certainly the most susceptible of such decoration. We are informed by Vitruvius (book vi. chap. iii.) that the ancients had five kinds of courts, called cavcedii, distinguished by the denominations of Twscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, displuvinated, and testudinated. For the description of each, see CAV^EDIUM. COUSINET, COUSSINET, a CUSHION, a stone placed upon the impost of a pier or pedroit, for receiving the first stone of an arch. If the arch be the segment of a circle, the cousinet may be an isosceles triangle, with the base upon the impost, and the two sloping sides radiating to the centre; or if the arch be a semicircle, the cousinet will be the first arch-stone itself, or otherwise the arch must spring above the impost. COUSINET is also employed to denote that part in the front of the Ionic capital, contained between the abacus and the echinus, or quarter-round. It is this which forms the horizontal fillet, or band, in common volutes, or the band and festoons in the Grecian Ionic, from which the volutes on each side of the column depend. COVE, any kind of concave moulding, or the concavity of a vault. CovE BRACKETING, is the bracketing of any cove, but more generally understood to be that of the quadrantal cove, which is sometimes employed between the flat ceiling and the wall. See BRACKETING. COVED AND FLAT CEILING, one whose section is a portion or quadrant of a circle, springing from the walls of the room, and rising to a flat surface in the middle. Coved and flat ceilings seem to be altogether of modern invention, and admit of some beauty in the decoration. It is a sort of compromise between the flat or horizontal ceiling, and the various forms of arched ones practised by the ancients. It does not require so much height as the latter mode, and has therefore been of considerable use in the finishing of modern apartments; but as its form is a comnpound, it wants both elegance of figure, and grandeur of design; nor does it admit of that beauty in decoration, that entire arched ceilings are susceptible of. The ancient forms were of three kinds, the cylindric arch, the dome, and the. groin. We find no arches of any description in Grecian antiquity; but in the Roman edifices all the three varieties are to be found; and among other ceilings in the ruins of Balbec, the quadrantal coved ceiling, with the flat in the middle, may be distinctly traced, at least in length, if not in breadth. See CEILING. COVER, in slating, the part of the slate that is hid or covered; the other part exposed to view, is termed the margin of the slate. COVER WAY, in roofing, the recess or internal angle left in brickwork or masonry to receive the covering. COVERED WAY, a passage covered over. The term Covered Way, or COVERT Way, is also used in fortification to denote the piece of ground level with the field on the edge of the ditch, three or four fathoms broad, extending quite round the works towards the country. It has a parapet raised on a level, together with its banquettes and glacis. It is sometimes called the counterscarp. COVERING. See ROOFING. COVING, the exterior projecture over the ground-plan of buildings, made in an arched form with lath and plaster: it is not now in use. In former times, when the streets were very narrow, the upper rooms were made in part to jut over the wall, in order to give room. COVINGS or A FIREPLACE, the inclined vertical parts on the sides, for contracting the opening, and throwing out the heat. COW-HOUSE, a building where cows or other cattle are kept, in order to protect them from the severities of the weather. See CATTLE SHED. Cow-YARD, the enclosure in which cows are kept, to shelter them from the weather. CRAB, an instrument used in masonry for raising large stones. CRACKING OF BUILDINGS, those fissures occasioned by improper management in the foundation, or in carrying up the work. Cracks, so frequent in modern buildings, will for the most part be found to arise fi'om unequal settlement, caused by insufficient foundations, from inadequate coverings to apertures, such as what are called French arches, or from the employment of improper or inferior materials, soft bricks, unseasoned timber and such like. CRACKING, in plastering, the fissures occasioned by an undue tempering or mixing of the materials, or by an unseasonable application. CRADLE, or COFFER, in engineering, a large wooden trunk, open at top, with movable ends, large enough to receive a barge or vessel when floating on a canal, for the purpose of raising or lowering it to a higher or lower pond of the canal, by cranes or other means, without the use of a pond lock. The term is also applied to the segment of a hollow cylinder formed of ribs and lattice, similar to centering, used by bricklayers and masons, for turning culverts and arches; the inside is smooth, and the exterior rough, for supporting and retaining the shape of the inverted arch of the lower half of the culvert in soft ground, particularly in quicksands and peaty places. A very slight cradle of this kind, will sometimes prevent the distortion or ultimate fall of a barrel culvert. This precaution should never be omitted in laying culverts under canals or roads, in soft grounds, as the falling of the culvert may prove of the greatest inconvenience. CRADLE-VAULT, a word improperly applied to cylindric vaults. CRADLING, the mass of timber-work disposed in arched or vaulted ceilings, for sustaining the lath and plaster. For the application of the various species of cradling, see the words CYLINDRIC-VAULT, COVE-BRACKETING, DOME, GROIN, and NICHE. The compound term, dishing-out, is sometimes used by workmen, instead of cradling. CRADLING is also used for the rough timber-work for sustaining an entablature for a shop-front. CRAMP, an iron instrument, about 4 feet long, with a screw at one end, and a movable shoulder or arm at the other, by which mortise and tenon work is forced together. CRAMPERN, or CRAMP-IRON, an iron bent at each extremity, towards the same side of the middle part, used to fasten stones together in a building. When stones are required to be bound together with greater strength than that of mortar, a chain, or bar of iron, with different projecting nobs, is inserted in a cavity cut in the upper side of the course of stones across the joints, instead of single cramps across the joints of each two stones. Cramps are generally employed in works which require great solidity, as in the piers and abutments of bridges, and the voussoirs of large arches. They are also employed in uniting the stones of copings, and cornices, and general ly any external work upon the upper surface, or between the beds of the stone. External work liable to the injuries of the weather, I L-__-___ I I- - __ _ 1: -" -..-~ - ---- -1-~~.-~-~. I -I — -- CRE 212 CRO CR 212 ORGi ought to be cram ted. The most secure manner of fixing cramps is to let,them into the stones their whole thickness, and run them '.ithi lead; but in slight works, it is sufficient to bed them in plaster, as is the practice in chimney-pieces. Iron is used in modern buildings, but the Romans, who were accustomed to employ cramps in the greatest profusion, used bronze, a material much more durable than iron, as it is not so liable to rust. Bronze or copper is preferable to iron, not only on account of its own durability, but likewise because it is not so liable to destroy the masonry which it connects: the rust which accumulates round iron cramps, tends to rupture the masonry to a much greater extent, than the cramps to keep it together; besides this, if 'placed near the surface, iron is sure to discolour it. In general work, if the masonry be well put together, there will be but little need of cramps, especially if the separate masses be of moderate size; nor even if they be of small dimensions, is there any absolute necessity for their employment, as we may gather from the works of the ancients. Mr. Murphy instances the spires of Salisbury cathedral, and of the church of Batalha, Portugal, which though not more than seven inches in thickness, are for the most part connected without the aid of iron cramps. These observations apply with greater emphasis to wrought than to cast iron. fir Christopher Wren used a large cramp or chain below the springing of the dome of St. Paul's, in order to distribute the, pressure equally. This architect, however, seems to have been fully aware of the caution requisite in the use of iron in stone buildings, for he observes in his Parentalia, "It. has been observed in removing cramps from masonry at least four hundred years old, which were so bedded in mortar that all air was perfectly excluded, that the iron appeared as fresh as when it came fiom the forge. In cramping stones therefore, no iron should lie within nine inches of air if possible; for air is the menstruum that consumes all materials. When for want of large stones the use of iron is requisite, care should be taken to exclude the air from it." Copper, bronze, or gun-metal, form excellent and incorrosive substitutes for iron in cramping masonry; they are more expensive at the first outlay, but will be found in reality more economical; the first material may be mixed with a small portion of tin, which imparts to it greater durability. The above objections to iron, do not hold good as regards brickwork; the only inconvenience in this case arises from the stain with which the rust is apt to disfigure the work, if the iron be placed too near the facing. CRAMPOONS, pieces of iron hooked at the ends, for drawing or pulling up timber, stones, &c. CRANE-HOUSE, a house to shelter a crane; it should be constructed of brick. CREALS, a sort of jetties, or weir hedges, sometimes erected on the shores of rivers or the sea, for checking the force of the tide in particular places, and occasioning a deposit of filth or mud in place of the constant wear and encroachment of the water upon the land. Smeaton's Reports, i. p. 4. CREASING, Tile. See TILE-CREASING. CREDENCE, a shelf or small table by the side of a Christian altar, on which the sacred elements are placed previous to consecration. Sometimes the credence is simply a shelf in the niche above the piscina, but at other times a separate table. At the church of S. Cross is a beautiful specimen, rectangular in plan, having its front decorated with panels, and the stone slab supported above a cornice enriched with flowers, it is fixed in a corner so that only two sides are exposed; at Fyfield, Berks, is another specimen, semi-octagonal in plan, supported on a stem of similar plan, but of smaller dimensions; the sides are panelled all the way up. CRENELLE, the embrasure of a battlement, sometimes applied to the whole battlement, as also to the loopholes and other small apertures in the wall of a fortress, through which missiles were discharged. CRESCENT, an ornament used by the Mahometans in their mosques. CRESCENT, a series of buildings, disposed in the arc of a circle, which is either the half circumference, or the arc of a segment less than the half. CRESILLA, a Grecian sculptrix, who chiselled seven statues of the Amazons, for the temple of Diana at Ephesus, and was accounted the third in merit among the numerous competitors who vied in decorating that famed edifice-being only inferior to Polycletus and Phidias. CRESSET, an open metal fiame or cage, used to contain a light or beacon-fire. CREST, the ornamental finishing at the summit of a structure, consisting of battlements, open tracery, finials and crockets, or even plain coping. CREST-TILES, tiles placed along the ridge of a roof overlapping on both sides like a saddle; they are sometimes plain, and at others ornamented, moulded in the form of battlements, Tudor-flowers, crockets, leaves, &c. CREUX (from the French) a term in sculpture, implying a hollow, out of which anything has been scooped; and hence it has been used to denote that kind of sculpture and graving, where the lines and figures are cut and formed within the surface carved or engraved upon. There is no word in the English language that answers to this idea, and hence the necessity of adopting the term. It is opposed to the word relieve, where the lines and figures are prominent, and project without the surface. CRIB, the rack or manger of a stable, or the stall or cabin of an ox. It is also used for any small habitation, as a cottage. CROCKET (from the French, croc, a hook, or fork) an ornament used to decorate or finish the raking arrises of parts of Gothic buildings, such as spires, pinnacles, gables, canopies, &c.; consisting of projecting leaves, flowers, or knops of foliage, and terminating usually in a larger ornament or bunch of flowers or leaves at the summit, called a finial. Sometimes they are used in vertical lines, as at the cathadral, Lincoln, where they run up the mullions of the tower window. Crockets of the Early English style are often simple trefoil leaves, and sometimes bunches of such leaves, placed at considerable intervals, and curled backwards, in a similar manner to the head of a bishop's pastoral staff: early specimens are to be seen at Salisbury and Wells cathedrals, but the simplest example exists at Lincoln, which exhibits a simple curve, curling round downwards. In the Decorated period, the leaves were usually continued for some distance attached to the moulding, and curled upwards towards the extremity, sometimes the extreme point was turned up; a similar form prevailed in the Perpendicular style, but they are sometimes merely flat square leaves united to the moulding by the stalk and one edge. In some cases we meet with animals in the place of crockets, as on the flying buttresses of Henry VIl.'s chapel, Westminster, and the gables of the hall at Hampton Court; on the tomb of Archbishop Kempe, Canterbury, we find swans, and on that of Bishop Bingham, Salisbury, angels are used for the same purpose. I I ____j _i I. -------- CRO 213 CRO CR0 ~213C0 CROISSANTE CROIX, having a crescent or halfmnoon, fixed to each end thereof. CROKET. See CROCKET. CRONACA, SIMONE, a Florentine architect, born in the year 1454. This artist travelled to Rome, and other cities of Italy, in order to take accurate admeasurements of the ancient edifices. When he returned to Florence, he acquired considerable reputation, and was employed to finish the Palazzo Strozzi, which was begun by Benedetto da Maiano. Among his other works in this city, are the sacristy of the church of Santo Spirito, and the church of S. Francesco del Offervanza, at S. Miniato, in the suburbs of the city. He died in the year 1509, and was buried in the church of S. Ambrozio Vasari. CROOKED LINE, one that cannot have a tangent on any point to the two adjacent parts of the line on each side of the point of contact. CRtOSETTES, in the decorations of apertures, the trusses or consoles on the flanks of the architrave, under the cornice; they are otherwise named ears, elbows, ancones, or prothqyrides. CROSIER, a bishop's staff; it was originally a plain rod with a cross-head at its summit, and subsequently with a curved top similar to a shepherd's crook. Crosiers were sometimes of a very costly description, being formed of gold or silver, engraved, enamelled, and inlaid with jewels and precious stones. A good specimen is that of William of Wykeham, preserved at New College, Oxford. The crosier of an archbishop is surmounted by a cross, and that of a primate or patriarch by a double cross. CROSS, a figure consisting of four branches, at right angles to each other; or a geometrical figure, consisting of five rectangles, each side of one angle being common with one side of each the other four. The cross, as the most prevalent symbol of the Christian religion, was often introduced into their architecture. Their churches, more especially the larger ones, were frequently built on a cross plan, and were decorated internally and externally with this symbol; crosses oft a highly decorative character and beautiful design were often affixed to the apex of gables, and in the interior were depicted on the walls; a large ornamental cross, usually of wood, called the rood, was set above the screen, which separates nave and chancel, and a small one of metal, enriched with jewels, &c., on the altar. There are two kinds of cruciform plans used in ecclesiastical buildings; one, in which all the five rectangles are equal; or, in which each of the four wings is equal to the middle part tbrmed by the intersection, is called a Greek cross. The other, in which only two opposite wings are equal, and in which the other two are unequal, and the three rectangles in the direction of the unequal parts of greater length than the three parts in the direction of the equal parts, is called a Latin cross, the middle part in each direction being cor mmon. Stone crosses were erected in front of the entrance to the church, and these consisted of a tall shaft raised on one or more steps, and surmounted by an ornamental cross; the shaft was usually of a simple character, but sometimes enriched with sculpture. Besides these, there were boundary, memorial, sepulchral, preaching, and market crosses. Boundary-crosses were of a very simple character, being usually merely upright stones ornamented with some simple sculpture; memoir'al crosses Were of a like plain description, there is a specimen at Blore-heath, Staffordshire. The crosses erected by king Edward I. at the places where the corpse of his queen Eleanor was rested during its progress from Lincolnshire to Westminster for interment, would probably come under this head, but if so, they are of a very different description to the majority. Out of fifteen of these originally existing, only three now remain, at Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham: of those now destroyed, five are known to have been erected at the following places, Lincoln, Stamford, Dunstable, St. Alban's, and Charing. They were very elaborate structures, consisting of several stories of multangular plans, each story being somewhat smaller than the one below it, so as to give the erection a pyramidal form, having the apex surmounted by a cross, and the whole enriched with sculpture, statuary, &c; that at Waltham consists of three stories, and is hexagonal in plan, the lower story is richly panelled, the second canopied, containing statues of the queen, the third panelled, similarly to the lowest, and the whole finished at the top with a decorative cross. The preaching-cross was a covered pulpit usually erected in the vicinity of a church, the most noted is that of St. Paul, London, which was an erection of wood raised on steps, and covered with a canopy; it was octagonal in plan, closed in on all sides, with the exception of the entrance and the aperture, through which the preacher addressed the people. Specimens of this class exist at Hereford, Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, and Holbeach, Lincolnshire. Market-crosses seem to have been originally of a similar form to those of Queen Eleanor, but having open arches at the sides in the lowest story. In the later and more general form, the plan of the basement was considerably extended, so as to present a space of considerable size covered with a vaulted roof, and having a central pillar or pier to support the superstructure, which at the same time was much reduced in height; the shape of the original plan was preserved, the only difference being in its size; thus the market-cross at Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire, is pentagonal, that at Salisbury, hexagonal, and that at Malmsbury, which is a beautiful specimen, hexagonal. Other market-crosses exist at Winchester, Cheddar, and Chichester, and there were two excellent ones at Coventry and Glastonbury. They served to shelter the people attending market from heat and rain. The cross at Chichester is the most beautiful specimen of the kind. It is supported on eight buttresses and a central column, from which issue a number of ribs dividing the vaulted roof: between the buttresses are eight arches moulded, and surmounted by an ogee canopy, which is crocketed, the finial supporting a pinnacle; the spandrels of the canopy are richly panelled, as are also the walls above, the whole being finished by a panelled parapet. The buttresses terminate in crocketed pinnacles. The structure is covered externally by an oge~ cupola, crocketed ribs springing from each of the buttresses at the angles, and the whole is surmounted by a small octangular turret pierced with eight arches, and otherwise elaborately ornamented. Crosses of a simple character were originally erected at the entrance of towns and villages, at the intersection of crossroads and sides of highways, to arrest the attention of travellers, and excite their devotion. CROSS-BANDED, in hand-railing, is when a veneer is laid upon the upper side of the rail, with the grain of the wood crossing that of the rail, and the extension of the veneer in the direction of its fibres less than the breadth of the rail. CROSS GARNETS, hinges, with a long strap, which is fixed to the closure of the aperture, and with a cross part on the other side of the knuckle, which is fastened to the joint. CROSS-GRAINED STUFF, wood with its fibres in contrary directions to the surface, and which therefore cannot be made perfectly smooth by the operation of the plane, without either turning the plane or the stuff. This most frequently arises from a twisted disposition of the fibres in the act of growing. J ORG:-i - - - - - 2 R G CRO 214 CRO - I CROSS MULTIPLICATION, a term used by artificers for the peculiar arithmetical process employed in the mensuration of their work. Cross multiplication and duodecimals are generally confounded together as being synonymous expressions; but the order of performing their operations is materially different. In cross multiplication, the parts are actually multiplied crosswise, as well as in direct order, and the terms of each factor are confined to feet and inches; whereas, in duodecimals, the terms of each of the factors are not confined to number, and the parts are multiplied in the order of common multiplication. The rule in cross multiplication is as follows: Write the given numbers, as in addition. The sum of the products of the alternate parts, and the product of each pair of parts in each denomination, will be the product of the whole. It must be relmembered, that Feet multiplied by feet give feet. Feet multiplied by inches give inches. Feet multiplied by seconds give seconds. Inches multiplied by inches give seconds. The method of performing the operation will be seen in the following examples.-What is the area of a board, the length of which is 25 feet 11 inches, and the breadth 23 feet 7 inches ' ft. in. 25 11 23 7 are required to complete the whole product. We shall take the two former examples, and the one method will be the best proof of the truth of the other. First Example. ft. in. 25 11 23 7 6 5 175 253 12)434 36 2 75 50 611 2 5 Second Example. ft. in. 58 9 36 6 4 6 348 324 12)676 56 4 348 174 2144 4 6 0 6 5 14 7 21 1 575 7 X 11 7 X 25 23 X 11 23 X 25 611 2 5 Required the product of 58 feet 9 inches, by 36 feet 6 inches. By this means, the whole is performed in one operation, without laying any stress on the memory, and will therefore be particularly useful to those who have not sufficient practice to fix the products and quotients of small numbers on their memory: and it is the shortest method of the two, if the number of marginal figures be counted into the work of the former method of operation. In duodecimals the process is as follows: beginning with the last term, or the farthest from the left-hand in the multiplier, multiply by it each term of the multiplicand from the right-hand to the left, carrying one for every twelve to each successive product, but the denominations must not be carried farther than the place of feet; again, multiply all the terms of the multiplicand, by each successive term towards the left of the multiplier; then place the products one under the other, with the first term of every product on the left, under the second term of the product of the horizontal row immediately above; then add the similar denominations of each product: the sum will be the whole product. Observe, in the first place, to put the highest denomination, viz., the feet, under the first term on the left of the multiplicand, and the terms of the product under each respective term of the multiplicand will be of the same denomination with each other. Example.-Suppose, again, it were required to multiply 25 feet 11 inches by 23 feet 7 inches, by duodecimals. 11 X 7 = 77 ft. 58 36 in. 9 6 0 4 6 29 = 27 2088 6 58 36 58 X X X X 9 6 9 36 2144 4 6 The following method is another form of cross multiplication, discovered by Mr. P. Nicholson, in which side operations are unnecessary, and consequently, as a part of the work, must either be wrought on the margin, as above, or in the mind: the work, by the method proposed, will be shorter than the above, or less liable to mistake, if the side operations be not used. The rule is thus: Multiply the inches together, and the product is seconds; divide the product by 12, if so divisible, the quotient is inches, and the remainder seconds; then, placing the feet and the inches in their respective order, one after the other, set the products of the two cross parts in inches, under the inches of the former quotient; add the three numbers together, and divide their sum by 12, the quotient will be feet, and the remainder inches; multiply the feet of the multiplier by the feet of the multiplicand, and place the products under the feet of the last division, then the sum of these products will be the number of feet in the whole contents, and the remainders of inches and seconds, if any, the parts which 25 11 23 7 15 1 5 596 1 611 2 5 6 5 25 X 7 = 175 181 181 15 1 - 12 11 X 23 = 253 21 1 =25 X 3 - 75 25 X 20 = 500 596 Cross multiplication is much better adapted to finding the superficial contents of a piece of work, where there are only *-. -. - ~.. -- CR0 215 CRY 1 - r r CRO 215 CRY - --- - -- -— — -- two terms in each factor, and where the feet of the multiplier run to a high number, as well as the feet of the multiplicand, and more particularly the second mode of cross multiplication; as in duodecimals, the calculator must either have a very good memory to require no marginal work, or otherwise the quantity of marginal operations will exceed that of the principal work. Artificers and measurers never take any account of denominations less than inches, except in glazier's work, and hence cross multiplication is almost the only useful method of finding the contents; but where more denominations are concerned, recourse must be had to duodecimals or decimals, as when the terms of each factor are more than two, cross multiplication cannot be applied. When the terms of the multiplier are under 10, the operation will be exceedingly easy, as the following example will show. Example. —Multiply 8 feet, 3 inches, 5 seconds, and 7 thirds, by 5 feet, 4 inches, 9 seconds, and 6 thirds. ft. in. ii iii 8 3 5 7 5 4 9 6 placed alternately in a straight line, and the sides in contiguity with each other, the whole will form a rectangle, whose length is equal to the half sum of the two circumferences, and the breadth that of the ring; for all the middle breadths are in one straight line, equal to the length of the rectangle. Example.-Suppose the greater circumference of a crown to be 24 feet 8 inches, and the lesser 21 feet 6 inches, and the breadth 2 feet 9 inches, required the superficial content? By cross multiplication. ft. in. 24 8 21 6 2)46 2 23 1 2 9 0 9 207 2 12)209 17 5 46 63 5 9 By decimals. 24.666 = 24] 21.5 = 211 2)46.166 23.083 2.75 = 21 115415 161581 46166 63.47825 content in ft. & dec. 12 5.73900 inches 12 8.868 seconds. 4 1 8 9 6 6 2 7 2 3 2 9 1 10 4 41 5 3 11 44 9 0 6 3 0 6 It will be perceived that there is a great difference between cross multiplication and duodecimals, and the purposes to which each may be most advantageously applied; but the reader who wishes for farther information on this subject, mav have recourse to the articles DECIMALS, DUODECIMALS, and PRACTICE. CROSS SPRINGERS, in groins of the pointed style, are the ribs that spring from one diagonal pier to the other. CROSS VAULTING, a vault formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults. When each of the simple vaults rises from the same level to the same height, the cross vaulting is denominated a groin; but when one of two simple vaults, in cross vaulting, is below the other, the intersection is simply demominated an arch of that particular species which expresses both the simple arches; thus if one cylinder pierce another of greater altitude, the arch so formed is called a cylindro-cylindric arch; and if the portion of a cylinder pierce a sphere of greater altitude than the cylinder, the arch is denominated a sphero-cylindric arch: and thus, for any other species of arch whatever, the part of the qualifying word which ends in o, denominates the simple vault which has the greater altitude, and the succeeding part the other of less altitude. CLOUDE, a subterraneous vault or crypt. CROW, a bar of iron, used in bricklaying and quarrying. CROWN, in architecture, the uppermost member of a cornice, comprehending the corona and its superior members. CROWN OF AN ARCH, the most elevated line or point that can be taken on its surface. CROWN, in geometry, a plane ring, the surface being contained between the circumferences of two concentric circles. The area will be found by multiplying half the sum of the two circumferences by its breadth; for it is easy to conceive, that if radiating lines be equidistantly drawn indefinitely near each other, the whole will be divided into truncated isosceles triangles, or trapezoids, whose opposite angles are equal to two right angles; then the broad and narrow ends being CROWN GLASS, the finest sort of window-glass. See GLASS. CROWN-POST, in truss-roofing, the truss-post, which is placed between a pair of principal rafters, or depending from the summit of the principals, in order to support braces or struts for sustaining the intermediate bearing of the principals, or keeping them from being bent by the weight of the covering. It is otherwise called king-post and joggle-post. See POST and TRUSS-POST. CROWNING, in general, the part that terminates any piece of architecture. Thus the cornice, a pediment, acroteria, &c., are called crownings. CRUCIFIX. a cross with a figure or representation of S. Saviour crucified, affixed to it. CRYPT, according to Vitruvius, the under part of a building, answering nearly to our cellar. The term is more particularly applied to a vaulted apartment beneath a church, either entirely, or partly under ground. Crypts owe their origin to the circumstance of the early Christians being compelled, for the sake of secresy and concealment, to perform their sacred services in caves and subterraneous places, some of which are still pointed out at Rome. Crypts are not unfrequent, especially under large churches, they seldom, however, extend the whole length of the church, being usually confined to the choir or chancel, and sometimes not extending so far as this: they are usually low and massive, of an earlier and plainer style than the superstructure. Many crypts are claimed as belonging to the Saxon style, as those of Lastingham Church, Yorkshire; S. Peter's, Oxford; Repton Church, Derbyshire; and portions of those of many of our cathedrals. Crypts were formerly used for service, and accordingly are provided with altars and other furniture requisite for the purpose. The most extensive building of this kind is that under Canterbury Cathedral, which is thus described by Mr. Britton: - -- ---- I CU 21 CUB - I -.~ —i C U B 216 CUB __ ___ I_ __ __ _ "Like those at Winchester, the crypts of Canterbury Cathedral appear to have been built at different times. Their eastern termination is semicircular; which form has been also observed in the small lateral chapels. The interior length of the Canterbury crypts is 286 feet 6 inches. The age of the oldest part has long been the subject of controversy; but from its similarity to the crypt at Oxford, it may be regarded as contemporaneous with that; it was most probably the work of Lafranc, about A.D. 1080. The larger, or western crypt, is divided into a nave and four aisles, by two rows of massive piers, and by a double range of small columns; whilst the piers and walls of the aisles have semi-columns to support the vaulting. Branching laterally from each aisle is a vault or chapel; that on the south side, the vaulting of which is adorned with many ribs, bears evident marks of innovation, and is supposed to have been converted into a chantry chapel by Edward the Black Prince, whose arms are seen among its ornaments. Towards the eastern end of this crypt was a chapel, inclosed with screen-work, and dedicated to the Holy Virgin. The crypt under the Trinity Chapel, or east end of the cathedral, is singular in form and character. Its plan assumes the figure of an horse shoe; and is divided into a nave and aisles by a series of eight piers, each formed of two columns, engaged about one-quarter of their diameter, supporting four semicircular and five pointed arches, their respective forms being influenced by the width of the intercolumniations. In its central division, or nave, are two small insulated shafts, with large capitals and bases to support the ribbed groining, which is distinguished from that of the western crypt by cross-springers and bold mouldings. At the eastern extremity is a small vaulted chamber, forming the termination of these interesting apartments." Amongst the smaller examples, may be noticed that of Hythe, Kent, and those of Repton, and St. Peter's in the East, Oxford, before-mentioned. CrYPTO-PORTICUS, a subterraneous passage, as the original word implies. If we may judge (says Winckelman) from the remains of antique edifices, particularly those of the Villa Adriani, at Tivoli, we might be led to believe that the ancients preferred darkness to light: for, in fact, we find scarcely any chamber or vault among these ruined edifices, which has any appearance of windows. It seems probable, that in some, the light was only admitted through an opening in the middle of the vault, but as the vaults are generally fallen, this point cannot be ascertained. The inhabitants of Italy are naturally attached to the shade and coolness of half-lighted apartments. The long galleries of the Villa Adriani, which are undoubtedly crypto-porticos, receive a feeble light at each end, from emBracing near the ceiling. The term crypto-porticus was, however, applied, in course of time, to apartments similar to our galleries. We find, in Pliny's description of his house at Laurentium, that the crypto-porticus had windows on each side, looking towards the sea, and upon his garden; also other windows over these. When the weather was cold, they were shut on the side that sheltered them from the wind, but in warm and serene weather they were all set wide open. CUBATURE, or CUBATION, of a solid, the solid contents according to any common measure, as a solid inch, foot, yard, &c., which is called the measuring unit. The cubature is the same in respect to the contents of a solid, as the quadrature is in respect of a superficies. There is one general rule that will apply to finding the cubation of nearly all the regular solids as entire bodies, or to their frustums or segments, viz. "to four times the area of the middle section add the area of each end; multiply one-sixth of this sum (which is the mean area) by the distance between the ends, and the product will give the content of the solid." This rule has been applied to three particular cases, viz., in the prismoid, cask measuring, and the frustum of the hyperboloid; it has also been demonstrated rather as a theoretical curiosity, than as a practical rule, at the end of Dr. Hutton's Mensuration, applied to solids generated from conic sections. This rule, however, applies to solids in general, and comprehends the whole of mensuration in its principle; though such an extension has never been noticed by any writer on the subject, yet it cannot fail to be of the utmost use in assisting the memory; for when particular rules are forgotten, this general one may be easily remembered. It will apply with accuracy to prisms, pyramids, prismoids, cones, conoids, cuneoids, spheres, spheroids, and to all their segments and frustums, cut by planes parallel to their axes. Some may object, however, by saying it is not easy to come at the dimensions of the middle section; but in straight solids these will be very readily ascertained, by taking half the sum of the two ends; in complete spheres and spheroids, the middle dimension is absolutely given. In the hyperboloid and its frustums, the dimensions of the middle section is much easier obtained than either the transverse or conjugate diameters, one of which, or both, it would otherwise be necessary to have. In the paraboloid and its frustums, the middle area is half the sum of the areas of the two ends. The reader who is desirous of seeing the application of this general rule, may consult the article SOLID. CUBE (from icv3og, tessera, die) a solid, bounded by six squares; it is otherwise called a hexahedron, from its six sides. Its simple properties are, that its sides are all equal and at right angles with each other: it has also its opposite sides parallel to each other. The cube may be conceived to be generated by a square figure along a right line, of equal length to the side of the square, and perpendicular to the plane. From its construction, it is evident that all sections of the solid, parallel to any side, are equal. The envelope, rete, or net, may be thus constructed: Draw two lines, A D and A B, at a right angle with each other; make A B equal to the side of one of the squares, and A D equal to four times A n, marking the points of division, E G I; draw B c parallel to A D, and D c parallel to A B, parallel to which also draw EF, G r, I K, cutting B c at F, II, K: produce E F and a H on both sides, to L and M on the one side, and N and o on the other, making E L, G M, F N, H o, each equal to E F, and join L M and N o; this will complete the envelope required. Hence the superficies of a cube is found by multiplying the area of one of its sides by 6. The solidity of a cube is found by multiplying the area of one of its squares by one of the lineal sides of a square. Hence if one lineal side be 10, the solidity will be 1,000; and if 12, it will be 1728; wherefore a cubic perch contains 1,000 cubic feet, and a cubic foot of 1728 cubic inches. Cubes are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their lineal sides. CUBIC NUMBER, one which arises by multiplying two equal numbers, and the product again by another equal number: thus, 12 X 12 = 144, and 144 X 12 = 1728. CUBICLE, a bed-chamber. See CHAMBER, and the next word. CUBICULUM, among the Romans, a bed-chamber. This name was also given to the balcony or logia, in which the emperors were placed at the public games. CUBIT, a lineal measure used by the ancients, particularly by the Hebrews, taken from that part of a man's arm between I LI ____ __ I CUR 217 ~1 I — C. CUR the elbow and tip of the hand. The English cubit may be by the upper ends of the lower rafters, for receiving the feet calculated at 18 inches, the Roman at 17.406, and the Hebrew of the upper rafters, in a curb roof. at 21.888 inches. CURB RAFTERS, the upper rafters on both sides of a curb roof. CUL-DE-FOUR, or CU-DE-FOUR, a sort of low spherical CURB RooF, a roof formed of four contiguous planes, of vault, ovenlike. This is the definition generally given; but which each two have an external inclination, the ridge being this term, as also the following, are altogether void of specific the line of concourse of the two middle planes, and the highest meaning. As they define nothing, we have only retained of the threelines of concourse. This construction is frequently them as being found in all large encyclopaedias and builder's denominated a Mansard roof, Mansard being the name of its dictionaries, in order that our architectural nomenclature inventor. It is very well adapted to a house surmounted by should not be thought deficient. What is meant by a low a parapet, so high as to cover the lower plane of the roof, as spherical roof? Is it a segment less than a hemisphere? it gives a free or uninterrupted space fiom the level of its Where is the similarity between an oven and a spherical base to that of the summit of each lower plane, or to the surface? Is not the latter definite, but the former indefinite? base of the two upper planes. In curb roofing, there is no CUL-DE-FOUR OF A NICHE, denotes the arched roofs of a danger of springing the walls by lateral pressure, for the niche on a circular plan. These two definitions are of French distance between the base of the lower sides and the base of origin. the upper sides, being sufficiently high for head-room, ties There may be many forms of arched roofs or heads, on a can always be fixed in these two situations, which will prevent circular plan; however, the probability is, that it is either all danger. Indeed, if the four sides of the roof be properly spherical or spheroidal, terms perfectly specific, unless it be balanced, the space may be made a complete void to the very in the quantity or portion of the surface employed, ridge, or the upper part may be thrown into a cylindric arch. CULMEN, in ancient Roman carpentry, answers to what A eurb roof has great advantages over a common roof, on we denominate the ridge-piece of a roof. account of the lower rafters pitching almost perpendicularly CULVERT, an arched drain for conveying rills and brooks to their bases, and forming very nearly a continuation of the of water under canals or roads, from the higher level on one walls.: whereas, in common roofs, the great inclination of side, to the lower level on the other side of the canal or road. the sides, and the quantity of head-room required, diminishes They are also employed for discharging the rain-water out of the space for lodging, in the breadth of the building; in most hollows on the upper side of a canal. When such a drain cases there will be a loss of about 15 or 16 feet at least, and or water-passage has a descent, so as to make it lower in the consequently, in small houses, no lodging-room whatever. middle, it is said to be broken-backed. Curb roofs are generally lighted from dormer windows in CUNEUS, one of the mechanical powers. See WEDGE. the lower side. CUNEUS, in Roman antiquity, that part of the theatre where The following contains the theory and practice of curb the spectators sat, which was so named on account of its roofing, which is perhaps one of the most interesting parts resemblance to a wedge. This form became necessary on in the science of carpentry: account of the elliptic figure of the edifice, and of the stair- Proposition I. Figure 1. The position of several rafters, cases and doors, which were fixed in radial directions, and A B, B c, c D, D E, &c., being given in a vertical plane, and divided the seats into wedge-form compartments. movable about the angular points B, C, D, E, &c., while the CUPBOARD, a recess in a wall, fitted up with shelves, points A and G remain stationary; it is required to find to contain articles when not in use. the proportion of the forces at the angles, so that the rafters CUPOLA, a roof or vault, rising in a circular or may be kept in equilibrio. elliptic curve, from a circular, elliptic, or polygonal plan, to Through the points B, c, D, &c., draw the vertical lines B i, its summit, with its concavity towards the plan, the interior o m, D p, &c., the direction of the forces; make B i of any or exterior surfaces being such, that every horizontal section, indefinite length, and complete the parallelogram B h i k; whether the one or the other, are similar figures. A cupola make c I equal B k, and complete the parallelogram c I m n. is otherwise termed tholus, or dome. See the latter word for Proceed in this manner with all the remaining parallelograms, its history and properties. making the two opposite forces in the direction of each rafter CURB, in a general sense, signifies a check or restraint. equal, and the diagonals B i, c m, D p, &c., will represent the CURB FOR BRICK STEPS, a timber nosing generally of oak, forces required, as is evident from the construction. Then, employed not only to prevent the steps from wearing, but also to find the proportion of the weights upon any two angle, from being dislocated or put out of their places. When the the sine of any angle is the same with the sine of its supplesteps are made to return, the curb also returns, but when ment; therefore, the sine of the angle A B c is the same as they profile against a wall, the ends of the curb or nosing- the sine of B k i, and the sine of B oD the same as the sine pieces, house at each end into the wall. of c m n; likewise, the sine of the angle c m i is equal to the CURB PLATE, a circular continued plate, either scarfed sine of the alternate angle m cn, and the sine of the angle together, or made in two or more thicknesses. The wall- D p o is equal to the sine of the angle p D; moreover, the plate of a circular or elliptically ribbed dome, is termed a curb sine of the angle i B k is equal to the sine of the angle m c I, plate, as also the horizontal rib at the top, on which the and the sine of the angle m c n is equal to the sine of the vertical ribs terminate; likewise the plate of a skylight or a angle p D o, and so on: then, because the sides of the triangle circular frame for a well. are the same as the sines of their opposite angles, it will be, CURB PLATE, also the horizontal piece of timber supported by trigonometry, B i: B, r k I.Bki, or A B C::. kB ik, or i B h. C I I:, or D:: s.c m, or men: s.m c l, or i B k. DO: op, or E r:: S.Dp, or pD q:s.p DO, or men. Er: sr, or F: S.E s r, orV F:S.E 3 r, orpDq. F U: F V:: S.F V U, or V F W: S.V U F, or E F G. Therefore, B i::: S.A B C X S.V F u X s.V F W: S.i B h X s i B k X S.E F G. S.ABC S.EFG Therefore, B i: r V: s.: ^Xs.iBA.v X sw. 28 IU 1 U CUR 218 CUR That is, the weights on any two angles are as the sines of these angles directly, and reciprocally as the product of the sines of the two parts of these angles formed by the vertical lines. Corollary 1. Hence the weights on any two angles are as the sines of the angles directly, and as the produce of the co-sines of the angles of elevation reciprocally. For, draw B H perpendicular to B i, and produce i B and A B to i and K, then will the angle x B I, equal the angle h B i, be the complement of the angle i B K, viz., the complement of the angle of elevation of the rafter A B above the horizon; and because C B I is the supplement of c B i, the angles c B i and c B i have the same sine, and the angle c B i is the complement of the angle I- B c, viz. the angle of elevation of the rafter B c. Corollary 2. Hence also the weights on any two angles are as the sines of the angles directly, and as the products of the secants of elevation jointly; for the secants of any two angles are reciprocally as the co-sines of these angles. Corollary 3. The force which any rafter makes in its own direction, is as the secant of its elevation. For, make A P equal to B h, draw the lines P N, k H, n L, &c., parallel to the vertical lines B i, C m, &c., and draw A N, B H, c L, &c., parallel to the horizon; then because the angles N A P, H B k, L C n, &c., are the angles of elevation, and A N, B H, C L, &c., are all equal, if A N, B H, c L, &c., be considered as radii, A P, i k, c n, &c., are the secants of elevation, and also represent the forces on the rafters. Corollary 4. Hence the horizontal pressures at A and c are equal; for all the perpendiculars drawn from the opposite angles of each parallelogram to meet the vertical diagonal, are all equal. Corollary 5. Hence, if the position of any two rafters, and the proportion of the weights be given, the position of the remaining rafters may be determined. Corollary 6. If the vertical line s D v be drawn, the horizontal line A v G and the lines A s, A R, A Q, A T7 &c. be drawn parallel to the rafters A B, B c, c D, D E, &c. meeting the vertical lines in s, R, Q, T; then will A s, A R, A Q, A T, represent the forces, and s Ra, R, Q T, the forces upon the angles; for A s, A R, A Q, A T, &c. are the secants of the elevation, and the triangles A s R, A R Q, A Q T, are all similar to the triangles h B i, I c m, o D p, &c. Corollary 7. In every roof kept in equilibrio by the weight of the rafters, if u, v, w, &c. be the centres of gravity of the rafters, and also represent their weights, then the weight pressing vertically on B, will be AUXU vcXv VBXV -u. ---., and the weight on c= AB BC BC WDXW AUXU vCXv + -, and so on. Hence +VC CD AB BO VB XV WDXW S.ABC S.BCD BC CD s.hBi X S.iBK s. cm X s.mcn Corollary 8. Hence, if the rafters be prismatic figures, the weights on the angles B, c, D, &c. will be respectively as A B+B c, B C+C D, C D+D E, and so on. Proposition II. Figure 2. Given, the vertical angle of a roof, and the proportion of the rafters on each side; to describe the roof of a given width, so that it shall be equilibrio. Let the proportion of the rafters from the bottom, upwards, be as 4, 3, 2: Then 4-3=7 represents the weight on G. 3+2=5 represents the weight on H. and 2+2=4 represents the weight on i. Now let r i E be half the given angle, produce E B through o to D, draw F A M perpendicular to E D cutting E D at A; make A E equal to A B, and join E F; let B E represent the weight on the vertical angle: E B, B c, C D. to one another as 4, 5, 7; join F D, F C, F E; from any scale of equal parts make F G-7; draw G H parallel to F c, equal to 5 parts, and H i parallel to F B, equal to 4 parts, and the contiguousl ines F G, G B, H I, will be similar to the half roof. The other half will be found by drawing the vertical line i N, and ordinates perpendicular thereto, from the points G H, to L and K, and making the distances on both sides of I N equal. This figure may be reduced or enlarged to any given width, by making a similar figure upon a given line. Proposition III. Figure 3. The angular points at the meeting of every two rafters of a roof in equilibrio, by equal weights hung at the angles, in directions equidistant from each other, are in the curve of a parabola. Let A B C D E, &c. be kept in equilibrio, by equal weights suspended at the angular points B, C, D, DE, &c., in the equidistant directions B F, c G, D H, E I, &c., the points A, B, C, D, E, &c., are in the curve of a parabola. For, let the lines B F, c G, D a, and E i, meet A N at F, G, H, i: draw A K parallel to D E, A L parallel to c D, and A M parallel to B C, cutting F B at K, L, M. Draw B Q, C P, D O, parallel to A N, cutting the middle line I E at Q, P, o. Then, because that the weights on the angles are equal, F K, K L, L MI, M B, are as the numbers 1, 2, 2, 2, therefore, F K,, F L, F M, are as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7; but because of the equidistant lines B F, C G, D iI, and parallels D o, C P, B Q, the triangles A F K, A F L, A F M, are respectively equal and similar to the triangles D o E, c s D, B R C; therefore F K is equal to o E, F L equal to s D equal to o P, F M equal to R c equal to P Q, and lastly, B F is equal to Q I; therefore E O, o P, P Q, Q i, are to one another as the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and E o, E Pr, E Q, E i, are as the square numbers 1, 4, 8, 16, but the lines o D, P c, Q B, are to one another as 1, 2, 3, 4; therefore the abscissas E o, E P, E Q, E I, are as the squares of the ordinates o D P C, Q B, and the points A, B, c, D, E, are in the curve of a parabola. In the same manner it may be shown that this is the case, whatever be the number of ordinates. Corollary.-Hence a roof of this construction may be described to any given height and vertical angle, or to a given width and height with any number of rafters on each side. Example.-To describe a roof with any given number of rafters on each side, of a given width and height, so that all the weights suspended from the angular points of the rafters in vertical equidistant lines, may keep the rafters in equilibrio. Figure 3.-Let there be four rafters on each side, let i N be half the width, and i E, the height. Draw N T and E T parallel to I E and i N; divide N T into four equal parts, N f,f e, e d, d T, and draw dg E, e h E,/ i E: likewise divide I N into four equal parts, I c, c b, b a, a N, and draw c g, 6b I a i, parallel to i E. Join E g, g A, h i, i N, and these lines will be the rafters of half the roof required. For the demonstration, see the article CoNIC SECTIONS. Proposition IV. Figture 4.-Suppose it were required to construct a curb roof to have the bottom rafter to the upper rafter as 2 to 3, to a given vertical angle at the top, and a given width A B. Now the weight on the upper angle is to the weight on the lower angle, as 2 1 is to -II+ A that is, 3+=33 is 2 2 2 to 3+2=21, this is in the proportion of 6 to 5, or the half weight at H is to the bottom weight at I, as 3 to 5. Bisect A B by the perpendicular c D, and make the angle 1/6 Sp7ljjl /,Cy,/, v -) I-ty,P 0 1 - - 1 il 9 - I, C) - Y iW I i i -x 1) /79 4 1- -—, I IY,4 I,;) 1, I I pI i i I L, --- t I~ 11,I /,, UF --- v i NT - - - iF — i Ii El I i iI i 1,I Ii i-)ill I (I 'k~aG)U UU1LjY1 .I * 0 I.,,. I I I I _? __ ___i i __ CUR 219 CUR UR 219 CUR21 A E c equal to half the vertical angle, or the angle E A c, equal to its complement. Make E D to E C as 5 to c; join D A and D B; in A D, take any point, F; draw F G parallel to A E, making A F to F G as 2 to 3; draw A G H, cutting CD at H, and IlI parallel to F G or E A, cutting A D at I; make B K equal to A I, and join K H, then A I i K n is the contour of the roof required. This is so evident from its construction, that its does not require demonstration. Proposition V. Figure 5.-To describe a roof with four equal rafters, that shall be in equilibrio by the weight of the rafters, of a given width A E, and height F c. Join c E, and bisect it in H by a perpendicular, D G, meeting A E in G; on G, as a centre, with the distance G E or G c, describe the circle C E. Draw K H I parallel to FE, to meet the vertical line o c in K, and the circle in I. Draw I D c, and join D E, than make the side c B A similar to c D E, and A B, B c, C D, D E, will be the rafters of the roof required. For, in Figure 6, complete the parallelogram c D Q B, and join B D, I F, and draw c L perpendicular to c F, and equal to F G; on L, with the distance G E describe the circle N i F, meeting the vertical line at N and F; produce E D to meet it also in M, and B to p. Then because K F is equal to K c, and R c equal R Q, the triangles G I F and c D Q, are similar; therefore I F is parallel to D Q, and because the two segments N I F and c E o are equal to one another, the angle N I F is equal to the angle a E o, equal to twice the angle c E F, or twice the alternate angle E CL, equal to EC + DCL; but E D is equal to half the external angle M D c, and Dc L is half the angle D C P; equal to DC Q. Therefore the angle N F is equal to the angles M D c + c D Q, equal to the angle M D Q, consequently, c F: c N:: c Q: c M, but c F and c N are equal, therefore c Q and c M are equal; but c Q is to c M as the weight on c is to the weight on B or D, therefore the weights on c and B are equal, and the rafters A n, B c, c D, D E, are in equilibrio. CURB STONES, (sometimes written Kerb or Kirb,) those common to the foot and carriage pavements in a street. CURIA, a court of justice. See BASILICA. CURLING STUFF, that which is occasioned by the windiing or coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree, where they begin to shoot out of the trunk. The double-iron plane, now in use, is a most complete remedy against cross-grained and curling stuff; this plane, if well set, will work nearly as smooth against the grain as with it. CURRENT, the necessary slope of a piece of ground or pavement, for discharging the water from the surface. CURSOR, a point screwed on a beam-compass, and which may be moved or slid along the beam, for striking greater or less arcs of circles. It is also that part of a proportional compass which holds the two legs together, and by which the points are set in any given ratio. The sliding parts of the trammel, rood, or ellipsograph, are also called cursors. See COMPASSES. CURTAIL STEP, the first step by which a stair is ascended, finishing at the end in the form of a scroll, following the plan of the hand-rail. See the article STAIR. CURTAIN, (from the French courtine,) in fortification, that part of the rampart which is between the flanks of two bastions, bordered with a rampart five feet high, behind which the soldiers stand to fire on the covered way, and into the moat. CURTICONE. See FRUSTUM and TRINCATED CONE. CURULE, a sort of raised, embellished chair or seat of ivory, gold, &c., placed in a chariot, wherein the chief officers of Rome were wont to be carried into council. It was also a mark of distinction for dictators, consuls, preotors, censors, and ediles, who were from this circumstance called curules, Curule chairs were of various shapes, but the one generally used was a stool without a back, so made as to be folded up, and opened again in the manner of a camp stool. CURVATURE, that degree in a curve, in which the curve recedes in a perpendicular from a tangent, at a given distance from the point of contact; and consequently if two curves, or two parts of the same curve, have each a tangent, and if any equal distance from each point of contact be taken, and a perpendicular be drawn from each point of distance to the curve; then, in each of these curves, or portions of the same curve, the intercepted perpendicular being greater or less, the curvature will also be greater or less. CURVE, a line, such that only one straight line can be made to touch, without cutting it, when the straight line is extended on both sides of the point of contact; or a curve is a line in which, if a point be taken, only one straight line can pass that point without cutting the line in which the point is taken. The straight line so drawn is called a tangent to the curve. The circle is the most simple of all curves, depending only upon the arbitrary extension of its radius, which, if given, the circle is determined in magnitude. Its circumference is one uniform curve, or has its curvature everywhere equal, and equally distant from the centre. In every curve line whatever, it is evident that a very small portion may be taken as a circular arc at any point; or that there is a certain circular arc at that point which has the same curvature as an indefinitely small portion of the curve, but a greater curvature than an indefinitely small portion of the curve upon the one side of the point, and also a less curvature than the nearest indefinitely small portion on the other side of the point. The radius of a circle of equal curvature to the curve at any proposed point, is called the radius of curvature at that point, and is the measure of the curvature of all curves. The circle of equal curvature with the curve, is called the equicurve circle, or the osculating circle. Hence, if the osculating circle and the curve have a common tangent, no other circle whatever can be drawn between the two curves; and when the curve is continually upon the increase or decrease in its curvature, the arc of the osculating circle will be on the concave side of the curve on one side of the point of contact, and on the convex side on the other side of the said point; or the curve will be between the tangent and the circumference of the osculating circle on the one side of the point of contact, but the circumference of the osculating circle will be between the tangent and the curve on the other side of the point of contact. The principal curves that are useful in architecture, are the conic sections, namely, the circle, the ellipsis, the parabola, and the hyperbola; also, the cycloid, the conchoid, the spiral of Archimedes, and the logarithmic spiral. The definitions and the most useful properties, will be found under each word. CURVE OF DOUBLE CURVATURE, a curve, of which all its parts are not in the same plane. Thus, if the surfaces of two cylinders of the same diameter intersect each other, and their axes also intersect each other, the common intersection will be a curve, of which its parts are all in the same plane; or if the surface of a cylinder and cylindroid intersect each other, and their axes also intersect each other; and if the seridiameter of the cylindroid be perpendicular to a plane passing through the two axes, and equal to the radius of the cylinder, then the parts of the curve formed by the two surfaces, are likewise in one plane: or if the surface of one cylindroid meet that of another -i --- --- -- -- - --- -- — ----— ~ ------ --- -~ --- ----- ----- - - CUT 220 CYC cylindroid, and their axes intersect each other; and if the seni-diameters of both cylindroids, perpendicular to a plane passing through the two axes be equal to each other, the curve formed by the intersection of the cylindroidic surfaces will have all its parts in one plane: not any of these thus defined, are curves of double curvature. But if the surfaces of two cylinders of unequal diameters meet in a common line, this line is a line of double curvature: of this description are cylindro- cylindric groins. Many other instances of two geometrical solids meeting each other, producing lines of double curvature, may be laid before the reader, but perhaps what has already been adduced will be sufficient. CURVED SURFACE OF A SOLID, that in which, if any point be taken, and if the solid can be cut by a plane through the point, and thence form a section, such section is terminated by a curve: Thus a cylinder or a cone may be cut by a plane, through any given point, so as to make the common section of the cylinder or cone with the plane, a curve, or a straight line; but if a sphere, spheroid, or any of the conoids be cut by a plane through any point, the common section of the plane, and the surface of any such solid will be a curve. CURVILINEAR, (from the Latin curvus, a curve, and linea, a line) or CURVILINEAR FIGURE, a superficies bounded by curve lines, or by a curve and straight line, when the properties of the curve depend upon the straight line. The circle and ellipsis are entire curves, or such as have no straight line in their boundary; but the parabola and hyperbola are both bounded by a curve and a straight line. CURVILINEAR ANGLE. See ANGLE. CURVILINEAR ROOF, that which is erected upon a curvilinear plan, as a circular, or elliptical, or portions of these curves. CURVILINEAR SUPERFICIES OF A SOLID. See CURVED SURFACE OF A SOLID. CURVILINEAR TRIANGLE, one whose sides are curves. CUSHION RAFTER. See PRINCIPAL BRACE. CUSP, (fiom the Latin cuspis,) one of the pendants of a pointed arch, or one of several pendants forming what may be denominated a polyfoil; two cusps form a trefoil, three a quatrefoil, four a cinquefoil, &c. In other words, the term may be explained as the points generated by the intersection of the small arcs or segments of circles, forming the foliations which frequently terminate the internal curves of Gothic arches, more especially window arches, in the shape of trefoils and other polyfoils. This name was first given by Sir James Hall, of Dunglass, in an Essay on the Origin of Gothic Architecture. He says, in a note at the bottom of page 23, that "assemblages of these cusps are spoken of in the descriptions of Gothic works, by the means of trefoil, quatrefoil, semitrefoil, &c.; but no proper word has been used to describe the form, wherever it occurs, or however combined." CUSTOM-HOUSE, an edifice in some chief city, or port, for the receipt of the customs and duties of importation and exportation imposed on merchandise, by the authority of the sovereign. The custom-house in Dublin is a very elegant edifice. CUT, in inland navigation, the same with canal, branch, or arm. CUT BRACKETS, such as are modelled on the edge. CUT ROOF, a truncated roof. CUT STANDARDS, for shelves, are those whose front edge is cut into mouldings. CUT STONE, hewn stone, or that which is brought into shape by the mallet and chisel. CUT-WATER, the lower portion of the pier of a bridge, where the two sides meet at a point, so disposed to meet the current, and offer as little resistance as possible to the force exerted by it against the pier. CUTTING PLANE, a plane supposed to cut or divide a solid into two parts, in any position. CUVILLER, FRANQO1S, an architect, born in the year 1698, at Soissons, in France. He was employed by the elector of Munich in many public buildings, and continued in the service of that court till his death, which happened in the year 1760, leaving behind him many plans and designs, which were afterwards engraved by different artists, and published by his son, Francois Cuviller, who was born at Munich, and succeeded his father as architect to the court. CYCLOGRAPH, (from the Greek, xvKXog, a circle, and ypabeetv, to describe) in practical geometry, an instrument for describing the arc of a circle to any chord and versed sine; but chiefly used in flat segments, or those whose curvatures approach to straight lines. There are several constructions of cyclographs, of which the following is one. The principle consists of two rules, A B, and c D, connected by a folding joint, E, the pin, k, of which projects upwards, and is mortised to receive a bar, h g, which is fastened, but movable round the centre of the folding joints; upon the connected rules, A n and c D, at equal distances, from the centre of the folding joint, are fastened the ends i and K, of two other equal bars c, CK, connected by a movable joint, c, so as to form a rhombus, h KCI, movable round each of the joints, c ih K; then the bar, h g, which passes through the centre, h, of the two first rules, being made also to pass through a projection of the pin, c, of the opposite angle of the rhombus, is made to slide into the mortise as at c. The use of the bar is to fasten the instrument in any position by means of a screw inserted from the middle of the top of the upright pillar at c, which receives the sliding end of the bar. The instrument being supposed to be placed upon a level plane, and the pin, h, of the folding joint being made to project upwards; another bar, L M N, bent to a right angle with a longitudinal slit, op, is fitted upon it, so as to have a motion upon the pin h, in the section of the slit, but may be fastened at any required point, by means of a screw from the top. The other end, N, of this bar is mortised in the direction of the slit, to receive the lower bar, hg, so as to have a longitudinal motion. The middle line of the upper bar stands in the same vertical plane with the middle line of the lower bar, and these two lines are parallel in all positions of the instrument. The end of the bar, LM, at the external side of the folding joint, has a deep socket for holding a pin or pencil, perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. The advantage of the upper bar being movable, to which the pin or pencil is attached, is to admit the point of the pin or pencil to be brought into the intersection of the sides n A, C D, of the instrument. To describe the segment of a circle by means of the cyclograph, fasten two pins in the plane, or steel edges made on purpose, and adjust the angle of the instrument; place the outer edges upon the pins, and the angle close upon one of them; move the instrument laterally close to the pins, and a pen or pencil will describe the curve. The principle of this instrument is founded upon the twenty-first proposition of the third Book of Euclid's Elements, in which it is announced and proved that " the angles in the same segment of a circle, are equal to one another." ___ ^I _CC_ C 22 CY CYL 221 CYL -- --— - -- This instrument may also be applied to the drawing of lines to any inaccessible points, by means of the middle bar, which always bisects the angle, and therefore will be indispensably useful in the practice of perspective. CYCLOID, (from the Greek icvicKo, a circle, and et6oq, form) a figure described by rolling a circle upon a plane, along a straight edge; then the moving point will trace the curve called a cycloid, or trochoid. The middle portion of this figure is very appropriate for the arch of a bridge, which requires to have its roadway raised on the top, as the extrados of this curve has a gentle convexity. CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE, that practised by the early colonists of Greece, more remarkable for its massive construction than any other feature, whence also its name. See PELASGIAN ARCHITECTURE. CYCLOSTYLAR, a term applied to those erections which consist of a circular range of columns, without a central building. CYLINDER, (from the Greek KvLtv&tev, to roll) a solid formed by moving a straight line in the periphery of a circle, parallel to another straight line, which passes through the centre, and which makes any given angle with the plane of the circle, until the line come again into its first position. The surface described by the moving line from the circle to any indefinite extension, is called a cylindric surface; the straight line which passes through the centre of the circle is called the axis of the cylinder, and the circle the base of the cylinder. If the axis be at right angles to the plane of the base, the cylinder is called a right cylinder; but if at oblique angles, then it is called ait oblique cylinder. Euclid confines his definition only to a right cylinder, and defines it to be a solid formed by revolving a rectangle round one of its sides. It is evident firom this definition, that all sections passing through the axis, or parallel to the axis, have their opposite sides parallel; viz., those which are formed by the cutting plane and the cylindric surface. From the definition here given, the following consequences may be drawn, as being too obvious to require any formal demonstration. If a plane, parallel to another plane, drawn along the axis of a cylinder, touch the periphery of the base, the plane so posited will touch the surface of the cylinder, and will meet it in a line parallel to the axis; but if such plane cut the plane of the base of the cylinder within its periphery, it will cut the cylindric surface in two parallel lines, and the common section of the plane and the cylinder will be a parallelogram, and, lastly, the common section of a plane, parallel to the base, with the cylindrical surface, is a circle with its centre in the axis. Let us now consider the property of a section which will meet the plane of the base of the cylinder, but which will neither pass along the axis, nor be parallel thereto. Figure 1.-Let A M L B be a section of the cylinder through the axis, cutting the section proposed, and let the cutting plane meet the plane of the base A F E B N o in R S: through the centre D of the base, draw the diameter A B, at right angles to R s. Let the plane be drawn through A B and the axis D i of the cylinder, meeting the cutting plane in the line M H G L T, and the surface of the cylinder, in A M and B L. Through H and any other point, G, in M L draw Q K and IP parallel to R s; through K Q and D H, draw the plane K Q O F, and through I P draw the plane i P N E, parallel to the plane K Q o F, cutting A B at c; and because K Q and i P are parallel to R s, the planes K Q F and I p N E, are also parallel to R S; therefore F o and E N, are respectively parallel to K Q and i P; consequently, the figures K Q O F and I P N E, are parallelograms, and therefore K Q is equal to F o, and I p equal to E N: because E N is parallel to R s, it is at right angles to A B, and hence it is plain that i p is bisected by M L. Now the triangle A M T, has the side A T cut into several parts by the intermediate points D, c, B, and M T cut into other parts at the intermediate points H, G, L, by lines parallel to the side AM, and therefore the parts A D, D c, c n, are respectively in the same ratio with the parts M I, II, L; these being premised, we have therefore AC: AD:: M G: M I CB: AD: GL: MH Therefore AC X c: AD:: MG X G L: MH2 but AC X C B =E C2 = G I & A D2 = H K2 consequently G I2: IHI K2:: M G X G L: M H2 therefore the section is an ellipsis. But this demonstration, which is in principle that commonly given, only shows the general property in respect of the axis, or at most in respect of only two conjugate diameters, of which one must be parallel to the base; and as we have never seen a general proof of this valuable property for any two conjugate diameters drawn from simple principles, without being under the disagreeable necessity of drudging through nearly a whole treatise of conic sections, before we are able to arrive at the conclusion, we therefore subjoin the following demonstration. Figure 2.-Let there be any cylinder, right or oblique, standing upon the base G E A P Q D, and let c be the centre of the base; through c draw G Q at pleasure, and A c D at right angles to G Q. Through G Q and the axis c M draw the plane G Q Ss I, cutting the section proposed in the straight line H s, also through A D and the said axis draw the plane A D N K, cutting the section in the straight line K N. In one of the diameters, A D, of the base, take any point, B, between A and c, and draw E P parallel to G Q, and the plane E P R F, parallel to the plane G Q s II, cutting the section in F R. From the construction of the cylinder, it is evident that the lines K N, F R, H S, are each divided into parts, which are as the parts of the lines A D, E p, a Q. Therefore as E P, G Q, and A D, are bisected, so will F R at L, H s at M, and K N at M. From the premises we have......... A B: AC:: KL: K M and by proportional lines............ BD::: LN: KM Now, by multiplying the homologous terms... But from the property of the circle...... Therefore, by substitution, we have...... Now again, by proportional lines........ Squaring the terms of the last analogy..... but by the fourth analogy, we have..... And by comparing the antecedents and consequents of the last two analogies we obtain......... A B X BD: A C::K L X LN: K M AB X B D EB2 & A C2 = G 2 E B2: G C2:: L X LN: K M EB GC:: FL: HM E B: G C2:: F L2: H M2 E B: G C2:: L X LN: K M" FL2: HM2: KL X LN: KM2 -- -- CYL 222 CYL C Y 22.C Y L................... which is a general property of every two diameters, formed by the intersection of planes passing along the axis at right angles to each other. These diameters, it is evident, will be parallel to tangents to the curve, at the extremities of each other. For, suppose two planes touching the cylindric surface, each in a line which passes from the extremities of each radius at a right angle with each other, these tangent planes will be respectively parallel to each plane passing along the axis and through the said radii; the two tangent planes, and the two planes passing along the axis, will be at right angles to each other, or each opposite pair will be parallel; therefore, if these be cut by a fifth plane, the intersections of the opposite planes with such fifth plane, in any position, will be parallel lines; and since the touching planes do not cut the surface of the cylinder, the lines at the extremities of each diameter will be parallel to the curve, and are what are termed conjugate diameters. A cylinder is a species of prism, because all its parallel sections are equal, and every section parallel to the base is equal to that base; therefore the solidity of a cylinder is determined by multiplying the area of an end by the parallel distance between the two ends. Example I. What is the solidity of a cylinder, whose height is 10 feet, and the diameter of the base 2 feet 6 inches. in. 6 =.5 in decimals 2.5 = the diameter 2.5 125 50 6.25.7854 2500 3125 5000 4375 4.908750 10 49.087500 Example II. What is the solidity of a cylinder, the circumference of the base being 7.85 feet, andt the height 15 feet? 7.85 7.85 3925 6280 5495 61.6225.07958 4929800 3081125 5546025 4313575 4.903918550 15 24519592750 4903918550 73.558778250 The curved surface of every cylinder is equal to a rectangle, one of whose dimensions is the length of the axis, that is, equal to the length of the side of the cylinder, and the other dimension equal to the perimeter or girt. This is a general principle, whether the cylinder have its ends perpendicular or oblique to the axis; and hence the followingRule. Multiply the girt of the cylinder by the length of the axis, and the product will be the cylindric surface. Example. Suppose a cylinder, girt 5 feet 9 inches, and the length of its axis, or side parallel to the axis, be 9 feet 7 inches, what is the superficial content of the surface? Cross Multiplication. ft. in. 5 9 9 7 5 3 35 81 12) 121 10 1 45 55. 1. 3 Decimals. 9.583 5.75 47915 67081 47915 55.10225 12 1.22700 12 See the first method in this example under the article CROSS MULTIPLICATION, and the second method, under DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION. These two methods would have agreed exactly, but no decimal corresponding to 7 inches can be precisely found. The method by the girt is what every man in practice would naturally prefer, if the object be before him, since the- girt can be as easily measured as the diameter, and with equal accuracy, by means of a string; nor would any person, whose mind is crowded with the affairs of business, take the additional trouble of finding the circumference from the diameter, when it may be so expeditiously obtained another way. However, for the satisfaction of those who wish to be informed of every mode of operation, we shall add the following, as some cases may occur, in which the perimeter cannot be (btained without the diameter; though the contrary might as likely be the case. If the cylinder be a right cylinder, find its circumference, which will then be the same as its ends; then proceed as before to multiply the circumference by the axis, and the product is the superficial content. This is so easy as not to require an example. But where the axis is inclined to the base, the section of the cylinder will be elliptic, the diameter of the circular ends will be the greater axis, the lesser one will depend upon the inclination of the cylinder, and may be thus found:As the radius is to the sine of inclination, so is the diameter of the circular ends to the shorter axis of the ellipsis. From the two axes being now found, find the perimeter of the ellipsis, then proceed as in the first rule. Example. Suppose the length of the axis to be 22 feet, and the inclination of the same to the plane of the base 50 degrees, and the diameter of each end 3 feet 6 inches; required the area of the curved surface. __ I ____ I CYL 223 CYL cYTJ 223 CYL By logarithms. Then as radius 10.000000 is to the sine of 50~ 9.884254 so is 3.5 544868 10.428322 10. to the shorter axis.428322 = nat. num 2.68 2.68 3.5 2)6.18 3.09 mean diameter. 31 9.27.44 9.71 elliptic primeter. 22 1942 1942 213.62 the area required. The above method of finding the extension of the elliptic primeter being the most expeditious, is the most useful for practical purposes, but those who wish to work with greater accuracy may consult the word Ellipsis. A cylinder is said to be given in position, when its base and magnitude, and the inclination and length of its axis, are given. A point is said to be given on the surface of a cylinder, when its distance fiom that point to the base, measured in a line parallel to the axis is known, and the point on the circumference of the base given. Figure 3. —Given a right cylinder and three points on its surface to find the section of the cylinder, by a plane passing through the three points. Let the straight lines, A, B, c, be the distances of the three points, the circle D E F I, the base of the cylinder; L the centre of the base. Through the points D and F draw the straight line p o; perpendicular thereto draw each of the lines D G, E H, F I, respectively equal to A, B, c. Draw D E Q and G H Q, intersecting at Q; also draw a i o, meeting P o in o, then Q o, which is the intersection of the cutting plane. Through L draw R L S T, cutting Q o at T. In a o take any point m, draw m u perpendicular to a o, produce u m to M in o P, and draw M U perpendicular to P o, cutting Q o at u. From the point o, with the distance o u, describe an arc, cutting mn u at u; perpendicular fiomn R T, draw R P and L N, cutting P o at P and N. Draw P p andN 7n perpendicular to P o, cutting o G produced atp, and n. Parallel to u o, draw the lines p r and fn l h; make o t equal to o T and p r equal to P R, and draw r I s t; make I s equal to I r, and I g and I h each equal to R L, the semi-diameter of the base, then will I r If be the semi-axis of the elliptic section. Demonstration.-It is shown under the article INCLINED PLANES, that if D, E, F, be any three points, and the lines A, B, C, the height of three points in the space above the plane D E F, that Q o will be the intersection of the plane in space with the original plane P o Q or its continuation: under the article STEREOGRAPHY and STEREOTOMY it is shown, that if P o Q and P o p be any two plane angles, to ne placed at a right angle with each other, that the plane angle Q o u, will be the hypothenusal plane, and consequently when the three planes, P o Q, p o p, and p o A are turned into their position; the straight line o u will coincide with o u; therefore, if a plane be perpendicular to the intersection of two planes, it will be at right angles to each of these planes; and that the section of any vertical line, whose seat is given, will be found by drawing a line on the original plane, parallel to the intersection from the seat, to the intersecting line of the vertical plane; thence a line perpendicular to this intersection to the common intersection of the vertical and cutting planes, and thence a line from this point parallel to the cointersection; then, by making this line equal to the line drawn from the seat to the common intersection of the original and inclined planes, and thus the point R being the seat of r, and 1, the seat of L, and the plane passing through R L s T, being perpendicular to Q o, the common intersection of the inclined and original planes, r Is t will be the intersection of a plane passing through the axis and at right angles to the intersection o Q, and therefore perpendicular to o ua; consequently r s and f h are at right angles to, and bisect each other, and are therefore the axes of the ellipsis. The segment of a cylinder is any portion of the cylinder made by a plane parallel to the axis. The plane parallel to the axis is called the chord-plane. The two lines of concourse formed by the cylindric surface and the chord-plane, are termed the sides of the chord-plane, and the other two lines of concourse made by the chordplane and the two ends of the solid, are termed the bases or ends of the chord-plane. A line of position is said to be given, when the said line is drawn through a given point on each side of the chord-plane, or to make a given angle at a given point in the base of the chord-plane, or in the base continued. The position of the cutting plane is said to be given, when the line of position through which the cutting plane passes, and the angle which the cutting plane and chord plane make with each other, are known. Figures 4 and 5.-To find the section of the segment of a cylinder; given its base and the position of the cutting plane.-Let A B c be the base of the solid, A D and c E the sides of the chord plane perpendicularly situated in respect of A C, the chord of the base, and let D E be the line of position of the cutting plane. Through any point fin D E draw h fg, at right angles to D E; make the angle gf k equal to the inclination which the planes of the chord plane and section make with each other; take any point m in fg, Figure 4, or f h, Figure 5, and draw m k parallel to D E, cuttingfk in k, and m n parallel to c A, cutting D E at n; make f h equal tofk, and join It n. Parallel to E c draw m q, cutting A c at p, and n r, meeting it at r: make p q equal to m k, and join r q. To find any point in the curve of the section, take any point, a, in the arc A nB; draw a b parallel to q r, cutting A c at b; draw b c parallel to c E, cutting D E at c, and draw c d parallel to n h; make c d equal to b a, and the point d is in the curve. In the same manner, as many points may be found as will be sufficient to draw the curve with accuracy. This method is an improvement upon that published in T/e Carpenter's Guide, in the year 1792; but as that method has been very generally employed, it will be well to insert it likewise in the plate, as the connection of the prin. ciple may be clearly deduced from the one to the other. Figures 6 and 7.-To find the section of the segment of a cylinder, by another and older method, supposing everything given as before.-Let A B c, No. 2, be the inclinations of the A -j __ I____CI___CCI___II__Illlll —~ —L --- — C Y 22 C Y L ~ _ _~_~ CYL 224 CYL _ ___ ___ _ __ ___ planes of the chord plane and section. In No. 2, draw B D perpendicular to B A, and make B D equal to the distance between the parallel lines E F and z M, No. 1, and draw D C parallel to B A. Through any point, d in i K, No. 1, draw N v at right angles to i K; make d N equal to D c, No. 2, and d v, No. 1, equal to B D, No. 2. In No. 1 draw N o parallel to FE, meeting K at o, and join o v. Draw N Q and o L parallel to K F, meeting E F at Q and L; produce N Q, meeting z M produced at Y, and join L Y. Draw any number of lines a a, b 6, c c, &c., parallel to o L, cutting the lines E F and i K, at the points a, b, c; from the points a, 6, c, in I K, draw the lines a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., parallel to o v, and through the points a, b, c, in E F, draw the lines a 1, 6 2, c 3, &c., parallel to L Y. Make all the lines a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., from I I, equal to their corresponding distances a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., from E F. A curve being drawn through the points 1, 2, 3, &c., the extremities of the ordinates from I K, will give the section I v K i of the segment of the cylinder. Or take any point point L in E F, and draw L o parallel to F K, the one side of the rectangle, cutting I K at o; produce o L to M, and draw z M parallel to E F, to touch the base in M. In No. 2, draw B D at a right angle with B A; make B D equal to L M, and draw D c plrallel to B A. In No. 1, draw G H parallel to i K, at the distance D c, No. 2; draw o N parallel to E F, cutting o H at N; draw N Q parallel to o L, cutting E F at Q; produce N Q to meet z M produced at Y, and join L Y; draw N v at right angles to I K, cutting I K at d; make d v equal to n c, and join o v; then proceed to find the ordinates as before. The difference between the old and the first method is, that in the old method, the breadth of the segment or base of the solid is limited, in order to find the dissecting lines of the ordinates, and two diagrams are employed in the construction; whereas in the first method, one diagram only is used, and the angle of inclination of the planes of the section and chord being made as directed, the measure of the first side of the hypothenusal side of the right-angled triangle formed by it, is arbitrary; by this the other parts are regulated. The reader must observe, that it is only the angles which are required; the length of the lines is of no other consequence than, if they be too long, they will be rather cumbrous, and if too short they will not be a sufficient guide for drawing the ordinates. This limitation has been the occasion of some not understanding the principle, by supposing the point v to be in the curve, which may be either on the one side or the other, according to this method. A knowledge of the sections of prisms, which include segmental cylinders, is an acquisition of the first importance to the carpenter and joiner, and is the very essence of the art of constructing hand-railings and groins. The method by having the position of the cutting plane, is not so well adapted to practice, as that of having three given points on the surface of the segmental cylinder. Under such given data we have already shown how the section is to be found for a whole cylinder, by describing the curve through the extremities of the axis, which are given in position. We shall now show how the curve is to be obtained by ordinates in the segmental cylinder from the same data. In a segment of a cylinder are given three points, one on each commnon line of the chord-plane, and curved surface, and one upon the intermediate curved surface itself, to find the section passing through these three points. Figures 8 and 9.-In both figures let A B c be the base of the solid, and A, B, c, the seats of the given points, draw A D and c E perpendicular to A c: make A D equal to the height of the point upon its seat A, and c E equal to the height of the point upon its seat c; also from c B take c F equal to the height of the intermediate point, from its seat B. Draw F G parallel to A c, cutting D E in; draw G H parallel to E C, cutting A C at H; join II B. Produce c A and E D to meet in i; in E i, Figure 8, also in E I produced Figure 9, take any point, N, and draw N M perpendicular to N E; produce M N to meet I c at K, Figure 8; in Figure 9, M N will cut c i, produced in K. In both figures draw K L perpendicular to K c, and I L parallel to II B; from i, with the distance I L, describe an arc, cutting N M, at M; join i M. To find any point in the curve of the section; take any point a, in A c, and draw a b parallel to L I, cutting the arc A B c at b, draw a c parallel to c E cutting D E in c; draw c d parallel to I M; make c d equal to a b, and d is a point in the curve. In the same manner as many points may be found as will be sufficient to complete the section. Another method Figure 10, let A B c be the base of the segment as before; also, let A, B, c, be the seats of the three points, as before; and F G H their respective heights. Draw A D, B P, c E, each perpendicular to A c, respectively equal to F, G, I; draw A B I and D P, also A C K and D E K; then draw the intersection I K. In D K take any point L, and draw L M perpendicular to D K; produce M L to meet A K at N; draw N o perpendicular to A K, cutting I K at o. From K, with the distance K o describe an arc, cutting L M at M, and join K M. Then, to find any point d, in the curve of the section; in A c take any point a; draw a b parallel to K o, meeting the arc A B c at b; draw a c parallel to A D, meeting D E at c; draw c d parallel to K M, and make c d equal to a b; and thus for any other point. The very same description of words applies to Figure 11, except that the point L is in D K produced, instead of between D and K, and also the point N, in A K produced, instead of between A and K. The same is also the case with the preceding method. Figure 12. To form the edge of the envelope of a cylindric surface, terminated by a line, so that, when the envelope is folded upon the cylindric surface, the edge formed may coincide with a plane passing through three given points, one in each common line of the chord-plane and curved surface, and the other in the intermediate curved surface itself. Let A B C be the base of the solid; draw A D and c E perpendicular to A c, making A D equal to the height of the point, whose seat is A, and c E equal to the height of the point, whose seat is c; make c F on c E equal to the height of the point, whose seat is B, and join D E. Draw F G parallel to c A, cutting E D at G; draw G H parallel to E c, cutting C A at H, and join 1 B. Divide the arc A B C into any number of equal parts, and extend them upon A c produced to i, marking the points of division at a, b, c, &c., to I; the corresponding points of 1, 2, 3, &c., on the arc c A B. To find any point in the line of the envelope required, suppose that which corresponds to its seat 1, on the base of the solid. Draw 1 h parallel to B H, cutting A c in h; draw h h parallel to c E, cutting E D at A; also draw a p parallel to c E, and make a p equal hI A, then p is a point in the line required; and thus the whole line E p q r s t u v K is obtained, and this line is the edge of the envelope E c I K required. CYLINDER, Scaline. When the axis of a cylinder stands at oblique angles with its base, it is called a scaline or oblique cylinder. CYLINDRICAL, something peculiar, similar, or relating to a cylinder. CYLINDRICAL CEILING, a ceiling which is either a semicylinder, or a segment less than a semi-cylinder. Cylindrical ceilings are vulgarly called by some workmen waggon-headed ceilings. When an apartment is sufficiently high, a semi-cylindric -r —r ----~ --- —--------— ~ I} ' Beg, I 1, - -, ,- , x 0 0 * 0 0 * 9 * 1- -.41 0 * * 0 0 * I-, 0- c.*. Z, -P * * 0 0 l: 11 llz , -I I (. -- -- -- --- -7 Z L~ 1: Z-.4 Iz zzl. CYL 225 CYZ CYL 25 c. coving ought to be adopted, as it rises from the surface of the wall, which forms a tangent plane to the curvature at the springing of the arch; whereas the tangent plane at the springing of a ceiling, which is less than a semi-cylinder, always foirms an angle with the plane of the wall, and excites the idea of lameness or imperfection. This kind is therefore only employed when the height of the apartment is not sufficiently great to admit of a semi-cylindric ceiling. A semi-cylindrical ceiling admits of being pierced by lunettes, which are windows or openings of less height than the ceiling, and consequently form cylindro-cylindric arches, by the intersection of the curved surfaces. No traces of cylindrical ceilings are to be found among the ruins of Grecian edifices, but numerous instances are to be met with among the Romans, in their small temples and the side-branches of the larger ones. The ceiling of the temple of AEsculapius, in the palatce of Dioclosian, at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, is a decided instance. The proper decorations for cylindrical ceilings are coffers, separated at regular intervals by bands or arcs doubleux, or, as called by some, soffits, which are enriched with guilloches. CYLINDRICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN. CYLINDRICAL VAULTING, a vault which is the portion of a cylinder. Its section is generally a semicircle, though sometimes, for want of room, it is a smaller segment. In cylindrical vaulting, the equilibrium of the arch and the horizontal thrust of the piers must be attended to. CYLINDRICAL WALLING, is that erected upon a circular plan, which of course forms a cylinder, or a portion of a cylinder, according as the plan is an entire circumference, or only a segment. Cylindrical walling is generally estimated at about half as much more than the price of plain walling; but the price or ratio ought to depend upon the diameter, and should be greater as the diameter is less. CYLINDRICALh WORK, any kind of work, partaking of the shape of a cylinder, of any material, whether stone, brick, wood, &c. CYLINDRICAL WORK, in joinery. See JOINERY. CYLINDROID, (from Kcv.tvdpo., cylinder, and et6o',form),a solid of such property, that all sections parallel to either end, are equal and similar ellipses, and that a straight line, called the axis, will pass through the centre of the ellipses. All the axal sections of a cylindroid, and every section parallel to an axal section, are parallelograms or rectangles. All parallel sections of a cylindroid are equi-angular, and of equal length to the axis. If an oblique cylinder be cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis, near to each end, it will be cut into three parts, of which the middle portion will be a cylindroid. The cylindroid is frequently employed in vaulting, instead of a segmental cylinder, less than the half, where the height would not admit of a semi cylinder. It is frequently employed in the composition of groins, and where the transverse openings vary in their horizontal dimensions, and where it is required to keep the angles of the groin straight, one of the simple vaults is necessarily a semi-cylindroid. The solidity of a cylindroid is found, as in the prism or cylinder, by multiplying the area of one of the ends by the distance between the two. The superficial content of the curved surface is found by multiplying the girt by the length of the axis, as in the cylinder. The method of finding the envelope is the same as that of 29 a cylinder with an edge, so that when the envelope is lapped round the solid, its edge may coincide with a plane passing through three given points. The method of finding the envelopes of cylinders and cylindroids, is one of the most useful parts of Stereography, not only in forming the coverings of bodies, but in forming the angles of all parts of work, where the surfaces of two different solids meet each other. CYMA-RECTA. See CYMATIUM. CYMATIUM, CIMA, CYMA, or SIMA (f1rom Kvvpartov, undula, the diminutive of Kvlta, a wave) a moulding, whose section is a curve of contrary flexure; it is commonly denominated by workmen an ogee. This is the strict sense in which the term ought to be employed, though Vitruvius uses it for any subordinate moulding which terminates a principal member, and the particular form is specified by prefixing another word, as Doric cymatium, Lesbian cymatium. In the same sense also he uses the word Cysis, which signifies separation. But notwithstanding this great authority, in the general usage of the term we shall abide by the definition as above, signifying an undulated form, as being most generally understood. When the concave part of the moulding projects beyond the convex part, the cymatium is denominated a sima-recta; but when the convex part has the greatest projection, the cymatium is denominated a sima-inversa. The sima-recta is otherwise called gula-recta, or doucine, and the sima-inversa, gula-inversa, or talon. Palladio distinguishes the cymatium of the cornice by the name intavolata. Our architects, in speaking of the uppermost member of a cornice, call it cima, cyma, or cymatium; but we see no reason for the word being appropriated to this situation, as the propriety of terms consists in their proper application to definite forms. The cymatia which are particularized by the terms Tuscan, Doric, and Lesbian, mentioned by Vitruvius, are not defined by this ancient author, and their meaning is only guessed at by his commentators and readers. The Tuscan is supposed to be an ovolo, or quarter-round; the Doric, an ovolo, or cavetto; and the Lesbian, the simainversa, or talon. Philander makes two Doric cymatia, one of which, he says, is that said to be Tuscan. The projecture allowed to the Doric and Lesbian cymatia, is subduple of the height. CYMBIA, a fillet. See FILLET. CYPHERING. See CHAMFERING, which is most in use. CYZICENE, TRICLINIUM, or HALL, an apartment of ancient Grecian houses, in the porticos, which look towards the north. It is thus explained by Vitruvius, book vi. chap. vi. "There are some crci, not made in the Italian manner, these the Greeks call cyzicenus. They are situated towards the north, generally have a view of the garden, and have valved windows in the middle. They are of such length and breadth, that two triclinia, with their surrounding appendages may be placed opposite to each other; they have also valved windows on the right and left, that the garden may be seen through the space of the windows: their height is equal to one and one-half their breadth." The cyzicenus or cyzicena, were of the same use among the Greeks, that the triclinia and coenacula were among the Romans. CYZICUM MARMOR, a species of marble, so called by the ancients, from the great use made of it by a statuary named Cyzicus. It was white, with fine narrow veins of black, and was also called proconnessium. r -- -.I- *.. I ~I 1 DAI 226 DAI DA 2 DA. D. DADO (an Italian word, signifying a die), a term for the die or plain face of a pedestal; that part of a room comprehended bet ween the base and surbase. The dado employed in the interiors of buildings, is a continuous pedestal, with a plinth and base moulding, and a cornice or dado moulding surmounting the die. This continuous pedestal with its moulding is sometimes only made of stucco or plaster; but in wellfinished rooms is constructed of wood, and is usually about the height of the back of a chair. Its present purpose, when employed, is to protect the stucco-work or paper of the walls, but originally it was used as an architectural decoration to a room. The dado is made of deal boards, glued edge to edge, the heading joints ploughed and tongued together, and the back keyed; the stuff generally employed for this purpose is whole deal; the keys are always made to taper in their breadth, and may be about three inches broad in the middle; they are let into the back of the dado by a transverse groove, which is either wider at the bottom than at the surface, or it is first made of a square section, which is again grooved on each side next to the bottom. Though the keys should shrink, those of this last form will always keep their inner su'rfce close to the bottom of the grooves. Some workmen prefer the broad end of the key to be placed downwards; the lower end should rest firmly, either upon the ground or floor, and the dado should be left at liberty to slide downwards upon the keys. Others, again, prefer the wide end of the key to be placed upwards, and the dado to be fixed by this; the key, as it shrinks, will fall down from its own weight. The dado should be grooved and tongued at the internal angles, and mitred, or made with a lap and mitre, at the external ones. The dado is also framed with panels, but this mode is seldom seen in London; it is, however, very frequently so prepared in the country. DAGOUNG, or SH(EDAGON, temple of (signifying temple of Golden Dagon) an edifice situated about two miles and a half north of Rangoon, the chief port of the Birman empire. It is a very elegant building, and though not so high by 25 or 30 feet, is much more ornamental than that of Shcemadoe, at Pegue. It is surrounded by a terrace, which stands upon a rocky eminence, considerably higher than the circumjacent country. The building is ascended by 100 steps, which are now very much in decay; its elevated situation makes it a conspicuous object for many miles. The top and the whole spire are richly gilt, so that when the sun shines, they exhibit a most splendid appearance. DAIRY, the name usually given to the place where the milk of cows is kept, and converted into butter or cheese. The occupation is sometimes called dairying; and the land which is chiefly appropriated to feed cows for this purpose, is called a dairy-farm. " A dairy-house," observes a writer in the Penny Cyclopaedia, " should be situated on a dry spot somewhat elevated, on the side of a gentle declivity, and on a porous soil. It should be on the west or north-west side of a hill, if possible, or at least sheltered from the north, east, and south, by high trees. In some countries, where there are natural caverns with an opening to the west, and springs of water at hand, the best and coolest dairies are thus prepared by nature. Artificial excavations in the sides of freestone rocks are sometimes formed for the purpose of keeping milk, and more frequently wine. Where no such natural advantages exist, the requisite coolness in summer, and equal temperature in winter, which are essential in a good dairy, may be obtained by sinking the floor of the dairy some feet under ground, and forming an arched roof of stone or brick. In cold climates flues around the dairy are a great advantage in winter; and an ice-house in warm summers is equally useful. But these are only adapted to those dairies which are kept more as a luxury than as an object of profit. In mountainous countries, such as Switzerland, where the summers are hot in the valleys, and the tops of the mountains or high valleys between them are covered with fine pastures, the whole establishment of the dairy is removed to a higher and cooler atmosphere, where the best butter and cheese are made. Coolness is also produced by the evaporation of water, an abundant supply of which is essential to every dairy. It is also a great advantage, if a pure stream can be made to pass through the dairy, with a current of air to carry off the effluvia, and keep the air continually renewed." The dairy, in farm building, should be so situated, with respect to other offices, as to be convenient, and to prevent unnecessary labour. A milk dairy requires at least two good rooms, one for the reception of the milk, and another for the purpose of serving it out, and for scalding, cleaning, and airing the different utensils. The entrance to the dairy should communicate with the scalding-room, which should have a copper, for heating water and other purposes, placed in a shed adjoining, in order that the heat may be kept at as great a distance as possible from the milk. In the bottom of the copper is fixed a cock, for conveying the hot water through a trough or pipe, across the scalding-room, in which another cock should be fixed, for the convenience of washing smaller utensils; the heated water passes through the wall into the milk-leads for the purpose of scalding the whole range of pans, trays, or coolers, and may be retained at pleasure. The trough for the passage of the water through the walls of the dairy, should be of sufficient dimensions to admit the discharging a pailful of milk into it with safety, having a hair-sieve so placed in it, that the whole of the milk of the cows may be made to pass through it into the necessary trays or coolers, in which it is to stand in order to keep it clean. A trough, pipe, or some other contrivance, should be introduced, for the purpose of conveying the waste milk, whey, &c., from the dairy-house to the cisterns containing the wash for the pigs. The temperature may be regulated either by double walls and roofs, or by means of hollow walls; and for common purposes, by having 8 or 10 inches in width from the wall to the lath and plaster, as is suggested by Mr. Loudon, in his Treatise on Country Residences. The size of milk-houses should be regulated by the number of cows. The usual dimensions in the Gloucester dairyhouses, for 40 cows, are 20 feet by 16, and for 100 cows, 30 feet by 40. To accomplish the objects of convenience, the situation of the dairy should be near the cow-standings, so that the milk may be readily conveyed to them. See ~- ---- I ----i — ----- --- --- - --- -~ — — ~ -- -- - -- __ I;I/o if 33" 33 ( I 3' fl 3333 ll 'q,,'I IJl i 1/ o, -;r J / T1 Hl - -, --- --- I -- I -- -r -, TTl If, T, gl — ml , IT,, Fj " II i 0 I I I I I: I 11 o 1" -1, ---- - 7 --- ~1 f I i i I ii i 1 i / (k\,7 6\. ~ 6K 6 K3 ( K, 6 K (3 \, 1K( (3 K K336 K(3 <6 < 6< (3K. (3< (3' 1